Book_jii(- ^ ' COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME. PLUTARCH FOR BOYS AND GIRLS. Selected and edited by Prof. John S. White. Quarto, with many illustrations . . . . . . . . $3 oo This edition contains all the " Lives" and " Parallels " in Plutarch's own words, with such omissions only as were necessary to adapt them for young readers. There is also an Introduc- tion and Life of Plutarch by the editor. As a standard work, adapted to both boys and girls, its wealth of anecdote and faithful portrayal of character render it peculiarly valuable. " Precious ore and no dross." — Home Journal. " It is a pleasure to see in so beautiful and elegant a form, one of the great books of the world. The best Plutarch for young readers." — Literary World. " Shows admirable scholarship and judgment." — The Critic. G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS, NEW YORK and LONDON. iiiiiiiiiiiiii THE BOYS' AND GIRLS' HERODOTUS PARTS OF THE HISTORY OF HERODOTUS Edited for Boys and Girls, with an Introduction V JOHN S. WHITE, LL.D. HEAD-WASTER, BERKELEY SCHOOL ; EDITOR OF THE BOYs' AND GIRLs' PLUTARCH WITH FIFTY ILLUSTRATION'S OFC( SEP 8 1884 NEW YORK & LONDON ^<4 P^ V'n <'V»»»'^ G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS Vi^t llmckcrbockcr ^rcss 9> X-^' COPYRIGHT BY G. P. PUTNAM'S SONS 'd INTRODUCTION. Imagine yourself in the city of Athens near the close of the year 446 b.c. The proud city, after many years of supremacy over the whole of Central Greece, has passed her zenith, and is surely on the decline. She has never recovered from the blow received at Coronea. The year has been one of gloom and foreboding. The coming spring will bring the end of the five years' truce ; and an invasion from the Peloponnesus is imminent. But, as the centre of learning, refinement, and the arts, the lustre of her fame is yet undimmed, and men of education throughout the world deem their lives incomplete until they have sought and reached this intel- lectual Mecca. During this year a stranger from Halicarnassus, in Asia Minor, after many years of travel in Asia, Scythia, Libya, Egypt, and Magna Grsecia, has taken up his abode at Athens. He is still a young man, hardly thirty-seven, yet his fame is that of the first and greatest of historians. Dramatists and poets immortal there have been, but never man has written such exquisite prose. Twenty centuries and more shall wear away, and his history will be read in a hundred different tongues, as well as in the beautiful and simple Greek that he wrote. His name will grow into a household word ; the school- boy will revel in his delightful tales, and wise men will call him the Father of History ! For weeks the people of Athens have listened entranced to the public reading of his great work, and now the Assembly has passed a decree tender- ing to him the city's thanks, together with a most substantial gift in recognition of his talents — a purse of money equal to twelve thousand American dollars. IV HERODOTUS. Such is the account which Eusebius gives, and others to whom we may fairly accord belief; and it adds no slight tinge of romance to the picture to discover among the listening throng the figure of the boy Thucydides, moved to tears by the recital, who then and there received the impulse that made of him also a great student and writer of history. Herodotus, noticing how intensely his reading had affected the youth, turned to Olorus, the father of Thucydides, who was standing near, and said : " Olorus, thy son's soul yearns after knowledge." Herodotus was born at Halicarnassus, 484 B.C., and died at Thurium in Italy, about the year 426. As in the case ot Plutarch, our knowledge of his personal history is very meagre, aside from the little we glean from his own writings. His parents, Lyxes and Rhoeo, appear to have been of high rank and consider- ation in Halicarnassus, and possessed of ample means ; and his acquaintance both at home and in Athens was of the best. . A lover of poetry and a poet by nature, the whole plan of his work, the tone and character of his thoughts, and a multitude of words and expressions, show him to have been perfectly familiar with the Homeric writings. There is scarcely an author previous to his time with whose works he does not appear to have been thoroughly acquainted. Hecataeus, to be sure, was almost the only writer of prose who had attained any distinction, for prose composition was practically in its infancy ; but from him and from several others, too obscure even to be named, he freely quotes, while the poets, Hesiod, Olen, Musaeus, Archilochus, the authors of the " Cypria " and the "Epigoni," Alcaeus, Sappho, Solon, y^isop, Aristeas, Simonides of Ceos, Phrynichus, y^schylus, and Pindar, are referred to, or quoted, in such a way as to show an intimate acquaintance with their works. The desio^n of Herodotus was to record the struorcrles between the Greeks and barbarians, but, in carrying it out, as Wheeler, the English analyst of the writings of Herodotus, has happily expressed it, he is perpetually led to trace the causes of the great events of his history ; to recount the origin of that mighty contest between IN TR on UC TION. V liberty and despotism which marked the whole period ; to describe the wondrous manners and mysterious religions of nations, and the marvellous geography and fabulous productions of the various countries, as each appeared on the great arena ; to tell to an in- quisitive and credulous people of cities vast as provinces and splendid as empires ; of stupendous walls, temples and pyramids ; of dreams, omens, and warnings from the dead ; of obscure tra- ditions and their exact accomplishment ; — and thus to prepare their minds for the most wonderful story in the annals of men, when all Asia united in one endless array to crush the states of Greece ; when armies bridged the seas and navies sailed through mountains ; when proud, stubborn-hearted men arose amid anxiety, terror, confusion, and despair, and staked their lives and homes against the overwhelming power of a foreign despot, till Heaven itself sympathized with their struggles, and the winds and waves delivered their country, and opened the way to victory and re- venge. The personal character of Herodotus, reflected from every page that he wrote, renders his vivid story all the more happily suited to the reading and study of boys and girls. He is as honest as the sun ; equally impartial to friends and foes ; candid in the state- ment of both sides of a question ; and an artist withal in the gift of delineating a character or a people with a few rapid strokes, so bold and masterly that the sketch is placed before you with stereo- scopic distinctness. For so early a writer he presents a surprising unity of plan, combined with a variety of detail that is amazing. What if he does crowd and enrich his story with a world of anec- dote ? What if he feels bound always to paint for you the customs, manners, dress, and peculiarities of a people before he begins their history } This very biographical style is the charm of his pen. Like the flowers of the magnolia-tree, his bright stories and vivid descriptions at times almost overwhelm the root and branch of his narrative ; yet, after all, we remember the magnolia more because of its cloud of snowy bloom in the few fleeting days of May than for all its orrcen and shade in the other months. vi HERODOTUS. Herodotus, to be sure, lacks that far-seeing faculty of discern- ing accurately the real causes of great movements, wars, and mi- grations of men — a faculty possessed pre-eminently by Thucydides and largely by Xenophon, but he is equally far removed from the coldness of the one and the ostentatious display of the other. He is above all things natural, simple, and direct. " He writes," says Aristotle, " sentences which have a continuous flow, and which end only when the sense is complete." I have allowed Herodotus, as I did Plutarch, to tell you his story in his own words, as closely as the English idiom can repro- duce the spirit and flow of the Greek, calling gratefully to my aid the labors of such students, analysts, and translators of Herodotus as Rawlinson, Dahlmann, Gary, and Wheeler; and I have dis- carded from the text only what is indelicate to the modern ear, or what the young reader might find tedious, redundant, or irrelevant to the main story. But so small a part comes under this head, that I am sure I can fairly say to you : " This is Herodotus him- self." If you read him through and do not like him, who will be the disappointed one ? Not you, but I ! New York, Jime i5, 1884. CONTENTS. I. II. CHAPTER. BOOK I.— CLIO. I. Origin of the War between the Greeks and Barbarians II. History of Lydia III. Origin of Athens and Sparta . IV. Conquest of Lydia by Cyrus . V. History of the Medes to the Reign of Cyrus VI. The Asiatic Greeks and the Lydian Revolt VII. The Conquest of Assyria and the War with the Massagetse BOOK II.— EUTERPE. I. Physical History of Egypt II. Religion, Manners, Customs, Dress, and Animals of the Egyptians III. God- Kings Prior to Menes IV. First Line of 330 Kings, only Three Mentioned V. From Sesostris to Sethon ....... VI. Third Line • from the Twelve Kings to Amasis BOOK III — THALIA. I. Expeditions of Cambyses II. Usurpation of Smerdis the Magus and Accession of Darius III. Indians, Arabians, and Ethiopians ...... IV. Reign of Darius to the Taking of Babylon .... BOOK IV.— MELPOMENE. I. Description of Scythia and the Neighboring Nations II. Invasion of Scythia by Darius III. Description of Libya ........ BOOK v.— TERPSICHORE. Conquests of the Generals of Darius The Ionian Revolt .... BOOK VI.— ERATO. I. The Suppression of the Ionian Revolt II. Expedition of Mardonius • III. Expedition of Datis and Artaphernes ; The Battle of Marathon I 4 17 25 35 54 65 91 107 108 I ID 127 157 169 174 IS8 203 219 229 236 246 252 viii CONTENTS. CHAPTER. BOOK VII.—POLYMNIA. I. Death of Darius and Reign of Xerxes . . . . . .261 II. Battle of Thermopylae ......... 280 BOOK VIII— URANIA. I. The Invasion of Attica and the Battle of Salamis .... 292 II. Xerxes' Retreat .......... 302 BOOK IX.— CALLIOPE. I. The War Continued ; Battle of Plataea and Siege of Thebes . . 307 II. The Battle of Mycale 321 Synchronistical Table of the Principal Events in Herodotus . . . 326 Herodotean Weights and Money, Dry and Liquid Measures, and Measure- ments of Lengths .......... 328 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. The Pyramids and Sphinx Offering at the Temple of Delphi Athens from Mount Hymettus . Assyrian Warriors in a Chariot . Sphynx from S. W. Palace (Nimroud) Egyptian Hare .... Winged Human-Headed Lion . Sepulchral Vases Map of ^gyptus The Two Great Pyramids at the Time of the Inundation Nile Boat ..... The Trochilus .... Spearing the Crocodile Head of Rameses H. Bust of Thothmes I. . Paris Carrying Away Helen Bcs and Hi .... The Great Pyramid, without the Surface Stone Section of the Great Pyramid Section of Gallery in Pyramid Hall of Columns in the Great Temple of Karnak Egyptian Bell Capitals Harpoon and Fish-Hooks . Egyptian Helmets The Great Sphinx Egyptian Pottery Sand Storm in the Desert A.ttack on Fort .... The Obelisk .... Mameluke Tomb, Cairo Egyptian War Chariot, Warrior, and Horse Military Drum .... Alphabet Infantry Drilled by Sergeant Light-Armed Troops Marching Olive Trees .... ILL USTRA TIONS. Head-Dress of a Riding Horse Amphitheatre at Pola Ruins of an Ancient Temple in Corinth Tripolitza .... The Tomb of Jonah, Konyunjik Bridge over the Gortynius Cyclopean Walls at Cephalloma Island and Castle of Corfu Bridge at Corfu Plains of Argos. Ancient Greek Walls Restored Celes Ridden by a Cupid . Boeotia .... Coat of Mail The Fisherman . Juno . . . Elegant Vases and Amphorae Bas-Relief of the Muses and the Ruins Opposite Mosu 241 249 267 273 277 281 283 287 289 293 303 309 311 315 317 325 HERODOTUS, BOOK I. CLIO. CHAPTER I. ORIGIN OF THE WAR BETWEEN THE GREEKS AND BARBARIANS. This is a publication of the researches of Herodotus of Halicar- nassus, made in order that the actions of men may not be effaced by time, and that the great and wondrous deeds displayed both by Greeks and barbarians ^ may not be deprived of renown ; and, furthermore, that the cause for which they waged war upon each other may be known. The learned amono- the Persians assert that the Phoenicians were the original authors of the quarrel ; that they migrated from that which is called the Red Sea to the Mediterranean and, having settled in the country which they now inhabit, forthwith applied themselves to distant voyages ; and that they exported Egyptian and Assyrian merchandise, touching at other places, and also at Argos. Argos, at that period, surpassed in every respect all those states which are now comprehended under the general appellation of Greece. They say, that on their arrival at Argos, the Phoeni- cians exposed their merchandise for sale, and that on the fifth or sixth day after their arrival, when they had almost disposed of their cargo, a great number of women came down to the sea-shore, and among them lo the daughter of the king Inachus. While these women ' Under the name " barbarians " the Greeks included all who were not sprung from them- selves — all who did not speak the Greek lanj^uage. r 2 HERODOTUS. were standing near the stern of the vessel, and were bargaining- for such things as most pleased them, the Phoenicians made an attack upon them. Most of the women escaped, but lo with some others was seized. Then the traders hurried on board and set sail for Egypt. Thus the Persians say that lo went to Egypt, and that this was the beginning of wrongs. After this certain Greeks (for they are unable to tell their name), having touched at Tyre in Phoenicia, carried off the king's daughter Europa. These must have been Cretans. Thus far they say that they had only returned hke for like, but that after this the Greeks were guilty of the second provocation ; for having sailed down in a vessel of war to ^a, a city of Colchis on the river Phasis, when they had accom- plished the more immediate object of their expedition, they carried off the king's daughter Medea; and the king of Colchis, having despatched a herald to Greece, demanded satisfaction and the restitution of the princess ; but the Greeks replied, that as they of Asia had not given satisfaction for the stealing of lo, they would not give any to them. In the second generation after this, Alex- ander, the son of Priam, having heard of these events, was desirous of obtaining a wife from Greece by means of violence, being fully persuaded that he should not have to give satisfaction, since the Greeks had not done so. When, therefore, he had carried off Helen, the Greeks immediately sent messengers to demand her back again and require satisfaction ; but when they brought for- ward these demands they were met with this reply : " You who have not yourselves given satisfaction, nor made it when demanded,, now wish others to give it to you." After this the Greeks were greatly to blame, for they levied war against Asia before the Asiatics did upon Europe. Now, to carry off women by violence the Persians think is the act of wicked men ; to trouble one's self about avenging them when so carried off is the act of foolish ones ; and to pay no regard to them when carried off, of wise men : for it is clear, that if they had not been willing, they could not have been carried off. Accordingly the Persians say, that they of Asia made no account of women that were carried off; but that the WAJ? BETWEEN GREEKS AND BARBARIANS. 3 Greeks for the sake of a Lacedsemonian woman assembled a mighty fleet, sailed to Asia, and overthrew the empire of Priam. From this event they had always considered the Greeks as their enemies : for the Persians claim Asia, and the barbarous nations that inhabit it, as their own, and consider Europe and the people of Greece as totally distinct. Such is the Persian account ; and to the capture of Troy they ascribe the commencement of their enmity to the Greeks. As re- lates to lo, the Phoenicians do not agree with this account of the Persians but affirm that she voluntarily sailed away with the traders. I, however, am not going to inquire further as to facts ; but having pointed out the person whom I myself know to have been the first guilty of injustice toward the Greeks, I will then pro- ceed with my history, touching as well on the small as the great estates of men : for of those that were formerly powerful many have become weak, and some that were formerly weak became powerful in my time. Knowing, therefore, the precarious nature of human prosperity, I shall commemorate both alike. Croesus was a Lydian by birth, son of Alyattes, and sovereign of the nations on this side the river Halys. This river flowing from the south between the Syrians ^ and Paphlagonians, empties itself northward into the Euxine Sea. This Croesus was the first of the barbarians whom we know of that subjected some of the Greeks to the payment of tribute, and formed alliances with others. He subdued the lonians and Cohans, and those of the Dorians who had settled in Asia, and formed an alliance with the Lacedaemo- nians ; but before his reign all the Greeks were free. ' Syria was at that time the name of Cappadocia, as Herodotus himself elsewhere states. CHAPTER II. HISTORY OF LYDIA. The government, which formerly belonged to the Heraclidse, passed to the family of Croesus, who were called Mermnadae. Candaules, whom the Greeks call Myrsilus, was tyrant of Sardis, and a descendant of Alcaeus, son of Hercules. For Agron, son of Ninus, grandson of Belus, great-grandson of Alcseus, was the first of the Heraclidae who became king of Sardis ; and Candaules, son of Myrsus, was the last. They who ruled over this country before Agron, were descendants of Lydus, son of Atys, from whom this whole people, anciently called Mseonians, derived the name of Lydians. The Heraclidae, descended from a female slave of Jardanus and Hercules, having been intrusted with the government by these princes, retained the supreme power in obedience to the declara- tion of an oracle : they reigned for twenty-two generations, a space of five hundred and five years, the son succeeding to the father to the time of Candaules, son of Myrsus. Candaules was mur- dered by his favorite, Gyges, who thus obtained the king- dom, and was confirmed in it by the oracle at Delphi. For when the Lydians resented the murder of Candaules, and were up in arms, the partisans of Gyges and the other Lydians came to the following agreement, that if the oracle should pronounce him king of the Lydians, he should reign ; if not, he should restore the power to the Heraclidae. The oracle answered that Gyges should become king. But the Pythian added this, " that the Heraclidae should be avenged on the fifth descendant of Gyges." Of this pre- diction neither the Lydians nor their kings took any notice until it was actually accomplished. Thus the Mermnadae deprived the Heraclidae of the supreme HISTOR Y OF L YDIA. 5 power. Gyges sent many offerings to Delphi ; indeed most of the silver offerings at Delphi are his ; and besides the silver, he gave a vast quantity of gold ; among the rest six bowls of gold, which now stand in the treasury of the Corinthians, and are thirty talents in weight ; though, to tell the truth, this treasury does not belong to the people of Corinth, but Cypselus son of Eetion. Gyges was the first of the barbarians of whom we know who made offerings at Delphi, except Midas, son of Gordius, the king of Phrygia, who dedicated the royal throne, on which he used to sit and administer justice, a piece of workmanship deserving of ad- miration. The throne stands in the same place as the bowls of Gyges. Periander the son of Cypselus was king of Corinth, and the Corinthians say (and the Lesbians confirm their account) that a wonderful prodigy occurred in his life-time. Arion of Methymna, second to none of his time in accompanying the harp, and the first who composed, named, and represented the dithyrambus at Corinth, was carried to Taenarus on the back of a dolphin. Arion, having continued a long time with Periander, made a voy- age to Italy and Sicily, acquired great wealth there, and deter- mined to return to Corinth. He set out from Tarentum, and hired a ship of some Corinthians, because he put more confidence in them than in any other nation ; but these men, when they were in the open sea, conspired together to throw him overboard and seize his money. Learning of this he offered them his money, and entreated them to spare his life. But he could not prevail on them ; the sailors ordered him either to kill himself, that he might be buried ashore, or to leap immediately into the sea. Arion, reduced to this strait, entreated them, since such was their determi- nation, to permit him to stand on the stern of the vessel in his full dress and sing, and he promised when he had sung to make way with himself. The seamen, pleased that they should hear the best singer in the world, retired from the stern to the middle of the vessel. Arion put on all his robes, took his harp in his hands, stood on the rowing benches and went through the Orthian strain ; O HERODOTUS. the strain ended, he leaped into the sea as he was, in full dress ; the sailors continuing their voyage to Corinth : but a dolphin caught him upon his back, and carried him to Teenarus ; so that, having landed, he proceeded to Corinth in his full dress, and upon his arrival there, related all that happened. Periander gave no credit to his relation, put Arion under close confinement, and watched anxiously for the arrival of the seamen. When they appeared, he summoned them and inquired if they could give any account of Arion. They answered that he was safe in Italy, and that they had left him flourishing at Tarentum. At that instant Arion appeared before them just as he was when he leaped into the sea ; at which they were so astonished that, being fully convicted, they could no longer deny the fact. These things are reported by the Corinthians and Lesbians; and there is a little bronze statue of Arion at Tsenarus, representing a man sitting on a dolphin. Alyattes the Lydian and father of Croesus, having waged a long war against the Milesians, died after a reign of fifty-seven years. Once upon recovery from an illness he dedicated at Delphi a large silver bowl, with a saucer of iron inlaid ; an object that deserves attention above all the offerings at Delphi. It was made by Glaucus the Chian, who first invented the art of inlaying iron. At the death of Alyattes, Croesus, then thirty-five years of age, succeeded to the kingdom. He attacked the Ephesians before any other Greek people. The Ephesians being besieged by him, consecrated their city to Diana, by fastening a rope from the temple to the wall. The distance between the old town, which was then besieged, and the temple, is seven stadia. Croesus after- ward attacked the several cities of the lonians and yEolians in succession, alleging different pretences against the various states. After he had reduced the Greeks in Asia to the payment of tribute, he formed a design to build ships and attack the Islanders. But when all things were ready for the building of ships. Bias of Priene (or, as others say, Pittacus of Mitylene) arriving at Sardis, put a stop to his ship-building by making this reply, when Crcesus HISTOR Y OF L YD I A . / inquired if he had any news from Greece : " O king, the Islanders are enHsting a large body of cavalry, with the intention of makino- war upon you and Sardis." Croesus, thinking he had spoken the truth, said : "May the gods put such a thought into the Islanders, as to attack the sons of the Lydians with horse." The other answering said : " Sire, you appear to wish above all thino-s to see the Islanders on horseback upon the continent ; and not with- out reason. But what can you imagine the Islanders more ear- nesdy desire, after having heard of your resolution to build a fleet to attack them, than to catch the Lydians at sea, that they may revenge on you the cause of those Greeks who dwell on the conti- nent, whom you hold in subjection ? " Croesus, much pleased with the conclusion, and convinced, (for he appeared to speak to the purpose,) put a stop to the ship-building, and made an alliance with the lonians that inhabit the islands. In course of time, when nearly all the nations that dwell within the river Halys, except the Cilicians and Lycians, were subdued, and Croesus had added them to the Lydians, all the wise men of that time, as each had opportunity, came from Greece to Sardis, which had then attained to the highest degree of prosperity ; and amongst them Solon, an Athenian, who made laws for the Athen- ians at their request, and absented himself for ten years, sailing away under pretence of seeing the world, that he might not be compelled to abrogate any of the laws he had established : for the Athenians could not do it themselves, since they were bound by solemn oaths to observe for ten years whatever laws Solon should enact for them. On his arrival Solon was hospitably enter- tained by Croesus, and on the third or fourth day, by order of the king, the attendants conducted him round the treasury, and showed him all their grand and costly contents. After he had seen and examined every thing sufficiently, Croesus asked him this ques- tion : " My Athenian guest, the great fame as well of your wisdom as of your travels has reached even to us ; I am therefore desirous of asking you who is the most happy man you have seen ? " He asked this question because he thought himself the most happy HERODOTUS. of men. But Solon, speaking the truth freely, without any flattery, answered, " Tellus, the Athenian." Croesus, astonished at his an- swer, eao-erly asked him : " On what account do you deem Tellus the happiest? " He replied : " Tellus, in the first place, lived in a well-croverned commonwealth ; had sons who were virtuous and crood; and he saw children born to them all, and all surviving. In the next place, when he had lived as happily as the condition of hu- man affairs will permit, he ended his life in a most glorious man- ner. For coming to the assistance of the Athenians in a battle with their neighbors of Eleusis, he put the enemy to flight and died nobly. The Athenians buried him at the public charge in the place where he fell, and honored him gready." When Solon had roused the attenUon of Croesus by relating many happy circumstances concerning Tellus, Croesus, expecting at least to obtain the second place, asked, whom he had seen next to him. " Cleobis," said he, " and Biton, natives of Argos, for they possessed a sufficient fortune, and had withal such strength of body, that they were both alike victorious in the public games ; and moreover the following story is related of them : — When the Ar- o-ives were celebrating a festival of Juno, it was necessary that their mother should be drawn to the temple in a chariot; but the oxen did not come from the field in time, the young men therefore put themselves beneath the yoke, and drew the car in which their mother sat ; and having conveyed it forty-five stades, they reached the temple. After they had done this in sight of the assembled people, a most happy termination was put to their lives ; and in them the Deity clearly showed that it is better for a man to die than to live. For the men of Argos, who stood round, commended the streno-th of the youths, and the women blessed her as the mother of such sons ; but the mother herself, transported with joy both on account of the action and its renown, stood before the image and prayed that the goddess would grant to Cleobis and Biton, her own sons, who had so highly honored her, the greatest blessing man could receive. After this prayer, when they had sacrificed and partaken of the feast, the youths fell asleep in the HISTOR Y OF L YD I A. 9 temple itself, and never woke more, but met with such a termina- tion of life. Upon this the Argives, in commemoration of their filial affection, caused their statues to be made and dedicated at Delphi." Thus Solon adjudged the second place of felicity to these youths. Then Crcesus was enraged, and said : " My Athenian friend, is my happiness then so slighted by you as worth nothing, that you do not think me of so much value as private men ? " He answered : " Crcesus, do you inquire of me concerning human af- fairs — of me, who know that the divinity is always jealous, and de- lights in confusion. For in lapse of time men are constrained to see many things they would not willingly see, and to suffer many things they would not willingly suffer. Now I put the term of man's life at seventy years ; these seventy years then give twenty-five thousand two hundred days, without including the in- tercalary months of the leap years, and if we add that month to every other year, in order that the seasons arriving at the proper time may agree, the intercalary months will be thirty-five m.ore in the seventy years, and the days of these months will be one thousand and fifty. Yet in all this number of twenty-six thousand two hundred and fifty days, that compose these seventy years, one day produces nothing exactly the same as another. Thus, then, O Croesus, man is altogether the sport of fortune. You appear to me to be master of immense treasures, and king of many nations; but as relates to what you inquire of me, I cannot say, till I hear that you have ended your life happily. For the richest of men is not more happy than he that has a sufficiency for a day, unless good fortune attend him to the grav^e, so that he ends his life in happiness. Many men who abound in wealth are unhappy ; and many who have only a moderate competency are fortunate. He that abounds in wealth, and is yet unhappy, surpasses the other only in two things ; but the other surpasses the wealthy and the miserable in many things. The former indeed is better able to gratify desire and to bear the blow of adversity. But the latter surpasses him in this ; he is not indeed equally able to bear mis- lO HERODOTUS. fortune or satisfy desire, but his good fortune wards off these things from him ; and he enjoys the full use of his limbs, he is free from disease and misfortune, he is blessed with good children and a fine form, and if, in addition to all these things, he shall end his life well, he is the man you seek and may justly be called happy; but before he die we ought to suspend our judgment, and not pro- nounce him happy, but fortunate." When Solon had spoken thus to Croesus, Croesus did not con- fer any favor on him, but holding him in no account, dismissed him as a very ignorant man, because he overlooked present prosperity, and bade men look to the end of every thing. After the departure of Solon, the indignation of the gods fell heavily upon Croesus, probably because he thought himself the most happy of all men. A dream soon after visited him while sleeping, which pointed out to him the truth of the misfortunes that were about to befall him in the person of one of his sons. For Croesus had two sons, of whom one was grievously afflicted, for he was dumb ; but the other, whose name was Atys, far surpassed all the youno- men of his age. Now the dream intimated to Croesus that he would lose this Atys by a wound inflicted with the point of an iron weapon. When he awoke, and had considered the matter with himself, he relieved Atys from the command of the Lydian troops, and never after sent him out on that business ; and causing all spears, lances, and such other weapons as men use in war, to be removed from the men's apartments, he had them laid up in private chambers, that none of them being suspended might fall upon his son. Wliile Croesus was engaged with the nuptials of his son, a man oppressed by misfortune, and whose hands were polluted, a Phrygian by birth, and of royal family, arrived at Sardis. This man, having come to the palace of Croesus, sought permission to obtain purification according to the custom of the country. Croesus purified him, performing the usual ceremony, and then inquired : " Stranger, who art thou, and from what part of Phrygia hast thou come as a suppliant to my hearth ? and what man or woman hast thou slain ? " The strans^er answered : " I am the son of Gordius, HISTOR Y OF L YDIA. 1 1 and grandson of Midas, and am called Adrastus. I unwittino-ly slew my own brother, and being banished by my father and deprived of every thing, I have come hither." Then said Croesus : " You were born of parents who are our friends, and you have come to friends, among whom, if you will stay, you shall want nothing ; and by bearing your misfortune as lighdy as possible you will be the greatest gainer." So Adrastus took up his abode in the palace of Croesus. At this time a boar of enormous size appeared in Mysian Olympus, and rushing down from that mountain, ravaged the fields of the Mysians. The Mysians, though they often went out against him, could not hurt him, but suffered much from him. At last deputies from the Mysians came to Croesus and said : " O kino-, a boar of enormous size has appeared in our country, and ravages our fields : though we have often endeavored to take him, we can- not. We therefore earnesdy beg, that you will send with us your son and some chosen youths with dogs, that we may drive him from the country." But Croesus, remembering the warning of his dream, answered : " Make no further mention of my son ; I shall not send him with you, because he is lately married, but I will give you chosen Lydians, and the whole hunting train, and will order them to assist you with their best endeavors in driving the monster from your country." The Mysians were content with this, but Atys, who had heard of their request, came in, and earnestly pro- tested : " Father, you used to permit me to signalize myself in the two most noble and becoming exercises of war and hunting ; but now you keep me excluded from both, without having observed in me either cowardice or want of spirit. How will men look on me when I go or return from the forum? What kind of a man shall I appear to my fellow-citizens } What to my newly married wife ? Either let me then go to this hunt, or convince me that it is better lor me to do as you would have me." " My son," said Croesus, " I act thus, not because I have seen any cowardice, or any thing else unbecoming in you ; but a vision in a dream warned me that you would be short-lived, and would die by the point of 12 HERODOTUS. an iron weapon. It was on account of this that I hastened your marriacre, and now refuse to send you on this expedition ; taking care to preserve you, if by any means I can, as long as I Hve ; for you are my only son ; the other, who is deprived of his hearing, I consider as lost." The youth answered : " You are not to blame, my father, if after such a dream you take so much care of me ; but you say the dream signified that I should die by the point of an iron weapon. What hand, or what pointed iron weapon has a boar, to occasion such fears in you ? Had it said I should lose my life by a tusk, you might do as you have, but it said by the point of a weapon ; then since we have not to contend against men, let me go." " You have outdone me," replied Croesus, " in explain- ing the import of the dream, you shall go to the chase." Then turning to the Phrygian Adrastus, he exclaimed : " Adras- tus, I beg you to be my son's guardian, when he goes to the chase, and take care that no skulking villains show themselves in the way to do him harm. Besides, you ought to go for your own sake, where you may signalize yourself by your exploits ; this was the glory of your ancestors, and you are besides in full vigor." Adrastus answered : " On no other account, my lord, would I take part in this enter- prise ; it is not fitting that one in my unfortunate circumstances should join with his prosperous compeers. But since you urge me, I ought to oblige you. Rest assured, that your son, whom you bid me take care of, shall, as far as his guardian is concerned, return to you uninjured." Then all went away, well provided with chosen youths and dogs, and, having arrived at Mount Olympus, they sought the wild beast, found him and encircled him around. Among the rest, the stranger, Adrastus, throwing his javelin at the boar, missed him, and struck the son of Crcesus ; thus fulfilling the warning of the dream. Upon this, some one ran off to tell Croesus what had happened, and hav- ing arrived at Sardis, gave him an account of the action, and of his son's fate. Croesus, exceedingly distressed by the death of his son, lamented it the more bitterly, because he fell by the hand of one, whom he himself had purified from blood ; and vehemently HIS TOR Y OF L YD I A . 