59th Congress \ t;FV\'i'T (Document 2d Session : i >r.N.\ii. s jj^, ggg BULLETINS ON THE 2.; RUBBER PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS BUREAU OF INSULAR AFFAIRS WAR DEPARTMENT WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1907 59T1I Congress, | SENATE. j Document 2dSessw)i. \ j No. 356. RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. LETTER THE SECRETARY OF WAR, SUI!MlTTlN(i. PURSUANT TO SENATE RESOLUTION OF FEERUARY 18, 1907, INFORMATION AS TO THE RUBBER- PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Referred to the Committee ou the Thilippines and oi-do) to be printed, with the illustrations. War Department, Washington^ February £5, 1907. Sir: In compliance with resolution of the Senate of February 18, 190T, directing the Bureau of Insular Affairs, through its Chief, to inform the Senate as to the rubber-producing capacity of the several islands in the Philippine Archipelago that belong to the United States, and that he give an approximate area of rubber-producing lands in said several islands, and of the different descriptions of rubber-bearing trees, vines, and bulbs from which india rubber is derivable, and the general bearing productiveness of such islands as commodities of commercial value. I have the honor to inform you that immediately on receipt of the above the following cablegram was sent to the Governor-General of the Philippine Islands at Manila : Senate resolution calls for report rubber-producing capacity of the several islands. Philippine An^hipelago. approximate area rubber-producing lands, de- scriptions different rubber-bearing trees, vines, and bulbs. Have you any more definite data as to these points than that in bulletins dated September 20, 1903, November 15, 1905, Government laboratories at Manila? Hurry answer. and this day the following reply has been received : Referring to telegram from your office of 19th instant, rubber found indige- nous in the Philippine Islands only in vine, a species of chonemorpha mentionec? 2 RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OP THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. in bulletin, 1903, and Puramt'iia pJiilippiiiciisis. although the latter commercially unimportant until process pertected for extracting rubber from the bark. Thx'ee tropical American trees, producing para, ccani, and castiUoa rubber, introduced since American occupation, and there are now planted in the More Province 77^ acres of these three trees. Successful cultivation these trees northern provinces problematical on account of liability to destruction by ty- phoons and lieaA'y winds. Conditions in the southern provinces were favorable, especially in Mindanao. From contemplated plantings it is estimated that on June 1 acreage of the trees above mentioned will be 370 in the Moro Province. Subject of gutta-percha : All forest product, no plantations ; exhaustively treated in bulletin, September, 1903. I have the honor to inclose herewith the two bulletins referred to. The bulletin by P. L. Sherman, jr., published in 1903, is a general study of the subject of gutta-percha and rubber in the Philippine Islands, more, as will be seen on examining it, with reference to the possibilities of improved rubber and gutta-percha culture than with reference to the then existing condition of living industries in the Philippine Islands. I also inclose the bulletin of the Bureau of Forestry, dated Novem- ber 15, 1905, on the same subject. It will be seen that both of these bulletins contain a great deal of matter foreign to the inquiry in the Senate resolution, but it is almost impossible without inclosing them both to show clearly why more exact information can not be given. Briefly, while a great part of the southern islands of the archipelago are believed to be suitable to the cultivation of rubber, there has been up to the present commer- cially no such cultivation. Those interested in this matter in the archipelago are hopeful, but as the industry is in its merest infancy, no statistics bearing thereon are available. Very respectfully, Wm. H. Taft, Secretary of War. The President of the Senate, Washington. BUREAU OF GOVERNMENT LABORATORIES. (Bulletin No. 7.) THE GUTTA-PERCHA AND RUBBER OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. By Penoyicr L. Sherman, Jr.. Ph. D. letter of transmittal. Department of the Interior, Bt'RKAu OF Government Laboratories, Manila, P. I., ^eptcmher 20, 190S. Sir: I have the houov herewith to transniit for publication as a bulletin a mono.irraph on the s'utta-porcha and ruliher of the Pliilippinc Islamls, by Penoyer L. Sherman, jr., Ph. D., chemist in the bureau of government laboratories. I am, very respectfully, Paul C. Freer, Superintendent Government Laboratories. Hon. .Tames F. S.mith, Aetiiig Scerctary of the Interior. INTROnUC'TION. The material for this bulletin was collected under the direction of the bureau of forestry and of the bureau of government labm'atories. As early as 1900 the attention of the government was called to the fact that many of the wild tribes in the southern islands were engaged in cutting down large numbers of forest trees in order to secure the gutta-percha and rubber which they contained. These products they bartered to the Chinese, who in turn exported them to Singapore. The matter v.as considered important enough to demand investigation, be- cause — (1) The trees were being cut down in violation of forestry rules. (2) No forestry dues were paid by those either collecting or exporting these forest products. (3) Judging from the experience of the English and Dutch in the Malay Peninsula. Sumatra, and Borneo it would only be a question of a short time, if the wild tribes were allowed to have their own way, when there would not be one tree of this class left standing in the Philippines. Unfortunately there was no information at hand on the subject. In June, 1001, I was sent as a special agent of the foi-estry bureau to Singapore, the Malay Federated States, and Java to study the laws and conditions under which these forest products were grown, collected, and marketed. Provided with the information thus gathered and which is detailed below, upon my I'eturn to iManila four months later I was again sent to the southern Philippines to repeat my investigations and as before, to make collections of herbarium material and samples of the various kinds and grades of gutta- percha and rubber foimd thei'c. This first southern trip consumed several months, for while specimens of marketable gutta-percha and I'ubber could be secured in the principal towns, all herbarium material and gums from each tree species had to be taken personally to avoid all sources of (>rror. The trips along the coasts and rivers of many of the islands were made in small native sail and row boats, and the journeys into the forests of the interior were completed on foot with native guides and carriers. The native 4 RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. gum collectors themselves, their method of felling the trees and vines, securing the gutta-percha and rubber, preparing the same for market, the prices they received both in money and barter were thus seen at first hand, and of course opportunity seciu'ed fm' making herbarium collections of the variou.s species of trees and vines yielding gutta-percha and rubber. In the principal towns- the market conditions of supply, demand, prices, etc., were studied. Upon my return to Manila I was ordered to be transferred to the bureau of government lal)oratories, in order that all specimens collected might be tested chemically and physically so as to determine their relative values. This analytical work, as well as several subsequent trips to the southern islands. Paragua, Mindoro, and Culiou, in search of new material, has been carried out and is here rei)orted. The identification of the various species of gutta-percha and rubber trees and vines was kindly undertaken by Mr. E. D. i\Ierrill, botanist for the biu*eau. who also assisted greatly in collecting herbarium nuaterial in Mindoro and Culion. My thanks are also due to Messrs. J. H. Thigpeu and Paul Stangl for much assistance in the analytical work. To Capt. George P. Ahern, chief of the forestry bureau, and Dr. Paul C. Freer, superintendent of government labora- tories, I wish to express warm appreciation for their luany courtesies anrl valu- able suggestions in planning and carrying out the work. Part I. GTJTTA-PERCHA. I. IIISTOUICAL. As is the case with many other commercial products coining from oriental lands, the date of the discovery of gutta-percha is lost in oriental history. The famous Tradescaut Brothers in 1G56 (1) exhibited in their museum of curiosities in London a piece of gutta-percha which they had secured in the Far East. Also in 1822 Dr. William Montgomery (2), an English surgeon, saw whips and other articles of gutta-percha in use by the natives of Singapore. It is therefore safe to assume that the real discovery of this remarlcable sub- stance was made at some time previous to either of these dates. The western or commercial discovery of gutta-percha was delayed until 1843, when both Doctors Montgomery and D'Almeide sent specimens of the giim and leaves of the tree to London. While the specimens of D'Almeide were neglected, those of Montgomery received enough attention from the scientists ■of the Royal Society of Arts to demonstrate some of the uses to ^^'llich the sub- stance might be put. The botanists agreed that the tree belonged to the family 8apotcice(t\ but as neither flowers nor fruit were at hand they could go no fur- ther with the identification. In 1847 the greatest advance was made toward the utilization of gutta- percha. Considerable amounts had from time to time been shipped to London, and experiments were made to determine its physical and chemical charac- teristics. Luckily a sample fell into the hands of a young German artillery lieutenant, Werner von Siemens, who was then experimenting with insulating material for subterranean and submarine telegraphic cables {?>). The ease with which gutta-percha lent itself to this object and the high efficiency obtained induced him to construct a machine for insulating cables. The methods he adopted, as well as the kind of machinery, have been with few modifications in use ever since. The subsequent history of gutta-percha runs parallel with that of submarine and subterranean electric cables, for three-foiu'ths of all the gutta-percha pro- duced has been used on them. With the construction of the great trans- Atlantic cables in the sixties and seventies of the past century, the demand for gutta-percha became enormous and the details of its value and ready market traveled over all this part of the Orient. When the Malay Peninsula adjacent to Singapore failed to supply sufficient quantities to meet the demand the adjacent islands of the Rhio Archipelago and Sumatra were invaded and rich finds made. Finally Borneo was included Jn the producing zone, and lastly the Philippines. RUBBER-PPiODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 5 At what (late tlio Philippines bepui to exijort .mitta-perdia to Singapore, the center of the trade, can not l)e learned with any degree o{ certainty. l'rob;>l)ly twenty years ago varing Quantities were exported, but apparently the trade died out, owing, it is said, to the wholesale adulterations practiced by the Chinese exporters and the prohibitory laws of the Spanish Government. For the last ten years prior to the American occupation of the islands but little had been shipped, though the collecting and exporting began very soon, after- wards and increased at once to large proportions. II. I!{)^A^'ICAT.. In Uvi year in which Von Siemens made his great discovery of the insulating value of gutta-percha for submarine cables Sir Joseph Hooker. Beutham, and others worked out the status of the gutta-percha tree. From the first specimen of leaves, which had been sent to England several years previously, it was seen that the tree belonged to the natural family of Sapotacca' (4). The many species of this family are scattered over tile tropical and semitropical world and are distinguisiied by tlie c\ vious property all possess of secreting a milk or latex in the inner layers oi' the i)ark. When the liark is rut or bruised and the capillary sacks and tubes wiiicii rontaiu the latex are rup- tiu'ed it ticnvs out with greater or less abundance, according to the species of the tree. This milk probably serves in the plant economy as a protection; still its is primarily an excretion, since it is discarded by the tree in its dead leaves and bark, and the bark of the live tree can be tapped and the latex removed with no apparent iujiiry to the tree. As has been stated, it was in 1847 that fvijeciniens of the flowers and fruit finally reached London and the complete botanical determination of them made, which resulted in giving to the tree the name '-S Dichopsis t/ntta Benth et Hook, fils. A few years later the Dutch botanist, lUirck, pointed out the fact that as early as ]S;>T I'adre Bhmco (o i had given the name of PalaqulHiii to this genius of Hapotuccn', and accordingly most botanists have adopted the generic name I'uUKjuiiun for these wonderful species " of forest trees which produce the bulk of all the gutta-percha of ci)nmierce. As the demand for gutta increased and the trees of the species Pal. fiutta bec.-iine scarcer and more ditiicult to reach, the native collecttn's were not slow in finding other sitecies that produced gutta-percha, though of an inferior quality. Among these Pul. trciihii Burck. Pai/cua leci ii Benth. et Hook, tils, and Mitnu- }«)l)K biiUtiu (Jaertaer. fils. are the best known. Many other spt^cies have been f(mnd in Sumatra, Borneo. Celebes, and the Malay Peninsula, but what part they i»lay in the production of the gulta-pcrclia of conunercc has not yet been determined. The accompanying figures will show some of the resemblances and differences between the species above mentioned. The trees of the genus PfiUKntlum are among the largest of the troi)ical forest and are generally to be noted by the brilliant green (-(dor of their leaves above and the golden to copi)er-brown shinuner below. The follc'Wing general descrii>tion of the i)!)t;niir;il cliarncteristics of Pula- quiinii is made l>y Mr. Merrill : I'ALAgl'II -M, I!I,.\.\C(I 1S;;T ( DlCllllI'SIS TIIWAn-liS.) Usually large trees with rusty-tomentose bnuichlets. Leaves obovate or oblong, acute or obtuse, petioled, coriaceous, glabrous beneath, oi- densely rust,v- tomentose. Flowers fascicled, axillary on the naked branches iielow the ter- minal leaves. Calyx lobes (>. in two series, corolla lobes ('>. St;iuiens 12 to IS, attached near the base of the corolla. Ovary (j-celled. Fruit fieshy, elipsoid or ovoid. 1 to '2 seeded. Seeds exalbuminous, cotyledons large, He.shy. In regard to the species M iniiisaps Imhifii mentioned al>;)ve, it is to be noted that it is the oidy represeiitaliv(< so far knov.n of gutta-percha producing trees in the Western Hemisphere. It was discovered in the (Juianas in 1S.")7 and contains a fairly good grade of gutta-percha. Obach ((») designates it in his " Of late .vears the r>utch and English botanists in the Orient have been in- clined to divide Pal. (jiitfa. the most valuable of the gutta-percha producing species. int(» three species, viz. Pal. i/utta. Pal. (jbloiit/ifoliinn. and Pal. honiccitse, but as no certainty of differentiation yet exists, while the gutta-percha from all is the same, tlu>y may lor the ]iresent be all classed under Pal. (jntta. 6 RUBBER-PKODUCIISrG CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. description as a substitute for gutta-percha in all its chemical and physical characteristics. Though of an inferior grade to that coming from Palaquium gutta, it may well be classed among the rest of the Palaquium and Payena species furnishing second and third grade gutta-percha. The gutta-percha trees of the Philippines embrace both Palaquium and Payena species, and while their complete determination or identification is still iintinished. those v/hich produce the gutta-percha of commerce have been located, and their final identification is only a matter of collecting more com- plete herbarium material. The following table (No. 1) gives the species at present known. Those marked (*) probably furnish the largest part of the gutta-percha exported from the southern islands : Table No. 1. — Present Icnoion species of gutta-percha. Species. Local name." Locality. Botanical description. Leaves rusty tomen- tose beneath : PaL latifolium Blanco. PaL oleiferum Blanco. PaL bai'nesii Palacpalac or Alacap. Alacap or Ba- racan. Nato Luzon to Min- danao. Luzon Masbate Mindanao do Leaves obovate. obtuse, 10 to 30 cm. long, .5 to 15 cm. wide; nerves, about 15 pairs. Leaves obovate-lanceolate, 10 to 25 cm. long, 6 to 10 cm. wide, acute; nerves, about 15 pairs; closely related to the preceding. Leaves obovate, obtuse, thin, 12 to 15 cm. long, 7 to 8 cm. wide; nerves, 11 pairs. Leaves ovate or obovate, obtuse or acute, 12 to 14 cm. long, 5 to cm. wide; nerves, 15 pairs. Leaves lanceolate, acute. 15 to 20 cm. long, 5 to Merrill. *Pal. ahernia- num Merrill. Leaves glabrous be- neath : Calapia do Burck. Pal. cuneatum Vidal. Pal. gigantifo- lium Merrill. Pal. luzoniense Vidal. *Pal. mindana- ense Merrill. Dulitan Luzon Tayabas Luzon Mindanao 6 cm. wide; nerves, 12 to 14 pairs. Leaves ovate, lanceolate, or obovate, acute or ■ obtu.se, 5 to 7 cm. long, 2 to 3 cm. wide; nerves, 11 to 12 pairs; indistinct. Leaves obovate, 50 cm. long, 20 cm. wide; Bagalaiigit . . . Calapia nerves, 20 to 24 pairs. Leaves ovate, acute or obtuse, 10 to 14 cm. long, 4 to (5 cm. wide; nerves, 12 pairs. Leaves ovate, acute, 9 to 12 cm. long, 4 to 5 cm. wide; petioles 3 cm. long; nerves, 14 to 16 *Payenaleerii Bentli. and Hook. do Tawi-Tawi . . . Leaves ovate or ovate oblong, 5 to 10 cm. long, 2.6, to 4 cm. wide, cuneate at the base; short acuminate at the apex. III. GEOGRAPHIC mSTRTKUTIOX. As previously stated, the first gutta-percha trees were reported from the island of Singapore, and in fact within a few miles of the city itself. When the substance became a marketable article these trees were the first to fall and ail of the island was soon devastated. The explorations from Singapore as a center were made in all directions and with remarkable success. All of the forest of the southern half of the Malay Peninsula gave large yields, as well as the islands of the Rhio Archipelago, Borneo, and most of Svmiatra. However, from all of the data which have been gathered from native sources, a-S well as from the information collected by many Dutch, English, and French explorers, it appears that the area of distribution of Palaquium nutta is sharply defined. Beyond the sixth degree north on the ^Nlalay Peninsula the trees become scarce or cease altogether ; on the northern end of Sumatra they are likewise lacking. Java, bordering close on Sumatra, contains none, and Celebes to the east of: Borneo has been found to be equally destitute. Reference to map (No. 