•Vv I \ 1 HI H Kk- bs ss» 1 Class Book. mt0 CcpightN?- DEPOSIT. 1U- 2.9*0 GREEK GRAMMAR FOR THE USE OF HIGH SCHOOLS AND UNIVERSITIES, BY PHI Li P BUTTMANN. REVISED AND ENLARGED BY HIS SON. ALEXANDER BUTTMANN. TRANSLATED FROM THE EIGHTEENTH GERMAN EDITION, ! >. BY. EDWARD IIOBI jN SON. •L'Vo..../i3.s..£..4 "..,^V' ' r v:« ■ w'V^ ^' NEW YORK: HARPER & BROTHS R S, PUBLISHER S. 187 2. & Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year one thousand eight hundred and fifty-one, by Edward Robinson, In the. Office of the Clerk of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. Copyright, 1,8 *7 9, by Edward Robinson, and Mary A. Robinson. PREFACE, The following biographical hints respecting the author of this work, will not perhaps be unacceptable to those who may make use of it ; while they may help to form a juster estimate of the nature and relative character of the present Grammar, as com- pared with the other writings of the same author, and with the works of contemporary Grammarians. The life of a scholar, and especially of a German scholar, is usually barren of incidents ; and it is chiefly the character and progress of his intellectual development, as exhibited in the various productions of his pen, that furnish the subjects and mark the epochs of his biography. Philip Charles Buttmann was born at Frankfort on the Maine, Oct. 5, 1764. After the usual preparation, he pursued his stud- ies at the University of Gottingen ; not without distinction, it would seem, for we soon afterwards find him as an instructor and governor in the family of the Prince of Anhalt Dessau. But he appears early to have preferred a life of private study ; avoid ing in this w T ay the responsibilities and absorbing duties 01 a public teacher ; and devoting himself, without the abstractions of public obligation, to philological pursuits and investigations. With this view he fixed his residence at Berlin, where he lived for many years as a private citizen ; and where, in the free use of the treasures of the Royal Library, and in social intercourse and interchange of views with Heindorf and Spalding, at that time distinguished professors in the G-ymnasia of Berlin, he ar- rived at those results and adopted those principles, which he has spread before the world in his various grammatical and philolog- ical treatises. The first edition of his Grammar appeared at Berlin in 1792. In 1800 he was appointed a Secretary of the Royal Library, and became at a later period one of the Librarians in chief. At the same time he accepted the appointment of Professor in one of the principal Gymnasia of Berlin, that of Joachimsthal. He became also an active member of the philo- logical class in the Royal Academy of Sciences ; and to this source IV PREFACE. we owe many of his smaller essays and treatises. On the estab lishment of the University of Berlin in 1809, he seems by choice not to have taken part in it as a regular professor ; but the ex- citement inspired by the establishment of so noble an institution, and daily intercourse with the corps of distinguished scholars thus collected, — as "Wolf, Niebuhr, Savigny, Schleiermacher, and at a later period Bekker, Bockh, and others, — imparted new vigour to his exertions ; and led him, if not to a wider range of study, yet to the exhibition of greater productive power, and to a more extensive communication of the results of his researches. As a member of the Academy of Sciences, he enjoyed the privilege of delivering lectures or of otherwise imparting instruction in the University ; and of this he availed himself so far as to have pri- vate philological classes. With Wolf he engaged in the publica tion of the Museum Aniiquitatis ; and several of the most solid articles of that work are from his pen. In 1816 he completed the edition of Q,uinctilian commenced by his friend Spalding, and left imperfect at his decease. In 1821 he gave to the public a new and enlarged edition of the Scholia on the Odyssey, discov- ered by Angelo Maio. Several of his smaller treatises were after- wards collected and revised by himself, and published in two volumes, entitled ' Mythologus,' Berlin, 1827-29. But the great labour of his life lies before the world in his grammatical works ; which, from a narrow beginning, grew up in a course of years into a wide and comprehensive system. His first work appeared, as mentioned above, in 1792, and was little more than an outline of the Greek accidence. In the subsequent editions he continued to interweave the results of his investi^a- tions, until the fourth edition assumed the character of a more complete and scientific treatise of Grreek grammar. In this form it remained without any essential change of plan, but not with- out important additions and improvements, until the publication of the twelfth edition in 1826. In the mean time he had published at an early period an ab- stract of this work, made from the sixth edition, for the use of lower schools and younger pupils, under the title of Schul-Gram- matik. This smaller Grammar reached its eighth edition in 1826, during the author's life-time ; and the ninth edition of it was issued in 1831, after his decease. The larger Grammar, in the course of its successive editions PREFACE. V and enlargements, had become, to use the language of the author himself, ' an intermediate thing between a school-book and a work of a higher scientific character.' In support of the views and principles propounded in it, the author had often felt it ne- cessary to introduce critical discussions, which were foreign to the nature of such a work ; and which contributed to swell its size, without adding to its value for those for whom it was more par- ticularly designed. Hence, so early as the year 1816, he had entered upon the compilation of a more extensive and scientific grammatical work, a complete grammatical index or Thesaurus of the Greek language, which should embody the results of the labours of his life in a form adapted to the use of more advanced scholars. This is the Ausfdhrliche Sprachlehre, or ' Copious Grreek Grrammar,' so often referred to in the following pages. The first volume appeared in 1819 ; the second, in two parts, in 1825 and 1827. The second volume contained also a supplement of large additions and corrections to the first. A new edition of the first volume, including these corrections, was commenced during the author's life, and finished in 1830, after his decease. The second volume also appeared anew in 1839, with additions from the scholarly pen of Lobeck. This work, extensive as it is, embraces only the part of grammar relating to the Forms of Words ; the Syntax Buttmann did not live to complete. This Thesaurus every where exhibits, of course, critical dis- cussions and investigations, which could not have place in the earlier work. Other similar discussions, which did not properly fall within the plan even of the Thesaurus, particularly those relating to the signification of words, the author collected and published in a separate treatise, entitled : ' Lexilogus, or Illus- trations of Greek words, chiefly in Homer and Hesiod.' The first volume was published in 1818 ; and again, together with a second, in 1825. This is often referred to in the following pages. The publication of these works afforded an appropriate occa- sion for some change in the plan of the earliest, now become the intermediate Grrammar. Accordingly, in the twelfth edition, 1826, most of the merely critical discussions were omitted, while many additional results were introduced. In this way, too, roon i was gained for an extension of the Syntax. In the thirteenth edition, 1829, the last which the author lived to prepare, these objects were further pursued and completed ; and the work thus VI PREFACE. became in form, what it was intended to be in fact, viz. a body of results respecting the grammar of the Grreek language, ar- ranged with strict attention to philosophical system, as well as to accuracy, neatness, and perspicuity. Whoever consults this work, cannot fail to perceive, that its statements rest on the pro- found investigations of a penetrating, practical, and philosophic mind ; while the reasonings and documents by which these state- ments are supported, must in general be sought in the more copi- ous works referred to above. In the Syntax, however, this last remark applied at that time with less force. This part of gram- mar had not elsewhere been treated of by Buttmann ; and, as he himself remarks, would require a separate volume to do it justice. The Syntax, as revised for the last time by its author, was a collection of general principles, perspicuously and philosophically arranged, and accompanied in some parts with a sufficient copi- ousness of details ; while in other portions much was left to the judgment and discretion of the learner. Buttmann was not a mere recluse,- — a scholar acquainted only with books, and deriving his views and principles merely by way of inference from untried theories. Himself a teacher, and liv- ing in the midst of a great capita], in daily and social intercourse with eminent scholars and practical instructors, every thing he has written bears the impress of practical application and prac- tical utility. His works everywhere exhibit comprehensive learn- ing, united with perspicuity and terseness, and with that prac- tical sagacity and tact which are essential to the success of every teacher. In this respect he differed widely from Matthias ; whose Grammar is a vast mass of excellent materials, which the author knew not how to reduce to order and philosophic method. The latter years of Buttmann's life were embittered by severe physical suffering. His body was racked by rheumatic affections, which deprived him in a great measure of the use of his limbs, and finally terminated his days, Jan. 21, 1829. For several pre- ceding winters he had been confined to his house. The writer of these lines had the pleasure of an interview with him about a year before his death. He was seated before a table in a large arm-chair, bolstered up with cushions, and with his feet on pil- lows ; before him was a book, the leaves of which his swollen and torpid hands were just able to turn over; while a member of his family acted as amanuensis. That book was his earliest PREFACE. Vll work, the intermediate Grammar. He was in this way preparing the thirteenth edition, which he lived just long enough to complete. It was this work, with these his last corrections, which eight- een years ago the Translator presented to the American public. It was favourably received ; and a second edition, published in 1839, has been for several years out of print. Meanwhile the study of the Greek language and literature has made rapid and extensive progress, especially in Germany ; and the Grammar of Buttmann has not remained stationary. No less than five large editions have been published since his de- cease ; the last of which, the eighteenth, was issued near the close of 1849. The recent editions have been prepared for the press by the author's son, Alexander Buttmann, who has occu- pied for several years the post of Headmaster (Oberlehrer) in the Royal Gymnasium at Potsdam ; a station similar to that which his father held in Berlin. The changes and improvements in the Grammar have been gradually introduced, as occasion arose and experience dictated. The seventeenth edition (1845) exhibited an almost entire reconstruction of the Syntax ; and the like char- acter of revision and improvement marks the subsequent and last edition, from which the present translation has been made. It is no slight praise of the son, to say that he has ably and successfully carried forward the plan of his distinguished parent, with a like spirit, and with like results. We find every where the same careful revision and elaboration ; the same judicious expansion and adaptation of the work to the progress of knowl- edge ; the same uncommon clearness and practical tact, which mark the successful teacher; and, not least, the same general impress of practical application and utility. The son, like the father, has avoided extremes and all mere innovations ; and has rested satisfied, in respect to things already known, with calling them by their familiar names, without striving to attract notice by a new nomenclature or unusual phraseology. The Syntax, in particular, has been expanded and rewritten, with the aid of all the various theories and extensive investiga- tions of the last twenty years. In its present form, it is perhaps surpassed in symmetry and fullness by no other one of a like character ; while few, if any, can compare with it in clearness, precision, and practical utility. The Indexes also have been greatly enlarged, and rendered more complete. VH1 PREFACE. • Hence it is, that the same qualities of progress and improve- ment, which secured to the Grammar of Buttmann an almost exclusive currency in his own country during his life-time, have enabled it to maintain unimpaired its high standing in the Ger- man schools and universities since the author's decease. The frequent and large editions which have been published, testify conclusively, that it is still, as it has now been for more than half a century, the Classical and National Greek Grammar of Germany. In formerly making this work accessible to his countrymen generally, the Translator hoped and believed that he was doing service to the cause of Greek literature among us. If he may accept the testimony of many of our most distinguished Greek scholars, his expectation has not been disappointed. In the like confidence, he has again not shunned the labour of this revised translation of the original work as improved ; and he cannot but hope, that it will be received with increased favour by American scholars. Whoever will take pains to compare, will speedily perceive, that in the most important portions, and especially in the Syntax, this is the translation of almost a new work. The Translator can lay claim to no higher merit than that of having endeavoured to give a faithful transcript of the original A few additions have been silently made from the author's other works ; and occasionally a note or explanation, which seemed necessary, has been subjoined, to which the signature of the Translator is affixed. It must not, however, be imagined, that the translation of such a work from the German is without its peculiar difficulties. A Greek phrase or particle may often be happily illustrated by a German idiom, to which there is no cor- responding one in English ; while not unfrequently that may be exemplified by a single word or phrase in English, which requires a circumlocution in German. In all such cases, the Translator has endeavoured to exercise his best judgment ; and it is hoped, that the learner will not have occasion for complaint in this re- spect. It has also been his constant effort to retain in the trans- lation, so far as possible, the definiteness and perspicuity of the original. EDWARD ROBINSON. Union Theological Seminary, New York, Feb. 1851. CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. Beet 1. General View of the Greek Language and its Dialects Page . 1 PART I. ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY. Page Letters and Pronunciation. 2. Alphabet 5 3. Pronunciation 6 4. Division of the Letters. — Vow- els, Consonants 8 5. Diphthongs ....... 9 6. Breathings. Spiritus asper et lenis 11 7. Prosody 12 8. Accents 18 9. The Acute and Circumflex . . 19 10. Words named according to the Accents 20 11. General Rules of the Accents . 20 12. Changes of the Accents ... 22 13. The Grave Accent. Atona . . 22 14. Enclitics 23 Sect. 15. Marks of Interpunction, etc. . 2b 16. Mutations of the Consonants 26 17. The Aspirates 27 18. Laws of the Aspirates ... 28 19. Accumulation of Consonants . 29 20. Assimilation of Mutes .... 30 21. Doubling of Consonants ... 30 22. The Double Letters ty and | . .31 23. Consonants changed before /z . 31 24. Changes of the Linguals ... 32 25. Changes of the Consonant v . 32 26. Movable Final Letters ... 33 27. Changes of the Vowels ... 34 28. Contraction 36 29. Hiatus. Crasis 39 30. Apostrophe 41 PART II. GRAMMATICAL FORMS AND FLEXION OF WORDS. 31. Parts of Speech 43 NOUNS. 32. Gender 43 33. Declension 44 34. First Declension 46 35. Second Declension .... 49 36. Contracted Form of Dec. II. . 50 37. Attic Dec. II 50 38. Third Declension. — Gender . 51 39. Stem. Case-endings .... 52 40. Formation of the Nom. ... 53 41. Nom. with Consonant before the Case-ending 53 42. Nom. with Vowel before the Case-ending 55 43. Flexion 56 44. Accusative Singular .... 58 45. Vocative 58 46. Dative Plural 60 47. Syncope of Words in t\p ... 60 48. Contracted Third Declension. Words with Gen. in -os pure . 61 49. Contraction of Words in tjs, es, os, a), as 61 50. Partial Contraction of Words in us, is 63 51. Words in is, vs, i, v. Attic Gen- itive 64 52. Contraction of Words in eus . 65 53. Varying and Double Contraction 65 54. Contraction of Neuters in os . 66 55. Contracted Form of Compara- tives in wy, ov 67 56. Anomalous Declension ... 67 57. Nouns, Defective and Indeclin- able 71 58. Catalogue of AnomalousNouns 72 ADJECTIVES. Endings 77 Adjectives in os, of three and two Endings 77 Adjectives in as 80 Other Adjectives of three End- ings 80 X CONTENTS. Sect. Page 63. Adjectives of two Endings and of one Ending ... 81 64. Anomalous and Defective Ad- jectives 83 65. Degrees of Comparison. Adj. in os 84 66. Comparison of other Adj. . . 85 67. Other forms of Comparison . 86 68. Anomalous Comparison . . 87 69. Defective Comparison ... 88 70. Numerals. — Cardinal Num- bers 89 71. Ordinals and other Numerals 92 PRONOUNS. 71a. Division of the Pronouns . 93 72. Substantive and Possessive 93 73. The Pronoun 5e?va .... 96 74. Adjective Pronouns . . .96 75. The Articles 97 76. Demonstrative Pronouns . . 99 77. Interrogative and Indef. Pro- nouns ........ 100 78. Correlative Pronouns and Ad- jectives 101 79. Special Correlatives . . .102 80. Paragogic Endings .... 103 VERBS. 81. Moods and Tenses. — Divi- sion of the Tenses . . . 104 82. Augment.— Syllabic . . .105 83. Syllabic Augment, continued . 107 84. Temporal Augment .... 108 85. Attic Reduplication . . . .111 86. Augment of Compound Verbs 112 87. Conjugation by Endings. In- flection by Number and Per- son. Union Vowel . . .113 88. Conjugation by Moods and Participles 115 89. Conjugation by Active, Pass- ive, and Middle . . . .117 90. Conjugation by Tenses . . 118 91. Characteristic 119 92. Double Themes 120 93. Formation of the Tenses . 123 94. Tenses derived from other Tenses 124 95. Future Active 125 96. First and Second Aorist Active 130 97. First and Second Perfect Act- ive 133 98. Perfect and Pluperfect Passive 136 99. Third Future 138 100. First and Second Aorist Pass- ive 139 i:j0a. Changes in the Characteris- tic 140 101. Verbs in \pvp 142 102. Verbals in Tens and t6s . . 145 Sect. Page 103. Paradigms of Barytone Verbs 146 Paradigm of tW« .... 147 Synoptical Table 147 Active 148 Passive 150 Middle 152 Paradigms of other Barytone Verbs 154 Paradigm of Verbs X[xvp . .158 Notes on all the Paradigms . 160 104. Usual and Unusual Tenses . 165 105 Contracted Conjugation . 166 Paradigm 168 Notes 174 106. Irregular Conjugation. — Verbs in pi 177 107. Paradigms of Verbs in /j.l . . 181 Notes 182 108. Anomalous Verbs in pi . . 190 I. 'trim cast 190 II. efcra set, r\pai sit .... 192 III. evvvpi clothe 192 IV. elpi lam 193 V. dpi I go . . . . . . 194 109. Other Irregular Verbs . . .197 I. covr) 'EWrjvc/cij), like all other lan- guages, had its various dialects (SiaXeicTOL) ; all of which, how- ever, may be referred back to two principal ones, viz. the Doric (r) Acopc/cT], Atopic) and the Ionic (r) 'Icovlktj, 'Ids), which belonged to the two great Grecian tribes of the like names. 2. The Doric dialect prevailed in almost the whole interior of Gieece, in Italy, and in Sicily. It was harsher, and made upon the ear, in consequence of the predominant long a (§ 27. n. 5), an impression which the Greeks call ifkarecaa/ios, broad pronuncia- tion. It was on the whole a less cultivated dialect. A branch of it was the JEolic (r) AloXlkt}, AZo\k). 3. The Ionic tribe in the earlier ages chiefly inhabited Attica, and sent out thence colonies to the coasts of Asia Minor. These colonies took the lead both of the mother tribe and of all the other Greeks in general improvement ; and hence the names Ionians and Ionic came to be applied chiefly, and at last exclusively, to them and their dialect. The Ionic dialect is the softest of all, in consequence of its many vowels. But the Attic (r) 'Attucy], 'At- #49), that is, the language of the primitive Ionians in Attica (the Attics, Athenians), soon overshadowed all the other dialects ; avoiding with Attic elegance and address both the harshness of the Doric and the softness of the Ionic. Note 1. Other minor branches of these dialects, such as the Bceotic, La- conic, Thessalian, etc. are known only from single words and forms, and through scattered notices, inscriptions, etc. 4. As the mother of all the dialects, we must assume an orig- inal ancient Greek language, out of which each dialect naturally retained more or less. Hence it is to be explained how the Gram- marians can talk of Doricisms, iEolicisms, and even Atticisms, in the old Ionic Greek of Homer. Generally, however, it was cus- tomary to call that which was usual or frequent in any one dia- lect, by the name of that dialect ; even when it happened to occur singly in the others. In this way must be explained, e. g. the Do- ricisms so called in Attic writers, and Attic forms in writers who otherwise did not employ the Attic dialect at all. # 5. To the same ancient language belong also, for the most part, the poetic forms and licenses so called. It is indeed true, that * E. g. The Doric future in crovfxai, £ov^cu; the Attic form of declension in cos ■ the ' Attic' £,vv for cvv, and the like. See note 6 5 below. A 2 INTRODUCTION. § 1. the poet contributes to the formation of a language ; yet the poet does not derive the innovations, which he finds necessary, simply from himself ; for this would be the surest way to displease. The earliest Greek bards merely selected, according to their wants, from the variety of actual forms which they found already exist- ing ; or, at least, they constructed new ones, according to exist- ing analogies. Many of these forms became obsolete in common usage : but the later poet, who had these old bards before his eyes, was not disposed to yield his right to these treasures. In this way, that which was originally a real idiom of the language, came to be poetic license. 6. In all cultivated nations, some one of their dialects usually becomes the foundation of the common written language, and of the language of good society. Among the Greeks this was not at first the case. Until about the time of Alexander, each writer employed the dialect in which he had been educated, or that which he preferred ; and thus were formed Ionic, iEolic, Doric, and Attic poets and prose writers, of whose productions more or less are still extant. Comp. text 10, 11, below. Note 2. To the Ionic dialect belong the earliest poets, Homer, Hesiod, Theognis, etc. whose language nevertheless has more of that apparently mixed character, which approaches nearest to the ancient language, and which afterwards continued to mark the language of poetry in most of its species. The proper though later Ionic is found in the prose writers, of whom Herodotus and Hippocrates are the principal ; though "both were of Doric origin. The Ionic dialect had already in their time acquired, in consequence of its peculiar softness and early culture, a certain degree of universality, especially in Asia Minor, even beyond the limits of poetry. Note 3. Among the poets of that period, the lyric writers were at home in all the dialects. The earliest and most celebrated were the iEolic lyric poets ; and of these the chief were Sappho and Alcceus ; from whom, how- ever, only a few fragments have come down to us. Anacreon sung in Ionic ; the other lyric writers were mostly Doric. Of these last, Pindar is the only one from whom any thing entire has come down to us. Note 4. Of Doric prose there is very little still extant, and that chiefly relating to mathematics and philosophy. 7. In the mean time, Athens had raised herself to such a pitch of political importance, that for a while she exercised a sort of sovereignty (rj^efiovla) in Greece ; and at the same time became the centre of all literary and scientific culture. The democratic constitution, which was no where else so pure, secured to the popular eloquence of Athens, and to the Attic stage, entire free- dom ; and this it was, in connection with other advantages, which raised to the highest point of perfection not only these two branch- es of literature, but also the sister ones of history and philosophy ; and at the same time gave to the Attic language a completeness and a comprehensiveness, to which no other dialect attained. Note 5. The principal prost writers of this golden period of Attic litera- ture are Thucydides. Xenophon, Plato, Lysias, Isocrates, Demosthenes, and the other Orators. § 1, THE GREEK LANGUAGE AND ITS DIALECTS. % 8. Greeks from all the tribes repaired now to Athens to obtain an education ; and even in those parts of literature which were most widely extended, the Athenian masterpieces were consid- ered as models. The consequence was, that the Attic dialect be- came by degrees the language of all educated persons, and the general language of books ; and was henceforth almost exclu- sively employed by the prose writers of all the Grecian tribes and countries. This language was now also taught in the schools ; and the Grammarians decided, according to those Attic models, what was pure Attic, and what was not. The central point of this later Greek literature, however, formed itself under the Ptol- emies at Alexandria in Egypt. 9. Along with this universality of the Attic dialect, began also the period of its gradual decay. On the one hand, writers min- gled with the Attic much that was derived from the dialect of their own country ; on the other, they introduced various changes. This the Grammarians (this class of whom are called Atticists*) sought to hinder ; and proposed in their books, over against those expressions which they censured or accounted less elegant, others selected from the older Attic writers. And thus arose the usage, that the term Attic was understood to include only that which was sanctioned by the authority of those early classic writers; while, on the other hand, the ordinary language of cultivated so- ciety, derived as it was from the Attic, was now called kolvtj, com- mon, or 'EWrjvL/cr), Greek, i. e. common Greek ; and even the writers of this later period were now called ol kolvol or ol "EWtj- ves, in opposition to the genuine Attics. Note 6. It is easy to conceive, that under these circumstances the ap- pellation koivos, koivqv, became a term of censure; and, in the mouth of the Grammarians, designated that which was not pure Attic. On the other hand, however, that which Avas called Attic, was not all for that reason ex- clusively of the pure Attic form, not even among the genuine Attics them- selves. Many an Attic idiom was not entirely usual even in Athens, but alternated with other forms in general use, e. g. Phf $1 phi 500 X X ch guttural XI chi 600 W ylr ps wz f psi 700 a CO o long 9 /2 fieya omega, long o 800 <3fc 900 * *E -tyi\6v and T T ^/i\6v have the epithet \pi\6v, i. e. Icnc, not aspirated, because in the earlier forms of the Greek alphabet, the figure of the e was at the same time one of the marks to denote the rough breathing (h) ; and the v was at the same time one of the modes of writing the digamma (or Lat. v, see § 6. n. 3). In order to dis- tinguish them as vowels from these two aspirates, this epithet was always subjoined. Comp. Appendix B. t The sound of tj is strbtly that of the long continental e, like the English hate. — Tr. V 6 ALPHABET. PRONUNCIATION. H 2, 3 Note 1. The twofold forms of some of the letters given above, are used without distinction, excepting cr and s of the small alphabet : cr is used only at the beginning and in the middle of words, and s only at the end of words. The latter is not to be confounded with r ; see the next note. In modern editions this s is often used in the middle of words ; but only in compounds, like ovsnvas, 7rpos 7K f° r AA ; etc - For a full exhibition of other abbreviations, see Appendix C . Note 3. The Greeks employed the letters of their alphabet also as nu- meral figures ; see the right hand column of the alphabet. In order to have enough, they added still three other figures or Episema (eV/cr^a) , viz. after e the r, here called Bad, Vau, and not err ; after it the KoWa, Q or ^j , or ^ ; and after a> the 2a/z7ri, 'Tfo t The first eight letters with Bav denoted the units ; the next eight with KoWa, the tens ; and the last eight with 2a/x7n, the hundreds. When used as figures, the letters are marked by a stroke above, thus : a 1, 0' 2, r 6; i 10, id 11, & 19, k 20, kst 26; p 100, cr' 200, o-X/3' 232, etc. The thousands commence again with a, but with a stroke beneath the letter, as t a 1000, fi 2000, j3crX/3' ; 2232. See § 70. Note 4. There was still another ancient mode of writing numerals, cor- responding to the Latin method. In this I was assumed as unity, and then the first letters of the numerals TIevre Jive, Aena ten, HeKarov (the old form of tKarov) hundred, XiXcoi thousand, Mvpioc ten thousand, were put for these numbers respectively; thus n denoted 5, A 10, H 100, X 1000, M 10,000. These letters were then combined to express different numbers, just like the Roman numerals ; except that whenever A, H, X, or M, was to be repeated five times, instead of this it was put only once, but enclosed in a large n. Thus lA[ 50, IaTai 61, M 500, M 5000, etc. This was the old Attic sys- tem, and is often found in inscriptions. — Tr. § 3. Pronunciation. 1. The ancient pronunciation can no longer be determined with certainty. Among the various ways in which Greek is pronounc- ed in modern times, two are most distinguished, called the Reuch- * This mark is commonly called Sti, and also Stigma. Its coincidence in form with the Bau (see note 3) is only accidental. t These three Episema were originally letters of the alphabet, which afterwards became obsolete. The resemblance of the r to the later abbreviation for ar is only accidental; as a numeral it is called Bad, and is merely another form of the di- gamma, F or -^ as i ts place in the numeral system shews, where it corresponds to the oriental Vav. The *f, originally cp, is called RoWa, and was derived from the oriental Koph, (Lat. Q,) which occupies the same place in the alphabet. Th< 2a/i7r? is strictly an abbreviation foi anr ; originally, however, it was simply th' old letter 2di/, derived from the oriental alphabet ; see Appendix B, — Tr i 3. PRONUNCIATION / linian and the Erasmian, after their respective advocates in the 16th century. We follow the latter, because it is most conformed to our own pronunciation, and to that which we give to the Latin. The Reuchlinian method follows chiefly that of the modern Greeks, which they warmly defend as the ancient and true pro- nunciation. Note. The Latin mode of writing Greek words may be seen above in the Latin names of the letters, in the following part of the present section, and in sH 5 and 6. — The common usage of the Reuchlinian pronunciation is the following : 77 is pronounced like 1 ; the diphthong ac like e in there ;• the sounds ei, 01, v, and vt, are all not to be distinguished from 1 ; and, finally. v in the other diphthongs (except ov) is pronounced like v or/, e. g. clvtos, avtos, Zevs Zefs.% There are indeed many traces, that this method, in its chief points, is really founded on an ancient pronunciation ; but this could not have been the one at all times and every where current. This appears incontestably from the manner in which the Latins wrote Greek words and names, and the Greeks Latin ones; e. g. Qrjfirj Thebej Pompeius ILofmrjios ;] Claudius ~K\o.v8los. Were the modern Greek pronunciation of 01 as I correct, neither the Latins could have made from ILoias Pceas ; nor the Greeks from Clartia KAoiAm; and even KcukiXios, Katcrap, for Ccecilius, Ccesar, does not de- cide for the pronunciation of ai like ce [e in there) , since we are by no means certain in respect to the pronunciation of this Latin diphthong. 2. In respect to particular letters, the following is to be re- marked : /3 was probably softer than our b ; hence the Lat. v is given by /3, e. g. £e/3%>o?, Bdppcov.t The modern Greeks uniformly give to j3 the sound of our v. y before another 7 and the other palatal letters (k, % £ ) is sound- ed like ng. E. g. iyyv? eng-gus, or like Lat. angustus ; avy/cpLaLs syncrisis, Ayyi is somewhat indefinite. The G-reeks always expressed the Latin / by their , as Fabius $d/3io<; ; the Latins, however, never reversed this, but always wrote ph for <£, e. g. Phcedrus. § 4. Division of the Letters. 1. The letters are divided into vowels and consonants. The vowels are subdivided only according to their quantity ; see § 7. 2. From the consonants must first be separated the three double letters f . t r, each of these being strictly two letters, for which however only a single figure is employed. For these letters see § 22 ; on f see also the preceding section. 3. The simple consonants are divided in a twofold way : a) According to the organ with which they are pronounced, viz. Labials j3 y ir, , yu,, Linguals $, r, *&, v, \, p, cr y Palatals. 7, tc, %. b) According to their power,t * Thej in Latin, as also on the continent of Europe, has the consonant power of y. — Tr. t The ancients found in the humming and hissing sounds of the letters £, m, n y r, s, a sort of transition to the full sounding vowels, and called them therefore half vowels. The first four, on account of their mobility and the ease with which they could be joined to other letters, were also called liquids. All the other consonants, by way of contrast to the vowels, were called mutes. Of these again, those three which were accompanied by a breathing or aspiration, were supposed thereby to become thick 01 rough (Sa, % % Middle ft 7, 8, Smooth 7T, K, T. Hence it appears that three mutes belong to each organ; and that these nine letters, arranged as above, are related to each other when taken in either direction ; the first perpendicular col- umn being labials ; the second, palatals ; and the third, Unguals. Note 1 . It is well to remark, that in parsing and other oral exercises, it is usual to designate the labial mutes as the P - sounds ; the Unguals, as T- sounds ; the palatals, as K-sounds. 4. We might here reckon a fourth organ, viz. the nasal or- gan ; to which belong the three letters fi, v, and 7 pronounced like ng (§ 3. 2). But as these three letters are at the same time pronounced with one of the other organs, the nasal organ appears only as secondary ; and no special place is due to it in the division of the letters. Note 2. The affinity between these three letters (/z, v, y) appears, e. g. from the fact, that the nasal v in the Prep. £v before labials passes over into the nasal labial /x; and before palatals, into the nasal palatal y ; while before the first four Unguals (to which organ it belongs) it remains unchanged : efi7ra- eym- ivra-. For the changes of v, see § 25. 5. No genuine Greek word can end in any other consonant than one of these three semivowels, cr, v, p, for those which terminate in f and -v^ end really in a:? and 7r?. Only etc and ov/c form here an exception ; and this never at the end of a phrase, but only before other words with which they are so closely connected in pronunciation as to lose their tone ; see « 13. 4. $ 26. 5, 6. § 5. Diphthongs. 1. The ancient pronunciation of the diphthongs is least cer- tain of all ; and it is therefore better to pronounce them in our manner, so as to make but one syllable. The manner in which the Romans expressed them will appear from the examples. at pron. a? (as in aisle), $alhpos Phaidros, Lat. Phsedrus. ei ei (as in height), JVetXo? Neilos, Lat. Mlus. Av~ fcelov Lukeion, Lyceum. were therefore called thin or smooth (\//£Aa) ; while between these two classes the medics, {fxiffa) hold the middle place. See Appendix D. 1. 10 DIPHTHONGS. § 5. oi pron. oi Botcorla Boiotia, Boeotia. vi ui (like the French ui or uy in hti, tuyau), EtXei- 6vca Eileithuia, Ilithyia. av au TXclvkos Glaukos, Grlaucus. cv ) { Evpos Euros , Eurus.^ 7]v ) I tjv^ov (from av^co) euxon. ov ou (as in you), Movcra Mousa, Lat. Musa. cov is solely Ionic ; e. g. covtos outos. Note 1. The Latin usage is not however fixed, especially in the diph- thong ei. This is shewn by the different modes of writing the words 'Icpi- yeveta Iphigenia, Mrjdeia Medea, 'HpdicXeiTos Heraclitus, IIoXvKkeiTos Poly- cletusy etc. — Some few words in aia, oia, remained in Latin unchanged; ex- cept that the i pr< Maia, Tpoia Troja. 2. From these are to be distinguished the improper diphthongs so called, which are formed by the Iota subscriptum, or Iota writ- ten under the following three vowels : a. 77, CO. At present the Iota subscript does not change the sound of these vowels, and serves merely to mark the derivation; originally however it was heaid in the pronunciation. The ancients wrote this Iota also in a line with the other letters ; and with capital letters this is still the case ; e. g. THI ^O^IAI, rfj crocpla ; tco "AlSt) or aSy. Note 2. The ancient native Greek grammarians reckon also tjv, cov, vi, among the improper diphthongs ; of which their definition is, that they are composed of a long and a short vowel, while all the others contain merely two short vowels. According to this we may conveniently divide all the diphthongs into Six proper : ai, et, ot ; av, ev, ov ; and Six improper : vi, vv, cov ; a, n, &>. It follows also in regard to pronunciation, that in order to distinguish tjv from ev, the sound of rj must be made to predominate ; so also in the case of av and vi. It is moreover apparent, that the case was the same with a, 77, o), so long as the 1 continued to be heard, i. e. probably during the whole strictly classic period; as is proved by the Latin mode of writing tragczdus, corrmdus, for rpayados, kco/jlwSos. But it is also no less evident from the later words prosodia, ode or oda, for Trpoo-adia, (o8rj, that then the difference between co and . — The short u existed also in the more ancient language, and was retained in the iEolic dialect and in the Latin, which is nearest related to that dialect. * That av and ev before a vowel are still written and pronounced in Latin with v, e. g. 'Ayavr} Agave, Ebiv Evan, is an error which has resulted from the Reuch- inan pronunciation ; only Agauc, Euan, are correct. 6. BREATHINGS. 11 To mark it they employed the letters o and v, which are nearly related. The Homeric j36\eo-3e belongs here; see § 114, (Sovkojiai. § 6. Breathing's. 1. With the letters are connected the two following signs, which are set over every vowel or diphthong at the beginning of a word, viz. 1 Spiritus lenis, irvevfia ijn\6v, the smooth breathing. 1 Spiritus asper, irvevpba Saav, the rough breathing. The Spiritus asper is our h ; e. g. "O^po? Homerus. The lenis stands where in other languages a word begins simply with a vowel ; e. g. iyco ego. Both these classes of words, however, are considered in prosody and grammar simply as beginning with a vowel. So in the case of the apostrophe (§ 30) and the movable finals (§26). 2. In the proper diphthongs, the Spiritus, as also the accents, are always placed over the .second vowel ; e. g. EvpLirlB-rj^, ohs. In the improper diphthongs a, y, a), this is not the case, even where the Iota is not subscribed ; e. g. "Afoq? (aSrjs) Hades. 3. The Spiritus asper stands also over every p at the begin- ning of a word. When p is doubled in the middle of a word, the first one takes the lenis, the second the asper, thus : pp. This is founded on a peculiarity of the ancient pronunciation, which the Latins also did not neglect in Greek words, e. g. pr/rcop, Uvppos, rhetor, Pyrrhus. 4. In the common language, all words beginning with v have also the asper. Note 1. Both these "breathings exist in other languages as distinct letters. The asper is the h of both ancient and modern languages ; the lenis is the Alef or Elif of the orientals. Nor is this latter a mere empty sign. Every vowel which is distinctly uttered without the aid of a preceding consonant, and consequently every one which is so uttered as to be heard entirely separate from the preceding letter,* is actually introduced by an audible breathing or gentle impulse ; and the ancients had more occasion to mark this impulse, inasmuch as they did not separate the words in writing. Note 2. The iEolians very frequently exchanged the rough breathing for the smooth, as did also sometimes the Ionians. Hence in the epic language occur such forms as vp.piv for vpiv, akro from akXofxai, rjekios for ffKios, etc. Note 3. Along with these two breathings the earliest language had still another aspirate, which was longest retained by the iEolians. This is com- monly called Digamma, from its shape /, i. e. a double r ; see § 2. n. 3 marg. Also App. B. It was strictly a real consonant with the sound of v, and was prefixed to many words which in the more known dialects have partly the asper and partly the lenis. — In regard to the Homeric digamma, which has been so much discussed in modern times, the whole subject rests on the following remarkable fact. A certain number of words beginning with a * E. g. if one would clearly distinguish ab-ortion from a-bortion : or would per- fectly articulate the second vowel in co-operate, pre-eminent, etc. 12 PROSODY. § 7. vowel, especially the pronoun ov, of, e, and also ayvvpn, akis, aXwvai, avag, dv- 8avo3, dpatos, cipva, cicttv, i'ap (ver), edvov, edeipa, edvos, etfico (video) , eUocn, etXa) (aXrjvai), tlireiv, e'Lpa> (sero), eKas, eKaarros, etcrjXos, eKrjn, eicvpos, £ko>v, ekdop-ai, £\icrcra>, eXna), evvvpi, eoiA£, "with al] their derivatives, have in Homer so often the hiatus (§29) "before them, tha.t, leaving these words out of the account, the hiatus, which is now so fre- quent in Homer, becomes extremely rare, and in most of the remaining cases can he easily and naturally accounted for. These same words have also, in comparison with others, extremely seldom an apostrophe "before them ; and moreover, the immediately preceding long vowels and diphthongs are far less frequently made short, than before other words (§ 7. 