$> * o * o «0? ..... ■*• A> *?XT* A "ol- 1 ST.. ♦♦ % .o^ • •••• ' ..« « G V ^ ^ A^.V o° ^..^fe.% y\^.% .* \** * V^ * V l<<» \V •• J^f\ WW /Vl ° "O* •y v^^y ^^ v :$m/A~. ^ s «- /%V a N A THE NEW CEA-TYLUS; OR CONTRIBUTIONS TOWARDS A MORE ACCURATE KNOWLEDGE OF THE GREEK LANGUAGE. BY JOHN WILLIAM DONALDSON, D.D., HEAD MASTER OF KING EDWAED's SCHOOL, BURY ST EDMUNDS, AND FORMERLY FELLOW AND CLASSICAL LECTURER OF TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE. SECOND EDITION, REVISED AND CONSIDERABLY ENLARGED. LONDON: JOHN W. PARKER, WEST STRAND. M.DCCC.L. -?h s> o TO TRINITY COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, AS A RECORD OF THE AUTHOR'S GRATEFUL ATTACHMENT TO THAT ILLUSTRIOUS FOUNDATION. PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. THE delay which has occurred in the republication of this Volume, has been occasioned by my anxious desire to avail myself as fully as possible of the oppor- tunity of revision which has been afforded to me. When I first conceived the idea of combining the older Classical Philology, in all its applications, with the new science of comparative grammar, I felt that the novelty and import- ance of the design would excuse many faults in the execu- tion ; and though I might have known that, in entering upon investigations of a more extensive character than had been previously attempted by any Scholar, I had engaged in an undertaking, in which no one writer could hope to accomplish every thing by a single effort, I had yet reason to feel all confidence in the soundness of the linguistic principles maintained in this book, and was convinced that I had succeeded in explaining many phenomena of inflected language in general, and had contributed some important additions to the various departments of Greek scholarship in particular. But while these con- siderations encouraged the first publication of this book, as the original work of a young author, they do not diminish the responsibilities connected with its revision at a more mature age : and as I no longer enjoy the happy leisure which enabled me to compose the follow- ing pages in the first instance, I have thought it my duty to postpone the second edition until I had com- pleted that general review of the whole subject which its importance seemed to demand. b vi PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. A careful study of recent philology has enabled me to see that this work has been by no means superseded by any or all of the treatises which have appeared since its first publication ; and though I have found much to add*, there was little to cancel, and nothing of importance to retract. Besides, some respect seemed to be due to those who had bestowed the sanction of their approval on the former edition ; and, under all the circumstances, no attempt has been made to re- write the book, or to re- arrange the materials. My wish has rather been to carry out my original plan in regard to this volume, and to make it as much better in all particulars, as it might have been, if I had possessed ten years ago all the additional knowledge and experience, which I have been endeavouring to acquire in that interval of time. The general design of this work was sufficiently ex- plained in the preface to the former edition. As it was never intended to serve as a merely elementary work, and as it seemed desirable that students should become fami- liar with the principles of true philology at an early age, I have thought it right to include among the preliminary labours of this republication the composition of a grammar for the use of learners, which contains a methodical expo- sition of the general results of this treatise, and may be considered as an introduction to itf. In this larger work, my object was to throw off all the trammels of a formal and conventional exposition, and to write a book, which might be read from beginning to end with no more tediousness than would be caused by the same informa- tion delivered in a series of lectures ; and though I * As all digressions and special details are now printed in smaller type, the additional matter in this impression cannot be estimated as less than one fourth of the whole work. ■f A compUte Greek Grammar for the use of J Lond. 1^ PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. vii might have provided better for a general reception of nay views, if this work had appeared, at first, in German or Latin, I trust that the oiKeios aKpoartjs has occasionally been found among the younger members of the English Universities, on whose behalf I have written, and in whose cause my warmest sympathies have always been enlisted. It has been already stated that the external relations of this work have not been much affected by the sub- sequent progress of philology. At the time of its first appearance, the principles of comparative grammar were scarcely less developed than they are now. Grimm's solossal undertaking has made no advance since then, ind the two parts of Bopp's Grammar, which have sub- sequently been issued, have added little or nothing to the linguistic apparatus derivable from his previous pub- lications. It is true that there has been of late years % more general recognition of the truth of these specu- lations ; and their claim to rank as a branch of inductive science has been more fully admitted; but the method of study has not improved, and classical scholarship has as yet participated very slightly in the advantages offered by this wider range of criticism. Besides, an eager desire for novelty, and the fascination of unexplored researches, have occasioned, as it appears to me, some retrogressive proceedings in philology. Egyptian and Celtic scholars bave led the way in this erratic course, and the divergence from the path of scientific grammar has been encouraged by some views respecting the Chinese and other Turanian idioms, which I cannot but consider as fallacious. The sincere admiration with which I regard the Chevalier Bunsen must not prevent me from including in this ex- pression of dissent the theory which that most estimable Scholar recommended to the British Association in 1847:— b2 vui PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. coj^eie o du 'laws fieXnov elvai ical $e7i> eVi (Tiorrjp'ia ye Trj<$ aXrjOeias ical tcl o'iKela avaipeiv, aXXws T€ kcli (piXoao- (pous oi/ras* dfi, oaiov irpoTifiav ty\v ahriGeiav. If there is any truth in the linguistic prin- ciples, which are advocated in the following pages, it must be a philosophical paradox to maintain {Brit. Assoc. Report, 1847, p. 299) that we have a " monument of ante- diluvian speech" in the Chinese language, which, it is admitted (p. 284), has lost its etymology, and retains only a formal and meagre syntax. It seems also inconsistent with our psychological experience to hold that a root or crude-form, with a separable appendage, is more an- cient or original than the complete etymological struc- ture, which presents the object of conception in subor- dination to the thought-forms of space and time. Still more inadmissible, in my judgment, is the supposition that a language, which — like the Egyptian — has a definite article, and other purely syntactical substitutes for an enfeebled etymology, is in a more primitive condition than those languages, which — like the oldest members of the Indo-Germanic family — still exhibit a perfect system of inflexions. We know by positive experience that termi- nations of all kinds may be worn out or become insig- nificant, and that, when this takes place, various syntac- tical contrivances are the inevitable results or concomi- tants of the change : and it is the tendency of our widest researches to convince us that this always occurs, when conquest or migration has introduced a fusion of foreign elements. But we have absolutely no single example of the converse state of things ; there is no case, in which an etymological condition of language has sprung up from a crude series of monosyllabic juxtapositions : and it seems to me that we cannot make such an assumption without ignoring the obviously scientific procedure. Above PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. ix all, I think that any success in an attempt to claim for the Turanian languages, and especially for the Chinese, a principal or even a representative position among the original developements of speech, must more or less weaken our belief in the spread of the human race from one common birth-place. The division of languages into two great groups — the Central and the Sporadic — and the recognition of the Chinese as a peculiarly affected member of the latter class, appear to me to indicate the only course, which can lead to a satisfactory solution of all the problems suggested by modern Ethnology. Continued experience and reflexion have convinced me of the increasing importance of the task, which was for the first time attempted in this work — namely, the prosecution of comparative philology on the safe and ascertained basis of the old classical scholarship. The ttov o-Ttjvai is as much needed in researches of this nature as in any branch of natural science. If we are to effect any lasting conquests in new domains of philological specu- lation, we must have some established starting-point, some basis and pivot for our operations. Bopp could have done but little with his Sanscrit, if he had not been preceded by Raynouard and Grimm, whose grammatical studies rested on a firm ground-work of literary knowledge in regard to the old languages of their respective countries. But even these great philologers did not stand on the same footing as the well-trained classical Scholar. The very spirit of criticism lives in the older department of learning ; the study of the Greek and Latin authors is connected with all those literary pursuits which have furnished a field for the acutest intellects of Europe during the last three hundred years ; and whatever laxity may be observed elsewhere, classical scholarship is still an adjunct of the exactest science in the University of x PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. Cambridge, where a well-contrived system of Examina- tions applies the severest tests to the acquirements of the young, and where the amplest rewards are impartially adjudged to every marked display of ability and learning. Belonging to that School, at a time when it flourished if possible even more than it does now, I have felt that wherever I have been unable to grasp an imagined dis- covery in some wider field of language, I have always been able to fall back upon unshaken reserves of classical philology ; and seeing the many failures of those Sanscrit and Semitic Scholars, who have borrowed no weapons from this armoury, I cannot but rejoice in the good fortune which enabled me to abstain from all philological speculation, until I had passed from the school of Bentley and Porson into that of Buttmann, K. O. Miiller, and Niebuhr. My readers will find that I have abated none of the claims, which I originally set up on behalf of the high functions of philology; and I have reason to hope that these pretensions will receive more general recognition now, than was bestowed upon them ten years since, when a writer in an eminent periodical, chiefly, it seems, on this account, pronounced that this work was " rather eccentric*." Such epithets neither surprise nor annoy an author of any experience. We all know how apt we are to bestow sarcastic or doubtful compliments upon those who refuse to read through the coloured glasses, which are necessary to our impaired, or, it may be, originally feeble vision. If, however, it is on account of theology that the paramount importance of grammar and criticism is to be doubted or denied, I must be content to find myself in perfect agreement with those older writers, whose opinions * Quarterly Review, Vol. LXIII. p. 371, PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. xi I consider most valuable on such a subject. Luther thought that true theology was merely an application of grammar*; Melanchthon maintained that Scripture could not be understood theologically, unless it had been pre- viously understood grammatically f ; and Scaliger said with great truth, that ignorance of grammar was the cause of all religious differences J. "Without adopting the position of a modern writer, who thinks that philology includes all science except physiology, and that it is the knowledge of every thing that is already discovered §, I still maintain that Criticism is the regulative science of the present age, when our great business is to reconcile an increasing freedom of investigation with a proper respect for trans- mitted opinions ; for I believe that the true Scholar alone occupies the vantage ground, which commands a prospect of both the present and the past; and that he alone is entitled to rebuke with equal severity the superstitious realism of the obstinate School-man, and the iconoclastic violence of the impatient Utilitarian. At the conclusion of my renewed labours in this extensive field, I cannot be certain of any thing, except the conscientious diligence with which I have performed * "Lutherus — theologiam yerara et summam nihil aliud esse quam grammaticam h. e. Grsecarum Hebraicarumque literarum scientiam — putabat." Ernesti Opera Philol. p. 199. *f* " Melanchthonis hoc dictum est : Scripturam non posse intelligi theologice, nisi antea sit intellectum grammatice." Ernesti Op. Phil. p. 223. % " Non aliunde dissidia in religione pendent, quam ab ignoratione grammaticse." Scaligerana Prima, p. 86. § " Quum igitur duo sint literarum genera, unum naturae, alterum Tiumani animi historia, philologi quidem id sibi sumunt, ut qusecunque 6 Xo'yoy sive ratio humana procreaverit perspiciant . . . Itaque una viri doc- tissimi atque clarissimi Bockhii definitio mihi videtur recta : philologiam esse cogniti cognitionem." Steinthal, de pronomine relative*, Berol. 1847. p. 4. xii PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. the duty of revision. But I will allow myself to hope that by the increased precision of its results and the greater accuracy of its details, this work may now con- tribute not only to extend Greek scholarship, but also to establish a consistent theory of linguistic philosophy, and to confirm that great moral and religious fact — the unity of the human race. J. y. d. King Edward's School, Bury St. Edmunds, 26th February, 1850. PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. IN writing this book it has been my object to combine an investigation of general principles with an exposition of particular results ; I have endeavoured, on the one hand, to establish a consistent and intelligible theory of inflected lan- guage, considered in its most perfect state, that is, as it appears in the oldest languages of the Indo-Germanic family ; and, on the other hand, I have attempted to place the Greek scholar- ship of this country on a somewhat higher footing, by rendering the resources of a more comprehensive philology available for the improvement of the grammar and lexicography of the Greek language, and for the criticism and interpretation of the authors who have written in it. If it is thought strange that I have not confined myself to one or other of these two sufficiently difficult tasks, I may answer, that in the present state of phi- lology it would be impossible to make any real contribution to Greek scholarship without some sound theory of the philo- sophy of language, and a certain acquaintance with the leading members of the family to which the Greek language belongs ; and, conversely, it would not be easy to write an instructive treatise on the internal mechanism and organization of inflected language, without taking some inflected language, by way, at least, of exemplification. Now of all the languages with mono- syllabic roots the Greek is the most fitted for this purpose. It is, in the first place, a dead language, and therefore fixed and unchangeable ; it is the most copious and expressive of all languages ; it stands mid-way between the oldest form of the Indo-Germanic idioms and the corrupted modern dialects of that family, in other words, it has attained to a wonderfully clear and copious syntax without sacrificing altogether, or in- deed to any considerable extent, its inflexions and power of composition ; it has been more studied and is better known than any other dead language, that is, the facts and phenomena are more completely collected and more systematically arranged than is the case with any other, so that allusions to it are xiv PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. more generally intelligible, and deductions, or new combina- tions of laws, derived from it, are safer and more convincing ; above all, the value of the literature and the actual demand for a knowledge of the language, should induce us to turn upon the Greek, rather than upon the Gothic, the Latin, or the Sanscrit, any new light which the doctrine of words may have gained from investigations in the philosophy of language or in comparative grammar. Every didactic work is or ought to be adapted to the wants of some particular class of readers, and should presume, in them, a certain amount of preparatory knowledge and no more. I have written, then, first, for Englishmen, who are not sup- posed to be intimately or extensively acquainted with the phi- lological literature of the continent : and secondly, I have written for persons who possess at least some slight knowledge of the Greek language, and would rather increase it by investigating the principles of the language and endeavouring to discover the causes of its grammatical peculiarities, than by overloading the memory with a mass of crude, incoherent facts, which can neither be digested nor retained. I have also wished to give those, who come to the study of Greek with no higher aim than to make it the means of obtaining University distinctions, an opportunity of learning from it the dignity of human speech, of perceiving how little of the casual and capricious there is in language, and of convincing themselves that in this, as in other things, there are laws to combine, regulate, and vivify the seemingly disjointed, scattered, and lifeless phenomena. It is possible that the novelty of some of my speculations may induce maturer scholars to take up this book. If so, they will under- stand from this statement, why I have here and there entered upon long explanations of peculiarities, which can occasion no difficulty to the philologer or have been already discussed by German or French writers, and, on the other hand, why I have despatched with a hint or a reference some really difficult questions, in which the young student could take no interest, while the scholar would comprehend my meaning from a single word. Many people entertain strong prejudices against every thing in the shape of etymology, prejudices which would be not only PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. xv just but inevitable, if etymology or the doctrine of words were such a thing as they suppose it to be. They consider it as amounting to nothing more than the derivation of words from one another; and as this process is generally confined to a perception of some prima facie resemblance of two words, it seldom rises beyond the dignity of an ingenious pun, and, though amusing enough at times, is certainly neither an in- structive nor an elevated employment for a rational being. The only real etymology is that which attempts a resolution of the words of a language into their ultimate elements by a comparison of the greatest possible number of languages of the same family. Derivation is, strictly speaking, inapplicable, farther than as pointing out the manner in which certain con- stant syllables, belonging to the pronominal or formative ele- ment of inflected languages, may be prefixed or subjoined to a given form for the expression of some secondary or depen- dent relation. In order to arrive at the primary origin of a word or a form, we must get beyond the narrow limits of a single idiom. Indeed, in many cases the source can only be traced by a conjectural reproduction based on the most extended com- parison of all the cognate languages, for when we take some given variety of human speech, we find in it systems and series of words running almost parallel to one another, but presenting such resemblances in form and signification as convince us that, though apparently asymptotes, they must have converged in the form which we know would potentially contain them all. This reproduction of the common mother of our family of lan- guages, by a comparison of the features of all her children*, is the great general object to which the efforts of the philologer should be directed, and this, and not a mere derivation of words in the same language from one another, constitutes the etymology that is alone worthy of the name. As far as this work is a contribution to the better know- ledge of Greek in particular, I wish it to be understood, that I have by no means confined myself to etymological researches, but have endeavoured to avail myself of every resource of * I am told that some similar idea is to be found in Campbell's Ger- trude of Wyoming, a poem which, I am ashamed to say, I have never read. xvi PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. scholarship, as well old-fashioned as new. The words, which I have attempted to explain, are those which have either occa- sioned peculiar difficulty to the young student, or the meaning of which has been considered doubtful by scholars. Where I have thought proper to make a digression for the purpose of interpreting or emending a particular passage, I have always had in view that class of students with whom my experience in teaching has brought me most immediately in contact, and with whose wants and difficulties I am best acquainted. * It will be seen, too, that in the selection of passages for this purpose, I have generally confined myself to those authors who are most read in the great schools and Universities of this country. In this part of the work, I have been guided mainly by considera- tions of practical utility, namely, by a wish to assist those whose business it is to construe Greek authors, and to write Greek exercises. It is for this reason that I have preserved, as far as possible, the old grammatical nomenclature : the young student regards with a sort of mysterious reverence the uncouth terms of his grammar ; they are little household gods to him : and, though, like the Lar familiaris of old, they are unseemly to look upon and unavailing to help, there appears to be no good reason why one should take them down from the niches, which they have so long and so harmlessly occupied. It is painful and humiliating to reflect, how much, after all one's thought and labour, the execution of a task like this must fall short, not merely of the exactions of a rigorous criticism, but even of one's own imperfect conceptions. It may be, indeed, that what I have attempted in this book is not yet to be effected by one man and at one effort, and perhaps, in reference to its wider scope, all that I can hope to do, is to awaken the dormant energies of some young student, who may be qualified at a future period to solve completely and finally the great problem of inflected language ; — a\\a «ai emxfipovvri rot rols koXoIs koXov Ka\ nacrxew o ti av tg> ^vfi^rj naOelv. J. W. D. Trinity College, Cambridge, ±th February, 1S39. CONTENTS BOOK I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I. SECTIONS PAGES The utility of philological studies . . 1 — 16 ... 1 — 20 CHAPTER II. The history and present state of philology . 17 — 40 ... 21 — 53 CHAPTER HI. The philosophy of language . . . 41 — 62 ... 54 — 97 CHAPTER IV. The ethnographic affinities of the ancient Greeks 63 — 97 ••• 98 — 143 CHAPTER V. The theory of the Greek alphabet . . 98 — 122 ... 144 — 190 APPENDIX TO CHAPTER V. § 110. Extracts from Bentley's MS. on the digamma 191 — 197 CHAPTER VI. The parts of speech .... 123 — 128 ••• 198 — 210 BOOK II. PRONOMINAL WORDS, CHAPTER I. The personal and other pronouns . . 129 — 152 ... 213 — 250 CHAPTER II. The numerals . . . . . . 153 — 167 ... 251 — 281 CHAPTER III. The prepositions 168 — 187 ••• 282 — 325 CHAPTER IV. The negative and other particles . . 188 — 205 ••• 326 — 351 xvm CONTENTS. BOOK III. THE NOUN. CHAPTER I. SECTION'S PAGES The roots of nouns and verbs . . . 206 — 226 ... 355 — 387 CHAPTER II. The case-endings of the noun . . . 227 — 251 >*.. 388 — 418 CHAPTER III. The pronominal terminations of the unin- fected forms 252 — 270 .-• 419 — 444 CHAPTER IV. Nouns used as prepositions . . . 271 — 292 ••• 445 — 467 CHAPTER V. The adjective 293 — 306 ••• 468 — CHAPTER VI. Compound words ..... 307 — 344 ••• 491 — BOOK IV. THE VERB. CHAPTER I. The person-endings .... 345 — 366 ... 533 — 555 CHAPTER n. The tenses ...... 367 — 387 ••• 556 — CHAPTER III. The moods and participles . . . 388 — 424 ••• 578— CHAPTER IV. The conjugations 425 — 443 ••• 613 — CHAPTER V. The use of auxiliary verbs in Greek . . 444 — 4S0 ••• 630 — BOOK I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION. THE NEW CRATYLUS BOOK I. GENERAL INTRODUCTION. CHAPTER I. THE UTILITY OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 1 Motives for a preliminary inquiry respecting the practical usefulness of philological learning. 2 Education, information, and knowledge, often confused. I. Phi- lology necessary to education. 3 Definition of Philology. 4 Liberal and pro- fessional education. 5 Philology contributes to liberal education by teaching deductive habits. 6 Study of dead languages recommended by their fixity. 7 Advantage of learning any foreign language. 8 Value of ancient literature. 9 Comparative grammar leads to important acquisitions. II. Philology an im- portant branch of general knowledge. 1 Importance and dignity of ethno- graphical science. 11 Changes of population and government clearly indicated by language. 12 Study of language belongs to a great branch of inductive philosophy. III. Philology valuable as the method of interpretation. 13 His- torical criticism derived from Philology. 14 The philologer mediates between reason and tradition, and pleads for a maximum of belief. 15 Importance of Philology for the divine , both as the method of interpretation, and a branch of ethnographical science. 16 Classical education, to whatever extent it is carried, ought to be rational and philological. 1 TT may be stated as a fact worthy of observation in the X literary history of modern Europe, that generally, when one of our countrymen has made the first advance in any branch of knowledge, we have acquiesced in what he has done, and have left the further improvement of the subject to our neighbours on the continent. The man of genius always finds an utterance, for he is urged on by an irresistible impulse — a conviction that B 2 THE UTILITY [Book I. it is his duty and his vocation to speak : but we too often want those who should follow in his steps, clear up what he has left obscure, and complete his unfinished labours. Nor is it difficult to show why this should be the case. The English mind, vigorous and healthy as it generally is, appears to be constitutionally averse from speculation ; we have all of us a bias towards the practical and immediately profitable, generated by our mercantile pursuits, which make all of us, to a certain extent, utilitarians, and stifle the developement of a literary taste among us ; or, if the voice of interest fails to control the vanity of authorship, there is still another modification of self-love, a cold conventional reserve, induced by the fear of committing oneself, which imposes silence upon those who have truths to tell. To this general fact, however, there is one very remarkable exception. The regulations of our grammar-schools, and, per- haps, somewhat of the old custom and antiquated prejudice, of which we hear so much, have made classical studies not only the basis but nearly the whole of a liberal education in this country : and circumstances, which we shall point out in the following chapter, have created for us a thriving philological literature. Although the rewards and encouragements held out by our great Universities have been considered by many as a sufficient justification of such studies, it is the spirit of the age to inquire, what advantage a young man derives from so protracted a study of Latin and Greek, in addition to and independent of the L"ni- versity distinctions and emoluments which he may have the good fortune to obtain. There is much of reason in this demand, and it is doubtless incumbent upon those who have devoted them- selves to such pursuits to point out to others their importance and utility. Hitherto this has not been done in a satisfactory manner ; and therefore, although our object is rather to add something to philological knowledge than to justify philological pursuits, we deem it a necessary preliminary that we should endeavour by some plain arguments to recommend to our readers the sort of learning which we wish to increase and the studies which we design to facilitate — that we should make known at the very outset the nature and value of the subject on which we write. And in doing this we disclaim any wish to perplex ourselves with the polemics of the question, as it has been treated by other writers. It is not our purpose to discuss the merits Chap. 1.] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 3 or demerits of our collegiate institutions, still less to impugn or exculpate, as the case may be, the conduct of those who are intrusted with the management of them : least of all would we assert that there is no room for improvement in the present method of our classical studies ; on the contrary, we hope and indeed expect that they will ere long be pursued in a healthier and a manlier spirit, that much that is superfluous will be re- trenched, much that is useful added, so that even the educational theorist may at length admit that there is something more in nouns and verbs than was dreamt of in his philosophy. Our only aim in this place is to satisfy the practical sense of our countrymen with regard to the real uses of philology, properly pursued : how it is and has been prosecuted will appear in the next chapter. 2 The cause of all the unprofitable discussions which have arisen respecting the utility of particular branches of study is to be sought in the vague and erroneous manner in which we use the terms education, information, and knowledge. We are in the habit of speaking of mere information as though it were the same thing as exact knowledge, and we still more frequently allow special or professional knowledge to assume the honours which are due to general education. It is surely desirable that these terms should be properly defined, and used only according to their true signification ; for there is no realism more oppressive than the dominion of terms which stand as the representatives of indefinite ideas. We believe that the following distinctions will be found to agree with the opinions of most reflecting men in this country. The term Education, which signifies " a lead- ing out," or " bringing up," is particularly applied to the training of the young : but it is equally applicable to any process which is calculated to discipline an undisciplined mind, whether the bodily growth be matured or not. The idea conveyed by the word might be explained in metaphorical language as a bringing forth from darkness into light, — it is a leading up from some narrow and confined valley to the summit of a lofty mountain, whence the elevated soul obtains a Pisgah view of truths and duties — it is a careful survey of the domains of intellectual and moral principles, which stretch before us when the sun-light of reason has cleared away the mists of vulgar prejudice. We fall B2 4 THE UTILITY [Book I. into a mistake if we suppose that education is limited to mental culture ; it may be social and moral, as well as intellectual ; and we even give the name of spiritual education to that higher moral training which emanates from the schooling of Christianity. But to confine ourselves for our present purpose to its intellectual province, we may say that Education is properly a cultivation and developement of those reasoning faculties which all men have in common, though not all in the same degree. The term Information, on the contrary, although, according to the origin of the word, it ought to be synonymous with intellectual educa- tion, is generally understood to signify only an accumulation of particular facts. When we speak of a well-informed man, we generally mean some one who is able to return plausible answers to the catechism of ordinary conversation ; and the common phrase " a smattering of information on all subjects" shows that the term is not supposed to imply a profound or extensive ac- quaintance with any one branch of knowledge. In fact, so long as information is only information, it merely denotes an accumu- lation of stray particulars by means of the memory. On the other hand, Knowledge is information appropriated and thoroughly matured. It implies experience and practice, and it differs from information as the food which is taken into the system, and to which we owe our strength and growth, differs from the gar- ments which hang loosely about us, and which may be laid aside or worn out. We must not however forget that information may be concentrated and ripened into knowledge ; for knowledge begins with and presumes information ; though information does not presume or include knowledge. Our common phrases show that this is the meaning of the term. We speak of knowledge of the world, knowledge of our profession or business, knowledge of ourselves, knowledge of our duties — all of which imply a completeness and maturity of habit and experience. When knowledge extends to a methodical comprehension of general laws and principles, it is called science. It is the natural and proper tendency of information to ripen into knowledge, just as knowledge itself is not complete until it is systematized into science*; but as the difference between information and know- * We have a striking exemplification of this in the series of works published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. Beginning Chap. 1.] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 5 ledge is one of kind rather than of degree, it is clear that no mere accumulation of useful information, not even though it equalled all the stores laid up in Mr Maunder's treasure-houses, would amount to exact knowledge or scientific acquirement. We do not think it worth while, therefore, to show that philology is a branch of useful information. If it does not contribute to valu- able and important knowledge, or if it is not ancillary to the best kind of education, we shall waste our time in pleading for the utility of a study which necessarily demands minute attention and laborious research. 3 We maintain, then, first, that a certain amount of phi- lology is necessary as the basis of a liberal education; and secondly, that, cultivated to its fullest extent, philological scho- larship furnishes valuable and essential contributions to general science, and to some of the most important applications of human knowledge. Under the name philology we include the two great branches of a scientific inquiry into the principles of language; — the theory of the origin and formation of words, which is generally called the philosophy of language ; and — the method of lan- guage, or, as it is more usually termed, logic or dialectic, which treats of the formation of sentences*. Both these subjects are with an attempt to disseminate popular information on a variety of sub- jects, these treatises very soon aimed at communicating exact and scientific knowledge, and some of them are even replete with learning derived from the older schools of classical philology. * This appears to be the real extent of the term philology. W. von Humboldt, however, would confine it to that department which is con- versant about the interpretation of the written monuments of a language, as distinguished from the analysis of its structure and comparison with other idioms, which he calls Linguistik (uber die Verschied. d. rnenschl. Sprachbaues, p. 202) ; and an able writer in this country would restrict the term philology to a part of the first of the two branches into which we have divided it. " By philology," says he, " I understand that study which deals with words in reference to their meaning. It is in this respect the opposite of logic, which strictly speaking is not concerned with the meaning of words at all. The one uses human discourse as a mean of attaining to a knowledge of human thought and feeling ; the other ex- plains the conditions under which human discourse is possible." (Sub- scription no Bondage, p. 46.) 6 THE UTILITY [Book I. comprised in general grammar, which is therefore identical with philology, and have also their representatives in the etymology and syntax of every particular grammar. Although they are but component parts of one science, it is of the utmost conse- quence that they should not be confused or interchanged : for it is not too much to say that the most signal mistakes of philolo- gers may be traced to the practice, hitherto so common, of sup- posing that the formation of words may be discussed on a logical basis. In endeavouring, then, to estimate the importance of philology we must consider as separate questions, what is the use of etymology or the doctrine of words, and of logic or the doctrine of sentences : including under the latter all that belongs to the method of language, and under the former whatever pertains to its origin and generation. And in the first place it is to be shown, that the rudiments of philology in both its branches are or ought to be the basis of the intellectual training of man, or of that education which is alone worthy of the name. As logic or the method of language, though properly secondary to etymology, is of more ancient discovery, we shall consider it first. 4 From what has been already said it will be seen that we distinguish between education properly so called, and the train- ing which is necessary for the successful prosecution of any pro- fession or business. The former, as has been already said, is designed for the cultivation of the intellect and the develope- ment of the reasoning faculties. The latter is intended to adapt a man for some particular calling, which the laws of society, on the principle of the division of labour, have assigned to him as an individual member of the body politic. Now the training of the individual for this particular purpose is not an education of man as such ; he might do his particular work as well or better if you deprived him of all his speculative faculties and converted him into an automaton ; in short, the better a man is educated professionally the less is he a man, for, to use the words of an able American writer*, " the planter who is Man sent out into the field to gather food, is seldom cheered by any idea of the * See An Oration before the Phi-Beta-Kappa Society, by Ralph Waldo Emerson, p. 5. Chap. 1] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 7 true dignity of his ministry. He sees his bushel and his cart, and nothing beyond, and sinks into the farmer, instead of Man on the farm. The tradesman scarcely ever gives an ideal worth " to his work, but is ridden by the routine of his craft, and the soul is subject to dollars. The priest becomes a form ; the attorney, a statute-book ; the mechanic, a machine ; the sailor, a rope of a ship." It was for this reason that the clear-headed Greeks denied the name of education (iraL^eia) to that which is learned, not for its own sake, but for the sake of some extrinsic gain or for the sake of doing some work ; and distinguished formally between those studies which they called liberal or worthy of a free man and those which were merely mechanical and professional*. In the same way Cicero speaks of education properly so called, which he names humanity (humanitas)^, be- cause its object is to give a full developement to those reasoning faculties which are the proper and distinctive attributes of man as such J. Now we do not pretend that philology is of any me- chanical or professional use, unless the business of the teacher is to be regarded as a professional employment: we do not say that philology will help a man to plough or to reap ; but we do assert that it is of the highest use as a part of humanity, or of education properly so called. 5 The test of a good education is the degree of mental culture which it imparts; for education, so far as its object is scientific, is the discipline of the mind. The reader must not overlook what is meant by the word "mind" when used in reference to education. That some dumb animals are possessed of a sort of understanding is admitted ; but it has never been asserted, by those who pretend to accuracy and precision of lan- guage, that they enjoy the use of reason. Man, however, has the faculty called reason in addition to his understanding ; he * See Plato Legg. I. p. 643 B : Tavrrjv rrjv rpocprjv (rrjv rrpos dperrjv e< 7rai8cov naidelav) dcpopiaapevos 6 \6yos ovros, cos epoi (paiverai, vvv (3ov\oit av povqv iraidelav npoo-ayopeveiv, ttjv de els xp i ll JLa ' ra reivovaav tj two. 7rpos icrx vv Kai irpos aXXrjv riva aocpiav avev vov kcu diKrjs fiavavcrov elvai kcll dveXev- Sepov kcu ovk d^iav to napanav iraibciav KaktlcrOai. Similarly Aris- totle, Polit. VIII. c. 2. f Pro Archia Poeta, 1. De Oratore, I. 9. J Aul. Gellius, XIII. 16. 8 THE UTILITY [Book I. has a power of classifying or arranging, abstracting and gene- ralizing, and so arriving at principles*; in other words, his mind is capable of method : and thus it has been well said that we at once distinguish the man of education, or, among men of educa- tion, the man of superior mind, by the unpremeditated and evidently habitual arrangement of his words, grounded on the habit of foreseeing, in every sentence, the whole that he intends to communicate in the particular case, so that there is metliod in the fragments of his conversation even when most irregular and desultory f. Accordingly, what we mean by saying that the object of education is the cultivation of our minds, or that the goodness of an education varies with the degree of mental cul- ture, amounts simply to this, that we better perform our func- tions as rational creatures in proportion as we carry farther the distinction between ourselves and the brute creation, that is, in proportion as we are the better fitted for the discourse of reason. There are two ways in which we carry on the process of reasoning, just as there are two relations out of which all method or science is made up. The relations are, that of Law, by which we lay down a rule of unconditional truth which we call an Idea, and that of Observation, by which we get to a distinct knowledge of facts. By the former we know that a thing must be ; by the latter we see that it is. Now when we reason from the facts to the law, we call it analysis or induction ; when we reason from law to law, when from a known truth we seek to establish an unknown truth, we call the process deduction or synthesis. As then all science is made up of Law and Observa- tion, of the Idea and the Facts, so all scientific reasoning is either induction or deduction. It is not possible, however, to teach inductive reasoning, or even to cultivate a habit of it * As the general reader may not perhaps be familiar with the Kantian distinction of reason and understanding, it may be mentioned, that accord- ing to the critical philosophy understanding is the faculty of rules, derived from experience, and proverbially subject to exceptions, but reason the faculty of principles or laws, to which there is no exception : the former is the faculty of the unity of phenomena by means of rules, the latter the faculty of the unity of the understanding- rules under principles (Kritik der reinen Vemunft, pp. 258, 260. 7th edition). t Coleridge's Friend, Vol. III. pp. 133, foil. Chap. 1.] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 9 directly ; we all reason inductively every moment of our lives, but to reason inductively for the purposes of science belongs only to those whose minds are so constituted that they can see the resemblances in things which other men think unlike, in short, to those who have powers of original combination and whom we term men of genius. If, therefore, we can impart by teaching deductive habits, education will have done its utmost towards the discipline of the reasoning faculties. When we speak of laws and ideas we must not be misunderstood as wish- ing to imply any thing more than general terms arrived at by real classification. About these general terms and these alone is deductive reason conversant, so that the method of mind, which is the object of education, is nothing but the method of languag i ; and this is the reason why, as we have said, the educated man is known by the arrangement of his words. Hence, if there is any way of imparting to the mind deductive habits, it must be by teaching the method of language ; and this discipline has in fact been adopted in all the more enlightened periods of the existence of man. It will be remembered, that in this method of language it is not the words but the arrange- ment of them which is the object of study ; and thus the method of language is independent of the conventional significations of particular words ; it is of no country and of no age, but is as universal as the general mind of man. For these reasons we assert that the method of language, one of the branches of philology, must always be, as it has been, the basis of education or humanity as such, that is, of the discipline of the human mind. We may even go farther, and assert, that, when Geome- try is added to Grammar, we have exhausted the known mate- rials of deductive reasoning, and have called in the aid of all the machinery which is at our disposal. With regard to the importance of etymology as a part of a liberal education very little need be said. It is just as necessary that the educated man should be able to select and discriminate the words which he employs as that he should be able to arrange them methodically. We acquire our mother-tongue insensibly and by instinct, and to the untrained mind the words of it are identified with the thoughts to which they correspond in the mind of the individual, whereas he ought at least to be taught so much of their analysis as to know that they are but 10 THE UTILITY [Book I. outward signs, the symbols of a prima facie classification, and to employ them accordingly. In this simplest form etymology is nothing but an intelligent spelling lesson, which the most violent utilitarian would hardly venture to discard. When, however, we remember that the most important result of intel- lectual education is the overthrow of one-sided prejudices, and when we reflect how apt we are to fall into practical Realism, and " to apply the analytical power of language to the interpre- tation of nature*," we cannot value too highly that habit of dealing with words, which leads us to distinguish accurately between the mere sign and the thing signified. 6 But, though perhaps every one will at once allow that such a knowledge of language as we have described is an essen- tial element of intellectual training, it may still be asked, What has this to do with the study of two dead languages? In the first place, then, to study one branch at least of philology, namely, Etymology, we must have some particular language in which to study it ; and although the method of language is independent of any particular language, yet, like every other method or science, it must have its facts as well as its laws. It will be conceded that if we would go beyond the rudiments of spelling and speaking, if we would catch a glimpse of what speech is in itself and as detached from ourselves, it would be desirable to select some foreign language, and if possible one no longer spoken or liable to change : languages still in use are so fluctuating and uncertain that an attempt to get fixed ideas of the general analogy of language from them is like trying to copy the fan- tastic pictures of an ever-revolving kaleidoscope. The classical languages lie before us in gigantic and well-preserved remains, and we can scrutinize, dissect, and compare them with as much certainty as we should feel in experimenting upon the objects of any branch of natural philosophy. They are, therefore, well adapted to supply us with the facts for our laws of speech or the general analogy of language ; and we might make them the basis of our grammatical study, even though they had nothing to recommend them but their permanence of form and perfection of grammatical structure. Hampden, Bampton Lectures, p. 88. Chap. I.] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 11 7 This, however, is not all : it is indeed necessary to study some language, and that too a dead language, in order to give the mind a full grammatical training ; but the mere fact of learn- ing another language, whether dead or living, is in the highest degree beneficial. We learn our own language from the lips of a mother or a nurse, it grows with our growth and strengthens with our strength, so as to become a sort of second self; and the words of the uneducated are household gods to him. This idolatry is shaken, the individual is brought away from his own associations to the higher truths which form the food of the general mind of man, whenever he has learned to express his thoughts in some other set of words. It was a great mistake of Ennius to say that he had three hearts because he understood three languages (Aulus Gellius, nodes Jtticce, xvii. 17) ; the heart of a people is its mother-tongue only (Jean Paul, xlvii. p. 179). The Emperor Charles the Fifth was nearer the truth when he said — autant de langues que Ihomme sgait parler, autant de fois est il homme ; — for every language that a man learns he multiplies his individual nature and brings himself one step nearer to the general collective mind of Man. The effect of learning a language, then, consists in the contrast of the asso- ciations which it calls up to those trains of thought which our mother-tongue awakens. In this again the dead languages pos- sess a great advantage over every living one. It has been well remarked " that our modern education consists in a great measure in the contrast between ourselves and classical antiquity*;" it is a contrast produced by a sleep of more than a thousand years between the last of the great men of old and the first of the great moderns when the reawakened world looked with instructive astonishment upon its former self. 8 In addition to the two reasons which we have stated as grounds for preferring the two classical languages as materials of grammatical study, there is a third reason which has generally been thought to be alone sufficient, — the value of the literature to which they are a key. On this particular subject we do not W. von Humboldt, iiber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues, p. 27. 12 THE UTILITY [Book I. intend to dwell ; books without number have been written upon it, and there does not seem to exist a doubt as to the paramount excellence of the Greek and Latin writers. To those who still argue the old question about the comparative merits of modern and ancient literature, it is sufficient to answer, that if the old classical literature were swept away the moderns whom they so admire would in many cases become unintelligible and in all lose most of their characteristic charms*. 9 Lastly, the introduction of that branch of philology which we call comparative grammar offers a great recommendation to the careful study of these two languages. Notwithstanding the beneficial contrast which they present, they are aged sisters of our own mother-tongue, and, studied according to the true phi- lological method in combination with the Asiatic members of the family, they open the way to an easy and speedy acquirement of every one of the Indo- Germanic languages, and are thus a key to the greatest treasure which the mind of man has collected, — the recorded wisdom of the Caucasian race. 10 From what we have said it appears that for the mental training of the individual some philology is necessary ; that grammar is best studied through the classical languages ; that the study of these languages is also recommended by their con- trast to our own, by the value of the literature to which they are the key, and by their place in the family of languages to which our own tongue belongs. These are reasons why the individual who is to be liberally educated, should study Greek and Latin. But the advantages of philological studies are not confined to the individual. They may be cultivated to a higher degree than is necessary for the mere purposes of education, and be made to contribute to some of the most valuable and interesting applica- tions of human knowledge. The claims of ethnological philology to rank as a principal branch of general science have been suf- ficiently vindicated of late years. The British Association for the Advancement of Science, at its meeting in 1847, was thus * See Sedgwick, Discourse on the Studies of the University, 4th edit. p. 36; and "Whewell, On the Principles of University Education, p. 35. Chap. 1.] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 13 addressed by the Chevalier Bunsen*: " If man is the apex of the creation, it seems right, on the one side, that a historical inquiry into his origin and development should never be allowed to sever itself from the general body of natural science, and in particular from physiology. But, on the other hand, if man is the apex of the creation, if he is the end to which all organic formations tend from the very beginning ; if man is at once the mystery and the key of natural science ; if that is the only view of natural science worthy of our age — then ethnological science, once established on principles as clear as the physiological are, is the highest branch of that science for the advancement of which this Association is instituted. It is not an appendix to physiology or to any thing else ; but its object is, on the contrary, capable of becoming the end and goal of the labours and transactions of a scientific institution." Those who are jealous for the dignity of man will not fail to echo these sentiments. Ethnology, which treats of the different races into which the human family is subdivided, and indicates the bonds which bind them all together, has not only appropriated to itself all the functions of the anthro- pology, which discussed the natural and moral, the physical and metaphysical history of man, but has exacted contributions from other sciences which were once independent of it. Anatomy, chemistry, geography, history, grammar, and criticism have each brought a stone to this great fabric ; and it is reasonable that this should be the case. For when the very Kosmos finds in man the most beautiful exemplifications of its own perfect harmony and order, universal science should recognise in the science which treats of man, its object, its aim, and its end. 11 There is in fact no sure way of tracing the history and migrations of the early inhabitants of the world except by means of their languages ; any other mode of inquiry must rest on the merest conjecture and hypothesis. It may seem strange that any thing so vague and arbitrary as language should survive all other testimonies, and speak with more definiteness, even in its changed and modern state, than all other monuments however grand and durable. Yet so it is ; we have the proof before us every hour. Though we had lost all other history of our country we should Report, p. 257. 14 THE UTILITY [Book I. be able to tell from our language, composed as it is of a substra- tum of Low German with deposits of Norman-French and Latin — the terms of war and government pertaining to the former of the superinduced elements, the terms of Ecclesiastical and Legal use to both of them — that the bulk of our population was Saxon, and that they were overcome and permanently subjected to a body of Norman invaders ; while the Latin element would show us how much that language had been used by the lawyers and church- men. We know too that the inhabitants of Wales, oiihe High- lands of Scotland, and of the Isle of Man, speak a Celtic dialect ; and from the position of these people we should infer that they were the earliest inhabitants of the island, and were driven into the mountains by the Saxon invaders. Even the names of places would tell us as much. When we hear a stream called Wans-beck-water, and know that the three words of which the compound is made up all signify " water," the first being Celtic (as in Wan's-ford, A-von), the second German {beck— bach) t the last English, we at once recognize three changes of inhabitants to whom the older name successively lost its significance*. It has been the same with other countries also. Persia, for in- stance, has been under the dominion of Mohammedan conquerors for twelve hundred years, and we find an immense number of Arabic words naturalized in the country, but the language which forms the basis of the whole, and the general organization and grammar, are as entirely Indo-Germanic as if the country had never had any intermixture of an Arabian population. 12 The study of language, therefore, in its wider range may be used as a sure means of ascertaining the stock to which any given nation belonged, and of tracing the changes of popu- lation and government which it has undergone. It is indeed perfectly analogous to Geology ; they both present us with a set of deposits in a present state of amalgamation which may however be easily discriminated, and we may by an allowable chain of reasoning in either case deduce from the the former condition, and determine by what causes and in what manner the superposition or amalgamation has taken place. The excellent historian of the Inductive Sciences f would group * Sec Varronianus, p. 33. f Vo1 - EL P- 4S1 - Chap, i.] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 15 these and other speculations together in a separate class, con- sidering them all " as connected by this bond, that they endeavour to ascend to a past state of things, by the aid of the evidence of the present." He would term them palcetiological sciences, and the sanction of his distinguished name will per- haps give currency to this coinage of his private mint. In that case, the classical scholar will wish that he had been induced to select some designation more strictly in accordance with analogy and more plainly expressive of his meaning. As the word archaeology is already appropriated to the discussion of those subjects of which the antiquity is only comparative, it would be consistent with the usual distinction between ap-^aio^ and ira\ai6H N2JO 1.1 THy? fWOHN N2fcO> tu cs pctra, et super hanc petram eedijieabo tcdtmam meam" (JIaldonat. ad I.) seems to be supported by the Syriac version, but will not stand the test of philological criticism ; for nirpos is a single stone, but nhpa is a rock, considered as including many 7reVpot, and this opposition is implied by the context; for otherwise he must have said teal eVt a-oi. Moreover, in biblical Hebrew we have only the plural D"22 "stones" in the signification of a rock, and the analogy of all the Scriptures shows that the rock on which the Church was to be built would be properly designated by -fl^, and not by N20- Chap. 1.] OF PHILOLOGICAL STUDIES. 19 we do not yet possess sufficient knowledge of the whole body of languages to be able to say what affinity exists between the two great divisions, approximations have been made to the conclusion that there are certain points in which they osculate ; and, judging from the progress of linguistic studies hitherto, we may fairly hope that, as in the case of languages now known to be cognate we were impressed with the differences long before we perceived the similarities which are now the most prominent features, so it will be hereafter with all the languages of the world ; and investigation will fully confirm what the great Apostle proclaimed in the Areopagus, " that God has ordained that from one common parentage all the different tribes of men should spread themselves over the whole face of the earth, having de- termined the particular times of their successive emigrations, and the boundaries of their respective settlements*." — Thus much may be expected from comparative philology. The philo- sophy of grammar, however, has already gained one decisive victory over scepticism, in demonstrating from the organization of language the impossibility of the hypothesis, maintained by many, of the human invention of language, and a progression from barbarism to metaphysical perfection. In this point the conclusions of our science coincide with the statements of reve- lation |. 16 On the whole then it may be asserted, that philology is essential to a liberal education, and useful as a branch of science. We do not, however, maintain that every one should make him- self a scientific philologer. In the first place, it is not every one who is qualified by capacity and taste to become a scholar : some particular faculties are needed for the successful study of dead languages, as well as for a profitable employment of one's time in the docks of London and Liverpool, or in the manu- * 'E7roir)(ri re e£ ivos alp-aros nav tOvos dvBpco7rcov KaroiKeiv in\ nav to Trpob|&1S B ^con- tains in its ethnographical department some very ingenious and learned combinations. But the purely philological chapters appear to us singu- larly deficient in critical discrimination. Chap. 2] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 45 37 In the first beginnings of this new branch of inductive science, England, we are sorry to say, did little that will bear comparison with the performances of our continental neighbours, in regard either to comparative philology in general, or to Indian scholarship in particular. Indeed, with the exception of the great Colebrooke and Sir Graves Haughton, no one of our San- scrit scholars can be called a philologer in the higher sense of the word, and even these eminent orientalists have confined their attention to the languages of Asia. Accordingly, as we borrowed our philology in its literary spirit from the Germans, we were compelled to import also the raw materials at least of their com- parative grammar. But when the good work had once com- menced amongst us, our philology made very rapid progress, and we can point to conceptions more original, and to results more important, than any which have signalized the efforts of the learned elsewhere. It is not to be denied that we had great advantages at starting, and that it would have been very dis- graceful if we had not learned to profit by them. Bopp's System was first published in an English journal*, and one of his most able and distinguished pupils, the late Dr Kosen, became natu- ralized among us, as Professor of Sanscrit in the University of London, more than twenty years ago, and so consecrated his learning and abilities to the service of our philology. It is diffi- cult to estimate the loss which learning in general sustained in the too early death of this admirable person : but we must not forget that we really owe to him the first application of compa- rative philology to the public teaching of the classical languages, a merit which has been too eagerly claimed for and too readily conceded to the Greek and Latin lecturers at the London Uni- versity. That institution is entitled to grateful commemoration from all those who received any part of their philological training there during the life of Dr Rosen ; but we must not bestow the whole of our acknowledgments on the Professors, who merely transmitted to their pupils the ideas and information which they had derived from their German colleague f. The same influence * Annals of Oriental Literature^ Vol. I. London, 1820. f The author considers it incumbent on him to make these remarks, because, in the former edition of this work, he was led by a youthful feeling of regard for one of his tutors to admit the extravagant claims 46 THE HISTORY AND [Book I. was soon conspicuous in the pages of the Penny Cylopcedia, to which Dr Rosen was himself a frequent contributor, and which owes its decidedly philological character to writers more or less connected with the London University. Independently, however, of this immediate relation to Bopp's philological school, there appeared, about the same time, two writers whose services to philology have been of the utmost value. Dr Prichard, who may be regarded as almost the founder of the Science of Ethno- graphy, was not long in perceiving the important aid which his favourite speculations might derive from a consideration of the affinities of language. He made no insignificant contribution to pure philology in his vindication of the claim of the Celtic lan- guages to a place in the great Indo-Germanic family*; and in set up for the first Professors of Greek and Latin at University College. He has since then become aware that these gentlemen were entirely in- debted to Dr Rosen for their first acquaintance with the principles of comparative philology, and that they filtered into their class-rooms tho knowledge which they had picked up at the ill-attended lectures or in the instructive society of the clitor of the L At the time no doubt the Classical Professors did not attempt to conceal their obligations to Dr Rosen; but in the . which they have sub- sequently shown, to gain a character for originality, they have made no mention of the fact that comparative philology was Ant taught at the London University because Dr Rosen was there. To those of the stu- dents who could profit by it, the result was much the same as if these hints had reached them directly, and not through the intervention of middle-men : and the University itself may fairly claim the credit of the improved philology of which it was the first nursery in this Island. But very little praise is due to the individuals, who were invited and induced by the very circumstances of their position to adopt any novelties opposed to the conventional teaching of our classical schools: and some of the in- stances quoted in the following pages will convince the reader that : do not possess the philological faculty in any great measure, and that they are alike deficient in geniality of conception and comprehensiveness of erudition. * The Eastern Origin of the Celt' London, 1S31. Although we think that Dr Prichard has on the whole proved his point, we must take the liberty of saying, that his little book shows a great want of philo- logical exactitude. He has not attempted to distinguish between those words which the ancient Britons might have derived from the Roman conquerors, or from the Anglo-Saxons who subsequently established themselves in the island, and those which must have belonged to the Celtic dialect from the first. Accordingly, many of his instances, where Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 47 his Natural History of Man, and other works, he has done a great deal towards classifying and grouping the varieties of human speech. Mr Garnett, whose comprehensive and truly- philosophical analysis of the constituent elements of language was first made known in a notice of Dr Prichard's Celtic work*, has since then developed his views in various contributions to the records of the London Philological Society ; and we do not know where to look for sounder or more instructive examples of linguistic research. In regard to palaeography also, English scholarship may claim the honour of having made the first and most important, or the last and most complete discoveries. Young guided Champollion to that systematic examination of the Egyptian hieroglyphics, which in the hands of Bunsen and Lepsius has produced, and is still producing such important re- sults for chronology and historical criticism f. Major Rawlinson, with the intelligent aid of Mr Norris, has decyphered and trans- lated the contemporaneous records of the first Darius, and the same industry and acuteness will probably extract historical truth from the cuneiform chronicles which the enterprise and indefati- gable zeal of Mr Layard have brought from the ruins of Nineveh. To come nearer home, Mr Kemble and Mr Thorpe have prose- cuted the study of Anglo-Saxon philology with no less devotion than Grimm. Mr Kemble, in particular, formally enounced the leading principles of comparative philology in his lectures on the history of the English language, delivered before the University of Cambridge in 1834 ; and has since published more than one original work indicating the depth and extent of his acquaintance with Teutonic lore. Dr Bosworth also has connected his Anglo- they are merely comparisons of Celtic with the Latin, or with the German dialects, prove nothing; his strong point is the comparison with Greek and Sanscrit, and his analysis of the pronouns and inflexions ; but in this there is still room for a further and more accurate examination. * Quarterly Review, Vol. LVII. f Many English writers have made valuable contributions to the de- tails of the important subject of Egyptology ; e. g. Mr Osborn, Dr Hincks, Sir G. Wilkinson, Mr Birch, and Mr Sharpe. Nor must we omit to men- tion the labours of Mr G. R. Gliddon, who has made the wonders of ancient Egypt familiar to our brethren in the United States of America : see Otia JEgyptiaca: Discourses on Egyptian Archaeology and Hieroglyphical Discoveries. London, 1849. 48 THE HISTORY AXD [Book I. Saxon researches with comprehensive investigations in general philology, and Dr Latham, who had first distinguished himself in this field, especially by the publication of a treatise on the English language, has since become very generally known as a collector of philological facts, mainly with reference to the lan- guages of Africa. When we look to the activity of the Asiatic, Geographical, Philological, and Syro- Arabian societies in this country, to various publications which appear from time to time *, and to the effects which may be expected from the adoption of ethnographic philology by the British Association, we cannot allow ourselves to entertain any fears respecting the successful cultivation of linguistic science in this country. 38 From this survey it will easily be seen what is the con- dition of scholarship in reference to the higher objects and more extensive applications of which we have spoken in the preceding chapter. To these we need not return : but it is desirable that we should inquire, whether the knowledge which we have recently gained with regard to language in general, and the Indo-Ger- manic family of languages in particular, may not now be applied by the classical scholar in gaining a more correct insight into the structure of the Greek language, in classifying more accurately its grammatical forms, and in interpreting more satisfactorily the authors who have written in it. To this inquiry we may add another : whether the general study of comparative irrammar as applied to the Indo-Germanic languages would not gain by such an examination of the most perfect member of the family. The advantages which classical scholarship would derive from a more intimate union with comparative philology may easily be enumerated. The true scholar is of course not merely a student of the Greek and Latin languages and an interpreter of the authors who have written in them. It is his business to lift the * We ought particularly to mention the late Mr Winning's Manual of Comparative Philology, London, 1S38. The first and second parts of this work, which are composed, in a great measure, of well-selected ex- tracts and translations from other writers, with intelligent criticisms on their opinions, are worthy of almost unqualified approbation. The third part is rather at variance with the other two, and is deformed by r ences to Rabbinical authorities, on which we do not set the slightest value. Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 49 curtain which has fallen on the glories of the past : to bring Athens and Rome again upon the stage : to enable the modern reader to regard the old authors and the events of which they write with the eyes of a contemporary. With regard to this latter function the study of comparative philology is of little avail. The Greek and Latin authors must be read together and in connexion, and we must endeavour to peruse them with as little interruption as possible from modern and extrinsic asso- ciations. But for the study of the Greek language alone and for the critical interpretation of Greek authors, comparative gram- mar is indispensable. And first, with regard to the explanation of particular passages, in which daily experience teaches us that much remains to be done even after all the labours of preceding scholars. The method of most extensive application is indeed purely a literary one : it is to deduce the meaning of the words in question from a general survey of the connexion of thought in the whole work, and, for the language, from a comparison of the passage with other similar ones in the same or contemporary writers. Cases, however, frequently occur in which the difficulty or misapprehension results entirely from an ignorance of the meaning of some particular word ; and though, as even Thomas Aquinas has told us*, the signification of a word is not identical with its etymology, yet the latter is sometimes essential, on the principle of suggestion, in order that we may arrive at the former, which in most cases will also be determined, prima facie, by the context. Now in such cases we must have recourse to compara- tive philology combined with, and regulated by, the old method of scholarship, and we hope to show, in the course of the follow- ing pages, that something may be effected by such an union. But secondly, it is also the object of the Greek scholar to anato- mize the forms of the words, to classify them according to their etymological coherency, and so to simplify the practical grammar * Aliud est etymologia nominis et aliud significatio nominis. Etymologia attenditur secundum id a quo imponitur nomen ad significandum : nominis vero significatio secundum id ad quod signi/icandum imponitur, quos quando- que diversa sunt ; nomen enim lapidis imponitur a lossione pedis, non tamen hoc signijicat, Alioquin ferrum, cum pedem Icedat, lapis esset. Similiter etiam nomen superstitionis non oportet quod significet illud a quo nomen est impositum. — Thomas Aquinas Summa Theolog. II. 2, qucest. 92. Articulus primus: conclusio ad 2. p. 201. Edit. Paris 1631. E 50 THE HISTORY JCsB [Book I. of the language. For this purpose again comparative philology is indispensable. If we were confined to the Greek language we should know absolutely nothing of the principles of its verb-con- jugation, of the declension of its nouns, of the value of its particles, and of the real causes of its peculiar conformation. A sufficient proof of this is furnished by the old grammars and lexicons. But after we have once taken up the higher ground of compara- tive philology our difficulties on these points, be they ever so great, immediately vanish, and our perplexities, /however in- tricate, are at once unravelled. In consequence of the facility with which all this is effected by the true scholar, many who knew little either of the language which they wished to illustrate or of the aids which they sought to employ, have been led to attempt a solution of all the difficulties of Greek Grammar by a compari- son with Latin, German, or Sanscrit. It is not to be wondered at that such persons should fall into great errors and incur the just reprobation of mere Greek scholars. At the same time, however, it is not to be supposed, as some of these last have inferred from the failure of the would-be philologers, that he who would increase our knowledge of the Greek language must con- fine himself to it, and that the study of comparative grammar is rather injurious than beneficial*. It is true that an accurate study of the Greek language alone is more profitable to the educated man and to the scholar than a smattering in twenty others : for knowledge which may be made the subject of thought is always better than general information which can only be rendered available for conversation in society. It is also true that our means of elucidating the difficulties of the Greek lan- guage, from itself alone and independently of comparative gram- mar, are greater at the present than at any former time. The inscriptions which have been lately collected and explained, the remains of Greek grammarians and lexicographers which have * These remarks are pointed at Lobeek (Aghiophamus. p. 478, note i. ParaVip. p, 127 note. Pathol. pra?f. p. vii.) and his pupil Ellendt ( SophocJ. prref. p. iii.). See V 195, note 2. They also rel'er to the Programme of the Imperial Academy oi Sciences at St Petersburg (29 Dec. 183G) proposing a reward for a treatise on the Greek dialects from which all consideration of Sanscrit affinities was to be excluded. This Programme is printed in Seebode's Nem J-thrluchcr, vn. Jahrg. VL Band. 3 Heft, p. 341. Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 51 been published from manuscripts in the various public libraries of Europe, and the labours of Lobeck and others in examining the forms of the Greek language as they appear in the whole range of authors, would have enabled us to arrive at more accu- rate conclusions, than was before possible, with regard to the earliest state of the Greek dialects, even though the other lan- guages of the Indo- Germanic family had been unknown or neg- lected. But, though the comparative philologer would be much to blame if he failed, as some have done, to avail himself of these and similar resources, those are not to be listened to who would tell us, on the other hand, that the mere Greek scholar is more to be trusted than one whose studies, while equally accurate, have taken a wider range. It is as if a man, who might illuminate a room with a number of lamps, should find out that some one of them gave more light than any one of the others, and should therefore content himself with this one alone. The industrious observer of phenomena in the Greek, or any other language of the family to which we refer, is but a hewer of wood and a drawer of water for the architectonic philologer : he brings some of the materials necessary to the work, but cannot lay claim to any share in building up the mighty fabric of general scho- larship ; for, dig as he may in his own narrow quarry, he will never catch a glimpse of the ground-plan and elevation so long as he remains there. One-sided views are of little use to the philologer of our day ; and if he who forsakes the specialties of Greek for the generalities of comparative grammar has made a false step, neither is he to be commended, who, from prejudice or want of resolution, obstinately refuses to read more than one page of the great book of language which lies open before him. 39 With regard to the other question, namely, as to the benefits which would result to the general study of compara- tive grammar from a combination of it with accurate Greek scholarship, very little need be said. The majority of those who have hitherto written on comparative philology have re- garded the subject from the side of the oriental languages or of the German dialects, and, occupied by the extent and novelty of their subject, have not paid sufficient attention to the old classical languages of Europe. In fact, no one of the great comparative philologers who have done so much for the science E2 52 THE HISTORY AXD [Book I. is a professed classical scholar, and, as might have been ex- pected, they occasionally fall into errors with regard to the structure of the Greek language in particular, which are suffi- ciently obvious to the scholar who has been able to study that language with the advantages which may be derived from an acquaintance with the results of their laborious researches. For example, Bopp's Comparative Grammar is conspicuously deficient in that critical tact which is rarely found in any one who has not passed through the regular training of the older classical scholar- ship ; nor indeed does this excellent etymologer give any evidence of an extensive familiarity with the Greek or Latin authors. Intimately acquainted with the old languages of India and Persia, and well disciplined in Grimm's Teutonic philology, Bopp has not been able to acquire either the knowledge or the habits of mind which characterize the ripe and elegant scholar. His own field is wide, and he has well surveyed it. But he has not crossed its boundaries*. It must not be forgotten, however, that, although the science of comparative philology advances so rapidly that every succeeding writer, if competent to add any thing to the stock of knowledge, is also able to correct many mistakes and supply many deficiencies of his predecessors, no one ought to make this the ground of any assumption of superiority ; for it would well become every one who follows in the steps of Grimm and Bopp to recollect that he must himself have fallen into much graver errors had not these men gone before him : the KeXeuOo- iroiol 7rcuc€$ H(paiT€* ti(i€pwfieit)i>, should be held in honour even by the constructors of rail-roads. 40 To pass from these general considerations to the subject at present before us, it may, we think, be concluded, that the * It is much to be regretted that Lord Ellesmere, to whose exertions and liberality the English student is indebted for a translation of Bopp's Verplmchmde Qimmiatik, did not seek the assistance of some cla~- scholar, who might have supplied the defects of his author, and com his oversights. The great knowledge of Sanscrit po-sessed by the Editor, Professor Wilson, was not needed for the mere translation of Bopp's gram- mar, which, on that subject, speaks for itself; and it is clear that the Professor and his coadjutor, Lieutenant Eastwick, were not competently acquainted with the German language in general, or with the gramma- tical technicalities of German philology in particular. Chap. 2.] PRESENT STATE OF PHILOLOGY. 53 time is at length come when the Greek language at all events must be subjected to the same scrutiny, absolute and comparative, to which the great body of German dialects has been submitted by Grimm, and the Sanscrit, Zend, and Sclavonic, in addition to these, by Bopp. This examination, however, should be lexico- graphical as well as grammatical. Buttmann was well aware of this, when he added his Lexilogus to his admirable grammar. And here let us express our regret that a man so wonderfully gifted, combining as he did all the learning of the old school with sound views and unexampled ingenuity, was placed in an age preceding though by a few years only the full establishment of comparative philology *. It must be obvious to any reader of Buttmann's works, that, had he possessed a sufficient knowledge of the other languages of the Indo-Germanic family, especially had he been acquainted with the Asiatic branch, the work which we consider as incumbent upon the scholars of our age would not be still unperformed. As it is, he was in spirit a comparative philologer, and succeeding scholars must make his works, the Grammar and the Lexilogus, at once the model and the ground- work of their labours. The object of this work, so far as it is confined to the ad- vancement of our knowledge of Greek, is to give to the Grammar and Lexicography of that language all the aid that may be de- rived from the present state as well of Greek scholarship as of comparative philology ; and for this purpose to combine in one body a series of contributions to the better classification of the facts of Greek grammar, and also to the explanation of those words which appear most frequently and prominently in the best writers, and the meaning of which is still doubtful or but half understood. We proceed to set forth its object so far as it has reference to the general philosophy of language. Much the same remarks had been made by H. A. Hamaker, in a valuable work with which the Author did not become acquainted until some years after the publication of his former edition (Akademisclw Vorlezingen, Leyden, 1835, p. 3): "hoe dikwerf heeft niet Buttmann in dienzelfden Lexilogus zijne toevlugt moeten nemen tot gissingen en on- waarshijn-lijkheden, waar het voile licht der waarheid hem zou hebben bestraald, zoo hij met de vergelijkende studie der Germaansche dialekten en haar vasten grondslag, de aloude taal der Brahmanen, ware bekend geweest?" CHAPTER III. THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 41 Etymology and Syntax — how they ought to be discriminated. 42 Original unity of language, which is necessarily co-ordinate with human reason. 43 The Book of Genesis is in accordance with the results of philosophy in this respect ; for it teaches : 44 (1) that language is an endowment, and not an invention ; 45 (2) that differences of language are the effect and not the cause of 'dispersion. 46 Monumental writing connected with idolatry. 47 Spiritual abstraction favoured by alphabetic writing ; this was manifested in the highest degree by the inven- tion of printing. 48 Effects of literature on the structure of language ; syntax and prose. 49 Passage of language from a primary to a secondary, and from this to a tertiary state. The latter presumes ethnical admixture as well as literary cultivation. 50 Degraded languages ; these also capable of literary cultivation. The Chinese an example. 51 Outline of linguistic psychology. 52 Two ele- ments of speech, (a) the organizing, (b) the material. 53 Abstraction and association. 54 Space and time. 55 Algebra. 50 Realism and nominalism. 57 Plato a nominalist. 58 Outlines of Plato's dialectics. .">!i He was opposed to ultra-nominalism. GO Design of his Cratylus. 01 Home Tooke the modern representative of the school controverted in Plato's Cratylus. 02 Philosophical design of the present work. 41 rpHOSE who have hitherto written on the philosophy of I language have generally fallen into one of two error- ; — they have either omitted altogether the consideration of that department which relates to the formation of sentences, or, what is worse, they have failed to discriminate the two divisions of the subject, and conducting their etymological analysis on strictly logical principles, have necessarily taken a perverted view of the nature and object of their inquiries. In the present work we have endeavoured to remedy this defect, by showing that the resolution of a sentence into its elements is a totally different process from the analysis of those elements themselves — that in a scientific investigation of the general speech of man our prin- cipal concern is with the word, its structure and developement ; that the same causes which create syntax, or logical sentei tend to corrupt and destroy the original forms of speech, so that the attempt to derive the elements of the word from the elements of the sentence is absurd, as seeking the whole in its part, and must lead to conclusions utterly false and contra- dictory. Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 55 A formal discussion of the philosophy of language attempts the solution of two problems ; — it purposes to ascertain, first, the origin of language ; and secondly, the connexion of our words with our thoughts. But, although this may be adopted as a methodical division and for form's sake, the two questions, according to our view of the former of them, are in fact one and the same ; for, if language is, as we have no doubt it is, a necessary result of the constitution of man as a rational being, if the gifts of reason and speech are necessarily coordinate, then there can be no discussion, but simply an explanatory statement, with regard to the connexion between language and mind. 42 The primitive state of mankind has been a favourite sub- ject of inquiry both in this country and on the continent, and some theory of the origin of language generally forms a part of such disquisitions. Till the introduction of the comparative study of languages these theorists wanted their facts, and there- fore met with the fate of those who advance unsupported hypo- theses — they did not arrive at any convincing results. The researches of the present century, however, have given an entirely new turn to this subject ; the right method has been adopted, and it is this, — that the only safe conclusions, with regard to the primitive condition of language, are to be derived from a rigorous scrutiny of all the various forms which it exhibits in its existing state ; and though philologers have not yet examined all the dialects of the world in a complete and scientific manner, they have advanced so far as to be able to divide them all into a few great families, and have moreover examined the different members of the class to which our own language belongs, with a minute accuracy which leaves little to be desired : the facts with regard to this class have not only been carefully collected, but also scientifically arranged, so that the utmost reliance may be placed upon any conclusions logically deduced from them : and from a comparison of this family (considered in its unity, which is thus established), with the ether great classes of the general language of mankind, a comparison guided and illustrated by sound psychological views, the most profound and highly- gifted of those philosophers who have devoted themselves to this study have inferred, that language is the necessary and sponta- neous result of man's constitution, that human speech and human 56 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. nature are inseparable, and consequently that language was ori- ginally one*: physiology has made some important approxima- * William ron Humboldt, the most eminent of those who have made the philosophy of the word their study, has stated his opinion to this effect in the most explicit terms. The reader will not perhaps be dis- pleased if we subjoin a few extracts from his great posthumous work, the introduction to his treatise on the Kawi language. The title of this in- troduction is, uber die Verschiedenheit des menschlichen Sprachbaues und ihren Einjluss auf die geistige Entwickelung des Menschengesckleehts (on the varieties in the structure of human languages, and their influence upon the intellectual developement of the human race). " The true solution of the contrast of stability and fluctuation, which we find in language, lies in the unity of human nature. Whatever is derived from that which is properly one with me, in this the conceptions of subject and object, of de- pendance and independance, are interchanged. — What is strange to me in language is so for my (for the time being) individual, not for my originally true, nature" (p. 63). — " The reciprocal working of the individual upon language becomes clearer when we remember that the individuality of a language, according to the ordinary acceptation, is such only by comparison, whereas the real individuality lies in the speaker for the time being. Speech acquires its last definiteness only from the individual. No one assigns precisely the same meaning to a word that another does, and a shade of meaning, be it ever so slight, ripples on, like a circle in the water, through the entirety of language. — The power of speech may be regarded as a physiological effect; that proceeding from the individual as a purely dynamical one. The regularity of speech and its forms consists in the influence exerted upon the individual; but there is a principle of freedom in that reciprocal working which proceeds from him ; for something may rise up in a man, the ground of which no understanding in preceding circumstances could discover" (pp. 64, 5). "Language is the outward appearance of the intellect of nations : their language is their intellect, and their intellect their language: we cannot sufficiently identify the two" (p. 37). " We must regard speech not so much as a do;, , but rather as a, begetting ; we must abstract from what it is as a designation of objects, and a help to the understanding ; on the contrary, we must go back more carefully to a consideration of its origin, so nearly connected with the subjective mental activity, and to its reciprocal influence thereupon " (p. 39). " Understanding and speaking are only different effects of the same power of speech" (p. 54). " Speech, considered in its real nature, is something constantly passing away. Even its preservation by means of writing keeps it only in an incomplete, mummy-like fashion, in which it can get vitality only by lively recitation. In itself it is not an epyov, but an cWpyeca. Accordingly its true definition can be genetic only. It is. in fact, the ever-recurring labour of the mind to make articulate sowid appli- Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 57 tions to a similar result with respect to the bodily structure of mankind*; and thus external probability leads us to the conclu- sion, that the varieties which we distinguish as well in the form as in the language of man must have been produced by the dis- persion of the human race from some one home over the whole surface of the earth, and by the subsequent operation of the multifarious causes to which the different parts of the separated family would be exposed. The result of investigations of this nature is generally more satisfactory to our inquisitive spirit than any written testimony, however authenticated, with regard to the creation and early state of man : for the facts to which such a testimony relates occurred long before the invention of writing ; they are traditions handed down by word of mouth from father to son, beginning with the first man, and so going on to the man who wrote them down, and of which even the earliest narrator could have known little without a direct and immediate revelation. Yet all nations have traditions, in a great measure consistent, which describe minutely and definitely their primitive state : and when we find that the oldest of these traditions agrees exactly and entirely with the result of our anthropological studies so far as we have been able to prosecute them with safety, the most obstinate sceptic cannot refuse the homage of veneration to a narrative, of which, if true, there could be but one origin. It matters little cable to the expression of thought" (p. 41). The same author in a paper in the Berlin Transactions for 1820-1 (p. 247) expresses himself as follows: " According to my fullest conviction speech must be regarded as immedi- ately inherent in man ; for it is altogether inexplicable as the work of his understanding in its simple consciousness. We are none the better for allowing thousands and thousands of years for its invention. There could be no invention of language unless its type already existed in the human understanding. In order that man should understand a single word truly, not as a mere perceivable utterance, but as articulate sound denoting a conception, he must have already in his head the whole con- nexion of speech. There is nothing individual in speech ; every one of its elements announces itself as part of a whole. Natural as the belief in a gradual formation of speech may appear, the invention of it could only happen at once. Man is man only by means of speech ; but in order to invent speech he must be already man." * See Dr Prichard's Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, and Dr Wiseman's Third and Fourth Lectures. 58 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. to us that the divine truths of the Book of Genesis are some- times couched in figurative or allegorical language, that the his- tory of our first parents is veiled under the common oriental symbols, that it teaches no lessons of chronology or natural phi- losophy, or even that some harmless interpolations may have been introduced into the text by priests and prophets, -when, with the fear of a Chaldean invasion before their eyes, they sought to rouse the drooping patriotism of their countrymen by a republication of the sacred books which told of God's great deeds in behalf of their ancestors and of his greater promises to their descendants ; still less are we disturbed by our know- ledge of the fact, that this, as well as the other books of the Jewish canon, was revised, modernized, and probably abridged, by the learned Ezra and his Masorethic conclave, after the return from captivity ; it is clear that the essential parts of this document remained unaltered, and we have enough of internal evidence and extrinsic confirmation to justify our belief, that this book contains the residuary substratum of those ancient and venerable traditions of the Aramaean race, which descended by an unbroken chain from the first and highly-favoured men who heard the voice of Jehovah Elohim as it floated to and fro on the evening breeze*. 43 It is not our design in this place to enter upon a detailed exposition of the coincidences of science and revelation ; and we think we might fairly assume, as the basis of our view with regard to the origin of language, the account given in the Book of Genesis, so far as that account is confirmed by the researches of modern philosophy. Now the results of our philosophy are as follows. We find in the internal mechanism of language the exact counterpart of the mental phenomena which writers on psychology have so carefully collected and classified. We find that the structure of human speech is the perfect reflex or image of what we know of the organization of the mind : the same description, the same arrangement of particulars, the same no- menclature would apply to both, and we might turn a treatise on the philosophy of mind into one on the philosophy of language, * Genesis iii. 8. See Kennicott, Two Dissertations, Oxford, 1747, p. 47, note k. Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 59 by merely supposing that every thing said in the former of the thoughts as subjective is said again in the latter of the words as objective. And from this we should infer, that if the mind of man is essentially and ultimately the same, — in other words, if man, wherever he lives, under whatever climate and with what- ever degree of civilization, is still the same animal, — the only reasoning and discoursing animal,— then language is essentially the same, and only accidentally different, and there must have been some common point from which all the different languages diverged, some handle to the fan which is spread out over all the world, some first and primeval speech ; and that this speech was not gradually invented, but necessarily sprung, all armed like Minerva, from the head of the first thinking man, as a neces- sary result and product of his intellectual conformation. But it is clear that the mind of man is essentially and ultimately the same in kind. Whatever may be the form of his features or the colour of his skin, man is everywhere dis- tinguished from the rest of animated creation by the godlike faculty of reason; and the scarcely less godlike attribute of speech is enjoyed by all human beings, from the broad-browed European, who speculates upon the high things of heaven, to his woolly-haired brother, who leads an unreflecting life in the arid plains of Africa. And this is not all. As the only combination of the two lives, — the animal and the spiritual, — as the only veritable amphibion in the world*, as the only union of im- mortal mind with corruptible matter, as the only being gifted with the co-ordinate faculties of reason and speech, man is not merely one; he stands alone among living creatures. And he needs no tradition to convince him of this. Jealous for the dignity of his species and proud in the consciousness of exclusive privileges, he is led by his philosophical instinct to reject with disdain any attempt to classify him with the animal tenants of this lower world ; and, that he may make the line of distinction between himself and them more definite and palpable, he claims for himself an aboriginal unity, and traces back the pedigree of his scattered families to one common ancestor and to one com- mon home. It is true that there are great outward bodily differences between the different races of men, and that there Sir T. Brown, Religio Medici, XXXIV. 