'i) will show the area of distribution of the Palaquium gutta. which is practically included in a parallelogram inclosing the above-mentioned peninsula and ishmds. This area includes some 4.50,000 square miles of land, of which only a very small per cent is or ever was covered by gutta-percha trees. • Obach, in his celebrated book on gutta-percha, practically limits the area of gutta-percha production for the entire world to this small territory (7). While this statement is probably true so far as the gutta-percha from Palaquium gutta is concerned, we have already seen that the area of distribution of the other or inferior species is extended eastward so as to take in the Philippines, and the same is also true of Celebes, Java, and the northern half of the Malay Penin- sula. RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. The number of gutta-percha producing species in the Philippines has already- been listed, and some of the localities given where they have been found. Attention is again called to the distribution of these localities, extending so far north as well as south, and it can be confidently expected that when the forest surveys are completed nearly all of the islands will be found to contain some species in more or less abundance. Owing to the limited extent of the areas where gutta-percha trees have so far been found on most of the islands, the regions which produce gutta-percha for the market at the present time are confined to the islands of Mindanao and Tawi-Tawi. The accompanying map (No. 2) is arranged to show the places where gutta-percha species have been found as well as to give some idea of the size of the districts producing the gutta-percha now being exported. The exact or even approximate extent of these areas is diflicult to calculate. Much has not yet been explored, and the information derived from the natives is vague and contradictory. The areas on the map are given conservatively and are known to produce gutta-percha at the present time. Other territories will probably become known as our intercourse with the wild tribes inhabiting these regions grows more friendly and open. List of towns and forest regions from which gutta-percha is exported to Singapore. Central point for collection and exportiitlon of gutta-percha. Cottabato , Zamboanga Jolo(Sulu). Bongrto Point of collection of gutta-percha from the various forest regions. Tukuran and Dinas Malabang Clan, Sarangani, and Binang Reina Regente and Salaya Baluan, Curuan, Talucsangi, Puerta Santa iSI aria, Dapitan, Misamis. Transshipped from Davao Cottabato, Zamboanga, or Siassi. Siassi, Baliimbing, Buan, Dajapatan .. Name of forest regions from which gutta- percha is collected. Dinas-Subano Camalarang, Labangas, Ttilairau. Laguna de Lanao, Baras, Liangan, Sega- yan. Tagabnli, Manobo, Hilan. Binang. Dama Balao, Matingauanan, Talayan. VVestern and northern Subano. Tawi-Tawi. Do. The islands of Paragua (Palawan) and Balabac were found destitute of cither gutta-percha or rubber-producing trees, although long and careful search was made for them in many localities. Owing to their close proximity to Borneo, and the fact that botanically and geologically these islands are sup- posed to be more closely allied to Borneo than to the rest of the Philippines, it was confidently expected that both gutta-percha and rubber would be found there. The absence of these forest products is probably due to the uneven distribution of the rainfall with a long drought in January. February, and March. IV. MKTHODS OF COLLECTING AND MARKKJ'ING. (a) COLLECTING. The question of what is the best method for collecting gutta-percha has troubled owners and dealers I'rom the beginning, and a satisfactory answer is still lacking. The trees are in the tropical forest regions of the Malay Archi- pelago, Borneo, and the Philippines, which are inhabited by the wildest pagan tribes only. These natives are the natural gutta-percha collectors, and as a matter of fact have done all the collecting since the beginning. They evolved a method which answered their reiiuirements very satisfactorily. As might be inferred, they wished the maximum yield of gutta-percha from each tree with the minimum expenditure of work or time. That the method was extremely wasteful did not concern them nor were they bothered over the prospect of a bankrupt future. The method, which is still in vogue from the westernmost part of Sumatra to the eastennnost point of Mindanao, is, with various minor modifications, prac- tically as follows : The tree is first cut down and the larger l»ranches at once lopped off, the collectors say, to prevent the gutta-percha milk from flowing back into the small branches and leaves. As has been previously stated, the milk or latex is contained in the inner layers of the bark and leaves, in small capillary tubes or ducts. (See fig. 14.) To open these so as to permit the maximum amount of the milk to escape, the natives cut rings in the bark about 2 feet apart along the entire length of the trunk. The milk as it flows out is 8 RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. collected in gourds, cocoauut shells, large leaves, or in some districts in the chopped-up bark itself, which is left adhering to the tree for the purpose of act- ing as a sort of sponge. (See fig. 16.) After one or two hours, when the milk has ceased to flow, the contents of the receptacles are united and boiled over a fire for the purpose of finishing the partial coagulation. The warm, soft mass is then worked with cold water imtil a considerable amount of the liquid is mechanically inclosed. To further increase the weight, chopped bark, stones, etc., are added and the whole mass worked into the required shape with most of the dirt on the inside. The gutta-percha gathered in this way well repays the amount of work expended. The two vital defects of the method are — (1) The method is very wasteful, the yi»ld from each tree being a small proportion to the total amount. What this per cent is has been investigated by scientists with the result that the figures differ widely. Remembering that the gutta-percha milk is contained in capillary ducts and tubes, it will be seen that a considerable amount can not flow out on account of capillary attrac- tion, no matter how much cutting is done. It A'ery seldom happens also that a tree falls in such a way that all its trunk is exposed so as to admit of ring- ing on all sides. As a general thing from one-third to one-half of it is inac- cessible to the process of ringing, and all the milk within this portion is con- sequently lost. Even the larger limbs are not deemed worth ringing, and con- sequently all the milk in them and in the leaves also goes to waste ; to this must be added the considerable quantity spilled on the ground through care- lessness and lack of enough receptacles for every cut or In'uise from which the milk flows. (See fig. 1!).) The method employed to find whvd percentage of guttapercha has been removed from a tree l>y the native collectors was to determine the per cent of gutta-percha remaining in a given area of the bark, multiplying this by the total bark area of the tree, and adding 15 per cent of this amount for that contained in the i)ark of the branches and in the leaves. The amount A^hich the native collectors secure from the average full-grown tree apparently varies according to the species, season, personnel of collectors, etc. Most authorities place the amount per tree at one-fourth of a pound. The director of the botanical gai'den in Penang (8) secured I'v poimds of clear gutta-percha from a large tree {Fahiqulum f/utta) estimated to be GO years old. Wray (9) obtained somewhat over 2 pounds from a PiiJaquuim gutta tree at least 100 years old and 2i poiuids from one of an inferior species. Burck (10) made some extended experiments in Siunatra and secured an average of less than 1 pound from full-grown trees, while Serull.as (11) in Sumatra obtained almost 1 pound from a giant tree. Trees of inferior grade have been found to give as high as 8 pounds. Probably the best average obtain- able is 3 pounds. In the Tiruray district of Mindanao I secured 1 pound of clean gutta-percha from a tree 135 feet high and 5 feet 4 inches in circum- ference at the base. The woi'k was carefully done by the natives. Taking a measured amount of the bark of this tree after no more gutta-percha could be collected by the native method and extracting all of the gutta-percha which it still contained, it was estimated that after collection there still remained 63 pounds of gutta-percha. Taking into consideration the fact that had the tree not fallen in such a way as to leave almost all of the trunk propped high enough above the ground to allow the milk to be extracted from the bark on the underside, the amount extracted would undoubtedly have been nuich less. or, in other words, ten times more gutta-percha would have been left to rot with the tree than was talcen from it by the natives. Other investigators have secured figures as large as these, and some found that forty times more gutta-percha was left l)ehind than v^•as secured by the careless collectors. (2) It leaves the future unprovided for. It has been seen that the invariable practice of the native collectors is to fell the tree in order to extract. the gutta- percha. (See fig. 20.) In some cases it has been reported that the stumps stool afterwards, and in course of time produce new trees, but it can be safely asserted that this is the exception and not the rule. Of those I have found cut down in the I'hillppines, none have ever stooled, though in one case I saw some of the roots of the stump alive long after the felled tree was well advanced toward decay. (See fig. 21.) It is fortunate that only the full-grown trees contain enough gutta-percha to repay the work of felling, ringing, etc. ; otherwise the complete extermination of the gutta-percha forest would only be a matter of a year or so. On the other hand, the felling of all the trees old enough to bear seed works to the same end with a somewhat longer limit. RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. V) (6) MARKETING. Havins boon collected ami put in marketable shape, the gutta-percha is carried in baskets en the back of the collectors to the nearest waterway, and thence by boat (see lig. 2:2) to the most accessible town, where, applying the description to the Philippines, it is exchanged tor barter to some Moro, Chinese, or Filipino merchant (conierciante) living there for the purpose of dealing in all kinds of native products. From here it is shipped to one of the ports doing an export trade with Borneo and Singapore. The entire gutta-percha trade is practically in the hands of the CHiincse in the latter city, and they guard the secrets of boiling, working over, mixing, adulterating, and coloring the gutta-percha for European markets most zealously. All who have tried to investigate their methods agree that there is no cftnnection between the various grades and the different ti'ee species, and that pure gutta-percha from the species Palaqnium ffutta is no longer ftjund on the market unmixed with inferior grades. Strangely enough. I was unable to find in Singapore any statistics regarding the importation of Philippine gutta-i)ercha. The Chinese dealers denied receiv- ing any, and beycud a few piculs noted in the aniuial report statistics no men- tion of it was found anywhere. I afterwar English or by the Dutch anth irities in Sumatra and Borneo toward remedying the dirticult:^'. It seems to be gen- erally realized at last that wild natives can not be prohibited from doing things where there is no law nor show of authorit.v. Certainly they will nut cease felling gulla-percha trees tuitil som;> one can show them an easier method for collecting the same amount or more of the material, so long as gutta-percha has a market value. The English had the true idea when they took away its market value through prohibiting exporta- tion. The only trouble was that the Malay States are on a peninsula and not an island. This law. if applied to the Philippines, might succeed better by reason of their geographical situation, but so far nothing of this kind has been tried here. As seem as the forestry bureau was established, in 1809. the felling of gutta-percha trees was prohibited (1.';). Rtiles and regulations were pro- vided for tapping the bark of the tree with a bolo in such a manner as to allow the milk to be secured without killing the tree. As the amount of gutta percha obtained by this process was nuich less than that secured from felling the tree, while the labor was fully as great and was dangerous besides (some trees being TO feet to the first limb) the wild natives never practiced this method, uor did they ever hear of it, and all the gutta-percha so far exported has been at the expense of so many trees killed. Islands su<'h as Mindanao and Tawi-Tawi can not stand this for any length of time and already the gutta-percha trees have entirely disappeared from the vicinity of the coast regions and of the large rivers. According to the forest surveys made so far in the islands the average number of trees of 1 foot in diameter is between 40 and 50 per acre, and considering the large number of 10 RUBBER-PEODUCING CAPACITY OP THE PHILIPPHSTE ISLANDS. fepecies found in the forests the number of trees of any one species is generally placed at four or five. With this liberal allowance the forest acreage of the southern islands will probably supply gutta-percha at the present rate of cutting tor three or four years longer, but not for more than that. It must not be supposed that scientific invesitgation has not been directed toward solving this vexed question of securing gutta-percha in paying quantities without killing the trees, but before describing the results of this work the chemical and physical characteristics of gutta-percha, as well as the prices to be realized for it, must be considered in order to demonstrate the difliculties to be overcome. VI. GRADES AND PRICES. The prices governing the sales of all grades and kinds of gutta-percha in Singapore, the chief market of the world, seem to be most arbitrary and uncer- tain. As a general thing they have increased continuously and steadily since the beginning of the industry. Formerly the different grades of gutta-percha were named from the well- known districts or shipping ports from which they came. An attempt was also made to designate the species of tree furnishiiig the product, and a further distinction was given as to quality. For instance, " Koatei guta merah No. 1 " was first grade of gutta-percha from Palaquhim untta, coming from Koatei, while " Fahang white soondi No. 1 " was first-grade gutta-percha from Paijena leerii, from the Pahang district. These names and gvadings are still kept up as a matter of convenience for cable codes, etc., but the significance of the names is almost entirely lost, cer- tainly as far as any indication of the tree species is concerned, and often as regards the district of production as well. The Philippine gutta-percha, for example, has neither grading nor price in Singapore, and probably comes in under Sarawak white, red, etc. As has been stated previously, the secrets governing the selection, boiling, adulteration, coloring, etc., of the various grades are closed and known to the Chinese exclusively. This is also true in the Philippines, though very little, except boiling and cleaning, is attempted before shipping to Sandakan. Most of the Philippine gutta-perclia passes through three hands, and the rise in price is quicJv and decided. My experiences in the gutta-percha districts of Mindanao and Torter pays $5 to $7 ?dexican per picul forestry dues {he being the only one of the three with a fixed residence and amenable to forestry regulations) and exports the gutta-])ercha to Sandakan or Singapore, where it probably brings $100 to $150 Mexican per picul of 138* pound^^. There is no definite information on this subject, however, as Philippine gutta-percha, as has been stated, is neither rated nor graded in Singapore. A year and a half ago. when the best grade of gutta-percha in the Pliilippines was said by the Chinese of Cottabato to be worth $80 i)er picul, the following analyses of Singapore gutta-perchas were made by Van Romburgh and Tromp de Haas (14 ) : Grade. Dirt. Water. Resins. Gutta. Price per picul.a ' P. ct. Bila (red) soondi 33. 6 Sarawak soondi No. 2 • 37. 1 Penang gutta Palelo Xo. 1 2.1 Sarawak red soondi No. 1 19. Bagan white soondi No. 1 .7 Koatei guta merah No. 2 21. 7 Indragiri wliite soondi 2.0 Sambas white soondi 1. Koatei guta merah No. 1 14. 8 Pahang white soondi No. 1 1 4. 2 P. ct. 7.0 (5.8 .5.8 3.9 8.6 5.1 4.1 4.4 3.8 .5 P. Ct. 31.4 25.5 53.8 35.5 36.5 28.5 46.2 53.6 34.8 12. 8 P.ct. 28.0 29.6 38.3 41.6 54.2 44.7 47.7 41.0 46.fi 82.5 S150 135 ]80 350 350 360 370 380 500 500 a Mexican currency. RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 11 According to thesL' analyses the best ;j;rrt(les ot I'hilippine gutta-peroha may well rank with any of the first lonr on the list, especially as my chemical and physical tests show the high grade of the gntta in them. Another example of the didiculty in dealing with the Chinese gntta-percha merchants in Singapore is the experience of an American merchant of Manila, who. abont this time, took a considerable quantity of the best grade of gutta- percha from .Afindanao over to Singapore by way of speculation. . He was only offered .$8 per picul by the leading merchants there, and it was not until they found out he was not anxious to sell at all, but would ship the product to America, that they tinally closed with him at $70 per picul. How much the gntta-percha was really worth he never found out. The evidence, then, all goes to show that the price of Philippine gutta-percha jumps from abont .$8 a picul in tlie mountains, where it is gathered by the wild tribes, to .'?1.50 in Singapore. Thus the native collectors get almost nothing, the government about as much, and the Chinese the rest. The Chinese might possibly get even higher prices by exporting direct to London or America, though apparently that has not yet been tried. It is stated on good authority that llie Chinese in all their manipulations for preparing the gutta-perc-ha for the Enroi)ean market go solely by smell, color, toughness, and the softening and hardening test in hot. then cold water. At any rate they ai-e certainly very skillful in the work, although careful ins])ection of the above table, as Van Kombnrgh points out. would tend to show that their prices were not at all AMirranted by the analyses. So long as the collecting of tlie gutta-percha is all in the hands of wild natives and the manipulating and marketing controlled by the Chinese, we can not hope to have the gutta-i)ercha trade on a fair business basis. However, as the supply steadily decreases while the demand and prices increase, the attention of governments and mannfacturL'rs will more than ever before be directed to the subject and perhaps the hoped-for relief will come through scientific propaga- tion of gutta-pei'cha trees and scientific collecting of the gutta-percha. Vn. ( IlKM UAI. I'KoeKKTILS. A chemical examination of the milk or latex above referred to as cmiing t'vom the gutta-percha trees upon wounding the bark shows it to be comixised of an emulsion of water and oil in a finely divided state. According to the species of tree the v\ater -(aries from a small (best species) to a very large percentage (poor species). A drop of the milk caught on tJie fingei' undergoes no api^' 'ent change for a few minnte.s. but by the end of this time a thin rubbery s.um can be observed to have foimed on the surface. If this be ren)oved. a second film will form, and so on until the entire drop has become a small piece of a tough, leathery substance. When a fresh drop is worked between the fingers the hardening process or coagulation takes place very ciuickly. and by boiling or adding certain chemicals, such as mineral or vegetable acids, alum. salt, etc., it takes place almost instantaneously. AVhat the nature of this hardening process is apipears to be unknown. The subject will be investigated in this laboratory. .Vfter coagulation sets in (see below), the oily portion becimies hard and tough, while most of the water separates or is inclosed mechanicall.v. Subject- ing this hard and tough mass, taken, for example, from the Palaqnluiii (lutta species, to further examination, it pi'oves to be insoluable in water and very stable against the action of either dilute acids or alkalies. In chloroform or carbon bisulphide it is easily soluble, while ether, petroleum ether, and alcohol dissolve it only in part. By subjecting it to the action of cold alcohol, a yellow amorphous resinous i>i)wder can b(> extracted. Hot alcohol further extracts a white crystalline resin, leaving a tough, horn-like residue, which is easily soluble in chloroform and carbon bisulphide and can be precipitated from these solutions by alcohol as a white fiocculent mass, which by warming or through pressure (juicklv returns to its original ai)ijearance. Taking the three con- stituents of gutta-percha in the order described above, the names lluavil, alban, and gntta were given them by Payen (15) in 1852. Besides these con- .stituents. all gutta-percha was found to contain more or less dirt, coloring mat- ter, and water inclosed medianicallv. 12 EUBBER-PRODUCIKG CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Taule No. 2. — Anoiuscs of representative samples of gutta-percha from Singa- pore and Philippine markets, as icell as from different species of gutta-percha trees, to show composition and comparison. Source of .specimen. Appearance. Gutta. Per rt. Resins. Water. Dirt. Grade. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. 1. Collected from Pal. gutta Close, compact, 74.77 20.74 2.49 1.99 Superior, but trees in experiment gar- tough, whitish to not onSing- den, Buitenzorg, Java. pink and brown. iipore mar- ket. •2. Sample analysis of pro- ^ 85. 1.5 11.02 2. US 1.75 Do. duct of Pal. gutta made by ^'an Romburgh. 3. Product from two trees of White, somewhat 48.19 41.38 6.59 2.05 Superior in Pal. leerii, Tawi-Tawi. elastic, very tough. 