16). Hence we must conclude, that there was something at the beginning of these words, which produced both these effects, and prevented the hiatus. And since short syllables, terminating in a consonant (e. g. os, ov), are also often made long before these words, just as if they were in position, and that too in cases where they are not affected by the caesura (§ 7. n. 15, 3), it follows that all these words in Homer's mouth had this breathing (v) with the power of a consonant before them ) but had lost it in the far later period when Homer's songs were reduced to writing. Moreover, since during this time, and even later, these poems underwent many changes and received many additions, as is now generally acknowledged, we can hence very naturally account for the circumstance, that the traces of the digamma in Homer should have been thus obliterated. $ 7. Prosody. 1. The term Prosody, according to present usage, includes only the doctrine of quantity ', i. e. the length (productio) or short- ness (correptio) of syllables.^ 2. Every word and every grammatical form had, for every syl- lable, with few exceptions, a constant quantity, which the pro- nunciation of common life followed; and which must therefore be known in order to pronounce correctly. Note 1. For the poetic quantity, so called, see below in no. 12 sq. 3. The quantity is denoted by the two following marks over a vowel, (") long, (") short; e.g. a short a, a long a, a variable or doubtful. 4. Every syllable, which cannot be certainly proved to be long, must be assumed as short. 5. A syllable is long, either I. by Nature, or II. by Position 6. A syllable is long (I.) by Nature, when its vowel is long ; as in Latin the middle syllable of amare, docere. In Greek this is in part determined by the vowels themselves ; for of the sim- ple vowels * The ancient Greek grammarians included also under the name Trpocrwdia every thing by which the sound of a syllable was affected ; consequently also the accents and breathings. $ 7. PROSODY. 13 7j and o) are always long, e and o are always short. These therefore require no further rules. The three others, on the contrary, a, i, v, can all be, as in Latin, either long or short ; and are therefore called variable or doubtful, Lat. ancipites. Note 2. The epithet doubtful must not he misunderstood. All simple vowels are in certain words always long ; in others, always short. For the vowel-sounds e and o, the Greek language had distinct marks or letters for long and short ; for the three others, not. When therefore one of these three vowels, which are only apparently thus doubtful, is found to be really doubtful or variable in some particular words, e. g. the a in koXos, the i ill avia ; this is only the same that occurs also in the sounds of e and o with their double characters, e. g. in rpoxdco and rpa>xdco, aoos and acoos, veas and vrjas ; all which instances, in the most ancient mode of writing, were in like manner not distinguished. 7. In regard to syllables which are long by nature, there is the following general rule : Tivo vowels flowing together into one sound form a long syllable. Consequently the following are long : 1) All diphthongs without exception ; e. g. the penult in (3a- ar'CXeLos, eiraZco. 2) All contracted syllables ; and in this case the doubtful vowels are consequently always long ; e. g. the a in axcop for aefccDV, the i in tpo? for /epo?, the v in Accus. (36rpv$ for /36rpva<; ; see § 28. Note 3. From these contractions, however, we must carefully distin- guish the cases of simple elision, e. g. ana-yco for ano-aya ' } see §§ 28-30. 8. A syllable, even with a short vowel, is long (II.) by Posi- tion, i. e. when it is followed by two or more consonants, or by a double consonant ; e. g. the penult in XeyeaOat,, tcadeXfcoy, fit? Xe\xvov, atyoppos, KaOe^co, vojjll^co. Note 4. Very often, also, a vowel already long occurs in position, and must then be still more prolonged in pronunciation, e. g. Arjpvos (pron. Lemnos), oprrr}^, Xap&vftas, fiaWov ; also in Trpdrra), npd^coy where the a is proved to be long by the derived forms (irpa^is, Tvpayfxa) which take the circumflex. On the other hand, rdrrco, rd^co, have the a short, like rdgis. So too we must distinguish between the last syllable of Soopag where the a is long (Gen. Svpanos), and that of avXatj where it is short (Gen. avXaKos) ) just as between the final syllables of KvkXco-^ and Ke/cpo^. 9. A mute before a liquid (§ 4) forms regularly no position : hence the penult is short in UepitcXris, are/cvo^, Sl^pa^/Mos, yeviOXr/, Svctttot/ulos, etc. By the poets, however, these syllables are some- times used as if long, positio debilis. Note 5. If the vowel in such a syllable is long by nature, then of course it remains long; e. g. in Tvivraffkos, from aOXos, and in yjrvxpos, with the v long, as coming from yjsvxoa (see note 8) . Nothing is more common, than for learners to suppose, that a mute before a liquid renders even a long vo wel doubtful. 14 PROSODY §7. 10. To the preceding rule, however, the middle mutes (ft, y, S), when they stand before the three liquids X, fi, v, form an excep- tion, and make a real position. Consequently, in the following words the penult is long, though they are not to be pronounced as with a long vowel : ireTrXey/jiai, TeTpd{3c{3\os, ei/oS/zo? ; but in the following with p the penult is short : xapdSpa, MeXeaypos, /jLo\o/3p6s. 11. All syllables with a, i, u, the quantity of which is not fixed by the preceding rules, can be determined only by usage. This is best learned from the poets, especially the Attic poets. This mode of determining the quantity is said to be " ex auctoritate," by authority. So far now as it regards the root or stem-syllable of words, the quantity must be learned by observation or from the lexicon. The quantity of such syllables, however, as belong to the formation audi flexion of words, and the cases where the root itself in the course of flexion or formation changes its quantity, will be every where pointed out in the grammar in the proper place. Note 6. In regard to the quantity of syllables which serve for formation and flexion, it will only be necessary to specify the instances where the doubtful vowels are long; and every syllable on which no remark is made, and where the contrary does not follow from the general rules, is to be regarded as short ; see no. 4 above. E. g. the penult in TvpdypaTos, e'ru^a- [xrjv ; and so too in the formative endings, as in gvXivos, biKaioavvrj. Note 7. In our modern mode of pronunciation, it is for the most part only the quantity of the penult in words of three or more syllables, that we can render distinctly perceptible. And since it is important to become early accustomed to the correct pronunciation of such words, before one is already familiar with the poets, we give here a table of those which are most essential • but only such as have the penult long, 6 (pXvapos idle talk. larpos physician aKparos unmixed dviapos afflictive avddbns haughty crivain mustard ndpa turban nofiaXos rogue r} aiayd>v jaw-bone, dirados follower with all words in -ay 6s derived from ay, 'iacrcoz/, "Apaats, "Sdpanis Serapis.* TUvpnros, 'Evnrevs, 2ept, crvpco, if/vx®, etc. But a on the other hand is short, e. g. ciya, ypdcpco. — For verbs in dvco, Ivco, vvco, see § 112. n. 6. — Of the contracted verbs, the following deserve particular notice, as having the first syllable long : Kiveco move 8t(pdoo dive (pva-dco blow • piyeco shudder crvkdco plunder piyoco freeze. (riydco be silent The knowledge of all these words is useful, not only in respect to ordinary derivatives, as anpos, a^rvxos, erpiftov, Starpt'/3o), ipfipidr]s, etc. but also for many proper names, as Hermotimus, Demonicus, Eriphyle, etc. Note 9. All words nearly and clearly related to another word, or de- rived from it, have regularly the same quantity as the root. In verba] nouns, however, there are some forms which adopt, not the long vowel of the Present, but the short one of the Aor. 2. This takes place : a) In some nouns in rj, as rptfir], dtarpX^r], dva\jsvxyi 7rapa\jrvx^- On the other hand, ^rvxr] soul. b) In some adjectives in rjs, G. eos, as evxpii///?, drpi(3rjs, 7ra\ivTpifii]s, and subst. naiboTpij3r]s. Note 10. The rule that one vowel before another is short, which in Latin is uncertain, is even less applicable in Greek. Still, a long vowel before another vowel is far more rare, than before a simple consonant ; and espe- * The Ionic forms often furnish here a help to the memory in respect to a, hav- ing 7] instead of a ; e. g. 2Tvp and la>, which we must leave for the most part to the learner's own observation. We re- mark only that in the senarius, many of those which have a long vowel in the future, are always employed in the present also as long, viz. daicpva), fj.rjvvco, laxuco, aXvco, Sugo, Qva>, , \vco, va>, nplco, XP l0i - l* 1 the other kinds of verse, many of these and also of the others are doubtful. — The following words deserve notice as having the a long : 6 \a6s people 6 vaos temple kclcd (for Kaico) burn Kkda> (for Kkala) weep; further, the penult in \lr)v or \iav very, 'Eroai Bellona ; and of those in ia>v and dav, all which take o in the Genitive, consequently the comparatives (e. g. j3ekrlcov) and many proper names, as 'Ap-cplcov, 'YTreplcov, Ma^acoy, 'A/xu- Odcov, G. ovos. On the contrary AeuraXiW, ®opp.la>v, G. covos, have the i short. — As to proper names in aos, those of which Ado's- is a component part, have the a of course long ; besides these we have 5 ' Ap,(pidpao$ long, Olv6[iaos short. 12. Thus far we have treated of the prosodical laws of the lan- guage and the quantity of syllables in a grammatical sense. We subjoin what is necessary to be said upon that part of prosody call- ed Poetic Usage, which in part belongs to the subject of metre. As the general rule, we may remark, the poets were bound by the natural quantity of syllables, as it existed in the common language. Still the different species of poetry and of verse had a great influence on the prosody. There was especially a great difference in this respect, between the hexameter of the Ionic epic poetry, and the iambic trimeter or senarius which was the prin- cipal verse of the Attic drama, and according to which also the iambic and trochaic measures of this species of poetry were gen- erally regulated. Note 11. This Attic poetry had fewer poetic licenses; and regulated itself essentially according to the actual pronunciation q£ the Athenian people. The hexameter on the contrary, which followed originally the old Ionic pronunciation, allowed the poet in particular cases great freedom. The other kinds of poetry occupied the middle ground between these two ; and hence, even in the drama, those parts which in the expression of pas- sion departed most from the language of ordinary conversation, especially the lyric passages and choruses, employed more or less not only the forms but also the licenses of the epic language. Even the tragic senarius differed in such passages from that of comedy, which every where followed closely the language of ordinary life. * On the other hand, rb fou (t) the violet. t For the sake of the metre the eph poets could lengthen the i even in 'AckA*, 7nr>f, 'lAiov, an fill), etc. See note 14. § 7. PROSODY. 1? Note 12. To the peculiarities of the hexameter in respect to the quantity by nature, (see no. 6, 7, above,) belong especially the two following words, which in the Attic language are every where employed as short : koXos beautiful, 'icros like; but in. the epic language they are long, and the latter is therefore written laos. It is also to be noted, that dpd> epic dpi), curse, is in the Attic poets short, and in the epic, long; while dpi) misfortune is every where short. Others again have in the epic poets a quantity entirely doubtful, especially dvr)p man, "Aprjs Mars, of which the first syllable is elsewhere always short. Hence, even in the exclamation *Apes, "Apes, which occurs several times in Homer, the first a is long, the second short. Note 13. This difference between the two kinds of poetry is particularly conspicuous in respect to position. In the softer Ionic dialect the junction of a mute before a liquid is of itself sufficiently harsh ; and hence in the epic poets, especially the older ones, this case forms almost every where a position. Among the Attics, on the contrary, the rules above given (no. 9, 10) for short syllables, hold every where good in the comic senarius, while the tragic poets follow more the epic usage. 13. In many cases the Rhythm alone occasioned in the poets a deviation from the usual laws of quantity. These are in the strict sense poetic licenses ; because they arise solely out of the necessity of the versification, and have no root in the language itself; and because the nature of a syllable thus arbitrarily em- ployed is not thereby really changed. Note 14. Still we are not to suppose that this license was without re straints, any more than the others ; for this would have destroyed the charm of the versification. Those old bards were limited by their feelings and taste in such a manner, as to admit of these rhythmic licenses only in certain words and forms, and in particular cases. So especially : 1) In proper names: ' Air6Xka>vos with a prolonged, 'EXevaividao with the first i shortened, Hymn. Cer. 105, comp. 97. 2) In words which have too many short voiuels, as in dnoveeaSac, dddvaros, in both which the a of the first syllable w~as prolonged ; and hence this rhythmus of dOdvaros became afterwards usual among all poets. 3) At the beginning of a hexameter, where even Homer writes 'E7m- | Si) — , and 3?l\e K.a- \ aiyvrj- | re — . 14. Further, the following general rules hold good for poetry, especially the Homeric. When of two successive words the first ends, and the second begins, with a consonant, there is always a valid position. When however the two consonants begin the second word, the position is indeed regular, (e. g. Homer : "EvOa | acv Kara — , Xalpe \ %elv — , II. f. 73 avre | Tpooes,) but not fre- quent, except when the ictus comes to its aid; see note 15. 1. The Attics observed this position more accurately ; except that in this case also a mute before a liquid commonly makes no posi- tion ; e. g. Eurip. Iph. Taur. 1317, JToj? (pr/s ; \ t'l irvev- 1 fia ; 15. In the dactylic hexameter, when the arsis falls upon the last syllable of a word (i. e. the masculine caesura, App. A. 24. b), not unfrequently a short syllable is thus by the force of the ictus B 18 ACCENTS. § b. made long. This is called a lengthening by the ccesura. E. g. II. e. 359 <£t\e tea- \ alyvr)- \ re ko/jLl- \ aac. So a. 51 /3e- 1 Xo? e^e- | irevfck i- \ fak. See App. A. 20, 23, 24. Note 15. This mode of lengthening a syllable, however, is not often so simple as in these examples. More frequent is it : 1) When the following word begins with two consonants; which species of position (see 14 above) without this ictus does not regularly make a long syllable ; e. g. otl pa ^vrjo-Kovras 6pa.ro. 2) When the following word begins with a liquid; because such a letter can be easily doubled in pronunciation; e. g. II. e. 748 e/ Upr] \ 8i pa- | crriyt — . 6\ 274 apa \ 8i vecpos | eiVero — , pron. demmastigi, denne- plws. The p especially can be so easily doubled in such cases, that even in the Attic poetry, in the thesis as well as in the arsis, a short vowel before p is very commonly made long ; e.g. in the arsis of the senarius, — tov \ irpocrco- \ nov to. \ paicr), Aristoph. Pint. 1065 ; and the thesis of the spondee among anapaests, — avrat \ Se pi- | vas ex ov ~ I °~ tv » id. Nub. 343. Indeed, where a short syllable was necessary, the p was even avoided. 3) When the following word had the digamma • the aspiration of which could in like manner easily be increased. Hence the verses of Homer so often close with the possessive os (from e) in this manner : Svyare- | pa rjv, — noo-e- \ 'i a>. See § 6. n. 3. 16. In the dactylic hexameter, further, there is also this rule, viz. that a long voivel or diphthong at the end of a word be- comes short when followed by another vowel ; e. g. eifKev a- \ pi- <7to?, — eao-erai | aXyos, • — cro- \ (jxorepTj | dWcov. When however this case coincides with the arsis, the syllable remains long ; in other instances, rarely ; except before the digamma, as has been already remarked, § 6. n. 3. On the other hand, in the Attic se- narius this mode of shortening a long syllable was unknown ; the case being always avoided as hiatus. Note 16. In the middle of a word also the shortening of a long vowel or diphthong before a vowel sometimes occurs ; but only in certain words and forms, which must have had some such tendency in their pronunciation ; as in 77oieu/ (often written Troelv), ttoIos and its correlatives, olos, toiovtos, etc. But every such long sound is always shortened before i demonstrativum ($ 80), e. g. tovtovi, avrrji, avrau, etc. also in the epic eneir] for eVeiS^. § 8. Accents. 1. Along with the quantity of syllables, the Greek language paid regard also to the Tone, or what we call the Accent* The * There is no reason for believing that the accents were a mere invention of the Grammarians. It is true that the earlier writers had no marks for the tone-sylla- ble ; nor did they need them. It was only later, when the pronunciation of words with a false accent was creeping more and more into the language of common life, that observant Grammarians introduced the stiil current marks or accents; and this not as in other languages only here and there in special cases, but according to a well-considered system throughout the whole language ; just as the Masorites af- terwards did the same with the Hebrew text of the Old Testament. For these en- deavours we owe them no small thanks, in consequence of the variable nature of the Greek tone $ 9. ACCENTS. 19 Greek accent, however, falls just as often on a short, as on a long syllable ; and hence, if we utter this accent in our modern way, it must often injure the quantity ; e. g. TtdrjfM, ^cofcpdrr]?. For the manner of avoiding this, see § 9, notes. 2. A knowledge of the accents, both in general and in their de- tails, is indispensable for every one who would learn the language thoroughly ; nor are they without practical benefit even for com- mon use. Very often the quantity of syllables is indicated by the position of the accents ; many words and forms, which other- wise would have the same sound, are distinguished only by them ; and even when they teach us nothing directly, they yet serve to point out to us the general laws of the tone. § 9. The Acute and Circumflex. 1. Every Grreek word, considered by itself, regularly has the tone upon one of its vowels ; and this is of two kinds, the acute and the circumflex. The acute, b%ela (sc. irpocrcpBla accent), is the sharp or clear tone, denoted by the mark (1). 2. The circumflex, TrepiaTrco/xevri, i. e. the winding or prolonged tone, is denoted by the mark (1). It can stand only on a sylla- ble long by nature. Note 1. According to the theory of the ancients, there rests upon every syllable, which in our mode of speaking has not the tone, another called the grave or falling tone, /3apelct, Lat. gravis. But its mark (_1) is not in prac- tice written over such syllables ; and is to be well distinguished from the grave treated of in § 13. — According to the same theory, a long vowel marked with the circumflex is to be regarded as composed of two short ones which are drawn together in pronunciation, of which the first has the acute accent and the other the grave ; e. g. w from 66. On the contrary, when two short vowels accented thus, 66, pass over into a long one, this latter takes only the acute, co. Note 2. The audible expression of this difference in pronunciation is for us difficult. It will be sufficient here, to warn the learner against two principal errors. On the one hand, let him accustom himself to distinguish every accented long vowel (a> or co) from an unaccented one (iXovcra. Note 2. For apparent barytones, e. g. like opyr], rervcpcbs, etc. and for the. atona, see § 13. § 11. General Rides of the Accents. The place of the tone in every word is learned by observation and practice, better than by all rules and exceptions. Still, the following fundamental rules may be laid down, in regard to the distinction between the two species of tone. 1. The circumflex requires a syllable which is long by nature, i. e. from the nature of the vowel itself, and not solely from posi- tion. E. g. K7]8os, ?, \ 115. 3. b. The G-en. and Dative endings, § 33. 7. c. The Vocative endings ev and ol, § 45. 4. When however a penult syllable, which is long by nature, has the tone, it must have the circumflex, whenever the final syl- lable is short, or long only by position '; e. g. prjfia, olvos, ^v^ps, {3a)\a% (Gr. a/co?). Note 2. This rule does not apply to words to which, enclitics are ap- pended; hence eire, ovre, &cmep, rJTts, rovcrhe, etc. § 14. n. 2. — The only real exceptions are the particles ewe and vai%i, prolonged from el and vai The accentuation vaiyi is false. 5. On the contrary, when the final syllable is long by nature, the circumflex cannot stand upon the penult, but only the acute ; hence pTjTtop, dlvr), tyll^G), ^(l)pa% (Gr. CLKOS). 6. The antepenult syllable can have only the acute (§ 10. 1). When however the final syllable is long, either by nature or from position, the antepenult cannot have the tone ; hence ScDKpdrrjs, auWeyo), epi/3(b\a%. 7. The endings av and ot, although in themselves long, have nevertheless in respect to the two last preceding rules only the power of a short vowel ; hence Tplaivat, Trpocprjrai, 7ra>Xoi, avdpcoiroi, Plurals of rpiaiva, Trpocprjrrjs, ncokos, avOpcoTTOS. TV7TTOji.ai, TVTVTeTai, Tinrreardai, Terv^tai, Passive forms. 7roirjcrac, arrjcrai, Qelvat, Infinitives. 7roLTja-aiy cTTrjo-ai, Imperatives Mid.' Note 3. The following are exceptions : 1) The third person of the Optative in oi and at, e. g. cpevyoi, TToifjo-at. 2] The adverb oXkoc at home. Plur. oIkol houses is short. 3) Words to which enclitics (§ 14) in oi are appended ; e. g. fioi, rot, as o'lfioi, woe is me ! rjroi, whether from rj truly, or from rj or. 8. The a in the endings of the Attic declension so called like- wise permits the tone to be on the antepenult ; e. g. irokeoj?, tto~ \eo)v (§ 51), and N. and A. Sing, and Gr. Plur. avcoyewv, § 37. Note 4. So also the a> in the Ionic Gen. in ea> of the first Declension ; e. g. betnroTeoz for dea-jrorov, § 34. IV. 5. Note 5. It is now easy to see, how the learner can readily ascertain the quantity of many words by means of the accents. It is at once known : 1) From the circumflex, that the syllable on which it stands, is long. 2) From the acute in such words as KapKivos, (3&6pov, etc. that the penuli is short (Text 4). 3) From the accent of such words as Kelpa, apovpa, that the last syllable is short (Text 4, 6). 22 ACCENTS. §§ 12, 13. 4) From the acute in x®P a > AqSa, "that the last syllable is long (Text 4, 5) Further, we pronounce the t in acnros long, and in SeocpiXos short, because alros has the circumflex, and (pikos the acute. So also in bUrj, a'Si/cos-, we recognise the short t, because the Plur. 8Uai occurs sufficiently often to recollect, that we have never seen it with the circumflex (Text 7). Note 6. Only the circumflex on monosyllables decides nothing for their lengthened forms ; since the monosyllabic nominatives of the third Decl. are always long (§ 41. n. 3. § 42. n. 2) ; e. g. irvp, p.vs, Gen. nvpos, /ivos. § 12. Changes of the Accents. When a word is changed by decimation, conjugation, or in any other way, this change has in very many cases an influence on the accent; viz. 1. A necessary influence, when the change is such, that the accent of the primary form, according to the preceding rules, can no longer be retained ; in such cases The circumflex is exchanged for an acute, e. g. olvos Cren. dlvov h 11. 5 ; prj/jLa Gren. prjfiaro^ k 10. 1. The acute for a circumflex, e. g. ripur) Gr. rifir}? k 11. 3. b ; favyo) Imperat. 0$0<; ; TTCuSeVTOS aTTCLL&eVTOS. 2) When the cause, which held the accent to the penult in the primary form ($ 11. 6), falls away; e. g. ircuSevco, Imperat. iraiheve. More exact details and the exceptions are given in the notes under no. I, at the end of § 103, and in the rules for the composition of words § 121. b) The accent is moved forwards, but far the most part only when the word receives one of those endings, which always have the tone ; e. g. the Part. Perf. in c6?, as rervcfxi Part. rerv(f)co<; ; the Genitives of monosyllables in the third Decl. as ^rr/p, ^po?, § 43. n. 4 ; also many endings hi the forma- tion of words, § 119. Note. For the shifting of the tone in Anastrophe, see § 117. 3; in Apos trophe ) see § 30. n. 1 ; when the Augment is dropped^ see § 103. m. 2. § 13. The Grave Accent. Atona. 1. Hitherto we have considered the tone, only as it belongs tc every word and every form by itself. But the connection of words has also an influence on the tone. This takes place in two H 13, 14. ACCENTS. ENCLITICS. 23 principal cases ; viz. the tone of a word is modified by its depend- ence either upon the following or the preceding parts of a sen- tence. This we call : I. Tendency of the tone towards the fol- lowing word or words, as shewn (1) by a depression of the acute, or (2) by casting off the tone ; II. Tendency of the tone towards the preceding word, or Inclination. I. Tendency of the Tone towards the folloioing Word or Words. 2. When an oxytone (4 10. 2) stands in connection before other words, the acute tone or accent is depressed, i. e. it passes over more or less into the grave, and the final syllable thus loses its sharp or clear tone. This depressed acute is thus marked, 1. At the end of a period, however, and consequently before a point or colon,* the acute remains unchanged. E. g. 'Opyrj Be iroWa Bpav avay/cd^ei K,atca. Note 1. According to the theory in § 9. n. 1, all syllables without the tone (Lat. graves) ought to receive this mark. But as this was not usual, the same mark was chosen for all those accented final syllables, in which the tone was weakened in order to connect them the more readily with other words in a sentence. Hence in grammar such words are never called barytones, but remain oxytones. Note 2. The interrogative pronoun rls, n, (§ 77,) is the only exception from this rule. For the acute on final syllables before enclitics, see § 14. 3. The following monosyllables, all beginning with a vowel, ov (ovKy ov^) not, co? as, el if, ev in, eh (e?) into, e'f (etc) out of, and these nominatives of the prepositive article (§ 75) 6, rj, ol, at, appear commonly wholly unaccented, because of their close con- nection with the following word ; hence they are called atona, words without tone. E. g. 6 vovs' rj\6ev ef "Aata^- t»? eV irapo- Brp' ov yap iraprjv. 4. So soon however as such words are no longer in connection with the following words, whether they stand alone, or at the end of a sentence, or after the words on which they depend, they immediately take their tone. E.g. ov no; 7rco? yap ov ; ivhy not? ^"eo? co? irlero as a god; ovBe /catcayp ef, for etc /ca/ccov. Note 3. These words stand, in respect to the tone, nearly in the same relation to the following word, as the enclitics do to the preceding one ; hence they are now often called, after Hermann's suggestion, proclitics. See Ausf. Sprachl. § 13. 5, note. § 14. Enclitics. II. Tendency of the To'ne towards the preceding Word. 1. This is the Inclination of the tone so called, ey/cAicu?. * Through a misunderstanding of the ancient principle, the acute is now placed o/ mcst editors also before a comma. 24 ENCLITICS. $ 14. There is in Greek quite a number of words, of one and two syl- lables, which can connect themselves both in sense and pronun- ciation so closely with the preceding word, as to throw back their tone upon it. Since now these words, in respect to their tone, as it were lean or support themselves (iy/cXlvecrOai) upon the fore- going word, they are therefore called Encliticce, Enclitics. On the other hand, every accented word, and these enclitics them- selves when they retain their tone, are called orthotone, opOoro- vovfieva, i. e. with upright tone, not inclined. 2. Sucli enclitics are : 1) The indefinite pronoun rh, rl, through all the cases, as also the forms rod, rS, which belong to it. The interrog. rk, rl, ivho ? has on the contrary always the acute, § 77. 2) The following oblique cases of personal pronouns : [xov, fjuoi, /jue ' crov, croi, ere • ov, ol, e • /ullv, vlv, and most of those begin- ning with c-(/>. h 72. n. 2. 3. 3) The Pres. Indie, of el fit and (f>7]/il, except the monosyllabic 2 pers. Sing. § 108. IY. § 109. I. 4) The indefinite adverbs irais, tttj, ttoi, ttov, ttoQI, iroOev, rrore, which are distinguished solely by their enclitic tone from the interrogative particles 7rye, icev or ice, vvv or vv,* irep, pa, and the inseparable particle Be, see notes 2. 3. 3. Whenever the inclination takes place (comp. 7 below), if the word which immediately precedes the enclitic be a propa- roxytonon (avOpcoTros) or a properispomenon (crco/xa), the enclitic throws back its accent upon it ; but always as an acute upon the final syllable ; e.g. avOpcdTTos ecrri, acofid fiou. When an atonon or unaccented word (as el) precedes, this word receives the accent ; e. g. el Tt?. 4. When however the preceding word has already an accent of its own upon the final syllable, or has simply an acute upon the penult syllable, this accent of its own serves also for the en- clitic ; but in such cases the acute on the final syllable is not, as elsewhere, depressed into the grave (s s 13. 2) ; e. g. dvTjp Tt? • fcal rrore • (f>i\co o~e • yvvaaccov rtveov. 5. When a monosyllable enclitic follows a paroxytone, the en- clitic loses its accent, and no further change takes place ; since here too the accent of the paroxytone serves also for the enclit- ic ; e.g. avBpa re' Xeyets ri' 6. When one enclitic follows another, the first, after having thrown back its tone upon the preceding word, receives itself the * This particle (noiv, well, indeed) is distinguished by its enclitic form from the adverb of time vvv now. 14. ENCLITICS. 20 tone of the second enclitic, but always as an acute ; and so on, when several follow, quite to the last, which alone remains un- accented; e. g. el rfc Tivd cf)7]al fiob irapelvai. 7. The enclitics retain their tone, that is, become orthotone (see I, above), when the inclination is hindered. This takes place : 1) When an enclitic of two syllables follows a paroxyione ; e. g. Xoyos 7Tore e^oopet' evavrLo*; acplcjiv (note 1). 2) "When the syllable upon which the tone of the enclitic would regularly have been thrown back, has been cut off by apos- trophe ; e. g. ttoWoI S' elaiv. Note 1. The more readily to -understand the rules for Inclination, the learner may refer them back to those for the accent of single words in con- nection with the number of syllables j yet without taking into account the quantity of the final syllable as affecting the accent. If we conceive of two words combined into one through the inclination, (which is really the case except in the writing,) then avOpcoiros eVrt must receive a second ac- cent, because the accent on the fifth syllable from the end is not enough for the word ; and so in cr%ia p.ov, with the circumflex upon the antepenult. On the other hand, in dvrjp tis, cfiikco ere, avdpa re, the usual accent is sufficient ; and only the manner in which dissyllables are inclined after perispomena, varies from the rule. Hence examples like yvvaiKcov rivcov sand, Iovtlvcov are not marked as enclitic by recent grammarians. In cases where an enclitic dissyllable follows a paroxytone, the inclination is said to be hindered; i. e. the accent of the paroxytone can not serve at the same time for the enclitic, e. g. \6yos 7tot€. To write here \6y6s nore would violate the rhythmic law of arsis and thesis, by placing two syllables with equally sharp tone in im- mediate succession. Hence it remains, Xoyos rrore. App. A. 20. 8. Besides these cases, an enclitic can regularly remain ortho- tone, only at the beginning of a clause or sentence, or when some emphasis in the thought falls upon it, especially in an antithesis. Many of these words, however, (especially those in no. 2. 5,) are in their nature such, that they can never come into these cir- cumstances, and are therefore always enclitic. Note 2. Many words, which are usually connected with an enclitic in some particular sense, are also written with it in one word; e. g. coo-re, ovre, pivroi, oaris, covrivcov (§ 77). — The enclitic de (different from de but) occurs only in this shape (as inseparable) in ode, roaoade, code, dopovde, etc. (§§ 76, 79. § 116. 2, 7). Such an enclitic takes the tone of another follow- ing one, only in cases where the general rules require it, as oXrives elaiv, code re ; otherwise usually not, as ovre n. — Still, in most of the cases which be- long under this note, there is little uniformity in the editions; particularly, where the first word in such a compound (according to Text 3) must receive two accents. In this case we find sometimes e. g. v Epej36ade, oloo-re, fully written ; and sometimes only the second accent. 'Epefioade, oloo-re. Note 3. The demonstratives, whenever they are strengthened by de (§ 79. § 116. 7), move forward in all cases their own tone upon their final syllable; e. g. roaos, rolos — roo-oade, roioade' ttjXlkos — rrfkiKocrde' evBa — iv- 6ade' Tolai — Toio~Lde. Since this now becomes the regular accent of the principal word, the Gen. and Dat. of these compounds take also the circum- flex upon their long vowels, according to § 33. 7. E. g. roo-ovde, Too-jjde, Totoicrde; on the other hand, Nom. and Ace. roo-rjde, roiovcrde. 26 interfunction. mutations of consonants. $§ 15, 1(5. § 15. Marks of Interpunction and other Signs. 1. The Greek written language has the point (period) and comma, like our own. The colon is marked by a point above the line, e. g. ov/c r)X6ev • aX\a — . The note of interrogation (;) is like our semicolon. Note. The note of exclamation (/) lias been only very recently intro- duced by a few editors. 2. From the comma the Diastole or Hypodiastole ( , ) must be distinguished. This serves more clearly to separate some short words connected with enclitics, in order that they may not be confounded with other similar words ; e. g. 6,tl (epic o,ttl) neut. of ogtls, and to,t6 (and that), in order to distinguish them from the particles ore (epic om) that, and rore then. 3. The following marks have reference only to letters and syl- lables : — the Apostrophe, see § 30. !_ the Coronis or mark of crasis, see § 29. :: the mark of Dicer esis (French trema), placed over the last of two vowels, to show that they are to be pronounced sep- arately, and not as a diphthong ; e. g. ot? o-is, irpavs pra-us. h 16. Mutations of the Consonants 1. In tne formation of words and derivation of forms, there oc- cur in the Greek language many changes of the letters, chiefly for the sake of euphony and easier pronunciation. These often make the root' very difficult to be recognised ; while they yet al- most always proceed from acknowledged principles. 2. In regard to the Consonants it is in general to be observed, that letters of the same organ, or those which in different organs have the same power (§ 4. 3), are also most inclined to pass over into each other, or be exchanged for one another, whenever a change takes place in a word. 3. This circumstance is also the foundation -of the difference of dialects ; as the sketch in the following notes will show.* Note 1. The dialects exchange most frequently for one another: a. The aspirates; e. g. SXav crush, Att. (p\au. So the name s, koios-, SkoIos, k&>, etc.) — So nore waen. Dor. ttoko.. Also Trevre jive, iEol. nep,Tre. * The learner must take care not to regard the following dialectic changes as genera 1 or frequent. In many of them the examples adduced are the only ones that exist 17. $ ASPIRATES. 27 d. The liquids; thus the Dorics say, for rj\6ov, fieXncrTos, (ptXraTos, — rjvdov, fievTUTTos, (pivraros; the Ionics and Attics for nvevpcov lungs, 7r\evpcov; for KXiftavos oven, there exists an Attic form npifiavos. — For plv and viv see § 72. n. 6. 12. e. The letters of the same organ; e. g. the Attics say yvacpevs fuller rather than Kvacpevs ; and rams carpet was equally good with dams. The Ion- ics sometimes also exchange the aspirates for the corresponding smooth mutes; e. g. deKopai for be-^opat take; avrcs for avOis again; Att. da ov. clvtl, clvt — av& o)v. * For this and similar instances, see the author's Lexilogns. II. 109. 28 ASPIRATES. § 18. Note 1. The Ionics retain in "both cases the smooth mutes; e. g. eV ocrov, ovk &)?, lardvat — perLcrrdvai, Kardirep for KaOdirep (kclB'' airep). Comp. § 16. note 1. e. Note 2. A singular case of this change of a smooth mute, is, when an- other letter stands between it and the rough breathing, as in redpunrov a four-horse chariot, from rerpa- and iWos ; and in some Attic contractions, as Soip,driov for to ipdriov (§ 29. n. 4, 5), (ppovbos from npo and odos.^ § 18. Laws of the Aspirates. 1. It is a law of the Greek language, that when two successive syllables would regularly begin each with a rough mute, one of these, and usually the first, passes over into the corresponding smooth of the same organ. This rule is without exception in all reduplications ; e. g. irecplXrjKa, Ke^ojprjKa, rfflrjfu, — instead of (f>ecf>. x e X' ^^' Elsewhere, however, in flexion and derivation, this law is observ- ed only in some few cases. 2. Some few words have already in their roots strictly two as- pirates, of which consequently the first has been exchanged for a smooth. So soon, however, as in the course of formation or flex- ion the second aspirate is in any way changed, the first immedi- ately reappears. E. g. Root @PE<1>: Pres. rpe(j)co nourish, Fnt- 'hpe-^rco, Derivatives rporj, ^peirrrjpiov, ^pefifia. Similar causes may also already have operated upon the primary form, which stands in the lexicon (the Nominative or Present), and not upon the forms derived from it. Hence arises the case apparently opposite to the former one (rpecfrcD, ^pe^co, — Sr/otf, Tpixos) which however is at bottom the same : Root ©PIX: Noni. $•/?/£ hair, Gren. rptxos, Dat. PI. ^>pi%iv, Derivative rp^a. Here belong still some other verbs (see in h 114 ^ra7rrco, &A$-, ^rpvTTTco, Tpexco, tvcjxd) ; also the adjective Tayys, Compar. Sw- awv, k 67. 3. Yery seldom, when two aspirates thus come together, is the second one changed. Yet this is the rule in respect to Impera- tives in ^tl ; e. g. Imper. Aor. 1 tikjjOtjtl for tv$Qt}6i. See n. 2. Note 1. In some words the Ionics change the first aspirate, the Attics the second, and vice versa ; e. g. x L ™ v tunic, Ion. taOcov ; evrevdev, ivravBa, [on. evdevrev, evdavra, § 116. 7. Note 2. The Passive ending $tjv, and the forms derived from it, act only upon the preceding 3- in the two verbs Sveiv burn incense, Sehai place, as ervdrjv, ertdrjv, redeLs. In all other verbs no such change occurs, e. g. ixv&rjv, a>p0d)0T)v from opdoco, Scufideis, i8pe have, Fut. e£co, Deriv. cktikos. Generally however the breathing remains unchanged, e. g. acpfj, iKpalva), ■q\i, edev. § 19. Accumulation of Consonants. 1. From the immediate juxtaposition of consonants, there often arises a harshness, which the Greek language endeavours to avoid. 2. In general three consonants, or one consonant and a double letter, cannot stand together, unless either the first or the last of them is a liquid, or , and y, k, % come to stand before o-, they pass over with it into the kindred double letters *fy or £. E. g. by appending the future ending crco are formed from rpl/3a> Tptyco, \6L7tco XetycD, ypdcfxo ypdtyco Xeyco A-efo), 7rXefcco ifki^w, arel^G) o-tel^co, and with the ending of the Dat. Plur. ctl, ctlv, are formed from "ApajSes "Apa^i, fcopa/ces icopa^iv, cW^e? ovu^c. 2. Here also the preposition etc constitutes an exception : e. g. Note 1 . We must by no means suppose, that the \js when it thus stands for (da and (per, and the £ when it stands for ycr and ya, are always to be pronounced the first like bs or fs, and the latter like gs or chs. If this were so, the double letters were but a poor invention. The true state of the case is, that before o-, the letters y and x were changed into k, and /3 and cp into n ; and then were written together with the o- in £ and y\r. An evident proof of this is a comparison of the Lat. scribo^ scripsi. Note 2. The £ is also a double letter, and stands originally for o-§ (§ 3) ; Dut in the ordinary course of flexion and formation, the cases where it is written instead of these letters, occur for the most part only in some ad- verbs of place, which are formed by appending the syllable 8e ; as 'Adr]va(e for -ao-Se. Hi 6. § 23. Consonants changed before /j,. 1. Before fi in the middle of words, the labials or P -sounds ((3, it, co ypafi-fiT]. 2. The palatals and Unguals are often changed before /x, viz. k and x (K-sounds) into y, e. g. 7r\e/CG) irkey-fia, rev^co rervy-fiat, and the T-sounds, 8, ^r, r, with the double letter f, into a, e. g. aSo) aa-fia, irelOoa irkireia-ixai, yfrrjc^l^co ^njcbicr-fMa. Note. In the formation of words generally, the palatals and Unguals are nevertheless sometimes found unchanged before p.; e. g. duprj, eyjua, 'idpcov, K€v6p,b)v, norpo?. Other examples are peculiar to the dialects; e. g. from n(r}, comm. 007x77. 32 CONSONANTS CHANGED. $§ 24, 25. § 24. Changes of the Linguals. 1. The Unguals 8, S-, t, g can stand only before the liquids X, v, p. Before pu they are commonly changed into cr (§ 23) ; and £ as a double letter, does not appear before another consonant. 2. Before other linguals they are changed into cr, e. g. . 