1 3 deploring his misfortune, he invoked Jove the Expiator, attesting what he had suffered by this stranger. He invoked also the same deity, by the name of the god of hospitality and private friendship : as the god of hospitality, because by receiving a stranger into his house, he had unawares fostered the murderer of his son ; as the god of private friendship, because, having sent him as a guardian, he found him his greatest enemy. Soon the Lydians approached, bearing the corpse, and behind it followed the murderer. He, having advanced in front of the body, delivered himself up to Croesus, stretching out his hands and begging him to kill him upon it; for he ought to live no longer. When Croesus heard this, though his own affliction was so great, he pitied Adrastus, and said to him : " You have made me full satisfaction by condemning yourself to die. You are not the author of this misfortune, except as far as you were the involuntary agent ; but that god, whoever he was, that long since foreshowed what was about to happen." Croesus buried his son as the dignity of his birth required ; but the son of Gordius, when all was silent around, judging himself the most heavily afflicted of all men, killed himself on the tomb. Some time after, the overthrow of the kingdom of Astyages, son of Cyaxares, by Cyrus, son of Cambyses, and the growing power of the Persians, put an end to the grief of Croesus ; and it entered into his thoughts whether he could by any means check the growing power of the Persians before they became formidable. After he had formed this purpose, he determined to make trial as well of the oracles in Greece as of that in Lydia; and sent different persons to different places, some to Delphi, some to Abae of Phocis, and some to Dodona. He endeavored to propitiate the god at Delphi by magnificent sacrifices ; for he offered three thousand head of cattle of every kind fit for sacrifice, and having heaped up a great pile, he burned on it beds of gold and silver, vials of gold, and robes of purple and garments ; hoping by that means more completely to conciliate the god. When the sacrifice was ended, having melted down a vast quantity of gold, he cast half-bricks from it ; of which the 14 HERODOTUS. longest were six palms in length, the shortest three, and in thick- ness one palm : their number was one hundred and seventeen : four of these, of pure gold, weighed each two talents and a half ; the other half-bricks of pale gold, weighed two talents each. He made also the figure of a lion of fine gold, weighing ten talents. This lion, when the temple of Delphi was burned down, fell from the half-bricks, for it had been placed on them ; and it now lies in the treasury of the Corinthians, weighing six talents and a half; OFFERING AT THE TEMPLE OF DELPHI, for three talents and a half were melted from it. Croesus, having finished these things sent them to Delphi, and with them these fol- lowing : two large bowls, one of gold, the other of silver ; that of gold was placed on the right hand as you enter the temple, and that of silver on the left ; but these also were removed when the temple was burnt down ; and the golden one weighing eight talents and a half and twelve minse, is placed in the treasury of Clazomence ; the silver one, containing six hundred amphorse, lies in a corner of the vestibule, and is used by the Delphians for mix- ing the wine on the Theophanian festival. The Delphians say it HIS TOR Y OF L YD I A. 1 5 was the workmanship of Theodorus the Samian ; and I think so too, for it appears to be no common work. He also sent four casks of silver, which stand in the treasury of the Corinthians ; and he dedicated two lustral vases, one of gold, the other of silver : on the golden one is an inscription, OF THE LACEDEMONIANS, who say that it was their offering, but wrongfully, for it was given by Croesus : a certain Delphian made the inscription, in order to please the Lacedaemonians ; I know his name, but forbear to mention it. The boy, indeed, through whose hand the water flows, is their gift ; but neither of the lustral vases. At the same time Croesus sent many other offerings without an inscription : amongst them some round silver covers ; and a statue of a woman in gold three cubits high, which the Delphians say is the image of Croesus's bakinof woman ; and to all these things he added the necklaces and girdles of his wife. These were the offerings he sent to Delphi ; and to Amphiaraus, having ascertained his virtue and sufferings, he dedicated a shield all of gold, and a lance of solid gold, the shaft as well as the points being of gold. These are now at Thebes in the temple of Isme- nian Apollo. To the Lydians appointed to convey these presents to the temples, Croesus gave it in charge to inquire of the oracles, whether he should make war on the Persians, and if he should invite any other nation as an ally. Accordingly, when the Lydians arrived at the places to which they were sent, and had dedicated the offer- ings, they consulted the oracles, saying : " Croesus, king of the Lydians and of other Nations, esteeming these to be the only oracles among men, sends these presents in acknowledgment of your discoveries ; and now asks whether he should lead an army against the Persians, and whether he should join any auxiliary forces with his own ? " Such were their questions ; and the opinions of both oracles concurred, foretelling : " That if Croesus should make war on the Persians, he would destroy a mighty em- pire ;" and they advised him to engage the most powerful of the Greeks in his alliance. When Croesus heard the answers that 1 6 HERODOTUS. were brought back, he was beyond measure delighted with the oracles ; and fully expecting that he should destroy the kingdom of Cyrus, he again sent to Delphi, and having ascertained the number of the inhabitants, presented each of them with two staters of gold. In return for this, the Delphians gave Croesus and the Lydians the right to consult the oracle before any others, and ex- emption from tribute, and the first seats in the temple, and the privilege of being made citizens of Delphi, to as many as should desire it in all future time. Croesus, having made these presents to the Delphians, sent a third time to consult the oracle. For after he had ascertained the veracity of the oracle, he had frequent recourse to it. His demand now was whether he should long en- joy the kingdom ? to which the Pythian gave this answer : " When a mule shall become king of the Medes, then, tender-footed Lydian, flee over pebbly Hermus, nor tarry, nor blush to be a coward." With this answer, when reported to him, Croesus was more than ever delighted, thinking that a mule should never be king of the Medes instead of a man, and consequently that neither he nor his posterity should ever be deprived of the kingdom. In the next place he began to enquire carefully who were the most powerful of the Greeks whom he might gain over as allies ; and on inquiry found that the Lacedaemonians and Athenians excelled the rest, the former being of Dorian, the latter of Ionic descent : for these were in ancient time the most distinguished, the latter beino^ a Pelasgian, the other an Hellenic nation. CHAPTER III. ORIGIN OF ATHENS AND SPARTA. What language the Pelasgians used I cannot with certainty affirm ; but if I may form a conjecture from those Pelasgians who now exist, and inhabit the town of Crestona above the Tyrrhenians, and from those Pelasgians settled at Placia and Scylace on the Hellespont, they spoke a barbarous language. And if the whole Pelasgian body did so, the Attic race, being Pelasgic, must at the time they changed into Hellenes have altered their language. The Hellenic race, however, appears to have used the same language from the time they became a people. At first insignificant, yet from a small beginning they have increased to a multitude of nations, chiefly by a union with many other barbarous nations. But the Pelasgic race, being barbarous, never increased to any great extent. Of these nations Croesus learnt that the Attic was oppressed and distracted by Pisistratus, then reigning in Athens. When a quarrel happened between those who dwelt on the sea-coast and the Athenians, the formed header by Megacles, the latter by Lycurgus, Pisistratus aiming at the sovereign power, formed a third party ; and having assembled his partisans under color of protecting those of the mountains, he contrived this stratagem. He wounded himself and his mules, drove his chariot into the public square, as if he had escaped from enemies that designed to murder him in his way to the country, and besought the people to grant him a guard, having before acquired renown in the expe- dition against Megara, by taking its port, Nisaea, and displaying other illustrious deeds. The people of Athens, deceived by this, gave him such of the citizens as he selected, who were not to be 17 1 8 HERODOTUS. his javelin men, but club-bearers, for they attended him with clubs of wood. These men, joining in revolt with Pisistratus seized the Acropolis, and Pisistratus assumed the government of the Atheni- ans, neither disturbing the existing magistracies, nor altering the laws ; but he administered the government according to the estab- lished institutions, liberally and well. Not long after, the partisans of Meo-acles and Lycurgus became reconciled and drove him out. In this manner Pisistratus first made himself master of Athens, and, his power not being firmly rooted, lost it. But those who expelled Pisistratus quarrelled anew with one another; and Meo-acles, harassed by the sedition, sent a herald to Pisistratus to ask if he was willing to marry his daughter, on condition of having the sovereignty. Pisistratus having accepted the proposal and ao-reed to his terms, in order to his restitution, they contrive the most ridiculous project that, I think, was ever imagined; especially if we consider, that the Greeks have from old been distinguished from the barbarians as being more acute and free from all foolish simplicity, and more particularly as they played this trick upon the Athenians, who are esteemed among the wisest of the Greeks. In the Paeanean tribe was a woman named Phya, four cubits high, wanting three fingers, and in other respects handsome ; this woman they dressed in a complete suit of armor, placed her on a chariot, and having shown her beforehand how to assume the most becom- ing demeanor, they drove her to the city, with heralds before, who,, on their arrival in the city, proclaimed what was ordered in these terms : " O Athenians, receive with kind wishes Pisistratus whom Minerva herself honoring above all men now conducts back to her own citadel." The report was presently spread among the people that Minerva was bringing back Pisistratus ; and the people in the city believing this woman to be the goddess, both adored a human being, and received Pisistratus. Pisistratus having recovered the sovereignty in the manner above described, married the daughter of Megacles in accordance with his agreement, but Pisistratus soon hearing of designs that were being formed against him, withdrew entirely out of the 20 HERODOTUS. country, and arrivino' in Eretria, consulted with his sons. The opinion of Hippias prevailing, to recover the kingdom, they imme- diately began to collect contributions from those cities which felt any gratitude to them for benefits received ; and though many o-ave large sums, the Thebans surpassed the rest in liberality. At lencrth (not to give a detailed account) time passed, and every thing was ready for their return, for Argive mercenaries arrived from Peloponnesus; and a man of Naxos, named Lygdamis, who had come as a volunteer, and brought both men and money, showed great zeal in the cause. Setting out from Eretria, they they came back in the eleventh year of their exile, and first of all possessed themselves of Marathon. While they lay encamped in this place, their partisans from the city joined them, and others from the various districts, to whom a tyranny was more welcome than liberty, crowded to them. The Athenians of the city, on the other hand, had shown very little concern all the time Pisistratus was collecting money, or even when he took possession of Mara- thon. But when they heard that he was marching from Marathon against the city, they at length went out to resist him ;' and marched with their whole force against the invaders. In the mean time Pisistratus's party, advanced towards the city, and arrived in a body at the temple of the Pallenian Minerva, and there took up their position. Here Amphilytus, a prophet of Acarnania, moved by divine impulse, approached Pisistratus, and pronounced this oracle in hexameter verse : " The cast is thrown — the net expanded wide— At night the tunnies in the snare will glide." He, inspired by the god, uttered this prophecy ; and Pisis- tratus, comprehending the oracle, and saying he accepted the omen, led on his army. The Athenians of the city were then engaged at their breakfast, and some of them after breakfast had betaken themselves to dice, others to sleep ; so that the army of Pisistratus, falling upon them by surprise, soon put them to flight. As they were flying, Pisistratus contrived a clever stratagem to prevent their rallying again, and forced them thoroughly to disperse. ORIGIN OF ATHENS AND SPARTA. 21 He mounted his sons on horseback and sent them forward. They, overtaking the fugitives, spoke as they were ordered by Pisis- tratus, bidding them be of good cheer, and to depart every man to his own home. The Athenians yielded a ready obedience, and thus Pisistratus, having a third time possessed himself of Athens, secured his power, more firmly, both by the aid of auxiliary forces, and by revenues partly collected at home and partly drawn from the mines along the river Strymon. He seized as hostages the sons of the Athenians who had held out against him, and had not immediately fled, and settled them at Naxos. He moreover puri- fied the island of Delos, in obedience to an oracle, and having dug up the dead bodies, as far as the prospect from the temple reached, he removed them to another part of Delos. Croesus was informed that such was, at that time, the condition of the Athenians; and that the Lacedaemonians, having extricated themselves out of great difficulties, had gained the mastery over the Tegeans in war. They had formerly been governed by the worst laws of all the people in Greece, both as regarded their dealings with one another, and in holding no intercourse with strangers. But they changed to a good government in the fol- lowing manner : Lycurgus, a man much esteemed by the Spar- tans, having arrived at Delphi to consult the oracle, no sooner entered the temple, than the Pythian spoke as follows : " Lycurgus, thou art come to my rich fane, Beloved by Zeus and all the heavenly train, But whether god or man I fear to say. Yet god thou must be more than mortal clay." Some men say that, besides this, the Pythian also communicated to him that form of government now established among the Spar- tans. But, as the Lacedaemonians themselves affirm, Lycurgus being appointed guardian to his nephew Leobotis,' king of Sparta, brought those institutions from Crete. For as soon as he had taken the guardianship, he altered all their customs, and took ' It is generally agreed that the name of Lycurgus's nephew was not Leobotas, but Charilaus. See the life of Lycurgus in the " Boys' and Girls' Plutarch." 22 HERODOTUS. care that no one should transgress them. Afterwards he estab- Hshed miHtary regulations, and instituted the ephori and senators. Thus, having changed their laws, they established good institu- tions in their stead. They erected a temple to Lycurgus after his death, and held him in the highest reverence. As they had a good soil and abundant population, they quickly sprang up and flourished. And now they were no longer content to live in peace ; but proudly considering themselves superior to the Arcad- ians, they sent to consult the oracle at Delphi, touching the con- quest of the whole country of the Arcadians ; and the Pythian gave them this answer: "Dost thou ask of me Arcadia? thou askest a great deal ; I cannot grant it thee. There are many acorn-eating men in Arcadia, who will hinder thee. But I do not grudge thee all ; I will give thee Tegea to dance on with beating of the feet, and a fair plain to measure out by the rod." When the Lacedaemonians heard this answer reported, they laid aside their design against all Arcadia ; and relying on an equivocal oracle, led an army against Tegea only, carrying fetters with them, as if they would surely reduce the Tegeans to slavery. But being defeated in an engagement, as many of them as were taken alive, were compelled to work, wearing the fetters they had brought, and measuring the lands of the Tegeans with a rod. Those fetters in which they were bound, were, even in my time, preserved in Tegea, suspended around the temple of Alean Minerva. In the first war, therefore, they had constantly fought against the Tegeans with ill success, but in the time of Croesus, and during the reign of Anaxandrides and Ariston at Lacedaemon, they at length became superior in the following manner : When they had always been worsted in battle by the Tegeans, they sent to en- quire of the oracle at Delphi, what god they should propitiate, in order to become victorious over the Tegeans. The Pythian answered, they should become so, when they had brought back the bones of Orestes the son of Agamemnon. But as they were un- able to find the sepulchre of Orestes, they sent again to inquire of the god in what spot Orestes lay interred, and the Pythian gave this answer to the inquiries of those who came to consult her : ORIGIN OF ATHENS AND SPARTA. 23 " Down in Arcadia's level plain I know, Tegea lies : — and where woe lies on woe — Where two bound winds impatient of the yoke, Are forced to blow — where stroke replies to stroke : Beneath the earth lies Agamemnon's son. Bear him to Sparta and Tegea 's won." When the Lacedsemonians heard this, they were as far off the dis- covery as ever, though they searched every where, till Lichas, one of the Spartans who are called Agathoergi, found it. These Aga- thoergi consist of citizens who are discharged from serving in the cavalry, such as are senior, five in every year. It is their duty during the year in which they are discharged from the cavalry, not to remain inactive, but go to different places where they are sent by the Spartan commonwealth. Lichas, who was one of these persons, discovered it in Tegea, both meeting with good fortune and employing sagacity. For as the Lacedaemonians had at that time intercourse with the Tegeans, he, coming to a smithy, looked attentively at the iron being forged, and was struck with wonder when he saw what was done. The smith perceiving his astonish- ment desisted from his work, and said : " O Laconian stranger, you would certainly have been astonished had you seen what I saw, since you are so surprised at the working of iron. For as I was endeavoring to sink a well in this enclosure, in digging, I came to a coffin seven cubits long ; and because I did not believe that men were ever taller than they now are, I opened it and saw that the body was equal to the coffin in length, and after I had measured it I covered it up again. The man told him what he had seen, and Lichas, reflecting on what was said, conjectured from the words of the oracle, that this must be the body of Orestes, forming his con- jecture on the following reasons : seeing the smith's two bellows he discerned in them the two winds, and in the anvil and ham- mer the stroke answering to stroke, and in the iron that was being forged the woe that lay on woe ; representing it in this way, that iron had been invented to the injury of man. He then returned to Sparta, and gave the Lacedaemonians an account of the whole matter ; but they brought a feigned charge against him and sent 24 HERODOTUS. him into banishment. He, going back to Tegea, related his mis- fortune to the smith, and wished to hire the enclosure from him, but he would not let it. But in time, when he had persuaded him, he took up his abode there ; and having opened the sepulchre and collected the bones, he carried them away with him to Sparta. From that time, whenever they made trial of each other's strength, the Lacedaemonians were by far superior in war ; and the greater part of Peloponnesus had been already subdued by them. CHAPTER IV. CONQUEST OF LYDIA BY CYRUS. Crcesus being Informed of all these things, sent ambassadors to Sparta, with presents, and to request their alliance, having given them orders what to say ; and when they were arrived they spoke as follows : " Croesus, king of the Lydians and of other nations, has sent us with this message : ' O Lacedaemonians, since the deity has directed me by an oracle to unite myself to a Grecian friend, therefore (for I am informed that you are pre-eminent in Greece), I invite you in obedience to the oracle, being desirous of becom- ing your friend and ally, without treachery or guile.' " But the Lacedaemonians, who had before heard of the answer given by the oracle to Crcesus, were gratified at the coming of the Lydians, and exchanged pledges of friendship and alliance ; and indeed certain favors had been formerly conferred on them by Croesus ; for when the Lacedaemonians sent to Sardis to purchase gold, wishing to use it in erecting the statue of Apollo that now stands at Thornax in Laconia, Croesus gave it as a present to them. For this reason, and because he had selected them from all the Greeks, and desired their friendship, the Lacedaemonians accepted his offer of alliance ; and in the first place they promised to be ready at his summons ; and in the next, having made a great bronze bowl, capable of con- taining three hundred amphorae, and covered it outside to the rim with various figures, they sent it to him, being desirous of making Croesus a present in return. But this bowl never reached Sardis, for one of the two following reasons : the Lacedaemonians say, that when the bowl, on its way to Sardis, was off Samos, the Samains having heard of it, sailed out in long ships, and took it away by force. On the other hand the Samains affirm, that when the Lace- 25 26 HERODOTUS. daemonians who were conveying the bowl found they were too late, and heard that Sardis was taken and Croesus a prisoner, they sold the bowl in Samos, and that some private persons, who bought it dedicated it in the temple of Juno. Croesus, mistaking the oracle, prepared to invade Cappadocia, hoping to overthrow Cyrus and the power of the Persians. Whilst Croesus was preparing for his expedition against the Persians, a Lydian named Sandanis, who before that time was esteemed a wise man, and on this occasion acquired a very great name in Lydia, gave him advice in these words : " O king, you are prepar- incr to make war against a people who wear leather trousers, and the rest of their garments of leather ; who inhabit a barren country, and feed not on such things as they choose, but such as they can get. Besides they do not habitually use wine, but drink water ; nor have they figs to eat, nor any thing that is good. In the first place, then, if you should conquer, what will you take from them, since they have nothing ? On the other hand, if you should be conquered, consider what good things you will lose. For when they have tasted of our good things, they will become fond of them, nor will they be driven from them. As for me, I thank the gods, that they have not put it into the thoughts of the Persians to make war on the Lydians." Sandanis did not, how- ever, persuade Croesus, for he proceeded to invade Cappadocia, as well from a desire of adding it to his own dominions, as a wish to punish Cyrus on account of Astyages. For Cyrus, son of Cam- byses, had subjugated Astyages, son of Cyaxares, who was brother- in law of Croesus, and king of Medes. Croesus, alleging this against him, sent to ask the oracle, if he should make war on the Persians ; and when an ambiguous an- swer came back, he, interpreting it to his own advantage, led his army against the territory of the Persians. When he arrived at the river Halys, Croesus transported his forces, as I believe, by the bridcres which are now there. But the common opinion of the Greeks is, that Thales the Milesian procured him a passage in the following way : Whilst Croesus was in doubt how his army should CONQ UEST OF L YD J A BY CYR US. 2 7 pass over the river, for they say that these bridges were not at that time in existence, Thales, who was in the camp, caused the stream, which flowed along the left of the army, to flow on the right in- stead. He contrived it thus : having begun above the camp, he dug a deep trench, in the shape of a half-moon, so that the river, being turned into this from its old channel, might pass in the rear of the camp pitched where it then was, and afterward, having passed by the camp, might fall into its former course ; so that as soon as the river was divided into two streams it became fordable in both. Some say, that the ancient channel of the river was en- tirely dried up ; but this I cannot assent to ; for how then could they have crossed it on their return ? However, Croesus, having passed the river with his army, came to a place called Pteria, in Cappadocia. (Now Pteria is the strongest position of the whole of this country, and is situated over against Sinope, a city on the Euxine Sea.) Here he encamped and ravaged the lands of the Syrians ; and took the city of the Pterians, and enslaved the inhabitants ; he also took all the ad- jacent places, and expelled the inhabitants, who had given him no ■cause for blame. But Cyrus, assembling his own army, and taking with him all who inhabited the intermediate country, went to meet Croesus. But before he began to advance, he sent heralds to the lonians, to persuade them to revolt from Croesus, which the lon- ians, refused to do. When Cyrus had come up and encamped opposite Croesus, they made trial of each other's strength on the plains of Pteria ; but when an obstinate battle took place, and many fell on both sides, they at last parted, on the approach of night, neither havino^ been victorious. Croesus laying the blame on his own army on account of the smallness of its numbers, for his forces that eng-agfed were far fewer than those of Cyrus, — marched back to Sardis, designing to sum- mon the Egyptians according to treaty, and to require the presence of the Lacedaemonians at a fixed time : having collected these to- gether, and assembled his own army, he purposed, when winter was over, to attack the Persians in the beginning of the spring. 