60 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. have been found some advocates for materialism, who ignore the spiritual indications of unity, and deny the claim of the inhabit- ants of Africa to rank with Europeans as the same animal. But, as we have already said, a more enlightened research has triumphed over all these difficulties, and it is now seen that the physical differences of the races spread over the earth's surface are explicable from secondary causes, on the hypothesis of a primeval identity of origin; and that we may account in the same manner for those differences in intellectual c|.evelopement which correspond to the physical differences of nations. The secondary causes to which these varieties are attributable are climate and civilization. We find that the language of a nation is materially affected by differences of climate and soil, and varies directly with the intellectual organization of the people; that language necessarily receives its last touches of completeness in the individual; that for the same dialect it varies with the education and reflecting powers of the speaker, and that for the same family of language it varies according to the education and reflecting habits of the particular tribe, in other words, according to the degree of civilization. When induction thus harmonizes with the more immediate intuitions of psychology, it might seem to some readers a superfluous work to go farther : but there are still many others, who will rejoice to know that these conclusions are confirmed, or at least not contradicted, by the primitive records with which their religious faith is so inti- mately connected. For the sake therefore of that union between science and faith, which ought to be self-sufficient, but which ignorant bigotry is perpetually endeavouring to disturb, we will step aside to show, that, in this case at least, there is no conflict of authorities; that here there is no occasion for mutual con- cessions, or a feigned reconciliation; but that the Book of Genesis itself describes the speech of man as an endowment, not as an invention, and attributes the differences of human language to a constrained emigration from the aboriginal settlement of our race. 44 " And out of the ground," says the sacred writer, u the Lord God formed every beast of the field and every fowl of the air : and brought them unto Adam to see what he would call them : and whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the name thereof. And Adam gave names to all cattle, Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 61 and to the fowl of the air, and to every beast of the field ; but for Adam there was not found an help meet for him" {Genesis, ch. ii. vv. 19, 20). These words imply that the power of speaking merely, and not language, was given to man, and therefore there are no grounds for the inference which a modern writer would draw from the passage, that the language of Adam was an immediate revelation from the divinity*. Accord- ing to the plain construction of the passage, aboriginal man was so constituted that he had the power of speech, and this power he exercised first of all in giving names to the different species of animals ; but, says the historian, although he had this power of speech he had no one to converse with, no one to share his sympathies, no one gifted like himself with the wonderful powers of reason and speech, no help meet for him, among all the numbers of animated creation which thus passed in review be- fore him ; and so God created him a wife. This short passage actually contains the outline of all that philosophy and philology have taught us of the probable origin of language. The ulti- mate results of human consciousness are, that the thinking subject is, and that there is something without him ; that there is, in the language of the German philosophers, a me and a not-me, or, if you will, he knows that he himself exists, and believes that there is something which is not himself. In those two results of all consciousness, in the consciousness of self and of not-self, is comprehended all the world as it exists for the individual. In the former are included all the thoughts, feelings, impres- sions and ideas which a contact with the outward world and the consequent sensations produce upon the thinking subject. * Quand on lit dans la Genfae, que toutes les criatures passerent en face de Dieu devant Adam, qui leur imposa des noms, espece de baptSme de V esprit, qu'il leur con/era on concoit pourquoi, dans le systeme des philosophes de V Orient, qui est aussi celui de Pythagore et de Platon, Vhomme est envisage" dans son origins comme un second cr&ateur, comme un verbe incarn£ &voquant au moyen du discours les mysteres de la creation : espece de Mage en rapport avec le monde idial et le monde terrestre, avec la nature et Dieu. C'est le language primitif des hommes qui est Varbre de la science ; c'est la, comme le disent les livres Indiens, le Veda Celeste ; et quelque corruption que les infir- miUs de notre nature y aient introduite par dans son essence, c'est une revela- tion de la Divinite m$me" (Le Catholique, Tom. I. p. 418, quoted by C. J. Sachs, de statu generis humani originali, p. 19 seq. Berol. 1831.) 62 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. But the human mind is naturally impatient of pure thought : it strives ever after objectivity, and endeavours to complete and fix its inward conceptions by some species or other of outward manifestation ; the thought completes itself in the expression. Even if a man were placed alone in the world with all the faculties which he now enjoys, he would give names to the different objects of animal creation as they passed in review before him, he would seize upon some one prominent attribute in each class and mark it by a name of distinction*. This name he would no doubt express by that which is the only natural and obvious method, namely, by articulate sound. But if such an effort of language might be expected from a solitary man, it would be the inevitable consequence of his meeting with some other thinking and speaking being ; he would then neces- sarily seek to transfer his thoughts to that outward objective world which was cognizable to his fellow as well as to himself, by the most natural and obvious method, which is, as we have said, by articulate sound ; and if there were at first but two such persons in the world, their communications, regulated by ■ convention based upon a community of reason and necessitated by a community of wants, would constitute the first language, and, by transmission, the language of all mankind. 45 The same striving after outward expression, which neces- sarily produced spoken language, as its primary effect, led in the course of time to the invention of letters or writing as a more durable manifestation of the thoughts, which was, however, strictly artificial, and must therefore be carefully distinguished from the natural language which necessarily preceded it. The first writing was not alphabetical ; each symbol was an inde- pendent and significant term, and the huge masses of stone which they set up for monuments, the walls and temples which they built, and the rude figures which they carved and painted upon them, were each and all of them distinct words. The pyramids, arches, and obelisks on which the traveller still gazes * "Without looking to the communication between man ami man, speech is the necessary condition of the thought of the individual in secluded loneliness." Humboldt, iibcr die 1 mtrtscM . Sj p. 53. Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 63 with wonder, the ruins of Egypt, Babylon, and India, are not merely, as a quaint writer* has called them, the irregularities of vainglory, the wild enormities of ancient magnanimity ; — they are the huge chronicles by which the men who built them tell to posterity the wonderful history of their industry and of their art, — the writing of a race of giants, traced with enduring characters on the great page of nature, which neither the rage of the elements, nor the passions of men, nor even the slow sure hands of time have been able as yet to convert into a palimpsest. The primary impulse to these rude writings was a hankering after durability, a desire to leave a lasting memorial of their history, which should at the same time serve as a rallying point to their descendants. According to the sacred writings, they wished to build themselves a city and a tower, and to make themselves a name, lest they should be scattered abroad upon the face of the whole earth : as a punishment of this attempt the dispersion and consequent varieties of human language took place {Genesis xi. 4 foil.). It does not in any way appear from the words of the sacred narrative that the common language of man was violently and suddenly broken up into a number of different speeches or dialects. Indeed it has been more than doubted by some of the most learned commentators whether the confusion of tongues really means anything more than the sudden manifestation of a spirit of dissension among those who were previously united in a common design |. The words of Scripture * Sir T. Brown, HydriotapMa, ad fin. t This view of the passage was first proposed by Vitringa (Observ. Sacr. Tom. I. p. 106), who is followed by Robertson (Clavis Pentateuchi, pp. 93, 96) and opposed by Perizonius, Orig. Bdbyl. c. ix., whose views are adopted by Dathe and Rosenmiiller. It is the obvious intention of the writer of Genesis to make Babylon the scene and the starting-point of the dispersion of men. This is clear from the use of the particle UW v. 7, which is empatically repeated in v. 9, and from the etymology proposed for the name TQ.3., Bdvel, which the writer connects with the root 7/IL, " he poured forth," though the word would be more naturally explained as Uj ^Vj ^ a0 Bd = '■?■ 2W1 3 porta vel aula, civitas Beli (Winer s. v.). As Robertson rightly observes, all depends on the meaning of the words HSvtf and E'Hll in v. 1. He says ; "etiamsi TlSW significat aliquando linguam, dialectum, ut in Jes. xix, 18. xxviii, 11. xxxiii, 19. Ezech. iii, 5, 64 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book L are(vv. 7, 8): "Let us go down, and there confound their language, that they may not understand one another's speech. So the Lord scattered them abroad from thence upon the face of all the earth; and they left off to build the city." The plain con- struction is, that as the offence of the Noachidae consisted in their reluctance to emigrate, their punishment was the dispersion which they sought to avoid ; and this dispersion might be, and probably was, a cause of the difference of tongues, but could hardly have been an effect of it ; for if any two sets, of men had a common object in view, they would not be long in finding a medium of communication. The statement therefore in the Book of Genesis is simply this ; that when the whole or a considerable portion of the early inhabitants of the world were settled in Mesopotamia, their attempt to contravene the decree of Pro- vidence, that man should multiply over the whole face of the earth, was punished with so immediate and sudden a dispersion that large gaps were left between the settlements of the different races, and by the operation of secondary causes the languages of the earth became different. On the supposition that the lan- 9. Ps. lxxxi, 6, Scriptores fere sacri sermonis diakctum et linguam per \\wl exprimunt; iis in locis ubi omnibus constat de dialectis, non vero de sermonum sententiis, agi. Vide Gen. x, 5, 20. Vox "Q1 verti p ratio seque ac sermo, uti \6yos apud Graecos ; hie igitur reddi possit D^"01 per ejusmodi sententias quibus inest consilium et deliberatio." But even if we take the words literally, and consider H2 w* , " lip," a synonym of pttH, "tongue," it is clear from Psalm It. 10, which perhaps contains an allusion to this very passage, that according to the Hebrew idiom a dis- traction of counsels might be spoken of as a division and confusion of language: for David says with reference to Achitophel and his brother conspirators: C}'^ ^2 tf« ybl, "Swallow up, O Lord, divide their tongue," where the root J^S clearly points to the name 2^2 given to the Patriarch in whose time the dispersion is placed ; Gt n. x. 25. With regard to v. 4, the phrase D^EC'2 KPIO) is merely an exaggeration like the epithet ovpavo^iajs', and Le Clerc has shewn that Citf, "a name," means simply a monument or pictorial commemoration; cf. n. Sam. viii. 13: and Ennius, Atmal. xvi: Reges per regum statuasque sepulcraque quaerunt, uEdificant nomen, summa nituntur opuui vi. Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 65 guage of man was originally one, it is necessary, as Niebuhr suggests*, to suppose also a miraculous divulsion; for it is hardly possible that there should be such differences as we find between two contiguous families of languages, — the Semitic and the Indo- Germanic for instance, — if the nations which belong to the different families had gradually and slowly separated : but the miracle would be equally great and effective if it were such as we suppose. As far, however, as the historical character of the Book of Genesis is concerned, the so-called confusion of tongues resolves itself into a case of disunion and dispersion ; and science admits that this is the most probable cause of physical and linguistic differences. 46 It would not be consistent with the narrow limits im- posed upon these incidental remarks to examine all or any of the theological inferences which might be deduced from this history of the tower- builders. We must not here pause to ask whether the religious lesson conveyed by this history of the dispersion of primitive men be any thing further than an inti- mation, that the true centre and metropolis of the human race is not an earthly Babel but a heavenly Jerusalem. We must not now busy ourselves with the inquiry, whether this compul- sory emigration from the plain of Shinar was not a second version or a supplementary description of the banishment from Eden. We must leave it to the professed theologian to show at length that as death and dispersion were the twin conse- quences of sin, so life and reunion are to be the conjoined results of redemption — that Christianity is not merely the harbinger of life ; but that it is also the point of reconvergence for the human race, and that this is indicated by the first gifts conferred upon the ministers who were to begin the work of reuniting man- kind — namely, an intuitive knowledge of the different dialects of the world, instead of that acquired by a laborious study of grammar, which man had invented as an antidote to the curse of confusion-)-. But it belongs to our present subject to call * H. R. I. p. 53. Tr. t Neque tamen dignitas ejus (Grammatices) parva censenda est; quan- doquidem antidoti cujusdam vicibus fungatur contra rnaledictionem illam Confusionis Linguarwm. Bacon de Augmentis Scientiarum, Lib. VI. (Vol. VIII. p. 307, Montagu.) F 66 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. attention to the fact that this setting up of a name — this erection of a visible monument stretching towards heaven, was the first recorded instance of that striving after objectivity, and that tendency to realism, which is the most formidable antagonist of spiritual religion *. For it is worthy of observation, that one of the earliest and most important results of that hankering after outward manifestation, which produced the first rude monument and picture-writings, was the introduction every where of idola- trous forms of worship. The first great fact of consciousness is, as we have seen, the existence of an external world in contrast to the thinking subject. To this belief the mind attains on the evidence of the perceptions excited and called into being by con- tact with the world of sense. But there is another belief, to which the reason comes almost as soon on the evidence of its own reflexions, the belief in a superior being who created the subject as well as the object of consciousness, the great point of union to the two contrasted realities. It is, however, much easier to con- template the common objects of consciousness, than to think of and regard unceasingly this reality of the reason. And thus, impatient of abstraction, the reasoning being gives an outward manifestation to this as well as to his other thoughts ; he writes God on the world as he wrote other tilings, with picture and statue imitations, and ere long worships the type instead of the reality; he foils down on his knees before a mere menu technica, he pays homage to an object of sense, forgetful that the essence and definition of God, his own idea of a supreme being, is, that he is something without the subject, which i- not a part of the external world. Picture-writing, and indeed all the arts, are but so many different indications of that feeling which gave rise to the worship of images ; they are all different species of idolatry, different symptoms of man's aversion to abstract thought, of his love of dresses and disguises, of the unphiloso- phical tendencies of his lower nature. For what is philosophy but an undressing of the world f? It is to deprive our thoughts of all those outward veils and vestments in which they are gene- rally too prone to wrap up the objects of their contemplations, it * Theatre oft) 6th Ed. p, t "The beginning of all Wisdom is to look fixedly on Clothes, or even with armed eyesight, till they become tra p. 6G-, see also pp. 74, 210). Chap. 3] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 67 is to strip eternity of the robe of time, to divest existence of the accident of mortality, to let fall the many-coloured cloaks of individuality, in which the genus is enveloped, to see the soul unclothed and unencumbered with that garment of flesh which weighs it down to earth, and brings it to the near contact of death and decay. All this is difficult to the untutored intellect ; as difficult as to gaze on the noon-day sun without a cloud, or a mist, or even so much as a bit of coloured glass, to break the intensity of his light ; and yet it is what we ought to do, what we must do if we would live as creatures that enjoy reason and hope for immortality. 47 The invention of alphabets, or of writing, in the modern sense of the word, was the first step towards the overthrow of idolatry; and it is a remarkable fact, that Europe owes her alpha- bet to the only nation, which, in the remote ages, preserved itself to any considerable extent from the worship of symbols : but still it was only a partial remedy ; for books, those sworn foes of all idols, of all worship of the world of sense, were but few, and even " the old man eloquent" preached his mellifluous wisdom to a small audience. It is true that wherever they went they were fraught with a real vitality ; they sped like the knights errant of old, releasing many an oppressed mind from captivity, and here and there lighting the lamp of truth in a land of darkness ; yet their influence was very limited, and even after the Christian religion had appeared, causes, which are well-known, operating with it, crumbled the old fabric of civilization into minute fragments, and the mind of man was again a worshipper of images and of art. At length came the invention of print- ing, the most important event, perhaps, in the history of the world. From this time forth, the book was not a solitary hero, a Hercules or a Theseus, striving for the liberation of men from the giants who tyrannized over them. Their name was legion ; in infinite hosts they spread themselves over the world, conquer- ing and to conquer. First of all, the idolatry of popery fell before them, then art as the instrument of idolatry was over- thrown ; philosophy was by them reinstated in her rightful domi- nion ; philology came forth as her hand-maid ; feudality and tyranny gave way to their victorious march, and to this day the despots of the world tremble before them. Let us not be F2 68 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. deceived : Luther was great, but Guttenberg was still greater *. The letter did not kill but gave life, for it was by the letter that the spirit lived again, and it is the aid of the letter, it is philology, in one of its forms, which we must have recourse to whenever we would struggle with those idols of the forum f, the realized ideals that ever and anon usurp the throne of reason, and tyrannize over the misnamed free-will of man*. 48 From these reflexions on the influence produced upon literature, and, through it, on the opinions of the world, by a greater facility of writing, and an unbounded circulation of writ- ten documents, we come naturallv to consider the effects of the invention of writing on the spoken language of which it is the secondary expression. The art of writing was a mere inven- tion ; it stands on precisely the same footing with the other useful arts : hence it was at first rude and uncouth ; and I did not for a long time arrive at perfection, or become so e as to fall into general use, it has produced, by its want of com- pleteness, great and lasting evils on the mind of uneducated man. But language was a spontaneous result of our organiza- tion, and thus, like every production of nature, was as perfect at the beginning, indeed much more so than it is now. when literature or the written word has developed itself in a thousand different ways. If any one thing more than another can show the absurdity of those who speak of an invented language, it is simply this tact, that the oldest languages are always the ri< in materials, the most perfect in analogy, the most uniform in etymological structure. Philology too instructs us that those very words, which the believers in an invented language regard as the most difficult to invent, and therefore as the last introduced, are, in fact, the basis of all language ; for instance, the pro- * Luther himself called the invention of printing ■ da? letzte Auflodern vor dem Erloschen der Welt" i^Falkenstein, (r. mh. dtr Bmckdmtktrkmmtt, Vorrede, p. 1.). The reader will find in Victor Hog I de Paris (Lib. V. ch. 2.), some remarks on this subject, written in a wild and extravagant tone, as is the wont with modern French authors of that school, but yet very striking and true. t Bacon's Xovum Oraanon, Lib. I. Aph. 59, 60. X Carlyle's Hist, of the French RanhOion, I. p. 13. Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 69 nouns and numerals, which Adam Smith* considers of recent introduction, are known to have been the very oldest part of every tongue ; for it is just these words which retain their identity in languages which have been longest separate, and have there- fore become most unlike in other particulars. The effect of increased use upon the structure of inflected language is rather to weaken and corrupt than to improve or amplify ; and it may be laid down as a general rule, that, as such languages remove themselves from their origin, the love of what is called euphony gains ground more and more, the elements or roots are no longer clearly discriminated from the terminations, and the meaning of the separate parts of the word becomes less dis- tinguishable, till at last all inflexion is superseded by a system of prefixes and auxiliaries. The monosyllabic languages, which are the most imperfect of all, appear to be degenerated forms of older and more complete idioms. It may seem strange, but it is never- theless true, that this corruption of the forms of language has arisen, not in spite of, but directly in consequence of literature ; and the invention and diffusion of writing, which have produced such important results in literature and science, and, through them, on the general mind of man, have thus contributed to un- dermine the mighty and perfect structure of spoken language, the immediate production of that reason of which writing is so important an instrument. This has not been generally re- marked f, and it will be worth our while to bestow a little consi- deration upon it. The beginning of literature has been prior to the begin- ning of writing in all those countries in which literature has subsequently attained its greatest developement. As the want of writing materials necessitates the adoption of metre, the first composition in every language is poetry. Had the invention of writing and printing been coeval with the first beginnings of language, we should certainly never have had an epic poem, perhaps never a line of poetry in the world. Besides, there * Considerations concerning the Formation of Languages, at the end of the Theory of Moral Sentiments. (Vol. II. p. 431.) t It has been noticed, however, that writing could never produce any change upon the spoken language otherwise than through the literature. (See A. A. E. Schleiermacher, de VInfluence de VEcriture sur le Langa,ge. Darmstadt. 1835. p. 101). 70 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. appears to be something in the nature of early man, full as he is of sublime inquiry, and impressed with the wonders of the earth and the sky, which he gazes on with awe and veneration, that leads him on to poetry. The language of the old world streamed freely from the breast, swelling with infinite redundancy of expression, replete with the richest and most significant com- pounds, and ever bursting forth into song. " We may suppose," says William von Humboldt*, "that there was hardly in any desert a wandering horde which had not its lays. Man, as a species, is a singing animal, connecting, however, tnought with his melody." The sage, who discoursed to his disciples on the mysteries of man and the world, set before them " the sweet food of sweetly-uttered knowledge f," and the chronicler, who wished to perpetuate the past deeds of his warrior- race, sang to the harp the verses he had composed. Prose can only arise after a long period of civilization, when writing has become tolerably easy, and writing materials sufficiently abundant!; it keeps pace with the logical or syntactical developement of a language ; so that writing, which can produce no effect in the way of improvement on the forms of a language, exercises a most important influence on the construction and connexion of its sentences, and therefore on the science of the people who use it. The method of language gains at the expense of its mate- rials. It is observable that the first literary productions of a nation, their epic poems and lyrical hymns, are either entirely devoid of syntax or but inadequately provided with it. In the earliest poems of the Indians, for example, the liamayana and Maha-Bharata, there is no syntax or construction properly called $ ; and as we do not know to what extent prose composition in the Sanscrit language was cultivated, we cannot say how far they ever arrived at a logical syntax. In the Greek literature, however, we possess an excellent specimen of a language developed * Uber die Vcrschi- hi. Sprb. pp. 59, 60. t Sir P. Sidney, D . p. 496. X Scripturam teuton et communi ww apian plat /ms$6, atque prosam temtart ct i Mm Wolf, Proltgomtm Ilonwrum, p. 72. $ By syntax we mean the strictly logical conformation of sen' including that accurate discrimination of subject and predicate, to which the article is more or less necessary. Chap. 3] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 71 through all the successive stages, from the rude luxuriance of the Epos to the careful but barren elegances of logical prose ; for Hellenism, after it had secured its predominance over the Pelas- gian or older element, was subjected to no external interference ; its changes and progressions took place within itself; and it may therefore be cited as a good example of the influence of literature and civilization on the syntax of a pure and highly- cultivated idiom. In this language, before all others, we see the article, that great implement of logic as distinguishing the subject from the predicate, disunite itself from the pronoun or general designation of locality ; in this language we see the differ- ences of mood developing themselves from differences of tense, and all the syntactical modifications of the subordinate or accessory verb expressed by the participle, an etymological modification of the verb ; in a word, the Greek language, like Mahomet's coffin, which hangs between earth and heaven, has taken the middle place, between the synthetic and analytical languages, combining the perfection of the word with the regularity of the sentence, to a degree which no other idiom can parallel. The language of Homer is totally different from that of the later poets, and although his lines are not so devoid of logical struc- ture as the clokas of the Indian poems, (and this is perhaps explicable from the fact that our present text of the Iliad and Odyssee is little more than a rifaccimento of the original works), it is still obvious on the most hasty perusal that the logical structure of sentences, for which prose Greek is so remarkable, had not yet established itself in the language. The same is also evident from the old Attic prose of Thucydides, which is full of what we should call bad grammar, arising of course from his inability to correct and polish his style by writing his sen- tences over and over again. Thus we often find that he has forgotten at the end of a sentence how he commenced it, or has purposely changed the construction, without being able, from want of facility in the mechanical part of writing, to retouch the beginning of the period. When Plato and Demosthenes flourished, the materials and habit of writing must have improved wonderfully, as we may infer from the correctness and polish of their style ; it is stated, too, that the former used frequently to rewrite his works, and that a tablet was found after his death in which the words at the beginning of the Republic were trans- 72 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. posed in a number of different ways* ; and we are told that Demosthenes copied out the history of Thucydides eight times f. Even in the Attic dramatists there is a great difference between the construction of the choruses, written after an old model, and the more prosaic dialogue ; and yet this last is by no means so conspicuous for that discrimination of the subject and pre- dicate by which the prose works are distinguished. Whenever a language has once arrived at a full syntactical developement this distinction between prose and verse ceases to exist ; tl^e construc- tions in poetry then possess the same logical exactness as those in prose. But the Attic idiom, though progressively approximating to this state, did not attain to it till the time of Xenophon and Plato, the latter of whom gave the first hints of the proper analysis of the sentence J, which he could not have arrived at had not the Greek language been by that time capable of logical prose : for in order that the theory of syntax may be discovered, the language itself must have become syntactical. As Plato discovered this theory from the logical texture which his own language had assumed, conversely Aristotle, when he had for- mally and methodically set forth the principles of the Platonic analysis of the sentence, adapted his own style to this method ; and thus he is not only the great expounder of the method of language, but also the most methodical of writers ; a circum- stance which has induced an eminent author § to compare his style to a table of contents. Thus we see that the history of Greek literature exhibits the developement of a language origi- nally the most copious into one confessedly the most syntactical, one in which the discovery of logic or of the principles of syn- tax was first made. And the wonderful fact about it is, as we have said, that it should have arrived at this ultimate state with a smaller sacrifice of its original form than any other lan- guage in the world. In general, however, it may be laid down that languages fall off in perfection of form as they gain in re- gularity of literary composition, and that the same causes which destroy the symmetry and regularity of the structure of words, * Quintilian. VIII. 6. § 63. Dionys. Halic. de Compositione Vtt b on t m. p. 208, Eeiske. t Lucian. adv. indoctum, p. 102. X See below, Chap. VI. $ The poet Gray. Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 73 as a product and counterpart of the mind, promote the efficacy of language, as an instrument of science. Examine the ana- lytical languages of modern Europe — our own for instance ; you will find that in the arrangement of their words in sentences they are absolutely confined to the logical method. And what is the state of their etymological structure? In the English language we have no distinction of genders by means of in- flexion, no declension, no facility of forming compound words, and but a few fragments of the Anglo-Saxon conjugation. In fact, the most perfect language for the purposes of deduction would be one, the words of which have no individual significa- tion, but are merely general symbols ; for the method of lan- guage, as we have before observed, is independent of any par- ticular language ; but as such a language can exist in writing only, it follows that writing must have an important influence on science. And this we know to be the case : for it is clear that the greatest advances in science have always been preceded by some great improvement in written language, whether it be the step from picture-writing to the alphabet, from the rude manuscript to the printed book, or from the abacus to algebra. 49 These considerations lead us to expect in the lan- guages of all nations, in which we find an earlv use of writing and an early cultivation of pure literature, some indica- tions of the triumph of syntax over etymology. To repeat here, what we have elsewhere stated*, this tendency is not so much a war of language with itself, as a contest between two modes of expression, one of which is best adapted to the memory unaided by written words, and the other best suited to the formal statement and registration of our connected thoughts. Accordingly, when we speak of languages as being in an old and new state or condition, we speak of them as more or less affected by the cultivation of prose literature and by the common use of writing. As we have not, by the nature of the case, any ancient language which is altogether unaffected by the written records which have transmitted it to us, we can only speak of these differences as differences of degree. But we may divide all languages known to us into three states or conditions, thus Mashil le Sopher, pp. 3, 4. 74 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. differing in the degree of detriment which their cultivation of syntax has caused to their etymological structure. We shall call these primary, secondary, and tertiary states. (1) Languages in a primary, or highly etymological state, are those which have few or no syntactical contrivances ; but complete and regular inflexions, and a living power of derivation and composition. In such languages, writing has been culti- vated at a late period, and circumstances have not favoured the logical developement of the language. The most .remarkable specimens of languages in a primary state, are trie Sanscrit, Sclavonian, and old Latin. (2) Languages in a secondary state are those, which, without sacrificing, to any very considerable extent, their inflex- ions and power of composition, have still attained to a clear and copious syntax. The most remarkable specimens of this class are, the ancient Greek, and the modern High German. (3) Languages in a tertiary state are those, which have all but lost their inflexions and power of composition ; which substitute syntactical contrivances for those variations of form, which, in the older languages, characterize differences of declen- sion and conjugation ; and which enjoy all the resources of logic in the construction of their propositions. To this class we must refer all the Semitic languages, the dead no less than the living, together with a considerable number of modern idioms, including the Romance languages*, and our own. It is to be observed, however, that the passage of a language from a secondary to a tertiary state generally presupposes, in addition to the influences of writing and literature, some con- siderable infusion of heterogeneous ingredients produced either by conquest or emigration. Thus all the Semitic languages have lost their inflexions and their living etymology in consequence of a very early admixture of ethnical elements, to which the Book of Genesis bears satisfactory and circumstantial testimony. The Franks, when they conquered the Latinized inhabitants of Gaul, and the Normans, when they settled as a military aristocracy among the Anglo-Saxons, found, in the countries to which they * As wo have already intimated (above $ IS, p. 23) the original patois was utterly ungrammatical. The syntax was restored and extended by the literary efforts of the Troubadours. Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 75 migrated, languages capable of inflexion ; and in each case the language, which resulted from a compromise between the victors and the vanquished, sacrificed all the characteristics of etymo- logical vitality. The same effects were produced in a minor degree by the Mohammedan conquest of Persia ; and it appears that when the Etruscans subjugated the Umbrians in Italy, the result was a mixed language, mainly that of the vanquished, in which the declensions and conjugations were nearly if not entirely annihilated. 50 It cannot be said that the passage of a language from one state to another, and the improvement of syntax at the expense of etymology, is in any case tantamount to a degeneracy of idiom. On the contrary, as we have already suggested, the tertiary state generally accompanies and promotes an advance in science and social culture. The degradation of a language is a different process, and it is attributable to a widely different cause. Speech is degraded when it loses its etymological struc- ture without gaining the compensating advantage of a syntactical developement ; and this is occasioned by a retrogression in the social and intellectual position of the people, as when emigrants from a civilized community are widely dispersed, and reduced from an agricultural or political state to that of nomads, espe- cially when this is accompanied by privations, and by the deteriorating influences of a worse soil or climate. All the sporadic or Turanian idioms of High Asia, of which we shall speak in the following chapter, are instances of a degradation of language: they are all probably depravations of the Iranian type. Similarly, the languages of Africa must be considered as successive products of Semitic disorganization : the Syro- Arabian tongue passes from the Abyssinian to the Galla and Berber, from this again to the Caffre, from the Caffre to the Hottentot, who is finally caricatured by the savage Bushman. Any state of a language may become liable to this degrada- tion. But, in by far the greater majority of cases, the idioms, which have been subjected to this falling off, were in their primitive state, or at least in a primary condition, when the causes which we have mentioned led to this depravation of their structure and capabilities. It is scarcely necessary to mention that a return to civilization is by no means denied to any 76 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. degenerate or sporadic tribes, and that they may not only resume their social and political state, but may also be liable to the same influences of writing, and ethnical admixture, which produce the transition from the secondary to the tertiary state of a language. We have a conspicuous example of this in the case of the Chinese. It cannot be doubted that the population of this immense empire is made up of successive stratifications of sporadic or Turanian immigrants, closely packed together, and reinitiated, at an early period, into the arts which their ancestors had cultivated in the original abode or the human race. The consequence of this revival has been to make the disintegrated remains of their degenerate idioms an artificial ap- pendage to a system of written symbols. And to such an extent is this carried that two entirely different spoken languages are represented by one single convention of arbitrary signs. These are the only changes to which language appears to be liable. It has a tendency to pass from an etymological to a syntactical state; and this process is facilitated by the cultivation of writing, and is carried to its fullest limits by the admixture of new ethnical elements. Language too may be degenerated or depraved, and in this condition it may, by the sacrifice of its few remains of vitality, become the instrument of literature and science, and minister to the intercommunion of civilized man. But if we believe that languages had a common origin, and that the aboriginal inhabitants of the world enjoyed a complete intel- lectual organization, we must conclude that the highly etymolo- gical condition of a language must have been its original type, and that all deviations from this type are of subsequent introduc- tion, and should be explained by a reference to the operations of secondary and external causes. 51 We have now given a general sketch of the first part of the philosophy of language ; we have sought to point out the original unity of speech, to show that spoken language is na- tural, but written language artificial, and to draw a bold. and intelligible outline of the effects of the latter upon the literary developement of a nation. It remains that we turn to the second part of the subject, and state, by way of explanation, the connexion between the results of psychology, or the science of mind, and of the philosophical analysis of inflected language. Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 77 That such a connexion, or rather identity of results, should exist is necessary, if we are right in maintaining that language springs naturally and spontaneously from the mind of man. The results of all that writers on the philosophy of mind have collected, with regard to our thoughts and the constitution of our intellectual powers, may easily be summed up, so far as they accord with our own convictions. Every man has one pri- mary belief; that he exists, and that there is something without him, full of realities, animate and inanimate ; he sees too an infinity of beings like himself, who live in the same belief. This something without him is known to him from his sensations, which, acting in the first instance on his bodily organs, produce an impression on his mind which we call a perception. These perceptions survive the presence and the influence of the sub- stance which caused them, they become a part of the mind, and are called conceptions. Now the mind of man is so consti- tuted that, whenever a perception is recollected or a conception arises, it instantly awakes some other similar conception, or perhaps a whole train of them, connected by the relations of resemblance or contrast. This habit or tendency is called association or suggestion. We can also combine those concep- tions at pleasure, so as to form new conceptions existing only in the mind, and this faculty is called imagination. Now all these powers, with the exception of the last, are confessedly enjoyed by the lower animals, and we class them all under the name Understanding, the faculty of rules, or the faculty of judging according to sense*. But there is also a higher faculty, * It will be observed that we use the term " understanding" in a more limited sense than others, Coleridge for instance, give to the " human un- derstanding." Coleridge attributes to the understanding many operations which we consider as peculiar to the reason — discourse, abstraction, generalization, &c. (Aids to Re/lection, p. 21 o). We adopt the Kantian distinction, in general, but we are rather disposed to comprehend under the term reason every faculty which is peculiar to the mind of man, excepting the imagination, which, however, in its truest and highest form can exist only in a reasoning and speaking creature. For imagination, when it really deserves the name, is intimately connected and blended with the reason. It is in fact the poetical reason, or the realistic element in the reason. In its lower form it constitutes the fancy, which ministers to the hope and fear of infants and dumb animals. 78 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. which we alone possess, which presides over and regulates the understanding, and which we call Reason, or the faculty of principles. By this faculty we compare our conceptions with one another, we estimate their similarity or incongruity, we arrange the objects of our perception in classes, and these classes again under more geueral subdivisions; we compare these ulti- mate generalizations with one another, and so arrive analytically at absolute truth : or, in some cases, we seize upon the prin- ciples of science synthetically, a priori, and at once v It is this faculty which constitutes our humanity ; it is to this that speech ministers as an indispensable, but subordinate, adjunct. The knowledge of his own existence and the simultaneous belief in an external world, — this is the first act of man's con- sciousness. But this consciousness is itself subjected to two other primary intuitions : it is subordinated to the intuition of space, for he is here, and everything else is there, and these are two positions ; it is subordinated to the idea of time, for the very belief in his own existence presumes a continuance. This then is the sum of psychology. Man is, and the world is, there is a here and a there, a me and a uot-me, — the know- ledge of this fact is consciousness. lie has perception, concep- tion, association, which constitute his Understanding. lie com- pares, generalizes, knows, and discourses; these are the opera- tions of his Reason. And all his thoughts are modified by and subordinated to his primary intuitions of space and time. 52 Now if language be, as we Bay it is. the genuine pro- duct of the reason, we should expect to find traces of all t: conformations of the mind in the structure of our speech. And so it is. Our analysis of the Greek and cognate languages has taught us that there are two primary elements of speech ; the first, an organizing element which enters into all words, and which we call a pronoun ; the second, a material clement which consti- tutes the basis of all significant terms which are not pronouns. The pronoun expresses in the first instance the relation of the thinking being to the external world, of the subject to the object, of the me to the n ot m e, and this is formally put as an oppo- sition of here to there. The first general and vague idea of there is soon split up into a number o^ modifications, of which Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 79 the first is a distinction of objects in the there or outward world, according as they are nearer to or farther from the subject, and subsequently a designation of all the different directions in which they stand with regard to the subject. The pronoun therefore in its different forms is an expression of the first great fact of con- sciousness, — that we are and that there is something without us. 53 The material element of language includes the names of all the objects, which present themselves to us in the outward world, and to our contact with which we owe the experiences that are the staple for our understanding. AYe find on exami- nation that all names of things are generic terms, that they describe some particular quality or attribute of the object, which strikes us as most remarkable in it, and by which we at once see its resemblance to the other objects of the same class. We observe, too, that even the words which we call proper names were originally generic terms, designating some qualities, and consecrated to certain particular objects possessing those qualities in a remarkable degree. It is, therefore, clear that the very act of naming implies classification and abstraction, or reasoning power, and when Adam is said to have named all the animals, this is only another way of expressing the fact, that by his reasoning power, which is identical with the power of speech, he divided them according to the prima facie classes of natural history. Of course, this use of general instead of special names has a great effect on the conciseness and perfection of language as an instrument of thought. But the process does not stop here ; not only are individuals described by general names, but all the relations which bear any resemblance to the attribute from which the body of the name, or the root as it is called, is derived, are expressed by words into which that root enters ; nay more, very many words expressing contrasted rela- tions have the same root perhaps slightly modified. This is an exemplification in language of the principle of association or suggestion, which all psychologists recognize as one of the most important operations of the mind. All writers on suggestion or the association of ideas admit, either directly or by implication, that contrast or contrariety is a species of connexion among ideas ; indeed, Brown makes it one of the primary laws of sug- gestion. Now, if we recollect that suggestion or association 80 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. depends upon previous coexistence or previous proximate succes- sion, we shall not wonder, that, in this natural and necessary process of expressing the greatest number of thoughts or modifi- cations of thought with the fewest possible words or modifica- tions of words, ideas of contrast, as well as ideas of resemblance, should be expressed by words, into which the same, or a slightly modified root enters; for all contrasts and resemblances are rela- tions, and no idea of a relation could be formed unless we had seen the related objects together, or experienced the related feelings in close succession ; but in this case, where the percep- tions have taken place together, the recollection of one percep- tion awakens a remembrance of the other ; consequently, if we have got a word to express one of these related ideas, that word suggests £h e thcr idea to our mind ; therefore, the root of that word, or a slight modification of it, would naturally be adopted to express the other idea, whether it be an idea of contrast or an idea of resemblance. And thus we find that a word may bear two contrasted significations, or there may be two or more words, containing the same or slightly modified roots, which denote contrasted or contrary objects or feelings, when the objects or feelings have been seen, felt, or experienced, always or generally, in connexion or in immediate succession*. * The following arc a fen instances of the principle of association as it manifests itself in the same or a cognate tango Contra>t. Cause and Effect. . wish, habere, have. - ak, ma>, hear. cwpto, desire, caj>io, take. ov&m*, speak. •r<"li>.>, hear. Xnco, wish, Xaa), take. Ka\(a>, call, kXum, hear. Xpyo-ifios, xpcuoTif Ii/, assist, \ijpos, xP^C (lv f eideo, see, olha. know. want assistance. \ "■*■ (be place J). cants, possessed and vain- want. 5, bind, to m i m , bim " dear," (prized) because yon have it, drjpos, dr)fi6s, do. do. " dear," (expensive) because you want it. a-rrrco, fasten, u7rra), set on fire. XP^'o, use, xp etrt > need. oVk-o-ios, , . SfK-ofiai, the gesture, wish, cany with one x € *P* alp-ia. trachten, look at eagerly, tragem, to carry, hand, | ^ hm f »— , [ qnanl , . uvypn \ . nnoer, > «, J act. fitvos \ a moving r / n ' I remain- J * pepova J force, desire. , j ing. 0ew ) quickness of riOrjpi \ 6o6s I motion. Oaitos I "fast" (rapid), "fast" (fixed). Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 81 54 Every word containing a root, or belonging to the material element of language, also contains by way of prefix, suffix, or both, a pronominal element. This is the counterpart in language of the psychological fact, that every act of con- sciousness is subordinated to the two conditions of thought, the intuitions of space and time. The old Epicureans maintained that the only real existences in the world were matter and space *j and that every thing else was either a property (con- junctum) or an accident (eventum) of these |. Time, for instance, was an accident of matter, not perceptible in itself, but to be inferred from the rest or motion of things J. With what con- nexion with this materialistic view we know not, but all people, whether philosophers or not, seemed to have made up their minds, till Kant appeared, that space at all events was some- thing external, empirical, and real. Kant, however, deduces his critical philosophy from the position that space and time are a priori intuitions, because we cannot form a conception of out- ward objects without a presupposition of space and time ; they necessarily form the basis of all outward phenomena ; they are, both of them taken together, pure forms of all perception, and consequently make synthetical positions a priori possible §. It is true that the intuitions of Space or Position, and of Time or Continuity, are equally original and equally necessary, but if we analyze them more rigorously we shall find that the intuition of Time is only a refinement and modification of that of Space. These two primary notions may be otherwise stated as an intui- tion on the one hand of position or fixedness of objects with isolations or intervals, which is the intuition of Space, and an intuition on the other hand of continuousness or motion of ob- jects, or of such a closeness and proximity in their positions that the intervals are not perceived, or not taken into account, * Lucretius I. 446 : prceter inane et corpora, tertia per se Nulla potest rerum in numero natura relinqui. t v. 450 : Nam qucequomque cluent aut his conjuncta duabus Rebus ea invenies aut horum eventa videbis. I v. 463 : Nee per se quemquam tempus sentire fatendum est Semotum ab rerum motu placidaque quiete. § Kritik der reinen Vernunft, pp. 28-43. G 82 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. and this is the intuition of Time. Now it is clear even from common language, that this is the whole distinction between space and time; for the words which we use as indications of position, such as "before" and "after," "backwards" and "for- wards," are also indicative of time. We shall, however, make our meaning clearer by an example. 55 That these primary forms of thought necessary to per- ception are the basis of pure mathematics, is distinctly stated by Kant*, and it is indeed obvious to every one, who agrees with Plato in considering the exact sciences as derived from percep- tion by the intellectual faculties. The two first invented of the exact sciences were Arithmetic and Geometry, which are both referable to the intuition of Space. The latter was always, in the hands of the old geometers, the science of position ; in the former, all the principles are derived from the notion of inter- vals, and the primary names of the numbers are, as we shall hereafter see, pronominal words signifying position. For con- venience in reckoning, it soon became customary to substitute for these arithmetical words a set of symbols, all of them single letters, and people were not long in inventing concise methods of combining these according to the principles of the science. But even these abbreviations were not enough, and a sort of short- hand was invented in different parts of the world, which Euro- peans have agreed to designate by the Arabic name Algebra% This written language, for it was only a set of symbols, and therefore could not be spoken, was, in process of time, extended to the expression of geometrical results: but only imperfectly; because the geometer sometimes encroached upon the domain of the other intuition; and a science of pure time had not been deve- loped from the sciences of Space. In fact, the intuition of Time or continuity was much more difficult to deal with ; like the old Ileracleitean doctrines, it presupposed a continual flowing or change, and escaped from the grasp of expression. The great * Kritil rmm/t, p. 41. t This word is referred to j^t and signifies "reduetio partium ad totum, seu fractionum ad iutegritatem." (Golius, c. 402. Freytag, I. p. 239 b.) Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 83 difficulty to be overcome was a philological one, — the construction of a language to express motion, time, or continuous change. This obstacle was surmounted at nearly the same period by both Leibnitz and Newton, and their discovery of the language of change was one of the greatest importance immediately for physical science, and ultimately, we doubt not, for philosophy in general. No one has been at the pains to point out the natural progress of this discovery : it will, we apprehend, be easy to do so. The most obvious example of continued change, or melting down of intervals, is that of physical continuous motion: so obvious, indeed, that the ancient philosophers included under the name motion (icivrjeris) all that we include under the term change; thus, Plato Thecetet. p. 181 d: Svo Stj Xe^yw tovtco eiorj KivqcrewSi aXXoiooa iv> ttjv oe irepKpopdv (read (popav.) Par men. -p. 138 c: Kivovfxevov fj (pepoiro rj dWoiolro dv. Aristot. Nat. Ausc. VII. 2. § 1 : eirel %e Tpels elai Kivi]o~€is tj re Kara tottov, Kal Kara teal to 7ro7ov, Kal ra to iroo~ov, avayfer) KOI TOL KLVOV/UL€Va Tpia. tj fX6V OVV KUTa T07TOV (j)Opd, Y] 06 KaTOL TO 7TOLOV d\\o ICOCT 1$, f] C€ KaTCL to 7TOcrov au]~t]o~is Kal (pd'toris. In accordance with this, then, the earliest language or science of change borrowed all its terms and even its name from physical motion : though from the very first it was applied to the investigation of problems in change or continuity in general. The natural division, therefore, of the exact sciences is this, (l) The science of positions or intervals, which includes geometry and arithmetic. (2) The science of time or of conti- nuous change, which comprehends mechanics, dynamics, and the great problem of physical astronomy. When Algebra, or the symbolical language in which the sciences of space were ex- pressed, was applied to the science of time, it was called Fluxions or Differential Calculus ; but it might in fact be called by the name of the older language, of which it is merely an extension. We are aware that an eminent mathematician, in the sister island, has asserted that Algebra, by which he means all that is included in the unphilosophical use of the word analysis, is the science of pure Time*, and he even goes so far * Sir W. Rowan Hamilton, in the introductory remarks to an essay " On Conjugate Functions and on Algebra as the Science of Pure Time" {Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy, Vol. XVII. p. 293 foil.), states G2 84 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. as to say, that arithmetic is a part of the same science * : but with deference to him and another distinguished analyst f, who defines Algebra as the science of general reasoning by sym- bolical language, we must insist that Algebra can never be called a science, when separated from its applications, which are all so many distinct sciences. If the science of pure time is coextensive and identical with Algebra, as the former scholar asserts, then must Geometry, which is the science of pure Space, become the science of pure Time whenever it is expressed in analysis. Algebra should be defined as the method or art of combining symbols, as a language in which we can carry on the most abstract and general reasonings about sensible objects, considered in their relation to one or other of our original intuitions. It appears, then, from the progress and extension of Algebra, that the intuition of Time, though necessarily co-ordinate with that of Space, may be derived from it by adding the idea of motion or change, or by melting down the intervals which con- stitute position, and that in scientific language, at all events, the expression of Time is posterior to that of Space. In the common languages we find two classes of the material words, which we call nouns and verbs. The former are capable of expressing relations of Space only : the latter denote actions or express rela- tions of Time. Yet we find that both are made out of the same materials ; the roots or stuff of language enter into each set, and they are each of them combined with pronominal elements, which denote the case-relations in the former, and the person- "that his object is to inquire whether existing Algebra offers no rudiment ■which may encourage a hope of developing a Bcimce of Algebra, properly so called, strict, pure and independent, deduced by valid reasons from its own intuitive principles; and this not less an object of a priori contem- plation than Geometry, not less distinct in its own essence from the rules which it may teach or use, and from the signs by which it may express its moaning ; and that he has been led to the belief that the intuition of time is such an element." This is not the place to enter upon a formal exami- nation of so profound a subject: but we are sure that any one who will look into Sir W. R. Hamilton's paper, and compare it with the explana- tion given in the text, must admit that he has confused the method of Algebra with one of its applications. * Ubi supra, p. 308. t Professor Peacock's Algd ra, § 1. Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 85 relations in the latter ; the eases of the nouns expressing the position of some object with regard to other objects, the persons of the verb the point from which the action begins, or at which it ends. These, we shall see, stand upon exactly the same footing, and the expression of agency, whether effected by a case, a preposition, or a person-ending, is still strictly pronominal or derived from the intuition of space. From this examination we see that the principles according to which the words of a perfect, or, what is the same thing, an inflected language, are formed, that is to say, their anatomical structure, or internal mechanism, is the counterpart of what we know of the operations of the mind. Here, however, the parallel is at an end, and we must be careful to recollect that the words themselves, when once formed into a whole, are nowise repre- sentatives of any thing in the mind. They may go on through all possible shades of meaning, and even be used by abstraction without any regard either to their structure or primitive signifi- cation, and without in the least affecting the mind with a compre- hension of their import : nay, it is, as we have shown, the natural process in language, as it developes itself syntactically, to destroy the fulness and significance of its individual words ; and it is highly beneficial to science that such should be the case. A very pregnant example of this is furnished by those general abstract terms of which so much has been said by metaphysicians. If we examine the abstract and general names in any lan- guage, we shall find that they are only tropical or figurative words properly referring to sensible objects ; and the reason of this is obvious, for the whole end of language is to transfer our in- ward feelings to the outward world, so that they may become cognizable to others, and objective to ourselves ; now in order to attach a name to a thing, it is necessary that the name and the thing should be presented to the observation a certain number of times together: but it is easier to present a material object to the observation of another for the purpose of naming it, than to describe to him an impression or a thought ; consequently, mate- rial objects are first named, and thoughts or ideas are described by a metaphorical reference to them. Of course, this method of forming our abstract terms, though necessary under the cir- cumstances, is productive of serious inconveniences; by using metaphorical words, we are apt to reason vaguely in consequence 86 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. of the different significations which the words bear in common language. Hence for the purposes of science it would doubtless be desirable to have a set of words which bear no specific mean- ing. But this is impossible in spoken language, except in the case of merely pronominal words, denoting not things but the posi- tions of things : therefore it is only in Arithmetic, Geometry, and Music that we can have a spoken language perfectly general. In symbolical written language, however, it is possible to put down marks or signs, and invent laws for their combination without at all troubling ourselves about their interpretation ; and it is to the invention of such a language, and its subsequent extension to subjects beyond the arithmetical calculations to which it was at first applied, that the great advances in pure mathematics, and the sciences depending on them, are to be attributed. 56 As abstract general terms are merely the names of sen- sible objects used tropically, they could not be considered as the representatives of any ideas in the mind, even though it were true that the words of a language, and not the mode of forming them only, might be regarded as the representatives of mental operations. The controversy between the realists and nominalist?, of which we have given a short account in the last Chapter, could not arise at the present day ; every one is now aware that words, as the signs of generalization, are the only objects about which general reasoning is conversant. If any question of this sort could be agitated at present, it must be one between the nominalism of Occham, or conceptualism as some might be pit- to call it, and the ultra- nominalism of the school of Hobbes, Home Tooke, or Bentham. Some of these have gone so tar as to seek for general truths in the words of a particular lan- guage, but no one, nowadays, would conversely assert the objec- tive existence of general ideas, as something independent of the general terms which we use in reasoning. It is true, indeed, that general terms presume generalization ; it is true that there is such a thing as general, necessary, abso- lute truth, and that synthetic judgments a priori are possible ; it is true that there are genera and species of things, and, in short, representative or abstract knowledge as opposed to perceptive or intuitive knowledge; but it is not true that, because we can abstract and generalize, therefore we have in Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 87 our mind general abstract ideas or images of the absolute and unconditioned, still less that our general terms are representa- tives of such ideas, and least of all that such abstract ideas have an independent existence. As a great philosopher has remarked, in speaking of the metaphorical meaning of general terms, our necessities have obliged us to depart from the natural order of our ideas ; we have been obliged to attach ourselves to one furnished by the occasions and accidents to which we are liable, and this order gives us not the origin of our notions, but the history of our discoveries*. To adopt the words of the same philosopher, there are two different kinds of ideas, — the real and the nominal. The nominal idea of a thing is but its definition ; and thus a simple idea is only real, for it cannot have a definition, that is, a new simple idea cannot be raised in the mind by means of words. The nominal idea or essence of a thing is simply that quality or attribute which we remark in it as the point of similarity between it and other individuals which we class with it, and which is therefore the cause of its name. This definition, like all classification or naming, is of course to a certain extent arbitrary ; for as Dugald Stewart observes f — it does not necessarily follow that this quality is more essential to the existence of any thing as an individual than various other qualities which we are accustomed to regard as accidental. The real definition enables us to see the possi- bility of the thing defined, and it is this definition alone that can be made the basis of science, for which the nominal definition is not sufficient, unless it can be shown by experiment that the thing defined is possible, in which case the definition becomes real. There is, perhaps, no such thing in the world as a perfect circle, but the definition of the circle enables us to see the pos- sibility of the thing, and therefore the definition is allowed to rank among the first principles of the science of Geometry. The essence of a thing is but the possibility of it, and therefore does not depend upon ourselves ; the merely nominal definition is arbi- trary, and though there is but one essence there may be several nominal definitions of the same thing, while the real definition must be justified by the reason, which shows that it is possible, Leibnitz, Nouveaux Essais sur I'Entendement Hwmain, p. 324. | Elements, p. 130. 88 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. or by experience, which shows that it actually is, and is there- fore possible*. 57 The doctrines of the Realists in the middle ages seem to have been suggested by a misconception of the philosophy of Plato, which has prevailed to the present timej. It has been all along supposed that Plato was a realist in the strictest sense of the word, that he believed in the independent existence of universal ideas, that he had a great passion for the marvellous and mysterious, and so forth. We believe nothing of the kind. Plato may have been a bad citizen, — in his heart a traitor to his country, and an enemy to her institutions, — but he was not a mystical dreamer, or a wild enthusiast ; he was the very greatest of all true philosophers, because he was the first ; he was a sober, clear-headed thinker, and not the less so because he had the most brilliant fancy — a mind teeming with the most poetical imagery that ever gilded the page of abstract specula- tion. The business of philosophy, as we have before said, is to undress the objects of sense ; to take the thought away from the particular, and turn it to the general. In the beginning of real philosophy this was the great thing to be done. The first phi- losophers, so called, were materialists and ultra-nominalists, and therefore it was Plato's object, as a true philosopher, to estab- lish at least the position that truth and science cannot be found in the individuals, but must be sought after by general reason- ing ; that we must take general terms, the names of classes and not of individual things, if we would arrive at any valuable conclusions. If he had written, as Dugald Stewart might have written, on the same theme in the nineteenth century, after the world had enjoyed for many hundred years the lights of philo- sophy, science, literature, and a true spiritual religion, he would have had no occasion to use allegories about chariots and winged horses, and ideas dwelling in the world of intelligence, and metempsychosis J, and so forth. But living as he did in * Leibnitz (itbi supra, p. 252 foil.) t It is perhaps right to make an exception to a certain extent in favour of Bishop Berkeley (see Siris, § S3C I The allegory in the Phsedrus is borrowed entirely from the circum- stance, that, in the Attic dialect, words referring to the use of wings are Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 89 an idolatrous country, where every association was opposed to abstraction, and the human soul made an image- worship of its every thought, where there was no literature except poetry and annals, and these too read by few, he was obliged to set up idols against idols, to make the imagination, which had created all the elements of Greek polytheism, its own iconoclast in favour of a rival worship ; and so he spoke of ideas as things real, objective, and independent, dwelling with God in the heaven of heavens, and making other things what they are by participation. Nevertheless, no one knew better than he did that this was but philosophy speaking in parables ; as will appear from the consideration of a very few facts*. 58 Plato bases his whole system on dialectic or logic, the art of general reasoning. He knew that there could be no general reasoning leading to philosophy, or general principles, without real definitions. Now, the definition necessarily includes two things, generalization and division, or, in the words of modern logicians, it is made either per genus or per differ en- tiam. The former process is the base of the second ; the second is the developement of the former. Accordingly, dialectic, and therefore philosophy, depend upon generalization; and Plato's employed to signify the emotions of the mind (see, for instance, Sophocles, Ajax, 693) ; a metaphor so obvious that Aristophanes makes a very length- ened joke upon it in the Aves, 1436 — 1450. If the reader wishes for an instance of the way in which Plato could spin an allegory from the com- mon terms of poetical language, let him compare Phcedrus, p. 251 a-d, where we have Trparov pev €(ppi£e — olov ck rrjs (ppLKTjs — deppoTTjs — OeppavOev- tos 8e irdKrj — £ei ovv iv tovtco oXtj, kcu dvaKrjicUi ttj 8ie£6da> iy^pUi €KacrTTj — coo-re nacra Kevrovpevrj kvkKco rj yj/'V^rj olcrrpa kcu odwdrai, with Sophocles, Trachinice, 831 foil. ; el yap croje Kevravpov (povia ve(pi\a ^piei doXo7roios avayKa 7rkevpa npocrTaKe vtos lov 8eivora.T> which he explains very clearly in the Phcedrus (p. 249 b) : eel yap avdpwnov ^vvievai kglt elcos Xeyo/mevov, e/c 7ro\\toi> iou alaOricrewv els ev Xoyia/iio ^uvaipov/nevov, — and this we presume is now generally admitted. It is strange that this should have escaped the notice of so many writers on the history of philo- sophy ; one would have thought that the connexion between him and the Pythagoreans, who made the same use of num- bers, — the first abstract terms in language, — which he did of his ideas, would have taught them that Plato's object was only to bring forward the principles of science or general truth, to draw the first outlines of a system of logic or general reasoning, by laying down the rules of classification and generalization. His pupil Aristotle, who has grievously misrepresented his mean- ing, did but fill up his scheme; and it may be shown from the words of both, that, in talking of genera and species, categories and universals, they meant only general terms, the necessary instruments of reasoning, the main part of the definition real, which is perpetual because it speaks only of the possible*. 59 We need not search long in Plato's works without finding indubitable proofs of his nominalism, expressed in the most direct terms f. For instance, in the Republic (X. p. 596 a) * Leibnitz, u. s. p. 254 : les Essences sont / >xe s'y agit que du possible. t Mr Dyer in a paper On the novn, or name, as an instrument of r ing, read before the Philological Society, 14 Jan. 1S48 (Proceedings, Vol. III. No. 65), has combated this view of Plato's philosophy. He maintains that nominalism would have been totally inconsistent with Plato's particular tenets ; that he was in fact a realist. But he admits that Plato's " realism did not prevent him from making use of general terms for logical pur- poses, precisely in the same way as the most thorough nominalist." He tells us too that " the germ of Plato's philosophy lies in the well-known passage of the Phcvdrus (245 d. sqq.) in which the soul is likened to a yoke of winged horses;" and he maintains that "fanciful as this sketch may appear, it in reality contains the leading principles of the Platonic philo- sophy, such as we find them worked out in a more serious manner in the later dialogues." The question therefore between Mr Dyer and ourselves Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 91 he begins an investigation by taking the generic name (ovo/jlo) as a representative of the genus (JcW, i<5e'a, which are in this passage used as identical words) and states that this is his usual method — fiovXei ovv evOevoe dp^wfxeda e7ricrK07rovvTes, ck Trj /- Oeia (Cratyl p. 3yi c), and the Homeric etymologies in this dialogue have been thought to be a hit at Protagoras ; for it appears from the Thea?tetus (p. 152 e), that the disciples of Protagoras and Heracleitus supported by quotations from Homer the doctrine of the perpetual motion of things ; also, as in the Theastetus, the Eleatics are treated with much more consideration, * €K veov re ydp o-vvtJ&tjs yevopevos 7rpa>TOV Kpan'Aco koi reus HpaxXa- rciots 86$-ais, coy andvrctiv tK ovotjs, k. t. X. Aristot. Mrtaphyt. I. a Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 95 and all the weight of the ridicule is made to fall upon the re- presentative of the Heracleiteans ; the banter is carried to the greatest length, when Socrates tells Cratylus that he owes the absurd derivations which he brings forward, and to all of which Cratylus assents, to the inspiration which had come upon him from his morning's talk with Euthyphron, a mad and ridiculous quack. The object of the Thesetetus is to overthrow entirely the doctrines of Protagoras and the Heracleiteans, to show that the grounds of science are not to be sought in the province of the senses, that in fact science is neither perception nor right conception, nor even right conception combined with reasonable explanation. Now the second of these three things which science is not, namely, right conception, is one and the same thing with language*; and these sophists had actually made language an object of inquiry, as if science had been to be found in words : therefore it was necessary to show, not only that science was not identical with right conception, but also that there were no grounds of science in language, which, although intrinsically the same with right conception, was extrinsically so far different as to merit a separate investigation ; this, however, could not well have been introduced as a digression into the Thesetetus, and therefore the Cratylus was written as a distinct work sup- plementary to the Thesetetus. The general conclusion is given at the end of the dialogue (p. 439 a) ; that as words are merely the images of things, it would be much better, even if we could most perfectly learn the nature of things from their names, to make the truth a criterion as well of itself as of its image. 61 The celebrated work of Home Tooke presents in many ways a striking resemblance to the sophistical philology against which the Cratylus was written. It was suggested more immedi- ately by some legal quibbles originating in the author's trial for high treason, just as the sophistical play upon words seems to have been recommended as a part of the juggling rhetoric with which the Athenian pleaders threw dust into the eyes of the dicasts; and as Cratylus was a partizan of the materialism of Heracleitus and Protagoras, so Home Tooke professedly adopts the sensual- ism of Locke. In his philological method too he nearly resem- * Schleiermacher, Einleitung zum Kratylos, p. 15. 96 THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. [Book I. bles these old etymologers; he endeavours to establish his views by an examination of his mother-tongue, chiefly, if not entirely, unaided by a comparison of other languages. Of his fundamental error with regard to the parts of speech we have spoken in another place. His object is to establish nominalism in its lowest and worst form, as an instrument in the hands of materialism ; he endeavours to show that, in the English language at least, all words, how- ever abstract or general their present use may be, are ultimately traceable to a meaning derived from sensible impressions, and from this he concludes that these words must still be under- stood, not in their present metaphorical, but in their primitive literal sense, and consequently, that as words are the signs of ideas, and all words refer only to sensations, we have no know- ledge but through our sensations. But, as Sir James Mackin- tosh somewhere asks, would it be just to conclude that, because all words seem to represent, originally, visible objects, there are neither impressions of touch, smell, sound, nor taste in the human mind? This author, however, has no deductions more unwar- rantable in logic, or more truly conceived in the spirit of the old Sophists, than those in which he attempts, by twisting and material- izing the meaning of some of our most abstract terras, to subvert the principles of our inner subjective morality. For instance, when he says, that "truth is nothing but what every man truiitth ; that there is no such tiling as eternal, immutable, everlasting truth, unless mankind, such as then are at present, be also eternal, im- mutable, and everlasting ; that two persons may contradict each other, and yet both speak truth, for the truth of one person may be opposite to the truth of another" (Vol. n. pp. 4-02, 3) — what is this but to reassert the old dogma of Protagoras, that the in- dividual man is the standard of all truth (rarrw /mcrpov av- 6(jto7ros)? what is it but to leave us to the dreary conclusion, which the follower of the Sophists must needs be contented with, that lie has no community either with men or with God, but remains, like another Prometheus, bound to the isolated and comfortless rock of his own personal consciousness, with all his social longings and irresistible first convictions preying like a vulture on his soul*? * See Sehleiermaeher's remarks in the Introduction to his translation of the ThoMftptiM p. 172 ad fin.) Chap. 3.] THE PHILOSOPHY OF LANGUAGE. 97 62 The Diversions of Pur ley still maintains its ground' censured by few*, and admired by many. To oppose the ex- travagant nominalism and false philology of that work, and others of a similar stamp, and to find the mean between an excess of philological speculation and the superstitious realism, which shrinks from all contact with philology, — this is the more general object of the following pages. We bring forward against vulgar materialism, a truer and more congenial philo- sophy ; we oppose to a narrow induction drawn from a mixed, wavering, and still spoken language, the carefully collected results of the labours of three generations of scholars, applied to a language copious, fixed, and comparatively pure, aided by the lights of comparative grammar, of a new era of the his- tory of philology ; in a word, we oppose to chimerical conjec- tures the results of a science founded on facts. On the other hand, our careful dissection of the whole body of inflected speech will make it plain that, while words are merely outward symbols, designating certain notions of the mind, those notions do not stand related, in all cases, just as the words or inflections which express them, and that we cannot by means of mere words convert into physical truth all that is logically and meta- physically true. It is time that some attempt should be made to show that the philosophy of language refuses its ministering aid both to gross materialism and to superstitious fancy, and that it stands forth as the chief confirmation of those systems, by which human reason contributes to the support of religion and morality. The word is destined to teach ; let it cease to be the instrument of deception. * A Dutchman, who seems to have anticipated Home Tooke, was less fortunate in the result of his experiment: "Un certain Hollandais, peu affectionne* a la religion, avoit abuse de cette verite (que les termes de The- ologie, de Morale, et de Metaphysique sont pris originairement des choses grossieres) pour tourner en ridicule la Theologie et la foi Chretienne dans un petit dictionnaire flamand, on il donnoit aux termes des definitions ou explications non pas telles que l'usage demande, mais telles que sembloit porter la force originaire des mots, et les tournoit malignement ; et comme d'ailleurs il avoit donne des marques d'impiete, on dit qu'il en fut puni dans le Raspel-huyss" (Leibnitz, Nouveaux Essais sur V Entendement humain, p. 235). One might almost fancy that this was a description of our English etymologist, if the date and the punishment were more suitable. H CHAPTER IV. THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 63 Ancient Greece must not be isolated. C4 Origin of the human race in Armenia. 65 Primeval civilization. 6G Mankind first spread into Asia Minor, and then into Mesopotamia. 67 Widely-dispersed emigrations from the plain of Babylon. 68 Separation of the Aramaean and Iranian families in the vicinity /of the original settlements. 69 True classification of the human race presumes an opposition between the central and sporadic branches only. 70 Old division according to the descendants of Noah's three sons — how to be explained. 71 Spread of the Japhetic or Indo-Germanic race. 72 Order in which this family entered Europe ; (1) Celts, (2) Sclavonians, 3 (a) Low Germans, 3 (b) High Germans. "We trace them back to Asia in the reversed order. 73 I. Germans, (a) Low Ger- mans. 74 Saxons derived from the Saca?. lb (b) High Germans. 76 Origin of the name German. 11 II. Sclavonians. Their extensive diffusion. How connected with the Low Germans. Lithuanians and Scandinavians. Getae and Daci. 78 Relations of the Sclavonic and Teutonic tribes in general. 79 HI* Celtic tribes. The two great dialects of the Celtic. Causes of the insignificant ethnical position of the Celts. 80 IV. 1]; stem members of the Indo-Germanic family. Iran defined. High and Low Iranians. 81 Median origin of the Hindus shown by their ancient name. 88 The Low German tribes also derived from Media. 83 Meaning of the term Sanscrit. 84 Antiquity of the Sanscrit language and literature. 85 The High German tribes connected with the Per- sians or High Iranians. 8(» The Zend language a genuine remnant of old Persian. 87 V. The Latin and Greek languages. 88 The Pelasgian or com- mon element in Greek and Latin was allied to the Sclavonian. 81) The addi- tional or distinctive elements were Lithuanian or Gothic in the Latin, and High German in the Greek language. 00 Ancient proofs of resemblances between the Greek and Persian. 01 The Greeks aud Germans had many features in common. 02 Their characteristic designation may be traced in its course through Asia Minor and Eastern Europe. 03 Proper classification of the Scythians. 04 In- fluence of the Phoenicians on the early culture of the inhabitants of Southern Greece. 05 The name M Pelasgus " was not of Phoenician origin ; but other names connected with the arts of ancient Greece may be traced to the Phoenicians. 96 Characteristics of Hellenism. 07 Differences of dialect due to the prepon- derance of Hellenic or Pelasgian elements respectively. B 63 PI EFORE we commence our researches in the Greek lan- guage, it will be as well to mention, for the information of those readers to whom comparative philology is a new subject, in what relation this language is supposed to stand in respect to the other languages which we are about to compare with it. The time is long past when we could surround Greece with a Chap. 4.] THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES, &c. 99 Chinese wall*, and content ourselves with surveying only as much of its language, religion, and history as could be disco- vered within these arbitrary limits. We cannot now content ourselves with meagre disquisitions about iEolian or Dorian dialects, or vague stories of Pelasgian serfs and Egyptian in- vaders ; we must look forth upon the great stage of universal history, and consider whether these Greeks may not have had some near relationship with those barbarians of Europe whom they enlightened by their genius, and with those barbarians of Asia whom they conquered by their valour ; whether, in fact, this same distinction of barbarian, or other-tongued, be not after all the mere offspring of ignorance, which always perceives the different before it can recognize the similar. It is now incontrovertibly established that most of the inhabitants of Europe, and a great number of the most ancient and civilized tribes of Asia, speak, with greater or smaller modifications, the same language ; and the time may perhaps come when it will appear as probable philogically, as it is certain historically, that every language in the world has sprung from one original speech. 64 If we collect into one focus all the scattered informa- tion respecting the birth-place of the human race, which we can gather from tradition, from physiological considerations, and from the exhaustion of contradictory hypotheses, we must feel convinced that man originated in the temperate and fertile regions which lie between the Southern extremities of the Euxine and Caspian seas. Independently of all special induc- tions, we should be inclined a priori to conclude, in accord- ance with the general and systematic arrangements which we notice in the procedure of creation so far as we are able to jtrace its successive stages, that the human race would not be planted upon the surface of the globe until life had become both possible and easy to a creature so endowed, until the earth had assumed its present, and, as we may conclude, its permanent form, until the conditions of soil, atmosphere, vege- table production, and animal life, to which our existence is still * Kruse's Hellas, Th. I. p. 395. H2 100 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. liable, had been established on their present footing. And it is reasonable to think that man would be first cradled on some plateau, -which, — while it was raised above the lacustrine impu- rities of the alluvial plains — was likewise free from an over- growth of wood, and well adapted for the cultivation of those fruits and grasses, which furnish the necessary food of man. There is no region in the world, which combines all these recom- mendations so fully as the Armenian table- land lying to the South and East of Mount Ararat. All tradition points to this district. On the supposition that mankind originated there, we may harmonize every linguistic phenomenon, and explain every ethnographical fact. And the farther we depart in any direc- tion, the greater are the difficulties in which we find ourselves entangled. As for those on the other hand, who, recognizing Armenia as one birth-place of the human family, contend that man was created independently in different parts of the globe as they became favourable to his continued existence, we hold it sufficient to say that such an hypothesis is unnecessary, since the spread of population can be accounted for in a very satis- factory manner without the assumption of more than one start- ing point ; and the differences of race, which we observe in different parts of the globe, are not differences of species incon- sistent with one common origin. Besides, the hypothesis, that man was created at different times and in different parts of the world, would leave unexplained and inexplicable those proofs of an original identity of language to which philology is daily making additions of the greatest weight and importance. Nothing short of necessity should induce us to seek for an autochthony in different parts of the globe, which would break the ties of blood-relationship that bind all men together ; and so far are we from being able to point out any such necessity in this case, that all the attainable evidence clearly points in the opposite direction. 65 We conclude then that the first family of men lived in the high but fertile country of Armenia, bounded to the North by the true temperate zone, which there coincides with the fortieth parallel of latitude. Little or no advantage is to be derived from fanciful speculations respecting the so-called " ages of the Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 101 world," whether, with the old mythology we speak of a golden, silver, brazen, and iron age*, or, with Grimm, arrange the dif- ferent developements of society according to periods of stone, brass, and ironf. Armenia was always a fertile and prolific country. It abounded in corn, wine, and oil, and in those animals which minister most directly to the comfort of man. We cannot doubt therefore that the first society of human beings, having every advantage of climate and situation, would make a rapid advance in all the arts of life, and would soon lay the foundations of civilization and citizenship. The earliest records tell us of the use of fire J, of the fabrication of metals §, of the computation of time||, and even of navigation 1T. We read of cities built**, of fields cultivated ff, of herds collected JJ ; and even the fine arts were not unknown ; at least, these early men were able to accompany their native poetry with the sweet strains of instrumental music J J. 66 How many years elapsed before this first establishment of social life spread beyond the limits of Armenia, we have no means of guessing. But tradition distinctly tells us that prime- val civilization first extended itself to Asia Minor, and afterwards to Mesopotamia. Thus the earliest emigrant is carried to Lydia|||| ; and the city of IconiumHIT in Lycaonia claims for its * Hesiod i. k. j. 108—199. cf. Ewald, Gesch. d. V. Isr. I. p. 305 sqq. t Gesch. der deutschen Sprache, I. p. 3. % This is implied in the name ?X"77nD i. e. the light or splendour of God {Gen. v. 15), if we seek its interpretation in the analogies furnished by the other names : see Ewald, Gesch. d. V. Isr. I. p. 316. § Gen. iv. 22. || On the analogy between 'Hanok and Janus, and on the significance of the number 365 attached to his name, see Ewald u. s. p. 314. IF A comparison of the name of TV Jared (Gen. v. 15), with that of the river \TV 9 Jordan, would seem to point to the first beginnings of sea-faring. ** Gen. iv. 17. ft iv. 2. ++ ibid. §§ iv. 21. || The name ■y'jj (Gen. iv. 16) seems to be only another articulation of T)S (Gen. x. 22) : see Ewald u. s. p. 315. •In Steph. Byz. S. V. : 'Ikopiop, no\is AvKaovias npbs to?s opois tov Tavpov. cpaal §' ort rp> ns 'Avvaicos, os eCrjaev vwep ra rpiaKoaia err), rovs 8e irepi£ pavTevo-ao-Gai, cW rivos (3i<0v. And then he proceeds to connect this with • legend about the deluge of Deu- calion. Meineke suggests Mmmmrfij but the old read to be the best. See Ewald u. $. p. 314. Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 103 anxious to shun communion with their fellows, and many a Cain transmitted to his wandering descendants the indelible impress of degeneracy and sin. Not unnaturally those who went farthest would fare worst, except in those cases where the ocean inter- posed a barrier to all further progress, and where the stream of population was dammed up in some well-watered and fertile country, which soon brought man back to the city-life and social habits of his forefathers. Perhaps the earliest case of this kind was the empire of China. At a later period the narrow isthmus of Darien produced a similar effect in Mexico. In general, how- ever, the dispersion went on widening itself, and men whose ancestors had been on the same footing in regard to speech, colour, and frontal developement, became Mongols, Tungusians, Mantchoos, and Samoyeds in Asia ; Finns, Lapps, and Euskarians in Europe ; Negroes and Caffres in Africa ; and Red Indians in America ; to say nothing of the Papuans, the Tasmanians, and the more widely-scattered Polynesians. 68 Meanwhile, modifications were taking place nearer home. Close to the original birthplace of man, two sister-races formed themselves, with equal qualifications both of body and mind, and divided between them, in nearly equal proportions, the great work of developing the human intellect. The geogra- phical line of demarcation, the boundary-line and wall of partition between their first abodes, is furnished by the mountains of Kurdistan and by the Persian Gulf. To the South and West of this, the Aramaic race occupied at a very early period Mesopo- tamia, Syria, Palestine, Arabia, Egypt, and all the North of Africa. To the East, the Iranian race was more slowly develop- ing itself on the great Western plateau of Asia, from whence it sent off successively streams of colonists, who carried the original language and the original appetences for high mental cultivation into India to the South East, and round by the North coasts of the Caspian and Euxine seas into Europe. We are precluded by the nature of this work from considering all the questions in physical geography, psychology, and history, which are connected with the ethnology of these civilized races ; and in the philo- logical part of the question, on which alone we can enter, we are obliged to limit our investigations, as far as possible, to those parts of the subject which are most immediately connected with 104 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. the illustration of the Greek language in particular. But even with this restricted range of speculation, it will be necessary to engage in a survey which a few years ago would have been thought extravagantly wide and foreign to the main question. Accessions of knowledge bring with them expanded and compre- hensive views. There was a time when it was perfectly natural to regard the varieties rather than the affinities of human speech. It was seen that there were differences ; but the points of contact were unobserved. The time is rapidly approaching when the discrepancies will appear inconsiderable, and when the marks of a common origin and of a family-likeness will engross all our attention and interest. 69 At present, however, the languages of the earth are divided into great families, which present remarkable points of difference. Some years ago two eminent philologists concurred in recognizing three great classes or families of languages. They are thus distinguished by A. W. von Schlegel (Observations sur la langue et litterature Provengales, p. 14): Les langues sans aucune structure grammaticale ; les langues qui emploient des affixes ; et les langues a inflexion* ; and this arrangement is adopted by Bopp (vergleich. Gramm. p. 112, 3) with the follow- ing explanation: (l) Languages with monosyllabic roots, but incapable of composition, and therefore without grammar or organization : to this class belongs the Chinese, in which we have nothing but naked roots, and the predicates and other relations of the subject are determined merely by the position of the words in the sentence ; (2) Languages witli monosyllabic roots, which are susceptible of composition, and in which the grammar and organization depend entirely on this. In this class the leading principle of the formation of words lies in the connexion of verbal and pronominal roots, which in combination form the body and soul of the language : to this belongs the Sanscrit family, and all other languages not included under (l) and (3), and preserved in such a state that the forms of the words may Still be resolved into their simplest elements ; (3) Languages which consist of disyllabic verbal roots, and require three con- sonants as the vehicles of their fundamental signification : this class contains the Semitic languages only ; its grammatical forms are produced not merely by composition, as is the case Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 105 with the second, but also by means of a simple modification of the roots. More recently, it has been thought convenient to divide the known languages of man into five different groups or dynasties, (l) The Indo-Germanic, corresponding to number (2) in the above classification. (2) The Syro- Arabian, corresponding to (l). (3) The Turanian, or Ugro-Tartarian. (4) The Chinese and Indo-Chinese, corresponding to (3). (5) The languages of Cen- tral and Southern Africa. We still prefer a tripartite division, which in effect is capable of further arrangement in two groups of languages; and we think that the following is the simplest nomenclature. The two groups may be called (A) the central, and (B) the sporadic. Group (A) contains (l) The Iranian languages, corresponding to the Indo-Germanic, or Sanscrit family; and (2) the Aramaic languages, corresponding to the Semitic or Syro-Arabian family. Group (B) (3) or the sporadic family, includes the Turanian, the Chinese, and all those other languages which were scattered over the globe by the first and farthest wanderers from the birth-place of our race. According to this arrangement, the first two families are classed together as constituting one group of languages closely related in their material elements, and differing only in the state or degree of their grammatical developement. The third family stands by itself, as comprising all the disintegrated or ungrammatical idioms. By the researches of Dr Prichard and others, approximations have been already made to the establishment of family affinities between the different members of this sporadic group of lan- guages. At present, however, they must be regarded as belong- ing to a region of phenomena not yet completely explored by science, and surrounding like a cloud the clearly-developed and central mass of Aramaic and Iranian idioms. According to a mode of classification which we have else- where introduced*, these central languages differ rather in regard to their state or condition than in regard to the materials of which they are composed. By the state or condition of a language we mean, as we have already explained the term, the degree of detriment which the cultivation of syntax has caused to its etymological structure. The old languages of the Iranian Maskil le-Sopher, pp. 3, 4. Above § 49. 106 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. or Indo-Germanic family belong to the first and second classes mentioned above. The Aramaic, Semitic or Syro-Arabian idioms all belong to the third class. 70 The relations between the two great branches of the central mass of languages may be established by a theory resting on scientific inductions ; and the result is in close accord- ance with the ethnographical pedigree given in the tenth chapter of Genesis. That ancient record divides the nations then known to the Israelites into three classes, derived respectively from the three sons of Noah, — namely, — Shem, Ham, and Japheth. But although the subdivision is formally tripartite, the slightest exa- mination of the document will convince us that a more inti- mate affinity is presumed between the descendants of Shem and Ham, than between either familv and the tribes which claimed a descent from Japheth. For example, the Arab tribes da natcd as Ilavilah and Sheba are derived from Shem as well as from Ham. In fact, as we have elsewhere said, the relationship between the Shemitic and Ilamite nations is fully recognized, but the latter are described as the previous occupants of the different countries into which the Aramaean tribes afterwards forced their way. To repeat what we have stated on former occasions*, the diffusion of the Aramaic race seems to have been according to the following - After the aborigines of Armenia had extended their territory into Asia Minor, and while the population of Iran was beginning its developement, two streams of population descended from the mountains ; and, leaving the desert between them, founded, in Mesopotamia to the left and in Palestine to the right, wealthy and civilized communities, which cultivated at an early period all the arts of city-life and practised not a few of its attendant vices. From the left-hand colony, which included the empire of Nineveh, and subsequently that of Babylon, a further stream proceeded Southwards; and having on its way established the rich kingdoms of Ilavilah and Sheba in Arabia Felix, it ultimately carried its traditionary religion and social culture into Upper Egypt* where it came in contact with a kindred empire founded in Lower Egypt by those who had taken the right-hand course. All th : diffusers of * QuarUrh R ■ R6. CLV. p. ITS. M \ p. 35. Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 107 sensual comfort and irreligious civilization are classed together in the Old Testament as Hamites, or descendants from Noah's godless son, and are opposed to the Shemites, that is, to the Hebrews, Assyrians, Syrians, and Arabians, who subsequently descended from the mountains of Aram. But there is every reason to believe that all these nations spoke languages, which exhibited the same peculiarities, and differed only as dialects of the same idiom ; and, as we have elsewhere shown*, their apparent trigrammatism, their etymological disintegration, and the tertiary condition in which their oldest remains are found, must be referred to the constant intermixtures, re-unions, and confusions produced by the emigrations and conquests of the different sections of this important family. By means of a scientific analysis it is possible to point tmt the existence of monosyllabic roots in Hebrew and in the jother Syro- Arabian languages no less than in the members of the Iranian or Indo-Germanic family (J 209). But though we must not neglect the various contacts and affinities of the two branches of our first and central group, the present is not the proper occasion for a full discussion of the Semitic idioms ; and we must content ourselves with a survey of the branch to which the Greek language belongs. 71 In describing the spread of the descendants of Japheth the Book of Genesis enumerates only those tribes whose settle- ments were in Asia Minor, in the South-eastern parts of Europe, and on the Mediterranean. The immediate offspring of Japheth, in other words, the main divisions in this family of nations, are the Cimmerians (Gomer), Scythians {Magog), Medes (Mddai), Ionians (Jdvdn), Tibareni (Tubal), Moschi (Meshek), and Thra- cians (Tirdg). Besides these, the Bithynians (Ashkenaz), Sar- matians (Riphath), and Armenians (Togarmah), are mentioned as sons of Gomer, or offshoots of the Cimmerii ; and not only- Hellas ('HelisJidh), but other places in the Mediterranean, with which the Phoenicians trafficked, even the distant Tartessus in Spain, are said to be peopled by sons of Jdvdn, or Ionians. This of course is a one-sided survey of the spread of this great •family, though very valuable as far as it goes; and we must Mashil le-Sopher, p. 36. 108 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. take a much more comprehensive view of the population of Europe, if we wish to understand the relation subsisting between the Greek language and the other members of the class to which it belongs. This great class of languages, extending from India to the British Isles, has been called the Japhetic, Arian, Iranian, San- scrit, Indo-European or Indo-Germanic family. We shall adopt the last of these names, because it points at once to the two most important branches of the family, the Indian and Teu- tonic languages, and is free from the vagueness which attaches to the term Indo-European; for there are languages in Europe which have no established affinity with this family. Besides, we believe that all the members of the family are deducible from two great branches corresponding to these, and the rigor- ous examination to which they, in particular, have been sub- jected, places them in a prominent position in regard to the other idioms, which are not only less important, but also less known. 72 If we consider the elements of the population of Europe, according to the order in which they were successively added to the first sprinkling of scattered Turanian tribes which they drove before them to the mountainous extremities of the continent, we can hardly fail to arrive at the following results. The first emigrants from Asia were sons of Gomer, — Celts and Cim- merians, — who entered this continent from the steppes of the Caucasus, and passing round the northern coasts of the Black- sea, not only spread over the whole of Europe, especially to the South and AVest, but also recrossed into Asia by the Helles- pont, and conquered or colonized the countries bordering on the South of the Euxine. The next invaders were the sons of Magog, — Scythians, Sarmatians, or Sclavonians, — who are generally found by the side of the Celts in their earliest settle- ments. They more fully occupied the East of Europe, but though they contributed largely to the population of Greece and Italy, they do not appear to have spread beyond the Oder in the North, or to have established themselves permanently in the Alps, or in the Middle-highlands of Germany. The final settle- ment of Iranians in Europe was that of the Teutonic races, con- sisting first of the Low Germans, who, starting from the regions Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 109 between the Oxus and the Jaxartes, burst through the Scla- vonians, and formally settled themselves in the North-west of Europe; and secondly of the High Germans, who subsequently occupied the higher central regions, having also contributed an important, and perhaps the most characteristic, element to the population of Hellas. In considering these tribes separately, we shall travel back to their original abodes in Asia, in an order the reverse of this, and shall take as our starting-point those who entered Europe last, and travelled farthest. 73 We begin, then, with the German languages, which are of the highest interest to us, because our own language in its fundamental element, and the oldest part of the Greek, to the elucidation of which our present efforts are mainly directed, belong to the oldest branch of this set. The German languages are divided into two great branches, usually known as Low German and High German. The former, which is the older, was spoken in the low countries to the north of Europe : the latter was the language of the more mountainous districts of the South ; whence their distinctive names. There is every reason to conclude that the Low Germans entered Europe from Asia long before the High Germans, and that they were driven onwards to the north and east by the overwhelming stream of the sub- sequent invasion : this appears not only from their geographical position, but also from the internal evidences of relative antiquity, furnished by the languages themselves. The Low German includes (l) the Scandinavian languages, Icelandic, Swedish, and Danish ; (2) the Low German dialects, peculiarly so called, Anglo-Saxon, Frisian, Flemish, and Dutch ; (3) the old Gothic, or, as Bopp calls it, the German Sanscrit. We mention the languages in this order, namely, those farthest from Asia first, not only on account of the position, but also because the languages in their internal structure stand in this relation of antiquity. 74 With regard to our own language, it has been truly remarked, that the Low Saxon and Scandinavian element seems to have overpowered the Anglian, and thus, although we call ourselves English (Anglians), the Celts, whom we drove into the mountains, were more correct in calling us Sassenach (Saxons). 110 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book! " The Danes and Low Saxons, with the English, use no prefix ge, which the Anglo-Saxons did : Dan. lielligt ; Engl, hallowed ; A.-Sax. ge-halgud : it would appear, therefore, that the Saxon element prevailed over the Anglian in the formation of our present language ; and the Celtic name for English, both in Wales and Scotland, is Sassenach*." The Saxons, like the Germans, seem to have derived their names directly from Asia. A tribe of the Saca3, who dwelt by the Caspian, and were there- fore, as will be seen, Low Iranians, occupied Bactriana and the most fertile part of Armenia, and extended in a westerly direc- tion towards the Euxine; they were called Sacassani (accord- ing to Pliny Hist. Nat. VI. 11), and their country ^.aKaatjiij, (Strabo, p. 51 1); and it is supposed by the most eminent anti- quaries that these were no other than the Saxoncs, i. e. Saca- sunu, or " Sons of the Saca?." 75 The High German is simply divided into three classes, or rather three stages of existence, the Old. Middle, and New High German. The latter, which took its origin in Upper Saxony, and which owes its present position, as the written lamruajre of all Germanv, to the influence of Luther, who was from L'ppcr Saxony, is probably the modern representative of the language which was spoken on the confines of Upper and Lower Germany, and this may account for its presenting, in some degree, the combined features of the two sets of lan- guages. 76 Many of the ancients believed that the epithet tins, Tepimcti'os, by which they described the cognate inhabitants of central Europe, was merely the Latin adjective, which dei. brotherhood and kindred f, and the Komans often indulged in a play of words arising out of this misconception respecting a renowned ethnical appellation^. We need not trouble ourselves * Winning, p. 119. t Strabo p. 290 : Bio diKaid poi 8okovo-i 'Papaioi toito airoU 0ts av yvrjatovs Ydkaras /<'»! It >/d, the name of the old kingdom of Ramas, is shortened into the modern Oude. The same name may be recognized in A dvarta, "the country of the Arians," which is the classical name for the old country of the Hindus, and which is defined as lying between the Yindhya and "snowy" {Himalaya) moun- tains, and extending from the Eastern to the Western Ocean f. This definition excludes the Deccan, or "country to the right" (dakshina), and the language of the country, its geographical features, its oldest traditions, and the physical chracteristics of * It has been suggested that the name />< looch is the modern represen- tative of this epithet. It is written \^y^\ in Abulfeda. f Arya-dvartah : punua-bhumir (i. e. " the region of sanctit; hyah Vindhya-Ilwuilai/i }? tovs Xaovs ^avpo/xdra^ ovo/ia- aOrjvai) : and their name indicates that they too claimed the North of Media as their father-land*. The Sigynna?, whose territory extended from the north of the Danube to the country of the Heneti or Veneti (Sclavonian Wends), on the Adriatic, in dress resembled the Medes, from whom they derived themselves; " how they could be colonists of the Medes," adds Herodotus (V. 9), " I cannot understand ; but any thing may happen in the long course of time I." Now the abode which Herodotus assigns to the Sigynna3 falls within the limits of the Sauromata?, who were a Sclavonian tribe, and also derived from the Medes. Ac- cordingly, the Sigynna? must have been themselves Sclavonians, whether they were connected with the Huns, as some suppose, or not. Besides, Strabo describes the Sigynna) as living near the Caspian, with habits similar to those which Herodotus ascribes to them (p. 520). Therefore, we cannot doubt that they were a Low Iranian people. In the same manner we might point out traces of a North Iranian pedigree in the case of e\ nation of the Low German class of which any mention is made * Bockh, Corpus Liscript. II. p. 83 : " Sauromata?, Slavorum hau J dubio parcntes, .. . c Media immigrarunt ad Tanaim (Diod. II. 43. extr. Plin. //. X. VI. 7.), unde Gatterer (/«ft .». T. I. p. 75.) nomen derivat a Matenis s. Matienis s. Media ct voce Lithuaniea ire, quae septentrioncm designat: ut Sauromata sint ntri- onalcs. Iidem recto visi sunt § quos Plinius prope Oxyd: vicinos collocat (cf. Ritter. VorkaUe d. Gisch. p. 2S3) et eodem nomine Scylax ad MaxKidem. Mox vero Sauromatica gentes latius evagata? sunt." t yevoiTo §' avnaviv tw paKpop XP° V( ?- Valckenaer OjUOtes Soph. - for a similar sentiment. He might have said more aptly that Herodotus was almost repeating Philoct. 306: 7roXXa yap rd8e «Vru paicp