77S&) rjcr-OrjV, ireiOod ireicr-Teov. 3. Before cr they are dropped, e. g. aBco a-crco, ireiOco Trei-crco, crcopbara crcopLa-cn, (f>pd£co (ppd-crcs. Note. For the changes of t in the abbreviations of Kara, see § 117. n. 2, § 25. Changes of the Consonant v. 1. The z; generally remains unchanged before S, &, and t. Be- fore the labials (ft, tt, <£, /x) it is changed into fi ; and before the palatals (7, k, %), into 7 with the sound of ng ($ 4. 4). E. g. in compounds with cruz; and eV, crvfi7rdcr%(0, ifi/Salvco, ovficfrepa), efjutyv%ps i ; as ivpdiTTO}. 3. Before or and £ the z> in composition is sometimes retained, sometimes changed into cr, and sometimes dropped (see n. 2) ; in flexion v is commonly dropped before cr, e. g. in the Dat. Plur. haipuov-es haipbo-ari • jjLi)v-e^ pLrj-criv. Here too the preposition iv remains unchanged ; as ivaelco, iv^eco. 4. When after the v, a $, ^sr, or r has also been dropped before the , as dyaaOevq?, dyaK~kvTo?. $ 26. MOVABLE 7INAL LETTERS. 33 Note 4. By the ancients, the v at the end of words was also pronounced according to the principles of this section, when the following word began with a consonant; especially in the article and in prepositions. E. g. rbv Sozfiov, iv 7rvpi, avv Kapncp, were pronounced thus : Top.fi(op.6v, ep-nvpi, avy- Kapna. In old inscriptions, which do not separate the words, such instances are often thus written. § 26. Movable Final Letters* 1. Certain words and endings have a twofold form, with and without a final consonant. The first is commonly used before a vowel, the latter before a consonant. 2. Here belongs particularly the movable v, called in Greek V €iv. § 56. n. 9. 3) The numeral eUoo-iv twenty ; where, however, the form without v can also stand before vowels. 4) The adverbs irkpvcnv and voacpiv. 5) The enclitic particles /cev and vvv. k 14. 6) Sometimes the l demonstrative. § 80. n. 3. 4. Of the same character is the ? in ovtcds, ovtco, so ; and also in fjuexpts, ayfiis, until; except that the last two often stand with- out ? before a vowel. Note 1" The Ionics omit the v also before a vowel. On the other hand-, it is used not only by the poets even before a consonant in order to make a position j but it was also frequently employed in this manner in the Attic prose, in order to give energy to the tone. Besides these cases, it stands also in correct editions, without reference to any following word, at the end of sections and books; in short everywhere, wherever the discourse is not immediately connected with something following. For metrical reasons the v is also written at the end of most kinds of verse, even when the next verse begins with a consonant. Note 2. This last circumstance shews clearly, that this v is not, as is generally supposed, merely an invention for the sake of euphony; but that this, as well as the other final letters of the kind, certainly belonged to the ancient formation, and was first droned before consonants, as the language became softer. Hence there are also other forms, which cast off their final letters among the Ionics, or for the sake of metre ; as the adverbial termin- ations 6ev and kis; e. g. aXXode for aXXodev, 7roAAa/a for noWa/cis; axpkp.a and * These are called movable, not because they are simply audible, as the term im- plies in Hebrew grammar; but because they may be added to certain words, or removed from them, at pleasure, in certain circumstances ; and in distinction from fixed letters, which cannot be thus removed. Comp. § 87. n. 2. and n. 5.1. — Tr. c 34 CHANGES OF THE VOWELS. § 27 arpepas. — Exactly similar to the movable v, is also the v in composition with a privative; e. g. avainos. § 120. 5. 5. The particle ov not, no, takes before a vowel a final a;, and consequently, before the rough breathing, a final % ; e. g. ov irapeo-Tiv, ov/c eveorriv, ov% vireaTiv. When however this particle stands at the end of a clause, or where there is a pause in the sense, the k falls away ; e. g. tovto 8' ov, but this not. Ov • aXX b'rav — , no : but when — . 6. The preposition e'f out of, has this form only before vowels and before a pause ; e. g. e£ ijjbov, ef orov, tca/ccov ef. Before all consonants the ? of the double letter £ (/e?) falls away, and the k remains ; e. g. etc rovrov, etc ^aXacrcrris, iic yrjs. This k remains unchanged, at least in the written language, also in composition ; where it forms the exceptions mentioned in § 20. 4. § 22. 2. $ 27. Changes of the Yowels. 1. The vowels are changed in Grreek, as in all other languages , but without any fixed universal law. In flexion and in the near- est derivatives, when the primary vowel or diphthong is exchang- ed for another, this latter may be called the alternate vowel or sound (Grerm. Umlaut) ; meaning simply the corresponding vowel or diphthong, which thus alternates with that of the ground-form, or into which that of the ground-form is changed. E. g. Tpeiroj I turn, erpaTTov I turned, rpoiros turn, trope ; where the a and o in the latter words are the alternates of e in the first word. 2. To the change of vowels belongs also the lengthening and shortening of a sound ; both which, however, are generally con- nected with some other change ; e. g. a into r\. So too when from any cause the sounds e and o are lengthened, they seldom pass into r\ and co, but are changed, e into ei, o into ov. Comp. note 1 ; also k 25. 4. § 41. 4. § 46. 2. 3. All these changes of the vowels constitute another prin- cipal part of the peculiarities of the dialects ; of which the fol- lowing notes give a general view. Comp. h 16. 3. Notes. 1. The Ionics thus lengthen the e and o of the other dialects, chiefly however when these sounds are followed by the semi- vowels ; e. g. £e«/oy €?veK.a, v7T€ip, for t-tvos strange , eve e ^c. — For fiovXeorOe stands the antique /3dXe- cr#e (§ 5. n. 3) ; and for the Ace. in ov?, Dor. or, see Dec. II. 4. Elsewhere the Dorics and iEolics often have a> for o and ov, and before o- also ol for ou. E. g. Kwpos for Kopor or icovpo? boy, bcokos for SowAo? stave, o)v (also Ion.) for ow, Mcoo-a and Moio-a for Mouo-a, dKoiaco for aKouora) from a/couo). 5. The 77 in Greek words has arisen in most cases out of the a, which pr ad animated in the more ancient language, and remained afterwards the characteristic vowel of the Dorics ; who instead of 77 commonly had a long; e. g. dpepa for rjpepa day, (papa for (})r]prj rumor, crrdvat for crrrjuai. The same takes place also in the solemn poetry of the tragic choruses. Comp. § 1. 2, and n. 12. 6. When, on the contrary, the Ionics in some single instances change 77 into a, this a is short; as in dpapvla for dprjpvla, TtOakvia, etc. Hence in the Ionic forms XeXao-pac from Xrjda>, peaapfipia for peo-r]p(3pia, the a must not be lengthened in pronunciation, as in the Doric. 7. Elsewhere the Ionics prefer throughout the 77, and commonly use it instead of long a; e. g. rjpiprj, crocplr], for -a; r\r\p, rjepos; for drjp, depo? ; Irj- rpos, Qa>pr]£, for larpos physician, Qcopaf- Gen. clkos breast-plate; 7rpf)cD ; peya6os for peyeOos. 10. A particular Ionic- Attic usage is, that when long a stands before 0, the former is changed into e, and the latter into a> ; e. g. for Xao? people, vdos temple, we find Att. Aeoor, veus ; for ;(paofiai (i wse) Ion. -^piaypai; and thus is explained the Ionic Genitive in eco, from the antique form in ao, see Dec. I * 11. The Ionics change av into a>v or etc.) and rpavpa wound; as epecovrov, icovrov (§ 74. 3), Soovpa, rpcovpa. The simple aurds 1 remains unchanged among the genuine Ionics; and. covto? stands merely for 6 avros. § 29. n. 6. 12. Examples of other vowel-changes are : 7rapoaXir, Dor. TrdpoaXiy; ovo- pa, iEol. ovvpa; 10-7-/77 Ion. for eo-n'a hearth. Notes on the Lengthening of Syllables generally. (With reference to §§ 21 and 27.) 13. The merely poetic lengthening of o into o> takes place very rarely, as dvco, Atcbi/uo-oy, for dvo, Aiovvaos. — Whenever a, 1, v, are short in the ordi- nary language, but are long in the old or poetic dialect, (e. g. 'iXt'ou with * This change takes place also in the adj. '/Aews, av, for 'iXaos, ov; in the Gen. veas for va6s from vavs ; and in several proper names in aos, as Mev4\aos, 'Afiv, rjrToov, Kvaicrcros, 'Y^tto?, Xeycrcrco, Kpeiacroov, Kpeirrcov ; and the same is the case in 7rpdo-crco (Ion. 7rprjcro-o>cr6V, Hapv-qaos, Kv7aa, Krjcpicro?, 'ikiaos; etc. The names of places in -ovcraa have arisen out of -oeacra ; thus ^Korovaaa, UidrjKovcro-ai, 'Apyivovcrcrai, etc. But 'SvpaKovcrac, -ovcrios; with the short form "2vpa.K.6 V' ou ^ °f a *» ^ W» e - £• yvp ^ VVPty ^4), ©prjlcrca Qpfjcraa, Xcolcttos \oxttos (§ 68). b) Two vowels pass over into a kindred long sound, commonly so that there arise the following, viz. rj out of ea, — rel^ea TeLyr\, Keap fcfjp heart. § 49. ec out of €€, — -iroiee iroiei, peeOpov peWpov stream, k 105. , £ i ao and aov, — Tifxaofjiev Ttfioifiev, rc/xdov tl/jLco. § 105. \ oa and or), — alSoa alSco, ficaOorjre puicrOcdTe. k\ 49, 105. ( oo, — 7rA.oo? ttXovs, fuo-66o/i€v fMcrOovfiev. §§ 36, 105. ov out of < 06, — ifJilaOoe i/Jblo-Qov. § 105. ( €0, — Tefyeos refyovs, Trocio/xep iroLOv/xev. §§ 49, 105. c) The doubtful vowels a, i, v, when short, absorb the follow- ing vowel, and thereby become long, e. g. Ion. a€0\os (a short) Att. a0\o$, struggle ; rlfiae rlfia. XLos Xto? {one from Xlos) ; Dat. "Ifai "I-8t], n/x-dei and Tifi-dr) — rifi-a ; or else it falls away, if the new sound does not admit the i sub- script, e. g. pLLo-6-6eiv fJLicrO-ovv, ^Oiroet^ 'Ottov^. h 41. n. 5. Note 1. What is said above includes only regular and analogical con- traction. Various exceptions and peculiarities occur below under the De- clensions and Conjugations ; and for the contraction of two words, or crasis, see § 29. — Moreover contraction does not take place^ even among the Attics, in all cases, where according to the preceding rules it could occur ; as will be seen below and also from observation. Note 2. On the other hand the Ionics, as above remarked, commonly neglect the contraction, and often resolve a long sound into its constituent parts, which had long fallen out of use among the other Greeks ; e. g. 2 pers. Pass. Tvirreai for rimrr) ; so even (fitkeeai, liraivUai, etc. for iXer] t etc 33 CONTRACTION. § 28. which is commonly again contracted, TjfKtos for rfkios, eelnocri for e'lKocn, and so ddeXcpeos, rovreov, etc.^ Note 4. Sometimes the Ionics even promote the concurrence of vowels by dropping a consonant ; e. g. repaos for reparos (§ 54). Comp. rvTrreai, etc. in $103. n. III. Note 5. There are also cases where the Ionics contract, and the Attics do not ; e. g. Ion. Ipos with long t, for lepos. The Ionics have also in com- ' mon with the Dorics a peculiar contraction of eo and eov into ev ; e. g. 7rAe{)j/es for rrXeoves, iroi-evpevos from 770i-ed/zei/os, and iroi-evai from noi-eovai (comp. § 105. n. 13). — Finally it is to be observed, that the Ionic of the an- cient epic j employs contraction much oftener than the later Ionic prose. Note 6. The ancients often wrote out the vowels in full, and left the contraction to the pronunciation. This usage, called Synizesis (crvvlfyo-is), or also Synalapha (crvvaXoKpf)), has in many cases been retained in the works of the ancient poets, especially the epic; e. g. II. X. 282 "Acppeov de orrjdea, where the two endings cppeov and 6ea are to be pronounced as one syllable, thus, acppevv de ar^Or]. So #. 763 ^aX/ceoi/ (pron. ovv) de oi rjrop. The same occurs among the Attics very often in Seos, Seov, which otherwise is never contracted, and in some proper names, as NeoTrrdXe/zos. — For the Synizesis between two words, see § 29. n. 11. Note 7. The contraction above pointed out in no. 3. d, (cpiXeco yco for em-dyco) mostly only in some Ionic elisions, as cpofieo for (pofieeo (§ 105. n. 7). In the cases first in question, however, there was evidently a pur- pose of producing a new combined sound, as is proved by the analogy of other examples, and by the circumflex wherever it is written (see 6, below) ; but the long sound already existing was adopted, or rather was retained, to represent this new sound. Accent and Quantity. 5. When neither of the two syllables to be contracted has the tone, the contracted one does not take it ; e. g. TrepiifKoo^^ eri- uaov, contr. irepLifXovs, irl/jicov. Note 8. Exceptions from this general rule are rare and anomalous ; e. g yjpvcreoS) contr. -^pvaovs^ § 60. 6. If however one of the two original syllables has the tone, it then remains also upon the contracted one ; and if this be a penult or an antepenult syllable, the accent is determined according to the general rules (H 10, 11). If it be a final syllable, it takes * Here it must be borne in mind, that although grammatical theory is wont to represent this as separation and insertion, in reference to the common form, yet that this common form itself may just as well be only a form originally contracted from the separate form, and in most cases actually is so. This can be shown in many instances; c. g. in ev- for i'v- from lus, since eds does not exist. $ 29. HIATUS. CRASIS. 39 the circumflex, as voos vovs, ^>iXeo) t\co ; unless the original form had the acute upon the last syllable, which seldom occurs, and then the acute remains, according to § 49. n. 1 ; e g. idv r\v, kaTaos karoos, Sat? 8a$. Exceptions are rare ; see e. g. the Ace. rjxoa r)X<£>, § 49. Note 9. Sometimes in contraction the accent is shifted; e. g. in SeXrjTos, (pprjTos, § 41. n. 7 ; aepyos dpyos, § 121. n. 6; also the flexion of evvovs, § 60. Note 10. Although every contracted syllable is in its very nature long, yet in some forms of declension which end in a contracted a or t, the pro- nunciation has so obscured these mixed sounds, that they are sometimes found short. So especially the Neut. Plur. in a, e. g. ra yepa (§ 54. n. 3), and some Datives, as KXeo/3t from KXeo/3is-, G. ios, (in Herodotus), with which also 8at (t) for daidi, and some similar epic forms, are to be compared "(§ 56. n. 5). That however some of these instances may be considered as an elision of the first vowel, is apparent from § 53. n. 2, 3. § 29. Hiatus. Crasis. 1. "When of two successive words the first ends, and the sec- ond begins, with a vowel, the breathing (spiritus) which is heard between them, whether rough or smooth, produces an effect call- ed Hiatus. This hiatus between two words was more unpleas- ant to the ear, at least to the Attic ear, than a concurrence of vowels in the middle of a word. It was therefore rarely allowed in poetry ; in Attic poets almost never. In prose also, the Ionic excepted, its frequent recurrence was avoided. Note 1 . The Attic verse permitted the hiatus for the niost part only after the interrogative tl, the particles ore and nepi, and in the phrases ovde els, pjSe els (§ 70. 1), ev oUa, etc. 2. The natural means of avoiding the hiatus is by uniting both syllables into one. # This takes place in two ways : 1) By eli- sion with the apostrophe (s s 30). 2) By contracting both sylla- bles into one combined sound, or Crasis, Grr. KpacrLs a mingling, from fcepdvvvfu. This crasis, or the combination of two syllables of different words in writing and pronunciation, often varies essen- tially from ordinary contraction in one and the same word ; and is found, especially in prose, only in a small number of examples, which are given in the following notes. Note 2. In crasis there are three things to be particularly observed. a) Every crasis makes a long syllable (§ 7. 7). In this way several cases of crasis are distinguished from an elision by apostrophe • e. g. rdX^- 6es, Kaperr), for to aX. Kai dp. with short a. Hence such instances as ravBpos must be pronounced long; and TaXka (for ra aWa) must be written with the circumflex ; which however is denied by some, who therefore write rakXa. For the sake of uniformity, other instances like ravroy ravrd, (for to auTo, to. avrd,) must also be referred to crasis ; comp. § 28. n. 7. b) The iota subscript is written in a crasis, only when in the original "* That the movable v is not to be regarded as a means of avoiding the hiatus, appears from § 26. n. 2 40 crasis. $ 29 syllables an t occupied the last place j tlras in Kara from kol eha, bu1 not in kov for kcu av.% c) Over a crasis is commonly written the sign L , called coronis (nopcovls). Note 3. The crasis occurs most frequently in the article, e. g. ovk, oiml, for 6 in, 6 enX rovvavrlov, tovttos, for to evavTiov, to erros Tovvopa for to ovopa Tablet, raVt, for to. epd, to. enl ) Tayadd, raXXa, for ra dya6d, tcl «XXa \ with long a, see in note 2. a. TakrjOes, to.8lk.ov, for to dX. r6 a§. ) toircLLTcov, covrjp, for 6 aTraiToov, 6 dvfjp.f Similar to these are the less frequent cases of crasis in the Neut. of the postpositive article or Relative Pronoun (§ 75) ; e. g. aboge for a edege, av for a av, etc. Note 4. Less easy to he distinguished are those cases of crasis where the contraction absorbs the diphthongs ; e. g. ovpoL for ol e/xot amavTwvTes or drravT&VTes, for ol aTravTUivTes Tavdpos, rdi/opt, for tov avbpos, rco dvdpi (see note 2. a) ] and so TavTov, TavTCd (§ 74), drro TavToparov, etc. tqtiov for to a'tTiov, or where the r of the article passes over into $ because of the rough breath ing (§ 17. n. 2), e. g. ^ QolpaTiov, Plur. QalpaTia, for r6 t/x. ra t/x. Qr)peTepov for roG r)peTepov. Note 5. With eTepos the vowels of the article are commonly contracted into a ; which comes from the antique and Doric form aTepos (d) for eTepos ; thus aTepos, arepot, for 6 eTepos, ol eTepoi SaTepov, SaTepcd) QaTepa, for tov, rpio~TOS, coXXot, courdy, for 6 apicrTos, ol aXkoc, 6 clvtos. So also tcovto, for r6 avTo (tcivto). § 27. n. 11. Note 7. The conjunction Kat also often makes a crasis; and the k before a rough breathing passes over into x ; e. g. Kav for koX iv ; kciv for kol av and kcu edv KaneLTa, KaKelvos, Kayw, for kol eireiTa, etc. see note 2. b. Kara for Kat etra KapeTT], klo-oS) for Kat apeTi), kcu 'iaros kcovos, KtoKia, for Kat otVos, Kat ot/a'a XaTepos for >cat eTepos ; x<*> f° r Ka * ° — • Other long syllables remain unchanged, as Kel, kov, Kev-, for kol el, ov, ev- ; Kel%ov for Kat el^ov. The Ionics and Dorics use rj for a, e. g. Krjv, KqireiTa. Note 8. The particles rot, pevToi, tjtol, also make with av and apa a long a, and must therefore be written as crasis, tov, Tapa, peuTav. Very often * Some however unnecessarily deviate from this rule, for the sake of avoiding ambiguity, and write k^v, K$7rerra, etc. t According to a critical theory which is not to be rejected, the only ordinary contraction of 6 with a among the Attics was into long a, e. g. avr)p (pron. hdner) ; at least in the more common instances, as avrip, 'dvdpawos, a5ek avdpcoire, clvep, ava£. To avoid ambiguity, however, most cases of this kind are written as elisions, and marked with the apostrophe, e. g. 2> 'yade (dyade) — rrj 'prjpia (eprjpia) 7rov 'otiv [icrTiv) — eycb V rot? (eV). Hence some grammarians distinguish such examples from elision in the strict sense (§ 30), and also from crasis, by calling them Aphceresis (dcpai- pecris).^ Note 11. Many other contractions were never expressed in writing, but left to the pronunciation, as cases of Synizesis (§ 28. n. 6), here also called Synecphonesis (avveKCpcbvrjcrts), which however it is not always easy for us to determine ) e. g. iirei ov as an iambus (Soph. Philoct. 446) ; prj ov in Attic poetry always as one syllable. So too in Homer, II. e. 446 i) eiVo/cezt as a dactyl ; II. p. 89 — ao-fte j arco ot>6° vl- | bv — . § 30. Apostrophe. 1. In Greek, as in other languages, when a short vowel at the end of a word is removed by elision before another vowel, an apos- trophe _! is set over the empty place ; e.g. iir ejjbov for eirl ifMov. When the following word has the rough breathing, and the elided vowel was preceded by a smooth mute, this latter becomes rough 017.3); e.g. a

wocr&i, sometimes admits it. Note 5. The poets elided, though seldom, the diphthong at; but only io the Passive endings p,ai, erai, rat, erOai, e. g. $ov\eerd' eefir), epx ^' %X° iV ' ^ ne at of the Inf. Aor. 1 Act. is never thus elided ; but rather, when it seems to be elided, it makes a crasis with the syllable following.* Whether the Datives jioi, eroi, were elided, is still very doubtful ; see the Ausf. Sprachl. [. $ 30. n. 6. — To crasis, and not here, belongs all that is elsewhere ad- duced as instances of the elision of long syllables, viz. Kai and rot (§ 29. n. 7, 8). So too the apparent elision of rd, to (ib. n. 2. a), and of initial vow- els (ib. n. 10). * This at, of the Inf. never falls away before a short vowel in such a manner that the syllable remains short; but in every instance the metre requires or admits a long syllable. According to the rule in the preceding section then, (comp. § 29. n. 2. a,) all such instances are to be regarded as cases of crasis ; where however, for the sake of clearness, the apostrophe must be used ; in the one case thus, ytda" vfias for yevo-cu v/xas (long u) ; in the other thus, yrj/xai 'irrjpe (eV^pe) ; unless we prefer to write the svllables in full, as a case of Synizesis. PART II. GRAMMATICAL FORMS AND FLEXION OF WORDS. § 31. Parts of Speech. 1. Strictly speaking, there are only three principal parts ol speech. Every word which names or denotes any subject or ob- ject is a Noun (nomen) ; the word by which something is predi- cated of any subject or object is called a Yerb ; and all other words, by which the discourse thus constituted is rendered more definite, connected, and animated, are called Particles. 2. It is however customary to make several important subdi- visions of these principal parts ; and hence in most languages it is common to assume eight parts of speech; viz. (I.) The Noun, which has its own subdivision of Substantive and Adjective ; and from which are separated : (II.) the Pronoun, which includes also" the Article; and (III.) the Participle, which as to Syntax be- longs to the Yerb. (IY.) The Yerb remains without subdivi- sion; but the Particles are subdivided into (Y.) the Adverb, (VI.) the Preposition, (VII.) the Conjunction, and (VIII.) the Interjection ; of which, however, the last is commonly reckoned by the Greek Grammarians among the Adverbs. THE NOUN AND ITS DECLENSION. §32. Gender. 1. The gender of nouns, whether masculine, feminine, or neu- ter, is commonly known from the terminations ; as will be point- ed out under the several declensions. To mark the gender in grammar, the article is usually employed, viz. 6 masc. rj fern, to neut. For the mode of declining the article, see § 75. 2. The names of persons, (man, woman, god, goddess, and the like,) have their gender according to the sex, let the termination be what it may ; e. g. r) ^fvydrrjp the daughter, rj was the daugh- ter-in-law. But diminutives in ov are always neuter ; e. g. to yvvaiov from yvvrj woman, to fiecpaKiov from fietpa^ a youth. 44 GENDER. DECLENSION. ^§ 32, 33. Note 1 . The word to dvdpdnobov slave is neuter, because the slave was not regarded as a person, but only as an article of property. Neuter also is to TeKvov or to t€kos child, and the Plur. to. rraidiKa darling, used instead of the Sing, these being classed with diminutives — Nevertheless, in con- struction, all words which do not stand in immediate contact with such personal neuters, are referred to the true gender and number ; thus Homer even says tzkvov cplXe. See Syntax, § 123. n. 3. § 129. 11. § 143. 5. c. Note 2. It follows from the above, that every personal appellative which is common to the two sexes, is in grammar also of the common gender; e. g. 6 civOpamos the man, rj avOpconos the woman. Also 6 and 77 Seos god and goddess, 6 and 77 Tpo(p6s male and female nurse, 6 and 37 cpvXag male said, female watcher, and the like ; although in many such cases there are special femi- nine forms, as 37 Sea, goddess. These however were less employed by the Attics. Note 3. Many names of animals are in the same manner common; e. g. 6 and 77 (3ovs ox and cow, 6 and 37 iWos- horse and mare. — In most instances one gender serves for both sexes, and this is called, if masculine or femi- nine, epicene, Genus epictznum (eiriKoivos) ) e. g. 6 Xvkos wolf, 77 oXcotttj^ fox. But in nouns of common gender also, one of the genders is that of the species, e. g. 6 miros horse, generally and indefinitely, al alyes goats, i. e. the whole species. In general the fem. has here the preference ; thus al /3oes- is very often (but only in the Plur.) cattle generally. Thus apicros bear and /ozp?- \os camel, when the marking of the sex is not essential, are commonly feminine (37 apicros, fj mp-rfkos), even when used of the male animal; and the same is very often the case with eXacpos deer and kvcdv dog. — The fem. ?/ Ittttos has moreover the special signification cavalry. 3. Masculine, as in Latin, are the names of nations, as oi %icv- 6ai, oi TaXdrai ; of rivers, following 6 irorafjio^ river, as 6 &ep- fjbcoScov, 6 Urjveios ; of months, after 6 fjurjv month, all ending in cov, as 6 Tajxrjkioiv ; of the winds, after 6 avepuos wind, as 6 %ev are commonly feminine * as 37 BaftvXav, 6 f] *2lkvo>v. — Neu- ter are those names of cities without exception, which have the neuter endings ov and os (Gen. ovs) : e. g. to AovXlx^ov, to "Kpyos. h 33. Declension. 1. The G-reek form of declension has the five ordinary cases of other languages. It has no distinct form corresponding to the Latin Ablative, but gives the signification of this case partly to the Genitive and partly to the Dative. \ 33. DECLENSION. 45 2. In declension, as well as in conjugation, the Greeks have one number more than our occidental languages, viz. the Dual, where only two are spoken of. This however is not always em- ployed ; by some writers never ; most frequently by the Attics. 3. The Dual has never more than two endings ; of which one is common to the Nom. Ace. and Voc. the other to the Gren. and Dative. 4. The Greek has three Declensions ; corresponding to the first three in Latin. Their case-endings, or terminations in the different cases, are arranged together in the following Table. Sing. Dec. I. Dec. II. Dec. III. Nom. v, a ???, a? o? Neut. ov — y, a 7js, a? ?7? — d? ov v — £ rjv—av 7]— -a Neut. like the Non? Gren. ??? — &9 ov ov o? (&>?) Dat. xi — a co I Ace. r]v- — av ov do] Voc. v — a e Neut. ov Dual. N.A.V. a co € Gr. D. cilv ow ow Plur. Nom. ai oi Neut. a 69 Neut. a, Gfen. cov cov cov Dat. clls 0^9 v are there um; and v mostly "becomes m. Note 2. The Dat. Sing, has in all the declensions t; in the first two however the t is subscript. Note 3. The Dat. Plur. has strictly in all the declensions criv or at ; since ais, ois, of the first two, is only an abbreviation from the ancient forms atcriv, oicriv, or aiai, oiai. § 30. n. 4. Note 4. The Dual is perhaps only an old abridged form of the Plural, which usage afterwards limited to the number of two j compare the Plural forms afijxe, vfifxe (§ 72. n. 6. 10) with the Dual of Dec. III. At least Ave still find, especially in the epic language, undoubted instances where the Dual stands for the Plural. They are however limited mostly to the verbs (§ 87. n. 6) ; and among substantive forms they occur solely in participles, e. g. II. e, 487. Hymn. Apoll. 487, etc. See the Ausf. Sprachl. 7. In respect to the Accent, the rule is universal, that the case- endings of the Gen. and Dat. when they are long and have the tone, take the circumflex ; those of the Nom. Ace. and Yoc. hi the same circumstances take the acute. Here however it is to be remembered, that in the third declension the ending of the Nom. and Yoc. Sing, is not a case-ending. \ 39. h 34. First Declension. 1. All words in ?;? and a? are masculine, and all in r\ and a feminine. 2. "Words ending in a pure {\ 28. 1) or pa, have the Gen. in a?, and retain their a through all the cases of the Singular ; as ao- la Movaa TroXira veavla G.D. TlfjLCUV aoifilaiv Movaaiv TToXvraiv veavlaiv 34. FIRST DECLENSION. 47 Plur. Norn. Tifiai acxfilcu Movaat iroXlrai veavlcu Gen. TlflCOV coifiicov Movacov 7TO\lTCOV veavi&v Dat. ti/jlcus o-oco. But fiao-iXicia queen from (3acri\ev?. See § 119. n. 6. b) All words of three or more syllables, that are female appellatives, are short ; e. g. y\rd\rpia, boreipa, ''Op.7rvta, etc. So too the adjective norvia. But all other feminine adjectives which fall under this head are long; as Kvpios; Kvpia, etc. 4. The Vocative in a from masculines in rj? is short ; from those in ay, long. — The Dual ending a is always long. 5. The ending ay is long in this declension, in all the cases where it occurs ; and the Ace. Plur. is thereby distinguished from that of Dec. Ill, where it is short. The Dorics alone make also the Ace. Plur. of Dec. I, short. 6. The Ace. Sing, in av always follows the quantity of the Nominative. III. Accent. 1. It is characteristic of this declension that the Gen. Plur. regularly has the tone (the circumflex) upon its ending, let the tone in the other cases be where it may; as Movaa Movaav, uKavda dicav6a>v. The cause lies in the contraction of this Genitive from the more ancient form in aW, see n. IV. 3. Exceptions are : a) The feminines of adjectives and barytone participles in oy ; as £eVoy, £;6vi£>v • atrtoy, alrta — alrioav • rvmop-evos, rj — rv7Trop.ev(£>v. b) The substantives xPV°" ri l s ' usurer, ol ir-qalai trade-winds, depvr) anchovy. By this anomalous accent the Gen. xprjo-T&v, depveov, are distinguished from the like cases of xPW T ° 9 useful, and depvr]? unformed. 2. In the other cases the tone always remains, so far as the general rules permit, upon the same syllable as in the Nominative ; e. g. Nom. Plur. ao- cbiai, Voc. TroKlra. The only exception is Voc. SeWora from becnTorrjS master; since the Homeric p,r]riera for prjTurr]?, evpvoira, etc. are already so accented in the antique Nominatives; comp. IV. 2. 3. The feminines of adjectives in oy throw the tone, so soon as the final syllable permits, upon the syllable where the masculine has it ; e.g. agios F. a&a, Plur. a^LOL, agiai. IV. Dialects. 1. The Dorics, in all the endings, put long a for rj, as ri/za, ay, a, dv. The Ionics commonly put rj for long a, as crocplr), ^y, rj, rjv • paxat-pa, ws, rj, av 6 vet]v[r)?, etc. the Ace. PI. excepted. — But the epic writers retain the a in Sed, £eay, etc. in NauatKaa, da?, and in some proper names in ay, as Alvela?. Another epic peculiarity is t) instead of short a in nviorar], 2KvX\r], commonly Kvlcraa, 2,Kv\\a ; and vice versa we find the Homeric vvp.(pa for vvptprj. 2. The old language had also masculines in a, which remained in some dialects; and therefore also in Latin. Thus Homer and the other epio writers have often in the Nominative tWora instead of iinroT-qs ; so /xj/ri'era, evpvoira, etc. 3. The most ancient form of the Genitive Sing, of the masculines, is ii? do, and of the Gen. Plur. of all the terminations, in aW. So the epic 'Arpst fiuo, Mouodoij/, etc. 4 35. SECOND DECLENSION. 49 4. The Dorics contracted these Genitives into d; e. g. tov 'ArpeiOR, rav Moiaav for Movcra>v, ra>v 'ArpeiBav. — This Doric Genitive has remained in common use in the Sing, of some few words, especially proper names, e. g. 'Avvifias Hannibal, tov 'Avvifia tov opvidodrjpa the bird-catcher's. 5. The Ionics on the other hand converted the do into eco (§ 27. n. 10;, where however the 00 has no influence on the accent; so 7j-oXireco (§ 11. n. 4) ; and from d&v they made e'cov ; thus pouo-eW.— Here too the common lan- guage retained this Gen. Sing, in some names of Ionic men, as GaXeco from Ocikr)?, Aerjyov hrjfjiov av$pa)7rov av/cov Dat. \6y7]ya> §rffi(p aV0p(t)7T(p GVKXp Ace. \6yov ipTjyov Srjfiov avOpcQirov avdpcoire (TVKOV Yoc. \6ye (prjye Syfie crvKov Dual. N.A.V. \6yco (prjyco Srj/jbco avOpoDirco avfeco G-.D. Xoyow cjyrjyolv Stj/jLOLV avOpoonroiv avKOiv Plur. Nom. \6yoc (f)r]yol Srjfioi, avOpcoiroi, crvica Gen. \6ycov (jyrjycov hrj/JLcov avOpwirwv ctvkcov Dat. \6yois 7]yOL$ Stf/jLOLS avOpCOTTOL? GVKOIS Ace. \6yovs cpCXos, Aristoph. Nub. 1167. So too in adjectives; e. g. Z> \ap7rp6? aldrjp Eurip. Fr. Hippol. D 50 SECOND DECLENSION. 36, 37. Note 3. The quantity and accent require here no particular remarks ; the ending a is short, as in Latin; the circumflex on the Genitives ana Datives (see (prjyos) has already been noted in $ 33. 7. Note 4. Dialects, a) The Genitive in ov was in the ancient language probably the uncontracted oo ; hence the Thessalian Genitive so called in mo, of which the epic and lyric language availed itself ; as Xo'yoio, eprjyolo. b) The Dorics have in the Gen. co, and in the Ace. Plur. coy; e. g. 6 vo- fios, G. ra> j^o/ico, Ace. Plur. -nay vd/zecy. More rarely they have in the Ace. Plur. oy; e. g. from 6 Xvkos Theocritus has rcby Xvkos for rovy Xvkovs. c) In the old language the Neut. Plur. in a appears to have had the Gen. in dcov ; as Hesiod. Scut. 7, fiXeqbdpav — Kwaedmv. Hence the Homeric edu~ from ra EA goods; see Anom. eifr, § 58. d) For the Dat. Plur. in oio-i, oiaiv, as Xoyoiai, ? masc. and fern, and in cov neuter, * This regular Vocative is placed here on account of some proper names, as UavQovs Voc. FLdvOov. — From 8opv£6os, -ovs, spear -sharpener, occurs the Voc. Sopv^e, with o elided, Aristoph. Pac. 1260. The like form probably occurred in the names of kindred in Sods (Seos) : thus S> aSekcpiSe. (Compare the marg. note under § 60. 5.) Besides these a proper Vocative will hardly be found. t The accent of this Dual is contrary to the rile in § 28. 6. Comp. § 49. n. 7 Ausf. Sprachl. $ 35. n. 2. 38. THIRD DECLENSION. GENDER. 51 under the name of the Attic declension. It takes through all the cases co, instead of the usual vowels and diphthongs of the com- mon second declension ; and puts i subscript, where the latter has 01 or co. The Vocative is always like the Nominative. The Genitive, when it has the accent on the ending, takes the acute, rod veco, contrary to the rule in § 33. 7. Sing. o (temple I to (hall) Dual. Plur. Nom. veebs dvcbyecov veco avcoyeco vecb avcoyeco Gen. V6CO avcoyeco vecov dvcbyecov vecov dvcbyecov Dat. veco avcoyeco ve&s avebyeeps Ace. VeOJV dvcbyecov veco? avcoyeco Voc. vecos dvcbyecov Vecb t avcoyeco Note 1. Like vea>? is declined 6 Xeobr the people; both having the parallel forms j/aor and Xaor, § 27. n. 10. Besides these very few words belong here; and of these the most also pass over into Dec. III. Thus, like vea>? we may decline (referring to § 56. n. 6. a, c, d) the following: 6 irarpai?, /x^rpcor, paternal and maternal uncle, 6 rad>r peacock, 6 \a.y? hare (see n. 2), Mii/co?; comp. anom. KaXcor, § 58. Like dvaiyeow may he declined the Neuters of ad- jectives in tor; as iXecoi/, etc. § 61. — This mode of declension is called Attic, because when two forms are current, (as Xa-yoor, Ion. Xaya>ov or XayoV,) that one which belongs here is employed particularly by the Attics. Note 2. The words of this declension have also a peculiar Accus. in co, sometimes together with the regular one, e. g. rbv \ayoov and Xayco ; in other words seldom ; in others again exclusively, or almost so. This is the case in these names of places : Kwr, Keoor, TeW, "A#cor, and in rj eco? aurora, Ace. rrjv eco, which is the Attic form for the Ionic ^&>y Gen. rjoos, ovs (§ 49). — The Neuters of some adjectives also have co in the Nom. and Ace. especially dytjpas not growing old, Neut. dyrjpo). Note 3. The Gen. in coo in this declension corresponds to the epic Gen in oio ; e. g. Hereon? G. Uerecoo, Homer. Note 4. For the anomalous accent of this declension, see § 11. 8. Third Declension. § 38. Gender. 1. In the variety of endings which belong to the words of this declension, any general rules for ascertaining the gender from the termination must be very imperfect. Nevertheless, there are cer- tain endings, of which the gender may be more accurately de- termined ; see the note. 2. In general, final ? belongs more to masculines and femi- nines ; a short voivel in the final syllable, more to the neuters- There is no neuter in £ or ty. Note. Least of all can we determine the gender of words ending in o^ G . cows 1 and ovos ; those in vs ; and those in £ and ^ ; all which vary be- tween the masculine and feminine. In the exceptions no reference is had to those appellations of persons, like fj ^rrjp mother, rj Mp.ap spouse, the gender of which is known of course (§ 32. 2) j but whenever a form is marked as without exception, there also no personal form occurs of any other gender. 52 THIRD DECLENSION. GENDER. § 39. Masculines. All in €V9, as 6 dpevs mule, dficpopevs amphora. No exceptions. Substantives which have the Gen. in vros, as 6 re'i/cov, ovtos, tendon; c odovs, ovtos; tooth; 6 tpay, dvros, thong. Here names of cities only make some exceptions, § 32. n. 4, 2. Those in rjp, as ^coo-r^p girdle. — Exceptions : Fern, f) yacrTrjp belly, r) Kf)p fate, and in the poets f) dr)p and f) aldtjp. Also the contracted neuters. of which "below. Those in coy G. coroy; as 6 ye'Xcoy laughter, 6 epcoy love. Those in r)v ; as 6 \xfjv month, 6 ai>xfjv neck. Exceptions are : f) P lymph, 6 ax^P scab. Those in ay Gen. aroy and aoy ; as to Tepas G. aroy wonder , to btTras- G. aos goblet. Except 6 Xay stone and 6 or to KPA2 head. Besides these the only neuter substantives in this declension are to 7rvp fire, to y light, to ovs ear, to arais dough. Nouns in ay consequently, according to the above rules, with the Gen. in uvtos, are masculine; — Gen. aSoy, feminine; — Gen. aroy and aoy, neuter. k 39. Decl. III. — Root or Stem and Case-endings. 1. In every declinable word, it is necessary to distinguish be- tween the root and the case-ending, which, alone is changed; \ 33. 6. In the first two declensions the Nominative also has such a case-ending ; in the third, this is appended onlv in the ob- lique cases, e. g. Dec. II. \6y-os, \6y-ov, \6y-(p Dec. III. ^rjp, ^rrjp-09, ^rrjp-L 2. But in the third declension, the Nominative seldom suffers so little change as in &jJ/>. In most instances the final syllable undergoes some alteration ; for which see the next sections. H 40, 41. THIRD DECLENSION. NOMINATIVE. 53 Note 1. It is here to be particularly noted, that the ground-form or root of a word in respect to flexion, which we call the stem, is very different from the proper root in respect to etymology. Thus in cr^iia G. o-co/xaroy, the etymological root is o-co/i, and a, error, appear as endings ; but in respect to flexion, the root or stem is ereoitar, and os is the case- ending. Note 2. In order to decline a word rightly in the third declension, it is consequently necessary to know the Nominative and one of the oblique cases ; for which purpose the Genitive is commonly taken. When however only one of these two is known, the rules are far simpler for finding the Nominative from the Genitive, than for the reverse j because in the Genitive the root, on which all depends, is commonly unchanged ; and in the Nom- inative commonly not. As now in reading, it is most frequently the Geni- tive, Dative, etc. of an unknown word, that we meet with ; in order to find such a word in the lexicons, we must be able to deduce the Nominative from the Genitive j and for this purpose rules are given in the following sections. § 40. Decl. III. — Formation of the Nominative. 1. The most common changes which the stem undergoes in the Nominative, are the following :* 1) It assumes 9 ; e.g. fiorpvs fiorpv-os, aX? aA-69. 2) It rejects r, without assuming 9 ; e. g. o-co/xa, aojfiaT-o^. 3) The short vowels e and o of the stem in masculines and feminines, become rj and co ; e. g. el/ccov elicov-os, aXrjOijs a\r)6e-os. 2. For the more exact application of these precepts, we must here distinguish two main circumstances, viz. when the case-end- ing of the Nom. is preceded (1) by a consonant, or (2) by a vowel. k 41. Decl. III. — The Nominative with a Consonant before the Case-ending. 1. Except fju and or, all the simple consonants are found before the case-ending. Those among them which cannot stand at the end of a word (\ 4. 5), and often also v, assume an 9 in the Nom- inative. Of course this 9, with the letters 7, tc, %, and /3, it, , passes over into £ and ty, k 22. E. g. Kopa^ fcopatc-os, ovv% oVir^-09 co-ifr &)7T-o?, ^akvyjr ^a\u/3-09. 2. These Nominatives in f and -vjrtoever change the e and o of the stem ; e. g. (fiXety cjikeflos, \6£ /? (long i) oi\(f>LVos% Qopicvs y {did? (bdvTO?, $ei'y $eVroy) (oovy 001/roy, (pvy cpvvro?) coj/ (yepcoi/, oj/roy) — — — poy from Nom. in p, ^p, -Jfypdy, etc. especially epoy and opoy from Nom. in t]p and cop (aWfjp aldepo?, p^rcop prjTopo?) and from two neuters in op aop sword, rJTop breast. * In the lexicons and grammars the Nom. of the Gen. in ivos is also given in iv ; but in the earlier writers we always find 5eAvTos, etc. may be better seen in the paradigms of this conjugation (•§ 105). We only remark here, that such proper names as Sevocov, 5>vtos, are derived from this mode of contraction. Note 7. Another contraction arises, when the ending ap is preceded by € ; e. g. Keap icrjp heart, G. iceapo? tempos. So too eap rjp spring; of which in prose the uncontracted form is most usual in the Nom. and the contracted one in the Gen. and Dat. i. e. eap, rjpos. The same contraction takes place also in some words which have r in the Gen. hat in these the accent does not follow the usual rules of contraction, but takes the most convenient place; e. g. o-Teap aredTos tallow, contr. crTrjp o-ttjto? ; eppeap well G. (ppeaTo? (pprjTO? ; deXeap bait G. SeXe'aroy deXrjTO? ; Qpr)i£, 6pfj£ Att. Qpa£, G. QprfiKos QprjKos Qpa.K.6?. Comp. § 28. n. 9, with § 43. n. 2. * 42. Decl. III. — The Nominative ivith a Vowel before the Case-ending. 1. Those words which have a. vowel before the case-ending, i. e. which have o? pure in the Genitive ($ 28. 1), almost univers- ally assume ? in the Nominative. The only exceptions are some neuters in i and v, and feminines in co. 2. Only neuters can have the short vowels, e and o, in the end- * II. i. 605, according to Wolf's reading, which is the only correct one. 56 THIRD DECLENSION. FLEXION. 43. ing of the Nominative (s s 38 note). Hence in masculines and fem- inine s. the e of the Gen. becomes in the Nom. rj or ev, and o be- comes (o or ov. 3. Thus we have in particular the following : The Gen. in do? from neuters in ay; as o~e\a? treXaoy. — — — toy and vo? from Nom. in tr, i, and v?, v ; as jar Kioy, ddicpv vo?. — — — cooy from Nom. in coy ; as «9coy #coo'y. SNom. in ouy, as /3ot)y /3oo'y. the feminines in co and coy ,• as rj^d) 6o?, atScoy 6o? SNom . in T/y and ey ; as d\r)6r)?, Neut. akrjdes, G. eo? Masculines in ev? ; as Innev? t7r7recoy« Here is also singly to be noted rj ypav? ypdos old woman. 