2 8 HERODOTUS. With this design, when he reached Sardis, he despatched ambas- sadors to his different alHes, requiring them to meet at Sardis be- fore the end of five months ; but the army that was with him, and that had fought with the Persians, which was composed of mer- cenary troops, he entirely disbanded, not imagining that Cyrus, who had come off on such equal terms, would venture to advance upon Sardis. While Croesus was forming these plans the whole suburbs were filled with serpents, and when they appeared, the horses, forsaking their pastures, came and devoured them. When. Croesus beheld this, he considered it to be, as it really was, a prodigy, and sent immediately to consult the interpreters at Tel- messus ; but the messengers having arrived there, and learnt from the Telmessians what the prodigy portended, were unable to re- port it to Croesus, for before they sailed back to Sardis, Croesus had been taken prisoner. The Telmessians had pronounced as follows : " that Croesus must expect a foreign army to invade his country, which, on its arrival, would subdue the natives, because, they said, the serpent is a son of the earth, but the horse is an enemy and a stranger." Cyrus, as soon as Croesus had retreated after the battle at Pteria, having discovered that it was the intention of Croesus to disband his army, saw that it would be to his advantage to march with all possible expedition on Sardis, before the forces of the Lydians could be a second time assembled. Whereupon Croesus, thrown into great perplexity, seeing that matters had turned out contrary to his expectations, drew out the Lydians to battle. At that time no nation in Asia was more valiant and warlike than the Lydians. Their mode of fighting was from on horseback ; they were armed with long lances, and managed their horses with admirable address. The place where they met was the plain that lies before the city of Sardis, which is extensive and bare ; the Hyllus and several other rivers flowing through it force a passage into the greatest, called the Hermus, which, flowing from the sacred mountain of mother Cybele, falls into the sea near the city of Phocsea. Here Cyrus, CONQ UES T OF L YDIA BY CYRUS. 29 when he saw the Lydians drawn up in order of battle, alarmed at the cavalry, had recourse to the following stratagem, on the sug- gestion of Harpagus, a Mede. Collecting together all the camels that followed his army with provisions and baggage, and causing their burdens to be taken off, he mounted men upon them equipped in cavalry accoutrements, and ordered them to go in advance of the rest of his army against the Lydian horse ; his infantry he bade follow the camels, and placed the whole of his cavalry behind the infantry. When all were drawn up in. order, he charged them not to spare any of the Lydians, but to kill every one they met ; but on no account to kill Croesus, even if he should offer resistance when. taken. He drew up the camels in the front of the cavalry for this reason : a horse is afraid of a camel, and cannot endure either to see its form or to scent its -smell ; this then would render the cavalry useless to Croesus, by which the Lydian expected to signalize himself. Accordingly, when they joined battle, the horses no sooner smelt the camels and saw them, than they wheeled round, and the hopes of Croesus were destroyed. Nevertheless, the Lydians were not discouraged, but leaped from their horses and engaged with the Persians on foot ; but at last, when many had fallen on both sides, the Lydians were put to flight, and being shut up within the walls, were besieged by the Persians. Sardis was taken in the followinor manner. On the fourteenth day after Croesus had been besieged, Cyrus sent horsemen through- out his army, and proclaimed that he would liberally reward the man who should first mount the wall ; upon this several attempts were made, and as often failed ; till, after the rest had desisted, a Mardian, whose name was Hyroeades, endeavored to climb up on that part of the citadel where no guard was stationed, for on that side the citadel was precipitous and impracticable. Hyroeades had seen a Lydian the day before come down this precipice for a hel- met that had rolled down, and carry it up agam. He thereupon ascended the same way, followed by divers Persians ; and when great numbers had gone up, Sardis was thus taken, and the whole town plundered. 30 HERODOTUS. The following incidents befel Croesus himself. He had a son of whom I have before made mention, who was dumb. Now, in the time of his former prosperity, Croesus had done every thing he could for him, and among other expedients had sent to consult the oracle of Delphi concerning him ; but the Pythian gave him this answer : • •' O foolish king of Lydia, do not seek To hear thy son within thy palace speak ! Better for thee that pleasure to forego — The day he speaks will be a day of woe." When the city was taken, one of the Persians, not knowing Croesus, was about to kill him ; Croesus, though he saw him ap- proach, took no heed of him, caring not if he should die by the blow ; but this speechless son of his, when he saw the Persian advancing against him, through dread and anguish, burst into speech, and said : " Man, kill not Croesus." These were the first words he ever uttered ; but from that time he continued to speak during the remainder of his life. So the Persians got possession of Sardis, and made Croesus prisoner, after he had reigned four- teen years, been besieged fourteen days, and lost his great empire,, as the oracle had predicted. The Persians, having taken him, conducted him to Cyrus ; and he, having heaped up a great pile,, placed Croesus upon it, bound with fetters, and with him fourteen young Lydians ; designing either to offer this sacrifice to some god, as the first fruits of his victory, or wishing to perform a vow ; or perhaps, having heard that Croesus was a religious person, he placed him on the pile for the purpose of discovering whether any deity would save him from being burned alive. When Croesus •• ^u^ _;i^ "ofwithstandino- the weight of his misfortunes, spoken by inspiration of be justly called happy." It after a long silence he 1, thrice pronounced the name ot bolon ; wnen <^yiua n^aiv^ ....... he commanded his inter- preters to ask Croesus whom it was he called upon ; Croesus for CONQ UES T OF L YD I A BY CYRUS. 3 1 some time kept silence ; but at last, being constrained to speak, said : "I named a man, whose discourses I more desire all tyrants might hear, than to be possessor of the greatest riches." When he gave them this obscure answer, they again inquired what he said, and were very importunate ; he at length told them that Solon, an Athenian, formerly visited him, and having viewed all his treasures, made no account of them ; telling, in a word, how every thing had befallen him as Solon had warned him, though his discourse related to all mankind as much as to himself, and espe- cially to those who imagine themselves happy. The pile now was kindled, and the outer parts began to burn ; when Cyrus, informed by the interpreters of what Crcesus had said, relented, considering that being but a man, he was yet going to burn another man alive, who had been no way inferior to himself in prosperity ; and more- over, fearing retribution, and reflecting that nothing human is con- stant, commanded the fire to be instantly extinguished, and Croesus, with those who were about him, to be taken down. But they with all their endeavors were unable to master the fire. Croesus, per- ceiving that Cyrus had altered his resolution, when he saw every man endeavoring to put out the fire, but unable to get the better of it, shouted aloud, invoking Apollo, and besought him, if ever any of his offerings had been agreeable to him, to protect and de- liver him from the present danger. And the Lydians relate, as he with tears invoked the god, on a sudden clouds were seen gather- ing in the air, which before was serene, and that a violent storm burst forth and vehement rain fell and extinguished the flames ; by which Cyrus perceiving that Croesus was beloved by the gods, and a good man, when he had had him taken down from the pile, asked him the following question : " Who persuaded you, Croesus, to invade my territories, and to become my enemy instead of my friend ? " He answered : " O king, I have done this for your good but my own evil fortune, and the god of the Greeks who encour- aged me to make war is the cause of all. For no man is so void of understanding as to prefer war before peace ; for in the latter children bury their fathers ; in the former, fathers bury their chil- 32 HERODOTUS. dren. But, I suppose, it pleased the gods that these things should be so." Cyrus, having set him at liberty, placed him by his own side, and showed him great respect. But CrcEsus, absorbed in thought remained silent ; and presently turning round and beholding the Persians sacking the city of the Lydians, he said, " Does it become me, O king, to tell you what is passing through my mind, or to keep silence ?" Cyrus bade him say with confidence whatever he wished; upon which Croesus asked him, "What is this vast crowd so earnestly employed about?" He answered, "They are sacking your city, and plundering your riches." " Not so," Croesus replied, " they are neither sacking my city, nor plundering my riches, for they are no longer mine ; they are ravaging what belongs to you." The reply of Croesus attracted the attention of Cyrus ; he therefore ordered all the rest to withdraw, and asked Croesus what he thought should be done in the present conjunc- ture. He answered : " Since the gods have made me your ser- vant, I think it my duty to acquaint you, if I perceive anything deserving of remark. The Persians, who are by nature overbear- ing, are poor. If, therefore, you permit them to plunder and possess great riches, you may expect the following results ; whoso acquires the greatest riches, be assured, will be ready to rebel. Therefore, if you approve what I say, adopt the following plan : place some of your body-guard as sentinels at every gate, with orders to take the booty from all those who would go out, and to acquaint them that the tenth must of necessity be consecrated to Jupiter : thus you will not incur the odium of taking away their property ; and they, acknowledging your intention to be just, will readily obey." Cyrus was exceedingly delighted at this sug- gestion, and ordered his guards to carry it out, then turning to Croesus, he said : " Since you are resolved to display the deeds and words of a true king, ask whatever boon you desire on the instant." " Sir," he answered, "the most acceptable favor you can bestow upon me is, to let me send my fetters to the god of the Greeks, whom I have honored more than any other deity, and to ask him, CONQ UEST OF L YDIA BY CYRUS. IZ if it be his custom to deceive those who deserve well of him." Certain Lydians were accordingly sent to Delphi, with orders to lay his fetters at the entrance of the temple, and to ask the god, if he were not ashamed to have encouraged Croesus by his oracles to make war on the Persians assuring him that he would put an ^end to the power of Cyrus, of which war such were the first-fruits (commanding them at these words to show the fetters), and at the same time to ask if it were the custom of the Grecian gods to be ungrateful. When the Lydians arrived at Delphi, and had deliv- ered their message, the Pythian is reported to have made this answer : " The god himself even cannot avoid the decrees of fate ; and Croesus has atoned for the crime of Gyges his ancestor in the fifth generation, who, being one of the body-guard of the Heraclidae, murdered his master, Candaules, and usurped his dig- nity, to which he had no right. But although Apollo was desirous that the fall of Sardis might happen in the time of the sons of Croesus, and not during his reign, yet it was not in his power to avert the fates ; but so far as they allowed he accomplished, and conferred the boon on him ; for he delayed the capture of Sardis for the space of three years. Let Croesus know, therefore, that he was taken prisoner three years later than the fates had ordained ; and in the next place, he came to his relief, when he was upon the point of being burnt alive. Then, as to the prediction of the oracle, Croesus has no right to complain ; for Apollo foretold him that if he made war on the Persians, he would subvert a great empire ; and had he desired to be truly informed, he ought to have sent again to inquire, whether his own or that of Cyrus was meant. But since he neither understood the oracle, nor inquired again, let him lay the blame on himself. And when he last consulted the oracle, he did not understand the answer concerning the mule ; for Cyrus was that mule; inasmuch as he was born of parents of different nations, the mother superior, but the father inferior. For she was a Mede, and daughter of Astyages, king of Media ; but he was a Persian, subject to the Medes. When Croesus heard this reply of the priestess of Apollo, he acknowledged the fault to be his and not the eod's. 34 HERODOTUS. The customs of the Lydians differ Httle from those of the Greeks. They are the first of all nations we know of that intro- duced the art of coining gold and silver ; and they were the first retailers. The Lydians themselves say that the games which are now common to themselves and the Greeks, were invented by them during the reign of Atys, when a great scarcity of corn per- vaded all Lydia. For when they saw famine staring them in the face they sought for remedies, and some devised one thing, some another ; and at that time the games of dice, knucklebones, ball, and all other kinds of games except draughts, were invented, (for the Lydians do not claim the invention of this ancient game,) and hav- ing made these inventions to alleviate the famine, they employed them as follows : they used to play one whole day that they might not be in want of food ; and on the next, they ate and abstained from play. Thus they passed eighteen years ; but when the evil did not abate, but on the contrary, became still more virulent, their king divided the whole people into two parts, and cast lots which should remain and which quit the country, and over that part wdiose lot it should be to stay he appointed himself king ; and over that part which was to emigrate he appointed his own son, whose name was Tyrrhenus. Those to whose lot it fell to leave their country went down to Smyrna, built ships, and having put all their movables which were of use on board, set sail in search of food and land, till having passed by many nations, they reached the Ombrici, where they built towns, and dwell to this day. From being called Lyd- ians, they changed their name to one after the king's son, who led them out ; from him they gave themselves the appellation of Tyrrhenians. CHAPTER V. HISTORY OF THE MEDES TO THE REIGN OF CYRUS. My history hence proceeds to inquire who Cyrus was that over- threw the power of Croesus, and how the Persians became masters of Asia. In which narration I shall follow those Persians, who do not wish to magnify the actions of Cyrus, but to relate the plain truth ; though I am aware that there are three other ways of re- lating Cyrus's history. After the Assyrians had ruled over Upper Asia five hundred and twenty years, the Medes first began to revolt from them ; and they it seems, in their struggle with the Assy- rians for liberty, proved themselves brave men ; and having shaken off the yoke, became free : afterward the other nations also did the same as the Medes. When all throughout the con- tinent were independent, they were again reduced under a des- potic government. There was among the Medes a man famous for wisdom, named Deioces, son of Phraortes. This Deioces, aiming at absolute power, had recourse to the following plan. The Medes were at that time distributed into villages, and Deioces, who was already highly esteemed in his own district, applied himself with great zeal to the exercise of justice ; and this he did, since great lawlessness prevailed throughout the whole of Media, and he knew that injustice and justice are ever at variance. The Medes of the same village, observing his conduct, chose him for their judge ; and he, constantly keeping the sovereign power in view, showed him- self upright and just. By this conduct he acquired no slight praise from his fellow citizens, so much so that the inhabitants of other villages, hearing that Deioces was the only one who judged up- rightly, having before met with unjust sentences, when they heard of him gladly came from all parts to Deioces, in order to submit 36 HERODOTUS. their quarrels to his decision ; and at last they would commit the decision to no one else. In the end, when the number of those who had recourse to him continually increased as men heard of the justice of his decisions, Deioces, seeing the whole devolved upon himself, would no longer occupy the seat where he used to sit to determine differences, and refused to act as judge any more, for it was of no advantage to him to neglect his own affairs, and spend the day in deciding the quarrels of others. Upon this, rapine and lawlessness growing far more frequent throughout the villages than before, the Medes called an assembly and consulted together about the present state of things, but, as I suspect, the partisans of Deioces spoke to the following purpose : " Since it is impossible for us to inhabit the country if we continue in our present condition, let us constitute a king over us, and so the country will be governed by good laws, and we ourselves shall be able to attend to our business, nor be any longer driven from our homes by lawlessness." By some such words they persuaded them to submit to a kingly gov- ernment. Upon their immediately putting the question, whom they should appoint king, Deioces was unanimously preferred and commended : so that at last they agreed that he should be their king. But he required them to build him a palace suitable to the dignity of a king, and give him guards for security of his person. The Medes accordingly did so : and built him a strong and spacious palace in the part of the country that he selected, and permitted him to choose guards for his person out of all the Medes. Being thus possessed of the power, he compelled the Medes to build one city, and having carefully adorned that, to pay less attention to the others. As the Medes obeyed him in this also, he built lofty and strong walls, which now go under the name of Ecbatana,^ one placed in a circle within the other ; and this fortification was so con- trived, that each circle was raised above the other by the height of the battlements only. The situation of the ground, rising by an easy ascent, was very favorable to the design. There were seven circles altogether, the king's palace and the treasury, situated within ' There is a Scriptual account of Ecbatana, in the Apocrypha. Judith i i — 4. HISTORY OF THE MEDES. 37 the innermost of them. The largest of these walls was about equal in circumference to the city of Athens ; the battlements of the first circle were white, of the second black, of the third purple, of the fourth blue, of the fifth bright red. Thus the battlements of all circles were painted with different colors ; but the two last had their battlements plated, the one with silver, the other with gold.' Deioces then built these fortifications for himself, and round his own palace ; and he commanded the rest of the people to fix their habitations round the fortification ; and when all the buildings were completed he, for the first time, established the following regula- tions : that no man should be admitted to the king's presence, but every one should consult him by means of messengers, and, more- over, that it should be accounted indecency for any one to laugh or spit before him. He established such ceremony about his own person, in order that those who were brought up with him, and of no meaner family, nor inferior to him in manly qualities, might not, when they saw him, grieve and conspire against him ; but that he might appear to be of a different nature to those who did not see him. When he had established these regulations, and settled him- self in the tyranny, he was very severe in the distribution of justice. And the parties contending were obliged to send him their case in writing. All other things were regulated by him : so that, if he received information that any man had injured another, he would send for him, and punish him in proportion to his offence. For this purpose he had spies and eaves-droppers in every part of his dominions. Now Deioces collected the Medes into one nation, and ruled over it. The followinor are the tribes of the Medes, the Bus^, Para- taceni, Struchates, Arizanti, Budii, and the Magi. Deioces had a son, Phraortes, who, when his father died, after a reign of fifty- three years, succeeded him in the kingdom ; but having so suc- ceeded, he was not content to rule over the Medes only, but, made war on the Persians, and reduced them under the dominion of the ' ]\Iajor Robinson states that the seven colors described by Herodotus, are those employed by the Orientals, to denote the seven planetary bodies. 38 HERODOTUS. Medes. And afterward being- master of these two nations, both of them powerful, he subdued Asia, attacking one nation after another ; till at last he invaded the Assyrians, who inhabited the city of Nineveh, and having made war on them, perished with the greater part of his army, after he had reigned twenty-two years. When Phraortes was dead, Cyaxares his son, grandson of Deioces, succeeded him. He is said to have been more warlike ASSYRIAN WARRIORS IN A CHARIOT, than his ancestors. He was the first to divide the people of Asia into cohorts, and then into spearmen, archers, and cavalry ; where- as before they had been confusedly mixed together. It was he that fought with the Lydians, when the day was turned into night, as they were fighting ; and "who subjected the whole of Asia above the river Halys. He assembled the forces of all his subjects, and marched against Nineveh to avenge his father, and destroy that city. He took Nineveh (how they took it, I will relate in another HIS TOR Y OF THE MEDES. 39 work),^ and reduced the Assyrians into subjection, with the excep- tion of the Babylonian district. Having accomplished these things, Cyaxares died, after a reign of forty years. Astyages the son of Cyaxares succeeded him in the kingdom. He had a daughter, to whom he gave the name of Mandane. When she arrived at a marriageable age he gave her to no one of the Medes who was worthy of her, but to a Persian, named Cam- byses, whom he found descended of a good family, and of a peace- ful disposition, deeming him far superior to a Mede of moderate rank. In the first year after Mandane was married to Cambyses, Astyages saw a vision : it appeared to him that a vine sprang SPHINX FROM S. W. PALACE (nIMROUD). from his daughter, and spread over all Asia. Having seen this and communicated it to the interpreters of dreams, he sent to Persia for his daughter, and her son the infant Cyrus, and upon her arrival he put her under a guard, resolving to destroy her child, for the Magian interpreters had signified to him from his vision, that the issue of his daughter would reign in his stead. Astyages therefore, sent for Harpagus, a kinsman of his, and the most faith- ful of all the Medes, and the manager of all his affairs, and said to * Several passages of our author seem to prove that Herodotus wrote other histories than those which have come down to us. Elsewhere in this book he speaks of his Assyrian history ; and the second of the Libyan. 40 HERODOTUS. him : " Harpagus, on no account fail to perform the business I now charge you with ; nor expose me to danger by deceiving me ; nor, by preferring another, draw ruin upon thy own head. Take the child of Mandane carry him to your own house and kill him, and afterward bury him in whatever way you think fit." Harpagus answered : " O king, you have never yet observed any ingratitude in me, and I shall take care never to offend you for the future. If it is your pleasure that this thing should be done, it is fitting that I readily obey you." Harpagus, having given this answer, when the child had been put into his hands, adorned as if for death, re- turned home weeping ; and upon his arrival he told his wife all that Astyages had said. She asked him, " What then do you pur- pose to do ? " He answered : " Not as Astyages has commanded ; though he should be yet more outrageous and mad than he is, I will not comply with his wishes, nor will I submit to him by performing such a murder : and for many reasons I will not murder the child ; both because he is my own relation, and because Astyages is old, and has no male offspring ; besides, if, after his death, the sov- ereignty should devolve on his daughter, whose son he would now murder by my means, what else remains for me but the greatest danger ? It is necessary, however, for my safety that the child should die, but as necessary that one of Astyages' people should be the executioner, and not one of mine." He accordingly sent a messenger for one of Astyages' herdsmen, who he knew grazed his cattle on pastures most convenient for the purpose, and on mountains abounding with wild beasts. His name was Mitradates, and he had married his fellow-servant. The foot of the mountains at which this herdsman grazed his catde, lies to the north of Ecba- tana, toward the Euxine Sea. For the Medic territory on this side toward the Saspires, is very mountainous, lofty, and covered with forests ; while all the rest of Media is level. When the herdsman, summoned in great haste, arrived, Harpagus addressed him as follows : " Astyages bids thee take this infant, and' expose him on the bleakest part of the mountains, that he may speedily perish ; and has charged me to add, that if thou by any means shouldst HISTORY OF THE MEDES. 41 save the child, thou shalt die by the most cruel death ; and I am appointed to see the child exposed." The herdsman, having- heard these words, took the infant, returned by the same way, and reached his cottage. It so happened that an infant of his own lay dead at home. When he returned and came up to his wife she asked him why Harpagus had sent for him in such haste. " Wife," said he, " when I reached the city, I saw and heard what I wish I had never seen, nor had ever befallen our masters. The whole house of Harpagus was filled with lamentations ; I, greatly alarmed, went in, and as soon as I entered, I saw an infant lying before me, panting and crying, dressed in gold and a robe of various colors. Harpagus bade me to take up the child directly, and carry him away, and expose him in the part of the mountain most frequented by wild beasts ; telling me at the same time, that it was Astyages who imposed this task on me, and threatening the severest punish- ment if I should fail to do it. I took up the infant and carried him away, supposing him to belong to one of the servants ; for I had then no suspicion whence he came ; though I was astonished at seeing him dressed in gold and fine apparel ; and also at the sor- row which evidently prevailed in the house of Harpagus. But soon after, on my way home, I learnt the whole truth, from a ser- vant who accompanied me out of the city, and delivered the child into my hands ; that he was born of Mandane, Astyages' daughter, and of Cambyses son of Cyrus, and that Astyages had commanded him to be put to death." As the herdsman uttered these last words, he uncovered the child, and showed it to his wife ; she seeing that the child was large and of a beautiful form, embraced the knees of her husband, and with tears besought him by no means to expose it. He said that it was impossible to do otherwise ; for spies would come from Harpagus to see the thing done, and he must himself die the most cruel death if he should fail to do it. '* Since, then said she I can- not persuade you not to expose the child, do this : take our own dead child and expose it, and let us bring up the son of Astyages' daughter as our own. Thus you will neither be convicted of 42 HERODOTUS. havine wronofed our masters, nor shall we have consulted ill for our own interests ; for the child that is dead will have a royal burial, and the one that survives will not be deprived of life." The herdsman, happy at the suggestion of his wife, gave to her the child that he had brought for the purpose of putting to death, and his own, which was dead, he put into the basket in which he had brought the other, and having dressed it in all the finery of the other child, exposed it in the most desolate part of the mountains. On the third day after the infant had been exposed, the herdsman, having left one of his assistants as a guard, went to the city, and arriving at the house of Harpagus, told him he was ready to show the dead body of the infant. Harpagus accordingly sent some of the most trusty of his guards, and by that means saw the body, and buried the herdsman's child. The other, who afterwards had the name of Cyrus, was brought up by the herdsman's wife, who gave him some other name, and not that of Cyrus. When the child attained the age of ten years, the following circumstance discovered him. He was playing in the village in which the ox-stalls were, with boys of his own age in the road. The boys had chosen this reputed son of the herdsman for their king. He in sport appointed some of them to build houses, and others to be his body-guards ; one of them to be the king's eye, and to another he o-ave the office of brinorinof messages to him, assigning to each his proper duty. One of these boys who was playing with him, son of Artembares, a man of rank among the Medes, refused to obey the orders of Cyrus ; he therefore com- manded the others to seize him, and when they obeyed, Cyrus scourged the boy very severely. But the boy, as soon as he was let loose, considering that he had been treated with great indig- nity, took it very much to heart, and hastening to the city, com- plained to his father of the treatment he had met with from the son of Astyages' herdsman. Artembares, in a transport of anger, went immediately to Astyages, and taking his son with him, said that he suffered treatment that was not to be borne, adding, " Thus, O king, are we insulted by your slave, the son of a herds- HISTORY OF THE MEDES. 43 man ; " showing the boy's shoulders. Astyages having heard and seen what was done, resolving, on account of the rank of Artem- bares, to avenge the indignity offered to the youth, sent for the herdsman and his son. When both came into his presence, Asty- ages, looking upon Cyrus, said : " Have you, who are the son of such a man as this, dared to treat the son of one of the principal persons in my kingdom with such indignity ? " But Cyrus answered: " Sir, I treated him as I did with justice. For the boys of our village, of whom he was one, in their play made me their king, because I appeared to them the most fitted for that office. All the other boys performed what they were ordered, but he refused to obey and paid no attention to my commands, so he was punished : if I deserve punishment for this here I am ready to submit to it." As the boy spoke Astyages recognised him ; the character of his face appeared like his own, and his answer more free than accorded with his condition ; the time also of the expos- ure seemed to agree with the age of the boy. Alarmed at this discovery, he was for some time speechless ; and at last, having with difficulty recovered himself (being desirous of sending Artem- bares away in order that he might examine the herdsman in priv- ate), he said: " Artembares, I will take care that neither you nor your son shall have any cause of complaint," and dismissed him ; but the servants, at the command of Astyages, conducted Cyrus into an inner room ; and when the herdsman remained alone, he asked him in the absence of witnesses, whence he had the boy, and from whose hands he received him ? He affirmed that the boy w^as his own son, and that the mother who bore him w^as still livinsf with him. Astyages told him, that he did not consult his own safety in wishing to be put to the torture ; and as he said this he made a signal to his guards to seize him. The man, when brought to the torture, discovered the whole matter, speaking the truth through- out ; and concluded with prayers and entreaties for pardon. Asty- ages, when the herdsman had confessed the truth, did not concern himself much about him afterwards ; but attaching great blame to Harpagus, he ordered his guards to summon him ; and when 44 HERODOTUS. Astyages asked, " Harpagus, by what kind of death did you dis- pose of the child which I dehvered to you, born of my daughter? " Harpagus, seeing the herdsman present, had not recourse to false- hood, lest he should be detected and convicted, but said, " O king, when I had received the infant, I carefully considered how I could act according to your wish and command, and, without offending you, I might be free from the crime of murder both in your daughter's sight and in yours. I therefore sent for this herdsman and gave him the child, saying that you had commanded him to put it to death, and in saying this I did not speak falsely, for such indeed were your orders. In this manner I delivered the infant to him, charging him to place it in some desert mountain, and to stay and watch till the child was dead, threatening the severest punish- ment if he should not fully carry out these injunctions. When he had executed these orders, and the child was dead, I sent some of the most trusty of my servants, and by means of them beheld the body, and buried it. This is the whole truth, O king, and such was the fate of the child." Thus Harpagus told the real truth ; but Astyages, dissembling the anger which he felt on account of what had been done, again related to Harpagus the whole matter as he had heard it from the herdsman ; and afterwards, when he had repeated it throughout, he ended by saying that the child was alive and all was welL " For," he added, " I suffered much on account of what had been done regarding this child, and could not easily bear the reproaches of my daughter; therefore, since fortune has taken a more favor- able turn, do you, in the first place, send your own son to accom- pany the boy I have recovered ; and, in the next place, (for I pro- pose to offer a sacrifice for the preservation of the child to the gods, to whom that honor is due), do you be with me at supper." Harpagus on hearing these words, when he had paid his homage, and had congratulated himself that his fault had turned to so good account, and that he was invited to the feast under such auspicious circumstances, went to his own home. And as soon as he entered he sent his only son, who was about thirteen years of age, and HISTORY OF THE MEDES. 