v rat h $0)17/ ^a^daptoTf^pafji^vos. According to Pindar (hthm. V. [VI.], 24), naXiyyXoxrcros is a stronger term than jSdp^apos. Chap. 4.J OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 129 or Low Iranian tribe who formed the basis of the population in Italy and Greece. If it were necessary to fix upon some par- ticular branch of the Low Iranian, we should be inclined to select the Sclavonian. It must, however, be understood, that in calling the common element of Latin and Greek a Sclavonic language, we mean only that as the Sclavonians, the children of the Sauromatae*, and the most widely-extended branch of the Low Iranian family, may be traced to the immediate neighbour- hood of Greece and Italy ; as there are singular coincidences between Latin and the oldest Greek on the one hand, and even the modern Sclavonian languages on the other; and as the Greek traditions point to the Hyperborean regions |, we may safely call the Pelasgians by a name which, though now restricted, properly describes all those Low Iranian tribes that came into immediate contact with the people of whom we are speaking. We do not exclude the claims of the Goths (or Getse), Scythians J, or Thracians, but we consider all these tribes as more or less affected by admixture or contact with members of the Sclavonian stock. The names of the Massa-Getae, Moeso-Goths, and My- sians, are only various corruptions of one and the same original designation. Now it appears probable that the Sclavonians in- habited Mysia from the very earliest times. We are told by Nestor, the oldest historian of Russia, that the ancient Sclavo- nians were driven out of Moesia and Pannonia by the Bulgarians : he is perhaps wrong in placing this event so late as the fourth or fifth century of the Christian era, but his testimony is valuable * See Bockh, Corpus Inscript. II. p. 83 : Sauromatce, Slavorwm haud dubie parentes (above p. 120). t Diodorus Sic. (II. 47, p. 198, Dindorf) : i'xtiv ^ T °vs 'YnepPopeovs 18 Lav Tiva. diaXeKTov ko\ npos rovs "EXkrjvas olKeLorara biaKelo-dai Clem. Alex. Strom. I. p. 225: el 8e tis ttjv vr]v SiafidWet tu>v fiapfidpov, " epol Se," (pr}a\v 6 'Avdxapo-Ls, " navres "EWrjves o-KvOLgovai." I When we identify the Sclavonians with the Scythians, we are speak- ing only of those Scythians who were immediately known to the Greeks, and were therefore Sauromatse or Sclavonians. The original Scythians, who were no doubt of the Mongolian race (Niebuhr, Kl. Schr. p. 361), were invaded and conquered by the Getse and Sauromatse, that is, by the Low Iranians, just as the old Mongolian population of India were subdued by the Hindus : and it is these Sclavonians with whom the Greeks had so much intercourse ; see below § 93. K ISO THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. as a tradition of the fact, that the Moesians, and therefore of course the Asiatic Mysians, belonged to the Sclavonian stock. If, however, the old Mysians and Sclavonians were the same people, it is pretty clear that the Pelasgians were also of Sclavonic origin, for the inhabitants of Mysia were evidently of the Pelas- gian race*, and the Pelasgian traditions of Rome all point to that country. The argument from the agreement of even modern Sclavonic with Latin and the oldest element of Greek, is still more conclusive. The resemblance of the Russian to the Latin is so striking that a modern traveller has not hesitated to assert, that the founders of Rome spoke the Russian language j\ It is only in the most ancient monuments of the Greek language that we can find the same coincidences, and then they are sufficiently striking. Professor Dankovsky, of Posen, has shown this, in a loose and unsatisfactory way, it is true, by an interlinear ap- proximate translation of Homer into modern Sclavonic^:, and a more extensive and formal comparison of Russian and Greek has been instituted by Constantini§. There are, indeed, some archa- isms in Greek which are hardly explicable, otherwise than by a comparison with Sclavonic and the oldest Low German. We allude to the arbitrary insertion of i in some words in Gothic, Sclavonic, and the Boeotian and Thcssalian varieties of the J^o- lian or oldest dialect of Greek. The resemblance of Sclavonian to Latin and the oldest ele- ment of Greek is not more remarkable than its dissimilarity, in certain points, to the Greek of the dan L For instance, there is a total absence of the article in the Latin and Russian, although this part of speech has generally become indispensable * Nicbuhr, Hist, of Rome, I. p. 33. | Italy and its inhabitants: an Account of a Tour in that Country, in 1816 and 1817, by J. A. Galiffe, of Geneva. Vol. I. p. 356, foil. The con- victions of this author on the identity of Russian and Latin are valuable, not because he is, but because he is not, a philologer. Mr Galiffe had no ethnographical theory to maintain, but, with only a superficial knowl. of the two languages, could not help recognizing a strong family likeness between them. J Homcrus Slavicis dialectis cognata lingua scripsit : tM ipsius II Carmine ostendit Gregorius Dankovsky. Vindub. l v § AoKL/xiov TT(p\ rrjs Tr\j](ri€crTaTT}s (Ttyyeveias ttjs iXajSovo-PaxTO'iKris yXaxr- cny? irpbs rijv 'EWr/viKijv. tv TlsTpovirokci. 1828 Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 131 to those languages which have obtained a full literary develope- ment, and is especially prominent in the Greek. This is the more singular as the Russians have never used the Roman law or ritual, or, in fact, brought themselves into any immediate contact with the Latin language, whereas the forms of the Greek church have been long established in Russia (Winning, p. 121). With regard to the breaking up of the case-endings in the Sclavonic declension, in which particular this branch differs entirely from the other members of the family, we must refer the reader to some good remarks by Bopp (Vergl. Gramm. Vorr. II. Abth. p. iv. foil.). 89 It appears then, that the common or Pelasgian element of Greek and Latin was allied to the Sclavonian, or Low Iranian branch of the Indo-Germanic family. The additional or Hel- lenic element of the Greek, which afterwards pervaded the whole language, and gave a High German character to its entire structure, seems to have come from the East by Asia Minor ; at any rate, we find that the Hellenes make their first appearance in the North-east of Greece. For reasons, which we have already mentioned, we believe that this new element was High Iranian or Persian. A question might be raised, whether it belonged to the High Celtic or Welsh, or to the High German, which both seem to have entered Europe from the same quarter. This question cannot be answered with any great plausibility. Our own opinion, drawn purely from philo- logical and geographical considerations, is, that the first popu- lation of both Italy and Greece was Erse or Low Celtic. After them came the Sclavonian element in each country, and then a Lithuanian or Gothic element was superadded in Italy (see Varronian. p. 42. sqq.), and a Persian, High German, High Celtic, or to speak generally, High Iranian, in Greece. We think the only difference between the Welsh or High Celts, and the High Germans was, that the Welsh pushed farther towards the West and lost much of the German type by mixing with the uncivilized and unadulterated Erse tribes set- tled in that part of Europe. It would be absurd to attempt any precise solution of all these ethnographical difficulties, but as much as we have stated seems to be sound in theory. We do not pretend to say which of the numerous early tribes K2 132 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. mentioned by the Greek historians was Celtic, which Sclavonian, and which High German*: but we may venture to affirm the general fact, that there was first a Celtic, then a Sclavonian, element: and that the original language, in which the Scla- vonian preponderated, was subsequently infected and pervaded by a High German dialect, to which the Greek language owes the most remarkable points in its wonderful structure. 90 The striking similarity between High German on the one hand and the ancient Greek and modern Persian on the other, was pointed out in the infancy of comparative philology f. The resemblance which Greek bore to the Persian in particular must have been much greater formerly ; so much so indeed, that a Greek could learn Persian without any difficulty ; Democedes makes a witty remark in Persian before he has been long at SusaJ , and Themistocles, an elderly man, who had never learned a foreign tongue in his life, made himself a proficient in the language within a ycar$. 91 With the Teutonic race the ancient Greeks had many points in common. The same love of freedom, the same martial qualities, the same tendency to the formation of a considerable number of small independent states, and the same prevalence of federalism, characterizes both of these races. The Germans and the Greeks alone have been distinguished among Europeans by a fearlessness and subtlety of metaphysical speculation. Colonial enterprise is a feature which marked the ancient Greeks, and it is so conspicuous in the modern Germans that the whole world is filled with scattered members of one familv. Even in their * We might guess that the Arcadians were Celtic, and, as we have said, the Pelasgians were Sclavonic, and the Hellenes High German; but to what class the Leleges, Caucones, &c. are to be referred it is useless to inquire. f See above § 33. X Herod. III. 130. § Plutarch. Thctnistocl. XXIX.: Iviavrov alrqaapcvoi koi ttjv UepalSa yk&TTav awoxptoVTctis (Kpadoiv. Cornel. Xepos surely exaggerates when he says: ille omnc Mud tern pus (annum) Uteris sennoniqw Persarum dedit, quibus adco eruditus est, ut multo commodius dicaiur fccisse, quam hi poterant, qui in rant nati. Thueydides merely: Ttjs Ilepo-idos yXuao-rjs oaa i]8vvaro Karcvorjac (I. 138). Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 133 literary tendencies we observe the same agreement. It has been well said by an eminent philologer*, that "the drama, or the combination of the lyric and epic elements, and the complete representation of the eternal laws of human destiny in political society, is entirely unknown to the Semite. It is exclusively the creation of the Hellenic mind, feebly imitated by the Roman, reproduced with originality by the Germanic race. Nor is Iranian India entirely wanting in this last of the three species of poetical composition ." If we turn to the languages themselves, we shall see that it is only the Greek and the German which have combined a perfectly refined syntax with an etymological structure more or less complete, and a living power of derivation and composition. And even in the details of articulation we observe striking coincidences. The evanescence of n and s is particularly observable in German and Greek ; and the Dorian or peculiarly Hellenic Greek especially affects the final r, which is so marked a characteristic of new High German-)-. But per- haps the most decisive correspondence of articulation is found in the consistent repudiation by both languages of all the soft palatal sounds suggested by the Sclavonic and Pelasgian idioms, with which the Greek and German languages were thrown into contact at a very early period. 92 These resemblances are still farther confirmed by the appellations in which the Greeks and Germans equally delighted. We have seen above that the titles Mann, Herr-mann, Ger- mann, adopted by the eastern Teutons, indicated a predominance of the manly character, or that this race adopted a name par- ticularly significant of their warlike temper. The same is the meaning of the word ^EW^iJ. Another special designation of the Eastern or High Germans is Thur-ing, which signifies "Highlander" or "mountaineer." We have found it combined with the former appellation in the name of the Her-mun-duri : and it appears by itself in the words Tyr-ol, Taur-us, Duro- * Bunsen, Report to the Brit. Assoc, for 1847, p. 270. t See the instances in Matthise's Gr. Gr. p. 46. Ahrens de dialecto Dorica, p. 71 sqq. J "EXkrjves, "the warriors;" comp. the name of their god 'An&Xavs Miiller, Dor. II. 6. § 6. 134 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. triges, Dor-set, and Taur-ini. Now this name again is a dis- tinctive title of the genuine northern Greeks, as opposed to the Pelasgians: for the Awp-teTs or " highlanders" are repre- sented as descended from Awpos the son of 'EWrjv, as well as their brethren the AloXels or " mixed men," and the 'Lcovcs or " coast-men." We can trace back this correspondence of eth- nical nomenclature to the original seats of the Greek and Ger- man race in Asia. Immediately to the north of Greece, in the highest mountain-land of Epirus, we recognize in the Tpai-oi or Tpai-Koi* about Dodona the element ger- of the word Ger- mann; and in the Qpq-K€$ to the west we have again the element Tor or Dor. It has been already mentioned that the Yep-fxavioi were a tribe of the ancient Persians. We find the other element in the proper name Darius or Darayawush. And we may, with a fair amount of probability, maintain that the stream of High German or Greek emigration entered Europe by way of Asia Minor, and that its course may still be traced through the dry bed of obsolete proper names and shadowy tradition. Thus, to begin with the Hellespont, where Asia Minor and Europe are divided by a narrow strait, we find the well-known name of Tpoia, in which the element Tor is still conspicuous, and in connexion with the same region we have the hero Dar-danus. Then again the Teutonic name appears in Teuta-mus, Teuthras, and the like. And Priamus and Paris, whose common name is best explained from the Persian, appear as the leaders of a confederacy which extended throughout the whole of Asia Minor, and gave a hand to the western borderers of Iran. "Priamus," says a modern philologerf, "is simply a vassal of the Assyrian King Teutamus, who sends him a body of auxiliary troops out of the heart of Persia." The evidence for this chain of ethnographic connexions is necessarily of a cumu- lative nature. Language, tradition, history, mythology, and, as far as this is applicable, those features in descriptive geo- graphy which influence the spread of population, enable us to trace the Grseco-German race from the mountains of Karmania and Kurdistan through the north of Asia Minor and across the * See Niebuhr, //. B. I. note 162, p. 55. Tr. t Hamaker, Akadcmische VoorUxin p-o-^ is also an epithet of x«X pAp-p,apos, p,opoets "bright," " shining;'' and we think, that, as an epithet of men, it implies a fair as opposed to a dark complexion : so that the Mcpones (of Cos and elsewhere) were opposed to the neXones. According to the usual interpretation of artp-oyj/ it is syno- nymous with rfvo^ and vcoposp- (cf. Soph. Antin. 1114. Eurip. Phunis. 235, c. schol.) : so that it will be connected with a-rfpoTrr], d, S\ 9 p\ ; but wherever they appeared in the older language we have fifip or ftp, /a/3X or fi\ 9 fxv and XX. It is unnecessary to add, that these prohibitions against the use of certain consonants and combinations of consonants interfered materially with the discrimination of the root and termination, and, by ruining the inflexions, gave occasion to some of the most remarkable peculiarities of Greek syntax, such as the use of the article and of the prepositions. 97 After what has been said, it is scarcely necessary to mention that the different degrees in which the old Pelasgian or Slavo-Phcenician language of the South was affected by the Hellenic or Teutono-Persic language of the North, constitute the differences of dialect about which Grammarians have written so voluminously. Consequently, all dialectical distinctions in the J 42 THE ETHNOGRAPHIC AFFINITIES [Book I. Greek language must resolve themselves into one or other of two great classes ; and the ancient Greeks were well aware of this when they regularly opposed the Dorians to the Ionians*. The former, as we have seen, were the representatives of the High German warriors, who gradually forced their way, in an united and distinct body, from the North of Thessaly to the promontory of Taenarus. In Greece as in Germany these Thuringians were remarkable for the military concentration which kept them from being absorbed by the populations of the invaded countries. They formed every where a distinct caste, an aristocracy of conquest. But as every army, however well organized, has its train of undisciplined followers, and leaves crowds of stragglers on its line of march, so we find the Dorians, in their progress through Thessaly, leaving behind them similar detachments of their forces ; and these stragglers, having combined themselves with the Pelasgians of that district, were called AioAeT? or "mixed menf," a name which was retained by the Thcssalians and Bceotians long after the op] tion of Dorian and Ionian had established itself in other parts of Greece. The ethnographical fact is preserved in the legend^ that " Hellen left his kingdom to .Eolus, his eldest son, while he sent forth Dorus, and Xuthus the father of Ion, to make conquests in distant lands." This mythical genealogy makes Ion not the son, but the grandson of Hellen ; and it has been shown by Mr Kenrick J, that the name of Xuthus, which is inter- posed, is simply an epithet of the Dorian God Apollo, who the Oeo^ Trarpipos of the Ionians. From all the circumstances known to us, we are entitled to infer, that the Ionians. wherever they retained their independence, were only partially influenced by the Dorians : the Pclasgian clement in their composition remained for a long while in full force, though they adopted the religious tenets of the Dorians, and paid homage to the conquering God under whose auspices the invaders marched * This opposition was not D Ogl c cte d by the author of Gen. x. 4. who makes 'lldishih or HtUat the eldest son of Javan or *!■». t Grimm supposes that the name AloXch refers to their ihirti-colo%tr*d Clothing! Gesch. d. deutsch. Spr.\\296: "FaioX f ??d. h _'.eich Britten und Fieten fiihrton JEolier den Namen der buntgekleideten." I Apollodor. I. 7, 3, 1. Thirlwall. I. p. 101. $ The Egypt of Herodotus, p. ltx. not. Chap. 4.] OF THE ANCIENT GREEKS. 143 and fought. We have shown above that the Dorians, accord- ing to the primitive meaning of their name, were called " High- landers or mountaineers," and Mr Kenrick, who has derived the same result from a Greek etymology of the name, has shown that the Ionians were emphatically "the men of the coast" (H'iovia), and that they were also called the "Beach-men'' (AiyiaXels), or " Sea-men" ('A^a:o/) : and he remarks also that " the distinction between Doric and Ionic in later times an- swered very well to that which has been observed to prevail between the speech of mountaineers and of littoral nations, — one being harsh and broad, the other smooth and liquid*." We must not forget, however, that there were other differences of a more important and extensive nature ; and that the Doric, or purely Hellenic element, at length so completely asserted itself, that we can only by a laborious process succeed in par- tially reproducing the articulation and structure of the old Pelasgian speech. The broad distinctions therefore are not to be expected in the four dialects, which, at a later period, were rather names of different branches of literature, than four varieties of spoken language. The iEolic dialect (>/ Alo\i$), in this sense, referred to the lyric poetry cultivated at an early period by the ^Eolians of Lesbos ; the Doric (^ Awpis), to the choral poetry of the Dorians ; the Ionic (>; 'la'?), to the epic poetry of the Ionians ; and the Attic (>) !At0/s), to the universal literature of that branch of the Ionian race which had settled in the "Promontory-land" {rj 'ArTiKrj, or 'Aktiki]). The conquests of Alexander carried this last, in a less pure and vigorous form, into Asia and Egypt, where it incurred various corruptions, and became Hellenistic rather than Hellenic. An investigation of this Koivy] $ia\€KTof{ Theory of the aspirates, sibilants, and secondary vowels. 100 Main difficulties in regard to the Greek alphabet. 110 The Greek digamma. Ill The Latin F. 112 The dental sibilant £. 113 The Greek aspirate. 114 Evanescence of » and ?. 115 Double value of 5- UC Etymological analysis of t; and a>. 117 General review of the Greek Alphabet. )Ui (3) Interchange of mutes in the Gnd: and cognate Ian _ I I -mini's law. Lift Exemplification*. 1 M In- ceptions in the case of the (rr.ek language. 121 Combinations represented by their separate elements. 1_ nding consonants in Sanscrit, Cireek, and Latin. Appendix to \ 110, 1 1\ tracts t'roi; ^ a the digamma. 98 FTUIE necessary prelude to an attempt to increase our know- 1 ledge of a dead language is, an inquiry into the value of the symbols or letters which have preserved and transmitted to us its written remains. All languages are made up of sounds, and of these sounds the letters are the only representatives in the case of a language no longer spoken ; unless, therefore, we can to a certain extent ascertain to what sounds these symbols corresponded, we shall hardly be able to draw a profitable comparison between the language in question and the others to which it is related ; nor will it be possible to explain and ju- those regular permutations of letters, which time and use have occasioned in languages of the same family, if we do not discover what was the value of this notation in the first instance. To obtain this knowledge, the great philologers ol' the present day have laboured diligently ; but though they have collected an immense mass of facts, and have heaped up materials for the future labourer to work upon, they have left so much room for arrangement and construction, that this subject is the most difficult part of our task. The Greek alphabet presents pecu- liarities of a most embarrassing nature. It derives its cha Chap. 5.] THEORY OF THE GREEK ALPHABET. 145 ters and their arrangement from a family of languages with which it has no immediate connexion, and the whole develop- ment of its system of writing is at variance with the notation on which it is based. We must, therefore, consider as inde- pendent questions (l) the Semitic origin of the Greek alphabet, (2) the actual value of the different letters as used by the Greeks, and (3) the changes which take place in consonants of words as represented in the different idioms of the Indo- Ger- manic family. It will, however, be as well to begin with a few remarks on alphabetical writing in general. 99 According to the grammatical system which has de- scended to us from the Greeks, we are taught from our earliest years to distinguish between vowels and consonants, and to re- gard them as necessarily having a separate existence. This is a notion which must be at once discarded by every one who would make any progress in philology. Language is a transfer of the thoughts to the outward world of sense : when this is effected by sounds, it is speech ; when by symbols, it is writing ; but as men speak before they write, every symbol is a repre- sentative of some sound : it is in itself an element of language. There are some languages in which each symbol represents a whole word ; such is the case in the Chinese. But in all lan- guages every symbol must have been significant in the first in- stance. Consequently, there could not be any distinction into vowels and consonants, but the alphabet must have been a syllabarium, the elements of which might or might not be in- dependent words. " By words," says W. von Humboldt (iiber d. Versch. d. menschl. Sprachb. p. 74), " we understand the signs of individual conceptions. A syllable forms an unity of sound, and becomes a word when it obtains an independent signification ; but for this a combination of several syllables is sometimes necessary. A doubled unity — of sound and conception — meets in a word." The distinction of these syllables into consonants and vowels is perfectly arbitrary. Neither a vowel nor a con- sonant can have any separate existence in spoken language : the consonant always requires a vowel-appendage in order to be pronounced ; the vowel cannot be pronounced without an initial breathing, which is sometimes so strong as to become a definite consonant. In either case the vowel can be regarded only as a L 146 THE THEORY OF [Book I. modification of its fulcrum. Hence, in all ancient alphabets, we find that the vowels are not in the first instance expressed by separate symbols, but, as the indistinct a or e, which originally- accompanied every consonant, was in process of time developed into distinct vowel-sounds, these were denoted by various hooks or points attached to or written under the consonants to which they referred, or, at the beginning of the word, to the mark denoting the breathing with which they were pronounced. At first, then, there were only two sorts of letters, — breathings and consonants, — both of them accompanied by short vowels which were not expressed, or by modifications of these vowels expressed by certain marks pertaining to the original symbol. The first deviation from this original state would take place in those languages, which, like the Indo-Germanic, did not use many or very various breathings, and in which the vowels assumed to themselves at an early period important functions in the gram- matical organization. But even then no new symbols were invented for the vowels. It was thought sufficient to adopt for their expression more or less mutilated forms of those breathings or consonants with which they were found most constantly com- bined. We shall presently show, from a paheographical exami- nation of the Greek and Sanscrit alphabets, in what manner this was effected. 100 (l) & The traditionary history of the Greek alphabet is well known. It is said to have originally I of only 1(J letters, which were brought from Tyre by Cadmu-. and to whieh -4- were added by Tala- medea at the time of the Trojan war, and subsequently 4 othen Simonides of Ceos (.Plin. It <\ Other invent* i- importers of the alphabet are also mentioned (ScAoL Dionj/*. Thr. Bckk. Anted, p. 78S), perhaps with as nmeh reason u I rhou it is ordinarily attributed ; for all that we are to understand by | traditions is, that the alphabet \\a< o( Semitic origin, and this we can discover for ourselves from an examination of the characters and their arrangement. A knowledge of this fact, however, is of the nt: importance, for the chief difficulties occasioned by the Greek alpha have arisen from the circumstance, that its whole organization is adapted to a language as widely different as possible bom the Greek, and that while the names and shape of the letters have been retained, their value has been materially altered. It will be instructive w Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 147 inquire what were the original 16 letters which the Greeks derived from their intercourse with the Phoenicians, and how they came to adopt in the first instance a part only of the Semitic syllabarium ; for there are certainly more than 16 of the Greek letters which agree in name and shape with the Phoenician and Hebrew as they are known to us. The fact is, in our opinion, that the original Semitic alphabet contained only 16 letters. This appears from the organic arrangement of the characters*. The fundamental elements of a syllabarium are the mutes, the breathings, and the liquids. Of these the most neces- sary are the first two ; after these would come combinations of strong breathings with mutes, or aspirated mutes ; and the liquids, which are always secondary sounds, would be introduced last of all. In most alphabets we find the mutes divided into three classes : tenues p, k, t ; aspirates ph (/), kh (A), th ; medials 6, caf as ga (Lepsius, Abhandl. p. 16). Some European nations have adopted a set of vacillating middle sounds, which sometimes approach to the tenues, at other times to the medials: for example, it requires a very practised ear to distinguish whether a Saxon says Leibsig or LeipsiJc. If, therefore, the tenues were so little used by the Semitic nations, we may presume that the signs for them, as distinguished from the medials, were of later intro- duction, and that they would take up the remaining order of mutes, the aspirates, and even the liquids, before they introduced the tenues. Besides the mutes and breathings, the Hebrew alphabet, as it now stands, has four sibilants |, p, ^, $}. Now it is quite clear that all these four sibilants could not have existed in the oldest state of the alphabet. Indeed we have positive evidence that the Ephraimites could not pronounce ^, but substituted for it the articulation D * This organic arrangement of the alphabet has been more or less noticed by several philologers, of whom the earliest seems to have been the acute and learned Dr Richard Lepsius, in his essay uberdie Anordnung und Verwandschaft des Semitischen, Indischen, Athiopischen, Alt-Persischen,undAlt-AgypUschen Alphabets (Zwei AbhandlBerl. 1836). It is rather surprising that so obvious a phenomenon should have escaped the notice of any observing grammarian. The deductions, however, in the text do not appear to have been anticipated by any former writer. See Latham, English Language, p. 200. L2 148 THE THEORY OF [Book I. {Judges xii. 6). We consider it quite certain, that at the first there was only one sibilant, namely, this o or samech. Finally, to reduce the Semitic alphabet to its oldest form, we must omit caph, which is only a softened form of copk, the liquid resh, and the semivowel /W, which are of more recent introduction, as will be shown by and by. The remaining 16 letters appear in the following order: tf, 2, J, -j, ,-f» V n> D? b> D> 3> U> V? 2> p» n* If we examine this order more minutely, we shall see that it is not arbitrary or accidental, but strictly organic according to the Semitic articulation. We have four rlinrm each consisting of 4 letters : the first and second classes consist each of 3 mutes preceded by a breathing, the third of the 3 liquids and the sibilant, which perhaps closed the oldest alphabet of all, and the fourth contains the three supernumerary mutes, preceded by a breath- ing. The tf, which heads the first class, is a simple breathing corre- sponding to the splrttiis lenis of the Greeks, the J7 which is placed before the second is a hard aspirate, the q of the Gr It has been found difficult to determine the precise value of », which precedes the third order of mutes : it appears, however, to have been a kind of nasal breathing, of less frequent use, even in the Semitic languages, than either of the others, and therefore more easily corrupted in the pronunciation*. The principle! of the arrangement will 1 appear if we place the characters first vertically, and then in horizontal classes. According to the first system we have : * Speaking of the changes which have taken place in the pronunciation of the He- brew gutturals, Ewald writes thus (Krit. Gramm. § 30. 3): "The guttural* have had their pronunciation most strikingly altered. In the progressive development of the language, these hard, and to a certain extent, rough sounds, have been more and more softened, till at last in the most corrupt Semitic dialects, the Samaritan for instance, every thing was mixed up, and they were resolved or formally changed into mere weak breathings. Thus even Jerome calls them, according to the Latin pronunciation, els (Michaelis Orient. Bibl. IX. p. 71, 2). This gradual softening took place in an especial manner in the rough sound y, which, as the language grew more corrupt, be- came softer and more like the n. Yet the Hebrew accidence shows, that, in the older language, it was generally stronger than p. In some words the old hard pronunciation was more faithfully retained, e. g. in ,1»V LXX, [*«{«, }y^ Payav, Gen. xi. 19. ")DU To^ep, x. 2, just as in some words n was gradually softened down, in others retained its harder pronunciation, e. g. *?n™l P a X'A> J113n~l> Pua-^cof.*' We cannot think that y could ever have been harder than n, wliich retained its value as an aspirate to the very last: in all the Semitic dialects, y appears to have lost its pronunciat: a very early period : in the Greek transcriptions of Punic words, it is hardly ever repre- sented by g (Gesenraa, Script. Lingucvque Phoen. Monumenta, p. 430 foil.). Tl. appears to be, that it was properly a breathing intermediate to 4 and i, peculiar to the Semitic organ, but repudiated by the more recent articulation. In Coptic, a nasal prefixed to p and t converts them into medials (§ 103). The nasal y seems to have produced the converse effect in Hebrew. Chap. 5.] Aleph, N v& Beth, 1 B Gimel, 3 G Daleth, 1 D He, n h Vav, i BH Cheth, n GH Teth, & DH Lamed, b L Mem, D M Nun, 3 N Samech, D S Am, J "h Pe, a P Koph, P Q Tav, n T THE GREEK ALPHABET. 149 First breathing (mere exspiration). Mediae. Second breathing (guttural aspiration). Liquids. The sibilant. Third breathing (nasal aspiration). Tenues- In the horizontal arrangement we shall, for the sake of greater sim- plicity, omit the liquids and the sibilant, and then we have : Breathings. Labials. Palatals. Linguals. K 1 3 1 n 1 n P V S P n In this we see, that, while the horizontal lines give us the arrangement of the mutes according to the breathings, the vertical columns exhibit them arranged according to the organ by which they are produced. Such a classification is obviously artificial ; it is entirely Semitic, and if, as we shall now proceed to show, these sixteen letters constituted the original Greek alphabet, and were so arranged in that alphabet, it is an additional proof of the Semitic origin of the Greek characters ; for, although it would be perfectly natural for a Phoenician to arrange 150 THE THEORY OF [Book I. his letters in such an order, no Greek could have thought of placing the tenues, of which he made the most constant use in his primary articulations, in the third order of mutes, and after the liquids. Before we proceed to the Greek alphabet, it will be proper to men- tion an objection which might be raised to the completeness of the classification which w T e have pointed out. It may be said that £ has no right to be considered as an aspirate of -7, and that, therefore, there is at least one objection to our systematic arrangement of the alphabet. The Greeks considered their 6 as an aspirate, not of but of t*, be- cause, in their system, the tenues were antecedent to the medials ; but there is every reason to believe that 6 differed from 3 only by the difference of Greek and Semitic articulation, and that ;■*. corresponded in value as in name to t. This view has been warmly advocated by Ewald. The arguments which he has advanced in support of it are as follows {Krit. Gramm. der Sebraitek. 8pr. §30, 1). "(1) In all Semitic languages ]$ is pronounced with a hard guttural utterance, like n, while ji is the ordinary t. (2) In the Greek alphabet 6 represents the figure, the name, and the sound of £, but t that of j*y And how could we account for an interchange of the two sounds in the Greek alphabet, which is throughout the genuine daughter of the Semitic ? Even in [the words which were of late introduction into the Greek language, J-| is always represented by r, as /3>7t«, cc\ra, Tavpo*;, vdrpovy from jvi, rhl* "Tifi» ")JH3 5 on tne contrary, g^g makes txd\6a. (3) Accordingly, the only thing which opposes itself to this obvious relation of the j^, and £ is that the Septuagint generally (not al\\ lont- faucon, He.rapl Tom. II. p. 396, and others ■ooort : comp. adftftmrov fur J% and for £, II. Sam. v. 16) expr — *j by t and ry by 0. But the authors of the Septuagint falsified the pronunciation of the c as they did that of the vowels ; they uttered ry with a lisp, like the Jews of the present day, and in their rerson placed as its representa- tive the 0, which tolerably corresponds to their pronunciation of it." These arguments of the great Semitic scholar have been violently com- bated by one of his countrymen. Redalob, in a very angry review of Ewald's Grammar (Seebode's nmu Ju/wbiicher, Vol. XX. p. 7*2), calls this opinion about the letter £ a disgusting error, running contrary to every authority: he says the tcth is rather the hai und, and corresponds to the hardest sibilant ^ ; accordingly it is represented by t in the Septuagint : whereas, j-| is a r\ or rather, sometimes 0, and • In pronunciation, however, 6 corresponded rather to ou/v&/xd<:, Herod, com p. A narns, III. p. 125 f. ctarvTrwaai, Diodor.) and pronunciation (c,Wr/) of some few of them (ircpewv oXiya). With regard to the change of form, it must be supposed that these authors rather spoke from a comparison of the Greek letters of their own time, with those of the Phoenicians, than from any minute antiquarian researches on the subject. But of course the change of pronunciation principally refers to the substitution of vowels for breathings. The grammarians tell us that the original 1 6 letters of the Greek alphabet were «, p, 7, d, . The oldest k, which was koppa, 9, stood next to ir, and there could hardly have been two k's in a primeval alphabet. We assert, then, that «, p, and v did not form a part of the old Greek alphabet of 16 letters, and that k or rather 9 stood after ir. Omitting /, p, w, and k from the letters mentioned by the grammarians, we have with F and 9 only fourteen. "Which were the remaining two ? The letters which stood next to e in the complete Greek alphabet were rj and 0, and we are convinced that they followed F in the original 16, though the former had subsequently a very different value from that which it originally possessed. In old written monuments which have come down to us, rj or H is used as the common mark of aspiration ; and therefore corresponded to the Hebrew j-j ° r he*, i. e. the double was used for the single aspirate after the latter had become a mere e \\/i\6v' 3 but this is sufficient to prove the antiquity of the character ; 6 also occurs in very old inscriptions. A further confirmation of the opinion that F, 17, 0, occupied the same places in the original Greek alphabet, that vav, cheth, and teth did in the old Semitic, is furnished by the fact, that, when the Greeks left off writing the F and employed H to represent a long e, they added to r, the last letter of their old alphabet, v and (p as approximate representations of F, and % to replace H. The two corre- sponding alphabets of 1 6 letters were, then, as follows : 2 p n n ot K 2)1 n 1 n d b D 3 D V 'A BTA 'E FH0 AMN 2 102 In the Greek alphabet, as it is now given in the grammars, F and 9 are omitted, and 10 other characters added to these. When and by whom they were invented or introduced is of little importance in regard to our present purpose. Thus much may be conjectured with safety. As soon as the Greeks ceased to employ F, and H (as an aspirated consonant), which was very early, v, must have come into use ; they all occur in the oldest inscriptions ; indeed it is only on the columna Naniana that the two latter are written PH, KH, and the genuineness of that tablet has been doubted ; at all events they were antecedent to f and \|/, which are written X2, 02 in old inscriptions t. * Thiersch supposes that H corresponded to the Hebrew n, cheth ; he says (p. 24 Sandf.): "thus the liver is named in Hebrew chapar (nSll) Greek r\irap, which was written HEnAP (HAnAP)." Can he have mistaken the daleth for resh, the beth for pe, and the capli for cheth in the Hebrew "723 hdved ? '• T f The reason of this combination appears to be, that ) and Besh (-)). Besides Tsade the Hebrew alphabet had an- other dental sibilant Zain (f), and the Greeks borrowed this under the name 2eti/. It is not known what was the shape or value of this letter as used by the Greeks. It seems to have represented a modified arti- culation of 2/7/jia, for which the Dorians used it as a substitute (Herod. I. 139). Pindar, in speaking of the aar/fxoi tica\ of Lasus, says, {Fragm. 47), that in these artificially constructed and longspun Dithy- rambs the ?\oi/) ; by which he means merely that the sibilant in general was intentionally omitted or slurred over*. But whatever may have been the distinction between crav and tyra or criytxa, it is obvious that it very soon fell out of use, and as fr^a stands in the place occupied by the Hebrew Zain, it may be inferred that Zain and Tsade were borrowed at the same time, and placed side by side in the gap occasioned by the loss of Van or F. As in the Hebrew alphabet Iod and Kaph arc placed in the interval between the Mpi] and the liquids, so in Greek their representatives 1 and k stand between 6 and \ : and p stands in the gap left by the OmiflriOB of 9, which cor- responds to the place of Rcsh in the Hebrew alphabet It appears to us that alphabet after p corresponds to that of Shin in the Hebrew alphabet after Beth, this is not to be taken as any evidence of the derivation of alyna from {p, which is represented in name, form, and, originally, in pronun- ciation by f T, whereas the shape of o- and the use of aiyf.ia as the oldest and simplest sibilant should induce us to derive it from Samech. When first imported it was undoubtedly called rap : but as the Hellenic arti- culation changed the final n to r, it became identified with m, from Zain ; and while it assumed this name among the Dorians, the Ionians substituted the Greek term (rly^xa. If, however, trtjfta was originally h'»//, fa. The same is the case with o : thus we hu for aTapaKToi. (Hesych.) ami ch'u«oj', &C * See///f Theatre of the C I. p. [8(7], Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 155 tively. Now Shin] with the point on the left corner (jtf), is pro- nounced o-T; and when this letter was introduced into the Greek alpha- bet, it is conceivable that f ?, with the original power of *}}, i. e. sh, took the place of = th, and by similar additions we can aspirate or assibilate - = h into ^ = kh t J = d into j dz, = r into j = z and J = zh, ,-, = t into y* = sh, l/3 = 9 into ^ = dh, \s = t into 1? = ~, c = ain into c = gha\n y ■ = w into immm j = hr =/, and • = hhc = k\ whereas an addition of points below the line converts the sonant ^r = j into the surd £ = ch in the Persian use of this alphabet. It is worthy of remark, too, that in the Syriac alphabet the cognate r and d ari tinguished only by points placed above and below the sign respccth and in an ancient inscription belonging to the 11 tic Society, in which the name of Sapor seems to occur, the mute d is distingu: by a point from the liquid r*. 105 (2) Analysis of th, "We have now seen in what state the Semitic syllabarium was imported into Greece. Before we proceed to consider, how the Greeks modified and adapted to their own language a notation, which, though organically perfect in respect to the Semitic articulation, was but a poor instrument for the expression of the language of Homer, and what value they put on the different characters, it will be as well to examine with some minuteness the Sanscrit alphabet, which was unconnected with the Semitic, and, at the same time, was a most suitable and complete exponent of a language the same in kind with that of • For this observation we are indebted to Mr Edwin Norris, Assistant- Secretary to the Kov. - ciety. Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 157 ancient Greece. The Sanscrit alphabet, called by the native gramma- rians Deva-nagari or " the writing of the Gods' city," consists of forty- eight characters, which are arranged according to an admirable system. First of all are placed the simple vowels, then the diphthongs, and the marks representing the final sounds of n and h. After these come the consonants divided into three classes, mutes, semivowels, and sibilants. The mutes are subdivided into five orders, according to the organs by which they are uttered. Besides these divisions the whole alphabet forms two great classes, surds and sonants*. "The term surd" says Wilkins (Grammar, p. 15), "is applicable to such letters as, in the first effort to form them, admit of no vocal sound: and the term sonant to such letters as are attended by an audible murmuring, as it were, of the voice." The surds are the first two letters of each of the five orders of mutes, one being aspirated and the other unaspirated, together with the sibilants, and the aspirate which is classed with them. All the rest of the consonants, and all the vowels and diphthongs, are sonants. The table which follows gives the Sanscrit letters with the transcription in English which we have adopted in this work. Vowels ; all sonant. Simple vowels W a, ^JTT a ; \i, %i; ^ u, sRw; ^Jri or r, ^f£r£ or rr ; 7£ Iri or lr 3 ^^Iri or Irr. Diphthongs TJ e, T^ai; ^U 6 ; ?5TT au. * h : : o h. s Consonants. (1) Mutes. urd. Sonant. Gutturals *u ^gk; 3?W0T| Palatals ^ ck, ^ ch'h ; ^Ti> %?h; ^f ny J Linguals ?>, Z't'h; 5'* nr s ;' at is pro- nounced as in shoe, except in the West of India, when it is needy equivalent to /•//, and it i.-> a Ungual; I i> prononnced aa in tin, and i- reckoned as a dental; h as in hair; ksh as cti in fiction. The Un- guals 't, 'th, 'J, \lh, 'n, are Bounds peculiar to the Indian articuL "This series of consonant-.'' >ays Wilkins "i- pronounced by tui and applying the tip of the tongue far back against the palate; which, producing a hollow sound as if proceeding from the bead, it u tinguished bv the term miirdJhanya, which Mr Ilalhed. in his ell B grammar of the Bengal language-, baa translated c ereb r a l . " The marks * (n) and : (//) are called anu-snira. u after-sound," or "after-vowel," and "leaving out," tCthliptit ; the former is an abbreviation of nasal consonants at the end of a syllable, the " Wo adopt this transcription because ^T so frequently corresponds to a Greek *, and we are desirous of pointing out that it is but a softened guttural. If what we have said in this chapter with regard to the real value tt z in Greek and Zend were M known as we could wish it to be, we should not hesitate to adopt r instead of c as a representative of the first Sanscrit sibilant. Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 159 latter a substitute for the letters s or r at the end of a word. The process by which the diphthongs are formed from the simple vowels is of the most extensive application in Sanscrit, and is also of importance in Greek. When a short a is placed before either of the vowels i, u, we have the diphthongs e=di and o = aii; this change is called guha or le strengthening ; " when, again, the a is placed before the diph- thongs e, 6, we have the other diphthongs ai=aai, and au = aaii; this change is called vriddhi or " increment." It must be remarked that a is also a guha of a, and the other vowels, r, Ir become ar, at by guna, and ar, at by vriddhi. " The vowel Iri is only found in the verb klrip and its derivatives. We remember no instances of the long Iri in any Sanscrit word: Bhattoji, in commenting on Panini, I. 1, 9, says that it is not used. Siddhantakaumudi, fol. 1. h" (Rosen, Journal of Education, VIII. p. 340 note). 106 An examination of the figures, which compose this wonder- fully systematic alphabet, will lead to very important conclusions with regard to the subject now before us. It is by this means alone that we can ascend from the very artificial order in which the Hindu gram- marians have arranged it to its primitive state, and to the order of its formation. In the first place, it must be remarked, that, like the Semitic alphabet, it was originally a syllabarium; in other words, it had no vowels, and was written from the right to the left. A proof of the latter is afforded by the fact, pointed out by Lepsius (Palaograp/iie, p. 10), that with few exceptions all Sanscrit letters have a frame which opens towards the left; and of those too which have no frame, the vowels i, i, u, u, the guttural ng, and the lingual d' are all turned towards the left ; so that the ancient order of writing must have been in that direction. The Greeks, and other nations who have borrowed the Semitic alphabet, turned round the letters when they altered the direction of their writing, whereas the Indians have left unaltered those letters which were invented or introduced before they changed their manner of writing. The only letters which were turned towards the right were the diphthongs e, ai, three of the Unguals 't, 'th, 'dk, the aspiration h, the semivowel r, and the suffixes, which form the vowels r, rr from the sign generally used to denote «, and the vowels lr, Irr, from the sign for I. This is at least prima facie evidence for the conclusion that these last characters are of more recent intro- duction. It may seem strange that the lingual 'd should be older than the dental d, while the other letters of the dental class are older than the rest of the Unguals. Perhaps 5 and <^ have interchanged their 160 THE THEORY OF [Book I. pronunciation like the Hebrew £ and f\. It seems probable that S , V and 5* were the corresponding characters in the dental class for d, dh and w, and that *\ was originally the n of the guttural class: 3* differs from 5 only by a kind of anuszara mark, and *T is only a reversed *T" 107 After what has been said on the origin of alphabets in general, no one will suppose that the vowels were from the first dis- tinguished from the consonants inthe Dezanayan alphabet. Palaeo- graphy enables us to point out their origin. The characters which we have given for the vowels are used only at the beginnings of words ; for their expression in the middle of words, a number of marks, analogous to the Hebrew points, are substituted as follows: 5T« *!} a }}' * ^ < 1}" ^ 1}- 6 ?< /•/' The short original vowel, with which every consonant is articulated, is not written when it follows a consonant, because in the primitive syl- labarium that vowel was always presumed in the first instance, and the vowel-marks were subsequently invented to point out that a different vowel-sound was intended in the particular case. The bar which A nates the long a is merely a fulcrum to show that the voice must dwell on the syllable. It cannot be a representation of the vowel a, for it is written in cases where no a is implied, as in T, 6 = uu. The figure which appears in the complete signs of ^T, vj, H, were pronounced ung, ang, eng, ing respectively, and derived from the vowels and diphthong u, a, e, and i (Paldogra- phie, p. 16). The former assertion appears to be justified by his palseo- graphical comparisons, but the latter opinion is unquestionably errone- ous in principle : it is contrary to all analogy to derive consonants from the vowels with which they are articulated ; but if these nasals were pronounced, as he supposes, it is possible that the initial- vowel signs may have been derived from them, though of course this could not be the case if they were formed, as he has himself shown, from the vowel- marks appended to the consonants. The nasal liquids m and n are in fact modifications of the medials b and d, to which they sometimes revert ; a person who has a cold in his head, or a country actor trying to be impressive, will always pronounce his m's as b's and his n's as d's. M 162 THE THEORY OF [Book I. We should, therefore, expect that the m would be derived from the I, and the n from the d, if the principle of association held. This ap- pears to have been the case in Sanscrit, as will be seen by comparing n Ih with *T 9n, and ? d with 5*. It seems that / was a vowel in Sanscrit before it became a consonant ; how this could be may be inferred from the use of the I monillc in French. It was in fact the first form of the r, or rather they were both produced from a sound between the two (like the Chinese eul), which was the more like a vowel the older the language was (Lepsins, Abhandl. pp. 9, 10). We have mentioned above that the ancient Egyptians had only one sound for X and p. 108 The first thing which strikes us in the Dffaan&gari conso- nants is the contrast which they present to those of the Semitic alpha- bet. Omitting the palatals and Unguals, the former of which are imme- diately derived from the gutturals, and the latter peculiar to the Indian organs of speech, we have the same three sets of fundamental mutes as in the Hebrew alphabet. We remark, however, this striking differ- ence : in the DHan&gari alphabet the tenues, which arc most suited to the pronunciation of those who speak the Indo-Germanic idioms, are placed first, the medials last. Besides, the Hindu grammarians have begun with those letters which are pronounced in the back part of the mouth, namely the throat, and have gone on through the others in order, ending with those letters pronounced by the lips. This is of course very good as a technical arrangement; i that the order of creation is that given by the Hebrew alphabet, nanuly labials first, then gutturals, and lastly dental-. Again, it is observable that there arc two orders of aspirates in this alphabet, sonants as well as surds, whereas the Greek and Hebrew have the latter only. At probably, the Hebrew aspirates were, as we have shown, modifications of the medials, but, if we are to place any reliance on the assertions of modern Hebraists, they all approximate to the tenues, and one of them, the Tct/i, has actually become a dental tenuis. It is very certain that the Creek aspirates were ultimately modifications of the tenues and not of the medials; nevertheless, in words of the same origin, the Sanscrit W, , the cognate dental liquid, was undoubtedly hr as well as rh. In fact, as we shall see, the metathesis of aspirates and sibilants is common in all languages. The aspirates of the guttural class are very seldom used, but, when they are, kh, not gh, corresponds to the Greek x, as m K °7X^ compared with cankha; ow^-s (oi/u^o?) compared with nakha, &c. We think that th must have been originally an assibilation rather than an aspirate of t. It will be shown in another place that the Greek f or assibilated S is a repre- sentative of a sound resembling sh or the French ch, produced by com- bining a guttural or a dental with y. Such a sound is the Sanscrit c, for this is almost always a representative, under a softer form, of the Greek k, and of the Lithuanian sz, which is pronounced in the same way as the Sanscrit letter. It is the tendency of all languages to soften or assibilate their hard sounds. We have plenty of instances of this even in the modern languages of Europe ; in French it is particularly common ; thus, from camera we have chambre, from audere, oser, from canis, chien, &c. ; in England we have in the North, where the older Saxon is rife, kirk, wick {Alnwick), brigg, dyke, &c, which in the South are softened to church, wich, {Greenwich, Brom-wich-ham), bridge, ditch, &c. In the ancient languages the same thing is observ- able : thus the older forms preserved in lanpv, lacryma ; 'ikkos, JWo?, equus ; Sena, decern ; &c. are softened into the Sanscrit acru, acva, daca, and the Lithuanian aszara, aszwa, deszimtis, &c. This change of the hard pronunciation of c has taken place without a corresponding change of form in the modern Italian, and is regulated by the appearance of the vowels e or i after it. The same is the case with the g in English, Italian, and French. A good instance of the change in the pronuncia- tion of a dental caused by the addition of i or y is furnished by our M2 164 THE THEORY OF [Book I. way of pronouncing such words as nation, revolution. Different lan- guages have various methods of expressing the sound sk, as resulting from an aspiration or assibilation of the gutturals and dentals: and sometimes the same language has several symbols for it. The Sanscrit, for instance, has a direct representation, or rather, two distinct signs for it ; in other alphabets it is represented by z, j, y, or, in the case of the dental, by 0. The symbol j often degenerates into the simple vowel i, just as the symbol v, which represents the labial aspirate, degenerates into the vowel u : in fact, this is the way in which these vowels are formed, and in this case it may be said, that all that part of the soft- ened consonant, which bore any relation to the original consonant, is lost; a phenomenon which often presents itself in language, and which is also an explanation of the change of aspirated consonants into h, and of their interchange with one another. TVe may take this opportunity of correcting a theory which has been brought forward by two of the most distinguished philologers of the present day, and which, th highly ingenious, appears to us to rest upon a false principle. Grimm {Deutsche Gramm. I. p. 187) justly remarks that j : i = r : ■, and that the row of labials p, b t f, r, u IE parallel to the row of guttural- ch,j, i; but then he supposes that each of these scr: iTed from the vowel which forms the basis of it, w], are convinced that no mute was ever derived from a vowel, still less the original mu: and k. He asks (1) why the dental- do not al-o re-t upon some vowel as a basis ? and (2) how we are to reconcile with the above parallelism, the obvious analogy of the row of dentals r, is clear from ^J, the older sign for jh : ^, th, differs from ^T, f, only by the tail, which seems to be the distinguishing mark of the s : this tail is clearly seen in ^, and that ^ , sh, originally had it, may be inferred from <5j , Jc-sk. The same confusion, which we have before pointed out in the gutturals, linguals, and dentals, seems to have converted into a simple d of the dental class the figure ^, which appears from its tail to have been the assibilated d of the lingual class ; in fact, the lower part of TJJ, which includes sh, the sibilant of the lingual class, is merely this same 7^. "We have already pointed out the similarity of TJ and H ; there is an equally striking resemblance between ^, b, and ^, v, which are similarly connected. The vowels i and u which are derived from j and v, are designated in the Devanagari by derived symbols. The initials ^f, i, and nJ, u, are composed of the tail ^and the hook 3 joined to the bar at the top by an unmeaning line of con- nexion (see Lepsius, Palaographie, p. 16). The latter is the essential part of ^ reversed, and the former is that tail which distinguishes the sibilants and ^ . With regard to Grimm's second question, it is to be observed that not only from the analogy of all languages, but also from a consideration of the form in Sanscrit (for |? has no frame and is turned towards the right), the aspirate must be considered of subse- quent formation. In Greek it resulted from the digamma, from the gutturals, and from s. In Zend it is generally derivable from the sibilant. In German it mostly comes from gutturals, and we may 166 THE THEORY OF [Book I. consider it as more particularly attached to that class of consonants. As all sounds are of two primitive kinds, breathings or consonants, from a combination of which the aspirated consonants are produced, we may consider the aspirate as the final state of an aspirated conso- nant. In fact, consonants may be reduced to four ultimate states without becoming vowels ; a dental or a guttural may become j (y) or s (Ji), a labial may become v ; vocalization is effected in the former case by converting s into h, and then omitting the aspirate, or by turning j into i ; in the latter, by simple conversion of v into u. When a dental or guttural is reduced to _;, it may always become i ; when to s, it may always become h by xisarga ; when a labial is reduced to r, it may always become u ; and when a consonant is composed of s and r, it may become indifferently either h or j (y) from the one element, or ■ from the other. 109 We are now prepared to discuss the various difficult points connected with the Greek alphabet, and to estimate the real value of those characters about which so much has been said. It will be found that in this as in other questions people have fruitlessly perplexed themselves with details, when a proper consideration of the principles would have disentangled all the confusion, and left no real ground for doubt or uncertainty. The pronunciation of the unaspirated mutes and liquids may fairly be presumed to be the same as that which all nations have adopted for those letters ; for there is no reason whatever to suppose the contrary. The only characters which we have to con- sider are those representing, either in their earliest or in their si. quent state, breathings, or aspirated, or assibilated consonants. These are a, e, f, F, »/, 0, i, f, v, , ^, ta. Of the first we have air spoken: it is simply the Aleph k v}, or A-k the sign of the aspirate, which, as the hardest breathing, is articulated with the lightest form of the fundamental vowel: this aspirate being omitted, the vowel becomes e -sj/iXov, or the He without aspiration. We must consider v y^i\6v, which always retains its original aspirate at the beginning of a word, in connexion with F, the most troublesome letter of the old Greek alphabet. Indeed, a full dis- cussion of this obsolete character will exhaust nearly all that remains to be said respecting the Greek alphabet. 110 It has been shown, that, in name and form, F, the mu or digamma, corresponds to the Hebrew Vav, as H does to Cheth and G to Teth. It also appears that these three Hebrew characters were ori- ginally the aspirated medials, though subsequently they approached nearer to the tenues. The Greek organs of speech were, from the first, more favorable to the tenues, and therefore we must consider their aspirated mutes as belonging to that order ; for they had not two orders of aspirates like the Indians. In general, as we have before stated, the Greeks had no great predilection for rough breathings ; and as the language advanced from its oldest to its most classical written state, it lost most of those which it originally possessed. When e, which was the mark of aspiration in the Semitic alphabet, was converted into the symbol of a vowel, H, which in the same alphabet was the aspirate of the guttural order, was used for the simple aspirate, and a new symbol X was introduced as the aspirate of the guttural tenuis k or p. The F, too, must have been originally the aspirate of the labials, namely bk or lib; but it assumed a different value, fell out of use, degenerated into a breathing, or was vocalized into t>, and therefore

, &, ■ ; and tl) letters may be permuted with one another to any extent. Then, either the one or the other may be dropt, and the remaining one vocalized into i (j/) or u, according as the one retained is the guttural or labial. This process will be best shown by numerous examples*. The root of the reflexive or relative pronoun (which we shall show to be the same words in alphabetical order, and overthrows all apparent objections to his doctrine :'' it is merely a set of rough notes, in which the words supposed to have had the digamma are enumerated, the passages in which they appear copied out, and, in some cases, the necessary emendations are suggested. But there is a total absence of order or arrangement, and it is not fit for publication. We have given, in an Appendix to this Chapter, all of it that appears to be of any value or interest, as well to show how little could be done for the doctrine of the Greek alphabet without the aid of comparative philology, as to afford another proof how far Bentley was in advance of his age in this as in other points. On Bentley's Homeric studies the reader may now refer to Dr Wordsworth's note on his Correspondence, p crimen of the vague and un- satisfactory manner in which modern scholars have spoken of the digamma, may be seen in Hermann's Opuscuhi, I. p. 131, where he treats this letter as the single repre- sentative of three distinct sounds. * Many additional instances will be found in Mr Garnett's valuable paper " On cer- tain initial letter-changes in the Indo-European Languages," Proc. Phil. Soc. II. sqq. 2,">7 sqq. Mr Garnett mentions that Iloefer ■ has taken pretty nearly the same view of the subject" with that propounded in the text, in his Beitr'dge zur Etymologik, a work which we have not seen, but which was published shortly after the first appear- ance of the present book. On the Latin Q or Qv, and its relation to i^aud V, we may refer the reader to what is said in the Yarronianus, p. 190 seqq. Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 169 in a future chapter) is properly kpa or km in all the Indo-Germanic languages. This appears as pwy in Breton, as qvis, qvi, svus (suus) in Latin, as sva in Sanscrit, as vt], &c. In comparing the Romance lan- guages with the Teutonic, we find the labial w represented either by a combination of the guttural and vocalized labial gu, or by the guttural g only: thus from wer, war, we have guerra, guerre; from ward, * This word alone might have sufficed to teach our Greek scholars that the di- gamma was occasionally something more than a mere labial breathing. In such lines as IltjXeWTjs £e o-ct/cos ct7ro Fe'o (hve'o or ), there are numerous cases in which <^Y rej ' the Sanscrit ^, fit, and ^YY^jE is the substitute for <<| , sra, — the former ought to be expressed 'An and the latter by l kva. For this reason, and because the Greek transcriptions must be allowed to famish a certain amount of evidence, we should write ' Jlrah/mtara, not *Uwa hAat m% and 'Hwupa, not T< the Bchistun forms of Kvafotffp and Xoa), ut pro Fundanio Cicero testem, qui primam ejus literam dicere non posset, irridet. Again he says (XII. 10. § 27, 29), that it was a great disad- vantage to the Romans to have only V and F instead of the Greek Y and O, quibus nullce apud eos {Grcecos) dulcius spirant. — Nam et ilia qua? est sexta nostrarum, pcene non humana voce, vel omnino non voce potius, inter discrimina dentium efflanda est : quce etiam cum vocalem proxima accessit quassa quodammodo, utique quoties aliquam conso- nantem frangit, ut in hoc ipso frangit, multo jit horridior. From these passages Mr Winning has inferred, as we have already mentioned, that the Latin / corresponded to the Lithuanian or Sclavonian double consonant sv or zw. He is also inclined to suppose that two distinct sounds were represented by the Latin/; one corresponded to the Greek 174 THE THEORY OF [Book I. ts; and we think that the change of a permanent/, at the beginning of Latin words, into h in the Romance languages, is a proof, that, to the la*t, / contained some guttural element ; thus the Norman hawk stands for faleo ; /tort, in French, represents the Latin j'.>ris. which is fuori in modern Italian (compare <}inrra and guerre) ; and the Spanish haeer, hambre, hado, hhjo, hi'/o, hllo, hermoso, humo, hoja, hongo, huesa (hresa), hurto. are the modern substitutes for the Latin r'aeere, fmm**, Jatmm, JBtm> J&**i Jiluin, formosus.fumus, fo!iuni s fundus, fossa, fart urn. Grimm, we are aware, thinks that there is a real connexion b et w e e n the labial r and the sibilant and aspirate .i/ ovrutv aLKpoTeptov. tovio c' tjav^t] tvo irvevpiaTi caav- i/£Tat, na\ € zem, zeme hrdaya, { Latin, cor, I Gothic, hairlo, KapVia, szirdii aham, ( Latin, ego, 1 Gothic, ik, eyw, azem, isz hasta, ( hand, I Latin, pre-hend-ere, X el P-> zasta, mahat, / magnus, ) \ Gothic, mikels, ) fxeyas, maz, hari, Latin, viridis, <»XP°h zairi, 113 The reader will be careful to distinguish from this appearance of the h in Sanscrit and Latin those cases in which the initial aspira- tion appears in Greek as the representative of a sibilant in those lan- guages. We have already shown, from the form of the character in the Devanagari alphabet, that h is not an original letter. It has, how- ever, two sounds. According to one it is a hard guttural breathing, and appears as the representative either of an original guttural conso- nant or of the digamma. In this use it may stand either at the begin- ning or in the middle of a word in Latin, Sanscrit, or Low German, and it frequently resumes its original form in certain combinations. It is this h which corresponds to the Zend z =j. To the instances given above we may add the following : Sanscrit root vah, Latin veh-it, vec- sit, vec-tus, vac-ca, F°'x-o?, fo-^eveiv, av^-t]v } Zend vaz-aiti, Sclavonian vezeti, Lithuanian vezu, vessti; Latin trah-ere, trac-si, German trag-en, Lithuanian traulcti; Latin hostis from fostis (=svostis or hvostis), German gosts ; Gothic haupit, Latin caput, K€(p-a\tj; Latin homin {homo), Gothic guma, old High German homo, Lithuanian zmones, old Prussian smunents; Latin hortus, Gothic gards, Old High German N 178 THE THEORY OF [Book I. karti, -y^6p ro ^ '> Gothic taikun, Seta, Sanscrit daqa, &c. From this it is clear that the strong h is the immediate representative of the digamma or of a primitive guttural; that it is harder and more original than j= z (Zend) appears from the use of the latter in reduplications from roots beginning with the hard It, as in jahami, ju/tdva, &c. ; compare cha- hara, lilharmi, &c. The other sound of h is merely a weakening of the sibilant, similar to the visarga at the end of a word, and generally makes its appearance as an initial. This breathing, as a substitute for s, is consistently found in those languages of the Indo-Germanic family, which we infer from other reasons to be more recent than those of the same family in which the corresponding words, begin with s : its appearance may, therefore, be used as an argument to prove that languages, of which we do not know the age from other sources, are recent in comparison with those which present the initial s. We have h for s in Greek as compared with Latin and Sanscrit, in Welsh as compared with Erse, and in Zend as compared with Sanscrit : now wc have reason to believe, independently of this, that Greek (in one element at least) and Welsh are younger than Latin or Sanscrit and Erse respec- tively : we therefore conclude that Zend is younger than Sanscrit, or be- longs, at least in one element, to the High Iranian class. The following are a few instances out of a great number which might be collected. More ancient languages with s. More reeeiit languages with //. Sanscrit. sd, Latin or Gothic. Erse. tft. Zend. sap tan, f sib an, \ scc/it. i sam, \ simul, 1 sakrt, J sal. salan. ha, Greek. Welsh. eirra. 1 hak\ I «\c, vttvos, hvn. svapnas, f somnus, I suan. \ steps, J sol, i said. \ hrare, (»'/\i p. 201 sqq.) : compare tjpepa, o-tipepov, Ttjfxepov; eTTTa, TeVra ; epp'u, reppk, &c. ( Varron ianns, p. 112). The medial 8 appears also as an occasional representative of the sibilant; com- pare heiXr] with el\r] y \a£ for 6'/\f according to the first principle, and auAaf for the same word, according to the second*. We recognise the same etymological fact in the comparison of ae-quus with Ukci-vos, which has nearly the same meaning. In compounds we see that ae, originally ai, is equivalent to I. Thus from ws-timo we have ex-istxmo, from ce-quus, in-iquus, &c. (see Varronianus, p. 213). Consequently ae-qua-nus = i-Jca-nus = /-Ka-i/o'i ('ek-ho), e£a> (/tck-so), Tpeyja (trek-ho), 6pegu) (thrck-so), &c. We conceive then that the adoption of II as the sign for the long vowel »; = ?, is due to the fact that he was actually considered as equivalent to c. The vowel »/ really contains, in many 0*868, not merely the common rough breathing, but also the digamma 7/r, and even the softened dental or guttural d as in €Tv7rt]v for erv«yav, or, when aspirated at the beginning of the word, as in ijnepo<; for W/iepot, &c. This j or >/ is also represented by e in the middle of a word, as in roAciM = *&jnh ; and we often find that te presumes a single e preceded by some guttural breathing (Buttmann, Ausfuhvl. 8pri. § 112, 17- A urn. 23). Compare eepo-tj with the Sanscrit rar.*//'>nv$. Thr. p. 797). The form of u> shows that it is a similar combination of 00, and th every reason to believe that this was its real value. As the Sanscrit a — a +a regularly corresponds to « as well as to a, and as the Sanscrit a represents the lighter o no less than the heavier a, we may fairly conclude that w is the reduplication of o just as a is of a, or that in the longer as well as in the shorter vowels the Greek alphabet da those differences of weight, which the Sanscrit neglects. In this scale of weights e is the lightest vowel. But »/ is heavier than S (11) K > 3, (12) IX. A, b, (13) X. M, », (14) XI. N, 3, 184j THE THEORY OF [Book I. (6") VI. F, i, a combination of the guttural breathing with the labial, most usually under the form hv or hu; in its original value the labial predominated. (7) f, 2> originally ds, transposed in some dialects to sd, and softened generally into the souud j or sh, which is equivalent to di or gi. (8) VII. H, n> a hard aspirated guttural, pronounced hg or gh, afterwards a long vowel like the Hebrew tsere and our a in ale, but always implying some ety- mological absorption, especially the syllable «*. (9) VIII. G, D, originally hd or dh, afterwards softened through th into an approximate sibilant, and always closely allied to e. a vocalized guttural. a substitution for 9 : occurs twice as a final letter, sometimes approximated to the soft French /. did not usually differ from their representatives in other languages ; they came nearer to the > than to the tcnucs ; thus \x delights in contacts with ft, i' with c j and in later applications of the alphabet, \xir represents /?, and vt, c ; the same appetency for a quasi- medial articulation is ob- servable in the other dental liquids X, p, which often represent r, c, or 6 ; v is one of the most frequently used of the final consonants ; and in this employment it has often taken the place of an originally final p, or of p which by apocope has become final ; both p and v may approximate to the nasal breathing. originally (17) (18) xiii. n, s, XIV. O, p, (19) p. 1. (20) XT. 2, C, D, (21) xvi. t, n, l»Sj "i (23) (25) +, (26) <". (27) *, Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 185 the residuum of F = hu, when the letter became \fsi\6v by the omission of the aspirate. an imperfect substitute for another value of the lost F. a substitute for H after its disuse as a consonant, an arbitrary combination of tt and th t d ..kg Old High German, Or, Greek, (Latin, Sanscrit). i(t>) f p d z t g ch k Gothic. Old High German. Tenuis, Aspirate, Medial Medial, Tenuis, Aspirate Aspirate, Medial, Tenuis It must be remarked, that the Gothic aspirate, to which the Greek tenuis corresponds, is not ch, for that combination does not exist in 186 THE THEORY OF [Book I. Gothic, but either h or g with a strong guttural aspiration. The same remark applies to the Latin, which, however, consistently employs the strong h for the Greek x ( see above, p. 177)- In Old High German, b is superseded by v, a circumstance which has also taken place in the modern Greek and other languages, and instead of th we have z = ts by assibilation instead of aspiration. 119 The following exemplification of the law is taken with some slight modification from Bopp ; we have subjoined his comparison of the Zend and Lithuanian, with the languages included in Grimm's canon : Sanscrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic. Old High German. pada-s, 7ro3-o(S, faihu, rihu ?ra?ura, €KV|0O9, SGC srai/tra, sue/iur dacan, ?fKtt, decern, tai/tun, in jnd, yvwp.1, gnosco, kan, chan juti, 76l'OC, nut, kuni, chuni janu, fwv, genu, kniu, chniu mahat, /.ieya.\o ; dfupti, d/j.(pi, Latin ambo, ambiwi / D I . < lothic fat; in I two cases the Sanscrit nal/iis, ulhdu agree with the Greek : the form d^\ is still found in remains of iEolic dialect : /' is represented by / as iu Gothic, in n€, an«l /, in Greek itself, as Kopvtytj, Kopvuftos; f° r M, d/i, and yh or //, in Sanscrit, that the Greek lan_ actually presents an aspirate instead of a medial in these cases (Mm p. 42), and fancies that he has discovered in this a very curious inter- change between Greek and Gothic, as in the following table (p. 111). Older Greek. Proper Gothic. More recent Greek. Older Gothic. i/cwo, Mf6, 1 ~»/0, ?6£«K, tai/isro, 6vpa y diur 7ro'£ec, fotut, uyoo jue-yaXo?, mikUs, But it must be remarked that in every instance which he lias adduced as an exception, the consonant objected to is an aspirate, and that the Greek aspirates are only of the tenuis order, while those in Chap. 5.] THE GREEK ALPHABET. 189 general use in Sanscrit are only of the medial order, and that, therefore, no argument can be drawn from this discrepancy, which, indeed, admits of an explanation derivable from the vacillations and incompleteness of the aspirates (above, p. 177). 121 Grimm's law applies only to the interchange of mutes considered according to their distinction as tenues, aspirates and medials : when we find an interchange of mutes with others belonging to different organs, as labials with dentals or gutturals, we must not call this an exception to the law, as Grimm does (p. 589), for it belongs to a different princi- ple. When p is changed to t we must consider it as having arisen from a false articulation, which has formed a dental out of the sibilant origi- nally attached to the labial in the particular case. Thus from the root Fa or crira are formed, both re and ttov. Similarly when p becomes k there has been an union of guttural and labial in the original sound, as in 7ro?o?, ko?ck ; compare the Latin quis. When I becomes d, or d becomes g, the original sound must have originally consisted of both consonants ; thus bis and £ v i%spring from £R^ like helium from dvellum, and yfj and B»7 from jltj, like 717*1/0? for iyhvpevos. This principle extends to com- binations of mutes and liquids as well as to combinations of mutes with mutes ; thus KeXaivos and fxeXau spring from K^eAai/, as appears from to. KfxeXeQpa quoted from the glossary of Pamphilus, by Herodian, and from him by the author of the Etymologicum Magnum (see Buttmann, Lexilog. II. p. 265). The interchange of aspirates of different organs we have before explained (above, p. 163). 122 We conclude this Chapter with a table of the consonants which correspond in related words of the Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin languages. If the reader desires to see this table immediately con- firmed by examples he may consult Pott's Etymologische Forschungen, I. p. 84 and following. Sanscrit. Greek. Latin. k k, it c (qv). ksh f, cr, k, up (77-) x (c-s) c, s, cr. kh x q v > g v - g 7, £ g>b. S h ; X g v - n (like the final n in French) 7 (nasal) n(adulterinum). 'ch 7r, r c (qv). ch'h o"x, ** K n > g> c - APPENDIX To Book I. Chap. V. § 110. Extract from Bentley's MS. on the Digamma. Bentley first quotes the following authorities. Dionys. Halle. I. 20. Servius ad JEneados vi. 359. Julianus Orat. xi. p. 71 ; and the follow- ing passages from " Grammatics Latinoe auctores antiqui ; edidit Put- schius." Diomed. Gramm. p. 416. Priscian pp. 546, 7. (where, on the words — inveniuntur etiam pro vocali correpta hoc digamma Mi usi, ut Alcman : kcu %et)ua irvp re Ba'F'oV. — F digamma Molis est, quando in metris pro nihilo accipiebant, at clppes B' Feipdvav to Be rap dero (xiaa-a XiyeTa 2 . — Sciendum tamen quod hoc ipsum JEoles quidem ubique loco aspirationis ponebant, effugientes spiritus asperitatem 3 . Hiatus quoque causa solebant Mi inter ponere F digamma, quod ostendunt etiam poetce JEolidce ; ilti Alcman: kcu %e?/xa irvp tc hdpiov' et epigrammata quce egomet legi in tripode vetustissimo Apollinis, qui stat in Xerolo- pho Byzantii, sic scripta: AEMOIIHOFON 4 , AAFOKOFON. JSTos quoque hiatus causa interponimus U loco (tov) digamma F, ut DaJJus, ArgJJi, PaUo, OJJum, OJJis, Bo\Jis b — he remarks (l) Si locus sanus est, errat Priscianus: nam in iambico dimetro, cujus hove forma est: ip; aVr^, ^0 to FoVtv. XVII. 274. vvKra fxev elv dyoprj adevos e^ofxev, acrrv ce TTVpyOl, legO €^€T€ y Fd(TTV. E"3w, «?i^o. 7/«<26? XXII. 450. 3ei/Te, 3ua) /mot eVecrfloi/, 73w//, Z^O eVea-fle, F*'3w//. 0G?. VI. 160. ou ya'^j 7rw TOiovTou 'Icov, lego ToiovSe plhou. IX. 182. ei/0a3' eV ea^aTirj fiiiaav t \tt6Wwvi, fitjve. E\ i >' 6$ 2. t) eiire/MCrai ^caj/cru', /£ et7r»/ TepirovTo Fe->re epydQo-dat, lego ixlv Fepya Zihd^ao Fepyd^eadai. 'E^u'w. Od. X. 402. 422. vfja /jlcv dp TrdfXTrpwTOv epucrcraTe, lego ird/XTrpiara Fepvacrare. XVI. 348. aAA' dye vtja fxeXatvav epva-crafxev rjn^ dpia-Tij (perhaps we may read aAA' dye B»; na\ vija Fepvo-o-afxev ; at any rate the epithet fxeXawau seems unnecessary). 'Jtt^w, la^tjf &c. 06?. II. 428. fxiyaX* "o.ye, lego \xeya Fia^e. IV. 458. lipew B' alyj/ labour e? (omit al\Js\ and read Be Fid- ^oi/re?). IX. 395. »/Y6i/ e? otxoi/, leqo co/xovce. XVII. 84.) ' J XIII. 121. u)7raaav oucac Voi/t/, lego Fo'ikuC biraaaav tovri. J Had I. 19. €v c' oikoo' /Keo-^ai, lego ev o' "Ap7o? i'lv-eo-flai. And in a note on this passage lie says — Homer a 1 n/i ev c' FoiKccc, DWOIKAA* Ml 4«£fta DWELL. PrU- Ctantu: est qnando in < nihilo accipiebant, lit "Appes 8' Feipdvav. Olvos. Iliad VII. 467. irapiaraaav olvov uyowrts, lego irdpeaaav FoTvov. IX. 224. TrXt]i, e, se, eo, sui. Iliad V. 338. ov 01 -^dpire<: Kapov ai/rat. )' mil spurius. VI. 90. 7r€7r\oi/ o? 01 Soxcei, /<>70 o Foi. 101. i*a'iv€Tai ovce T« M, /, Mi 1CSS. otti pa Foi. XIX. 384. iretptjdti O eo av-rov (read ce Fe" civtov). The following passages are quoted without emendation: Bm 282. d^os ol ^u'to (read a\\v^ x iTO )- JEDY. 73. »/ yap Fo«. ( /. ix. 360. avrdp Foi avro<; eyw. Iliad VI. 474. avTap oy ov (piXov vlov, lego uvrdp o Foi\ XII. 162. tMtt/fcv re kcii co Trerr "ategew koi 60) 7T€7t\. /u. xi. 330. oi)de v govs 7ra?ca? eao-Ke, lego ovce Foik (or rather X€?Ta.i (TT^ya? dvhpuiv. Sic hj 230, simili orationis Jilo : 'nnrovs p.ev yap eacre teat ap/maTO. iroiKiXa ■yaXKw — avrap o 7re£os e) : 7rpwT0V Set QeaOai t[ ovoua nal t'i pyjua. eireiTa t'i ccttiv dir6(pa(Tis kcii KaTaipaait mi d—ocpavo'is kcu Xoyos — TO /uev ovv ovo/naTa uvtci W€U to. ptjuciTa coikc tio dvev avvOeaecog kciI ctaipeaea)s votjftaTi oiov to avGp ivttos tj to Xevicov. — ovo/ua fiev ovv cctI (pwvtj mjuavTiKj) kutci avv- 6)'lK7]v dvev ypovov ifs fujcev fxepos ecrri cdjucivtikov Key^wpia- /nevov- — ptjua ce eo~Tt to irpoacnwuuvov y^fxtvov, ov fiepos ovSev oj/ualvei ytoptSj kcii cutiv ael tcov kuO eTepov Xeyo- /uevwv cDjfieiov — Xoyos ce cctti (piovi) crtjuavTiKt} koto. 0/jK)jv ifs Twr /ueptvv ti (nj/uarruro* cj-ti Keytcpiafievov w? (pdcris, dXX' av% (oy Kara^aji? 7; airo(pacri/ ft \ » t \ « / » ~ 9 * ft Yj iraayeiv. eo~Ti oe ovcria /mev ws tv-wio enreiv oiov avupioTros, 'iTTTCOS' 7T0CT0V 06 OlOV oiwYj^V, TpiTTrjyy' TTOLOV 06 0X0V XeUKOV, ypafifxariKov' irpos tl oe olov onrXacriov, yj/jligv, /uel^ov' irov $e olov ev AvKeiw, kv dyopa' wore $e olov e^Oes, irkpvcnv' KelaQai oe olov avaKeirai, KaOnrai* ey^eiv oe olov vTrooeSeTai, uhtXigtclC 7TOL6LV 06 olov T6/JLV61, KCtiei' 7rCL0"^6I.V $6 olov T6fXV6TCLl, KO.I- * Since the above was first published the Categories have been fully discussed by Dr Adolph Trendelenburg, in his Geschichte der Kategorien- lehre, Berlin, 1846. pp. 384. His conclusions are not materially different from those given in the text, but he has gone into all the details of the subject. 202 THE PARTS OF SPEECH. [Book I. erai. eKaarov oe rwv elprj.uevwu avro /m.ev kcl& clvto ev ovde/uia KarcKpaaei Xeyerai rj aTroCpdaei, Trj ce Trpos aWtjXa toutcov GVfXTvXoKri KaraCpaai'S rj cnrocpaui*; yiyiferai. Xow it is suffi- ciently obvious from these last words, that the ten sorts of words thus described do not mean predicates, but simply the different parts of a sentence, whether subject or predicate ; for it is by the joining of these with one another, that the sentence, whether affirmative or negative, is to be formed*, Aristotle institutes a more particular examination of the first four, which have descended to us from the scholastic philosophy under the names, substance (or quiddity), quantity, quality, and relation: the other six he has hardly illustrated at all. If we take a general view of these categories, according to the instances which Aristotle has given, we shall see that this is merely a grammatical or rather syntactical arrangement of certain parts of speech : the first category includes nouns substantive, the three next, different sorts of adjectives, the fifth and sixth, ad- verbs of place and time, and the last four, verbs, considered as active (9th), passive (10th), intransitive (7th), and in the perfect tense, or as representing the effect of something which has been done or has occurred (8th); the Greek perfect cannot be con- sidered as merely past time, and that is included in the fifth category. This is of course a very rude approximation to a scientific division, the number ten being in all probability bor- rowed from a similar classification among the Pythagoreans. The object of the philosopher in enumerating these classes is shown by his subsequent explanation : these ten sorts of words do not in themselves constitute cither an ovouu or prjfia as distinguished from one another, but only when they can be considered as general terms; for instance, it is only j nonym that sub- * Dr Trendelenburg u. b. p. 10, seems inclined to refer the first category or substance to the subject, the others to tin Ii appeari from the important passage from the AnaJut. Post. I. -2, p. S3, a, 1, which he quotes in p. 15, that the word Karqyopfiv did not in Aristotle's sense truly and properly apply to any predications except those contained in general, abstract, and distributable words. Thus it is a true Karqyopui £i\ov eari XevKov, but to \cvk6v ecrri £i\ov is either prjSapvs Kccnryopeur or Karr/yopelv pev pi) a~\(os, icara cn-pSeSrjKos Se Karrjyopeiv. But this does not prevent substance from being predieable in the abstract ; thus 6 SuKparrjs »)j> avOpanos is as good a proposition as 6 ai'ttpamos rjv axxpos. Chap. 6.] THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 203 stance can become a predicate ; in other words, the irpwTai ovaiai or individuals cannot be predicated, but only the Sevrepai ovcriat, or genus and species ; thus, he says : to. eiori Kal rd yevt] fxova cr]\oi ty\v 7rpwTtjv ovcriav twv KaTrjyopov/JLevwv, and: virdp^ei tol mu; ya, yu; va, vi ; to The compound pronouns — meaning thereby not derivatives like td-vat ' so much,' but pri- mitives, which the grammarians consider as simple, but which we have endeavoured to reduce into their real elements — show as their first member, in Sanscrit, a stem consisting of a single vowel ; they are the following, a-va, i- i-da, c-t((, i-ka, 6-jAo." But, although this analysis was pointed out many years ago, and though the importance of these re- searches was soon afterwards recognised and explained by Mr Garnett (Quarterly I, Vol. LVII. p, M sqq.), no one has thoroughly examined, compared, and classified these monosyllabic stems and others which Bopp has omitted to mention; we shall therefore endeavour to show which of these pronominal words have a common origin, and thus to arrange them accordii;_ their natural coherency. 130 It is reasonable to suppose that the primitive pronouns would be designations of here and there, of the subject and object as contrasted and opposed to one another. As soon as language becomes a medium of communication between two speaking persons (and it is useless to consider it before it arrives at this point), a threefold distinction at once arises between the here or subject, the the m or object, and the person spoken to or considered as a subject in himself, though an object in regard to Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 215 the speaker. We find traces in the Indo- Germanic languages of an application of the first three consonant-sounds belonging to this family of languages, namely, the three tenues, to denote these three positions of here, near to the here, and there, or first, second, and third personal pronouns, as they are generally called. These tenues, articulated with the usual short vowel, are the three pronominal elements pa (found in ira-pa, &c), qva or ka (found in k£, &c.), and ta (to, &c). The two former are, however, more usually expressed by the cognate sounds ma or va, and by Fa, whether the digamma is represented by one or by both of its members (above § 110). By a similar change of arti- culation the third element appears as na. If now we take the elements enumerated by Bopp, we shall find, that, according to the principles stated in a former chapter, ma, mi, mu, va, vi, belong to the first of them : ka, ki, ku, ya, yu, e — ai- ya, i, u, to the second ; and ta, nu, ni, na, to the third of the original pronouns. The second also appears under the forms ga, ha, immediately derived from qva or Fa. The syllables da and sa, for reasons which will be stated in a subsequent chapter, generally belong to the second pronoun, though the former would seem to be only a slight variation of the element ta, and the pronoun sa is actually used for the third pronoun when that pronoun denotes a person or subject. From va, as a variation of ma the first pronominal element, we must carefully distinguish the same syllable when it appears as a mutilation of Fa, the second element; but there are some cases in which this distinction cannot be made without the most refined etymological analysis. And here we will anticipate what will be stated hereafter more at length. According to the principle mentioned above, any one of these simple elements may be compounded with any one of the others so as to form new modifications of the idea of position. There is, as we shall see, a pronominal element -la or -ra derived from na, but indicating motion, or conveying the idea of " beyond." When this is added to the first pronominal element, it combines the idea of closeness with that of removal, as in ira-pa, ire-pi, which express motion from or to the side of, and motion close round an object. When with the second, it expresses the third position as opposed to the second, and ka-ra, as we shall see in the following chapter, is equivalent to ta, or tva-ra, which expresses the same second position in a state of further removal. 