4. Besides the above instances, Genitives in eo? and eo)? come also, through a change of the vowel : 1) From the numerous neuters in o? ; e. g. rectos, ret^eo?. 2) From most of the Nominatives in £? and t, and from some in v ? and u ; as ttoXis iroXecos, dcrru dareos. § 51. Note 1. The Gen. in -qos "belongs to the dialects ; see under words in avs and ev? ; and under 7r6Aiy, § 50-52. See also the Anom/'Ap^y, ev?, npecrfiv?, vlo?, § 58; and some contracts § 53. n. 5. Note 2. The vowels a, i, v, before the ending of the Genitive, are short in all these words, except in ypdo? ; hence they are also short in Nomina- tives of more than one syllable in ay, iy, vs. In regard to monosyllabic Nominatives, the same rule holds here as in the foregoing section^ that they are always long ; thus p.v? p,v6?. — Oxytones in vy (as 66? alcoves haifjLoves Xeovres yiyavres Gen. ^ypcov aloovcov Sac/iovcov Xeovrcov ycyavrcov Dat. ^r) pa i (v) alioau (v) SaL/nocn (v) Xeovai (v) yiydai(v) Ace. ^rrjpa^ aloovas haipLovas Xeovras yiyavras Voc. S%e? aU&ves hatfjuoves Xeovres yiyavres § 43. THIRD DECLENSION. FLEXION $ Sing-. 6 {raven) rj (night) 6 (fool) 6 (hero) ^ wood : v ' worm) Norn. fcopa£ vv^ 7TOO? Tjp(ii$ fCLS G-en. KOpCLfCOS VVKTOS 7ToSo? rjpwos Kl6% Dat KOpCLKl VV/CTL 7TOoY rjpCDL Kit Ace KOpCLKCL VVKTCL jroha Tjpcoa KiV Voo. KOpai; vv£ 7TOl)? tfpCDS /CIS Dual. N.A.V. Kopaice VVKT6 irohe rjpcoe KL€ G-.D. KOpOLKOtV VVKTolv 7ToSoLV rjpcooiv Kiolv Plur. Nom. /copafces vvKTes 7roSe? Tjpcoes kies G-en. KOpCLKWV VVKTWV TToScOV rjpoawv KLWV Dat. icopafy (v) vv£l (v) 7T00-l(v) rjpcoai (v) /ao~l(v Ace. KOpCLKCLS vvferas 7r6Sv ovtos, etc. b) The Gen. and Dat.'Plur. of the adjective Tray, nav, (navTos, iravTi), G. Plur. TvdvTwv D. nacrLv. c) Some words which have become monosyllables by contraction, e. g. "Xdas Xds G. Xdos (see § 58) ; i'ap rjp, Keap Krjp, G. rjpos, tempos. But not all such; see in § 41. n. 7, and also ols, § 50. n. 6. d) The Gen. Plur. and Dual of the following ten words : 6 rj nais child, 6 Sots jackal, 6 8pcos slave, 6 Tpcos Trojan, to (pats' light, 17 (peps brand, f) das torch, and the anomalous to KPAS head, to ovs ear, 6 o-rjs moth; consequently, 7rai8a>v, Qeooov, dpoocov, Tpaxov, (puiTodv, (pepbav, dabcov, Kp&Tav, a>T(£>v, cricov ) and so in the Dual Traidow, etc.f e) The lengthened epic Dat. Plur. €o~i, eo-cri, § 46. n. 2. § 44. Decl. III. — Accusative Singular. 1. The principal ending of the Accusative in this declension is in a. But words in t?, u?, avs, ou?, have also an Accusative in v, which is formed as in the other declensions, by simply changing the ? of the Nominative into v, and retaining the quantity and accent. In those words which have a vowel before the case-end- ing, this is the only form ; e. g. /3ovs G-. (Boos A. (3ovv • Spvs G. Spvos A. Spvv. So too l%0vv, iroXiv, ypavv, etc. 2. Those words on the other hand which receive a consonant in the Genitive, have always a, when the last syllable of the Nom- inative is accented; e.g. ikiru; -i3o? K.eXnriha' nrovs 7roSo? A. TroSa. If the last syllable of the Nominative is unaccented, they commonly have v, but often also a ; e. g. epi$ -tSo? A. epiv and epiha • /copvs -v6o$ A. Kopvv and KopvOa • eveXnus -tSo? A. evekiriv and evekiriha • ttoXvttovs -080s A. iroXvirovv and nroXviroha. Note 1. So too Xdas contr. Xds stone, Gen. (kdaos) Xdos, has in Ace. Xdav contr. Xdv. — See also the Anom. icXeis and ovs (§ 58) ; and for words in &> and cos-, see § 49. n. 7. Note 2. From the ancient language, the poets (not Attic) retained /3oa for j3ovv, evpea for evpvv, l^dva for l\^v, and some others. h 45. Bed. III. — Vocative. 1. In this declension the instances are particularly frequent, where a word can indeed form its Yocative regularly, but never- theless makes it commonly, or at least among the Attics, like the # It must not be overlooked, that in this declension the ending of the word (o-cot- --f]p), is always to be distinguished from the ending of the case (s man, etc. 45. THIRD DECLENSION. VOCATIVE. 59 Nominative (n. 4). This holds true of all Participles of this de- clension in cov, et?, a?, etc. even when, according to the following rules, they would have a Yoc. of their own (see 3, 4). And al- though apxtov (fr° m ftpX *) nas Voc. ft) &PX 0V > ^hi s is because it is no longer a Participle, but a noun, O Archon. — We subjoin here the examples in which the Yoc. most commonly has a form of its own. 2. The endings ew, *?, u?, as also the words irah, ypavs, fiovs, drop their ? to form the Vocative ; and those in ew then assume the circumflex (§ 11. 3). E.g. fiacriXevs Yoc. a> (BaaCKev. So Tldpc, Acopl, Tr]0v, rjSv, etc. also iral, ypav, /3ov. 3. Words in a? and et?, before which v has fallen away, also drop their 9 to form the Yocative, and then for the most part re- sume the v ; e. g. rdXas, avo<$, co roXdv • AXas, avros, co Alav •■ x a ~ pieis, evros, c5 yap'^v* But several proper names in a?, avros, have in the Yoc. only long a without 'the v; e.g. "ArXas, avros, oj "ArXa. 4. ■ Words which have rj or a> in the ending of the Nominative, simply take e or o in the Yocative ; regularly however only when the other cases have e or o, and the Nom. is not oxytone ; see in the examples Saificov and \ecov (§ 43). So too /ArjTTjp, epos, oj fAv- T€p ' pYjTCOp, OpOS, Si pTjTOp ' 2(DKpaT7]$, 60?, 0) %(DKpaT€S. Note 1. From the rule in no. 4, are excepted those which have the ac cent on the last syllable, e. g. noiprjv, evos, aj iroip^v, shepherd; aldrjp, epos, a> al8r)p ; but only substantives, not adjectives ; e. g. likarayv (G. iovos), 3> Sevocpcbv (£>v- tos), a> lr)Tr}p {rjpos), at Kpdrrjs faros) . But the following three make the vowel short in the Vocative ; viz. 'AnoWcov wos, Hoaeidcbv covos Neptune, crcoTTjp -rjpos saviour; Voc. w^AttoWov, H6o-ei8ov, acbrep. Here also the draw ing back of the accent must not be overlooked. Note 3. In consequence of the shortening of the final syllable, the Voc- ative in paroxytones of more than one syllable has a tendency to draw back the tone upon the antepenult. This happens in words and proper names in tjs and r]p ; as KaKorjBes, Ar/poadeves, Bvyarep, ArjprjTep. Elsewhere only in certain words in av, cop, mostly compounds ; e. g. avroKparop, KaK.6daip.ov, ivo- o-ixQov, and the proper names 'Aydpepvov, Hoaeldaov Horn. "Apcpiov. But some of these, especially compounds in v, do not thus throw back the tone 3 as yapiei/, datcppov, ActKedaipov, TlaXaipov, 'ldcrov, Mayaoi/, 'Aperaoi/. 5. Feminines in a> and oj? form the Yocative in ol (§ 11. 3) ; e. g. Sa7T(p(o, co HairfyoZ' \H&)?, o> 'Hoc. Note 4. It is easy to conceive, that those objects which are seldom di- rectly addressed, should retain rather the form of the Nominative whenever this did occur ; as a> itovs, Z> ivokis, and the like. This often takes place also, especially among the Attics, in such words and names as KpeW, A'ias, rdXas, crcor^p, etc. Note 5. The word ava% king, when employed to invoke a god, has its own form of the Vocative, a> ova, by crasis ava ; elsewhere a> ava%, by crasis wag. Comp. § 41. 5, marg. note. 60 THIRD DECLENSION. DATIVE PLURAL. §§ 46, 47 § 46. Decl. III.— Dative Plural. 1. When the ending aiv, cri, of the Dative Plural, is preceded by a consonant, the same general rules are applicable as for the ? of the Nominative (§ 41). See above, tcopai;, vv%, ttovs, alcov. So too "Apayjr 'Apafios "Apa^iv, ovv£ ow%p$ 6vv%i, r\irap rywaTO^ rjiracTiv, etc. 2. When in such words the vowel of the oblique cases differs from that of the Nominative, it remains also in the Dat. Plural ; as halfMov, ovo<$ — Sal/ioai' irov^, ttoSo? — iroalv aX(*)irr)%, e#o? — d\a)7re^iv. But when vr has been dropped, the necessary length- ening (§ 25. 4) takes place ; see above, Xecov, ylyas, and also uSovs, 6vto$ — oSovac ' rvTrefc, ivros — Tvirelaiv. If only v has been drop- ped, the short vowel remains; as fcrefc /crevos — /crecrlv. Note 1. The adjectives also (not participles) in fir, evros, have only e , as vr]€is; tvros — (pcovrjeaiv. 3. When the ending 9 — fiaaLkevcn ypavs ypaos — ypaval. /5o0? /3oo<; — /3ovalv. Note 2. The ancient and epic language has -eo-0-1 (v), and more rarely -cat (v), instead of at (v), in all words ; and this ending, inasmuch as it be- gins with a vowel, is appended just as in the other cases ; e. g. IxOv-ecrcrt, KopaKcacri, Traibecrcri, (36e?. 1. Words in 77? and e and &>y are usually found only in the Singular When the Dual and Plural are necessary, they are formed according to Dec II. — The masc. fjpoas see in the anom. Nouns § 58. Note 2. The Dual in -q, (e. g. Aristoph. Thesm. 282 to TrepiKaXXr] Qea-fio- (popoo,) deviates from the general rule, as being contracted from ee (§ 28. 3). The Attics employ the uncontracted form; e. g. rco yo/ee, Plato Polit. 260. b. Note 3. The Attics never neglect the contraction in these words, except in the Gen. Plur. where we very commonly find dv6ea>i>, KepSeW, TpLrjpeav, etc. and so in"Apeor, Gen. of "Apr)? Mars. — The uncontracted forms of words in cb and cos occur nowhere, not even in the Ionic dialect. Note 4. Several paroxytone compound adjectives in rjs; remain paroxytone in the contracted Gen. Plur. e. g. v o-wr)8&v (uncontr. o-ovrjdeav), avrapK-qs avrdpiccov, etc. Comp. adverbs in a? § 115. n. 1. — Also the Gen. PI. rpirjpcov, which is given above as regular, is commonly accented Tnirjpw, as coming from an adjective rpir)p-q? three-oared. Note 5. The irregular contraction of such words as have still another vowel before the usual contraction, see in § 53. Note 6. The Dorics and the epic writers contract the Gen. in eos into evs § 28. n. 5) ) e. g. rov ytvev? from to yivos. Note 7. The accent of the Accus. of words in w (rrjv r)x<^) is contrary to the rule in § 28. 6. In words in cor, (of which there are but two, r)w$ and luScor,) the Accus. is accented regularly : rr)v r)6a> r)S>. — The Ionics often form the Accus. from both these terminations in ovv t e. g. 'Ico 'lovv, qcor r)ovv, 4 50. THIRD DECLENSION. CONTRACTION. 63 § 50. Partial Contraction. For all other words which have o? pure in the Gren. and are contracted, the rule holds true almost universally, that they ad- mit of contraction only in the Nominative, Accusative, and Voc- ative Plural ; a few likewise in the Dative Singular. "We ad- duce here especially those in vs (x. vos ; also those in £? when they have Gr. «>? in the Ionic and Doric manner ; and with them we connect the declension of the single words /3o0? and ypavs, in order to exhibit to the eye their general accordance with those in v? and £?. V {city) 6 (fish) 6, r) (ox, cow) r) (old woman) lyQvs 7T0Xt? ftovs ypavs iyQvo^ irokios (Boo? ypdos IxOvi irokii iraki (Boi ypat Ipiy ttoKiv ftovv ypavv ixOv itoXl /3ov ypav IxOve TToXte /30€ ypae iyQvoiv nrdkloiv ftoolv ypaolv l%6ve<; ^#0? •irokies iroXLs /3oe? (ftovs) ypaes (ypavs) lyBvav 7r6\,LQ)V fiocov ypawv lyQvcn (v) 7t6Xc(tl (v) ftoVCTL (v) ypavai (v) iyQvasi l^Ovs iroXias 7T0Xt? /9oy, /3ed. But in the Ace. Plur. we find vytels, ivSeets, like the Nominative. 2. Even those endings of words in eu? which are not usually contracted, absorb in some words in like manner the e before a, a?, and o>?; thus %oei/? a measure (see %ou? § 58), Gren. %oeoj? %oco?, Ace. %oea %oa, Ace. Plur. ^oea? %oa?. So Uetpaiev^ Gr. ITet- patoj? A. Heipaia ; also clyvievs altar before the door, rov? ayvias, and some others. So that in this single instance the contracted Ace. Plur. is not like the contracted Nominative Plur. 3. In proper names in -icXerjs contr. kXyjs, there arises a double contraction, which however is usual only in the Dative, e. g. Nom. UepacXer)*; — IlepitcXrjs Gren. IlepLfcXeeos contr. HepucXeovs Dat. UepitcXeei — IlepcfcXeei — UepiicXeZ Ace. UepiKXeea — TlepticXea Voc. UepiicXees — ITept/cXet?. So also e HpafcX?i<; Hercules, and some others. Note 1. The doubly contracted Accusative is rarely found, e. g. 'Hpa/eX?), Plat. Phsedo p. 89. c. — The form 'HpctKkrjv in later writers is explained from § 56. n. 4. Note 2. Sometimes instead of contraction, there was an elision of one of the vowels ; e. g. Voc. r/ Hpa/, N. pei^ov Voc. pei^ov pei£ove9 contr. pei£ovs, N. pelfava pelfa pei£6i>a>v pei£oo-i{v) pel^ova? contr. pei£ovs, N. pei£ova peifa Like the Nom. Dual uncontr. N. pei£ove, G. pei^ovoiv. The Attics employ the forms fiel&va and fiel^ovas not less readily than they do the contracted ones ; but fiei&ves seldom occurs. 2. Similar is the usual Attic contraction of the Accusative in the two proper names 'AttoWwv, oovos, and IIo(T€lS(ov, covos, Nep- tune ; e. g. Ace. ^AnroXkwva ^AiroXKw, Uoo-eih&va Tloo-ethS). Both forms are in use together. Note. So also in the poets Kvnecov a mixed drink, Ace. KVKeava — xviceS), epic KVK.et.a>. — Compare on this contraction and some similar ones from elKoov, nr)8a>v, etc. § 56. n. 6. d, and n. 7. § 56. Anomalous Declension. 1. What is properly called Anomaly in declension, is, when from any Nominative one or more of the oblique cases are actu- ally formed in an irregular and peculiar manner, i. e. not accord- ing to the above general rules ; see in the list of Anomalous Nouns (§ 58) e. g. avrjp, revcov, in § 58. 4. Not unfrequently both forms remained more or less in com- mon use side by side, in the same case ; e. g. vlos, Gr. vlov and also vleos from a Nom. of Dec. III. See too S-e/xt9, koivcovos, op- vis, %ou?> in § 58. A word of this sort is called Abundans. 5. When both forms presuppose one and the same Nominative, from which they are only declined, in a different manner, the word is called a Hetero elite ; e.g. OISlttovs, Gren. OlBliroSos and Olhiirov after the contracted Dec. II. "When however one of the forms presupposes an unusual or obsolete Nominative, this is call- ed a Metaplasm ; e.g. hevhpov, ov, Dat. Plus* SevSpots and also oevSpecriv from the Ion. Nom. to SevSpos. 6. It is also an instance of Metaplasm, when from a mascu- line in o? is formed a Neut. Plur. in a ; this occurs in prose par ticularly with tc\ Becr/xd, araOfxa, crlra, from 6 heapbos fetter, crraOpLos a balance (stall), ctZtos grain. § 56. ANOMALOUS DECLENSION. b9 Note 2 a. When o-Tadpos signifies stall, it lias usually Plur. ~oi, larely -a; but in the signif. balance, always -a. In the poets, from the Nom. in os- (masc. or fern.) there come very often the Plurals ra 8pvpd, KekfvOa, KvicXa. Xv^va, firjpd thighs for sacrifice, pvira, rapcrd, rdprapa ; and sometimes as in later writers also ra affka from 6 a6\os contest, to. jSoorpu^a, ra Id arrows, to. yakiva, etc. — Some words have the double form even in the Nominative ; e. g. 6 vcotos and to vcotov the back, 6 {vyo? and to £vyov yoke, 6 epeTpos and to eptTpov oar; all which in the Plur. prefer the neuter form. Note 3. Most of the common and poetical anomalies of declension con- sist of Heteroclites and Metaplasms, or a mixture of both. We here bring into one view several classes of anomalous nouns. Heteroclites. . Note 4. To the Heteroclites belong those words in ns which are declined after both Dec. I, and IIL Some throughout; e. g. pvicrjs mushroom, G. ov and tjtos ; especially proper names like Adprjs, G. ov and vtos ; see the A nom. QaXrjs, § 58. Others in part; thus all contracted proper names in rjs which have Gen. eoy, form the Ace. both in rj and rjv ; e. g. 2coKpaTr]S G. (eos) ovs, Ace. SaacpaTT) Plat, and ScoKpdTrjv Xenoph. — The Ionics on the other hand, in words in rjs which are usually declined after Dec. I, form the Ace. Sing. and Plur. after Dec. Ill; e. g. tov deanorea, Plur. tovs deo-noTeas, from 8ecnr6TTjs, ov MtATidSea from MiXTiddrjs, ov.* Note 5. Another class of Heteroclites consists of some nouns in ty, which in flexion sometimes assume a 8, and sometimes not : e. g. prjvis wrath, G. pr]- vios and pj]vi8os ; and several proper names, as 'Amyapo-iy, i8os Aristot. and ecos Plutarch. So also feminines in is, 180s, e. g. Travr\yvpis, pjryns, *lcris, ©ertr, etc. are declined by the Ionics and Dorics very commonly with G. toy. Comp. the epic 8at (?) for 8at8i, § 28. n. 10. Note 6. The Nominative endings in coy, cov, cop, give occasion also to very many anomalies. Here belong as Heteroclites : a. Nom. coy, G. co and coos-. So Mlvcos, TraTpcos, p,r)Tpcos ; but still in Plur. more commonly naTpcoes, etc. See also the Anom. koKcos, and comp. rjpeos, § 58. b. Nom. cos, G. cotos. These words sometimes drop their r. The word 6 ibpeos sweat, \8pcoTi, l8pcoTa, has also an Attic secondary form tco l8pco, tov l8pco, which indeed is usually considered as contraction (like nepaTi, XP from the Anom. xP^ s - A more evident transition to the Att. Dec. II, see in Anom. yiXcos (§ 58) and in some adjectives, as evpvKepcos, etc. § 63. n. 5. Such as have already in the Nom. two forms in use, can properly be reck- oned neither to the Heteroclites nor to the Metaplasms. Such are : c. Nom. coy and os. Even epcoy, coroy, desire, love, which most clearly be- longs to Dec. Ill, has also a secondary poetic form epos, Ace. epov. It is therefore less surprising, when in some words which belong to the Attic Dec. II, there occur single forms from the common Dec. II ; e. g. Tacos, Nom. Plur. tcico and tcloL. See also the Anom. mXcos and ye'Xcoy, § 58. d. Nom. coy and mv. Here the anomaly sometimes occurs even in the Nominative; e. g. 6 racoy G. co, and 6 tclcov G. covos, peacock; 6 Tv(pcos * All proper names which are formed like patronymics, as MiXTiddys, Evpnrid7]s, etc. and most of those which are not (like 2w/cpaT7jy) compounded, e. g. Alcrxi- vys, Eep|7js, Tvjtjs, etc. are declined in Greek, with the exception of this Ionic anomaly, entirely after Dec. I ; while the Latins form them whelly after Dec. Ill, as Gen. Miltiadis, Xcrxis, etc. 70 ANOMALOUS DECLENSION. § 56. G. d>, and tvcjhav G. wvos, whirlwind; f] akws G. a> and too?, and ^ fikoov G. covor, threshing floor. In the Plur. of all these words, the forms of Dec. Til, are the most usual. — With these may also be compared the Accusatives 'A7rdXXco, TLoaeidco, kvk€g>, § 55. 2. e. Some Feminines in cap have a secondary form in co, G. ovs; as yK-qx&v coi/oy, and y\r)x<*> ovs, penny-royal; also Topyco?/, oVor, earlier Topyco, ovs, Metaplasms. Note 7. Here belong : 1) Feminines m oov, whose secondary form m w has not been preserved in the Nom. like those in n. 6. c. E. g. from eiKcoj/, ovos, image, we find also G. elicovs A. ei*ca> Ace. Plur. from dr)8o)v, ovos, nightingale — G. drjSov? Voc. ar;Soi. from ^eXiScoi/, dVoy, swallow — Voc. x^ l ^o7. In some of these examples however a contraction like that of peifav, etc. can be assumed. § 55. 1. 2) One Subst. in a>p, which presupposes an obsolete Nom. in as ; e. g. from Ix^Pt £>pos, lymph, Homer has Ace. i^w instead of Ix&paJ* Note 8. Finally, in the epic and lyric poets, instead of the ordinary forms of certain words, there are found single cases of a shorter or more simple form, of which however the analogous Nominative does not occur. So especially forms in Dec. Ill, with the case-endings os, i, a, es, eai, instead of the usual ones in Dec. I and II. E. g. for clXkt) from oXktj strength — dX/a from AAS, Horn. for Kponrjv from kookt] woof — Kpona from KPOE, Hesiod. for dtdov, atdrj, di'drjv from 6 dtorjs Hades — ci'idos; aidi, ai'Sa, from Ai'2. for KkdScj) from 6 /cXaSor bough — xXaSi and in Plur. KXdoVcri, from KAAS/ for dvdpoTTodois from to avftpdnobov slave — dvbpanodeaai as if from ANAPAIIOY2, Horn, for vaplvrj from 77 vcrpivrj battle — vo-pivi from 'Y2MI2. And so of some others. Here belong also ai o~rdyes for orayoves drops Sepaira, Sepaires, for Sepd-rrovTa, es, servant pdcrrl, pdanv, for pdcrrlyi, a, from rj pdem^ scourge. Some such forms can hardly be considered as Metaplasms ; since their pre- supposed Nom. is for us entirely obsolete. So rrjv vlcpa snow, from NIM% since the common word for snow is x L ™ v -> an( ^ vicpds has only a derived sig- nification, snow-flake. Further, the cases ttjs o-Tixds, PI. o-Tixes, as, from 2TIS cannot be referred to the prosaic 6 arixos row, on account of the difference of gender. Note 9. A very peculiar anomaly in declension is occasioned by the paragogic ending cpiv or cpi which is so very common in epic poetry, and is used instead of the Dative or Genitive Sing, and Plur. being appended to words for the most part after the following analogy : * All these appearances become perfectly plain, so soon as we have a correct idea of the original oneness of all the declensions, and perceive that the first and second, with their subordinate forms, are only ancient contractions and abridge- ments from the third. In this way, the Ace. in w of the Attic Dec. II, stands in connection with the contr. Ace. in w of Dec. Ill; the Ace. in v of Dec. Ill, with those of D3C. I and II: the Ionic 8ee\o$ and to 97S0?, advantage, only as Nom. e. g. tL ojv tj/jllv o tclv in the list h 58. Here belong also many, which from being originally nouns, have become adverbs ; as the Ace. iiriickTjv, and e^aityttr)? properly ef divr$, etc. (§ 115. n. 3, 5.) Finally, all those in which certain cases are wanting ; see the Anom. apvos, irpeo-fivs, ocrae, § 58. 3. Indeclinable nouns in Greek are mostly some foreign words, as to irao-ya passover; and among these the names of the let- ters, aXcj)a, fiv, etc.t Of genuine Greek words, the only ones in- declinable are the cardinal numbers, $ 70. Note 1. In a certain sense we may also reckon as indeclinable the neut. * The Grammarians assume, that this syllable is in all instances a mere ap- pendage to that actual case, which under the circumstances is required. Hence, when it stands for the Dative of Dec. I, they put i subscript under the 77, in order to distinguish it from the Genitive. This is manifestly incorrect ; see Ausfuhrl Sprachl. § 50. n. 2. t From aly/xa is found ra ai-ynma ; but the reading is doubtful. 72 ANOMALOUS NOUNS. CATALOGUE. $ 58 Participle to xpeow necessity, usual only in Nom. and A;e. from Impers. Xpr) (§ 114) ; on account of the Gen. tov xP e< *> v > e - S- Eurip. Hipp. 1256 ovk icrTi fioipas tov xpeajy r aTraKkayr]. Comp. $ep.i$ § 58. Note 2. It is not entirely correct, when Grammarians reckon among the defective nouns many old and poetic words, which occur very seldom, and have accidentally therefore been preserved only in this or that case ; as e. g. vicpa, already mentioned in § 56. n. 8 ; see also the Anom. \irl, Xina, rjke, § 58. So too when they reckon, as indeclinable, words of a similar kind, which accidentally have been preserved only in the Nominative • or if neuters, in the Nom. and Accusative; e. g. j 8cos- gift, to depas shape. Among these last there may indeed "be many, which the Greeks really never used in the Genitive or Dative, as e. g. 8ep.as; "but then they are defective. They could be indeclinable only when they actually occurred e. g. in the Genitive without changing the form, like tov 77acr^a. Note 3. Some such short secondary forms of usual words, which we may regard as remnants of the ancient language, have in this manner been pre served,- but only in the Nominative. Such are : to deb house; fuller form to 8S>p.a. The Plur. xpvo-ea Sa> in Hesiod may be considered as a contraction ; see the Anom. icapa § 58. to Kpi barley; fuller form rj KptOf), with different gender. to akcpi meal; fuller form ak(piTov. The short form was probably declined like fieki, ltos. to y\d. 422. See Lexil. I. 23. 74 ANOMALOUS NOUNS. CATALOGUE. $ 58. oack only in the Genitive, and with this Ionic Genitive (§ 34. n. IV. 5), this name is found in the earliest and "best writers, as Herodotus, Plato, etc. The Gen. QaXov and the forms QdXrjTos; tjti, -qra, are later. Forms after Dec. I, with the accent on the penult, (except QaXea>>) are to be rejected. *^e/u? r), Themis, laiv, has tlie old epic form Gr. ^e/uo-ros etc. Dor. ^e/iLTos (Plato also has Ge/Mros for the goddess) ; commonly Qe/jLi8os, Ion. ®e/uo?. In the phrase $ep.i? eari, fas est, the word $ep.i? has in a measure be- come indeclinable or neuter ; hence as Ace. cpaal Se/xt? ehai, Plato Gorg. 505. Soph. OC. 1191. ^pl% r), hair, Gr. rp^o? etc. Dat. Plur. ^pttjl, according to § 18. iSpcor § 56. n. 6. b. || 'Irjaov? \ 56. n. 1. tcdXcos 6, cable, Gr. co, Ace. cov. Plur. fdiXcoes and koKol, Acc. /cri- \ovs, all from KAA02 ; see § 56. n. 6. a, c. Kupa Att. Kap-q Ion. to, /iead. From the first form, although it occurs often in the Attic writers, there is found no other case, except Dat. Kapa. To icdpi] we have above assigned the cases KaprjTos, rjri (§ 41. 8) ; along with which there exists in the epic writers a fuller form Kaprjaros from the less frequent Nom. Kaprjap. Comp. § 41. n. 7. — In Horn. Hymn. Cer. 12, oc curs the Plur. Kapa, for -aa or -rja. Herewith are to be connected the forms of KPAA2 and KPA2, likewise poetic ; but the Nom. Sing, does not occur. The first is epic and neuter. Plur. to. Kpdara ; the other, Kparos, Kpari, is common to all the poets and is usually masculine; Acc. Sing, tov Kpdra Horn. — Peculiar to Sophocles is a third form, Nom. and Acc. Sing, to Kpdra, Philoct. 1457. /c\et? rj, key, Gr. /cAetSo?, has in Acc. /c\el8a, oftener /cXeiv, and in Plur. /cXelEes, /ckelSas contr. ArXefc. Kve(pas, darkness, prefers in the Gen. the form -our, (Kvecpovs Aristoph. Eccl. 290.) and in the Dative the form a, § 54. n. 4 ; epic -aos, -a'i. kolvcovos, partaker; instead of the regular plural, Xenophon employs Koivaves and -as. Comp. § 56. n. 8. KPAA2, KPA2, see Kapa. Kp'ivov to, lily, has a secondary form in the Plur. to. Kpivea (Hdot.) and KpL- veai (Aristoph.) as from KPIN02. Comp. hevbpov. KVCDV 6, 7], dog, KVVOS, KVVL, KVVCL, 0) KVOV, PlWT. KVV€S, KWCDV, fCVCTl, kvvcls. Kcaas to, fleece, G. Kcoeo?, Plur. Ka>ea. § 54. n. 4. Aaa? contr. Xds, 6, stone, G. Aaor D. Xd'i (§ 43. n. 4), Acc. Xdav Xdv (§ 44. n. 1), D. Plur. Aaeo-o-ii/. An Acc. Xda is also found; likewise a Gen. Xdov, as if from Xda? of Dec. I. XiVa an old Subst. neut. (oil, fat, Hippocr.) for which also we find AiVar. The Dat. \17rai, Xiira, was shortened in pronunciation and sounded like A iVa, especially in the phrase AiVa d\eicpeo-0ai to anoint oneself with oil. Here belongs also the Homeric AtV iXala, which may be considered as the Dat. of X'nra eXaiov olive-oil. Air 6, lion, Acc. Xlv. No pther form occurs in the earlier writers. Xlti, Aira, linen, Dat. and Accus. The Nom. is wanting. fidpTvs witness, forms fidprvpos, fidprvpi, Acc. fidprvpa and judo TVV, D. Plur. fJbdpTVO-LV. /xeir is the Ion. Nom. instead of 6 p.r)v month, G. p.nvos, etc. /LteXe, a Vocative found only in the familiar phrase w fieXe, in both genders. # * This has been regarded as formed by apostrophe for jtieA.ee from jue'Aeos wn- § 58. ANOMALOUS NOUNS. CATALOGUE. It H^rpm? § 56. n. 6. a. II Mivcos ibid. vavs 77, s/«j9. The Attic mode of declension is the following : Sing. N. m£? Gr. vecb Thuc. The old and Doric form is G. vaos (whence vea>s § 27. n. 10) etc. Ionic, vqvs, vt]09, etc. Ace. vrja and vqvv. From this comes a second Ionic form, G. vcos A. vea, Plur. yecs, vias. OlShrovs, Gr. OIBlttoSos and Olhlirov, D. oSc, A. oSa. and ow, Y. oia An epic and lyric secondary form (as if from Nom. OlSmodrjs) is G. Oldnrodao, Dor. -a, Ion. eco, D. 77, A. rjv, V. Oldnroda. oi'r, o?y, $ 50. n. 6. ovetpoi) 'dream, forms as Neut. ovelparos, etc. P/^r. ovelpara ; comp. TTpoacDirov. But it is also found as Masc. 6 oveipos, ov. opvis 6, tj, bird, Gr. opviOos, etc. It has in the Plur. a secondary form (declined like tto\l<;), opveis, opvecov ; comp. § 56. n. 5. In the Attic poets occurs also the Ace. Plur. opvls ($ 50, iroXis). The Dorics wrote opvZxo?, opvlxa, etc. (§ 16. n. 1. a.) without however forming the Nom. in £. 6We N. and A. Dual, eyes, forms the Gen. and Dat. only in the Plur, and after Dec. II, a&acoy, ocrcroir, octi>, 01/or. irpecrfivs 6, in the signif. o/t/ m, only as Yoc. &> Taz^, a mode of address in common life, O thou ! more seldom O ye /* raws 1 § 56. n. 6. c, d. || rvcpcos \ 56. n. 6. d. i;Sa>p to, water, Gr. i;Saro?, etc. D. Plur. vZacriv. Comp. a-Kcop, ctkcito?. The old Nom. is 'YAA2, from tlie confounding of which with vbos (comp. § 54. n. 4) the epic Dat. vdei can he explained fto? 6, son, is declined regularly ; but we also find very often, es- pecially among the Attics, the following forms after Dec. Ill ; Gr. v teo? D. vlel (A. vlea). Dual vlie, vlkow. Plur. vlels, vlecov, viecriv, vlea? and vlels Plato Legg. p. 695. Of these last, the most usual are the Gen. Sing, and all the Plurai cases, and these are even preferred to the regular forms. The Ace. viic is rejected "by the Atticists, as also the form of the Gen. viems. The Ionics form G. vlrjos, etc. All these are prolongations of the cases derived by epic writers from the simplest ancient form C YI2, in which the accent of the Gen. and Dat. Sing, seems to indicate a contraction from vi- ; G. vior, D. vu, A. via, Plur. vies, vfar, D. vldcn with a inserted (as in Trarpdaiv, dpvdai), "because the diphthong vi does not usually stand before a con- sonant. ipdpvyt- f), gullet, G. (pdpvyyo?, poetic (pdpvyo?, etc. (fipeap, Gen. (ppearos and dros contr. fypvTos, etc. see $ 41. n. 7. Xelp 7], hand, Gr. x €l P^> nas m G~en. and Dat. Dual %epoZv, and in Dat. Plur. x^-po-i For tco %elpe see $ 123. 2. In the poets also G. x e Po y ' X e P^ X*P a > Dual %eipolv, epic ^elpecri, j£«- p€(T(TLV. ^eXiScoi/, § 56. n. 7. Xovs 6 (a measure, congius,) is in part declined regularly (like fiovs), x°o y > x°h X°v v > Plur. x°' ey 5 x 0V(T ^ x° ar - But since it is strictly con- tracted, from xoevs- (Hippocrat.) it therefore has also (§ 53. 2) the hetter Attic forms G. ^oSr, A. x°^> A. PI. xoar.f — But 6 ^ovr ^eap o/ earth, has only G. xoo'r, A. x°^ v > e * c - Xpecoz/ § 57. n. 1. Xpecos to, debt, Gren. also %/3es -X Xpco<; 6, skin, Gr. ^/3&>to?, etc. Ionic XP°^> XP ^ XP° a - The Attic Dat. xp § 56. n. 6. b. a> rdv, see rdv. 1 1 coros-, see ovs. * The mode of writing this phrase d> Vaz/, rests on the incorrect derivation from ettjs friend, 3> era; see Jlusf. Sprachl. § 57. t Not to be confounded with %oas, from al xoai libation. % The form xpecos occurs often in earlier editions as Nom. and Accusative ; more recently it has been restored from the manuscripts as Genitive also ; e. g. Demosth. u. Timoth. p. 1189, 25. 1203, 16. — The form is to be explained from the verb Xpdw. The oldest form of the noun was XPAOS, Gen. XPAOT2, and hence arose Nom. and Gen. xpiws; just as Aecos from Xa6s and Aaovs. Xpeos was afterwards formed by shortening the «. 1$ 59, 60. ADJECTIVES. 77 ADJECTIVES. $ 59. Endings. 1. The Greek Adjectives, in consequence of the distinction of genders (motio), may be mainly divided into two classes : 1) Those of three endings, of which the first is masculine, the sec- ond feminine, and the third neuter. 2) Those of tivo endings, in which, as in Latin, the Masc. and Fern, have a common form, i. e. they are generis communis.— K third class, those of one end- ing, does not strictly exist ; since the few which might seem to be of this kind, are not generis omnis, as in Latin ; but only of common gender without a neuter form. See § 63. 3-5, and the apparent exceptions ib. n. 2. 2. The Feminine of adjectives of three endings always follows Dec. I. 3. The Neuter has always in the Nominative, and consequent- ly in the three like cases, a form of its own ; in all the other cases it is like the masculine. 4. The Neuters of Adjectives of Dec. Ill, with the exception of the monosyllable 7ra? (^ 62) and the compounds of irovs (§ 63. n. 4), always have a short vowel in the last syllable. But no Neuter is ever formed, unless the masculine stem has already a short final vowel. Adjectives with a long stem- vowel have no neuter form ; § 63. 3, 4, and n. 5. Note. In order therefore to decline adjectives correctly, it is only neces- sary to know the nominative of each gender, and the Genitive of the mas- culine. $ 60. Adjectives in o?. 1. The largest class of adjectives are those in o?, of Dec. II, corresponding to the Latin in us, and either (like these) of thre? endings, Masc. o?,. Fern, r) or a, Neut. ov, or of two endings, Comm. o?, Neut. ov. For the few Pronouns which have the Neut. o, see § 74. 2. Those of three endings are the most numerous, and have the Fern, always in rj ; except when preceded by a vowel or by p, where the Fern, has a, G-en. i\ov, dear, a friend heivos, §>eivr), Setvov, frightful veo<$, vka, veov, young y appending the syllable kos, have always three endings, even in compounds ; as circSec/cn/cos, q, ov (from einheiKvvpbi), evhaipbovLKos, rj, ov (from evhalpbwv) ; and often also those in £09 (0^09, etc.) when compounded with d priv- ative ; as dvd^coi, la, iov. Note 2. Adjectives which are clearly derived from other words by ap pending the terminations ko9, Xor, vos, por, ros, eos*, as ixavTiKos, oViXo'r, beivos, (fiavepos; 7rXeKTor, xpvaeos, have always, in prose at least, the three endings. On the contrary, those with the endings por, tor, €ios; clio?, are more or less of the common gender. But the poets sometimes allow themselves, for the sake of the verse, to write 77 Aap7rpor, v evvots evvovs evvoa. b) The multiple numerals of three endings, airXoos, rj, ov, sin- gle, Bitt\6o<; double, etc. They have this peculiarity, that they every where contract orj into rj, and oa into a. Thus Sing. cWXdoy dnrXovs, dnrXorj 6WX77, cWXdov dnrXovv cWXdou dnrXov, dnrKorjs 8l7tKtjs; etc. Plur. 8nr\6oi dnrXol, Si7rXdai St7rXai, Snrkoa cWXa dnrXocov dnrkav, etc.f Note 5. The Adj. ad poos, a, ov, all together, is not contracted in good prose, in order to distinguish it from adpovs noiseless. Also avri^oos op- posing, BiKpoos butpovs forked, evnvoos ic ell-breathing, evxpoos fresh-looking, are contracted only in single forms : ra diicpa, rov evirvovv, etc. 6. Some adjectives in eo?, denoting a material, are contracted and the accent shifted ; viz. when the ending 609 is preceded by a consonant (as %/weo? golden), there is in the Singular a con- traction of ea into r\ ; but when preceded by p or a vowel (as dp- yvpeos silver, epeeo? woollen), the contraction is into a. In the Plural and Dual the e is every where absorbed by the following diphthong or vowel ; like the o in no. 5. b, above. So Plur, Neut. ra yjpvcra, Ace. fern, yjpvads, etc. E. g. Sing. xpvo~eo? aovs -^pvcrea arj xp V0 ~ €0V aovv Xpvaeov aov XP V(T * US ^V 9 xpucreov aov Xpvaeco era ^pucrea arj xpvo-eu> aa Xpvcreov aovv xP vcr * av v*i v XP vaeov crovv Plur. xpvaeoi aol xP V(T€ai °" a * xP vcrea °~"> G ^ jC - On the other hand, from dpyvpeos, ea, eov, we have dpyvpovs, pa, povv, Gr. dpyvpov, pas, etc. and so epsovs, iped, ipeovv, Gr. epeov, a?, etc. * As in those long by position ; § 11. 4, 6. In common speaking these contrac- tions in ovs passed over into shortened forms in os. Hence proper names in voos have secondary forms in vos ; which however then always lengthen the preceding syllable ; e. g. EvOvvovs and EvQvvos, 'Apx'ivovs and 'ApxJvos, KaXXhos for KaKklvoos. t With these numeral forms must not be confounded the compounds with ir\ovs sailing, which are of common gender ; as 6, rj airXovs, evirXovs, etc. Neut. ovv, Neut- Plur. oa. — Herodotus resolves the form SnrXrj into SiirXerj, 3. 42. 80 ADJECTIVES. * 61. 62. § 61. Adjectives in «?. 1. Adjectives in w? of the Attic Dec. II, ($ 37,) are mostly of common gender ; e. g. 6, rj iXew?, to r Ckewv, gracious. Some of them form the Neut. in co ; e. g. aryrfpa)?, Neut. cuyrjpcov and ^777- pco. s s 37. n. 2. 2. Of three endings is only the simple 7r\ea>s /w/Z, 7rA,es and -Kepa>?, see § 63 ; for o-a>? see § 64. 5 62. Other Adjectives of three Endings. In all other Adjectives of three endings, the Masc. and Neut. follow Dec. III. The a of the Fem. is here always short. The Neuter takes regularly the short stem- vowel of the word (as in %apiei<$ -lev, o-ar)$ -69), and thus in flexion often accords with the stem, as in fiekas, crcocppcov. Only those in u? Gr. eo? retain v ; as yXv/cvs -v. See § 59. 4. Gr. eos; § 51. 5. E.g. y\v/cv<; sweet. 1. In U9, eta, v, Sing. ykvKv? ykvKeo? yXvKel yKvKvv (y\vKv) eia eias eiq. elav eia v €0$ ei v v Plur. ykvKels etai ea ykvketov eia>v ev ieo-v UVTiHV yapieui lecrcrais Levi ^apievras teacras levra XapievTes ieaaai lepra ievre UVTOLV $ 63. ADJECTIVES. 81 To tne above classes are to be added all Participles of the Act- ive form; §88.8, and §103. Note 1. The Voc. masc. of yXvicvs is formed by Sophocles (Trach. 1042) according to § 45. 1, a> ykvuvs \Aifiay. — The poets use those in vs also in the common gender ; as fjdvs avrp-r] Horn. QrjXvs veoXala Theocr. — The Ionics, instead of the Fern, eia, have ea and erj ; as a>Kea, fiaderjv Horn. Instead of fifuaeiaj from tJjxktvs half, the old Attic also had faicrea; see the note on Plat. Meno 17, and Ausf. Sprachl. § 62. n. 3. Note 2. From €v comes the compound deicav, contr. a/ccoi/, ovcra, clkov, unwilling. — The Neut. nav is long only as a monosyllable (§ 59) ; in com- position it is made short, according to the general analogy ; as anas, anaa-a, airav, all together, the whole. Note 3. Some adjectives in eis are contracted; viz. the endings tjcis, 7)€crcra, r\ev, into fjs, jjaaa, r\v ; also oeis, oecraa, oev, into ovs, ovaraa, ovv ; e. g. TifJLrjeis -qeaaa rjev, contr. riufjs rjcraa rjv TifxrjevTos rjecrcrrjS rjevros, contr. ti/jltjutos, tjctcttjs, tjvtos, etc. fjieXiToeis oeaaa oev, contr. fieXirovs ovcrcra ovv fieXiroevTos oeo-arjs oevros, contr. fxikiTovvros ovaans ovvtos, etc. So too 'O-jrovs 'Ottovvtos. — The learner should not neglect to write out full paradigms of these adjectives through all the cases, according to the rules of accent and quantity; see § 41. n. 5. § 63. Adjectives of tivo Endings, and of one Ending. 1. Other adjectives of two endings are the following ; all be- longing to Dec. III. 1) M. and F. 77?, Neut. e?, Gr. eo? contr. ou? ; like rpc^p^ and rel^ps. E. g. Sing. cra(j)rjs o-acpes evident. Plur. a-acpels aacprj o-aobovs aaqbav vacpel o-a(peo-i cracprj aacpes crac)r)S brutal, 7v\r)pr)S full, Tvpr\vr\s inclining forwards, tyevdrjs false, aXr)s collected. For vyir\s see in $ 53. 1.— Gen. Plur. § 49. 2) M. and F. cov, N. ov, Gren. ovos. E. g. ireircovy ireirov, ripe, G-en. Treirovos ; like Salpbcov. Examples : auvpoav (long v) blameless, a7rpdyp.prjv, (ppevGs, comes o-cocfrpcov, ov, intelligent, Gr. ovos. 3. Adjectives of one ending-, but which are only of common gender and not generis omnis, are all those from which no anal- ogous Neuter can be formed (§ 59. 1, 4) ; e. g. 6, v) airais Gr. So? childless ; 6, 77 pLaKpo^etp longimanus, long-armed. 4. Of one ending and common gender are also those in 77? G\ 777-0?, t»? G\ &)to?, and those in £ and -fy, as likewise the single dirTrjv Gr. aTTTrjvos unfledged. Examples : In rjs, e. g. yvpvrjs light-armed, dpyr)s white, and all ending in Svrjs, fy^?, (3Xr]s, KjirjS ; as rjpidvrjS' half dead, etc. — In coy, e. g. dyvcos G. £>tos unknown; also several compounds in XP^ S an< ^ /3pa>y. — In £ and \^, e. g. rjkii; G. lkos of like age, irapaiikr]^ G. riyos insane, pawt- G. x oS solid hoofed, aiyikity G. 73-0? steep, etc. 5. Of one ending are further those in a? Gr. dSos, t? Gr. cSos, f ? Gr. vBos. Examples : Xoyar selected, (pvyds fugitive, vopds nomadic, airopas scattered > civoKkl? weak, tTrqkvs immigrant, avyKkvs brought together. More commonly, however, those in a? and t? are only feminine ; and through the omission of a substantive become themselves substantives ; e. g. 77 puaLvas (yvvrj) Bacchante, 77 fiarpk (yfj) fa- ther-land; and so fern, gentile names, as 77 'Ids the Ionian wo- man, 77 'EWtjvis the Greek woman. 6. Many adjectives are only masculine ; so especially yepoov G\ oz^ro? old, irpeaftvs old, dfcdp,a<; Gr. avTos unwearied, Treves, 777-0?, poor ; and of Dec. I, iOeXovrr^ voluntary, fiacrikev Rhes. 380. — The forms 7roXXoy, 7roXXoV belong to the Ionics ■ and the regular forms from 7roXuy are found in the epic language ; e. g. 7roXeoy, 7roXeey, -ay, etc. The epic writers have also 7roi;Xvy, novkv ; and use the masc. form also as fern, e, g. II. k. 27. 2. The adjective wpaos gentle, meek, is usual in this form only in the Sing. Masc. and Neut. The whole Fern, and most of the Plural forms are borrowed from the form irpavs without i sub- script (Ion. Trprjvs), found in the dialects. Thus Sing, irpaos Tjpaeia Trpaov G. npaov, etc. Plur. rrpqoi and irpaa.s npaelai npaea 77-paecoi/ npaeicov 7rpae'coi/ 7rpaoty and Trpatcriv 7rpa.e1a.1s Trpqois and Trpaecriv irpqovs and 7rpaeiy Trpaeias 7rpaea ITOXVS TroXXrj TToXl) TTOWOV 7roXXr)s TTOXXOV 7TOWCO c 7roXXf} 7T0XXcp iroXvv ttoXXtjv IToXl) 84 ADJECTIVES. DEGREES OF COMPARISON. § 65. 3. The form o-w? sound, salvus, contr. from %AOH, is usually of common gender ; and is strictly in use only in the forms am and crcbv, e. g. Sing. N. crco9, ow, A. crcov, crcov, Plur. A. ?, which also occurs, is a transition to Dec. Ill, (roof, o-coey. — In the same manner as o-Sy from 2A02, arose also the Homeric £&>r from ZA02 ; and hence the common £a>os. Comp. the verbs craou) crcoco, e£aov e£a>v. 4. Defectives are chiefly the following : a. aXXrjXcov, see § 74. 4. b. a/jLcjxo, see § 78. 4. c. (jypovSos gone, fled, which is used only in the Nom. of all genders and numbers, § 150. m. 30. Note 3. We adduce here some rare and poetic examples : 1. norvia, epic ttotvcl, venerable, only feminine. 2. ixamp blessed is of comm. gender; but has also in the Fern, p.6.Kaipa. The Neut. does not occur. 3. Some masculine adjectives have a less common derived form for the fern. e. g. Treves, fern, nevrjercra; Trpicrfivs, fern. Trpeafteipa. 4. Some also of common gender have such secondary forms of the fern, (comp. § 63. n. 1,) e. g. TrUipa from 6, rj ttloiv fat; Trpocppaaaa from 6, t} irpofypasv favourably disposal. 5.. Old and simple forms used by the poets, such as we have seen among the substantives (§ 57. n. 3), are : Trpecr^a for 7rpeV/3etpa, X/y for Xicra-rj smooth. 6. Also Sapees and rapepees crowded, thick, are two epic forms found only in the Plur. Their feminines are 3-ap.eiai, rapepecai. 7. From the ease with which adjectives can be formed by composition from substantives (§ 63. 