45 bade him go to Astyages, and do whatever he should command ; and then, being full of joy, he told his wife what had happened. But when the son of Harpagus arrived, having slain him and cut him into joints, Astyages roasted some parts of his flesh and boiled others, and having had them well dressed, kept them in readiness. At the appointed hour, when the other guests and Harpagus were come, tables full of mutton were placed before the rest and Astyao-es himself, but before Harpagus all the body of his son, except the head, the hands and the feet ; these were laid apart in a basket covered over. When Harpagus seemed to have eaten enouo"h, Astyages asked him if he was pleased with the entertainment ; and when Harpagus replied that he was highly delighted, the officers appointed for that purpose brought him the head of his son covered up with the hands and feet, and standing before Harpagus, the bade him uncover the basket and take what he chose. Har- pagus doing as they desired, and uncovering the basket, saw the re- mains of his son's body, but he expressed no alarm at the sight, and retained his presence of mind ; whereupon Astyages asked him if he knew of what animal he had been eatine. He said he knew very well, and that whatever a king did was agreeable to him. After he had given this answer he gathered the remains of the flesh and went home, purposing, as I conjecture, to collect all that he could and bury it. Astyages thus punished Harpagus; and then, considering what he should do with Cyrus, summoned the Magi, who had formerly interpreted his dream. When they were come, Astyages asked them in what way they had interpreted his vision. They gave the same answer as before ; and said that if the boy was still alive, and had not already died, he must of necessity be king. He an- swered them as follows : " The boy still survives, and while living in the country, the boys of the village made him king, and he has already performed all such things as kings really do, for he has appointed guards, door-keepers, messengers, and all other things in like manner ; and now I desire to know to what do these things appear to you to tend." The Magi answered, " If the boy be living 46 HERODOTUS. and has already been a king by no settled plan, you may take courao-e on his account and make your mind easy, for he will not reio'n a second time. For some of our predictions terminate in triflinor results ; and dreams, and things like them, are fulfilled by slight events." To this Astyages replied : " I too, O Magi, am very much of the same opinion, that since the child has been named king, the dream is accomplished, and that the boy is no lono-er an object of alarm to me ; yet consider well, and carefully weicrh what will be the safest course for my family and yourselves." The Magi answered : " O king, it is of great importance to us that your empire should be firmly established, for otherwise it is alien- ated, passing over to this boy, who is a Persian, and we, who are Medes, shall be enslaved by Persians, and held in no account as being foreigners ; whereas w^hile you, who are of our own country, are king, we have a share in the government, and enjoy great honors at your hands. Thus, then, we must on every account provide for your safety and that of your government ; and now if we saw any thing to occasion alarm we should tell you of it before- hand ; but now, since the dream has issued in a trifling event, we ourselves take courage, and advise you to do the like, and to send the boy out of your sight to his parents in Persia." When Asty- ages heard this he w^as delighted, and, calling for Cyrus, said to him : " Child, I have been unjust to you, by reason of a vain dream ; but you survive by your own destin}'. Now go in happiness to Persia, and I will send an escort to attend you ; when you arrive there you will find a father and mother very different from the herdsman Mitradates and his wife." Astyages, thus sent Cyrus away, and, upon his arrival at the house of Cambyses, his parents received him w^ith the greatest ten- derness and joy, having been assured that he had died immediately after his birth ; and they inquired of him by what means his life had been preserved. He told them, that till that time he believed he was the son of Astyages' herdsman. He related that he had been brought up by the herdsman's wife ; and he went on con- stantly praising her. HISTORY OF THE MEDES. 47 When Cyrus had reached man's estate, and proved the most manly and beloved of his equals in age, Harpagus paid great court to him, sending him presents, from his desire to be avenged on Astyages ; for he did not see that he himself, who was but a private man, could be able to take vengence on Asty- ages ; perceiving, therefore, that Cyrus was growing up to be his avenger, he contracted a friendship with him, comparing the suf- ferings of Cyrus with his own. And before this he had made the following preparations. Seeing Astyages severe in his treatment of the Medes, Harpagus holding intercourse with the chief persons EGYPTIAN HARE. of the nation, one after another, persuaded them that they ought to place him at their head, and depose Astyages. When he had effected his purpose, and all was ready, Harpagus, wishing to dis- cover his designs to Cyrus, who resided in Persia, and having no other way left, because the roads were all guarded, contrived the following artifice. Having cunningly contrived a hare, by opening its belly, and tearing off none of the hair, he put a letter, containing what he thought necessary to write, into the body ; and having sewed up the belly of the hare, he gave it with some nets to the most trusty of his servants, dressed as a hunter, and sent him to 48 HERODOTUS. Persia ; having by word of moutli commanded him to bid Cyrus, as he gave him the hare, to open it with liis own hand, and not to suffer any one to be present when he did so. This was accord- ingly done, and Cyrus having received the hare, opened it ; and found the letter which was in it, to the following purport : " Son of Cambyses, seeing the gods watch over you, (for otherwise you could never have arrived at your present fortune), do you now avenge yourself on your murderer Astyag^s ; for as far as regards his purpose you are long since dead, but by the care of the gods and of me you survive. I suppose you have been long since in- formed both what was done regarding yourself, and what I suffered at the hands of Astyages, because I did not put you to death, but gave you to the herdsman. Then, if you will follow my counsel, you shall rule over the whole territory that Astyages now governs. Persuade the Persians to revolt, and invade Media ; and whether I or any other illustrious Mede be appointed to command the army opposed to you, every thing will turn out as you wisli ; for they, on the first onset, having revolted from him, and siding with you, will endeavor to depose him. Since, then, every thing is ready here, do as I advise, and do it quickly." Cyrus, upon receiving this intelligence, began to consider by what measures he could best persuade the Persians to revolt. Havinof written such a letter as he thou one who passed through it. He therefore opened the sepulchre, and instead of money, found only the body, and these words writ- ten : Hadst thou not been insatiably covetous, and greedy of THE MOST SORDID GAIN, THOU WOULDEST NOT HAVE OPENED THE CHAMBERS OF THE DEAD. Cyrus made war against the son of this queen, who bore the name of his father Labynetus, and had the empire of Assyria. Now when the great king leads his army in person, he carries with him from home well prepared provisions and cattle ; and he takes with him water from the river Choaspes, which flows past Susa, of which alone, the king drinks. A great number of four-wheeled carriages drawn by mules carry the water of this river, after it has been boiled in silver vessels, and follow him from place to place wherever he marches. Cyrus, in his march against Babylon, ar- rived at the river Gyndes, whose fountains are in the Matianian mountains, and which flows through the land of the Dardanians, and falls into another river, the Tigris ; the latter, flowing by the city of Opis, discharges itself into the Red Sea. When Cyrus was endeavoring to cross this river Gyndes, which can be passed only in boats, one of the sacred white horses through wantonness plunged into the stream, and attempted to swim over, but the stream having carried him away and drowned him, Cyrus was much enraged with the river for this affront, and threatened to make his stream so weak, that henceforth women should easily cross it without wettinof their knees. After this menace, deferring his expedition against Babylon, he divided his army into two parts ; and marked out by lines one hundred and eighty channels, on each side of the river, diverging every way ; then having dis- tributed his army, he commanded them to dig. His design was indeed executed by the great numbers he employed ; but they THE CONQ UEST OF ASS YRIA. 7 1 spent the whole summer in the work. When Cyrus had avenged himself on the river Gyndes, by distributing it into three hundred and sixty channels, and the second spring began to shine, he then advanced against Babylon. But the Babylonians, having taken the field, awaited his coming ; and when he had advanced near the city, the Babylonians gave battle, and, being defeated, were shut up in the city. But as they had been long aware of the restless spirit of Cyrus, and saw that he attacked all nations alike, they had laid up provisions for many years ; and therefore were under no apprehensions about a siege. On the other hand, Cyrus found himself in difficulty, since much time had elapsed, and his affairs were not at all advanced. Whether therefore some one else made the suggestion to him in his perplexity, or whether he him- self devised the plan, he had recourse to the following stratagem. Having stationed the bulk of his army near the passage of the river where it enters Babylon, and again having stationed another divi- sion beyond the city, where the river makes its exit, he gave orders to his forces to enter the city as soon as they should see the stream fordable. Havin«- thus stationed his forces, and pfiven these directions, he himself marched away with the ineffective part of his army ; and coming to the lake, Cyrus did the same with respect to the river and the lake as the queen of the Babylonians had done. For having diverted the river, by means of a canal, into the lake, which was before a swamp, he made the ancient channel fordable by the sinking of the river. When this took place, the Persians who were appointed to that purpose close to the stream of the river, which had now subsided to about the middle of a man's thigh, entered Babylon by this passage. If, however, the Babylo- nians had been aware of it beforehand, or had known what Cyrus was about, they would not have suffered the Persians to enter the city, but would have utterly destroyed them ; for having shut all the little gates that lead down to the river, and mounting the walls that extend along the banks of the river, they would have caught them as in a net ; whereas the Persians came upon them by sur- prise. It is related by the people who inhabited this city, that 72 HERODOTUS. on account of its great extent, when they who were at the extremi- ties were taken, those of the Babylonians who inhabited the centre knew nothing of the capture (for it happened to be a festival) but they were dancing at the time, and enjoying themselves, till they received certain information of the truth. Thus was Babylon taken for the first time/ How great was the power of the Babylonians, I can prove by many other circumstances, and especially by the following. The whole territory over which the great king reigns, is divided into districts for the purpose of furnishing subsistence for him and his army, in addition to the usual tribute ; of the twelve months in the year, the Babylonian territory provides him with subsistence for four, and all the rest of Asia for the remaining eight ; so that the territory of Assyria amounts to a third part of the power of all Asia, and the government of this region, which the Persians call a satrapy, is remunerative ; since it yielded a full artabe of silver every day to Tritaschmes son of Artabazus, who held this district from the king : the artabe is a Persian measure, containing three Attic choenices more than the Attic medimnus [or about twelve and a half gallons]. And he had a private stud of horses, in ad- dition to those used in war, of eight hundred stallions, and sixteen thousand mares. He kept, too, such a number of Indian dogs, that four considerable towns in the plain were exempted from all other taxes and appointed to find food for the dogs. Such were the ad- vantages accruing to the governor of Babylon. The land of As- syria is but little watered by rain, only enough in fact to nourish the root of the corn ; the stalk grows up, and the grain comes to maturity only by being irrigated from the river, not, as in Egypt, by the river overflowing the fields, but by the hand and by engines. The Babylonian territory, like Egypt, is intersected by canals ; and the largest of these is navigable, stretching in the direction of the winter sunrise^ ; and it extends from the Euphrates to another river, the Tigris, on w^hich the city of Nineveh stood. This ' It was again taken by Darius ; see end of Llook III. "That is, southeast. THE CONQUEST OF ASSYRIA. 73 is, of all lands with which we are acquainted, by far the best for the growth of corn : but it does not carry produce trees of any kind, either the fig, or the vine, or the olive ; yet it is so fruitful in the produce of corn, that it yields continually two hundred-fold, and when it produces its best, it yields even three hundred-fold. The blades of wheat and barley grow there to fully four fingers (three inches) in breadth ; and though I well know to what a height millet and sesama grow, I shall not mention it ; for I am well as- sured, that to those who have never been in the Babylonian country, what has been said concerning its productions will appear to many incredible. They use no other oil than such as is drawn from ser,:ima. They have palm-trees growing all over the plain ; most of these bear fruit from which they make bread, wine, and honey. They also tie the fruit of that which the Greeks call the male palm, about those trees that bear dates, in order that the fly entering the date may ripen it, lest otherwise the fruit may fall be- fore maturity ; for the male palms have flies in the fruit, just like wild fie-trees. The most wonderful thing of all, next to the city itself, is what I am now going to describe : their vessels that sail down the river to Babylon are circular, and made of leather. For when they have cut the ribs out of willows that grow in Armenia above Babylon, they cover them with hides extended on the outside, by way of a bottom; not making any distinction in the stern, nor contracting the prow, but making them circular like a buckler ; then having lined this vessel throughout with reeds, they sufler it to be carried down by the river freighted with merchandise, chiefly casks of palm-wine. The vessel is steered by two spars, held by two men standing upright, one of whom draws his spar in and the other thrusts his out. Some of these vessels are made very large, and others of a smaller size ; but the largest of them carry a cargo of five thousand talents [about one hundred and thirty-five tons]. Every vessel has a live ass on board, and the larger ones more. For after they arrive at Babylon, and have disposed of their freight, they sell the ribs of the boat and all the reeds by public auction ; 74 HERODOTUS. then having piled the skins on the asses, they return by land to Armenia, for it is not possible by any means to sail up the river because of the rapidity of the current : and for this reason they make their vessels of skins and not of wood, and upon their return to Armenia with their asses, they construct other vessels in the same manner. For their dress, they wear a linen tunic that reaches down to the feet ; over this they put another garment of wool, and over all a short white cloak ; they have sandals peculiar to the country, very much like the Boeotian clogs. They wear long hair, binding their heads with turbans, and anoint the whole body with perfumes. Every man has a seal, and a staff curiously wrought ; and on every staff is carved either an apple, a rose, a lily, an eagle, or something of the kind ; for it is not allowable to wear a stick without a device. Many curious customs prevail amongst them. This, in my opinion, is the wisest, which I hear the Venetians, of Illyria, also practise. Once a year, in every village, whatever maidens are of a marriageable age, they collect together and bring in a body to one place ; around them gathers a crowd of men. Then a crier having made them stand up one by one, offers them for sale, be- einninsf with the most beautiful ; and when she has been sold for a large sum, he puts up another who is next in beauty. They are sold on condition that they shall be married. Such men among the Babylonians as are rich and desirous of marrying, bid against one another, and purchase the handsomest. But such of the lower classes as are desirous of marrying, do not require a beautiful form, but are willing to take the plainer damsels wnth a sum of money. So when the crier has finished selling the handsomest of the maid- ens, he makes the ugliest stand up, or one that is a cripple, and puts her up to auction, for the person who will marry her with the smallest sum, until she is knocked down to the man who offers to take the least. This money is that obtained from the sale of the handsome maidens ; so that the beautiful ones portion out the ugly and the crippled. A father is not allowed to give his daughter in marriage to whom he pleases, nor can a purchaser carry off a THE CONQ UES T OF ASS YRIA. 7 5 maiden without security ; but he is first obliged to give security that he will certainly marry her, and then he may take her away. If they do not agree, a law has been enacted that the money shall be repaid. It is also lawful for any one who pleases to come from another village and purchase. They have also this other custom, second only to the former in wisdom. They bring their sick to the market-place, for they have no physicians ; then those who pass by the sick person confer with him about the disease, to discover whether they have themselves been afflicted with the same disease, or have seen others so afflicted. They then advise him to have recourse to the same treatment as that by which they escaped a similar disease, or have known to cure others. And no one passes by a sick person in silence, without inquiring into the nature of his distemper. They embalm their dead in honey, and their funeral lamentations are like those of the Egyptians. There are three tribes among them that eat nothing but fish ; these, when they have taken and dried them in the sun, they treat in the following manner : they put them into a mortar, and having pounded them with a pestle, sift them through a fine cloth ; then, whoever pleases, kneads them into a cake, or bakes them like bread. When Cyrus had conquered this nation, he was anxious to re- duce the Massagetse to subjection. This nation is said to be both powerful and valiant, dwelling toward the east and the rising sun beyond the river Araxes, over against the Issedonians ; there are some who say that this nation is Scythian. The Araxes is reported by some persons to be greater, by others less, than the Ister ; they say that there are many islands in it, some nearly equal in size to Lesbos ; and that in them are men, who during the summer feed upon all manner of roots, which they dig out of the ground ; and that they store up for food ripe fruits which they find on the trees, and feed upon these during the winter. They add, that they have discovered other trees that produce fruit of a peculiar kind, which the inhabitants, when they meet together in companies, and have lighted a fire, throw on it, as they sit around in a circle ; and that, inhaling the fumes of the burning fruit that has been thrown on, 7 b HERODOTUS. they become intoxicated by the odor, just as the Greeks do by wine ; and that the more fruit is thrown on, the more intoxicated they become, until they rise up to dance and betake themselves to sino-in<>-. The river Araxes flows from the Matienian mountains, whence also springs the river Gyndes, which Cyrus distributed into the three hundred and sixty trenches ; and it gushes out from forty springs, all of which, except one, discharge themselves into fens and swamps, in which it is said men live who feed on raw fish, and clothe themselves in the skins of sea-calves ; but the one stream of the Araxes flows through an unobstructed channel into the Cas- pian Sea. The Caspian is a sea by itself, having no communication with any other sea ; for the whole of that which the Greeks navi- gate, and that beyond the Pillars, called the Atlantic, and the Red Sea, are all one. But the Caspian is a separate seaof itself ; being in length a fifteen-days' voyage for a rowing boat ; and in breadth, where it is widest, an eight-days' voyage. On the western shore of this sea stretches the Caucasus, which is in extent the largest, and in height the loftiest, of all mountains ; it contains within itself many various nations of men, who for the most part live upon the produce of wild fruit-trees. In this country, it is said, there are trees which produce leaves of such a nature, that by rubbing them and mixing them with water the people paint figures on their gar- ments ; these figures do not wash out, but grow old with the wool, as if they had been woven in from the first. East of the Caspian is a plain in extent unbounded in the prospect. A great portion of this extensive plain is inhabited by the Massagetae, against w4iom Cyrus resolved to make war ; for the motives that urged and incited him to this enterprise were many and powerful : first of all his birth, which he thought was something more than human ; and secondly, the good fortune which had attended him in his wars ; for wherever Cyrus directed his arms, it was impossible for that nation to escape. A woman whose husband was dead, was c^ueen of the Massa- getae ; her name was Tomyris ; and Cyrus sent ambassadors un- der pretence of wooing her, and made her an offer of marriage. THE CONQUEST OF ASSYRIA. 7/ But Tomyris, being aware that he was not wooing her, but the kingdom of the Massagetse, forbade their approach. Upon this Cy- rus, perceiving his artifice ineffectual, marched to the Araxes, and openly prepared to make war on the Massagetse, by throwing bridges over the river, and building turrets on the boats which carried over his army. While he was employed in this work Tomyris sent a herald to him vyith this message: ''Kino- of the Medes, desist from your great exertions ; for you cannot know if they will terminate to your advantage ; and having desisted, reio-n over your own dominions, and bear to see me governing what is mine. But if you will not attend to my advice, and prefer every thing before peace ; in a word, if you are very anxious to make trial of the Massageta;, toil no longer in throwing a bridge over the river ; but do you cross over to our side, while we retire three days' march from the river ; or if you had rather receive us on your side, do you the like." When Cyrus heard this proposal, he called a council of the principal Persians, laid the matter before them, and demanded their opinion as to what he should do : they unanimously advised him to let Tomyris pass with her army into his territory. But Croesus the Lydian, who was present and dis- approved this advice, delivered a contrary opinion to that which was put forward, and said : " O king, I assured you long ago, that since Jupiter delivered me into )our hands, I would to the utmost of my power avert whatever misfortune I should see impending over your house ; and my own calamities,^ sad as they are, have been lessons to me. If }ou think yourself immortal, and that you command an army that is so too, it is needless for me to make known to you my opinion. But if you know that you too are a man, and that you command such as are men, learn this first of all, that there is a wheel in human affairs, which, continually revolving, does not suffer the same persons to be always successful. My opinion touching the matter before us is wholly at variance with that already given. For if we shall receive the enemy into this country, there is danger that if you are defeated, you will lose, be- * These words " pathemata matliemata " seem to have been a proverb in the Greek. 78 HERODOTUS. sides, your whole empire ; for it is plain that if the Massaget^e are victorious, they will not flee home again, but will march upon your territories : and if you are victorious, your victory is not so com- plete as if, having crossed over into their territory, you should con- quer the Massagetae and put them to flight ; for then you can march directly into the dominions of Tomyris. It is a disgrace too that Cyrus the son of Cambyses should give way and retreat be- fore a w^oman. My opinion, therefore, is, that you should pass over and advance as far as they retire ; and then, by the following stratagem, endeavor to get the better of them. I hear the Massagetse are unacquainted with the Persian luxuries, and are unused to the comforts of life. Suppose then that you cut up and dress an abundance of cattle, and lay out a feast in our camp for these men ; and besides, bowls of unmixed wine without stint ; then leave the weakest part of your army behind, while the rest return again toward the river; for the Massagetse, if I mistake not, when they see so much excellent fare, will turn to immediately, and after that there remains for us the display of mighty achievements." Cyrus approved the suggestions of Croesus and bade Tomyris retire, as he would cross over to her. She accordingly retired, as she had promised. Cyrus placed Croesus in the hands of his son Cambyses, to whom he also intrusted the kingdom, and having strictly charged him to honor Croesus, and treat him well in case his inroad on the Massagetae should fail, sent them back to Persia and crossed the river with his army. When he had passed the Araxes, and night came on, he saw a vision, as he was sleeping in the country of the Massagetze. He fancied that he saw the eldest son of Hystaspes with wings on his shoulders ; and that with one of these he overshadowed Asia, and with the other Europe. Now Darius, who was then about twenty years of age, was the eldest son of Hystaspes, son of Arsames, one of the Achaemenides ; and he had been left in Persia, for he had not yet attained the age of military service. When Cyrus awoke he con- sidered his dream with attention ; and as it seemed to him of great moment, he summoned Hystaspes, and taking him aside, said : THE CONQ UES T OF ASS YRIA. 7 9 " Hystaspes, your son has been detected plotting- against me and mjy empire ; and I will show )'ou how I know it for a certainty. The gods watch over me and forewarn me of every thing that is about to befall me. Now, last night, as I was sleeping, I saw the eldest of your sons with wings on his shoulders, and with one of these he overshadowed Asia, and Europe with the other ; from this vision, it cannot be otherwise than that your son is formino- designs against me ; do you therefore go back to Persia with all speed, and take care, that when I have conquered these people and return home, you bring your son before me to be examined." Cyrus spoke thus under a persuasion that Darius was plotting against him ; but the deity forewarned him that he himself would die in that very expedition, and that his kingdom would devolve on Darius. Hystaspes, however, answered in these words : " God forbid, O king, that a Persian should be born who would plot against you ! But if any such there be, may sudden destruction overtake him, for you have made the Persians free instead of being slaves, and instead of being ruled over by others to rule over all ; but if any vision informs you that my son is forming any plot against you, I freely surrender him to you to deal with as you please." And Hystaspes repassed the Araxes and went to Persia, for the purpose of keeping his son Darius in custody for Cyrus. Cyrus having advanced one day's march from the Araxes, pro- ceeded to act accordinor to the sufjorestion of Croesus. After this, when Cyrus and the effective part of the Persian army had marched back to the Araxes, leaving the ineffective part behind, a third division of the army of the Massagetae attacked those of Cyrus' forces that had been left behind, and, after some resistance, put them to death. Then, seeing the feast laid out, as soon as they had overcome their enemies they lay down and feasted ; and being filled with food and wine, fell asleep. Then the Persians attacked them, and put many of them to death, and took a still greater number prisoners, among them the son of Queen Tomyris, who commanded the Massagetae, and whose name was Spargapises. When she heard what had befallen her army and her son, she sent So HERODOTUS. a herald to Cyrus with the following message : " Cyrus, insatiate with blood, be not elated with what has now happened, that by the fruit of the vine, with which ye yourselves, when filled with it, so rave, that when it descends into your bodies, evil words float on your lips ; be not elated, that by such a poison you have deceived and conquered my son, instead of by prowess in battle. But take the good advice that I offer you. Restore my son ; depart out of this country unpunished for having insolently disgraced a third division of the army of the Massagetse. But if you will not do this, I swear by the sun, the Lord of the Massagetae, that, insatiable as you are, I will glut you with blood." Cyrus, however, paid no at- tention to this message ; but Spargapises, the son of Queen SEPULCHRAL VASES. Tomyris, as soon as he recovered from the effects of the wine, and 'perceived in what a plight he was, begged of Cyrus that he might be freed from his fetters ; and as soon as he was set free, and found his hands at liberty, he put himself to death. But Tomyris, finding Cyrus did not listen to her, assembled all her forces, and enea^ed with him. I think that this battle was the most obstinate that was ever fought between barbarians. First of all, they stood at a distance and used their bows; afterward, when they had emptied their quivers, they engaged in close fight with their swords and spears, and thus they continued fighting for a long time, and neither was willing to give way; but at length the Massagetse got THE CONQUEST OF ASSYRIA. 