4^ h i 1 i p- phies." Fir.n,. . 4. Product from tree of Pal. Somewhat tough. 38.42 49. 08 9.76 2.72 raindan.icnse; in moun- white, pinkish, and tains southeast of Cotta- brown. bato. h. Brought into Cottabato by Clean pinkish lialls; :a. 49 54. 08 7.61 5.76 l>o. Moros from Subano tough. region, northwest of Tucuran. fi. Purchased from Moros at Tough, compact slab. 28.37 37.42 18.32 15. 83 Second. Bongao. 7. Product from tree of Pal. Inclined to crumble; 31.10 51.86 .04 16.79 D.i. celebicum; in moun- white to brownish. tains southeast of Cot- tabato. 8. Brought into Cottabato by Long coils on i)iece of 30.20 .57.40 7.80 4.60 Do. Moros from Binang bamboo; dirty and region; botanical dark colored. origin unknown. 9. Product from unknown Dark brown, hard, 23.64 53. 99 13.87 8.48 Third. species in mountains and crumbling. southeast of Cottabato. 10. Product from Pal. aher- Heavy compact mass. 24. 55 43. 21 15.19 17.04 Fourth. nianum: in mountains crumbling easily ; north of Tucuran, Min- light reddish danao. brown. "The grading of the Philippine gutta-percha is done by the Chinese exporters. T!i(> iiietliod adopted for making the above analyses is a modification of those usetl by Obach (16) and Van Romburgh. The former determined first the per cent of water by drying a weighed sample to constant weight on a water bath or desiccator, determining the water by difference. The resins were then ex- tracted with ether and weighed after the solvent had been completely evapo- rated. The gutta and dirt were thus left and were separated by chloroform, which dissolved the gutta, leaving the dirt to be filtered, dried, and weighed. The chloroform was then evai)orated and the gutta weighed. Van Romburgh (17) in his latest analytical work uses the following scheme: The weighed aud finely divided substance is dried to constant weight in an atmosphere of dry carbondioxide gas. which fulfills the double purpose of dry- ing and at the same time preventing oxidation. The sample is then dissolved in hot chloroform, thus allowing the undissolved dirt to be filtered off, washed, dried, and weighed. The chloroform solution containing the gutta and resins is diluted with chloroform to 100 c. c. and an aliquot portion taken, evaporated, and dried to constant weight as above. By extracting the residue with hot alcohol or acetone the resins are removed, when the remaining gutta is dried and weighed. The resins are then estimated by difference. Van Romburgh points out that the largest source of error in using this method is due to the evaporation of the chloroform. To avoid this loss and save time the following modifi('ati(ms were adopted by me: .\ fair sample of the gutta-percha to be analyzed was finely divided and quartered down to a small amount. Of this 0.3 to 0.5 gram was taken in a weighed thimble filter aud extracted hot in a Soxhlett apparatus, chloroform being u.sed as the solvent. When all was dissolved but the dirt, the latter was dried on the filter and weighed. RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 13 UESIXS AND GUTTA. The chlorofonii solution is then evaporated to dryness in the llask (previously tared) attached to the extractor and dried to coustaut weight uu t!ie water bath in a stream of dry carbon dioxide gas. After weighing, the contents are extracted with li-t alowh<.l or acetone, when the llask is again dried as before and weighed. The loss in weight equals the weight of resins and gain of the flask the weight of gutta. The water is estimated by difference. Analyses of samples taken from several trees of one species show the per- centages of the constituents to vary considerably, they being influenced, prob- ably, by the age of the tree, the coaiditions of its growth (soil, moisture, shade, etc.), as well as by the season at which the sample is taken. For illustration of this, two analyses of gutta-percha known to have been taken from different trees of I'alaqitiuin gutta are given to show the large variation in the percent- age of gutta. It must, therefore, be understood that the figures obtained from the analyses of the gutta-i)ercha taken from any one tree will not necessarily represent the exact values for that species. An average from a number of trees is necessary to S(>cure true values. In the same way samples from any commercial grade of gutta-percha may vary quite a little in their percentage composition, the differences, however, generally falling within a well-defined limit. The " dirt " found in all commercial gutta-percha, as has been stated, may be there unintentionally, or have been added with intent to defraud. In either case it generally t-onsisls of finely chopped bark, leaves, small sticks, etc From 2 to G per cent of dirt is not only admissible, but generally unavoidal)le. while more than that is looked upon with suspicion. So intimately is some of the dirt mixed with the gutta-percha that even the best machines fail to eliminate the last 1 or 2 i)er cent. A certain amount ol' coloring matter which exudes from the bark when it is cut is also mixed with the gutta-percha milk and colors the resulting product. Certain si)ecies give a distinctive color to the material taken from them, fu it has become a practice of the Chinese in Singapore to boil inferior j^t-.-id'-s with the bark of the best species in order to give them the correct c^lor. Under "resins" are considered the resinous-like f;ul)stances which with gutta go to form the substance gutta-percha. These resins var.\ givatly in appearance. In gutta-percha from ralaquiinii (/lit to. for example, as has already been stated, one is a white crystalline mass while the other is a yellow amorphous powder. In 'ither species they may be oily or brittle, colored or whit(>. Judg- ing from the formulas Cj„ll„;() and (Ci„lIicJnx. which have been given to alban and tluavil, respect ivel.v. it might be interred that these resins are oxidation of pi'oducts of gutta (C,„Il,,,)x. Sufficient work has not yet Iteen done on these itodies. however, to make this anything more than conjecture. Again, taking the gutta-percha from Palafiiihiin ijiittu. for illustration, it is found that the 10 to 20 per cent of resins which it contains is not a detriment, l)Ut rather a decided advantage. Besides adding much to the bulk, these sub- stances are insoluble in water, poor conductors of electricity, and quite stable against the action of air and moisture. In fact, gutta-percha at present pre- pared for the insulation of submarine cables is composed of one part of resins to every two parts of gutta. When the amount of resin passes this percentage, however, the toughness of the gutta-percha is lessened and other ob.i'ectionable stance. found in each sample, which was insoluble in boiling alcohol but soluble in chloroform. The " guttas " thus found were variously coloi'ed from white to dark brown and possessed different tensile strength, from "elastic" and "very strong" to "brittle." Obach thus used certain slight chemical similarities as his criterion of !! aitta. and neglected, apparently, the wide pliysical differences, which, as will be shown lat;n", these bodies display. Provided there are many kinds of guttas, it is easily understood why a chemical analysis alone of a gutta-percha will give almost no insight into its value unless accompanied by physical tests of the gutt.i contained in it. VIII. PHYSICAL TESTS OF GUTTA. Before going further with the discussion as to whether chemical or physical tests should decide what is or is not " gutta," attention is called to the various physical properties of tliese bodies. To provide material for these physical tests, they wei'e isolated in considerable quantities from various representative Singapore and Philippine gutta-perchas by means of solvents, and after evapora- tion were dried in a stream of dry carbondioxide gas to pi'event any possible oxidation. When heated to the temperature of boiling water they could be easily cut or molded into the necessary shape for performing the following experiments : Action toward light. Heat, soft- ening tem- pera- ture. Stress, tensile strength (pounds). Gutta. Color. Refractive index. Rotation in 0.5 per cent solution. No. 1 Light brown 70° a 1.5093 1. 5088 1. .5089 1. 5093 1. 5076 6.75 6.50 7. .50 6.50 4.75 °a 62 60 61 61 56 Sq, inch. 5, 262. 4 6, 668. 15 No. 3 Cream white No. 4 5, 134. 7 No. 5 Very light chocolate Cream white. . . 6, 451. 45 (a) No. 10 "Brittle. (The numbers in this table refer to Table No. 2.) EXPLANATION OF TABLE.' The " color " of the guttas undoubtedly comes from the bark of the tree when cut to secure the gutta-percha, for. by repeated solution and precipitation the color may be almost entirely eliminated, leaving the gutta only slightly tinted from a cream color to light pink and pure white when finely divided. It is my opinion that all variations of color are only incidental and not connected with the chemical structure of the gutta itself. The amount of color in the above samples was a minimum and not sufficient to have any material eft'ect on the physical properties. The experiments with light, namely, those given under refractive index and rotation, are employed with great success in the commercial analysis of sugars, oils, fats, butters, etc. This is due to the fact that each chemical individual, providing it is capable of transmitting light, has an index of refraction peculiar to itself, which, for purposes of comparison, must be taken under constant conditions and, provided it is able to rotate the plane of polarized light, a degree of rotation which is also constant. «The results given in this table and some of the explanations appeared in the previous annual report of the superintendent of government laboratoriesj but as subsequent experience and the completion of botanical data have led me to take up the subject from a different standpoint, they are again appended for the sake of completeness. EUBBER-PRODUCIKG CAPxVCITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 15 While two fbcinical individuals may show identity in some one physical property, tliey can not continue this identity in twred and determined. Owing to certain mechanical and chemical difliculties encountered in making these determinations on the guttas, the limits of error of experimentation are outside of the differences found between Nos. 1, 8. 4, and 5, but do not include the marked difference displayed by No. 10. In determining the refractive index an Abhe-Zeiss refi-actonieter was employed and a small amount of a concentrated solution of pure gutta in chloroform placed on each of the prisms and allowed to stand until the odor of chloroform had entirely disappeared. Tha prisms were then closed, and kept at a temperature of 70° C. until the readings became constant, showing that all chl(ji-oform had evap(tr;it(Hl. The above figures are the results of many deter- miualiims made with carefully prepared samples. The rotation was detei'mined in chloroform, 0.5 per cent solution being used, because when more concentrated the absorption of light was too great to admit of accurate readings. The physical tests given in the above tables are so diversified as to bring out clearly the extent of resemblance between the various samples of gutta submitted to them. The results show little variation betwe<'n Nos. 1, .S, 4, and 5. Indeed, these samples may be regarded as practically identical in composition. The physical c(jnstauts appear to be those of a single chemical individual, the refractive index varies only in the third decimal place, the rotatinn is the same within the limits of ony 1°, and the softening points vary only from <>0° to (>2°. The small amount of resins in the specimens, which it was impossible to remove, would be suilicient to accomit for even greater varinti(ms. No. 1. however, is the best sample, used for a standard and taken from l)icJioi)sis ant fa: Nos. .'!, 4, and 5 are from the Philipi)ine Islands. It would appear from this that gutta is a chemical individual, identical in all cases, and any substance, such as No. 10, for example, which varies irom the properties recorded above should not be designated as such. This ojiinion is, hov.evor, advanced subject to further confirmation by extended chemical in- vestigation looking toward the determination of the chemical constitution of gutta. In tlie case of sample No. 10 the substance designated as gutta and the real gutta of No. S are very similar in appearance and chemical behavior. In tensile strength, however, they are widely divergent, and this difference is accentuated and not lessened by the other physical tests; for while these latter differences are not so marked, yet they clearly show that all the physical constants of No. 10 differ more or less from all the otliers, and hence this substance must certainly be different in chemical constitution. The action of heat in softening gutta-percha and nuiking it plastic has previously been used as a test of value. It has bee'n found that the best grades require a higher temperature to soften them than the lower grades. Accord- ing to the results obtained by me, the inferior grade of gutta (No. 10) also possesses the property of softening at a lower temperature than the superior gutta. The softening point was detennined by molding a piece of gutta into the bottom of a glass tube sealed below, placing a sharp-pointed glass rod in contact with the surface, and gradually heating in a bath of sulphuric acid until the point of the glass rod just began to enter the gutta. The tensile strength, or toughneas, possessed by gutta, next to its resistance to sea water, is undoubtedly its greatest merit commercially. Even the inferior grades of gutta-percha are used for objects requiring toughness combined with pliability and strength. In the insulation of a submarine cable great toughness is imperative, for during the laying of the cable it is constantly subjected to great strains from kinking, pulling, rubbing, etc., and when it has reached to the ocean bottom, where the pressure is often 8^ tons to the square inch, it must not have sustained a fracture even as large as the diameter of a fine hair, for otherwise the moisture would slowly penetrate to the wires, the insulation would not be complete, and the cable would have to be pulled up and repaired. In order that the measurements made might be within the limits of the instruments at hand, only small strands of gutta could be used for testin,5. To make these strands free from minute air bubbles was well-nigh impossible, in consequence of which the breaking was in most cases brought about by weakness due to this source. The figures, while thus only approximate, are below and not above the true values and show clearly the enormous tensile 16 RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. strength of my samples. Obach (23) gives a tensile strength of 5,000 poundf- for the iiost gutta-percha, while for the gutta from it he found about 6,500, which closely corresponds to results given above. This also brings out most clearly the excellent quality of the best Philippine gutta-percha. The results of the combined chemical and physical tests on various samples of so-called " guttas " extracted from gutta-perchas of different origin seem to show that the gutta from the gutta-percha of Palaqiiium f/utta has certain well-defined chemical and physical properties, and they also demonstrate that some so-called gutta-perchas contain a substance which chemically resembles to a certain extent the above-mentioned guttas, but differs widely from it in many of its physical properties. As the gutta from the species Palaquium guff a has stood the test of usage for fifty years, it is only fair that its chemical and physical constants should be used as the standard of comparison. Until more is known chemically of such substances as I found in No. 10, a chemical analysis will not be sufflcient to determine the value of a gutta-percha, but it must be supplemented by physical tests. This laboratory will undertake the task of so determining the chemical properties of gutta and its allied bodies in the hope of discovering a method of chemical analysis which alone can be used to determhie the value of any gutta-percha. IX. SCIENTIFIC PitOPAGATION. As sodH as the native collectors made such heavy inroads on gatta-percha forests ns to make ceiitain of their serious deciuiation. if not entire destruction, the various governments having tropical possessions in the East began to take note and make inquiries, but it aaj's not until the last four or five years that the notes became serious or the inquiries anxious. Both explorations and inquiries revealed that the greater part of the Malay Peninsula had lost most of its trees, and that the portions of Sumatra and Borneo v.hieh were still productive were in the most inaccessible mountain forests of the interior. So thoroughly had the seed-bearing trees been cleared out of tlie ^lalay State that a standing reward by government officials for seeds of the species Pala- quium [Vitia was not claimed, though the offer stood for a long time. Van Romburgli (24) in a very extensive tour of Sumatra and Borneo, made tuv the purpose of reporting to the Dutch Government the condition of tlie gutta-percha regions, saw but a few seedbearing trees, and these in almost all cases had been protected by native chiefs. In the botanical gardens of Singapore, Bukit, Tlniah, Penang, and Buiten- zorg, Palaquium gutta trees were growing which had either been protected from destruction or had been planted for a sufficient length of time to be seed bearing. These formed the nucleus of the gutta-percha nurseries now being planted by the English and Dutch Governments, with the purpose of obtaining reliable information as to methods of propagation, the rapidity of growth, the time necessary for maturing, and above all to furnish material for testing scientific methods for extracting gutta-percha without killing the trees. Owing to the scarcity of seeds everywhere the government botanists were obliged to resort to various methods for securing young plants, and their experiments have been along the following lines : (a) PLANTING FROM SEEDS. The fresh seeds are laid in beds of rich earth and allowed to germinate and grow under partial shade. When about a foot high they are trans- planted to the future plantation, where the soil may be entirely free from trees, shrubs, or other vegetation (Dutch method) or where small patches of earth have been cleaned and loosened for their reception in a forest of secondary growth, heavy enough only to furnish a light shade (English method). By the butch method a light shade is required around each seedling until a vigorous growth is secured. The seedlings are set out about 5 by 5 yards apart, though where it is desired to obtain the largest amount of leaves per acre the space allotted is 4 by 4 yards. No special care seems necessary except to keep them free from weeds. Too much stress, however, can not be laid on the care which should be taken not to break or Injure the long taproot of the young plant during the process of transplanting, for any injury to it stunts the growth materially or even causes death. Mr, Curtis, director of the Penang Botanical Gardens, has modified the manner of starting the germination and first growth, by placing each seed in a sepai'ate bamboo joint filled with earth. This joint RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 17 is iiijide lon;^ enough to allow the taproot to strike downward undisturbed, and when the time comes for transplanting it can be transferred, joint and all, without any fear of injury, to the plaee made ready for it. The bamboo is then cracked open and the plant inserted in the ground with almost no dis- turbance of Its roots. The Dutch Government in Java, having many seed-bearing trees, is now deeply engaged in carrying out a progrannne which contemplates the planting of some 150,000 seeds annually until at least 1,000,000 trees are growing. This will be done on extensive Government plantations at Tjipitir, Java. The entire management is intrusted to Doctor \nn Komburgh. director of the Government (•heniical laboratory at Buitenzorg. who has a corps of assistants intrusted with testing the gntta-percha contained in the sced-priHlucing trees in order that none but the best stock may be used. (b) rLANTINC; FUDM .SKI.I'-CKOWN SKKDI.I N»iS. In the forests both of Sumatra and Borneo the natives are still able to find comparativ(>ly large numl)ers of self-grown seedlings of the Paluquium (jutta species. These, when carefully taken up and transplanted into air-tight boxes provided with glass covers and rich« earth, can be packed in large numbers in a comparatively small space and shipped to almost any desired distance. For instance, (i0,(l()(t such seedlings were sliipped two years ago from southern Borneo to the French Kongo via Antwerp. The plants transported from Borneo to Singapore in this manner are doing well in the gardens at the latter place. The German Government is i)lanning a nursery of such seedlings iu its tropical jiossesslons in New (Juinea. (C) rKOPAGATlUN BV .MKANS HF M Al!