2), the poets are accustomed, whenever they find it convenient, to form single cases, to which the Nom. Sing, some- times cannot be analogically even presupposed ; as epvo-appare? "unroi, from dppa, aro$ ; Tvokvapvi Qvea-rr], from Gen. apvos, etc. 8 See also the Anom. dpyero?, ivs, ^Xe\ $ 58. Degrees of Comparison. $ 65. Comparison of Adjectives in o?. 1. The Greeks, like the Latins and English, have the three degrees of comparison, Positive, Comparative, and Superlative, as in the words long, longer, longest; and for each of these they have particular forms. Both the Comparative and Superlative are derived for all the genders from one form only of the Positive, viz. the masculine ; and in each the only distinction is in the end- ings of the genders. 2. The most common forms of comparison are made by the endings -repos, repa, repov, for the Comparative, -tcito<;, rdrrj, tcltov, for the Superlative. \ 66. AIUECTTVES. COMPARISON. 8') 3. Adjectives in o? cast off their ? before these terminations, and retain the o unchanged, when it is preceded by a long- sylla- ble ; e. g. ftkftaios /3e{3cuoT€po<;, Icryyporepo^, 7riar6raTO^. So also generally after the concurrence of a mute before a liquid, e. g. o8p6s o-foSpoTdTos, itvkvos Trvrcvorepos. There are however ex- ceptions ; see Ausf. Sprachl. § 65. n. 2. 4. When however the o is preceded by a short syllable, it is changed into co ; e.g. cro, since the a in /3Aa£, jSAa/co's, is long. The true reading is either fSXaKicrrepos or fSXaiwcdiiTepos, raros, from the secondary form /3\aKiKds. Comp. § 63. n. 3, and the Jlusf. Sprachl. \ G8. ADJECTIVES. COxUTARISON. 8? Note 4. In adjectives in pos, the other form is more or less usual at the same tune ; while olttrpos never has the comparative in iW. — The form iW, httos appears, in such words, to have come from an old positive in vs. $ 69. n. 1. Note 5. To the same class belongs panpos long, on account of the forms fido-aw (for p-ciKiaiv), /irjiacrTo?, where the new vowel of the superlative is found also in the Subst. to p.rJKo? length, and in other derivatives. More usual however are the forms fiaicpoTepo?, p.aKpoTaros. Note 6. Some other words which take this form, see among the anoma- lous examples in the following sections. In some, this form is used only by the poets, e. g. cpikiav, (p[XtaT09 f from (piko?. Note 7. Here belong also the comparative Adverbs avaov nearer, ayxi- v the Ionics have xepeiW, the Dor- ics xepqcoi/. In epic writers are found the forms D. x e P^'> A. x 6 / 37 ? ^ Plur. Xepqey, to. x e 'p aa 5 which are used instead of this comparative, although they are strictly cases of an obsolete positive XEPHS.f — The Superl. * The ancient Positive is indicated in the name of the war-god "Apris, Mars, which ^as probably identical with it ; also in the abstract noun aperr). t They are usually regarded as syncopated forms of the Comparative, like ir\4es : but the forms of both point too distinctly to Positives, in the signification of which ittle, ranch) there is already a gradation. 88 ADJECTIVES. COMPARISON. $ 69. ZJkhjtos is rare as an adjective; but Neut. Plur. rjKLara is very common as an adverb. § 115. 7.* 3. fieyas great pLsl^wv, Ion. fie&v fieycaro^ 4. fuxpos small i eXda-acDv, ttcdv eXa^to-ros 5. oXtryos little, few { fielcov bXuyL<7T0$ Since these two words (pUpo? and oXiyor) are so nearly related in mean- ing, the forms eXao-crcoi/, eXa^to-roy, and peiav, are employed both for the idea of smallness, and for that of fewness. The old positive i\axv? is still found in the poets. The regular form piKporepos; rctros, is also used. The poets too have a Compar. oXi£W {virokigopes), and a Superl. pelaros. 6. 7roXv? much irXelwv or irXewv more irXelo-Tos most. The Attics use also Trkeiv for the Neut. TrXelov, but only in such con- nections as nXeiu 77 pvpioi. — The Ionics and Dorics contract thus : nXeov rrXevv, 7r\eove? nXevves'. — Homer uses also in the Plur. 7rXeer, 7rXeas-, a posi- tive form instead of the comparative! 7. icakos beautiful kclXXicdv koKXmttos 8. pahios easy pacov paaTO? The Ionics have in the positive pqiStoy, and then form p^iW, prfivTo? ? the epic has prj'irepos; tcito? ; all from PAV2, PHi'2, from the Neut. Plur. of which, PHVA, comes the adverb pela, pea, easy. 9. aXyeivos painful akyicov aXyMrros The regular form aXyeivorepor, raros; is nevertheless more usual in the masculine and feminine. 10. irkironv ripe nreiraiTepo? 7re7rairaro<; 11. TTicovfat 7ri6repos ttlqtcltos. Note. To the peculiarities of the poets belongs the old Superlative in tiros ; as peo-aros 7niddlemost from pecros; and pearos, veiaro?,' last, from peos new, young. The contracted feminine of this last, viz. ptjti] (sc. x o pSy)> is used in prose for the last or lowest string of an instrument ; which with us is the highest. $ 69. Defective Comparison. 1. There are also defective forms of comparison, i. e. without a Positive ; see the notes. Among these may be reckoned several of the above anomalous forms, as rjTrwv, KpeiTrcov, Xghttos, etc. 2. Here belong also those forms which denote an order or se- ries, the Positive of which is mostly a Particle of place : e. g. Trporepos prior, nrpwros primus, from irpb before, vireprepos higher, -raros and vttcltos highest, from virkp above. ea%aTos uttermost, from i£ out. va-repos later, vararo^ last, from (viro). So too adjective forms of comparison derived from adverbs ; e. g. * This Superlative stands as an adjective II. \p, 531, according to the only correct reading ; see Lexil. I. 4. — From an error of the ancient Grammarians, this whole form of comparison has commonly been placed in grammar under piKp6s, becauso the adverbial form could be translated by minus, minimc. t Compare the second marginal note above, on xfyvh ete - The form 7r\ees is just as clearly syncopated from iroAces, as the comparative tt\€?cdv is formed by the .same syncope from ttoAvs. * 70. ADJECTIVES. NUMERALS. £9 7r\r](TiaLT€pos, rarcs, from ifkiqaiov near ; like Lat. prope, pro- prior, proxiwtus. Trpovpyiairepos, tcltos, from nrpovpyov serviceable/. ♦ 7]pefie(TT€po^, Taros, from rjpefia quietly. The Compar. irepaiTepos may also be best referred to the Posit. Trepa, Trepav, across, beyond; although there exists an Adjective 7T6/3Tepos mightier, from (3ao-ikevs. irvpLdTo?, /xv^aror, o7rXorepoy, 7rapotrepor, o7rt'<7Taror, and others, which are sufficiently explained in the lexicons. Note 3. In a few very rare instances, we find a new degree of comparison formed, for the sake of emphasis, from a word which is already in the com- parative or superlative degree, e. g. ecrxarcoTciTO?, ^pcono-ros 1 , from ecrxaror, rrpwTos. Such instances occur mostly in later writers, at least in those not Attic. — When the epic poets sometimes combine both forms of the compara- tive in one, e. g. xeipoTepos, peiorepos, this is done for the sake of the verse, and not to produce an emphatic sense. — In several superlatives the poets insert i; e. g. peaaTio?, vo~tcltlos, and \oia6ios from \o1o~6os last. Note 4. The early language had also a derivative adjective ending in Tepos, which must not be confounded with the comparative ; e. g. .aypoTtpos rural, opeVrepoy of a mountain, wild; SrjkvTepo? i. q. Srjkv? female. Numerals. § 70. Cardinal Numbers. For the letters as used to mark the numerals, see the Alpha- bet, last column, and § 2. n. 3, 4. * We find also av&Ttpos, ivdSraros, etc. from &va>, ivtiov ; but in many passages these are manifestly corrupted from the adverbial form o avaiTepa), 6 eVSorerw, etc See § 115. § 125 G. 90 ADJECTIVES. NUMERALS. § 70. 1. ch, fiid, ev, Gr. evos, fxias, evos, one. Observe the anomalous shifting of the accent in pia, pias, piq, plav. — Instead of this Fern, epic writers have also 'la, G. lrjs. Hence, by composition with the negatives ovBe and /^rjSe, come the negative adjectives ovSefc, ovSeuia, ov&ev, ) sj / */ *' \ no one i none. fJL7]bei^, /JbTjOe/jLLCL, fjLTjoev, ) 7 In declension in the Sing, these retain the accent of the simple word ; as Gr. ovSevos ov&e/uas, D. ovhevi ovSefMa, Ace. ovBeva ov$e- fiiav. The infrequent Plur. ovheves has again in Gren. and Dat. the accentuation ovSevcov, ovSeat,. The mode of writing these compounds separately, ov§e eh, prjbe ev, etc. where there is always a hiatus (§ 29. n. 1), serves for emphasis : not even one, not the least. — The Ionics make the Plur. ovbapoi, prjdapoi — Several writers, mostly later ones, write ov6eis 1 Neut. -Bev, for ovbels ; but em- ploy the usual feminine. 2. $vo Nom. Ace. Svolv Gren. Dat. two. The Attics write also dvelv, but only in the Genitive. They likewise use bvo as indeclinable for Gen. and Dative. — Forms not Attic are, N. A. 8vo£> G. 8v5)p D. dvai, dvcrtv. — Ion. dvoicriv. — Epic Sotco and Soiol, which are declined throughout. 3. rpels M. and F. rpla Neut. three, Gr. rptcov, D. TpLal(v), Ace. like the Nom. 4. T6crcrapes or rerrape?, Neut. a, four, Gr. TerrdpcDV, D. reaaap- (71,, Terrapcri (poet, rerpao-c), Ace. a?, a. Ion. recrcrepes, Dor. rerropes; reropes, ancient and iEol. niavpes. The remaining units or simple numbers up to ten, and the tens or round numbers up to one hundred, are not declined. 5. nrevre 7. kind 9. evvea 6. e£ 8. d/cTco 10. Se/ca 20. eiKQai or -env 50. irevrrjKovra 80. dySorj/covTa 30. TpicLKOvra 60. k^rj/covra 90. ivevrjKOVTd 40. recrcrapafcovra 70. e^opbrjKovra 100. etcarov. Not only the long a in rpiaKovra, but also the short a in TecraapaKovra, passes over into 77 among the Ionics 3 as rpifjKovTa, recra-eprjKovTa. Other Ionic and epic forms are eelicocn, dybaxovTa, evvrjKovTa ; Doric, 5 Ttepne, 20 eiKari. TmrnWa nnmnrmnrl aA "vxri+li fpn \ p +.Tia TnimKprc 11 1 Q The numbers compounded with ten, i. e. the numbers 11-19 have commonly the following forms : 11. evhefca 14. Teaaapeaicaiheica 17. eirTCLKaiheKa 12. ScoSe/co, 15. irevre/calBeKa 18. d/crco/caiSe/co, 13. TpLG-fcalBeKci 16. ifc/catSe/co, 19. ivvecucaiheKa Less frequent are he/carpels, Be/caTrivre, etc. — Tpet? and rio-crapes are declined in the compounds also, e. g. TeaaapafcalSefca, reacrap- <7iKaLhetca, Befcarpicov, etc. AtxaSe/m and SvoKalbeKa are Ionic and poetic. — The forms rpia-KaibeKa, eKKaLSem, shew that the other numbers connected by kcli up to 19 are not to be written separately. — Tea-aepea-Kaidem is with the Ionics indeclinable ■ e. 2. Hdot. 1. 86 bis. $ 70. ADJECTIVES. NUMERALS. 91 Other compound numbers are usually written separately. When the smaller number stands first, they are connected by kclL ; oth- erwise not ; e. g. 21 eh teal eUoai or eUoaiv eh (fila, ev) ; 32 rpid- KOVTCL SVO Or SvO KCU TpLCLKOVTa. The round numbers above one hundred are Adjectives of three endings, like Dec. II, and I. E.g. 200, 8ian6(Tioi : at, a 900. evva>c6o~Loi 7,000, e7rraKt/3oXof (from 6(3o\6s), rpinovs, rerpdivovs, etc.f The other numerals either retain in such com- pounds their usual form, with a few necessary changes for the sake of euphony, e. g. irevrevata, emropirvkos, eKirrjxvs from eg, etc. or they are like- wise formed with o or o ; e. g. Trevrd-perpos, egd-ycovov, elKocrd-eSpos, nevrr]- Kovro-yvos, eKa.TovTa-p.vaio?, ^tXto-raXa^ror. An Ionic form from evvea is elvdnTjxv?, etc. — The a in such compounds sometimes remains before vowels, and sometimes not ; the o is dropped, or in compounds with eros year is contracted ; thus : eTvraerrjs of seven years, better eitrerr}? ; rptaKovraerrjs or rpiaKovrovrrjs for -oerrjs. These words have the Gen. in eos, ovs, and are of common gender; but they admit also a Fern, in is, e. g. rptaKovrovnbes VTovbaL. Observe also evvaerrjs of nine years, evvrjpap nine days long. * Distinguished from pvpioi many, innumerable, by the accent. t Compounds with Star-, rpiff-, are formed only where the proper signification of dls, rpis, twice, thrice, must be expressed ; as in Siffdajrfjs Horn, durpvpioi, 8iTos or 10. heKaros 7rp£)TO? KCU etKOOTOS" 11. evbeKaros etc.f 92 ADJECTIVES. NUMERALS. § 71. s s 71. Ordinals and other derived Numerals. 1. The Ordinal Numbers are all Adjectives in 0? of three end- ings. The first two are defective forms of comparison ; see § 69. 2 30. TpiaKOO-TOS 40. Tecro-apaKocrTos 50. 7TeVTqKOO-TOS 60. i^Kocrros 70. e^bop.r]Koaros 80. 6y8ot]Kocrr6s 90. evevrjKocrros 100. eKaroaros 200. StaKoo-toordy, etc. 1,000. ^iXiocrrdr 2,000. cW^; 1X100-1-0? 10,000. p.vpioo-ros, etc. To these ordinals corresponds the interrogative ttocttos, quotus, lit. £Ae how-many-eth ?t For rerapros we find on account of the metre rerparos; for evaros we find evvaros, Ion. etvaros. — Epic forms are : rpiraros, efidop-aros, oy&oaros. — The Dorics have rrparos for 7rp£>ros, contr. for Trpoaros. Note 1. In the ordinals also the construction with 6Va> (§ 70. n. 1), is formed as follows ; Thuc. 8. 6 evbs Beov elKoarbv eros the nineteenth year. 4. 102 evbs beovri rpiaKoara erei. 2. The numeral Adverbs, which answer to the question how many times, are : dira^ once, St«?, Tpk, rerpdias, irevrcuas, effd/cis, hnTTaicis, oKTatas, ivvedias or iwd/eis, Sem/a?, elicocraKis, eKarovrd- /a?, ^CkiaKL^, etc. (Poet, -/a.) Interrog. is nrocraKis ; 3. The numeral Adjectives which answer to the question how many fold, are : airXovs simple, hiifkovs double, Tpi7r\ovs, re- Tpa7r\ov \; tcov Trevre p.epa>v ra 8vo, f. — The fraction one half is made by compounds with f)p,i- (§ 120); e. g. ^pLiraXavrov, fjpidapeiKov, etc. and so in the Plur. rpla, Trevre, enra -qp-iraXavra, i. e. 1^, 2|, 3j? talents. But where the Sing, is put with ordinals, as to rpirov, reraprov, e(38op.ov rjpiraKcovrov, this signifies 2|, 3i, 6| talents; like Germ, dritthalb, viertehalb, etc. Hdot. 1. 50. * A corresponding Superl. SetrraTos iAe Zasf of two, is only poetic. t Also as in Eng. ev\ na\ elKoarcp erei, in the one and twentieth year. Lat. ' uno et vicesimo anno.' Elsewhere this mode of expression was used only where the smaller number is indeclinable, as TrevreKaieiKotrros ; but ^OXvp-Tvias rpirrj Kal evevn Koarr) Xen. Or a different turn was given ; e.g. with iiri, as tj? eW?? iirl rpiaKovra sc. TjfMepcus ; also with np6s, as ''OXvp.Tnas reraprr\ npbs reus evevi\Kovra. X So too tcoXXo, crv, i, § 72. 3 sq. 2. Reflexive Pronouns, ijiavTov, o-eavrov, iavrov, etc. § 74. 3. 3. The Recipr. Pron. ak\ijka>v etc. § 74. 4. 4. The Indef. Pron. 6 y to delva, § 73. II. The Adjective Pronouns are : 1. Demonstrative Pronouns; to which belong: The prepositive Article 6, 17, to, § 75. ovto9, avrr], tovto, this, § 76. 2. ode, rjde, rode, this, § 76. 1. e/caj/or, 77, 0, that, § 74. 1. avros, rj, 6, self, § 74. 1. Also 6 cards* ?Ae same, ib. 2. 6 erepos one of two, the other, § 78. 2 and 4. 2. Relative Pronouns ; to which belong: The postpositive Article or, 77, o, w&o with the strengthened forms oanep, etc. § 75. oo-ri?, 777-ir, on, i#/\o, etc. § 77. 3. 67rdrepoy which of two, § 78. 2. 3. The Interrogative Pron. r/r, rt, who? what? § 77. 1. Also Trorepo- which of the two ? § 78. 2. 4. The Indefinite Pron. rlr, rt, some one, any one, § 77. 1. Also 7rdre por one of the two, § 78. n. 1. 5. Possessive Pronouns, ep.6?, 17, oV, mj/; crdr, etc. § 72. 4. 6. Negative Pronouns, ovtis, pr]Ti?, 1, § 77. 4 ; ovSeis, firjdels, -oV/zta, -fie'i^ § 70. 1 ; ovderepos, prjberepos, § 78. 2. 7. Correlative Pronouns; see in §§ 78, 79. III. The Adverbial Pronouns. Here belong all those Adverbs of manner, place, and time, which are* derived from Pronouns; see § 116. § 72. Pronouns Substantive and Possessive. 1. The substantive or personal Pronouns of the first and sec- ond persons are iyco I, ^et? we ; crv thou, vfjuels (long v) ye. 2. In the Pronoun of the third person, the Nom. Sing, i is want- ing in the common dialect ;* just as in the Lat. se, to which this * On this very rare Nominative, and its actual use by the Attics, see JLusfuhrl. Sprachlehre, with the note to p. 284. PRONOUNS SUBSTANTIVE AND POSSESSIVE. k!2 pronoun, among the Attics, corresponds also in its reflexive sense, 'self. In the Plural it has a particular form for the Neuter, which however is also infrequent. Note 1. This pronoun throughout is not frequent in the Attic language ; for in the reflexive sense {self) the compound eavrov (§ 74. 3) is more com- monly used ; and in the direct sense (him, her, it) the oblique cases of the pronoun avros (§ 74. 2) are .employed. In Ionic and epic writers, on the contrary, who employ it indiscriminately for him and for himself it occurs more frequently. — For all that concerns the use and misuse of the reflexive pronoun, see Synt. § 127. 3. These pronouns are declined as follows : thou he {himself) (TV (T) (70V OV ctol 61 Q)V aijxoiv ye, you they vfiels acjieis N. (T(pea VfJLWV O~(f)0L)l> v/jliv o-ea Note 2. Enclitic are the following : 1) The oblique cases of the second and third Pers. Singular ■ yet not so but that they may also become orthotone, as pointed out in § 14. 8. 2) The like cases of eyco when monosyllabic, pov, etc. This form is always enclitic; and only the dissyllable can be made orthotone; see in n. 3. 3) Of the forms which begin with a(p, only the oblique cases of the third person are enclitic, including the forms of the dialects given in note 6 ; and even here, acpoiv and acpa? in this circumflcxed form are excepted. But when resolved into acpecov, crcpias (note 6. 8), or when sometimes the latter is shortened by the poets to acpds; these also are enclitic. Note 3. When one of these pronouns is governed by a preposition, it regularly retains its accent, or is orthotone, as nepl crov, iv aoi, napa crcpi.- criv ; and so from eya> — kcit ipe, ig ipov. Some Grammarians except npos fie ; and it is thus actually found in Attic writers in most instances. See Ausfuhrl. Sprachl. Note 4. For the sake of emphasis, the particle ye is often appended to these pronouns (§ 149. 2). In such instances, eyco, epol, and ip.e draw back the accent, as eycoye (equidem), epoiye, epeye, (but Gen. epovye) ; and the oblique cases of av cease to be enclitic, e. g. prj aeye, not jjltj crey — , Od. a. 386. Note 5. The oblique cases of rjpeis and vpel?, according to the ancient Grammarians, are also capable of inclination ; inasmuch as in all instances where the forms above specified are enclitic, these, though they do not throw their tone upon the preceding word, draw it back ; as rjptw, fjpw, vfuv, etc. This however is not commonly observed in our editions. Sing. I Nom. Gren. Dat. Ace. 1 r €, an old Doric and epic form is eyap. 2) The Dorics have tv for av, and in the enclitic Accus. also rv. The Accus. re is rare and only orthotone, Theocr. 1. 5. In place of it the JEolics and even Dorics have elsewhere retained ere. — An old epic form of the Nom. is rvpr]. 3) In the Dative, the Ionics and Dorics have. rot for crot, but only as an enclitic. 4) The Genitive in ov of these pronouns came from eo ; hence the epic forms e/ieo, aed, eo, or e/xelo, aelo, elo. The Ionics and Dorics have thence ifxev, fxev, aey, ev ($ 28. n. 5) ; the Dorics for crev have also rev and revs: Wholly anomalous is the Gen. reolo for creo, aelo, II. $. 37. 5) The poets have a peculiar Genitive, formed "by appending the syllabic Sep (comp. § 116) : e/xedep, creOev, eBev. Of these, edep in the direct sense (note 1) may have the inclination, e. g. II. a. 114. 6) Orthotone Doric Datives (§ 14) are ejxlp, rip or re'ip, h (not tv), for e/xo/, o-ot, ol. But nV is also sometimes Accus. Theocr. 11. 7) The old Ionic of the epic writers augments the pronoun of the third person by a prosthesis of e, as G. eelo D. eol A. ee. These forms are always orthotone, like ifiov. 8) The Ionics resolve the contraction in the Plural, and write ^/xeer, v/Aee?, (r, ^ezV. For the Possessives, especially of the third person Sing, and Plur. there is often substituted in prose the (xen. of the substantive Pronouns ; see more in § 127. 7. Note 7. Dialects. 1) For vos the Dorics and Ionics have reo?, d (77), 6v> and for or they have edr, a (77), 6v. — For the supposed form erjos see the note to the Anom. evs §58. 2) For the Plural possessives there is an old and shorter form : d/JLOSy 77, OV VflOS; T], OV (T(j)6?y Tj, 6u, which is used by Doric and by epic writers ; except that the last pro- nounce the first person with the smooth breathing : afJLos; 17, 6v. In this form it is used also by the Attic poets, but only with the signi- fication of the Sing, (for e/zdr, comp. note 6. 10,) e. g. Eurip. Electr. 555. Soph. Electr. 558. Note 8. The poets form also a possessive of the first and second persons from the Dual : v<£>'i — vcotrepos oar y i. e. of us two a(j)S)'i — (rcjiaiiTefjos your^ i. e. of you two. § 73. The Pronoun Selva. To the substantive Pronouns belongs also the indefinite 6, t), to Seiva, some one, such an one, Fr. un tel. This is declined as follows : N. and A. Secva Gr. Selvos .D. helvi, Plur. oi Selves Gr. Belvcov D. A. Belvas. Note. Sometimes, though very rarely, Seiva is found indeclinable; e. g. tov Belva tov tov Selva (vlov), Arist. Thesm. 622. § 74. Adjective Pronouns. 1. The four following adjective Pronouns are regularly de- clined, except that they have the Neut. in o. avros, avrrj, avro, self e/ceivos, eice'ivr), eicelvo, that aXkos, olXKt], aXko, other 09, tf, o, for which see § 75. Note 1. The Ionics often insert e in some of the forms of civto?, e. g. av- rerj, avTeav, § 28. n. 3. — 'Eiceivos comes from e/cet there. The Ionic form is /ceiz/oy, ?7, o, and the Doric rfjvos; a, o. The iEolics had the intermediate form k?]vo9. — For &Xkoi instead of oi aXkoi, see § 29. n. 6. 2. The Pronoun avros has a three-fold signification : 1) self; 2) In the oblique cases, him, her, it; 3) "With the article, the same. The details are given in the Syntax, § 127. 2. "We mere- ly remark here that, in the last signification, it often forms a crasis with the article in all those cases where the article begins § 75. PRONOUNS. THE ARTICLES. 9? with t and does not end with a consonant (§ 29. n. 4). It must also be noted, that the Neut. then ends in ov as well as o. Hence 6 avros rj avTT] ravrb and ravrov ravrov T7J9 avrrjs ravrov ravrw ravrfj ravrcp, etc. Note 2. One must take care not to confound the forms Tavrfi and ravrd (especially when the coronis _L is omitted) with ravrrj and ravra from ovro? (§ 76). For the Ionic forms covros-, tg>vto, see § 29. n. 6. 3. From avros are formed the common Reflexive Pronouns, by compounding with it the Accusatives of the substantive Pro- nouns, ifie, ere, e. They are then declined in the three oblique cases thus : 1 Pers. G. i/jLavrov, e/iavrfjs, D. ifiavrco, y, A. i/juavrov, r\v, of myself, to myself, myself 2 Pers. Or. aeavrov or cravrov, 77?, etc. of thyself 3 Pers. G. kavrov or avrov, 779, etc. of himself ; it forms also an Ace. Neut. iavro, avrb. The ^z>d person is declined also in the Plural ; but in the first and second persons Plur. the words are separated : 1 Pers. G. fj/Jioiv avrcov of ourselves, D. tj/jllv avrols, als, Ace. 77/za9 avrov?, as, etc. 2 Pers. G. vfiwv avrcov of yourselves, D. vfuv avrofc, ais, etc. 3 Pers. Gr. iavrcov or avrcov of themselves, D. kavrols or avroh- Ace. eavrovs or avrov?, a?, a, themselves. Note 3. The Singular also was naturally used at first in the separate form. And since Homer has still aoi avra and 01 avrcp, so too the forms I avrrjv, €fx avrov etc. are at present written separately in his poems, II. a. 271. |. 162. In Od. £. 185. II. £. 490, to. a avrov, ra a avrrj?, is regarded as an elision of ra ad. Note 4. The Ionics have in these compounds aav instead of av (§ 27. n. 11), and do not elide the e in the first person; e. g. ifxeavrov, aecavrov, ecov- tov, etc. — For icovrerjv, see note 1. 4. From aXXo? is formed the Reciprocal Pronoun, marking the mutual action of one upon another : Gr. aXKrfkwv of one another, D. aXXrjkois, at?, A. aXKrjkovs, a?, aXkrfka Dual, Gr. T). aWrjXotv, aiv, A. aXKrjkw, a. This Dual expresses mutual action between two ; for whicr however the Plur. may stand just as well. h 75. The Articles. 1. In Greek grammar the Articles (ra dp6pa) are the two most simple adjuncts of a Substantive, which have a mutual ref- erence to each other in two connected clauses of a complete sen- tence. Of these in modern languages the one is called the Def- G 08 PRONOUNS. THE ARTICLES. §75. inite Article, the; and the other the Relative Pronoun, who, which, what* 2. Of these two articles, the one is called the Prepositive Article o, rf, to, hie, haec, hoc, the. This coincides in flexion with the adjective pronouns, § 74 ; ex- cept that 1) The Masc. and Fern, in the Nom. Sing, and Plur. are atona, unaccented (§ 13. 3), and have the Spir. asper; while all the other forms have an initial t. 2) Not only the Neuter, as in the adjective Pronouns, but also the Masc. in the Nom. Sing, ends in o (6). The other is called the Postpositive Article 09, rj, o, qui, quae, quod, who, which, what. This is declined precisely like the adjective Pronouns, h 74. 1. Sing. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Dual. N.A. G.D. Plur. Nom. Gen. Dat. Ace. Note 1. The variations in the dialects are the same as in the endings of Dec. I, and II ; e. g. roio for tov, & for 17, ray for r^r, etc. — For the Gen. of the postpos. ovj there is an unfrequent Homeric form oov ; and for rj? we find once eij? II. it. 208. Note 2. In the earlier language the two articles were alike in form; (just as the German der, die, das can still stand for both;) and were dis- tinguished only by position and tone, as has ever continued to be the case * Such a complete sentence, in which both the (Greek) articles appear, is e. g. "This is the man, who will deliver us," outSs icriv 6 avrjp, ts adxrei rums. It was because these two words refer so intimately to each other, and as it were lock into one another like joints, and thus connect the two clauses as members or limbs of one sentence, that the Greeks called them ra &p6pa, articuli, joints. The first of these, however, <5, f], r6, the, stands very commonly with its own simple clause alone; and is therefore, strictly speaking, in such instances no longer an article or joint. This arises from the circumstance, that in very many such instances, the second clause or apodosis is not expressed in words, but is left to be mentally sup- plied; such as "who is spoken of," or "who is here concerned," or "whom yon know," etc. See more on the article § 124. Prepos. Art. Postpos. Art. hie hcec hoc qui quce quod f <•/ TOO Trj TO) 00 V CO c f rf rf rf TOV T7)V TO ov 7]V , / ' i rf rf rf TOO TCL TOO CO a CO n r> ! -p f T TOLV Taw TOLV OLV aLV OLV r r / r/ r/ rf 01 ai TCL OL at a n n m T T ? T00V T00V T00V cov COV — cov TOt9 Tat? TOLS Ofc? aL$ ois r / z rf rf rf TOV? TCL? Ta OV9 a9 a §76. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 99 with the forms #, ox, at The epic writers have still the form 6' (ina i-curately 6) for or ; and all the cases of the prepositive article which begin with r. are used by the Ionics and Dorics for the corresponding forms of the post- positive ; thus to for o, rrjv for rjv, etc. The Dorics have rot, rat, for both oi, at, and ot, at; the epic writers only foi of, ai y in demonstrative clauses : ra\ Se, etc. Note 3. Strictly speaking, both articles are nothing more than the an cient simple demonstrative pronoun, this ; and were used (as will be shown in the Syntax $ 126) for this pronoun in many connections, even in prose ; as is the case with the German der, die, das. The common demonstratives, which have sprung from this form, see in § 76. 3. The postpositive Article, or simple relative Pronoun, is in many connections strengthened, by receiving an accession for the sake of emphasis; sometimes by the enclitic particle irep, as ocnrep, wirep, rjirep ; and sometimes by composition with the pro- noun rt?, as oo-rts, etc. See $ 77. 3. Note 4. For the enclitic re, which is appended in the epic language to oy, as or re or oare for oy, see § 149. m. 8. k 76. Demonstrative Pronouns. 1. For the common demonstrative Pronoun this, the Grreeks have a double form. The one is made from the prepositive arti cle, by merely appending the enclitic he ($ 14. n. 3) ; e. g. ohe, r/Se, roSe, Gr. rovSe, rrjcrSe, etc. A. rovSe, rrjvSe, roBe Plur. olBe, alhe, rdhe, A. rovcrSe, etc. 2. The other, o5to?, comes from the same article ; and hence it follows that article in its very anomalous flexion. Where the article has the rough breathing or the initial t, this pronoun has the same ; where the article has o or , for all genders ; and these too are enclitic where they stand for the pron. indefinite. E. g. rS reK/ialpeL rov- to ; by what dost thou prove this ? yvvai/cos rov of a certain wo- man ; yj)r)(jQal tw to use something. — For the Neut. Plur. of the indefinite form, we find drra, Ion. dyaa, for nvd, but always or- thotone ; e. g. Secva drra for heiva riva. Od. t. 218 qttoV daaa — Hence Pron. Interrogative. Sing. N. ris; Neut. ri; ~ : G. rivos or rov ; D. rivt or tg>; A. riva) ri ; Dual. N. A. rive ; G. D. rivoiv , N. rives ; G. rivoav ; D. ricri(v) ; A. rivas ; Pron. Indefinite. Neut. ri rivos or rov (rov) rivi or rep (ra) ri rtvi rivoiv riva and arra rtvcov rio~i(y) riva. and arret Plur. Note 1. In the ^infrequent instances where the monosyllabic form ris, r\, receives an acute accent because of another following enclitic, it is to be distinguished from the interrogative either by the connection, or by the ac- cent of the preceding word, e. g. dvrjp ris nore, el ri ttov. Note 2. For the interrogative ri used as an adverb, the poets and Attic comic writers have an emphatic lengthened form, nrj ; wherefore then ? how so ? 3. The compound relative oaris, who, whoever, which is only a strengthening of o? (§ 75. 3), is doubly declined, i.e. both the 09 and tU are inflected at the same time : Sing. Norn, ogtis, i]tl<;, o,tc § 15. 2. Gren. ovtivos, rjcrrtvo<;, D. wtlvl, ynvi Ace. ovTiva, rjVTiva, o,tl Plur. Nom. (Strives, arrives, dnva Gren. wvtlvcov, D. olartcri, aloTitn Ace. ovdTivas, acrTivas, dnva. There is also a form compounded with the secondary form of rt9 mentioned above in no. 2 : % 78. CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. 101 orov, orcp, for ovtivos, cpTLvc, hut not for the feminine. arret,, Ion. acrcra, for ariva. Note 3. This secondary form rod, ra, must never be confounded with the article, from which it is fundamentally distinct, as the threefold gender and the dialects show. The rod of the article is by epic writers resolved into ro to ; the rod for nVor, riz/or, on the contrary, into reo, whence Ion. and Dor. red, and Ion. Dat. reco. So too in the compound relative, oreo, orreo, orev, oreco. Note 4. The Ionics have likewise the secondary form in the Gen. and Dat. Plur. reoov, reotcri, for rivmv, riviv. And in the compound relative we find among the Attics, though very rarely, orcov, oroio-i, Xen. An. 7. 6. 24. (Ec. 3. 2. v. Schneid. Soph. (Ed. T. 414. Aristoph. Eq. 758. The Ionics write 6Vec0i>, oreoiaiv, and also in the Fem. orerjoriv. Note 5. Epic writers had the license of forming the compound relative with the first syllable indeclinable ; as on?, onva (for ovriva and ariva), on- i/ay. — They write the Neut. when the r is doubled, thus : o,rrt. 4. From rh are formed, by composition with ov and pur], the negative pronouns ovns, puiqris, i, Gr. ovnvos, purjnvos, etc. no one, none; which are declined like the simple rh. § 78. 1. § 78. Correlative Pronouns and Adjectives* 1. Correlatives are certain words having such a mutual rela- tion to each other, that when one implies a certain question, the others contain the simplest answers to that question in a like form. Those Correlatives which are wholly of a general nature, have already been given above ; viz. the Interrogative t/? ; who ? Demonstrative 6, oSe, ovros, this; i/ceivos that Indefinite rh, one, some one Relative 6V, compound ocrrvs, who, whoever Negative ovrts, purjris, (§ 77. 4,) or ovBefc, fiajSek, (§ 70. 1,) no one, none; each of course with its Fem. and Neuter. 2. When these correlative ideas are limited to two objects or parts, they are thus expressed : Interrogative rrorepos, a, ov ; which of the two ? Demonstrative, as above in no. 1 ; with 6 erepos the other, al- ter ; see in no. 4. Indefinite irorepos, a, ov, one or the other (of two), alteruier ; see n. 1. Relative orrorepos, which of the tivo Negative ovSirepos, fjurjSerepos, neither of the two. Note 1. Uorepos as indefinite corresponds to rh when referring to the Plural j e. g. Plat. Theset. 8 ri 8\ el norepov rrjv ^vx^v inaivdi; and so often.* That also cmorepos is so used, see Heindorf in loc. cit. — For the crasis arc- pos, Snrepov, etc. see § 29. n. 5. * The idea of the pronoun cannot be so accurately and systematically defined, as not to include much, which may in general be considered as belonging likewise to the adjective. 102 CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. $ 79. 3. To the questions rfe ; and Trorepos ; can also be answered every, each. In Greek this has the form of a comparative and superlative : etcarepos, a, ov, each of two, eKacrTos, tj, ov, each (of many), every. 4. Other general answers to the question t/s are : a\\o$ another, § 74. 1. 7ra?, TT&vres, all, § 62. 4. To these correspond, when the question is made by irorepos, 6 eVe/3o? the other, dfi^orepo^, a, ov, dficporepoL^ai, a, both. For this last there is used, in certain connections, the Dual N. A. afJLcjxo, Gr. D. a/ji(f)olv (the latter with the accent shifted,) which stand for all genders. Note 2. By the poets apcpco is sometimes used as indeclinable, i. e. also for the Gen. and Dative, without change. — See more on oaAop and erepor in k 127. 10. k 79. Special Correlatives : irocro^, ttolos, 7T7]\lkos. 1. Besides these general Correlatives, there are also some spe- cial distinctive ones, which refer more particularly to the quali- ties and relations of an object ; as, how constituted ? where situ- ated ? etc. These are formed in Greek after a very clear analo- gy ; and have partly the form of Adjectives, partly that of Ad- verbs. For the latter, see § 116. 2. Every series or set of such special Correlatives, has its root and formative ending in common ; but the several words of each set are distinguished among themselves by their initial letters or by the accent. The interrogative begins with 777 e. g. 7t6a, where of course, if the first letter be an aspirate, the correspond- ing smooth mute is prefixed instead of it (§ 18), e. g. (j)t\eco 7T€(pl\7)/ca, ^rvco riOv/ca, ^copeco fce/ccoprj/ca. This .'augment is also called Reduplication. The Future 3, which includes in itself the sense of the Perfect, retains also this aug- ment. § 99. 5. The historical tenses, on the other hand, prefix simply an e, which in distinction from the reduplication of the Perfect is called simply the Augment ; e. g. TV7TTO), Imperf. e-rvirrov, Aor. e-rwjra. The Pluperfect also, which unites the historic quality with the signification of the Perfect, takes this e before the reduplication of the Perfect, e. g. TV7TTCO, Perf. T€TV(£>a, Plupf. €-T6TV(f>eLV. Hence the primary tenses, in respect to increase at the beginning, are distinguished from the historical tenses thus : The primary take either no augment at all, as the Pres. and Future ; or only the reduplication, as the Perfect. The historical take the sim- ple augment ; and the Plupf. as one of them and in accordance with its signification, receives both. 6. All the augments appear both in the Active, and in the Pass- ive and Middle ; the simple augment, however, only in the In- dicative, but the reduplication throughout all the moods and tenses. As now the Imperfect and Pluperfect exist only in the Indicative, the preceding rule may be expressed thus : The reduplication of the Perfect is retained through all the moods and participles ; the augment of the Aorist occurs only in the Indicative. Thus from tv7ttco PERF. rirv(j)a, Inf. rerv^evat, Part. T€TV(j>cb<; . qt> j 1- ervyfra, — rv^rai, — rvyjras 2, ervTTov, — rvirelv, — rviroav. The Fut. 3 conforms here also to the Perfect ; see 4 above. Note. This rule may be expressed more exactly thus : All that is re- duplication, or which stands in the place of reduplication, is retained through ill the moods and participles ; all that is simple augment occurs only in the Indicative; comp. § 83. 2, 3. § 84. 1. Hence, according to the former part <■ 83. VERBS. SYLLABIC AUGMENT. 1U7 of this rule, we have the irregular reduplication of the Aorist XeAaOov, Part. kekaO&v, etc. § 83. n. 10; while in accordance with the latter part, the ir- reg. Aor. rjyayov casts off in the Infin. only t>he temporal augment, as dya- yeiv, etc. \ 85. n. 2. — What can here he adduced hy way of exception, whether with or without ground, see in the Anom. ayvvpi and ewre«/, § 114. § 83. Syllabic Augment, continued. 1. The preceding paragraph (k 82. 6) exhibits the syllabic aug- ment in its proper and regular shape ; the present section treats of its deviations and peculiarities. 2. "When a verb begins with p, this letter is doubled after the pairTCD, Imperf. eppairrov. See k 21. 2, and the exceptions in n. 2. This form of the aug- ment is then employed in the Perfect and Pluperfect, instead of the reduplication, e. g. Perf. eppa(f)a, Plupf. ippd(f>eiv. 3. When a verb begins with a double consonant, (^, f, f,) the simple augment (e) is alone prefixed both in the Perfect and Plu- perfect, instead of the reduplication. E.g. yjraXXco, Perf. e-yjraXfca, Plupf. er^raXtceiv fy]Teco, £e'a>, Pass. Perf. ifyjrrificu, e^eapuai, Plupf. igecrpLrjv. The same takes place, in most instances, where a verb begins with two consonants ; e. g. (pOeipco, Perf. e(j>0opa, Plupf. i$66peiv (nr€LpQ), Pass. Perf. eairappuai, Plupf. ecrTrdppLrjv fcrl^ca, TTTveraco, Pass. Perf. efcrio-pbcu, eirTvapLat. In all the examples under 2 and 3, the augment of the Perfect (and Fut. 3) remains the same in all the moods : eppafya, Inf. ippacpivai,' eKTiapbat, Part. eKTio-puevo^. Note 1. The following are exceptions to the last rule, and accord with t.he general rule, i. e. are reduplicated as usual. a) Two consonants, of which the first is a mute and the other a liquid, i. e. a mute "before a liquid; e. g. ypdcpm ye-ypacpa ; so Ke'-KXi/xai, 7re- irvevKci, re-SKam, etc. Yet yv assumes only e, and yX, /3X are variable : e. g. yvcop'ifa eyvwpKTfxai, /car-eyXcorrtcr/xeVoy, di-eykv7TTai and Sia-yeyXv- Trrai, /3Xa7rro) j3e/3Xaja/Liat, /3Xao-raz>o) efiXdcrTTjKa.^ b) The Perfects [xe fivrj pai and k.€ktt] p,ai from pvda> and Kraofxai. But the Ionics (and the Attics often, e. g. Plato. Meno 39) write ekrgpuu. All other verbs beginning with jxv and kt take only e ; e. g. ip,vrjp,6vevKa, e/creartoyicu, eKTOva. c) The Perfects 7re7rrap.ai, 7re7rr<»Ka, 7r e 7r r 77 o> r, see the Anom. jverdv- vvyny 7rero/xat, mirr®, 77x770-0-0), § 114; all which however have arisen rather by syncope out of old verbs from the root IIETG. All Perfects immediately and regularly derived from 7rr, have simply e ; thus the usual Perf. from 71-7770-0-0) is ran^a; and so enrorjpai, i'mio-pai, from Trroeo), nriacra). * It is to be observed, that yv, y\, j8A, belong to those instances of a mute before a liquid, which form also in prosody an exception to the general rule (§ 7. 9, 10). The other exceptions there adduced, do not here occur ; for SeSjUTi/ucu is an instance of syncope; see the Anom. Se'jctw, § 114. 108 VERBS. TEMPORAL AUGMENT. $ 84. Note 2. The same kind of augment which now belongs to verbs begin- ning with p, probably occurred in the ancient language in verbs beginning with other semivowels; hence the two Perfects epupopa and eaavpai ; see the Anom. peipopai and aevco, § 114. — The epic poets, for the sake of the metre, double all the liquids, but only in the Imperf. and Aorist • as eXXafiev, ep- fiade. — For edbeiae, see the Anom. Seicrcu, § 114. Note 3. Some few words beginning with a liquid, take even in the com- mon language, instead of the reduplication, the syllable el or el; e. g. e'CXr}- (pa. See the Anom. Xapfidva, Xay^dva, Xeyco, peipopai, and PEG under elnelv, § 114. Note 4. Of the ancient reduplication before p, the only instance retained is the Homeric pepynapeva, Od. f. 59. Note 5. In the three verbs fioyXopai will, hvvapat can, peXXca am about to do, the Attics very commonly increase the syllabic augment by superadding the temporal augment ; e. g. rjdwdprjv instead of eftvvdprjv. See the same in a7roAai)co, § 86. n. 2. — For the syllabic augment before a vowel, see § 84* n. 8. Note 6. The augment of the historic tenses is very often omitted in poetry by writers not Attic ; e. g. j3dXe for eftaXe, fir} for efirj, yevovro for eyevovro, etc. See for the accent, § 103. n. I. 2. In Attic poets this omission is rare, and only for the sake of the metre ; see Herm. ad Eur. Hec. p. 32. Note 7. In Attic prose the omission of the simple augment is very com- mon in the Pluperfect; as Tervcpetarav, Tervrrro, for ererixpeiaav, erervnTo ; 8e8iei for eSeStet Plat. In other tenses this never happens ; except in xPW> see Anom. XP" 05 § H4. Note 8. Likewise in the Ionic prose of Herodotus this omission of the syllabic augment is never found ; except in the iterative forms so called, in ctkov, o-ic6p,r)v, § 103. n. II. 1. Yet in the same writer the neglect of the temporal augment is very common. See however Hdot. 7. 54. ed. Gaisf. Note 9. On the other hand, the omission of the regular Reduplication is very rare and doubtful. For edeicTo and the like, see § 110. 8; and for the epic reduplication dei instead of de, see Anom. delaai and he'iKvvpi § 114. Note 10. In the epic poets the Aor. 2 (Act. and Mid.) often takes the Reduplication, which is then retained through all the moods (§ 82. 6, and note) ; e. g. 7re7rXr)yov, XeXadcw, ireiriOelv, Kendpn), XeXafieadai, etc. In some few verbs they prefix, in the Indicative, still further the simple augment, as cppdfa eitecppabov ; see the Anom. (ppdfa, and comp. KeXopai and time or quantity of syllables), is then the same in all the Preterites. In this way, initial a or e is generally changed into 77, and o into avvco Impf. tjvvov Perf. 7]vvtca Plupf. r)vviceiv dpfjLO^co — rjp/jLo^ov — rjpfMOfca — r)p/j,6fC€iv iXirl^co — rfXnutpv — rfXfrrika — rjXnrUeiv djAiXeoo — wjjbikeov — 6)fjLi\r)fca — § 84. VERBS. TEMPORAL AUGMENT. 109 In respect to the moods the general rule holds good, § 82. 