8 1 the better, and the greater part of the Persian army was cut in pieces on the spot, and Cyrus himself was killed, after he had reigned twenty-nine years. Tomyris filled a skin with human blood, sought for the body of Cyrus among the slain of the Persians, and, thrust the head into the skin, and insulting the dead body, said : " Thou hast indeed ruined me though alive and victorious in battle, since thou hast taken my son by stratagem ; but I will now glut thee with blood, as I threatened." Of the many accounts given of the end of Cyrus, this appears to me most worthy of credit. The Massagetse resemble the Scythians in their dress and mode of living ; they have both horse and foot bow-men, and javelin- men, who are accustomed to carry battle-axes : they use gold and bronze for every thing ; for in whatever concerns spears, and arrow-points, and battle-axes, they use bronze ; but the head, and belts, and shoulder-pieces, are ornamented with gold. In like man- ner with regard to the chest of horses, they put on breastplates of bronze ; but the bridle-bit and cheek-pieces are ornamented with gold. They make no use of silver or iron, for neither of those metals are found in their country, but they have bronze and gold in abundance. Their manners are as follows : when a man has attained a great age, all his kinsmen meet, and sacrifice him, to- gether with cattle of several kinds ; and when they have boiled the flesh, they feast on it. This death they account the most happy ; but they do not eat the bodies of those who die of disease ; but bury them in the earth, and think it a great misfortune that they did not reach the age to be sacrificed. They sow nothing, but live on cattle, and fish which the river Araxes yields in abundance, and they are drinkers of milk. They worship the sun only of all the gods, and sacrifice horses to him ; and they assign as the reason of this custom that they think it right to offer the swiftest of all animals to the swiftest of all the grods. Ji. G U S <> VjK, fc-JioptOis (O/l; L«^^, ^jTcr^^l ^lciaa "'-v.-- I 'iairUf' "1} dofrv^jTJt 1 .9 -^ — * "- ' ^ ■ >^ — aSj2- 1 ( v'*,'*/'<''''*-™*^'H"'f** Ar '. > Y* '''•^ ' t:\ «• "5 '• '' 'Pi • ?;% ^-v/' '-'iii' "Sv.^3^ J'^ '^JViocMruflt'X .'•O 4^ ^^^^5^.. / ^*iiE\G Y JP T "^ T.'anoi'*'" 3 Ma<'iia .^ ■.# Kcioaii MiLcs O 10 90 3Q «iJ j>'o ( jr«rk Stadia O JOO ioo 3O0 io5 •a.lpoUuiy t . ■ ( '^tci-'^^ ■♦;■ v<«_ 7, . ft?r< - ,j*iw.i"-*-x "^ "xr«*,»,. ^■i«"'™^"-'■ ?^ ^ PtnUcfSt^^ ^^^:^^ -Vh-nats pov^ir. iE T o o the Parians on account of Lysagoras, son of Tisias, who was a Parian by birth and who had calumniated him to Hydarnes the Persian. Miltiades arrived with his forces and besieeed the Parians, who were driven within their walls ; and sent a herald to them to demand a hundred talents, saying, that if they did not furnish him that sum, he would not draw off his army until he had destroyed them. The Parians never entertained the thought of giving Miltiades any money ; but devised means by which they might defend the city ; and in several parts where the wall was most exposed to attack, they raised it, during the night, to double its former height. Up to this point of the story all the Greeks agree ; but after this the Parians themselves say that it happened as follows. That when Miltiades was in a state of perplexity, a captive woman, by birth a Parian, and named Timo, conferred with him ; she was an inferior priestess of the infernal goddesses. When she came into the presence of Miltiades, she advised him, if he deemed it of great consequence to take Paros, to act as she should suggest. Following out her suggestions he came to the mound before the city and leaped over the fence of Ceres Thes- mophora, as he was unable to open the door ; and went to the temple, for the purpose either to move some of the things that may not be moved, or to do something or other, I know not what. He was just at the door, when suddenly a thrill of horror came over him, and he went back by the same way ; and in leaping over the fence his thigh was dislocated, or his knee was hurt. Miltiades, in a bad plight, sailed back home, neither bringing 2 6o HERO DO TUS. money to the Athenians, nor having reduced Paros, but having" besieged it for six and twenty days, and ravaged the island. When the Parians were informed that Timo, the priestess of the goddesses, had directed Mlltiades, they desired to punish her, and sent deputies to the oracle at Delphi, as soon as they were relieved from the siege, to inquire whether they should put to death the priestess of the goddesses, for having made known to the enemy the means of capturing the country, and for having discovered to Miltiades sacred things, which ought not to be revealed to the male sex. But the Pythian did not allow them, but said, " that Timo was not to blame for this, but that it was fated Miltiades should come to a miserable end, and she had appeared to him as a guide to misfortune." When Miltiades returned from Paros, the Athenians were loud in their complaints against him, especially Xanthippus, son of Ariphron, who brought a capital charge against Miltiades before the people, and prosecuted him for deception. Miltiades, though present in person, made no defence, through inability, as his thigh had begun to mortify But while he lay on a couch his friends made a defence for him, dwelling much on the battle that had been fought at Marathon, and on the capture of Lemnos ; since he had taken Lemnos, and inflicted vengeance on the Pelasgians, and had given it up to the Athenians. The people so far favored him as to acquit him of the capital offence, but fined him fifty talents for the injury he had done. Miltiades soon after ended his life by the mortification of his thigh, and his son Cimon paid the fifty talents. BOOK VII. POLYMNIA. CHAPTER I. DEATH OF DARIUS AND REIGN OF XERXES. When the news of the battle fought at Marathon reached Darius, who was before much exasperated with the Athenians on account of the attack upon Sardis, he grew still more eager to prosecute the war against Greece. He therefore immediately sent messengers to the several cities, and bade them prepare an army much greater than they had furnished before, and ships, horses, corn, and transports. Asia was thrown into agitation during the space of three years, the bravest men being enrolled and prepared for the purpose of invading Greece, In the fourth year the Egyp- tians, who had been subdued by Cambyses, revolted from the Per- sians ; whereupon Darius only became the more eager to march against both. Just then a violent dissension arose between the sons of Darius concerning the sovereignty ; for by the customs of the Persians he was obliged to nominate his successor before he marched out on any expedition. Before Darius became king, he had three sons born to him by his former wife, the daughter of Gobryas ; and after his accession to the throne, four others by Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, Of the former, Artabazanes was the eldest ; of those born after, Xerxes : and these two, not being of the same mother, were at variance. Artabazanes urged that he was the eldest of all the sons, and that it was the established usage among all men that the eldest son should succeed to the sovereignty : on the other hand, Xerxes alleged that he was son of Atossa, daughter of Cyrus, and that it was Cyrus who had acquired freedom 2 62 HERODOTUS. for the Persians. At this very juncture, when Darius had not yet declared his opinion, Demaratus, son of Ariston, happened to come up to Susa, deprived of his kingly office at Sparta, and having imposed on himself a voluntary exile from Lacedsemon. This man went to Xerxes, as report has it, and advised him to say in addition to what he had already said, that " he was born after his father Darius had become king, and was possessed of the empire of the Persians ; whereas Artabazanes was born while he was yet a private person ; wherefore it was not reasonable or just that any other should possess that dignity in preference to himself "Since in Sparta also." Demaratus continued to suggest, " this cus- tom prevailed, that if some children were born before their father became king, and one was born subsequently, when he had come to the throne, this last-born son should succeed to the king- dom." Darius acknowledged this point, and declared Xerxes king. But it appears to me that even without this suggestion Xerxes would have been made king, for Atossa had unbounded influence. So Darius appointed Xerxes to be king over the Persians, and prepared to march. But just at this juncture, and in the year after the revolt of Egypt, Darius himself, while making preparations, died, having reigned thirty-six years in all ; nor was he able to avenge himself either on the Egyptians, who had revolted, or on the Athenians ; and when Darius was dead, the kingdom devolved on his son Xerxes. Xerxes was at first by no means inclined to make war against Greece, but he levied forces for the reduction of Egypt. Mardo- nius, son of Gobryas, who was cousin to Xerxes, and son of Da- rius' sister, and who had the p-reatest influence with him of all the Persians, constantly held the following language : " Sire, it is not right that the Athenians, who have already done so much mischief to the Persians, should go unpunished ? However, for the pres- ent, finish the enterprise you have in hand ; and when you have quelled the insolence of Egypt, lead your army against Athens ; that you may acquire a good reputation among men, and any one for the future may be cautious of marching against your territory." DEATH OF DARIUS. 263 This language was used by him for the purpose of revenge, but he frequently made the following addition to it, that " Europe was a very beautiful country, and produced all kinds of cultivated trees, — and was very fertile, and worthy to be possessed by the king alone of all mortals." Mardonius was desirous of new enterprises, and wished to be himself governor of Greece, and in time he persuaded Xerxes to do as he advised. Xerxes, in the second year after the death of Darius, reduced all Egypt to a worse state of servitude than ever under Darius, and committed the government to Achsemenes, his brother. He then convoked an assembly of the principal Persians, that he might hear their opinions, and make known his intentions to them all. " Men of Persia," said Xerxes, " I learn from older men that we have never remained inactive since we wrested the sov- ereign power from the Medes, and Cyrus overthrew Astyages ; but the deity has led the way, and we have followed his guidance to our advantage. What deeds Cyrus and Cambyses and my father Darius have achieved, and what nations they have added to our empire, no one need mention to you who know them well. But since I have succeeded to the throne, I have carefully considered how I may not fall short of my predecessors in honor, nor acquire less additional power to the Persians." " I have now called you together, that I may communicate to you what I purpose to do. I intend to throw a bridge over the Helles- pont, and to march an army through Europe against Greece, that I may punish the Athenians for the injuries they have done to the Persians and to my father. You have already seen Darius pre- paring to make war against those people ; but he died, and had it not in his power to avenge himself. But I, in his cause and that of the other Persians, will not rest till I have taken and burnt Athens ; for they began by doing acts of injustice against my father and me. First they came to Sardis, with Aristagoras the Milesian, our servant, and burnt down the groves and the temples. You all know well enough how they treated us on our making a descent on their territory, when Datis and Artaphernes led our 264 HERODOTUS. forces. For these reasons, therefore, I have resolved to make war upon them. And I am sure that if we subdue them, and their neighbors, who inhabit the country of Pelops the Phrygian, we shall make the Persian territory co-extensive with the air of heaven, for the sun will not look down upon any land that borders on ours. When I shall have informed you of the time, it will be the duty of each of you to come promptly. And whosoever shall appear with the best-appointed troops, to him I will give such presents as are accounted most honorable in our country." After this, when Xerxes had resolved to undertake the expedi- tion, a vision appeared to him in his sleep, which the magi inter- preted to signify that all mankind should serve him. Xerxes im- agined that he was crowned with the sprig of an olive tree, whose branches covered the whole earth ; and that afterward the crown that was placed on his head disappeared. After the magi had given this interpretation, all the Persians who were assembled de- parted immediately to their own governments, and used all diligence to execute what had been ordered, every man hoping to obtain the proposed reward ; Xerxes thus levied his army, searching out every region of the continent. He was employed four whole years in assembling his forces and providing things necessary for the expedition. In the fifth he began his march with a vast multi- tude of men. For this was by far the greatest of all the expedi- tions with which we are acquainted. What nation did not Xerxes lead out of Asia against Greece ? what stream, except that of great rivers, did not his army drink dry ? Some supplied ships ; others were ordered to furnish men for the infantry, others cavalry, some transports for horses, together with men to serve in the army ; others had to furnish long ships for the bridges, and others provisions and vessels. And first of all, as those who had first attempted to double Mount Athos had met with disaster, preparations were made for nearly three years to cut Athos off by a canal. Triremes were stationed at Eleus in the Chersonese, and from there men of every nation from the army dug under the lash. They went in succes- DBA TH OF DA RI US. 2 65 sion ; and the people who dwelt round Athos dug also. Bubares, son of Megabazus, and Artachaeus, son of Artseus, both Persians, presided over the work. Athos is a vast and celebrated mountain, stretching into the sea, and inhabited by men. Where the moun- tain terminates toward the continent, it is in the form of a penin- sula connected with the continent by an isthmus of about twelve stades ; this is a plain with hills of no great height from the sea of the Acanthians to the sea which is opposite Torone. On this isthmus stands Sana, a Grecian city ; and on Athos itself are the cities of Dion, Olophyxus, Acrothoon, Thyssus, and Cleonae. To make the excavation the barbarians divided the eround amono- the several nations, having drawn a straight line near the city of Sana. When the trench was deep, some stood at the bottom and contin- ued to dig, and others handed the soil that was dug out to men who stood above on ladders ; they again in turn handed it to others, until they reached those that were at the top ; the last carried it off and threw it away. In the case of all, except the Phoenicians, the brink of the excavation fell in and gave double labor, for as they made the upper and the lower opening of equal dimensions, this must necessarily happen. But the Phoenicians, who show their skill in other works, did so especially in this ; for they dug the portion that fell to their share, making the upper opening of the trench twice as large as it was necessary for the trench itself to be ; and as the work proceeded they contracted it gradually, so that when they came to the bot- tom the work was equal in width to the rest ; near adjoinino- is a meadow, where they had a market and bazaar, and great abun- dance of meal was brought to them from Asia. According to my deliberate opinion, Xerxes ordered this excavation to be made from motives of ostentation, wishing to display his power, and to leave a memorial of himself. For though it was possible, without any great labor, to have drawn the ships over the isthmus, he commanded them to dig a channel for the sea of such a width that two triremes might pass through rowed abreast. And the same persons, to whom the excavation was committed, were ordered al- 266 HERODOTUS. SO to throw a bridge over the river Strymon. He also caused cables of papyrus and of white flax to be prepared for the bridges, and ordered the Phoenicians and Egyptians to lay up provisions for the army, that neither the men nor the beasts of burden might suffer from famine on their march toward Greece, conveying them to various quarters in merchant-ships and transports from all parts of Asia. While these men were employed in their appointed task, the whole land-forces marched with Xerxes to Sardis, setting out from Critalla in Cappadocia, where it had been ordered that all the troops throughout the continent should assemble. They crossed the river Halys, entered Phrygia, and arrived at Celaenae, where rise the springs of the Maeander, and of another river not less than the Maeander, which is called the Catarractes, which, springing up in the very forum of the Celaenians, discharges itself into the Maeander ; in this city the skin of Silenus Marsyas is suspended, which, as the Phrygians report, was stripped off and suspended by Apollo. In this city Pythius, son of Atys, a Lydian, being in waiting, entertained the whole army of the king, and Xerxes him- self, with most sumptuous feasts; and he offered to contribute money toward the expense of the war. Xerxes asked the Persians near him who this Pythius was, and what riches he possessed, that he made such an offer. They answered : " O king, this is the person who presented your father Darius with the golden plane- tree and the vine ; and he is now the richest man we know of in the world, next to yourself" Xerxes in surprise next asked Pythius what was the amount of his wealth. He said : " O king, as soon as I heard you were coming down to the Grecian sea, wishing to present you with money for the war, I made inquiry, and found by computation that I had two thousand talents of silver, and of gold four millions of Doric staters, lacking seven thousand. These I freely give you ; for myself I have sufficient subsistence from my slaves and lands." Xerxes, delighted with his offer, replied : " My Lydian friend, since I left the Persian country I have met with no man to the present moment who was willing to 268 HERODOTUS. entertain my army, or who, having come into my presence, has voluntarily offered to contribute money toward the war. But you have entertained my army magnificently, and have offered me vast sums ; in return for this, I make you my friend. Keep what you have acquired, and I will myself make up to you the seven thousand staters which you lack of four millions. Be careful always to con- tinue such as you are, and you shall never repent hereafter." From Phrygia he entered Lydia, crossed the river Maeander, and passed by the city of Callatebus, in which confectioners make honey with tamarisk and wheat. Xerxes, by the way, met with a plane-tree, which, on account of its beauty, he presented with golden ornaments, and having committed it to the care of one of the Immortals," on the next day he arrived at Sardis, the capital of the Lydians. In the meanwhile those who were appointed had joined the Hellespont from Asia to Europe. There is in the Chersonese on the Hellespont, between the city of Sestos and Madytus, a craggy shore extending into the sea, directly opposite Abydos. From this shore to Abydos, they had constructed two bridges, the Phoenicians one with white flax, and the Egyptians the other with papyrus. The distance is seven stades. When the strait was thus united, a violent storm arose and broke in pieces and scattered the whole work. When Xerxes heard of this, exceed- ingly indignant, he commanded that the Hellespont should be stricken with three hundred lashes with a scourge, and that a pair of fetters should be let down into the sea. I have moreover heard that with them he likewise sent branding instruments to brand the Hellespont. He certainly charged those who flogged the waters to utter these barbarous and impious words : " Thou bitter water ! thy master inflicts this punishment upon thee, because thou hast injured him, although thou hadst not suffered any harm from him. And king Xerxes will cross over thee, whether thou wilt or not ; it is with justice that no man sacrifices * One of the ten thousand chosen men called Immortals, of whom we shall hear more here- after. DEATH OF DARIUS. 269 to thee, because thou art both a deceitful and briny river ! " He accordingly commanded them to chastise the sea in this manner, and to cut off the heads of those who had to superintend the join- ing of the Hellespont. They on whom this thankless office was imposed, carried it into execution ; and other engineers con- structed bridges in the following manner. They connected together penteconters and triremes, under the bridge toward the Euxine sea, three hundred and sixty ; and under the other, three hundred and fourteen, obliquely to the Pontus, but in the direction of the current of the Hellespont, that it might keep up the tension of the cables. They then let down very lono- anchors, some on the bridge toward the Pontus, on account of the winds that blew Irom it within ; others on the other bridcre toward the west and the yEgean, on account of the south and southeast winds. They left an opening as a passage through between the penteconters, in three places, that any one who wished mio-ht be able to sail into the Pontus in light vessels, and from the Pontus outward. Having done this, they stretched the cables from the shore, twisting them with wooden capstans, not as before using the two kinds separately, but assigning to each two of white flax and four of papyrus. The thickness and quality was the same, but those of flax were stronger in proportion, every cubit weighing a full talent. When the passage was bridged over, they sawed up trunks of trees, equal in length to the width of the bridge, and laid them upon the extended cables in regular order, fastening them securely together. They put brush-wood on the top, and earth over the whole ; and having pressed down the earth, they drew a fence on each side, that the beasts of burden and horses might not be frightened by looking down upon the sea. At last the works at the bridges and Mount Athos were com- pleted, as well as the mounds at the mouths of the canal which had been made on account of the tide in order that the mouths of the trench might not be choked up. News was brought that all was ready, and the army, fresh from their winter at Sardis, set out fully 270 HERODOTUS. prepared at the beginning of the spring toward Abydos. But just as they were on the point of starting, the sun quit his seat in the heavens and disappeared, though there were no clouds, and the air was perfectly serene, and night ensued in the place of day. This occasioned Xerxes much uneasiness ; but the magi said " The deity foreshows to the Greeks the extinction of their cities ; the sun is the portender of the future to the Greeks, and the moon to the Persians." Xerxes, at this, was much delighted, and set out upon his march. As he was leading his army away, Pythius the Lydian, terrified by the prodigy in the heavens, and em- boldened by the gifts of Xerxes, went to the king and spoke thus : •' Sire, would you indulge me by granting a boon I wish to obtain, which is easy for you to grant, and of much importance to me." Xerxes, expecting that he would wish for anything rather than what he did ask, said that he would grant his request, and bade him declare what he wanted. " Sire," said he, " I have five sons ; and it happens that they are all attending you in the expedition against Greece. But pity me, O king, who am advanced in years, and release one of my sons from the service, that he may take care of me and my property. Take the other four with you, ac- complish your designs, and return home." Xerxes was highly in- censed, and answered : " Base man ! hast thou dared, when I am marching in person against Greece, and taking with me my children, and brothers, and kinsmen, and friends to make mention of thy son ? thou who art my slave, and who wert bound in duty to follow me with all thy family, even with thy wife. But I promise to grant your request; I will leave your dearest son." When he had given this answer, he immediately commanded to find out the eldest of the sons of Pythius, and to cut his body into two halves, and to stand one on the right of the road, and the other on the left, while the army should pass between them. This done the army passed between. The baggage-bearers and beasts of burden first led the way ; after them came a host of all nations. When more than one half of the army had passed, an interval was left that they might not mix with the king's troops. DEA TH OF DARI US. 271 Before him a thousand horsemen led the van, chosen from among all the Persians ; and next to them a thousand spearmen, these also chosen from among all, carrying their lances turned downwards to the earth. After these, ten immense sacred horses, gorgeously- caparisoned, called Nissean, from the plain in the Medic territory, which produces them ; then came the sacred chariot of Jupiter, drawn by eight white horses, followed by a charioteer on foot, holding the reins ; for no mortal ever ascends this seat. Behind this came Xerxes himself on a chariot drawn by Nisaean horses ; and a charioteer walked at his side, whose name was Patiramphes. In this manner Xerxes marched out of Sardis, and whenever he thought right, he used to pass from the chariot to a covered car- riage. Behind him marched a thousand spearmen, the bravest and noblest of the Persians, carrying their spears in the usual manner; and after them another body of a thousand horse, chosen from among the Persians ; then ten thousand chosen Persian infantry. Of these, one thousand had golden pomegranates on their spears instead of ferrules, and they enclosed the others all round ; the nine thousand within had silver pomegranates. Those also that carried their spears turned to the earth had golden pomegranates, and those that followed nearest to Xerxes had golden apples. Behind the ten thousand foot were placed ten thousand Persian cavalry ; and after the cavalry was left an interval of two stades ; then the rest of the throng followed promiscuously. Once when the army halted during the night under Mount Ida, thunder and lightning fell upon them, and destroyed a considerable number of the troops on the spot. At the Scamander, the first river on their march from Sardis, the stream failed and did not afford sufficient drink for the army and beasts of burden. Here Xerxes went up to the Pergamus or citadel of Priam, and sacrificed a thousand oxen to the Ilian Minerva, and the magi poured out libations in honor of the heroes of the Trojan War. At Abydos, Xerxes wished to behold the whole army. And there had been previously erected on a hill at this place, for his use, a lofty throne of white marble ; the people of Abydos had made it> 272 HERODOTUS. in obedience to an order of the king. Seated there, he beheld both the land army and the fleet ; he desired also to see a contest take place between the ships, in which the Sidonian Phcenicians were victorious. Exceedingly gratified he was, both with the contest and the army. But while he was viewing the whole Hellespont covered by the ships, and all the shores and the plains of Abydos full of men, he suddenly burst into tears. Artabanus, his paternal uncle, observed him, and exclaimed : " O king, a mo- ment ago you pronounced yourself happy, but now you weep." " Alas," he answered : " Commiseration seized me, when I considered how brief all human life is, since of these, numerous as they are, not one will be alive in a hundred years ! " That day they made preparations for the passage over ; and on the following they waited for the sun, as they wished to see it rising, in the mean time burning all sorts of perfumes on the bridges, and strewing the road with myrtle branches. When the sun rose, Xerxes poured a libation into the sea out of a golden cup, and offered up a prayer to the sun, that no such accident might befall him as would prevent him from subduing Europe, un- til he had reached its utmost limits. After the prayer, he threw the cup into the Hellespont, and a golden bowl, and a Persian sword, which they call acinace. But I cannot determine with certainty, whether he dropped these things into the sea as an offer- ing to the sun, or whether he repented of having scourged the Hellespont, and presented these gifts to the sea as a compen- sation. These ceremonies finished, the infantry and all the cavalry crossed over by that bridge which was toward the Pontus ; and the beasts of burden and the attendants by that toward the ^gean. I have heard that Xerxes crossed over last of all. In seven days and seven nights without a halt his army crossed. On this occasion it is related, that when Xerxes had crossed over the Hellespont, a certain Hellespontine said : " O Jupiter, why, assuming the form of a Persian, and taking the name of Xerxes, do you wish to subvert Greece, bringing all mankind with you ? since without them it was in your power to do this." ,|;;i|'!]f| ,1 !i|'Vl!