('()TTA<;r.. As neither direct slipping nor grafting has ever succeeded with gutta-percha trees, the method called marcottage was tried in Java and the Malay States with some success. This consists in selecting a young straight limb from a large tree and at the point where the roots are to grow the bark is removed for the length of an inch around the entire limb. The denuded spot is then packed with rich mud, which is held in by a coating of cocoannt or other fiber. (See fig. 2.">.) If the mud is kept moist, and only if this is the case can good results be secured, small roots will generally api)ear in three to nine months, when the limb can be cut off and planted. The principal gntta-percha plantations now under cultivation and in which nmch useful and desired experimenting is being done are located at Tjipitir and Buitenzorg in Java, on Rhio Island at Singapore and Bukit Timah on Singajtore Island, on I'enang Island, and at one or two places in the Federated Malay States. Enough time and work have been spent to demonstrate most conclusively that gntta-percha trees can be raised not only successfnlly. but also without much troulile or great outlay of money, and all the nations having tropical possessions in the East, except the United States, have made a start toward gutta-percha plantations, but the Dutch are the only ones so far who have gone into it on a grand scale, and unless appearances are deceitful they will have a monopoly on the plantations of the gutta-percha of the future as sure as they have on the forest gutta-percha of the present day. X. SCIENTIFIC METHODS OF COLLECTING. Modern methods of collecting gutta-percha have advanced along two lines. Needless to say they were not proposed nor carried out by the wild native collectors, who are unwilling to discontinue present gains iu favor of future returns. It was previously remarked that the gutta-percha is all contained in the bark of the tree and in the leaves. The problem resolved itself into either — (a) Extracting some of the gutta-percha from the bark and leaves without injuring the tree, or (h) Felling the ti-ee and securing the gutta-percha from all of the bark and leaves. To carry out the first proposition a method was devised similar to that used in South America for extracting rubber milk, by which incisions were made iu the bark in a slanting direction up and down the trunk (see fig. 27), so cut that the gutta-percha ducts were opened, but no injury done to the inside wood of S. Doc. 356, 59-2 2 18 RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. tlie tree. The milk flowed out to a greater or less extent and coagulated in strings on the bark. After the flow had ceased and complete coagulation had set in (one day) the strings of gutta-percha were pulled off by hand, washed in hot water, and pressed into cakes. The advantage of this method was that no injury was done the tree, although it was tapped repeatedly. (See fig. 29.) The disadvantage lay in the fact that only a small per cent of the total gutta- percha in the tree could be extracted at any one time. According to Van Romburgh's (25) latest experiments with piantation trees (Palaquium gutta) about 15 to 17 years old, the yield was 100 grams (nearly one-fifth of a pound) per tree. The gutta-percha thus secured was of the very best. In addition to the amount thus taken the leaves both from the living and dead trees contain 8 to 10 per cent by weight of gutta-percha calculated to the dry leaf. To extract this gutta-percha two processes have beeu devised : (1) The mechanical one, in which the leaf is ground to a powder and then treated with hot water in such a way that the gutta-percha is gradually worked into a compact mass, while the pulp of the leaf is washed away. Up to the pi'esent the process has not been perfected, for although the gutta-percha con- tained is of a good quality the percentage of recovery is smaller than it should be. The largest factory of this kind is being erected near Singapore, and it proposes to use the leaves from a plantation of 100,000 trees on the island of Khio, some five hours from Singapore. (2) The chemical process is carried out on the same lines as the mechanical one so far as the grinding of the leaves is concerned. The powder is then extracted with solvents and the dissolved gutta-percha recovered either through precipitation or through evaporation of the solvent. The details of the proc- ess, as well as the solvents used, are kept secret and no patents for this or the mechanical process have been taken out. The largest factory producing gutta-percha for the market is located at Sarawak, north Borneo, and is very advantageously situated as regards secur- ing leaves from the surrounding gutta-percha forests. It has been claimed, however, that the lactorv defeated its avov\ed object of preventing the destruc- tion of the trees, for the native collectors employed would never risk their lives trying to collect leaves from forest trees over 100 feet high when they could gather them much easier by felling the tree and collecting a goodly amount of gutta-percha In addition. It thus appears that the supply of leaves must come from a plantation where supervision can be exercised. The plan of felling the gutta-percha trees of the forest and securing all of the material from the bark and leaves is worthy of serious consideration. In the first place, the trees are surely doomed as long as present conditions obtain. If the native can sell the entire bark and leaves for more than he could get for the gutta-percha which he could extract, he will be tempted to bring them in. A second inducement for this method is the fact that many gutta-percha trees cut down even years previously have still much perfectly sound gutta-percha in the rotting bark, which could also be secured. The process of recovering the substance from the bark is practically the same as from the leaves, and about the same per cent is found there as well. With a yield of from ten to fifteen times the present amount recovered fi-om each tree the gutta-percha market would be relieved at once and the extermination of the trees put off many years, long enough at any rate to allow plantation trees to take their place. A large amount of work has been done in this laboratory with the purpose of finding a practical method for extracting the gutta-percha from the bark and leaves of the gutta-percha trees. The process calls for a solvent for the gutta- percha which will dissolve it easily, can be recovered and again used, and above all has no deleterious effects on the substance. The result of the experimentation led to a modification of the Obach (26) hardening . method for gutta-percha. The process consists in extracting the gutta-percha bark and leaves by means of hot gasoline, the apparatus being provided with reflux condensers. While the gutta-percha has entirely dissolved, the solution is allowed to stand until all of the dirt and most of the coloring matter has settled. The clear supernatent liquid is then poured off and cooled to 10° or 15° below freezing. The gutta, with a small amount of resin, is therel-y precipitated and can be filtered oft' through cloth bags and dried. The resulting gutta can be further purified by redissolving in distilled gasoline and reprecipitating. "The filtrate containing the dissolved resins is redistilled and the recovered gasoline used for effecting further solution of gutta-percha, thus making the process continuous. EUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 19 The sutta so secured, on beiiii: wanned, can be pressed into any desired fnnn for experimentation. Tlie ijntta used in the aV)ove experiments was so prepared, and tlie results of the jili.vsieal and chemical tests showed it to be unaffected I).v the jirocess to any appreciable extent. A year's exposure to labrti-atory fumes has not changed th(^ substance in any way. 'I'lie accompany- iuLT fi.ixure (No. :'>0) sliows some of pressed cakes i)repared in th(> laboratory. It is to be noted that the ]irocess fiives practically pure gutta and not j;utta- l)ercha. the resins remainiu'jc dissolved in the ,u;asoline. This is in itself a iireat advantajie. as the gutta could be used directly for bringing up the per- centage in inferior grades of gutta-percha, and so make them suitable for cable insulation. The conunercial value of this gntta has not been determined, but should be rated at about $t'»00 Mexican per picul. judging from the price of the bi'st gutta-percha. In this way three i)iculs of Philipi)ine gutta-percha .-It $210 Mexican will i)r(KhK(> 1 ])i
    !»() for every .". pi;ii]s of gutta-percha (or the equivalent in bark and leaves) handled. XI. PESTS .VXD r.VKASri'ES. An instructive lailletin has been issued by Doctor Zimmerman (27) of the "s Lands Planlcntuin at P.uitenzorg. Java. His field of observation covered the large experimental gardens of Buitenzorg and at T.iipitir. where many thousands of gutta-percha trees of various species are now growing. While the sanu' conilitions do not obtain there as are encountered in the forest, it is certain that they are as badly if nnt worse off on accoimt of the multitude of insects of all kinds which are attracted by the other plants of the gardens. In fact, he considers the test a severe one. and his conclusions that there are pi'acticaliy no inset-t pests which might be considered dangerous is very gratifying. Cattle and goats eat the leaves greedil.v. and young trees must therefon^ be i)rotected until high enough to be out of reach. Taut II. RUBBER. I. HISTORICAL AMI DESCRIPTIVE. Even the shortest outline presenting the subject of rubber in its historical, geographical, botanical, and commercial aspects would be be.vond the scope of this re])ort, nor does the part which the Philippines have taken in its pro- duction or are likely to take for several years to come, warrant anything more than a brief explanation of the present state of the rubber industry, in (U'der to better understand the present conditions here and the possibilit.v of these islands becoming a new center of the ever-increasing rubber industry. Rubber, or india rubber, as it seems best known in the T'nited States, was discovered by the Si)aniards in the second voyage of Columbus. The Indians of Haiti were found jdaying with rubber balls which they said were formed from the hanleued milk of certain forest trees on the island. In 1755 Dom .lose, King of Portugal, sent several pairs of his boots to South America to be coated with rubl)er milk. They must have been made satisfactorily water- jiroof. for the rubber industry has increased from that dny to this. Not alone was the valley of the Amazon found stocked with rubbei- trees and vines, but new species were discovered in Central America and ISIexico as well. In 1798 rubber-producing vines and trees were encountered in southern .\sia. later on in Central Africa, and by the middle of the nineteenth century almost evcn-y tropical country of the world had been searched, and the st^arch had not been in vain. The number of genera and species — even the families re])resenting the rub- l)er plants — is very large, especially because the production is not confined to trees alone nor to any one coimtry. as is the case with gutta-percha, but includes a large number of vines as well, and its area of producti(m is practi- cally that of the tropical world. While rubber trees predominate in tropical imeriea. Africa and Asia apparently draw their greatest supply from vines. Borneo especially is rich in them to the exclusion of trees. Tlie Philippines vere said to contain more trees than vines, but s.vstematic search has so far evealed oulv vines. 20 RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Not iiutil the middle ot the hist century were the iiuinifohl uses to which rubber could be applied well understood and the rubber industry thoroughly established. Statistics show that London imported in 1830 some 40,400 pounds of rubber, and by ISTO this had increased to the enormous amount of 15,211,800 pounds for that one .■s'ear alone. Since then the consumption has steadily in.- creased, the statistics reading by tons and not pounds, and for l'.)02 amounted to some 62,(550 long tons. London, the former chief center of the rubber trade, has retired in favor of New York. While tropical America in the beginning: produced nine-tenths of the rubber supply, it now exports but very little more than one-half of the total auioimt, India, Burmah, Borneo, and Central Africa especially having made giant strides in rubber production. Last year's pro- duction for the Malay States. Java, and Borneo was about 1,000 tons. In this was included the amount exported from the Philippines. How much that amount was there is no way of finding out, nor for how long this exportation of rubber has been going on. My investigations in the southern islands con- vinced me that wliatever collecting and exporting has been done concerns the island of Tawi-Tawi alone, and in all probability the latter amount was small. This conclusion is reached because the natives only of Tawi-Tawi know of the commercial value of rubber, and also because I found rubber vines very near the coast on Tawi-Tawi, a sure indication that the seardi for rubber has not been very careful nor for a long time. The Philippine Islands are then practically a new held for the development of a rubber industry. It will be my purpose, therefore, to show — (1) The species of rubber-producing plants indigenous to the islands and the amount of territory covered. (2) The grade of rubber produced. (3) The Pliilipplnes as a rubber-producing country: («) Through utiliz.i- tiou of natural supply: (h) through introduction of foreign species. Reference to figures 31, 32, and 33 will show the two species of vines now known to be well distributed over the islands, both of wliich produce a good grade of rubber. Owing to my inability to find a vine in fruit or flower, one ol , them has not yet l>een determined botanically. ^Ir. Merrill contributes the following botanical descriptions: "Parameria philipjjiiiensls Radlk. ( Apocinaceie. ) "An evergreen woody vine, reaching a height of 40 or 5() feet and a diameter of 1 inch or more. Bark gray, witli an abundant milky sap. Leaves opposite, ovate, acute, or somewhat acuminate, glabrous. 2 to 3 inches long; nerves four pairs; petioles short. Flowers small, white, fragrant, in terminal panicles. Fruit a long, slender, distinctly torulose follicle, 10 to 12 inches long, the swell- ings over the seeds an incli apart. Seeds one-half inch long, brown, coma white, about twice as long as the seed. "XApocinacea-.) Genus undetermined, specimen with leaves only, from the island of Basilan. "A very large vine 150 to 200 feet jn length, with a diameter of 6 to 8 inche^ the bark somewhat rough, greenisli. Leaves broadly ovate or oblcular, 8 to 10 indies long, abruptly very shortl.v acuminate, the acumen less than one-half inch long, glabrous above, pubescent on the nerves beneath, the nerves promi- nent, about 10 pairs." It has already been stated that no rubber-producing trees have been found. That is to say, a great many species of trees have been discovered which are known to produce a millv or latex, and while none so far studied contain rul- ber, it is scarcely to be supposed that when material from all has been collected some at least will not be found to yield a good product. The extent of territory covered by these two rubber vines is given by ma^ No. 2 (facing page 0). While the Parameria is found in Mindoro, Culion, and the other northern islands, the iudetermined species is found on Tawi-Tawi, Basilan, and Mindanao. The extent of territory covered in these various places was estimated after extensive personal investigations when all available data had been secured from natives, merchants, etc. In the northern islands, ex- cepting Mindoro, the area covered is given as reported by those who found specimens of the vine. There is every reason to believe, however, that careful investigations would show much larger areas. In ]Mindoro the natives in all the coast towns knew the rubber vine as " Dactang Ahas " (medicine for snakes) , and many of them brought lis samples from the neighboring forest. They all reported lai-ge numbers of vines in the interior of the island, and the three EUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 21 expeditions made there from tlie north, west, and south sides continued their statements. In Mindanao tlie two areas triven between Dinas and Txicuran in tlie moun- tains near the soutli coast are the only ones known so far. and even these were only foinid by accident. The natives knew nothing of rubber, but they had a vine which ccmtained a milky substance, good either as a medicine or for making the heads of their drumsticks. On securing a piece of this peculiar substance from the latter it was found to be a good sample of rubber. Further e.xplorations to the Avest and east will itrobably prove that this vine covers about the same area as that occui)ied by the gutta-percha trees. In Rasilau and Tawi-Tawi the vine grows abiuidantly and to a large size. In the latter island the Moros understand its commercial value, and those engaged in collecting gutta-percha gather rubber at the same time, sometimes mixing the rubber and gntta milk. H. THE (iKAl)K OF Rl'IJlJER PRODI'CED. Hul>l)er milk or latex is contained in the bark of certain vines and trees in exactly the same manner as is gutta-percha. (See tig. o5. ) When made to (low. the same phenomenon of coagulation apparently sets in (piickly or slowly, according to the si)ecies of the plant. In man.v species of trees the coagulation is very slow and the tlow of milk more abundant than with gutta-percha trees. As a result the natives have evolved the method of tapi)ing the trees similar to that shown in fig. 80. The milk thus secured is coagulated in a manner simila.r to that employed with gutta-i»ercha. Another method, which seems to give the best results and which is employed in the preparation of Para rubber, consists in subjecting thin layers of the milk, placed on the broad end of a paddle, to the coagulating action of smoke produced by burning certain husks which are similar to those of cocoanuts. The smoke contains creosote and acid fumes, which quickly destroy all fungus /growths and bacteria which might tend to cause decomposition of the rubber, '. while the heat removes the greater part of the moisture at the same time. A chemical analj'sls of many grades of rubber coming from different species of trees and vines shows them, with the exception of variable amounts of water and dirt, to be composed almost entirel.v of rubber, with a small per cent of resins. The rubber in all has apparently the same chemical composition, an ultimate analysis giving the formula Ciollio- Chemically then there appears to be only one rubber, while physicall.v certain difCei'ences are to be foimd between samples from different species. Whether the superiority of Para rubber is due, 'therefore, to the excellency of the rubber itself or to the above-mentioned method of coagulation has not yet been determined. However, it is a fact that Para rubber from the tree species Hcrca brasiliensis Muell. Arg., is recognized as the standard for grading rubber commercially. It will be noted that the method before mentioned is one requiring skill, judg- ment, and the expenditure of considerable labor. In most rubber countries the "native collectors possess none of these requisites and are content to employ the crudest methods. In consequence the rubber obtained is of a low grade even thought the species of tree is of the best. The Philippine rubber collectors are Samal and .Joloano Moros living in Tawi- Tawi and the adjacent coral islands. The method of coagulation used by them was undoubtedly learned from the Moros of North Borneo, who, with the Dyaks, collect much of the rubber in that island. It consists in fii'st pulling the vine /^down to the ground so as to be better able to tap it along its entire length. 