6. Hence in the Aorists, out of the Indicative, after the augment is dropped the original vowel reappears, e. g. dvvco, Aor. rjvvcra, Subj. dvvcra), Inf. avvcrcu. But in the Perfect the lengthened vowel is retained in all the moods, because it stands instead of the reduplication ; e. g. 6{ii\ico Perf. co/M\7}fca, Subj. GbfAckrj/ccQ, Inf. d)fit\r)K6vat. 2. The following verbs, viz. e%a> have epirco ) earidco entertain ido) permit epirv^co \ & eirw ) folloiv, see ekKco draw ) $114 editfia accustom eiroyuai ) s s 114 e EAKTf2 \ ikla-ao) wind ipydtyficu work, change the e into et, instead of into tj ; e.g. Impf. el~)(ov, eio-ricov, Perf. etpyaa/juac, etc. See note 4. Note 1. See further elXov, ekelv, in the Anom. alpeai ; also e'icoda in the Anom. e#oo, § 114; and the verbs derived from the root C E£2, § 108. — The following. are sometimes wrongly referred hither, viz. eVco and epea>, see the Anom. fi7retv; e|co on isocount of eto-a, see § 108. II; epvco and epcoraco on account of e'ipvaa, elpoorcov, which forms however belong to the Ionic elpvco, elpcordco. 3. The vowels i and v can be augmented only when they are short, and then only by being lengthened ; e. g. 'tKerevco Eurip. Med. 971, Aor. 'i/cerevcra ib. 338. And even where the syllable is already long by position, the augment must be made audible in the pronunciation ; e. g. hryyto "icr^vou, vfivico "vfjuvovv. 4. Of vowels which are already long in themselves, a usually becomes t) (no. 1 above) ; the others, nj, co, i, v, are wholly inca- pable of being augmented ; e. g. rjTrdofjLcu, Impf. rjTTCOfJbTJV, Perf. 7]TTr\jXai, Plupf. r)TT7]/JL7]V. 5. Verbs beginning with a diphthong- admit the augment, when the first vowel of the diphthong can be changed in the man- ner above specified ; and then if the second vowel be (,, it is sub- scribed ; e.g. avXeco — tjvXovv ev^o/uai, — nqvyopjrjv alreco — f)TOW ahw — fjhov olfceco — cokovv. But verbs beginning with ov and ec neglect the augment wholly, e- g. ovrd^co — ovrobCpv eUco — el/cov, eltja, with the exception of el/cdfo, which is augmented only by the Attics, and rarely even by them : eltcaaa, eUaafxai, Att. jj/mcra, yfcacrfjLcu. — Verbs beginning with ev have sometimes rjv and some- times ev ; as evypiLai, ^vyppaqv and ev'XPfiTjv ; evpio-fcco, evpeOfjv, very rarely 7}vpe6r)v. Note 2. It is true, in general, that very many verbs remain unchanged, in which the augment might produce cacophony or ambiguity. So especially some beginning with a, au, oi, with another vowel immediately following, as atco, arjpi, dt]bi£opai' avaivm, oiajKt£co, oioa>, and some others ; except thai short a, as in atco, is made long; e. g. Imperf. atov (long a), avaivero, oldiafcv, 110 VERBS. TEMPORAL AUGMENT. $ 84 etc. But det'Sw follows the general rule, fjeibov; and hrata forms inrficra Hdot. Some others beginning with ol have no augment, as olvifa, otKoupeo), olcrTpeoo. Note 3. The Ionics (also Herodotus, comp. § 83. n. 8) and the poets not Attic, often omit this augment in all verbs, as well as the syllabic aug- ment ; e. g. d/jL€L(3eTo for ^pei/3ero, eW for elav from edco, etc. and sometimes even in the Perf. and Plupf. Pass. e. g. dp,p.ai, oU-qpai, from gottcd, otKeco, in Herodotus. — In verbs beginning with a the Dorics merely prolong the quan- tity into d, and never change the vowel into rj. Note 4. The temporal augment unquestionably arose from the contrac- tion of the syllabic augment e with the vowel of the verb, e. g. ayco e-ayov rjyov. Here however the contraction of ee into ??, and of eo into w, deviates from the common rule (§ 28. 3. b). Hence, and from the general rule that the accent can never go back beyond the augment ($ 103. m. 10), may be explained the accent of some compounds, e. g. in dvrynTov from dvdirra. In this way sometimes the augment becomes apparent only by the accent ; e. g. KaOrjKco {rJKoi), 3 pers. Impf. KaOrjKtv ; and from dneipyco the form dneipye is Imperative, but dnelpye is 3 pers. Impf. Note 5. The syllabic augment is in many instances still actually pre- served before a vowel. Besides several epic forms, this is found in the common language in the following three verbs, which according to the general rule above are not susceptible of the temporal augment : Qi8e lead. Note 6. In the Perfect likewise the temporal augment has arisen from the e; since in the case of a verb beginning with a vowel the ordinary re- duplication was impossible. And this e is still preserved unchanged (in- stead of the reduplication) in the verbs already quoted (note 5), as eaya, ecoaixat, ia>vrjp.ai, eovprjua, and besides these in eoiKa, tokTra, eopya from e'Ua, eA7ra), epyco, all which once had the Digamma, § 6. n. 3. The o in these Perfects comes from changing the vowel of the root ($97. 4. c), and the i is instead of the reduplication ; thus epyv, iakooka from 'AAOii, see Anom. dXiV/co- fiai ; also dv8dva>, evvvp.1. Note 8. We have seen above (§ 83. n. 5), that the syllabic augment is sometimes increased by the temporal ; in the same manner the temporal augment in the verb 6pda> see is commonly increased by the syllabic, which retains the same breathing, e. g. Impf. ecopcov. For the Perf. eoopa/ca, see the Anom. opdeo § 114; and also oiyco, dvoiyw. — In the epic poets this takes place with some other verbs; e. g. eWo^oet from oiW^oea), irjvdave from dv- ddvco, § 6. n. 3. Note 9. When a verb or verbal form begins with eo, the second voivei takes the augment. This occurs in the verb eoprd£a>, Impf. eaprafav, and with the three Perfects mentioned in note 6 when in the Plupf. iaiceiv, icokiTeiv, £d>py€iv. $ 85. VERBS. ATTIC REDUPLICATION. ill $ 85. Attic Reduplication. . 1. In verbs beginning with a vowel, the reduplication, as we have seen, cannot take place ; § 84. n. 6. But several such, all of them radical verbs, have in the Perfect a special Attic Redu- plication so called ; which consists in repeating the first two let- ters of the verb before the temporal augment in the Perfect, the initial vowel remaining unchanged ; e. g. ayeipco (rjyeprca) ay-rjyep/ca, ayiiyepfiai ifjueco (ff/jLe/ca) ifA-tffieKa opvTTQ) (wpv^a) 6p-copv%a, opcopvyfiai o^co (co&z) oS-coSa. The name Attic reduplication is only technical, and by no means implies that in these verbs it is peculiar to the Attics. On the contrary, the simple form of these Perfects was in all the dialects nearly obsolete, in some instances directly not Attic; see the anom. alpeco, ay a), § 114. 2. This form prefers a short vowel in the third syllable ; and therefore exchanges the long vowels for the short stem-vowel which lies at the basis of the verb ; § 92. 4, 9. E. g. in aXelcpco, Perf. a\r}\i, eyapco, eAey^a), eAtcnrco, epeco, epeiKco, o£co, opvrTco. Besides these there are also quite a number of Perfects of this kind, some of' them in current use, whose simple Present forms, from which they were regularly derived, are lost ; see the Anom. dpapi- (tko>, epxofiai, iadi(o ) eXawco, oKXvpi, op.vvp.i, (pepco, § 114.— Other peculiarities in this reduplication, and some single poetic forms, see in the Anom. alpeco, eyeipo>, e^co, rjfxvco, o'i%op.ai, opaco, opvvfii, etc. § 114. 3. The Pluperfect sometimes prefixes to this reduplication a new temporal augment ; thus commonly in afcrjKoa r/tcrjicoeiv.* In most other instances this is omitted ; comp. $ 83. n. 7. Note 3. In some verbs which fall under this section (comp. § 83. n. 10), the Aor. 2 has in the poets a reduplication which corresponds to that of the Perfect; except that here the temporal augment has the first place, e. g. APQ Perf. apapa (Ion. apt] pa) Aor. rjpapov. So also rJKaxov, apopev, and some other forms (see marg. note). In the com- mon language the verb ayco has this Aorist, fjyayov ; see in § 114.f This reduplication remains in the other moods, which then cast off only the temporal augment; e. g. dpapy, aKax^lv, dyaycov. See § 82. n. "* So the epic forms rjK-fjXaTo, JipftpeicrTo, upcbpei; see § 114. t Grammarians have commonly explained the epic forms tfpapev, &pope, as Per- fects, by metathesis for &pr]pa, tipwpa. But this is contradicted not only by their undeniable aorist signification, but also by forms like 3 Plur. &papov for tfpapoi/, Part apapdov, and by the analogy of the similar Aorists ayayeTv, cucaxew, a7rae?j/, a\a\ Ktivy and iveytctTv ; see Anom. § 114. Il2 AUGMENT OF COMPOUND VERBS. § 86. Note 4. A very peculiar reduplication of the Aorist at the end of the word, occurs in the epic poets in epi/Kco, Aor. rj pvKaicov, epvuaxeeiv for -elv, and in the same manner in eViTrro, rjv inane; see in § 114. § 86. Augment of Compound Verbs. 1. In compound Yerbs the following rules hold good. When the Yerb is compounded with a Preposition, but so that this first happens in the verb itself (loose composition § 121), it takes the augment and reduplication between the two, i. e. after the prep- osition. "Wherever two vowels would thus come together, the vowel of the preposition is elided, except in nrepi and irpo. On the other hand, prepositions ending in a consonant, which may- have been changed before the Present for the sake of euphony, reappear in their original shape before the vowel of the augment. We may therefore always first construct the form from the sim- ple verb, and then prefix the preposition. E. g. iTpo(T(f)epo), 7rpo, Kar^yopeco, 7rpo- £eve(d, Trpo, v7ro7rrevoD. Hence : e^eicXrjo-iacrav, eveKa>p.ia£ov, avvrjpyovv, einTeTrjbevKa, Kar-qyopovv, etc. although they all are derived from eKicXrjcria, eynwpiov, Karrjyopos, etc. So €fX7ro\av to trade (from ep.7roXr} wares) has indeed commonly rjpjKokqo-a, -rjKa; but Lucian has ep.7Teir6XrjKa, and Isseus eveiroXrjo-av. Even 7vapavop.ea> (de- rived from napd-vop.o?, and hence Perf. usually 7rapavev6p.r)ica) forms Impf. napt]v6p.uvv, Aor. 7rapt]v6p.r]cra, as if from rrap-avop-ecd ; although this was cer- tainly not its origin • comp. n. 4. Also eyyvdeo to give in pledge has both forms : rjyyvrjora, rjyyvrjica, and eveyvrjcra,^ eyyeyvrjKa. Note 4. The following verbs commonly take the augment in both places at once : viz. dvop86a> r]vpdovv } evoxXea ^fcoyA^cra, dve%op.ai r)veiy6p-r\v, •napoivelv ireuapa>vr)Ka. Still more anomalous is this in the verbs hia- tcovelv, diairav, — dedirjKovrjKa, KaredirjTrjoa, (or also with simple augm. 81$- T-qaa, &t,rjKovovp,r]v,) since these come from didicovo?, hiaira, where the a begins no new word. In these words common usage has been led astray as in Trapavojj.i'co, by the mere semblance of composition. I Note 5. Of compounds, whose first part is a noun, we find the anomalous reduplication in the middle only in InTroTpocpea), Perf. l7nroT€Tp6(pT]K.a in Ly- curgus ) probably because it could receive no audible augment at the be- ginning. Conjugation by Endings, etc. $ 87. Inflection by Number and Person. — Union Vowel. 1. In the Greek verb, as in the substantive, there are three Numbers, both in the Active and Passive ; consequently each * But see Lexil. I. 63. 13. t The reading ei/eyyiW, iveyyvrjcrev, is now rejected by Bekker from the texts. On the other hand, forms wholly without augment (iyyvrjKc^s, iyyvfoaro) are cited; Jlusf. Sprachl. § 86. n. 5. H Sing. Dual. Plur. 1 2 3 fJLCU fjieOov fjueOa (era/,) aOov o~0e TCLL aOov VTCLb fltlV [JLeOov fjueOa M adov a6e TO o-Qt]V VT0 114 VERBS. CONJUGATION. $ 87. tense has strictly nine personal endings. In the tenses of the Active, however, the 1 pers. Dual is wanting, that is, it does not differ from the Plural. 2. In Grreek, as in Latin, there is a peculiar active inflection of the persons, which the tenses of the Active follow ; and also a peculiar passive inflection of the same, which is followed by the tenses of the Passive (and Middle). The Passive Aorists alone follow the active inflection. 3. In both the Active and Passive, the inflection of the person- al endings of the primary tenses differs in an analogous manner from that of the historical tenses. All this appears from the fol- lowing table ; which applies to all tenses without exception. Active Form. Passive Form. Primary Tenses. 1 2 3 Sing. I — 9 — . Dual. wanting TOV TOV Plur. I fjbev re criv, en Historical Tenses. wanting TOV TTjV pev re v or crav 4. Herewith is connected the theory of the Union Vowel, so called. By this is meant that letter by which the above endings are united with the stem. Thus in 7\vco, Pres. (stem \v) 1 pers. Plur. \v-o-fjLev, 2 pers. Plur. \v-e-re ; Aor. (stem i\va) 3 pers. Dual i\vo~-d-T7]v. Here o, e, a, are union vowels. 5. The rule is, that all the tenses of the verb, excepting the Perfect and Pluperfect Passive, and the irregular flexion of Verbs in /ju, append the above endings to their stem by means of a union vowel. The manner in which this is done, and what union vowels each tense and each mood requires, may' best be 'learned from the paradigms ; because of the variety and changes of these vowels even in a single tense. They are eight in all, viz. five simple vowels, a, e, rj, o, co, and four diphthongs, at, ei, ot, 77.* Note 1. Thus, for example, the ending -jxev of 1 Plur. Act. is con- nected with the stem of the Present, Future, etc. by o, as \v-o-fiev, XiV-o- fiez/; with that of the Aor. 1 and Perf. by d, as ekvo--a-ixev> \e\vK-a-fxev ; with that of the Plupf. by ei, as iXeXiiK-et-fxev ; with that of the Aor. 1 Pass. by rj, as iXvd-r)-nev ; with that of every Subjunct. by g>, as Xii-a-pei; ; with that of the Opt. Pres. etc. by 01, as \v-oi-/xev ; and with that of the Opt. Aor. by at, as \va-ai-yLev. — From these examples it is quite apparent, that the person is sufficiently known by the mere ending (ficv) ; but that in order to mark the tense and mood the union vowel does not of itself suffice ; inas- much as there are changes in the stem of the verb, which will be explained farther on. * The diphthong ov does not belong here; since Pres. 3 Plur. Kv-ov-ci is c ox \v-o-v as eXv-o-v, eXeXvK-ei-v; and the third person, when its vowel is e, takes the movable v, as eXv-ev or e. In the less frequent conjugation in pi, both these persons have in the Present an ending wholly peculiar, viz. /it, at. § 106. Note 3. The 3 pers. Plur. ended originally in vtl (Lat. nt) ; hence the long vowel before the usual ending crt, according to § 25. 4. See too § 103. V. 4. Note 4. The endings am and 0-0 of the 2 pers. Passive are to be noted merely as being the original forms ; since in most of the tenses, except where there is no union vowel (see 5 above), the a and union vowel are dropped, and then the Attics contract ; as rtWreo-at, tvttttj. See the details in § 103. III. Note 5. In regard to the peculiarities by which the historical tenses are distinguished from the primary ones, we must take care not to overlook in the above table the following points especially :f a. One characteristic, which runs through the whole of the Active and Passive forms, is, that the 3 pers. Dual, which in the primary tenses is always of the same form as the 2 pers. (e. g. Pres. tvtvtctov, rvnTerov, Pass. TvnTeadov, TVTrrecrdov,) in the historical tenses always ends in rjv ; e. g. Impf. 2 irvTrrtTov, 3 irvirT^T-qv, Pass. 2 ervTrrecrdov, 3 irvTrrecrOriv. b. In the Active, the 3 pers. Plur. which in the primary tenses always ends in at with the movable v (ovaiv, aaiv, or ovai, acrt), terminates al- ways in the historical tenses in a fixed v ; as ov, av, eiaav, rja-av. c. In the Passive, on the contrary, the two classes of tenses differ through- out the whole Singular, and in all third persons Plural. Note 6. That the Dual, as being an ancient Plural, has sometimes in the poets, and particularly in verbs, a plural signification, has been already mentioned, § 33. n. 4; see also § 129. 6, and n. 7. Note 7. In respect to the Dual-endings ov and -qv there is also some un- certainty. Thus, several times in Homer the ending -ov stands as 3 Dual of an historical tense (e. g. II. k. 364 diooKerov ; v. 346 eVev^eroi/) ; while the ending -rjv appears as 2 Dual of an historical tense, not only in the poets (Soph. OT. 1511 elx^rr]v), but also in Plato; see Ausf. Sprachl. § 87. n. 2 and comp. § 103. m. 27. § 88. Conjugation by Moods and Participles. 1. The Grreek language is richer than others in Moods and Par- ticiples. Except the Imperfect and Pluperfect, all the tenses can form moods. But of the Future the Subjunct. and Imperat. are wanting ; and in the Perfect the Subj. Opt. and Imperat. are seldom used ; k 137. n. 12. Hence in every Present, Perfect (1 and 2), and Aorist (1 and 2), there are, besides the Indicative, * Although in such instances there is strictly nothing to unite, yet this vowel is essentially the same with the union vowel, and therefore falls away in such forma- tions as have no union vowel ; compare e. g. from -rftfyjut, 3 Sing. Impf. iridrj, where ■q belongs to the stem. § 107. t All these differences are of use in the epio poets, where it is often the case, when the augment has been omitted (§§ 83, 84, notes), that they alone serve to point out the tense. 116 VERBS. CONJUGATION. $ 88. also the Subjunctive, Optati *e, Imperative, Infinitive, and Par- ticiple. 2. The Optative is so called as expressing in general a desire or wish ; but it is used nevertheless in very many other senses. The details are given in the Syntax ; and we only remark here, that its signification corresponds almost wholly to that of the Lat- in Imperfect and Pluperfect of the Subjunctive, a tense which is wanting in Greek ; or to that of the English Potential mood. 3. The •'inflection of the Subjunctive and Optative by persons is included in the above table (§ 87) ; and the following is here the rule : In the Subjunctive of all tenses the flexion of the primary tenses every where forms the basis ; in the Optative, that of the historical tenses. Hence, in the preceding table (s s 87), the upper series contains likewise the personal endings of all Subjunctives ; and the lower one, those of all Optatives. Further, the Subjunctive and Opta- tive have also their peculiar union vowels ; by which they are distinguished from each other on the one hand, and from the In- dicative on the other. These are hence appropriately called mood vowels. 4. The peculiar union or mood vowels of the Subjunctive are 7] and w. The following is then the rule : The flexion of all Subjunctives follows throughout that of the Subjunctive Present. The Subjunctive of the Present is formed from the Indie. P^es. as follows : Where the Indicative has o, ov, w, the Subjunctive has ft). Where the Indicative has e, ei, y, the Subjunctive has y or y. Hence, in full, the endings of ail Subjunctives are : Act. ft) ys y) — yrov yrov ; wfxev yre w(tl(v) Pass, coficu y yrai ; cofieOov ycrQov yaOov ; oofieOa yaOe covtcli. 5. The characteristic letter of the Optative is i, which forms a diphthong with the preceding vowel, whether union vowel or that of the stem ; and this diphthong then remains before all the personal endings. Thus in the regular verb we have the follow- ing: oi, in Opt. Pres. and in all Optatives which follow the same ; and these are by far the greater part. cu, in Opt. Aor. 1 Act. and Mid. ei, in Opt. Aor. 1 and 2 Pass. To these are added in the first person of the Active the endings uc and 7]v (e. g. tvtttoljal, TvfyOeiyv) ; and in the latter this y with the diphthong remains in all the other endings, as eiyv, elys, eiy, eiycrav, etc. In the Passive, the diphthong stands directly before the historical endings ; as rv7rrol-fMyv, rv^al/jieOa, ridel-TO, etc. § 89. VERBS. CONJUGATION. 11? 6. The Imperative has a second and third person in all the numbers. Its endings in all the tenses are as follows : 2 3 2 3 2 3 Act. S. . . , tg> D. toz;, rcov P. re, rcoaav or z^tow. Pass. S. (tf"o), 0"0g> D. a6ov, aOcov P. cr#e, aOwcrav or adcov. 7. The Infinitive has the following endings : Act. e£z> or mt or at Pass. o-0a*. 8. All Participles are declined as adjectives of three endings ; the feminine therefore always follows Dec. I. (§ 59. 2.) The masculine of the Active has in the Gren. vtos, whence in the Nom. comes 5 or v, and in the Fern. era, thus : cov or 01/9, oucra, oz^, G. ovtos d?, dcra, az>, Gr. avros et?, etcnx, 6^, Gr. ez^ro? 1)?, votz, vz>, Gr. vvtos- From these forms the Participle of the Perfect Active deviates entirely ; and has always &)?, via, 6?, Gr. otos. The mode of declining this Participle, see in $ 103, after tvtttw. — The Participles of the Passive all end in fJLeV0$, 7], OV. That of the Pass. Perf. has the same endings with different accent . fievos, 77, fjievov. Note. Among the modifications, "which many of the ahove endings receive in their application, we must particularly not overlook their contraction; not only in the proper contract verbs, but more especially in certain parts of the ordinary conjugation, where a contraction lies at the foundation : see $ 95. 7 sq. and 103. n. I. 3. § 89. Conjugation by Active, Passive, and Middle. 1, The idea of the Passive may be presupposed as known. The Middle is strictly only a modification of the passive idea ; and ought not therefore, as its form also shows (no. 3), to be sep- arated from the Passive as a distinct voice. Its primary signifi- cation is reflexive ; just as in Lat. versor can signify, not only 1 am turned, but also I turn myself. That is, the state or condi- tion which I suffer, is produced or proceeds from myself and not from others. See more in h 135. 2. If now we change the first persons of the Indicative in the six active tenses into the corresponding passive forms, we obtain a Passive, which indeed is by no means the one adopted in gram- mar, but which therefore we may name the original or natural Passive. Active Passive Active Passive Pres. o> — ofiac Impf. ov — ofirps Perf. a, tea fiac Plupf. eiv, fC€& jjarjv ( ov — o^v -J-, , \ aw — ao/jLat ovfiat to the simpler or primitive stem.*" Such assumed Present-forms are then usually printed in a different type and without accent ; e. g. for eXaftov, X^^o/iai : AABfl, AHBI2. See § 114. 2. 6. Every form of the Present, whether usual or not, which is thus made the foundation upon which the other parts of a verb * Such unusual Present-forms have actually been preserved in some verbs by the poets ; e.g. /3Aa/3a> and flAd-iTTa, Xirofxai and Ai acrobat, Spixpw and SpuFTco. 6pi>x^ and bpxKTac*. $ 92. VERBS DOUBLE THEMES. 121 are built, is called a Theme, ^e/aa, i. e. something- set or placed. A verb in which another Present must thus be assumed along with the usual one, is said to have a double or sometimes a threefold theme ; e. g. tvtttcd TTIIfL. The characteristic of the simplest theme is called the simple characteristic ', in distinction from other forms in which it is less easy to be recognized ; e. g. tvttt-w, ervir-ov, simple char. tt. The stem or root of the simplest theme is called the simple stem ; e. g. TTII from tvtttco. 7. This plurality of forms in one and the same verb, is strictly an anomaly ; and hence the catalogue of anomalous verbs given below {k 114) consists mostly of verbs of this sort. Still, many such Present-forms, especially where the characteristic appears only as strengthened, or the primitive vowel only as lengthened, are reckoned as ordinary verbs. 8. Among these last are especially those mute verbs, Verba muta {\ 91. 4), in which the simple characteristic is strengthen- ed in the Present. They may be divided into three classes : 1) In verbs ending in tttco, the r is an addition for strength, and the simple characteristic is one of the labials or P-sounds, 8, tt, 0-20); e.g. KpV7TT(0 TV7TT0) pCLTTTOd KPTBn Txnn PA$n. 2) Most verbs in era or tt have as the simple characteristic- one of the palatals, 7, k, % ; e. g. irpdaaw typiaaco ftrjaaaf nPArn qpiksi BHxn. But some have also the Unguals ; see notes 2, 3, 4. 3) Most verbs with f in the Present have & as the simple char- acteristic ; e.g. cjipdfr QPAAtl, Sfc OAI2. But several have 7 ; e.g. fcpdfr KPATft. 9. To the above verbs may be added those, in which the strengthening in the Present consists almost wholly in the quan- tity, viz. 1) Yerbs in which the simple characteristic is doubled in the Present ; which in the common language occurs only with X ; e.g. /3dWco ej3dXov, aTeWco aTeXa) iaToK/qv. 2) Those in which the Present has a long vowel or diphthong instead of the short vowel of other tenses ; e. g. fyaivco cj^avco 7ri(j)ayKa, ttjk(o ttj^w eTa/crjv, in Aor. 2 shortens et into i. But this is only for convenience : and is the same as if in nouns the Nom. were to be made the basis, although the primitive stem is often first known only from the other cases ; e. g\ /n-efr, Krev6s. 122 VERBS. DOUBLE THEMES. $ 92. characteristic only in the Present and Imperfect of the Active and Passive ; while all the other tenses come from the simpler theme. It is therefore strictly ungrammatical, when, for the sake of brevity, we say, that e. g. in rvyjrco, Tvirek, etc. the r of the Pres. tvtttoo has been dropped ; or, that before the a in , pdnro, SanTo), crKcnrrco, ptVrco, S-pvTrrii), with simple char. (p. Note 2. Verbs in cra-co (rroo) have for their characteristic for the most part a palatal or lingual, e. g. A) Of those with a palatal or K-sound only the following form the second tenses with a simple characteristic : a. aXkacrcroy, pdy 7rpdaa(H, rao~o~co, (ppa, Trdcrcra), 7rrtV, (3pdcnra>, lpdcrcra>, ip£a, Kopv(T(ra>, XiV- o-opai ; thus Fut. 7rAao-&), etc. Of all these the simple characteristic is strictly known only in XiVo-o- pai, viz. r; for in 7r\d and Kopvao-m we can only infer a # from forms like lirvoirkados baker, potter, Kopvs G. KopvOosf helmet, and the single KenopvOpevos in Homer. Note 3. Of verbs in £a>, the greater part and especially all derivatives, have for their characteristic a lingual; others, a palatal. A) Of those with a lingual or T-sound, only a few form tenses with the simple characteristic, viz. o£o>, (f>pd£a>, ^a^o/Acii, H°^ a h X*&> with simple char. 6\ * Such inferences nevertheless are not always certain; since the letter of the stem is often changed in such derivatives without apparent cause ; e. g. Aor. Pass. €Kpv(5r}v, Adv. npiKpa, Adj. Kpvcpios. From these and like examples, we see that the leading letter was by no means in all cases so fixed, as not sometimes to vary be- tween several kindred ones. Compare in English youngster, younger ; cleave, cleft; rive, rift ; speak, speech, etc. t See the preceding marginal note. § 93. vTERBS. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. 123 R) Several following the analogy of verbs in craa, have a palatal or K sound, viz. a. All those which signify a cry, call, sound ; as icpd£a>, arrevaga, rpifa, ot/zd)£a>, aXaXa£co, etc. b. Some others, as ora^co, or/£a>, onjipt^a), cr(pv£a>, paarL^oa.^ c. In three the characteristic is a double palatal, yy, viz. 7rAa£oo, KAd£a>, cra\7ri£a> ; thus Fut. 7rXay£co, etc. Of all these (a, b, c), in only a few does the simple characteristic actually appear, viz. Tpifa, Kpd£co, with y ; Kkd£co, with yy, e. g. rerplya, KeKpaya, nexXayya. In ora£a>, /xacrri£oe>, and others, the simple characteristic y suggests itself only from the derived forms of nouns, as i/, pdo-rig, G. yoy, etc. See the last marginal note but one. Note 4. Some verbs in aam and £a> fluctuate between a lingual and palatal as their characteristic, having sometimes one and sometimes the other; see the following in Anom. verbs, § 114: apirdfa, /3ao-ra£co, pvcrTa^co, iraity, vdcrcrco, dcpvacrco. Note 5. Some verbs have in the Present both £ and rr, but follow in the other tenses only one of these two modes of formation ; so especially o-cpdr- rco or o-(pd£oi slaughter, F. acpd^co, etc. Also dpp6£(a or apporroa adapt, F dpjLtdcrco, etc. Note 6. It cannot be too often repeated, that all which we have hitherto said, regards not etymological verity, but only grammatical analogy. When, for instance, on the one hand, it would be difficult to explain such forma- tions as irpdaara neirpaya, ickdfa KAdy£co, without assuming a more ancient theme ; it would be absurd, on the other hand, to assume in respect to such derived verbs as aXXdo-o-co, yapiX 00 * that an actual ancient form in yco, So), had really existed; although in the former we find the Aor. 2 Pass. dXXa- yrjvai, and in the latter the Ion. 3 PI. Perf. Pass. /t^oopi'Sarai. It is mani test rather, that after an analogy had once become current in the language, in respect to certain verbs, it was again followed in the formation of cer- tain other verbs. But it is here impossible to draw the proper limits ; at least this would only serve to render the grammar more complex, without any corresponding advantage. Note 7. The Doric dialect, in verbs which commonly have a lingual for their characteristic, assumes in some tenses a palatal. This is more fully exhibited in § 95. n. 2. $ 93. Formation of the Tenses. 1. All the tenses of the Greek verb fall naturally under three divisions in respect to their mutual relation to each other ; the Perf. and Plupf. Pass, being reckoned as first tenses. The fol lowing three series may be readily retained in memory. I. Present and Imperfect, Act. and Pass. TI. All first Tenses, with Fut. 3: Fut. and Aor. 1, Act. and Mid. Perf. and Pluperf. 1, Act. with Perf and Pluperf. Pass. and Fut. 3. Aor. and Fut. 1, Pass. * In many it was probably only the effort to avoid the recurrence of the «r (e. g. trriffdeis, RaaTaadels), that carried them over to the other formation. 124 VERBS. FORMATION OF THE TENSES. $ 94. III. All second Tenses : Fut. and Aor. 2, Act. and Mid. Aor. and Fut. 2, Pass. Perf. and Pluperf. 2. 2. The points in which the tenses in each of the above series are distinguished from one another, are mainly the following. Ser. I. These tenses never change the actual and usual stem of the Pres. Active, whether strengthened or not ; as tvtttw, erv- 7TTov, etc. Ser. II. All these tenses are formed with the simple character- istic (§ 92. 10, 11) ; but for the most part changed according to the general rules, especially by the addition of a consonant in the ending ; e. g. Fut. tv^cd for tvtt-o-co, etc. Ser. III. These tenses always have the simple characteristic of the verb unchanged (§ 92. 11) ; and only change sometimes the vowel of the stem or Present ; as Aor. 2 ervirov, ecjivyov from (f>evya>, irpdirrjv from rpiirco. 3. Every change which a verb undergoes, in either of the tenses which stand first in each of the above series, holds good also for the tenses which follow it; unless counteracted by particular rules and exceptions. k 94. Tenses derived from other Tenses. 1. The formation of the tenses, and their respective differences, are usually exhibited for each tense in one of its persons only ; and for this purpose the first person of the Indicative is always adopted. Only the Perf and Plupf. Pass, require special rules for the other persons and moods ; see § 98. 2. Several tenses are formed from other tenses in a simple and uniform manner. Thus, in the ordinary conjugation, in oo, are derived : 1) From the Present in a>, the Imperfect in ov; e. g. tvttto), €tvtttov. 2) From every tense in a a Passive form in opai, viz. from the Present, the Pres. Pass, as tvtvtco, Tvirro^ai ; and from the Future, the Fut. Mid. as rv^ro), rv^rofiai. So also from the Fut. 2 or circumflexed Fut. in a>, the Fut. 2 Mid. in ovpai, as appears from § 95. 7. 3) From every tense in ov, a Passive form in ofirjv, viz. from the Imperf. the Imperf. Pass, as ervnrov, Itv^t6\ix]v ; and from the Aor. 2, the Aor. 2 Mid. as ervirov, eTVTvofjirjv. 4) From the Act. Aor. 1, the Aor. 1 Mid. by appending the syllable \vc)v, as trv^a^ lTV^ra\iy)v. 5) From every Perfect the Pluperfect , viz. in the Active by changing a into eiv, as rerv(pa, erervcpetv ; and in the Passive by changing pai into firjv, as rervfifxai, (T^TV\i[ir]V. 6) From each of the two forms of the Aor. Pass, the Fut. Pass, by changing t]v into rja-ofxai ; as inxpdrjv and irvwriv, rv(f)dr)(ronat., rvirrjcofxau AU the other tenses require special rules. $ 95. VERBS. FUTURE ACTRE. 125 $ 95. Future Active. 1. The primary form of the Greek Future is the ending aco (Mid. crofjicu). This form is actually found in much the greater number of verbs, and is therefore called Future 1. E.g. iravco Fut. iravaco, Fut. Mid. izavaop,ai. 2. When the characteristic of the verb is a consonant, Ihe changes which are usual with a, take place here ; e. g. ^Xlfico, Xelirco, co — F. ^Xtyco, \ekjrco, , § 114. 3. In verbs with ttt, with aa or tt, and with f, the simple char- acteristic reappears (§ 92. 8) ; that is, the Fut. is formed as above, but from the simple theme ; e.g. tvtttco (TTIIfl) — Tirfym, pdirrco (PA&I2) — pd^co rdaaco (TAPfl) —rdjjco, cjypdfc (QPAAfL) — cbpdaco Kpd^co (KPATfL) — fepd^o), nfkdaaco (IIAAQfl) — ifXdaco. Hence, when the characteristic is a labial, or P-sound, the Fut. has ^rco a palatal, or K-sound, — %co a lingual, or T-sound, — aco a voivel or diphthong, — aco. 4. When the characteristic of the verb is a vowel (Yerba para, k 91. 4), the syllable before the ending aco of the Fut. is regularly long, whatever its quantity may be in the Present ;* e. g. haicpvco (v) F. Safcpvaeo (v) tico (t)t F. rlaco (l). Hence, e and o are changed into 77 and co ; e.g. (piXico, BrjXoco, F. cpiXrjaco, hrjkooaco. For the exceptions, see notes 3, 4. 5. The characteristic a is changed in the Future into 77, except when it is preceded by e, i, or p ; in which case the Future has long a',% e.g. TCfidco, dirardco — rcfxrjaco, aTrartfato /3odco, iyyvdeo — ftorjaco, iyyvrjaco idea, fieiDidto — idaco, fieiScdaco (long a) hpdeo, (fxopdeo — Spdaco, epeopdaco (long a). The exceptions see in notes 6, 7. 6. On the other hand, the penult of the Futures in daco, iaco> vaco, is always short, when they come from verbs with £ or with * The probable cause of this see in note 15. t Tio> is here taken in its usual quantity, although Homer makes it also long. % Compare the similar rules under Dec. I, (§ 34. 2,) and for the Fem. of the Adj. § 60. 2. 126 VERBS. FUTURE ACTIVE. § 95. ere, tt ; e. g. in (f>pdaco, ScKacrco, vo/Jbla-ay, nXvaco, from pd£a), Sucdfo, vo/jll^co, fcXv^co ; and in TrXdcrco, ittlctw, from irXdcraco, tttlo-o-co.* Note 2. The Dorics assume £ instead of o- in the Fut. and Aor. 1, not only in most verbs in £, e. g. ko/lu£o>, StKa^co, from ,ko/zi£c°> 6W£co ; but also in such verbs as have a vowel before the co of the Present ; chiefly however where the vowel of the common Future is short; e. g. eyeka^z (see note 3). Along with this form they retain also the one in common use, and employ the two in verse alternately, according to the necessities of the metre. f Note 3. Several verbs which have a short vowel as their characteristic, retain it unchanged in the Future : so particularly yeXdco, yaAaa), -SXaco, /cXaco break, o"7raco, Fut. yeXdaoo, etc. dXeco, apnea, e'/ieto, KaXeoo, reXeco, £Vco, £eco, rpeco, aldeofiat, diceopLai, Fut aXecra), aldeaopai, etc. apdeo Fut. dpoVa) dvvco, apv(£>.,% p.e6v(£>, 7ttvco, Fut. di/ucrco, etc. also some poetical verbs, as Korea, veiKtco, epva, ravva>, p.va> ; and further several unfrequent and obsolete themes, from which the tenses of some anomalous verbs are derived, as Kopeo-co, Kpepdaa, eXdcrco, cXkuo-co, etc. — In the verbs in vm which belong here, however, the quantity of the Present requires still to be more accurately determined : although they are in gen- eral to be assumed as short in that tense. All verbs which have v long in the Fut. iaa>, are in the Present either long or undetermined ; see § 7. n. 10. Note 4. Some verbs fluctuate between the two formations, (i. e. a long or short vowel in the Fut.) partly in the Fut. itself, partly in the tenses derived from the Future ($ 93. 1). It is therefore proper to exhibit them here together : alveo) (comm. inaiveai) praise, F. alveaco (inaiv£crop.ai) , Aor. fivecra, Perf. Act. fjV€Ka, Perf. Pass, fjvrjpat, Aor. 1 P. rjveOrj/. Epic alvrjcrco, fjurjaa. irode, $va>, Xva, which shorten the v in the Perf. and Aor. 1 Pass, the two last also in the Perf. Act. although they all have long v in the Present, even among the Attics ; thus Perf. Pass. XeXvpai, Aor. 1 Pass. eXvdrjv, ibvQ-qv, ervOrjv, with short v. Perf. Act. XeXvica, reduica ; but dedvm. \\ Note 5. All verbs which retain in the Future the short vowel of the * That is to sa}', the vowel in all these verbs is already in itself short, and in the Future it does not become long. Were it long in itself, it mi<;lit just as well re- main long, as in xP'ofa XP'0 crat> - Whether such verbs as nv&acrw, Kevaaca, v'i(T(Tojxai or vei(T and vot>, as , dXoaco F. 770-0) ; comp. dBpoos, fem. ddpoa, § 60 n. 1. On the other hand xP^y XP" /* 01 ' nas XPW 03 e * c - contrary to the analogy of dpdco, da-ay. Note 7. The Ionics, in such verbs as commonly form their tenses with long a, have rj instead of a; e. g. Serjaopai, Treprjaco. On the other hand, the Dorics, instead of 77 in verbs in da, have always long a ; as rijxda-a), efioaara. This follows indeed from the general principles in § 27. n. 5, 7. — The verb eaco has in all the dialects eda-a. Note 8. The Dorics, in many instances, likewise carried their long a into the flexion of verbs in eco ; e. g. . Note 9. The following six verbs, which all express a, flowing or a stream- like motion in a fluid, viz. TrXeco saiZ, 7n/e&> Wow, veio swim £eco rww, (pea) flow, ^eco i^wr) take eu in the Future, or at least in forms which come from the Future , e. g. rrXevaopai, enveva-a, x € vpa, etc. — The two following, viz. kcu'oo burn, kAcu'g) weep, whose original forms, mco, kAcico, with long a, became peculiar to the Attics, assume in the Fut. av ; as Kauo-co, e/cXavcra, etc. See Anom. Verbs, § 114. Note 10. That many verbs in 00 without another vowel preceding, also make the Fut. in 770-co, will be shewn in § 112. 6. 7. Futures of three or more syllables, which have before the ending crco a short voivel, viz. a, e, l, are capable of taking a sec- ondary form, called the Attic Future, because used more particularly by the Attics. The difference of form consists in this, that the the form of the Fut. in ico is actually more in use than the regular one in tVco. It occurs also among the Ionics, and that without being resolved, e. g. dyKdielcrBai^ Secrmelv, voptovpev^ etc. in Herod- otus and Hippocrates. Once we find the uncontracted form Secrirueiv Hdot. 8. 135. The form KopUai 7. 49, is to be explained by the elision of e and the drawing back of the accent. 10. The Future which in grammar is called the Second Future, after shortening the syllable of the verbal root or stem, appends to the simple characteristic of the verb the Ionic ending eco, and contracts this in the common language into co. The flexion then proceeds in the Active and Middle according to the general rules of contraction ; e. g. fiaXXco, simple stem /3a\, Fut. 2 fiaXco ; see n. 16. 11. This Future is found in the common language only in verbs with the characteristics X, fi, v, p ; in which verbs, on the other hand, the Fut. in aco never regularly occurs ; k 101. 2. — The case is different with the Future 2 Passive ; for since this is derived from the Aor. 2. Pass, (k 89. 3,) it is actually found in all verbs whore the latter occurs. J 9£>. VERBS. FUTURE ACTIVE. 129 Note 15. In order to bring into one view all that has been said above, we may make the following supposition, as presenting the nearest analogy. We place as basis the ending crco, Fut. 1. This was appended to the stem partly with and partly without the union- vowel e. The shorter form re- mained the most common one. The form eVco could also be shortened into eco, co, the Fut. 2 ; and this form remained common, with a few exceptions (see the next note), only in verbs whose characteristic is X p v p. Fur- ther, when in pure verbs the vowel of the stem came immediately before the ending eVco, the two vowels, the stem- vowel and union- vowel, flowed together, and thus produced the long vowel of the Fut. as (pikrjo-ai, ricrco, Text 4, 5. But when the stem- vowel came before the ending o-co, as reXe'- o-o), vo/u'-crco, these forms sometimes remained unchanged; and sometimes the same tendency which produced the Fut. 2, produced here also the dif- ferent forms of the Attic Future.^ Note 16. In some few instances, the form of the Fut. 2 has been pre served in verbs not having the characteristics X p v p ;f just as in verbs with X p v p, there are some exceptions where the Fut. 1 in crco is found. These instances are the following, all of them in the Middle form : paxpvpai, along with which the fuller form pa^eo-opai has been pre served; see the Anom. pdxppai, § 114.$ ehovpai, Kadedovpai, see Anom. e£opai, § 114. Triovpai, a form censured by the ancient critics, instead of the still more anomalous niopai (see note 18) from IIIQ ; see the Anom. 7rivco, § 114. So a few poetical examples : reKelaOai Horn. Hymn.Ven. 127, from TEKQ, Anom. rt/crco; and padevpai (Dor. for -ovpai) Theocr. 2. 60, from MH0Q, Anom. pavddvw. — On the epic forms /ceico, drjed, as belonging here, see mar- ginal note on 8r)a> under anom. AA-, Sauo, § 114. Note 17. The Dorics, in all circumflexed Futures, as generally in con- tractions, have ev instead of ov; and this contraction is common to them and the Ionics (§ 28. n. 5), when the latter contract ; e. g. /3dXXco, Fut. /3aXco, Plur. fiaXeopev, fiaXevpev, comp. § 105. n. 13. — The Dorics however circumflex also the common Future 1 in o-co, and then decline it as if con- tracted from eco; e. g. tv^co, rvyjsevpev (for -ovpev), ru^eTre, rvfyevpai yfor • ovpai), etc. This form, under the grammatical name of the Doric Future, is found more or less in use in some words in Attic and other writers ; but only in the form of the Fut. Middle (comp. § 113. 5), and with the Attic * The same occurs in the Bat. Plur. of Dec. Ill, which in the early epic lan- guage ended in ecn ; in the common, in from it. I 130 VERBS. AORISTS ACTIVE. § 96 diphthong of contraction ov ; e. g. (pevyco, Fut. comm. cpevgov/iai. See also the anom. nalfa, x^t 05 ' kkaia-, rrXeoo, Sea, veco, 7rt7rrco, Trveco, § 114. Note 18. An entirely irregular form of the Future occurs in these two : 7riofxai I will drink, edo/iat I will eat. The form is precisely that of the Pres. Pass, of the simple themes to which they belong. See the Anom irivoi and io~0ip ; e. g. ^eco, e^ea. See also the Anom. Kaico, elnelv, aeixo, aAeo/iat, dareopai, and rjveyKa under (pepco.^ — For the Aor. 1 in Ka of some verbs in pi, e. g. edaxa, see under those verbs, § 106. 11. 2. The form of the Aorist in v is called the Aorist 2. In the ordinary conjugation its full termination is ov, Mid. ojhtjv ; which is appended immediately to the characteristic of the verb, with the following conditions : 1) The Aor. 2 is always formed from the simple theme, and re- tains the simple characteristic of the verb when the Present has a fuller form, § 92. 2) It commonly shortens the penult syllable of the Present. 