| ,,t:i II {IH Ii'JIli lllllil'l',, 2/4 HERODOTUS. Doriscus is a shore and extensive plain of Thrace. Through it flows a large river, the Hebrus. A royal fort had been built, and a Persian garrison had been established in it by Darius, from the time that he marched against the Scythians. At Doriscus Xerxes numbered his army. The whole land forces were found to be seventeen hundred thousand. They were computed in this manner : having drawn together ten thousand men in one place, and crowded them as close together as it was possible, they traced a circle on the outside ; removed the ten thousand, threw up a stone fence on the circle, a yard high, and made others enter within the enclosed space, until they had in this manner computed all. The Persians were equipped as follows : On their heads they wore loose coverings, called tiaras ; on the body various- colored sleeved breastplates, with iron scales like those of fisli ; and on their legs, loose trousers ; instead of shields they had bucklers made of osiers ; and under them their quivers were hung. They had short spears, long bows, and arrows made of cane, besides daggers suspended from the girdle on the right thigh. They had for their general, Otanes, father of Amestris, wife of Xerxes. They were formerly called Cephenes by the Grecians, but by themselves and neighbors, Artseans. But when Perseus, son of Danae and Jupiter, came to Cepheus, son of Belus, and married his daughter Andromeda, he had a son to whom he p^ave the name of Perses ; and from him they derived their appellation. The Medes marched equipped in the same manner as the Persians ; for the above is a Medic and not a Persian costume. The Medes had for their general, Tigranes, of the family of the Achaemenidae : they were formerly called Arians by all nations ; but when Medea of Colchis came from Athens to these Arians, they also changed their names. The Assyrians who served in the army had helmets of bronze, twisted in a barbarous fashion, not easy to describe ; and shields and spears, with daggers similar to those of the Egyptians, besides wooden clubs knotted with iron, and linen cuirasses. By the Greeks they were called Syrians, but by the barbarians. DEA TH OF DARI US. 2^S Assyrians. Among them were the Chaldeans ; and Otaspes, son of Artachseus commanded them. The Bactrians had turbans on their heads, very much hke those of the Medes, and bows made of cane pecuhar to their country, and short spears. The Sacse, who are Scythians, had on their heads caps, which came to a point and stood erect : they also wore loose trousers, and carried bows peculiar to their country, and daggers, and also battle-axes, called sagares. The Indians, clad with garments made of cotton, had bows of cane, and arrows of cane tipped with iron. The Arabians wore cloaks fastened by a girdle ; and carried on their right sides long bows which bent backward. The Ethiopians were clothed in panthers' and lions' skins, and carried long bows, not less than four cubits in length, made from branches of the palm-tree ; and on them they placed short arrows made of cane, instead of iron, tipped with a stone, which was made sharp, and of the sort on which they engrave seals. Besides, they had javelins, and at the tip was an antelope's horn, made sharp, like a lance ; they had also knotted clubs. When they were going to battle, they smeared one half of their body with chalk, and the other half with red ochre. The Arabians and Ethiopians who dwell above Egypt were commanded by Arsames, son of Darius and Artystone, daughter of Cyrus, whom Darius loved more than all his wives, and whose image he had made of beaten gold. The Ethiopians from the sun-rise (for two kinds served in the expedition) were marshalled with the Indians, and did not at all differ from the others in appearance, except in their language and their hair. For the eastern Ethiopians are straight-haired ; but those of Libya have hair more curly than that of any other people. These Ethiopians from Asia were accoutred almost the same as the Indians ; but they wore on their heads skins of horses' heads, as masks, stripped off with the ears and mane ; and the mane served instead of a crest, and the horses' ears were fixed erect ; and as defensive armor they used the skins of cranes instead of shields. The Lib- yans marched, clad in leathern garments, and made use of javelins hardened by fire. They had for their general. Massages, son of 2/6 HERODOTUS. Oarizus. The Paphlagonians joined the expedition, wearing on their heads plated helmets, and carried small shields, and not large spears, besides javelins and daggers : and on their feet they wore boots, peculiar to their country, reaching up to the middle of the leg. The Thracians wore fox-skins on their heads, and tunics around their bodies, and over them they were clothed with various- colored cloaks, and on their feet and legs they had buskins of fawn- skin, and carried javelins, light bucklers, and small daggers. These people having crossed over into Asia, were called Bithynians; but formerly, as they themselves say, were called Strymonians, as they dwelt on the river Strymon. These, with very many others, were the nations that marched on the continent and composed the infantry. Over these and the whole infantry was appointed as general, Mardonius, son of Go- bryas. But of the ten thousand chosen Persians, Hydarnes was general. These Persians were called Immortal, for the following reason : If any one of them made a deficiency in the number, com- pelled either by death or disease, another was ready chosen to supply his place ; so that they were never either more or less than ten thousand. The Persians displayed the greatest splendor of all, and were also the bravest ; their equipment was such as has been described ; but besides this, they were conspicuous from having a great profusion of gold. They also brought with them covered chariots and a numerous and well-equipped train of attend- ants. Camels and other beasts of burden conveyed their provi- sions, apart from that of the rest of the soldiers. All these nations have cavalry ; they did not, however, all fur- nish horse, but only the following. First, the Persians, equipped in the same manner as their infantry, except that on their heads some of them wore bronze and wrouorht-steel ornaments. There is a certain nomadic race, called Sagartians, of Persian extraction and language, who wear a dress fashioned between the Persian and the Pactyan fashion ; they furnished eight thousand horse, but they are not accustomed to carry arms either of bronze or iron, ex- cept daggers : they use lassos made of twisted thongs. The DEATH OF DARIUS. 277 mode of fighting of these men is as follows : When they eno-ao-e with the enemy they throw out the ropes, which have nooses at the end, and whatever any one catches, whether horse or man, he drags toward himself; and they that are entangled in the coils are _i^a^i„z=rr^ BRIDGE OVER THE GORTYNIUS. put to death. The Arabians had the same dress as their infantry, but all rode camels not inferior to horses in speed. The number of the horse amounted to eighty thousand, besides the camels and chariots. All the rest of the cavalry were marshalled in troops ; 278 HERODOTUS. but the Arabians were stationed in the rear, as horses cannot en- dure camels. Armamithres and Tithseus, sons of Datis, were gen- erals of the cavalry. Their third colleague in command, Pharnuches, had been left at Sardis sick. For as they were setting out from Sardis he met with a sad accident. When he was mounted, a dog ran under the legs of his horse, and the horse, frightened, reared and threw Pharnuches, who vomited blood, and the disease turned to a consumption. With respect to the horse, his servants imme- diately led him to the place where he had thrown his master, and cut off his legs at the knees. The number of the triremes amounted to twelve hundred and seven. Persians, Medes, and Sacse served as marines on board all the ships. Of these the Phoenicians furnished the best sailing ships, and of the Phoenicians the Sidonians. The admirals of the navy were : Ariabignes, son of Darius ; Prexaspes, son of Aspathines ; Meeabazus son of Meofabates ; and Achaemenes, son of Darius. Of the other captains I make no mention, as I deem it unneces- sary, except of Artemisia, whom I most admire, as having, though a woman, joined this expedition against Greece. Her husband was dead, but, holding the sovereignty while her son was under age, she joined the expedition from a feeling of courage and manly spirit, though there was no necessity for her doing so. Her name was Artemisia, and she was the daughter of Lygdamis, by birth of Halicarnassus on her father's side, and on her mother's a Cretan. She commanded the Halicarnassians, the Coans, the Nisyrians, and the Calyndians, having contributed five ships : and of the whole fleet, next to the Sidonians, she furnished the most renowned ships, and of all the allies, gave the best advice to the kine- The cities which I have mentioned as beino^ under her command, I pronounce to be all of Doric origin ; the Halicarnas- sians being Trcezenians, and the rest Epidaurians. When Xerxes had numbered his forces, and the army was drawn up he desired to pass through and inspect them in person. Accordingly he drove through in a chariot, by each separate DEATH OF DARIUS. 279 nation, made inquiries, and his secretaries wrote down the answers ; until he had gone from one extremity to the other, both of the horse and foot. When he had finished this, and the ships had been launched into the sea, Xerxes, in a Sidonian ship, under a gilded canopy, sailed by the prows of the ships, asking ques- tions of each, as he had done with the land-forces, and having the answers written down. When Xerxes arrived at Therma, he ordered his army to halt. And seeing from Therma the Thessalonian mountains, Olympus and Ossa, which are of vast size, and having learnt that there was a narrow pass between them, through which the river Peneus runs, and hearing that at that spot there was a road leading to Thessaly, very much wished to sail and see the mouth of the Peneus. When Xerxes arrived, and beheld its mouth, he was struck with great astonishment. For several rivers, five of them greatly noted, the Peneus, the Apidanus, the Onochonus, the Enipeus, and the Pa'mi- sus, meeting together in this plain from the mountains that enclose Thessaly, discharge themselves into the sea through one channel, and that a narrow one ; but as soon as they have mingled together, from that spot the names of the other rivers merge in that of the Peneus.' The Thessalians say, that Neptune made the pass through which the Peneus flows ; and their story is probable. For whoever thinks that Neptune shakes the earth, and that rents oc- casioned by earthquakes are the works of this god, on seeing this, would say that Neptune formed it. For it appears evident to me, that the separation of these mountains is the effect of an earth- quake. ' Literally, ' ' the river Peneus gaining the victory as to the name, causes the others to be nameless." CHAPTER II. BATTLE OF THERMOPYLAE. When the Greeks arrived at the Isthmus they consulted in what way and in what places they should prosecute the war. The opinion which prevailed was that they should defend the pass at Thermopylae ; for it appeared to be narrower than that into Thes- saly, and at the same time nearer to their own territories. On the western side of Thermopylae is an inaccessible and precipitous mountain, stretching to Mount CEta ; and on the eastern side of the way is the sea and a morass. In this passage there are hot baths, which the inhabitants call Chytri, and above these is an altar to Hercules. A wall had been built in this pass, and formerly there were crates in it. The Phocians built it through fear, when the Thessalians came from Thesprotia to settle in the yEiolian ter- ritory which they now possess, apprehending that the Thessalians would attempt to subdue them ; at the same time they diverted the hot water into the entrance, that the place might be broken into clefts ; having recourse to every contrivance to prevent the Thessalians from making inroads into their country. Now this old wall had been built a long time, and the greater part of it had already fallen through age ; but they determined to rebuild it, and in that place to repel the barbarian from Greece. Very near this road there is a village called Alpeni, from which they expected to obtain provisions. The naval forces of Xerxes, setting out iiom the city of Therma, advanced with ten of the fastest sailing ships straight to Scyathus, where were three Greek ships keeping a look-out, a Troezenian an ^ginetan, and an Athenian. These, seeing the ships of the barbarians at a distance, betook themselves to flight. The BATTLE OF TBERMOPYL^. 281 Troezenian ship, which Praxinus commanded, the barbarians pur- sued and soon captured ; and then, having led the handsomest of the marines to the prow of the ship, they slew him, deeming it a good omen that the first Greek they had taken was also very handsome. The name of the man that was slain was Leon, and perhaps he in some measure reaped the fruits of his name. The /Eginetan ship, which Asonides commanded, gave them some trouble, Pytheas, son of Ischenous, being a marine on board, a man who on this day displayed the most consummate valor ; who, CYCLOPEAN WALLS AT CEPHALLOMA. when the ship was taken, continued fighting until he was almost cut to pieces. But when they found that he was not dead, but still breathed, the Persians who served on board the ships were very anxious to save him alive, on account of his valor, healing his wounds with myrrh, and binding them with bandages of flaxen cloth. And when they returned to their own camp, they showed him with admiration to the whole army, and treated him well ; but the others, whom they took in this ship, they treated as slaves. 262 HERODOTUS. Thus, two of the ships were taken ; but the third, which Phormus. an Athenian, commanded, in its flight ran ashore at the mouth of the Peneus ; and the barbarians got possession of the ship, but not of the men : for as soon as the Athenians had run the ship aground, they leaped out, and, proceeding through Thessaly, reached Athens. The Greeks who were stationed at Artemisium were informed of this event by signal-fires from Scyathus. As far as Thermopylae, the army of Xerxes had suffered no loss, and the numbers were at that time, as I find by calculation of those in ships from Asia, a total of five hundred and seventeen thousand six hundred and ten. Of infantry there were seventeen hundred thousand, and of cavalry eighty thousand ; to these I add the Arabians who rode camels, and the Libyans who drove chariots, reckoning the number of twenty thousand men. Accordingly, the numbers on board the ships and on the land added together, make up two millions three hundred and seventeen thousand six hundred and ten, exclusive of the servants that followed, and the provision ships, and the men that were on board them. But the force brought from Europe must still be added to this whole number, of which I suppose that there were three hundred thousand men. So that these myriads added to those from Asia, make a total of two mil- lions six hundred and forty one thousand six hundred and ten fighting men. I think that the servants who followed them, towther with those on board the provision ships and other vessels that sailed with the fleet, were not fewer than the fighting men, probably more numerous ; but supposing them to be equal in number with the fighting men, Xerxes, son of Darius, led five millions two hundred and eighty-three thousand two hundred and twenty men to Ther- mopylae. This, then, was the number of the whole force of Xerxes. But the number of women who made bread, wives of officers, and servants, no one could mention with accuracy ; nor of draught- cattle and other beasts of burden ; nor of Indian dogs that followed. I am not astonished that the streams of some rivers failed ; rather is it a wonder to me how the provisions held out for so many myr- iads. For I find by calculation, if each man had a choenix of w^heat JiiliLL- 284 HERODOTUS. daily, and no more, one hundred and ten thousand three hundred and forty medimni must have been consumed every day ; and I have not reckoned the food for the women, beasts of burden, and dogs. But, of so many myriads of men, not one of them, for beauty and stature, was more entitled than Xerxes himself to possess this power. The Greeks who awaited the Persian at Thermopylae were : of Spartans three hundred heavy-armed men ; of Tegeans and Man- tineans one thousand, half of each ; from Orchomenus in Arcadia one hundred and twenty ; and from the rest of Arcadia one thou- sand ; froni' Corinth four hundred ; from Phlius two hundred men, and from Mycenae eighty. These came from Peloponnesus. From Bceotia, of Thespians seven hundred, and of Thebans four hun- dred. In addition to these, the Opuntian Locrians, being invited, came with all their forces, and a thousand Phocians. These na- tions had separate generals for their several cities ; but the one most admired, and who commanded the whole army, was a Lace- daemonian, Leonidas, son of Anaxandrides, and a descendant of Hercules, who had unexpectedly succeeded to the throne of Sparta. For as he had two elder brothers, Cleomenes and Dorieus, he was far from any thought of the kingdom. However, Cleomenes and Dorieus both died, and the kingdom thus devolved upon LeOnidas. He had chosen the three hundred men allowed by law, and marched to Thermopylae. When the Persian came near the pass, the Greeks, alarmed, consulted about a retreat, and it seemed best to the other Pelopon- nesians to retire to Peloponnesus, and guard the Isthmus ; but Leonidas, perceiving the Phocians and Locrians very indignant at this proposition, determined to stay there, and to despatch mes- sengers to the cities, desirinof them to come to their assistance, as being too few to repel the army of the Medes. Meantime Xerxes sent a scout on horseback, to see how many they were, and what they were doing. For while he was still in Thessaly, he had heard that a small army had been assembled at that spot, whose leader was Leonidas, of the race of Hercules. When the horseman rode BATTLE OF THERMOPYL^. 285 up to the camp, he reconnoitred, and saw not indeed the whole camp, for it was not possible that they should be seen who were posted within the wall, but he had a clear view of those on the outside, whose arms were piled in front of the wall. At this some of the Lacedaemonians were performing gymnastic exercises, and others combing their hair. On beholding this he was astonished, but having ascertained their number, he rode back at his leisure, for no one pursued him, and he met with general contempt. On his return he gave an account to Xerxes of all that he had seen, who could not comprehend the truth, that the Greeks were pre- paring to be slain and to slay to the utmost of their power. Xerxes let five days pass, constandy expecting that they would betake themselves to flight. But on the fifth day, as they had not retreated, but appeared to him to stay through arrogance and rashness, in rage he sent the Medes and Cissians against them, with orders to take them alive, and bring them into his presence. When the Medes bore down impetuously upon the Greeks, many of them fell; others followed to the charge, and were not repulsed, though they suffered greatly. But they made it evident to every one, and not least of all to the king himself, that they were indeed many men, but few soldiers. The engagement lasted through the day. The Medes, roughly handled, retired ; and the Persians whom the king called " Immortal," and whom Hydarnes com- manded, took their place and advanced to the attack, thinking that they indeed should easily settle the business. But they suc- ceeded no better than the Medic troops, but just the same, as they fought in a narrow space, and used shorter spears than the Greeks, and were unable to avail themselves of their numbers. The Lacedaemonians fought memorably, showing that they knew how to fight with men who knew not, and whenever they turned their backs, they retreated in close order ; but the barbarians seeing them retreat, followed with a shout and clamor ; then they, being overtaken, wheeled round so as to front the barbarians and overthrew an inconceivable number of the Persians ; and then some few of the Spartans themselves fell. So that when the Per- 2 86 HERODOTUS, sians were unable to gain any thing in their attempt on the pass, by attacking in troops and in every possible manner, they retired. It is said that during these onsets of the battle, the king, who wit- nessed them, thrice sprang from his throne, being alarmed for his army. On the following day the barbarians fought with no better success ; for considering that the Greeks were few in number, and expecting that they were covered with wounds, and would not be able to raise their heads against them any more, they renewed the contest. But the Greeks were marshalled in companies and according to their several nations, and each fought in turn, except the Phocians, who were stationed at the mountain to "-uard the pathway. Again the Persians failed and retired. While the king was in doubt what course to take, Ephialtes, son of Eurydemus, a Malian, obtained an audience of him, expect- ing that he should receive a great reward from the king, and informed him of the path which leads over the mountain to Ther- mopylee ; and by that means caused the destruction of those Greeks who were stationed there. Afterwards, fearing the Lace- daemonians, he fled to Thessaly, and a price was set on his head by the Pylagori, when the Amphictyons were assembled at Pylse. But some time after, he went down to Anticyra, and was killed by Athenades, a Trachinian. This Athenades killed kim for another reason, which I shall mention in a subsequent part of my history ;' he was however rewarded none the less by the Lacedaemonians. Xerxes, exceedingly delighted with what Ephialtes promised to perform, immediately despatched Hydarnes with his troops from the camp about the hour of lamp-lighting. All nicrht lonof the Persians marched, and at dawn reached the summit of the mountain. Here, as I have already mentioned, a thousand heavy-armed Phocians kept guard, to defend their own country, and to secure the pathway. The whole mountain was covered with oaks ; there was a perfect calm, and as a consider- able rustling took place from the leaves strewn under foot, the Phocians sprang up and put on their arms, just as the barbarians ' The promised account is no where given in any extant writings of the historian. BATTLE OF THERMOPYL^. 287 made their appearance. Hit by many thick-falling arrows, the Phocians fled to the summit of the mountain, prepared to perish. But the Persians took no further notice of the Phocians, but marched down the mountain with all speed. To the Greeks at Thermopylse, the augur Megistias, having inspected the sacrifices, first made known the death that would BRIDGE AT CORFU. befall them in the morning ; certain deserters afterwards came and brought intelligence of the circuit the Persians were taking while it was yet night ; and, thirdly, the scouts running down from the heights, as soon as day dawned, brought the same intelligence. It had been announced to the Spartans, by the oracle of Apollo„ 288 HERODOTUS. when they went to consult concerning this war, " that either Lacedaemon must be overthrown by the barbarians, or their king perish." This answer the prophetess gave in hexameter verses to this effect : " Hear me, ye men of spacious LacedDemon ! Either your glorious town must be destroyed, By the fell hand of warriors sprung from Perseus, Or else the confines of fair Lacedaemon Must mourn a king of Heracleidan race, For all the strength of lions or of bulls Is nought to him who has the strength of Zeus ; And never shall that monarch be restrained Until he takes your city or your king." Xerxes poured out hbations at sun-rise, waited a short time, and began his attack about the time of full market, as he had been instructed by Ephialtes. The Greeks with Leonidas, march- ing out as if for certain death, now advanced much farther than before into the wide part of the defile. For the fortification of the wall had protected them, on the preceding day, in the narrow part. But now engaging outside the narrows, great numbers of the barbarians fell. The officers of the companies from behind, with scourges, flogged every man, constantly urging them forward, so that many of them falling into the sea, perished, and many more were trampled alive under foot by one another ; and no regard was paid to any that perished. The Greeks, knowing that death awaited them at the hands of those who were eoine round the mountain, were desperate, and regardless of their own lives, displayed the utmost possible valor against the barbarians. Al- ready were most of their javelins broken, and they had begun to despatch the Persians with their swords. In this part of the strug- gle fell Leonidas, fighting valiantly, and with him other eminent Spartans, whose names, seeing they were deserving men, I have ascertained ; indeed I have ascertained the names of the whole three hundred. On the side of the Persians, also, many other eminent men fell on this occasion, amongst them two sons of Darius, Abrocomes and Hyperanthes, fighting for the body of Leonidas ; and there was a violent struijcrle between the Persians 290 HERODOTUS. and Lacedaemonians, until at last the Greeks rescued it by their valor, and four times repulsed the enemy. Thus the contest con- tinued until the Greeks heard that those with Ephialtes were approaching. Then they retreated to the narrow part of the way, and, passing beyond the wall, came and took up their position on the rising ground, all in a compact body, with the exception of the Thebans : the risinof o^round is at the entrance where the stone lion now stands to the memory of Leonidas. On this spot they defended themselves, first with their swords, then with their hands and teeth, until the barbarians overwhelmed them with missiles in front, and from above, and on every side. Dieneces, a Spartan, is said to have been the bravest man. They relate that before the engagement with the Medes, having heard a Trachinian say, that when the barbarians let fly their arrows, they would obscure the sun by the multitude of their shafts, so great were their numbers, he replied, not at all alarmed : " That 's good ; we shall have the pleasure, then, of fighting in the shade." In honor of the slain, who were buried on the spot where they fell, and of those who died before, these inscriptions have been engraved upon stones above them ; the first : " From Peloponnesus came four thousand men ; And on this spot fought with three hundred myriads." The second was in honor of the three hundred Spartans : " Go, stranger ! tell the Lacedaemonians, here We lie, obedient to their stern commands ! " An engraved monument was also erected to Megistias the augur, by his friend Simonides, and was as follows : " The monument of famed Megistias, — Slain by the Medes what time they passed the Sperchius ; A seer, who though he krew impending fate. Would not desert the gallant chiefs of Sparta." Two of these three hundred, Eurytus and Aristodemus, had been dismissed from the camp by Leonidas, and were lying at Alpeni desperately afflicted with a disease of the eyes. But when Eurytus heard of the circuit made by the Persians, he called BATTLE OF THERMOPYL^. 291 for his arms and ordered his helot to lead him to the combatants ; and, while the slave in terror ran away, his brave half-blind master rushed into the midst of the throng and perished ; but Aristodemus, failing in courage, was left behind. Now if it had happened that Aristodemus had returned sick to Sparta, or if both had gone home together, in my opinion the Spartans would not have shown any anger against them. But since one of them perished, and the other, who had only the same excuse, refused to die, they must needs get exceedingly angry with Aristodemus. On his return to Lacedsemon he was met with insults and infamy. Not one of the Spartans would either give him fire or converse with him ; and he was jeered and hooted at by the boys who called him " Aristodemus the coward." However, in the battle of Platsea he removed all the disgrace that attached to him, for he earned the title of the bravest of the Spartans, and recklessly lost his life. Xerxes after the massacre passed through among the dead ; and having heard that Leonidas was king and general of the Lacedaemonians, he com- manded them to cut off his head, and fix it upon a pole. It is clear to me from many other proofs, and not least of all from this, that king Xerxes was more highly incensed against Leonidas during his life, than against any other man ; for otherwise he w^ould never have violated the respect due to his dead body ; since the Persians, most of all men with whom I am acquainted, are wont to honor men who are brave in war. BOOK VIIL URANIA. CHAPTER I. THE INVASION OF ATTICA AND THE BATTLE OF SALAMIS. The Greek fleet from Artemisium put in at Salamis at the re- quest of the Athenians, who wished to remove their children and wives out of Attica, and consult what measures were to be taken. The Athenians caused proclamation to be made, " that every one should save his children and family by the best means he could." Thereupon the greatest part sent away their families to Troezen, some to yEgina, and others to Salamis. They used all diligence to remove them to a place of safety, from a desire to obey the oracle, but more particularly for the following reason. The Athenians say that a large serpent used to live in the temple as a guard to the Acropolis ; they used to do it honor by placing before it its monthly food, consisting of a honey-cake : this honey-cake in former time had always been consumed, but now it remained un- touched. When the priestess made this known, the Athenians, with more readiness, abandoned the city, since even the goddess had forsaken the Acropolis. As soon as every thing had been de- posited in a place of safety, they sailed to the encampment. Many more ships were assembled together than had fought at Artemi- sium, and from a greater number of cities. The same admiral commanded them as at Artemisium, Eurybiades, son of Eury- clides, a Spartan, though he was not of the royal family : The Athenians, however, furnished by far the most and the best sailing ships. The whole number of ships besides the penteconters, amounted to three hundred and seventy-eight. INVASION OF ATTICA. 293 When the leaders from the various cities met together at Sala- mis, they held a council, in which Eurybiades proposed that any one who chose should deliver his opinion, where he thought it would be most advantageous to come to an engagement by sea, of all the places of which they were still in possession : for Attica was already given up. Most of the opinions of those who spoke coincided, that they should sail to the Isthmus, and fight before Peloponnesus ; alleging this reason, that if they should be con- quered by sea while they were at Salamis, they would be besieged in the island, where no succor could reach them ; but if at the Isthmus, they might escape to their own cities. ANCIENT GREEK WALLS RESTORED. While the commanders from Peloponnesus were debating these matters, an Athenian arrived with intelligence, that the barbarian had entered Attica, and was devastating the whole of it by fire. The army with Xerxes were thus three months en route from the passage over the Hellespont, till they arrived at Athens. They took the city, deserted of inhabitants, but found a few of the Athen- ians in the temple, with the treasurers of the temple and some poor people ; who, having fortified the Acropolis with planks and stakes, tried to keep off the invaders : they had not withdrawn to Salamis, partly through want of means, and 294 HERODOTUS. moreover they thought they had found out the meaning of the oracle which the Pythian deHvered to them, that the wooden wall " should be impregnable " ; imagining, that this was the refuge according to the oracle, and not the ships. The Persians, posting themselves on the hill opposite the Acropolis, which the Athenians call the Areopagus, wrapped tow round their arrows, and setting fire to it, shot them at the fence. But those Athenians who were besieged, still defended themselves, though driven to the last extremity, and the fence had failed them ; nor, when the Pisistratidse proposed them, would they listen to terms of capitulation ; but still defending themselves, they contrived other means of defence, and when the barbarians approached the gates, they hurled down large round stones ; so that Xerxes was for a long time kept in perplexity, not being able to capture them. At length, in the midst of these difficulties, an entrance was discovered by the barbarians ; for it was necessary, according to the oracle, that all Attica, on the continent, should be subdued by the Per- sians. In front of the Acropolis, but behind the gates and where no one kept guard, nor would ever have expected that any man would ascend, there some of them ascended near the temple of Cecrops' daughter Aglauros. When the Athenians saw that the enemy were in the Acropolis, some threw themselves down from the wall and perished, and others took refuge in the recess of the temple. But the Persians who had ascended first turned to the gates, opened them, and put the suppliants to death : and when all were thrown prostrate, they pillaged the temple and set fire to the whole Acropolis. The Greeks at Salamis, when intelligence was brought them how matters stood in Athens, were thrown into such consternation, that some of the generals would not wait until the subject before them was decided on, but rushed to their ships and hoisted sail, as about to hurry away ; by such of them as remained it was deter- mined to come to an engagement before the Isthmus. Night came on, and they, being dismissed from the council, went on board their ships. Thereupon Mnesiphilus, an Athenian, inquired of Themis- INVASION OF ATTICA. 