'The milk is caught in cocoanut shells or leaves, and coagulated by pouring into sea water. The coagulation is almost instantaneous, and when properly "'manipulated a large amount of water can be mechanically inclosed inside the large balls along with plenty of chopped-up bark. The resulting rubber, of which I secured many samples, is white, tough, and very elastic so long as it is kept in sea water. On exposure to the air it blackens and decomposition slowly sets in. The chemical analysis of a sample of this rubber, after much of the dirt and water had been removed, resulted as follows: Per cent. Dirt 3.76 Rubber 81.57 Resins ,_ 3.16 Water 11.51 22 RUBBEK-PRODTJCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Judging from this analysis the rubber in Singapore would be rated as Borneo No. 1, which sells for $125 (Mexican) per picul of 133^ pounds. The vines generally die after being pulled down and tapped, probably because of their inability to again reach light and sunshine. The rubber from the Mindoro species has never apparently been gathered in any quantities even by the natives. When the bark is cut the milk flows readily and coagulates quickly. In appearance it is very similar to the Tawi- Tawi rubber. As yet no chemical analysis has been made. In order to get a valuation of it a sample was submitted to the Goodyear Rubber Company, of Akron, Ohio, who placed it at about 60 cents per pound after allowance is made for the percentage of water. Larger samples of both kinds of rubber are now being prepared in the laboratory in order that they may be submitted simul- taneously to rubber experts. Iir. THE PHILIPPINES AS A RUBBER-PRODUCING COUNTRY, (a) THROrGH fTILIZATION OF THE NATURAL SUPPLY. Judging from the way the natives of Tawi-Tawi gathered rubber when left to their own devices, I was convinced that they wasted as large amounts of the milk as they did when they collected gutta-percha — that is, ten to forty limes more than they took away. It is evident, then, that under present conditions the history of the rubber vines will be the same as that of the gutta-percha trees, only on a smaller scale. It is useless, in my opinion, to think of tapping them only, for an inspection of their tortuous windings up and around the high forest trees (see fig. 37) will show the impossibility of ever collecting the milk, no matter hew carefully the tapping were done. To get the full value from the vine the rubber must be extracted from the entire bark. Experiments along that line are now in progress in the laboratory and so far promise well. If the entire vine be cut into pieces and dried, the bark easily separates from the wood and forms 44 per cent of the entire plant. By grinding the bark in any ordinary mill, the rul)ber sei)arates in the form of small balls while the bark passes off as powder. The dried bark contains 9 to 10 per cent by weight of pure rublier. which shows this sul>stanee to be about 4 per cent of the entire vine. The other conditions and details will be investigated by the laboratory with a view of determining methods which will make possible the investment of American capital. It is true that the method of collecting rubber given above kills the vine. The answer to this objection is found in the fact that when the vine has been cut off the roots stool again quickly. On a hillside in Mindoro where the natives had burned the forest for the purpose of planting rice, scores of stools from rubber vines were counted while the fire was yet smoldering in some of the old stumps and roots of the large trees. (h) THROUOH INTRODUCTIOX OF FORF.IG:; SPECIES. It was stated previously that no rubber trees were found in the islands. Exception should be made to the beautiful specimens of the india-rubber tree (Fk-iis chistica Linn.) which were introduced throughout the archipelago by the Spanish years ago as ornamental shade trees rather than as rubber pro- ducers. They are excellent examples of the ^^■ay foreign species of rubber trees will grow here, and may also serve the still better purpose, that of furnishing seeds and slips to start rubber plantations. ^Nlany plantations of this tree have been begun in .Java, the reasons for the selection of this species being: (1) The seeds are numerous and the plants grow well ; (2) the method of starting new plants by marcottage (see fig. 25) succeeds admirably and the plants have vigorous growth (see fig. 38) ; (3) the method of coagulation best suited for this milk is the simplest of all. It consists of making many small cuts in the bark of the trunk and allowing the flowing milk to coagulat in strings. When dry and hard they are pulled off and pressed into a c-ompact mass (see mass of rubber on the left. fig. 39) for shipment. The win'k can be done by even ignorant workmen, and with no damage to the tree. In the Malay States a great many plantations are now being started with Para rubber trees, the seeds of which are secured from the various government botanical gardens as well as from priv.-ite plantations. (See flg. 41.) One of this species of trees is now growing in Manila, and apparently the climate is suitable. The bureau of agriculture has distributed many Ceara rubber seeds during the past year, and the growth of the seedlings is marvelous. KUBBEE-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 23 111 iicnoral the cliiiiiitic comlitioiis of most of the ishinds seem very favorable f(»r the nihlier industry. .Miiuloro and the southern ishuids esiiecially are ad- vantageous on acc-ount of the a1)un(hint rainfall distributed throughout the year, with no long season of drought. What pests and parasites the rultl)er trees would be troubhMl with can only he conjeetnred l»y reference to the experii'iice of Java. etc. Doctor Zimmerman (I'S) extended his work on parasites to include rubber trees, and has found on6 or two species of insects that may cause damage.* Cattle and goats must also be guardi'd against. It is needless to dwell on the commercial side of rublier plantations. They are now flourishing in all troiiical countries and as an agricultural investment are highly considered. However, in all new countries a certain amount of expi'i-imeiital work must be dime before large capital can be safely invested. In India. P>urmah, the Malay States, and Java this has been accomplished by the resjiective governments. As soon as methods were perfected and seed siii)plies provided, private caiiital b(\gan operations at once. From the number of injuries already madi' about rubber planting in these islands, it would look as if some movements in this direction are contemplated here, investors onlj- waiting for the government to pave the way. By profiting from the extensive experience of our neigliboring countries the experimental era sliould be short and inexiieiisive, as a great deal of the pioneer work has been done. MTERATUKK. (1) "Die Cutta I'ercha." by Dr. Eugene Obach. Page (>. (2) Mech. Magazine. London, 1840. Vol. 4-5. p. 415. (8) C. W. Siemens, Journal of Soc. of Telegraphic Engineers, ISTG. Vol. 5, p. 82. (4) London Jour. Botany, 1847. Vol. 6, p. 46.3. (5) Flora de Filipinas, 1887. Page 40. (6) " Die Gutta Percha," Obach. Page 5!). (7) " Die Gutta Percha," Obach. Page 15. (8) Personal communication. <9) Jour. Straits Branch. Asiat. Soc. 1884. No. 12, pp. 212-214. (10) "Die Gutta Percha," Oliach. Page 24. (11) E. Jungfleisch, " La Production de la Gutta Percha." Paris, 1892, p. 4. (12) Vid. Export Statistics from Bureau of Forestry, 1901, 1902, 1903. (13) Rules and Regulations of the Bureau of Forestiy for Utilization of Forest Products. 19(10. (14) Bulletin de L'Institut Botanique de Buitenzorg. No. XV, p. 28. (15) Rep. Chem. appliipie; vol. 1. p. 455. Jahresber. d. Chemie, 18-59, p. 517. (IC) "Die Gutta Percha." Obach. I'age 27. (17) Bulletin de L'Institut Botanique de Buitenzorg. No. XV, p. 22. (IS) " Die Gutta Percha." Obach. Page 8. (19) On Isopreiie and Caoutclhne. C. G. Williams, Proc. Roy. Soc, 1860. Vol. 10, p. 516. Harris, Ber. d. chem. Ges. 35, 3256, and Weber, Ber. d. chem. Ges. 33, 779. (20) Chem. News. 1S82. Vol. 4(!. p. 120, and 1892. vol. 65, p. 265. Comptes Rendus, 1875, vol. 80, p. 1446 ; 1879, vol 89. pp. 361 and 1117. (21) Jour. Prakt. Chem., 1897. Vol. 55, pp. 1 and 4. Jour. Russ. Phys. Chem. Soc, 1896 [1], 316. (22) "Die Gutta Percha." Obach. Pages 28. 30, 34, etc (28) " Die Gutta Percha." Obach. Page 87. (24) "Caoutchouc en Getah-Pertia." Mededeelingen uit 's Lands Planten- tuin. No. XXXIX. (25) Private ccmimnnication. (26) "Die Gutta Percha," Obach. Pag(> 49. (27) Bulletin de L'Institut Bontani(iue de Buitenzorg. No. X. (28) Bulletin de L'Institut Bontaniqne de Buitenzorg, No. X. FIG. 2.— LEAVES OF PALAQUIUM GUTTA BURCK, GROWN IN BOTANICAL GARDEN, SINGAPORE. FURNISHES F:RST GRADE GUTTA-PERCHA. FIG. 3.— LEAVES AND FRUIT OF PAYENA LEERI BENTH. ET HOOK, FROM BUITENZORG, JAVA. FURNISHES SECOND GRADE GUTTA-PERCHA. -LEAVES OF PALAQUIUM TREUBLI BURCK, GROWN AT BUITEN20RG, JAVA. SECOND-GRADE RUBBER. FIG. 5.— PALAQUIUM LATIFOLIUM BLANCO, PROVINCE OF TAYABAS, LUZON. FIG. 6.— PALAQUIUM BARNESII MERRILL, ISLAND OF MASBATE. Truk^u^UfH .oft- Mjati.'^lrirCrOf*>-"^n FIG. 7.— PALAQUIUM AHERNIANUM MERRILL, TUCURAN, DISTRICT OF ZAMBOANGA, MINDANAO. ' FLORA OF THE PHlLi>'t Mt«>A>nUl< Of TMt BOMAU Of ""^'j"""- FIG. 8.— PALAQUIUM CELEBICUM BURCK, DISTRICT OF COTTABATO, MINDANAO. FIG. 9. — PALAQUIUM CUNEATUM VIDAL, PROVINCE OF TAYABAS, LUZON. itJto FIG. 10.— PALAQUIUM GIGANTIFOLIUM MERRILL, PROVINCE OF TAYABAS. FIG. 11. — PALAQUIUM LUZONIENSE ' F. VILL^ VIDAL, PROVINCE OF TAYABAS, LUZON. ^l;,;.-,i..- "I t2/A'.i^t». ," .>'^ ■*w mtltt. '-•?<■ J' -^Hi.' «^: FIG. 25.— SHOWING METHOD OF PROPAGATING GUTTA-PERCHA TREES BY MEANS OF MAR- COTTAGE, BUITENZORG, JAVA. FIG. 26.— A PALAQUIUM GUTTA TREE GROWING IN THE OPEN, BOTANICAL GARDEN, SINGAPORE, STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. FIG. 27.— A TREE OF PALAQUIUM GUTTA JUST TAPPED, TJIPITIR, JAVA. FALAQUIUM TREUBII JUST TAPPED, TJIFITIR, JAVA. FIG. 29.— ABSENCE OF DEEP SCARS AFTER SEVERAL YEARS TAPPING, BUITENZORG, JAVA. FIG. 30.— SAMPLES OF PURE GUTTA PREPARED IN THE LABORATORY FOR EXPERIMENTAL PURPOSES. FIG. 31.— A RUBBER VINE (PARAMERIS PHILIPPINENSIS RADLK', WESTERN MINDORO. FIG. 32.— RUBBER VINE i PARAMERIA PHILIPPINENSIS RADLK. >, GROWING IN GREAT ABUNDANCE ON ISLANDS OF MINDORO AND CULION. FIG. 33.— RUBBER VINE FOUND IN TAWI TAWI, BASILAN, AND MINDANAO. SPECIES UNDETERMINED. -RUBBER VINE IWILLUGHBEIA FIRMA BLUME'. THIS SPECIES SUPPLIES MOST OF THE RUBBER PRODUCED IN BORNEO. ■ ^^d^^^l fll^^^B ^ I 1 J»ii la.iiiMIMMf^i^^^^^B ■■p^gn iVfl BIm FIG. 35.— PIECE OF DRY BARK FROM RUBBER VINE, SHOWING THE IMMENSE NUMBER OF RUBBER FIBERS IN THE INNER BARK. -METHOD OF TAPPING A PARA RUBBER TREE THIRD DAY AFTER TAPPING, EXPERIMENTAL GARDEN, BUITENZORG, JAVA. -PLANTATION OF PARA RUBBER TREES, PRODUCING SEED, BOTANICAL GARDEN, SINGAPORE. BUREAU OF FORESTRY. (Bulletin No. 3.) A COMPILATION OF NOTES ON INDIA RUBBER AND GUTTA-PERCHA. By Capt. Geouge P. Ahern. letter of transmittal. Bureau op Forestry, Manila, N^ovcmber 15, 1905. Sir: I have the honor to sul^mit herewith for your consideration a (•oni))ilation of notes on rubber and gutta-percha, giving data concerning the requirements, growth, and treatment of the most important rubber-producing species in different ])arts of the world. A large number of writers, acquainted with the commercial exploitation of rubber trees and vines, have l)een consulted and their conclusions com]iiled. These notes were gathered together after a number of requests had l)een made of the undersigned for information concerning the market for crude rubber, price, pros- pects for rubber growing in these islands, requirements of soil and climatic conditions for the growth of rubber trees, etc. The data collected by Doctor Sherman and bj- Philippine botanists and collectors show that the soil, climate, and other conditions are favorable to ruliber and gutta- percha in certain parts of these islands. The government nurseries at Lamao, Bataan Province, have on hand for distribu- tion a number of the more imjjortant species of rubber plants, including Hevea bras- iliensis, CastiUoacIasiira. Manihot glaziovvi, and Ficiis elastica. Of the 29 rul)l)er-producing sjK'cies enumerated in the above-mentioned notes, the 4 just mentioned furnish the greater part of the world's rublier supjjly. All of these species have been extensively cultivated in the Orient and haAe l)een found to be well suited to the climatic conditions. In two or three years we should have available for distribution an abundance of seed from each of the above-mentioned species. Experiments in ])lanting rul>lier trees should l)e encovu-aged in a great many different districts in the islands, so that we may h arn just where the trees thrive best and under what Icoal conditions a good quality of rul)ber is produced. The three great rublier-producing centers of the world at the present time may be broadly classified as follows: 1. East Indies: British India, Ceylon. Burma, Straits Settlements. Java. Borneo, etc. 2. Africa: Numerous foreign possessions and free states along the coast of Africa; Madagascar. 3. Mexico and South America. The demand for crude rubber continues to exceed the supply, and from statements made by the leading rubber merchants this condition of affairs shows no prospect of changing. I would respectfully recommend that these notes be published as Bulletin No. 3. Very respectfully, George P. Ahern, Director of Forestry. The Secretary of the Interior, Mayiila, P. T. 25 26 RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. "Twenty-five years ago Mr. John H. Cheever, one of the most successful rubber manufacturers the world has known, bought raw rubber as low as the prices appended, in comparison with which we note the highest New York quotations for corresponding grades within the current year: [Prices stated in United States currency.] Grade. 1879. 1905. Grade. 1879. 1905. Fine Para $0.50 .'il;l.,33 African Borneo .24 .47i .35 1.04 Coarse Para .34 1 .97 .34 ! .91 .41 Assam Mozambique .9 "The demand for rubber never ceases nor becomes diminished; it promises to grow in years to come as it has done in all the years since the first rubber goods were vulcan- ized." (From India Rubber World, December 1, 1904, p. 69.) During the past ten years the imports of raw rubber into the United States have nearly doubled. If we use the official customs returns for the fiscal years ending June 30 the comparison is as follows: Pounds. 1893-94 33, 737, 783 1903-4 59, 015-, 651 Meanwhile, the imports for consumption in other countries have probably increased at a corresponding rate. An old axiom avers that supply regulates demand, but in regard to rubber we already have an overdemand, and it is the supply that the manufacturers are seeking. The greater the supply, the more numerous will be the uses to which rubber will be applied, and we are assured by both scientists and business men that such a thing as overproduction is impossible. In view of this fact, a large number of companies have in recent years become interested in the establishment and commercial exploitation of various rubber-producing trees. RUBBER AND GUTTA YIELDING SPECIES. Of the large number of rubber and gutta yielding species especially fitted for tropical cultivation, M. A. Godefroy-Lebeuf, an eminent French horticulturist, in his Catalogue of Economic and Ornamental Plants, cites: Landolphia kirhii: Zanzibar rubber. Landolphia owariensis: Casamance rubber. Landolphia klainii: Fernand-Vas (French Congo) rubber. Landolphia sp.: Dubreka (west Afi'ica) rubber. Landolphia tomcntosa: Conakry (west Africa) rubber. Urceola esculenta: Burma rubbei". Urceola elastica: Borneo rubber. Manihot glaziovii: Ceara rubber. Eiiphorbia sp.: Fort Dauphin (Madagascar) rubber. Vahea madagascarensis: Diego-Suarez (Madagascar) rubber. Tabernaemonlana sp.: West African tree, with fruit-yielding rubber. Kickxia afncana: Lagos rubber. 'Kickxia latifolia: Kassai (Congo) rubber. Ficus elastica: Assam rubber. Ficus vogehi: Conakry (west Africa) rubber. Ficus rubiginosa: Australian rubber. Castilloa elastica: Central American rubber. Hevea confnsa: Brazilian rubber. Hetea brasilicnsis: Para rubber. Hancornia speciosa: Pernambuco or " Mangabeira " rubber. Sapium Inglandulosum: Tolima (Colombia) rubber. Sapium thomsonii: Another Colombian species. Willoughbeia firma: Malaysian rubber. Willoughbeia cdulis: Laos (China) rubber. Chonemorpha macrophylla: An ornamental plant from India. Isonandra gvtta: Gutta-percha. Payena leerii: Gutta-sundek. Mimusops balata: Balata. Achras sapota: Chicle. (India Rubber World. Vol. XXIII, No. 1, 1900, p. 14.) RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 27 GRAPES OF CRUDE Rt BBER. I INDIA RUBBER. ■"India rubl)er or ciuiulchoiic (•(tiisist.'^ of the dried coagulati-d milky juictM>t' various trees and shrubs, i)elonging chiefly to the natural orders Eu phorbiaccn;, Moracesc, Artocarpaceie, and Apoeynacea?. Although a milky juice is found in plants of many other families, it does not in all cases yield caoutchouc, nor do different species of the same genus yield an equal c(uantity or quality of that substance. On the other hand, there are many plants which afford a good rubber. l)Ut have not yet been sought out for the commercial pur])()ses. ■'* * * Caoutcliouc differs from other vegetal)le products of like origin by possessing considerable elasticity, by l)eing insoluble in water or alcohol, alkalies, and acids (with the exception of concentrated nitric and suli)huric acids). Although apparently simple in constitution, it contains not oidy the elastic substance to which its commercial value is due but a small quant ity of an oxidizing, viscid, resinous body eoluble in alcohol. This latter sul)stance varies in quantity^ in different kinds of rubber, those containing the smallest amount, .such as Para and Ceara, being considered the most valuai)le. while those in which it is present in greatest proportion, such as the Guatemala and African rubbers, 'are the least esteemed." (From Encyclopedia Britannica.) CAUCHO. ■"Cauclio is a distinct sort of a rubber, inferior to the Para. * * * It is not cured by smoking, but by the admixture with the milk of lime, potash, or soap." "In character this gum occu{)ies a position between india rul)bcr and gutta-percha, combining in a degree the elasticity of one with the ductility of the other, and freely softening and becoming plastic and easily molded in hot water. The milk, diluted with water, is said to l)e drunk by the nativ(>s as a sul)stitute for cow's milk. Halata is dried ordinarily by evaporation. A more rapid coagulation is effected l)y the use of spirits of wine. Alum and sulphate of aluminum are .sometimes used to coagulate, but are not very satisfactory. The gum is sometimes mixed during the gathering with the milk that produces gum known as Touchpong and Barta-Balli. Balata shrinks in wash- ing from 25 to 50 per cent. It is used principally in the manufacture of belting and for insidation work. It has also been utilized for golf Ijalls and as a substitute for india rubber in dress shields. GUTTA-PERCHA. "Gutta-percha, which was introduced into Europe from Singapore in 1843, was for a while confounded with india rubl)er, from which it differs in some very important particidars. It becomes soft and plastic on imm(>rsion in hot water, retaining the .shape then given it on cooling, whereupon it liccomes hard, but not brittle, like otkiergums. India rubber, on the other hand, does not soften in hot water and retains its original elasticity and strength almost unimpaired. The water, as such, exercises no softening action on gutta-percha, the effect being purely one of temperature, which may ('([ually be produced by hot air, only somewliat more slowly. The degree of heat reqiured de])enld little or no rubber. Under favorable natural conditions the culture of (\tsfilln ilastica (the spelling Cafililln. instead of Castillna, has lieen adopted in Washington on account of its being the original form) bids fair to become very prof- itable, but the expiM-imental determination of the factors which influence the produc- tion of rub])cr has scarcely begun. "In southern Mexico and Central America, the regions well adapted to the culture of Castilla are much more limited tlian has been supposed. The presenc-e of the wild Costilla trees is not a sufficient evidence that a locality is suited to commercial rub))er culture. "Differences in the rubber yield are due not merely to the existence of different species and varietii'S of Castilla, but are also controlled' by external conditions. The functions of tlie rubber milk in the economy of the plant are not well understood or agreed upon by botanists: but there are numennis reasons for holding that in Castilla and many other plants it aids in resisting drought. "A continuously humid climate is not necessary to the growth and the produc- tiveness of Castilla. The indications are rather that the quantity of milk and the per- centage of rubber are l)oth increased by an alternation of wet and dry seasons. In its wild slate Castilla does not flourish in the denser forests, but requires more open sit- uations. It is confined to forest regions only by the perishability of its seeds. Cas- tilla thrives. better v.'hen planted in the ojien than in the d(>nse forests; even young seedlings are not injured by full exposure to the sun, providing that the ground does not become too dry. The |)lanting of Castilla unfler shade or in jiartially cleared for- ests is to be advised only ()n account of special conditions or as a mc^ans of saving labor and ex])(>nse. ■'The loss of the leaves in the dry season may be explained as a protection against drought, and does not indicate conditions unfavorable to the tree or to the protection of rubber. The falling of the leaves of Castilla elastica in the dry season renders it unsuitable as a shade tree for coffee or cacao. In continuously humid localities, where the leaves are retained, shade trees are superfluous and tlie yield of rubber ral successive or alternate days by renewing the wounds at the edges. Th(> yield of milk increases for several tappings and the total is unexpectedly large. It is not yet known whether multiple tapping is practicable with Castilla or whether this new plan may not give the Para rubber tree a distinct cultural advan- tage over Castilla. ■'The gathering of rubber from trees less than 8 years old is not likely to be advan- tageous; the expense of collecting will be relatively large, and the quality of such rubber is inferior, owing to the large percentage of resin. The rubber of Castilla is scarcely inferior to that of Hevea. The supposed inferiority is due to substances which can be removed from the milk by heat and by dilution with water." (India Rubber World, Vol. XXIX, No. 1, Oct.,'l903, p. 3.) 