3) It sometimes changes e in the stem-syllable into a. 3. By means of these changes alone, is the Aor. 2 distinguish- ed in its form from the Imperfect ; and verbs in which none of these differences can have place (e.g. dpvco, ypdcfxD, etc.) or where the only difference would be in the quantity of the vowel (as in /cXivco), form no Aor. 2 Active or Middled 4. This tense is never found in all those derivative verbs, which are formed from other verbs by means of particular endings, like u^co, ifyd, alvco, vvco, evco, oco, dco, eco. k 104. 5. Of other verbs, the most have the Aor. 1 ; and a far smaller number have the Aor. 2. But this latter is often assumed in * The Alexandrine dialect (§ 1. n. 8), from several verbs which in the common language had only the Aor. 2 in ov, formed also such an Aorist in a; e. g. eld a for elSoi/; sXiirav 3 PI. for cKnrov; ^Aflare, etc. See the marg. note under n. V. — Here also belongs the remark, that in writers not Attic, some forms of the Aor. 2 Mid. fluctuate between o and a; e. g. evpavro for evpovTo ; el\durjy, see a'lpea, tiotypavTo Hdot. etc. They can howeve readily form an Aor. 2 Passive, e. g. eypaov rdorcra) ^eraryov \laaofjLai ikvrSfjfrjv, single instance. (Tdj T7 Stem- Vowel. In Pres. ai Aor. — - v — — ei — ev _ — e \l ( 8 — pd£ fcpdfyo e/cparyov, single instance. a — irralpco eirrapov a — ■ XrjOco ekaOov I — Xeliroy eXiirov e or a in verbs Xpvp, h 101. v — cfrevyco evyov a — Tpeirco erpairov. For the forms marked with an asterisk (*), see the marg. note. Note 2. The Aor. 2 stands in the same relation to the simple theme, as io form, that the Imperfect does to the usual Present. It is distinguished, however, from the Imperfect, partly by the Aorist signification (for which see in the Syntax, § 137), and partly by the circumstance that it has moods and participles of its own, formed after the manner of those of the Present. Hence, in the Indicative, that only can be a real Aorist which differs as to form from the usual Imperfect ; and in the other moods, only that, which in like manner differs from the Present. Thus e. g. eypacfrov can be only Imperfect, and ypdcpys only Present Subjunctive, etc. Note 3. From this otherwise universal rule, a few Imperfects seem, at first view, to form an exception, and to be at the same time Aorists. But closer observation shews, that all these, at least so far as usage is concerned, are mere Aorists; so ecprjv (see § 109 (prjpl), and igrpidfiqv, rjpoprjv (from cpojjuu), for which see the Anom. Verbs. In the Homeric usage, there be- longs here especially kKvo hear, whose Present is in use, but from which the form eicKvov has always the Aorist signification. Note 4. In other verbs too Homer often uses, for the sake of the metre, the Imperfect as Aorist ; but it would be incorrect to reckon among such instances cSikov, ererpov, expaicrpov, and some others, whose Present never occurs, and which are therefore never used but as Aorists. f * Thus in regard to the Aorists used as examples in Text 6, the learner must bear in mind, that the forms %tvitov, eKpvfiov, %ffia. These endings, in some verbs, are merely a prolongation of the simple form (§ 112. 6, 7). Hence, just as in some of these verbs other tenses from this simple form have been preserved (comp. the Perf. 2, § 97. n. 4, and the Aor. 1 in the Anom. ya/zeco) ; so also in others the Aor. 2 is still found; e. g. Krvneco eKrvnov, yodco eyoov, from KTYIK2, TOO,. See also the Anom. tvitvg, crruyeco, ropeoo, pr)Kaop.ai, p.vx.dop.ai, § 114; and gen- erally $ 112. 6, 7. Note 6. The shortening of the penult syllable (\r)6a> Tkadov, cpevya ecpv- yov) can also be properly regarded as a return to the ancient form of the verb. And even the change of e into a can be regarded in the same man- ner; since among the Ionics we find a in the Present of some of these words, as rpdnoo, rdp-va). Biit it is just as probable, that in one portion of such verbs, the original short root was lengthened and strengthened in the Present ; while in another portion the original long root was shortened in the Aorist and other forms.* Note 7. In some verbs nevertheless the Aor. 2 has the syllable before the ending long, and rests satisfied with the difference of the simpler form, or with the change of e into a; e. g. evpov, i'ft'Xa.o-Tov, errapbov ; see the Anom. evpio-Kco, /3Xao-raz/co, nepBco, etc. — In a few poetical forms, the long vowel by position is made short by transposition; e. g. depitco edpaicov, see also the Anom. 7rep0co, dapddvoa, Tepnai, dfiaprdvco. Or also a letter is dropped; see the Anom. p.dpTmo. Note. 8. For the Aor. 2 in nv, a>v, vv, and for the syncopated Aorists, see the Verbs in pi, and § 110. — For some anomalous verbs, whose Aor. 2 has a neuter sense, while their Aor. 1 has a transitive meaning, see § 113. n. 3. Note 9. We have seen above in note 1, that some verbs form their Aor. 1 with the characteristic of the Aor. 2. In like manner, the reverse of this sometimes occurs, viz. the Aorist in ov is formed with o - ; of which a plain example is the common Aorist of 7Ti7rrco, formed from IIETQ, viz. €iT€(rov, TTCcrdv. To this may be added the epic l£ov, efirjaero, iftvaeTo, see Anom. 'ucveopLcu, /3cuW, 8vco ; and further some Imperatives, e. g. olo-e com- pared with the Fut. otVco, see the Anom. , opwfii,) compared with the Impera- tives firjareo, 8vaeo, from the Indicatives just mentioned.* § 97. First and Second Perfect Active. 1. The Perfect Active has, in both its forms (1 and 2), the same personal endings, viz. a, a?, ev or e, etc. but it distinguishes the two forms by means of the characteristic. The Perf. 1 has a characteristic of- its own ; the Perf. 2 has always the simple char- acteristic of the verb. 2. The Perfect 1 has several variations in respect to its char- acteristic, viz. a) When the characteristic of the verb is /3, tt, <£, or 7, a:, ^, this characteristic becomes (or remains) aspirated in the Perfect, and then a is appended ; e. g. Tpiftco, X67T&), ypdcpco — TeTpLcpa, XeXecfra, yey packet Xiyco, TrXifcco, rev^co — XeXe^a, TreirXe-^a, rerev^a. If this characteristic of the verb has been changed in the Present ($ 92. 8), then the simple characteristic is aspi- rated : TVTTTCO, F. TV^CO, P. 1 TETVCfXl ] idcraCO, F. Ta^CO, P. 1 TETa^d Trat^co, F. 7raL^ov/iac, (P. 1 irkirai^a) ;f» or generally : When the Fut. has tyco, the Perf. 1 has evyco irefavya. 4. Here however three things are to be observed, viz. a) When the characteristic of the Present is not simple (§ 92. 6), the simple characteristic reappears in the Perf. 2, pre- cisely as in the Aor. 2 ; e.g. irXrjcrcrco {TIAHTfL) — ireifKrjya (f)pLvyov — irefevya \rj0co A. 2 ekadov — XekrjOa arjircQ A. 2 Pass. l(TanT7]V — crea-rjira. Further, the short a of the stem is changed to rj in this Per- fect, when the strengthening of the Present consists either in the diphthong cll, or in a position ; e. g. Batco A. 2 eSaov — SeSrja* ^dWco Fut. *&a\cQ — TeOrjka. After p and after vowels, the Perf. 2 takes a and not r\ ; e. g Kpdt,co, e/cpayov — iceicpaya eaya, eaha, in Anom. ayvvfu, avMvco, § 114. c) This Perfect prefers especially the vowel o ; and therefore this vowel not only remains unprolonged, as in kotttcd KeKoira Horn, but is also assumed as the alternate vowel (Umlaut) toe; §27. 1. , E.g. (pepftco — 7re(j)opl3a' TEKI2 — reroKa, see Anom. tlktoj §114. This change of e into o has a twofold operation upon the diphthong ei in the Present, according as e or i is the radical sound ; and the same is likewise to be recognized in those tenses which shorten their vowel. Where e is the radical sound, (which however is the case only in the verbs \jjlv p,) the ei is changed into o ; when t is the radical sound, the ei passes over into oi ; e. g. (TTrelpco (F. (77T6pco) — eairopa \eiirco (A. 2 ektirov) — Xekonra. So too ireidco irkiroiQa ; comp. the anom. el/cco, o28a, § 114. 5. Finally, by far the greater number of verbs, and especially all derivatives, have only the Perf. 1. The Perf. 2 therefore, like * The mode of writing Sedrja, and also ir4(priva, o-ecrripa, etc. is incorrect; as also in the corresponding case of the Aor. 1 from K fi v p. The Perf. 2 always has tho simple or shortened stem of the verb (here AA, AN, etc.) as its basis, whose shon. vowel however it again lengthens; as & into i). § 97. VERBS. PERFECT ACTIVE. 135 the Aor. 2 ($ 96. 4), never occurs except from primitives. It is also to be noted, that the Perf. 2 generally prefers the intransi- tive signification ; see note 5. Note 1 . Some Perfects 1 have in like manner the alternate o. Such are 7re/x7ro) send. 7reiTop.(pa ; icXe7rrco steal, nenXocpa ; rpeVco turn, rerpocpa ; further Tpe(poi nourish, rerpocpa,^ and arpecpa) turn, eo-rpocpa, which can also be regard- ed as Perf. 2 ; see also the Anom. Xeya>, o~wei\oxa, $ 114. Here too belongs the change of ei into oi in SeSotica from AEIQ ; see the Anom. Selcrcu, § 114. Note 2. To the change of e into o corresponds that of 77 into co in the Perfect of the Anom. pr}ywp.i (PHTQ) eppcoya. And kindred to both these changes, is the insertion of a> and o in some Perfects, which of themselves would be dissyllables ; where too the o is placed after the Attic reduplica- tion. E. g. edco — (elda) eimda' ayco — ^a, ayi^o^a. See also in the cata- logue of Anom. Verbs i 5 77 80 k a under cy themselves • and the Passive forms a a pro under alpco, iiavrai in a marginal note to lr\\u, § 108. T. See genr. Lexil. I. 63. Note 3. It has already been remarked ('§ 85. 2), that after the Attic re- duplication the vowel is shortened; e. g. anoxia aicfjicoa, akeicpta aXrjXXcpa, EAEY9Q iXrjXvda. — For the sake of the metre, the epic poetry could also shorten the 77 of this Perfect into a in the Fem. of the participles ; e. g. a-eaapvla, rcdaXvla, dpapvla. Note 4. In the few examples of the Perf. 2 from verbs e'co and aco, as plyeo) epplya, p.vK.dop.ai (Aor. ep,vKov) p.ep.xiKa, the case is the same as with the Aor. 2 in $ 96. n. 5. They come from simple forms PirG, MYKQ, § 112. 6. See also the Anom. yr)6eu>, Sovneco, p.r)Kaop.ai, § 114. Note 5. That the examples of the Perf. 2, even including those which occur only in the poets, amount in all to a very limited number, is to be presumed from Text 5. Of those which belong to transitive verbs, we name here particularly : a8a, i\r)\vda, aearjpa, redrfXa, Tedrjira, pep.rjva, Ke^iyi/a, yeyova, Kexoda, 7T67rop8a, p.ep.v, which later formed only neicocpa, Homer has Part. Perf. KeKonvs; II. v. 60. But in prose also the forms in (pa and x a (as XeXe^a, XeXecpa, ireTrXexa) are either rare, or not at all in use. Hence we see clearly, that the Greek language sought to avoid all such Perfects as would have a harsh or unusual sound ; and supplied their place by the Aorist or by a periphrasis with the Perf. Passive; see § 134. 4. — For the Perfect of the Subjunctive, Optative, and Imperative, see § 137. n. 12, 13. * The form rerpocpa from rp4(ps; Tenr]a>s, rerXr/coy, etc. for -r)Ku>?. See anom. KA<£-, TIE-, rXrjvaL, § 114. The same takes place in epic writers (with a shortening of the vowel) in the 3 pers. Plur. and in the participle of some verbs ; as fieficiacri, ftefiaus, for j3ej3rjKa.cn, fitfinicoo?, from BAQ (Anom. /3cuVg>) necfivacn, nerval?, for necpvKacn, 7re(pvKa>s, from (fivoo. From some old Perfects, only these forms occur, and none at all in na ; a& ue/xdacn, jue/zacor ; deftdacn, SVSaeoy ) see Anom. MAO, AA12. Hence a 1 pers. Sing, is assumed for the above forms of the 3 pers. Plur. although it is no- where found, and may not have been in actual use ; as necpva, /xefxaa, de- baa, Pepcid', and so also earaa (for earrjKa or ecrraKa, see tarvfj-i), yeyaa, re- Bvaa, rerkaa, see Anom. yiyvofiai, SvrjaKcd, rkrfvai) and from these come cer- tain syncopated forms, as /3e'/3a/zez/, reQvdvai, for /3e/3aa/zei/, redvaevai, which are treated of along with other syncopated forms of the Perfect in § 110. 10. §'98. Perfect and Pluperfect Passive. 1. The Perfect Passive takes the endings fiai, aai, rat, etc. and likewise the Pluperfect the endings firjv, ao, to, etc. not by means of a union vowel (o/mu, erai, etc. $ 87. 5), as is the case in the other Passive forms ; but they are appended directly to the characteristic or (simple) stem of the verb. 2. If the characteristic of the verb be a labial, a palatal, or a lingual, (a P, K, or T-sound,) it is changed before the letters ft, a, t, according to the general rules, §§ 20-24. Thus are formed from TU7TTCO (TTIIfl), rptftco, irXeKw, rev^co (TTXS2), irelOw, dSco, pdfr( nourish, o-rpe'(pco turn, have in the Perf. Pass, a peculiar alternate vowel a ; thus rerpappai, rerpayj/ai, etc. rkQpappai (from rpecpco, $p£y\ra)), earpappat. § 27. 1. Note 4. Some verbs change the diphthong ev, which they have in the Present or assume in the Future, into v in the Perf. Pass. e. g. reu^co (re- revxa) rervypai. So also (pevyoo, (revoo, 7T€v8opai ; comp. neirvvpaL in Anom. 7rve(t>, § 114. In xco (x^vcrco) this takes place even in the Perf. Act. kc^kce, Kexypai. Note 5. The lingual usually changed into a before p. in the Perf. Pass, is in the epic poets found unchanged in some few forms ; as KGicadp.ai, nk- fj Kova pai, KeXeuco Ke KeXeva pai. So also TTpia>, X/° tc0 ' TraXcuco, nrald), Tvaia, pcu'oo, cetco, Xeuco, S^pavcc, i/muco, vco, /3uco, £va. Then too all those noted in § 95 n. 3, which do not lengthen the short vowel of the Future (except dpo'co § 114) ; e. g. reXeco (reXecrco) rerfXeo-juat ; anaa eanraa-pai. Some are variable ; e. g. of those just cited, KeXeuco, xP ia> i &P a v<& ; also koXovoo, Kpovai, \|/-dco, etc. See the complete list of verbs, which either assume this euphonic cr in the Perf. and Aor. 1 Pass, as also in the verbal Adjective ; or admit of both formations with and with- out o-; § 112. 20. Note 7. When yy would come to stand before p, one y falls away; the other endings remain regular ; e. g. eXcyx 00 (eX^Xeyya) — e\rj\ey pai, i\rp\ey£ai, y/crai. o-(fiiyy — eo-, — KeKafifiai, hut KeKaptyai, KeKafinrai, etc. 7re/z7rco, — 7re7refi/xat, /m/rat, /i7rrat, 7re7re/ifie#a, etc. 4. The Subjunctive and Optative are in general not made at all ; partly on account of the difficulty of their formation, and partly because they are so little needed. Instead of them the peri- phrase with ehcu is employed ; e. g. rerv jjl pivot (r), ov) /xac, 77, rjrai, etc. Opt. K€KTT}IJ.r)V, KeKTflO, K€KTT)TO, etc. All the examples of such a formation, however, which are now extant, consist of a few single forms of Perfects of three syllables, all belonging to anomalous verbs. Thus Plato has Subj. eKTerfXTjaBov from refivco rkT\xt]- fiai; Andocides has Subj. dia[3e(3\r)cr8e from /3aXAco /3e/3A?7 /zcu. See also K€K\rj[j.aL and fjLefjLvrjfjLai under the Anom. KaXeco and fjufivrjaKU), § 114. — So when the stem-vowel is 1 or v, the Optative may be formed by absorbing the characteristic 1, by which means the radical vowel becomes long ; but the Homeric XeXvro Od. o\ 238 from Xva> XeXv/xai (§ 95. n. 4), is probably the only example extant.^ — For the Opt. forms Ace/maro, /xe/xvea)To, see Anom. KTao/iai, fxijxvr]aK(£) y § 114. § 99. Third Future. The Future 3 or Paulopost-future of the Passive, is derived from the Perfect Pass, both as to its form and signification; § 138. It retains the augment of the Perfect, and substitutes the ending g-o/ulcu instead of the ending of the Perfect. From the 2 pers. of the Perf. in om, (yjrcu, %ai,) therefore, it is only neces- sary to change au into ojjlcll, in order to form the Fut. 3 ; e. g. reTUfi/nac {reru^rat) — reTvyfrofiat TerpafMfiao (rerpayjrao) — Terpd^ofjuat Tiray/jLCU (rera^at) — rerd^o/iac nreireicriiai (7T€7retcrat) — TreireicroiMU 7re or % ; e. g. XetVct), ayu,et/3o), <7Tec/>&), — iXetydrjv, ^fieifpUTjv, iarecpOrjv tvtttg) (TTnn)—iTV(pe V v tcl£co does not take the cr, arises from a double form; see crco^w in § 114. Note 3. Those which without being verbs X \i v p, change in the Perf. Pass, their e into a (§ 98. n. 3)., retain here their e ; e. g. orpec/)co (ecrrpap- pai) — iarpe(p6r]v • rpena), irpi(p6rjv • rpecpco edpecpdrjv. — But the Ionics and Dorics have eTpd(p6r]v, €arpd(p6r]v. 4. The Aorist 2 Passive appends t\y to the simple characteris- tic of the verb ; and follows in this respect all the rules given above under the Aor. 2 Active. Hence it is only necessary tc form this latter tense, whether in actual use or not, and then change ov into 7}v ; e. g. TU7TTOJ, ervirov — Itvit7]v ' rpeircOj erpcuTrov - — erpdin]V, Note 4. In the Passive, it is impossible to confound the Aor ° wi* the 140 VERBS. AORISTS PASSIVE. $ 100. Imperfect, which is so easily done in the Active ; and therefore such verbs as cannot for this reason form an Aor. 2 Active (§ 96. 3), have nevertheless the Aor. 2 Passive. In such instances, this tense can be formed directly from the Imperfect Active, just as elsewhere from the Aor. 2 Active ; ex- cept that according to the rule, the long vowel becomes short in the Aor. 2. E. g. ypdcpio (Impf. eypacpov) — iypdcprjv rp//3co (Impf. erplfiov) — irpi^rjv (short i). Note 5. For the same reason, most of those verbs, which (without being verbs \p,vp) have e as the stem- vowel, do not in the Aor. 2 assume the alternate a, viz. /3Xe7rco, Xe7rco, Xeyco, $Xeyco, ^eya>, and commonly 7rXeKco : hence efSXerrqv, eheyrjv. Part. truXXeyei'y, eVAe/c^i/ (also eVXd/c^i/), all of which verbs form no Aor. 2 Active ; and consequently their Aor. 2 Pass, must be formed after the Imperfect. Only Kkenrco and rpe7rco have always a ; the latter because it is the only verb which forms at the same time both the Aor. 2 Act. and Pass, (and Mid.) and therefore takes in the Act the alter- nate a to distinguish it from the Imperfect. The same analogy _s followed by AcXeVrco and in part by 7rXeKco. Comp. § 101. 8. n. 5. So far as it regards usage, it may be taken as a rule, that with the exception of rpeirw just mentioned, (note 5 ; comp. also ayyeWco in marg. note to $ 101. 8, and re/ivco in § 114,) all verbs which actually have in use an Aor. 2 Active, with or without an alternate vowel, can in the Passive form only the Aor. 1. Note 6. On the other hand, from many verbs which have no Aor. 2 Act. there exists an Aor. 2 Pass, as a weaker or smoother form, along with the x'Yor. 1. E.g. €Kpvj3T]v, ervTrrjVj e/3Xa/37;i/, eppicprjv, irpdcprjv, iKkairqV) which in prose are perhaps more common than €Kpv(pdt]v : edpecpdrjv, etc. But these latter fuller and antique sounding forms are preferred by the poets, espe- cially the tragic poets. Note 7. The only example in which the long vowel of the stem is re- tained, is iiiKr]yqv ) see Tik^aaca § 114. Note 8. The verb -v/z^co commonly assumes y in the Aor. 2 Pass, as tyvy-qVj *>\rvyr)vai. See § 114. Note 9. The characteristics S, £, r, are not found in the Aor. 2 Passive. There are also no examples of a vowel before the ending, except eKar^v from kou'co, and these three, which have an Active signification, viz. eddrjv, eppvrjv, ecpvrjv', see the Anom. AA-, peco, with the Imper- fect and subordinate moods of the Present of r'i6r\p.i. § 100 a. Table of Changes in the Characteristic. i. For the purpose of easier survey in respect to the formation of the tenses, the whole number of regular verbs may be divided intone classes ; four of which have already been clearly brought into view in the preceding paragraphs, from k 95 onward. The classes are as follows : 1) Verbs with a labial or P-sound as their characteristic: e. g. \el(3o), TV7TTCO. $ 100 a. VERBS. CHANGES IN THE CHARACTERISTIC. 141 2) Yerbs with a palatal or K-sound as their characteristic ; e. g. Xeyco, rdacrco. 3) Verbs with a lingual or T-sound as their characteristic; e< g. aSco, koiil^o). 4) Yerbs with a vowel as their characteristic ; e. g. Tifido) s (fiiXeco. 5) Yerbs ~K/jLv p, or liquid verbs, ver&& liquida. 2. In the many changes, which take place in the characteris- tic in order to form the tenses (§§ 95-100), it is hardly possible, but that the learner should sometimes fall into mistake. The following table therefore is introduced for the purpose of easier inspection and to aid the memory. The learner will here per- ceive the regularity and close analogy of the changes in the four main characteristics, so far as it respects the second series of tenses in $ 93. 1. The Perf. and Plupf. Pass, as presenting the most difficulties, are inflected throughout. Labia] as Char. ,3, 77, , and 7rr Fut. 1. Aor. 1. Perf. 1. Plupf. 1 Perf. Palatal as Char. I Lingual as Char. y, k, x, also (jo-, £ | S, r, £, also £, acr Active. Vowel as Characteristic. "ijra (j)6LV fjbjiai yjfa.1 yeiv Passive. y/iao era Ka K6LV avco) — e-yfrrjXa, e(j>r]va. Several verbs, however, which have at in the Present, take long a in the Aor. 1, when i or p precedes ; e. g. irepalvco, irepavSi — eirepdva Inf. irepavoa iriaivco, iriavS) — eirldva Inf. iriavat. Exceptions are rerprjuat and fj.irjvai } from TirpaiW, puaivio. Note 1 . We may also account for this shortening and lengthening of the vowel in the Future and Aorist in this manner, viz. that the Future, as belonging to the series of second tenses (§ 93. 1), must he first formed from the simple stem. As now this latter is found in the Present long, either by doubling the X or by lengthening the vowel, the original short vowel everywhere re- appears in the Future. Hence the two Futures re/xw and Kap.ovp.cu, from Anom. repveo and Kapva (Present forms with strengthened * The Ionic forms, e. g. ayyeWa) F. ayyek4a>) Kplvloo, Kreueco, (paveca from (paivoc, trXvvecti from 7rAww, etc. Plur. eo/xeu etc. are of course explained from § U- r >. 8. 10. For the Doric-Ionic forms with the contraction eo into ev, e. g. (3a\ev/j(i>, PaXevua^ see $ 95. n. 17. $ 101. VERBS IN XfJbV p. 143 characteristic for TEMJ2, KAMA, like tvtttu> TYIIQ), appear as formed regu- larly from the simple themes. On the other hand, in the Aorist 1, as being one of the first tenses, the long vowel again appears. But as these tenses are also formed from the simple characteristic (§ 93. 2), though for the most part after some change ; so the Aori'st 1 does not return to the strength- ened form of the Present, but prefers such a mode of lengthening as gives more prominence to the simple stem; e. g. rlXcu, ^rrjXai. Note 2. Most verbs in atVco and alpm are found among the Attics regu- larly with rj • e.g. crTjpaivco o-rjprjvai ) x a ^ e7r W al 7 Xvp-r/vaadai, etc. e^^atpco f^drjpaiy KaBrjpai, etc. — Exceptions nevertheless are KoiXdvai, XevKavcu, TveTra- vai, Kcpdavai, 6pydvai y laxvavai. Later writers, or the kolvo'l (§ 1. 9), form also many others with long a, as arjpdvai, ex^apai, and again according to rule paavai. The Dorics of course always do the same ; while the Ionics almost everywhere have their rj. — The verbs aipo> take up and aXXopai leap, w;th initial a, have a in the Aor. 1 ; which in the Indicative only, because of the augment, passes over into 77 ; thus rjpa, apca, apas, etc. rjXdpw, &Xa- crdaiy etc.* Note 3. The early language and the iEolics formed the Future 1 and Aorist 1 from these verbs with cr ; Horn. eKepdvr)v k\lvcq [Kklvoi) — A. 2 Pass. ifcXlvrjv (short t) ; excepting that e in the Fut. of dissyllabic verbs, passes over into a ; see in 8 below. Note 4. The Aor. 2 Act. is in use only in the smaller number of these verbs ; and where both Aorists are found, the Aor. 2 is chiefly poetical ; thus eKTavov-, fjyyeXov, is less frequent than eKreiva, rjyyiXa. See for fjyyeXov the next marg. note. — In the Passive, on the contrary, the Aor. 2 is far more common in verbs of two syllables than the Aor. 1 • which last, when it retains the consonant before the # (see 9 below), is commonly peculiar to the poets, as is so often the case in the mute verbs (§ 100. n. 6) ; e. g. (palvoa £(pdw]v, otcXXg) idTakrjv, o-(pdXX(i) eacpdXijv, Treipoa irrdprjv. — Still ai'pco and all verbs of more than two syllables, have only the Aor. 1 Passive; except dy- yeXco, from which come rjyyfX-qv and rjyyeXOrjv. 6. The Perfect 2 of these verbs is already included in the rules above given, $ 97. 3, 4. E. g. ^dWco — reOrjXa ■ (palvco — irec^rjva. These verbs have the peculiarity, that the diphthong ei of the Present passes over in the Perf. 2, not into ol, but into o ; be- cause, as appears from the Future, this diphthong ei arises not from a radical vowel 1, but from e ; \ 97. 4. c. E. g. kt€lv(o (fcrevco) eKTova* cpOeipco ((pOeptb) ecpOopa. 7. The Perfect 1 Active, the Perf. Pass, and the Aorist 1 * It is here necessary to caution the learner against two errors. First, nothing is more common, than to find ypa, apcu, 4/j.iyva, etc. written with t subscript ; which is incorrect on the same grounds as above in the Perf. 2 (§ 97. 4. marg. note). Secondly, we often find in otherwise good editions the accentuation ireirdvcu, cr\p.6.- vcu, etc. the incorrectness of which is sufficiently apparent from the above, and from § 11. 144 VERBS IN X a v p. k 101 . Passive, follow in lute manner the general rules, and annex the endings tea, puai, ^7]v, etc. to the characteristic, retaining the changes of the Future ; e. g. ava)) — irefyayica, ifyavOrjv, (Perf. Pass, see n. 7, 8.) atpco (apco) — rjptca, rjppuaL, Part, i)ppbevos Aor. 1 P. r}p6r)v, Part. apOefc. Here too the Perf. Pass, drops the cr of the endings crOcu, a9e, etc. as in k 98. 2 ; e. g. eacjyaXp.ac, 2 Plur. eacpaXOe (pvpco, iricjivppLai, Inf. irecfivpOaL. It is to be noted, that verbs in puco (yepuco) and strengthened fivco (ripveo, fut. repiS), n. 1) cannot form these tenses at all in the manner specified ; see n. 9. 8. When the Fut. has e, verbs of two syllables assume the al- ternate a in most of the tenses derived from the stem of the Fu- ture ; except in the Aor. 1 Act. and Mid. the Perf. 2, and Plupf. 2 ; that is to say, in the Aor. 2, Perf. 1, the Perf. Pass, and Aor. 1 Pass, and the tenses derived from these ; e. g. from areXXw, F. Aor. 2 Act. (earaXov) — iardXijv, (TTaXij(7op,aL (iaraXopbiqv) Perf. 1 ecrraXfca — icrrdXKecv Perf. Pass. earaXpai — io-rdXp.rjv Aor. 1 Pass. iardX07]v — aTaXOrjaopuai. So too from iretpco, F. 7repco, Perf. 1 ireirapKa, Perf. Pass, irkirapp.ai, Aor. 2 Pass. iirdp7)v. fcrelvcD, F. Krevco, — Aor. 2 etcravov, comp. 9 below.' On the other hand, verbs of more than two syllables retain their * in all these tenses ; e. g. from dr/yeXXo), F. dyyeXco, Aor. 2 Act. rjyyeXav,* Pass, rjyyeXrjv, Perf. 1 rjyyeXica, Perf. Pass. rjyyeXpat, Aor. 1 Pass. rjyyeXdrjv. Note 5. Those verbs only of two syllables which begin with e, retain it, as above; e. g. eekfiai, eep/xai, from Anom. etkco, eipco, § 114. — For the use of the Aor. 1 and 2 Pass, see n. 4. 9. The following verbs in tveo, eivco, vvco, viz. Kplvw, fcXlvco, relvco, ktclvco, ttXvvw, drop the v in the Perf. 1, Perf. Pass, and Aor. 1 Passive, and as- sume the short vowel of the Future ; but in such a way, that those in eivco change the e into a, as in the preceding rule ; e. g. Kpivco (fcpivcb) — fce/cpifca, KeicplpLaL, eKpl6r)v reivca (revco) — rerd/ca, rerdpLai, irdOrjvf 7tXvvcd (ttXvvco) — ireTrXvKa, nrk'rrXvp.ai, hrXvQrpv. * The existence of this tense (ijyytAov) has been doubted by many critics, in spite of its frequent occurrence in manuscripts ; because it needed only the casual omission of an i or A. in copying to produce this form instead of the Aor. 1 or Im perfect. See Ausf. Sprachl. § 114 in ayyixXw. If this tense was actually in use, then ayyeXXca is a second instance corresponding to rpeirca in § 100. n. 5. t Compare also the Anom. *£NH irecpafiai. It is not necessary to have recourse to obsolete themes, as TAXI, KTAX\ <£AX1. } 102. VERBALS IN T60S AND TO?. 145 So too Inf. Perf. Pass. fce/cplo-Oai, TerdaOau ; but 3 Plur. again as asual, /eiicTuvTat,, KeKpLvrai Xen. Note 6. In the Aor. 1 Pass, the v is often retained in poetry, in order to ibrm a position; e. g. KravOels, biciKpivOeis, eickivOr}, iivkvvOr) ) sec n. 4. The same occurs in the prose of later writers. Note 7. Verbs which retain the v occasion some difficulty in the Perfect Passive. They retain it however unchanged as follows : a) In the 2 pers. Sing, where it remains even before ar: e. g. cpaivoo — 7re the regular formation of the Perf. Pass, as also of the Perf. Active (in jko) is very rare ; inasmuch as the verbs in vco are for the most part lengthened Present-forms (e. g. t'lvco) : and hence make these tenses from another theme upon other principles. — Further, verbs in poa and p,va>, which regularly can form neither these tenses nor the Aor. 1 Passive, pass over into the formation ea> ; thus vtve- prjKa, eveprjdrjv; Terpnua, etc. See Anom. Verbs § 114; also $ 110. 11. $ 102. Verbals in reos and tos. 1. With the formation of the tenses, it is necessary to connect that of the two Verbal Adjectives in reos and tos ; which, in sig- nification and use, approach very near to the Participles. See note 2. 2. Both these endings always have the tone, and are appended immediately to the characteristic of the verb ; which therefore * The Perfect 1 Active also fluctuates between the two modes cf formation, in 7«5a/ca or -77/ca. See anom. KepSaivcs * 1 14. K 146 PARADIGM OF BARYTONE VERBS § 103. must be changed, according to trie general rules, just as before rat of the 3 pers. Sing of the Perf. Passive. But when the Aor. 1 Pass, deviates from the formation of the Perf. Pass, in respect to the stem-vowel or otherwise, these Yerbals always conform to the Aorist; except, of course, that where the Aorist has 6, %#, they take 7rr, kt. 3. Thus there is formed from 7r\e/c(o [yey pairrai, iypdcfcOrjv) — ypairros (TTpecfxo {eaTpairraL, icrr pecpdrjv) — arp67rr6^ (f)copdco (TrecfrcoparaL, i(f>copddrjv) — C~^-p p fe pu C l?-p fe^p E- jj- p h»« t"m h"w hiiu ** I- "* t- "* t"m t"n |. k- "w g c£ <2 -< <* 8 £rHCq « 0* 'S^ S3 N ^^N^ <£ g rH +, Cq +a CO »H +a Cq ^ a^ Ph Ph fin [jh fu p_i Ph h h fe fc L48 BARYTONE VERBS. ♦ 103. Pres- S, ent. D. P. Indicative, tvttto) I strike Txnrrevs thou strikest TV7rrec he, she, it strikes TVTrreTov ye two strike TVTTT6T0V they two strike TV7TT0/uLev we strike rvTrrere ye strike tvtttovctl (v) they strike ACT- Subjunctive. Optative. TUTrToijjLL I would TV7TToi<; [strike TinrTco I strike TVirrr) TV7TT7)T0V TV7TT7]TOV TVTTTCDjJbeV TV7TT7)T6 TV7TTCOO-1 (v) TWTTTOITOV TV7TTOLT7JV TV7TTOLfJi6V TVTTTOlTe TVTTTOLeV Im- S. 6TV7TTOV D. P. eTV7TTOJjL€V per- ervTrres irvirrerop irinrTere feet. €TV7rre(v) irv7rr€T7]v ervirrov I struck or was striking, thou Per- S. feet 1 D. rirvcfya I have struck, T€TV(f>a$ [etc. T6TV(j)e (v) T€TV(f>aTOV T6TV(JXIT0V T€TVaT6 T€TVa / had irervepet iTeTvipelrrjv irervipeio-av or eaav ) Perf. 2 rervira, through all the moods like the Perf. 1. Plupf. 2 6T€TV7reiv, like the Plupf. 1. Fut. 1. S. rinjrco I will strike Subjunctive TVtyobfU like the Present. wanting. like the Pres. A or. 1. S. eTinjra I struck, or have TV^CD TV^CU/U eTu^ra^ [struck, etc. like the Subj. rv^aa or Present. Tvtyeias* ervyjre (y) rinjrai, or T) rvtyete (v) irv^rarov TvtydLTOV irinjrdTTjv TV^raiT7]V P. irv-^ra/iev Tv^ai/jueu erv^rare Tvyfraire ervyjrav rv^jracev or Aor. 2. ervirov TV7TCO TVTTOlfJLL like the Imperfect. like the ) Present. * See below, § 103. m. 14 J 103. BARYTONE VERBS. 149 IVE, Imperative. TV7rr€ strike rvTTTeroi let him, her, it strike Tvirrerov strike {both) TVTrrercov let them (both) strike Infinitive. Participle. TVTTTeiV to strike TVTTTWV TVTTTOVGCL TV7TT0P striking Gr. TV7TTOVT05 tv7tt€T6 strike ye \rv7TT6Tcoaap or tvtttovtcov let them strike didst strike, etc. (rerv(f)e) like the Present. For this Imper. see § 137. n. 13. rerv(f)ivac to have struck T€TV(fxD$ having T6TV(f>vLa [struck T6TV(j)66rjaofiaL I shall be rv(f)0ijo-r) or ei, [struck like the Present. Subjunctive \rv(p07]croLfjLr)v Tv07)<$ 6TVCJ)07] irv0r}<; TV0CO/16V TV(j)07]T6 TV(j)0(JO(7L (v) TV0€l7)V TV(p0ei7]0€l7}fjLeV TV(j)0el/jL€V TV(f)06Lr}T6 TV^>0€LT6 TV0€i7]<7aV Tud)0€i€V 1 Fut. 2. TV7T7]CrOfiai through all the moods Aor. 2. iTV7T7)V like Aor. 1. Fut. 3. rervyjrofiai, through all the moods * See § 103. m. 18. f The syncopated form is more commonly used in the k 103. BARYTONE VERBS. 151 IVE. To be struck. Imperative. TwrTov be thou struck TVTTTeadcO Infinitive. TV7TTe0CDV reru(p06 T6TV(p0(ocrav or rerv^Ocov, see § l 1 33. m. 15. struck, etc. rv/n/jb€vot {at) rjaav Imperat. wanting TVCJ)07](76a0at TV(j)07]O-6fl€VO07)Ti, be thou struck TV0r\vai to be struck TV0evTO$ TV(f>07jT€ • TV(f>07]To)(raif, see § 103. m. 15. like Fut. 1. TVTTr)9i, TV7rtfT(D, etc. like Aor. 1. like Fut. 1. * and 2 person; in the 3 pers. almost always. 152 BARYTONE VERBS. 103. M I D. To strike Present and Imperfect, Perfect and Pluperfect, Indicative. Subjunct. Optative. Fut. 1. TV^OIACU wanting. Tvty0l/jL7)V like the Pres. Pass. like the Pres. Pass. Aor. 1. S. irvyjrdfirjv TV^COfiat, Tu^jraifirjv irv^jrco rv-^rr) rv^jraLO irv^lraro TV^\rr)Tav TV^rairo D. irv^rdfiedov Tvyjrco/nedov TvfyaiixeQov irv^aaOov TV^f7}(jBoV TV^aiaQov eTvy\raa6r)v tv^tjctOov TV-^raiaOrjV P. erv^dfieOa Tvijrd)fjLeda TV^jraLfi€0a irv^lraaOe TU^Irrjcrde TV^raicrOe irv-^ravro TV^rcovrai TV^raivro Aor. 2. eTVTrofjuTjv like the Imperf. Pass. TVircojxat these two Pr \TViroi\xr\v moods as in the es. Pass. Verbal Adjectives (§ 102) DECLENSION OF Sing. N. rv^as G. TV^ravros D. TV^ravrt. A. rv^ravra V. rv^as^ Dual. N . rv^ravTe G. TDxlfOLVTOlV Plur. N. rvyp-avre? G . TV\}fdvT(dV D. TV^rdat A. Tv^ravra^ Aor. 1. Act. Sino- Aor. 2. Act. rv^racra rv-^rdv TVTTOiV TVTTOvcra TV7TOV TV\jfd(TT]? TvyjsavTos tvttovto? Trovcrr)? ITOVTOS TV\j/dcrn rvyj/avTi TVTTOVTl Tvovcrrj TTOVTL Tvy\racrav Tvyjrav rvTrovra rrovaav 7TQV rv^acra Tvyjrav TVndiV^ Dual. Tvovcra TTOV Tvyfsdcra rv\j/avT€ TVTTOvre irovaa Tromt rv^daaiv TV\jfdvTOlV TVTTOVTOIV Plur. 7rovaa.1v 7TOVTOIV rv^aaai Tv\j/avra rvnovres 1 TTOvcrai 7TOVTO. Tvyjfacrcjv TV\j/dvTU)V TVTTOVTCOV TTOVCTteV TTOVT&V rvfydaais Tv^rdai TV7TOV(Tl novcrai? TTOVCTL rvyj/daas TvyjravTa TVTTOvras ivovcras TTovra * See § 45. 1. I 103. BARYTONE VERBS. 153 DLE. oneself, (See Hdot. 2. 40. extr.) are the same as the Passive. Imperative. wanting Infinitive. Participle. Tvtyofievos, rj, ov rv\jrat TV^rdaOco rvtyacrdac rv^rdfievo? ], ov Tvy\raa6ov TV^rdaOcov rv^rdaOcoa-av or TV^jrdcrOcov TV7T0V rvireaOov Tvireo-Qcov TvirecrOe Tvireadcocrav or TVireaOwv TVirkaOai Tinro/jLevoi i , ov TVTTTOS, TU7TTeO?. THE PARTICIPLES. Perf. 1. Act Aor. 2. Act Sing. Sing. reTvefxas 1 Ttrvtyvia Tervcfio? TvV cfivi&v (froTGOV TVCpdtVTOlV Sciercov Sevrmi rervcpoai (pviais vi.a? (pOTd TV(pdevTas Scleras Scvra * See 4 4,3. 1. 154 BARYTONE VERBS. * 103. EXAMPLES OF OTHER BARYTONE VERBS, as they are actually in use. Traihevw bring' up {a child). Middle, cause to bring up. ACTIVE. Pres. Ind. Subj. Opt. Imp. iraihevco naibeva TraidevoLpi natdeve Traidevei? iraibevrjS TvaibevoL? TraifteveTco etc. Traibevei etc. 7raibevr] etc. Traibevoi etc. Inf. 7raiSeveiv Part. iraibeixciv, ovcra, naidevov Imperf. eTraihsvov, es, e(v), etc. Perf. Ind. ireTraihevKa, a?, c(v), etc. Subj. 7T67ratSev/ca) Opt. TrenaidevKoipt Imp. not in use. Inf. TTena.ihtvK.hai Port. 7re7raid€VKa>s; via, 6s Pluperf. iireiraihevKetv, etr, «, etc. Fut. TrcLiheiKTW I Opt. naideva-otpa Inf. rraibevaeiv Part, iratSeu'crcop Aorist. iirathevaa, as. e(v), etc. Subj. naibevo-oi Opt. Imp. 7rai8€vaaifAi Traidevaou J]?, rj, etc. TTaibevcrais or eias etc. naidevaaTw etc. j Inf. Tratdevo-at Part, naidevcras, aaaa, Traibevo-ai Pres. Ind. wcuBevofiai Traibevj] or ei Traideverai etc. PASSIVE. Subj. Opt. naibevcopai 7rai8evoLfj.rjv Traibevrj etc. iraibevoio etc. Inf. iraibeveaOai Part. Imp. naidevov 7rai8evea8a> etc. Traidevopevos; rj, ov Imperf. e7raLSev6/17]V, eVcuSeuoi', eVatoVvero etc. Perf. Ind. ireiraihevfiai D. TreTraidevpedov P. 7r«rcu8eu/te0a 7T€7ra[d€vaai TreTralbevo-Qov Trenaibevo-Qe 7reTral8evTai 7T€7rat$eva6ov TrtTraibevvTai Subj. and Opt. wanting. Imper. nerraLdeva-o, 7roreuSew#co etc. Inf. TTZTraihevardai Part. 77f77aiSei; / ue:/or Pluperf. iTreirathevfJu^v €7r€7raiO€vao iTreTTalbiVTO D. e7T€7rai8evp.edov iTreTraibevcrOov €ire7raidevadr]v P €7re7rai8€Vfxeda eTreTTaidevade iu eTraibfvvro Fut. Jurf. TrcuSevOrjcrofiaL Opt. TTaihevBrjcroipnv I n f- T7aibev6r]crea6ai Part. TraihevOrjO'ojxevos Aor. Ind. iiraihevO'rjv Subj. 7rai8€v6a> Opt. naibevdeivv Imp. iraibevQrjTi Inf. uaidtvdriuai Part. Traidevdei? Fut. 3. Ind. ireiraihevaoiJiai j Opt. 7T€nai8€vcroijj.riv Inf. neTraibevcrecrdat Part. 7re7ratSeuo'o/xei/oy * 103, BARYTONE VERBS. CT6L0), X6L7TCO. 155 Fut. Ind. ira&evcrofiai MIDDLE. Opt. 7rai$ev(roi[JLT]v Inf. iraibevcrecrOat Part. 7rca$€V(r6iJ.evo? Aor. Ind. e.7rcu$evcrdfir)v, or oo, craro, etc. Subj. Opt. Imp. TraidevcrcdfAai iraidevcraLfirju Traidevcrai 7], TjTai, etc. cuo, airo, etc. Traibev, etc. Jji/*. (reareicrdai Part. aeaeKrjAevo? Plupf. 6(76(761(7 yi/tyv D. eVeo-eicr/ze^oy P. eveo-eio-fieda eaecreicro iaecreicrdov iaeaeiade eVeo-ettrro i(re(rei(rdr)v 3 pers. wanting. Fut. aeiadrjao^aL Aor. iaelaOrjV Fut. 3 aeaelaofJLaL MIDDLE. Fut. crelao/jLai, Aor. laeiaayaqv (Imperat. o-eio-ai) Verbal Adjectives : aecareo^, creiCTO?. \ei7rco leave ; Mid. poetical, remain behind. ACTIVE. Pres. XetTTco Impf. ekeiTrov Perf. (2) Xekonra Plupf. ekekolireLv Fut. Xetyco Aor. (2) ekiirov Subj. XiVoj, etc. PASSIVE. Pres. \ei7ro/j,at Imperf. ekeiir6fi7}v Perf. \i\6LfJLfiai, -fyai, nrac, etc. Jrap. AeAei^o, XeAeic£t9a>, etc. 7w/. \e\el(f)6ac Part. Xektififxevo? Plupf. i\ J e\elfjLfAr)v, -v^o, 7rro, etc. Fut. "\et^>9rjcrofiai Aor. ekei$6r]v Fut. 3 XeKeu^rojJbai MIDDLE. Fut. Xetyoficu Aor. (2) eXiTrufjvrjv Subj. XiVco/xat, etc, Verbal Adj. Xenrreos, Xet7TTO?. 156 BARYTONE VERBS. Ctp-)(W, (TKevrifo. § lOo. ap%co lead on, rule ; Mid. begin. ACTIVE. Pres. ap^co Impf. rjp^ov Perf. (r)px a ) an< * Plupf. (rjpx^v) scarcely occur Fut. apfft) Aor. rjp^a Subj. up£co Opf. ap£aip.i, ap£ai?, ap^ai, etc. Jrap. ap£ov, ap^ara, etc. In/, ap£at Pari, apt-as PASSIVE. Pres. ap^o/icu Imperf. y]px^V v Perf. rjpy/JLai, D. fjpyp.e6ov P. rjpyp.e6a \p£ai vpx0° v ypx& € rjpKTai ypx6° v ^ pers. wanting. Sm6/. and Op£. wanting. Imp. ^p£o, rjpx^i G ^ Q - Inf. rjpxdai Part. ^pypeVo? Plupf. rjpy/jLrjV D. rjpyp.edov P. rjpyp.eda vp£° ypxQ° v fax& rjpKTO fjpxOrjv 3 pers. wanting. Fut. apyQr\p,ai Op£. dpgaip.r]v Imp. apgai y dadoo, etc. Inf. apt-aadai Part, dp£dp,evos Verbal Adj. (in the sense of both Act. and Mid.) apfcreos, ap/cros. o-tcevdfo prepare. ACTIVE. Pres. a/cevd^co Imperf. ia/ceva^ov Perf. icrfcevafea Subj. iaKevaKoa Opt. eo-KevaKoip.i Imp. not in use. Plupf. icr/C6Ua/C€LV II Inf. eo-KevaKevai Part. eaicevaKoiS Fut. crfcevdcra) Aor. eaKevaaa Subj. o-Kevdo-co Opt. aKevdaaip.1 Imp. o-Kevaaov Inf. o-Kevdcrai Part, o-Kevdo-as- PASSIVE. Pres. (TKevdtpfjLaL Imperf. iv\dcrv\aavXa^a PASSIVE. Pres. (frvXao-cro/jLat, Imperf. i(f>v\acra6/JL7]V ^vkdrrofiai icpvXaTTopLrjv Perf. 7T€ 3 pers. wanting. Sw6/. and Opt. wanting. Imp. iretfivXago, 7re, etc.- Inf. Trecfrvk&xdai Part, irefyvhaypevos Plupf. eTTecpvkdyjjLTjV D. eirecjivXdypedov P. irreqb>v\dype6a €7r€(f)v\a£o €7re(f)v\a.x6ov enetyvAaxde eTreipvXaKTc e7revkcucTeo<;, fyvXcucros. MIDDLE. Fut. (f)v\dj;o{Mai Aor. ivXa%d{ir)V 158 BARYTONE VERBS. dyyeXXd). nos EXAMPLE OF VERBS X fi v p. dyyeWco I announce. ACTIVE. Pres. Ind. ayyeWoo Subj. dyyeXXa Opt. dyyiXXoipu Imp. ayyeXXe Inf. dyyeXXeiv Part. dyyeXXcov Imperfect rjyyeWov Subj. rjyyeXKco Opt. rjyyeXKoip.1 Imp. not in uso Inf. TjyyeXKevaL Part. rjyyeXKa? Perf. Ind. rjyyeXfca Pluperfect rffyeXfceiv Future (2) Indie, ar/yekco D. dyyeXel? dyyeXel dyyiXelrov dyyeXelrov Optat. S. dyyekoifU dyyekoi? dyyeXol D. — dyyeXolrov dyyeXoLTTjv P. dyyeXovfiev dyyeXelre dyyeXov(ri(y) P. dyyiXoi}X€V dyyeXoire dyycXoiev or Attic dyyeXoirjv, oi^r, 017; • — , oltjtov, oit)tt)v • ol-qpev, oirjre, olrjaav see below, note II. 3. (m. 13.) Inf. dyyeXelu Part. dyyeXwVy dyyeXovcra, dyyeXovv Gen. dyyeXovvros Aor. 1. Ind. r/yyeiXa ~ A.or. 2. Ind. rflyekov* Subj. dyyciXco Opt. dyyeCXaifxi dyyeiXais or -etas dyyeiXai or -«?, etc. Imp. (iyyeiXov, drco Inf. dyyeTXai Part. dyyttXas Subj. dyyeXio Opt. dyyeXoip.1 Imp. ayyeXe Inf. dyyeXelu Part. dyyiXcov * For the use of this tense in this particular verb, see the mar PASSIVE. I am announced. Sllbj. ayyeXXcOjtzai Opt. dyyikXoip.r)v Imp. dyyiKXov Inf. dyyeXXeadai Part. dyyeXXofxevo? Imperfect rjyyeWo/JLrjv Perf. 7]yy eXfiat D. rjyyeXfxedov P. rjyyeXfxeda fjyyeXaai rjyyeXOov rjyyeXQe Tjyyekrai ijyyeXBov 3 pers. wanting. Subj. and Opt. wanting. Imp. fjyye\cro, ^yyeX#co. etc. Inf. rjyyeXdai. Part. ^yyeX/xeVor n lupf. rj>yv and eadai ; and the Ionics, in their fondness for vowels, caused this accent to pass over into the prolonged double sound; see § 28. n. 3. § 105. n. 10. t On the other hand we find written : 'Ixov Eurip. Or. 1231 ; irvQev Hdot 3. CS. V 103. BARYTONE VERBS. NOTES. 161 3) All Infinitives in vat, except the dialect-form in pevat (m. 33), have 6 the tone upon the penult; e. g. rervcpevai, rv. 691, (comp. 3 Impf. fjaKeiv be- low in § 105. n. 3,) — were perhaps less usual even among the Attics. Hitherto at least all the examples which have been brought forward of these forms, as well as of a third person in rj instead of ei, (except from the Plupf. fjdeiv, see in olda § 109. III. 2,) rest only on the authority of some single passages, and the somewhat indefinite assertions of the ancient Grammarians. See Ausf. Sprachl. § 97. n. 14 sq. * By this accentuation, and from the circumstance that the 3 pers. Opt. never takes the circumflex upon the penult (§ 11. n. 3), are distinguished the three simi- lar forms of the Aor. 1 ; e.g. Infin. Act. 3 Opt. Act. Imperat. Mid Traifievaai 7rai8eutrai iraiSevcai. But see the same forms in the Parad. of , Kop.l(ca, rvwra. 162 BARYTONE VERBS. NOTES. $ 103 13 3. Instead of the Opt. Act. in oipi, there was a secondary form in oirjv, olr]S ) oirj, Plur. oirjpev, oirjre, oirjaav, which is called the Attic form. It is found for the most part only in contract verbs (§ 105), and consequently in the circumflexed Future; e. g. ipoirj for ipol from Fut. £pa>, Xen. Cyr. 3. 1. 11 ; cpavoirjv Soph. Aj. 313. Besides these instances, it occurs in barytones, only in the Perfect; e. g. irefavyoirjv, iXrjkoBoirjv ) and in the Opt. of the anomalous Aorist evxov, crxoirjv; see § 114 e^co. 14 4. Instead of the Opt. Aor. 1 Act. in aipi, there was an iEolic form in eta, as Tvyjseia, etar, eiei>, etc. of which the three endings exhibited above in the paradigm of rinrrco, viz. Sing. 2 Tv-^eias 3 rvyjseie (v), for -ai9, -at. Plur. 3 rvy\reiav for -auv, were far more usual than the regular forms. 