295 tocles, on his return to his ship, what had been determined on by them. And being informed by him that it was resolved to conduct the ships to the Isthmus, and to come to an engagement before the Peloponnesus, he said, " If they remove the ships from Salamis, you will no longer fight for any country ; for they will each betake themselves to their cities ; and neither will Eurybiades nor any one else be able to detain them, so that the fleet should not be dis- persed ; and Greece will perish through want of counsel. But, if there is any possible contrivance, go and endeavor to annul the de- cree, if by any means you can induce Eurybiades to alter his determination, so as to remain here." The suggestion pleased Themistocles exceedingly ; and without answer he went to the ship of Eurybiades, and said that he wished to confer with him on pub- lic business. He desired him to come on board his ship, and say what he wished. Thereupon Themistocles, seating himself by him, repeated all that he had heard from Mnesiphilus, making it his own, and adding much more, until he prevailed on him, by entreaty, to leave his ship, and assemble the commanders in council. The up- shot of the matter was that Themistocles persuaded the generals in council to remain and fight at Salamis. Day came, and at sunrise an earthquake took place on land and at sea. They determined to pray to the gods, and to invoke the ^acidae as allies. For having prayed to all the gods, they forthwith, from Salamis, invoked Ajax and Telamon ; and sent a ship to yEgina for yE^acus, and the ^E^acidae. In the mean time, all the admirals and captains of Xerxes' fleet advised engaging in a sea-fight, except Artemisia, who spoke as follows : " Tell the king from me, Mardonius, that I say this. It is right that I, sire, who proved myself by no means a coward in the sea-fight off" Eubcea, and performed achievements not inferior to others, should declare my real opinion, and state what I think best for your interest. Therefore I say this, abstain from using your ships, nor risk a sea-fight ; for these men are as much superior to your men by sea, as men are to women. And why must you run a risk by a naval engagement ? Have you not possession of Athens, for the sake of which you undertook this ex- 296 HERODOTUS. pedition, and have you not the rest of Greece ? They will not be able to hold out long against you ; but will soon disperse, and fly to their cities." Xerxes was very much pleased with the opinion of Artemisia ; he had before thought her an admirable woman, but now he praised her muc h more. However, he gave orders to follow the advice of the majority in this matter, thinking that they had be- haved ill at Euboea on purpose, because he was not present. He now prepared in person to behold them engaging by sea.' Meanwhile, those at Salamis were growing alarmed, and won- dered at the imprudence of Eurybiades ; till at last their discontent broke out openly, and a council was called, and much was said on the subject. Some said that they ought to sail for the Peloponnesus, and hazard a battle for that, and not stay and fight for a place already taken by the enemy ; but the Athenians, ^ginetae, and Megareans, declared that they should stay there and defend themselves. Thereupon, Themistocles, when he saw his opinion was overruled by the Peloponnesians, went secretly out of the council, and despatched a man in a boat to the encamp- ment of the Medes instructing him what to say : his name was Sicinnus, and he was a domestic, and preceptor to the children of Themistocles. After these events, Themistocles got him made a Thespian, when the Thespians augmented the number of their citizens, and gave him a competent fortune. He, arriving in the boat, spoke as follows to the generals of the barbarians: "The o-eneral of the Athenians has sent me, unknown to the rest of the Greeks, (for he is in the interest of the king, and wishes that your affairs may prosper, rather than those of the Greeks,) to inform you that the Greeks, in great consternation, are deliberating on flight ; and you have now an opportunity of achieving the most glorious of all enterprises, if you do not suffer them to escape. For they do not agree among themselves, nor will they oppose you ; but you will see those who are in your interest, and those who are not, fighting with one another." Having delivered this ' Seated on the mountain side upon a magnificent throne of ivory and gold, as others relate. IN VA SI ON OF A TTICA . 297 message to them, he immediately departed. As these tidings ap- peared to them worthy of credit, they immediately landed a con- siderable number of Persians on the little island of Psyttalea, lying between Salamis and the continent ; and, when it was midnight, they got their western wing under way, drawing it in a circle toward Salamis, and those who were stationed about Ceos and Cynosura got under way and occupied the whole passage as far as Munychia with their ships, so that the Greeks might have no way to escape, but, being shut up in Salamis, might suffer punish- ment for the conflicts at Artemisium ; and they landed the Per- sians at the little island of Psyttalea for this reason : that, when an engagement should take place, as they expected the greater part of the men and wrecks would be driven there, they might save the one and destroy the other. These things they did in silence, that the enemy might not know what was going on. I am unable to speak against the truth of oracles, when I think of the remarkable oracle of Bacis : " When they shall bridge with ships the sacred shore of" Diana with the golden sword," and sea- girt Cynosura, having with mad hope destroyed beautiful Athens, then divine Vengeance shall quench strong Presumption, son of Insolence, when thinking to subvert all things. For bronze shall engage with bronze, and Mars shall redden the sea with blood. Then the far-thundering son of Saturn and benign victory shall bring a day of freedom to Greece." After such a prediction and its fulfilment, I neither dare myself say any thing in contradiction to oracles, nor allow others to do so. All this night there was a great altercation between the gene- rals at Salamis. They did not yet know that the barbarians had surrounded them with their ships. They supposed that they were in the same place where they had seen them stationed during the day. While the generals were disputing, Aristides, son of Lysi- machus, crossed over from the y^orina. He was an Athenian, but had been banished by ostracism. From what I have heard of his manner of life, I consider him to have been the best and most up- rioht man in Athens. He, standing at the entrance of the council. 298 HERODOTUS. called Themistocles out, who was not indeed his friend, but his most bitter enemy ; yet from the greatness of the impending dano-er, he forgot that, and called him, for he had aleady heard that those from Peloponnesus were anxious to get the ships under way for the Isthmus. When Themistocles came out, Aristides spoke as follows : " It is right that we should strive, both on other occasions, and particularly on this, which of us shall do the greatest service to our country. I assure you, that to say little or much to the Peloponnesians about sailing from here is a waste of breath ; for I, an eye-witness, tell you, now, even if they would, neither the Corinthians, nor Eurybiades himself, will be able to sail away ; for we are on all sides enclosed by the enemy. Go in, and ac- quaint them with this." But Themistocles bade Aristides go in himself and convey the tidings. This he did, but the generals would not even then give credence to his report until there arrived a trireme of Tenians that had deserted, which Pansetius, son of Socimenes, commanded, and which brought an account of the whole truth. For that action the name of the Tenians was en- graved on the tripod at Delphi, among those who had defeated the barbarian. With this ship that came over at Salamis, and with the Lemnian before, off Artemisium, the Grecian fleet was made up to the full number of three hundred and eighty ships ; for before it wanted two of that number. Day dawned, and when they had mustered the marines, Themistocles, above all the others, haranged them most eloquently. His speech was entirely taken up in contrasting better things with worse, exhorting them to choose the best of all those things which depended on the nature and condition of man. As soon as the trireme from yEgina, which had gone to fetch the ^acidse re- turned the Greeks got all their ships under way. The barbarians immediately fell upon them. Now all the other Greeks began to back water and make for the shore ; but Aminias of Pallene, an Athenian, being carried onward, attacked a ship ; and his ship be- coming entangled with the other, and the crew not being able to clear, the rest thereupon came to the assistance of Aminias and IN VA SI ON OF A TTICA . 299 engaged. Thus the Athenians say the battle commenced ; but the ^ginetse affirm that the ship which went to ^gina to fetch the y^acidse, was the first to begin. It is also said, that a phantom of a woman appeared to them, that she cheered them on, so that the whole fleet of Greeks heard her, after she had first reproached them in these words : ** Dastards, how long will you back water ? " Opposite the Athenians the Phoenicians were drawn up, for they occupied the wing toward Eleusis and westward ; opposite the Lacedaemonians, the lonians occupied the wing toward the east and the Piraeus. Of these some few behaved ill on purpose, in compliance with the injunctions of Themistocles. The greater part of the ships were run down at Salamis ; some being destroyed by the Athenians, others by the y^ginetae. For the Greeks fought in good order, in line, but the barbarians were neither properly formed nor did any thing with judgment. How- ever they proved themselves to be far braver on this day than off Euboea, every one exerting himself vigorously, and dreading Xerxes ; for each thought that he himself was observed by the king. I am unable to say with certainty how each of the barbarians or Greeks fought ; but with respect to Artemisia, the following in- cident occurred, by which she obtained still greater credit with the king. For when the king's forces were in great confusion, the ship of Artemisia was chased by an Attic ship, and not being able to escape, she resolved upon a strategem. For being pursued by the Athenian, she bore down upon a friendly ship, manned by Calyndians, and with Damasithymus himself, king of the Calyn- dians, on board ; whether she had any quarrel with him while they were at the Hellespont, I am unable to say, or whether she did it on purpose, or whether the ship of the Calyndians happened by chance to be in her way ; however, she ran it down, and sunk it, and by good fortune gained a double advantage to herself. For when the captain of the Attic ship saw her bearing down on a ship of the barbarians, he concluded Artemisia's ship to be either a Greek or one that had deserted from the enemy and was assist- 300 HERO DO T US. ing- them, and so turned aside and attacked others. Thus she escaped, and in consequence of it became still more in favor with Xerxes. For it is said that Xerxes, looking on, observed her ship making the attack, and that some near him said : " Sire, do you see how well Artemisia fights ; she has sunk one of the enemy's ships ? " Whereupon he asked if it was in truth the ex- ploit of Artemisia ; they answered " that they knew the ensign of her ship perfecdy well." But they thought that it was an enemy that was sunk ; for no one of the crew of the Calyndian ship lived to tell the tale and accuse her. And it is related that Xerxes exclaimed : " My men have become women, and my women men." In this battle perished the admiral, Ariabignes, son of Darius, and brother of Xerxes, and many other illustrious men of the Per- sians and Medes, and the other allies ; but only a very few of the Greeks : for as they knew how to swim, they whose ships were destroyed, and who did no,t perish in actual conflict, swam safe to Salamis ; whereas, many of the barbarians, not knowing how to swim, perished in the sea. When the foremost ships were put to flight, then the greatest number were destroyed ; for those who were stationed behind, endeavoring to pass on with their ships to the front, that they, too, might give the king some proof of their courage, fell foul of their own flying ships. The following event also occurred in this confusion. Some Phoenicians, whose ships were destroyed, went to the king and accused the lonians of destroying their ships and betraying him. It, however, turned out that the Ionian captains were not put to death, but that those Phoe- nicians who accused them, received the following reward. For while they were yet speaking, a Samothracian ship bore down on an Athenian ship and sunk it. Just then an yEginetan ship, coming up, sunk the ship of the Samothracians. But the Samothra- cians being javelin-men, by hurling their javelins, drove the marines from the ship that had sunk them, and boarded and got possession of it. This action saved the lonians : for when Xerxes saw them perform so great an exploit, he turned round upon the Phoenicians, INVASION OF ATTICA. 30 1 and ordered their heads to be struck off, that they who had proved themselves cowards, might no more accuse those who were braver. The barbarians turned to flight, and sailing away towards Phalerus, the ^ginetse waylaid them in the strait, and performed actions worthy of record. For the Athenians in the rout ran down both those ships that resisted and those that fled ; and the yEgine- tae, those that sailed away from the battle : so that when any escaped the Athenians they fell into the hands of the yEginetse. In this engagement the yEginetae obtained the greatest renown ; and next, the Athenians. Aristides, of whom I made mention a little before as a most upright man, in this confusion that took place about Salamis, took with him a considerable num- ber of heavy-armed men, who were stationed along the shore of the Salaminian territory and were Athenians by race, landed them on the island of Psyttalea, and put to the sword all the Per- sians who were on that little island. CHAPTER II. XERXEs' RETREAT. . . When the sea-fight was ended, the Greeks hauled on shore at Salamis all the wrecks that still happened to be there and held themselves ready for another battle, expecting the king would still make use of the ships that survived. But a west wind carrying away many of the wrecks, drove them on the shore of Attica, which is called Colias, so as to fulfil both all the other oracles delivered by Bacis and Musaeus concerning this battle, and also that relating to the wrecks which were drifted on this shore, which many years before had been delivered by Lysistratus, an Athen- ian augur, but had not been understood by any of the Greeks : " The Colian women shall broil their meat with oars." When Xerxes saw the defeat he had sustained he was afraid that some of the lonians miijht sufjorest to the Greeks, or micjht themselves resolve to sail to the Hellespont, for the purpose of breaking up the bridges, and shut him up in Europe. So he planned immediate flight. But wishing that his intention should not be known either to the Greeks or his own people, he pretended to throw a mound across to Salamis. He fastened together Phoeni- cian merchantmen, that they might serve instead of a raft and a wall, and made preparation for war, as if about to fight another battle at sea. Every body who saw him thus occupied, was firmly convinced that he had seriously determined to stay and continue the war, except Mardonius, who was well acquainted with his design. At the same time Xerxes despatched a messenger to the Persians, to inform them of the misfortune that had befallen him. There is nothing mortal that reaches its destination more rapidly than these couriers of the Persians. They say that as many days XERXES' RETREAT. 303 as are occupied in the whole journey, so many horses and men are posted at regular intervals ; neither snow nor rain, nor heat, nor night, prevents them from performing their appointed stage as quickly as possible. The first courier delivers his orders to the second, the second to the third, and so it passes throughout, being delivered from one to the other, just like the torch-bearinp- amono- the Greeks, which they perform in honor of Vulcan. The first message that reached Susa, with the news that Xerxes was in pos- session of Athens, caused so great joy among the Persians who had been left behind, that they strewed all the roads with myrtle, burnt perfumes, and gave themselves up to sacrifices and festivity. But the arrival of the second messenger threw them into such consternation, that they all rent their garments, and uttered unbounded shouts and lamentations, laying the blame on Mar- donius, not so much grieved for the ships as anxious for Xerxes himself And this the Persians continued to do until Xerxes ""'^^^ ^^\^ ^ himself arrived home. Mardonius, seeing Xerxes much af- flicted by the defeat at Salamis, and celes ridden by a cupid. suspecting he was meditating a retreat, thus addressed the king : " Sire, do not think you have suffered any great loss in consequence of what has happened ; for the contest with us does not depend on wood alone, but on men and horses. Be not discouraged; for the Greeks have no means of escape from rendering an account of what they have done now and formerly, and from becoming your slaves. If you have resolved not to stay here, return to Susa, and take with you the greatest part of the army ; but give me three hundred thousand picked men and I will deliver Greece to you reduced to slavery." Xerxes, delighted and relieved, granted Mardonius his request. As to Xerxes him- self, if all the men and women of the world had advised him to stay, in my opinion, he would not have yielded, so great was his terror. Leaving Mardonius in Thessaly, he marched in all haste to the Hellespont ; and arrived at the place of crossing 304 HERODOTUS. in forty-tive days, bringing back no part of his army, so to speak. Wherever, and among wliatever nation, they happened to be marching, they seized and consumed their corn ; but if they found no fruit, overcome by hunger, they ate up the herbage as it sprung from the ground, and from sheer hunger stripped off the bark of trees, and gathered leaves, both of wild and cultivated plants. But a pestilence and dysentery falling on the army, destroyed them on their march. Such of them as were sick, Xerxes left behind, ordering the cities through which he happened to be passing, to take care of and feed them : some in Thessaly, others at Siris of Pseonia, and in Macedonia. It was here he had left the sacred chariot of Jupiter, when he marched against Greece, but he did not receive it back, as he returned ; for the Paeonians had given it to the Thracians, and when Xerxes demanded it back, said that the mares had been stolen, as they were feeding, by the upper Thracians, who dwell round the sources of the Strymon. There the king of the Bisaltae and of the Crestonian territory, a Thracian, perpetrated a most unnatural deed ; he declared that he would not willingly be a slave to Xerxes, but he went up to the top of Mount Rhodope, and enjoined his sons not to join the expedi- tion against Greece. They, however, disregarded his prohibition, from a desire to see the war, and served in the army with the Persian : but when they all returned safe, six in number, their father had their eyes put out for this disobedience. The Persians, in great haste crossed over the Hellespont to Abydos in their ships ; for they found the rafts no longer stretched across, but broken up by a storm. While detained there, they got more food than on their march, and having filled themselves im- moderately, and drunk of different water, a great part of the army that survived, died ; the rest with Xerxes reached Sardis. Another account is also given, that when Xerxes in his retreat from Athens arrived at E'lon on the Strymon, from there he no longer continued his journey by land, but committed the army to Hydarnes to con- duct to the Hellespont, and he himself went on board a Phoenician ship to pass over to Asia. During his voyage a violent and XERXES' RETREAT. 3^5 tempestuous wind from the Strymon overtook him ; the storm in- creased in violence, and the ship was overloaded, many of the Persians having accompanied Xerxes. Then the king, becoming alarmed, calling aloud, and asked the pilot if there was any hope of safety for them ; and he said : " There is none, sire, unless we get rid of some of this crowd of passengers." Xerxes, hearing this answer, said : " O Persians, now let some among you show his regard for the king, for on you my safety seems to depend." Many having done homage, leapt into the sea, and the ship, being lighted, thus got safe to Asia. It is added, that Xerxes, immedi- ately after he landed, presented the pilot with a golden crown, be- cause he had saved the king's life ; but ordered his head to be struck off, because he had occasioned the loss of many Persians. This story appears to me not at all deserving of credit, for if such a speech had been made by the pilot to Xerxes, I should not find one opinion in ten thousand to deny that the king would have sent down into the hold of the ship those who were on deck, since they were Persians, and Persians of high rank, and would have thrown into the sea a number of Phoenicians, equal to that of the Persians. When the division of the booty, after the battle of Salamis was completed, the Greeks sailed to the Isthmus, for the purpose of conferring the palm of valor upon him among the Greeks who had proved himself most deserving throughout the war. The generals distributed the ballots at the altar of Neptune, selecting the first and second out of all ; thereupon every one gave his vote for himself, each thinking himself the most valiant ; but with respect to the second place, the majority concurred in selecting Themisto- cles. So each had but one vote, for first place, but Themistocles had a great majority for the second honor. Though the Greeks, out of envy, would not determine this matter, but returned to their several countries without coming to a decision, yet Themistocles was applauded and extolled throughout all Greece, as being by far the wisest man of the Greeks. Because he was not honored by those who fought at Salamis, although victorious, he immediately afterward went to Lacedsemon, hoping to be honored there. The 3o6 HERODOTUS. Lacedaemonians received him nobly, and paid him die greatest honors. They gave the prize of valor to Eurybiades, a crown of olive ; and of wisdom and dexterity to Themistocles, also a crown of olive. And they presented him with the most magnificent chariot in Sparta ; praising him highly, and on his departure, three hundred chosen Spartans, called knights, escorted him as far as the Tegean boundaries. He is the only man that we know of whom the Spartans ever escorted on his journey. Mardonius' first movement was to send Alexander, son of Amyntas, a Macedonian, as an ambassador to Athens ; as well because the Persians were related to him as because he had been informed that Alexander was a friend and benefactor of the Athen- ians. For in this way he thought he should best be able to gain over the Athenians, having heard that they were a numerous and valiant people ; and besides, he knew that the Athenians had been the principal cause of the late disaster of the Persians at sea. If these were won over, he hoped that he should easily become master at sea, which indeed would have been the case ; and on land he imagined that he was much superior : thus he calculated that his power would get the upper hand of the Greeks. But the Athenians gave the following answer to Alexander : " We our- selves are aware that the power of the Medes is far greater than ours ; so that there is no need to insult us with that. But do not you attempt to persuade us to come to terms with the barbarian, for we will not. Go, and tell Mardonius that the Athenians say : ' So long as the sun shall continue in the same course as now, we will never make terms with Xerxes ; but we will go out to oppose him, trusting in the gods, who fight for us, and in the heroes, whose temples and images he has burned. Know, therefore, if you did not know it before, that so long as one Athenian is left alive, the fight shall be continued.' " BOOK IX. CALLIOPE. CHAPTER I. THE WAR CONTINUED ; BATTLE OF PLAT.'EA AND SIEGE OF THEBES. When Alexander returned and made known to Mardonius the answer of the Athenians, he set out from Thessaly, and led his army in haste against Athens ; and wherever he arrived from time to time, he joined the people to his own forces. So far were the leaders of Thessaly from repenting of what had been before done, that they urged on the Persian much more : and Thorax of La- rissa, who had assisted in escorting Xerxes in his flight, now openly gave Mardonius a passage into Greece. When the army on its march arrived amone the Boeotians, the Thebans endeavored to restrain Mardonius from advancing farther, assuring him that to take up his station there would be equivalent to subduing the whole of Greece without a batde. For if the Greeks should con- tinue firmly united, as they had done before, it would be difficult even for all mankind to overcome them. " But," they continued, " if you do what we advise, you will without difficulty frustrate all their plans. Send money to the most powerful men in the cities ; split Greece into parties, and then, with the assistance of those who side with you, you may easily subdue those who are not in }'our interest." But he was infatuated with a vehement desire to taking Athens a second time, and fondly hoped, by signal-fires across the islands, to make known to the king while he was at Sardis, that he was in possession of Athens. When he arrived in Attica, he did not find the Athenians there ; but was informed that most of them were at Salamis on board their ships. So he J 08 HERODOTUS. took the deserted city ten months after its capture by the king. But Mardonius was by no means desirous to stay longer in Attica. He Hngered awhile there to see what the Athenians would do, but neither ravaged nor injured the Attic territory, being in expectation all along that they would come to terms. But when he could not persuade them he withdrew, before the Spartans, under Pausanias, could reach the Isthmus, having first set fire to Athens, and if any part of the walls, or houses, or temples hap- pened to be standing, these he threw down and laid all in ruins. He marched out for the reason that the Attic country was not adapted for cavalry ; and if he should be conquered in an engage- ment, there was no way to escape except through a narrow pass, so that a very small number of men could intercept them. He determined therefore to retire to Thebes, and to fight near a friendly city, and in a country adapted for cavalry. The Lacedaemonians arrived at the Isthmus and went into camp. When the rest of the Peloponnesians, who favored the better cause, saw the Spartans marching out, they thought it would be a disgrace to absent themselves from the expedition of the Lacedaemonians. Accordingly, when the victims proved fav- orable, they all marched out from the Isthmus and advanced to Eleusis. The Athenians crossed over from Salamis, and joined them there. At Erythrai in Boeotia, they learnt that the barbarians were encamped on the Asopus, at which they consulted together, and formed opposite, at the foot of Mount Cithseron. When the Greeks did not come down to the plain, Mardonius sent against them all his cavalry, under command of Masistius, a man highly esteemed among the Persians. He was mounted on a Nisaean horse, that had a golden bit, and was otherwise gorgeously capari- soned. When the cavalry rode up to the Greeks, they charged them in squadrons, and called them women. By chance the Me- garians happened to be stationed in that part which was most ex- posed, and there the cavalry chiefly made their attack. The Megarians, being hard pressed, sent a herald to the Greek generals with this message : " The Megarians say. We, O confederates, are THE WAR CONTINUED. 309 not able alone to sustain the Persian cavalry. So far we have held out against them by our constancy and courage, though hard pressed ; but now, unless you will send some others to relieve us, we must abandon our post." Pausanias immediately called for volunteers to go to that position, and relieve the Megarians. When all the others refused, three hundred chosen men of the Athenians undertook to do it, whom Olympiodorus, son of Lam- 3IO HERODOTUS. pon, commanded. After a short but spirited battle, as the cavalry- were charging, the horse of Masistius, being in advance of the others, was wounded in the flank by an arrow, and in pain, reared and threw Masistius. As he fell, the Athenians immediately seized his horse and attacked him. At first they were unable to kill Masistius, he was so thoroughly armed. Underneath he had a golden cuirass covered with scales, and over the cuirass a purple cloak. By striking against the cuirass they did nothing ; until one of them, perceiving what was the matter, pierced him in the eye. So he fell and died. The whole Persian army, and Mardonius most of all, mourned the loss of Masistius. They cut off their own hair and that of their horses and beasts of burden, and gave them- selves up to unbounded lamentations. The sound reached over all Boeotia, of mournino- for the loss of a man who, next to Mar- donius, was most esteemed by the Persians and the king. The Greeks placed the body on a carriage, and carried it along the line — an object worthy of admiration, on account of its stature and beauty — and the men, leaving their ranks, came out to view Masistius. After this, they determined to go down toward Plataea, for the Plataean territory appeared to be much more convenient for them to encamp in than the Erythraean, as it was better supplied with water. Over the foot of Mount Citha^ron, near Hy- sise, into the Platsean territory they marched, and formed in line, nation by nation, near the fountain of Gargaphia, and the precinct of the hero Androcrates, on slight elevations and the level plain. The whole Grecian army assembled at Platsea, reckoning heavy- armed and light-armed fighting men, amounted to one hundred and ten thousand. When the barbarians, with Mardonius, had ceased to mourn for Masistius, they also marched to the Asopus, which flows by Plataea, and on their arrival were drawn up by Mardonius. Of barbarians there were three hundred thousand, as has been al- ready shown ; but of Greeks who were allies of Mardonius no one knows the number, for they were not reckoned up ; but, to make a guess, I conjecture that they were assembled to the number of THE WAR CONTINUED. 