30 RUBBER-PRODUCIXG CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. ■'* * " No cultivated rubber has yet been produced in quantities in tropical Mexico. On the other hand, rubber trees have for some years been grown experi- mentally. These tests have already established two important facts: First, that con- ditions are favorable to the rapid growth of cultivated rubber plants, and second, that the rubber trees will yield marketable rubber. The general conditions favorable to the cultivation of rubber, namely, a well-drained soil without shade, have also been determined. "From estimates obtained from various American planters in Mexico, the lowest yield for cultivated rubber trees at different stages is as follows: ■' Average 6-year-old tree will produce without injury 4 to G ounces of rubber. " Average 7-year-old tree bled to death will produce al)out 1 pound of rubber. " Average 8 to 10 year-old tree will produce without injury at least 1 pound of rubber. " The planting on the Rubio plantation in 1902 amounted to 1,499 acres, on which, allowing for failures, there are now estimated to be 1, GOO, 000 plants. It is noted that the height of the trees grown from seeds — about 65 per ceJit of the whole — is greater than that of transplanted or replanted trees. The planting in 1903 amounted to 520 acres, on which, after again allowing for failures, there are 595,000 plants. The num- ber of plants, of course, is much greater than will be allowed to stand permanently, but it has not yet been decided at what age to begin thinning out." (Report of the official inspector, Tehauntepec Rul>ber Ctdture Company, Mexico, India Rtibber World, Vol. XXX, No. 2, May, 1904, p. 271.) "* * * The hardiness of the Castilloa dastica tree simplifies its culture very much, and as it possesses a vitality superior to that of the weeds or of any other kind of vegetation, it does, not require heavy expense for frequent weedings. If, without any help from man, such trees can grow for hundreds of years in wild woods full of vines, briers, and many other plants, under cultivation they can certainly outlive the v/eeds. ■'* * * The time recjuired to produce gum from this tree depends upon the locality, rainfall, and methods used for cultivation. My estimates of production and tapping age are based upon my personal experience and close observation, and not upon what others have written. The cultivated rubber tree blossoms after the sixth year, and can not be tapped before this time without injury. The rainfall of the previous year generally determines the earliness of the season and the number of the blooms, the quality of the seeds, and the flow and quality of the milk itself. ■' The sap furnished by a 7-year-old rubber tree should yield a minimum of 1^ pounds of pure rubber, and as every tree increases its yield by no less than one-half pound of gum annually until its 25th year of age, at least 15 to 20 pounds of pure gtun should be obtained yearly thereafter dtiring the life of the tree. So an acre of land con- taining 220 rubber trees, planted 14 feet apart each way, will give at the end of the sixth year — or, to be more exact, in the first crop made during its seventh year of existence — • 330 pounds of pure rubber, which, at the rate of 50 cents gold, would give a revenue of 1165. If this estimate of IJ pounds per tree should not seem conservative enough, let it be 1 pound to the tree, and the return per acre will be $110." (Chas. G. Cano, C. E., Mexico. India Rubber World, Vol. XXIV, No. 5, August, 1901, p. 322.) " An exact record vras made of the results of some recent tapping of rtibber trees (Cas- tilloa elastica) on the San Miguel plantation, owned by the Tabasco Plantation Com- pany, located on the Macuspana River, in the State of Tabasco, Mexico, which are sum- marized below. There are on this estate about 400 large rubber trees, which were planted in the shade of ' mother' trees (not rubber) planted for shading the coffee while the rubber was getting a start. "The rubber trees on this plantation are of the variety known throughout Mexico and Central America as Castilloa elastica. This variety is divided into two classes, the first of which is known as the yellow rubber tree. Iliile amarillo, this being the male. The milk from these trees flows very freely, having a fresh yellowish color. It flows .so freely that there is scarcely any left in the cuts after tapping. The other variety is known as the white rubber tree, or Hide bianco, this being the female. "A fact well known to the ruljber planters is that trees planted in the shade require a much longer time to attain their maturity and full size than those planted in the sun. In fact, the most casual observer could not fail to notice the astonishing differ- ence in size between the trees grown in the sun and those in the shade. It is believed that the size of a rubber tree has more to do with the amount of rubber it will produce than its age. "The first step in tapping a rul>ber tree is to clean a small place around the tree, a small gash then being made in the l)ark with the point of a machete and a leaf inserted therein, which serves at a spout to run the milk into pails. From this point the cuts are made upward at an angle of 45 degrees and extending in each direction a suflicient distance to include three-fourths of the circumference of the tree. Directly above this, a distance of 1 meter, another cut is made exactly like the first, the milk flowing RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 81 down the side of the tree into the first cnt and on into the jiail. These cuts are repeated on the entire body of the tree, or until the branches ar(> encountered. You will at once see that all the milk has not Ix-en secured, but a sufficient amount left to main- tain the tree in good condition for another year. The next tapping, which will be made a year from now, will be made on the same side; of the tree, A inches al)o\(' the cut made this year, and the following year 3 inches above that, so that it will be possible to make 13 tappings on one side, or 26 on both sides; or, in other words, a tree can be tapped twenty-six years without retapping the old cuts. Thi' instrument used by the native is a machete, or long knife. The bark of a 10-year-old rub))er tree is about three-fourths of an inch thick. "Tlie milk, gathered in pails, is taken to the rubber-drying house, where it may be converted into rubl>er through either of the following processes, both of which we have used : "First, it is spread on a cement floor to a depth of three-fourths of an incli, this floor being st) situated that the milk is constantly in contact with the sun's rays, thus dr\-ing veiy ra})itlly. After it is dry, the sheets are rolled up into convenient sizes for shipment. "The second process is through coagulation with a native vine known as 'bejuco de necta.' During the coagulation the ruliber is left porous, and as it contains more or less water, it is necessary to remove same Ijy using a press. It requires more time to prepare rubber l)y the first process. The average shrinkage in converting milk intu solid rub- ber is 2.3; or, in other words, 2.3 pounds of rul)ber milk will make 1 pound of rul)l)er. I have personally attended to the tapping, and the figures given herein are aljsolutely correct. Age. Number of trees. / years 8 years ' 9 "years i 10 years 1 V2 years ^ I ■'S'\ Late. Ini ?>es. 30 80 S7. 75 40. 14 43.25 50.50 Ounces. 11.80 20. 70 21.23 2(i. 75 40.50 Rubber. Ounces. 9. .30 14.25 ' 18 17.50 28.90 "Based upon the above figures, the rubber product from an acre of land containing 200 trees. 7 years old, would be 112 pounds; at 8 years old, 174 pounds; at 9 years old, 24.0 pounds; and at 12 vears old, 314 pcmnds." flndia Rubber World, Vol. XXVII, No. 1, Apr., 1903, p. 22d.) THREE V.\RIETIES OF CASTILLOA. "* * * In planting Cos/iWoa it would appear that great care is required to make sure that the seeds or seedlings obtained are really those of the ]>est variety of CaslUloa elastica. It appears that there are at least three varieties of this CaslUloa. which are respectively distinguished as CaslUloa alba, CaslUloa negra, and CaslUloa ntbra. There is not the slighest difference lietween these three varieties as regards the general form of the tree and its liraiich(>s. and also the flowers and seeds are in all three apparently identical. The above descriptions refer to the color of the bark. The difference even there, however, is so small that it takes a practiced eye to recognize the different varie- ties. These differ, nevertheless, very greatly in their value to the ru liber planter. "Alba. — CaslUloa elastica alba produces a thick creamy milk. It is the hardiest of all CaslUloa trees, and suffers very little from the tapping operation. It also yields the greatest quantity of rubber. The ))ark of this variety is white, with a distinct yellowish or pinkish cast. '' Ncgra. — CaslUloa daslica negra is characterized by a very rough, dark bark. It yields very rapidly a thin milk, producing a good rubber, but the tree in tapping easily bleeds to death. "Rubra. — CaslUloa daslica rubra has a reddish bark, which is very smooth, thin, and brittle, nor does it show the longitudinal furrows wliich are noticeable in the two first- named trees. This variety yields a very small quantity of milk, but the ruliber ol)tained from it is good. The tree is very common all over Central America, and I am afraid that, in a number of instances, it was this tree which was planted instead of the white CaslUloa. Indeed, Kosschney is inclined to think that it is this variety with which the experiments in the ])otanical gardens of Ceylon and Java were made, which gave such discouraging re.-;ults." ("Castilloa: Its description, yield, etc.," by Dr. C. O. Weber. India Rubl)er .lournal (London), Vol. XXVIII. No. 5. Aug., 1904, p. 229.) 32 RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPIISTE ISLANDS. CASTILLOA ELASTICA IN THE EAST. The iree.— ''The real Castilloa elastica. or one of the right species, appears to be grown in Ceylon. There are several indications that point to this. We have the peculiar typa of great size, with its back covering of short brown hair, the so-called ' dimorphism' of the branches, which consist in the branches which start from the trunk in a downward slope at a certain point taking a turn to a horizontal and then upward direction, and the color of the bark seems correct. The result of tappings made to date in Ceylon prove conclusively that all the trees so far experimented on contain latex capable of coagulation and resultant good rubber, and the variety of Castilloa entirely devoid of latex, of which we have been warned, appears so far to be absent from Ceylon. It is impossible to say definitely at present that we have the very best variety of rubber-yielding Castilloa elastica, as so little is known on the subject, l)ut that we have one of the well-yielding varieties I am convinced. Where to grow Castilloa. — "'Subject as all my remarks in this paper must be to the somewhat extreme limitation of our present knowledge of Castilloa. I advance with confidence the opinion that this species of rubber requires very deep soil, with the best of drainage, and of a rich, loamy character, and consider it sjieculative to a degree to plant it under less favorable conditions. We have ample evidence at the Henaratgoda Gardens, and to some extent at Peradeniya also, of the fact that in shallow or ill-drained soils Castilloa will not grow to pay, if it grows at all. One of two things will happen; either the young plants will refuse to come away at all; or, flourishing for a certain period which may extend for some years, it will eventually be checked in growth and become weakly, diseased, quite useless for rubber-collecting purposes, which will assuredly kill it outright if attempted. "The elevation at which to grow Castilloa I would put at 1 000 to 1.500 feet. Tried at sea level, and in Kalutara at a little above Sea level, it refuses to grow after reaching a height of some 10 or 15 feet. Up to this the young plant appears as healthy as in higher elevations l)ut the check is inevitable and the tree may as well then be cleared out as only cumbering the ground. I therefore take the desiderata for successful growth of Castilloa. in the East at any rate, to be: "1. Rich, free soil of considerable depth, with good. drainage. "2. Elevation of from 1,000 to 1 500 feet, with some latitude at either end. but for perfection of growth I would favor about midway between the elevations given. "The Castilloa root descends to great depths and hence the necessity for deep soil, for I take it the 'tap' root here is of much importance in relation to the latex- bearing powers of the tree. "As regards situation and lay of land, I would favor undulating ground, but attach no particular importance to this. The Castilloa is a very robust tree and survives serious injury, so that it may be planted, even where subject to much wind, though this will to some extent retard the growth. For reasons given later in this pamphlet, the best conditions of climate for the growth of Castilloa and its success as a revenue- earning power would appear to be where wet and dry seasons alternate in well-marked divisions. A constantly humid climate, such as would suit Para, is not desirable. Castilloa likes drought, and I have seen it at the end of three months without rain in as healthy and luxuriant a state as can be desired. Castilloa. where conditions are favorable, is a tree of very rapid growth, reaching in three or four years' time to a height of some 30 feet, with a gii-th of 25-30 inches. These are actual measurements taken in Ceylon. -^^-^-^-^^-^ — ' "JTIIE^SEED OF NURSERIES AND PLANTING. ] "The seed of the Castilloa tree was at one time considered to be very perishable indeed, but experience has proved this is not the case, and packed in charcoal it may be sent long distances with safety. It is important, however, that the seed be extracted from its red fleshy covering the same day as picked and at once properly cleaned. Treated thus, as an experiment in planting, seed two months after picking resulted in an outturn of 80 per cent. It is essentially a hardy seed, and where the product of the trees is grown under the favorable conditions I have enumerated above, a very large percentage of plants from the seed laid down may be counted on with confidence. I emphasize this point, as it is of very much more importance to success than that usually laid stress upon by intending pm'chasers who inqtiire, '"Wliat is the age of the parent tree?' "In my own experience I have known of two cases, in one of which the parent trees are "from 12 to (it is believed) 20 years of age, and the other 4 years only. The former gave a very poor outturn of plants from seed, whereas with the latter the out- turn of plants from seed, whereas with the latter the outturn was practically 100 per cent, or no vacancies, and the plants most healthy. I see no reason for this but the KUBBEK-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 38 fact that the older tree was grown in ill-drained land near a .sluggish stream, a;^ against in the other case, ideal conditions of soil and drainage. Kany seeding in Caslilloa is no sign of weakness, as would he the case with many species of trees, hut, on the contrary, a sign of vigorous growth. ■"The seed is small, heing ahout half the size of a lillnrl, and is contained in a white, papery coat. It should he well dried hefore dispatch. The planting in the nurseries should be in bavskets under shade, good loamy earth lieing used. Scjuirrels are fond of the yoimg plants and nip off the roots to some extent hut this l)y no means kills the plantattached which grows uj) again from Ix-low. The planting out can be done when a height of from 1 to (i inches is n ached. "If care is taken to plant deep in the clearing with earth well uj) thi- stems, there will be very few vacancies and any plants that apparently die l)ack will in most cases send up afresh shoot from the roots. It is not necessary "to cadjan shade: the young plant has been found to come on regularly and well without this expense being incurred. In my own experience dapdap or .some fast-growing shade has been planted at the same time as rubbers, but 1 am not convinced that this is nece.s-^ary, though useful as a means of keeping down weeds, to the- influence of which Castillon is very susceptible. Too dense shade has the result of keeping back the plants or inducing whippy gn)Wth as they reach up to the light, whereas in the open the young trees come on well. At the present time and with what experience we have I would advocate the planting of shade trees, say 20 by 20. Unlike the Para variety, the CastiUoa does not appear to be as tempting a morsel to porcupines and cattle; some damage is done, but not much. Cocoa seems to come well, if planted at the same time as rubber, and personally I see no reason why it should not continue to flourish and to give good crops. The shade of CastiUoa is not too dense, and l)eing a tleep feeih-r its roots should be well l)elow those of the cocoa. There is considerable litlt^r from the dropping of the large leaves pecu- liar to this tree, and this must a.ssist to enri( h the soil to some extent." ("CastiUoa elastira in the East,'' bv \V. I'", (i. India Pvubber Journal (London), Vol. XXVIII, No. 9, Oct., 1904, p. 418.) P.\I{.\ KUBBEK. ■'The greatest rubber-producing country of the world is the Amazon Valley, embrac- ing many thousands of square miles of rubber forests in Brazil, Boliva, and Peru. The center of the industry is the city of Para, whence the name 'Para rul)ber.' " Althotigh chemically there' is little difference between samples of rubber from various species of trees, still it is a well-known fact that Para rubber oi)tained from the tree Ilevea brasiliensis is recognized as the standard for grading commercial rubbers. " At Para rubber is classified into thn^e grades, known in the United Stales as hue, medium, and coarse. The difference in these grades is governed largely l)y amount of transparency and care in preparation for the market." (All Al)out Rubber, com- piled by J. Ferguson, 3d ed.) PARA RUBBER (hEVEA BRASILIENSIS). Federated Malaij States— "The latest annual report of the United Planters' Asso- ciation of the Federated Malay States devotes special attention to the cultivation of Para rubber, which continues' uppermost in the interest of the planters in that region. A favorable rate of growth is reported and the absence of pests and diseases among the trees. The year covered by the report was the first in which tai)ping had been done on a large scale, and the res'ult was a better yield from the young trees than had been expected, and the prices realized equal to if not better than those for the finest of rubber from Ceylon. More new rubb(>r estates were opened than in any former year, and the extension of rubber acreage on the old estates was also larger. The total acreage planted with rubber in the Far East is estimated in the report as follows: Federated Malay States and the remainder of the Malav Peninsula 30. 