216 THE PERSONAL [Book II. On the contrary, by combining the third pronominal element with the first, under the form of ma, we obtain a signification of nearness approaching to, or even coinciding with that of the second element : thus ta-ma, the suffix of the superlative, ex- presses the approximation of the end of a series to the speaker, and, conversely, ma-ta denotes the approach of the speaker to a distant object*. "We shall see in the next chapter that the first three numerals are the primary pronouns under the forms, ma, tva, and tva-ra or ka-ra. The elements va and na are both employed to designate the first person, though always in the dual or plural number. They are also used to convey the stroiJ _ signification of the demonstrative pronoun, that of distance or separation. This coincidence in meaning between the first pro- nominal element under the forms ma, va, with the third per- sonal pronoun na, is explicable psychologically, from the fact that the ideas of self, unity, separation, distance, solitude, and negation, all spring from a common source. The clement I a strong expression of the there, or distance ; ma, &c. of the here or self as a separate individuality. Hence, the strongest expression of self in these languages is, in Sanscrit and Latin, a-ha-m, e-go-mct, " that which is here," but in Greek e-ycv-ifj, " that which is by itself or separate." The apparent coinci- dence of va and na, as expressive of negation, is found only in the longer forms a-va, or a-u, and a-na or an, ultimately re- presented by a- or even e-. But we hope to show in the follow- ing pages that na or ana is actually prefixed to va when the compound a-va or a-pa bears the negative signification. All our misconceptions about pronouns and pronominal words arise from a sort of word- worship, produced by the impressions of common language. The philological student cannot be too early or too strongly impressed with the fact, that all pronouns must have been originally demonstrative, or words indicative of particular positions f. In their original application there could be no distinction of personal pronouns and relatives, from the demonstratives. Indeed, it will be seen in the following p ... * The student will find these principles categorically set forth and illustrated in our Gird- Grammar, articles 83 — ~9. S."i> — M | The student will find in the Q _-9, the true classification, according to our views, of all the Greek pronouns. Chap, l] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 217 that the relatives, reflexives, and the nominative of the ordinary demonstrative, are all derivable from the second personal pro- noun, or the index of nearness in space. 131 We have thus stated beforehand the results of our ana- lysis of the pronominal words, in order that the student may be provided with a general map of the country which he is about to survey, and, knowing what to look for, may not be confused by the multiplicity of details. We now proceed to examine each of the pronouns more minutely, taking them in the order in which they appear in the common grammars, and beginning in each case with the existing classical form, and so ascending to its primary state. It will be found that our analysis has conducted us to the fol- lowing general results as far as the Greek language is concerned. I. Simple Elements. Second. Third. (Guttural + Labial) F Tenuis r Liquid v First. Tenuis w Liquid p Vowel v Tenuis k Med. 7 /3 Sibilant a Vowel u Vowels ~L^ Liquids a- X, e- p. II. w C 13 O PJ O A a o m PL, Third. Compounds of two or more pronominal elements, arranged according to the element with which they begin. First. Second. rFe-Fe (2 + 2) /ue-Fe(l + 2) tF€-v = tov-v = TV-vt] (2 + 3) e-yw-v (2 + 2 + 3) acpco'i = Fa-Fa-t (2 + 2) v/meis = 'vwe$ »/ = v <7|ue5 = Fa-o- / ues , (2 + 2 + l) o\ r\ = cro, arj (2 + &c.) to-v (3 + 3) vuj'i = va- F a-i (3 + 2) rjfx€is = aiJLiu€$ = acrjues (3+2 + 1) c a c u OB P o i 5 P 218 THE PERSONAL [Book II. First. Second. Third. ,Hi-V (1 + 3) o-2e (2 + 2), fttt r*-» (3 + 3) oy-ros (2 + 3), iste av = vd-Fa (3 + 2) /ceT-yo? (2 + 3), Ofe av-TOS (3 -f 2 + 3) t (2) a0e (do.) x//e (do.) ^9 (do.) T£-t = t'w-S (2 + 3) cct? = oeVs (do.) ^069 (do.) aWos = ay-io? (=?// (do.) ff = rOHRC 3+2) a/^' = cli'-cp'i (2 + 3 + 2) (3 + 8 | --po = 7rp6-s e-irl (do.) = tt / oo-T(' oj-t; (2 + 3 + 2) (1+2 + 2) v-7TO = I'-TrJ-c (2 + 1 - iue-ra (1+3) i':re> (2 + 1 + 2 - - W Ka-rd = ircy-Ta (2 + 3 + o - a 1 P-l o > •if too / Chap. I.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 219 First. Second. Third. (fia = txev re, Kai (2) vrj, val (3 + 2) (1+3) $q, oa/, (2 + 2) ovk = va-va-K Ixy) = fxai (3 + 1+2) (1+2) rj = Fa (2) ovv = va-va-v Mv(l + 2 + 3) (3 + 1 + 3) ya - yev, ye (2 + 3) a-^a = vd-pa(3 + 3) ei (2) = si (§ 14,6) vvv (do.) a-rep = av-rep (3 + 2 + 3) -ca = -|Oa Ato-s, -/U>7 -0"i9, -Tl/S -ros -79 = t«9 -Js -T>/jO, -TO)/), (2 + 3) -Fot-5 (2 + 3) -cjv-vy] (2 + 3) -o-i-juos (2 + 1) -pa = pa-aa -iwv — -iov, vut'i, and jj/iet?, have all arisen from one com- mon stem. For example, the German nominal', a mutilation of the corresponding accusative mis*, and the /< in m«JU is tin :;ural which appears a? rmer days seemed not improb Fortunately, however, the want of tact and critical acumen display) the Professor is so manifest that the faith of philfl seriously shaken by his heresies. As the folio. I take much notice of the Professor's various contributions to the J Society, it may he right to say here, that in looking into them we have found nothing calculated to advance the of comparative grammar, and B great deal, which, it* generally admitted, would compel philologers to fight the battle over again. There is indeed a plausible array of inter- esting particulars generally gleaned from Other writers, including the author of this present book: but wherever we can clearh that the Professor is original, we cannot fail to rec ■ error or a mischievous fallacy. The paper alluded to above is full of prOO this assertion. We will take one instance, in which I ems peculiarly satisfied with himself (p. 31). lie wishes that our word SUM is contained in the first syllable of and Troi-pavvp. We shall have another opportunity of showing thai > is conn, with a root nsr, and not with the word stSMS. Those who are well ac- quainted with Greek will see at 01108 that. &q . stand by the side of icGpa* r, and crf\ Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 223 This, however, is by no means inexplicable. Even after the adoption of nominative pronouns the person spoken to would still continue to be an object, and therefore the nominative and objective cases of that pronoun would contain the same elements ; but when the speaker could detach his notion of himself from the idea of space, from the here, which before constituted his definition, and consider himself as the /, the real subject, he would adopt some word more emphatic than the mere mono- syllable fie to express himself by, and this word was aJiam in Sanscrit, and ego in Latin and Greek, by a common transition from the h to the g (Pott's Etym. Forsch. I. p. 144). If we compare aka-m, tva-m, with a-ya-m, "this man," i-ya-m, " this woman," sea-ya-m, " oneself," va-ya-m, " we," yil-ya-m, " you," ma-h-ya-m, "to me," &c, we must conclude that the termination is simply in. The Greek iywu was written eyuv by the iEolians, eytiwya and e-ywvt] by the Dorians (Apollonius Dyscolus, de Pronom. p. 64 b, Bekker). Of the Boeotian Iwu, Apollonius writes as follows: Bohoto\ 'IQN, cos fxev Tpvcpwv (ptiatv, v Ta?s dvTcavvpiais, otc irpo (poovrjevTwv tiOcvtcu, eo's, eov eai/Tco iavTov, koi. cos Be ei/coj, dsv kcu d "Afipiav, Qeaa €pjv, €v-cf>palvp from irolpa. Again, as the termination par- was orginially pew- (according to § 114 above,) a fact to which we shall recur, we see at once that iroi-pi]v = i?oi-pev.s means the person who belongs to the iroL-pev-T = not pa-r \ cf. ar-men-tum, &c. The root is ttcz-, as in pas-co, pas-tor, and the full form of not is irSi/, Sanscrit pacu, Goth, faihu, Lat pecu (§ 119). From this it is obvious that the Professor of Comparative Grammar has very little acquaintance with the science of etymology. But perhaps any thing might be expected from a writer, who derives the composite pronouns mro* &c. from a supposed verb ken = "to see" (Phil Soc. III. p. 67) ! who tells us that &av is the radical syllable of paivo (ibid. II. p. 147) ! and considers eja as another form of audin! (above p. 210). We hope that these contributions to the Philological Society are not to be regarded as specimens of the comparative grammar taught at University College and promised in the Imperial Cyclopcedia. 224 THE PERSONAL [Book H. avToi (paai Ttj fxev iyoiv Trjv Zoo'i/, eiye to irapd Aoopievo-iv e eh 7 /ucra- paAAeTar, t>7 ce 'eycovya tx\v Ycavya. Kopivva" /xen ?^ w )* 1° ^ e manner for X 69 ^ e V°^> AaKwi/fc AVhen we remember that the Dorians wrote cvwv for cuu (Hesychius), that eym appears as eju in Latin, that the third j - dual was sometimes -toi/, at others -t^i/ or -tuv ; that we have me, tc, se, in Latin, and ma/u, ma, team, tra in . by the side of /ie, -peak of. The bulk of the pronoun aha-m is a compound of the pronominal elen tf, ha, the former being here <>f demonstrative, the latter of relame •This won!, w&fch inform for yem*. deserres some remark. The fol- lowing are the notices of the grammariai.- j it. Herodian (irtpi ucv. Xe£ : 1. 85) : to ■) tip ttuou Kopivmj (Sava (1. pavd) ui hoiWTWV T(l(Tf the objective cases of the first pronoun in old Latin. ^uiutilian - I- 5, § 21): I a, I not Utqm* vr.iir.ur.M WFBMBBKD ■ Iftril 'noun 'nuns - I ' ■ 0.). It ii improbable too that the same termination WM employed to form the objective, ijenitive. and dative cases of the iir-t personal pronoun in the oldest Greek. This dative appears generally under the form epos. Bentley, however, perce i ved that the metre in Homer occasionally required ptow, peol. instead of ipoi, fan,, and peo\ the possessive, after tlu- si ■''/<*, s^d m*u*. We give the passages in which he has noticed this, from a MS. in the Library of Trinity Coll) Iliad IN ' *•» €(ppdcri 7/tW IV. U k 2. TfTTa, criwrrij ricro, peto 8' eVurei't^o uv6V IX. 57« »/ P«f* ««J **•* t'* 7 "^ — * e * ai •■* *»#•* XIX. 194b £a>pa /uer// f3ov\rj re cow tc. XXIV. 327. €1 fxeu Ztj 'OSuo-eu? ye, jueo? 7ra?5, evOdh' iKavets. As we have the forms ep'm (Ahrens, dial. Dor. p. 249) and efxedev, and even fxeQev in Sophron. (eVt ^e^eV a Kaphia 7ra3j/. i^V. 46. a/?. Apoll. de Pron. 83 c. 98 a), we are not obliged to assume the form fxeov, though the analogy of reou (Apoll. 96 b) renders it justifiable. It must be remarked in general that all these case-endings of the pronouns belong to the full development of a language, and are as recent as the case-system of the nouns themselves. For we get beyond the merely distinctive use of the three original elements themselves, as soon as we begin to speak of case-affixes, which, as we shall see, are connected with a special development of the second and third elements. The Boeotian efxv for efxo\ points to an original e/xeFl, just as ru represents an original tFc ; and with regard to Bentley's assumption of jueoi for e/j.oi } we think the o in both forms is a substitute for the lost digamma or aspirate, which is otherwise represented in the common suffix -i, and that fxeol=ixe-(pi=neF'i is fully equivalent to mi-M. The same stem is represented by the Jc, or ch appended to the Gothic ?nik, thuk, New German mich, dich ; and the long vowel in the Latin me, te, may in- dicate, as we have seen, an original me-he, te-he; so that in the Greek, Latin, and German language, the second element was probably ap- pended to the first and second personal pronouns in the objective cases. We have already adverted to the metaphysical significance of this phenomenon. It may be objected to this explanation of the identity of ha, ya, &c, that, if so, this element is repeated in such combinations as eyuye, eywvya, Yuvya, &c. ; but it will be remembered that nothing is more common than such repetitions of the same root in pronominal com- pounds, and especially when it appears under slightly modified forms. When it is placed after the termination -v-, as in e ywvya, the word is a compound of two compound pronouns, into each of which similar pro- nominal elements enter: for vya or vaya is a compound analogous to me-he, mi-hi. 135 As the three primitive personal pronouns are expres- sions for the relations of place, synonymous, in fact, with the Q2 228 THE PERSONAL [Book II. Greek 6Se, ovtos, e /eel 1/09, the Latin hie, iste, We*, and the Italian questo, cotesto, quello, we ought to find in the Greek and cognate languages traces of the use of all the primitive forms as demonstrative pronouns; and we do so. Of the third it is unnecessary to speak. With regard to the first ; in Sanscrit we have i-ma " this-here," from which Bopp derives the Latin words im-arjo and im-itor {Demonstrativstamme, p. 21). The Greek demonstrative p/r, and, as we shall hereafter show, the preposition /ue-rd, the particles fiev, \id, and the verbs /ia'w= /ulgiw, maneo, &c, all contain this element *j\ It appears as a suffix to the second and third personal pronouns : in Sanscrit, tva-m, aya-m, as well as aha-m ; in Latin, tu-met, vos-met, semet, ipse-met, as well as ego-met, nos-met. The second element, under the form dva, is used as a demonstrative in the numerals. Of its use under other forms derived from Fa we shall speak by and by. 136 The common dual and plural of aham and tvam are in the nominative and accusative as follows: nom. dual, didm, yuvum ; accus. dual, dvdm or nou, yuvdm or vdm ; nom. plur. vayam, yuyam ; accus. plur. asm&n or nas, yiuhm&n or vas. It will, of course, be understood by every one, that the plural of the first personal pronoun, of which the dual is only a modifi- cation, could not be formed from the lingular as the plural of any noun might be. The plural of this pronoun must signify one of two things, either a collection of persons united in the idea of here, and, as such, separated for the moment from the rest of the world, or, as between two speakers, the idea of i"+ you. On analyzing I nscrit forms we shall find that one of these meanings is always implied. The plural va-ya-m is * The correspondence in use of these triads is very remarkable : cially the use of 58e and hie to denote the speaker and his client in a law-suit, and the use of ovtos and Mfe to signify the opposite party, _ rally the defendant, as "the person before yu." "the person in your court." Thus o8e avrjp = eyu>, and. in addresses, J ovtos = o~v. It will be shown below (§ 166) that illc oro! 7 - anlv.s OOf in form as well as meaning to kuvos = Fd-vios. The prefix ali (in ali-quis, ali-quando, kc.) always rehrs to BOOM distinctive person or time. t Miv from the first person and rin from the third are so completely Bynonymous that., as we have shown elsewhere («4 Fin>1ar. p. Lvm.), euphony alone determines their employment in the lyric poets. Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 229 a combination of two modified forms of the first and second pro- nouns respectively, to which the common element of the first is added to imply more strongly that the notion of here is intended. Therefore, va-ya-m means " I + you here." Similarly, the plural yu-ya-m is a repetition of the second element, with the same suffix. Of the first syllable we will speak presently. We have already mentioned the employment of the pronoun ex- pressing distance or separation to denote the first person, and explained how, in fact, there is none of that absolute difference between pronouns of different persons which habit leads us to imagine. It is true that there was and is a distinction in meaning between the stems ma and ta, as signifying the opposition of here to there. But they are, both of them, essentially demon- strative, and there is no reason whatever why modifications, in fact, stronger forms of them, should not be used to convey the notions of unity, distinctness, and separation, which run into one another. At any rate, there is no doubt of the fact, that these stems are so used ; and we shall see abundant proof of it when we come to a discussion of the negative particles. We have an instance of this phenomenon in the pronouns before us. The dual d-vd-m is evidently composed of the pronominal stem d, in our opinion a degenerated form of the third pronoun na, and vd an entirely different element, which is unquestionably a corruption of the second pronoun under the form sva 9 and appears as vdm and vas in the accusative dual and plural. Con- sequently d-vd and the accusative nau — na-va represent the same combination. To the whole is appended the suffix m, so that this word signifies u you -f I by ourselves," which is equi- valent to va-ya-m — " I + you here." In order to analyze the plural accusatives asmdn, yushmdn, we must take the Veda- forms of the nominative plural, asme and yushme. The former is written amha in Pali and Pracrit. It is obvious that the termination of these forms is sma-i; the aspiration of s in the second word is caused by the u which precedes, a phenomenon common enough in Sanscrit : compare the datives amushmai, from amu, and tasmai from ta. This suffix sma, compounded of the stems sa-ma and also appearing as the preposition sam (avv), is used to form some of the oblique cases of all pronouns of the third person ; indeed, asmdt, the ablative singular of a demonstrative, differs only in the quantity of the last syllable 230 THE PERSONAL [Book II. from asraat, the ablative plural of the first pronoun : sa-ma signifies "all taken together," "whole," "entire," "complete;" and in this sense of completeness, it is used to give verbs in the present tense a past signification : thus we have : hanti sma Rdvanah Rdmah = "Rama killed" (instead of "kills") "Ravana" (Wilson, Diet.). The initial vowel a is the pronominal element na in the last state of mutilation, and thus the compound asme = a-sa-ma-i (the final vowel being the mark of plurality in the case of pronouns ending in a, Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 262) signifies " the here taken altogether," with a note of plurality appended. The first syllable of yushmc = yu-m-ma-i, is obviously the same stem that appears in yuymt. As the dual accusative nau = na-va seems to have the same origin as the form d-ca-m = na-vd-m, it is reasonable to conclude that the plural accusative na-s is a similar mutilation of a-smdn = na-sman. And the same reasoning applies to the abbreviated forms vdm and vas. We may now compare these Sanscrit forms with those which occur in some of the other languages of the Indo-Germanic family. The Latin plurals nos and vos agree exactly with the Sanscrit accusatives plural nas and vas, and the Greek duals vwi, a(pwi correspond pretty well to the duals nau and vdm, the latter of which, as we have said, has lost its initial sibilant or guttural. In the Greek vwi, the most predominant idea must have been " separation/* " unity," as appears from the adverb v6s-t (Hermann. Opuscul. I. p. S Chap. l.J AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 231 for eo-yu/, Sanscrit asmi (Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 473), and the assimilation is represented by a long vowel in the possessive duos, v/ulos (Ahrens, dial. Dor. p. 262). With regard to the first syllable of vjuels, the following remarks may suffice. The Greek aspirate often stands for the Sanscrit y : thus yas, yaj, yakrit (jecur), correspond to 09, aXw, rjirap. We have no hesitation, then, in comparing the Homeric word vaimivrj, " battle/ with its Sanscrit synonym yudhma: Doderlein's suggestion, that it comes from virofxelvai {Lat. Synon. u. Etym. III. p. 304), is not deserving of any consideration : the derivation of an old substantive from the infinitive aorist of a compound word re- minds one of the perverted ingenuity of Schrevelius. When we recollect phrases like conserere pugnam, and compare yudhma with yugma (Lat. jugum), "a pair," "a brace," we shall be disposed to seek for a connexion of meaning. Now jugum, another form of djugum, as Janus is of Djanus, Juturna of Djuturna, &c, contains the element of the second numeral, as does also the word duellum, " battle. 51 In the next chapter we shall show that the second numeral is identical with the second person singular. As then the second numeral is con- tained in the first syllable of yugma, yudhma, vafxivr}, so is the second pronoun in yushme, v^els. The suffix -sma is assimilated into -mma in the singular dative of the Gothic pronoun, just as it is in a/upes, vwies ; thus, the Gothic thamma, hvamma and imma correspond to the Sanscrit tasmai, kasmai and asmai (Bopp, Annals of Orient. Lit. p. 16. and Grimm, Deutsche Gramm. I. p. 826). It appears as smu in old Prussian : thus antar-smu, ka-smu correspond to the Sanscrit antara-smai, ka- smai (Bopp, Abh. Ak. Berl. 1824, p. 143). 137 The nominative masculine and feminine of the third personal pronoun are as follows : Sanscrit. Zend. Greek. Gothic. Masc. sa, sak, so ho o sa Femin. sd ha d or jj so The Greek and Zend aspirates are of course derived from the sibilants preserved in Sanscrit and Gothic. The nearest Latin forms corresponding to these are the compounds hi-c, si-c, the latter of which is used only as a conjunction. We shall 232 THE PERSONAL [Book II. speak of these in connexion with the forms t, &c. Perhaps the original Fa is preserved in its most genuine form by the Hebrew Nin , though we might be disposed to compare this rather with the compound av, of which we shall speak directly. It will be observed that all these forms belong to a different element from the neuter nominative, tat, to, thata, turn or is-tud. In fact, as will hereafter be shown, it is only a mas- culine or feminine noun that can have a nominative case pro- perly so called. The reason for the adoption of a form manifestly connected with the second pronominal element as a nominative of the third personal pronoun, will be obvious on the slightest consideration. The person spoken to, or designated as near, is invested with a subjectivity and personality which is denied to the object spoken of, or designated as t he re, Now, whatever is spoken of as in the nominative case, is considered as sub- jective in itself, though not a part of ourselves, and therefore can only be designated by a pronoun which expresses the greatest degree of nearness to the here. We shall return to this subject when we come to the case-endings. 138 There arc two stronger fan! of the demonstrative or pfO« noun of the third person, both compounds with the simple <>', », namely, o-t i . y-$€, ■. The form- : shall consider in the next chapter. The latter we will now connexion with ov-roc, another pronoun of the third person. The tir-t part of aw-«rot occurs as the separate particle distance, negation, &c. And WO -hall BOO that the same parti' involved in the negative ov-ft, and the illative .T-.. It is a prefix in uv-Oi, av-rop, and, in a weaker form, in - the same mutilation of the pronoun )ni, which we have had in '. In the disyllabic form it appears in the Sanscril aea, mva-k 7 and the Sclavonic oro (Bopp, r, /•-//. Gramme pp. 100, .Hi); hut then \ reason for believing that the complete combination ¥ or dv-iro, (b § 18J)). We consider a*- lhination of av % and tli ment t-, just as 6«e?wx combines the particle eccTwith the element *-, though perhaps the original form of m F - ~\ as a combination of oi'to'c, avTij. iu'r,>, with the primitive pronoon « It would be better to adopt the suggestion o( M ax Schmidt, whom he quotes, that it is merely a compound of the simple pronoun with Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 233 objective form, and that the first syllable is lengthened euphonically, so that ov-tos is formed from 6, just as ow-tos is formed from av ; but it is not right to compare this word with toiovtos, &c, as Schmidt does, for these words are really compounds of toTo'i, 7r\t]dvvTiKO<5 he »Jm6?9 — vfxeTs — a(peT<; — TTTooo-eis he irpiaTOTviroov fxev SpOrjs eyio — av — ", yeviKrjs he e/Aov — aov — ov, hoTinr)<; he efxot — ao'i — ait, alTiaTinrjs he ep.e — ere — e. The Scholiast on this passage says (p. 91 6, Bekker) : rod Tp'iTov Trpoaioirov ecrrt to 'l, kcu arj/J-ctivei to outo? »/ eneTvos, Kad eavTO fxev nei/Jievov evpedrj ovha/Aov, eoitce he airo Trjs tiov Att'ikwv xprjaeoos elptjadai irapd tovtio tm T€^i>oypd(f>(a. e\eivoa\ ydp Xeyovai kcu ovToai. That this Scholiast is mistaken, appears from the words of Apollonius Dyscolus (de ProJiomine, p. 69, c): 1 TnvTtjv 01 fxev (paat irapaXoyov, oti ov hid tov v' diro(3o\y] ydp tov a naTa to Tp'iTov diroTeXe'iadai aov, ov, ads, 09. He proceeds (p. 70, b) : d^ioiriaTOTepos he d 2og/>okA>7.'. t. Priscian. XIII rtiur it'uim illud, cur, v-//, rf, the form- in Knnius - P M, m 1, JO-*, ind, we have no hoffitition in eaying, ftJao the reflexive ttt-i, ti- . . I intonating to know that in the B -ssess the weaker forms i-m (also an old Latin form) and /-'/, and rm ?i-m. 140 This supposition that the reflexive pronoun is identical with that of the second pefBOOj and merely indicates nearness of place, is fully home out by the 088 of 1 in Homer, where it occurs as a demon- strative pronoun implying nearness, and is used in the singular and plural o( all genders: thus Iii.nl. I. 1 Nil fta t©$€ v m i j irrpov to pc» o S wort d e (nam circa hoe) \u\ l' lv — F'" (= °"°' 5 Hesychius\ and of the accusatives fxiv, vlv, «/, are the same : V; it will be equally easy to point out the etymological connexion of /ou? = F'/cu's compared with ! oL-erit). tudvis » Modbtf (Latin); and €Kvp6<:= Fenupos, compared with pMgwa (Sanserif). The Latins dropped the labial in at, Mid vocalized it in tus; or omitted the sibilant as in ros and ranter; similarly the ordinary Greek omitted the labial, and softened the sibilant into an aspirate. This intimate etymol _ connexion between the reflexive or reciprocal pronoun, and that of the 96COnd person, throws very grant light on both. 1: idea of relathi that the WOOnd of the old pronominal I originally employed : it is the same idea of relative wanraan that stitutes the distinction between t and CKffro», between Ate and i//«», between quest 'o and , or kv-. It has been already remarked that a double consonant-sound like kv may be superseded by a single representative of one of its two constituent parts. This is par- ticularly the case with the digamma sound, which, we have shown, was this same compound sound kv = kp. There are many in- stances in which this compound sound in Latin words is repre- sented in Greek, Sanscrit, and Gothic, or one of them, by one of its elements ; for example, we have the Latin e-qv-us compared with the Sanscrit agvas, with the Gothic aihvus, and the Greek <7r7ro9 (by a change of the guttural from '/ /c7ros = 'ikkos iEolic) ; co-qv-o compared with the Sanscrit pach, and the Greek 7re7rw ; o-qv-ulus compared with the Sanscrit aksha, and the Greek o/u/ua = o-mra ; lin-qv-o compared with Xa'nro) ; qv-atuor, and qv-inqv-e compared with the Sanscrit chatur, and panchan, Greek 7re- ropes, TGTopes (Tecrcrapes), and irevre, iretxire ; a-qv-a com- pared with the Sanscrit ap, Gothic ahva ; se-qv-or, compared with the Sanscrit sajj, and Greek ewo/uiai. We may also com- pare the Latin an-gv-is with the Sanscrit ahis, and the Greek e^i?. Similar changes have taken place even in the same lan- guage; thus, to take an instance in point, the Oscans, according to Festus, wrote pitpid for qv-id-qv-id, and the terminations. 240 THE PERSONAL [Book II. -qvam, ~ce were identical with -piam, -pe. The guttural element ce, which thus appears as a substitute for the labial pe, was further softened into hi, as is shown by a comparison of hi-c " this/' ci-s, ci-tra, " on this side," ci-terio and ci-timo. In fact, qui, si-c, hi-c, is, are four forms of the same pronominal root, signifying relative proximity, in which the guttural element has successively degenerated. Accordingly, if all the Sanscrit and Greek forms of the relative, interrogative, and indefinite, are resolvable into one or other of the elements of this compound Latin consonant, we are entitled to conclude in favour of their original identity with one another. The full form is preserved in the Gothic liver, hva ; we pronounce the labial only in which, what, and the guttural only in who, how. 147 We now turn to the Sanscrit forms. This language has three interrogative stems, Jca, hi, ku : thus, from the first and second, kas, ka, kim = qvis, quce, quid ? from the second, kiyan, kiyati, kiyat = quotus, quota, quotum ? and from the third, kutas = nude? kutra and kva = ubit From the second of these interrogative stems comes, by the softening process which is always going on in languages, the indefinite chit, just as church from kirk, chambrc from camera, &c. This particle, also writ- ten chana when added to the interrogative, gives it the sense " any one," " whosoever," " a certain person," just like g quis, &c. in Latin: thus, kach-chit (from kat-chit, used as an interrogative particle like the Latin on and num), kac-chit. chana = quisjnam. The copulative conjunction cha, also from this root, agrees as well with the Latin que as with the Greek re, the connexion of which is otherwise shown by a comparison of the forms ore, ir'ore, with 6Va, itoku. It appears unsoftened in the Veda-forms mdkis, nakis = nequis (softened again in the Zend mdchis, nai-chis), in md-kir, na-kir, md-kim, na kim = nisi, non (Colebrooke, Gramm. p. 121); and so also in the old Pelasgo-Etruscan, if we are right in supposing that ne-kc = que in the Hexameter inscription at Niplefl first printed by Lepsius (die Ti/rrhenisch. Pelas^ci', p. l^\ which we divide thus: mi ni JIuIre nebe Velthu ir Pupliana, and render. "I am not Mulva nor Volsinii, but Populonia." A comparison of these words with ni-hil, ne-qvid, together with the ana 1 , between hi-c and ci-s before pointed out, can leave no doubt in Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 241 our minds as to the connexion of these terminations with the second pronominal element Fa. The Sanscrit relative is yas, yd, yat ; the y standing for the aspirate in 6$ y %, 6, according to what we said upon yushme and vfiels. That the demonstrative meaning entered largely into this relative, appears from a com- parison of the Zend demonstrative yim, Latin jam, " at this time," with the relative sense preserved in yadi, " when," and in yadi, " wherein," = " if" (comp. el and si). It will be remem- bered that the German wenn signifies both " when" and "if." It may be concluded, then, that the Sanscrit intorrogative, indefi- nite, and relative, spring from the guttural part of the digamma, which is the initial of the second pronominal element. 148 If we even confined ourselves to the Greek language alone, we should have no difficulty in recognising the connexion between the relative and demonstrative. Greek Svntax teaches us that the relative 09, fj, o, is only a later and more emphatic form of the distinctive pronoun or definite article 6 (05), ri, to. In Homer we find the latter both as relative and antecedent ; thus (U. I. 125) : a\\d to. /x€V woXicov e£ eirpaOoixev, ra ce6ao~- rai : and even in Attic Greek, the distinctive pronoun is occa- sionally used for the relative*, just as our "that" appears in- stead of " which." Generally, however, in the more fully developed Syntax of the language, os, r\, o, as relative pronoun, is limited in its application to some sentence containing a finite verb, in close conjunction with which it forms a periphrastic defi- nition or description of some object considered as otherwise well known, or else, which is the highest refinement of Syntax, it makes some general assumption or supposition. But whether the antecedent, or object referred to, is definite as in the former case, or indefinite as in the latter, the relative sentence exists only by virtue of its antecedent ; in other words, it is a syntac- tical contrivance which plays the same part as the adjective or * Some have attempted to limit this use to the neuter gender, as well as to the oblique cases. But there are authorities for the use of the mas- culine (top, Eurip. Bacch. 712, rovs, Androm. 810) and feminine (ttjv, Soph. Track. 47) ; and we have therefore not hesitated to introduce the necessary- correction of t&v vn, dpyvpov, for ra>v d' V7rai yevovs in Soph. Ant. 1002. We take this opportunity of mentioning, what we did not know at the time, that the same conjecture had been previously suggested by Mr Mitchell. K 242 THE PERSONAL [Book II. genitive case; and Mr Garnett, in the paper already quoted, has collected instances from various languages in which the affix of the genitive case is manifestly identical with the relative pro- noun. The Semitic languages, which, as we have elsewhere remarked, are in a tertiary or merely syntactical state, and have consequently lost their apparatus of inflexions, show more clearly than even the inflected languages that a demonstrative or indicative pronoun is the vehicle or instrument by which human speech expresses the connected, if not concurrent notions of a relative sentence, an adjectival epithet, and a genitive case. It is well known to every Hebrew scholar that the noun to be expressed in the genitive case is placed unaltered after the govern- ing noun, which, being affected by the contact, is said to be in the construct state. Not unfrequcntly the qualifying or genitive noun has prefixed to it the distinctive pronoun hal, which serves as a definite article, and sometimes a relative sentence takes the place of the genitive. Tim- r being '• a psalm," we might express the phrase, " a psalm of David" by (a) David, (b) mizmor had-Dai'id, (c) manor 'hasher or she le- David, which would be in Greek, (a) \}/a\/j.o-Safiic, (b) \W\- /uo9 o Aa/3^, (c) \j/a\fi6s o? rip £ In Chaldee, Syriac, Samaritan, Ethiopic and Arabic, the demonstrative pronoun di, dt\ za, and dsa, which is regularly used as the relative in these idioms, is as regularly employed to mark the genitive relation, and we have elsewhere* pointed out instances in which the cog- nate Hebrew pronoun geh is used in the same manner. For example the LXX translate mi-jnu' 'helohi'm zth-Cinai' by diro 7rpoau>7rov rod Qeov rod ~ii'ai. The most instructive : ture in this usage is the occasional corroboration of the distinc- tive particle by another pronominal element, which is properly synonymous with it, but which is prefixed by way of antecedent when the demonstrative import is superseded by the relative. We have seen instances of this in the relative*/ -.self, and in the compounds a-ha-m, e-go. And the genitive may be pressed not only by the relative 'hasher or she, but also by the article and relative ha she, and even with a double determi- native, as in lieth ha she. It has therefore been rightly sug- Pr ml tt ti o rhilohyica in Debonv Canticum Triumphale, (Cantabrigia\ 1848), p. 11. Chap. 1.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 243 gested by Mr Garnett that the termination a in Ethiopic con- struct nouns, and the -i and -u in Hebrew and Arabic, are derived from pronominal elements of a demonstrative and, ulti- mately, a relative nature. As the guttural in the Semitic lan- guages constantly subsides into the vocal chirik there is no rea- son why Abi-meleh should not represent an original Ab-ham- melek. We must return to this important subject when we come to speak more at length of the adjective ; at present enough has been said to show that there is no reason for doubting the con- nexion between the relative and the second pronominal element indicating proximity. Indeed, there are some languages, in the ultimate condition of departure from the original etymological structure, which express the strongest form of the relative sen- tence either by the correlation of two pronouns expressing near- ness, or by placing one of these in the relative clause : thus in the instance* quoted by Bushmann (iiber die Kawi-Sprache, III. nr. 720), either of the relative sentences ; qui fidelis amicus est, is fidelis in rebus adversis est : or qui fidelis in r. a. est, is est fidelis amicus is expressed : is fidelis amicus est, is fidelis in rebus adversis est. And in the celebrated Chinese saying, usually attributed to a greater than Confucius, we find the demonstrative used instead of the relative only : tit so pu yd, ue shi yu jin, which is literally : " ipse hoc non cupis, ne inferas hominibus." In the most interesting and important application of the relative construction, namely, to the formation of hypo- * We have taken this and the following example from Dr Steinthal's tract entitled "de pronomine relativo commentatio philosophico-philolo- gica cum excursu de nominativi particula" (Berolini, 1847) p. 87. This author, who is an enthusiastic disciple of W. von Humboldt, applies his master's principles to an investigation of the use of the relative chiefly in the Chinese and African languages. With regard to the Indo-Ger- manic idioms he states specifically (p. 101) "relativum in his Unguis e demonstrativis et interrogativis ortum esse." But he defines the relative generally as the demonstrativum formate (p. 84), and says that whereas the personal suffixes denote coincidence, and the demonstratives (including case- endings and prepositions) signify dependence, the proper use of the relative is to express inherence (p. 21). In all this there is rather an accumulation of words than a clear statement of definite notions. The relative is neither more nor less than a particular logical employment of the pro- noun signifying proximity. R2 244 THE PERSONAL [Book II. thetical propositions, we shall see that the Greek not only opposes the antecedent av to the relative el, but occasionally, in the older poets, introduces k€, from the second element, in the protasis as well as in the apodosis. 149 The indefinite and interrogative pronouns in Greek are both written r*s, originally ti-v-s, the distinction between them being that one is an enclitic, the other accentuated ; the one being written after, and the other before, the word to which it refers : in the former case, the want of accent unites the noun and its corresponding indefinite so closely, that they may fairly be considered as one word. That the first part of rtv-s is not connected with the third pronominal root ta, as might be sup- posed on a casual inspection, appears, to a certain extent, from the fact, that their uses in Greek are absolutely and diametri- cally opposite. We are not speaking here of the nominative, masculine and feminine, of the Greek article, which we believe to be of the same origin with the relative, &c, but of the ob- jective cases which r/9 externally resembles. The article, 6, »/, to, is a pronoun which would not in all cases express with sufficient definiteness any particular object, even though that object may have been mentioned before : the name of the object is, there- fore, added to avoid a vague generality. Conversely, when it is desirable to express that some class is known, but not a par- ticular individual of that class, the general attributive noun is put first, and the indefinite word after it. And thus, if it is necessary to lay particular emphasis on the class, the incliri' of which we do not know, a Greek would not hesitate to prefix an article and affix an indefinite to the same word; thus we have, in a distributive sentence, in Eurip. Med, 1141 : Kvvel o 6 [xev Ti? X € '( J '' ° c ^ %<*vQov napa 7raiccov. and similarly in Soph. CEd. T\jr. 107 : tovtov QavovTos vvv eiriareWei aa(p€U> TtPcfcj i.e. "the murderers (for we know he was ma whoever the particular persons may be (for we do not know that):" and thus CEdipus immediately asks o'l S* elal 7rou yjj ; " where are they?" a question which shows how the interrogative might Chap. L] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 245 have arisen from this use of the indefinite, with merely the change of tone indicated by the accent : yuvy t*9 — ti$ yvvn ; "a woman somewhere" — " where?" But, if tis is not con- nected with the stem ta, how is it to be explained ? It is sufficiently obvious that it is not the primary and genuine, but a secondary and corrupted form of the original interrogative and indefinite. We find traces both of the labial and of the guttural element of the original Fa, even in the existing state of the language : we have the former in the Attic words 7roy, 7toT, irore, 7r66i, iroOev, 7rorcrim used for "the shortest day" without any addition o( dim. The same Chap, l.] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 247 root also enters into the Sanscrit word $ vas (= Jcvas), Latin eras = csas ; these words imply nearness as well as kes-, &c., but as the nearness is predicated with a prospective and not a retrospective reference, a different form of the same root has been adopted. The word peren-die "on another day" (para "another," Sanscrit) should also signify "tomorrow," but all-powerful custom has assigned to it the meaning " on the day- after-tomorrow." The word vesper, ea-irepa " evening," is made up of the pronoun ves (= kes = chthes =gis = hyas), and the pronominal adjective para, pera, which we have seen in peren-die, only here para is used in the sense of " late " or " after/' as in pardhna " the afternoon," " the latter part of the day" (from para "after" and ahan "a day"); the initial pronoun, retaining its signification of nearness, is applied by another change in the association to a part of the present day, and vesperus means " this day late " or " after this day." These transitions by association are all so many facts; the reasons for them, though easily explained, are most easily felt; and it is better to investigate these curious time-adjectives by the application of such a simple principle, than by the hypothesis of almost impossible mutilations, as Bopp does. The word tjpipa itself, the second part of which (pep-) is evidently the element of jue/>opL€vr)v. Plato Legg. p. 761 A: obiav re eiri/jLeXov/jLevovs, oVec? w? t]p.€pf the tir-t pronoun, c/moc, though it contains the adscititionfl € which we have noticed as an occasional prefix to the objective ClOOO of the pronoun itself, omits the e in the second syllable: there i-. h<>\\ believe that as Homer nssd the form /.te'oc from pco, like the Latin mens from mc\, which is quite regular, ifux is only a corruption of an original fV et >S fr° m e V e " for eueTof. The Sanscrit possessives are madtya, "mine," tvadtya, "thine, I !able of the two former is identical with e ablatives of the pronouns. The only ablative of the third person which is in OS tatmdt, but it is very likely that a shorter form, an I the ablatives of the other two pronoun-, was once in existence; at all events, constant use would easily generate such an abbreviation in the compound. It will be shown in a future chapter that * Wo have treated this important subject at greater length in the Yetrroniatttu^ pp. 219 — 828, On the eonnexion in meaning b », (which contains the same root as dyiov, dyopd,) an \ki«?. ■•■ below § 889. f See above. \\ Chap. L] AND OTHER PRONOUNS. 249 or tia is the full or original form of the ablative affix, from which, of course, these possessives are derived. This termination is also found in the Greek adjectives of quality olo? (o'-to?), 7ro?o9 (71-0-109), to?o? (to-ios), the d or s having dropt out, just as the s has been absorbed in the cognate genitives in -010, in which we should expect -ileich. Gram' matik, p. 606), with the Sanscrit Lhuj, not, as others have sup] with fe-tus, fctura, fe-mina, &c. It is related to// and the Greek (pdpos (viro-1Ai£ hi Josephus, XX. G. Act. Apostol. xxiv. Suidas 8. r. KXav&UK. This is not, however, an etymolo- gical transcription, but only an attempt, like the . CHAPTER II. THE NUMERALS. 153 Why numerals have lost their original signification. 154 Connexions of the first numeral with the first personal pronoun. 155 Similar affinities of the second numeral and second pronoun. 156 Origin and explanation of <5eis and Selva. 157 The third numeral and its use as a comparative affix. 158 The fourth numeral compounded of the first and third. 159 Why the first four numerals are declined in Greek, and the others undeclined : eight the dual of four. 169 The sixtJi and seventh numerals how related. 161 The fifth, ninth, and tenth numerals are to be referred to a decimal system of computation. 162 Views of Lepsius on this subject, and on the higher numbers. 163 Vague expressions for large numbers. 164 Ordinals, and their connexion with comparatives and superlatives. 165 General comparison expressed by the affix -iwv. 166 Compa- rative words, such as ?'/'/ucru, jue'-aos, a\\os. 167 Superlatives in -kt-tos derived from adverbs in -is, or from nouns in -v\|/ (GescJi. d. dcutsch. Spr, p. S It appears to us that cocks, which has the same formative ending Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 255 as aries, miles, paries, &c, is derived from cceculus, a diminutive of ccecus; and we have no objection to consider kvkX-wxJs an- other derivative of the same kind : cf. TrpvXees with proelium, &c. (Varron. p. 215). Luscus seems to be Xo%os with the common inversion of the elements of £. The ordinary Greek eh = evs is connected with the Sanscrit demonstrative e-na {aina), with the Gothic aina, and with the Latin unus, most anciently written oinos, by the substitution of an unaspirated long for an aspirated short vowel before explained, just as ekas and e/cas are connected. The same word also occurred in Greek (see the Commentators on Hesychius, sub vv. olvrj and o'lv'iCeiv), and we have it with an s instead of the aspirate in the Latin words sem-el*, sim-plex, sem-per, and sin-gulus, just as enas appears under the form secus in the same language. 155 It is clear that the first Greek numeral contains the first pronominal element ; it is no less so that the word express- ing the number two is identical with the second personal pro- noun. In the last chapter it was suggested that the three original pronouns would probably be the three tenues pa, ka = Fa, ta; that the first might be represented by the cognate sounds ma or va, and the second by that double sound Fa, a combination of the guttural and labial, which so often appears in certain languages of the Indo-Germanic family, where we have only a labial or a guttural in the others. We have seen that in some cases the second element is represented only by tF, tv, or Tt. It was also mentioned that we might extend or modify the signification of these elements by combining them with one another, or with the element ra, denoting motion or beyond. Thus, the compound ka-ra or tva-ra might present the third position, which might also be expressed in a stronger manner by ta-ra. Now it is the corruption tv which constitutes the usual form of the second personal pronoun ; and this form of the second pronoun exactly coincides with the second numeral. In most cases, however, the more ancient d has not been super- seded in the numeral by the tenuis t, which takes its place in the personal pronoun. Thus, we have in Sanscrit dvau, in Zend * Pott (Zahlmethode, p. 156) derives a-na% from 7njyvv(ju; cf. eVt/ii£, dvajxi£, &C. 256 THE NUMERALS. [Book H. dva, in Greek Svco, Svo (=cFo), in Latin duo (dvo), but in Gothic tvai. In this, as in other cases, where two consonants make one sound, we frequently find one of them standing as a representative of both. Sometimes the dental is omitted, as in a.fx-(pu) (dud Sfuo), in Fet/can, vi-fjiuti and vln-cati instead of cFei-KctTi, dvi-giati, dvin-cati : so also in belhtm, bird, bes~*, from dvellum, dvini. dvis, dec*. At other times, on the contrary, the labial is dropt, as in ^e, cea. ~o<, tco-ce*a, Si/uLtjrwp (Sanscrit dvimatri). It has been remarked that the origin of the second personal pronoun is the idea of comparative nearness. An examination of the second numeral will show that the same is the case with it. That Se is the shortest form of this numeral, is proved by its constant use in the obvious sense of " in the second place," and by the verb ceto = cFeco, " to bind," (compare turn Besides, the numeral He was also written lie = cFc : this n be inferred from the Attic form oWtr, and we clearly read it in an Arcadian Inscription (1511, 1. 7, Bockh): /ui rai -rpid- Kovra. Now this particle it is often med in composition to express comparative nearness. In this sense it appears in " the man near," &C It is also used to express motion towards, or a tendency to become near, as in 'OXvairov-ce u towards Olympus," oUorSe "homewards," Afly»q£c» 'Aflyput it "to- wards Athcnsf." It is found with the same meaning in ceupo = SeFpo, a word which requires some explanation. We have before remarked on the change of place to which the digamma is liable : there is nothing singular, therefore, in the change from ^Fe- to &F-. That such a change has taken place in this root, is manifest from the fact, that M rtpm is the only ordinal of Sua), and that cfeco to bind (which we have shown to be im- mediately formed from this root) is intimately connected with Seo/mai = Sevo.um. The word ceFpo signifies " in this direction," Seurepos "a man who is nearer to us than another man,'' and cevraros "a man who is nearest to us of a series of men," i.e. * See Sahna-. irum. p. ! t Since tho above WM first published we fa mewhero — pro- bably in the Transact ions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh — an nious attempt by the late Professor Hunter to connect ftj and* -£f. at and ad, two, to, and too. Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 257 " the last," and thus it is used as a synonym for vo-rctros. The Latin secundus is only a lengthened form of sequens, as will be shown in a future chapter. 156 There is another word of the highest interest connected with the second numeral, which these combinations will enable us to explain: we mean the pronoun 6, r\, to Selva, or, as we would write it (after the analogy of o£e, ij$€, toSc), — oleiva, ijSeiva, ToSeiva. This word signifies, that, though we know perfectly the particular person or thing we are speaking of, we either cannot or will not mention the name : it was, therefore, natural enough that a word, signifying proximity, should be added to the personal pronoun, to refer to a person or thing definitely conceived, but indefinitely mentioned. Now we have seen that the first personal pronoun, when used to express the first nu- meral, was lengthened from /me- into nets = pen?. We should expect, therefore, that the second pronominal root $Fe or rFe would be analogously lengthened into cFe/s = ^FeVs when used to express the second numeral. This termination -vs (-v\o's) was, as we shall see under the prepositions, a strong expression of locality, and this sense is highly appropriate for a transfer of the weaker relations of space which constitute persons, into those stronger ones which originated the numerals. Let us inquire then, if there ever was such a word as $ek. The author of the Etymologicum Magnum, says (p. 639, 1. H, Sylb.) : Ovceis. Igtsov on tou oucek, ore laocuva/uLel Tip outis, ouo fJLeprj Xoyou eicri, to re ou, kcil to oe/s. ouoe yap eo~Ti auvOe- tov. el yap r\v auuOeTov, rjfxeWe irpo /jlius e\eiv tou tovov. irav yap 'ovofxa /uovocruWafiou auvTiOefievov dvafiifia^ei tou tovov — 7ra/9, €U7rai7TTcJ£. aUTOU C€ TOU OV&€l$ TO OV$€T€pOV) $€V, X^pts r^s ov TrapaOeaews e-^o/nev irapa AXkciuo ev Tip evaTW, Kovoev €K cevos yevoiro, Zrjvofiios. See Mullach, Quwst. Democrit. p. 362. So also Choeroboscus (Bekkeri Anecd. p. 1362) : dei/, oirep lo-o^uvafxei tw ti. In fact, as we have suggested above (§ 149), §eis=Se-v-$ is really the older form of tis = tI-v-s. The word /xek has the flexion fietvos (Bockh, C. I, I. p. 741), as well as ixevos (Chcerobosc. in Theodos. I. p. 200, ed. Gaisford). Similarly, we find Selvos, as well as Sevos, from Sets. There is no more difficulty therefore in the adverb S 258 THE NUMEKALS. [Book II. Selva from oek, than in 'iva from eh*. But, besides this adverb, we find traces of a regular declension : thus we have gen. deit/os, dat. ceivL, accus. Selva, in the singular, and nom. celves, gen. Selvwv, accus. Selvas, in the plural. The form of the dative plural may be inferred from the forms rols-ceai, Tols-ceaai. These forms are all regular inflexions of cei?, just as fxeivi, which is found in an inscription, is formed from peis. We may, therefore, reasonably infer that there was originally such a Greek word as SeU = c)eVs corresponding to nets - fxevs, and that when 6 Selva is used in the nominative case, the second part must be considered as an adverb. In regard to the genitive cclro? as compared with cerck, quoted by Zenobius, we may remark that there was also a form elva for era. Sec L p. 240, and Buttmann's Mytholoffus, Vol. II. p. From these two words fielt^fuw^, and 8ct? — £er?, we have ju^V, c>/»', and fwj, o/;, which we shall discuss in a future chapter. We have also /uajv, ntjvos, "a month," as well as /mels, /meivos. It may be thought singular that while fiev preserved the final consonant, it is dropt in the correlative ce. It is to be remarked, however, that in words of such common occurrence, the shortest forms would naturally be preferred, unless there were some reason to the contrary, as there ii in the case of yueV, which would otherwise be confounded with the pronoun yue, whereas no confusion could take place between the second personal pro- noun and such a modified form as ( t : . Of the omission of v in such cases, we have other instances in re*, *e, mccr, ew*e, TrpooQev, irpoaQe. An objection has been made by Buttmani. rl SprL § 70. Awn, 7, note) to the derivation of ovccU from ov and oeiSf namely, that the forms wceiila, ovcerepos and ovce-n-ore, manifestly contain oi'ce. Xow it is also a theory of Buttmann's that ovOeis, ovOtv are the masculine and neuter of this n ovcefua, the § being turned into a by the contact of the aspiration, just as is the case on 06 i found for 6c 'Epfiijs in an old inscription, Boeklfs Corp. Lucripi. L p. 32), and as Thiersch would write in Pindar wcrra#ripi0 L'WatT * Schomann (IloctVr's Zeittckr. I. 2, p. 2A9) iqggvtl tha: combinanation of u. Se, and mi: and Mehlhorn {• \ 110) identifies Sets with eh, to which it ultimately reverts, although tlu .dely different. See Ghaeroboac, in Theodoe, p. 199. Gaisford. Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 259 eupfjo-ets (Thiersch's Pindar, II. p. 349). It is, therefore, un- necessary to suppose, because an ov$e /ula implies an ovoe eh, which indeed occur as two words in the older writers, and as one word — oiOels — in the more recent authors, that there could not be such a compound as ov-Seis. The only question is, whether there is such a word as Se/s. If so, and it appears clear that there was, ov~$eis is just as allowable as ov-Se, or ov-Se-eh*. With these uses of the particles <5e, Sets, &c. we may com- pare the collocation Sij rts = nescio quis (Heindorf ad Platon. Pha>d. § 130). 157 The root of the third numeral in the Indo-Germanic languages is t + r with a short vowel either interposed or subjoined, according to the etymological rule that a vowel may be sounded either before or after a liquid. In Sanscrit we have tray as, tisras, trim, in Greek Tpeh, rpia, in Latin tres, tria. We do not know the nominative (threis ?) of this numeral in Gothic, but the genitive, dative and accusative are thrift, thrim, thrins. In Latin we have also ter, ter-nio, and ter-tius. If the second numeral has arisen from the idea of nearness, the third must be the expression for that which is farther. The third personal pronoun ta does indeed express the there, but for the third numeral a stronger form was required, and therefore the particle ra was added to the pronominal root. This particle, which we shall examine hereafter more minutely, expresses the idea of motion from or beyond, the point from which the motion is supposed to begin being indicated by the pronominal element to which the ra is subjoined : thus, when added to the third pronoun, it changes the idea of there into the idea of that which is beyond or farther than the object denoted by the simple de- monstrative. It is not impossible, however, as we have suggested above, that ta-ra may be a corruption of an original tva-ra, in which case the second numeral would be the parent of the third. * The existence of Sets is still questioned by Pott (Zahlmethode, pp. 152, 3), on grounds which seem insufficient in themselves. To say nothing of the passages which prove that this word was actually used, it appears to us that a sound theory respecting the particle Se would almost lead us to assume this inflected form. It is surely a most unscientific proceeding to suppose, as Pott does, that Se is a mutilation of code. S2 260 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. To this point we must return, when speaking of the fourth and sixth numerals. The word t(")-ra is accordingly used in Sanscrit as an affix to pronominal roots, when distance, whether definite or indefinite, is implied : thus we have amu-tra, " on the other side," ku-tra, "where?" It also denotes direction or tendency, and in this sense it appears in the Greek adjectives opea-repot, dypo-repos, ctj/uo-Tepos, &c. In Latin this root appears in the preposition tra-ns, signifying " beyond," and it is also affixed to pronominal stems as in Sanscrit ; thus we have ul-tra, " on that side," ci-tra, " on this side." It appears too in the word ter- minus, " a limit," which has the form of a passive participle, and may perhaps be referred to the verbal root tr which is formed from this pronominal word, cf. Tpdco, in-trare, &e. The most important, however, of the uses of this word is as a suffix, in- dicating the comparative degree in Sanscrit, Greek, and Latin. Thus we have ka-taras, 7r6-T€po<;, u-ter. In this use the idea of "beyond" is also involved. Thus we are told that in the Chinese language, which has no inflexions, hou yoong kwo gno ("lie is more vehement than I"), may be translated literally "he is vehement beyond me" {Quarterly 1\ i \>1. L. p. 1ST). The Hebrew method of expressing the comparative degree is not altogether dissimilar, e.g. pb30 liD, Wkd&or Balaqo, is literally " good above or beyond Balaq." The suffix ta-ra, as is well known, is used when only two things are to be com- pared, and this was its original force when employed as the third numeral: for the first numeral signifies, like the first per- sonal pronoun, " that which is here," the second M that which is near," the third " that which is farther." Now far and near arc relative terms; and though, for the purpose of expressi: person who is neither / nor you, an indefinite t/tire would suffice, the number " three" must be considered more distinctly in its relation of contrast to the number two. Hence it is that the idea of tlicrc was extended to that of relatively greater distance, when applied in direct and particular contradiction to the iu\ nearness contained in the number two. This comparative ending sometimes appears under a form still more like the common third numeral, as in aWo-rpios, for which, however, the .Eolians also wrote d\\o-T6joo9 or aWo-reppo?, as they also wrote Koirepa for Konyxa and Ylepauos or Ileppauos for Tipiauos (Etyni Magn. p, 529, I. W ; Orcgor. Corinth. 6S9 and ! Chai\ 2.] THE NUMERALS. 261 158 That the Indo-Germanic word for the number four is composed of those for one and three is clearly proved by the following combinations. The oldest Greek form was -tre-ropes ; the first syllable bears the same relation to jue- that ire-Sa does to ixe-rd, and the remainder of the word is only another form of Tpels {r^pes). The Sanscrit form for this numeral is, masc. chatvdras, fem. chatasras, neut. chatvdri, where the fe- minine appears to be anomalous ; now the same anomaly is found in the feminine tisras of the third numeral ; it is therefore clear that the last two syllables of the fourth numeral comprise the third. The same appears also from a comparison of the Latin ter with qua-ter, ter-nus with qua-ter-nus, and tri-duum with qua-tri-duum. With regard to the first syllable of the Latin numeral, it is a mutilation of the Sanscrit numeral ekas, " one," which, as we have seen, is synonymous with ce-qv-us and secus : this u will show why -qva stands for -ka in the Latin word for " four." We have before pointed out how ki became softened into chi (§ 147) ; such a softening would most naturally take place in an abbreviated form like chatvdras. By the side of the strong form chatvdras we have a weaker form chaturas. In Gothic we have jidvor and ftdur-dogs, just as we have qvatvor and quatemus in Latin. It will be observed that we generally have v or u in the second part of the word signifying " four,*" although the labial does not appear in the common word for " three." We have suggested before that the relation of " three" might be expressed by adding the particle ra to the second as well as to the third element : and tva-ra, or ka-ra, " motion from that which is near to the here" might signify the third position as well as ta-ra "beyond the there." Indeed, these two forms would be more intelligible even than ta-ra, for they bear outwardly the form of a comparative of the numeral " two," and this is the proper idea of "three." 159 It is a remarkable fact, that the first four numerals in Greek and Sanscrit, and the first three in Latin, are declined, while all the others remain without inflexion. There must be some reason for this. Now we know that the oldest Greek year was divided into three seasons of four months each : and the sub- division of the fundamental number in the state-division into the factors 3x4, of which the four was the basis, needs not to be insisted on. The first four numerals, therefore, would be more 262 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. frequently used as adjectives than any of the others, and for this reason would have inflexions, which the others, whose use would be more adverbial, might want without so much inconvenience. The same remark applies to the corresponding fact with regard to the Roman numerals. The fundamental number of the Romans was three ; they had three tribes, just as the Ionians had four. Besides, the old Etruscan year, which was the basis of their civil and religious arrangements, consisted often months, not of twelve, and therefore the division into tetrads would not hold with them. That this division into tetrads was observed not only in the old Greek and ^Egyptian year of twelve months, but also in the Greek and Sanscrit system of numbers, is clear from the following facts. The numbers two and eight in Sanscrit and Greek have the ordinary dual-ending which is found in the dual number of nouns in those languages; they are written dc-au, cu-w, — a*ht-au, okt-o). The meaning of this termination is clear in the former case : can we then deny its force in the latter ? But if the number eight is really in the dual number, it can only be so as denoting ''twice four ;"" therefore the root of the number eight in these languages must be the number four. This root in Sanscrit is ash-t-. Wc have seen that the first part of the Sanscrit numeral, four, is a mutilation of c-ka aspirated into -cha. Here the whole word is shortened and assibilated into a-sli-. The second part wants the letter r, which gives the third numeral its particular meaning, as distinguished from the third personal pro- noun. That it is wanting here is no argument against the iden- tity of the latter part of the root of the number eight with the number three. In words of common use, when they exceed a certain length, and especially in those which are compounds, process of shortening and softening always takes place, some- times to an extent which renders it difficult to discern the ele- ments of which they were originally made up. Who would sup- pose, on the first inspection, that concio was con-ven-tio t An additional reason for the hypothesis of a sub-division of the duo- decimal basis into tetrads is derived from the fact that in Greek, in which this division seems to have been most called for, the numbers eleven and twelve are single words eritxa and civceKa, whereas the succeeding numbers up to twenty are made up of separate words, connected by kcii : thus, Tpi* kciI Sttra, reaaapc? Kal Sena, kc. The same appears still more clearly from the Teutonic ain-lif, '•' c-levcn," tva-li/, " twe-lve," which D Chap. 2.] THE NUxMERALS. 263 respectively "one" and "two left" or "over" (Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. 450 ; Pott, Zahlmethode, 172 sqq.). 160 There are only two other numerals which appear to contain the roots of the primitive pronominal numbers ; namely, six and seven, which commence with the same letters respectively in Greek and Latin. In these words, however, the process of abbreviation and softening has been carried so far that we can only offer a probable explanation of them. On comparing e-£, e-7TTa, with se-os, se-ptem, and the Sanscrit shash, saptam y it appears exceedingly probable at first sight that the initials in each had a common origin. Setting aside, then, this first syllable, we have in all three languages the letters -pt- as the element of the second part of the numeral seven, and these letters point at once to the elements of the old ireropes " four." The first part, therefore, must be some mutilated form of the number three, so that €-7rr-a, &c. will be 3 + 4 = 7. This also appears from an examination of the corresponding syllable in the number six. Bopp remarks (Vergleichende Grammatik, p. 443) that as the Zend word for six is written Jcsvas, and as sh is neither an original letter nor the beginning of any other word in San- scrit, we may infer that the Sanscrit word should be written kshash. A comparison of the Greek and Latin inclines us to believe that the more ancient form would be ksha-ksh, for there is an evident reduplication. And similarly the Greek and Latin words would be written ef = ae% = (/co-)e-/co--, and sex = (k)se~ks, which are perfectly analogous to, and equally indicative of a reduplication with, the Sanscrit. If, therefore, there is a redupli- cation it must be that the word is composed of two co-ordinate parts, and as the word is a numeral, this must express that it is a number added to itself, and in the case of the number six, this number must be " three." Accordingly, shash = e-K? = se-cs =» 3 + 3 = 6. But although it appears highly probable that the numeral is composed of two words, each signifying three, it would be desirable to know how the element ksh could bear this meaning. Indeed it would be instructive to inquire, in gene- ral, by what consonants this compound* is represented in other * In the Behistun inscription the group Jch-sh is represented by two distinct characters; see Rawlinson, As. Soc. X., 86, 157, who observes 264 THE NUMERALS. [Book U. languages of this family. We shall find on examination that ksh is represented in Greek or Latin (l) by x, (2) by s, (3) by cr. We will take these three cases in order. (l) The Sanscrit kshatra means "a man of the second or military and regal caste," and the Zend ksathra, old Pers. khshd- yathiya, signifies " a king." Now we know from Herodotus (VI. 98) that the Greek word which translates He^/79, is dprj'ios, that which translates ' A pra-%e p^rjs is fieyas dpy'fios. Kosen sup- poses (Journal of Educat. IX. 336) that arta is the perf. pass, participle of ri, which, as appears from a comparison of the San- scrit sakrit, krinoti, mrityu, with the Zend hakeret, kerenoit, merethyu, would be written in Zend ereta (comp. Bahr ad I. Herod.) ; arta therefore means " honoured," and Arta-xerxes "the honoured warrior or king" (like maha-rdjah in Sanscrit) is therefore rather the epithet than the name of a king, as indeed appears from Ctesias, Pers. 49, 53, 51 : fiaaiXeuei £e WpaaKtjs 6 fierovo/uaaOek ' Apra^ep^rjs, and Curtius, VI. 6 : Bessus veste reyia sumpta, Artaxerxem appellari se jusserat (quoted by Pott, Etym. Forsch. I. p. lxv.). Accordingly, nothing is more probable than that He^f*/? is merely the Greek corruption of kshatra. The ksh is preserved here in the first letter of the Greek word, but p% are substituted for the tr. Wilson derives kshat-tra from kshad, Sautra root " to divide, to eat,'.' unadi affix tra. The first syllable has undergone many changes. It is transformed into the Persian shah, just as kshaksh becomes shash. Whether kei is connected with ksha, and kissra with ksatlira (Pott, Etymol. Forsch. I. lxvi.) is doubtful. (-2) Malcolm (Hi>t. of Persia, I. p. 271) translates Satrap "umbrella-carrier." We think this far-fetched, and consider ^ar pd-in^ to be the nearest approximation a Greek could make to what would be in Persian kshctra-bdn (JLarpa-Tnivcx;. Plut. Lueull. XXXI. 4), or the Sanscrit kshetra-pd (we have e^aiOpaweveiv in an inscription), "ruler of the country," for, according to Xenophon (Cin-op. VIII. 6), the Satraps were persons o'lrives ap^ovai rwv tvoon tiov (Pott, Etym. Forsch. I. lxviii.). Here ksh is represented by s only ; comp. sex with kshaksh. In '0-£dfy)>/s, {Diod. XVII. 34. Plut. Artax. c. i.) the Persian ksathra is exactly pre- that the aspiration in each character is developed by the mutual influ of the guttural and sibilant. Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 265 served. The o is to be explained like the first syllable of Otanes, which, according to Pott (Etym. Forsch. I. p. xxxv.), is equivalent to the Sanscrit su-tanu, " having a beautiful body," (su = e v ; tan = " body " in modern Persian) the s being omitted, as in "Ii^os from Sindhu. In the root kship " to throw," the initial guttural is left out in the Latin equivalent sip- {in- sip- ere = injicere, dis-sip-are = disjicere), but in the Greek pnr-Teiv, anciently Fp'nr-Tetv, as appears from epe'nr-eiv (Pott, Etym. Forsch. I. 257. IL 167), we have p substituted for sh. (3) The following instances, in which the Sanscrit ksh is represented by cr in Greek or Latin, have been pointed out by Rosen (Journal of Education, VIII. p. 345, cf. Rig-Vedm Spec. Annot. p. xi.): kshapd " night," Zend ksafna, ksafne, ksapanem, Persian shab, correspond to the Latin crepusculum ; kshura " the hoof of an animal," to the Latin crus (crur-is); and kshipra "swift," "quick," to the Greek Kpanrvos. From (l) we see how the last letter of e£, sex, is related to the last letter of kshaksh : from (2) how the s of sex corresponds to the initial ksh ; and from (3) that either the initial or final ksh may be a representative of Kp, cr. Now we have before suggested that one form of the number " three" might be produced by adding to the second pronominal element the particle ra. We think, therefore, that ksh, in the number "six," stands for the combination ka-ra denoting " three," and that e£ and eivra have suffered the same initial mutilation. 161 It appears then, upon the whole, very probable that seven of the first ten numerals may be traced to the three pri- mitive pronominal elements. The numerals five, nine, and ten, cannot be derived from the same source. Although the duodeci- mal system of notation was forced upon the notice of man by prominent and ever-recurring objects, it must not be forgotten that there was still another mode of counting no less obvious and necessary. We mean the decimal notation suggested by the number of the fingers and toes. That this system of nota- tion should be mixed up with the duodecimal, in suggesting the names of the numerals, is natural enough ; and we see such a mixture in the fact that the Romans had two years, one of twelve months and the other of ten. One would fancy, indeed, without any particular investigation into the subject, that the number five would have some connexion with the word signi- 266 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. fying " a hand," and the number ten with a word denoting the right hand, for in counting with our fingers we begin with the little finger of the left hand and so on till we get to the little finger of the right hand. In Greek and Latin, especially, it is impossible to overlook the resemblance of ceVa, dec-cm to <$€K-aios, dec-s-ter ; and with regard to 7rei/re, quinque, we have already seen (above, $ 146) that the -k of the former is duly repre- sented by the labial included in qv, and its Greek representative F- The same interchange might be presumed in the second syllables re and que, for the identity of which we have abundant exam- ples, and this might seem to be supported by the dialectical form 7r€fi7r€. A more accurate examination, however, ought to con- vince us that the nq in the Latin numeral is merely the represen- tative of an euphonic nasal which took the place of the original n, for the ordinal is quin-tus not quinctus, and the derived proper names (according to the true orthography; see Facciol. s. v. < x ' tins) are Quintius (Samn. Pontius'}, QmnHHuB, Qtttnl &c. The change of vr into /A7r in 7re,u7re, 7T€)U7ra9, 7re/ui7rayt>, irefXTT-ros, &c. must therefore be regarded as euphonical and arbitrary ; and the original form of the fifth numeral in Greek and Latin must have been irevre = Fevre and quint*. ; and this view is confirmed by the Greek ce-na : for we have shown above that Ka may represent cither kv» or kcvt and we have just seen that ce = £Fe. If, therefore, k in Jena stands for an original Kowrra (Varron. p. 201), the compound must denote " twice-fivc;" and as we shall show hereafter that Ka = Feir is the root which expresses M a hand," it will appear that ( Ft-F- - originally meant " two hands," /. c. the ten fingers held out together. With regard to the ninth numeral, in Greek at all events, it is difficult to resist the first impression that mn, which must have been originally tire-Fa, owes its origin to the Greek mode of speaking of the end of a month, and that ewi e'-Fa = e»>- l't'-Ferr means the last of the hand before the two hands were held up together. At any rate Plato seems to have recognised the possibility of irm tc rai i»eos being represented by for it is idle to correct his intentionally ludicrous compound aeXa-ev-veo-aeia in the Cratulus, 100 r>. And it may reason- ably be inferred that the orthography Sr-vor, which so: reject, has arisen from the constant combination of cvos and veos to signify the last day of the month. This must at all events be the meaning in the line o( llesiod, Op, it D. Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 267 JULYS' avafidWeaOai es t avpiov es r evvrjcpi, where it denotes the last of an assumed period, i. e. three days. This explana- tion of the ninth numeral must of course be limited to the Greek language. But the Latin, Sanscrit, and Teutonic novem, navan, niun, admit of an explanation which involves the same idea, though it implies a slightly different origin. For we agree with Bopp and Benary in referring those names to the adjectives novus, nava, niujis, i. e. " new," and the interpretation of their use is simply this — that "nine" can only be contemplated with reference to preceding numbers, and as something later, subse- quent, and neiv. In the Lithuanian and Sclavonian languages no doubt this numeral has immediate reference to the succeeding '•'ten;" thus de-wyni means "therefrom one" (like the Latin do-drans = dequadrans) ; and Pott proposes (Zahlmethode, p. 142) to consider the Sanscrit navan as a compound of na " not," and van = una " diminished," which seems self-contradictory. On these and kindred subjects Lepsius has collected a great deal of valuable information combined with much ingenuity and acute- ness : and though we disagree with him on many points we think it right to give our readers an opportunity of judging for themselves, and therefore subjoin an extract from the essay to which we have referred above*. 162 "It is not difficult to perceive," says our author +, "that this same stem recurs in the number 10 of the Indo-Germanic languages; it is preserved most entire in the Latin de-cem. The final m, which has fallen off in the nominative of the Sanscrit and Zend da-$a, shows itself still in the declension, and therefore may be supposed in the original form of the Greek Se«a. In the Gothic taikun, the k is changed into k according to the usual law : in this it differs from the form admitted in fimf, without, however, justifying any doubt as to the identity of the two forms. Moreover, we find the Gothic form hun, with an addition of d (see Grimm, II. pp. 231, 232), in the compounds sibun- tehund, 70; aktau-tekund, 80; niun-tehund, 90; in which we find tehund as an equivalent to taihun. Indeed both forms are combined in taihim-tehund = 10 x 10 = 100, and it is not till the combinations which follow, tva-hunda, 200; thrija-hunda, 300; &c, that the simple form hunda appears, in which of course we must recognise the same * Dr Richard Lepsius Zwei SpracJivergleichende Abhandlungen. Berlin, 1836. t p. 116. 268 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. stem as in tai-hun and tehund. It is certain, from a mere comparison, that hunda is again found in centum, tta-hunda, in du-centi, &c The radical m or n is thrown out, as is frequently the case before t, in the Sanscrit fata, for which eka-cata is also used (compare i-narou). As hunda reappears in the tens, so also we have centum in (d)ci-ginti, tri-ginta, &c. ; and although the n has fallen out in the Greek e«o- tou, it is preserved in Tpia-nouTa, Teao-apd-novTa ; it has fallen out only in (oF)eiKaTi ; the ordinary Attic form eluoai has gbne still far- ther, and has softened t into s ; so also in cia-K 6f definitive, and, at the BUDS time, extensive comparisons, like those which are possible in the numerals, to establish such facts as must necessarily be :o objections, when the investigation is confined within the limits of a single language. "How then are we to interpret this widely-diffused stem, which we see recurring in the five, the tens, and hundreds of all Indo-Germanic languages? Wc observe that this stem contains precisely the most essential numbers of the decimal system. In general, how have man- kind arrived at the decimal system, which is so inconvenient for all minute reckoning, and especially for division ? and yet the earlier the period, the less was the occasion for large numbers, in which the fun- damental system becomes less important. Finally, why did they not go back to the number 5, the lowest basis of the decimal "We find both systems together among the aborigines of America, as well as among the most polished nations of all ages. Whence came this decimal system which has every where taken its place by the s: the far more natural duodecimal system I From what else but from the 10 Jingers of the two hands, on which every child at the pn day begins to count. Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 269 "In this simple consideration we must be struck with the sur- prising resemblance between hunda and handus, the hand, in Gothic : in fact a narrow scrutiny of both stems, which we will now attempt, will easily convince us that this similarity is not merely external and accidental, but that the two words are etymologically one and the same. "Handus is immediately connected with hinthan, capere*, which we also find in the isolated, and, I might almost say, Germanized form pre-hendo. Grimm (Gr. II. p. 35) is quite right in also referring to this stem hund-s, canis, the catcher, qui capit /eras. In this too we see that in the whole stem d is really nothing but an affix, of which Grimm (II. p. 231 foil.) has very fully treated : for hund-s, with the usual changes, but without d, is found in the Greek kw-os, Latin can-is, Sanscrit c van (gen. abl. cunas, dat. cun-e, instrum. cun-a, locat. cuni, nom. cvd, accus. cvan-airi). We find the same stem in the Homeric form 761/ -to V lfxdhts seems to haw 1 the feeling of their identity for the longest period, while in other laagliagM this fceH - oner lost because they had no form for handus so similar to that for 100. " In the number 5 wo find not only no mutilation, but even a reduplication of the stemt. The Latin is the only language in which we find traces of the simple stem, namely in qu quin-aritu, -), unless these * Voyage de Humboldt et Bonphind. It-re Partie. a Pari*. 1>1«\ p. [-"- Bopp and Penary think that the last syllable of the numeral five in Sai> Latin, and Greek, is the copulative conjunction, and that the nasal, which, in S.i and Zend, appears at the end of this numeral, is a later excrescence. Bopp ( JVrj//. Gramm. p. 443) considers ;>rtn'-i'/m as signifying "and one,*' the first syllable being the neuter form of pa which appears as the number "one.*' Benary remarks Jierl. Jahrb. July 1S33, p. 4S\ that pan'-cha is easily explicable as a mutilation of pfin'i-cha "and the hand," because with this number they began to count with the other hand : and he thinks this derivation confirmed by a comparison of pan -cha.quin-qite, and xt : r-Tf, the last syllable in each being the regular conjunction in each language. This 1 tion is not to be despised : but if the termination of these words is the conjunction, it implies simply that after counting four the whole hand was opened and held up.] CHAr. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 271 forms have arisen from a mutilation which seems to be indicated by the double m in the old Norse. " In taihun, 10, we easily recognise Mai with an omission of the v : ' two hands/ Just so in da-gan, de-cem, Be'-Kct. "In tvdi-ti-gns, 20, 'twice two hands,' the first tvdi is still entire; ti is a further mutilation of the tai in tai-hun. We find that in the other languages even this ti has fallen out. Instead of (d)vi-gati, we ought to have (d)vi-da-gati from da-ga, instead of dvi-ginti : dvi-de- ginli, instead of el-Kan : el-SeKari. "The same relation remains in thrija-ti-gus, c 3 times 2 hands,' fid- v6r-ti-gus, ' 4 times 2 hands,' sibun-te-hund, ' 7 times 2 hands,' &c. "In "Gothic the number 100 is written at full length taihun-te- hund, ' 2 hands x 2 hands.' But this exactness does not extend farther in Gothic; instead of the difficult composition taihun tehund, the following hundreds return to the simple stem, and we have tva-/umda, 200, instead of tvdi-ti-gus tehund. In the other languages, as also in the later dialects of the German language, the simple stem is put for 100, and only distinguished by the ending, so that enctTov properly signifies * one hand,' and as far as the letters are concerned, du-centi and dvi-ginti are perfectly identical, and denote 2 hands, just as tdi-hun does*. * "Grimm (Gr. II. p. 17) is perfectly right in connecting the following words: Gothic teihan (nuntiare, dicere), old High German zihan (accusare), zeigon (indicare), zeha (digitus, i. e. index) ; Gothic taihun, old High German z't'han (decern), Gothic tigus (decas, numerus index), &c. A confirmation of this will appear in the following development. "In counting with the fingers one naturally begins with the left hand and so goes on to the right. This may explain why in different languages the words for the left refer to the root of Jive, those for the right to the root of ten, and why expressions like finger, fangen, zeigen, z'dhlen, refer sometimes to 5, and at other times to 10. To omit any strict development of the ideas, — that there is a connexion between 10 (the second hand) and the right hand, appears from the words : Sanscrit da-ca — dak-sha, dah-shina; deica — 8eK-//oo)s, &c. Germ, tear, tcthren, fc& i^Graff, I. p. 900 , Sanscrit rri, ,\c. Similarly sittis-ier refers to the sinus toga', which was on the left hand (Pott, Zdhlmethode, p. 139)]. "The notions of pointing, receiving, fce. are, as we might expect, not to be found in the stems for 'five' and 'left :' but the finger belongs to the left hand as well as to the right, and while ituc-rvXoc and digitus refer to ceKa and decern, the Gothic^/fyjrr*, old High German vin-kar, refer to Jimf and vinf. The formation in k (comp. Gothic juggs, old High German jun-c with jun-ior, stren-ki, stren-ge, strong, with stren-uus, &c. Grimm, II. p. 2S7 ML) shows itself in the verb fin-gan, fan-gen (Gr. II. p. 00, nr. 603; I. p. 1023, nr. 1>\ and rin-gan (capere) bears the same relation to Jig -grs that hin-than {capere) does to han-Jus." * " Just as there is a break after taihun tihund and a return to the simple httnda, the Romans, when they got beyond 100,000 in their money-reckonings, left out this Bum and said only decies arris, instead of decies centena tnillia a*ris, and 1 stst<.rtium was in the reckoning equivalent to 1600 sestertii, when it was joined to decern, undecir and to 100,000 sestertii, when connected with decies, undecies, I Ceap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 273 for 9, -which is also, I think, though not so distinctly, derivable from the stem kvam. It has here, as in irefi-ire^Jimf, old High German vinf, thrown off the k, and appears as vam. We start here from the Greek ewea, which stands for iu-veFafx, as we see from novem, navan, niun. The Greek form is distinguished by the prefix eY-, which is wanting in the other languages. In this we are immediately reminded of e-KaToY, which appears more entire in the Sanscrit eka fata, 'one hundred.' There is a form ekona or -una peculiar to the Sanscrit, (originally it was eka vinct, 'one without/ 'one less') which subtracts one from the number which follows : ekona mnqati or una vin$ati, 19- Similarly, there might have been an ekona dacan, or una dagan, for 9 ; the da fell out, as in vingati for vin-da-gati, and there remained ekona-kan or ekonavan, which corresponds to the Greek iwepau, or unavan, which by dropping the u becomes navan, not em and niun" This disquisition anticipates all that remained to be said on the tens and hundreds. 163 The words yiXioi, 1000, and {xvpioi, 10,000, are merely expressions for large but indefinite numbers, like the Latin mile, i.e. m-ile = oiuL-i\ia, "a great crowd;" whence miles (mil-it), " one who goes in or belongs to a large body" (See Varro- nian. p. 215). The connexion of -^iXioi with ^tXo?, "a heap of fodder," is self-evident : and it is equally clear that xjlXos is con- nected with ^€(0 (^e'Fo)), just as ^etAo? is with ^aw (ya.V'oS), and tcavXos with icaiw, kclFm, Kauco. That it has nothing to do with the words xXotj, ^Xwp'?, &c. as Pott supposes (Etym. Forsch. I. p. 141), is shown by the length of the first syllable. The inti- mate relationship in meaning which subsists between -^eco and yiXo\ will be felt by any one who reads such passages as Odyss. XL 588 : cevopea o v^nirerrjXa KaTaKprfiev ^e'e KapTrov. The same is the case with juvpioi, which, with a difference of accen- tuation, is used in the best writers in a general and indefinite sense. Thus we have /uaXa ixvpioi, "a great many," /uvpia ],ukjv, and aXXos. It has been mentioned that the ordinal of the second num- ber is Seurepos, and it will be observed that this word contains the comparative suffix -repos explained above. This compara- tive suffix is, as we have seen, from its origin peculiarly adapted to the expression of a relation between two persons or things, especially of the relation between farther ami Hence, the ordinal of the number two would naturally be ex- pressed by affixing to that numeral this comparative termination, for in that case a relation between two only is implied. But when the relation of nearness is applied to one out of a greater number, we find that a different termination is affixed, and toto? is the word used when we are speaking of the nearest out of a given series, that is, " the last," considering them as in a state of motion from the tt w the ending -raros is the most common of those which are used to ex} the superlative degree in Greek. This form points at om a reduplication, and would lead us to suppose that there must have been at some time a superlative form in -ros only. The ordinals in the common Greek writers are -ptoTos (or -rrpoTepos when only two are spoken of), ceurepos (or Seuraro?, when more than two are spoken of), Tp'iros, rerapri -ros, euros, tficofJLOs, oycoos (or oy&oFos, as the analogy of the Latin octavus would lead us to infer), t : i ercrrof, i e'tKocTTOSj &c, e/caTo<7To'<>, CictKocrtocrTos. \c yi . uvpioa- tos. Now in all these, except -ct^oyoof - (which, like octants, exhibits r for m ; cf. ipOMj Spofiosjt the termination is ~o<. The same termination is found in the Sanscrit chaturthas, sltash-thas, and in the Latin quartus, quintus, sewtus ; all the other Latin ordinals except w w n rfm Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 275 (which is merely the participle of sequor), octavus (for octa- mus), and nonus (for novimus), end in -mus, an equivalent to which is found in the Sanscrit pancha-mas, sapta-mas 9 ashta- mas, nava-mas, daga-mas. As fio? and to? can have no con- nexion with one another, we must conclude that they are both allowable forms of the ordinal termination. They both imply that the thing specified is the last of a series going on from the speaker. The syllables fio?, mus, mas contain the element jxe of the first personal pronoun. The syllables to?, tus, thas, as Bopp has properly observed (Vergl. Gramm. p. 393), imply motion from a place, and the Latin termination tus is constantly found in that sense, as in coeli-tus, "from heaven," sub-tus, "from under," in-tus, "from within." The common Sanscrit terminations for the comparative and superlative are -tara, -tama (Latin -timus), which are sometimes written -dhara, -dhama, as in a-dhara, " the lower," a-dhama, " the lowest." We have also the synonyms a-dhas and a-tas, between which stands our termination -thas with the same meaning. This termination is found directly in Greek in such words as %v-to? (intus), vog-to?, " from afar," &c. But the more usual form in which it appears is Oev (=6e?, Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 250), which bears much the same relation to to? that we have seen in the Sanscrit forms -dhas, -tas. Now the meanings of these terminations all apply equally well to the ordinals or super- latives, whether we consider them as indicating generally sepa- ration or removal, or as denoting motion from the subject. Thus also the termination applies very well to such words as €kcig-tos, "the very one," "the one by himself," which is formed as a superlative from eica?. If these remarks be well founded, then -to? must be the proper form of the superlative, and -tclto? merely a reduplication of it, just as we have both Tpi-TCLTo? and Tpi-To?. The force of this termination perhaps appears most evident in the word 7toX\oo-t6?, which means " one taken out of many," and hence, by a very natural tran- sition, "very small;" for, when a given whole is divided into many units, the smallness of the unit will of course depend on the number of them. The word also signifies " the last of a long series," as in Aristoph. Pax, 559 : ao~7rao~ao-Qat Ovfxo? rj/ulv e.GTt ttoWocttm y^povto, T2 276 THE NUMERALS. [Book II. i. e. " after so long a time," " in the last of so long a series of 'years;" the converse of which is oXiyoaros ypouos (Soph. Antiy. 619). These meanings arise naturally from the signifi- cation which we have given to the affix, and we do not know of any other means of explaining the word. We have also a very striking proof of the correctness of this view in the ordinary use of the superlative in Greek, where we should expect a comparative according to our idiom. Thus we have in .Eschy- lus (Persce, 180) : eco^artju /ulol cvo yvvaiK eue't/uove — els o^/iv fidXeiv — fieyeOei twv vuv evTrpeireaTdra tto\v, where these two visionary women are supposed to be the first of a series including all the actually existing women, with whom they cer- tainly would not be classed were there not something in the nature of a Greek superlative which renders a construction like this necessary. The same also appears from the common Greek idiom Tre/xTrTov clvtos, " with four others," &c. Id.") Although the G recks generally nipuiSMNl the comparative by -Te-pos, there was another method which they adopted 1 frequently in the OAK of disyllabic adjectives terminating in -po* or -uc This was by affixing the termination -mnt. There was, bowever, a great difference in the etymological structure of these and the other COmp&r&tives. For while the termination -tc-jkh is appended to a fixed case or adverbial inflexion of the positive, the suffix -io>i' = << added, like other formative adjuncts, to the crude or uninflected form of the noun. This fact, which we first pointed out in another place {dr. Or. art. 2G9 sqq.), explains all the peculiarities in the form of the syllable immediately preceding --repot, in which the traces of the original adverb are more or less distinct according to the influence of euphonical and other like considerations. The quantity of -. variable, the first syllable being short in the old epic port-, and afterwards; in this variableness it stun n the ana' oscrit terminations -tpor, -ij/th'tti. and the Latin -tor, one of which has the first syllable always long, and the other always short. Some of the comparatives thus formed admit of an anomalous contraction, which requires some notice. Thus rajp* makes comp. - ^'jo-to?, but Toy/toi' is often contracted into Baram*, neut. Oaavov. •Similarly fiaBvs makes fSacra-tav ; fipa$m t fija m wm : crttv; /unK-po?, /jLCio-crwv ; 7ra^u'?, irdk plate after the word had, by assimilation, lost the outward features of its original form. In Sanscrit an-ya and an-ya-tani arc synonyms for M other," "different." In fact a Wo? is rather a distinctive word, than a compa- rative like etc/xk: thus the grammarian - II. p. 876- 1.4) : oAAoc ati' Ctrl 7rAcu):'aM' \eytTcit MM tTri aWoiov kcit^z en-epos he €ir\ hio. The same may be said of pevofrc pos : for alth )Lteo-io9, medius, have unquestionably a comparative mear. the general use of the word, it may have become necessary to ha\ \ § 150. Chap. 2.] THE NUMERALS. 279 separate form to express more strongly that one of two objects was nearer to the middle point than the other. In Sanscrit, madhya has a superlative madhyama, like the Latin medioximus. We have before remarked on the connexion of "pm ; fetf, the root of viar, appears in . 173 and irapd. Connexion of the latter with ircpi, irpos, prce, prater, and per. 178 Ucpl and the Sanscrit pari, para. 17'J 'Vto and iirip. 180 Sid and cv6, Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 283 7T/009, avv } and twelve dissyllables, dn(pi, dvd 9 dvri, diro, did, €7T i, Kara, nerd, napd, irepi, virep, vwo. We shall consider these according to the relations which they express, and not ac- cording to any arbitrary division of former grammarians*. Since the prepositions retain their original meaning, as words indicating positions and directions in space, more characteristically than any other pronominal words, and also present the simplest com- binations of the original elements of the pronouns, we will, pre- viously to examining these Greek forms separately and in detail, endeavour to point out their etymological analysis in a sum- mary manner, and to explain the general principles of their com- position. It has been stated before that the primitive pronouns are three in number, expressing respectively the positions here, near to the here, and there, and that different modification of di- rection or position may be denoted by combining these original stems with one another or with the particle la or ra. On examination it will appear that all the Greek prepositions, with the exception of Sid which is a form of the second numeral, are compounds of at least two of the primary elements, or of one of them with -ra. We have already adverted to the principles according to which we would arrange and classify all pronominal compounds (§ 130). After a careful dissection of all the pro- nominal forms with which we are acquainted, we have arrived at the conclusion, that if any one of the elements of position is combined with -ra, it indicates motion and continuation in a direction of which the element in question represents the point nearest to the subject; and that, by subjoining any one of the pronominal elements to any other of them, we denote a motion or continuation from the position denoted by the first element towards that indicated by the second. Thus we have seen, that the second element when prefixed to -ra (as in ka-ra) expresses motion onwards from the position indicated as near, so as, in fact, to coincide with a word indicating the third position (ta, or even ta-ra) ; and that the first element subjoined to the third (as in ta-ma) expresses motion or continuation from the third * The object of this chapter is to discuss the signification rather than the syntax of the Greek prepositions : as a supplement to the cases they are fully treated in the Greek Grammar, articles 470 — 488. 284 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book H. position towards the first, so as to coincide with the second position (cf. fini-timus, &c). We shall find this method most amply illustrated bj the Greek prepositions. Of these 7ra-pd, ire-pi, 7r-po, 7r-/oo-9, are compounded of the first element and pa. In the first, which is also written ira-pal, we find both elements in the simplest form. In the second, in which traces of a heavier ending still remain, the vowel of the first element has as-umed the lighter form e, according to a principle which will be more fully explained hereafter. In ir-po and ir-po-s, which are in fact one and the same word, another element has been subjoined in the $, indicating motion or transitiveness, and probably a shortened form of the affix -09, -aio, which plays an important part as the sign of the genitive case. In consequence of this addition, the root-vowel has been dropt before the liquid, and a medium weight given to the vowel of the termination. The forms Tr-po-Tt, iro-T[ y also used for ir-pd-s, are compounds, one of the preposition ir-po, the other of the simple element of the first pronoun, with the element of the second under the form n = 9 (§152); and both, therefore, denote (the former more strongly) motion from the first to the second position. A similar form is /ue-rd, which is compounded of the first and third elenK and signifies "with" as a connexion between the here and the there, and " after" as denoting an approximation to their union. The third pronoun is subjoined to the second in nt-na, as it is to the first in fxe-rd, and the meaning which results is ana- logous. In the Sanscrit the first element is appended to a form of the second; the meaning "with," which resul explicable in much the same way m the nmill If the latter expresses " with" as implying a junction of the here with the there, so §a ma may convey the - of idea as implying an union of the near with tlu Wti shall by and by how this differs from e of the full termination in old words, like the pronouns, in Sanscrit, and its appearance in the Greek and Latin pronouns are to us sufficient proofs of its being * Those Sanscrit nouns which form their locative in ( * arc no rai from the general ending in 1, for in all those nouns the crude form ends in a, and I = CM, Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 287 the most ancient form of the locative. The Greek pronouns, in which this termination is found, are e/uiv, tc'lv, tiv, iv, elr, o ex pr omo s nothing but locality, or the abiding in a place, is to be plained from the addition of the element ff, which is also a mark of the nominative or relation of subjectivity. The termination 7i((i)s appears also in the Latin preposition tra-ns. There is only one passage, so fir as we know, in which the preposi- tion eh has occasioned any difficulty. It i- in Ettri] ToSpOt c' V/3f}lf eU, and from the passage in his ILL < where a bull is described re vwra neU Kepas xa^£^/i\cx«i' With regard to the so-ealled usage of m as a synonym for need only be observed that this adverb is constantly employed by the best writers with prepositions of motion like t.