311 fifty thousand. These were infantry ; the cavalry were marshalled apart. On the second day, both sides offered sacrifices. For the Greeks, Tisamenus, son of Antiochus, was the person who sacri- ficed, for he accompanied this army as diviner. The sacrifices were favorable to the Greeks, if they stood on the defensive ; but if they crossed the Asopus, and began the battle, not so. To Mardonius, who was very desirous to begin the battle, the sacrifices were not propitious ; but to him also, if he stood on the defensive, they were favorable : for he too adopted the Greek sacrifices, having for his diviner Hegesistratus, an Elean, and the most renowned of the Telliadae. This man, before these events, the Spar- tans had taken and bound for death, be- cause they had suffered many atrocious things from him. In this sad condition, as being in peril for his life, and having to suffer many tortures before death, he per- formed a deed beyond belief For as he was confined in stocks bound with iron, he got possession of a knife, which had by some means been carried in, and immediately cut off the broad part of his foot — the most resolute deed I ever heard of Then, as he was guarded by sentinels, he dug a hole through the wall and escaped to Tegea, travelling by night, and by day hiding him- self in the woods and tarrying there. Thus, though the Lacedae- monians searched for him with their whole population, on the third night he arrived at Tegea ; but they were struck with great amaze- ment at his daring, when they saw half his foot lying on the ground, and were not able to find him. In time, cured of his wounds, he procured a wooden foot, and became an avowed enemy to the Lacedaemonians. However, at last his hatred con- ceived against the Lacedaemonians did not benefit him ; for he was COAT OF MAIL. 312 HERODOTUS. taken by them when acting as diviner at Zacynthus, and put to death. The death of Hegesistratus took place after the battle of Plataea : but at that time, on the Asopus, he was hired by Mar- donius for no small sum to sacrifice, and was very zealous, both from hatred to the Lacedaemonians and from a love of gain. Meantime, Timagenides, a Theban, advised Mardonius to guard the passes of Mount Cithaeron ; saying, that the Greeks were con- tinually pouring in every day, and that he would intercept great numbers. Eight days had already elapsed since they had been posted opposite each other ; but Mardonius thought the sugges- tion good, and as soon as it was night, sent some cavalry to the passes of Cithaeron, that lead to Plataea, which the Boeotians call The Three Heads ; but the Athenians, The Heads of Oak. The horsemen that were sent did not arrive in vain ; for issuing on the plain, they took five hundred beasts carrying provisions from Peloponnesus to the army, with the men who attended the beasts of burden. The Persians not only took the booty, but killed with- out mercy, sparing neither beast nor man. Two more days passed, neither being willing to begin the battle ; but when the eleventh day after the two armies had been encamped opposite each other in Plataea was almost gone, and the night was far advanced, and silence appeared to prevail throughout the camps, Alexander, son of Amyntas, who was general and king of the Macedonians, rode up on horseback to the sentries of the Athenians, and desired to confer with their generals. Most of the sentries remained at their posts, while some ran to the generals, and told them, " that a man had come on horseback from the camp of the Medes, who uttered not a word more, but, naming the generals, said he wished to con- fer with them." They immediately repaired to the out-posts, and Alexander addressed them as follows : " O Athenians, I leave these words with you as a deposit, entreating you to keep them secret, and not tell them to any other than Pausanias, lest you should ruin me. I should not utter them, were I not extremely concerned for the safety of all Greece ; for I am myself a Greek by origin, and would by no means wish to see Greece enslaved instead THE WAR CONTINUED. 313 of free. I tell you, then, that the victims have not been favorable to Mardonius and his army, or else you would have fought lono- ago ; but now, he has determined to dismiss the victims, and to come to an engagement at dawn of day ; fearing, as I conjecture, that you may assemble in greater numbers. Therefore be ready. But if Mardonius should defer the engagement, and not undertake it, persevere remaining where you are, for in a few days provisions will fail him. And if this war should terminate according to your wishes, it is right that you should bear it in mind to effect my freedom, who on behalf of the Greeks have undertaken so hazard- ous a task, as to acquaint you with the intention of Mardonius, in order that the barbarians may not fall upon you unexpectedly. I am Alexander the Macedonian." Thus having spoken, he rode back to the camp and his own station. The generals of the Athenians went to the right wing, and told Pausanias what they had heard from Alexander ; but as the army was deprived of water and harassed by the cavalry of Mardonius, they remained to deliberate on these and other matters. They had no longer any provisions, and "^'^^ fisherman. their attendants, who had been despatched to the Peloponnesus to get provisions, were shut out by the cavalry, and unable to reach the camp. On consultation the generals of the allies resolved, if the Per- sians should defer making the attack on that day, to remove to the island of Oeroe, ten stades distant from the Asopus, on which they were then encamped. This is an island in the midst of the continent. For the river, dividing higher up, flows down to the plain from Mount Cithseron, having its streams about three stades separate from each other, and united together below. To this place they determined to remove, that they might have an abund- ant supply of water, and the cavalry might not harass them, as when they were directly opposite. So, in the night, at the hour 314 HERODOTUS. aoreed upon, they fled from the cavalry toward the city of the Platseans until they arrived at the temple of Juno, which stands before the city of the Plataeans, twenty stades distant from the fountain of Gargaphia. They then encamped round the Heraeum and stood to their arms before the sacred precinct. When Mardonius was informed that the Greeks had withdrawn under cover of night, and saw the place deserted, he summoned Thorax, of Larissa, and said : " O son of Aleuas, what will you say now, when you see this ground deserted ? For you, their neigh- bor, said that the Lacedaemonians never fled from battle, but were the first of men in matters of war ; but now we all see that they have fled away during the past night, in terror of us, who are truly the most valiant in the world," Then without more ado he led the Persians at full speed, crossing the Asopus in the track of the Greeks, as if they had betaken themselves to flight. He directed his course only against the Lacedaemonians and Tegeans ; for on account of the hills he did not espy the Athenians, who had turned into the plain. The rest of the commanders of the barbarians' brigades, seeing the Persians advancing to pursue the Greeks, all immediately took up their standards, and pursued, each as quick as he could, without observing either rank or order ; thus they advanced with a shout and in a throng, as if they were about to overwhelm the Greeks. The Persians made a fence with their osier-shields, and let fly their arrows so incessantly that the Spartans being hard pressed, and the victims continuing unfavorable, Pausanias looked toward the temple of Juno of the Plataeans, and invoked the goddess, praying that they might not be disappointed of their hopes. While he was yet making this invocation, the Tegeans, starting first, advanced against the barbarians ; and immediately after the prayer of Pausanias, the victims became favorable to the Lacedae- monians. Then they advanced against the Persians, who with- stood them, laying aside their bows. First of all a battle took place about the fence of bucklers ; and when that was thrown down, a long, obstinate fight ensued near the temple of Ceres, till THE WAR CONTIiYUED. 3i5 at last they came to close conflict, when the barbarians laid hold of the Spartan spears and broke them. Indeed, in courage and strength, the Persians were not inferior, but were lightly armed, JUNO. ignorant of military discipline, and not equal to their adversaries in skill. They rushed forward upon the Spartans, only to perish. 3l6 HERODOTUS. In that part where Mardonius happened to be, fighting upon a white horse, at the head of a thousand chosen men, the best of the Per- sians, there they pressed their adversaries most vigorously. For as long as Mardonius survived, they held out, defended themselves, and overthrew many of the Lacedaemonians ; but when Mardonius had died, and the troops stationed round him, which were the strongest, had fallen, then the rest turned to flight, and gave way to the Lacedaemonians. Their dress, too, was particularly disad- vantageous to them, being destitute of defensive armor. Here satisfaction for the death of Leonidas, according to the oracle, was paid to the Spartans by Mardonius ; and Pausanias obtained the most signal victory we have ever heard of. Mardonius died by the hand of A'lmnestus, a man of distinction at Sparta, who, some time after the Medic affairs, at the head of three hundred men, engaged at Stenyclerus with all the Messenians, and he himself perished and his three hundred. When the Persians at Plataea were put to flight by the Lacedaemonians, they fled in disorder to their own camp, and to the wooden fortification which they had made in the Theban territory. It is a wonder to me that, when they fought near the grove of Ceres, not one of the barbarians was seen to enter into the sacred enclosure, or to die in it, but most fell round the precinct in unconsecrated ground. I am of opinion, if it is allowable to form an opinion concerning divine things, that the goddess would not receive them because they had burnt her royal temple at Eleusis, When the Persians and the rest of the throng arrived in their flight at the wooden wall, they mounted the towers before the Lacedaemonians came up, and defended the wall in the best way they could ; so that when the Lacedaemonians arrived, a vigorous battle took place before the walls. So long as the Athenians were ab- sent, the barbarians defended themselves, and had much the ad- vantage over the Lacedaemonians, as they were not skilled in attacking fortifications ; but when the Athenians came, then a vehement fight at the walls took place, and continued for a long time. But at length the Athenians, by their valor and pluck, sur- THE WAR CONTINUED. z-^i mounted the wall, and made a breach ; there at lensfth the Greeks poured in. The Tegeans entered first, and plundered the tent of Mardonius, and among other things took away the manger for his horse, all of bronze, and well worth seeing. This manger of Mar- donius the Tegeans placed in the temple of the Alean Minerva ; but all the other things they took they carried to the same place as the rest of the Greeks. The barbarians no longer kept in close ELEGANT VASES AND AMPHORA. order, nor did any one think of valor ; but they were in a state of consternation, as so many myriads of men were enclosed within so small a space ; and the Greeks had such an easy opportunity of slaughtering them, that of an army of three hundred thousand men, except forty thousand with whom Artabazus fled, not three thousand survived. Of Lacedaemonians from Sparta> all that died 31 8 HERODOTUS. in the engagement were ninety-one ; of Tegeans, sixteen ; and of Athenians, fifty-two. Pausanias made proclamation that no one should touch the booty, and commanded the helots to bring together all the treas- ures. Dispersing themselves through the camp, they found tents decked with gold and silver, and couches gilt and plated, and golden bowls, and cups, and other drinking vessels ; they also found sacks on the waggons, in which were discovered gold and sil- ver cauldrons : and from the bodies that lay dead they stripped bracelets, necklaces, and scimetars of gold ; but no account at all was taken of the variegated apparel. Of this the helots stole a greatdeal and soldittothe ^ginetae, so that the great wealth of the ^ginetse here had its beginning, for they purchased gold from the helots as if it had been bronze. They collected the treasures to- gether, and took from them a tithe for the god at Delphi, from which the golden tripod was dedicated, which stands on the three- headed bronze serpent, close to the altar ; they also took a tithe for the god at Olympia, from which they dedicated the bronze Jupiter, ten cubits high ; and a tithe to the god at the Isthmus, from which was made the bronze Nep- tune, seven cubits high. They divided the rest, and each took the share he was entitled to, of the gold, silver, and other treasures, and beasts of burden. Now what choice treasures were given those others who most distinguished themselves at Plataea, is mentioned by no one. But for Pausanias, ten of every thing was selected and given him — slaves, horses, talents, camels, and all other treasures in like manner. It is said also that when Xerxes fled from Greece, he left all his own equipage to Mardonius ; Pausanias, therefore, seeing Mardonius' equipage furnished with gold, silver, and various-colored hangings, ordered the bakers and cooks to prepare a supper in the same manner as for Mardonius : and, astonished at the profusion set before him of gold and silver couches handsomely carved, and gold and silver tables, and magnificent preparations for the supper, he in derision ordered his own attendants to prepare a Laconian supper by the THE WAR CONTINUED. 3 19 side of it, and when the repast was spread, the difference was so ridiculous that he laughed, and sent for the generals of the Greeks and said : " Men of Greece, I have called you together to show you the folly of the leader of the Medes, who left such sumptuous fare as this, to come to us, who have such poor fare, to take it from us." A considerable time after these events, many of the Platceans found chests of gold and silver, and other precious things. And still later was discovered a skull without any seam, consisting of one bone, and an upper jaw which had teeth growing in a piece, all in one bone, both the front teeth and the grinders ; and there was likewise discovered the skeleton of a man five cubits high. When the Greeks had buried their dead in Plataea, they im- mediately determined, on consultation, to march against Thebes, and to demand the surrender of those who had sided with the Medes, amongst the first of them Timegenides and Attaginus, who were the chief leaders ; and, if they should not give them up, they resolved not to depart from the city before they had taken it. On the eleventh day after the engagement, they arrived and be- sieged the Thebans, requiring them to give up the men ; and, re- ceiving " No " for an answer, they ravaged the country, and attacked the walls. As they did not cease damaging them, on the twentieth day Timegenides spoke thus to the Thebans : " Men of Thebes, since the Greeks have so resolved that they will not give over, besieging us until either they have taken Thebes, or you have delivered us up to them, let not the Boeotian territory suffer any more on our account. But if, being desirous of money, they demand us as a pretence, let us give them money from the public treasury ; for we sided with the Mede by general consent, and not of ourselves alone. If, however, they carry on the siege really be- cause they want us, we will present ourselves before them to plead our cause." He appeared to speak well and to the purpose ; and the Thebans immediately sent a herald to Pausanias, expressing their willingness to surrender the men. When they had agreed on these terms, Attaginus escaped from the city, and his sons, who 320 HERODOTUS. were brought before him, Pausanias acquitted from the charge, saying that boys could have no part in the guilt of siding with the Mede. As to the others whom the Thebans delivered up, they thought that they should be admitted to plead their cause, and moreover trusted to repel the charge by bribery; but he, as soon as he had them in his power, suspecting this very thing, dismissed the whole army of the allies, and, conducting the men to Corinth, put them to death. CHAPTER II. THE BATTLE OF MYCALE. On the same day on which the defeat at Platsea occurred, another happened to take place at Mycale in Ionia. For while the Greeks were stationed at Delos, there came to them as am- bassadors from Samos, Lampon, Athenagoras, and Hegesistratus, being sent by the Samians, unknown to the Persians. When they came to the generals, Hegesistratus urged that " if only the lonians should see them, they would revolt from the Persians, and that the barbarians would not withstand them ; or, if they should withstand them, the Greeks would not find any other such booty." Invok- ing, too, their cornmon gods, he besought them to deliver Grecian men from servitude, and to repel the barbarian ; and he said, " that this would be easy for them to do, for their ships sailed badly, and were not fit to fight with them ; and, if they suspected at all that they were leading them on deceitfully, they were them- selves ready to go on board their ships as hostages." The Samian stranger was so earnest in his entreaties, that Leotychides asked : " O Samian friend, what is your name ? " " Hegesistratus," he answered ; upon which, interrupting the rest of his discourse, Leotychides exclaimed : " I accept the " Hegesistratus," "■ my Samian friend ; only do you take care that before you sail away both you yourself and those who are with you, pledge your faith that the Samians will be zealous allies to us." The Samians im- mediately pledged their faith and made oath of confederacy with the Greeks. The others sailed home, but he ordered Hegesis- tratus to sail with the fleet, regarding his name as an omen. The Greeks tarried that day, and on the next sacrificed auspiciously, ' Hegesistratus means- "leader of an army." 32 2 HERODOTUS. Deiphonus, son of Evenius, oi Apollonia in the Ionian gulf, acting as diviner. The following incident befel his father, Evenius. There are in this Apollonia sheep sacred to the sun, which by day feed near the river that flows from Mount Lacmon through the Apollonian ter- ritory into the sea, near the port of Oricus ; but by night, chosen men, the most eminent of the citizens for wealth and birth, keep watch over them, each for a year : for the Apollonians set a high value upon these sheep, in consequence of some oracle. They are folded in a cavern at a distance from the city. There, once on a time, Evenius, being chosen, kept watch, and one night when he had fallen asleep during his watch, wolves entered the cave, and destroyed about sixty of the sheep. When he discovered what had happened, he mentioned it to no one, purposing to buy others, and put them in their place. This occurrence, however, did not escape the notice of the Apollonians ; and as soon as they dis- covered it, they brought him to trial, and gave sentence that, for having fallen asleep during his watch, he should be deprived of sight. But after they had blinded Evenius, from that time forward neither did their sheep multiply, nor did the land yield its usual fruit. An admonition was given them at Dodona and Delphi, when they inquired of the prophets the cause of the present cala- mities " that they had unjustly deprived Evenius, the keeper of the sacred sheep, of his sight ; for they themselves had sent the wolves, and would not cease avenging him, until the people should give such satisfaction for what they had done, as he himself should choose, and think sufficient : then, the gods themselves would give such a present to Evenius, that most men would pronounce him happy, from possessing it." The Apollonians, keeping this answer secret, deputed some of their citizens to negociate the matter with Evenius. One clay when he was seated on a bench, they went and sat down by him, and conversed on different subjects, till at length they began to commiserate his misfortune, and leading him artfully on, they asked, " what reparation he would choose, if the Apollonians were willing to give him satisfaction for what they had THE BA TTLE OF M YCALE. 323 done." Not having heard of the oracle he made this choice, " if any one would give him the lands of certain citizens," naming those who he knew had the two best estates in Apollonia, " and besides these a house," which he knew was the handsomest in the city, he said, " he would thenceforth forego his anger, and this repara- tion would content him." Immediately taking him up they said, " the Apollonians make you this reparation for the loss of your eyes, in obedience to an oracle they have received." He there- upon was very indignant, on hearing the whole truth, for he had been deceived ; but the Apollonians bought the property from the owners, and gave him what he had chosen, and immediately the gift of divination was implanted in him, so that he became very celebrated. Deiphonus, the son of this Evenius, was brought by the Cor- inthians to officiate as diviner to the army. The Greeks at length determined to sail to the continent : hav- ing therefore prepared boarding-ladders, and all other things that were necessary for a sea-fight, they sailed to Mycale. No one was seen near the camp, ready to meet them, but they beheld the ships drawn up within the fortification, and a numerous land- force disposed along the beach, thereupon Leotychides, advancing first in a ship, and nearing the beach as closely as possible, made proclamation by a herald to the lonians, saying : " Men of Ionia, as many of you as hear me, attend to what I say ; for the Persians will understand nothing of the advice I give you. When we engage, it behooves every one first of all to remember Liberty ; and next the watch-word, Hebe ; and let him who does not hear this, learn it from those who do hear." The meaning of this proceeding was the same as that of Themistocles at Artemisium ; for either these words, being concealed from the barbarians, would induce the lonians to revolt, or, if they should be reported to the barbarians, would make them distrustful of the Greeks. Then the Greeks put their ships to shore, landed on the beach, and drew up in order of battle. But when the Persians saw them preparing for action, and knew that they had admonished 324 HERODOTUS. the lonians, they suspected that the Samians favored the Greeks, and took away their arms. Then the Greeks advanced toward the barbarians ; and a rumor flew through tlie whole army that a herald's staff was seen lying on the beach and that the Greeks had fought and conquered the army of Mardonius in Boeotia. Thus the interposition of heaven is manifest by many pl§in signs ; since on this same day on which the defeat at Platsea took place, and when that at Mycale was just about to happen, a rumor reached the Greeks in this latter place ; so that the army was inspired with much greater courage, and was more eager to meet danger. The Athenians, and those who were drawn up next to them, forming about half the army, had to advance along the shore over level ofround ; but the Lacedaemonians and their associates, alone a ravine and some hills. So that whilst the Lacedaemonians were making a circuit, those in the other wing were already engaged. Now, so long as the bucklers of the Persians remained standing, they defended themselves strenuously, and had not the worst of the battle ; but when the Athenians and their comrades mutually encouraged one another, in order that the victory might belong to them, and not to the Lacedaemonians, they flew with such vigor into the battle, that the face of affairs was immediately changed. They broke through the bucklers and fell in a body upon the Persians. They sustained the attack and defended themselves for a time but at last fled to the fortification. The Athenians, Corinthians, Sicyonians, and Troezenians, drawn up in order together, following close upon them, rushed into the fortification at the same time. When the fortification was taken, the barbarians no longer thought of resisting, but all except the Persians betook themselves to flight ; they, in small detachments, fought with the Greeks who were continually rushing within the fortification. And of the Persian generals, two made their escape, and two died. Ar- tayntes and Ithramitres, commanders of the naval forces escaped ; but Mardontes, and Tigranes, generals of the land army, died fighting. While the Persians were still fighting, the Lacedaemo- THE BA TTLE OF M YCALE. 325 nians came up, and assisted in accomplishing the rest. Of the Greeks themselves many fell on this occasion, especially the Sicyonians, and their general Perilaus. The Samians, who were in the camp of the Medes and had been deprived of their arms, as soon as they saw the battle turning, did all they could, wishing to help the Greeks ; and the rest of the lonians, as the Samians led the way, fled from the Persian?l|^nd attacked the barbarians. The Milesians had been appointed to guard the passes for the Persians so that in the event of failure they might have guides to conduct them to the heights of Mycale. They, however, did every thing contrary to what was ordered ; guiding them in their BAS-RELIEF OF THE MUSES. flight by other ways which led to the enemy, and at last themselves assisted in slaying them. Thus Ionia revolted a second time from the Persians. In this battle of the Greeks, the Athenians most dis- tinguished themselves. When they had killed most of the barbarians, some fighting and others flying, they brought out all the booty on the beach, including several chests of money, and burnt the ships and the whole fortification. Then they took into their alliance the Samians, Chians, Lesbians, and other islanders, who were then serving with the Greeks, bound them by pledges and oaths that they would remain firm and not revolt ; then sailed to the Hellespont, and home. SYNCHRONISTICAL TABLE OF GREEKS. Attica, Boeotia, P/wcis, j£,tolia, etc. B. c. Deucalion , . .1570 Cecrops . . .1550 Erectheus . . .1510 Ion, son of Xuthus . 1427 Rape of Medea by the Argonauts . .1349 Theseus defeated Eurystheus . .1311 Decaleans give up Helen to the Tyn- daridse . . . 1296 Pelasgians expelled from Attica, con- quer Lemnos . . 1162 Codrus . . • 1153 Rape of Ath. women from Brauron . 1152 Alcmaeon, the last Archon . , . 6S3 Conspiracy of Ceylon 612 Legislation of Solon . 594 Megacles mar. Clis- thenes' daughter . 570 Pisistraius, tyrant . 561 Expelled . . -559 Re-established . . 555 Re-expelled . . 553 Regains it . . 542 Dies .... 528 Hipparchus succeeds 528 Assassina. of Cimon . 527 Hipparchus assassin- ated . . .514 Hippias succeeds . 514 Expelled . . .510 Factions of Clisthenes and Isagoras . . 509 Clisthenes expelled . 508 Inv. of Cleomenes . 507 Athenians defeat the Boeotians, invade Euboea, and con- quer the Chalcid- ians . . . 506 Miltiades gains the battle of Marathon 490 Dies .... 489 Xerxes takes Athens . 4S0 Battle of Salamis . 480 Mardonius retakes Athens . . . 479 Peloponnesus. Rape of lo from Argos Pelops conq. the Pelopon . Eurystheus conquered Rape of Helen Aristodemus conq. the Pelo. 16S7 1362 1311 1290 1 190 Lacedxmon. Procles and Eurys- thenes kings 11 78 Theras col. Callis- ta (Thera) . 11 50 Lycurgus . 8S4 Battus migrates from Cal. and founds Cyrene 632 First war witli Tegea . . 620 Ariston and An- axandrides, kings of Lace- doemon . -574 Ally with Croe- sus . . 554 Tegea taken . 546 War with Argives about Thyrea 545 Send troops ag't. Poly crates . 525 Demaratus . 520 Cleomenes . 515 Dorieus migrates to Libya . 515 Cleo. violates the Argive grove 514 Cleomenes ex- pels Clisthenes from Athens . 508 Invades Attica . 507 Demaratus ex- iled . . 492 Leotychides king . .492 Cleomenes kills himself . . 490 Leonidas slain at Thermopylae 4S0 Pausanias wins at Plalaea . 479 Leotychides at Mycale . 479 Corinth. Oligarchy of Bacchiadze. Cypselus bom . 700 Seizes the trannny 663 Periander 633 Banishes Lycophron 575 Sends 300 Corcyrasan boys to Alyattes 565 Dies . 563 Miltiades, son of Cypselus, founds Cherson- esus . 560 Stesagoras succeeds 531 Miltiades, son of Cimon, succeeds 515 Takes Lem- nos . 510 Retires be- fore the Scythians 507 Escapes from the Persians to Imbros 497 At the bat- tle of Sa- lamis . 480 Greeks in Asia and the Islands. B. c. Ion goes to Asia 1391 /Eolian migra- tions under Orestes, Pen- thilus, and E- chelatus 1210-1174 Ionian migra- tions (driven from the Pe- lop. by the Achasans) 1130 Dorian migration. Samians reach Tartessus . 64a Thrasybulus . 625 Conquered by Croesus Conquered by Harpagus . 542 PhocEeans defeat Carthaginians, etc. Found Hyela . 535 Polycrates ty- rant at Samos 532-523 Samians found Cydonia . 524 Syloson obtains Samos . .512 lonians com- mence dis- turbances . 504 Burn Sardis . 503 Joined by the_ Cyprians . 502 Miletus taken . 498 Aristagoras slain . . 498 Samians take Zancle . . 497 Chios, Tenedos, etc., taken by the Persians . 497 Phocians de- feat Thessa- lians . . 482 lonians join the allies at My- cale . . 479 326 THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS IN HERODOTUS. BARBARIANS. Phoenicians. Migrated from the Erythrcean to Phoenicia, about 2267. Colonized Thasos, 1550. Founded Carthage, 819. Circumnavi- gate Libya, 609. Egyptians. God-kings, 17570 to 15570. Mencs to Mneris, 2235 to 1416. Sesostris to Sethon, 1416 to C71. Twelve king to Amasis 671 to 525. Assyrians and Babylonians. Empire Semiramis Medic revolt Babylonia. Niiocris, 604 to 561. Turns the Euphrates and im- proves Babylon. Labynetus (Belshazzar), son of Nitocris, succeeds. Arbitrates between Cyaxares and Alyattes. B.C. 1221 — 711 747—733 711 Media, etc. Deioces, 700. Div. the Medes. Phraortes, 647. Invades Assyria Perished before Nineveh. Cyaxares, 625. Conq. Assyria. Besieges Nineveh, 603. Scythian inva- sion, 624 — 596. Astyages, 585. Cyrus born, 571- King in sport, 561. Persian Empire Lvdians. Atyadse to 1221. Heraclidffi, 1221 — 716. Gyges, 716. Ardys, 678. Cimmerians take Sardis, 634- Sadyattes, 629. Milesian war, 622 — 610. Alyattes, 617. Drove out Cimmerians, 613. War with Cyaxares, 602. Croesus, 560. Conquers Greeks. Visited by Solon. Cyrus, king, 550. Attacked by Croesus. Conquers Lydia, and takes Sadis. Ma- zares punishes Lydian rebels. Ilarpagus takes Phocrea, con- quers Ionia and .^olis. Babylon taken by Cyrus, 536. Massagetan expedition. Cyrus slain, 530. Cambyses, 530 — 523. Conquers Egypt, 525. Unsuccessful expedition against the Ethiopians and Annnonians. Wounds Apis. Goes mad. Slays his brother Smerdis. Marries and kills his sister. Magian revolt. Dies, 523. Smerdis Magus, 523. Conspiracy of the Seven. Death of the Magi. Darius, 522 — 485. Sends Democydes to spy Greece. Babylonian revolt. Baby- lon taken by Zopyrus, 516. Restores Syloson to Samos, 512. Barca conquered, 512. Invades Scythia, 508. Megabazus subdues Thrace. Otanes subdues Lemnos and Imbros. Disturbances in Ionia. Burning of Sardis, 503. Cy- prians join the revolt, 502 ; conquered, 501. Miletus taken, 498. Pacifica- tion of Ionia, 497. Mardonius marches against Greece, 495. Wrecked at Athos. Darius sends to Greece for earth and water, 493. Expedition of Datis and Artaphernes, 492 ; enslave Naxos andEretria, 490. Marathon, 490. Preparations for another invasion, 4S9. Egyptian revolt, 486. Xer.xes, 485 — 479. Subdues Egypt, 484. Prepares for a Greek expedition. Leaves Susa, April, 481. Winters at Sardis. Battle of Thermopylae, 480. Takes Athens, 480. Battle of Salamis, Sept., 480. Retires to Asia. Mar- donius defeated at Platsea, and the Persian fleet at Mycale, the same day, Sept. 22, 479. Scythians and Cimmerians. Cimmerians invade Asia, but expelled by the Scythians about 624. Scythians rule •Upper Asia, 624 to 596- Invaded by Darius, 508. Invade the Cherso- nesus ; Miltiades retires, 507. 327 HERODOTEAN WEIGHTS AND MONEY, DRY AND LIQUID MEASURES, AND MEASUREMENTS OF LENGTH. Eubaic or Attic Silver Weights and Money. I Obol 6 Obols . lOo Drachmae 60 Minse . I Drachma I Mina I Talent . WEIGHT (Avoirdupois). VALUE. lbs. oz. grs. . — — II.03 $.033 — — 66.5 .193 • — 15 33-75 19-784 56 15^ 100.32 1187.00 grs. 16 $.04| 27.00 yEginetan Silver IVeig/its and Money. lbs. oz. I Obol — — 6 Obols ... I Drachma . . — — 96 100 Drachmae . . i Mina , . . i 5f 78.96 60 Minae . . . i Talent . . . 82 3J 30.46 1620.00 The gold Stater of Croesus and the gold Daric are each supposed to be worth about 20 Attic silver drachmae, or about $4.00 in our money. Herodotus makes the Babylonian Talent equal to 70 Eubceic Minse, but Hussey calculates its weight at fill's. i\oz. 69. 45^;-^-. If, however, these are reckoned by comparison with our gold money, they are worth much more. Attic Dry Measures. I Choenix j8 Choenices I Medimnus and 3 Choenices . I Medimnus I Persian Artaba Gallons. Quarts. — I 12 — 12 % Liquid Measures. Gallons. Pints. I Choenix ......... — i^ 48 Choenices . . . i Amphora ... 9 — Hesychius considers the Aryster to be the same as the Cotyla, which Hussey calculates to hold half a pint. Measures of Length. Digit (finger's breadth) Digits . Palms Palms . Spans or 6 Palms Cubit and 6 Digits Cubits 100 Feet or i6f Orgyse 6 Plethra 30 Stadia . 2 Parasangs . The Egyptian Cubit contained nearly 17-I inches. The Arura contained 21,904 square English feet, or a fraction ov 328 Palm (hand-breadth) Span Foot . Cubit . Royal Cubit Fathom (Oigya) . Plethrum . I Stadium I Persian Parasang I Schoenus Miles. Yards. Feet. 3 64 33 202 787 494 er half an acre. Inches- ■7584 3.0336 9.1008 0.135 6.2016 8.4768 0.81 1-5 9 6 o