000 Sumatra ' 5. 000 Java 5. 000 Ceylon 25. 000 India and Burma 5, 000 Total 70, 000 "The report says: 'We will take it for granted that this 70,000 acres is all good and that it will give a good yield of 200 pounds per acre — 14,000,000 pounds. This can not all be in full bearing until the end of 1911, and no more than this 70,000 acres can be in bearing at the end of 1911, for it is not planted.' S. Doc. 356, 59-2 3 34 RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF TIIB PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. "In view of the growing demand for rubber, while the exports from Para remain practically constant, the report takes the position that there is no reason to fear over- production of rubber, since even the maximum output of Asia by 1911 would be hardly more than 10 per cent of the present world's consumption; but even if rubber should be overproduced some day, it is felt that Brazil can not compete with Asia with rubber at 2s. 6d. per pound, at which price Straits and Ceylon rubber can be sold at a profit." (India Rubber World, Vol. XXXII, No. 5, Aug., 1905, p. 377.) "A rubber tree from Para seed in the Waterfall Botanic Garden, Penang (Malay States), now 17 years old, has had seven tappings, beginning in June, 1897, the total yield from which, in dry rubber, is herewith stated in detail, as reported by Mr. C. Curtis, superintendent of the garden, to the Straits Agricultural Bulletin. The aggregate is 18 pounds 7| ounces, an average per tapping of 2 pounds 10.18 ounces, or an average per year of 3 pounds 1.21 ounces. The system of tapping is thus described: A small perpendicular channel is cut in the l)ark about a foot in length and one- eighth inch broad, but not deep enough to obtain much latex, its object being merely to conduct the latex to a tin receptacle fastened at the base. This channel is not sub- equently enlarged or interfered with. Two or three incisions are then cut on eitherf side, leading obliquely to this channel to supply the latex. From the upper side of each of these a thin shaving of bark is removed every morning, or on alternate morn- ings, which causes a fresh flowing of latex. In each of these seven tappings a thin shaving has been removed thirteen times, which with the initial cutting makes four- teen operations, the whole constituting'what Mr. Curtis calls 'one tapping.' Thus the times this tree has been operated upon is 7x14, equaling 98, and the average amount of dry rubber from each operation about 3 ounces. "The daily amount, however, varies very much, the yield from the first two or three operations each season being almost nil. No attempt was made until the last tapping to save such rul^ber as may have been removed with the shavings of bark referred to, and this, Mr. Curtis thinks, would be an important item on a large plantation. A plain carpenter's chisel is con- sidered better than a siaecial tapping tool sent to Mr. Curtis, because a finer edge can be kept on it, and the sharper the implement the better the flow and the less the loss by coagulation in the cuts. "This tree resulted from a tree planted in the Singapore Botanic Garden in 1885, and was one of a dozen transplanted in Penang early in 1886. It was selected for the series of tapping experiments on account of being the largest in the group. "'It is not pretended that the resvdts of tapping the tree is of great value as a guide to the results to be obtained from a large number, for we now know,' says Superinten- dent Curtis, ' that there is a great dissimilarity in the yield of trees of equal size growing side by side under exactly similar conditions. The interest in this particular tree, then, is that it has been tapped six times, * * * that it shows no sign of deteriora- tion, that the incisions made are all healed up, and that the total yield of dry rubber during the period is stated.'" (India Rubber World, Vol. XXVII, No. 4, January, 1903, p. 11.) TAPPING PARA RUBBER TREES, PERAK, TAIPING. "In the annual report for 1901 on the government gardens and plantations of Perak, Taiping, Superintendent Robert Deny records his experiments in tapping Para rubber trees. The method adopted involves a vertical incision in the bark, extending from the base some 4 feet up the trunk, with 5 oblique branch incisions on each side. Mr. Derry tapped two trees, making three sets of incisions in each, each set extending over something less than one-third of the circumference of the tree, and comj)ared the result with that from a tree cut with only one set of incisions. He is of the opinion that very little more rubber is obtained from the extensive tapping. The yield of rubber from the first two trees, of the same age and size, was 28| and 26|^ ounces, respectively, while from a single set of incisions in a tree slightly older and larger, 32| ounces of rubber were obtained. The tapping was done in September last, the same incisions being reopened day after day, in the case of the first two trees eleven times, and in the case of the third tree eight times. Two of the trees, 10 years old, were 17 and 18 inches in diameter, respectively, 3 feet from the ground, and the third, 14 years old, was 20 inches. "Thirty-two Para rubber trees in the Taiping garden, about 12 years old, yielded 125 pounds of dry rubber, or an average of 3.9 pounds each. It appears that the best season for tapping is between June and November. The latex seems to exude most freely in wet weather, the occurrence of whichv aries in different years." (India Rub- ber World, Vol. XXVII, No. 1, October, 1902, p. 16.) RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 35 THE CULTIVATION AND PUEPARAIION OF PAPA RlMiDER. [By W. H. Johnson, a book review.] The book opens willi a general inlrochiclion on the subject of rul>l)> r. Referring to Para, the author states: "It is estimated that, there are about J 2,000 acres planted with this tree in Ceylon, while in the Malay Peninsula there is a still larger area under Para-rubber cultivation. The small amount of cultural skill required to successfully plant and (uliivate Para rubber, cuupletl with tlu' high pric(\s paid for the rubber which the cultivated tree pro- duces, in comparison with that ])aid for other grades of rubl^er, has no doulit largely influenced planters in selecting the Para tree in preference to other rubber-producing plants. "The province of Para, from which the ])roduct of this tree derives its name, is situ- ated south latitude 1°. It is reputed to enjoy a remarkably uniform climate, with a mean temperature of 81° F., but a very moist atmos])here, and an annual rainfall varying from (lO to 90 inches. ■"The tree has adapted itself to various climatic influences, and in the Gold Coa.st, West Africa, this tree, grown in experiinental plots in the Botanic (larden, Al>uri, which is situated 1.500 feet above sea level, and where the average nuan tempi-rature is about 81.5° F. and the annual rainfall 47 inches, promises better than any other rub- ber-producing i)lant, indigenous or exotic. It is likewise favorably reported upon in India, Jamaica, Dominica, St. Vincent, Gr(>nada, Trinidad, Zanzibar, Uganda, and Mozambique. "An experiment in ))acking wa.s carrie(l out l)y the Gold Coast Botanic Gardens last year, with a view to ascertain the better method for packing seeds sent from the Orient to West Africa, viz, packed with moist soil in ^\'ardian cases, or with cliarcoal and .saw- dust in ordinary cases. Twenty thou.sand seeds, packed l)y the first-menti:E ISLANDS. 37 the Ijods shuuld be siuoothed off and made ready for the seed. Coolies, armed with small stakes alxjut as thick as the thuml) and silghtly pointed, press this tool into the soil about '5 inches apart anil just deep enough to put the seed in, and then cover it with soil for about one-half inch. The best way of laying the seed is on its side, as it is not easy to see the germ and it should be laid thus and the root will work down into the soil and leave the shoot to grow upward. ■'If plenty of good nursery land is available, the farther apart the seed is planted the better the growth of theplant up to 1 foot by 1 foot. See'l planted fi inches l)y 6 inches should grow to an av(>rage height of G feet in ten months. I ha\ e known trees planted in a prepared hole with manure to grow 10 feet in twelve months. The nursery should he well protected, as the young plants are attacked l)y all kinds of insects and animals, especially rats, which 1)iutow beni-ath the roots and bite off the shoots under the surfac(>; Init. on the whole, the damage done is very small. Nur- series should be most t-arefully protected from th(> sun by putting on a good cover about 2 feet above bed. as the germination of the seed will depend (m the care taken of them during the first ten days. They should be well watered twice daily. .\t the end of a month the cover of the nurseries should be gradually taken off. By the end of two months no shade is recjuired and the plants will grow all the better in the open sunshine. Rubber plants after two months in the nurseries do not require any .'ihade, and I have seen whole nurseries badly affected Ijy allowing the cover to remain on. ■"If plants are put out, fii-st the prepared hole should be slightly trampled upon, and then a slake about as thick as the tluimb and 3 feet long forced into the center of the prepared hole and staked round; the plant put in carefully to the same depth as it was in nursery and the soil pressed against the tap root by pushing the stick into the hole somewhat at an angle and pressing toward the plant and trampled round with the naked foot. Great care should be taken that the tap root is put in straight, and not curled up, as probably the yield of the tree will depend mostly on the depth of the tap root. "If the estate is kept free from all weeds, etc., few pests will trouble the young plants. Wild animals, such as th(> pig and porcupine, and even the hare, will attack the ])lants. but to no great exent if well looked after. Plants r(>quire care imtil they are alxnit 6 feet in height, and then they grow on without ranch trouble. Near the edge of the jungle, a good plan is to tar the lower 2 feet of all plants, as porcupines, etc.. will not touch them if this is done now and again." (India Rubber Journal (London), Vol. XXVII, No. 10, May, 1904, p. 471.) PAR.V RUHBER TAPPING, CCLLODEM, CEYLOX. "The plantation t ulbulen. Ceylon, is primarily for tea, the rubljer having been planted later through th(> tea and also in some of the valleys. The land is very rocky, ironstone alvmnding, but thert> must be something in the soil that suits the I/evea, for it flourished wonderfully. T^ne only place where it did not appear to do well was in very low ground, where there was no drainage. The swampy portions of the land have, therefore, been thoroughly drained; indeed, where some of the 7 and 8 year old rubber now is there had once l)een a l)og where cattle were wont to got mired. The rubber on this soil, which was very rich, had some 3 feet of drainage. "* * * The tapping of the trees begins just as soon as it is light in the morning, for through the middle of the day the latex does not flow freely, but starts up again apout 4 in the afternoon and is continued until dark. The trees are tapped when they show a girth of 2 feet, without regard to their age. No ladders or supports are used in ta'i){)ing as it was not found profitable to tap higher than a cooly can reach while standing on the gi'ound. The tool is a very simple V-shaped knife with two cutting edges and a single slanting cut about 8 inches long has been found to Vie best, a tin cup b(>ing placed under the lower end of the cut and held in position l>y forcing its sharp edge under the bark. These cuts, by the way. are about a foot apart, some- times closer, and all rim in the same direction.' the herring-br)ne and V-shaped cuts being no more in evidence. The practice is also ff)llowed now of cutting a very thin shaving from one side of the cut every other day. 11 times; in other words, reopening instead of tapping. Before placing the tin cup under the cut it is rinsed out in cold water to keeji the latex from adhering to the tin and also to keep it from too (juick a coagulation. "While I was there a very interesting experiment in scraping the outer l)ark from the trees had just been finislied. The rt-sults, as far as could be determined, were such a stimulation to the lactiferous ducts that the flow was increased nearly 50 per cent. The oldest trees on this plantation, by the way, are 18 years, and have pro- duced 3 pounds a year; by scraping the outer bark off they expect to get 6 pounds a year from each of these. There are only a few of these older trees, however, most of them being 7 or 8 years of age. 38 RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE TSLANpS. "All through the rubl^er orchards on this estate were hundreds of young Para trees that were self-sown; indeed, in many places they had come up so quickly as to be a nuisance. "* * * After many experiments, the manager at Culloden has satisfied himself that only the very early morning or late afternoon are the proper times to tap, as in the middle of the day the flow of latex is almost nothing. The trees are therefore tapped from 4 until 7 a. m., and after 3.30 p. m., and as long as it is light." (Report of a visit to the india-rubber plantations of Ceylon by the editor of The India Rubber World, Vol. XXX, No. 4, July, 1904, p. 335.) HEVEA RUBBER CULTIVATION, TAPPING, ETC. "The Hevea certainly dislikes wind and flourishes best in sheltered positions. It seems to grow in the roughest, rockiest positions, and to be quite at home among rocks and bowlders in the old beds of mountain torrents. The plants are raised from seed which freely germinated sown in beds in the nurseries raised about 3 feet, and about 4 to 6 feet wide. The plants are generally put out in holes, dug in lines among the tea or in special rubber plantations, and when about a year old are known as 'stumps. THE TAPPING OPERATION. "The age at which tapping should be commenced is now generally considered to be 7 years. Rubber-producing latex is yielded some time before this, but the strain on the young tree, coupled with the fact that the maturer trees' latex is far richer in rubber, make the older age preferable. The bark of the tree is rough and thick, and l^efore tapping i.s commenced the outer bark must be shaved off. There are several reasons for this. SHAVING OF THE TRUNK. "With the rough bark on, it is more difficult to make a proper incision for tapping and harder to fix the cups. If tapping were carried out on unshaven trees, much latex would be iost on the dirty bark, or only result in 'dirty scrap.' But the main reason for shaving is that it increases the flow of latex. The exact use of the latex to the tree is not yet known, but the result of shaving indicates that one of its uses is to heal up wounds and renew bark. For some reason or other, the shaving greatly in- creases the quantity of latex in the tissues immediately below the shaved portion, and this result is found even if only a small portion of the trunk is shaved. Shaving seems to have an irritating influence on the latex, drawing a great quantity of it into the lati- ciferous cells immediately above the shaved portion. The tree to be tapped is shaved over the tapping surface about two weeks before tapping is to commence. On some estates the whole trunk, from base to some 6 feet up, is shaved; other planters hold that it is better to shave just those parts where the incifeions are to be made; but this, of course, depends to some extent upon the system of tapping to be adopted, and is a subject for much experiment. VARIOUS TAPPING METHODS. "V-shaped cuts are in favor, as D in figure 1. The cuts are about 8 to 10 inches in length, and this method is highly recommended by Monsignor Collet. The herring- bone system seems not to be in favor in Ceylon, a series of small V cuts being given the preference (see B in fig. 1).' Another kind of cut seen on one estate is a twisted cut starting at a point and half encircling the tree, being in all about 24 inches long (as C in fig. 1), l>ut this plan of tapping is not continued. On two estates, leading rubber estates, the method adopted is what, for want of a better name. I will term the 'zigzag' system (E in fig. 1). It consists of a cut 6 inches long, at angle of 45° with the perpendicular, then a vertical cut of 2 inches, and then another of 6 inches cut parallel to the first. A series of these cuts is made down the tree, the initial point of each cut ])eing on a level with the final point of the cut al>ove. For the second day's work a fresh cut is not made, but the lower side of each 6-inch cut is simply pared with a gouge. By those who use this method it is greatly recommended, and the results obtained certainly seem good. This paring of the lower side of the cut, instead of a new incision, might well be extended to other methods of tapping also, and seems to be economical in taxing the bark-renewing resources of the tree, while the flow of latex from the pared portion is first rate. On the accompanying diagram (which is not exactly drawn to scale) the various methods of tapping referred to are represented, and also a method highly recommended by Monsignor Collet. This is a series of cuts in four, each about 4 inches long; the first cut one day. the next a little distance below, followed by more series until the base of the tapping area is reached; then another series of forms is begun parallel to the first one, and so on. RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACIIY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 39 A GERMAN CONGRESS DISCUSSES RUBBER. ''At the second German Colonial Congress (Berlin. October 4-8) a considerable part of the programme was devoted to the consideration of topics connected with caoutchouc and the world's supply of this important commodity. * * . * ' ' The question of the eventual overproduction of rubljcr was next touched on by the speaker as a matter of practical interest in connection with engaging in its culture. He quoted figures to show that at present some GO 000 liectares (148 2()0 acres) were devoted to rubber plantations of which Ki.OOO are in Ceylon, 15,000 in tlie Malay states, and 4.000 in Mexico. Should the yield l)e only 1,000 marks per hectare (at present a net profit of twice this sum is cak-ulat ed on planial ions of Hevea ) . within a few years a harvi'st would be valued at (JO 000,000 marks (S14 280,000); or, if we figure the annual yield per hectare at an average of 200 to 250 kilograms of rul^ber, the (iO 000 hectares would yiekl 12 000 to 15,000 tons of caoutchouc, equal to about 20 per cent of the world's total present production. It must be consiaered, howev(>r, that the produc- tion of wild rubber will decrease rather than increase, especially if prices should de- cline. At the same time a fall in prices would lead to increase in consumption. Therefore the overproduction of caoutchouc is not to be feared for a long time to come. * * * ' ' The speaker urged participation in rubber- planting undertakings. Hesitation, he said, meant a serious loss to the national capital in the colonies, and every ton of rubber obtained in their own colonies was a material gain to the Empire in eniiancing its inde- pendence of other countries. He solicited earnest support for tlie Kolonial-\\ irtschaft- lichen Komitees, which has endeavored to further riil)ber culture in colonial Germany, and is now preparing to send a caoutchouc and gutta-percha expedition to New Guinea. He touched upon the importance of granting valid titles to colonial lands for planting purposes as a further incentive to capitalists to interest themselves in rubber culture. He regretted that this culture had not started in the German colonies twenty years ago, in which event rublter jtrices might not be so high to-day, and cer- tain recent failures of rubber factories might have l)een averted. "In the ensuing discussion, further proofs were offered of the profits to be expected from rubber planting. Attacks were made, however, on the newly organized Samoa- Kautschuk Compagnie, which was accused of giving rise to too high expectations of profits. In the absence of a representative of the company. Doctor \\'arl>iirg arose in its defense. He said it was surprising with what et\ergy and intelligence this company had begun operations in securing 400 000 young plants of Herca brcmlirnsis in W'ardian cases and 700 000 seeds in various packings, for shipment from Ceylon and Malacca to the new plantation." (From India Rublter "World, Dec, 1, 1905.) ' ' * * * The qualities vary, even from the same estate, according to the age of the trees, while yet so young. We judge that the rul)ber has not attained its full strength till the tree is at least 8 or 9 years old; younger than that, though good gum. it has not the strength of hard cure ^^ladeira fine Para and is uneven in strength. There is no difference noticeable in the rubber tree from 8-year-old trees from different planta- tions. We have used about 4 to 5 tons in testing it from about 20 ])lantations. As yet it is not safe to use for the finest work, such as india-ruijber thread and the best blad- ders, but where a 'weak Para' will do, it is all right." (From India Rubber World, IJec. 1. 