\\ tirt, - the latter, followed by an aeeusative. so that the three words are I Talent to uk with a participle, and the construetion is explained in the common grammars by a supposed ellipse of the participle. This course, is an unnecessary hypothesis ; but it is generally easy to see that there is an ellipsis of the preposition tt.uk in the apparent use of m for Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 289 ek with the accusative, which is generally restricted to the names of persons. Thus we read (Deraosth. Phil. III. p. 113): ek OwKe'as ws 7rp6<> o-vwjLctxovs eiropeveTo^ where ek OwKe'a? strictly speaking denotes the name of the country, whereas m vrpos o-vfx^d-^ov, a mho, &e. The identity therefore of iwt and abhi farther confirms the connexion between e-rri and diucpi On the other side t'-i coincides so remarkably in some of its applications with the Latin ob, that it is difficult to suppose that the Greek and Latin prepositions can have had different ori- gins. Thus optimum from ob manifestly denotes uppermost, and therefore stands like supitm ut and wmmim in complemen: opposition to infimus and imus. Here we have ob with the com- mon meaning of eiri, " upon." But it corresponds to the other meanings of enl and d[ij eni Ta9 (Plutarch. Lac. Apophth. p. 241 e). Much in the same way, we find d/u(pi used with the accusative, as in Eurip. Pktm. 122: da-nic dfx(pl f3p*> y[ova kov(P'l(wv. With the dative e-rr\ and dix')• -^ s however dft(pi has retained its original form more completely than e7r<, we must expect that the combined meanings M up and about, or around," will be more consistently retained by the stronger word. 174 There is • u-ry remarkable reference to the original meaning of eVi and d/Mpi, when the former is naod fan composite »n to signify mu- tuality, an interchange, a running of one thing into another. As this meaning of M has not been sufficiently noticed by Greek scholar- shall illustrate it by examples. In this sense M is frequently prefixed to a\Ao?, or some word like it, and the origin of the nullin g BOH be the same as that of d\\tj\wv, with which indeed it is combined, if we may adopt Hermann's very probable emendation of Sophocles (Antiy. 57): Tp'iTOv 6 dt€\(pio Cvo fxiav ROV tjutpav CtVTOKTOVOVVTi, TO) Ta\tt«7roy>a>, fjiopov koivov KaTeipydaavT eraAAif Aot» ^€fto7v. The expression of mutuality or interchange by juxtaposition seems to have been the result of a natural love of brachylogy or tin mode of expressing our meaning. When \ they hurt one an- other," we mean that A hurt i?, and also that B hurt A : which would certainly not be expressed by saying v * the one hurt the other." Simi- larly in Greek, if we wrote a\\ should merely expiess that the one party killed the other, but if we put the two pronouns together and write uKXm aXXowc (aAA#X'crew? irepi dvayicaia*;, Kai Tives KCt\ dXXqXwv eyeyewTo. It is here simply stated that the Potida?ans were reduced to the necessity of feeding on human flesh : of course aXXtjXwv is not used in its ordinary signification, for there could certainly be no recipro- city in such an action as that referred to in the text; but still less can any reflexive meaning be intended. Thucydides perhaps considers the Potidaeans as one body, and intends, by the use of aXXtjXcov, to indicate that they fed upon the corpses of their fellow-citizens : this is the only way in which we can comprehend the interpretation given in the crvva- 7017*7. There are other passages in which aXXtjxcov cannot be inter- preted with any reference to reciprocity. In Odyss. XII. 102, dXXrtXtav must be equivalent to eTepwv if the present punctuation is retained : tov 3' eTepov o-KOTreXov yQaixaXuiTepov 6\j/€i, 'OBucrtrev, irXriimilar word cvaXAo^it, sec Wyttenbach on Plutarch [Moral I. 2, p. 885). In Clue etriyaixia is used (Herodot. II. 147); it also denoh - nubii between tn or partiee in a state (Wolf •/•/ Ihmosth. Leptin. p. 282), The word eVaAAo-nw is need to express an inter- change or interlacing in a material Benae in the foil - : to pev €/ -ni\ o x6yo< ewaXX tt lest your words be perverted." Aristot. Polit. I. 6, (p. 1255, 1. 13 Bekker) : airtov Be Teurrir? cm'/ T »/ , ? nat o itojo tov? \070vc t \arreiVj on eirci &ia«Wrr«»» ?e ^w^ 500 D: o piK€ tov Xoyov. — Retp. V. p. 4-79 B: to?* €k tok co-Tiao-ecr.* * Chap. 3] THE PREPOSITIONS. 295 i> e Trii/f fxovTtav dixa na\ f3aCt{orrvi> ctd tov xtapiov, rr/i' a'ttxaa'tav Trepiu)Kocofxr](T€ TavTtjv. From the fact that the debatable land between two couir rally left untilled, e-rep- yaaia is also applied to the cultivation of such land, or generally to the appropriation of sacred or public pr I. IS, (p. 1874 a, Bskk*): in epyd&aa-d at u t Y u'w' am cr-jnun-ui. Diodor. Sicul. X^ I. 23 : ot ce 4>o>k6k €7T€ pya€?a SO) ; Cf. Plat. Zjjy. p. v Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 297 above. Another word of some difficulty, in which we believe eVi is found with this sense, is iiripafiSofope'iv, which signifies to gallop, as applied to a horse. This meaning is generally supposed to be derived from the pd(3lo<;, or riding- whip, with which the rider struck his steed in order to quicken its motion. Passow compares it with ewia-eieiv, which is used in much the same sense: but we are convinced that this last word is derived from the act of shaking the rein in order to urge on the horse, a practice to which allusion is frequently made in the Greek writers. Thus, Soph. Antig. 109: (pvydda irpohpofxov o^vTepco Kivtjaaaa %a\ivu>, which the editors' have generally misunderstood. Euripides, Iphig. Taur. 909 : wo-0' alfxarrjpd h' dv fxdXi applies to an action, not of the rider, but of the horse, and this action is the gallop, for the whole passage is about the change from the trot to the gallop. The Greek word for " to trot" is, as we see here, hiaTpo-^d^etv^ "to make two wheels," for, as every one knows, when a horse trots, he makes semicircles with his legs first on one side of the body, and then on the other : so that the hind and fore feet on the same side occasionally touch. Hence Aristotle mentions it as a fault in sculpture if the artist represented tov Yttttov d^cpta tcc he£id 7rpo/3ef3\ri- kotu (Poet. XXIV. 4). To this Virgil also alludes in the Georglca III. 192, when talking of breaking the horse: At, tribus exactis, ubi quarta accesserit sestas, Carpere mox gyrum incipiat, gradibusque sonare Compositis, sinuetque alterna volumina crurum. Which Voss, with his usual accuracy translates " und erhebe die week- selnde Krumme der SchenkeW That Virgil is here talking of the trot is farther obvious from his allusion to the gallop, which immediately follows : turn cursibus auras Turn vocet, ac per aperta volans, ceu liber habenis, iEquora, vix summa vestigia ponat arena. 298 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. It appears then that the word which expressed the action of trotting was derived from the appearance of the horse's legs in trotting: accord- ingly, we should expect that the same would be the case with the word expressing the gallop. Now the primary idea in pdfilos is " beating," " striking," " an instrument to strike with*— pdaauv, pairlgiv ; and it appears to have been one of the chief functions of the pajlioZxos, or pa ftoo(p6 f >o;yrt«? e\afiev ; and when a horse gallops or car he strikes the ground a f with his fore and hind feet. This, therefore, is expressed by eTrtpaficofpopelv. 17.") The use of nri to signify combination or coexistence ma;, be considered as a trace of thi lion's original identity with apaTa cV a Soph . Ant /;/. 5 5 5 : ovk i w* dfipiroi* ye tok Ifuik \ o y o 1 - 1 eVl yjroyotm fewageir. Enrip. J i» aa^amran ptj\oivi. this way M a especially on I when dishes are 1 together: thus Alistoph. Equit, 707 ' W r$ ,. r (/ .vi eVi ™ n ing or relish even for death itself, in his own glory and renown" (On this sense ofopenf, see Pindar, O^ray.VIL 163. Ihn . SophocL Pkiloct. 1 '■ p. « 'l llitc a mistake of Matthia (Gr » that M has this force in sentences like Si sVl — awl wwrj uka. if &e eVc m enQavov — which is precisely our idiom "died with laughter." Soph. TVttfiftm. 568: fudutja-Ktav ] : na\ (geOavc vvrrcucit, /it/!. A : i<: mm yXtmim iiyav ye\daai yeXtoTi tK$a9Ci9 \eycrat, tjyovv f£«, kcu, •»* fin-fir, ciri- Tro.Vaj'u? Oaifur, sat ov koto tvcik Th nts some peculiarities of rhile in ■ mon ap- plication it Signifies to carry out a corpse to burial, the el ieh, by the nature of th rl of concealment and seclusion ( si shown by the Latin words as-j :hic/?7/<.< I -d avroBoBwrrm, Demosth. p, 1071. 2) : and is represented also by the Lai With reference to this Beam I leans "a funeral," and perhaps there is truth in the suggestion that JBsehyl Chap. 3 ] THE PREPOSITIONS. 301 Eumenid. 910: twv Svaro-efiovvTcov V encpopiorepa 7re\ot, means "mayest thou rather carry off the impious as corpses" (see Miiller, Eumeniden, p. 178). The other meaning of incjiepio is found in such passages as Eurip. Hippol. 650 : vvv o' al fxev evdov Ipwa-iv at Kauai Kand (3ov\evp.aT\ cfw 8' €K(p6povai Trp6oneiv ev Xeyetv ty\v $6£av encpepovrai. Xen. de venat. 1, 15: lo^av evaefielas e^rjveyKaTo. In the signification " to lead out of a crowd, to conduct from a confusion of surrounding objects to a definite end or goal," e\(pep(o is used both transitively and intransitively. Thus, of a road or path, Plato, Phced. p. 66 B : Kivlvvevei rts uxnrep drpaTro^ excpepeiv qfxds fxerd tov \6yov ev rrj os (Sanscrit pur as), prai, pro (Sanscrit pro), irpw-l, (whence pru-ina), on the one hand ; and irepl, Sanscrit pari, on the other hand, we shall find it impossible to believe that the Greek prepositions irpo, irapd, and irepi, and the Latin pro, pro, par, are not etymologically connected. Nor is there much diffi- culty in reconciling their various meanings. The essential part, the expression of the here, is the same in all the words which we have compared above; the only variation is in the affix, which is written ro-s, ra, ri. Let us examine the force of these terminations in the Greek : (1) tt-joo', or ira-po- which is before the subject;" tt-^o-c, -rr-po-ri denotes -motion towards that which is before the subject" when joined with the accusative: -mere direction" when joined with the genitive*; and -closeness" when joined with the dative; in t ollo- c;ltion u | very natural transition, "adding," or -supeiimpo^nir:'' I fl \ wapi is found with the same three eases, and in its general use corresponds pretty nearly to tt-^o-9, except in its use with the genitive, when it invariably means that something is taken away from some other thing rue there is an appearance of the same force in such pi Tixfc, fL>)Tp6s\ " on the lather's, mother's side," o\ - itos, " blood-relations," cure BifwmK wpii dkA « «- oin - missioo from Jupiter" (Iliad I. 8 ~P°s dvfiptoir'tcv uiro&'ferm, "proceeding from men" (Eun r . 625), and in the other examples cited by Matthur ; but the more general use of Tr-po-s is unquestionably to denote motion, not from, but 10, a place before us: (3) ire-pl generally when joined to the genitire, '-relation:" when joined to the dative,' -closeness," "on," "about;" when joined to the a; * On the va-ue us- l » ith the geoitta Gr - 4oK,\r/? tyX 0<: ireptTreTts elireiv eToXpLrjacv^ €i (815), and Ktvrat upv- (palw (paayavio ireptirrv^tj': (883). But these passa_ •thing to do with the propel interpretation of weptwerm in t! one: the construction of that line is obvious, and though it is true that w«/»l generally denotes thai which is round any I not a round hole, it does not follow that it may Oo4 ha\e borne the other signification also. Lobeck quotes the following passages in illustration of the fins in Sophocles; .lllian. // \ An. XV. c. 10: uyKicrpa ireptwayevra to?c l^dvai ; Liban. D y Ti-Tpalvw, Tpttt» y Ti-Tptaaum, Tpau/ia, Tpu'w, Tpvirti, rpvrruu\ flfco. Now these words are unquestionably con- nected with one of the simplest wor ■':- ling UyonJ, or mot we mean the ending -tOTO, -repos, discussed in the last chapter. The analogies between this set of words and tlu - g extends in many directions, both in Greek and Latin. In the I have Tt. oc, terminus, t/\ms, by the side of wf'pac, -rtpnw (irepdu)), "the object of a journey," "the place goa ha words re/9/tuz, 7T€-\ac, also signify •* an end," "a termination" in general, and verbs signifying" to end." or "finish" are frequently used in Greek to Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 305 express a journey: thus dvvo-eiv tov "Alav (Soph. Aj. 606), where Lobeck quotes icaTai/vVas ef 'E. e? A. (Herod. VI. 140); reXew ewi to repfxa (Lucian. Trin. §20); 'A0»jW UicepSiv (Athen. II. p. 47 c); Teptxa P'ioio nut es j3a\(33a Treptj § 1)» for the purpose of flank (Id. ibid. III. c. 13, § 2), or for the purpose of % the movements of a line of infantry (Id. ibid. V. c. 16, § 1 : e\ kvk Trapnnrevwv avtirave rovs irf^ow'c). Doderlein. who ha> seen the Msion between parito ami port, lias not o 'he connto beiweOB the hitter and iujii". hut ha- ce an affinity between munis- and Mo. :;.')(». N I does DOt apply to mnm liich denotes the outer wall of a or h (iridiums muro& ei nutnia pan- diuius iis, from which Nicbuhr WOvJd infer I distinction of buildings witliin and walls around a city //. ft, II. note 80), a distin which is not home out by the practice of t! that Bmmi and ma HM come from the MB uvta^ mceniu, which we have discus I d in am>ther part of this book, and that the only difVerence between the words is that I "a wall'* generally, but city-wall or fortification in particular. If we place this meaning of separation by the side of the other signi- fications of 7T- ; that the meaning of the Sai. proTroan jta ra = often is noi by all <•!' them, and that they are all merely moditications of the expression of dicer yomd considered in immediate connexion with the subject ; from this gllNBoV mnaninfl all their OSee may be explained, the separate only different cases of the 5 >un. This pronoun occurs directly in the Latin fMT, which is equivalent to alter (Pott, Ftym. Forsch. II. p. 2:>0), and we may it in the compounds perm" die ("on another d of another cor. )7r avTta £(oa irepie^eiu /jlcWovti £(ou> irpeirov dv e'trj a^rj/j.a to irepiei- \rj(p6s ev aura) irdvTa dirocra a-^t]fxaTa' $io k. su-b, v-pa arc related to i-wip, irij as | tives to comparatives. A similar relation subsists between the Gothic ?(/, nfar : thus in Ullilas, Mark iv. 82, vtt6 n)v gkiuv avTov, "' vnd> r the >haduw of it." / skadau and Mattlt. x. 24, ovk eart /uadtjTtjs v-rcp rov ciddaKa ovc6 3ov\o? iwip Tor Ki'i'ior ui rov, M the disciple is not al his master, nor the servant ab As in the Gothic version " nist siponeis ufar laisarja : nih ska. ■ fraujin seinamma." Now "over" and "under" are both comparat: the former being, in fact, identical with ufar. The simple method of explaining this difference is, to suppose that 1 vpa, vf originally signified " up," M upon, ' like iwi and and then, according to the proper use of the suff -ep, super, upari, ufar, would mean M upper," as the companv of the other set of words. The meaning of the words "over" and "under* is this, that the subject considers himself as a point in a vertical line, every point in the line, reckoning from his feet, being considered as " under," and every point in the line, reckoning from his head, being considered M that the subject is the positive, and those two w^ paratives, not in relation to one another, but to him ; tln> Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 309 is, that when the relations of "over," "under" are expressed bj comparative forms, as in English, German, and Sanscrit, they contain different roots : for " over," fiber, upari, have no etymo- logical connexion with " under," miter, antar. But " over" and "under" are really opposed to one another; they are rela- tive terms, and are expressed as such, when, as in Greek, Latin, Sanscrit, and Gothic, they stand as positive and comparative degrees of the same word: so that, although "under" is ex- pressed in these three languages by a word signifying " up " or "upon," it must be recollected that what is "up" in regard to one thing, is "under" in regard to that which is "upper;" just as to tivi crvve\9ov kcu ttoiovv, a\\(o av TrpoGireaov, iraayov dveY\\kaTa rd ad cicupopeei ; and Lobeck has quoted Dio Chr. Or. XLI. 506 C : vr 6p(paviaT(av ciaaTraadrjaeTai, which is obviously an imitation of the passage. The preposition cid is sometimes used em- phatically, with this separative force, in the verb ciat letter of the word with which it is compounded. Thus the Greek fotm is preserved in dis-ce. 4\$ rumpOj &c. ; it ifl softened into r in dir-imo ( it is assimilated in dif-frro (cia~). Qta-a-^i^ia) ; and r sented by the long i in di-lanio (cja-o-Tra'oi), di-midi/i* (o«- txi; eve. : and the same prefix appears in French words like tVi Mfli. "evil- stars," drs-ordr<\ " dis-order," ( /< - tt violation of hann There is one case in which 4H has sprung directly from the Greek for Dcs-dt'tnona is merely the Italian form of -W-cai'iioi-a, the accusative of the name given to this unfortunate heroine in the or ; _ rian story from which Cynthio borrowed his novel. The accusative form i- of course the usual one in Italian. So Shaksp m merely Homer's Chryseis, represented, however, as the daughter of and not of an Asiatic priest of Apollo. Sometimes. M in Ut, the labial only is represented, /v, re-sanus, uuless we prefer to consider these words as representing the element r ( /, in " in the day-time " (Eurip. Orest. 58), iierd ward? "in the night" (Pind. Xem. VI. 12). The Homeric /ic-a(pa, a synonym for neyj)i, is used with the genitive in the sense of " until " (Iliad VIII. 508). This word is a compound of the first and second pronominal roots, just as fxe-rd is of the first and third. It has no affinity with fteypi, which is connected with fianpos, as dy^pi is with dupds. Mct found as rait in German, by a mutilation not unlike that of cum, from sama. On the other hand, <>n, or n spot; whereas /xera irnpl 182 The preposition ra-rd is a form perfectly analogous to /uLC-rd. The first part is, M we have seen, the second pronomi- nal stem under the form ku. On this element Bopp makes the following remarks >is8 &c, p. 5): "vara appears to be of a relative nature, like the Latin qui, in such phrases as kclt tt£/«)\ Kara yiw,at]i', where Kara would be translated, in Sanscrit, by the relative adverb U'lthii, ' tfl, 1 * like.' which forms an adverbial compound with the folloi :ive; thus fOtki k(hnan), ycUhd-vidki. In phrases like ra ra, it corresponds to the German j>\ the pronominal signification of which is obvious. We may often translate Kurd very pro; by (wie), Mike," a- arepa cvpt'iaeis. ov Kurd Mt- &pa$drf)i', &c. 'not like If.' ntr e/mrToY, 'like myself/ o\ KdO' >/,uus\ 4 those like us,' oi raff torrov, * those in the time in which he was.' ne'i^u>i> i) kcit ater than like a man' [gi neral. the relative nature of hard shows itself, more or less, wherever it is construed with the accusative; it is worthy of remark, too. that the Semitic prefix ka. the primitive meaning of which is 'as, 1 ' lit corresponds to Kara cum accusatiro f in consequence,' ' according Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. SIS to/ 'nearly,' before numerals, and so forth). With the geni- tive, Kara is more of a demonstrative nature, and ' under ' is related to the opposed ' over/ as this side (diesseits) is to that side (jenseits), extra to ultra. In respect to the form, Kara appears to be a relict of the primeval period of language, a property derived from the original abode, and not formed ac- cording to the principles of the Greek language itself in its present state : the Sanscrit, too, has a form which exactly cor- responds to it : namely, katham, ' how ?' to which, in respect to the omission of the nasal, Kara stands related, as e. g. the accus. TroSa to the Sanscrit and Latin padam, pedem. With the ex- ception of katham, there is only one pronominal-derivative with the suffix tham, namely, it-tham ' thus/ Besides this, however, there is a cognate suffix tha, which occurs in only one pronominal formation, namely, in a-tha, which signifies ' but/ ■ then/ ' after this/ ' hereupon/ and with which the Greek el-ra is perhaps con- nected, with the introduction of an «, just as the interrogative stem ka has also assumed a similar form in the compound /cei-yos, and in the abverbs kcI-Oi, Kei-Oev." There is not a little vagueness and confusion in these observa- tions, and Bopp has, in some measure, begun at the wrong end. The relative meaning of the element Ka, like all subordinate meanings of pronouns, springs from its originally demonstrative force. As a demonstrative this pronoun expresses a position near to the subject ; it is this idea of nearness which constitutes the relatives, reflexives, indefinites, interrogatives ; it is this which generates the idea of relation in general : for what is relation but a sort of juxtaposition? The word ci-tra, which he mentions, gives the true idea of Ka-rd, though a little more strongly. The Sanscrit katham does not correspond to Kara, but to Trodev, KoQev ; and the termination -tha in a-tha is that found in eV0a, &c. We can scarcely comprehend what Bopp means by saying that Kara is not in accordance with existing Greek analogies. The termination of Ka-rd is merely the third personal pronoun, which constantly makes its appearance in the Greek language either by itself or in the pronominal compounds. 183 In order to understand properly the various uses of Kara, we must consider it in immediate connexion with dvd, which is found as its equivalent or counterpart in almost every 314 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. one of its significations. Thus, if we have Kara rov iroXenov (Herod. VII. 137), we have also avd rov iroXefxov toutov (Herod. VIII. 123) with but a slight difference of meaning : we have both dvd arparov (Eurip. Phceniss. 1309), and K ard arparov (Iliad VII. 370) : and both dvd and Kara are used with numerals to give them a distributive signification. As counterparts, am, dvuy are used to signify " up," " motion up f Kard, kutw, " down," " motion down." If we examine d-vd more minutely, and compare it with Hard, we shall arrive at a satisfactory explanation of their correlative use. We have already remarked that the ultimate pronominal form d- must be referred either to the second element Fa or to the third va. When therefore it is prefixed to this latter clement, as in the prepositions d-vd, eU = e-i *, and er, we must either re- gard it as a strengthening prefix, like the e in eV, icm or as the other element Fa. For a compound particle, indicating a relation between two positions, could hardly be made up of a reduplication of the .ement. Without inquiring here whether the same explanation is applicable to the prefix in - 6-Sovs, &c, a comparison ind the = ini-na. furnishes a strong presumption in favour of the opinion {]i : M ^ t ] ic c lie initial element is a mutilated remnant of the second prOBOU FaJ and when we discover u-va-%, which, as we shall see afterwards, is derivable from was Fo-wif in Homer's time, and that in all probability it con- tains the same elements as the Hebrew % h*-h»-l:i, which with the exception of the reduplicative first syllable corresponds to its svnonvm e-yto-vn. we have as much cvidcr tins ultimate refinement of etymological analysis, to convin that the full form of d-id was a compound of Fa and .a. Con- sidered under this point of view, there ought to be no difference of meaning between t-y, av-v. and «->•«'. which are equally com- pounded of the second and third element : and, in poil there are manv correspondences in tlie on of the- tions. We shall be able, however, to show that in the existing stal the Greek language, the latter part oi " denoting distance, was alone regarded, and in like manner that all the stress was laid upon the first part of Ka-rd. namely, va = denoting proximitv. Consequently in the prepositional Bf Kard - ire-r-ra, the direction implied is I - near us, Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 315 and proceeding to a point not necessarily distant. In d vd, like- wise, a direction is signified ; and both the first and last points may be regarded as distant, though the line itself may be parallel to that denoted by Ka-rd. And thus we find that dvd and Kara may be used in a similar way with the accusative, that is when direction or extension is implied, according as we suppose, for the moment, that the direction or extension is near or far. But, when they are used with cases which imply fixedness or position, the emphatic syllable is alone considered, and that is, in Ka-rd a word denoting nearness, in d-vd a word denoting distance : but up and down are conceived as distant and near respectively, for we say "up there," but "down here;" therefore, when a point is implied, dvd means up, and Kara down. 184 The preposition dvd occurs, either separately or as a prefix, in almost every language of the Indo- Germanic family, and there are few words which have more varied functions to perform. It is found even in the Semitic languages ; for the ne- gative lib and the prohibitive bit are clearly connected with the prepositions *?K_, "b = ev, in (see Masl'il le-Sopher, p. 15). In Greek this particle appears not only as the dissyllable dvd, but also under the monosyllabic forms va or vrj, and dv, and even without the characteristic nasal as the prefix d- or e-. Similarly the Sanscrit ana is reduced occasionally to the initial a, and na occurs separately in Pali, though it is used only as a termination in Sanscrit and Zend (Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 531). This latter element stands independently in Latin, in the words nam, (Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 534), num, nun-c, ne, ne, rii, rii, non ; in Greek, in the words vv, vvv (compare av-v, sa-m), vat, vr\, vy\-, &c. In Sanscrit the full form a-na is used as a negative prefix : thus anapakdra " harmlessness," "freedom from hatred and malice," is compounded of ana and apakdra " evil doing." It is both in this sense, and as an augment indicating past time, that it is shortened into a. The same is the case with the Greek dvd. We have both dv and va or vn as negative prefixes ; we have dvd so used as a prefix, and separately, in the form dveu, with a very similar signification ; we have d for dv as a negative prefix*, ^ * On the supposition that the first syllable of a-va is the element Fa, it is obvious that the negative prefix cannot be this syllable only : it must 316 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. and we have e- for dvd as the verbal augment. That va is not a mere abbreviation of d-vd, like the modern Greek cev for ovcev, appears from the fact, that dv is found with the same privative meaning as va and dvd ; and in the Greek d-iro (a-\//), d-rep (a comparative form), &c, as well as in the Sanscrit a-pa and a-va, we have a for na. In a different application of the same pronominal combination we have seen above that the Hebrew 'hani, when used as a verbal prefix, is shortened into 'he, and that Vtenesh becomes 'hish. With regard to -va we must remark that the primitive meaning of this stem is sufficient to account for its negative use, without assuming that when so used it is merely' an abridgment of d-vd. We have before pointed out the idea of separation, removal, distance, conveyed by the words viv, rda-", 1263: a«tM r &07CVCM fawt (r. read (MroKeXmcapev). Xenoph. Mini. I. ito? Tf/c ofuktat uictOov cuwpavoCtirnK eawrmw awe«caAo. flhrCfcaXCk I. 6. § 13: tro? ev oveilei diroKaXea-ai': dv p-Yi^avoiroiov. Andoc C. Alcib.Sl, 10: aXXovs oXiyap-^iKov^ — diroKaXeu Eurip. Iph. 1354: o'i fxe tcov ydfxcav dirtKaXovv fjcr;7recai/09 (qirelavos), vrjrpeKW (drpeKws), i/>?xuto9 (ttoX^tos), vwXeue? ieiXelv, comp. ov\a,ws), to be instances of the intensive signifi- cation of i»j (Be dXcpa intensivo, p. 21 foil.) The prefix d is also used in a collective signification, but then it is only a corruption of d, Sanscrit sa, and of course does not belong to the root na now under discussion. It is unnecessary to point out the al on tnat the intensto a is "n shortened form of ayav. Doderlein at: reconcile the negative Mid DEWOBfC OSSl 0* a U ' «"- [«0,p.24): "1 oonsidei th:it by ssorl ofahi privative lias been turned into an WCm (nimiet'is) ; JW in those words in which a b pnl for u-; for th ft thing h nearly the H»M U it- n. Thus, among the 1 1 «i he ^ ttttfcmJ ddll, in Pindar, he who mak I in a pri ■ 'l'I ,raN ^ and l'n,'ir in •! -tiw and inter '«<** and lit (!<>>!€**, in: Mike excluded Iron t> eonneet the privatise H-uiricati.-n of this par- augment I P 1 ^ fixed to (Sanscrit) verba in order to form i ;fie <^ 1 do not know, hut this 1 know, that it U prefixed in th -nner to noun- With tl tive tad prh instance, mAm, happy (not miserable), awes afofa, weak (without strong It won! contrary fco the general practice of languages, if bj aata^fth exceeding the primary **• particle , with the following notice '.he author rrtw Dr ainc Bubost) hetw.eu Mi and ,b . In ■ «"•" closer ' than illy tap] • tiu> hypothetical propu>itimi. In I illu-r case WB bftl an indefinite antecedent. Thu- in £*>« W K«) Pi • ■•reea, IB indefini- tk tuvtu c f n r n as any one did these I NYOU ld • ftd man," tlu W M the iodcfil cedent to the rclatiw particles ntWJ! :uul V wWch aro Wh oi ■ * latter befog in fact a n -iduum of MR, ■ the apod DM, wW* ii : the lOOtl ty 00, 0tMNb ■• *"** &-**»*• SO). In Sanscrit the intimate eoniu x B the hypetl;. tlvo nnt town net only by tl ,„/,//, but fcbo by the occasional parallelism of the relative and -if:" thus in th '• **■ find: >**-« blmvi; bhavi cAfe-M tad-anya: not be; if it will be, this [is] net otherwise." Wl Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 323 in the first sentence, and na\ in the latter, which is the common con- struction, the meaning conveyed is, that what is affirmed generally (re= "in any way") of the former, is amrmed in the same way of the latter (/ecu = "in this"). When tc appears in both sentences, the meaning is, that what is affirmed in any way of one is predicated in some way of the other. Similarly, we should expect (l) that *e would appear in the hypothesis and dv in the apodosis, with this meaning — if such were "in any way" (kc) the case, then "in that case" or "farther" (d-vci, dv) such things would follow : or (2) that keu would appear in both, with this sense — if such were "in any way" the case, then "in some way" such things would ensue. We frequently find both of these constructions in the Epic and Lyric poets, as in the following examples; (1) Homer, Odyss. VIII. 353 : 7rak dv iym e'l kcv e/xe £0001/ ireirudoiT em vt]va\v 'A^atan/. Hesiod. apud Aristot. Eth. V. 5 : e" «e irdOot to k epe£e, diKtj k We?a yevoiro. There appears to be a particular attraction of the indefinite KeV into the protasis, as might be expected from the generally vague nature of hypothetical sentences. Even dv is appended to relative, or, what is the same thing, hypothetical words in the Attic dialect; thus, we constantly have eaV, orav, 09 dv, &c. : and kcv seems to have been similarly appended to the conditional particle by the Cretans, as we may infer from the gloss on ftaT-nav = Fat-k-ai/, in Hesychius, and from the Doric collocation u'I-ku. In Homer and Pindar we often find ne in the hypothesis without any corresponding ne or dv in the apodosis. Thus in Iliad XIX. 321 : ov /xev yap ri KciKWTepov d\Xo irddoifxi, oJ3' el Kev tou TTctT-pcK aTrocpdi/jLevoio TTvdolfiriv. Pindar, Pyth. IV. 263 : el yap t<5 ofous ogvTOfxcp •jreXeKei e^epetyai Kev pL€yd\a<; B/juo'?, alvxyvoi Ce 01 datjrov eilos, Kctt (pQivoKapiros eoTaa CiSo? \f/d(pov irep avrds, — where, however, ku) stands as a sort of substitution for the kcv which might have appeared in the apodosis. The fact is, that the hypothetical particle, in its older and stronger form, is itself a relative word, as will be shown in the following chapter, and even el, which is generally its representative, and which is more immediately connected with 1, where the idea of nearness is not so strongly expressed, may always be re« ferred both in origin and meaning to the second pronominal element. As there are instances in which ko.\ is found in the first of two correlated sentences, and tc in the second, the enclitic kev might occa- sionally be expected to appear in the second sentence in opposition to dv in the protasis : the instances of this construction must be very few; Y2 324 THE PREPOSITIONS. [Book II. the only example, with which we are acquainted, is in Pindar, Xem. VII. 89 : el o avro k -rraT, yevoio -rrarpdc 6uTi/^c'(TTf^o«r, tu I u\\ enow tea) yevot' dv ov koko'?. I wish expresi ad by the fir-t yevoio, and the second signitie- the result of a condition ; in the oppo- sition therefore of the two repeated words, the ftV should immediate ly follow the second: M may you be, fee* and you will be in that case, &c." But in the following paonagCj whan there is a similar opposition of the optative proper to the optative with our, the antitl ween the two negatives, not between the two verbs, and therefore the d* appears immediately after the direct negative am\ to which the indirect pij is Strongly opposed; Sophocles, Anti : ion. 686 : o*r m eTTiarauuiv Xeyeiv. u I should not even in this (/. c. if I knew how) be able, and I pray that I never may know how to any, ft©/ The negative o», and the cognate particle ofr, exercise an attraction upon dv in the apodosis similar to that which it experiences in the pi from the relative and conditional words. Than, we very often find the collocations ovk dv, ov& a*,o¥T dv, ovttot dv. .Sic. and m is often drawn away from its verb by the influence of amwl OOBBpare D m -then. Olynth. I. 13 : ri ovvdv r« etiroi ravra fceyftt ' >/nth. III. 14-: Tl OVV dv TlCM -UVT (490U (TTpClTHdTlKd \ PlatO. V/maOf. p. 202 i> : ti o& av, tV'<'i- e «l »"^f -K « Th* reason for this is obi the particle ovv refers directly and specially to what kas Chap. 3.] THE PREPOSITIONS. 825 the particle av must of course have the same reference in questions like those we have quoted. In general, whatever word in the apodosis is to be expressed with most emphasis in reference to the conditional sentence, whether that conditional sentence is expressed or understood, this word is followed by av: Herodotus, III. 119: Tarpon he kcl\ fxrjrpo\ ovk eV< /nev ^wovtcov, a3e\(/>eo5 av aAAo/, in Sanscrit md, and in Persian me. The analogy of the German dialects might lead us, at first sight, to seek for some connexion between m, and ne, as Grimm has done (p. 745). Just as " Devil a bit," is used in vulgar English to signify " not at all.' Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 329 But, when we consider that fxd and vrj are used in direct opposition to one another in oaths, and compare p\v and viv, the distinction between which we have pointed out before, we are compelled to seek for some way of explaining the word fxr] less obvious but less objectionable than that of a transformation of n into m. In the ordinary use of ixd and vr], the former refers to a negative oath, the latter to a positive one; moreover vai, which bears the same relation to vr] that la\ does to hrj, is always used in a positive sense, like the Latin nee. The question ti [xr\v ; is generally used with a nega- tive application ; r] fitjv, which is used as a form of swearing, is mostly found in a positive sense. With regard to fxd we believe, with Passow, that it is, in itself, neither affirmative nor negative, but gains either the one sense or the other according as it has vai or ov prefixed or under- stood. In our opinion fxd contains the element of the first personal pronoun ; it represents an original /xeV, which is used for ptjv in Hero- dotus, and bears the same relation to fxe-rd that kc? or kcv does to Ka-Ta : so that the leading idea is that of absolute nearness to the subject. If vai, 1/17, are, as we have no doubt they are, connected with the second syllable of d-vd, and the negative prefix vj, the idea con- veyed by these particles must be quite the reverse; for the leading meaning of viv, -%va, vrj- is, as we have already shown, that of " dis- tance," "separation." Grimm says (III. p. 767), "the seemingly negative form of the affirmative vai (Lat. nae /) is worthy of notice ; we might compare va\ and ov with the Gothic ne and jai, except that the meaning is reversed. If we take the Hessian a = n'd, in connexion with the Swabian et = net, and the identity between the negative and positive expression which occasionally presents itself, there results apparently a deep-founded identity between the negative and affirma- tive particle, which I purposely forbear to investigate farther." All prima facie difficulty occasioned by this fact vanishes when we recollect that the prefix vrj- is used with an intensive or affirmative signification, and in general " yes" and " no " are only emphatic exple- tives, which may be expressed by the two most definite pronominal words ma and na, signifying separation and distance, as well as by any one of those simple words by which we affirm or deny in our common conversation. Our own " yes" is simply the second pronoun, denoting " here," opposed to " no," the strongest form of the third element, just as 76 and Ka-Ta are used with an affirmative sense, in opposition to d-vd and a-7ro = dv-iro or va-nro* In order to explain fxrj, we must turn our attention to the other and more direct negative ov, and consider what are the leading and funda- mental distinctions between the two particles. 330 THE NEGATIVE [Book II. There can be little doubt as to the derivation of ov, ovk. The only- question that could be raised, is whether we ought to derive it at once from the Sanscrit avak (deorsum), considering that an apocope has taken place in the form ov, which is Pott's opinion (Etym. Forsch. II. p. 134, comp. I. 273, II. 64, 183); or rather with Bopp (Vergl Gramm. p. 547, 8) connect it with the Indian-Zendic am, Sclavonic ow, and take the final consonant as a mutilation of -fi, -X', the Sanscrit -chi, -cka, Latin -que ; so that ov is related to ov-k, ov-yl, as ne is to ne-c, ne-que. "We have no hesitation in adopting this latter opinion, which, we think, is confirmed by the appearance of the muti- lated root au {av) (§ 138), with the signification of "removal," "sepa- ration," " contrast," which gives rise to the negative, in the Greek av, av-di, aO-Tt?, av-epvuj, &c, and the Latin au-tem, au-t, hau-t {hand), au-fugio, &c. (see Bopp, I. I. p. 546). A question might arise, whether we are to consider av, am, as simply the element xa, a form of tlje first pronominal stem, with the semivowel transposed, or this same element appended to another in a similar state of mutilation. A com- parison of aufcro, with ahs-tidl, ah-latus, and of a-xa with d-ir6, also used in a negative sense, and the difficulty of explaining the second vowel otherwise, induce us to believe that a-xa-k, o-v-k, are the com- pound preposition a-xa = d-iro = dv--n6, with the element Jca affixed ; so that a-va-k — ovK is really a combination of d-wo and if. The particle ovv = avam is an additional confirmation of this etymology of ov-k. Ilartung justly remarks (Partikeln, II. 3), that the double form ovv, toe, leads us, according to the analogy of oi5? = ak or aur'is, to a ground- form avu, which is clearly an accusative. "NVe find the element of this accusative in the pronoun cm-rot. It is doubtful whether the Cretan and Laconian word aJ to /xtjlev i]v dpa*. Cf. id. ibid. 109. Herod. IY. 64 : hepfxa Be dvdptairov riv dpa a-^e^ov ZepfxaTOiu irdvrtav Xa/jLirpdraTov XevKOTrjri, " SO then it seems that after all the human skin is, what we should not expect, nearly the whitest of all skins," meaning that if we had not laboured under that error, the tanners would have made some use of our hides. Hence we have dpa as a term of sorrow; Soph. Aj. 1025 : 7t&k The only question is, how to ex- plain ecce, ecguis in Latin, and jutSe in Greek. There is no instance, so far as we know, of a change of n into c in the former language, there- fore ecce, which is a synonym for en, cannot be a compound of en and ce : and the same remark applies to ecguis. We adopt, without hesi- tation, the suggestion thrown out by Pott {Etym. Forsch. II. p. 138), that the first part of ecce, ecguis, is a pronominal root analogous to the Sanscrit eta : comp. iccirco for idcirco, accingo for adcingo, &c. : in fact, etguis is often found in old MSS. The pronominal roots eta, ena, equally signify distance: they point to the there as removed beyond some other point. Now this is the ground-meaning of en and ecce : they are particles which are used to attract the hearer's attention to an object distinct from him and the speaker, and for this purpose a word strongly marking distance would naturally be used, and the element of the second pronoun is appended in the case of ec-ce, in order to mark the approximation or importance of the distant object to the speaker or hearer. As lleiv denotes merely "to see," but lUaQai is "to view for one- self," " to see with interest," u to gaze upon" (Kenrick, Herod, p. 48), we may understand why llov is so frequently used as an interjectional word. The particle t/Vt is related to f\v as w\\ is to niv, and la\ to ttj (Pott, I. a). Hartung supposes (Partikeln, I. p. 273 note) that jwSc is merely this i/w with the suffix le. Although this is possible, a com- parison of 17V llov, which also occurs, of the French voila, of the German sieh da ! and of our " lo you there" (look there), inclines us to suppose that this word is nothing but a compound of fjv "h, "see there." This shows us too that the real meaning of i]v is that of ena ; that in fact it is only a pronoun like the Gothic "paruk, " there," which is used by Ulphilas to translate l%ov (Grimm, III. p. 172). 194 To the idea of distance or progression some of the copulative conjunctions are also due. The relation which subsists between these conjunctions and the demonstrative and relative pronouns in the Latin and Greek languages is obvious : tum-tum, are evidently demonstra- tives ; guum-quum, que, xa\, and the corrupted form tc, are as clearly connected with the relative or interrogative stems. The Latin <7, at are to be compared with It*, Sanscrit oft ; en, eJra, are used in Greek very much in the same way as the copulative conjunctions. An attempt has been made by Herzog (in his edition of Caesar, de Brflo Civili, pp. 4, 5), to point out accurately the distinction between the use and meaning of the Latin copulative conjunctions. According to him, Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 337 ac is throughout a logical particle, which places two predicates or ideas on the same footing, so that one is equal to the other in the supposed relation ; et, on the other hand, is a mere particle of addition : 1 + 1=2: atque (which he wrongly supposes to be a combination of ac and que) connects two ideas, as cause and effect, antecedent and consequent, or conversely. That there is some truth in this appears from the obvious etymology of these Latin particles. Ac, however, is clearly a shortened form of atque, as nee is of ne-que. The long a is put here by way of compensation for the lost dental, and the change from the double sound qv to the single c = k, need astonish no one after what has been already said on the subject. There appears to have been a great vacillation in the use of c and q even by the Latin copyists ; thus in Cicero (pro Murwna, II. £25]) eleven MSS. have vero accedam, four others vere cuadam, vero cuadam, vero ac eadem, or vero alone; and the Venice edition of 1484, has vero ac edam, though the true reading is verba qucedam, as Niebuhr has shown (Bheinisch. Mus. for 1827, p. 228). The case of cujus, cur, cum, &c. will also be remembered. The first syllable of atque is to be compared, like et, at, and the preposition ad, with the Greek erz, Sanscrit atl. That these particles contain the elements va and ta, appears from the analogy of ev and dvd (§§ 170, 183), and might be inferred from the Behistun synonym u-ta (Rawlin- son, As. Soc. XL 1, p. 80). 195 In the first chapter of this second book we endeavoured to show that the elements of the demonstrative, indefinite, interrogative, and relative pronouns are the same, though, in Greek, the radical letter varies in an extraordinary manner, being either an aspirate or one of the three tenues. The aspirate, the labial, and the guttural are, as we have seen, the legitimate offspring of the second pronominal element under the form pa, but the dental is simply a degenerate and corrupted progeny of the sibilant. The form under which the interrogative ulti- mately appears in common Greek, is ti- (tU), or, in Ionic, k- (k$, Kodev, &c). Instances of these two forms are the copulative conjunctions tc, kul. When we compare ok-kcl &c. with o-re &c, and Tea-crape's, tc, with the Sanscrit synonyms chatur, cha, and the Latin quatuor, que, and remember the connexion which subsists between cha and the inter- rogative stem ha, and between the first part of cha-tur and e-ka, English each (comp. qua-tuor and as-quus), we shall find it difficult to deny the relationship of re to kuI. Hermann, with a different view, has endeavoured to establish the identity of Te, /ceV (which he derives from Kai), and ttoJ (kov) in the sense of "perhaps" (de Particuld dv. Opusc. IV. p. 4, 9 foil.) : their correspondence, in this respect, can only Z 338 THE NEGATIVE [Book II. be explained by the fact which he has overlooked, that they are all forms of the indefinite pronoun, and are all used to convey that inde- finite idea of locality to which their meaning of doubtfulness is due : (tea) k£ 9 kcv, bear the same relation to Kai, that 3e, 8eV, do to 3a/, which, like Kai, is never used as an enclitic. In this consists the great dis- tinction between re and kcu; re is a mere indefinite, enclitic word, always placed after the word to which it refers, whereas ku) is generally placed before the words to which it belongs, and is used rather in a relative than in an indefinite sense. Though we constantly find tc-kcu, we seldom have kcu-tc : the former collocation answers pretty nearly to "some where" — "where." The use of the combination nal re is of itself a proof of the relative power of kcu, for re is continually found in immediate connexion with relative words, as 6's re, ms tc, olo? -re, 6Vo9 Te, &c. (below, § 197)* 196 The investigation of the use of copulative conjunctions, or of the connexion of sentences, is a question of syntax, on which we must make a few remarks, though it may appear at first sight to be in some measure foreign to our leading object. When we wish to speak of something that happened as subordinate to, or in connexion with, some other thing that we are speaking about, we may express this occasion- ally by a participle or infinitive mood ; but in by far the majority of cases a greater degree of definiteness is required, and then we invariably call in the aid of some word of pronominal origin to connect the two statements together. These auxiliary words are relatives, whether they appear in ths form of adjectives or of adverbs. The correlation of two sentences is effected either by placing the relative word in botli clauses, as in the Latin qua — qua, Greek kcu — kcu; by placing an inde- finite in both sentences, as viri-quc, fcemincv-quc, avtpes re deol tc ; by placing the indefinite in the first clause and the relative in the second, as in -re — kcu; or, by an inversion common enough in Greek and Latin, putting the relative clause first, as in quum — turn ; or, finally, by putting a demonstrative in each sentence, as turn — turn, which was probably the original formula (above, § 148). The primary mode of balancing sentences appears to have been by placing the same particle in each clause in order that the similarity of sound might help the ear. But, by the same process which led to the division of pronouns into definite and indefinite, a distinction was made between the forms as stronger and weaker ; the latter preceded, and the office of uniting the two parts of the sentence devolved upon the former. 196 In its usage the Latin enclitic -que corresponds to the Greek Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 339 -re, though it bears more external resemblance to kcu, or rather to the no, which appears in oK-Ka = 6'-Te, tto-ko. = 7ro-Te, €'l-Ka = el-re, Latin si-qua. We find this older and more genuine form of the Greek en- clitic also in the adverbs avrt-Kct, rrrtjvl-Ka, »;V-k« ol, pexp 1 °"-> & c * Tot has no connexion with re ; it is simply a case of the third personal pronoun. Its perfect identity with the demonstrative appears from the fact that kgu roi and k?, which bears the same relation to rj that (ptjfxi does to t]fxi. Buttmann supposes that (prj is connected with 7r»7, as (pavos with 7rai/o?, cpdpo-os with pafe, which is much more likely to have been an extension of ^ = ve, or turn, to which it bears the same or nearly the same relation as 7& does to fc& (Maskil le-Sopher, p. 1 5). In this way, we get back to the second pronominal element of which ) is a residuary form. If we contrast the distinct meanings of qui-vis and quls-quam, and remember that quam is used like rj to connect the two members of a comparison, we shall have little difficulty in perceiving that re-l is not connected with volo, but con- tains the element va, which we have indentified with >/, and ultimately with qua-m. The termination is the intensive element Id = rd, which is appended to give a further direction to va. The difference between qui-vis and quis-quam is simply this; the former, like qui-libet, means " any one selected from any given number/' " any one j/ou jdcase," so that all are included in the range of choice; but quisquam, like ullus, means "any one at all," the selection not being supposed; in other words, quisquam is exclusive*: thus Seneca de Tranquill. 11: euivis potest accidere, quod cuiquam potest. That -piam may be identical with * It is a remarkable proof of the laxity of modern Latin scholarship that all the recent editors, so far as we know, acquiesce in : e t latus Oceano quisquam Deus adboema junxit (Ovid, Fast. V. 21). It is manifest that quisquam is inadmissible here, and we Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 343 quam in signification, as it is in origin, would appear from Cicero {in Verrem Actio, II. Lib. I. c. 10) : nego esse quicquam a testibus dictum, quod aut vestrum cuipiam esset obscurum aut cujusquam oratoris elo- quentiam qucereret. Practically the substantive quisquam, like the adjective ullus, is confined to sentences which are formally or virtually negative. It is a mistake to suppose that ali-quis can ever be rendered by the English word " any," or that it is ever equivalent to quispiam, as Heindorf supposes (on Hor. Sat. I. 4, 35, p. 95)- All compounds with ali- (ali-quis, ali-quot, ali-quando, ali-cubi, &c.) are definite, and must be rendered by the English word " some." So that aliquis ap- proaches more nearly in meaning to quidam, than to quis-piam, which usually means "any one in general," rather than "some one in par- ticular," which is the force of aliquis and quidam. It is remarkable, however, that aucun, which must have been originally aliquis unus, performs the same functions as quisquam: for non vidi quenquam might be rendered : je nai vu aucune personne. 200 There can be no doubt that the disjunctive fj is the same word as the if used in comparisons. That a comparison presumes a disjunc- tion, or difference, appears from the use of the genitive in Greek and Italian, and the ablative in Latin and Sanscrit, after comparatives. The same disjunctive force of the comparison is shown also by the following phenomena, some of which have been brought forward by Hartung (II. p. 68). In the proper correlation of sentences, the same word is placed in both the clauses: thus we have tj — tj, aut — aut, alius — alius, in disjunctions ; now aliud loquitur aliud sentit is equi- valent to aliud loquitur quam sentit, and als in German is a substitute for quam. From this it might be inferred that there is some connexion between the disjunctive or comparative tj and the disjunctive or negative av, aut, ovk, a-va, into which an element, apparently the same, enters. We have before mentioned that there are two stems, both written va, one of which is an approximate vocalization of the first pronominal element, the other a mutilation of the strongest form of the second. Now, as we have already seen, av = a-va = a-po ; and therefore this use of va points to the vocalization of pa = ma. There is every reason to believe, on the other hand, that the disjunctive and comparative i}=va is simply the second or relative pronoun. In Latin the clause compared is connected with the clause on which it depends by a case of the propose to read quisquis, with the punctuation : et latas Oceano, quisquis Deus advena, junxit, i.e. "whatever God happened to come up." Cf. Plautus, Amphitr. 1.1, 156: nuismiis Tinmn htif iipnprlt mmnns Pilot- quisquis homo hue venerit, pugnos edet. 344 THE NEGATIVE [Book II. relative, and the Sanscrit vd, when it means " in which manner/' is clearly relative. Besides, if there were any really negative or dis- junctive force in this rj = va, the Greeks would not have added the strong negative ov to the disjunctive rj when they wished to express that the second proposition in a comparison was not or ought not to be entertained. This construction is very common after the compara- tive fxdXXou, after which we find ov as well as rj whenever it fa intended to express that the second alternative is very much to be preferred to the first, in which case, naturally enough, a negative, interrogative, or some word expressing extreme disapprobation, is invariably found in the first clause. Thus Thucyd. III. 36: wfxov to fiovXev/xa ko.\ /xeya eyvoocrdai ttoXiv oXrjv cicMpdeTpat /xaXXou rj ov tov<; cut'iovs, which, as Hermann rightly observes (ad Sophocl. Aj. 1260), is equivalent to ov tou? alriovs aXXa fxaXXov ty\v ttoXiv bXrjv, for, as we have said above, the word of the second clause in correlated sentences is only a substitute for the word in the former clause, which is here naXXov — fxaXXov b\. tto'a., ov fxaXXov r. air. Other instances are Thucyd. II. 62 ; Herod. IY. 118, V. 94, VII. 16; Demosth. p. 1198, 1. 14, p. 1200, L 12, p. 1226, 1. 23; Aristot. Eth. IV. 1 ; where /xaXXov ij ov seems to have coalesced into one word. The genitive case, which expresses removal, is, as is well known, also used in the second term of the comparison ; the meaning of the prepositions -rr-Xij-v, irapd, which express the idea of removal from the subject, is also contained in the comparative termination --re-po?. The particle quam, used to connect comparisons in Latin, is, like kcv, the locative of the elementary interrogative. In this particle comparison only, not difference, is implied : non mcherculc qu'ulquam libemtiut facio, quam ad te scribo, is perfectly equivalent to u where or when there is an opportunity of writing to you, I would not exchange that for any employment." In the same way wan, also connected with the relative, is used in middle New German (Grimm, III. p. 183, 2S3). Our than, only another way of spelling then, is more nearly connected with the demonstrative, and expresses, like the Greek comparative termination, that in the given relation that which is mentioned in the second clause comes after that which is mentioned in the first : " Peter is greater than John," i.e. "Peter is greater, then (comes) John." Although relative words are not directly used to connect the terms of a comparison in Greek, we see traces of the feeling, which led to their use in other languages, in such phrases as fxci^mv tj kot avOpwrov, dda-a-ov $ w — j KdKiitiv t] wcrre — , where the difference is expressed as well as the likeness, just as the genitive, which expresses resemblance or com- parison, as well as separation and disjunction, is used after ij: Soph. Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 345 Antig. 1281 ; rl B' eWTv aZ kolkiov r} kclkwv en; of which however a dif- ferent interpretation may be given (see our note on the passage). 201 *H is found in immediate conjunction with fxev, Be, S17. 'H^ieV — tile are not disjunctives, but copulatives, signifying "both — and;" >? in this combination is, therefore, to be compared with the use of the Sanscrit vd for "as;" — "as in the first place — so in the second place." Of fxev — Be it is unnecessary to add much to what has been already said. They are generally and properly correlatives, though sometimes TrAt/V, " farther," cl\\o, " another," are substituted for Be, to which their meaning is very much akin. As a general rule, oAAa is opposed not to pev, but to ov, just as sondern in German expresses the opposition to a negative, and we often find a sentence in which oJk, aAAa, are opposed, including two others which contain an opposition of pev, Be. Thus Eurip. Med. 555 : oJy, 1/ (rv KvifjEi — ;?»/ is the same as that of »/'ue»', tjce ; also, we believe, as that of ^uoc, which has no immediate connexion with VIActp, ij/jLepa. In the other compounds ct) stands first. Of Bifri*, and its connexion in meaning with lelj6ev is not so easilv accounted for: hj&ev is generally Chap. 4.] AND OTHER PARTICLES. 347 used in a sort of ironical signification (irpoo-jroi^a-iv aXrjBelas e^et, Su- vafiiv he \j/€vhov<;, Snidas) ; this signification is also generally borne by Otjv, which is obviously connected with 6ev as jueY with \xr\v, and lev with 6rju. That this termination is essentially the same with that sign of the genitive case, which we have before explained, is self-evident, in spite of Hartung's arbitrary assertion that they are totally distinct (I. 317): the old grammarians understood this when they translated ZrjOev and htjirovdev by evTeZ6ev and em rti/os tottov. If we compare evda, evravda, eWe, Ifjda, with the words before us, we must be con- vinced that these terminations differ from the second syllable of Ifjdeu only in the absorption or absence of the locative ending v (above, p. 1 79)« If now we recur to what we said before of the genitive ending 6ev, and of the omission of the aspiration in that case (p. 275), we must admit that the terminations -tce, -da, are only softened forms of the second pronoun in the ultimate forms dva, dya. That there is some sympathy between 6 and y appears from %0es compared with hyas, and that 6a is in fact a representative of the second personal pronoun is clear from the forms olo--da, k\v-0i 9 &c. The ironical use may be easily explained by the sense "only/' which is nothing but a mark of position, and which seems to pervade the Greek as well as the Latin words into which this root enters : e'l 6e, " I wish that " = " if only !" = " if in this particular." Compare the similar use of 7r/3\u?, and KaTtip-rvKMs. 219 (4) Affections of the final con- sonant of the root. 220 Arbitrary duplications of liquids. 221 Dissimilation and metathesis. 222 IV. Vowel changes. (1) Weight of vowels. 223 (2) Adscititious vocalization. 224 Significance of roots. 225 Metaphysical and historical differences. 226 Dissection of words, in order to arrive at the root. 206 TN a language, which, like the Greek, admits of inflexion _L and composition without limit, we find in every word that expresses a conception, whether it be a noun or a verb, some prefix, suffix, or both, common to it, and to a great num- ber of other words, from which it essentially differs in meaning ; and, when these adjuncts are removed, there generally remains, if the word be not a compound, some single syllable which constitutes its meaning, and which again, with occasional slight modifications, runs through another set of words, differing from the one in question in prefix, suffix, or both, but agreeing with it in the fundamental signification. This ultimate element we Aa2 356 THE ROOTS OF [Book III. call the root, or, if we may be permitted to borrow the termi- nology of mathematical analysis, and apply it to philology, we may say that every word is & function, the root being the inde- pendent variable, and the prefixes and suffixes the constants. 207 When we talk of the roots of words, we dp not mean to say that words are derived from them, or that they ever existed separately. If we did we must fall into the absurdity of deriving all languages from a few primitive syllables, an absurdity for which Murray has been so justly derided. Like the common parts in things generically the same, they are created by our powers of abstraction and generalization, they have only a subjective existence, and to speak otherwise of them would be the excess of realism. Everything is conceived as existing or happening in space or time, and therefore, as has been shown, the element indicating the conception must always have, subjoined to it, some element denoting position, that is, at least one pronominal stem, before it can be considered as a word. That any hypothesis of the separate and primary existence of roots must lead to the merest trifling, is clear from the absur- dities into which Lennep and Scheide have fallen, in their attempt to carry out Hcmsterhuis' principle, that the primitive verbs consisted of two or three letters, from which the complete words, as we have them, were formed. It is, of course, of the utmost importance that we should analyze and compare words, so as to arrive at their primary elements, just as it is necessary that the philosopher should seek for the real definition ; but there is no more truth in saying that the bare roots, which form the materials of inflected language, ever existed separately, than there would be in asserting that the world was once peopled with aurocKaara, whose fossile remains, forsooth, the geologers have as yet failed to discover. When we thus deny the separate existence of roots, it may be objected to us, that some languages, the Chinese for instance, are entirely made up of naked roots. But then it must be recollected, that these roots are mutilated words which have in all probability lost their original inflexions, and that we are not speaking of tertiary idioms in which there is no such thing as flexion or etymology, but of perfect languages like those of the Indo-Germanic family, which are based upon monosyllabic r Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 357 adapted for composition, and only appearing in connexion with at least some pronominal element*. 208 Many syllables terminating with a consonant are called roots of Indo-Germanic words. It must be recollected, however, that no consonant can be pronounced without a vowel, and that every such final consonant of a root was originally a distinct syllable; so that all roots terminating in consonants must be considered as dissyllabic, and, therefore, as compound roots. In such compounds not only is the second vowel suppressed, but also, in some cases, the first, and thus too there are apparently monosyllabic roots ending in a vowel, which are nevertheless dissyllabic (see Lepsius, Palaograplrie, p. 65). An instance to the point is furnished by the root ktc-, the first vowel of which is never inserted in Greek, though it appears distinctly enough in the Semitic synonyms ^{Qp, itop, \ 3 j ) A\£ f i^&s, &c. When the second consonant is a liquid, nothing is more common than the metathesis of the vowel, according to the principle men- tioned above (§ 107). We have an example in the root yev-, which sometimes appears as yve- : compare e-yev-6-fxrjv, yi- yvoniai ; genitus, gigno ; and the Sanscrit jan, jajnati. In the form ^a* °f ye-yaa, &c. the v has evanesced, according to the common practice (above, § 114). It will be under- stood, then, that when we call . I.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 359 with the same meaning in nxaQ-eiv, (jltj^-oiucu, /urjSos, wris, irpo- fjLrjQevs, &c., in the Latin med-itari, and in the Sanscrit medha. In the word nf&, " he took/' which we at once identify with the Greek Xa^elv, euphony has called into play the residuum of some pronominal adjunct, analogous to that which supports the conjugation of Xa-y-xa-vco, and in some of the forms, e. g. the imperat. Tip, this affix is retained at the expense of the radical *?. If we compare y$ov7ros with ciovwos, ktvttos with r V7rrw, Kprjvr], Kpovvos with pew, &c. we shall probably recognise in these prefixes a remnant of the preposition e/c or ef . The same may have been the case with ^TH, " great," compared with ^oXi^os, Russian ddlgye, &c. ; but the Hebrew euphony employs the prefix as equally significant with the root of the word. Again, the very common verb jro, " he gave," must be considered as a compound of the preposition 3 = b and the root ]D found with an affix in the synonym rwfi, "porrexit," and in the Indo-Germanic reiva), Tavva), teneo, tendo, Sanscrit tanomi, German dehnen, which again are formatives from a root tcl- still found in Greek. The im- perative jFi exhibits the simpler root without any prefix, and the construct-infinitive J1D entirely disguises the common or elongated form of the Hebrew verb. In ^2"3 we have the same root as in T T /alio, "fall," but, as in the Greek cr-(pdW(a, the prefix is in- separably connected with the root. The same remark applies to N2-0, Nl~3, which may be compared with H, " he looked after a flock of sheep, went about with them, and tended them," the more immediate analysis of which leads us to )H (cf. erro, eppeiv, and the roots pa or peF) ; and we find a further transition in !p— T, " a road " (Maskil le-Sopher, p. 40). (c) The cases in which the Hebrew euphony has preserved the fullest forms of Indo-Germanic roots or quasi-roots, are very numerous. A few specimens must suffice. By the side of KaXew, /ce'Xo/acri, KeXevw, k\vo) 9 /cXe'Fo?. &c, calare, cliens, in-clytus, &c. we have the Hebrew hi'p or Sip, which shows us that the initial must have been originally a compound of guttural and labial — in fact, the sound F or q. The same inference might, perhaps, be derived from the Anglo-Saxon gyllan, and our yell: and we are thus enabled to pass on to the connexion between &"]p, Kpd-Zw. ktj- puacTco, yrjpus, &c. Again, we have probably the more original initial in pp, compared with Kepas=K€pev-r (above, § 114), for this q sound is necessary to explain the o in cormi, horn (Goth. haurns) : see Varron. p. 202. The Latin p-recor, the German f-ragen, Sanscrit p-rach-chhami> &c. exhibit the p-r in close proximity, while rogo omits the labial, and posco for proc-sco nearly annihilates the root-syllable; but the Hebrew "?H~2 ex- hibits the root rek or reg- with its prepositional prefix complete, and carries us at once to the original idea of the word, namely, approach and supplication. From these examples, which might be multiplied to any extent, we see, on the one hand, that Hebrew words might be reduced to monosyllabic roots, like those which form the basis of the Indo-Germanic languages*; and, on the other hand, we observe that if the quasi-monosyllabic roots of our family were liable to the same extensions which we see in the Semitic languages, we should recognise the fact, that they are compounds, and should seek their explanation in a further analysis of the elements of which they are composed. * The existence of monosyllabic roots in the Hebrew language has long been maintained : see Adelung, Mithridatm, I. pp. 301, 2 : Klaproth, in the Baron de Merian's Principcs ]p (High German ge-stirn 6-K€?l/05 e-Xevdepos Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 363 f Eng. ruddy 3 e-pvdpds < Lithuan. ruddus I Lat. ruber, rufus Sanscrit k-ship } . OlTTTeiV e-penreiv ) e-joerjuo? Lat. re-mus e-vepoi vipQe e-pevyio Lat. ructo e-Kavuio lamina e-\a^u? Sansc. laghus 6-pe Lat. rogo Sansc. p-rach ) "L&t.f-luo) (~La,tluo p-luo j I Xovco Lat. p-iscis \ „ ,. , _ , \ > Gaelic lasg Welsh p-ysg ) 364 THE ROOTS OF 3 Dentals. , n f Germ, re'iben T-pibeiv < „ r r I Eng. rub 1-cxKpv ) ( Sansc. agru (l-acryma) J I Lithuan. aszara h-poa-o? Lat. ros Z-perrw Germ, rupfen l-€p-Koa ) i Sansc. rasa Sansc. d-ri?as I \ -Xiko? 4 Gutturals. g-lad Lat. Icetus TT . . „ . [ Eng. star High Germ, ae-stirn i „ , 6 ^ I Zend, stero y-Xtjvrj \ f \d(a y-XctvKos V < \€VKOS y-\avcr / =d-fx\dy-u)) J Sansc. km Lat. rt»?o k-Xuto? loud Lat. g-lubo Lettish lobit Sansc. q-rabh \ T , T . * . > Lat. rapio Icel. g-npa ) Yorkshire dialect c-lubstart. Norfolk dialect lobster (= clultaU, a name for the stoat) K-vicrva n idor "X-Xiapos \iapos X-\awa lama G-raf reere C-lanius Ital. Lagno H-Iodwig Ludwli k-nut Lat. nodus { Lat. aper " I Germ, ebtr 5 s. (above, p. 342). (y-KCTrapvov (q. Keirapvov, \ Od.Y.237) >... KOTTTW (T-KdlTTlO ) ix-TeWeiv tcWciv 7 ava-To\tj [Book m. Chap. 1] NOUNS AND VERBS. 365 (T-Te'i/to reivon (Buc-t^i/o? ?) /tck), s-t-latu* ; r lis, s-t-lis ; lentus, s-t-lentus ; locus, s-t-locus, Sec. The labials appear for the most part to be prefixed to words the meaning of which would admit of such additional force as might be derived from composition with d-ird, a-pa, a-va, ah, off, to the latter part of which the corresponds. A similar explanation La applicable to the dentals (comp. c-ri, a-ti, a-d, &c), and to the Latin prefix re (ra-pc We do not, however, believe there ha- been any aph.i rc-i-. M 1 suggests (Etym. Jfanck* II. p. 156): the monosyllabic elements are shortened into single letter-, in Greek as in the German dialects (see Grimm, / ; \ II. p- 700), but we cannot admit propriety of stating that, when a prefix prc-ent- trace- of one of elements of a compound word, the other part of that compound prefix must have been originally there: this amounts to a denial of the sep.. use of these elements, which, bom I well known I 214 (III.) When a I .ither with Sanscrit jie, Lithuan. gyes, g<; ■ Sclavonic schieu. Similarly, in the formation of the Rnflnim nnwu i lwl lTB I is in kryej>kie "strong," hrutpdU "atrongei ;" gy< ■ = j. if in rfift yj doro/tf "dearer;" chyc = $h, ifl in ■• «lry," *w*fo k ", doaauv from ao£icK, AairaVcrto for \«ira'£u\ Those verbs which are assimilated in -a£ii> we have u'ttu<. Having now determined the two values of t,'. and therefore termination -fto, we shall be able to establish with more accuracy the nature of the assimilation of verbs in -, -ttw. Buttmann stoutly denies the possibility of such an ending as - from d\\a-^ov (II. p. 1<)8). But. hnwiJMI the fact which we have just mentioned, that -( u» may be assimilated to -, e^i/o-ffo), XcKpvaap, Xi/jluhtctu), &c. Leaving OUt ttMM Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 369 and such as cppdtja, root (ppal-, ofio, root o'B-, which are never assimi- lated, we must consider those in which a final consonant of the root is actually contained and concealed in the assimilation, as in the following- examples: (l) Gutturals: Trpd, vl-o-o-u), then, we might suppose that these termina- tions are merely suffixed to the root denuded of its terminating digamma- sound. "When, however, we advert to the * in i>a«d, and to the same letter either directly or by implication contained in the other fom seems more reasonable to conclude that the guttural element became predominant in these forms, and that it is simply combined with j in the verb i//£a> = vt-ytio : comp. the Latin rahhs with the Frenc pium with the modern Rtck-borougk, / \c. The same may be said of Aa-fo^m, from the root Aa/i- or AaF, AcF, for clear that Aa^;- (in \ayxdvu), &c, Hebrew rip;, lu'{r, Snnscr. a.ijj ; or with m m % vtTnos ;) and of oaaoaai, OTTTOfXai ; Off(T6, 0\l/lt, TpjOTTiV, TptotTis ; COIlip. Latin OCultlS, iksh. The idea of striking convex vd by unrn n il faired from tii butting with the head {KCfjorvnuv, &c), and all the t 1 ords point to this union of stooping and striking in the 111. I the word : compare wir-rav, nvptpvav (to direct the held of a ?hij»), cub-are (to lay down the head). u-crit kitfUla But besides the root cap-, kott-, for M a 1 an accessary root top-, nop-o-tj, Kopyd-s, Sanscrit HM additional l of butting, striking, as in up-ov. From this second root come- assimilation koVo-ck, Koaaelv, k no immediate connexion with Ko^i-re^, &C. WiUl r jar 1 t copim^ kopuVto), Ko^JTTt\o ; i Trvpi, i6iov, dfxftXv dpav, o't d/xflXvTepoi Ttj* .">) : »;i : 1 TCHppovs opv£dutio< h\t\l/t. cTuWu. !■&■* koi yijv t'rau»|(T(iuooc, on which Valckcnaer quotes from Plutarch : to U w i >hh ewau i T17? divos ailro?? na\ itov. The two epithets in this passage of Plutarch show clearly that smoothness, and not collection or congeries, Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 373 is intended. In the same way Homer speaks of smoothing or making level a bed of leaves, with which, he says, the ground was covered, so that there was no need of collecting them, Odyss. V. 483 : dfJ.OlK y for TrpoaTpcnreaflai c o'/ioic, i n the lOliflt, M the o>nvlative phrase to -rpoa- TeTpappevov irpo\ oucom in tfa : and Ihfl HMB of these lines is as follows: "I am not a polluted | applicant or supplicant for purification; nor is there the .-tain of blood upon my hand; but that stain is already (rjlrj) washed OU< and faded awaj vopai); and I have prayed for purification (-rrpo^reTpa^ai) at other temples and in the haunts ol' men." So that with ova afoiftarrm ,\' f '/ m, > and -rrpoiTTeTpa- -pore than fifteen years since, and as we still think that tho correction is certain and the interpretation true, we hare so repre- sented it in our edition of the Eui tunateJy, howerer, we not been able to make a convert of Mr Pafej, wfco writes thus to Lis note l sage : " miror hunc locum tot doctis virL? corruptum videri : miror etiam Chat. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 375 In a fragment of the JEolus of Euripides (apud Galen. Charter. p. 41 8, Kiihn) we have : cl fxev too* q/JLCip trpwTov tjv KaKOV/xevia, kcu fxrj fxciKpav $i] cid ttoviov evavaroXovv^ cikos . ibid. 951 : /cat toutcc p.evToi p.t]8ev alviKTrjpivos dXX' avd' eKaa-T' eKcppa^e. Pers. 684 : /x»jti p.a.KecrT?jpa fivdov dXXd crvvTop\ov Xeyuiv. Sept. C. Theb. 866 : ovk eirl cptXia dXX' eiri 8i.eKpidt}Te. See also Eumen. 436—439. 762, 3. Prom. 654 — 7, &c. The only question is whether the difference in tense between the 7rpoo-T/3o7raios or supplicant for purification, and the irpoaTeTpap-ixevo?, who has effected his cleansing, is sufficiently emphatic, and on this point we entertain no doubts, especially as the sentence is strengthened by jjo»j. With regard to what is said in the text respecting the meaning of dpftXvs el/xi, it is clear from the fragment of Euripides, and from the passage in the Eumenides, 451, that it is here a quasi-synonym of KctTtip- TVKtit. Consequently, it must refer to the completion of a period of imperfection, ordeal, and probation, and more immediately, to its effects. Whether therefore we translate it by " purified," " sobered down," " inoffensive," or by any other word refer- ring to the effects of the complete Trpoa-Tpoirt'i, we must pay some respect to the primary meaning of the word and to that of fxapaivui and d/iavpos. Moreover, the x.'-ao'H-o? in the adversative sentence would seem to oppose dp.j3Xvs to d(pol(3avTo', comp. Plat. R \ ' . p. 449 A: raitaf ical KjiapnipeMu trep) woktm* aourj'<*•<; i.*. as h< before). For the 086 of enraXa/uwi, - .481. Froon meaning of KarapTvu) we derive its use to signify the effects prod by training, especially upon bom B, to which the passagi Bajbf particularly refers. See also SophocL a jimp 10 \ ifnrovt kotoj 1 Plutarch. T/tcmlst. c. 11 : nm **P*Jk •* «Vwoi* 7ryi>errr?tti (pdcrKUiv, otciv, »;l D! rjrirov? — KaT«|iTilo»T« *wi tovs dymtxxs aytH*ri¥. p. 38 d: KarapWp t»/»/ 0j«riv. From t rived the peculiar meaning of KnrtjprvKoic — M a horse or ass which has cast its t< '"■ «'• "aged," because his age can no longer l>o known l"r eeth, which are therefore called " ynfrt o m. or i» o i*'o*, ou^eVa) yvtofiova CgM*. yioiuova £e eXeyov TO» |8«AX0SWWI ll" o» Chap. Ij NOUNS AND VERBS. 377 to;? ijXiKias e£tiTafj)v* tou Be avrou kcli kotyj otukoto; eXeyov, £k fxera- (popds Ttov Terpairodajv. kcli air oy viafxovas, tou? wrr oyeyr) p aKOTas , ok eXeXo'nrei to yvwpKr/jLa. ko\ dfioXovs ttcoAou? tou? /jLr}h eirto fiefiXr]- ko'tcc? ohovras. HesychillS : "A/3oAo?. i/eo?, ovSeTru) plxf/as ohovra. rov Be avrov Ka\ kclty] pTVKOTd eXeyov. Yvwfxa tou fiaXXo/jLeuou o'Bo'i/tcc, St' ov to? r]Xinia for l jifus fillo ( occiput /'una {cec'uii stillicidium MOTMf />s ssneansni at'jtclus Now it is quite clear that in all these cases the i is introduced into a heavier form than the a, and the I than the i, consequently heavier than I and lighter than ./. A >imilar analogy shows that the Latin u is heavier than /. We have shown lilwmliiini (Farnowsan 212, sqq.) that there were three values of the Latin i and H m tively. (1) The long i r in composition, the diphthoi ._ as in Ift-tjVttl from wqwtwj (2) the medium i is that which standi a in the instances given above, and also in inter for av-rtp (§ 204), in for dvd (§ 170), UU for aXXot (§ 1( [$) the shaft i approximates to the sound of the shorter it, and wm chiefly used where we should expect f before r and another consonant, as in si . -',-. A^ain, • Rosen asks, « How docs it happen that pario deviates from the analogy, its preterperfeet tense fuperi instead of jxpiri : ■ We answer, because in this word the r is thrown back upon the root-vowel. Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 381 (1) the long u represents the diphthong oi = oe, as in munus = rncenus, and, in composition, the diphthong au, as in in-cludo from claudo ; (2) the medium u stands for a Greek o as in lup-us, AuVos ; (3) the short ii is nearly the same as the shortest i, and is chiefly used before I and another consonant, where we should expect e, as in con-culco from calco, which, according to the table, ought to be con-celco. Now in the first and third cases it is obvious that there can be no difference in weight between i and u : indeed, i is sometimes written for oi = u, as in cime- terium for KotfxrjTt]piov ; and in ob-edio from audio, e takes the place of u. But the medium or ordinary u must have been heavier than the medium or ordinary i, for the Greek o passes through u into % ; com- pare the Greek tvitt-o-^v = TuVr-o-^e? with the old forms sumus, volumus, and their more recent counterparts in -imus: so also the Greek Y^dcropos passes through the old Castorus into the classical Castor is, and some genitives in -us never became obsolete, as hujus, ejus, unius, &c. Again, in old Latin the vowel of the crude-form is pre- served in the inflexions, as in arcu-bus, op-tumus, pontu-fex, &c, in all of which the later Latin exhibits an i (see Lepsius, Palaograph. p. 53). From these instances we should infer that the medium u is lighter than o and heavier than i. That u is lighter than o is farther shown by the change from cohere to cultus, from columen to culmen, though the u here may have been partly occasioned by that affinity between u and I, of which the French furnishes so many examples, and which we see also in the transition from the Greek 'Aa-K\»/Vto is lighter than rj (§ 11 6); and the change from -io9 to -eox? proves that t is heavier than e. That v is heavier than i. appears from the fact that in the weakest forms of words containing labials, whether the labial is vocalized into v or not, we find i as the last faint trace of the original form: compare (pvoo, ar before vowels. This insertion of ■ new vowel into t 1 not in itself significant ; it is purely dynamical I t- only, and, like r plication, &c, i n to the root win- necessary to adapt it f»r tl M of duration. In Greek th<- • fft ma is never effected by a, l>nt by f in the heavier, and o in t forms. Bopp has rightly remarked ( 1V-//whw, p. lfKJ. full.) that the Greek av correspond- to a rn we have from the Sanscrit chid, Latin scid, cki-na-dmi and sci-n-do by anusvdra, whereas the Gothic makes sk-a-ida by guna, and if a-'iQoa is a guna'd form, we may compare it with the Sanscrit anusvdra-iorm i-n-dh. The Latin is most partial to anusvdra, the Gothic least so, as will be seen from the following instances : Sanscrit. Greek. Latin. Gothic, (root lika) lekmi (root A<^) Aer^o) lingo (A.i7r) \€i7T(a linquo (str) strnomi (arop) cropvvpn sterno strauja (tuda) tuddmi tundo stauta (uda) vhwp unda vato The vowel of the guna is softened into i in Gothic, a fact which was first pointed out by Bopp, and to which we shall return when we come to a discussion of the verb-conjugation. We may compare with it the insertion of j before vowels in the Sclavonic languages, sometimes instead of guna as in vjemj (Sanscrit vedmi) ; sometimes as an arbitrary insertion; compare jesmj with the Sanscrit asmi. Of this latter inser- tion we have some remarkable instances in iEolic Greek. Thus, in a Boeotian Inscription (Bockh, No. 1564, 1. 1) we have Tiov-^av dyddav for Tv^rju dyadtjv: in a Delphian Inscription (Bockh, No. 1688, 1. 11), /ur/Be hwpa le^idaQu for le^dadw ; and in the Fragment of Corinna quoted above (p. 224), we have WivZaploio for Hivldpoio. 224 Before we quit this subject, it will be proper to add a few remarks on the significance of roots, a subject on which some very gratuitous assumptions have been made. Hoots be- ing the centres around which the words of a language are grouped, the elements from which the noun and verb develope their multifarious forms, the points of convergence from which they spread themselves out with infinite ramifications, it is un- 384 THE ROOTS OF [Book III. necessary to suppose that they should all have a distinct mean- ing when taken by themselves. The fact is, that most of them obtain a significance, recognisable by the understanding, only when combined with those terminations and flexion-forms which make them into words, and in these words they must be exa- mined if we would know them. The root of a word points to the conception, to the selection of some particular quality of the object which makes most im- pression upon us, and by which we classify it with the other objects, possessing or appearing to possess the same quality. Why particular combinations of letters should be chosen for the expression of certain qualities, is a mystery which cannot always be explained. It has been hinted that the three primary | tions in space were indicated by the first three consonant-articu- lations, namely, the three tenues, and that these constitute the three fundamental pronouns. Farther than tfak ,:inot go. It appears that certain of these pronominal stems, or modifica- tions of them, have become verbal roots ; thus, we have the first in fxa-io = Me-i/a>, and in 7T€pdu>, irpayos, &c. (see Greek Grammar, Art. 79)i from the second in its two forms Fa and tva, we have aevw, 6oos y Ti-Otj-m, Keiuai, cew, cuw, &c. ; all of which preserve the meaning of the pronominal words with which they are connected. We B too, tli.it Fopo£ is only the preposition d-vd. with a suffix, and that there mi be some reason for m the particular syllables which press the relations of father and mother. But. generally speak- ing, the choice is either arbitrary, or depends upon prim of which it would be idle to seek an explanation. 225 In considering the roots of words, we must be careful to distinguish them according to the metaphysical or historical differences of the same root. A metaphysical difference two roots etymologically equivalent, is when they express two ideas connected by the relation, not of resemblance, but of con- trast : an historical difference is when, with the same ineaii they have suffered th< natic changes, which time ami are continually producing upon the consonants of a language as long as it is spoken. It will be recollected that both these dif- ferences are daily taking place: for every man uses every word of his own language according to his own mode of thinking or Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 385 habits of life ; and the pronunciation of words is also subject to continual variation*. And thus, many of our English vul- garisms are merely examples of changes, which take place so regularly in certain languages, that they may almost be reduced under general rules : for instance, the addition of a dental as in gown-d for gown, varmin-t for vermin, is the same variation that appears in hun-d compared with cants, tyran-t compared with tyrannus, &c. Changes occasionally take place in the secondary applications of terms, which have no reference what- ever to their original or radical meaning. Sometimes, to adopt Mr Cobbett's expression, we have the same combination of letters, but not the same word. For example, the word " page," when it signifies the side of a leaf of paper, plainly recalls its origin, the Latin pagina. When, however, it means a youthful domestic, whether at court or in a private family, it is the mutilated repre- sentative of the Greek word irailayuyiov " a little iraiidy wy 09," i. e. one of those servants who were especially appointed to wait upon the young master. The French term chetif, and our old " caitiff," are derived through the Italian cattivo from the Latin captivus, as if all baseness and misery were the natural result of misfortune in war. And thus the Sclavonians, whose name sig- nifies " glorious," " illustrious," and the root of which constitutes the key-note to the laconic epinicium of their celebrated warrior Suwarrowf, from having merely furnished a large number of prisoners of war, have given us our modern name "slave," esclave, schiavo. The Bulgari (according to the French pronunciation Bovlgres and Bougres) owe the horrible degradation of their national name to their early connexion with heresy (Gibbon, X. p. 177 Milman). The word Gypsy, which signifies " vagabond," and " impostor," is merely a corruption of Egyptian ; and in the land of the Nile itself, gins el Farauni, " descendant of Pharaoh," is an abusive designation of Christians. From the same word * " Adeo enim cerea est vocabulorum natura, ut in ipso loquentium ore aliter atque aliter figurentur." Lobeck, Paralipom. p. 148. t Suwarrow's letter to the Empress Katharine on the taking of Ismael was the followiDg couplet: "Slava Bogn! slava vam! Rrepost vzata, y ia tam." " Glory to God, glory to thee ! The fortress is taken, and I am there." Cc 386 THE ROOTS OF [Book III. geist or geest, we have gas, which represents the highest flight of modern science, and ghost, which suggests the most degrading of mediaeval superstitions. The word "quarrel" leads us back through querelle to querela, which means a complaint from the weaker or injured party; but our English word signifies rather to take a high ground in asserting one's rights, and even to assume the initiative in a dispute. These meanings find their common ground in the forensic application of the term : for the humble complainant is naturally antecedent to the litigious suitor. When we speak of a tapster in modern English, we always imply a burley cellarman ; but our ancestors left this office to women, and tapster is the regular feminine of tapper, as sj is of spinner. In the same way the women used often to bake the bread, and in Bury St Edmunds the High and Low Baxter Streets run out of the Cooks' Row, which was the old name of Abbey- Gate Street. Many of these feminine forms are preserved only in proper names, &o, but they are not the less genuine remnants of ancient employments of the weaker sex, which are now more appropriately transferred to men. The examples which we h D and to which almost any number might be idd sufficient to show that even an obvious it/mology i. □ no connexion with the acceptation of i word ; and from this the inference is plain, that the dissection of words, though uniformly valuable as a dej ment of grammar, is not the on! of information which the lexicographer must render available to his purposes. 226 "When we wish to dissect a word in order to arrive at its primary element or root, our first object is to inquire with what other words it agrees in termination or prefix. The latter is stript off at once, but the removal of the affix is often a double operation. To take that set of words called nouns, with which we are in the present part of this work more immediately con- cerned, we find that every one ends with a short termination, often a single letter, which marks its immediate relation to the other objects in connexion with it. and which we call the case- ending. But, in the majority of words, we find, between this and the root, an affix consisting of one or more pronominal stems, which marks the definite class and quality of the noun, and points out the restriction with which the general force of the Chap. 1.] NOUNS AND VERBS. 387 root is applied in the particular instance. When the case- end- ing alone is removed, the remaining part of the word is called its crude-form, whether it has another pronominal affix or not. In most nouns the crude or uninflected form must be still farther denuded before we can arrive at the root or skeleton of the word. Accordingly, in the following analysis of the noun, we have first considered the case-endings or absolute terminations of the noun, and have then examined those pronominal inser- tions before the case-ending, which may be considered as the terminations, not of the noun, but of its crude-form. The young student will thus more clearly discern by what successive steps he must proceed in dissecting any given noun in order to arrive at a definite conception of its meaning, so far as the signification has remained unaffected by the arbitrary or capricious applica- tions to which we have adverted. Cc2 CHAPTER II. THE CASE-ENDINGS OF THE NOUN. 227 Definition and arrangement of cases. 228 Formation of the feminine noun. Criticism of Bopp's opinion. 229 Reasons for the assumption of the feminine gender in certain nouns. 230 Dual number. 231 Sanscrit case-system. 2'->. and Greek Declensions. 233 (a) Latin case-forms. 234 (6) Greek case-forms. 235 Detailed examination of the cases : ( 1 ) Accusative. The dentai » its original affix. 230 Neuter nouns have no nominative. 237 Connexion between the ac- cusative and locative n. 238 Accusative plural of masculine and feminine nouns. 239 Origin of neuter plurals in planation of the anomalies hac and quae. 241 Dual forms. 242(2) Nominative. The sibilant * its proper suffix, but often absorbed or dropt. 243 Explanation of the nominative sign. 244 Nominative plural formed by a reduplication of this affix. 341 (8) a. Imple- mentive or Instrumental. '. D - merit forms. - Dative includes there CMC* 1 17 h B. ./ ' < . Its form in Sanscrit and Latin nouns and in Greek adverbs. 248 (4) b. C I »nly a longer form of the ablative. 24'J Identity of the terminations -6ev and -au>-v. Ml The genitive plural formed from the genitive singular. 251 (5) Vocative. A mere crude-form. 227 TT7TIEX we say that a noun is the name of a tiling, we T V mean that it is a word by which we express our conception of some object ; now the conception of a natural object is the recollection of the most prominent quality or tribute which we have perceived in it ; the name, therefore, points out or refers to this quality or attribute. Wi .own in the last chapter that the part of a noun which convey meaning to our car, and which is called it- >tcm or ro< appears by itself in those languages which have inflexions ; even the crude or uninfected form is never found alone, except when it stands as the vocative case. To the crude-form, in all other instances, is affixed a termination, which constitutes it a word, and gives it the signitication of a noun ; for the same root, with a different termination, and perhaps slightly modified, might be a verb. These endings, which make the crude-form into a noun, and which we call the moo ondingn. it is now our busmen discuss separately and in detail. The designation " case," casus, i.e. "falling," is derived from the Latin version of th 7TTft5(Ti?. Xow this word is used I j:iify not only a case of the noun, but any inflexion either of a noun or a verb, and indeed any word-form, whether declinable. I in ~T6pos y or indeclinable, as an adverb in •<.>. Nmj mere : not Chap. 2.] THE CASE -ENDINGS OF THE NOUN. 389 merely forms of words, but even forms of sentences, are, according to his phraseology, 7TT(vcreis Xoyov, see Aristot. (?) Poet. 20, 10. And for the -irTuxjis Xoyov, compare Topic.Yl. 10, 1 : in el twv OUXOLWV TOV OVOfAaTOS 7TTC0(T€WV CU O/JLOiai TOV XoyOV 7TTW(T€L 35, Gaisford) : SrjXov oti r\ evOeia ovk 60~ti tttwo-is Kvpiws' el yap y)v KVpicos tttwo'i'S ev TrapaQecrei elyjv elvai /xerd twv irpoOecreiov. How Chry- 390 THE CASE-ENDINGS [Book III. sippus, in his book irepl twv irevre -rrrwaewv, would have dealt with this difficulty, we have no means of knowing : but in all probability the original and secondary meanings of the term were somewhat blended and confused. It is clear that Chceroboscus did not understand the terms 6p0tj and evOela as opposed to the term 7r\ayia, for he says (u. s. p. 10, 26) : cet yivuxjueiv on rj fxev opOr/ ovofxaGTiKt] Xeyerai kciI evOeta' kclI opOr} kclI evOeia Xeyerai, eTreicrj opOws crr/naivei ti\v oua'iav tuv irpayuaToC — oi'o/maariKrj €7reictj ot auTrjs tos ovofiatjlas iroiovfieQa*. We have before adduced reasons for the opinion, that the accusative or objective case is the primitive form of the pro- nouns ; the same, we believe, holds with regard to the nouns : if the primary expression of self is objective, much more so must be that of any object in the external world. In Analyzing the cases, therefore, we shall consider the accusative or general ob- jective case first ; the others we shall discuss, as nearly as pos- sible, in the order in which they are placed i; it, which has the fewest piv i, and therefore the most complete * system of any of the lang ith which we are concerned. In Sanscrit there are three :ne, feminine, and neuter; three nui lingular, dual, and plural; and i cases; nominative iiuplementive or instrumental, da- tive, ablative, genitive or | 228 Of the feminine and neuter genders, as distinguished from the masculine, Bopp ther qoaintij [VergL < p. IS5)s " In Sanscrit the feminine, as well in t .is in the case-endings, loves a luxuriant fulness of form, and where it is distinguished in the stem or in the ending from the other _ it is marked by broader, more sounding vowels. The neuter, on the contrary, loves the utmost brevity, but is distinguished from the masculine, not in the stem, but only in the most pro- minent cases, in the nominative and in its perfect opposite, the * On the subject of the dispute between the Peripatetics and respecting the applicability of wWmto as a designation of the oomins the reader may consult Ammonias, p. 104 Brandis. And for the dtl tions by which the cases were known to the Greeks, from who:., borrowed them, see Chceroboscus, /. c. There is a paper on the ycrucq irrao-ts by Sehomann in Holer's Zsitschri/1, I. 1. j ; Chap. 2 ] OF THE NOUN. 391 accusative, also in the vocative, where this is the same as the nominative." The fact is, that in order to mark more strongly the relative and collective nature of things conceived as feminine or maternal, the nominative s of the masculine is generally- strengthened by a broad vocal utterance, or reduplicated; whereas the neuter, which has no nominative, appears only in the ob- jective case, which is most liable to mutilation. This explains the fact that, in masculine and neuter nouns, the vowel which terminates the crude-form, and to which the case-ending is attached, is generally and properly short ; while in feminine nouns, the vowel is long. There are exceptions to this rule, more frequently however in Greek than in Sanscrit. Thus, instead of the o which stands for the Sanscrit masculine a in \6y-o-s, &c., we have a long a or rj in 7rai$o-Tpil3-rj-s 9 &c, and in the numerous class of nouns ending in -rr]$. Though the appearance of the genitive in -ov, and the analogy of in-col-a, &c., might lead us at first sight to conclude that the crude-form terminates in a simple a, yet, on further investigation, it seems difficult to conceive an accidental insertion of such a strong and heavy vowel as tj, which is in almost all cases the representative of some lost or absorbed element. Besides, it is not by any means unusual to find in the oblique cases a shorter form than in the nominative. This is particularly observable in masc. or fem. compounds in ->y? from neuter nouns in -os ; for these exhibit the lengthened form only in the nom. and accus., while the other cases follow the declension of the primitive neuter. Compare, for example, Arj/uoaOevtjs with aOevo?. In our opinion the rj here, as elsewhere, includes the lost y, which is used to form derivative verbs, and which seems by no means out of place in words expressing an action, as the nouns in -77? and -rtjs invariably do : and thus TraiSorpifi-tjs, evepye-rr]? are equivalent to Trai§oTpifi-ya$, evepye-ryas, just as the corresponding verbs would be iraiioTpifieu) (TraiSorpifiyco), evepyerioo (evepyeryw). That we have here the second pronominal element under the form Ti-, appears more clearly, and throughout the cases, in the feminine forms of nouns in -r>?? ; compare Trpo^o-Tr^, irpo^o- Tis (-ti3-s); LKe-rris, \ne-Tis (-tiSs) &c. In nouns like rafx-ia-s, root rap-, the second element is clearly seen under the double form -ia=ia-aa. Bopp's remarks (Vergl. Gramm. p. 139) on the long i, which appears most frequently in Sanscrit as the 392 THB CASE-ENDINGS [Book III. characteristic addition for the formation of stems of the feminine genders, deserve insertion here as the expression of a distinct opinion, which we must endeavour to controvert : " In Greek and Latin this feminine long i has become unfit for declen- sion, and where it has still left any traces, a later, unorganic addition has become the vehicle for the case-endings. In Greek this addition is either a or c; in Latin it is c. Thus rjSeia answers to the Sanscrit 9V&dv4 from wAdf ' sw<„ -Tpia, -rpio, e. fj. in op^^rpia, Xrjarpis, \tjt-$ 9 we have SetKvv-aa, and so forth. We consider the forms in -ia, -pa to be only second- ary states of these original forms in -era, whereas the forms in -id, -pa are contractions of -id-ad, and -pd-aa, in which a formative syllable is inserted, just as in the nouns in -6-s, -$-$ ; for we have words in -rpia = -rpiaaa by the side of words in -rpi-$-$. That the same is the case in the words which end in -tj, namely that these are contracted from older forms in ed = ya-ad, appears from words like avKea, aunt], where the uncontracted form is still extant. The feminine adjectives /ueXaiva, &c. merely ex- hibit the secondary forms fieXdv-id, &c. with the absorption and compensation noticed above (§ 215 c); and the same is the case with nouns like yXalva, which have no corresponding masculine forms. In nouns like /uepL/uva, eyi^va, which we must compare with 7roTvia, TTorva, the i of the termination is either lost or appears in the penultima only, while it is represented by the doubled \ or v of afiiWd, deXXd, K6pivva,8tc (above, J 215 6), and contained in the £ of pi(d, according to the proper power of that letter, (above, $ 21 6). In the words which end in -da and -Sa we must consider these dentals as representing an original a- (above, fi 149). As the feminines reKraiva, Adtcaiva, stand by the side of masculines in -wv, which in the one case represents ov-s and in the other -cms, we cannot consider them as entirely analogous to fieXatva, &c, unless we presume obsolete masculines in -av or -a?. The ethnical name 'Aaapvdv would justify an original Aaicdv = Acucyv, of which Aclkcov is after all only a lighter form (§ 116) : and the verb, TCKraivw, points to an original tcktyiv - T€KTwv, cf. ippr/v, eixfipaivu), &c. The same assumption of obso- lete masculines is also required by Geaiva, Xeaiva, and is easily justifiable: for the Tirdves presume as their opponents the Qedves; and Qedvu) must be derived from Qedv, or Qeavevs : the extant XT?, accusative Xli>, may lead us to an original Xea*>, of which the 394 THE CASE-ENDING [Book in. participial Xeovr- for Xdovr- is a by-form ; compare fiouaa with the participle /uwaa from /iaw. The words Xvkclwv and Xi//ca-/3a9 would suggest Xvkclv, according to the combinations noticed by Muller (Dor. II. § 6), and from this masculine, Xvicaiva would be the analogous derivative. With regard to the very peculiar form Secnroiva, we must remark that cecr-7roT>7$ and tcot-vicl correspond to the Sanscrit patis u a master," and pat-ni " a mistress" (Rosen, Journal of Educ. VIII. p. nd conse- quently, that we need not trouble ourselves to find in -kotvicl the feminine for cecnroTrjs. The analogy of Oepdiru)*, Oepdircuva would conduct us to an obsolete ceGirwv, a degenerate participle, of which wo have other examples. It may seem an open question whether we are to explain dvaaaa, fiaaiXtaaa, OdXa/, it is more reasonable to suppose that the same o is produced the same result in the feminines in -craa ; for it would be strange if the explana- tion of dvciaaio did not apply also to avacraa, especially as future dvd'tio and the dative dra£t are opposed to the assumed illations of r or rr to era. When we see the terming thus brought back by contact or assimilation to the form -ca from which it originally started, we seem to prove our etymolo- gical rule by a process of inversion which is so frequently applicable in arithinet D the whole we cannot but regard Bopp's explanation rms as singularly d efi cie nt in critical tact and accuracv. That the i or of the Greek and « Latin feminines is do! un< m he supposes, will appear in the next chapter. 220 If it be inquired what is the reason why so many in- animate objects are called by names which are ed mas- culine or feminine, it will be sutneient to answer, that this may have arisen partly from the idea of comparative strength or Chat. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 395 weakness (Hermann de Emend, rat. Gr. Gr. p. 125), partly also from association ; for if one word of a class be considered as feminine, all other words of a similar signification would be so considered likewise. For a great many words the gender depends upon something included in the idea of the word; a tree, in reference to its branches, and most collective words, would be feminine, from the included idea of mother (comp. Buttmann, Ausfuhrl. Sprl. § 32, Anm. 3). It is for this reason, we conceive, that r\ 'i7T7ros, signifies "a body of cavalry" (Thucyd. I. 62), r\ /3oGv "a herd of oxen" (Thorn. Mag. in v.), and r\ /ca^Xos "a troop of camels" (Herod. I. 80). We observe the same collective meaning in irerpa "a rock," i.e. a collection of stones, as op- posed to 7r€Tpo which signify " any separate piece of land not built on," i. e. either the open space in a town, which is the proper meaning of x o P°s ( Theatre of the Greeks, ed. 6, p. [ll]), or a field in the country, which is the ordinary signifi- cation of xfipos'. so Herod. II. 154: c'lowgl x^P 0V ^ kvotKrjaat: cf. I. 126. We might say that x^P a " a territory" was an ad- jective agreeing with the suppressed noun yrj, and that x^P°$ referred to aypos ; but there is no occasion to call in this ma- chinery. The diminutive x^p L0V °f course belongs immediately to x^P ^' ^he large meaning of x^P a * s s *^ ^ arfcner shown by its use to denote the room or space, the vacans provincia, which ought to be filled by some one : see Xenoph. Anab. IV. 8, § 15: eireiorj kv Tals x^p ai ^ e/cav -m Plur. -r*ie*( Tariously L^lmodit [the singular -[//i]*< moons: rbed Dat. and Loc. -/ or -hi 1 or -bos Abl. -d or -tus Gen. -J*, -jus, -sis El AMPLE. -[r]tan Sin?. Plur. Nom. lapi[d]-s lajdd- r L s]es Accus. lapid-e-m lapid-t {m]* = to Dat. lapid-?-[bi~] = lapid-i lapid-U Abl. lapid-c-[d] Gen. lap id- is lapid-c-rum Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 399 It is not necessary for our present purpose to consider the differences of gender in the Latin noun, but our scheme for the Greek case-endings must have regard to these alterations. 234 (b) Greek Declension. Masc. Norn. Accus. Dat. Abl Gen 9i, -(pi, -:[>] .orl a Singular, Fern. -era, -la ■la-cra, -la -crav, -6a, -da, &C. -aa-i = crrj, &C t: Neut. 4-*, -<§-< wanting -v, -r same as masc. Norn. Accus. Dat. Ablat. orl Gen. I Masc. -aa-iov — arjs, Plural. Fern. -C7a-€9 -aav-s, &JC -aa-i-oriv, &c. &c. do. Neut. wanting -i/-T = a same as masc. ■Giov-s, -ivv -aa-iov-s 9 aa-oov, &c. do. It will be observed that the plural masc. and fern, is formed by adding to the singular the collective cr- (above, § 152), which in the dative plural assumes nearly the full form of cri/i/. We have shown elsewhere that the Hebrew plural was similarly formed by means of the prepositions D^ and J"IX, both signifying "with" (Maskil le-Sopher, p. 13). The neuter plural of the accusative is merely a reduplication of the singular v or t, and this combination -vr is invariably softened into a (above, § 114). With regard to the mas. singular, it is clear that the nominative case-ending of the noun, denoting the subject, is to be referred to the second pronominal element which indicates relative proximity. To this the genitive or ablative, denoting removal from the sub- ject, adds the third pronominal element under the form -v. The dative, which denotes juxtaposition, repeats the second ele- ment under the form i or (pi, which we have recognised with the same sense in k-iri. The accusative, denoting the object, is content with the third element alone. From this it appears that the cases of the noun are connected only with a special develope- ment of the second and third pronominal elements. 400 THE CASE-EXDIXGS [Book in. The dual presents abridged forms of the plural, the nomina- tive and accusative being distinguished by a vague -e, which is often absorbed, and the genitive or ablative and dative being both expressed by the same residuary ending -iv. The abridg- ment of a-ses into ae in the nominative plural of the Latin a- declension shows how the nominative and accusative dual have been merged in a single representative. But it is impossible that the genitive and dative dual can have sprung from any disinte- gration of those two cases in the plural or singular. It is clear that -iv for -0ti/ or -(pts is the plural form of the locative in i or i, just as the Latin plural in -bis or -fall stands by the side of a singular in -hi. But as the Greek genitive is strictly and properly an ablative, and as the ablative and dative plural are uniformly expressed by the same locative case-ending in Latin, we need not be surprised to rind the same neglect of case-distinc- tions in the mutilated dual of the Greek nouns. Norn. Accus Dai Abl. or Gen M \uyo-s Xuyo-v \oy ( ,) = \oyu-(pi Examples. "line. Dual. \uyt }\uyou = \oyo-io \ = Xoyo-aio-vj Q3) 1 Tlur. -t = \oyi>- Xoyo-ta- otv Xoya v = XcT/o-cr | Nom. nov-aa Acc. Dat I jiov-oai' juou-ar) = fLOV-aa-t = /ULOU-/9 Gen. J =fxov-ad-iov fjiov-ca Plur. HOU-(T(lt ■ /JLOU- K€pa-S = KtfJ€V-T KefJa-Tl = K€p€V-Tl Gen. J =K€fJ€V-T€(JlOV ier-TK ) K€pa- Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 401 235 TVe shall now discuss in detail all the cases of the Sanscrit declension, comparing them with the corresponding Greek and Latin cases, and pointing out what are the substi- tutions in these two languages for those Sanscrit cases which they have not. (l) Accusative. The proper sign of this case is m in Sanscrit and Latin, and v in Greek. It is well known that the laws of euphony, which prevail in the Greek language, do not permit the appearance of any labial at the end of a word. It would be of little use to seek for an explanation of this rule ; and in the present instance there is reason to believe that the Latin and Sanscrit ni are weaker forms of an original dental more truly represented by the Greek v. The Sanscrit m of the accusative is generally transformed by anusvdra into a nasal n ; it is probable that the Greek final v occasionally had the same sound, and that it then subsided into the broad a, which is so frequently its representa- tive (above § 114). Some such view is also necessary to explain the fact that the Latin final m is disregarded in prosody, and the vowel preceding it elided, when the following word begins with a vowel ; so that this m is merely the nasal liquid in its ultimate state of obscuration. Indeed Quintilian distinctly explains the ecthlipsis as a kind of anusvdra. He says {Inst Orator. IX. 4. £ 39) : hide belligerare, po' meridiem : et ilia Censorii Cato- nis Diee Hanc, ceque M litera in E mollita : quai in veteribus libris reperta mutare imperiti solent : et, dum librariorum in- sectari volunt inscientiam, suam confitentur. Atqui eadem ilia litera, quoties idtima est et vocalem verbi sequentis ita con- tingit, ut in earn transire possit, etiamsi scribitur, tamen pa- rum edprimitur : ut, Multum ille, et Quantum erat : adeo ut p&ne cujusdam novce liters sonurn reddat. Neque enim ex- imitur, sed obscuratur, et tantum aliqua inter duas vocales velut nota est, ne ipsa} coeant. As an accusative case-ending, therefore, we must conclude that the Latin m and the Greek v are traceable to a common origin, which is more truly repre- sented by the Greek affix. 236 In Latin, Greek, and Sanscrit the nominative and ac- cusative of neuter nouns have the same termination. There can Dd 402 THE CASE-EXDIXGS [Book UL be little doubt that the true explanation of this phenomenon is that given by the late Mr Coleridge, especially in its connexion with the fact that in Greek the neuter plural is generally followed by a singular verb. " The neuter plural governing, as they call it, a singular verb, is one of the many instances in Greek of the inward and metaphysic grammar resisting successfully the tyranny of formal grammar. In truth, there may be Multeity in things ; but there can only be Plurality in persons. Observe also that, in fact, a neuter noun in Greek has no real nominative case, though it has a formal one, that is to say, the same word with the accusative. The reason is — a thing has no subjectivity, or nominative case : it exists only as an object in the accusative or oblique case" {Table Talk, Vol. II. pp. 6l, 2). It would perhaps have been better to say at once that both these facts depend upon the same principle, that there is, namely, no nominative case of neuter nouns, either in the singular or in the plural*. The reason of this we shall see better when we come to explain the meaning of the termination of the nominative. 237 It is difficult to resist the impression that there must be some connexion between this accusative -m. -v, and the old locative ending -n. It is clear, as we have before shown, that this locative ending becomes -m in the Latin words interim, m iam, inter se junctre esse videntur, ut hmm tantum corpus nat. Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 403 (§ 245). Moreover, it is well known that in a multitude of instances the meaning of the Greek accusative is entirely lo- cative : e. g. when it follows a neuter or passive verb. We find other examples of an interchange of case-endings in the use of -d as the sign of the neuter accusative-nominative in id, istud, and the appearances of a similar ending in ot-ti, &c. (Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 183), whereas the -d was the ancient termination of the ablative in Latin, and also, as we shall show, in Greek. The ?, which the Greeks sometimes substituted for this §, is also used sometimes as a mark of the genitive case, because the significations of that case frequently enter into those of the ablative. But all this is very intelligible. It depends upon the nature of the noun, whether a dative, genitive, or ac- cusative case-ending should be used, when a given relation of the noun is to be signified. In some instances a locative would most appropriately express the relation intended, in others a dative, in others even an ablative. But there is, properly speaking, no mere accusative ; objectivity and location are identical ; only the former is the expression of general, the latter of particular posi- tion. If we speak of a thing as an object, it is the there, though the particular location may not be defined. We conclude, then, that the sign of the accusative case in Greek, Latin, and Sanscrit is the oldest form of the locative, assigned to express general objectivity, its use as a particular locative being retained only in certain pronouns, and its place being supplied in other words by the termination i when a particular position was to be described. This ending -i, as is generally the case when this vowel appears, is a mutilation of the element of the second pronoun, and is re- presented in its fuller form by 0*. It has probably lost the final v also, as we see in those Greek words which exhibit the accusa- tive-ending as a mere -a, as avlpa for avSpa-v, &c We may also compare irpoa-Se, irpocrQev; 7rd\i, iraXtu; irepa, irepav, &c. (above $ 114, and below § 239). 238 With regard to the accusative plural we adopt without hesitation Grimm's opinion, that it is merely the accusative sin- gular with the plural s superadded. The stems which end with a short vowel in Sanscrit form the accusative plural in n, with a lengthening of the final vowel of the stem : thus vrikas "a wolf," Dd2 404 THE CASE-ENDINGS [Book III. makes accus. plur. vfikan. If we compare this word with the Gothic vulfans on the one hand, and the Latin lupos on the other, we shall perceive that the Gothic is the complete form, the Sanscrit and Latin having lost, one the s, the other the n, and both having supplied the loss by strengthening the final vowel of the crude-form. If we now take the Greek Xukovs, which bears the same relation to Xmovs that ocovs does to dens, &c , it will appear, we conceive, that the same holds in Greek. We may add that tvtttwv for tvwtov{t)$ is analogous to vrlMa for vrikans. It will be observed, too, that in those cases where the accusative singular has lost its final m, n, and indeed in some others, the plural s is merely subjoined to the weakened form of the accusative singular; thus rv«Torra(r) mak Toi/ra-s. 239 In neuter nouns the accusative and nominative plural, which are, for the reasons above given, the s end in -a in Zend and in the old European lai f the family ; but in Sanscrit we find an j, which, according to Bopp, is only a W< ened form of an original a ( JY/w/. G rctmm. pp. ~> a: : the final vowel of the crude-farm is lengthened, nieil n," as Bopp calls it, is inserted between it and the case-endii Thus madhti (neOu) "honey," makes in the plural madhu instead of fieOv-a. This appears to us a rather unscientific way of accounting for the Sanscrit inflexion. A more accurate examination of the phenomena will enable us to reconcile the different forms by reproducing the structure in which they all original. We have already shown generally that the broad a repre- sents an anusvdra or pppprowod H (j UK and the final n in particular is constantly so represented in nouns of the third declension, as in (p\tfi-a. -n-arep-a, \v. Moreover, we I shown that even -v-r may be represented by a - i, as in $€~Ka for jfw-jrcir {i l6l), and we shall see that the forma- tive /uar = /uei'T becomes -ua. as in au-u^. \c. There would be no objection then, ii priori, to regard the plural -o as a r< of vr\ and if the objective p or t of the singular had to be formed into a plural analogous to that oi the masculine nouns in -s, which, we shall see, form their plural by a reduplication Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 405 of the ending, we should be led at once to the assumption that the result would be the combination vt, or the reduplication w. Kow we have positive authority for the assertion that the neuter plural in Latin originally ended in -ad ; thus we find in the Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus, 1. 24: quei advor- sum ead fecisent. Again, we find in Sanscrit, as we have seen above, an interpolated n in the terminations of neuter plurals, and the i, which follows it, is most probably the vocalization of a second n, just as conversely nn is substituted for ni ($ 215. b). Putting all these considerations together, we can hardly avoid coming to the conclusion that the proper and original plural of i-d was e-ad — e-nd ; that the genuine plural of madhu — madhu-n was madhu-'nn ; and that %v\-a from %v\o-v represents a primitive %v\-€vt. Our view is still farther confirmed by the fact, that while the Erse plural of the third per- sonal pronoun is siad (for swiad), the Welsh form of the plural is hwynt (for swynt). 240 This theory explains all the common forms of the neuter plural. But there are two pronouns in Latin which we must consider as isolated in this respect, and we must endeavour to account in a different manner for the anomalous forms which they exhibit in the neuter plural. These are the correlatives hie and qui. We have mentioned above (§ 146), that qui, sic, hie, and is, are four forms, including the same pronominal root, and signifying relative proximity, in which the guttural ele- ment has successively degenerated. But a sameness of origin does not presume a continuous sameness of use ; and while hi-c has obtained a fixed value, as a demonstrative pronoun equi- valent to 6-$€, and is used idiomatically to denote the first person, is, in its common and simple form, is the mere ante- cedent to qui, which is always a relative ; compounded with the third element, is becomes i-ta, the correlative of si-c, and is-te the converse of hie ; and, with a further extension, it becomes i'terum, the opposite of heic and hue. Under these circum- stances, we shall not be surprised to find that the adjunct ee, which is invariably attached to si in this use, and which is almost always appended to hi-c, is rarely found in conjunction with qui and is. The declension, however, of these pronouns is long anterior to their distinctive use, and it would argue the 406 THE CASE-ENDINGS [Book III. utmost degree of philological ignorance to maintain that be- cause the affix ce is not found in the usual forms of is and qui, it never attached itself to the inflexions of these pronouns. Even in hi-c we see a tendency to throw off this adjunct ; the masc. and fern, plural are hi, hce, in the ordinary use of the pronoun, though we know from Varro that they were once written hi-c, hce-c, and though the feminine appears with the affix in Plautus and Terence, (see Varronian, pp. 2.'>7, 8). Xow if we compare ea, ista, ilia with the feminines singular hac, q\ia>, we must conclude that these latter forms represent hd-ce. qud-ce, the former retaining the c as well as the transposed vowel, and the latter showing its original adjunct only in the diphthong mtine Table exhibits the pronouns with the affix - :.»rmer in the combination 2^ost-esa-k = poit-kae 241 We have before stated that the dual is mer. ' by-form of the plural. The nominative and accusative dual in Sanscrit are. as in Greek, the same. In some neuter nouns the dual nom. accus. | ime as the plural; in others ther an omission of the characteristic H. Thus dtunr. ikes in the dual dAni m dana-i, the plural being dini H I ; " speech," makes in the dual V&chfo-t, the plural where we have different compensations for a final n. * A writer, who can neither discover the truth nor P : when discovered, obstinately maintains that lbs long -i in tin/*!, li from an absorption of m, and that the original forms were awtoam, . "on the analogy of pottqm aware that f*am is not here a ease after po&l, or onto, but the pari of comparison, so that the full form is, in fact, postoxptam, antmgmmm, &q Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 407 (2) Nominative. 242 The proper sign of the nominative case is $. In Sanscrit this sibilant is usually softened by visarga into h. In Greek and Sanscrit it is often absorbed in an a-ending in femi- nine nouns ; in Latin and Zend it is frequently dropped altoge- ther in this case. When we recollect how constantly the final s is mute in modern French, we shall not wonder at these appear- ances of a similar insignificance of the same letter in the ancient languages. We find instances in old Latin of s concluding a short syllable though the succeeding word begins with a conso- nant, as in the senio confectus quiescit of Ennius, which can only be explained by supposing a visarga of the nominative analogous to the anusvdra of which we have spoken above. There are reasons for supposing that this was the case in Greek also. Thus it is possible that the rule about the pause is not violated in ^schylus {Person 321), as Porson thinks (Suppl. ad Prozf. Hec. p. 33) ; we can easily imagine that ' Apio/uapSos *2dp($€Gi might be pronounced 'Apid/uapSo' 2a/^Wr. As to the objection that Ariomardus was a governor of Thebes and not of Sardis, we might as well object to ^Eschylus for saying in v. 301, that Arcteus was 7rrjyais NeiXou yeirovwv AlyuirTiov, because the same Arcteus, by an amusing conversion, is called in v. 41 a governor of Lydia : dfipociaiTwv o eTrerai Ai/oaw o^Xos — rov? Mir p. 'ApKTevs t dyaOos — e^opixcoatv. Quintilian, too, seems to have thought that the chief reason for the visarga in old Latin was to avoid a concourse of consonants similar to that in this passage of JEschylus. He says (Inst. Orator. IX. 4, § 37) : Ceterum consonantes quoqae, earumque prozcipue, quoz sunt aspeHores, in commissura verborum rixantur, ut X ultima cum S proxima, quarum tristior etiam, si bino3 collidantur, stridor est : ut Ars studiorum. Quoz fuit causa et Servio (ut dixi) subtraJiendai S literal, quoties ultima esset aliaque consonante susciperetur, quod reprehendit Lauranius, Messala defendit. Nam neque Lucilium putant uti eadem ultima, quum dicit, Serenus fuit, et dignus locoque, et Cicero in Oratore (c. xlviii) plures antiquorum tradit sic locutos. (We have here adopted the emendations of Rollin and Gesner ; the books have et S xdtima eum X proxima, which is nonsense). If this view is well founded, we shall not wonder that a final letter, of little force in pronunciation, should in some cases be dropped 408 THE CASE-EXDIXGS [Book in. in writing also. Such we find to be the fact in the feminine nouns of the first declension, where the termination sa is repre- sented only by the length of the final vowel, and in many mas- culine and feminine nouns of the third or unparasyllabic de- clension. 243 The explanation of this nominative sign is obvious and easy. The simplest form of the third personal pronoun in the Indo-Germanic languages is, we have seen, in Sanscrit sa-8, sa, tad; in Greek (/. or, substituting the sibilant for the aspirate. Ve shall consider all these three cases together, because we believe that their meanings spring from the same source, and because these meanings are all represented by the same case in Greek, that, namely, which we call the Dative. In Sanscrit the instrumental singular is marked by an ending a or ina, the latter ending being appropriated to nouns the crude- form of which ends in a short vowel. The terminat considered by Bopp (Abk, Ah\ /> bears the same relation to (pis, that -jxei/, in the verb- 412 THE CASE-EXDIXGS [Book III. endings, does to -/ie?, the other form. The Sanscrit locative plural ending -su, -situ is identical with the Greek -cri-v or -i-ai-v. We have before remarked, that the letter n is the most striking mark of the locative, and that we find this letter at the end of locatives of all genders. The v e0e\KWTt*oV, then, which we so often see at the end of Greek datives plural, is not a merely arbitrary addition, but a real part of the word, dropped according to laws of euphony in the newer bagn The anutv&ra, or nasal at the end of the plural locative in Pracrit, points to a similar final n in that language. For the Sanscrit su, situ we find c&VO, hr.i. in Zend, from which Bopp not unreasonably concludes [VmrgL Q p. 288), that the original form of the Sanscrit plural-lucative ending may i. been sva, and this leads us at once to the r pronoun sva, Greek af/)e, and is, therefore, identical with the collective termination -cro? = cr0o9. The relationship n cr(pu>, the locative of this pronoun, and the locative ending (pi, (pu clear from what wo have said in a former chapter. The ter- mination of the dative plural in Greek is generally -i-c. have a similar form : . it. Thus, enka-s makes locative plural vnki'-shu- crik>t-i-shu. At other timi u de-form is not thus altered. This is the rule in San-rit feminine nouns. Thus, ji/wd, "a t It also holds in cer- tain Greek words as in the feminii. jm, *( >\ Oupaai, &c, and even in masculines, as raii'iam (Bookh, ( pm Insert).?. 1. p. so). As the penultimate vowel, howe is invariably lot „ probable that the dative singular is included in the form to which the plural affix is appended. We are at liberty, therefore, to conclude that the loc.i plural is formed from the Lo IT by the addition of the collective ending -sra = avr, the ehanu of the latter being absorbed in the lot - wliieh we I mentioned as exceptions. If this uppQfl well-founded, the Greek laniraaffe furnishes a confirmation of the theory which we have elsewhere proposed n structure of the Hebrew plural — namely, that it is formed by appending the prepositions D>* and ftM signifying "with" | MaMl Ie-$opher 9 p. IS). The loeative-ending -Oi is, like -{pi. referable to the second pronominal element (abOTO, Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 413 247 (4) a Ablative. The plural ablative in Sanscrit has the same termination as the dative ; the dual ablative is identical with the instrumental as well as with the dative. The connexion in meaning between the dative and instrumental cases we have just shown. The Sanscrit ablative properly expresses removal from a place, i.e. it answers to the question " whence." It will easily be perceived how this might be resolved into the idea of a cause or instru- ment, and also how the same meaning might be made applicable to the ordinary use of a dative ; for instance, " I give to him" might be represented by " I give through him," or " he is the cause as well as the object of my giving," for in such cases the object to ivhom is very often the cause by which. In Greek, the use of the dative to signify the occasion or instrument is but little different from that of the adverb of manner (Gr. Gr. art. 457) ; and this adverb, as we shall see presently, is a residuum of the ablative, which is similarly used in Latin. We require generally viro with the genitive to express the cause, and this is equivalent to the Latin ablative with ab (see Gr. Gr. 487). The characteristic of the ablative singular is -t, when the crude-form of the noun ends in a ; in other declensions it more nearly resembles the genitive, to which also it corresponds in meaning. The English writers on Sanscrit grammar consider -at as the termination, but Bopp rightly concludes (Vergl. Gramm. 209), from the analogy of mat, tvat, the ablatives of the first and second personal pronouns, and of the Zend ablatives, that the ablative-ending is merely the letter -t. We find this termination in the Latin met — Sanscrit mat, which appears in the combinations egomet, memet, &c«, and in the conjunction se-d, more anciently written se-t. Under the form -d, this ending appears as the regular characteristic of the ablative in old Latin. Thus, on the Columna Rostrata we have: prcesented sumod dictator ed olorom in altod maridpucg- nad vicet (Varronian. p. 179). It is to be remembered, that in Latin the same letter ap- pears as the characteristic of the neuter-objective singular as in id, illud, &c. ; also, as has been mentioned above (§ 239), in the neuter plural ; thus, in the Senatus Consultum de Bacchanalibus, we have quei advorsum ead fecisent; and as me, te (anciently met, tet or med, ted) are used both as accusatives and ablatives, 414 THE CASE-EXDIXGS [Book III. so sed, which appears as an ablative in its conjunctive use, is an accusative in the senatus consultum just mentioned, where it appears after inter. This brings us back again to what we said about the Sanscrit a, which, though a preposition denoting mere position, is used in an instrumental sense. To us it appears nearly certain, for reasons which we will give directly, that the ablative-ending -t or -d is the second personal pronoun which appears under the forms dua, d;/a, tha, &c, and which, though it may and in fact does signify position, and indeed vicinity, is also used to denote the last term of a scries proceeding from the subject, i. e. the nearest to the subject, and hence proceeding or removal in general : for which reason, as we have shown in a former chapter, it is used to form the superlative degree of adjectives. The ablative relation in Greek is expressed by the genitive, with or without a preposition. In most Sanscrit words this rela- tion is also expressed by the genitive, or by a form very nearly resembling it. We believe, notwithstanding what Bopp says (Abb. Ah. II //. L8£6, ]«. 97 , that the genitive and ablative were originally identical. The only instance in (ireck of a near approximation to the Sanscrit ablative in -t. Latin •/? = Aro«t-&of, See. A comparison of Acppodtrrj with the Sanscrit abhniditti u she who comes out of a cloud" (from the ablative abhnit, written abJinid in composition, and itd) shows that the first part of the word is an adjective equivalent to the ablative of a(ppos, which should be atypwS or d0/cxe < ; the in- cluded form aippoci- from a^ - indicated by the succeed- ing long vowel, which would otherwise have been short : coinp. Chap. 2.] OF THE NOUN. 415 'irris, 'iTctiuos, &c. (Bopp, VergL Gramm. p. 21 6, note). We shall see directly that this fuller form of the ablative is neither more nor less than the genitive. 248 (4) b Genitive. The endings of the genitive singular in Sanscrit are s, sya, as, and as. The latter is appropriated to feminine nouns which end with a vowel ; thus priti-s " love" makes prityds, which is perfectly analogous to irakew ; for -that this was a dissyllable (probably pronounced 7r6\yus, and we have seen this adverbial termination in the Greek genitives, like WXews corresponding to the Sanscrit prityas, &c, which, there- fore, are only by-forms of prkydt, &c. Again, possessive adjec- tives like trjfwaios, &c, are obviously connected with the geni- tives Srj/uLo(lai\ that these adjectives correspond in Chap. 2.] OF. THE NOUN. 417 signification to the quasi- comparatives in -iwv =* -iov-s. If, as there is every reason to believe, these latter are older, stronger, and more complete forms of the adjectives in -to = -crto, it is a just inference that -iov = -aiov was the fullest and most original form of the genitive case. 250 This view is confirmed by the Greek genitive plural which is otherwise an inexplicable phenomenon. According to all reasonable expectations, the genitive plural ought to be de- rivable from the genitive or ablative singular by the addition of -?. In common Greek the genitive plural consistently ends in -aw, which is immediately attached to the crude or uninflected form, the circumflex however in the first declension points to an original form in -d-cov, which is still found. But if ' ArpeiS-a-o =ATpei$- a-aiov, still more easily do we pass from Arpe^-d-oov = 'ArpeiS- d-ov-7-/ud- • B a quality in question " what V — as in 7roi>/T<-Ko'>< Forsch. II. p. 458). Still more common is the termination in -10- swering to the Sanscrit f&-9: in fact there is hardly a root or tern tion to which it may not be joined with a qualitative meaning. I the form -/a«r, -uw, it is of extensive net in tin* construction of quali- tative nouns, Bach as vcavla*;, kovj md of proper names express- ing a quality, a> KoAXio . l this sullix also in the num. r I nouns ending in -»/, and in those, denoting in -*tti t! . Tpirjpdp^rj^, stand I r a VX'/ a ' Tpit)papxj/u<;, just as rpii)pap\ -ents rpitipapxyafAi. It is not, however, inbjoined to tin which it appears to be perfectly equivalent (compare m , flu* with . nor can we persuade ourselves thai it fa over app nple element of the second person, though BOmC Bohotaa have suggested that tenninatione like -, of which we can only say tha: the same as that of j&tyotj pd, a vocative (see Valcken. Admims. p. 383): compare The comparative phBofoget will bt amused I :■ difficulties ; ParaJip. V- - Chap. 3.] OF THE UNINFLECTED FORMS. 423 7-?, gen. -tou, which signifies a male agent, as Kpt-Ttj? " a judge," &c, consists of the third element only. There is reason, however, to believe that this ending either presents the second element under the form r«, which is the case in all nouns like k0j-t>/? of the first declension, or adds the element ya to the third element t- in the nom. of the few nouns which end in -t*7?, -tow, just as ya alone appears in the nominative of compounds like evrcippj* from Tei^o?. Words formed with the ending -r^ are sometimes passive ; thus yeve-rtjs signifies both " father," which is the more common meaning, and " son" (Soph. (Ed. Tyr. 470. Eurip. Ion. 916). AVe have also dr't-r^ " dishonoured" (iEschyl. Agam. 72, Eumen. 246), deiyeve-rai 0€o\ in Homer —alev e'o'i/re?, and Pindar calls Bacchus Kia-a-ode-rav Qeov (fr. 45, 9). But this meaning is more generally found with words in -to?, which termination appears not only in a large class of words with a passive signification, but also in the ordinals and superlatives. In the two latter cases it is probable that the termination is connected with -6ev the mark of the genitive case, and, therefore, with the second pronominal element, and the verbals in -Teo?, -ti/?, -ti?, &c. 255 (3) Forms with the third pronominal element only. There is a large class of neuter substantives properly terminating in the element -t-, which is however softened in various ways by the pro- 424 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book III. cess of declension (see Gr. Gr. art. 182). One of the most common of these alterations is the substitution of -0-9 for -o-t, and the omission of this sibilant in the oblique cases : thus Trpayo-s for irpdyo-T means a thing done, the genitive being -n pay eo? for -rrpdye-ao^ (according to § 114). The third element also appears alone in a number of participial adjectives, such as ypcnr-Tos, " written," ^kt-to'?, " anointed," Im-mw, M dreaded," &c. Although the termination of the passive participle in Latin and Sanscrit is identical with that of the supine, as it i- called, in Latin, and the Sanscrit infinitive, and though it that these supines and infinitives are of the snmootighl with the I it may be doubted whether we ought not termination of the passive participle as resulting from the third pronominal element only, and therefore as different from that of these 1 -.uM be mentioned that these forms diner by a Q a differ ence which may indicate that th not idem Another reason for inferring a difference between these e: I the verbal- formed from the lOOOnd -tern IS, that the former perfectly coin- cide in meaning with the word- formed with the snmx -•»?, which tainlv hafl no connexion with the SBCOnd element, an f the third in i nn. Thus both -rw and -»n of the trtr\t\v. It will be remembered too that n and / are bseitsd in th tenses of verbs in precisely the same manner, tlius we haw n ----«-<»' and t*/+-9-*b in Greek, si-n-n; and in Latin (Pott, Kt m. /" f K II;. The qualitative nouns in -t>/t-s ^ rot, Latin -t-v, yuoo-pcou y irXev-piav^ &c, to which ser-mon, pul- mon, &c, correspond in Latin : it sometimes appears as -po-vtj, as in %ap-po-vtj, Tretcr-po-vt], (pXey-po-vrj, Tr\rj5 for 7raTp»-FoT-s (here the Sanscrit pitri-vyas pre- sents a longer form of the second pronoun), and the participles in -aK = Fot-, ai = Joa?i?iis uxor (Pott, EtpnoL Fonek II. p. 1S6). 2.")8 With the third pronominal root under the form -#* the second makes a elass of abstract noun- fa tfl a-uxppo-av-iti, cikciio-,- Ka\\o-ti, &c, which are nearly equivalent in meaning fto thott h and -fxo-utj. Indeed, MoXAdtfvnf, which means 4 * that which i? <>f the quality of beauty," diiVer- very little from niXAo-4 >l * objective beauty." We have BO hflfljtatimi ill claSBll tcnnin.v with -ai'i-vt), to which it bean the hum relation tha- I i - to that in -h' duedrjKav. The adjectives in -t-juo? or -o-t-juo? express a quality by virtue of the first part of their termination, and also an action like the nouns in -/jlos. In fact, by this appendage, the relative word becomes subjective; thus aAw-o-i? signifies "a capture," and aAw- OTrXiTt]^ from oVAoi/, vroXirr}? from ttoAk. With the exception of fiireipwrr]? from tJTreipos, the termination -coT-r/s is appended to those nouns only which end in -ia and -eia. Now these nouns are combinations with the second pronominal element un- der the form ya : thus, 'IraA-o'-?, 'IraA-za, 'IraX-iuiTris. In this case, therefore, we conceive the termination is compounded of the second and third pronominal elements. May not the others be so likewise ? In the Latin terminations -as (for dts) genitive -dtis, the third pronominal element does not appear in so full a form as it does in Greek, but the length of the penultima points to a combination of the two elements as in the Greek. The whole question will be set in a clearer light, if we consider in general what is the origin of the ethnic names. Now, either the name of the country is derived from that of the people or vice versa* When the former is the case, the name of the country generally ends in -la or -i-k>/, which are relative endings affixed to the gentile name: thus, 'IraAo? makes 'IraAia, AciKtav makes ActKwviKtj. But there were two classes of inhabitants in countries of which the Greeks were wont 428 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book in. to speak and write; the native inhabitants, and the Greek settlers. Thus, if 'IraXia is the country of the 'ItciXoi, a person living and acting there would be 'lraXi^Trjs, which is therefore a secondary formation, or includes both pronominal endings. The Romans, in like manner, would call Hupan-ia the land of the Hispan-i, but a Roman living there would be called Hispaniensis (see Ruhnken ad Sueton. Ccesar. § 37). If all the Greek nouns of which we are speaking are secondary formations, we can now understand why we have iroAiVis woAfnft, but (pv\€Tti<;, and crjfxdrrjetween a' river that bounded the earth, and wty a w h the h m --t-l ».xpan-e which rested upon it, according to the ancient idea. There is no occasion then for the derivation pr op o ood by Hopp (Gloss. Sansc. p. 331). In like manner for the patronymics -<'a>-v, -lu-vr/, -<-vr/, we must presume fa mediate proper names in -fat, 4a, It is important to remark that the nouns in -ia? have occasionally by-forms in -faff ; thus, we have both vefip-la* and ve/fy-rrr/c, the latter having a compound, the fennel a simple ending. Pott's supposition (Etymol. Forsch. II. p. £ that -td~Ttj<: contains the Sanscrit root 1 or yd, "to go," is founded on what we consider a misconception respecting the nature of these formations. k 2(U) The large class of nouns in •>V, -wpm, must ho referred : same origin as the genitive plural, and therefore, as we have already seen (§ 860), are derived from a combination of the second element under the form en- with the third element »-. They denote a nfcn collection or aggregation : thus. wAp A is a "place for men," wap$c»~m* "a maiden's chamber" (hence the temple of the - ddess Pallas), Chap. 3.] OF THE UNINFLECTED FORMS. 429 ay-V, which is found in Ionic and old Attic (Lobeck, Phrynichus, p. 166). The further affix ~ia is sometimes found, as in poc-uv-ia, pv-u)v-la. 261 (3 a) Reduplications of the third pronominal element. Except in the nominative case of the few nouns which end in -t»;?, -tou7Ct-?), "E\Aac-? ('E,\Aa 1 1-7), that Kopx r 1 -? and Spvid-i are compounds, the one denoting " what he head," as from TiOtjfxi, and the other " that which goes in the wood," as from 6eu) "to run." We believe that in all case- | and significant a pronominal suffix as any other : lot instance, why is \oya- £-io-r (Lac. trot/ >), /»affm, pu*i!' (his, disci-j>'!i>i(i, Sec. in Latin ; Sense. pur- nyit Jilitts), and so on. The same derivative sense may be recog- nised in the feminine nouns in c- or 0-. * That which com. - belongs to the woe lit nrottt, Lat. am us) would be as good an explanation of opviO-< a< any other, and the importation of a verbal root is quite gratuitous. The termination d- appeals in a longer form in the verbal substantive-, like /&»-&>«, \\ and in the common patronymics, as Kpoi l-ct;*. I »;c (the name I occurs in Herod. VI IT. 65, fca). In the JBoKe dialect this suffix appeal -£7 = iov-s the converse is observable, the feminine being -«oi/r/, and -'iutj. The fair inference from this is, that the feminines in -3-7/? or -3a<, never -toves ; for example, the Athenian tribes are called 'Apyadrjs, RovTadai, T^vTrarpilat, &c, and we have clans or castes called 'Ofxrjpldat, 'Ao-kA^-h- idlai, &c. The termination -Beus, whence 'Apyad^, expresses also general derivation without reference to any proper name, as in the words u<3eJ?, sing. XeovrtSijs, ^i/tS^?, plur. The Boeotian patronymics in -wi/3as seem to be derived from participial names, as XatpMas from x a 'ip ol/T > Xa|0wi/Sa? from ydpovr, KpeMa? from Kjoeoi/r, IlaycuvSa? from irdyovr, 'E7ra/xen/«i/c"a?, or ^irajxivMa^ y from eirafxvvovr. The participle dniuwv=dfjivu(av i involved in the last word, * That this is the genuine Boeotic spelling is clear from the inscriptions; see Bbckh, C. I. I. p. 723. Thus we have 'A/xivia?, nos. 1584, 1608. 'A/juvoicXeis, 1563 b. 'Eira/JLiviovBas, 1574. 432 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book III. is particularly interesting from its outward identity with the compara- tive dfxeivwv. When we place the correlatives dpeivwv and -^eipwv side by side, we are led to the conclusion, that, standing as they do for d-pev-iuv, ^ep-icoi/, they must be formed from some such words as a-^ei>-cv-€i/V. Now the former of these, on the analogy of a-o£b<:, d-oao-rjTrjp, would imply some one who stands or remains (Eurip. Here F. 163. Soph. Antxg. 671) by us in battle: while xep-evs would denote a handicrafts- man or labourer ; and thus the usual opposition ( I ' . 76) between the better and the worse, between the warrior and the workman, would be expressed in the terms of the language it-' If. The more com- mon form of the word expressing assistance in batik i- tiftwtm, and we have the same form with the same in- ailing in the Latin munia = Tncenia, and murus = mcerus. The explanation of this long u is not difficult. We have already seen that comparativ. - in -mm pn-nppose a positive in -Jr, which forms the basil of tfc name 'Eiwap . we have also the form A.Kip-iac correspo; A('«c, &c. Consequently, the form T.- iptumAm* may be considered as a variation of the double form 1 ianes plays on the interchange of*A/Mu fat and *A 1 ) ; anda parisoa of Tfl/i-uiv- and rau-a-'r mayahow 11- apoadant tin* forms in -Sow and -uu . I m M ■ proper name (Aristoph* Eodm. 365). With thai explanation, the comparative dnelvtau will stand in good parallelism t nym dpt'mv y from "Am* or 'A/ici'c, and both will signify pie-eminence in war. Similarly, upeio-aoov, another synonym, l ofeiM to the possession of greater stn or power, and perhape there may b f -onm$ (anciently ofwdaat), ftcX-ryof/S tV -T y g t, and aVamu *. To return, * There has been a great deal of raguc writing on the subject of these compara- tives. For instance, Bopp { Vtrgl. (•ramm. p. tSttJ proposes to consider a-^eiV«» as compounded of ■ privativum, and fktbm* = minor, and he finds the same compound eoneealed in Mmifl I Poderlein {Syn. u. Etym. V. p. 849) derives dptbm* from pivot, pepswo, in the sense of " >% illinir," and rinds the same idea in the connexion which ha assumes between r.\d vel-le. And the Profess u-ati re Grammar, U) whose liuiierous performances we ha\e occasionally adverted, has put together a tissue of absurdities in his attempt to traee the Greek. Latin, and English synonyms for goody better, best, and treU, to a common origin. For instance, Chap. 3.] OF THE UNINFLECTED FORMS. 433 however, to 'E7ra/Aeii/coi/Bav 3 and we may conclude that the patronymic ending -£a7/c, -c-9. Thus, from the root (3a- "to go," we hav. also /5a-c«-o-K, eve., and c/ot-/ia(c)? "a shoe:" from fpvy- "to fly" we have (pvytj, "flight" or M Jiving," but <£irya(c)c " a flier;" so that these words (\ press that which comes out of the action of the verb, i- <•. the manner of it. Just such a meaning we have in the adverbs /Su . /i -t-l u>. i'\ \rjf-i-art, a . dvcpavoc-i-vri, \c. In some of these adverbs tuted for .'\e "tti|<, oti- (tti/c, and SCfH and Hnfnft (see Lobeck, Parol i pom. p. if)). According to this principle, we have aV* m t '/ /» # ecu, K- .>i^fc>-£a>, o»'u«7f/, +9Qifim KT*l /', eVetSf/', &c. were written pel, vel, ewiSei, &c. (Bockh, Corp. Inscript. I. p. 720). So that, on the whole, strange as it may appear, we are compelled to admit an original identity of ter- minations apparently so different as -oi/, -t]v, -o (compare the secondary person-endings of the passive voice -ptiv, -co, -to, &c), -<, -I, -iv, -ei> -at, ->7, -e?. To such a distance from an original form in the ending word will the arbitrary or accidental divergencies of human utterance lead those who speak the same language! or shall we say that the principle of association, working and fermenting in the mind, has gene- rated these by-forms in language to preserve in the outward symbols of thought the idea of likeness in dissimilarity? Ff2 436 THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book III. 265 To return, however, to the suffix da. VTe have before shown on more than one occasion, that, in spite of the obvious suggestion of a simple change of the tenuis into the medial, this element is not a repre- sentative of the third pronominal stem ta, but a shortened form of that word which appears as the second personal pronoun and the second numeral. The nature of the present researches and the wide field in which they are carried on, does not allow us to bring forward all our proofs at once ; we are now, however, enabled to set forth with addi- tional confirmation, some of the statements which we made in th- ceding chapters. It appears from the investigation which we have just concluded, that there is an obvious connexion between the termination -Tf7?, expressing agency, the patronymic -o/-<:, where the r; includes y as in the passive aorist mwqf (comp. the £ofio patronymics in -Swt, erj-Xos, for eti'e-Aoc, BpaAot, " as char as day"), the adverbial termina- tions in -cov, -o/i/, -ca, -0a, -ti, -tim, -oc, and the verbals -rue, -Teos. The person-ending-; of the passive verb may convince us that the termination . mu-t have emanated fn.ni -Joi through -crjr, -Zov ; comp. cTi>7rTo'-/i>/r with Tv-trTo-fiai, Tv-wre-aOtji with TVITTe-adoVj and Tv-n-Tu-ficOov with i >f i » fu$a> > mes the included -«' of -tjc, 6Y&, and carries Qfl hack at QMS to the guttural part of the second element. We have before pointed out the identity with the ahlative -/>t. p, .*>.V> falL ttiy belong to this class, as does also the Slavonic ending v, &c. to many of which, adjectives in Za-vd? correspond, as T^e-Bw't/, T^tce-So-i/o's; but of course there are many adjectives in -Sai/o's, — oi/Vi-8o-i/os for instance — which have no corre- sponding substantive in -BwV A long series of Latin words in do(n)-, dinis, may be classed with the Greek nouns in -to : the Latin termi- nation seems to have the same force as the Greek ; compare grave~do(n) 43S THE PRONOMINAL TERMINATIONS [Book III. with *yM**, &c In Greek, -Wt, -Wr, appear to be sometimes equivalent to one another and to -t^; thus we bw^U,^- 8ojV, and paKe-rris, as synonyms. 266 (3 6) TAe third pronominal element va under the form Aa or pa. There are two terminations of most extensive use, -A-Ao' fi-lim (Ro, where the d is one of those prefixes, pr- pronominal, which so often appear before simple roots: compare I with the Stntcrit OffSi Lithuanian assarm. In faet there ean be no doubt that -\oe, -f« arc etymologically identieal, the latter being only a m^Urni/.ati-n of the former, a^ often the MM ; compar rewco; etiebtr, crcUr ; apostolus, aj&tre, &C (see above. f 107). ' The very same word with modified DIM presents both ending. Thus we find *-a'-A««, ira-W. and »p«V, from vopoi : and similarly we have b- ^ and m root »uc- u to pierce, - It will be remembered that wmxtkm and to? and even VMuAo-OTMerm are synonyms : the root o-c. A similar change has taken place in OpTov compared with T/reTt, and in "t mpared with dntL The identity of the terminations -6pov and -Tpov is manifest on aeompar of uv-Tpov with ftupa-Opov. The former is not connected with ave^o*;, atjfxi, as Pott supposes, but with opo, and it signifies a passage above- ground in a solid substance, — .j. ■ rock — m opposed to ^dpa-dpov (= fiaQa-Qpov), which implies a passage in tip > ground below may also compare dvOpwrros from aval pufWTnv or dvacpdv = ara ttcu/ (see Lobeck, Para I. 118). The feminine of these termination- in Greek is -re-r^a, -Tpia, -Tptc, -rtjp'ic, and -Tpa 3 HMflrit ffl, in Latin /We. The-.- Gonna haw been nrplsinofl in the la^t chaj By the addition of the BSDOIld pronominal » bnunt . | tin- fur- ther forms -rv'puH in Greekj and - tor t us in Latin, botli f c tivefl and for :iy a similar addition tie- Sanscrit verbal-ending tar-ya is formed from the second pronoun too. The i rnsi in -Trjpiov denote the place when the work of the sgent who is designated by -x»yc, -t»//» is carried on. When we wish to ^j>eak of a similar place in reference SO SO Agent d«-lin. I by the ending i-c - F . it u only nooeeBsry to give the word to adjective form, and pnl it in I gender. Thus, from I F -.>o^xio* (. pare -, so that the ft will be a remnant of the labial involved in the BSOOnd element F <, just as the <• in or, -•'. le pW SU tttS the gutter ■ of that compound articulation. We refer to this class of nouns the names of months ending in - -' r. W. 0SJSne4 pose with Bopp [VorgL (tram. } that than is any aeeessit] having recourse to the Sanscrit substantive r me." liohlcn ( ( /\ oAAoc — are manifestly der from cii'ci = pa-vti (§ l(i6), so that M»»*M and i I not only in meaning (§ 1 :>.'>), but, ultimately, in form. Wt have a tfgl l toi deuce of the same kind in the use of the liquid *J by the II. express the most emphatic employment of the I ndo- Germanic pronoun n- (above, § 184). 969 But we rest our demonstration of the identity of the prono- minal elements A, p, \> chiefly on the extensive and essential corre- spondences of their use as verbal roots. And, first, with regard to the identity of A- and />- as they appear in W per?" An absurd e fja o logj provokes our mirth; but those who are anxious that scientific grammar should take root in tins count rj will regret to find such crude puerilities recorded in the aunala of a lear. Chap. 3.] OF THE UNINFLECTED FORMS. 443 The intensive particle pa, which belongs to this family, seems to convey the idea of facility, easy motion, and so forth. We have ac- cordingly recognised its connexion with pe-eiv, pa-lios, &c. Now there are two Sanscrit verbal roots with the same meaning, ri and m, both signifying " to go." We do not conceive that the sibilant prefixed to the second interferes with its relationship to the first. The present of srl is sardmi = adeo aliquem. This word is of course related to de~ serere, salire. We consider too that conserere and consulere are the same word. " Without doubt," says Niebuhr {Hist, of Rome, I. p. 512), "the name consules means nothing more than simply collegues : the syllable sul is found in prcesul and exsul, where it signifies one who is : thus consules is tantamount to consentes, the name given to Jupi- ter's counsel of gods." This is not altogether accurate* : the word consentes means "those who are together" (compare ab-sentes, pros- sentes) : consules " those who go together," prwsul " he who goes be- fore," exsul " he who goes out." That the Romans habitually spoke of " going," where we should rather indicate " being," is sufficiently proved by the words in it-, as paries, aries, miles, pedes, eques, &c. If sa-li-re and se-re-re are the same word, li and re must be the same root, and therefore lev-is and rap-idus are connected. The former contains the root AcF, which we shall show in a future chapter in all its various uses. It signifies both "to see" and "to take;" we have the former meaning, e. g. in h-p(J)K-, v- are indifferently used to express these connected id- It will not be denied that while ve'o^ai, vlo-o-ofiai, wVto?, &c. express return and recurrence, and while veo* implies change, which is included in the idea of motion (above, § 55), th . &c. con- vey the meaning of M being in the water, being borne along the stn &c. Now a very similar conception is expressed by th roots /Jew, pev^a, v-Am, tt-\v-i>u), \ovu< .■/-,,, &c. ; com- pare 'A\t-w<>-( J. rmanie term fcf "a year" — a period which includes all the changes of the seasons, whi. always progressive, yet always recommencing; always changing, but always resuming its identity. Now in the ancient Etruscan, which we believe to have been pure Pelagian in it- find the wordy/-/ signifying ie termination OORBSpoi patronymic /- in s ri-lius, which in Greek is U- or c- ? as in 'ArfCt-SnfCj v7-etor, we may OOmparS ri-l with fx?-0pov, which denotes the motion of water. Similarly, the Latin annus, more anciently anus, must denote at once "the cver-ilowing"' (ac-iuoc). and "the | returning" (de\ vedfxevcx;). Accordingly. ti-inis=ja-nu4 stands on the sine footing as d-riL who WMOU to have ben the God of the Tuscan veer. It will be admitted, we Brant) that the remit of this investigation is to identify the element \- = o- with the third pronominal root *-. . if any one seeks to undervalue the important | inquiries, he may be told that these combinations have enable d TPb" tne only link wanted to complete the chain of evidence, which | wonderful and systematic perfection of the formative contrivances of inflected bngna CHAPTER IV. NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 271 (1) "EveKa. Its true meaning suggested by its apparently pleonastic use. 272 Connexion of evetca = kv e*cct and e/caTi. 273 Words containing e'/ca- ; their cognate meanings. 274 Ideas of separation and will meet in that of unity. 275 Analysis of e-ra. 276 Proper names which include these syllables. 277 Compounds of evena and a pronoun. ~E'lveKa should be written for ovveica, when the latter appears as a preposition. 278 (2) Xdpiv. Distinctive use of X<*-pi-v and evena. 279 Meaning of u-pos xdpiu. 280 Examination of the class of words to which x a '/° 15 belongs. Xu>po &°* 282 Xdpo\J/, xdpvfiois, and x<*P U)V - 283 Xdptov and Trj- piW. 284 Military applications of the words x"PM> XP e ' La > & c « 285 The same idea conveyed by dp^s, ripa, &c. 286 A similar reference discovered in the primitive meaning of x«P a £- 287 Associations by contrast in the accepta- tions of the root x a P-' 288 More doubtful affinities of x a /° ts « 289 (3) Aiktjv. Its prepositional use. 290 Meaning of dUrj. 291 Connected applications of Xa'pis and oi/c*;. " The Graces" and "fair dealing." 292 This is supported by the etymology of dUt}. 271 rpHERE are three words, evidently cases of substantives, _L which are used in much the same way as prepositions, that is, they are employed in connexion with the genitive case, or, in common language, they govern that case. These words are (l) eVe/ca or e/can, (2) xdpiv, and (3) SiKtjv. As these quasi-prepositions have a sort of connexion with one another, and as the first two belong, each of them, to an extensive family of words which has not been sufficiently explained, we shall devote a separate chapter to their consideration. (1) It is generally laid down that eVe/ca signifies "on account of/' "for the sake of;" but it is proper to state that the genitive case, with which eveKo. is generally found, may stand alone with the same signifi- cation, as when Thucydides says (I. 4) that Minos cleared the iEgean sea of pirates as far as he could, tov ret? irpocroZov; fxaXXov leuai avru), and also that the genitive case may be accompanied by some additional preposition conveying a similar meaning, or by x°-P lv •' as w ^ a PP ear from the following passages ; Sophocles, Philoctet. 554s : a TO?, as in dpaa-a-co for Tapdaa-u, and (c) those words (like ddpvfios compared with Tvpftti, Opeofxat with Toe'to, and dpvTTTia and Bpavui with rpvcpq and Tpvw) in which the aspirate seems to result merely from a kind of vacillation and uncertainty of use (see above, §§ 100, 164). "Ekc* as a mutilated though old form of the dative or locative may be compared with X'nrd in the phrase ^p/eu/ X'nr eXaia), where eXaio? is a regular adjective from eAa'a, and X'nrd eXaiov signifies " olive-oil" (Buttmann, Ausf'uhrl. Sprl. Vol. I. p. 229) ; Kepa for xepan gives us the intermediate stage. But we have the proper ending of the locative in the form evenev, from which eveKa is derived (above, § 114), and which is often used even in the more recent Attic writers : com- pare na, Kev j evda, evdev ; eVetra, eireirev ; irpoaQa^ irpoadev^ &c. 273 The element e/7-/?oAck, &c. To classify these words we will first set apart the proper names 'Ekc*/^, 'EnaXti, and 'Ena/ji^t]. The remaining words are a substantive e/ca?, genit. enadev, dat. ena or 'Uev found in eveK(* v ), with which are connected the two adjectives ckcx-tos (fem. e^aTtj), and ckwv (eKo'-i/r-?) ; the comparative and superlative etcd-repos, eKaer-To? ; and the dative eKtjn of a substantive eW (e/c-ya-r-s) no longer in existence, by the side of which we have the adjective eKrjXos. Such is obviously the proper grammatical classification of this set of words, so far as regards the forms. We must now investigate their significations. 448 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIO [Book III. 'Eku?, which is used as an adverb, denotes distance, whether in space or time; as kuW ov\ end* trov (Sophocl. Philoct. 41), "he is not far off;" ovk ckgis xpovov irdpea-Tai (Herodot. VIII. 154-), "he will be here at no distant period." The word belongs to the oldest state of the language. A grammarian under the head ttoIch yXdoaaat Kara tto\€i<: remarks, OecraaXwu — ua't. irfipou) [filth riAw >' I. p. 1095 note), which is much the same as calling it a Pelaagian word (Niebubr, / of Rome, I. p. 30, note 6[)). "E«a0ev generally means ki from, or of, that which i- distant:" it may he used as a synonym for oca< II Odyss. XVII. 25: t*aOev ce tc ao-ru ers« : 1 is some one by himonlf thai ia, oonaidersd without reference to any one else. Hence ikc generally in uninterrupted rest and quietness, the I nou-intcrfcr. without. We have already explained the principle according to which onlyaby-fbrm ; 116): it dy stated by ApoUonins (BMeri Anted, p, 558) thai Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 449 in the same way as evre to ore. Homer invariably uses %k^ti in con- nexion with the name of some divinity, to express that the action in question has been effected by the aid or special favour of the protecting power. Thus Odyss. XX. 42, Ulysses, addressing Minerva, asks : eXirep yap KTeivaifxi, Ajo? re aedev re en^ri, Trfj K6v VTreKirpoipvyotfxi ; It is used in this sense by Pindar, e. g. Pyth. V. 9 : ckoti ^pva-apfxaWov Kdt syllable ifl always found without am UpiraM or ultimate -uttural. however. WM really an essential \ the first ^liable of this element. b«H the Latin MMV, winch is elearlv the represontati ' thmt although •"*"»i **i ■ Btdl MMMrf in meaning with the rnotl emphatic deim Ml they imply distance or Separation, and thou-h bear the same or a very similar sense, all these words are related, in their tirst syllable as well second, to the MOOnd pronominal element, an for. although a may DOOM from M as well as from F =*!&* ihat the different elements <'-. v- *H »™ "V O** 8 * Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 451 common origin than the element Fa. And thus the simplest demon- strative root a, though in all its appearances it seems to correspond in value to the elements of the first or third person, must in this instance be connected in origin with the element of the second; the idea of proximity to, having merged in that of identity with, the subject, as in the Italian ci mentioned above (§ 150). The etymological fact is certain; the explanation depends upon the exclusively demonstrative nature of the original pronouns. There is, in fact, no reason why the ideas of separation, distance, and unity, should not be expressed by the combination signifying " this which," as well as by one denoting " that which;" and we have seen other instances of this reduplication (§ 133). 276 It will perhaps be as well to explain the three proper names into which the element cko. enters. 'End/St] means either an only child, or one born among the last of her father's family ; in either case it is a title of endearment. With regard to the first part, it may be compared with TtjXv-yeTos, or the Sanscrit eka-ja = qui solus natus est (Bopp, Gloss. Sanscr. p. 58) : its termination seems to be analogous to that of \vKa-/3a<:. The name '£koA*j was borne by a mythical old woman who was very kind to Theseus in his childhood, and as a by-form of e»o;\o?, expresses her good nature. This appears from the words of Plutarch (in rita Thesei, CXIV.) : tijv 'EjicdAijv eTifxcov, 'E,Ka\iur]v viroKopitjDfxevoi, cul to K(XKeivr]v vkov ovra no/jiicij tou Qtjaea ^ev'iCpvaav dcnrdaaadai 7rpe fivTiKtas nai (piXcxppoveTadai toiovtois VTroKopiafXol'i. 'KKa-p-^drj IS the name of an active and willing female servant in Homer (Iliad,¥L\. 623), and may be compared with Ylepi-fjujdtis, and with Yaw-pttihtis, the name of a heavenly menial. 277 The forms e!W«tt, Tovveaa, ovveKa, and oBovvckcl also require some remark. In the first, the preposition lv appears in the stronger form elv (above, § 1 70), which is used by the Attic writers, not only by itself, as in Sophocl. Antig. 1226: eh "Ailov 16/jlok; ; JEschyl. Suppl. 872 : dpaiau e\v avpai<; (according to Lobeck's ingenious emendation) ; but also in composition, as in Sophocl. Antig. 346: ttovtov t elvaXiav (pvaiv, Sophocl. fr. 480: Trjr tl •V oo-oj/, KciTUTrep, and SO forth. tflnHMI tin- Attic- would write ddov- veKa just as they wrote 0w7r\a for -rd o7r\a, dtjpepa for Tf tiixepn, Sec. Reisig in hii exposition of th \>. < xwin.) advances an opinion still more untenable, for hi («a as a compound of odi and ovvckii, and tran-i «/ fJtj W tM l causa quuhjue Jit. The proper 086 ofowem and ptfo w wa is, as conjunctions nearly equiva- lent to dti, and signifying "that" or " beca bag which I seem to have obtained by a kind of attraction 01 brachylogy, like their synonym dvd' J»: Sophoel. Autii. Ju dvd tav £X et * P* v Ttov °*' w f3a\tov Karv. The fuller form may be surmwd from a former line of the same (237) : rt I :0 M n it'iui'ai'; that is to say, dvd' oJ stands for arn toi/'tou on, just as ow^tca is put for toutou eV»ca, on. Atnnionius lias given the distinction ovveKa and cfvCKfli correctly enough. 11 9 fares a «cai rfrfxa (pepet i ovveKa pev atjpalvet to on. fn V',' 1 "'- "• 111108, t: fore, with Ahlwardt (III*- Ayfr. S l>13)in thinking, that, as the MSS. in many cases, and conum m I all, authorise the change, we >hould >ub>titute aft— , which is ack: lodged to be good in Attic prose, for ovveKa, whenever it stands for i in Attic verse. Conversely, we have P fop o e c d t efuCKSv in Pindar, Jsthm. VII. QVIII.]. 83, because we do n I that ftna' a can be a conjunction, any more than we think that the com- pound ovvcku can perform the functions of a mere preposition. 27** CO The difference bctw m and \dp ir * m l ^ vlT Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 453 as prepositions, has been correctly stated by Ammonius: "Ei/etca ko.< Xdpiv Zicupepet* 6 fxev yap "Ei/exa \jsi\tjv Ttjv alriav BJ7A0?, olov — eveKa 'AXegdvhpov Ka\ eveKa 'E\e'i/>/? ea-TpaTevcre Mei/eAao?* d he Xdpiv fxerd t»7 ^^ e mea 9 ra ^ a -> tua gratia" Besides these modes of expression, we find ev x^P lTl T " / °' ? or Tlv 'h ^ e eveKa = iu e/ nas crea ^ed some dif- ficulty in two passages of Sophocles, as to whether it should be taken with the genitive cases with which it is found, or absolutely, in the sense of ut volupe est ; it will not, therefore, be irrelevant to attempt a settlement of the question. The two passages are as follows ; Antig. 29 : edv he (IIoXvvetKOvs vckvv) aKXavo-rov, ara Eurip. Supplices, 385: 454 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIO: [Book III. irpo^ yap™ 6d\}/ai veKpous. And so irpos r\covt)v is put absolutely in iEschyl. Agarn. 262. Eurip. Medea, 771 ; although it is found with a dative in iEsch. Prom. 502. Eurip. Iphig. in Aul. 1022. In the second passage we should be inclined to take irp6<: x ct P lv in th* s a0 -- verbial sense, but in the first we are convinced it stands in the relation of a preposition to flopus. The following reasons will perhaps make it clear that such is the QMS. First of all, it must strike any one, who has any feeling for Greek construction, that the words -wpo<: x^P l¥ ftopa ai Euripides (Si/J'/>1. 282): fir; aTa'<£oiK ^a'p/iara dtjptiv iraiCac »ca~ That irpos x lt P iV can ^tand "ith ■ genitive M well M by it- It" i- ki. to all seholaiB; in thin nunepbv vofuw irpos x (t P 11 '- Eniipi M 1 541 : -. Io^iwk x<*p iv '> •' evidently oonetntei it m : «d orroft o» to?« aVA»c, o*ov Kal tok . 9)i ooly lie dm not seen the iotee of eltropdy, which means "to look at any thing with lmiging eyes," as in X 1, § 15 (quoted by Btm .): orrs toi^ h\om iaopw. ye iV tav Ttjv ov^/u SCOSB of the lines of Sopfa 1 that the body of Polynioea should be k (I on birds, when they are looking out with g I for a dinner." 1280 The numerous and important family to which x*P tK D is deserving of a more minute attention than it has hitherto met with. There are, indeed, few - hich researches, such aa those in which we are could be d iitahly applied. We may divide the words with which con- nected into two ehttBMj first, thOM which contain the root \u-. wi: without an aihx; secondly, thoM which contain the qneei exhibit the termination p*-« To th< | a am , ^oVkco, yavSdvut, \ \ v\i/, X €t< ** X*' Xd-rcu), o-^u'e'eo, and ~\ i . 1 . \ ■ . . yyat, \ . \u','a and \uyoc. If we examine th olasSj we shall see that the prevailing and prominent meat ing" or "openness/ In this the idea oi * hollowncss" is implied. Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 455 as that which is hollow may be either full or empty, the contrasted notions of content and vacuity are also conveyed by words of this class. When the termination -pa, which implies motion or continuance, is appended to this root x a " signifying " to lay open," the idea of extent or surface naturally results. And thus we find that the words of the second class imply a surface, something laid flat or open, and by in- ference, a support or basis, something to rest upon. This meaning appears most clearly in the words x w V ,a » " a tract of country," x^P°^ or x°P^^ " a pi ece of land," which though differing in the extent or space signified (§ 229), equally denote a hard, level surface. The word X°p°s specially designates a square or public place in which the mili- tary people of ancient Hellas met to celebrate their gods with songs and dances of a military character : hence the epithet €vpi>x°p 0 X°°P a {Theatre of the Greeks, 6th Edition, p. [1 1], note) ; that this etymology is the true one is clear from what the King says to the Chorus, in iEsehylus, Sup- plices, 796 : Xawv ev x^PV Taavevde (see Introduction to the Antig. p. xxix. note). In speaking of the open sea, Thucydides uses evpv- ^copi'a, in direct opposition to o-Tej/o^w^/a, and as synonymous with ireXayos (VII. 49). The latter word, which is connected with irXa^ * (Pind. P. I. 24 : e/ric> O. E., and Sc. gris, Icel.) ; and scrofa, scrofula (scrophula) are connected with xcrupus, icmpulm and rvp*t> which arc synonymous with the more usual meaning of ^oi^ac. The I t we might tnppoee that the bristly *kin of the hog wa> 1 by the name. But tfl this attribute «mU 1" root, Sanscrit rrih, Greek e^puc-* which appear in varaha, e t<» the name of the Sum v hill, mentioned by ltlomficld in the note above referred to. The same idea is conveyed by j>orcus, fiorca, which we are inclined to con- nect immediately with the Sanscrit root rrih, "to grow up" (1 Etiim. Forfeit. II. p. 53); the derivation from porricere suggested by Varro and Festus does not M ihle. The root/wv- - not only a pig, but also a balk or high ridge between two furrows ; and We have a similar resen^blance between the Lnglish '* farr litter of pigs,* 1 A. S. fcarh u a pig," and "furrow," A. S. /urn. For another meaning in which \o7pos and / >rcf Aristophanes, we must refer to the appliea of x*P °" 0? t° unmarried women, mentioned above. Although it is clear that \t/LHia9 is connected with \-tu', it doe* not therefore follow that it Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 457 is immediately derived from it, with the limited signification of Ai0o & c *> * ae primary meaning of which is "to touch" (Ruhnken, Timceus, p. 104), are also secondary to x ei P m The words 7e'i/-To, hin-than, hand, pre-hend-ere, &c. although bearing the same signification, seem rather to be connected with the anusvdra form ^ai/SaVw. 282 The idea of u opening" conveyed by the root x a ~ would very naturally be applied to yawning, a wide opening of the jaws, or, in in general, to the mouth, the fissure which most frequently meets the eye. Hence, we have, as connected with this root, the words ^el-Ao? "a lip," x ( *~ (TKU} "to yawn," ^'-07*01 "a yawning," yd-v^fwia "the wide opening of a bird's mouth" (Aristoph. Av. 61), x^ v t " * ne g a P m g bird" (x^ v ^X* 1 ^' Athen. 519 a), &c. By a further transition, the secondary root x a ~P" * s employed to denote the noise proceeding from a widely-opened mouth, the roar of a lion for instance. Hence it is that x a P° 7r °' ; an( i X^P°^ are common epithets for the lion, and Hesy- chius tells us that x° i P (av was a name f° r that animal : ^a^coi/* 6 \cmu dird Trj? x a P 07r ° Tr ) T0 S' The reason that he gives for it is absurd, for no one would derive x < *P X a P ( ^ 7r idem tw x ( *P wv > unde (poftepos ezponitur? We believe that ydpuv and ^a'^u/Soi? originally meant "the open-mouthed animal" and "the sea that sucked every thing in ;" as Hesychius says a few lines lower down: XaV/ia Orjpds' o\!/i<; 6rjpo<:. rj ^j^d *? v OS y VCKVUtV Ce TropO t^wi/ X € p' €7r * 1 KOV " r ^ ^dpwv li tj c t] taAci' \tK ; eneiyov' > s "the l\> rris/m "the bull" iii Sanscrit, from whatever quality the name ma;, derived); gap-fUf, and /j\>F-'/, "the battle-shout." by an extension of usage "the battle itself;" hence poi/V mym96% d Kara t»;v fxd^tjv a "- §j>€tocj /SotjOo ;v Ta^uV(Il -w '.. \ from which C the word &onQ*i» "to assist:" also fipq/dtia and | running to a man's assistance in battle.'' "With the same reference we find iu Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 459 Pindar, Pyth.YX^. 64: dvhpd which the Greeks used as a synonym for fiorj- Oelv, and also for eirapKeiv, a word which we will discuss presently (Schol. on Apollon. II. 218). In immediate connexion with this word we have x^P Lq " help," XP? V " *° °^* er help or assistance," and XP^~ aifxos " a person capable of offering help or assistance." To this also belongs the use of xP eia m ^Eschyl. Sept. c. Theb. 49: egurToprjaai IxoTpav ev XP €1< ? Tl; X*7S an d Soph. Aj. §63: QavovT dv oljj.w£eiav iv Xp eia Sopds. The Greeks, therefore, would have understood why Sir William of Deloraine was called u good at need." 285 A most remarkable confirmation of this etymology will be found in the word ypa, which Buttmann has so fully, and, upon the whole, so satisfactorily discussed. The root of this word appears in dp-rjs, " Avar," dp-eioiUj dp-i, and dp-tjyeiu. The element ap-, tjp-, which forms the basis of this last set of words, has lost an initial digamma, as appears from a comparison of dperrj, dppqv, arma, ijpox;, 'Oapitov, with " war," Wehr, wehren, vir, virtus, "warrior;" as m is often only another form of v (comp. Mulciber with Vulcanus, the first pronominal element un- der the forms ma, va, and the German meinen with wahnen; Minne, with Ven, Winnesjafle " friend," " friendship," and Venus) ; we may also compare the words "Apr]? and dppr\v, with Mars and mas (maris) (Buttmann, Abh. Ak. Berl 1826, p. 58). Now the element Pap- is obviously related to the Sanscrit root vri, " to protect" or " shelter," from which comes vrih, " to grow up," as may be seen by comparing vira "a hero" with vpax: and vir, and variyas and varisht'h'as with dpeiuv, dpi, &c., so does this root vri appear in Papiai-epo? " the left or shield hand," (above, p. 272). In the words from the root pap-, which we have enumerated above, there is precisely the same transition of ideas as in the two sets of derivatives from x^pW and ^°^ whic h we have just been considering. 460 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. [Book III. This would be sufficiently clear from Hesychius only, if we bad no other means of showing it. See the following glosses: 'Ettj tip a. tt)v uer e-TTiKovpia*; xotpiu fxeydKrjv, rj etc t»Ju, ev ce tuj, ovce ri poi -rrocavnrTpa irocaiv etrirjp' dva $i>/i», to eTriKovprjTiKci Tt}<; \}^vyfj<;. oi/Voj? 'Apio-Tapxos. If, in addition to all this, we compare eiriripa(p€p€iv = €'irapriy€iv = €irapKe?v, with fVi/3o»;0e?»>, ■ydpiv (pepeiv, and xp ai(T l xe ^ u -> we must feel an irres^tible conviction that these expressions are all due to the same train of ideas in a Greek mind ; that, in fact, the ideas of good, assistance, favour, and pleasure, were evolved in the Greek language from the military feelings of the heroic age. 286 The secondary root x a ~P~ appears with the pronominal affix -K- in the word X"P a ^ an< ^ ■&■ derivative x a P aeck) : 'II X^P a £ *P € * flf*»"™"* T ° T ^ d/xireXov aTtjptypa, ov nard to dppeviKov. A similar remark is made with regard to Kapag in the Etymologicum Mim. From th> conclude that the two significations of the word belong to different of the Greek language. Now a^ircAoc was feminine from the first; and as the vine leans npOO and twines tOQnd its prop, like a sister, for support, it may be believed that the old n of X"pat; was "the supporter or helper of the \ine." in which sen- connexion with the family of words we have been discu- potable. In confirmation of this, let us observe that we find in Homer the word doaatjTtjp, in the person who stands behind i: help us up" (Iliad, XV. ~:>:)): r/V Tiva'c i the primary acceptation of which denotes " protection," " good/' " benefit," and the feeling of joy which the possession of such things imparts. By the law of association men- tioned above, it also expresses the feeling of desire created by the want of such things. Thus XPV& and XW * belon £ to tne same family with Xa/3<9, x/ocuov/ew, xp^ adai ' Tlie ^ eas c( > nve y ec l b y Dota tnese 462 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. [Book in. sets of words are included in the single word XP €ia > ^hich denotes both "use" and "need;" and the uncertainty, which arises in some cases as to the proper way of translating this word, shows how nearly these ideas are connected with one another. Hesychius uses xP €tav e^toi/ as an interpretation of xareiov, x^P°^» an( ^ XprfQ*"* anc ^ tDe doubt entertained by the critics as to whether we should read (JEschyl. JPers. 815) a-iacppoveTv Kexp^^vov, "in want of teaching," or , Sec.); ca-nis, ca-reo (x a <>0 ; seve-rus (o-e ou>, Unban scrum) ; We have a by-form of earns in cassiis, which seems to bo the proper form of a participle from some verb like ^a-re'eu ; coi '-or. par- tieiplc fassus. Gratus = cdrdt us might be the participle of a deriva- tive verb like dtf Hint, ii' it Mrintmi It w.»uldbe foreign to our present purpose to enumerate all the Latin v> mily ; ot! would be mmy fee WOW that the ideas of value, preciousness, c quent difficulty in obtaining, or even striving in vain to get, and therefore being without, are developed from one another in that lan- guage also, like the two meanings ..f th Doderlein, therefore, is mistaken when lie derives careo and cassus from Kc'tpetv, Kapijuai, carpcrc, Kup(peiv (Lat. Sytwn. o». III. p. 114, note), as opposed to carus and gratus, which, he admits, are connected with x a V" ? aim " X^'P * (P- 254). 288 Bopp (G/,>s?ir. S.inser. p. 404) and Pott {EtymoL Forsch. I. p. 272) are inclined to connect X m *f m "**■ tne SojmbH hrtih. The primitive meaning of this Sanscrit root is •■ to be erect," and it is par- ticulary applied to the hair of the head, whence the epithet hrishto* roma, ""with the hair of the body on end" (BAagarad-di! i, XI. 4; Lassen, Ant/iologia Sanscrit ica, p. 4, 1. J)). In a secondary sen< signifies "to rejoice," u to be elated. .t," "to be exceed:: ]>leased," " to have the hair of the body erect with pleasure ;" so that it seems to agree in all its meanings with like pore-, with the Sanscrit root vrth " to grow," so that this root, the meanings of which bear a great resemblance to those of x a ~P~> again approximates, in its secondary lengthened form (pp'ix-, to a secondary and lengthened form of the other root hri. It is singular that not only does this root hri agree with x a P" m * ts military use (for pra-hri signifies "to fight," and pra-hdra " a combatant"), but we have the Homeric x^pM even in the modern languages of Europe, as a remnant of the warlike Goths* Thus we have the German Schirm, Italian Schermo, with one of the primitive meanings of the element x a ~P-> namely, defence, protection, reliance, &c. ; and German Scharmutzel, Italian Scherma, English Skirmish, with the common Homeric signification of x^PWi *° which these words are related, as the German Schaum to xyfio^ Schelm to xaAtjuo?, ^a/X^aSe?, an d Schief to x a P° q ( see Doderlein, Vocabulorum Homericorum Etyma, p. 14). 289 (3) Before we consider the remaining significations of x^P 1 * it will be proper to discuss Viky]v, the third of those nouns which are used as prepositions, for it bears a remarkable analogy, in some of its applications, to X"P*' As a preposition with the genitive case, lUtiv is equivalent to the Latin instar, and signifies " like," " after the likeness of." Thus in Pindar (Pyth.H. 84): Xvkoio c'ikuv is "just like (i.e. justly) a wolf;" in ^schylus (Agam. 3) : kwos Zikiju means "just like a watch-dog." The use of SiKrjv as a preposition seems to be for the most part confined to the older poets ; for, although it occurs even in Plato and Aristotle, it is generally used when an air of quaintness or a poetical colouring is designed. For instance, Plato, Legg. VI. p. 773 : ov yap paliov evvoeiv, on ttoXiv elvai Be? c'iKr]v Kpa-rvpos KeKpap.evr]v, seems to be quoting some line from a play, such as 7ro'A(9 hi^v Kpa^po^ %v KCKpafxivn; just as, in Legg. X. p. 886 E: Ao' 7 o«ti Zi -ravra eZ tto,* eh to wiBavov wepi-wenve^va (" well-incrusted, covered, or concealed with words, so as to appear probable"), he seems to have had in his 464 NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. [Book III. head some line of an old comedian — perhaps Xoyoicri o' eZ -h-ok n-avia irepnreireixfxeva; comp. Aristoph. Plut. 157: ovofxaTi TrepnreTTOva-i Ttjp fxo-^drfplav. Vesp. 668 : prjfj.aTiot'i Trepnre(f>dek. 290 The sense of tm% which has given rise to this use of its accu- sative or old locative case as a preposition, is found in Homer, Odt/ss. XVIII. 274: fxvrjaTrjpwv ovy_ rjce cinq to irdpoiOe tc'ti/kto, and in Pindar, Pyth. I. 50: tuv iXoKTtJTao cUav eQe-rruv, which the Scholiast rightly explains : tov ^iXokt^tov Tpdirov /jere^o'/mevoc, for Tpoirov is also used in the same way as leafy, as in JEschyl. A\o quoted); c/Ao» (l) €kt vTTtofxa. ofxo'tuifxa, elcooXov, dvhpias, fyciov. irapd Aukoxtm'. (2) \//j2 : ixtveiv %'inaiov ndyaOdv irapa(TTaTt]v y where we have endeavoured to express this idea in our version. In the MM way Wto h.tvc lUm*m aw/jia "a body equal on both ft)d equilibrium," KctTaTaa-iv dfxaXtjv ^ "an equal, level exten-: (quoted from Hippocrates by Schneider). It is to this primary sent* that the moral, legal, and political usi .' as from the similar application of the Latin ir/uus md MMfwm spring the MM counterpoise or equivalence. Tin.- *X tm > *"* v\e. "to give, obtain, have, or endeavour to get. satisfaction, or an equi- Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 465 valent for some injury," on the principle of the lex talionis, which the old Greek legislators considered to be perfect justice. Aristotle, who does not admit of the universal applicability of retaliation (Eth. V. 5), and would rather consider Vikv) as something proportional (dvaXoydv ti), than as an equivalent (Eth. V. 3, § 8), was nevertheless perfectly aware, that, according to the ordinary acceptation of the term in Greece, SiKri conveyed the idea of a quid pro quo : for he says that inequality and injustice are synonymous terms, and that to have more than one's share (7rAeoi/eKTe?i/) is to commit an injury ; the same appears from his ingenious but false derivation of Siki; from S^a (Eth. V. 4, § 9) : to I* 'tcrov peo~ov €(tt\ Trjs /jLeijjovos KCti eXaTTOvos Kara Trjv dpiOprjTtKijv dvaXo- yiav ota tovto kv nrpoQvpoi yeyevrjpeda. At Athens, according to Josephus (Antiquit. XIV. c 8, § 5, p. 6$9)> a common temple was erected to them and the Demus : o-t^o-cu avToO elKova xa\Kt}v ev tw Tepevet tov Atjpov Ka\ twi/ Xap'tTitlict c. VIII. £0 00%% : €vda ^.WTeipa A»tK £tvlov irdpehpos da-neTrai Oe'fti? t£(>x dv$pwTT(i)v i on ydp tto\v k«i 7ro\\a peirei opdd diaKp'tfctu To£cnroTiecpo<; 7.t]vd<; dpyaiots couoi?. In the Pythian hymn quoted above eveve does not refer to the HM position of .Kgina, as Dissen supposes, but is used in fthfl use OS in Sophoel. Aj. 620 : Chap. 4.] NOUNS USED AS PREPOSITIONS. 467 tcc irp\v B' 607a yepdiv fieyia-Tas apei-as a(piXa irap acpiXois eirecr\ eVecre fxeXeois 'Ar^etSc**?, as the Scholiast perceived : tj Be BtaKato7ro/\is vijcros A'lyiva ovk e^eireae TWI/ X.aplT(OV. 292 The etymological connexion of Si/07 and x^P^ * s even more remarkable than their analogy in signification. As x^P^ 1S connected with x ei P-> ^ ne general name for a hand, and with a number of words signifying "to take or hold" (above p. 269, note), liar] is obviously con- nected with SeK-o-ios, the name for the right hand, with SciktuAo?, " the finger," and with a number of words denoting "to receive" (BeKojuat, &c), or "to point out" (BetKi/i/jut, &c), (above, p. 271, note). The element of the word is, as we have seen (above p. 266 foil.), a com- pound of the numeral " two" with a root signifying " to take," and probably connected with the root hri, which appears in x ei P' The form St- of the first syllable is on the analogy of S10, St-Bi^o?, &c, and is more regular and original than the Be of Sexa or the Sa of SccktuAo?. We have this t in BepUti — tj toivvv hiKt] o-fz/ietcoBee. AetVet yap rj XP° vl ? V vv^cpuivip. Nouns in */, formed from adjectives in -Ykos, are naturally oxytone : but there is no reason whatever why S/k»7, — which has no connexion with the pronominal termination -ko7 for StKya), — should not follow the analogy of eXiKt], eKarrj, ^eXert], &c. Hh2 CHAPTER V. THE ADJECTIVE. 203 Etymological distinction of adjective and substantive. 294 Tinder what cir- cumstances an adjective or participle may become a substantive or definitive name. 295 This transference is particularly common in Latin. 296 It is also found in Greek. Connexion of the participle with nouns denoting agency and agents. 297 Digression respecting the substantive use of yepapov. 298 The adjective often represents the genitive case of a substantive, and is sometimes of adverbial origin. 299 Hence the adjective in its distinctive use is merely a syn- tactical contrivance. 300 Predicable nature of the adjective and participle. 301 The three different kinds of predicates may be expressed by adjectives. 302 Secondary predicates may also be expressed by oblique cases of nouns or adverbs, and to these the tertiary predicate is often attached. 303 Certain adjec- tives especially used in this way. 304 Syntactical classification of adjectives. 305 Epithets and predicates have been confused even by great scholars. 306 Fa- miliar illustrations of the general principle. 293 T71 TYMOLOGERS have found or created for themselves i A very great difficulties in the nouns adjective. We do not intend to set forth all the explanations which have been offered with regard to their nature and functions. It will bo better to state at once that the adjective differs ctymologically from the substantive only in being capable of flexion thr< the different genders of the substantive to which it is joined. Otherwise it is as much the designation of a quality or attril and therefore as truly a noun, or the name of a thing, as the substantive itself. As for the compound adjectives, they are in many languages merely substantives subjoined to adjectives. In general, the explanation of the adjective belongs to syntax rather than to etymology. 294 To the student of Greek the adjective is particularly interest- ing, and especially in its connexion with the participle, a kind of W of which more use is made in Greek than in any other bag* | much that the Greeks have been emphatically called o<\ou€to^oi, or lovers of participles. While in this language — more pwlttf l than in any other — adjectives and participles are employed I - all the adver- bial or accessary relations of the sentence, a great number of adjet : have taken their station amongst the most common of the substan: and there is no single Greek adjective or even participle which may not become a substautive if it only has the definite article prefixed, if. in a word, it has that accompaniment which is necessary for the con- Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 469 version of a substantive, as the name of a quality or attribute, into the name of a particular thing*. Indeed, to such an extent has this been carried, that many adjectives, especially those ending in -kt], which have obtained a substantive-use by prefixing the article and omitting the substantive Te-yyt], have at last become so completely substantives, that the article is always omitted, except in those cases where a sub- stantive would require this auxiliary (see Middleton on the Greek Article, pp. xxi. 50 note, edit. Rose). This restricted employment of a general attribute may be compared with the use of ftaaiXevs without the article, when a particular king, the king of Persia is meant, so that the general term becomes a proper name or appropriated word. 295 The use of participles as mere adjectives is undoubtedly much more common in Latin than in Greek, and the reason is this, that as the Latin language has no definite article, the distinction between 6 (piXtav "the lover," and (piXwv "if he loves/' cannot be expressed by this part of speech. It becomes therefore a matter of indifference whe- ther we use the Latin participle as a definitive or as a hypothetical word ; but in all cases where a distinct protasis was intended, the participle would give way to the conditional sentence. Conversely, all the functions of an adjective would be assumed by a participle whether active or passive. The passage from this to the substantive use of the participle is immediate. Thus the active participles adolescens, parens, and sapiens, are constantly used as substantives ; secundus is always an adjective, and is generally used in a metaphorical or applied sense. The passive participles acutus, argutus, &c. are almost always em- ployed as epithets, and the neuters prceceptum, dictum, scriptum, con- sultum, placitum, furtum, &c. are to all intents and purposes substan- tives. Some of the participles in -ns have their comparative and super- lative degrees like the ordinary adjectives. Thus we find parentior, utentior, appetentior, and appetentissimus (Liibker, de participiis Gratcis Latinisque, p. 12). In some cases, we have actually to reproduce the participial meaning by a close examination of some common noun. There is an interesting exemplification of this in the words pons and fons. From the root pos, strengthened by n in the present of po[f\-no, pos-ui, we have the participial noun pons =pos-nts, which had a primi- tive form pos (Varro, L. L. V. I. p. 3, Muller), and this conveyed the idea of laying down heavily, whether this signified that a mass of * "When the Anglo-Saxon present participle is used as a noun, it is distinguished by a weaker form of inflection (Latham, Eng. Lang. p. 71. ed. 2). This appears to us to indicate the absence of a definite article : comp. the H. G. der gute Mensch with guter Mensch. 470 THE ADJECTIVE. [Book III. stones was thrown into the water (ye-(pvpa), or generally that there was a weight which caused an inclination of the scale. This, no doubt, is the origin of s-ponte, which refers to the momentum of moral incli- nation, and thus we get the explanation of the ponti-fex, who settled the atonement by the imposition of a fine, i. e. a certain weight of copper, as opposed to the cartii-fex, who took satisfaction on the body of the delinquent. Hence we have the secondary forms j»i<] u$m* and Ku'x^a?, though the former - the paint <>f childbirth as will m fchegoddOM: n Sesych. : <.''<. (Y ; Si (For tlie participial origin of Ko'a^i- see oqi note on khe Antifmm, p. \S6). Tlie nouns in -np and -tJc ({ 867) are strictly of participial origin; they are ill fact connected with the verbals in -tjo?. ! nearly correspond in meaning to the Latin gerundiva in -ndus, which are merely lengthened forms of the participle in -nts (§ 265). The idea of action is explicitly conveyed by the nouns in -t»;«j, -tir meant *' a writer,"' Mry-'i n s as when a greater share of any tiling is given to a distinguished man (Homer, Jiit VII. 881) : cwTOKTi ?' AlavTa cit]v€K€€0 : ol B' ovv yeXwvruiv Kd-m-^atpovTcov kceko?? ; but when the verb governs the accusative, it expresses merely a simple act of joy, like x ai P w -> Vi^t & c » w ^ n * ne same government (see Sophocl. Aj. 136, and Lobeck), and so eVr^ap- To?, without a dative of the person, signifies "joy-causing, agreeable," as in Sophocl. Trachin. 1262 : w? eVr^aproi/ reXeova deKotxriov epyov y where the Scholiast rightly compares the Homeric «cm> dUovrt ye 6vn$. If, therefore, in the passage of the Agamemnon we take yepa- po?? in the sense " by means of gifts," we shall have the natural sig- nification, " the young lion was tame, it gambolled with children, and was agreeable or pleasing, it caressed any one — when it was fed," just as he says afterwards (725) : (padpairds itot\ x^P a er <»f potMMTe adje. arc nothing more than genitive earn attracted by juxtaposition into a variety of inflexion.-. Foi in-tance, if, M i- mosJ probable, an older form of the genitive of ctj/xo^ ctjn >;udcno, wliat is this in tion to o/uooio?, but the erude-fonn of a ne > of inhVx: Tlie same may be -aid of the 0000] n -iuv = -lor-c, which R I the -till older genitive in -utv = --r liar; with the anal [ -tanti\i-. , ■ adjective -. Ml who has referred to this principle in hi- in-trncti\e paper "On the Formation of Words, by the further Modification of Inflected Cases" [Pt Vol. HI. p. 9 >qq.\ seem- I verlooked the distinction between shots DOOM which are formed from oblique S, by the mere appendage of a new -y-tem of inflexions, and a dif- ferent elafiS liieli affix to the new crude-form the pronominal terminations enumerated in a pr ,apur. 1 it is plain to see on the one hand, that o/uu-o-io-s is merely the _ tive e>/iu>'-,Tj,> made the vehicle o( a new set of case-endings, and that . fa. are similarly derived from weaker forms of the genitive. But it is equally clear, on the other hand, that a form like tlftta* contains something more than an oblique ease and a new sysfe case-endings; and a comparison of Ic I 1 lead us to doubt whether the first pari is to be regarded •«, The same remark applies to the forms • hieh Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 475 Mr Garnett would derive from the datives ^jxepriai and rjpciTi, but which appear to us to be formed from the nominatives ripepri and jjjuaT- = vfxapr, by the addition of the affixes -a-ios and -ios (above, § 254). Nor does there seem to be any necessity for deriving olKeTos from o'Uoi or oUei^ when the appendage of *o alone, while the j*ub>tant: ■ which it refers has the article prefixed, hut that it is always a | or a-serts eomething of the noun, even though they ^iould both of them be in oblique cases. Anoth of the same princij that no participle or verbal adjective in -it. or -jmpk, can be considered M an adjective, unkaa it be subjoined to an article, in which cas* equivalent to the relative pronoun with a finite verb and a detinite antecedent. Etyinologically considered, the article, the relative, and the atlix of the genitive ease, are equally derived from the pronoun denoting proximity (§ 118), and the detiniteness which is implied by all three is due to the exp The ditbr bet ween the relative and the detinite artich as we have already seen ($ k'0, in this, that the former preser\ M I - .bjeetive form throughout all cases and genders, and has the ease-ending in the nomi- native, whereas the case-ending I of the nominative is wanting in the Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 477 article, because that suffix is appended to the noun with which it is connected, and the element -ta is used for the neuter and for the oblique cases of the masculine and feminine. Thus we see that the relative is especially subjective, or that its function, when it has a defi- nite antecedent, is to express by periphrasis a definition or epithet as distinguished from a predication or assertion. And this view is not to be qualified by the fact that with an indefinite antecedent the rela- tive sentence becomes hypothetical or virtually adverbial. Considered with reference to its origin, the relative sentence is necessarily definitive or descriptive, and its own true nature is not affected by the occasional circumstance that the antecedent, by which it stands in an adjectival relation, is an adverbial or general term : so that the definition is, like all hypotheses, in that case, of a frequentative nature. Thus, if we say : ^(OKpaTrjs o? ravra idtla the former, and the participle, are generally liabl hown pjenerally that this is a torn utrivance* Of syntax. The main buMMM I I ■■ *■ handn, to distinguish accurately I wi W— I tiie nbj ><-' prvdic..- W6 haveVndeavourcd to -how in another | Arts - 11)1, -11 !), that there are three different kind, or olMBH e*tee, which we have termed (A) J'rim.uy, when t thing b*4 the subject and the prcdic. pressed or implied'; thus, in the BOSM worda "• filse" the adjective v I primary predicate ; (B) 8*3** when the predicate is connected with the subject Ik ■ hich alreadv contains I primary predicate ; thus, in the pttW ; -\ t \iV"»-. "the W words which were >poken nn kWO CW of JUrym, fat, the utterance, an /ati-fact"rily with reference to the predication quoted above. The i etantly need in a neuter . or the reflexive pronoun is dispensed with, whenever this verb is eonttnied with cv or any i d i mb in -u?. Tin:- complete sen- tence if * ^.wKpaTtjf: t^u wrnXm, " Socrates is (= has himself) well. To thil phrase we may add t: cation of a particular object, whkh will be expressed by the genitive nr accusative, according to the reference i If we-. inVrni mAim £X €t T *l v y i /v \ Vc ' fc*l immediate object oft B - - DM 1 j I — SOnl well." Hut if we SSJ • — uKpctTrj^ icaAwc e\(t ti/s yj/vxW' wc ,ncan that " I lure the i> donblj adverbial. The former of kheSS phnws may be equally weU by the eeasmonesl form of the wp& u plm * i dicate. Thus it" WO a tunned the jocular hypothesis, which the philo- sopher is represented as Baking hi his argumei • dlicles (Plato, l^Kpdrrj^ XP v assume that rt Socrates had a soul," or that M a prophet, if he speaks at all, speaks BoreV But the same assumption in regard to the objec- tive . [ually obvious in those passages in which the unwary student is most liable to convert the ulterior predication intoanepi: Thus, in the description of the lines around Plata?a, Tim oaks o( the eircumvallation itself as aomethii | and assumed, but he finds it necessary to state that the E one wall being intended SO check the sallies of the bannged, the other to resist the attacks of a relieving army. lie BSJ1 [ill 81): . which most readers would be con* tented to translate "the wall had two circles," but which must mean that " the circles, which — as a matter had, wt r number." Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 481 303 As all additional references in a proposition are connected with the subject through the root, it is clear that they are all adverbs or secondary predicates, if they are in the same case with the subject, but tertiary predicates, if they are connected with some object of the verb, which is itself a secondary predicate. It is also clear that a verb may be the vehicle of any number of such additional and accessary statements. Thus we might ask not only " how Socrates does," but "how he does as to body," or "how he does in regard to health," (Plato Gorg. p. 514 d), and we might combine the answer to these two ques- tions in one proposition : KaAw? ex €l °* ^coKpaTf/e to a-wfxa 71-00? vyietav, where it is clear that the verb e^e* is assisted by three adverbs or adverbial phrases expressing the manner, the object, and the relations of the existing state of Socrates. To return then to our immediate object — the adjective: — as on the one hand, there are adjectives and participles, which have fixed themselves in use as substantives, so on the other hand there are many words with moveable inflexions, which have a confirmed tendency towards an adverbial usage ; and some of them are then used specially and in a different sense from that which they bear as epithets. Such are the pronouns and adjectives which denote separation, locality, quantity, &c. ; e.g. auTo's, /*oVo?, jueo-o?, 77-as, aAAo?, 6Kao-ro?, &c. Not to trouble ourselves with a discussion of the usages of all these words, which would be necessary in a more elementary treatise, it will be sufficient if we take avros as an example of the prin- ciple to which we refer. It is well known that if avro<; has the article it is merely definitive — in fact, it merely strengthens the article. By a little emphasis we can make " the man" d dvrjp, equivalent to " the same man," 6 avros avtjp. When avros stands by itself and in an oblique case without the article, it is the pronoun of unemphatic refer- ence, like the Latin is or the Hebrew affix i or PT-. Thus tf yvvrj avTov is perfectly equivalent to uxor ejus or in^N* But if ai/ro* stands by the side of a noun already defined, and is not itself, by means of the article, included in the definition, it becomes adverbial, or serves as a secondary predicate ; thus 6 dvtjp : t-nep^aOi o. . ... M v 1 an formidable, when you attack." SomajimfW, this predicate expresses the cause of the main predication ; U in Soph. A ogvxo\o* ira?c o ApuavTus, # he was bound, taflMSj bs was so keen in his wrath." Id. Track. 936: ToUff 6 ircm cvul. 448), "once yon are s base . in a base man: ay* da duyarcp oirw* TO R --53), yon are a pretty lass, bear the basket prettily." [n the \ issage from .V.>eh. Agam, 1 1 i. explained ah i MWSS, and ra^viroeof the tnmn.r. The Latin writers imitate idiom ; thus Virgil. -A." gravis, grariterqne ad terrain ponder* Tasto Concidit. These adverbial adject i ress the effect of the main verb. Thus we have. Soph. Ai. 9 rucpoc TtOnjKiv t) vi'icvc, avTta £« TCp~ i. e. M the etVeet of his death was grief to ine and joy to his enemies, but to himself it brought plsj So Kurip. J/ipj\il. 796 I Xwrtipos t/uiV toi >i*. Thncyd. III. 8 ra&Aot tVewifyci m Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 483 304 Cases sometimes occur in the Greek poets, in which there is an accumulation of adjectives about a single substantive, and their accu- rate or syntactical classification depends entirely on the proper applica- tion of the principles which we have been endeavouring to explain. Thus, to take the well-known passage in Sophocles, (Ed. Col. 718 : a B' evtjpeTjjios eKirayX* aXia X € P predication of instrumental- ity; (5) TrapairTonevrj, predicate of time; (6) , ftftque etiam XvTt'ipiov Za-navui' adjeetivum est ; " and his construction is adopt' Dissen. But, as we have shown in our note on the pssssg -tjpiov is put for \vTpov t SO that TO XvTtjpiov Ccnravdv is analogous to Xv-rpow Ka/jLciTtau (Isthm. VII. 1), and pcAoc -^aplev is an explanatory appo- sition: "the triumphal guerdon of hi- _." We might expect to find examples of the same inadvertence in l>r Arnold'.- I on Thucydides, for perfectly accurate scholarship was not one of the many excellences of that great teacher. Thus in IV. 8(>\ he Inns] ode d(rau<£a> €tr«f>epetv, u nor am I minded t" you a dim and doubtful liberty/' just as he had rendered the parallel passage in the preceding chapter: oot«ov ->;« ik&Btpia* iwiS ^ p t u r , M I shall be charged with offering you a false liberty." although the pr ing passage : rq* atria* ei'\ i^"u« -.--,' ;] bvoScucmmu is correctly _ in his version : "the reason of your not joining me I shall never be able to make out to men's satisfaction ;" for it is elear that in all three case3 there is a prolepsis or tertiary predication — " no one will believe the Chap. 5.] THE ADJECTIVE. 485 alleged reason;" "the freedom which I offer will be thought a cloke for meditated injustice;" "I do not think that the freedom which I offer need be the cause of any misapprehension." But we are more surprised to find an instance of similar carelessness in Dr C. Words- worth, who might have been expected to inherit a special regard for the position of the Greek article. In his Athens and Attica, p. 180, we find an extract from Philostratus (Vita Herodis Soph. 11): Ka/ceu/a irepi Ttav Tlaua6r]vai(i)v tovtcov rjKovov^ ireirXov fxev dvrji*ov*, dpivTnv fiavTiKtiv k X ot W/iocs." Mr Burges has favoured us with a communication on the subject of his conjecture. He says, very truly, that the kv is indispensable, "as is shewn by Burney, or rather Porson, in the Monthly Rev. 1789, p. 245," and that to obviate all difficulties, he would now read : HiydfievSv y av kZ6os el X *» kv Mvlols, for that dv is absolutely requisite. We have stated above our reason for dispensing with dv. 486 THE ADJECTIVE. [Book III. Mr Burges says : " nihil hie habet articulus." It seems to us com- pletely at variance with the spirit of the Greek language to omit the article here. For a participle like a-tyu/xevov could not be a mere epi- thet, when used without the article, though it naturally follows the verb e^ei/, as the expression of a continuous result. With regard to the ai/, which is substituted for eV, we think, in the first place, that the preposition is required here ; and that the di/, go far from being neces- sary, would actually weaken the meaning. the matter was all past and gone, the only apodosis allowable here would be the ■ with av. No one would .say of Paris after his death, ^\ €v "*» " ne would have," but ea^ey uv, u he would baffle had." As it is, Euripides, referring no doubt to the humble conn- ween Paris and CEnone, makes Cassandra say that : " Paris married (aor. i. ■ . M one act) Jove's daughter; but by not having married her (i.e. if this act had been omitted), he thereby continued to keep Ins marriage affinity in the obscurity which originally \ (c) "We have removed a gross sola'cism from Pindar, /st/un. 1 1 1. 28, bj reading: Qvarov Xovrai fiiorov tc.Xoc, instead of to fSlov Tt'.Voc, in which the editors Bnqninwm, although the article is omitted in several M8& A.,1 we have similarly expunged the ai ieh Bockh had inserted in Jsf/nn. VII. 8ft Wh ioiiopov 6"wdeu, cpovTi fxoipa tclv €vtake. they would confer the favour with as indelible a record as possible," ok dv Ltd\«TTa /jl€t deifjunjarov paprvpiov Ttjv \°P IV KdTaOcTaOe. The following passage contains a good exemplification of the uses of the participle, both as ovouia and prjLia ; Thucydidcs I. 36 : KOI brio Tclce ^VLHpfpovra fU \ty€, to cc Qapaovv fitj cc^acuVou d(<: ov Trpos I rove wjtQpcm >>* €Ta, 7rt, the Scholiast and Hermann suppose that en ovlev to /xiWov ought to be taken together, with the sense eir ovlev tu>v neWovriav ; but it appears to us that to /xeWov is in apposition to the whole of the pre- ceding line, " in regard to the future, he comes to nothing unprovided with resources." At the beginning of the following strophe, the article is properly explained by Wex. In another part of the same play, the chorus, after stating that, when misfortunes once begin in a family, they go on till the race is extinct, exclaim (v. 594) : dp-^cua to. Aaf3$aKihdv o'ikcou dptofxai irtj/jLCtTa (pdifxevoov €tt\ irr}ixaa>s as a title of rank. 330 Connexion of this term with Kvpios, Kopos, KovpiSios, &c. 331 Digression respecting Kvprjfios and Kvptj(3ta. 332 *A/ot}s and vir. 333 'Avyjp = fa-w'ip and Nero. 334 "Ava% = \dva% connected with dvd. 335 "T/3/ois similarly connected with virep. Contacts between this word and Kopot. 