1905. By P. J. Burgess, public rubber expert. F. M. S.) copies of letters regarding para rl'bber seeds. American Consulate-General, Singapore, S. S., December 23, 1904. Sir: I have the honor to inclose herewith copy of letter from Mr. W. Duninan, of this city, as to prices of Para-rubbc>r seed. Mr. Dunman is a practical planter and is here an admitted authority on rubber cultm-e. I have the honor to be, sir, yotn* obedient servant, O, F. \\'ii.LiAMS, American Consul-General. The Hon, Dean Worcester, Secretary of the Interior, Manila, P. I. Singapore, December 19, 190i. Dear Sir: I have made arrangenn-nts with some of the leading planters in the F. M. S. for the supply of Para-rubber seed, and am in a position to supply selected seed from trees 5 years and over at $5,50 (silver) per 1,000, packed in boxes of 50,000 in dry pounded charcoal, delivered in Singapore. The season is between August and November. 40 RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. As there is a considerable demand, it would be as well to book orders as soon as possible, and I am prepared to do this for the next five years. I am, dear sir, yours, faithfully, W. DUNMAN. O. F. Williams, Esq., United States Consul, Present. Singapore, March 28, 1905. Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your order for 5,000 Para seed. As the Para trees appear to be fruiting earlier than usual, I hope to be able to dis- patch the lot in May or June. * * * I have the honor to be, sir. your obedient servant, W. DuNMAN. Capt. George P. Ahern, Chief Bureau of Forestry, Manila. Singapore, July (>, 19U5. Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge the receipt of your letter of the 23d ultimo in ri'gard to Para-rubber seed. I have to report that the Para trees all over the Peninsula are uncommtmly short of crop this year, and, in addition to this, the crop will be later than usual. You may rest assured that your order will be sent forward as soon as ever the seeds ripen and are procm'able. I have the honor to be, sir, your obedient servant, Dunman & Pickering. Oapt. George P. Ahern, Chief , Bureau of Forestry , Manila. Singapore, September 29, 1905. Dear Sir: I have to advise you that I am shipping per steamship Isla de Luzon, leaving this 15th of October, 5,000 Para seed, which is carefully selected and packed, either in charcoal or saAvdust. Please see that they are planted out into nm'sery at once or they will not germinate. I find that similar seed sent to Java resulted in about GO per cent germinating. Should you want further seed this season, you will have to let me know promptly. I am, dear sir, yours, faithfully, W. Dunman. The season has been abnormally late this year. Capt. George P. Ahern, Forestry Bureau, Manila. Singapore, October 14, 1905. Sir: I have the honor to adA'ise the shipment to-day, per bearer, of two cases of Para-rubber seed, and have drawn on your Government for cost at Ex. 106 — ¥"31.80. The documents are in the hands of the Chartered Bank. Please see that delivery is promptly taken of the seed, and that .same is plantetl without delay, as they go off very quickly. About 60 per cent should germinate. Large quantities of seeds have been exported this month at very high prices (about 12). The season was very late, which accounts for the delay. Trusting you will get satisfactory results and that you will be sending me large rders, I am, sir, yours, faithfully, W. Dunman. Capt. George P. Ahern, Chief Bureau of Forestry, Manila. LETTER TO A. DETERMANN. Department of the Interior, Bltreau of Forestry, Manila, P. I., February 19, 1906. Mr. A. Determann, Baer Senior & Co.' s Successors, Manila, P. I. Sir: I have the honor to acknowledge receipt of your letter of the 14th instant, requesting information concerning privileges to extract rubber and gutta-percha, timber, and other forest products from public lands in the Philippine Islands as follows: RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. -41 Attention is invited to the following sections of the forest act: "Sec. 13. The chief of the bureau of forestry, with the approval of the secretary of the interior, may, as herein provided, issue licenses for the cutting, collection, and removal of timber, firewood, gums, resins, and other forest products from the public forests and forest reserves. Every license so issued shall specify In detail the rights to which it entitles the holder and shall provide, whenever practicable, for exclusive ter- ritory in similar products to each licensee. All licen.ses for timber shall provide for the selection of said timber before cutting: Provided, That when absolutely necessary the selection of tinil)er or (he granting of exclusive t«'rritory may, in the discretion of the chief of the bureau of forestry, be omitted in any license terminating not later than June thirtietli, nineteen hundred and eight, after which date the selection of timber and the gi-anting of exclusive territory, whenever practicaltle, shall be requirecj. '"Sec 14. No license granted under the provisions of this act shall continue in force for more than twenty years. The chief of the bureau of forestry, with the approval of the secretary of the interior, may, in granting any exclusive license, prescribe such terms, conditions, and limitations, not inconsistent with the provisions of this act, including a minimum amount of timl:)er to be cut M^ithin a specified period or periods of time, as may ])e deemed liy the chief of the bureau of forestry and secretary of the inte- rior to be in the public interest and may provide, in such licenses for forfeiture thereof in case of violation of such terms, conditions, or limitations. "Sec. 2(). Whenever an exclusive license of any class sliall have been issued to any person, company, corporation, or other association for the cutting or removing from the public forest »r forest reserves, of timber, firewood, or other forest products, stone, or earth, it shall be unlawful for any other person, company, corporation, or association, while such license is in force, to enter or operate within the territory covered by such exclusive license contrary to the terms tliereof: Provided, Tliat the residents within or adjacent to said territory may be permitted to cut or remove timber, firewood, other forest products, ston(>, or earth for domestic purposes. '■ If, contrary to the provisions of this section, any person, company, corporation, or other association sliall enter upon, and shall cut or remove, or attempt to cut or remove, timber, Qi-ewood, other forest products, stone, or earth, said property so attempted to be cut or removed shall be seized as government property by the local forest official or other representative of the forestry bureau, and the person making the seizure shall promptly notify the holder of the exclusive license affected thereby, and the said property so seized shall be surrendered to him upon the payment of the proper govern- ment charges thereon. Should, however, acceptance of said property and the i)ay- ment of the charges thereon be refused, it shall be disposed of in the manner provided in section thirty-two of tliis act for the disposition of forest products, st(me, or earth upon which the gi>vi'rnment charges have not l^^en paid, and the proceeds turned over to the proper official to whom the government charges thereon should have been paid.' ' No charge is made for any class of license issued by this bureau. Government charges on forest j)roflucts are im4)osed after said products are gathered, as prescribed in the forest act. In Mindanao the charges on timber per cubic meter range from 50 cen- tavos up to P2.50. depending upon the class of timber taken. Native woods are divided into four groups. The i-harges on firewood are as follows: Ten centavos per cubic meter for small pieces less than HO centimeters in length and 7 centimeters in diameter. Larger pieces of firewood are known as '"rajas." They range in size from 60 centimeters to ii mei(>rs in length and from 7 to 15 centimeters in diameter. One pe.so is charged for each 1.000 rajas. On all gums, resins, and other forest products a charge of 10 per cent on the actual market value at the jjlace where gathered is charged. At ("otal)ato, Mindanao, where a large porportion of the gutta-])erclia is brought to market, the price pvv picid of 139^ pounds is fixed at F70,"on which the government collects 10 per cent, or F7 per picid. At tin»<'s as much as P2,000 per month was col- lected on gutta-])ercha alone in this town. Very little rul>ber has been brought to market at this point. All but two licenses granted by this bureau expire at the end of each fiscal year, June 30. Two licenses are for twenty years: one is for a tract in Mindoro Island and the other in the province of Occidental Negros. A few months ago. when the Uist leader of hostile Moros was killed in the Rio Grande Valley near Cotabato. a number of applications for licenses to gather rubber and gutta-percha were sent in by Chinamen who were located in the town of Cotabato. These applications wtn-e not granted for the reason that this office does not wish the present methods of extracting rubber and gutta-percha to be continued. The gutta- percha trees are felled before the latex is extracted. This destructive practice would, within a few years, destroy all of the large gutta-percha trees of this valley. Recently several of the leading More chiefs in Mindanao have expressed a desire to assist in 42 RUBBEE-PEODUCING CAPACITY OP THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. teaching the natives the proper methods of extracting gutta-percha. The forester in charge of the district has been ordered to give these people the necessary instructions. In accordance with the provisions of the forest act, the undersigned would approve an application for a twenty-year exclusive privilege to gather all forest products in the Rio Grande Valley south of the town of Cotabato, provided the applicant makes a satisfactory showing that the privilege granted would be used, and that each of the forest products asked for would be gathered in quantities according to the area of the country granted. The Rio Grande Valley is one of the most fertile regions in the world. The soil is very rich, easily drained, and easily cultivated. The foothills on each side of the valley afford a variety of elevation above sea level suitable to the planting of rubber and gutta-percha. The rainfall averages about 2,000 millimeters per year. The conditions of soil and climate and elevation seem to warrant the planting of rubber and gutta-percha on a large scale. The applicant for a twenty-year exclusive privilege would be required to state that, in addition to fulfilling the ordinary requirements of the forest act, regulations and orders, he would make an effort to stop the felling of gutta-percha trees in his district, and that he would plant at least 250 acres of rubber and gutta-percha trees per year, until he had planted the full area of public land that an incorporated com- pany would be allowed to purchase from the government. At present, this limit is fixed at 2,500 acres. The provision of purchase of public land has not been extended to the Rio Grande Valley at the present, but will be in the near future. The company will not be required to plant any special variety of rubber, but will be expected to plant at least 50 acres in gutta-percha each year. The land so planted would be land that the company has purchased or desires to purchase from the Philippine government. Every assistance will be afforded applicants in looking over the region desired. A trained forester will be placed at the disposal of the applicant for this purpose, and all data in this office concerning the region and its resources will also be made available. The Philippine Islands comprise an area of more than 73,000,000 acres, of which less than 6,000,000 acres are under cultivation. At least 50,000,000 acres are wood- lands, of which much less than 1 per cent is held by private owners. There are large areas of public forest in the islands of Mindanao, Mindoro, Palawan, and Samar that are practically untouched and where deep, rich soil would amply repay any effort at cultivation. The undersigned, in a recent trip across the island of Mindanao, was much impressed with the depth and richness of the soil in that region, where cut banks, more than 10 feet in depth, showed nothing but the rich, black decomposed lava, which is so won- derfully fertile. As a recent traveler recently remarked, the Philippine Islands are the richest, most fertile undeveloped regions in the Orient. These lands are awaiting cultivation, and this office will assist in any way any person or company desiring to begin operations. Applications for licenses for the new fiscal year will be received during April, May, and June, and as all licenses are dated to begin July 1, I would suggest that your friends make an effort to take up this matter liefore the end of May. Very respectfully, George P. Ahern, Director of Forestry. Copy respectfully furnished the honorable the secretary of the interior, for his approval. Approved: Dean C. Worcester, Secretary of the Interior. A FEW PERTINENT EXTRACTS FROM THE ABOVE NOTES. CASTILLOA. A continuously humid climate is not necessary to the growth and the productive- ness of Costilla. The percentage of rubber increases during the dry season and diminishes during the wet. The gathering of rubber from trees less than 8 years old is not likely to be advan- tageous. The rubber of CasLilla is scarcely inferior to that of Herea; the supposed inferiority is due to substances which can be removed from the milk by heat and by dilution in water. Estimates from various American planters in Mexico: Yield, 6-year-old tree, 4 to 6 oimces; 7-year-old tree (bled to death), 1 pound; 8 to 10 year old tree, 1 pound. RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 43 It is believed that the size of the rubber tree has more to do with the amount of rubber it will produce than its age. Two and three-tenths pounds rubber milk pro- duce 1 pound of rubber. Average yield. Age. Amount. Number of trees. Age. Amount. ! Ounces. \ Vyears 9.3 < 257 1 10 8 years 14.2.5 14 12 years. 9 years 18 i 7 , . Ounces. 17.5 28.9 Number of trees. A.cre at 12 years yields 314 pounds. Three varieties of Oastilloa: Alba, negra, rubru. Alba is hardiest and best. Requires very deep soil, of a rich, loamy character, with best of drainage. Grows be.st at an elevation of 1,000 to 1,500 feet; at sea level refuses to grow well after i-eaching a height of 10 to 15 feet. The root is very deep. Robust tree; stands wind; likes drought. A rapid grower; in Ceylon has reached a height of 34 feet in foiu' years, with a girth of 25 to 30 inches. Seed hardy and easily packed; keeps well in charcoal. Castilloa susceptible to weeds. A Para-rubber tree in the Botanical Garden at Penang, planted on poor, gravelly soil on a dry bank, was first tapped at the age of 11 years. The total yield from six tappings within the next five years yielded 16 pounds and 10 ounces of rubber. Small amoimt of cultural skill required to successfully plant and cultivate Para rubber. The tree has adapted itself to various climatic influences, and on the Gold Coast of West Africa found in IJotanical Garden. Aburi, 1,500 feet above sea level; temperature, 81.5° F.; rainfall. 47 inches. Para rublier will yield in paying quantities on different soils on hillsides to 2,700 feet elevation. Does well at 500 feet elevation; better between 1,000 and 1,500 feet above sea level. Should be ])lanted in fairly good soil ; it will not do well in a fairly stiff soil. Tempera- ture best suited for its cultivation, 74" to 94° K.; rainfall, 80 to 150 inches. Distance apart to plant, 15 by 15 feet, 200 trees per acre. Holes, 2 by l^feet, and should be iilled with top soil. Seed should be packed in damj), powdered charcoal; may be kept a month, and 75 per cent germinate. Seed should be washed in a solution of sulphite of copper just before packing. Seed above ground in ten days; twenty days, 10 inches high. Five thousand seed packed weigh 50 pounds. Seeds begin to ripen about the last of July. Nursery, good piece of land, broken to 15 inches, well cleared and worked. Beds 20 l)y 4 feet, drain between 1 foot deej) and wide. Cover seed with one-half inch of soil. Lay seed on its side. Seed planted 6 by 6 inches will grow (j feet in 10 months. Nursery should be protected from insects and rats. Plants slu)uld be pixitected liom the sun until 2 feet above bed; should be watered twice daily. Cover should be gradually removed and at the end of two months will be found to grow better in the open. Taproot should \k' put in straight and not curled up. Plants require care until 6 feet high. Tappinc/. — Latex does not flow freely through the middle of the day. It is usual to tap from 4 to 7 a. m. and from 3.30 p. m. to dark. Trees are tapped when they show a girth of 2 feet without regard to their age. Not found profitable to tap higher than a coolie can reach standing on the ground. - The outer bark is scraped off to stimulate anil increase flow. The bark is shaved off about two weeks before tapping it again. On some estates the whole trunk up to 6 feet is shaved; on others just where tapped. The sharper the'implement the better the flow and the less the loss by coagulation and cuts. The best season for tapping is between June and November. The latex seems to exude most freely in wet weather. Hevea dislikes wind and flourishes in sheltered positions; seems to grow best in roughest, rockiest positions. Para trees develop poorly in the swampy districts of Ceylon, butjprosper excellently in'higher, drier locations.^ , 44 RUBBER-PRODUCING CAPACITY OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. Three grades of Para — fine, medium, coarse. Governed by amount of transparency and care in preparation for the market. During the season 1896-97 the planting of Para rubber was taken up seriously in the Federated Malay States. The first tapping in this region began in 1904. Total acreage planted in Para rubber in the Far East in 1904, 70,000 acres. Will be in full bearing in 1911, and may yield 14,000,000 pounds, hardly more than 10 per cent of present world's consumption. The accompanying map is taken from Dr. Penoyer L. Sherman's Bulletin on "The Gutta-Percha and Rubber of the Philippine Islands." The samples of rubber and gutta-percha gathered personally by Doctor Sherman, and the samples of rubber gathered by him and by Governor Offley, of Mindoro, and others, show that there is a wide distribution of high-grade native rubber in the Philippine Islands. The gutta-percha gathered by Doctor. Sherman was found to be of high grade. The Para, Castilloa, Ceara, and Assam rubber trees have grown well in a number of places in these islands. The oldest of the three first-mentioned varieties is not over 4 years of age and not ready for tapping, l)ut all show good growth. There are extensive regions of unoccupied public land, from sea level to 6,000 feet elevation, awaiting the settler or company, where rich, well-drained soil, ample rain- fall, and other conditions combine to make the prospect attractive to rubber planters. HOW PUBLIC LAND MAY BE ACQUIRED. The public-land laws allow homesteads to citizens of the islands and of the United States; the amount of land that may be taken up under the homestead act is 16 hec- tares (2.47 acres per hectare). Individuals may purchase 16 hectares of lan