336 Further analogies between nopos, dSpos, xXt5»/, opyij, &c. 337 Konig and "king" not immediately connected with \dva%. 338 "Lord" refers to elevation. 339 (3) 'EvxeXex«a. Difficulties occasioned by a confusion between this Aristotelian term and the older word ev6e\ex €ia ' 340 Opposition between duvap.is and ei/TeXex eta « 341 Avva/xi? also opposed to evipyeia. 342 Distinction between evreXix^ia and evipyeia. 343 Aristotle uses evTe- Xe'xeia to signify the absolute definition of a thing. 344 Signification and etymology of evdeXex^. 307 /~\NE of the most striking peculiarities, and indeed one \J of the greatest beauties, of classical Greek, is the fre- quent and varied use of compound words by the best authors. Our own language cannot make the most distant approximation to the Greek in this, the German falls far short of it, the Latin still more so. There is, however, one language of our family, the Sanscrit, which bears a strong analogy to, and even excels, the Greek in this respect ; it will be proper, therefore, before we engage in an inquiry about the principles which regulate the formation of compound words in Greek, to consider the laws according to which this process is carried on in the old language of India. 492 COMPOUND WORDS. [Book IU. 308 A person not well skilled in Sanscrit always experiences great difficulty in distinguishing the words in a line of poetry from one another: the whole line will appear to him to be formed into one man, the end of every word being altered, on euphonical principles, to suit the commencement of the word which follows; in fact, as Colebrooke has remarked (Asiatic Researches, VIII. p. 201), it is au euphonical orthography, which consists in extending to syntax the rules for the permutation of letters in etymology. The same is ol a certain extent in old Greek inscriptions (Bockli. 1. p. 126). The feeling which gave rise feo this orthographical anomaly, and cer- tainly to the formation of the long compounds also (ess the instances in Matth. Gr. Gr. § 44-6, 10. obs. 3, c), may be kneed in the peculiari- ties of Greek syntax; for instance, that construction which we call attraction is the simpl- I ■ Strivi] _ \\ of Hm attempt to oo m p x cai the ni< laiag ol I sentence into a closely-connected group of word-. Hm Dnl J distinction, between a real compound and syntactical phenomena like this, it thai in the compound the sepaxste word- have BO entirely coalesced that the mfleotion ol the last word alone is regarded. 900 The B aaa of i l grammarians have discriminated six kinds of oomponnd WOldl OX SSSMdEoa. Tlwv give the following names to the different Bpedei (pM Wilkin-' GfaMMRW, y. 556, folL): (l)«*J (2) UOjmrwka, (3) dcandra, (4) drvju, (5) bahurrihi, (6) larmmad- hiirat/ii. We shall consider tl after the other. Ill olaea, A OOmponnd of this kind i- indeclinable. Th membex is some preposition ox paxtiolaj and the last ii ■ noun termi- nating in the sign vi' the neuter L r < nder ; for in-tance. } l irnniL.'* prii/d api (M) prantbht/iis, fol jriy atari flWMy (Apulloll. \)\ 310, Bekk.). The former is wh< K) combined that the fil them loses all inflexion, and the last word M the pivot o; ning: the latter is when both words retain their inflexion, but are joined together so intimately and habitually that they may be written as one word. The parathetie eoinpoimd i- a natural prelude to >yntli< tie com- bination, and we sometimes find wi sorts of composition. B trathetic compounds are often found in proper names, ai K wo**% u«, 'II taMrota ; in particles, as ovK€rt, to- TTptoTov; or in epithets, as vavai-KXvrus, ret^ca-i-yrXtjrrjK : or we find that, although the two word- are not abaohitelj lawn into one, the former hai SnJbnd - D9 its vowels on account of the weight of the word, so thai neither part could standalone: - WOraS :ire raa idpos y ocot-iropo* y and a number of word- : i 0*0*- for ('to?? (] Fortch. I. p. \\wiii. RinHSI, IX. p. 334), | ;is OioaTiK, cW-ir as he says immediately after- wards xpoviio as ^ might be written, signifies only ie time- honoured" or " ancient" in both places. The same is the case with the collocation Xoyw-TraXaids in the two following passages ; iEschyl. Agam. 1198: €Kfxaprvpr]aov irpovixoa , a<: to /j. eloevai Xoyia-TraXaid*; raVS' d/jLCtpTia<; h6jj.wu. Soph. (Ed. Tyr. 1395: W Yl6\v(3e Kd\ K6piV0€, KCU TCt TTOLTpia Xoyoo-TraXaia Zu>}xaTa*. 312 In treating of the synthetic compounds we will first take those which have the verb element in the last place, and then those which begin with the verb. When two nouns are joined together we find them connected by the short vowel o, which is elided when the second word begins with a vowel: where the first word ends • This second passage, which was first adduced in our Greek Grammar, Art. 378, shows that Mr Paley was rather hasty in questioning the interpretation of X6y\ here there wit no liquid, it is patted OB to the liquid n in the : ible, and thus we find 'l-mrvca^mo<: (s .< >). This euphonic lengthening, how frequently happen- at the first syllabi -econd part of the word, when we often tind an a or < changed to rj y and o to •», as in the following instances, «Jif'rej*«K (ok/«k), cv//-.'. § 1 CO. Anm. 1). These vowel-changes fall under the head of juna; before fS and w however we often find anut- . as in Ti/'-fi-'raKo*', sfcis \ When the 1 part of the compound does not l>ogin with either a liqu a vowel, we hud the final \ | an, which should pro- perlv be a short o, the medium weight of d, converted into rj I - and that too, not only in the case of nouns of th Vnsiou as X ot l X e-«a«<.,, tw*****, &c. ; M WIW elision, as in 0<>«».«h»V*. in which encd fom. of the pr.--.-nt ten- i- f- posing that, in thM w„rd.. I particular stress was intended to be on the verbal put of the WOfd. l-rms like Ta,««i-XP*<, 4"f- arc purely poetical. Slfi Bom times a compound >' * simple notion, and I ' "* ■ se (| „e„tlv di-re,arde,l. Tin- Si;- but n'tant "■ -..'...ty a..;. henoe, »,■ hm "• --» .A,-/,.. ' l compound h,-l,,„- in pa, «£"£ , w,r,U m :•.„,,•„•■( ..and. I. The same rcdund- M ' ta I- 1 '"- - V ppe t£LI!\L. ~ ,..„„, a- in th. tW 'T? and ...lor- ha WAo*. P- 1*7, .«>*> We have in-,an,-.-> ef t hb in - -«™« ■"? the.nea.e * S ^ ^J** for fa compound verb,- . ..T Mini, civ .emeani.e e„n-.rue,io„'aheredaceordin,lv. H " to • »U.. sl,„nld oov.rn th. ,'cnuivc e*»; hu, when I - h ia fdlowe d by the see — ti r e, as ... Sopbodes, sjm n.pound v ■ and without anv ease after 0*00 Of the • /X " ,Ho".na„ endued with wwUn : " * ^.;- .;,«-,:-•■ i >■"«•«»■■• IS kuo.ledae him-clt." The eo.n.uon read "^Tof WWg. Similarlv. the con.pound verb i ■ ee*. Of Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 499 "prevent, hinder, put a stop to," without any immediate reference to the literal signification of its component parts ; generally with the infinitive ; Pindar, Isthm. I. 62 : irdvra V e^enreiv — d(paipeirai (3pa^y fxeTpov ex MV v^vos' Sometimes with fxtj also : Eurip. Troad. 1145 : to SecriroTOv rectos dei\€T avTrjv 7ratda p.^ hovvai TOKpio (see Heindorf, Plat. Protag. p. 260 a). Hence it is used absolutely, without any accusative or infinitive, to signify mere hinderance or prevention, as in iEschyl. Pers. 428 : euxs KeXaivrj? i/i/kto? o/jl/jl" d(p€i\€To f " until the dark- ness of night interposed a hinderance," and this is imitated by Arrian with an explanatory addition (Anab. II. 11, § 5) : i; i/uf ov lid paKpov €7reyeuofxevtj d(p£i\ero avrov to irpos ^AXe^dvlpov d\wvai. 316 On the terminations of compound words, we must refer the reader to Lobeck's Parerga {ad Phrynich. p. 487, foil.), as we do not mean to add any thing to what we have said on terminations in general. It will be better in this place to discuss, with some minute- ness, three compound words, which have given much trouble to philo- logers, and which are respectively of great interest in the literary, political, and philosophical history of Greece : these three words are lidvpanfios, KctXonayados (along with which we shall consider the other Greek words of a cognate meaning), and ei/TeXe^eta. 317 (0 Ai0vpaim(3os. We have before expressed our opinion with regard to this much-disputed word, but as we were then obliged to confine our remarks to the limits of a note, we may be permitted to repeat them here, in a more expanded and systematic form. In analyzing a word which we do not understand, but which be- longs to a language, the etymological principles whereof are reducible to order and system, the first step naturally is to discover what is the termination of its crude-form, if it has any constant pronominal afiix between the root and the case-ending ; if not, whether there is any compound word, the last part of which corresponds to the word in ques- tion. Now, although the ending of hdvp-apfios does not coincide with any of the pronominal suffixes which we have mentioned above, there are two words which are strikingly analogous to it in termination, namely, V/3os and dpi-a^os. It is incumbent on us, then, in the first place, to inquire what is the force of the termination -a/*/3os. Nothing is more common in Greek than the appearance of fx before labial-endings. It seems to be a sort of anusvdra insertion, which is peculiarly agree- able to the Hellenic ear. The following instances will make the fact sufficiently evident. We have 0a- M -/?ov) as well as koV-tco ; «^H&** Sanscrit iMiir, as well as kmt-t« and ki/0-o« ; , o0« k«, KpaV,,* 'EpqwoM 7 pa>e«. If so we may compare the word with e-f>e>— » o>0-wk, o-ptf>a-v X( : /)(; | *nrr«« (AlktoplL Thtsmoph. 995), and Mlftr (Ovid, AK. VI 89). That larrm was used as a - ; *- T *» appears from the v llesychiu-. .v.VcmKi*. -«,-, Nshcre the ed ' *•! compar dty«. wpoMyy*™. **>•• " touching" v * thlOWmg ciently clear from the U * " wilh " aiul " foUow - bg after:" and that the * may 1 the word wants the aspirate. ■ established hy the instai. Lobeck quotes : nannK \a. = aVoW^ir- compared with .\i'\\a>, and t>«Anft-0 cVnrijcwr; Itq *7>°- tij^i ; 6»m, Mm. Compare also the Peisian fiftm with the Sanscrit I 'W ■ t.» kind'. on tire." we may compare *Vr« with Urn "to bind." and bum," with &f/uuK and fapoc, and with Ul • phrase. M tire." From all this, we conclude t": i'b' a word designating a proce»ion or dance of people in otofl K by implication, a SOOg or hymn performed hy snch a body. 318 Haying now ai I the value of the terminal roceed to investigate tiie ml of the word. 1 -t Ai^pai, only i name of Bacchus, the cod in whose honour the song Of hymn was Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 501 chanted (Eurip. Bacch. 526), but also a very common proper name (comp. Herodot. VII. 227, with iElian, Var. Hist. VI. 2). We believe that in this use it was only an epithet derived from the song, the subject of which was originally the birth of Bacchus (Ajoiwou yeved(pvrj 7re7ri/KaoyAei/o?. Nonnus, Dionysiaca, IX. 1 1 : tov fxev vtrepKii^/avra derjyeveos tokctoTo [Book III. god was surrounded with ivy, it would not be unnatural to seek for some connexion between the 0„>o,, or ivy-staff of the Bacchanal- and the Dithvramb, which Simonidcs of CeOi calls K^o^opo, (fr 205. ed. Schneidewin). The word 06p-» • •an,! ■■ ■ lri ^ H ' % attendant! bearing stages of r m ^mral one pereon .i llv ,-and both these claseea were designated In mer. -it WM ternary for the suppiiani m fen hand an oft ed with woollen bands. And thus the Daaaldei an inttodnoed by i"'») M ■■&?■* « ** arnVal " /?Aw>aTo? Kapblau i"ivejK€ (IlaAAa?) tw Au— and must, therefore, suppose that this heart was represented by the cone of the thyrsus. According to this latter view, which we regard as the true one, the staff and cone constituted the thyrsus, or emblem of the birth of Bacchus : the ivy round the staff or i/a>0»/£ was perhaps an adjunct borrowed from the ire P \ Ktova* -- and 6v P - found in these word* respect- ively, are in fact, as thev may be according to the b ymology, one and the same. Now the word 6 pi a\ d SOOthanj Which, like the dice, were probably need in triplet*, and perhaps con- (Hesyeb, Bp*%e* u~.\A« *»««> ,1 0>reW ku\ re. & Both worda therefore an con th the numeral rpitt,— road »»**£ stands ai ■ synonym for rpSmm^ and 9fim may print, m this application, to the 8ha] perhaps, the C dM th, fine $p* K»* »f««* InTxo,. 're. In the plural, «the t going from the topmast toeacheideof the ship and toi The third prononn appean still ■*> m the rednph. Bjnonyni rothemystiealnnmber"*] i, a! . i to in the epithet tl ** 1 wand which Apollo gu '• mMimtmr.UOi . rpurrni '£"» in the rpi'mrpn of whi De0r ' 111 28), end perfume alaoii (Harpoeration,s.e.p.J Ifewn. s. n. p. < disconnected with 6 illaigniry "agaibei -aie% and that which they contain, at the end of a re as **?-*<" denotes«s torch," L« M i lathering of fire at the end of i L" Hartnng P** 0881 . Iftheoneweroreallyabj we ehonld have 0o> --• • La, however, the dithvramhie daOO Jull. I oil. IV. 104), and as the i - :it l * connected with thai of swafe tavift, from which - a qneatioo might arise, wheihei the name of the . from the tnmnltnona clamonn ofBaoehnaj or whether it wna « mholical mean the Bacchic staff with its accompaniment- and this wonld inquiry, whether signified primarily the distinctm staff (cf. *•,) or the partv who horc it (c£ frW«K \ « siiion in the Latin ~~S* 111.117). In our opinion. Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 505 we must refer to three distinct origins, the dvp-o-, 6 'op-). 319 The quantity shows that the first syllable of Ai-dvpa/jLpos is a contraction of A», like that of Ai-7r6\ia, A<-<£tAof our own tin. vague and genera] inter] I will not he uuuh ieable to ■*— ""^ a ith mora minntenaai than has gene a been done, what i- the primary mcanii and a irhat is tl 1 as a pel. term, and what its application as a moral epithet. 528 With -econd idjeeth . little remains to be done: Welcker, in his admin foil.), has collected nearly afl the passages beari-j <>n tl has clearly shown that the Gh the Latin /<orn, common > . X°"°S whence, according to some, the names of the Achaeans ( = dya6ol, dpiaTrjes. Muller, Prolegom. zur Mythol. p. 291. Comp. Journ. of Educat. III. p. 87. Philol. Mus. II. 88; see however Phil. Mus. II. 367 : above, p. 143), and Chaonians (Welcker, ad Theogn. p. xxviii. note) were derived, just as the name of the Goths was derived from got/is, goda, "good," (Savigny, Gesch. Bom. Rechts. I. p. 194). 32.3 The derivation of dyadd? is a great stumbling-block to etymologers. Bopp would connect it with the Sanscrit agddha-s "deep" (Vergl. Gramm. p. 411); this we consider undoubtedly erro- neous. Pott's suggestions* {Etymol. Forsch. II. p. 299) do not merit the slightest attention, nor can we say much in favour of Passow's derivation from dyav. We consider the first letter to be one of those moveable initials, of which we have already spoken more than once, and we class all the following words together; d-ya-66i, v-yd-deo?, 7r/-0e'o>, d-yavds, d-ya-pat, d-yaio-nai, d-yav-pos, yav-pos, yav-pidw^ Latin gaudeo, yd-vos, yct'-i/u/ju, yaleiv, yadtddas (ripiaos ovofxa o? net) toJv KarcKpevyovTcts eU avrov pverai en davdrov, Hesychius), yaSeu/, ydceadai, yacew (x a /> a > Hesych.). The meaning which runs through most of these words, is that of "pleasure," "joy," "delight:" d'-ya- fxa h into which the idea of "wonder," &c, frequently enters, derives this meaning from a primary one of pleasure, for the wonder im- plied is always considered as a pleasurable sensation ; and the word really signifies in an infinity of passages, as well in the most ancient as in the more recent authors, "to be pleased with," "to delight in," "to think highly of." We have before shown how the synonymous root X°--p~ derives all its meanings from the primary one of " containing ;" thence, "support," "firmness," &c. W r e find this root with a set of for- mations corresponding in the main to those of the root ya-. The primary meaning of the root x a ~ or X a ^ * s "containing" (x«- w > X a * mmq > &c 0» thence, "firmness," "hardness," the earth (xe-/o- &c 0> thence, help or assistance in battle, and pleasure in such assistance (^a'-pi?, &c), then it becomes the epithet of a person who can so help us (^»/o-*/jioc), and finally of an order in the state, composed of the best warriors or chief men (xpno-rot, &c). To this last meaning belongs Surely he is joking when he proposes to consider it as a compound of dyav ar\f\ ifrtfirr /i/icf and KaQaposl 508 COMPOUND WORI-- [Book III. the old word x a °* ( or X ai6 *> Lobeck, Phr>m. p. 401), where the ter- mination -po* is omitted. Similarly from -/«-, w e have the primary idea of finnnttfl or support, I fo«**> 7»7); assistance in battle (as in the patronymic ya-Btaoat), joy, pleasure in general (in m< the words quoted above) ; and tb pithet of a warrior, a person able to help in battle, and the upper class was com- posed of such warri lhat the roots 7a- an the man. th.ro wes no goodness 11 in the pe t/ , ■■„... II. t, in tin* matter of wealth, that • man might be n ally a gentl BBml have inl OB, eo that (he oibet qnmKtiei of the eoblee are peeeen implying opulence. Fee inetea \^amtmn. 1010) we read; Mwrwr^j A.iietotk [R I H TO* ■ n the titln i, 8u . whieb they received, the nobles m U*m torn the lands whieh kl P*j from their ooev epienonfl posttioa i .tabke. 39 [ The onjeotft XN bieh bee the peimltima long in Homer and the old epic ports, ■tend* I ic«r-Mat, Nvhom th,S Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 509 etymology is due, justly remarks (Lat. Syn. und Etym. III. p. 38) that it may be compared to iavos for eacWs, and the more so as Ba does not belong to the Greek ecphoneses : and in another place (III. p. 97) he shows that ica-Aos and kow-i/os (KaUw-fxai is the ordinary form of the present for KeKao-fxai) are connected, as canns, candidus with re-cens, and as Bet-i/o? with het-\6s from 3ei3w. It is possible that Ka\o$ may have been written originally with a doubled A like kccAAo?: compare hellus for benulus. The primary meaning of the word is in strict ac- cordance with this derivation ; it signifies, " furnished with outward adornments," in general, " that of which the outward form is pleasing," and thus it is regularly opposed to al\): *fl cpl\oi dvfpCK € Kara *pu- ^vxxk, I ! pmv k XeoVec adoi rje we/)orffpoveTv, to which he answers, ov yap fidvavaov tt]v t€^^«/ e kt n oi/crac) a.pi]»«■ r classes, from their gei be used M ■ synonym fur " respectable." A m have been the nse ofsVieucq , as ■ synonym fat • it was because the hitter cia— <•-, baling DO temptation! like their J brethren, abstained fr<»m those rioss which ntirnnttrn opini I, that tie ir regular name becan I good ! oondnct : thns Aristophanes says (A* i rmv woktrm* - KOAovi t< K'lynl'oi/c- ' siph. (TOT %¥ Pot this sense of 0ovA:_ . full.); and though Theognis and the advocates of the as in-til into their readers or hearers that goodness was innate in the nobility, their rejected by the domo crat ioa l >pirit oft! reece, and overthrown by the philosophy of Socrates; so that after all only succeeded in U D the philosophical VOCnlmlni I the old titles ol rank, of which the original political meaning was, as we see from Aristotle, soon merged in the 1 326 Ifnoh the same has been the fate of the Laftttl JWSifiVll This word originally signified "one wfa 1 patrician geti 1 in fact, l patrician, and from this it has gone through the Italian ^mi* Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 513 tiluomo, the French gentilhomme, to our " gentleman," a word which combines the old political meaning of rank with an expression of those moral and social qualities, which we consider, though generally found along with rank, to be attainable by every one. The adjective has diverged in our language into two, namely, " gentle," expressing the moral meaning ; and " genteel," conveying the idea of rank. 329 The word ijpuv;, in its old Homeric use, did not iniply any deification or super-human qualities ; it was merely a title expressing military pre-eminence applied to all the heavy-armed fighters men- tioned in the old poems; it meant, in fact, nothing more than a good soldier : it was originally a title of rank, and had become indiscrimi- nately assigned to all distinguished soldiers, just as the word knight was extended in the middle ages to all fighters, and translated miles by the monks. We shall not quote from Homer to prove this ; all the passages have been collected and the general fact established by a writer in a work which we hope is accessible to most of our readers (Philolog. Mas. II. p. 72 foil.). That rjpw was originally a title of rank we think appears from the following considerations. The termination points to a derivation from rjpa. That the genuine form of the word was »/pF«oT-9, i.e. u the noble warrior," may be inferred from the form 'H^FaoTb?, which is so written in the Olympic tablet : Bockh, C. I. I. p. 26 sqq. ; and thus 'HpaK\t}<;, whose connexion with the goddess "Hpa does not appear to be a sufficient cause for his name, may have been so called as the representative of the race of Heroes (see Pott, Etymol. Forsch. II. p. 224). Hesychius says "Hpaios was another name for 'HpaKAj/?, and rjpaio? bears the same relation to rjpw^ that ytipaios does to dytjphx;. However, it is obvious, as we have just shown, that ijpws and ijpa are themselves connected ; how they are related will appear from an investigation of the latter name. The goddess Hera is always spoken of as presiding over or connected with marriage-rites ; the chief feature in her mythology is her sacred marriage (fyo? yapos) with Zeus (Diodor. Sic. V. c. 72) ; her three names, irapdevia (Pindar, Olymp. VI. 88), reXeia (Nem.. X. 18), x*iP a (Pausan. VIII. 22, 2), show that she represented marriage and its two periods of negation, according to the principle of contrast which we have pointed out on a former occasion {Theatre of the Greeks, 6th Edition, p. [22]). The name re'teia, as applied to Juno, refers to the ya>om."*«, &c. (Uutt- and «* Ailuni,,, name for the boobud . *• «'' : male-la* ') : allndin"t„theeu-t,m ..rinclodinothehu-hand in Wifi olu-tnl- '"°" .„-,.,:,, .11 ... . U. dU were hm of ehiHien boa i" Uwful mumge, ee] •* the upper cUeeos- Tim- in< ''• t Hen c+y, v*"' n"""''" "■""■ awayttr. and in Huta,. * ' » (Welokef i / .gwt. .-^ were ebo •n„,,i- therefore, on thkrf* i (•taring ... morriep ""» *"• ' ' al-„ the ea-,„, ,1,- . i. no., ]i„,„„a„n rightl; vof^.d.rm. &;.' we might fairlv pi ,-„M. more aneientlv written B~r±, an to ;/,,-,• cannot be denied. .and a- the,. Id Creek ,,„, Hew Djotatty ">' r - v, l'l' dtoeCDiodonii may well -„,, ' t * n - o.her wav of done it i's proheble the! '»>>• >'- 1, j, ,o he eh-erved that OW ill a-. R. MX T are the Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 515 connexion between Kvpfias, Kopvpas^ and the helmets of these person- ages, see Lobeck ad Soph. Ajac. 817. Aglaopham. 1144. 331 There is a word in Aristophanes which it seems impossible not to connect with Kvp/Sa? (" crested"), Kvpftei? (" pyramids"), Kvprj- Petty (" to butt with the horn"), Kvp(3ao-ia, Kvpr\fia • '^" r »odifieati i subst a "husband, or bridegroom,- sdj. ,,■,,■„. :|I1 ; -.ill. the latter Of Which p F m F F , iki . V .. F Ocean .V '.nan-killer. U ith , ;, , ., near F«!>-« (I'mhard, Ao*!*^ Ory« (-/" tl 333 A sunflai ■ * the mem " ^nan,. frank. ' . e tind in the >an-v «* husband/ from f .£ This word finds ifta full- 1 - alm orSahmelan, f / (MaudiK il familiar to « J derivative., ■*■* "* *"* *° J" wife of I : l -' Aulu " C ' (XI 11. 88). riant u- (ZVwoni ' 11 r» pcrw^rv ode***** *oi«i< r * ' Mi "**" ""' Lieinius [ml "') : \ :m te rocrnt. *d Si Quum quidem Ma: Ennins (4tt»ei \ r totem Mater lis et Hrrclem. I, i,woll known dun.: .-..Wi«l fr>">> **• » Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 517 means "a brave man" or "a husband;" and to the latest period avlpes was a complimentary address (see Valckenaer ad Herod. VII. 210). Again we find the same combination in irdaic, -iroTvia, iroTva, lea-- 7roTr7iXei ce t'iktciv "Y(3pi<: fxev iraXaia vca- 2 'Cpvaav Iv KdKO?? /Jporuiv 3 "YfipiV, TUT tj TuO\ OT€ TO KVptOV p6\iy 4 vea ce (putt Kdpov, cat/iovu tc tuv afiayov, airo\C}tov y G av'upov Opcia-os, ji< 7 \ -a, 8 ' ~OKCV>or was adopted by Butler, who wtt guided by tapdw e> u »# a i- introdi Kl.msen. The sul i for rw in the fifth Km is due ts Hersnajsa. It appears to us that .i'ovieW stands for cpavepws ; see Lysias in Theomnest. p. 117 [363] ), Sophocles, (Ed. Col. 120: 7rov Kvpei eKTOirios avveis o iravT-cx it may fairly be enigned to the same family, But what i^ tin- I i and Ko'po? " a young man?" Tl eVuwn. The idea f "fiilm . inir op, - eoifln into- of a tall youth, and thi< thr ( On" ■*>•« ( with BnUmmnn, p. 806"] »*■•* alike Of a jroODg man, of a tr.r. of DJ L I V - 31), " f an . v " thing in fad in which tl.- idea of fulness, growth, i implii -tantly found u Homer, and oSporo* u need of the Uwv h ni fi— of rij.e eon hi H ^gain, n.ii.K— coimected with aW, mm... anj r J. p. 21 1). and, if Um derivation proposed ab<> -it ileo and in connexion wi1 lN • £pn k« ■• The lent « metaphor only ■ little farther: a swelling like a wave, an excessive fulness even to overflowing, being aim attributed to the youth. Accordingly we hare in the i 18 ) : fed participle ■■. 01 rath r a m n preeent formed Iron lb according to :i ronton] uncommon i:. I bare a reduplicated preeenl *.i\v«i> M ;l *7 wm P n " f V v < ; <>- wl,ich meanfl li t0 iwefl, to be exuberant or full;" hem Bounding noun of overflowing water u nmetbn 1 in the ■ of the word. La ■ dithyramb ofPii where m\v.-> foUowi the .. -milarly in i\. init. we have: mAXJ '*■* »!*> ry when it pours forth its loud full tones," and fa Damage under oonaideration - x "in all In youth," "swelling with youthful strength/ We do not agree Buttmann {AutfiUkrl \ rl 11 DO connexion between MX*afci1 and the use of a cup tilled with m -me, sparkling, bubbling, an over (Pindar, Oh/my. Vll. init Chap. 6.] COMPOUXD WORDS. 521 IpoG-cp) shows that the words have precisely the same force, for Ke^Xa- cova-av or Ke^XalvTav might have been used here. There is no doubt, however, that it is also connected with ^A^So?, ^XiBif (a perfect synonym of Kopo^ (Ed. Tyr. 888, and above, § 835), and ^AiBa'to, and thus ■xX l ^ ( ^ -/- M, or r,f an Mi right in oo nn eot fo fl this woid with ■ verh rigafyi suiheientlv elear. Similarly. I ' 1,ich ngnifiM "loftj il '* Avr R ■ iB old Kngli-h MS. in the (ainl>ri.l-r Library (^ I Deo. 1888, pp. 6lft iqq.) We en- supp«.Mti"U. that the termiiiati. i would rather conned it With A. 'and t | iu . | DflttM in kigfa place-." DSXMgM in ref. | to kin ' Mt t* 6 last name is also a general design of height ; it i #• * shore, as in MI names lea when a little. The (iernian MUM T><\ |> ftttft, M M knew the manners ol &u0*fr> obrionaly oo na eo ie d with T",,,,,!, mm m r part of hlfl followers'' M tin" elder-." the - 390 i :0 TrrtV n the questions which have Wen • with regard to the celebrated Aristotelian nd all the difficulty which it DM CMS ndclenburg, ovi r ouvoir, que par consequent il ne siirnine, lui-raeme, rien autre choe* qaun lumune hahile. M SSM, I qui Ml antra. obenaent par U conTktkm da aoo habileW wcowma" fTMan j , DU m* fBtmim Hisioriques. trts s*r riiutout / •.■„„,.,-, pp. G "la neh \ -ell named King, :/„,/. C.xn-mnc. or Man that "as Able' wh.v. " **H*~ iiiticant with the destinies of th< Fm*A Htt\>lmtion. I. | Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 523 Aristot. de Anima, p. 319 sqq.), have been occasioned by an inability to discriminate between this and the compound ei/BeAe'^eta, which so nearly resembles it in sound. It will be worth while, then, to explain these words once for all. 340 The meaning of evreXexeia may be derived without much difficulty from Aristotle himself. The philosopher is in the constant habit of using a double antithesis to the word Swapus, which he opposes both to IvT-eXe^eia and to evepyeia. The hvva/j.^ in this opposition corresponds to vXtj, the material out of which any thing is immediately made : the evreXex eia to the eZSo? or form which constitutes the defini- tion of the thing. " Substance itself," says Aristotle, " is reckoned a sort of entity, and in this we discriminate, 1st, the material, which by itself does not constitute an individual ; 2nd, the shape and form, by which the individuality is determined ; 3rd, a compound of the two. Now the material is a ci/W/ju?, but the form an evreXexeia, and that in two ways, either as science (eVjo-rr/V^) or as contemplation (to OewpeTv)" {de Anima II. 1, § 2): and shortly afterwards (§ 4), he says "the soul is a substance, as the form of a natural body alive Iwd^ei ; but the substance is an evTcXe-^eia; therefore the soul is the evreXe-^eia of such a body. But evreXexeia is predicated in two ways, as science and as contemplation ; accordingly, it is clear that the soul is an evTeXe^eia in the same way as science, for sleeping and waking presuppose the soul, and waking is analogous to contemplation, but sleep to the having and not exerting" (ft. C. to science, to yap ^pefxija-ai kcu aTtjvai ttjv lidvoiav €7r< because it corresponds to science, the first of the two kinds of eVeAe;^. We must not consider the opposition of luvctfXK; and €UT€Xex €ia as equivalent to that of matter and form ; it is merely analogous to it; the ivreXex €ia is not a form, as something distinct from matter and adscititious ; it is the acting and efficient principle which makes the thing what it is, which individualizes it— to yap Zvvd/jLei ov xat fxrj ei/TeXe^eta, dopiarov e-- acting, exertion, or operation. Thns, in the eel : »n of the Mammon l-omou in the Bthioi I. ~ ,] 14 it i- said to be an opera- exertion, or acting of the soul, according lo \ir: .fywVo o* a '-; ut , c ia yivcTai kcit* dpertji). Now he says at the very beginning of the nuns work, that "this fttsnssaan homwm is an (WXoc) ; but then i- a difference tions . and oth. and in eases where there arc any end- OoUntOfaJ ions (irpa'£m), in these cases the w i)utC battel than thee] MapyMu); still it does not follow that an operation, which terminates in itxll produces I should be inferior to one that does, in otl. that a r/M aid rank lower than a toi»;t«»i (trip'. From this it appears that the i N a mere operation or whereas the ri n \< \ .- an act, but as a state a ing upon an aet : thus. Aristotle says {P''j s. III. S) that me: that which is moved, for it is the : that which U and is produced by the moving force, and the tWsyfW of the m< force is the same. Now the passage from the fc Chap. 6.] COMPOUND WORDS. 525 consists in motion, which is a sort of imperfect evepyeia (rj tc Kivrjixis evepyeia fxev tis eivai (We?, aVeAr/V he. Phys. III. 2), and again, motion is the eWeAe^eta of that which virtually exists, so far as such a thing can be fcalled an eWeAe'^eta {Phys. III. 2), and motion differs from evepyeia in this, that the former implies change, the latter continuance (Metaphys. VIII. 6) : therefore, evepyeia is not eWeAe'^eta, but only tends to it, as Aristotle distinctly explains it from the primary mean- ing of the two words : to yap epyov tc'Ao?, tj he evepyeia to epyov. hio ko.\ Tovvofxa evepyeia Xeyerat Kara to epyov ku\ o-vvrelvei 7rpo<; Ttjv eWe- Ae'^etai/ (Metaphys. VIII. 8, p. 1050 Bekk.), that is, the work (epyov) being the end (reAos), and being implied in the word eVeoy-eta, this last may be considered as tending to the ev-TeX- e%-eia, in which the tcAos is contained. Again, he says (Metaphys. VIII. 3, p. 1047) : e\t]\v6e d' tj evepyeia Tovvop.a, tj Trpos Ttjv evreXe-^eiav crvvredeifxevr] ko\ fc7ri to aAAa, e< twv xivtjcreiav fxaXicrTa' hoKcT yap tj evepyeia juaXia-Ta tj K/i'»7(7t and occurs also in other combinations, is derived principally from motions; for motion and action are generally identified. Wherefore motion is not attributed to nonentities, but something else is predicated of them, for instance, that they are conceivable or desirable, but not that they are moved. And the reason is that if we attributed motion to them, we should attribute action to things which do not actually exist. Some nonentities do indeed exist virtually or potentially, but not actually, for they do not exist evreXex^a." 343 From all this it clearly appears that Aristotle derived ivre- Ae'^eia from ev, tcAo?, and ex €iv > on tne analogy of vowexfc, &c, and that he meant by it the acting and efficient principle of all those things which exist potentially (hwdfxei) and may be otherwise ; that is to say, it is their absolute definition — en tou hwdpei oWo? A0709 tj evreXe- * On this passage Bonitz writes as follows, in his new edition of the Metaphysica, p. 387 : " evTeXexeia, ut descendit ab adjectivo evT-eXexfe, i.e. plenus, perfectus, per- fectionem rei significat; evepyeia vero derivatum a v. evepyelv, earn actionem et mu- tationem, qua quid ex mera possibilitate ad plenam perducitur essentiam. Quare, kvepyeiav suum et peculiarem locum habere dicit ubi agitur de mutatione et motu, eandemque dicit pertinere et tendere (avvreiveiv, arvvTedelcrdai) ad evreXex eLav > P er - fectum rei statum, qui inde conficiatur. Sed licet alterum proprie viam, alterum finem via significet, tamen hsec duo ita inter se coherent, ut facile appareat cur saepis- sime nullo usurpentur discrimine." 526 COMPOUND WORDS. [Book III. X eia (deAnim. II. 4, § 4), and to U *i fa e?»«i ovk l X " ** T ° wpmroT kwT€\ix* L * W (*■*■*!* XIL 8 ) * > ^ImWM Upyeta is the act of that which cannot be otherwise (de Aaim. III. 7); it ifl a kind of motion tending to iwreX^ta, but not attaining to it, except in those cases in which the r&n is the ivepyua itself. Wfl must not overlook the distinction between iuepyaa and «f k, which are also opposed to one another, not, however, as limp* is to evepyeta, for tf« is much nearer to evepyeta than to Ussumh (evcpyeiai) pro m. and re- turn to, the universal action («f«X which ii the origin and end of aU action: thus, a brave action DfO I the habit of bravery («£*, i.e. a^ptm), and bravery i- the- end (t a7t that I :i0W established, INMB the writing ol the philo-op> Barbaras wonH bnffl toofl bfltt i : Being about the meaning of the absurd told bv Crinit nont— | fafl look thr-.u-h Ufl Ar,: kl , VR ■ I iH.tNvith^andin- the NOtflBJ OfJflMflfli fll ^ including ' t> niolo^call;. I sig- nification, totally distinct from the older compoun It is remarkable that Cicero, wko WM Uttl the word was coined by ArUtotle, should have pven I translation of it ID] older word, which he must have met with in his Plato. (Tusemian. ]>L> repeated, p. 443 f) : to ei/oeAep^to? fxeQveiv tlv tj^oviyv eyei ; Diodorus (apud Athenceum, p. 431 d): ei to Trap ckclo-tov evceXeyuis iroTt]piov Triveiu to Xoiirov tovTa<; tov anavTa evdeXe^ta^ ovpavdv. Besides these pas- sages, we have in the Lexicographers the following notices; Bekker. Anecdot. p. 251, 24: — ei/BeAg^eo-Tari/?' cvveyeGTOLTt]*; koli dZiaXeiir- tov; Hesych. : evleXexe?' 7ruk-i/a'£ei, Aa'fcui/e? (where the last word, as Ruhnken observes in the auctarium, belongs to the gloss evleKahiKop) ; ivheXexio-ftos ' ivtuovtj (on which Toup, Vol. IV. p. 260, quotes Jose- phus XI. 4. p. 555 : r\yayov he ko.\ Trjv (TKt]vo7rr]yiav kcit ckcTvov tov kcuooV, — ko» Tou? naXovp-evovs evheXe^ia- /xov/' U, Wm\ >prement, la nom» ami* i nme errt Doiwitbataiidi] \ scholars, bare thought that I UDe. Such *] the opin a living Mholai has ~ h tin ir equivalent mology. Doderletn a-- on the analogy Of lAsVrwj y\a• » '* ll,e 8ense did not guide ni to ■ discrimination between tben tu would. Aristotle himself has binted I ^ag irrekt ytta from rrreX*i and ; v . M oomponnd of «» with en »4H length in distance, but mom freammtly applicable to express length in duration, adverb to signify amply continuance and mngth af time. a ? in Homer, Itiat tftya 6 i lM-ti, "giving there," i.e. at any other place; and similarly with regard to TiOrj-jiii. Now the roots of hStoixi and TiOrjiui are So- and 0e- respectively, and both of them represent a Sanscrit a, for they correspond to the verbs daddmi and dadhdmi. But in each case the root seems to be connected with the person-ending by an intervening a, and 536 THE PERSOX-EXDIN [Book IV. it is then reduplicated to express more vividly the continuity of the action; a custom which we find in the unformed dialects of rude tribes even at the present day. The root co is found with a similar prolongation in cw-po-v, " a '' (-pa-), the case-ending of which implies mere location, and does not, like the person-endings of the verb, mark a particular relative place. As the verb gradually receives its developement, we find that the differences of mood and tense affect the termina- tion! as well as the root; but this is sufficiently intelligible, for of course the OOl uld not receive its completion till the formation of sentences, when the expression of the nomi- native or rabjectire case had become necessary and com: and this, by rendering mm e nd i important, would also make them yield mure readily to the laws of eupl winch required modification! of the termination corresponding to those of the root or body of the word. 348 In treating of the person-endings we must them as the oblique cases of personal pronouns. The number deeigna* or plural, is to be explained in the same manner as the numbers of those positional words. The division of verbs m 'S one of which ex- presses that the action 1 as affecting the speaker or person ipokei 1 the other, as affecting some other person or thing, depends upon a change in the case-endings; the former exhibits that relation of case which wo call the loca- tive, the latter that which is termed the instrumental. But we must | amine the person-en J number and voice, in their appearances as primary or sceonda- thai they appear affected or unaffected by the modifi- cations of tense and mood to which the verb in its full de- velopement m subjected. We shall, tin- primary or simpler them successively as thev appear in the different numbers and voices, and then pro- ceed to the discussion oi lb iary or subo: -rms. Throughout we shall presume a n hapter on the pronouns. Chap. 1.] THE PERSON-ENDINGS. 537 A. PRIMARY FORMS. 349 1st Person Singular. That the conjugation in -you is the original one may be proved from the Greek language alone, without the aid of comparative philo- logy. In the first place, those verbs which in the classical ages of Greek literature were still conjugated in -fit, such as e2/xt, h'thic/ni, Jo-t^/xi, (ptifx'i, &c, all convey the most elementary ideas ever expressed by verbs : " being," " giving," " standing," " saying," &c. They are words which must have existed in the oldest and rudest state of the language, and therefore could not have owed their existence to the observation of analogies which had arisen subsequently to that earlier state. Again, the conjugation in -fxi is departed from only in a few tenses (principally the present and imperfect active) of the ordinary verbs ; the other tenses all retain traces, more or less distinct, of the original form. Thus, though we have tuttto) we have tvtttohcu (which is perfectly analo- gous to lilofxat\ TvirToi-fjn, eTv\i/d-fxr]u, &c. Finally, the change from -fxt to -a) is explicable, and may be supported by orthographical analo- gies; the converse is not. In all languages, we find a tendency to abridge words as far as is consistent with the preservation of their meaning, and in those which exhibit systematic composition we observe a continual conflict for mastery between the body of the word and the suffix. The original verbs were very short and simple, and, even when the person-ending was retained at full length, did not fatigue the voice of the speaker; there was, therefore, no immediate reason for abolishing the person-endings even after they had forfeited their claim to indispensable utility. In other roots, which the neces- sities of language required, the verbal element would be longer, some- times composed of two distinct stems or a stem and a preposition, sometimes of a heavy, hard- sounding stem, with many consonants, or in general the present tense would be strengthened by insertion, whether of guna or anusvara, or by the addition of some pronominal element ; this of itself, on the principle we have mentioned, would in- terfere materially with the termination, which, when it became less necessary, would be dropt altogether. After this custom of dropping the ending in the present tense had become common, new verbs would be formed on the new, rather than on the old system, and so at length the number of verbs in -juw would become comparatively inconsiderable. 350 Supposing -pi to be the original ending of the first person, the most natural method of avoiding an additional syllable, while the meaning of the ending was still retained, would be by keeping only the 538 THE PERSOX-EXDIN [Book IV. consonant and omitting the final short vowel; this plan we find adopted in Latin, though su-rn and inqua-m are the only verb- which exhibit it in the present indicative ; in the other tenses and moods m is the re- gular ending, as in ammkt m i mi, Its omission at the end of the present indicative is perhaps only another instance of that use of the final anustara in Latin, which we have pointed out in treating of the accusative case; for it will be recollected, that the final m is liable to ecthlipsis in verbs a^ well as in nouns- But in Greek -a en: according to the Lawi <.f euphony, stand at the end of a word ; in i ening tin- ending, therefore, in the way we have supposed, the in I iUl K r DAI -truck cut, or resentaiiYe diu4 have been Mil.-tituted for it. We lad both methods adopted. The former is the cnimuMn one fa (ir - apj>ears in the secondary forms, as I- . of m and I aleo o h o ei ied in tl> hat riVT^-fi., not xwir- :ld be tl. btn of rrrrw, in wfatefc hi analogy of the Sanscrit It seems conclude, that, in DM - ^ with a consonant. ith the suffix • a short o or «, especially in forms like rvw-r-m, r S> 9 M , W root is str bv a consonantal addition. As we have suggested above ($ 347), there the mote of M ened ; i. still seen in the third jvcr^on plural in -d«ri (belff " - 1 i r infennce, that t -iduum of some pronominal adjunct ftM • raV-fHS, ■•> s as which, therefore. sd any further corroboration. The long 1 at the end of these barytone verbs is due : le of compensation which we so often find in tie nd other languages. Thus reVrti would stand t • end rv-KTi, for ri - The reader I formation of the comparative-endings -w* from -oi 1 he cases uite different ; in these the verb-root itself is length- ened, as in the nouns tm-pv ->t. XA Upon the who! nclnde, that the first person singular in I i reek. Latin, and Sanscrit, was always designated by m-, in the present indicative o( t' pe. That ?n- was the element of the objective caoun is ob\i,i>. i 'ear enough, that when tin • the •i-ending nub: \ press an agent ; in the action Chap. I.] THE PERSON-ENDIXGS. 539 or doing implied by the root must be set forth as proceeding from him ; this is effected in the flexion-system of the languages we are consider- ing? by putting the name of the agent in the instrumental, ablative, or, what is equivalent in Greek, the genitive case. The strong resemblance which subsists between the instrumental and ablative of the third per- sonal pronoun in Greek, and the termination -tw of the third person imperative active, cannot be overlooked : and it has been remarked by an able philologer {Quarterly Eeview, Vol. LVII. p. 99, note), that " the ancient Latin imperatives, estod, vivitod, and the analogous Veda- imperative, jivatat = vivito, are unequivocally in the ablative form." See also Curtius, Sprachvergl. Beitrage, p. 270 sqq. In all proba- bility, tbe ending mi is merely an abbreviation of the instrumental me — mai, to which it stands related as irep\ does to irapai, whereas the third person of the imperative prefers the stronger inflexion of the ablative in -w[V] = -&>S = -oQe v, a difference of case which does not pro- duce any real difference in the meaning of the pronoun affixed. In- deed, as the instrumental and locative are often used with the same application (§ 246), and as the differences of voice are indicated by the contrast of their distinctive meanings, it would appear more reasonable that the ablative inflexion should have been used throughout the moods as an indication of the active verb. 352 In the middle, however, we should expect to find indications of a locative-case in the personal suffix : for in this voice the action is supposed to end with the agent, as indeed is implied in the name at- mane-padam or " self- form," given to it by the Sanscrit grammarians. That the passive verb, in the languages which we are considering, must have been originally a middle or reflexive verb, is implied in the exist- ence of a first person, if the explanation we have given of the personal suffixes be the correct one, for the person must express that the action begins and ends at the same point. The middle or passive person-endings are distinguished from the active by a greater weight and fulness of form. The first person middle in Greek is -fxai; in Sanscrit it is wanting, but the other persons exhibit a similar alteration by guna of the active person-ending. As the active -mi points to the instrumental me, so -mai must be due to the locative -magi, the person-ending being, in each instance, an abbreviation of the regular case of the pronoun. Thus, if hi-lco-fxt means " a giving effected by me," or " I give," Bt'-Bo-jucu will signify " a giving of which I am the object," i. e. " I give myself," or " I am given," the giver being presumed. The analogy of the secondary form -^v shows that the complete locative affix mai must have been men = mayina ; com- 540 THE PERSON-ENDIN [Book IV. pare er, fro, with el, ul, and the common locative in i with the more original form -*-». The Sanscrit third person imper. mid. tuda-tam may induce DJ to form the same conclusion with regard to the 2nd and 3rd person-endings in -o % while those in a and e are explained by the analogic- pointed out above (§ 263). 363 £xd 1' woiujt The characteristic of the BOoond person in Gn. - - :md this may be considered m ■ shortened f«-rm of --"<'. though it appears consistently in the B Z« n-1. and SdftTOnk), n -in and Ql od of otlp I the connexion of which with the second p< n >• we bra before pointed on< -— *\ I" the hnperatta re as -fli. This ending • the Sai nann will not alh.v, .1 »n be considered ■ teiminntion ; fa the ending, will appear the folhn -^derations, in addition fn.in the analogy of the fTanwiiii Ths two words, in which thh initiation mod fr. QUI Si gnat antiquity. The fin ~ F : In these two instances, then, -I 1 " i* ol.\i.u-lv the termination. SS i? -s\ in tin- in the ." In the second person of the • It naBM th.u Bophodai "rote i>;« in th* 2nd person plural: i A a id* dxo rvv t i ^vy*©*^* Ktu t« W* Chap. I.] THE PERSON-ENDINGS. 541 Latin perfect, we look upon -ti as the person-ending, the preceding s being a representative of Jca = sa = ha, the proper characteristic of that tense. 354 The termination of the second person passive, in the Greek verbs in -pi, is -o-ai, as in rl0€-'.- cannot stand for mas, as J When we r< lleet fthat the idea pf " \A considered m oontarnod in th reonaJ pi shall refrain from ad<»j,; racteristic, namely, by supposing that the final * i? merely the ordinary mark pf thr plural numl»r. If. in-tead <.f th:- r tho last Utter M tht.* I f the second per- ..-. which course allowable, we -hall find I anno with all I phenomena <>f the plural chai ary one which i~ oo n o ai t ont with «»ur d .-. En th \k la- . find the form -ma-si as the I pereon plural < I acti\ lements at full length. In the middle <-i\ or the JEofie - f the first pereon plural of the pa ible represents the element of tin is, as we have shown, one of the form* of the BOOOnd pen I final letter is -■. the old. - the locative 0800, which is neces- sary to the paaem i The Indian languages furnish analogies oonfirmator The characteristic of the San-ori: I lal is r,// : that of the pas- lual an km i. Dote the Aa stand? for the ojoanol i>ereon (B nana*, p. 651). Than, Benearifl ra-Aa - Zend aam rit dv-h\ ■ Zend c sal I Chap. 1.] THE PERSON-ENDINGS. 543 (for -did is one of the forms of the second personal pronoun), and of the Sanscrit -make, -mahai. The forms -mahi, -vahi, maybe com- pared with the less genuine form -/*e0a ; they have all lost the final n, the passive characteristic or locative ending, according to the principle so often explained (§ 114). The full form must have been -/xe-drju, which passed through -fxeQov and -fxedai to -juefla. 358 2nd Person Plural. In Greek the second person plural of the active voice appears in a very mutilated state. It is invariably written -re, or in the dual -tov. We are enabled, however, by the aid of the cognate languages to arrive at its real form. In Latin it is -tis, or -tote. In the perfect, the plural in -s-tis must be explained in the same manner as the singular in -s-ti. In Sanscrit we find -thas as a dual or older form, and -dha as the plural, which is mutilated like the Greek. A comparison of the Greek dual -tov with the Latin plural -tis, and the Sanscrit dual -thas, leads us to conclude that it stands for -to?, as -ywei/ stands for -/*e? in the first person of the plural. We should, however, still be at a loss to explain the ending, were it not for the aid afforded us by the sister languages. It appears from the Sanscrit thas, that the second person dual is made up of a repetition of the second person singular; and this is farther shown by a comparison of the Latin imperative ending -tote = -tca-t<>, with the old Umbrian -tu-to. This view is confirmed by the passive characteristic of the second person plural -(« m in this position, tad - only twice, in h , which, as we shown, in pecuK i Wilh ■" need urn wondei that, when a consonant eaght to stand a-. ; . of a W or«l, in Old ■ sent 8> significant suffix reduced to its conso- nantal uliMiiont. ti mt ehonld - which ei B O M nw o nt thai qnontly appean in the and -to. for -to, - une principle, ture that the third pemon dual, - -<• or *•*■ M ^ 9econd i n-ending is made up of the element of the ■ onal pro- noun twioe repeated, the third ehonld be eo n ot rac tad by a similar repetition o( the thiid pereoo, We meat, then sem- blance of the first and - the dual in the active as well as in the paesrre < ithet prodnced by m analogy. In the | ' « Ihoneooi petition, namely, of the second person singular with a mark of t l u > boat] M in the third person the same - - .to-to-v, namely, a similar repetition of the third penon angular the same mark of the locative case. This may seem wonderful.- hapa, at fin* Bight, hardly credible— hut it it the only n : lain- mg the fact, and etymoiogieallj ipeakiag there ii nothing Ognjl The Sanscrit pteoenta the two character^: rm in whi can more easily reoogmae the distinction of persons. In the second person dual ia -.'/,.*-.* (for -Oa-nie or -Os- (f or a the passive, the second person d h&-m (for Chap. 1.] THE PERSON-ENDINGS. 545 -thd-thd- with a locative ending); the third, d-td-m or d-te (for td-td with a locative ending). 360 The genuine form of the third person plural of the Greek active verb in -fxi is -vn, which is still found in Doric remains (Butt- mann, Ausfuhrl. Sprl. § 107, Anm. 7, note), and all verbs give -i/tcu in the middle or passive. The Boeotians wrote -vdi for -vn (Bb'ckh, Corp. Inscript. I. n. 1569 a. III). This is an approximation to the ordinary Greek, in which the termination is - \ v \ nn in -ntur deserves a special discussion. Dr l'richard [BatUm >-, p. 134, foil.) first called attention to the connexion - twees the "WYlsh pronoun kmyni l ' tiny" (written y/'' led as a suffix) and the Welsh characteristioi of the third person plural, -ewi, -ent, or -ynL He doet Hot appear. ho\vr\rr, t<» ha\ If of the relation which rabeitti between the pronoun hirynt and these suffixes in Welsh. The hot is, i that then uses of nt nderednsi reduplication of the third pronominal element It is (i)a BgD of the ncnter plural ( .:id M Mirh appears in /nry-nt ; ( V J) an objeotil nid a- SHOO aj.ji.ar- in the j (:>) i do i n ona tia tiTO, a< in the third ponsoa plural of verbs. In this la-t u>r, Mr C.irn-tt [Qmmi 100) oonriden it analogous to the Bethoenan nesrf*=i7/i, and d< ri\ iihination of the demonstrative roots mi + • have ali.ady; of the bffBMI hi piM the* M .! - — M in the Finnish di Tali MM "that f (irevk i '•her,"' M thnii ;'* SoSBOOt are. dual. dat. ii.ii/ti ; Tliir. San-rr. aim-. /end no; Latin not; Welsh 1' NVe have before stated our belief thai all these b*Ye aril an obscurer pronunciation of the demonstrative t. That :\ standi fai tin- / in the person-endings is shown by tha sat nna tTinr-rc-r for «VinrT/>/,. /■■ /•••■ ''• i- p. I-"" tih ' awk,# **' lMe fine! r being u I *■ n 1" of the oomplem m B ; ; 688) doubt- erhetem so adopt th ee that there is e thesm ef Ifce i ndin_r. so that eeeeeni standi hi "/»'*-• " am ral objections n wis mo II 11 ehsmld Mpnnsj that tise final /• of the imaginary amatir could be | a u, „ M | men, ^bich would leave the | ; unexplained. In the lir-t pl.t cultv in the <-'a.>>e of tie- en »und consistently in the imperative and • •ciierally in the eUinne moods and tenses, even in the bsmwrm merely the mai rson, the moead p ir --u- in qneetmi SI rms. Again, it will be recollected, that in tie f the Greek and Latin verb the ,,f the in, mi the others, in the absence of any sign of person, not in the want of any other characteri>t we have tvttt€, a ma, &c The prim same as that which has Boned an omission of the nominative si^n in the vocative nam (above, § 858). Analogy « . the -x, which ■ omitted in amar. . SI the sign of the second person, and I mark of the passive voice. T emains, is identical with the intinitive active. Now the infinitive and imrnr have other point-* of re-emblance in regard t<» form, as we shall see in a future chapter ; ttwfl vatym, the second person singular first aorist im- perative middle, might be thought the same word as t. first ■nrist hsfnitil known to even* reader I that the intinitive i- often omd for the imperative. The 1-atin int in -/■< corresponds, as we shall show more at length h M the Jfiellfl infinitive in -.>t^-r the gode, and not to 1 baa renounoed all i nte rco u rse of deahngi with the odious race of h ci.lt-." Although we do not befiere thai the participle in -utvo* is used as a primary pfedioatfl without the oopida, we are aware that with other participles this construction i- not uncommon (see JEschyl. B9, 515, ed Klau-mV And we need n I our- Belret to find Greek ii menon which is one of the moat singular features of the Latin language. The best syntactical ana- fof Bopp'fl explanation of the second person plural passive in Latin, is one which he ha- pointed out in the Sanscrit language. There is a periphrastic future in thai language, <>f which the third person, singular, dual, and plural, appear- thing else than the nominative mascu- line of a participle ha\ ing a future sense and formed by the suffix tri. In the nominative ca-c -insular of this participle the r is left out and a long tvu l>\tatma$ ft D /' Ma 8 In the tir- ns the participle and verb are sometimes separated by the intervention of other words, as in: lle which could be joined with I b to form a person of rrvAf*. Accordingly | rather that the plural endings ctvttto-v, eT*0c-raJ> pen originally the HMj tlian that different. And this we think po--il.]o. If we compare the MNM ending of the third pemon plural in the present tense, namely -aars befor S ipposing then that the original forms of th perfect in and witto-vt^ which may be inferred fron middle, we have only to inquire what abbreviations would meet bablv result from the greater weight of the form. The existing X-twwtov lead- u- I =€Ti6t]v; and as this would be identical with angular, the analogy i>\' jjou a-*, bed by the -itt«t«, shows to • an extent this secondary process might be carried. 1 ab/ui-n by the side of .' - have been tin inflexion. Of the other persou-endin_ -t and second dual and Chap. 1.] THE PERSON- ENDINGS. 553 plural do not differ from the primary passive forms. The third dual is, as we have mentioned, -o-Orjv instead of -7, oat, &c. (corresponding to the first person singular passive) ; /xe'i/ (corresponding to the first person plural active, though the final letter is of different origin) ; fxtjv (corresponding to the first person sin- gular passive, secondary form). For the change of Augment and reduplication are not identical. The aug- ment t- from dva expresses distance. 3/1 The future 7.\ How the aorist combines the expression of posteriority with that of past time. 37 I Tin 2nd aorist. 375 The desiderative in -s. i;al formation of passive futures. 386 Tenses in -n< an infinitive in Zend, and one of the three \ . rl.- it | u I was," MMn m I have been," and chakara "I have made:" thai from the root iq " to rule." we have the abstract substantive /a/, ■OOOMtrte i >'im, and 1 -:tmn with the p er fec ts of as-, hkAy and // rmed the perfects ifam-asa, all signifying " I ruled" I Bopp, t (>'/•>//////). p. 889)* These compounds might !>»■ divided, as is often the with tin- former. To a oortnm i truth of Hop])'- theory in its ipptiootioi t«» the Latin tenses in -l>o, -Uim, and -ri (- | we hare eleewhere pointed out an agglutination running through all the tenses of the Latin \. , -siri (FflTT re are also in- stances of auxiliary or peri] nnatioiis in (Jreek, of whiofc shall speak hereafter, but they are all listinotij developed verb-, and therefore furui-li no analogy : support of Bopp's theory. In •_■ h.t.iI. ips li.ivr M it to presume a composition in etymology when the elements I -t separately, than we have to infer an ellipsis in syntax, when the supposed full er occurs. 309 Hut perhaps the greatest objection to this comprehension theory of agglutination, ari-es from its contradiction to a mo<: developing the tenses natural in itself and supported by BIU1I analogy of comparative grammar. In the verb, as well as in the i is a wide distinction between compound words and those which are merely developements of a root by means of pronominal additions. In | ing (Hit the analogy l>etween the verb and the noun, we have me n tioned that the person-endings in their modifications correspond to the cases. We are oonvinced that the differences of tense and mood, and, in some instances, of voiee, were originally expressed by pronominal adjuncts, the same in kind with those whi< :he affixes be- tween the root and ease-endi: un. Therx^ MO in fact I in which the crude-form of a word, whether it be a noun or a verb, may be affected. It may either be affected internally, that is. by rvdu- Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 559 plication, guna, or anusvdra, or externally, by means of some prefix or affix. The first method is adopted in the two primary tenses, the present and perfect, as will be shown in the chapter on the conjuga- tions. The second is applied to the formation of all the other moods and tenses, and, in some cases, also to the expression of the passive voice. This external pronominal affection is brought about in two ways ; first, by a simple prefix of the demonstrative element a, or e, called the augment : secondly, by an affix which is always some modi- fication of the second pronominal element: thus we have aorists and futures under the form sa ; perfects under the form ka y or ha; the optative mood under the form ya; the passive voice under the form ya or thy a; and sometimes two forms of the same element are combined, as in the iterative s-kd, and, according to one view, in the desiderative s-ya, and the aorist th-ya just mentioned. In a subsequent chapter we shall refer to the same root the derivative affixes in -tja = dya, and -e'w, &c. = ya. We begin with the augment. 370 In the Greek system of tenses, past time is denoted by a short € prefixed to the verb or, apparently, by a reduplication of the first consonant and root-vowel, which, however, is generally altered according to certain rules. Buttmann is inclined to consider the latter as the original characteristic of past time, the former being a mutila- tion of it (Ausfiihrl. Sprl. § 82, 3 note). Even though we had no other objection to offer to this view, we should consider Bopp's argu- ment fatal to it. The historical tenses in the Sanscrit verb are marked by an augment a : the perfect, in the same way as the Greek, by reduplication : but, as Bopp remarks {Annals of Oriental Literature, p. 41), " the Sanscrit augment has no connexion at all with the redupli- cation, because the redoubled consonant is generally articulated by the vowel of the root ; tup forming tutup-, and lif, lilig ; now, if the first preterit of these roots were utopat, ile$at, instead of atopat, ale$at, then it might be said that there exists some connexion between the redu- plication and the augment, when there also would be a mere inflexion, whilst, in its actual state, I consider it as an affix which had its proper signification." There are, however, other reasons for believing that the augment and reduplication are essentially different. Besides the repe- tition of the initial consonant with e to form a perfect, there is another reduplication, frequently found in verbs in -/**, of the initial consonant with a short t to form the present and imperfect. Thus we have t*» 6rj-iii in the present, and re-Oei-Ka in the perfect. We believe there is no essential difference between these two prefixes: the difference of tense is expressed by the suffix - defi- niteiu-s of huality presumed by oM reader them unsuitable for th I of futur bl looking back pgjl H -tion. i oaaaaaaa, fix ha position, or regard it with a subordinate idea of distance- goaa in look! indefinite and 000*000*, though peril.. ■ *U cases with a sentiment of proximity or approach— the h is OOBI- M pronominai root, in the former case, is used as a prefix, and the accent is drawn back on it to IBBBB0I time ret - jOOl b v . ersely future time is O^RN striking ana! '»d in tin " Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 561 of two syllables, which throw their accent backwards or forwards, according as the noun to which they refer precedes or follows. We observe something very similar in the shifting of the accent in common conversation. It is scarcely necessary to refer to the argument for the difference of the augment and reduplication which is afforded by the augmentation of the reduplicated perfect to form the plusquamper- fectum. 371 The addition of the letter -, in- dicating conjunction. We find this illustrated by the phraseology of the best authors. Thus, ol avudev, or eVaVtoflei/, are those of former times (Theocr. VII. 5), but to e^d^ei/ov ?to? (Thucyd. VI. 3), " the adjoining year," means the year which follows. In certain cases the letter -o-- is not immediately joined to the root, but a short vowel e intervenes, just as we have both liebete and liebte in German, both charmed and charm'd in English, or, to take a still more striking analogy from our own language, just as the e is regu- larly sounded in some participles, and as regularly dropt in others. Of this common future in -, there are two leading modifications in Greek ; they are called by grammarians the Attic future, and the second future. The distinction between these two futures, which both end in -w in the Attic dialect, consists in this, that, whereas in the Attic future in -eo, -u> ; -aw, -w ; the e or a belongs to the root, — in the second future the e included in the a? is added to the root : and that in the verbs which form the future in -*&> for -icrto the characteristic of the verb is dropt ; whereas the second future keeps' its characteristic unal- tered. The second future is the regular form for verbs ending in A, ^ 1/, p. It is to be observed that the Ionians used the uncontracted form in -60) instead of the Attic future, and that in Homer we have such futures as epvw, n-avvm for epvo-uy, tcxvvo-u). In general, we may say of the two shortened futures, that they are abbreviations, the Attic future of a future in -o-w, the second future of a future in -e'-, the «•»»*•» ( C f. TVTTTmicQa, tvtttoucOov) T»lrm - t, ;rifea«to0if» stands id ssimpei hall show, in the foUowing chapter, that the ssms ret • wen the future and the sorisl wsstal Bornoaf, in hii MOod ,rom a oompsrisoo with the I nndsring thesnhy _ md, and ■ suf- aciently, if si sll, sttsaded so by (hose whn hare written ws shall gise bk illnsti HediTida and tin- sbc ... l.u-v. The principal ssbsss an-, (l) the present, (2) the tutu , ISOOsJbrj imperfect, (2) the aorist, ana I S) the pine-perl sf wttsh ■ faransd frees the cor- , n ary tense. The following mrestigstioa of the Fi rerfa /;,-,■ ahowi - ,c primary and the : — I. Principal tenses, which expresi that the set ' • the time of ipeski (!) Pre* - u I am reading, !•*■* mo- ment. («) Fntnre,> foot, "1 shall raid," '•'■ * " ding the pre- nt. (;n Perfect, ;"« At, "1 I •" »•«■ at »° ni0 1 ceding the present moment. The whole duration o( time ifl thin divided into thr present, which is fixed, so that if 3 -." »o °ne will ask von "whan? - —snd the future and perfect. which are hxed relatively to the present Forthessf read" would eonvev a elear and intelligible idea, even t should answer! M I do not know,- or - I do sol rassenaU 1 tion -when will vou read . : " or -when ha. these primary tenses enable sn to see at earn bs which uaikiusJ Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 563 time, — present, future, or past, — the act relates, and are therefore ab- solute and independent, and express only a simple relation to one of the three points of time. II. Secondary tenses, which imply a relation to some point of time other than the present. (1) Imperfect,^ lisais, "I was reading." (2) Aorist, je lus, " I read." (3) Plus-perfect, f avals lu, " I had read." All these assertions suggest the question "when?" and if you would have your hearer understand you, the precise point of time, when you were reading, or read, or had read, must be stated. Accordingly, not being determined by themselves, they require some additional state- ment to fix their meaning ; and thus they express a double relation or two relations, (l) to the past, generally, and this is determined by the forms themselves; (2) to some fixed point in the past. The primary tenses, therefore, may be called definite {determine) ; the secondary, in- definite or half-definite (indetermine or semi-determine). The former express only one relation, and this relation is determined by their form ; the latter, two relations, of which the form determines only one. DEFINITE TENSES. The present expresses simultaneity | ^ ^ ^ ^ rf The future posteriority > J , , ™, - .... I speaking. The perfect anteriority ; * INDEFINITE TENSES- The imperfect expresses simultaneity — je lisais 'pendant que vous ecrivicz. The aorist expresses posteriority — je lus apres que vous eutes fini d'ecrire. The plus-perfect expresses anteriority— j'avais lus avant que vous eussiez ecrit. Now all these tenses express anteriority alone, in regard to the time of speaking. The relation, in which they differ from one another, is the only one expressed by the definite tenses. It is, therefore, by a natural analogy that, in the Greek language, the imperfect is derived from the present, the aorist from the future, and plus-perfect from the perfect, by prefixing the augment, which is the mark of past time, to these tenses, which in themselves denote simultaneity, posteriority, and anteriority. Oo2 564 THE TENSES. [Book IV. 373 This view of the case will contribute materially to the bd understanding of the whole system of moods and senses in GfSsk. * e have seen, from what Burnonf says that all three of the tenses which express a double relation may be called oopi*™, or indefinite. But -econd of them, which is formed from the future, is peculiarly so, from the mixture of pest and future time implied in it. and therefore the (J reek grammarian- have particularly j OsM it bj ' Thus we find it used in MM wb ,,f *■ Lodefimte tenses, thongfa sever, r. ■»*• ten * l toted from Xeaophon by Burnouf (§ 357), ss ce of it. dm fix Umj pert ■* <*"*> or » n P lirt P°f toriority in Id l"» i,lt of time: rw* *n«™p<»* «" mw « -r KM ypa\}sarrc*, a\ and in Pindar, to desoribe a ; . at the public games (see Diseen, ,„/ /*;,../. ;,. Thucy.l. 111. s. V. w, and A j uu , I ; 10 bum j| le in the inscriptions on wor art , /-..,.. .here IMiny ,//. X I. M pfSS a >p*cial explanation of the phrase, and refers it to the modesty or cauUon of the arti- 374 The second aorist, as it is called, bears precisely th e same relation to the second future : thus we have second future ,Sa\». second aori i««, the latter for Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 565 ifidxeov, as appears from the infinitive (3a\e?v (in Ionic fiaXeeiv), and the participle fia\ov'\//a> is formed the desiderative Ti^euo, to which again the form Tin//eia stands as imperfect; it is generally considered as an optative aorist, and the desire or wish conveyed by it has deprived it of all actual reference to the past, and therefore of its augment. Besides this, the formation of a new present tense from some past or future tense of a verb is one of the commonest phenomena in the Greek language: thus we have from the aorist ri, and from the perfect TedvrjKa the new present Te01/>/KW, &c. 376 The Greek grammarians acknowledge a first and second per- fect as well as a first and second aorist. The first perfect is thus dis- tinguished. When the final letter of the root of the verb is (3, tt, , or 7» K ? Xi tnis consonant either becomes aspirated or remains so. In all other cases the characteristic of the first perfect is -ku. The second 566 THE Tl [Book IV. perfect, though it occasionally admits of alterations of the root, prin- cipally by guna, adds nothing but -a, -ac, -c, as a termination. Some scholars think that the second perfect must be considered as older and more organic than that called the first, U it i- formed out of the resources of the root itself without foreign additions, and corresponds exactly to the proper perfects in Latin and . and to the p< l of the first six of tin.- :ijugations in old I an. We entertain Dg doubts as to the truth of this assertion. The second perfect matt be a mutilated form, for the post time iinpli this tense could not fed by tie- rodnplioation alone. When we compare the aoriste SoVca, tew™, with 1 1 »« * perf ! ?■<■, we perceive the only real difference to be that the aorieti I the perfects reduplication. And if \ " I ' i' I' I ' , fi >vc scc that the termination it simp]? hi. Thai -.-ha)' ■ ' serit r in ino>! i also been shown how the -<»ft sound of * i* often en h e titnt ed for the hard k. Of tin- inbetitution of h both for k and s it is unncces^r ■poaV :>77 It appears then prol Usa- alone, that the tennis tical. The analog] The Latin con, ineomplet neans past time by . l>s have a proper redupli* i from (■■!!>>. /•s mutilated in spending I Another perfect, so called. •■■ Iiich ifl never reduplicated, and therei' to the nai It lfl true that the t of the other perfects (->', - /7//r'\ and it would be easy to say this is a form of the perfect which ha- duplication, just M tense in Latin has alwaj that we have a future in -etm, S tense in -st, furnishes a sufficient reason for believing that the latter was an indefinite tense or aorisi We shall s .tie this - Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 567 tion completely without examining the inflexions of the real or redu- plicated perfect. The most undoubted and ancient form of this tense is furnished by the Yeibfuio (Gr. 0u/w), which appears both as^o and fuo (Gr. Gr. Art. 327). The latter, stiU farther shortened into bo, fur- nishes the usual future of all vowel verbs; thus ama-bo = ama-fuo, &c; its imperfect, originally e-fuam, under the form e-bam, appears as the adjunct to the imperfect of all verbs, not excluding^ itself in the later condition of the language ; and its perfect fuvi =fufui, under the weak- ened foimfui or ui or vi, furnishes a perfect to all verbs ending in a vowel ; thus amavi = ama-fui, &c. (see Bopp, Vergl. Gramm. p. 804. Varron. p. 253, sqq.). Now asfufui may be properly compared with Trecpvua, as i is the regular exponent of guttural vocalization, as the guttural, before it subsides into i, is generally softened into s and h, and as we find s, k, and h in the aorist and perfect of Greek verbs, we have abundant reason to believe t\\&t fufui stands for fufusa, which is again an offspring otfufuka. If then we restore the regular inflexions of the assumed fufusa we shall get: fufusa-[ni~\ =fufuis =fufui fufusa-tha =fufu is- 1 i fufusa -t =fufui-s-t —fufuit fufusa-mus = fufui-s-mus =fufuimus fufusa-tis =fufuis-tis fufusa-nt =fufue-s-nt =fufueriint If we admit this transposition and substitution, which seem to be justi- fied by general principles and by the analogy of the French change of I through ul into m, we must apply the same explanation to all regular perfects. Thus tutud'i stands for tutudis = tutudsa, &c. But it is ma- nifest that the forms in -si contain something more than a mere s. According to the principle stated above (§ 372), the future in -sim must be antecedent to the tense in -si, supposing that this latter is an aorist. Now if we compare fac-sim, for example, with sim = siem (Varron. p. 248), we shall feel justified in concluding that fac-sim- fac-sicm is analogous to the desideratives in -o-efw, and that dic-si, for example, corresponds rather to le'^eia than to elei^a. The early loss of the primitive system of augments and reduplications in the Latin language, has introduced a mode of extending the affix or person-end- ings, which we shall see also in the later Greek imperative. We regard this as springing from a false sense of analogy : for the affix s- does not denote past time but future. We must not, however, forget that these subsequent extensions invariably presume a neglect or ignorance of the original significance of formative elements ; consequently, that the pro- 5G8 THE TENSES. [Book IV. cedure is entirely conventional and arbitrary. In point of fact, there is no more difficulty in understanding the transition of into dian, durirti, S,c. than in teeing the reasons fat the change of the active Tvme-T-w into the passive TVTrTe-crO-ta, on the an;. i-jr-rf- T-of, TviTTe-a-d-ov. On the whole, then, we may fairly conclude that the suffix of the future, eoriot, and peHeet,M well iii - in I^atin, is the seme, bang alwaji seam a presentaar?o of the second pron that in the ca-e where tlii- ri-tic appears to be lei past into // or i ; and that while the (Ireek distinguishes the aorist and period from tin- future by augment <>r n duplication, in Latin the pro- per distinction ha- beeo looij the only differences which remain being accidental an) w«»uld naturally \tc referred. We are led, b o wafer , by the result of khii investigate a epeeia] inq^riiy re ep ee ti ng the original form of the yhi*quamperftetum. standi fa i " '«. In the other persons we gene- rally find M*. Ai mmed in form I as this generally implies an in- clude \%e may ooncluoV that the root ••■ is strengthened in the present and iinju rfeet by this pronominal addition. \ tquamptrfict UM sly find ri other persons also end u - u ; so tl. for t i T-o-f-o-n, ami i for then the « would he inexplicable. The same conclusion would be deduced from the form which is found in in- Now as we should i that the jlnsqmmmperfWtiim would differ from the perfed only in the augment ] the double addition o( the fatal ~: affix as the result of a and abnormal analogy. The Latin verb, 1 ws us the possibility of snob a procedure. If we compare fu'% =f u mm m with ///«';wm =[/]/"«"*«". we shall recognise the last faint tmOBS of the legitimate formation: and we so the same regularity in the Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 569 inflexions of these verbs which form their perfect and plusquamper- fectum with the aid of these tenses. Here, however, the parallelism of the definite and indefinite tenses terminates, and even in the substantive verb the transitions are effected by accretions of the affix : thus from fuerim =/uesiem we have fuissem =/uesesiem ; and in the verbs which have the aorist-perfect in -si, the same abnormal formation is found even in the indicative ; thus from rexi we have plusquamperf. reaeram = reg-se-sam and rexerim = reg-se-siem, which is again lengthened into rexissem = reg-si-se-siem. From this use of the element s- to transfer the definite tense into the corresponding indefinite, it might seem that the same suffix is employed to indicate both future and past time : but this is not exactly the case. In the formation of the aorist from the future, it was intended to express posteriority in relation to some past event (above, § 372), and we observe that this suffix is never used by itself to signify past time in Greek ; this is always done by the augment. The want of an augment in Latin, and the gradual loss of a regular future by the substitution for it of a con- junctive, gave this termination the improper influence which it exerts in that language. 379 The form which some of the tenses present in the Greek passive has occasioned difficulties which no philologer has hitherto been able to surmount. We conceive that the general principles which we have laid down at the beginning of this chapter will afford a satisfac- tory explanation of these troublesome phenomena. It has been men- tioned, that in Sanscrit there are two forms of verbs, considered accord- ing to their person-endings ; the one is called parasmaipadam, or transitive, and has endings in the instrumental case ; the other, called atmanepadam, is middle or deponent, and has endings in the locative case. The passive voice is formed from the atmanepadam, by inserting the pronominal syllable ya between the root and the ending. Now we find that, in Greek, the present tense of the atmanepadam is used as a passive and also as a middle, and the passive forms of the other tenses generally bear the same relation to the active forms that we find in the present passive or middle, as compared with the same tense in the active ; the difference, namely, is only in the ending. In the perfect and plusquamperfectum the characteristic rvy£a-Qi), which we should expect as the passive aorist, is never strictly passive, except in those cases where the reflexive and passive significations are interchanged or 570 THE TENS! [Book IV. become commutable*. The forms actuall- 0t,v for tuh-toV jr), or by an addition to the root of the aerial Mp, OB the Mipposed analogy of the < inline ,,',/;-/.' khi f ,rin. r of thOM BXplai U in.li: a former H-'l'l' pr.-pox-.l | • oonjeotnro, whioh may be driven, JIc mppoe ,oce ^ from the pnaaifa pnrtkij ' iC kamai" lKlti. : ■ tue syllable tm,! 1 -. with the active partici; > be a passive pnrticiplol And how dom it hnppon tin- ■ explicable, and l„ Gact, Una explanation u\U u •m form (1 f _, ! IVrha] 111) i« more abnnrd than any of thcee, Ho myi that 1mm k en imperfect of ^ m OOnjnf »ne of the conjugation in -,w, a> if the distino- llon | | i„ -a- il lid in any ;*iise I nd to i di That tlo : lomonl in I u c inatremed to admit Bzplain Mwm oiherwiee than as a mm i *fl»*% pi Bopp, who eoMJdnwi it as i oomponnd frith the aobetni verb >)> (VocaUm Tkm m ion of the second aorist passive hna fed n ommoneot verba. To take one of tin ■ • root .-to, which meoiM M l »n transitive future and ibriy km -Tam- • The future middle i< often passive (MOM id in »wm ca«ea •#• y. PiixL p^g iori*t apparently » used. 1 Interchange of ti d addlta U nence* hare been sen: - r.ittinann. / IB, Stadelmann, de indole ti utu .Vedii. p- 1. rip. y/.>/»«./ mi o, Chap. 2 ] THE TENSES. 571 mar we find in the paradigm of the active voice an aorist and perfect €, which stands for ededtjv (one of the aspirates being necessarily abolished, and the second retained in preference to the first, in consequence of the importance of the termina- tion), corresponds to the other aorist ean-ddriv ; and ea-rrjv, a-Ttjaofjiai ; ea-rctdtjv^ , o-Tadtjaofjiai, in the passive paradigm. We find other instances of a loss of the second aorist, and we must determine from the meaning and the form in the plural and other moods, whether the active or the passive aorist is the one wanting. Thus edwv is not only active in signification, but we see from eho/xev, So'?, lov$, &c, that the form contains no foreign element ; whereas when we find (pvw (0i//uu), 'pvau), €(pvaa, active; but e(pvv, 7re'0uk-a, passive: Ivco, BJo-fi), ecvcra, active; tcW, eecvua, passive: afievvv/M, o-/3eectiv« ly. Tlie Latin language affords us an excellent example of the way in which this pronominal formation can give a DMRTC MOM without the addition of an atmantpadam affix. It seems that in Latin the contracted verb* in -ao agree in their uses with the Greek in -eu», and those in -co with the Greek in -am or -ym. The nou in -co was, as we shall see, that which was always adopted in forming mpound nouns; thus, iCep-rcrrt* made M was the caM with the Lnfthl verb* in -ao : tl, u - from Again, we find that many active v. rl- in Latin, cither nn or contracted in passive ptmji ve $cand*re, paasi I pamdH^ passive ; active >,Vvr«, passive /far analogous to 7ni IV. - ,; . Bmmmm p. xv.). S Til I rid in -tV is easily explain- . I: n tains the element in the 1 n c 5 .. Wm mijht say then that the form in i was the ultimate -tate of that in t/,i. jntl M n*rf = sn W i stand- for mm for there is no reason, etymologicalljr speaking, why r\ and • should not be considered as identical, any more than t nguishing * ecu the noun-endings -, vepe-dia, 6a\e-6u), (pae-du), (p6iuv-6io, Sec. Besides these we have, but always in the past tense, such forms as eltwKadov from Iiukw, &c, with regard to which a question has been raised, whether they are aorists or imperfects (Elmsley, ad Eurip. Med. 186. Pierson, Moeris, p. 118. Ruhnken, Thncvus, p. 87. Hermann, ad Soph. (Ed. Col.l6l9) : we are quite sure, as well from the meaning as from the analogy of the presents in -0a>, that they are all imperfects of lost verbs in -6*a<, - nave an expression of locality added to that of instrumentality signified by the case of the person-ending. In I becomes equal to -w. 3f{.', I- j i of < HM poooftle that the pronominal element 0- may be connected with tin- : but to (Imagine, with •, that any tci - — • —is added M root or crude-form of r*e the natural -hcs of 1 a of locat connected with that can easily conceive that the - Terh as well ss to the in q the pooMVO iniiniti\c. It has been mentions that T,-tV«< - ' * ll, •" quentlv, t in the simple element \ and v>: <*ui =dad6mi, we most . -dadhanu. We also discern the simple element in something great to do ;" compare the lir-t oyHlblo erith <*, mapnms, fial ( Hesych.), mmctt, Sanscrit ma A at, tn thieoj in fowo" (*fp« longer form with a kind of passive sense b Snaoorid sea, Latin ee#-*u), and in «'.t-( j .u> re we find the loc as in tin l passive. That this last has for its future ftopai, clearly nn, w«.nld of itself bo some proof that the word is not < onsiderations add much i4that tike cognate word srf-ssi has only the futur- turesare, as we shall show in the fol- bwing ohaptei ke 6tU>ficn for r\ ■f wm, as well as «V- leponenl worn ; in other words, that although the action may peso the agent being considered as the • dited. he i- OpoksO] of in the locative and BOI in tin? instru- mental ceen. - reason we find that all Terbs in Greek and Latin, whieh. >s an action, confine the henffiw .jent, are i r deponent in form, and, for the same ieas< reeks use the i xpreoo that a person at the cause, of an action. This the middl oeot one of ev*or, -jmlo^o* (as opposed to - ; contpicari, imturri, o*/x>v. ; of rds implyi 1« motions, as mirari, rvrrrt, Ux: Chap. 2.] THE TENSES. 575 384 In Greek we find certain words of this class with the present tense of an active, but the future of a deponent form ; thus dnovta makes ctKovcrofxat ; dav/jLaty^ davfxdaofxai ; 6vt] = icr-iia = eor-io-fxi, we find in constant use € m'ifonnerai ; dtxapTtjvopai, je me tromperai ; o<>co- gofica. : virovcdaonai, je mctadierai a ; &c. 385 It is remarkable that the passive futures formed from the aorists in -tjv and -Qtjv, have person-endings of the middle form. It is an irregularity that they should be formed from the aorists at all, and we can only explain it on the supposition that they were first con- structed when the future middle, as it is called, which is often used in a passive sense (Monk on Eurip. Hippolyt. 1458, above, § 379), was appropriated to the active verb, and another passive future was necessary {Journal of Education, IV. p. 158); at all events, they must be con- sidered as subsequent to the other forms of the future. 386 Another instance of the formation of a tense by the addition of a suffix used to form a set of verbs, is furnished by the iterative tenses in -\$/a ntknt times a m omental/ action Ttr pu'/tava — TCM M M H CT CM Ta £i*Aa raira awatp(€*<£»/ Vu I The a tives occur very seldom, and thona from tin- tir-t nnriot are never fuuud in |>ro*e. There in one bmtel III. 17) where the word uplta^ is used as an Unpnribot, bnt, as lluttmaun remark- lnuation in tims is implied, there is nt.il ' o of ropetitioa in //•! e a sufficient similarity of mcani: | justify us in the befinf thai both formations owe their the name ; although the original ra< the ending seems in the case of the Vntha in --tj-(TKU), dpe-, „„,/ ,nfim(,rr. The forn.cr d.tm^ished by it. y *S> only. «! Acdw pmnvcDdisfi oftho Omoo irn] end,.,-. .|i.| San.ri. to] ' ■ ~ek infinitive. « Lalin .inhnittTM. 107 Bonooil iniink. '*"" thc *mpormiWe and inbn.uvc. medaUl Ml 'he fabc analogy which led to the pasaire farm. O/ the in 111 The three .: • the mhnuiye active are the locate - I. M Th« <"« k intiniti " P" 11 ^ *" "j* US(l)/>oHU 414 I effect par pl, s . ,, : the present participle. 4I( and panic.ple. Low JeUted 117 \! .tives and participles. 418 Teutonic infinitive-* declinable pvtldplc. 119 J runds and supines. ; -ed abaolutely toOtook, Loda and Bom H. ... ... KM 111. Litin verb, /tmoV. 388 riMli: distinctions of mood and tens. M rather X to the mtthodk ul language of syntax than to a essential variolic in tl.. mood is merely the ind» ■ peculiar affection oi person-endings, and the infinitive ■ meiv! form o( the participle, which again is an adjective the third person plural o\' tl, I indicate , spring* from the genith conjunctive and op* though ' Grmmmars to dam (hen rtind moods, hai their own. it hai kmg been fell bj grounds, that, considered in theii to the other moods, they nuw I differing only. It has also been conjunctive ad to the primary forms, or those of the primary tenses, while the pen *-endinga of the optative always agree with the secondary forms. of the historical tenses Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 579 (Buttmann, Ausfuhrl. Sprl. $ 88, 3, 4). A more exact etymo- logical and syntactical examination of the whole question will show clearly, that, in the oldest form of the language, these moods have no right to a separate classification, and at the same time enable us to point out the real connexion between them. 389 (1) Conjunctive and Optative. The form, which the conjunctive generally presents, differs from the indicative in the following points. Where the indicative has w, ou, o, the conjunctive has w; where the indicative has e, et, y, the conjunc- tive has rj, y : the a of the first and second persons of the first aorist, active and middle, become w and rj respectively. There is no reason to believe that there is any more essential difference between the to and »/ of the conjunctive, than there is between the o and e of the indicative ; as the two latter represent the short a in Sanscrit, the two former may be considered as substitutes for the long a, which is the characteristic of the Let or conjunctive mood in the Veda- dialect; and in every case we must conclude that an original t- or vocalized o-- is absorbed, or more or less imperfectly represented by this long vowel. This a is found in the conjunctive of the Doric dialect : for instance, we have lo-avn {Corpus Inscript. Vol. II. p. 641, no. 3053); eVto-rai/Tt {ib. p. 413, no. 2556, 1. 68); cparai (Pindar, Pytli. IV. 92 = 164); /3<^enai, or wAewro/icu from 7rAc'F(o : whereat we hare also vXam i would beaeaffi- cient Optative from rauui, but we have also ti/j*>»/»" 890 The char which firms a diphthong with the oonn wel: to thia the long rowel »; is occasionally subjoined. 1 1 f the secondary form, with ption of the first person, whieh is generally - that the shorter Bonn in h was bete, at in the bnperatct, occasi< snbstitnted for it. in those cases win- re the ton of tbi regularly ended like the indkatire ; thus* let: a•»>, f 1 will not attirm that this is the prin mo a n i ng of the root /, and tl anmaihai -it reason Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 581 for putting Kanti at the head of their explanations, but certain it is, that imas has, among other significations, that of we desire or wish. Now it is remarkable, that the sense expressed in Sanscrit, and the languages here compared with it, by a syllable, signifying desire, incor- porated into the verb, is in English, and often in German also, expressed by detached auxiliary verbs, having the primary signification of wishing (In Notker we read, i" mahta baldur weinon — vellem vehementer plorare). The German mogen has frequently this signification, and the English may is of the same origin, derived from the Saxon magan, in Gothic likewise magan." We have already said, that in our opinion the theory of agglutination, which Bopp has introduced, must be received with great caution and subject to many limitations. The inflexions of verbs may and do take place in the same way as the modifications of nouns ; namely, by pronominal insertion between the root and the person-ending in verbs, and between the root and case-end- ing in nouns. Of the pronominal elements which may be so inserted, there is no one more common than -ia, Sanscrit ya, corresponding to the second pronoun or the relative form. We know that the s, which characterizes the future and aorist, may degenerate into i, and we have had no difficulty in identifying this s with the second element. As then we shall see that the conjunctive and optative are virtually related as future and aorist, we must refer their characteristic i to a pronominal insertion of the same kind, and thus rpecpoi-ixi for Tp€, 0e), Tid^, &c. ; CTid^v, irWrj^, &C In the existing state, the conjunctive is just as heavy a form as the optative ; we must conclude, however, that, as the optative has the lighter endings, it must have been originally a heavier form than the conjunctive, and as this could result only from its having some prefix which the conjunctive wanted, it follows that it had the aug- 582 THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLE [Book IV. merit, or was related to the conjunctive as aorist to future. When the optative ceased to be used as a past tense in primary sentences, it would naturally lose its augment, or mark of past time, retaining, how- ever, its lighter person-ending as a trace of what it once was. The other differences between it and the conjunctive would spring up as time and use widened the gap which separated the parent tense from its offspring. 'M)2 On the whole, then, we may say that future time was expressed by two varieties of the same pronominn Hm form *"", fteiofitv, th'ioiKv, \e. ; and t! nn onl J I more permanent fatU«S ind'n m\<. hid. id it analogy of tie [ in -, that the «o-called decider 18 the primiti\< line form, of whieh the fut inetive in <-, are ineesssrfS d. j;i-t t i 1 1 x j iP • | Mmnafc 1 in this I , .ente; in the other two the augment was are nerer used as direct . \] I past time, tl ways bear preterite meaning in suhordi: :ie«>. We d<» nut say that there ever existed ■ desi I r.uive farm of every tense of the indicative mood to which then sss in tie have been one, and there niibt have bsSB jinally ; but after- ward- the I onsen of the optatta introduction of the int only very remarkable variety in tl. n of these optatives, desideratives, and futures, is, that the i is sometimes appended -wd, IS in i^.'.-.ui. at othet I : and sometimes placed after the s, as nee before the .n- or its substitute. ft, cVatnw (Gb th. p. 229), *nd in some of the Sanscrit volitives (Wilk: H varieties are tine to subsequent analogies, and not to any thing in the original prin- ciples of the langua. Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 583 393 "We shall now proceed to show, that the syntactical relation of the optative to the conjunctive is that which subsists between indefi- nite and definite tenses. It is well known to every student of Greek, that, in connected sentences, the Latin subjunctive present corresponds to the Greek conjunctive, and the Latin subjunctive imperfect to the Greek optative; in other words, the Greeks used the conjunctive in sentences dependent upon a verb in the present or future tense, and the optative in those which were dependent on a verb in the past tense : for instance, ypd(p and pla lianal, and not Wipe off your f.-lly M 1 B rf ■ '■ M With the conjunctive H I \].l.iin. -rfeetly equivalent in inra- with the conjunctive \ as in Sophoclee, a lf>\ OVTCN nt] 7TOT6 .\ (i» irpa^iiv iro.Xif. Aristoph. B : vV«#, ov fiij /, with the conjunctive or future, is the expression of a direct prohibition. We need not give any instance to show that m rv^rj^ differs from /^rj tvtttc only in being particular instead of general. The imperative use of m with the future has been denied by Elmsley, who would substitute the conjunctive for the future in Euripides, Med. 804 : Ae£ et? le /jLtjliv rwi/ efxo\ Seooy/jLevuiv, and would either emend or explain away a number of other passages which he quotes in his note upon that line, but which are, we think, sufiicient to justify the construction. Matthias (Gr. Gr. § 511, 3) quotes two or three others, and we may add Soph. Aj. 572: koi rdfxd reJ^ W T ' «7 w ' /a VX at «««« dri Kiii itt] /ut'j/Ti.: nitV (uV^i'o-tow \6yov? ; From tlii- sustain of joining together an injunction of any thing and a prohibition of the custom of em pi a eonihination ofth ■ in the strongest terms SB onion of the two hi ; and tin- combination would always be . by implication, in1 snd with twnatttdtanf nssai A- the future or tl ; >rm was more used in connexion witli the direct negative mi and in the 8SC 1 Ik? more generally employed by the A ■ a prohibition in the second n by mean- of ken interr _ end a* theconjun - or shorter form of the future, was more frequently Bnbjoined I direct or subjective negation uf, to express a direct prohibition, it would be more usually employed, in eonnexion with m utj and in an interro- gate • sxpresa the direct negation of something future, in the sense in which am was used with the oonjnaotrri by II i r« Ihnfl in the collocation cm •. whether With th* fat ;h theconjun* the notion of the verb i< negatived and lermssd -tion expressed by o», i< dent from the nature of the case. For as o» m< is equivalent to hoc, and on mi ; to m.iw, - mivalent to «'i\ < ." ; and am ptf pchm : to o»« To> ; This is also - the fact, that, if by any ehanee the combination rated from the uij is repeated i m medi at ely before the verb to which it belongs : • we find in Soph. (1 -ft», fttj T Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 587 In this syntactical peculiarity of the Greek language we see clear enough traces of the original identity of the future and conjunctive, in an actual and strongly marked divergency of use. 395 The employment of the conjunctive in dependent or connected sentences, and its contrast here to the optative, on the one hand, and to the past tenses of the indicative on the other, will also show very directly its affinity to the future (see Gr. Gr. art. 502, &c. 607, 614). It almost invariably follows idv or any relative word succeeded by dv in the protasis, in which case it is equivalent to a conditional future, and is generally followed in the apodosis by the future indicative, either without aV, which is the ordinary construction, as idv t< €%$<;, Zwo-ei? : or with a«/, which is very rare in Attic Greek. There is scarcely one undoubted instance in the dramatists; in Aristoph. Nub. 466, the critics and the MSS. are equally divided between dp and dv — o\j/ofxai, we ought to prefer the former particle in Eurip. Bacch. 639 • Tt ' ^°^ dp €k TovTiav epeT; and in iEschin. c. Ctes. 54)3, the true reading is dvepel. In Xenophon, Cyrop. VII. 5, § 21, we have: orav Ze kr Arnold (Thucyd. Ill g are inetanoetj Berodot. I\ nee x*P°* «/io»»\«WarTo >i"», koi ot lwwt€K \vok* a-wuipav. Ellrip. // *<' t. 1120: IM»* T«ra TaMMf, tv utirep •*>*, cu Ofiiv. M It Beans to i Di Am J 1. "that in all these cases the transi- tion from the subjunctive |Q the optative mood that the several consequences an ■- mporaneous, but that the - junetive mood indicates the imms>li\ and the optative the remoej eoneeqnenoo o( the action contained in the principal verb, the K being a OOaseqoenee upon the tirst : and that fco mark this grad.r different moods arc employed, and the subjunctive is thus Med Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 589 when the principal verb is in the past tense, because otherwise the dis- tinction intended could not be marked." 397 With regard to the separate use of the optative without av, that is, as a proper optative expressive of a wish, it need only be remarked, that the entire dependence of the verb expressive of the wish upon some circumstance or event is obvious, not only from the fact that the past tense of the auxiliary is used in modern languages, but also from the employment of the limiting particle de, " in this particular/' in connexion with el and the optative, and from the use of the past tense wcpeXe for the same purpose. It is remarkable that the optative proper is accompanied not only by the conditional particle, but also by 7rws av, as the apodosis of a condition implied. This shows how little reason there is to suppose with Bopp that the optative intrinsically and primarily expresses a wish. It only does so as an indefinite and de- pendent tense, having reference to some other time or circumstance than the present. In our own language " if I only could manage to bring it about !" and " how could I manage to bring it about T are expressions of the same wish. Inattention to this latter usage has prevented all the commentators from seeing the force of a very natural passage in iEschylus (Agamcmn. 1198). Cassandra says wildly to the Chorus: €KfJiapTvpt](Tov Trpov/jiocras to fx eldevat Xoyto-iraXaia^ tujvo a/j.apTia regem = rcg-si-m is really nothing more than the determinate I corresponding to [e~]rcg-si the aorist ; and as one performs its functions in the conjunctive, the other in the indicative mood, we can plainly see that the differences of mood, as they are called, arc set at nought by this pair of tenses, and we may infer that there is, after all, rather a conventional than a real distinction between the modal and temporal forms. The dissimilitude of the future indicative in -ho and the pre- sent subjunctive of the verbs which admit this formation, is due to the subsequent introduction of this composite tense. It is easy to under- stand why the first person of the subjunctive has been called in by the other future : at any rate no Englishman need wonder that a broader form should be used for the first than for the other persons of the Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 591 future, for we are in the constant habit of saying " I shall," when we say " you will," and vice versa. 399 The Sanscrit language seems to have lost the future corre- sponding to the aorist. We find an aorist or perfect in -sha-m analo- gous to the Greek in - ■ The only difference, in fact, between this and the Greek optative is in the use of the ■llftmit. which therefore mark this optative v generally omitted in the second _thencd in the other persona. It appears natural, that. ; uunand. I ttoo of the person immediately addressed should Ik? omitted, and a : emphaab laid en tin whom the command is MM apply. Una is effected in Engfaah and Qutnaa, by plaeh _ noun after the verb. M "glTS ye." : ; ''• in the I penoa angolas, by omitting the pronoun ■ taw book," tial art lowel in the present tense, as -rt-Oc-vat, \-at^ cod-**n. The accent seems to show that the infinitive in -i- rani imply the ouuiponnd termination -j-j/o? = -aivoK (§258), so that the infinith sents the locative of a word anal . Botaio wmq. The verbs in -*> foni: infinitive of the present, future, and - not in -ei-v or -e~-v, of the fir>t aorUt in -ff«i, of the perfect in -€-vat. The passive infinitive of all verbs ended in -*#oi, that of the muter BOIIOta in -ij-iai. All infinitives in -ci-v or -wi have -^erai or -uev as their rcpresenta: in the more ancient author-. Fat -or the and Dorians wrote -if*, the Doiianfl also -cw, The Dorians and stituted -«« for the infinitive ending -»-u; and for the contracted ^ in -cuo, -.no, there was an .Eolic infinitive in - UiSr, S\f/o\-. y(\av, v\}/ovi> (Buttmann, Ausfuhrl. Sprl. § 10 -1). 406 The Latin language nil ive infinitives: the one termi- nates in -;v or -a -*-*«> *+**): the other in -turn (dictu-m)^ which, in the modern granunai rdly enough called the supine in -ion. In tie .bjoined to the former infinitive, thus from r'ukrc WO hll r=ril<*\ however, is generally contracted by tbe omission either of the cha- racteristic >• = .* of the active, as in dici r; of the last syllable as in c'uhri; or of both at once, ns in did; the latter infinitiv written -tu (dic-tu)\ modern grammars call it the supine fa Cu.it. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 595 407 The Sanscrit infinitive is perfectly analogous to the Latin in- finitive in -turn. Thus the root ?ru (Greek k\v-) "to hear/' makes ?rutas, " heard," and grotum, " to hear/' These infinitives in -turn are cases of verbal nouns : another case is the Sanscrit gerund in -tvd g thus from hi-tum, "to leave," or, "the leaving," we have hi-tvd, "by or in the leaving," = tw Xelireiv. 408 Those acquainted with Greek syntax are aware that the infinitive is sometimes used to express a command : it must be remarked too by every one, that there is a great resemblance between the third person singular imperative passive and the termination of the passive infinitive. A modern philologer (Grafe, das Sanskrit Verbum, p. 58) has gone so far as to propose, that the first person singular imperative in Sanscrit, as tisht'tidni, and the second person singular first aorist imperative in Greek, as rv^/ov, should be considered as forms of the infinitive in -vat : nay more, that the first person plural, as tish-t'tiama, is the same as the infinitive l or -av, or -ri»; (:;) -, we think it n: say that the form in -€u> is a contraction of that in -jumu. These three terminations are. we conceive. participial endings, and therefore it is just as pos- sible for a verb to have two o( then infinitive endings, M r the same verb to exhibit two different fornix of the participle. We will tir>t produce other instances of theeeeo b an adjec- tival or participial signification. (l) -utrcn. The regular passive participle is invariably -/aci>ck, but we must not suppose that the termination itself is neces- sarily pasMve; for although W€Wf .-r = Trpdy-pev-T, the termination -/ur;»' = -^t ~ses an active ageut, as we may see in such word-* as ico\i>-icpay-ii*v = troXi^rpa- Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 597 iroi-ixr\v— Troi-fxev-s, &c. (above, p. 223). Indeed, an active sense is gene- rally conveyed by the combination -fxe-v, when it is followed by the second element; cf. •yap~}xovr\, dp-\xovia, &c. Under the shortened form pvo-, we have this compound affix, with a participial meaning, in such words as Kptjhe-fxvov, " a fillet," i. e. " that which is bound round the head :" /xe'Bi-jui/o?, " that which is measured" (a certain quantity of corn, Latin modi-us), fieXe-fxvov, " that which is thrown" (a dart) ; yv-^i/o?, " stript" (from €k8u'w, Pott, Etym. Forsch. II. p. 182); fxepi-fiva, " that which is thought of or recollected," comp. fjLep-fxrjp-i^w, fxep-ixep-os, pap- Ti/p, Latin me-mor or mesmor, Sanscrit root smri. In Latin we have seen ama-mini, ama-minor ; we have also the participles, alu-mnus "reared;" auctu-mnus "increased;" vertu-mnus "turned;" da-mnum "given;" ceru-mna "a load or weight;" not, as Yoss thinks, for aipovfjievov, but, as Pott suggests (Etym. Forsch. I. p. 279), connected with the Sanscrit root yas = adniti (because Sanscrit ayas — Latin ces), so that ce-ger is qui cerumnam gerit. We have, besides, shortened forms in -men corresponding to the Greek infinitives in -p.ev ; thus, from the root col- " to raise up" (cel-sus, col-lis, Greek koXwvv], neWeiv, cut- mus, ex-cel-lere, &c), we have not only colu-mna, but cul-men. Bopp (Annals of Oriental Literature, p. 52) mentions dis-cri-men (which means quod discernitur, not, as he says, quod discer nit), stra-men=quod struitur, legu-men =quod legitur prwfa-men, "what is said at the com- mencement" (cf. Vergl. Gr. p. 1115). He also compares car-men with the Sanscrit karman u a deed," from the root krl " to make," and with the Greek wo'ititxa^'iroiri-nev-T. Other instances are su-men-quod sugitur, volu-men = quod volvitur, se-men = quod seritur, &c. The Sanscrit termination -mdna frequently makes a participle, which has a middle or active signification, unless preceded by the syllable -ya, when it becomes passive ; and the words ser-mon, Xei-p-wv, &c. (§ 256), may be considered as implying action. (2) -vai. This termination also has both an active and a passive participial meaning (§ 255) : an active, in such words as -rex-vn (from Teu'x, would lead us to expect that this end- ing was originally -crcu, an opinion which is confirmed by the distinct i, which is inserted between it and the last vowel of the crude-form : thus, we have yeXaW, not ytXaSi, ai. -idered as analogous to rvrrfit, for rvvrcvi, Sec. One of i nations which we have seen used to iHflM the <>>tractum r - action of the verb, is -<",-««, which are used as active infinit strictly passive, we l remark conversely, that the active participles in -rr are occasionally used in an infinitive sense, in which the dirVerer. neglected (see Wirron. p. 861, note 8). The reason for all t: verv plain and simple. In the indetinitcness pro]>or to the intir mood, it matters little whether we consider the verb as tr.v intransitive. Tor instance, what dit; there in our own Ian- Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 599 guage between "the thing is doing" or "the thing is being done?" All this would have been seen long ago, if the Greek and Latin infini- tives had not lost their case-endings and become mere crude-forms. The consequence of which has been, that, although it is admitted that the Greek infinitive is to all intents and purposes a noun, to be declined by the article,, the loss of the final -eu has prevented grammarians from discerning its relation to forms which may be declined without articles or prepositions. The Latin infinitive stands in the same predicament, except that as the Romans had other verbals still admitting of inflex- " ion, and had no article to help out the infinitive, its employment as a noun is confined to the general objective or accusative case. As a nomi- native, it occurs only in later writers who were familiar with the Greek idiom. Supposing that we had not only pugna but pugnamen and pugnatus, we should be able to represent from one root all forms of the infinitive ; pug-nd (irvK-vai), pug-na-mine (irvK-va-fxevai), pug-na-se = pug-na-re (iruK-vd-o-ai), pug-na-tu (wvK-ua-Tv'i), pug-na-ndo, pug-na- turn, &c, being all different expressions, in the way of cases, of the same idea, — " closeness for the sake of fighting." It is perhaps right to add that the first aorist infinitive active (as Tvir-a-ai) is, in our opinion, a representative of the third form of the infinitive, the final s having dropt off. 411 The ending of the Greek infinitive passive, we have seen, is invariably -adai. This we shall now be able to explain without diffi- culty. The second person plural in -o-0e must have been originally -<70cu for -r •/,, for decent*, docens . he. The fern ini formed according to the principle! n in the last book ; and the neuter, by Leaving out the nominative s ; the / is necessarily on i In Latin we have occasionally ned form of tin- participle, Qeed :'- an active partieiple, though it is general'; equivalent to the Greek verbal- in -Wo? : we I that MMi moribundus, amabundu*, oriundut, arc filmed from *•l). 414 The Greek partieiple of tl -o? ; -o'toc, -I'l'uc, -, participle end- *, as we have said in speaking of the infinitives. The Latin passive par pie ends in -tn.<. and the Greeks ha\ The Sanscrit aetive participle ends in -tit. like the Grivk and Latin, with the exception of the perfect participle, o( which the terminations are -us, -utki. We cannot agree with some modern scholars [Pott, KtymoL J' I. p. J)J. QioBO, ./; I Dial. p. 103, Bepp, Krit. (,rinun. nilc 186) in considering the Greek and Sanscrit perfect particq Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 601 the same form with the present. There is no trace throughout of the n, which appears so essential to the ordinary participle form, and, though it may be said that there is an appearance of a weaker as well as a stronger form in the declension of the Sanscrit participle, yet this does not go so far as to establish an identity between this participle and one in which the weaker form is consistently employed. It is very probable that the Sanscrit perfect participle contains the Sanscrit ending -vat, which we find in td-vat " so much," dana-vat " rich," &c. The Greek perfect participle ends in -Fot, as appears from the neuter -Foo?, 7raT/)ft)5, 7raTj0wo5, are also nearly synonymous; that these words are merely by-forms, no etymologist will deny. "We likewise find fxr]rpvid, apparently the femi- nine of fxriTpM and fxtiTpvios ; also the adjective fxrjTptKos. It appears to us that all these words, as well as the Latin patruus, Sanscrit pitrivt/as, belong to the same class as the perfect participles. The feminine termination -v?a sometimes occurs in words apparently participles, but evidently not perfects, as apirviai (apirovo-ai), dyvid (ayov. It will be remembered, however, that the ticiple beoomefl an adjective only in the sai< ■ which the infini- tive, and con-ecjuently the participle itself, when B I to some noun, becomes a sub>tantive, namely, by tin ft] contrivance which we call prefixing the detinite article (above, § SOO). 117 Than are adjecthes which hffl ination as the active participl \apiei* = ^a^*o< uVic, •"the agreeable BftftB U av&ptairos or 1 And in this relation the participle and infinitive are identical: rw n and tu TtdevTt equally signify "by the plfttf 419 It ifl a theory of Grimm's (DtmUtkt Gmmmat'd; I. p. foil.), that the Teutonic intiniti\ riginally declinable, tin dinar? form in -iin being the accusative, which is also used substan- Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 603 tively as the nominative, and the forms in -annes, -anne, &c., repre- senting the genitive and dative respectively. Grimm recognises the genitive in the new High German forms meidens, fragens, &c, and the dative in the common infinitives meiden, fragen, on the analogy of zeichen = signo, and regen = pluvid. He adds (p. 1022) "an unor- ganic participle in -nd, declinable like an adjective, and with a pas- sive signification, has gradually developed itself out of the old nn and the preposition ze prefixed, by an interchange with nd, just as niemannes has become niemandes: thus we have ein zu lesender (legendus), ein zu gelender (dandus). Perhaps there is still time to expel from the language this stiff and unnatural formation." We cannot agree with the great philologer in his disapprobation of this form, which seems to us to be confirmed by every analogy. Our English infinitive is the mutilated form of the dative of such a participle or gerund. Thus, in WicklifT's Bible, we have thou that art to comynge, which corresponds to the Anglo-Saxon \>u \>e to cumenne eart (see Diversions of Pur leg, Vol. I. pp. xxxni. 450, Vol. II. p. 505, Taylor's Edition). Rask says that the present infinitive in Anglo-Saxon is never used with the particle to as in modern English, though the gerund always requires to, whence he concludes that the gerund is nothing but the dative of the infinitive {Anglo-Saxon Grammar, § 400). In our opinion, the infinitive was originally the participle in -nt, which became -nd in German, while the flexion form of the old Saxon, which inserted j before the case-ending, as in slapandjes — dormientis, led to the English -nge and -ng. This participle, when used as an infinitive, lost its inflexion, and could only be used as a gerund or case by means of the auxiliary preposition zu or to. It also suffered mutilation, being deprived of its final d in German, and reduced to the crude-form of the word in English. The forms in -nn are assimilations for which we have many analogies in the Teutonic languages. 419 The Latin and Sanscrit languages, which have no definite article, and have therefore retained their inflexions longer than the Greek, afford us a direct proof of the view which we have taken of this question. The Latin expresses by cases of the lengthened par- ticiple in -ndus, and the verbals in -turn, -tu, those relations, which, in Greek, are generally conveyed by the infinitive with the definite article :— Priscian calls all these cases gerundia : gerundia quoque vel participialia, quum participiorum videantur habere obliquos casus, nee tempora signijicent, quod alienum est a verbo (legendi, legendo, legendum,, tectum, lectu); infinitivi tamen vice funguntur, quod solet apud Gra?cos 604? THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. [Book IV. articulis conjungi (p. 808). They had also an infinitive, which, like the Greek, was a mutilated form of the locative of a verbal in -m. but as they had no definite article, they could not treat this as the Greeks did their infinitive; it remains, therefore, as the mere crude-form, ex- pressing the action of the verb, and perfectly equivalent to the verbal in -turn. The Sanscrit expresses all the relations of gerund and infini- tive by verbal-form- in -feu, _»/,*, -turn. The last of these is equiva- lent to the Latin verbal in - jirived of its final letter, it may form the first part of a compound word, like any other crude-form ; thus we have such WOfdl M jr-tn-kum'i. u de-irons of vanquishing," &c. The verbal in -tru is either the instrumental in a. or a remnant of the locative in -am : of. (r/n, which is only formed from roots compounded with prepositions, and has thmf.r its case ending, owing to the weight of the form- in which it is found, must bo OOOeidarod as the OOOeopOlldmg ca-e <>f ■ -imilar verbal in All these three, then. U formed by means of the second pro- nominal element, which we have seen of so much m i< 'filiation of abstract nouns. The elements -trf j>arti< nscrit, are often Died ibtobltelj, that ie, tin y form, in combination with I in the same ease, a distinct though subordinate sentence without the intervention of any finite verbs. When the third person plan] fi stand- by itself we understand it to mean, that an act of pi is going on by the instrumental'.- :i-. who are neither oursclve- nor thOBO W( When the instrumental ease of the participle, we imply hypothetical pb of which, however, the agent or instrument is some individual. When this individual is expressed in the same understand that a supposition is made with regard t«» hi- placing: and thus A-( Jt rmanic family, we shall, for the sake oi :nger student, laleoJ an mampla 01 paradigm fr-m each of these languages, in order that the principle of classit; ropose may be more evident Ws shall take the Greek language first, becai; BSSSi tlie most oompld f moods and tenses; then the Sanscrit, Which fall- >hort of it in this rt>; ;. lastly, the Latin, which i- the most dcfeet. In the arrangement of the lenses and moods in the following para- digms, we have adopted the dk i finite and indefinite tenses, and, making the active voice of the Circek verb the basis of comparison, we have live definite tenses and as many i: nite. The order in which we have taken these tens* 1 -en rather from etymological considerations, than fr* ; M the connexion of past, present, and future time. We have given not only the forms which really occur or might occur in classical Greek or Latin, but also those which we infer must have exited in the oldest state of the language. The tin ire hate chosen are all analogous in | of meaning, and identical etyinologically in the Sanscrit and Latin. Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 607 422 I. Greek root i-wir-; pronominal suffix -t-. (1) Active voice, or, verb with person-endings in the instrumental case. (a) 1st Definite Tense. (Present Indicative). Existing forms. (rvTrrcoj (tvtttcis) (rvTrrei) Indicative Mood. 1st Indefinite Tense. (Imperfect). Supposed original forms. TV7T-TO -fit TV7T-T€-(ri TV7T-Te-TL (tvtttctov) (tvtttctov) TV7r-ro-/xecri (rvnTOfiev) TV7T-Te-T€(ri (ru7rrere) TVTT-TO-VTL (TVTTTOV(ri(v) 2nd Definite Tense. (Perfect). TfTV7T-( A .)a-/it (r€Tv(f)a) T6-rv<£a-/u TSTVas) Terv) 2nd Indefinite Tense. (Plus Perfect). e-Teru(f)eya~fAi (ererixfieiv) (-T€ru(f>€ya-(ri (ererixpeis) (irerixpeiTov) (irervcfieiTrjv) i-Tervfaya-necri (ireTV(f)€ifX€v) €-Terv(peya-T€(n (ereTixpeire) €-Terv(fieya-VTi (eT€TVTt (ervyfrav) 608 THE MOODS AXD PARTICIPLES. (Jj) Conjunctive and Optative M [Book IV. 4th Definite Tense. (Present Subjunctive, or Present Desiderati we). Supposed original forms. ting forms. TVTT-ry-o/zi (tvttto)) rvn-T-ya-crt (tvttttjs) Tim-T-ya-Ti {TV7TTT]) (rvTmjrov) [rxTrrriTOv) TVTT-T-)/6-fi((ri (Tl7TTaifl€v) T\.m-T-ya-T«rt. (TVnTTJTf) T\m-T-yo-vri \n TTTbHTIV) 4th Indefinite Ten»i:. (Present Oj>tatlce^ or Past I ' Supposed original faOBfti w ~TXTi-r-yo-px ,a-osed original forms. Existing t-ru i mm | (tvttt (rtTrrfra)!') mr-rt-rfcri nTT-ro'-VTo) (rf»nwrw-r) And so Qfl through the other tenses. ((/) Ineimtim:. The mere state or notion. rt7r-rt TiTi-aai-s (nV- And similarly in the other tenses. Chap. 3.] THE MOODS AND PARTICIPLES. 609 (2) Reflexive voice, or verb Two of the tenses of the principle. with person-endings in the locative case. indicative will be sufficient to show the 1st Definite Tense. 1st Indefinite Tense. {Present). (Imperfect). Supposed original forms. Existing forms. Supposed original forms. Existing forms. TVTT-TO-fxrjv (rxmTofxai) €-TVn-TO-fJ.T]V (Jtvivto^v) rV7T~T€~(TTJV (tV7TT€i) e-rvn-Te-arju (irviTTov) Tvn-Te-rrjv (TV7TT€Tai) e-Tvn-Te-Trjp {eTV7TT€To) (rvTrTOjieOov) {ervnTOfxeOov) {rvirT€(f)dr]s) e-Ti/ir-ya-ai (jTvnrjs) e-Ti>(j}-Oi/a-Tt \€TV(f)dT]) i-Tvn-ya-ri (eTVTTT]) {irv(f)dTjTOv) \iTV7TrjTOv) (€TV(J)6t]TT]v) (eTV7TT)Tr)v) c-rvcfi-Byd-fjLeo-i (€TV(f)0T]fl€v) i-run-yd-fieo-i y€TV7rrjfxev) t-rvcfi-dyd-Teo-i (cTV(f)dT)Te) i-TVTT-yd-T€-dya-VTi (erv(f)dt](rav) i-Txm-ya-VTi {irvirrjcrav) From these are formed futures with person-endings in the locative case, Tvcpdrja-ofxai, TVTrtja-0/j.ai, like reru^o/mai from TeVu^a, and we have recognised the suffix dtj in the infinitive TVTrT€>,/, la-mi) fa,/ tuddr\ tn.hi-tlflS the a- (win- tarn a-tudS-thdm tudartat ■ -■ (mhi-th.i -,itl 2nd Definite Tense rarasmaipadam. tH-tll'l- tu-tii>li-thus tii-tu-la-tus tii-tui - tn-twla(th.\) tu-tudus (for tu-tu- Attnaru'padam. -mi) -ti) - fH-fMcK-H (for tu-tuda-nlt) The Pln-- Tense, is hag. 3rd Deftniti (/•V ifict') wan: 3rd Indbfiniti T / •r '-,,- /ii-n-'/i-tis [tu->- tU-n- i . i imii: Tram (used under the form -4m, . as Future IndiaUivt ; andet the form - tu-n-dn-m tu-n-d'i-r (for feMHfaMMr] ^or -eft'-*) rji (or -d^-r«) 3rd [MUUIHIU Tllfa (i ^uf/unrtive). hi W M- '• -**-m, if it existed iu this particular verb. I.MiiK.vm i:. Act tn- [tu-n-dc-re] tu-i,- tu-n-ili-tor tit- [fu-fi-cfi-mmor] tu-n-du-nto M-i - - Imimum: AND (iiia.\i>. tu-n- tu-n-dc- ri -er tun-sum tu-n-th-nduB CHAPTER IV. THE CONJUGATIONS. 425 Differences of conjugation due to variety in the forms of the present tense. 426 The Sanscrit conjugations, doubly classified. 427 Grimm's arrangement of the Teutonic conjugations. 428 Analogy between the German strong verbs and the principal Sanscrit conjugation. 429 Greek conjugations. Objections to the ordinary arrangement. 430 True classification of Greek verbs. 431 I. Primi- tive verbs. (1) Reduplication. 432 (2) Addition of ya. 433 (3) Insertion of t- or v-. Case of 5ioirTeua>. 434 (4) Forms in 6- and -' causals and d -, as m6mm pi an M I honour." ft. an added to the root. f;.th olaes, 90 roots, ^wna of suffix, as ay an * an "I ob- m." , Sth 10 root-; all except Jri " to make" end net 9 I ro« ■■<«. 7 . m added to the root <)tli ok »• Of Ooffiz, which U n the heavv endings, as mrd ; mrd-na-mi, iu \\. a. Both vowels em nd 10th I ;v«nl. p. First vowel rnm>. nut. Bopp thinks this i has arisen from assimilation of the connecting v . Gramme star &mntkr < s frna*ou.pp. 6*). We do not see how this can be the case, for in the second and • The English reader will find the law according to which Grimm has arranged the last six ooniupitior.s. verv well staled in a paper in the Philological Mnteum (\'o\. 11. p. 376 ML). The scheme of I - in all the conjugation- and old High German is given b\ ( tsck. Grmmm, 1.887. Chap. 4.] THE CONJUGATIONS. 617 third dual, at all events, the connecting vowel is not i but a. "We rather look upon it as a substitution for the reduplication of the same kind with that which takes place so commonly in Latin, where reduplica- tion is so seldom found : thus, we have capio, cepi ; venio, veni, &c. That these are substitutions for a lost reduplication, may be inferred from a comparison oipepigi with compegi, of fugi with Tretyevya, &c. With regard to the distinction of the first and third singular in the Sanscrit preterite from the other persons, Grimm has aptly compared the old High German and Anglo-Saxon singular, I. las, II. Idsi, III. las ; plural, I. Idsumes, II. lasut, III. Idsun (Deutsche Gramm. I. p. 1056). From this we infer that the last six of the German strong conjugations were either originally reduplicated like the first six, or that the strengthening of the vowel is to be considered as perfectly identical with reduplication, as we shall see it is in Greek. 429 In the ordinary Greek grammars the conjugations of the verbs are divided into three classes; (1) those of the barytone verbs, or of those which never admit an accent on the ending of the present; (2) those of the contracted verbs in -ew, -aw, and -ow ; and (3) those of the verbs in -/ju. This classification is not scientific; it is only prima facie, and cannot be recognised by the comparative philologer. We have before shown that all verbs originally agreed in their person-end- ings with those in -/ju, as well from other reasons, as from the fact that those which are still so conjugated express the most elementary notions, and, therefore, must be considered as the oldest verbs. It is true that the Greek verbs in -/ut are distinguished from the other verbs by certain peculiarities, but they should be classed according to these peculiari- ties, and not be discriminated from the rest of the verbs merely because they have their person-endings preserved in a more primitive form. The proper method of arranging the Greek verbs is that which is adopted in the Sanscrit and Teutonic grammars : namely, according to the different modes of strengthening the form of the present and other principal tenses. We cannot divide the Greek conjugations into strong and weak forms, in the same way as the Gothic : for, in the first place, all Greek verbs form the preterite by reduplication, whereas this is confined to the strong form in Gothic : and, conversely, all verbs form certain tenses by the addition of a foreign element, which is the indi- cation of the weak form in Gothic. We may, however, say, that, in case the lengthened form of the present is a consequence of its being a derivative or secondary verb, it cannot form any of its tenses by an alteration of the quality or quantity of the root-vowel, but must have recourse either to reduplication, addition, or both ; and in this way it 618 THE CONJUGATION [Book IV. may be said that derivative or secondary verbs in Greek are weaker forms. 430 One of the great mistakes which grammarians have committed in this department is, that they have considered the present tense of larytonc verbs as the primitive form of the root, and the other tenses as derived from it. The consequence of this has been to load our dic- tionaries and lists of defective verbs with an infinitude of so-called obsolete forms, from which, forsooth, The fact is, that tic root under some modification or inerease, the genuine i _• in most • ti'l aori proceed to cla the verbs according U) the various methods by which this OOBoboi Of the present u efiected. And let us take (I) the primitive n (II) the derivative \crb-. 431 I. (1) In the amplest and apparently the oldest modification, the root is immediately connected v\ith the ending, the III Nil being rally ;///// : i /una without reduplication, I the roots arc join, the ending without any eliai _ :ul in some we find nuitsnim of the reduplication, a- in *-i-/a-tA»/^j. All these verbs may nipared with t . and third Sanscrit conjugations. I39 (8) A very large class l | ronominal syllable (second element) m /. Thee to the fourth and tenth Sanscrit In (.: the addition i- absorbed, and r milationsj a- is often the purpose of forming a comparative The following are the transformations under which this adjunct appears in the verb-t gat ion. a. When the verh-r in a liquid, the « is frequently placed before the Squid, by virtue of the fact, before mentioned, that the liquid sounds its adjacent vowel inditterently before or after; thus from the crude-form nre(pM for r\ Chap. 4.] THE CONJUGATIONS. 619 (pdetpu), and so forth. Or a short i in the root coalesces with the t of the adjunct and becomes long; thus from k/>?-, we have Kp~iv(o = Kpivyafxi. p. When the root ends in 7, k, ^, or in £, t, 0, this pronominal adjunct is represented, as when it appears under the same circum- stances in comparatives, by f, era, or tt, of which we conclude that J is always the primitive change (above, § 21 6). 7. The adjunct ya also appears to be contained in most of the verbs in -e'w, -aw. With regard to the latter, which often occur as verbs in ->;-juj, little need be said, as we have already shown in more than one instance that the sound ya is included in r). We have also had examples of the substitution of e for y in the middle of a word : that this is its use in the case of the verbs in -ea> appears from the Boeotian forms dywvodeTiovTos, elXap^iovrtav, QioTrpoiriovTos, -yopaylov- t€9, &c. ; for aywvodeTyovTos, or in common Greek dycovodeTovwros, Sec. (Bockh, Corpus I?iscript. I. p. 720). There are some verbs in -dw, -ew, which must not be considered as containing the adjunct ya : such are Spd-w = fya-Fw, which must be connected with dpair-= depenr- (cf. SpcnreTrjti) ; icaXeu) = KctXepu) connected with KXepcxs, k\uo>, &c; cf. £e«, £Jw, £"i'0os, &c. ; (Spina, (3pe-, and re*-, we have KpvTr-T-us, tuV-t-w, ^aV-Tco, t/k-t-w ; Tajm-, 7reT-, and BctK-, make Te/ji-i/-w, 7nT-i/-w, and SaK-i/-w. This v is also added to vowel-roots, as in -rri-vta. It appears also under the longer form vrj, as in the 9th San- scrit conjugation, in hd/jL-vrj-fxi, &c. ; under the form w 9 as in the 5th Sanscrit conjugation, in Qvy-w-m (root £u7-, already strengthened by guna), &c, and in this form the v is often doubled, as in v\ yKlius I honv-ius : Itowoi O » -ui-tyvXag wV ivi rt}<; 1*7 o« iwtfMkfTJ. wapd TO 8iOirrgl>L 'AtT«W| Si rj \§£m KCtiUvtj na\ -wrap* *Apitp kcu Li/piwiCi; fV liriro\»rr«f». ! quite clear that the B of Item with unro^ai is merely a 1 of the (.rannnarians. As a pol Sswst is naturally and immediately refer* -1 to tieVa>, the use of which is quite in accordance with that of it- deriratire, Unit, m ire have fim m lA i fr c;«^, two gi n< ctlfl in 1 also in the same play (v. 106) aoAsjuwi wvpyabaAcrom fccvev; and Pindar (according to Strata, p. S i K n) ^tja'.. top err par or. Now there is, no doobt, a word hdwrrp or Stswryp, which is connected with Atto/mu, and means <( a spy," as in Homer, Iliad X. roV frporw rwfl Tf ir, pjftfl ci*yni when ii<>TTTt}p arparov is a very different person fr«»m <»' ciWot rrparcS, and from thifl BOTrawi we have a verb ciovTtJw, "to be a spy," as in limn. / \ »/ - -ok cwi *» «>r, »/7 ('.crrtt.-d-i, f; ixurrifitov woX€pl£mir. In SophocL aT»/« •* f»'»T(i means simply M to perceive." just as we use tlo There would, therefore, be boom ambiguity «• were also formed from TTfJiH' in I>emosthen. Lacr \ \ 'Iwwiat 'A O q n wm O* '.\\iK(ipvacrcr€v<: papTv. YfiXtf T€ ^X f xa ^ a ^ s0 ? with anusvdra and i>- adjunct, Tu-7-^a-i/w; from Ai/3-, Xei/3uj ; from irvd- } Trevdofxai, &c. 436 II. The derivative verbs are formed from their primitives by the addition of elements, some of which are used also for the mere purpose of strengthening the present tense in the primitives, from which, however, they are distinguished by the way in which these endings are joined to the crude-form, and by their possessing only those of the second- ary tenses which can be constructed by extrinsic addition, namely, first aorist active and passive and a perfect active in -, -a'-£co, -*'-£co, -i-<7K0), -AA(o=Auo, -ev-(a, -ai-vw, -v-vca ; as from 7TCU9 (7ra?3-s), from \-t-, as similarly formed from the - genitive, like the corresponding adjectives: cf. x/n«roc, gen. \pvt as iroi^iv . with the corresponding verbs wo tp ai vm , \ ften happens, as in the case of n-^nu m crt]ucv-r- and , tliat the noun of afMM ' under tl. form _ur;i< rtftfW T. but 1. I under -otii ilfxar-rmp, t v dv *- rtip ; but this will ■ that the full form of pi ;md that we have in the verb, as well a- in the noun, that combination <-f the first and second under the form u + i», which express '.ion as proceeding from the subject, and with espSfliaJ reference to its results (j 2."»<»). When the object] HiVicult to say what pr >■ relation is implied, though WS fcttOW fr< m the parallel case of the nouns that there liiibt he MHM refer* : -.lvity (; - When we pan from £cFm t id from £V«d to £v-\or, we see the instrument in its 1 1 umoi mi-take the same Tact IS manifested in (aim and (mM^ by the side of £ovAm and ^"etTTO^. The common verb aJPM merit< particular cn-ih rathm. even after what lluttmann has written about it (X ss i f . II. p. 112. foil.). '1 can be no doubt th.U the -in I of the verb was a7r«, chins tell- -\ fVaivwi FXOIB I rmetl the substantia ami from it the derivative verb alte-v, and the derivative noun aunf = at* 11 rodoC III. 7 l). The primary lira of a&w i-. • ttd the meaning I : Homer i-, "a Speech" or "narrative." From this came the sense of "praise." " commendation," just as the Latin //>/rare. With regard to tl I it seems very -t: even modem leholaii would talk of da perfect of the barytone rerhe, khc roots of which thoj oontiin (see Erfdrdt ad Sopk. Ant',./. 5d I /' ially af'tcr had, with his usual point ration, d'.- :1k- truth. Nemo I foil >>ni* i ni /mull r, mji that great anholar (/ p, ni) Lobcck), cuncedety tvayyeWu) frWCMM 6M*. Nam ro ev ku\ tu '<'f, aVoilMTj unde verbu, { i*, non tvayytXXm ,jwjd noon. But although : -it of the oompomid noun- recommend rm <>f derivation for the verb, khan it n<> abaolate reason why one «>f th, :ivc forms should not I"- ooaaakmaOj adopted, when mere was any particular l) for the preference. Such a reason seems t<» axial mi the ■eenxenu tidii of .('r. ,!,,('.•> inrtoail of «ti^'w; for, rttmm being itself a derivative, ■ nmilai derivative would hardly point: nnctionof -l) ia by tlie opp eitioa U) rift : 7T(7c re Of -wtvixpov. The word ytprfarravocu i- probably derived from x^P" 1 ^ reared aa a simple word, like ^mktwrm from x/aXewm (Buttmann, A mt /m k rL which occur- twice in Kuripid« s (Rhe*. 791, Elsctr. 843), is need only as aa epithet or ■ be explained by the metrical impracticability of the legitimate fc », though if it had been one vl' the other dramatists (see Miiller, Hist Lit. Or. [., p. 366), wc should hai .]. — cvaQnirtm for example, — rather than such a violation *-f all analogy; aud in the . pur. B63 it is clear that is a raise rea probably due to tl liich is found fa and we ought to re-tore the gennin -w of which them words are an explanation i (rraciocpom* actually occurs, and it is not unlikely that an . ing by habit that l^aftoiftat was the future of has barba: the word into the form in which it appean Chap. 4.] THE CONJUGATIONS. 625 instances in which this rule seems to be violated have been successfully corrected by modern scholars. 438 Having now shown by what increments of addition or inser- tion the present may be strengthened, we proceed to point out the relation which subsists between the root- vowel and that which appears as its locum tenens in the present tense. This subject has been already touched on in the chapter on the roots : it will, therefore, be sufficient in this place to give instances of the change of vowel in the Greek verb according to an arrangement first pointed out by Pott (Etymol. Forsck. I. p. 11 foil.). This scholar has divided the Greek verbs into four classes according to the affections of the root- vowel in the leading tenses ; (1) the root preserves the same vowel throughout all the in- flexions ; (2) the quality of the vowel is altered ; (3) its quantity is altered, generally by doubling ; (4) it is gundH. The second aorist active, middle and passive, generally exhibits the root, and the principal changes are those of the second perfect, or noun containing the verbal root which agrees with the second perfect, and the present. The reason for the change of vowel in (2) (3) (4) is, as we have seen, the greater weight of the perfect and present in consequence of the methods adopted for strengthening them. The present is generally a heavier form than the perfect or derivative noun, and, therefore, has the lighter vowel. It will be observed that there are some verbs, placed by Pott in the 3rd class, which are examples of guna : to prevent mistakes we have always stated the method of corroboration adopted in the par- ticular case. 439 (1) This class is very numerous, as it contains all the weak or derivative verbs, many of which have already received a vowel modification in their crude-form. Thus from the root -n-ei/-, we have 7ro'i/o-9 and from this irove-(a, in which the first vowel remains unaltered through all tenses. The most obvious instance of the primi- tive verbs of this class is second aorist c-tutt-oi/, second perfect re-ruTr-a, verbal substantive k-ti/V-o?, present tutt-t-w. 440 (2) In this class are included verbs with a primitive a (or ap = r Sanscrit) changed into o and e in the strong teDses. It agrees with the 11th and 12th of the strong German conjugations, in which the root-vowel is followed by a liquid, or a mute and liquid, or pre- ceded by a liquid (conj. 11), or followed by a liquid and mute, or a double liquid (conj. 12). This class is separated by Pott into four subdivisions, the second and third of which we consider identical. Ss 626 THE CONJUGATIONS. [Book IV A. Roots ending in a liquid. 2nd Aorist. 2nd Perfect or Verbal Noun. Present. e-) Ttraip* (adj. to) e-6op-a (pOdpu) (id.) i-a-ird p-tjv ( t-r]v Zui - . » (id.) «'p« (adj. absorbed), 15. I in liquid tad mute; the liquid of course may idiift i: »nd Perfect or Verbal Noun. opic-a w4 W0fm • WTp\<-ir<> ) \ T(TpaV e-Tpa-ov W(pC-m wepd-rn ( rparm J C. Rooti without li«l': Snd Perfect or Verbal Nc Sfunsorii had '-1TC f-irt - ( Buwsr. pat. yrjv WOT- \//o'-yo-« (adj. «a) -r-a» (adj. T-) {vi-TT-» (redupl.) ) inr-vim (ad. re) J •Ill (3) This (dan oomprohei for their root- vowel; this TOWel is pMn r.Uly doubled or >iuna\\ in the perfect and Tott considers t.htoi and t>>«it«* ask! ifferent thov are the same word, and regard them as but alight ■lOlltftcHOM rf -.«i>,as well as guna) ( rvyxdvw (adj. v, and \ e-rv^-ov Terev^a < anusvdra) > Ss2 [Book IV. Present- irevOofxai 1 1 irvvdavofxat (adj. vo and amiftara) *-/ ■)<»'<: (piQS. pMl ';", CiripfSao-a*, f/3ar, fiultiv. :i composition. • ^ir/v, /^Aiio, /iv»/ra«, pAf/o't'ai, |9XjjpCP0?. /3oo- tdi/. yt]fnt- ryi iKTC0rt;< : ex- planation of a chom aoc and c\ applied to colon it applications ot H'ords denoting kinglj power. 181 Mooning of the phrase . - 444 "I T""HEN ■ verb in some finite tense is prefixe d T I other verb in the infinr thai the two : together form one no: to a periphrasis of boom tense, ire say that the finite verb is used as an auxiliary. The verbs mo- atly employed in this manner arc those expressive of the condition or power of the agei. freedom from external bin r moral i oal, of hi> thoughts, intentions, will, or d ment of auxiliaries original oil in :' tution I : contrivances for the etymological is >f the older La after these la>t had fallen into disuse or had become less ob\ and significant, has been already shown al some length. In i of the languages of modern Europe, the system of auxiliaries lias superseded all inflexions of mood and tense, and, indeed, of voice too, in the common ferbs, In our own language, some of the verbs employed for this purpose have lost their . litv as independent verbs: that say "to may," or "to can," or "to shall," or " to must,* 1 though '• I " 1 shall,* 1 " 1 must,* 1 are in oOMtSttf use, as auxiliaries, for tho purpose of forming the potential mood, or the future expression of obligation. In German, however Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 631 responding to these, namely, mogen, kdnnen, sollen, mussen, are capable of inflexion throughout all their moods and tenses with the exception of the participle present. 445 We have said that the verb, which the auxiliary modifies or which forms the pivot of the meaning, is in the infinitive mood. That the auxiliary could not he so used with the participle is obvious. The infinitive is, indeed, as we have shown in a previous chapter, the same sort of word as the participle, but then it is a participle which has lost all power of change, being a form, sometimes mutilated, of the locative case, so that it expresses the locus of the action to which the possibility or will denoted by the auxiliary has immediate reference. The participle, on the contrary, being capable of inflexion, expresses an hypothesis or some subordinate relation of the verb from which it is derived, the subject being the nominative case of the principal verb ; in fact, participle and verb are equivalent to two verbs joined by a copu- lative conjunction, and there is no more reason why the verb should be considered as auxiliary to the participle, than the participle to the verb. There are, indeed, some cases where the Attic idiom employs the par- ticiple of the verb on which the whole force of the sentence depends, while the finite verb plays the part of a qualifying adverb ; as in the following instances (given by Buttmann, Griechische Grammatik^ § 144, Anm. 8, and § 150); rvy^dvu) : w? he fixdou, hrv^ev ctTnW, "when I came, he went away directly" (schoolboys in this country would be told to translate this " he happened to go away ;" but Tuy^ai/w implies hitting a mark, coincidence, especially in point of time, just as we say in lowland Scotch, " I happened upon him," for " I fell in with him," and the young student should be taught to translate it " directly," " on the spot," " at the moment," or, in some cases, " precisely," as in Iso- crates A reopagit. p. 140 c : iyto 2e li avrd tuvto. Tvyxdvia BeBtw?, "it is precisely on account of these things," or "on account of these very things, that I am afraid"). — Xavddvw : ravra Troitjaas, eXaOev vir€K(pv- 7ddvu> ; ecpdaa-a avrov -jrapeXdwv, "I came earlier than he did," om ecpdrj^ev i\$omt 3 icai i/oVoj? i\rj(p6niJLev, " we no sooner came than we were taken ill."— hareXu : ciaTeXeT -jrapwv, " he is always there."—- x at P €lv : X ai P ov(Ttu eVawoferct, "they praise gladly" The last word may be used in a finite tense with the participle of the verb to which it refers. Thus we have not only ov ^a/'ptoi/ eVi ^dyoi(ri Bei/i/aVet? i/xe (Soph. Antig. 758), " you shall not abuse me with impunity," but also ovtoi XatpfaeTov (Aristoph. Equit. 235), "you shall not escape unpunished." It will easily be seen, that in all these cases the verb connected with 632 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book IV. the participle cannot be considered in any intelligible sense as an aux- iliary. It might be supposed, however, that the use of e^w with a participle of the aorist, of which Valckenaer has given so many ex- amples {ad Pkoeniss. 712, p. 310), is a periphrasis for the perfect; and indeed, it is used in connexion with the perfect in the line of iEschylus, which he quotes : ireTroiKiXwKe, KaVoc^Acoo-a? e^ei. We believe that it is not merely equivalent to the perfect (still less, as Valckenaer sug- gests, to the aorist), but that it has a stronger sense than the perfect, expressing not only a state consequent upon an action, but also a continuance in that state; thus, 6avpdocca- The future participle may often be translated by the infinitive, but this does not make the verb an auxiliary any more than leoatos Mtri qui peterent is a periphrastic future. Even in phrases like oirep tja ipwv the use of epwv is distinct from that of the infinitive, though we should translate it in French or English, ce que fallois dire, or M as I was going to Bay." The student who understands why jtaimrat elvai means M it appears to be" (ridetur), and (palve-rai o*, u it manifestly is."' i. <\ ■ it appears so, and it is so" (apparet), need never feel any difficulty in dis- Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 633 criminating between the syntactical uses of the participle and infinitive mood. 446 All verbs expressing power, will, &c, are, according to the idiom of the Greek language, immediately followed by an infinitive mood without any repetition of the subject of the primary verb when this is also the subject of the infinitive : to yap (3ovXo/xai (piXoXoyeTv, 7r poatpov }xai avayiyvioaKeiv ov Beerai t^? irpoo-diaarTeXXovo-r]? dv- Ttavvfxia^^ eirei cvva/xei iu avToiradela eyet to t^? crwrdpeoi)*;, eirei toi ttolXiv y\v o Aoyo? toiovtos, f3ovXo/xai ifxavTOv irXovTelv, {3ovXop.ai i/xavrou 7repnraT6?v, tovt€X en/ 7re '0 UKa « 447 One of the Greek verbs expressing power or possibility is deserving of some particular notice, as well from its rareness as from its etymological connexion with a very interesting Sanscrit auxiliary. We refer to o-wkcw "to be strong," a derivative from o-wkos, which appears in Homer, Iliad XX. 72, as an epithet of Hermes : Ar]TO? 3' dvreo-Tt] Ko? epiovvios Epprjs. The verb occurs in two passages only; as an independent verb in jEschylus, Eumenides^ 36 : where, an old priestess, in great trepida- tion, says : ri Seivd Xe^ai, heivd £' 6(p6aXp.o7<; iZeTu, -n-dXiv fx eTre/xxjsev en hoLnav twi/ Aofiou, 634 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IX GREEK. [Book IV. OK /XtJTC <<* occurs as a mere auxiliary in Sophoi >. 1'20: fxovvti yap ayetv ovkcti lat I am DO longer ah! - If to draw op the weight of L r rirf which IS in the < | this use that we arc |q compare ? Tlxdruv. " rd x^P ia °^ v /*' eOeXei Zildaiceiv" {Phoedrus, p. 230 d), dvr\ tou IvvaTai); and /xeXAw is so constantly used in forming the future tenses of verbs, that 6 }UxXwv ^po'i/o? is the regular name for future time, and ra fxeXXovra for future or expected events. 449 "We purpose to devote the remainder of this chapter to an etymological investigation of the most important Greek words denoting will or desire. It is a matter of some interest to point out their pri- mary meanings and their connexion with one another, and, as it would be difficult to do this in a satisfactory manner without the aid of the principles, which we have endeavoured to establish and explain in the preceding pages, a detailed examination of the question will not perhaps form an inappropriate conclusion to this work. The words which we shall more particularly examine in this place are Acuo, deXio, fiovXofxai, fiau, Ou/jlos, and dpytj, all expressive of will, desire, or intention. As the discussion will be long, and encumbered with references and remarks upon cognate words, it will be as well, for the sake of clearness, to state beforehand some of the general results to which the investigation will lead us. 450 It has been mentioned in a former chapter (above, § 266 sqq.), that there are two roots, la- and ra-, corresponding as well etymologi- cally as in signification, which may be traced back to an identity with the pronominal element na. The primary meaning of these elements, in their use as particles or terminations, is — motion in a given direction (above, §§ 130, I69, 204, 270, and elsewhere). From this meaning results the idea of taking or seizing an object, just as the preposition fxe-rd signifies both "following after" and "companionship" (§ 181). The meanings " to look at" and " to desire" are also secondary ones, which association has attached to the root, but which it could not by itself express in any strong or decided manner. We have endeavoured to show, on a former occasion (above, § 169), that, if the element -ra is subjoined to any pronominal stem, it denotes motion or continuation in a line of which the first point is indicated by the particular pronominal word. If, then, this element were appended to the first or second pro- nominal stems, ma, Fa, it would denote primarily a motion or emana- tion from the subject, or from that which is near to the subject. Of the former combination we have the following examples. The syno- nyms /xe-Aos and ne-pos both express " division," " separation of any object into its parts." Now, if we resolve the sentiment or notion of division into its ultimate elements, we shall find that it is reducible to the idea of a line proceeding from the divider and cutting another line, 636 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book IV. the position of which is fixed. It is for this reason that the adjective signifying " middle" is formed by the adjunct ya from mat, the abla- tive of the first personal pronoun, which case of itself denotes emanation, or proceeding from (§ 24?). This adjective is in Sanscrit 9%ad-Aya, in Latin med-iu8. That the Greek /j^Vo-ck wa- originally /.ie'u. in It* ]'i(l>l. II. X^-p^-i K «/°~ 7ro S alp-eTv, eX-eTu, grei-fan, yev-eiu, can-is, hin-than, hand; the labial in vin-star, fan-gen, Jln-ger, mip.-'ue, pan- chan,five; and both elements in gvan, span, kvwv, hun-d. In the sense of seeing and taking, borne by la by itself, and occasionally with an additional Fa subjoined, we have fi-Xe-irta, fi-Xd-Tr-Tw, y-Xav-Kos, y-Xtj- vrj, &c. In the sense of willing or wishing, also borne by -la, we have, from the guttural element, de-X-eiv for eXeTv, as QdXacra-a from crdXaa-aa = aXao-a-a, &c. And here the compound of -la, -ra, with the second root, presents a most remarkable contact to the same combination with the first ; for as we have yev-To, han-d, &c, in connexion with eXeiv, so we have 6ev-ap, " the hollow of the hand," in connexion with 0eA-w, and manus, " the hand," in connexion with \xdpn = -^eip (Sckol. Venet. Iliad "X.V. 37, whence ev-fxaptj^^eu-^eptj^) ; and the words depot, depl^w, express the idea of " smoothness," " cutting down that which is sticking up" (namely, standing corn), just as these same ideas are conveyed by the more general words txav-pds, a-jua-Ao'?, and d-fxd- an( l tne transitions may be ex- plained in precisely the same way by a reference to the principle of the association of ideas. This class is indeed a very numerous and in tant one, for it contains all the old ( I aing with Aa-, Ac-, or A(-. In the verb Aa'a> it- of mean; conceive, first, simply "to see," then "to take," and thirdly, "to \\\A\." In Homer it U doubtful if it bean any meaning but the first. In the Hymn to IfflVOBIJ (v. 36()), where W6 have cucto<; ofu \dmv y it dently m nig." The word occurs twice in the description of the cloak of Ulyw win re it it rath< r unccnain whether it muni ''to hold," or "to look would suit the context; Passow takflfl the latt ti The word.- ar< M faUon - : €v irpoTfpouri -KOLiaai ki'ujv e%e ire. \ov dairatpovra \dtav to ct davfid^tencov airavre* <*k 01 ^pv(T€oi owes, d fxcv Acre vtftpdw dirdy^rnVf (ivt iKiiaw? rjairaip* wdc€t KnMj wc might conclude that it is merely a mi-tak \evo?, and \t i i 459 The suffix F r also accounts for the labials which so often ap- pear in words oi' this family bearing the second signinent ike," Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 639 Thus we have Xa-p.-Bdvta (where the n is an euphonic insertion by way of anusvdra, as in Xa-fx-Trpos), Aa7r-a£co, Aa0-vVo-£o, Aau'-oa, Xafivpivdos, and diroXavu. We regard Ae'7-w, " to pick up/' " select," " take one by one,'' " utter articulate and continuous words/' and its derivative Ae X° 9 (P ro P er ly> " a bed made up of gathered or picked leaves") ; the by-form Aeo-^, "a speaking place," for Xey-*Kti (above, § 219), AaV™, Aa/cco, "to speak," a'3oAeTe<: ov irpocrayopevo/ieda, tv Ttf opo'i* ti? dvcvea-Oto ku\ vttu Ttsiv (virpayuvvTuiv vncptppovovfievos, if Ta icra yfiiww to. 6fxo7a duTugiovTw — u if a man treats hi- inf. ri.rs as equal ■ riiflit to chum tli itmcnt from bit superior-." II' r I t. VX 11, and 109! ^wc tci "icra veu6vTu>v, " if the gods remain neutral." Ajittotle ( /.'//-'. I. in. ]). I36S, Better), ~» as purpose that ft\a*rru$ • red to imply an injury or anything than mere pain <>r loss oct r by an inanimate ;. ll<--:t\ SrT« >rr<* rap I well known that the acaning of the ww '• lay bold lowing i>:i— a_" -. \ I. 38: 7-mrta ya , u> wfCtiHO o\jm cVi tiXac .ptm'unf— , "caught in." I p liim from bit journey." Ob irn l tathius remarks: /3xaV- ; ta. \u d friiuj rum \ . ' , . \ I - Delia tuu-Ia Deei fugacei l.yncaa et oenroa co Ai bm t u ar 'sia- dum eoi I iii). S " Win m \ bvl runner cannot get tk t'ewr not ooMfciai the -w - mention' llesyehiu- ^ hich certainly ii ee-7 b*ke it in soud, I anected m root M lhittmann has remarked, is connect i .>ittw, just at is with wmXsam -rm is di I m uaprj = \c«\ and the same root ii fond in jvrhaps, as A .poses, a cor* Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 641 ruption for ndp*™. We do not look upon /3-pa/3eva (twice drinking)- Were the Sanscrit to express all these qualities of the elephant by one word, it would be obliged to join all those mentioned together, and to add a great number of others. The serpent is called from his motion sarpa or pannaga, going not with feet (from pad foot, na not, and ga going); or uraga, going upon the breast. Besides many other names, the serpent has also in Sanscrit that of fMMMidpMM, wind-eating." In a passage of the Nalus (XX. clok. 1), khc-c/tarah, "going in the air," is used as a name for "a bird," but the etymology is indicated in the comparison : achiren'a aticha- krdtna, khe-charah khe charann iva, "he passed by Qthe rivers &c] rapidly, like an air-farer faring in the air" Besides this it may be mentioned that cercus is nothing but nepeFos, "the horned animal," that lobster, cl ulster, or clubstart (=clultail), is the English name, not merely for a thick-tailed shell-fish, but also for the stoat, an animal with a tuft on his tail (Quarterly Rev. Vol. LVII. p. 90), just as alXovpos = aloXov- pos and oT€pt*v. ci\\ M itiar.u- r..i : <- dvorjTOVK tovtuv yvtona'; - iv. The last line BOO* ing a proverb, like the Italian : Dvro con dmro fa bom 011. It is v, ry ;r.ii_ t: ial all the commentators have failed to per thi> obnoof imteipretatioa, whirl, mad by a passage in Plato, i»: ov mi;: f the change of the 1 in Wtt»/, \io? (which is often applied to bright, shining substances) may very well be derived from Aa'Fw in its first sense, just like AeuKo?. If this is the case, we must suppose the difference of quantity to have arisen from one of those accidents in language which cannot be properly accounted for by any causes known to us. 457 Before we proceed to consider 6e\u> and fiovXopai, it will be necessary to investigate the words aiy\rj, dyXads, and dyaXXw, which Passow assigns to this root. A careful investigation will show us how far this is the case. The first of these words has excited some interest from an ingenious attempt which was made some years since to give a new meaning to it in the Philoctetes of Sophocles (v. 816). The passage runs as follows : "Yttv 6Zvi>a<; dhaw, "Yttv€ £' dXyewv, evarjs tjfxTu eXdois evaitov, eva'itav wua^' o/Ji/jLaat S' ai/Te^;ot? raVS' aiyXav a T6TO.T ai Tavvu. In the Rhemisches Museum (for 1828, p. 125, translated in the Philo- Tt2 614 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book IV. logical Museum, I. p. 468), "Welcker has endeavoured to prove from Bekker's Anecdota (p. 351), from Ilesychius, and from Pollux, that, in the passage of Sophocles just quoted, aTyXjf signifies a band which Sleep was begged to continue holding before the eyes of the slumbering hero. In a subsequent paper [Mkemi for 1833, p. 454, note 3) he made some additional remarks on I subject, of which it may be as well to give a translation. ; " It had been overlooked that in Epicharmus and in Sophocles himeelf a'iy\t) ngnifiee a glittering band to adorn the arm <»r leg; why then -hould it not signify an ornamental band in general, and, in poetic language, the band which sleep lays upon our eye- ■ An it is settled that .-nines a band, we need no confirmation from work- of art, and i n de e d there are none, to ju the simple, but beautiful and figurative DOB of the word by Soph' Otherwise Grftbe too bai -curdy and unpoctically when lie saya in hi- Fault : Irrthum, las las der Aug en Band, 1 1>! and in the second | Lelte bitt du nur um/angen, ■ . \cirf tie xceg. ' I.iul || detain thee ca s ■ l.lin.ifoUl ; ra>t it off:' Even the expr »' utpdaX^uy, f3\(/th. XII. .'-) ; here, however, he DU up as a Tenia in the wreath obtained by Iliir not indeed Avdiav fxlrpav ko '■ .-. VIII. 1 \ • but as a golden band, beeau-e tl. I Doric. 1 remarkably various and piffling image-, which Pindar 0008 when speaking of hifl odea, we shall hardly give up the view above mentioned in exchange for the prevalent idea, especially since in other • calls the Bong oi' victory a ] . IX. 14 . tfl DO of many colours (Jr, me, 6*7), Nay. we moat rath r that in the similar pafl "'/■• IX. IS) the same i I by the « kov/aok, (h\ the Tania\ BOO Anuali \ became mixed up in the - sentence in the Pi 458 To return, however, from thk little to do with the etymology of aly^ (and that discuss), we agree with Lobeck (./ i .; among the derivatives from &t, -'mull be written, Fn'F». The labials may bemoof /*, and perhaj - in £«•©«« oVaTot-FaFo*: compare the Banseri -eH with p»'s ->r at well M cases of a similar insertion Which he mention- (note 14] 0«'«, OaVw; p&OC, p*kw\ nc'tpw. ^a'w, cajno ; rpim, • Injwmet; are al, » we think, to be explained in the same way. The other words con- nected like «v-.\>/ witt a70«, «:tW; from the various met a li^ht . ;" and from the tw B Pindar (PjfCft. IT. 83. V. 11). We have shown above that the si - V '-F-. "hich Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 647 enters into words bearing all these meanings, primarily signifies only motion in general. 459 To this class of words then, we agree with Lobeck in referring the first syllable of al-y-Xr}, " the light of the sun ;" and we entertain no doubt that dyaXXw and ayAaos are derived from it : that ayAaos, at least, is, appears from the fact that 'AyXair], one of the Graces, was called by Hesiod by the same name as her mother A'lyXt} (Senec. de Benefic. L. III.). We consider the ending to be a formation of the pronominal root Fa, under the form ga, with the element -la, which we have discussed above, and we proceed to show that whether it appears as ye-xdw, vev 0l xevov. The idea of shining whiteness is con- veyed also by the word ydxa "milk," and by the Sicilian word yeXa 6±8 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IX GREEK. [Book IV. (Lat. gelus, gelu) u frost," which according to Lennep (ad Pkal Ep. 106. p. 508) is alluded to in the following gloss of Hesychius : KitWr}. (peyyos, avyij, (pws, ird-^vrj^ o/xi^\tj y where Ruhnken (ad Tim. p. 96) reads /3ei\r]. The Reviewer of Niebuhr's History of Rome (quoted by Goller, de Situ et Origine Syraaisarum, p. 1 50) supposes that the Sicilian river Gela was so called from its coolness. "We enter- tain a different opinion. When we remember that the city Gela was founded by the Rhodians (Thucyd. VI. 4), who were near enough to the Triopian promontory to be influenced by the Triopian religion; that the Triopian rites were at an early period introduced into that city (Herod. VII. 153); that one of the Triopian deities Apollo (Herod. I. 144); that an ancestor of Gelon, one Telines of the island of Telos, was Hierophant of the Triopian rites (Herod. VIII. 153), and that this office remained in the family (Bockh, Pindar* p. 311); finally, that the Athenian priest-tribe was called YeXeovTes* (Arnold's Thucydide-. Vol. I. ]». 659), and that the patron god of the old Athenian! • ^»» t r rpyot, considered as the SUIl-^od ((/>a'/(>/- . 869 Bekker)j WB cannot doubt that the city and ri as well as the two kings Gelo and lliem, owed their names to their connexion with the Triopian worehip of the bright aim-god. < >n the whole, then, d'i-y-\tj = fd-y-\t] or 0 It is worthy of remark, that, as the latter of the two elements which go to make up u>/3Aus, above, § 218. 650 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IX GREEK. [Book IV. merits respectively of the pronominal prefix Fa-, are more recent than the simpler derivatives from the root Ae- or AcF-. To return, then, to this shorter form, we have the three meanings " to see," " to take," and " to wish," expressed hy one word AdFo). At a subsequent period the root Fa was prefixed to that word, and different modifications of it were employed to express the same three different meanings. For the first sense " to see," we have /3-AeV-a>, y-\av-, aA s &c, etfl] need by the best writers. We think loXfl as the name <>f an island, is also connected with Oa\da;> Bnttmann says v "while ecY\«, which is beyond all comparison of more frequent occurrence, is the most general expression for will in: w«W ide\m hopcvai. IX. 120: a\£ ideXa dpeo-at, &c); ftuvXoixai is used in this very sense of the gods only, for example, Iliad I. 67 : at Kev 7ra)ne in Euripides, and two in Plato, in which §$4Km an mo so directly Opposed, tliat WO OtBDOl mi-take tlie distUS tliem if we would. In the / Agamemnon : n pnyr opytf% tiro aVoT0ff**OV ~i't\t]0 iTOTfrw Xtav (yti. otffff ot ((tt, ?\ €tv AnrdiCat* irpos "I\tor, tb tontTp mi • 'i \ \ •'('*•'. - tur, r. \. The two passages from I'lat«» are M faO ' ; 3 B: f;t'(in]V...( r , )\«>v ra\ i ai m »"<' i'ai, ov iravra TttUTGt el? 6KCUMX 7T>/ OV 0€Oft TO Cldlf TO W.M r a«i Tf/V Toy iwtOvfiovrro* v' .-i\»;r mJj ou ov av ewtBvfim^ t) frao;' VOacaftfWOlj t myfi/f «f toi/to wptK avTrjv, mvirtp timk cpirramK, swopeyopem yeveaea*; In all these three passages it ifl abundantly elear tli vr to the desire or wishing for a thing, while ed\ the mere will or willingness. In regard to Oikm no\m m the passage from E pides, it is evident from the perfectly similar sentence in T PoUticw (p. 899 n)i that the mere willingness or acquiescence in the office is implied : "pretending to have no desire for the office, but in real wishes, in regard to his ambition, being perfectly willing to under- Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 653 take it." The words of Plato are: ovkoZv o y ZdeXui, K a\ i K uv i„ to?? toiovtois apxeiv ciKaioTar av 6tiovv Travel K a\ cIttot'ivoi; where the meaning is, " he who, willingly and of his own accord, &<$.," as in the Protagoras (p. 335 a): Srt ovk ideXtjaoi ckuv elpai diroKpivo- txevos diaXeyevdai—" will not be willing as far as he is concerned. 5 ' "We do not recollect one instance in the good Greek writers in which fiouXo/xai and ide\u) are confused; they are as distinct in meaning and origin as the German correlatives wiinschen, which answers to the former, and wollen, which translates the latter. 464 It is a common opinion (see Doderlein, Syn. und Etym. V. 56, and Passow, s.v. fleAw), that /3ov\opai, another form of which is 06\ofxai 9 bears the same relation to 6e\io, that volo, volt, volebam, volent, do to velle, velim, and vis for velis, and that the ft and are interchanged like (p and 6 in (prjp and Btjp, and v and 6 in venari and 6t]pav; it is also suggested that the change from e or o to ov is explained by the transition from the Italian volere to the French vouloir. It is of course easy to add a comparison of the Teutonic roots, which really correspond to FeA-, but which have generally been traced to a nearer relationship with fiov\ofxai; such are the Gothic viljan, A. S. vilnian, 0. S. tciU'um, 0. H. G. wellan, N. H. G. wollen, Engl. will. If we had no other means of proving it, this word fiov\o- /jiai alone in its relations to 0e\w, might serve to convince us of the uselessness of confining the functions of comparative philology to a mere juxtaposition of prima facie resemblances*. On all sides, 6e\a * The comparison of fiouXofiai with these Teutonic roots and with volo, and the reference of 0eAu> to a forced Sanscrit affinity, which we find in Benfey's voluminous work (Wurzellexicon, Berlin, 1839-42. I. 320, II. 350, 328), remind us that we have not as yet noticed this laborious attempt to illustrate the Greek language, which made its appearance soon after the first publication of the present work. The fact is, that having looked into Benfey's book in 1844, we so convinced ourselves of its want of any thing like a real insight into the structure of language, that we have not even opened it since that time. It is not to be denied that his industry has been very great, and that he has collected an enormous mass of crude materials; we hear too, from our German friends, that he is a very good Sanscrit scholar ; but he exhibits no acquaint- ance with the higher departments of classical learning, and he deals with Greek words as if there were no means of distinguishing between the root and the formative affix. To take one example; the interesting word vctKivdos is referred to the root u = "to bring forth," and the last part confidently is identified withaV0os ("derletzte Theil des Wortes ist ohne alien Zweifel avOos :" I. p. 413). Now there are many purely Greek words ending in -iz/0os, which is merely a formative affix of pronominal origin (above, § 263). The first part of the word is therefore uatc- as in the Latin vac-cinium ; and we recognise this in the root of v, Hesych.), and in a number of Teutonic roots signifying softness or pliability, e. g. icciche, A. S. wake, &c. We are sure, as in the case of the cognate Iris, that the plant derives its name from the mythological 654 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book TV. presents correspondences of signification to words containing the root FeA.-, with which, we have seen, it has an obvious etymological con- nexion; whereas /3ov\-ofj.ai, with its two labials and heavier vowel o, is no less distinct etymologically from the root Fe\-, than it is differ- ent in signification from the verb 9ikm. And first, let us consider the lengthened form iOeXw. It H I well-known fact, that, in the Greek language, the oldest fdhfl WOT very frequently reduplicated forms of those in common ase. Now, it oibtttred, that a number of verbs, which in the oldest state of the language were digammated, also in the old language appeal with an initial c in the present tense (for example, iektofuu, ecAva/uu, ctpyw, tetcontvo*;, firsts j Buttmann's ■ and digamma, and etXeofiai hai lost both; th- '.ion of the one digamma in i h dna, iinon occurrence of the l from the earlie-t tin in, no one can donbl tsew are connected. That mob i> the case is obnoni from a ooaaperison el the gloeaea .m, riXa4j I • \ ('w i\ T<\\o)i' (Hetjchiue); and the Latin rwilo (all whicb beai the seam of I taw), with the common uses of i The oonneadon ofeAsesi with »j\hkuV»/ is acknowledged who baa read Bnttman ar T»7/)ts Phanias, Hesychins has the foil sees: -tves (on the part sea Tonp, Emmdmtionm, IV. p. 10(3); rfXytm, wiV»/. w Benfey himself has seen that F •* means primarily the cumd lliihnH 11. m . ■ i M ■ equally certain to us that iu the old elementary religion Of Dm I from which tlie legend of Hyacintkus is derived (see Muller, 1> p. 57 J. who however derives the name from the Bower), the beautiful jouth slain by the dl Do is men Ij "bos* tender Bowers are wet with the moisture of hea\en. and wMoh falls I :e powerful orb of the sun- god. Ba that the Ml or "niabow" and the Hyacinth** or "watery flower" are equally symbolical of the triumphs vi the great God of day. 1 : -relation ■ correct, and it" the explanatu ■ a is a fair specimen of the trarsaBaneoa, (and we think that it b ' show that classical scholar. ship is still the best and safest basis of operations for tlie general philologer? Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 655 " to act upon by charms." That in this sense it was nothing more than a synonym for eXxm appears from the following considerations. The principal instrument in magic among the Greeks, especially for love- charms, was the wry -neck, ivyf, a little bird which, when fastened to a metal wheel and turned round like an aTpaKTos, was thought to have a Ivvaixis i\KTiKtj. Thus Pindar says (Nem. IY. 35): 'Ivyyi 3' eXxopai r\Top vovprjvta diyepev, and Theocritus, II. 17 : "/yf, eX«6 tv ttjvov epdv ttoti Zwfxa tov avlpa. Conversely, we find cXkciv 'Ivyya eVt tiw, and the word eXuetv is sometimes used absolutely for " to entice," just like deXyw. Thus we have in Philostratus, Imagg. I. 4, p. 769 : oo-TrafeTai tov ddvarov KaXw ku\ t]6e7 T(p oppaTi KCti olov vttvov cAkovti. This pas- sage is quoted by Jacobs, Anth. Pal. III. p. 664, in a note on the words of Philippus: ok eTwrepKa^eis piapa rpi^iy vvv (piXov cAkwi/, Tt]u KaXdfxrjv tcoprj, 5ou' eavTci, neidei B' ov tou? kcl\ ottyjovv psTpiovs. That this primary notion of BeXyta and eXuco was connected with the idea of eXeTi/j Xafielv, is shown by the tJ i>. (2) OeXefxw^. 1l*vx*S. otKrpSs. (3) QeXepov. 0€Xkt6v, ko.\ to OeXyov tu oppaTa eVl KOKcoVe*. In the first two, we must substitute v, i\la>i, quoted from Xenophon {(Econ. v. 12) and Virgil (Georg. II. 500) by Toup (Emciul. ut S„'„L I. p. 285). \(U) We believe, then, that (3ov\ofxai has no etymological con- nexion with ide\u). This at hast we COT -tain, whatever may be thought of the derivation \v ;t to piOPOn f<>r the former word. livery stud, nt that tie ll in the _ wlii. h Km gin with the syllable fim . In most of these word- it i> nnstftmSTJ to explain this | DO a gloss in II Bo J. to fitya mi woX» o/W. AastmN. Thus ftam\tjt»a is translated M violent hunger," (Iov-kchs "a big boy. W n mark, in the hr-t place, that llesychius SMifllH thi- ptl &1 ribute no weight to the etymologied jHMSS wwl >>( Tlutarch (Sympos.Vl. 8): to /mcv ovv ftovXtfii -a* dwo,\ti»rTj uVtj tou /^ t« x y^pm^ilvoi^- WOV\iflO¥ olov troXvXifioi had BOOM L r,,,, d ISSSOl f<»r attributii ■_ * I what this rSSSQfl was we will endeavour to MOW. The Spartan y wen divided into cl 10008, which hove the same names m and herds, that i-. wen oelltd after the tir>t objects <»f classification in a primitive state. The larger dirisioae wen- ten , a word gene- rally applied t the smaQsf .An.. ■ word ■ its ordinary acceptation denoting a I horse. There are two analogous edverbe coiTeeponxling t<> these two words, » and 7Aac<»». both and bj tety old writ in that in Sparta the ■ WSJ called f^ova (imayfai wmSU II sych.); and its chief was ter fjovdyop (» ayt&aoyift, ci ilp^m* w it, II ~ych.). From the form whioh h farad in Laconian ii is disposed to infer that the ' l e p nse nte the initial digamma of the terinii rpus Jntc VoL I. p. 618), It a] from the form fSoSa, that the digamma must have belonged t-> the tir?t pari und. There are two other words USUI I i lift immediately to tliis political divi- sion : BoVOO, Eti/m. Mihjn.. according to the admirable emendation of Hemster: and . 1: wifl it be denied that the syllable o\u- in these 1 lie ele ment of t SoC<. If so, the name given in Sparta I M literal!; Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 657 same as that borne by a herd of oxen. The connexion of /3oF^ "the war-shout/' with f3ovs and /3«Fts has been mentioned above. We have here a transition from agricultural to political ideas, just as the step in that case was from agriculture to war. We have endeavoured to show on a former occasion that military arrangements were the basis of all the organization of a Doric state, so that the transition is the same in both cases. It might be asked whether the word o Hm i -. M an inteni that of i ff "j in tCTOftJMt/MKOfj 'crriroficipa&poVy iVwotreAiror, iVvoTv^ia, 'fmrovopvo^. The same idea of Weight or strength U I by the word /Sow in the | .>y«r M yXto n. Valckenaer thinks (ad . [V. 158), that it was taken by the Dorians to Sicily, learned there by .T'sehylus, but from the manner in which i: duoed by this poet v s wi \o\) we have do doubt that be oonai I Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 659 it an African word, and used it as such, because his chorus consisted of African damsels. The passage, which is almost hopelessly corrupt, stands thus in the MSS. : IXeo^ai fxev 'Aniav /3ovviv, K apf3dva S' auodv evya kovuk ttoWcikiV efXTriTvw %vv XclkiIi. As we cannot believe that the second person of a verb would be inserted in the adversative clause to l\eofxai fxev, and before e/***™, which is the legitimate antithesis, and as the last two syllables of TroX-XaKih' seem to be suggested by the XaKidi which follows, to say nothing of the feebleness of such a par- ticle as Tro\\d>cL<; in a sentence expressing the visible act of the sup- pliants, we would read and arrange the passage as follows : tXeofxai p.ev Airlav fiovviv, Kappdva o' avhdv evdnoov els iroXiv yeovcr e/XTrnvta £uv Xanlhi XlVOKTtV t] ^ICOVIOL KaXvTTTOa. In inscriptions we find evtjKoos as an epithet of protecting deities (Bockh, C. I- II. p. 422). For the phrase ^cova avcdv, we may com- pare Sept. c. Theb. 73 : (pdoyyov ^eoixmi/. SuppL 626: ev/CTOua ^eouo-a?, and for els iroXtv ^eovaa, we have Agam. 230 : els irelov -^eovcra ; and the whole passage, thus altered, will be strictly parallel to Pers. 120: ixr} ttoXis Trvdr]Tai xa\ to Kio-crtvov tt6Xi (rrr/pec. vofxeTs. (17) "Buxtt peTu. ftoav. kclXuv. eiriKaXeTtrdai. From (l) we learn that fiow\<; denotes " the earth " in general ; from (2) that ftowo* means a heap of straw, for instance, litter for an ox ; from (7), (9) and (10), that /3o)Ao; • now it so happens that both theOO WOrdl are need by EosUthi« [mi p. 880) to explain /SowtK; | f ce KoXuvtj xa\ \6) it appears th.it the i-land of Kuboea, which is signified by r/' Mc(«fci t5), was called B«/i»: now we know that the I w, either on account of ill Doetniei or from the myth iboeri U>: -7Tl)V Tt]V "1(0 T(KC?|/ oint out that the OOU ween the land and the cattle, which are used for tilling it. M immediate. IV indeed 10*000 to believe that in the oM (iermanie family, the names o( the OOW and the Karth are OOflfteaul the latter being derived from the former, which was the -yinbol of fruitfulness and agriculture. (See the Ituliscl .11. | and Boppi Ohm* i >-it. p. 109, <*h chuo, and Anglo-Saxon C*\ all meaning ■ agree with 01 the Sanscrit names for "the earth," the (ir and the Latin bfo, Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 661 perfectly coincide with the other. Thus, to take the cases which cor- respond in the three languages, we have Nom. bhus ftovs Ids Gen. bkuvas /3oF6<: bovis Dative and ) bhuve /3ofi bovi Locative J bhuvi abl. bote Accus. bhuvam ftoZv (for f36Fav) bovem It is also remarkable that 71/, Doric 7a, the common name for " the earth," coincides with the other Sanscrit name for the earth, which also signifies " a cow." As the nominative of the latter word is gaus, we should expect gavam in the accusative ; whereas we have gam or gah, which is identical with the Doric accusative yav. The Greek student will recollect that there is a longer as well as a shorter form of the Greek word for " the earth," namely, jaTa as well as yfj. Lastly, it should also be mentioned, that the Germans have Gau "country" by the side of Kuh "cow," and that our Saxon ancestors spoke of a ''''hide of land." 471 The word Ovpos is particularly interesting from its use in the Republic of Plato. It will be recollected that Plato, and Hooker, after him, consider the mind as performing the three distinct functions, rea- soning, willing, and desiring ; Plato divides the mind into three indepen- dent faculties, by which these functions are performed, namely, Ao'70? or \071ayA0?, Qvfxos, and eiriSvixla (Respubl. IV. p. 439 D )> the first belonging to the to Ao7«tt;*, metis, tnaneo, With jiia(o = Mn , -(u, /ut f /uaa=/ueitoic; . affinity Of these forms is clear from i-j € » ofty, jcyaa, and jf-yova (above, j U4). The relation between W m and *e\-\m (for u t \- v «,) 18 the same as that which SUDSM KcVno and rc\- tweeo yeV-ro and ! Thai *e*-m yui-M in expressing an expectation o\\ or a mental im] any object, as well as the meaning of tixity or continuance, which it Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 663 generally bears, will appear from the following passages. Homer, Iliad XV. 599 : to jap fxeve fxtjriera Zeus 1/7709 Kaioixevrj'i aeXas otpBaX/jLoTcri IhecrBat. Sophocles, Philoct. 511: eyco fj.ev »' a * * evvairep eirifxefxovev en evcrToXov Ta^eias veoos Tropei/a-aip? av e? hdfxovs. And the idea of remaining or abiding may be conveyed by forms which have lost all traces of the original suffix v- \ as in jEschylus, Choeph. 464 : Ito Zvo-KaTOLTrava-TOv aXjos h), and these are ultimately identical. Modern scholars have not ob- served this fact, and have therefore got into great difficulties about some words of this class. The word which has caused them most doubt is Boa^w. That this word may signify " to move quickly," whether in a transitive or intransitive sense, appears from the following passages of Euripides: (1) Transitively: Bacchw, 65: Bod^eiv irdvov. Iph. T. 1142: Bod^eiv -jrTepvyas. Orest. 355: Bod^cov ae tov fxeXeov. Her. F. 382: eOoajjou KaBaiua USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book IV. the meaning of the word is "sit:" and, indeed, Plutarch (de Audicndis Poetis, p. 22 e) and the Etymologicum Magnum (v. 0(J«o comes from Ct'w, riftf/ci; Hermann, on the contrary I pkodis /o- cutn) t denies the existence of the latter signification, and twistfl passages of JEechylns and Sophocles to a very forced and unnatural meaning. The glees in Hesychius eh poses, that be was puzzled by the wi.nl, but that it possessed a range of meaning8: Ood^er T^e^o, palverat, believe that the pound moaning of the root is "place" or M make," with whieh the second meaning, "be placed" or "seated," i> intimately connected. T rtant word into whieh the root enters with this meaning is e\oc, ami form was t SS they said *oitja't for iruitjaiu, and fiovroa (Etymol Magn* p. ;:oi\ It may be i: sow that there are in the Sanserit language rej r :h of and To the latter the common word . the name, indeed, of a particular god in the Hindu myth god of tire (Bohlen, dot altc Indiiti. 1. p. 206), but still only a general name for the Deity (Bohlen, I. pp. 148, 806), as appears from t: noun cinun, which means '* happiness," *• prosperity," the lot of the gods (Afjmni R r, V. IjO. 1 words and the Latin ? (pt]€a? diro toioJtou, oti nocrtxuo fleWec to ircivra mpY\y\xaTa koi 7ra)• Tli Mn (p. 645, 42) gives both etymologic-. Clemens of Alexandria (8tt Hero- dotn- flcos mapd Ttjv &et may lurk in the hitherto unexplained word ( that the etymology which would . ,d," and _ >od, w i- en -re lihwk }Cu-> latter i- nl.i m root 70$- or y»;' the former OOOl so that tlic compound na\mmdy*$o\ actually unites the substan: with the adj* If khifi is the ea- mean "the creator;" in im- mediate oonsexioa with which we tun lace," M (OUIII ther with Amp, " BBfiriJ ship.'' The last word but one often cxpr nt motion, but we do not think, with PaSBOW, that this meaning i> due t >n of flaming, biasing, «\c. derived from a - The meaning of motion became attach* n gto the principle oi n from contrast, and II class of words in which the meanings are more mixed up together than in this. With regard to the form, Km bean the same relation to 0tF», that fDpvio and lo to f3pi£ \ but the id ftness seems to l>e included in the word even in this application el it, for most pet BOPS, whose reason has not the full command over their other faculties, are accustomed to look upon that which is sudden and warding, as also alarming and terrible. Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 667 Compare the use of Kan-aa-Trepxw (Thucyd. IY. 126), &c. Buttmann has clearly shown (Lexilogus, II. p. 6*0) that 6o6s has also the meaning "sharp," " pointed," as a synonym for of w: lie appears, however, to be wrong in supposing that this was the primary signification, and that dtjyeiv, daa-arov, ra^w, contain older forms and meanings of the word than dew : a comparison of the terms "sharp" and "quick" in English, the use of the word " set," as applied to sharpening a knife, the resem- blance of a>Ki/? and o'fu'?, and the English word "fast," which means both "fixed" and "rapid," will show us that the ideas of fixedness, rapidity, and sharpness, are frequently interchanged (see also above, § 218). There can be little doubt that, as Buttmann supposes, the 6^re? or lowest division of the subjects of Athens were so called from their being the oldest inhabitants, the Sassen or Insassen (inhabitants), and similarly we may recognise the root «e- (fcct/iou, &c.) in ci-vis, Osc. keus ( Varron. p. 95). The word floa'fio bears most of the significations of this root, as indeed we see from Hesychius, and the passages which we quoted before. The use of iiridodtyt in ^Eschylus (Choeph. 853) and in Euripides (Medea ad finem) is to be explained from the meaning of "sitting as a suppliant," just as irpoa-rpeTreadai, "to turn oneself towards," and 7roocriKi/e?o-0ai, " to go to," came to signify absolutely " to supplicate," and especially a begging for purification on the part of a polluted person. The word Qvfxos conveys the idea of an eager motion towards any thing, an impulse ; and in this sense it agrees pretty well with the second meaning of 6vw, from which also the idea of anger may easily be derived: the idea of "motion towards" is implied in anger as well as in desire, and hence we have such phrases as dvfxovadai ere ti, « to be angry with a thing," as in Herod. III. 52 : h to J? -roKea? ku\ € (above, § 253). For 0eoy*ot we have the by-form red-fios; very often appears instead of a, but also trorvia, corresponding to the Sanscrit patni, and iron/a. We have irorvta with a genitive case, as an epithet, like the Diva potens Cypri of Horace : thus Homer, 11. XXI. 470: worn* Orjpwv. Pind. Pyth. IV. 213 = 380: TroVvia 6£vrd- tidv fteXwv. Now the name for a master of a house in Latin is hot-pet (hos-pit-s), and it appears from a comparison of the Latin hos-tis, hos- tia, Gothic Gasts, Polish GW/Jttfar or Ifns-pul.ir. New High German yc-gesscn, and the Sanscrit root gha$, 4i to cat," that hos-pit-s means < l the master of the feast." If, then, we remember how oftu. used in speaking of a meal (comp. irape&tjKe Tpu-ncQiv, &c), and that the word Oi>l v>i, togethei with OuaOtu and rWa<; \< connected with Mm, Of bear- Um lation to the San-erit ildsa-s, "a slave" (from t 1 that cav\iU does to lam (Pott. I. p. 190), we do not venture to decide. 47«") The common adjective from t t m w oi ft is It m uo mv wt . We liave, however, another form cmttto'o-joc, in ^Eechylus, Supplies!^ 848 : leairocrlio £i>V vfipct, where Turnebu- eOTrcviy, and Stephens eeo-TTon-iM^. We think the word i< genuine, and that it i< confirmed by the name farvomoiNMrryc, given by tlie Lacedamonians to the h who were emancipated and sent on ship-board. M ffOrUfn, p. 271 p) sav»: »©XAaucw t)\ev6ef>u)tTa9 CKaAetrai', DOT N act o-itJtoi'9, owe Vf"** Sjta-woirtoravTat £e a&Aovc, ow eh tui ■<■ KaTtracro-ov. It will be recollected, that in the passage under consideration, a herald is endeavouring to force the Dana'i'des and their father to go on board a ship; ami .T'schylus, who had often served in tin 1 same rlevt witli the Laeedamonians, might very well have understood thai I t trpoK a- crp. y it ayej, 3 upaj(i>o<; u 4 ovap ovap * fi aypav. -ov* o^>k utrrtirrp. y. % •[('iiDf 0* C\.io»'Tmt 3 i\ ai .33 — 36. The herald replies, M I will set yon blesdmg on board my bark. V. are yon busting your breast, baw: I'o which the chorus an-- r my heart." With regard to the phraseology, the future i-u doea sot oecor, • Wo are acquainted a ith those h are recorded in the edition* of Bate (Onto lorf^Ox*>r s*r« the necwity of repeated reference we hare designated all the nroomletfons which we have introduced for the first time bj an eetevfak *), and hare placed an obelus i+) before those which had boon mggi h regard to the emendations of Hothe and Barges, we subscribe to \ k : std kttc ris*i sunt cmivis id no. Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 671 el ; and Ilesychius gi iftporor d-7rdv6puirov y so that we need not think of the glow: d-rrpoTov*: tovk Kara avppop'tav KciKovpyov<; (Bekker. Anted, HI . We are willing to believe that irepiy^pifxina ftpvdQt*, though DOi very led by irtpi- TrepLTTTa duoo-nc* (A T. 192: \eyci fxe Trcpif3driTo« would be written in much the seme way as Vopev, we prefer reeding 6 iropcvaa* r\ 7rpoya0, 1 o-^tip.druv (PI and from the (I reck conception of 1 kind of ophthalmia, ea by an ctllux Off emanation of particle* from th lylus m 4 1 I .- irddta 6* vir€pyroi~ ) all love would vanUh (SO imitation in Euripi '5: nK'i c i r apy t f* ;S\€ou vvp 7/xepo<: are to be taken together in D (see Julius Pollux. II. sj (K> : KsyOUTT \dfAirovT€<:, k. r. \., MM to aw avrmv d-rropptov 7pepos). Euripidc-. fDftK, ^)«f, oc kot' OU/.UITWK 1 r h. Aul o< rat r.Xtia? iv aVrwVcx >oic tf UT OX tl'UMK, riato, Phcedrus, p. Jol 1;: it^a/nsw njff diroppot]. Chap. 5.] USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 675 twi/ ofXfxarwu.. Aristot. Eth. N. IX. 12: to?? epan to opoi; dyairr]- TOTCtTov €t orw-, &c, may have a similar origin. There is also some trace of an implication of the sense of seeing in the root 6aF-, the primary mean- ing of which is motion or impulse. Thus, the words expressing astonishment, Bav-^a, -re-QriiT-a-, 8a'-/i-/5o?, &c, are clearly connected with daw, davw, and dedofxai, " I gaze at." 479 Hesychius gives 0^7*7 the three following significations : Tp6- 7To?. fxavia. dvfxds, the order of which should, however, be reversed; for 0i//jio? is the word which contains the primitive meaning of dpyr\. The ground-idea in both is the same, "an impulse," or "moving in any direction." The analogy between 0v/*oe and dpyrj is farther ob- servable in the application of the roots of both to the designation , of sacred rites : that duta and its derivatives are so applied, we have already seen, and the same may be said of opyia, dpyetav, dpytd^w. This meaning appears to be derived from the custom of holding out the hands or parts of the offerings to heaven, (comp. e^ero -yap opeywv e's ovpavou da-repdevra, with duplices tendens ad sidera palmas, and ,riinn; kktl ■ i/h-jt ; kfaktfSnkt ■» Htp£lfC, ArUi-khsha- ^; i'i\':, but that Sfffq nine transcript of the original ks/iaj/ars/ni. We refer all tie - lost root fcs/tii = k ynft'ntj and khshaij-a rs/ia = trx MMOfltf, like the Sanscrit r<{i-arsAi= ;v.r MMOfMti Now we have shown above the connexion in meani: g /•7H . Fuerst is inclined to explain the former in the same way as Sanscrit scholars illustrate the root raj-, namely, by a reference to the idea of light and splendour : " Radix hujus verbi compositi est =uj *? (^?^) y i splendendi; vis autem splendoris et excellentiae ad regnum transfertur" {Concord, p. 635). It appears to us that the word is more truly referred to the root of K^B, ttXcV, ttoA-J?, "full," which, through pol-leo, connects itself with val-eo, validus, and the Sanscrit bala — vis, robur, and, like fie\-T'uav, mel-ior, expresses personal superiority. In the Tyrian language it seems to have dispensed with the affix ^- which distinguishes the word in Hebrew and Arabic : at least it is easy to explain Me\-l-Kapdo<; "the king of the city," RFnj?yp, m * ne same wa y as Ab-i-melek (above, p. 243), and in the Maltese Inscription we have JTIjypp (Gesenius, Ling. Ph. Mon. p. 96), where even the connecting vowel is omitted, and the same is the case in the well-known proper names Ha-mil-car, Bo-mil-car, &c. We do not connect with this root the other word /^^, which is sufficiently distinguished from ^ft in the Inscription just mentioned, where we have the three quasi-synonyms in one address : J^HJ7?u? ^3"^? "lk b^4 "to our Lord, to the city-king, the superior of Tyre." It seems to us that /V"4 is merely a prepositional compound indicating superiority in place, so that it corresponds to ai/a-£ from dud: we have a perfectly analogous form in 7%-D . iEschylus, no doubt, when he makes the Persian Chorus address their king as fiaXJv (Pers. 663), was thinking of this word byZ , which he had heard from Phoenician sailors. In the Scholiast, we must of course read Tvptiau for Oouplasv, though the word seems to have taken root in Phrygia also. The etymology of the Egyptian word Pharaoh is fully discussed in the Quarterly Review, No. CLV. p. 168. 480 The meaning of opyt], when it denotes an emotion of the mind, is easily deduced from that of the verb S-piyuj. In all cases it indicates " an upward striving," " a tendency to the surface," " an im- pulse," " a fancy," " a first impression," " a prominent desire." Hence we understand such phrases as opyds evfi&efc Ka-racrxedeTv (Soph. Antig. 1166), "to keep down their angry impulses, and so to make them gentle :" and we have the same idea in another passage of So- phocles, which has given the greatest trouble to the commentators. 678 USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. [Book IV. Electra is excusing herself for the irrepressible outbreak of joy with which she welcomes her long-lost brother : she was silent, she - when the false message of his death reached her, but she cannot con- tain herself now. The true reading and arrangement of the pa- (Soph. Electr. 1281 sqq.) appear to us to be the following: u> (p'i\ai ^jav'iK~^ IkXvov * . - - - - •> au €'/(*) ovc civ tj\7ri(T civcav, ti\[aiCK]\vov, and with this insertion, tli further difficulty in The tense of " ' B issigns to opytj when be renders it quite ■ secondary on ; the tiansitaoq ■ the sea \n$pfio*. The third meaning, rpowe y old appl I this word (11< Wh t n of will and oharacter, which i some transi t i o n to the meanir_ milar to that which produced the words ,k humour" and M temperament/" we cannot pretend to say. There li i smgul ir passagi f Thucydid. ~ (VII I. BJ in which the word i in the plural muni rwp rt ^Amricj^m -i0«'porr« i of this phrase ("humouring," "supplying or mi as a man likes, >W tli.it b I the liast, who Bays: -rd rr^pew »f7V» W T ? X a t nP" p€~V i '/*" Ttl* ^lOP- a-iKtji' an ya* to opyqv entirely alters the meaning of the phrase; at leaf iTi expression (Ii.n,. 111. iTTupepwv t»/i' •',•'*, ■';'»■. must, like that which is qu< I the eff&cts of ■nam (it in both passages); and with regard to the terms cY.Tt\u and !. U Ion, 939 170 I Ipk.Aul.SM Ipk.Tmmr.9* in M,>i. mi ... Pk Tr, HsmoDO i i. no ii. M in. I 119 •v. n im 179 v. 9. K»l VI. 11 vn. BO no ; vm. M HSSTCBl 1 II HoMKR*. "Emend, var. fct, p. 193 »qq. 194 Iliad i. 31 174 ii. 879 iv. 323 297 v. 893 154 Iliad vi. 38 AM L4 xi. 336 xni. 359 174 499 Odyss. 1.140 191 v. 17 17-' m xii. m 171 xv. xvi ; i;»; xix. no «'.i ■ ; i sis : 900 I 1 . //of, 181, 286 i\8p€nl{io\oSi 305 dfyxfc, 33G at ly tytnjt, I dcVaor. atyXr;, at yX 71-77 s, ai&us, ■fet, atjT/iu's-, ■Mb) 228 atXoqpofi 655 * aj/io\ 324 diu>, .">13. €86 Jifo'Xov^of, 213. 223 dxd/ttorof, 335 aJcratW, 447 ciAftya), 213 dXi;0u>d r , _ dAArJXo)*, 1G7, 173 dXXor, 188 .268 dWurpioty dXXurtpc\ aXo\ot, 181 \\\4>tya), 213 u^c/n, 17 2 aV, 1S4, 186 a*a, 184 a»a£, dvtpcxfr&jpos, Sfl dwicdr. d»*7/>, I dyijp, 333 a^^os, 334 dm', 171 arrpov, ao(of, 262, 286 d 285 d>^. d^urAJ^furrof, 300 apurrtp6s, 272, 285 d^itrrot, apurr< «'», 285 J.-r,:^., 888 ^n«m 296, 414 W. ^f» 285 Wpra&ptot, 16<>. Sac and traXator . 1 1 n. INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 685 doyieparrara, dcrpevearara, aV/zeiwepoy, 166 ao-p.es, 136 daird^opat, 213 aWdpayoy, 212, 213 aamsy 213 ao-Taxvs, 213 (trap, 138 are, 197 arep, 204 aTiTTjSy 254 aria), 437 jfVn-iKT;, 97 aS, au&r, 138, 18.0 avepvw, 189 aw, 189 avpa, 198 avrdp, 138 atfravror, 138 avriKd, 196 avTOKTOveco, 173 avroparos, 472 auros, 138, 303 dcpaipovpai, 316 d(poifiavTos, 218 'AcppoSiTTj, 247 A^aid?, 97, 322 'AxcXcSoj, 270 a^, 169 0ayd?, 254 ^aBv\a1os, 475 Ba*xos, HO 0a\^, 479 /3dXXa), 110, 436 0ai/a, 133 /3di/auo-os, 326 /3ap/3apd(pa)i>oy, 88 fiaaikcvs, 254 /3eio/iai, 378 /3e'Xrepo?, /3eXria)i/, 262, 479 /3Xa7rra>, 454 /3Xa£, 218 /3XeVa), 452 /3X77YDO?, 218 /3Xa)0"K&), 218 /3ot7, 284 /3oj70ea>, 284 jSoXXi;, 466 /3or, 255, 268, 324 8«ea, 161, 162 deicopai, 161, 271 Se>ar, 290 8e£ios, Beglrepos, p. 271 §292 Sepxa), 152, 262, 269 Secr/xdy, 253, 474 SeWoii/a, 228 Seo-7rd(no?, 475 beaivoo-iovavTrjs, 475 deaTroTTjs, 228, 474 8evpo, 155 Sea>, 155 deopai, 155 817, 201 Sqtfei/, 202 S^Xos, 265 8rjpos, Srjpos, 253 drjpocrios, 298 87V, 202 8777-1?, 156 Sid, 180 SiWa, 180 8iap-do), 218 8icnrpvo-ios, 150 SiareXcS, 445 §iarpoxd£a), 174 diacpepopai,, 180 SiSdo-KO), 219 didvpos, 180 8i£a), 180 686 II. INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. didvpapftos, 317 diKcuos, 290 diicrj, 289 diKaionoXts, 291 Aia-corqpiov, 318 bioTV(vu), 433 b Lottos, 433 dlO7TTfV0i, 433 &VXa£, 280 Mt, 165 fi»Wof, 219 SoXi^'r, 209, 344 8oV7T(<0, 47" fyua), 1G4, tt9 dpantTTjs, 1G4, ; tydpor, duvu/iai, 862 Sue, 180 bv(rp.(VTjs, \ bl'Cii, i 5u)fif/ca, 159 I, i 10 typjyo,>, ef(ra. Tcrci). ft, 1. ife, pp. 810, i MM 16S E.'Xf.r t&S 189 tiff, 17" fir, 154 17." . "J79 ftra, 202 'E/ca^r/, 276 'EkuXtj, 276 'EKapTJSr), 276 eW, 273 cKaroi', 162 (kotos, (tcarr), (Karcpos,273 (Kan, tKT)Ti, 273 e'/cflj/or. f'r^jo'Xof, 273 oojXor, II- fK0Vq, (KVp6i, 110 tK, 404 tUpnros, I «/ioXo». tv&aroipai. t¥tpy*ia, 340 fwt, 161 «Vor rf icai woi, crreX«\fia, 340 error, (gai, 174 'ETra/ifiwovo'ar, 202 €77ap.(pOTCpi£<0 y 174 iirapKa, 284 fWa 7rrfpo'fJTa. iirtpycuTicL, 174 inHTfkOelv, \~o fV^rij, l!54 r myopia, 1 74 (wirjpot, 285 imBoafa, ; (mpLa\ia, 174 -a), 174 emropia, 174 Jnipa$do, 110, 216 £ea, 216 Cevyov, 180, 216 Zeuy, 202, 216 byyifcpi, 216 W» 180 ?, ?, ft 4, &c. 199, 200 "H/3 7 , 329, 336 fjorj, 201 9 Mr, 199 W/>. 199 ■qkaKarq, 116 JjXfKTpov, 116 T^arios-, 298 »7/xeIy, 136 J7/iei/ — 77'de, 201 rjpepa, 150 rjpeprjaios, 298 ijpepos, 150 17/xt, 199, 436 rjpicrv, 150 ?*, Tjj/idf, 193 771/t/ca, 196 fjvox//-, 95 i77rap, 150 V7retpoy, 150 fjTrepoirevs, 254 q7rurr)s, 475 *Hpa, 329 "Hpaios, 'HpFaoToy, 329 'HpaKXfjs, 329 i7po)?, 329, 414 tffc, 199 fe 199 ^aXao-o-a, 110, 473 0a>/3oy, 0a{5/ua, 318, 478 6e, 202 Qeaiva, 228 0erda>, 478 tfeX-yo), 464 OeXepos, 465 tfe'Xa), 463 Oevap, 450 0«fe, 473 tfeoo-Soro?, &C. 310 %>/£©, 450 0€, 110 %er, 473 Oiao-os, 318 0od£a>, 472 #00/77, 474 tfoo'y, 473 <9o>/3oy, 272, 318 epa£ 92 Bpda-o-co, 272 dptapftos, 317 0pti/a£, 318 0piW, 318 fyToi/, 318 OveXXa, 477 ^/xe'XT?, 476 OvpovaOai ets icepas, 170 #17x09, 471 Bvpos, 476 6vp, 110, 318 "apftos, 317 ia7rra>, "lyvqres, 139 i&oy, 139, 166 iSov, 193 iopas, 110, 167 iKai/o'y, 116 l<€Tr]S, 318 "crap, 475 w, 139 'imrobappov, 220 LTTiroKprjpvos, &c. 468 'l7T7roppedovTOs, 220 i7nros, 110 Tpty, 464 Icraios, lo-airepos, 167 W, 219, 434 lo-oy, 152 ia-**), 219 tvyfe 464 io)i/, 133 -iW, 165 ko", 186 *a6>oy, 267, 473 KaOapos, 267 cat, 186, 195 *cal ravra, /cat rot, 198 KaKoyeircov, 322 KaXea), 209 AcaXXos", /caXXotrww7, 258 KaXoKayaOos, 321 AcaXoy, 324 «aXv£, 254 KaXxas, 296 Ka/xa£, 286 Kapnos, 162 Kara, 182 KaTai6vo-ara>, 458 Karaprvco, 218 Kardqbijpt, 184 KarriyopLa, 125 KarqpTVKcbs, 218 KavXos, 163 KeWev, KeWi, 186 Ke«/o?, 135, 138 *«/, 186, 195 Keiro, p. 269 *epas, 209 Ke, 200 KfxeXedpa, 121 KoOev, 182 Koipavos, 336 koXttos, 458 koXcovt], 410 KOppW, 21.", Kopnos, 317 K07rrG>, 317 ftdpor, *opvr, 210, 202 Kopvfyrj, 216 nfer/uw, 216, 267, #71 tt$TTq0Of, 216 wovpidiot, 330 K/KiM'o Kpfliorfl, I Kpi)b(pVOV, 410 Kpl'p'TJ, K t > . 206 iu>, 216 . 216 ir, 331 KVfMOf, ■ XSor, 468 Xay\ Aa&, 466 Xapf&mi 468 Xa/irr^)us\ 462 X(i(TK Xaa), 4." I 45;;. 4;.;. . 8 1 4 228 Xe£t f , 125 XeV^, 219, 453 Xfv, 191 p.eyt$oi, piyurris pi&f.i pef,- p(U. 154 ' p.e'Xas, 121 pcXsW . fie'XXco. M^of, 178 ^cr, 134 ptpip.va, 410 pfpprjplfa, 41" I pt'poy^. pKTlTTJS, i fittraot. ptnmpo*, 181 M7» 189 /i7*wt 269 fiTjrpoKTopof. Wrptwa, 414 185 fiipioi, >n'/>*>, 163 Mil', I V*p.H9 TO vi^df, 199 urar, ra «ro. II. INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 689 voo-tos, 136, 164 v6o-, 221, 432, 436 £vr, 181 £vj/dy, 181 £va>, 433 6, 137 v Oa£oy, "Oacriy, otarpos, &C. 110 oy8ooy, 164 oSe, 156 ode, ovroy and kcIvos, 135 obeiva, 156 dSovv, 132 'OSuo-o-fvy, 115, 167 6^oW/ca, 277 otSa, 110 oIkj]TT]S, OLKTjTUip, 267 011/9, oIvi£oy, 110 ofo?, 152 oids Tf, 197 olada, 110, 353 OKTCO, 159 oX/Sa^i/Voi/, 116 oXjSos, 116 dXiyioroy, oXiyicrrdy, 164, 167 oXXu/it, 215 oXoy, 116 op8pos, 217 opocrnopos, 313 o/iojy, 247 oj/eidoy, 212 ovopa, 124, 132 'O^dtfprjy, 160 onXiTTjs, 259 o7rXoi/, 259 o7TTopai, oaa-opai, 216 O7TG0?, 196 6pda>, 209 opyT;, dpyaa), 479 opyvia, 296, 414 dpe'ya>, 477 6p3o7rovs, 315 6ppa66s, 383 opi>iy, 262 opoy, 174 opxapos, 479 opxqo-is, 6pxwH-° s > "pxy- (ttvs, 254 o^ 148, 243, 300 ocroy, 152 ocrou re, 197 ore, &c, 197 ov, ouk, 96, 176, 189 ovdeis, 156 ovOets, 156 ouk — aXXd, 201 Ou/caXcya)!/, 189 ov p.77, 394 ovv, 189 otWjca, 277 ovpavos, 259 ouy, 189 OvYiy, 189 OvroTTta, 189 oSYoy, 135, 138 o(ppa, 196 6a p a"oy, 88. naklpfiapos, 174 7raXat6y and a'p^atoy, 12 naXiv, 264 7raj/dy, 199 Travovpyos, 313 Traot, 262 7rapd, 177 HapQevvonaios, 220 napdevav, 260 7rapt7r7reuto, 178 ?ray, 265 TroV^o), 114, 219, 434 narputos, narpipos, &C. 41 4 TreSa, 158 7retpa), 178 7re'Xayoy, TreXdyioy, 280 7reXapydy, 195 IleXao-ydy, 95 IleXo^, 95 7re/x7ra£o, 161 irevrc, 161, 162 nevdosy 114 Trenapelv, 178 irenovOa, 441 irepdco, 178 Tj-ep&u, 382 Trepi, 177 7re purenjs, 178 7repi7rerrcu, 289 7rept'xptp.7rra, 475 7rep7repoy, 178 7rep 383, 467 nlnno, 431 TrXay/crdy, 280 7rXd|, 280 7rXea), 270 Trkrjyrj, 199 ttX^i/, 200 7rotT]pa, 410 7tolkIXos, 266 7rotKtXdaTiKroy, 266 n-ot/^F, 133, 256, 410, 436 TTOlVTj, 410 iroKirqSy TroXnjrrjs, 259 7roXXoo-rdy, 164 rroXvy, 479 Yy II. INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. nSKx os > 221 7ropevfiara, 218 nopBpos, 254 norpos, 253 noTvia, 228, 474 7rvpl 7rpvXffr, 154 7rpan£dr, 216 TTTOXTIS, 2-7 P«, 201 pa(38os t 171 /JtVo), 177 p«'o>, 270, -177 prjpa, 1 1 1 ptfx(}>a, 177 piVra>, 1 •'.<», 477 pi. :1 creXqn;, 4(il crft'a), 473 , I covfiai, 473 (rrrcLKa, 1 1 1 1 OTrXax»'oi>, 0^X171/. o-rrovfi^', 223 aradiodpopfb), 437 (rrevoxwpia, 280 or/ptrv// (rropwpi, 223 €T€pOS, 1 1 1 j£, 11_'. HI otpo'r, 14 1 «c'cD. 44 7 rapine, MS, rd*. I rr. 14.». 186, 195 ■ TtWfiTavTos, 220 T*\os, 178. v, r*Xf»oa>. F rtptipios, 318 rtppa, 1 " 1 -Tfpot, affix. F r^Xt^, r^Xucor, T^pOS, rqriKCL, 196 149. 156 rex, rotyapt toikw, 198 to»/, 132 ; rdpoy , roppos , 1 78 1 Tooror , tovv, 133 rpaipa, 1 78 rp«Zf, rpiTroXtcrros. Tpim.fr, I rp^of. rpvw, 178 i-vy^a***, 445 i^f|«tlW, .".<»:• rupfrnrta, 318 . rvpfy, 318 Cdo>p, 167, 228 114, 340 t-nVp, wro, vwtpcucraim. vwwot, 1 1 • » wnxpn-. tirrp, 447» pio $8 polfuoy, 1 tppoifof, poiy oy, 287 X&'s, 150 X&Co'ff, 216 XiXtot, x^os, 163 x XaCo), 336 xX^Soy, 336 xXt^, 336 XOipas, 281 Xotpoy, 281 X^pos, 280 Xpat(r/icco, 284 Xpao'/xat, 287 Xpavco, 281 Xp*"*, 284 XPWipos, 284 Xpip>7TTa>, 281 XPoi'w-kXutos, 310 X^pa* x^P os> > X°P° S » 229, 280 ^aXtoi/, 221 \jWXXco, 432, 436 ^e, 144 ^«/, 221 coW, 473 coXa£, 116 J/^ioy, 116 coy, 170 coo-re, 197 co tgj/, 133 III. INDEX. MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. Abstraction, 56 ac and attjue, 104 Acts of the Apostles, xvii. 96; II Adelung(J. C), 3*i adoro, 47'.' r T. ), 19, 806, nt, Art/a-. ir•,;,;{ Bentley ( Dr K.). M, 11", p. 101 aq* Berkeley (BfashOf bes % 188 Blacken (Dr), p. 402 Blomheld (Bishop), his in- genious emendation of Ma- Boh en: Bopp(F.),89 brutna, 150 Buda?us(\V.), 24 Buddhists, 84 Burden (Cher. C. C. J.), l"'. 13 Burnouf, E (96), J. I. Buttmann (P.), 40 Carians and Cretan*, 98 carmen, 410 carnifer, 898 ; Chalybes, 98 Cheke | - Chinese langua. Cicero, 194, 344 clarus, gloria, 966, 987 Colebrooke(H. T.), 86 Coleridge (S.T.), 5,51,986 M of tongues, 48 consul. M6 EMI (association by), 53 315 Cratylus, Plato's, 60 erepusculum, 160 Curtius (M. George), p. 86 pian walls, 488 I intu, 99 Deccan, 81 Deduction and induction, 5 Demonstrative used for rela- tive. Desdemona, 180 Differential Calculus, 55 Digamma, 110 dodram, 1*1 Dorse: dum-iarat, 999 Dyer (Mr T.), p. 90 Education, information, and knowledge, 2 Egyptian letters, 188 Egyptology, 37 eja, p. 810, p. 996 , 189 Ellesrnere (Earl of), p. 89 England, 76, p. Ill not* English language English scholarship, IB Escalus in Shakspere, 213 Ufj, ]•• Ewald(H.). 100 farrow and furrow, /■>... 898 I I Galifle (Mr), p. 130 note Gamett (Rev. R), 17, 1H». 129, 133, 148, 996 pa s and ghost, 298 Gelo and (tela, origin of their names, 489 Genesis (Book of), 44-46, genteel and gnUU, 278 wmmmm, H German Literature, 30 Grt*. " and good, 4J3 (. ;-.njf •-. 72 Grammar-schools, 1, 83 Greeks and German*, 99 III. INDEX OF MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. 693 Grimm (J.), 36, 118 Guest (Mr E.), 118 yuna, 106 gypsy, 225 Halhed (31r), 35 Hamaker (Professor), 40 Ha-milcar, &c, 479 Hamilton (Sir W. R.), 55 Hamites, 70 Hebrew language, illustra- tions of, 100, 102, 116, 133, 137, 148, 157, 184, 186, 189, 193, 199, 208, 209, 234, 296, 479 Hengist and Horsa, 222 Herminones, Hermunduri, &c, 76, 92 Hercules, 'Hpa/cXrj?, 222 Heyne(Prof), 29 hie, 139 Historical criticism, 13 Homeric deities, 463 humanitas, 4 Humboldt (W. von), 42 humerus, 116 Hunter (Prof.), p. 256 note Hyacinthus, legend of, p. 653 note I termination, 139 Iconium, 66 Ideas, (doctrine of), 58, 59 idoneus, 116 "if," 205 igitur, 362 tile, 166 Imagination, p. 77 note immo, 191 Ingcevones, 76 iniquus, ingens, 185 Indo- Germanic, 71 indulgeo, 344 inter, 204 interficio, intereo, 382 Iran, 80 iri, 447 Isc&vones, 76, p. 114 note Jackson (Dr Cyril), 192 Jones (Sir W.), 35 Kant (J.), 54 Kemble (Mr J. M.), 37 Kenrick(Rev. J.), 32 King, and kingly titles, 337, 479 Klaproth, p. 360 note Language ( its regular changes), 50 Latin participles, 295 Layard (Mr), 37 Leibnitz, 34, 56 Lepsius (Dr R.), 13, 37, 100, 153, 162 Light and sound, 460 Lithuanians, 77 Lobeck (Professor), 38 lobster, 212 London University College, first nursery of compara- tive philology in England, 37 ; merits of Dr Rosen, p. 45 note ; erroneous ety- mologies proposed b / other Professors, p. 210 note ; p. 222 note ; p. 333 note; p. 406 note ; p. 432 note; p. 441 note longus, 344 lord, lady, 338 loup-yarou, 110, 315 lubrican, 221 Lucretius, 54 Luna, 461 Luther, 20, 21, 47 Magog, 72 malus, 185 manifestus, 450 Mannus, 76 Marcomanni, 76 •/ioT- = -fievT, 114, 133, 256 Matthew (St) xvi. 18; 15 Melicarthus, 479 Mexico, 67 Meyer (Dr K.), p. 139 note miles, 163 MUller, K. O., 29 murus, 178 Names of objects, 44, 454 Nero, 332 Niebuhr (B. G.), 29 Nod (land of), p. 101 note Nominalism, 18, 20, 56 non, 188 Norris(MrE.), 37, 104 novem, 161 numerus, 116 ob, 172 obambulo, 174 obedio, 128, 222 Occham (William), 19 octavus, 164 olim, 166 opulentus, 152 Ovid Fast. V. 21 ; 99 page, 225 pal&tiology, 12 Pali, 84 paries, pars, 178 Paris and Priamus, 92 Pelasgians, 95 peregrinus, 178 pereo, 382, 479 Perception and Conception, 51 Personification of the powers of nature, p. 207 note Philology, 3 Philistines, 95 Phoenicians, 94 Plato, 57, seqq. pons, 295 pontifex, 295 porca, porcus, 281 Porson(R.),24, 31 posco, 209 posthac, quapropter, &c. 240 prehendo, 281 Prichard(Dr J. C), 37 Printing, invention of, 22, 47 Prolepsis, 300 propitius, 284 Prose, introduction of, 48 pugna, 410 Pygmies, 81 quarrel, 225 quick, 112 quintus, not quinctus, 161 quispiam, quivis, quisquam, 199 694 III. INDEX OF MISCELLANEOUS MATTERS. Rabelais, 395 Ramayana, p. 1 19 note Rawlinson (Major H. C.)» 37 Realism and Nominalism, 5, 18 Reason and Understanding, ft, ft] refert = reifert, 240 re go, rex, &n Relative Sentence, 148, 300 .. 4ftfl Roads, l •"»<•, 479 Hmh i Dr),9ft rtii/o, 289 Romanic- bogMgtti ]> ■ 7 I Rosen (Drl Russiai Saca . 77 i, 108, 399, 199, I.V.. mate, 83 Saxons, 7 I Behkgd A. \\\ von), 36 Si-hleicrmarlur Dr F.), 29 Bctam B . l. r )5 . Ill ifaw, I toniu, lli>. b),81 Space and Time, 54 Spanish h, 111 spinster sr/uire, 213 Steinthal(Dr), p. 243 sujjplei, HI tardus, 489 Suwarrow, 225 ,84 Syntax, 48 Tacitus, German.. / ,#,95 templum, 287 Testament (Old), f.l, 128 Tcutamut t 92 1"1 Thirlwall. I * His- tory of Oreece, 81 Thurin K Mans, 7«J. 92 Tooke (MrJ. Home 198 Tower-builders, 45 clcnbnr K '.(l>'.\ Triopian rites, 449 Trouba< Tubalqain | Turanian, 89 Ulphilas, 82 Understanding, 51 Unity of man, 43 valeo, vapor, 458 rW, 189 Venus, 28ft vestibulum, 180 Virgil, toorp. III. 1 1*: 174 288 | 17" 188 - Vriddhi and Guna, 105 Walls of picked stones, 455 WansUck -tenter, 11 t of vowels, IM 457 n (J.), (.-.«-. P. Paul. aS. Barthol.), 35 Winning (Rev. J), 37 \v*hewell(l> r. a. . -i ■fc origin of, 48 effects on language, 48 Xerxtt, 479 )-. vi, 9J tai.89 1111. I'M' ERRATA. PAGE MM 226 1 291 13 301 1 ... 5 485 9 498 26 514 3 for n read n 13 for 'e^€o-0ai read ecpe£esitionfl. 3. Vabeomiai ind Bktoriod Introduction to Um riiilolo^iral Study of the Latin Language. 4. CoKtTEUOTIONU ( i 'i; v< f.pta : editio fl mi declinandi conjugandiyut ratio. 5. The AnnooNi of Sopho< i i>. in Greek and English, with an Introduction IB ti. .Ksiimi Kt mi.mim ■ ad m&iHmm Dhidorfiamam pauim A Complete Greek Grammar for the Use of Learners. B, Maskil i.k-Sopher : the Principles and Processes of clas- sical Philology applied to the Analysis of the Hebrew Language. 9. Pr^lbctio PtaLoi.oc.iCA, in Vftorw Cantiann Triumphal* HZ81 83 ' «• ^ *<»•»* A 0* ••• v* , V A*?* *£r * A-^fe.% o°*^> *A-^fe* aT *l\f* *> J. A ,* o sHtfo «P *"* r oK a5 ^ tf° v ^. •* #\/ o. '<>.»• A ■*■ .- % \" ^^.♦i, /..^I^ G V'" v-6 1 .^°* ;* «> o„ v *<- « y ..»,. %. '\.J O, * O N 'CJ *o ♦ * * A ^oV T r *^" • .'^MV^ «^<* o_ %" 5 ^' LIBRARY OF CONGRESS II II III lllll II II II III lllll 3 003 076 51 4A J