15 5. The form of the 3 Plur. of the Imperative in -vr&v, Pass, -admu, is called Attic, because it was, among the Attics, the most usual form ; al- though it is found in the other dialects. In the Active, this form is always like the Genitive Plur. of the Participle of the same tense, except in the Perfect; e. g. Perf. 7re7roi6erv, ovtcov, Iovtcov, from Tidrjfii, el/XL, eifu. For the same pers. in the Perf, Pass. Plato for instance has the periphrase Treireio- pivot earcav Rep. 6. p. 502, III. Second Person Sing. Passive. 16 1. The original ending of the second person Sing, of the Passive, o-at and ao (§ 87. n. 4), has been retained only in the Perfect and Plupf. of the or- dinary conjugation, and in Verbs in pi, § 106. n. 2. The less cultivated dialects perhaps continued to say in the 2 pers. TV7rrecrai, ervirreao, Imperat. rv7TT€ao, Aor. 1 Mid. irv^ao-o, — Subj. TiiTfrrjo-at, etc.* '7 2. The Ionics dropped the o~ from this old ending, and formed eat, ijai; eo, ao. The common language contracted these endings again into rj, ov, co ; e. g. Ion. Comm. Ion. Comm. 2 Pres. Ind. Tvnreat tv7ttv. Imperat. rinrreo tvtttov Subj. TVTTT-qai TVTTTrj. 2 Impf. eTVTTTeO €TV7TT0V 2 pers. Aor. 1 Mid. Ion. eruyj/ao, comm. eYityco. In the same manner in the Optative, instead of oiao is formed oto, which remained as the common form, because it cannot be contracted. — In the Perf. and Plupf. on the contrary, the a is never dropped, except in IWuo; see Anom. creuco § 114. 8 3. The Attics had the further peculiarity, that instead of y contr. from eat, they wrote et. This form, which also is noted in the paradigms, was the usual one in the genuine Attic writers, the tragedians excepted ; and also in the common language. In the verbs (3ov\opat, o'iopai, and Fut. oyjsopat (see Anom. Spdeo), this form of the 2 pers. became the only usual one, viz. fiovXet^ o'iet, o\\ret, so that fiovXrj and o'lrj can only be Subjunctive. — This form in et is also very common in the Attic or circumflexed Future; e. g. /3aSteI, oAei. l& 4. The Dorics and Ionics, instead of eo or ov, have here ev } as eYv7rreu, * The 2 pers. Present Pass, of the contracted verbs seems most frequently to have occurred in this form in the later common language; e. g. in the New Test Rom. 2, 17. 23, navxacrai for komx^oa, comm. Kat>x, § 105. n. 9. 2. The ending ovro is sometimes treated by the Ionics in the same man- 21 ner, but with a change of the o into e] e. g. ifiovkearo for ifiovkovTO. On the other hand, the ending oi/rat (rvirTovrai, rv^rovrai, etc.) and the end- • ing (ovrai of the Subjunctive, are never changed. See § 105. n. 9. 3. By the help of this Ionic ending, the 3 Plur. Perf. and Plupf. Pass. 22 can be formed, when the characteristic of the verb is a consonant; and this is done sometimes even by Attic prose writers, as Thucydides, Plato, etc. (§ 98. 2, and n. 2.) E. g. Tervppat, (rervepa) — TfTiKparai reraypai (reVcr^a) — eTera^cLTO earahpai, ecpdappai — eWaXarai, icpBaparai. In an'marai, Ion. for dcpiKarai (see the Anom. iKveopm), instead of ^, the characteristic of the verb remains unchanged. The like case in pure verbs see in § 105. n. 9. 4. In verbs where the characteristic is a lingual (or T-sound), the simple 23 characteristic always reappears before the endings arai, aro; e. g. 7rei8a> 7 7T€7reicrp.ai, 3 PI. it en el darai ipeidco, eprjpeurpai, — i pr\ pedarat Horn. Here the diphthong is shortened because of the Attic reduplication ($ 85. 2). So with a restoration of the 8 which is contained in £ (§ 92. n. 6), i, Xclttouv, etc. also contr. iyevvaxrav, €7roiovaaVj etc. * II. p. G37 aK7)X*$aTai from a/djxe/"" ( see Anom. aKaxK®)) an( ^ O^L V' 86 iAr]- A&Saro from e'Aaa>, iX^Kafxai ; both with various readings of sufficient authority to excise suspicion. See JLusf. Sprachl. § 98. n. 13. marg. 1(34 BARYTONE VERBS. NOTES. $ 103. 26 2. The Dorics and poets, on the other hand, have in some instances, in- stead of the tense-ending of the third person o-av, a syncopated form in v with a short vowel. This takes place in barytone verbs only in the Aorists Passive : 3 PI. ervcfideV) ervnei/, for -rjcrav. Other instances belong to the conjugation of verbs in p,i. — This syncope is never into -rjv; as to the Homeric p.idv6j\v, see the Anom. juiaiz/co, § 114. 27 3. The dialects mentioned above in 1, by a still greater anomaly, gave to the 3 pers. Plur. Perfect, instead of den, the (historical) ending av ; hence in the New Testament eyv&Kav, etprjKav, Batrachom. 178 eopyav. — For a similar change in the 3 pers. Dual of the historical tenses, e. g. II. k. 364 dio)/cerov instead of -ttjv, see in § 87. n. 7. 28 4. The 3 Plur. of the primary tenses, instead of ai from ebeiv ; see the Anom. eV#tco, § 114. 34 10. The Dorics, in particular, fosm the Infinitive in ev or r\v instead of eiv, without either drawing back or changing the acute accent ; e. g. pe- piadev, evdev, deidev, for p.epi£eiv, evdew, deidetv ) Aor. 2 dyayiv for dyayeiv ; also x a ^PV v f° r x at P elI/ > not x a * , PTI v ' — ^or the Infinitives in -vai also there was an iEolic and Doric form in -rjv (and -tiv) with the accent drawn back; as fxeOvu-Q-qv, SeSvKrjv, yeydicetv. For this last form see espec. § 111. n. 1. * Not AajSeOca, because there is here no contraction; see § 105. n. 13, marg. note. § 104. USUAL AND UNUSUAL TENSES. 165 11. It is under the same analogy that we find among the Dorics the .sec- '6b ond person of the Present Act. sometimes formed in e? instead of eir, with- out change of accent; e. g. a/xeXyer for a/xeXyety, Theocritus. 12. The old language had in the second person of the Active form, instead 26 of y, the ending ada, which in Homer and other poets is often appended in the Subjunctive, ana sometimes in the Optative* e. g. eBekvaOa for iOtkrjs, KkaioiaQa for KkaLois. In the common language, however, this has been preserved only in some anomalous verbs ; see below in §§ 108, 109, ilpt, etfu, (prjp.1, and olda. 13. In the earliest language, the three endings which are now regarded 3* as peculiarities of the conjugation in pi, viz. 1 Sing, pi, 3 Sing. , into eco, epic euo, see m. 3, above ; thus Subj. A. 1 Pass. evpeOeco for evpeOco from evpedrjv Subj. A. 2 Pass. ru7re'cD, epic run-aco, for rvnco. In those personal forms of this Subjunctive which have n in the ending, the usage of the epic writers varies between this mode of lengthening the pre- ceding e into €i, and the doubling of the rj ; e.g. (iddjxrjv, dapco, dap,eia>y) dapeirjs, dafiiiij II. y. 436. ^. 246; (ecrdir^v, (rana), ora7retco,) acnrr]r] II. r. 27. Compare the forms of the dialects under verbs in pi, since these must here also be assumed as the basis of such changes. For the orthography of da/ieir)?, dapeiy (Subj.) see § 107. m. 43. marg. 15. The Subjunctive loses sometimes in the epic writers its long vowel, 39 and takes o and e instead of co and 77; e. g. tofiev let us go, see in elpi Subj. 'loo, § 108. V; eyeipopev for -copev II. /3. 440 ; epvcrcropev for Subj. Aor. 1 ipvcnopev 11. a. 141; Ipeiperai for -rjrai Od. a. 41; vavTiXKerai Od. 6\ 672. See also e'&opev under olda § 109. III. 6. This occurs most frequently in the form just adduced of the Subjunct. Aor. Pass. e. g. dapeiopev, dapeure : and hence it clearly appears that the other forms are not Indicatives, as some suppose. Indeed, all the above passages require the Subjunctive. § 104. Usual and Unusual Tenses. 1. To determine in respect to every verb what tenses are act- ually in use, and what not, is not a matter of definite rules ; and must therefore be left to the lexicons and to the fuller lists of verbs ; see h 114 and App. F. 166 CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. § 105 2. Thus much, however, may be noted from the mass of par- ticulars : The second tenses, so called, viz. the Aor. 2. Act. the Perf. 2, and the Aor. 2. Pass, occur almost exclusively and alone in primitive verbs ; which however often have in the Present a strengthened form ; e. g. those in -dvco. As however these primi- tives, when they thus form the second tenses, are all enumerated in the said lists of verbs and in the course of this whole division on the Verb, the learner may assume, that all verbs, in which such forms are not expressly specified, follow the other formation, i. e. have the first tenses. To these belong then almost all deriv- ative verbs.^ 3. We can indeed assume it as a rule, that all derived verbs of three or more syllables, which have the following very com- mon derivative endings, d^CO, L^CO, CLLVCO, VVCO, 6VCD, 00), d(D, €0), e. g. (JKevdfyo from cricevr), vo/jll^co from vo/jlos, (TTj/jLaivco from ar/fia, evdvvco from eu#u?, irathevco from irals, BovXoco from BovXos, ri/Jidco from TLfJbif), (pcXeco from (/n\o?, form throughout only the Aor. 1 Active, Perf. 1 (in tea), and Aor. 1 Passive. See also § 96. 4. Note 1. Of these endings also, some in certain verbs are not derivative endings, but serve merely to lengthen out a verb • i. e. they belong to the strengthened forms of the Present (§ 92), by which the whole becomes anomalous; e. g. dXircuVco, Aor. 2 tjXitov ; Sa/iaco, Aor. 2 eSd^i/, etc. Note 2. Under the same head belong those derived verbs, which are formed from nouns by means of such endings as aaa>, tttio, XXco, etc. § 119. 4. Of these dXXdo-croo is the only one which forms the Aor. 2 Pass. r]X\dyr)v. § 105. Contracted Conjugation. 1. Verbs in eco, dco, and oca, correspond entirely, in their gen- eral formation, to the rules and examples given above ; and in the sections which treat of the formation of the tenses, we have everywhere had reference also to these verbs. But in the Present and Imperfect of the Active and Passive (and Middle) forms, where the vowels a, e, o, stand immediately before the vowels of the personal endings, there arises in the Attic and common Language a Contraction, which in the Ionic dialect is often neg- lected ; see below in note 1. * Precisely as in English, by far the greater number of verbs and epecially de- rivatives, have the regular form of the Imperf. and of the past or Passive Participle in ed, as ask, asked, asked ; love, loved, loved ; while comparatively few, and those primitive, have the monosyllabic Imperf. and the Part, in en or n, as speak, spoke, spoken; give, gave, given, etc. } 105. CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. fc*»7 2. This contraction conforms throughout to the general rules in $ 28 ; except in some endings of verbs in oco. In these verbs, instead of contracting oet into ov, and orj into w, according to the general rule, the l of the second and third person Sing, becomes predominant, so that the endings oet? and 077? are contracted into oh, and the endings oet and 077 into 01. Thus 2 pers. Ind. Act. ina66ei<; ) , a „ 1 c , . n' \ contr. lucruots — Subj. — /jLto-uoys ) r 3 pers. Ind. Act. incrOoei ) , a .„ r , . /i' [ contr. iiiaooi — feubj. — [Jbiaooy ) r 2 pers. Ind. and Subj. Pass. fiLo~66r) contr. [itaOoi. Since now 601 is also contracted into ol, the three moods, Indie. Subjunct. and O/tf. become in these two persons in the Active entirely alike. — The Infin. in oetv is regularly contracted, e. g. fALcrdoeLV contr. /jUctOovv. 3. Verbs in dco, which everywhere follow the general rules of contraction, have the whole Indicative and Subjunctive in both Active and Passive alike ; inasmuch as both ae and arj are con- tracted into a ; aei and ay into a ; and ao, aov, aco, into co. 4. "Where there is an c or 1 subscript in the ending, the con- tracted vowel (a, 7], co) usually and by rule takes 1 subscript. But in the Infin. Pres. of verbs in dco, the omission of the 1 sub- script (-av) is perhaps more common than its insertion.^ * Comp. Jtusf. Sprachl. § 105. n. 17. The 1 in the ending- of the Infin. is not se essential as in the second and third person of the Indicative ; hence also in uurGoa we have in the Infin. the contraction jwrdovv, but in the Indie. fxicQols, faadoi. Com- pare also the Doric Infinitive-ending -ev, $ 103. m. 34. § 105. n, 15. 168 CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. §105 Is "35 ^G b b b 3. 5. 3. 2i ^ A o o s S" rf (S3 (S3 (S3 ^ 1} b b b b b 3. 3. 3. 2. 5. .'-, v _ (~» (3 _p o <3> "35 <3} b b b 3.3.3. <3 c3 a. £ b 3 <3 <3 I ^ <^) ^ ^3 ^li b b b b b 3.3. 3. 3.3. A 5* ?> iK? 3 £ £ -o -o v o , v o v o v o v o v o ^3 ^} ^S I ^3 ^D ^3 ^> ^i bbb'bbbbb 3.3.3. vu O a. a. a. a. a. * S O O .1 «3 u 3 r; Rs c- s> 3 c- 3 -o ^c v o . v o -o v o v o v o ^} ^3 ^3i *3i ^3 *3i ^ti ^3 bbb I bbbbb 3.3.3. 3.3.3.3.3. H p <3 t- t- t> t> # 6, (3 (B-ie- 3 3 3- h P h ° O ^ <" K (3 (B '3 g b b b O O 3 O O b b b b b o o b b b b 3 bs.Rs b b ^ * £ -^ O O S U> k t< i- a. i. o ^Sr- sr- 3 C- 3 S S S v i IS o S o o o b b b b b ilOo CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. 169 J? J? rS <3i ^D <3i b b b ^ ^ ^ ^O <3i "Qi ^O "3i I b b b b b b- b o 3 a. a. a. a. a. a., a. a. a. oj m o c o v O v O v o ^ <3S <3i b b b ^ ^ ^ o o o o o v o o v o v o v o ^i ^S ^} ^} "-15 b b b b b o «. ,. t- to ■*t O i o 3 ^ O vs a. a. a. a. a. a. a, a. O O v 3 o v o "^> "3} ^D ^ <3i ^ ^ s b b b b b b - ^a. a. a. a. a. a. a. ^ S fc a. {: c <3-«3-<3- <3-»3-<3-<3-<3- a_ a. a, ' a. a, a. a. a, i- t- t- t- t- i- b '3- 3- v 3- 5 3 S, b J 3 to 3 -3 i- t- t- i- t- a. a -a 3- a b ^b 3- b is a. ■A. ^3- < O O O 1 o o o o o £ v a a v a v e v a t " O v a v a v a < 3-3-3- ' 3-3-3-3-3- t- t- h h i- ^ i- t* Sh fc e e v s a -s Si -3-3-3-3-3-3- S C S C K K A 2> A - — . O C- ^ to a => w a. c b-bcS-ibcS t- b t?i-* t-» S 2 2 1 1 '§ 2 2 2 2 o o o 00000 "00^ b b b b b b b b ^ ■(-a R-^- C < v o ?^o ;_, ^ a A 5* J- s ■o 3- a - fc^lfS S a. ^ s o N S v o 1 00000 1 is ^ is 12 is b ^0 o o o 00000 b b b b: b b b b 3§3 a 3 a v- 3 o a 3 o b b S- 170 CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. § 105. 1 a. o o b b CO O CS v o o B « P b 3 ,1 b b ^> ^D 15 b b b »-j •»«» ^-j *G ^5 <35 ^b ^b ^b a & a c» »3 Q <3i < 3Q ^ b b b b ^b -3--1--3--2--S- a ^ =• to v to O to o IP c *o v o c- Mi v. 3 =4. -a ^3 3- a. CO ^§<3 a b a" ^ - 3 ^ -§ '3 a. a. 5 »> 3 a a a- v a.^a_ » * £ a. a. a. a c c n p Ch — I —, a & ? O to to to v to C to a a a i v e a v a * a -3-ok3- I 3- 3- 3- 3-. C £ £ t.- u E S § 6 h v 3 b~ ■ 8 fell h ^ h do o Cr- ib. fc ._ o o o o a. fc * > -^- fe >^.^ •S3 p- CD -a ks3 -o |> — A ft a a • b K O

- — - t- O to to to to to W 1 v to O O O 1 O o 2 S „b>„b > «o fe ^ t: b £> P^ '-2 •«^ i-2 CO Q J- S * ^ e o ^ 3- C * c o o o O) ^ © fc-5 6 105. CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. 171 oooooooo <3 ( o <3 ^3 <3 <3 -3 <3 <3 3 o o c o o S ^^^^^^U^^^ ^j}^^^^^^^^ ^<3i^li^3i^Ti"3iT5^c>"qi £ bbbbbbbbb bbbbbbbbb febbbbbbbbco 13.13.112.15. 3.3.12.3.3.3.3.3. 3. 3. 3. a. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. •»- oRiw-oSw-owo 3 Rs c--3 sr- t=--3 c- 3 o o o o o o g o c v o v o v o o v o v? o v o v o -o v o v o o -o "o o v o N o o va 20 o 20 o o 1° 19 "q^^^^T}^^^*!} ^^^^"^"Cti^^^C) ^ti<3i'Qi , 5i < T3^>^^C(' : Ii bbbbbbbbb bbbbbbbbb §bbbbbgbb 3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3. 3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3. 3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3.3. 30 id l&^« „ # I a a a „ ^ j= £ * a . '-' • 3. ? 3. D b 3. b £ 3. g3.bbS.bS io (• 4 b. b ib:S. o pq (3 ca-cS -3 v vu v o ^vu v o v 3 n r; v e— 3 v R\C— 3 v sr- v o o v o v o o v o o g x o v c OOOOOOOOO ^OOOOOOOOO OOOOOOOOO bbbbbbbbb. § bbbbbbbbb .bbbbbbbbb A Q Pk gW Q Pu -§CO Q PU ^ 1 172 CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. § 105. Q 3 ^ ^^^^^ V § ^ 3 3. ° 3- b b lb b b b b b _P b a. »s(3Q^(i>avao o o o o o o boo ^ <3> ^> ^> k^^^^^ 3. ^ ^ bbbbbbbbb obobbb^- b -3>j»j~>^>^>«iS«» a. a. a. a. a. a. a. a. "to "to "to "to "to "to "to "to "w a b a . a b !K ^ o^^CJ 3|3,S^ 3 § l-o^^^^^P =>^^^ b ^ S I? ° a. b b a. b ^ P> b b b b b «* b ..a. ^o o to v o to N »u v o u* o O N *u W v vu U/ v vu a. *" O O v O v O O v O O O v O v O ^P J? ^9 -P iP J? . 2? ^S ^ ^ ^ 'Qi <35 ^C> ^d <^i <3S ^^^S 5 O J=-^> to o a b b b b o *- o a. ^oovu v ow v w v ou/0 .2 x £ J£ S nS S J-. vi v g a v e v a a v e a a v e ^a 1111.1a. 1 1 3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3-3- 3 o 3 u* 3 b a ^ c- - u» ^§ *s «S «§ ..b.b.b.b b g b v f- -aoaai /xe/xiV^corat fj,efJiia0a>[j.e0ov fie filer 6 coo- 0ov fl€fXLO-0(x)O-0OV fxefiia8cofj.€0a fi€fx[o-0a>a0e fi€fj.LO-0a>VTai I fjLefiia05>a0ai I fiefiio-0a>fievos which can form them, I fj.€fxla8oiao J fiefJUo~8a>o~8ci) i etc. ifl€/XLO~6d){jLr)V €fj.efJLia0a>cro €fieflLO-0(£>TO €fJL€fJLLO-0a>fJLe0OT/ ifi€fiio-0<£>o-0ov ifiefJLio-6ccso-0-qv €[XeflLO-0U>fJL€0a €fjL€filo-0a>o-0e efxefxia0covro Fut. 1. Aor. 1. Fut. 3. 7roi7]0TJcrofiai, €7roiij6r]V TreTTOLrjaojUiaL TL/ArjOrjaofAaL €TLjJbr)6rjV T6TLfM]CT0fAaL fJLLaOcodrfo-ojJLai e/jLLo-6co6r)v fxefMLaOcoaofUaL Fut. 1. Aor. 1. TTOLrjaofiaL €TrOL7]Crd/jL7]V TTOLrjTeos TTOLTJTOS M I D D L E * TLfArjaofjiaL eTL[H)crdjJLr)V fjucrOcDcro/ULaL i/juo-6cocrdfJ,r)v Verbal Adjectives. 1 TL/jL7)T€0S \ TLjJLTjTOS fiLaOayreo^ /hlo-0cdt6 instead of eco ; e. g. oKvela, irkeUiv, venceUaKe, etc. — The uncontracted form of verbs in dec is only so far to be called Ionic, as the epic writers sometimes avail themselves of it: althoagh in only a few words and forms: e. g. doioidet, irtivdovTci, vcuerdovaiv, etc. — Verbs in oco are found uncontracted only in this first psrs. Singular ; elsewhere they are always either contracted, or take the double sound peculiar to the epic writers; see notes 10, 11. — In the Ionic prose, verbs in da and 6a> never occur, except either in the usual contracted form (as above in the Att. Fut. § 95. n. 11), e. g. in Herodot. vlkclv, ivinav, viKaev, elpaTa, (3ia for /3iaou ) also brjXol, ip.iadovvTo, erepoiovvTo : or else with the peculiarities of formation and contraction which are given below, in note 7 sq. Note 2. In the Attic and common language, none of the contractions which occur in this conjugation were ever neglected ; not even in Attic poetry, i. e. in the dramatic trimeter. The only exceptions are the shorter verbs in eco, whose present Act. in the uncontracted form has only hvo syl- lables, as rpeco. These admit only the contraction in ec ; e. g. rpeei rpet, erpee erpei, ttvUiv irveiv:^ ill all other forms they remain uncontracted; e. g. pea>, yeo/zai, rpeop,ev, Trveovcri, nvejj, etc. There are to be excepted nevertheless 8eiv to bind, e. g. to dovv, tu> dovvn Plat. Cratyl. 419, 421 ; (6) dyadcov Aristoph. Plut. 589 ; 8iadovp.ai, etc. On the contrary 8eiv to need, leant, has commonly to deov, 8eop.ai, for the sake of. distinction.! Note 3. The movable v is taken by the 3 pers. Smg. Impf. only in the uncontracted form, as Horn, eppeev, fjreev, and even Xen. Hell. 6. 2. 27 €77\eeu; but not in the contracted one. Yet Homer has once fjaiceiv from do-K€ti). Comp. the Plupf. in § 103. m. 12. Note 4. The form of the Optative, known by the name of the Attic Op- tative, which is in a measure peculiar to contract verbs (§ 103. m. 13), is fully given in the paradigm (p. 169), in order that the analogy of it may be clearly understood. It is however to be observed, that the Attic usage, which was governed only by a regard to euphony and clearness, preferred certain parts selected from each of the forms, viz. 1) The Plural of the Attic form was less used, because of its length, especially in verbs in ea and 6a', least of all the 3 pers. Plur. in olrj- crav, arjaav. The Attics said almost always Trocolev, Tifiaev, p.io~6olev. 2) In the Singular, however, the Opt. in olr\v from verbs in ea and 6a, is far more usual than the other form. 3) In verbs in da the Attic Opt. (Tifiarjv etc.) is in the Sing, used almost exclusively ; and also in the Plur. (with the exception of the 3 pers.) far more frequently than in the other two classes of verbs. Note 5. Some verbs in da are contracted in the Doric manner into n in stead of a (see note 15) ; viz. gyp to live, xpw@ a <> to use, neivjjv to hunger, 8i\{/rjv to thirst, * Likewise in the Imperat. e. g. irAee, 7rAer Aristoph. Av. 598, and often. Bm also d7r^x 6 e Dig. Laert. II. 77. t But see the Anom. Sew. — In the verb x^'w we must take care not to confound the 3 Sing, exee from Aor. 1 ex«* (see Anom. x««>) with the same person of the Impei feet; the latter is contracted, ex ee eyet, the former not ; e. g. Aristoph. Nub 75 KOLTexeeu. * \{)5. CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. NOTES. 175 from £dco, ypdco, ( see D °th in § 114,) ireivaa , St\|/-aoo. These make ^r, £/;, efn, xPV Tai -> etc - The following verbs also, so nearly related to each other in their signification, viz. Kvdco scrape, apdco stroke, -v/mco rub, are contracted in the same manner, at least in the genuine Attic.* Note 6. The verb piydco I am cold has an irregular contraction, viz. into co and co instead of ov and oi ; e. g. Inf. piycbv, Opt. piycprjv. But this pecul- iarity is not always observed, at least in our editions. — In the verb ibpoco 1 sweat, which in signification is opposed to the preceding, the same rule holds in the Ionic dialect ; e. g. idpebaa II. S. 27 ; idpcorj Hippocr. do Aer. Aq. Loc. 17. Dialects. Note 7. Since the Ionics form the 2 pers. Pass, in the ordinary conjuga- tion in eat and eo (§ 103. m. 17), there arises in verbs in eco an accumulation of vowels in this person, which the Ionic prose writers retain, as iroueai, eVaiveeat, etc. The epic writers contract sometimes the first two vowels, e. g. pvQeiai, like pvdeerai pvdelrai. Sometimes one e is elided, and in eeo always ; e. g. pvdeai from pvdeopac Od. |3. 202 ; (fiofieo from (pofteopai Herod. 9. 120; aheo, e^rjyeo, etc. The form dvaKoivio (Theogn.) from a verb in 6co, stands alone. The forms of this 2 person in erj, drj, 6rj ; eov, dov, 6ov, which we have placed in the paradigm for the sake of uniform analogy, never occur. Note 8. Verbs in dco, as we have seen (note 1), are not commonly used by the Ionics in their proper uncontracted form ; but many of them are so resolved that the a passes over into e; e. g. opeco, Speopev, for opdeo, opdopev (poiTeovres for (poirdovres 1 ^peerat, p^yaz/eecr&u, for arm, do~6ai and the like. Sometimes they change ao into eco (§ 27. n. 10) ; e. g. prj Xavecovrai, ^pecopai, oppecopevos, opscovres, etc. Others, as vlkclv, avbav, etc. never take this change of a into e. Note 9. In the 3 pers. Plur. where the Ionics change v into a (§ 103. IV.) and put -earo for -ovro, they sometimes employ in these verbs the same ending for -eovro, where of course there is an elision of one e; but this is done only in verbs in dco, as epijxavea-o for -dovro, -eovro, comm. epijxavcovTO. — In the Perf. and Plupf. they not only change vvtcli and oovrai into rjarai, coarai, e.g. TreTroT^arai, /ce^oXcoaro, Homer ; but likewise commonly shorten the 77 into e, e. g. 01/cearat, ireTipiaro, for cpKrjvrcu, ireriprjvro. Note 10. The old Ionic of the epic writers sometimes contracts the forms, and sometimes not. In verbs in dco however, which are seldom em- ployed in their primary uncontracted form (note 1), the Ionic allows these poets the peculiar license of again resolving the vowel or improper diph- thong of contraction into a double sound, by repeating before it the same sound, either long or short, according to the necessities of the metre (§ 28 n. 3). Thus a in (opdeiv) opav — opdav : on the t subscr. see n. 15. marg. (acryaXdet) acrxaXa — dcrxaXda 2 pers. Pass, [pvarj) pva — pvda dyopdaBe, pvacrdai — dyopdaade, pvdacrdai. * Two other Infinitive forms, pakKirjv and ovpfv, from pa\Kidco to be cold, numb, pnd ovpc«. may with tolerable certainty be shewn from grammarians to be A.ttic; see Jus/.' Sprachl. p. 487, 176 CONTRACTED CONJUGATION. NOTES. $ 105. Further, o or co in (6pda>) 6p£> — opdo) Imperat. Pass. (aXdov) 6X5) — dXo'o) ((3odov(rt) (3oS>(ri. — fiooaxri Opt. [alridoLTo) alrioZro — alriocoro (dpdovat) dpaxri — Spcococri Part. Fem. (r)(3dovcra) fjfioocra — rifiwaxra.. In the Ionic prose this species of resolution occurs seldom : Hdot. t]yop6covTo 6. 11 ; Kop-ocoo-L 4. 191. — Sometimes the o is placed after co, e. g. fjfiaovTe?, f](3oip.i, for 7]/3a>vTes, rj^cpp.1, from -dovres, doipi. and for ye\a>vTe? may stand either yeXocovres 1 or yeXeoovres; as the metre may require. From these forms we can understand, how in some verbs this doubling of the sound by means of co, passed over into a peculiar formation. -coco, d>€is, ooei; see the Anom. £dco, MAO, and p,vd in p,ip.vr)o-icco. — A peculiar anomaly is the Homeric Particip. Fem. vaierdcotra for - dov era or -oca era; also crdco, see crco£co § 114} and the form p,evoivqrjo- i II. o. 82 ; for which how- ever another quite as early reading is /xevoiv^o-eie Opt. Note 11. All forms with the double sounds oa> and coo are also common to verbs in 6a> ; though in these they can arise neither by regular resolu- tion, nor by doubling the vowel of contraction; e. g. (dpoovcri) dpovcri, epic dpdcotrt (brfioovro, drj'iooiev,) brfiovvro, drj'ioiev, epic 8 r)'i 6 cov to, b-q'iocoev (vrrvoovTas) vrvvovvras, epic inrvcbovTas. Note 12. The iterative Imperfect in ctkov (§ 103. m. 11) is more seldom employed by the Ionics in these verbs ; e. g. cpCkeecrKov Hdot. fiovKokeeo~K.es Homer. This form was never contracted ; but was sometimes syncopated in the earlier poets by dropping e ; e.g. fj-^eo-Ke for ^eecr/ce from ^x ec0 ; eao-Ke from edco j and so with a doubling of a, vaierdacrKov from vaierdco. Note 13. That the Dorics contract eo into ev instead of ov, and that this is followed by the Ionics when they contract, has already been mentioned, § 28. n. 5. Thus e. g. from ttouco they make iroievp-ev, 7roievp,ai, Troievvres, eno'iew. But in verbs in do likewise we often find in Herodotus and others ev, con- trary to analogy, instead of ov contracted from oo; e. g. ebiKaievv, ebiKalev, TikrjpevvTes^ from diKaioto, TrXrjpoco. And this same contraction takes place, through the change of a into e (note 8), in verbs in dec, e. g. elpcorevv, dyanevvres^ from eipcordco, ayairdco. Finally, ev stands not only for eou, and consequently for aov, but also for oov; e. g. iroievcri, (piXevcra^ for rroieovcn, oucrt, cpCKeovcra, ovcra yeXevaa for yeXdovaa, cocra diKaievcri for biKaioovcri, overt. Closer observation must teach, which of these different forms occurs most frequently in each of the two dialects. But it follows of course, that the 3 Plur. noievon, yeXevat can be only Ionic ; because the Dorics form Tvoievvn? yeXevvri. Comp. § 103. m. 28. Note 14. In another mode of contraction, which is rather iEolic than Doric, o is often absorbed by a preceding a, which thereby becomes long; e. g. (pvo-avres for (pvadovres, 3 PI. neivcouTi or ireivavn. Note 15. When the Ionics sometimes change the a and a of contraction into 7/ and 77, e. g. opfjv, cpoLrjjv, Irja-Bai, etc. this coincides entirely with the nature of their dialect; but it is done only by a part of the Ionic writers, e. g. * The Doric ecu cm can be contracted only into evcra, and not into o? the epic Inf. dpop-p-evai for dpovv, is a solitar> example. Note 18. Other rare'iEolic forms are. the Infinitives in y from verbs in dco and 6co with the accent drawn back ; e. g. yekais, ityot?, § 27. n. 4. Also Part. fern. yeXaiaa for yeXdoio-a, -ovcra, comp. § 103. m. 29. A Catalogue of the Verbs Contract see in Appendix F. Irregular Conjugation. § 106. Verbs in fit. 1. We commence our account of the Anomaly of the Greek verb, with that which is called, from the ending of the 1 pers. Pres. Indicative, the Conjugation in fit. This does not, like the two preceding forms of conjugation (barytone and contract), con- tain a multitude of Greek verbs; but only a limited number, Which differ from the regular analogy of the great mass of verbs in some essential points. 2. All verbs in \xi have one root or stem, which in the ordinary formation would terminate in co pure (§ 28. 1) ; and chiefly in eco, dco, oco, vco. It is therefore usual in grammar, to trace back this less usual formation to the other more familiar one ; and to say e. g. that the verb TL07)fu comes from a simpler form 0Ef2. — There is only one example from the stem- vowel X, viz. elfit from Tif2, for which see below in k 108. V. 3. 3. The peculiarities of the conjugation in /m are confined to these three tenses, viz. Present, Imperfect, Aorist 2. * For this omission of the i subscript see § 105. 4, and 103. m. 34. Some of tho Grammarians always omitted it in the double sounds, e. g. dpdav, opdas. t Here belongs dprjai, for which see the marg. note to § 106 n. 9 ; and frr] or 77 : w, $9, Vi wpev, ijre, 6j(ti(v) ; Pass, wfiai, fj, etc. But when the stem has o, the Subjunctive has always co : co, C09, co, cofjiev, o)T6, £)cn(y) ) Pass. oijJLai, co, etc. The mixed sound of the Optative is a diphthong with c, to which in the Active the ending yv is always joined; in the Pass, as usual, fJLTjv: rcd-elrjv, [(TT-atrjv, SlS-oltjv; Pass. rid-eifjLrjv, etc. See § 107. m. 29 sq. — Yerbs in v/11 form these two moods most commonly from the ordinary conjugation in -vco. 6. Several of the shorter stem-forms receive a reduplication, which consists in repeating the initial consonant with 1 ; e. g. A Ofl SiScofiL, OEfl TiOrjfiu But when the stem begins with err, 7rr, or with an aspirated vowel, it merely prefixes the 1 with the rough breathing : ZTAJ2 torrifii, TIT Aft farafuu, 'Eft vqju. It is only in such words that the Aorist 2 is possible in this form of conjugation ; since it is chiefly by the want of this reduplica- tion, that this tense in the Indicative is distinguished from the Imperfect ; and in the other moods, from the Present ; see h 96 n. 2. E. g. Pres. TiOrjfXi (Subj. tl0(o) Impf. irlOrjv Aor. Wi\v (Subj. ^w). i 106. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN fU. 179 7. The short stern -vowel (e, d, o, v), in its connection with the endings of this formation, always becomes long- in the Sing, of the Indie. Active in all the three tenses. Thus we have from e ) ( (@E) riOrj-jjn, erldrj-v, e0r)-v a ) "' l (%TA) Lorrj-fii, Z&Tty-i^ ecrrrj-v o — co, (AO) BlSco-fJLt, iBiBco-v, eBco-v v — v, deLfcpv-jMj eBelicvv-v. And so too X becomes et in the verb el fit,. In the Plural of the same tenses, in the other moods, and everywhere in the Passive, the vowel appears most frequently in its original form as short ; e. g. Ttde/Jiev, eOecrav, riOevcu, rlOerc, rl^e/xac, etc. Yet the fol- lowing are exceptions from this rule, and retain the long vowel : 1) The Dual and Plural, as also the Infin. and Imperative, of the Aor. 2 of lorrjfii, ; thus earr^fiev, etc. The same flexion is followed by nearly all syncopated Aorists, h 110. 2) The Infinitives Aor. 2 of BIBcd/m and rldrj/jbc (ltj/lu), which change e into ev, o into ov ; thus ^elvai, Bovvai. Other exceptions, as Kiyftvai, Bityj/jLat, see in § 114. 8. Verbs in vv/u strictly form a special class of the verbs in fit. For the w which precedes the personal endings does not be- long to the pure verbal stem, but is a mere strengthening of the latter ; and hence these verbs can form no analogous Aor. 2, i. e. in vv ; see note 4. That is to say, certain verbs append to the stem of the verb the ending wju or wvfii ; viz. the former, vv/al, when the stem ends in a consonant or diphthong, as BeiK-vvya, oty-vvfii, Bai-vvfjui ; and the latter, vvv/m, when the stem ends in a short (or simple) vowel, as fcopi-vvvfu, tl-vvv/hi,. Before the latter 3nding o is lengthened into oj, as %a>-wvfu from %c&> ; and also by transposition, as (TTp(b-vvv/jLC for o-rope-vvvfja, h 110. n. 7. See the examples § 112. 15. Note 2. Since the ending of the 2 pew. Pass, in the ordinary conjuga- tion (rj, ov) comes from carai, earo ; and since in the conjugation in \ii this union- vowel (e) falls away; the ending of this 2 pers. Pass, in these verbs is simply crat, o~o, e. g. riOe-crai, iride-cro, tara-crai, etc. just as in the Perf. and Plup. Pass, of the ordinary conjugation. Still, a similar contraction occurs here with the stem- vowel, in some verbs more, in others less fre- quently; see marg. note on p. 184. 9. AH the other tenses are derived as in the ordinary conjuga- tion from the simple theme, and without the reduplication ; e. g. TiOrj^iL (QEfl) Fut. ^rjo-o). Nevertheless, some of the verbs which belong here have, as anomalous verbs, peculiarities in these tenses also. These however must be separated from the peculiarities of the formation in fit ; and, so far as they are common to several of these verbs, we proceed to exhibit them here in one general view. 10. The two verbs tarT7]fit and BlBco/it shorten the vowel in those Passive tenses which belong to the ordinary conjugation : ISO IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN fll. 4 106. Act. (tttjctco Perf. earrjfca Pass. Perf. eard/Jbai, Aor. icrrddrjv — BctxrcD — SeScofca — — SeSoficu — ehoOijv. The verbs tIOtj^l and irj/M (•§ 108. 1.) do the same, but only in the Aorist Pass, and in the Future which depends on it : iriOrjv (for eOiOrjv, from GEfl), TeOrjcroficu i0ek Part. Aor. 1 Pass, (from 'Eft). In the Perfect of both Act. and Pass, these two verbs change the stem-vowel into ei : redeiKa, TeOeifiai • eltca, el/mac. 11. The three verbs rlOrjfu, trjfii, SlBg)jm, have a peculiar form of the Aor. 1 in tea, e. g. edrj/ca, r]tca, ehcoKa, which must of course be distinguished from the Perfect. On the other hand, Zonifii has regularly the Aor. 1 ecrrrjaa, io-Trjad/jLijv. 12. Yerbs in vvfil or vvvfii form all these tenses quite regularly from the simple unused form of the Pres. in co. Thus Set/cvvfii from AEtlK.fl, Seltjco, ehel^O^v * Kopevvvjii from KOPEfl, /copio-co, k£ko peer fiat, etc. Note 3. In the more current dialects, no verbs in rjfxi and cofxi are to be found, which, exclusive of the reduplication, have more than two syllables J excepting perhaps aqju and some deponents in rj/xm (instead of e/xai), a/iai, and ojxai (from -dec) ; which, as also arjfxi, are to be sought under the anom- alous verbs; e. g. dlfyfxai, dvpayai, ovofxai. See the details, § 112. 15. Note 4. Instead of the Aor. 2 of verbs in v/xi, which is wanting, the syncopated Aorist of some verbs in va is employed ; e. g. edvv, from Anom. Suco. — In order to know at once, where the v is long or short, we have only to compare i'o-r^/u ; thus beiKw/jn is long like taTrjfxi; deUw/xev is short like Hcrrafiev ; Aor. 2 edvpev (see the Anom. 8voa) is long like tarrjjxev, etc. Note 5. All verbs in /n increase their anomaly still more by the circum- stance, that the Present and Imperf. in many single persons and moods, forsake the formation in jxi, and are formed in the ordinary manner from eo), da, do), i. e. like contract verbs, retaining nevertheless the reduplication; consequently as if from TI9EQ, etc. Those in v\ii are also formed from vco. Meanwhile, in order to have a full view of the whole analogy, it is necessary to inflect them throughout according to the formation in fxi; and where the other formation predominates in common usage, we shall point it out in the notes. On the whole, the formation in yn belongs to the more genuine Attic. Note 6. That the learner may form a correct judgment of the formation in /it, we premise further some general remarks. There are, in most lan- guages, two modes of appending the endings in the inflection of the verb, viz. either with or without a union-vowel; something as in English, e. g. in blessed or blessed (blest). On general principles, it is difficult to determine which of these two modes is the oldest in any language ; but in grammar it is more natural — when not opposed by a stronger analogy — to assume the longer form as the original one, and then to consider the other as Syn cope from it. Comp. also § 95. n. 15 and marg. Note 7. The syncopated form is the most natural, when without it two vowels would come together in pronunciation. While now in the greatest number of Greek verbs of this kind (verbs pure) the full form was preferred, which then passed over into the contracted form (cjuXeo-fiev, c^lXov/jlcv) ; in some others the syncopated form was retained (Se-pev). This syncope could not have had place in the endings of the ordinary conjugation, which con- sist only of a vowel sound (3e-a>, $e-ei, Se-e) ; and these are precisely the instances where another form of the ending, /it, ai, Si, has been retained; by * 107. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN jM. 181 which means, in these persons also, a consonant came to stand immediately after the .stem-vowel. This vowel too was in part lengthened; and thus arose e. g. from the root #e- the forms Srj-pi, idrj-v, Se-pev, Se-6i, etc. — The reduplication probably only served to strengthen these shorter verbs in the Present ; and thus were distinguished a shorter form (edrjv) for the Aorist, and a longer one for the Present and Imperfect, ridrjpi, £rL6r)v. — An anom- alous reduplication see in dvlvrjfit, § 114. Note 8. From this view of the subject it is evident, that the formation which at present constitutes the essential character of verbs in pi, could just as well occur in single parts of any verb ; and that therefore it is entirely unnecessary to assume an appropriate 1 pers. Present in pi, for every single tense or form in which this flexion appears. Indeed., we shall find below (§ 110. 10) forms of the Perfect, whose Plural, etc. is made in this manner; and also (§ 110. 6) second Aorists of this kind (hence called syncopated) from some verbs, which have in the Present either the ordinary form, as /3idco, bva> — A. 2 e/3iW, edvv ) or a form entirely different, as /3a/- v(£>, yiyvaxTKco — A. 2 efirjv, eyvav. Note 9. Some branches of the Doric dialect, however, actually formed the 1 pers. Pres. of many common verbs in pi instead of ; e. g. Spy pi, cpiXrjpi, instead of opdco, cpikeca; and likewise the 3 pers. in at, e. g. Kpi- vrjcri for Kpivet. Of this there are still some traces extant in the early epic writers ; e. g. a'ivrjpi in Hesiod ; and hither the Grammarians refer some Homeric forms, viz. the 3 pers. in 770-1, e. g. II. e. 6 napcpalvrja-i; II. 1. 323 n-pocpeprjo-i j* and the 2 pers. Pass, op-qai Od. £. 343, as if from Pass, op-qpai (for -apai) from Spaa, oprjpi.f § 107. Paradigms of the Conjugation in fit,. ACTI* VB. Present. set, put placet give show (from OEfl) (from 2TAI2) (from AOfl) (from hencvvco) indicative. S. rldrjpi larrjpi dldoopi delicvvpi Ti6rjs io~rrjs Sl'StOf deiKvvs TL$T](n(v) D l[(TTr)cn(v) oidioai(v) beiKVVai{v) rlderov icrrarov dldorov be'iKvvrov rlderov tararov 8it)orov t)€LKVVTOV P. riOepev tarapev t)l8opev deiKvvpev rldere to-rare dlbore deiKvvre ridedo~i(v) iardai{v) 8i86aai(v) t}eiKVVao~l(v) or or or Ti6a.cn didovai deiKvvai * It is however to be considered, that this form occurs in Homer only after a relative (offre, as, etc.) and therefore ought everywhere to be written, as is now actually done in most of the instances, with 1 subscript, r) Iot£> 8iS5> Tldfjs Tl6fj D. — 777-01/, rjrov io-rfis tOTfl didcZs 8t8<5 from deiKvCoa — 777-01/, 777-01/ (OTOV, WTOV P. cofxev, 777-6, £>ai cofxev, Tjre, coat eofiev, are, GHTl Forth ese Subjunctives see notes under III. Optative. S. TiOeirjv larairjv 8l$OlT]V TiOeirjs IcrairjS 8*8007? riOeirj toTat'77 dldoiT) D. — Tl6ei7)TOV larairjrov 8i8oir)Tov from Tl6eiT)TT]U lcrTairjT7]v 8180077-771/ P. rtdeirjfiev i, etc. ?1. rider coaav lardroaaav bidorcoaav beiKvvrooaav or riOevrav Or t(TTT(OV or bibovroiv or deiKj/vvrcov 3 Note I. 5. For rUfart instead of n&eBi, see § 18. 3. — The 2 Sing, in $1 is little used, (Homer with the stem- vowel lengthened, oidaBi, e/HrwrXi/flt,) bui instead of it the apocopated form, with the stem- vowel lengthened, viz. ridei I iarr] [ Biaov 1 dclicvv ♦ 107. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN JM. 18a Imperfect. s. ^iridrjv iridrjs iriBrj Icrrrjv Harris to-TTj U. erlflerov ICTTCITOV P. iri6irr)v irldtfiev erldere la-rdrqv ? : idel IKVVOV, €$, € W- Perf. Tedeaca Plupf. ireOelfcew €(7T7}Ka e(TTr)K6iv or elarrjKecv SeScDfca iSeBco/ceiv from AEIKI2 Note I, 7. In this Perfect and Plupf. of to-rrifiL, we have to remark : 7 1) The Augment; since contrary to the custom of other verbs (§ 82. 5), the e which stands here instead of the ordinary reduplication of the Perfect, takes the rough breathing; and the Plupf. often increases this augment by the temporal augment it. 2) The syncopated forms, e&rapev, etc. which are commonly used instead of the regular forms ; see below note II. 3. 3) The difference of signification, see notes II. 1, 2. Fut. Snfaw GTr)(T(D $(b(T<0 from Aor. 1 edrj/ca €(TT7)cra, eBco/ca AEIKn Note I, 8. This irregular Aorist in *a ($ 106. 11), in good writers, is 8 used principally in the Singular; in the Plural, especially in the 1 and 2 pers. the Attics generally preferred the Aor. 2. — The other moods and par- ticiples never occur from the form in *a; except the participle of the Mid- dle; see under the Middle form below, note I, 17. Aorist 2. Indicative. S. #IV like the ea-rrjv *eoav like the n&is Impf. ea-rrjs *eSooy Impf. D. — €0€TOV ea-rrj ^e8(0 e&rrjTOV eoorov iderrjv ia-rrjTTjv ioorrjv P. ZBciuv ea-rrjfieu ebofiev Were ea-rrjre edore Wecrav €, 8a>s, 8a, etc. 8oirjv The Subj. and Opt. are declined like the Present. Imperat. (Sen) Ses Qerov, Seroov Sere, S^ercoaav or Sevroav (TTTJOl aTTJTCO (TTrjTOV, 0~TT)T(DV arrjre, o-Tr)T(Ocrav or trrdvrav (8661) 80s 86ra> 86rOV } SoTCtiV bore, 86ra>aav or 86vra>v Note I, 12. For the Subj. and Opt. the same holds good here, that wa? said of these moods in the Present ; only that in the Opt. the longer form is here more frequent than there, SeLrjpev, 8oir]re. Also of the 3 pers. 8oirjarav, etc. several examples are found. Note I, 13. The monosyllabic Imperative, #er, 80s; etc. (§ 106. n. I, 1 throws back its accent in composition, but not further than the penult syl lable ; e. g. rrepWes, dnodos. Note I, 14. The Imperat. arrjdi, in composition sometimes suffers an apo cope, as Tvapao-Ta. So also firjdi, see the Anom. (Sauna, § 114. PASSIVE Present. Indicative. S. ride pat. larapai 8i8op.ai 8etKvvpai ridecrai } poet. 1o~racra.i dldoarai deiKvvo-ai ridrj^ rlderat lararai 8i8orai detKvvrai D. ri.6ep.e6ov icrrdpedov 8i86p.e6ov 8eiK.vvp.e6ov rl6eo~6ov !o-rao~6ov 8i8ocr6ov 8eiKVVcr6ov ri6ea6ov icrraadov 8i8oo~6ov 8eiKvvo-6ov P. n6epe6a lorrdp.e6a 8i86pe6a 8eiK.vvpe6a rl6ea/j.cu the tragic poets and later prose formed 2 pers. ovvp, see § 114. But the forms in ov and w, as irlOov, eQov, e5''5ny, edov, 'io~Ta> (Indie, and Imperat.), e5iW, were in very common use, especial' j in the Aor. 2. Mid. * 107. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN fU. 185 Subjunctive. S. TidoifJLai iarrmfiat 8t8a>fiai T10TJ Icrrfj 818$ TiOrjrai IcrTrJTai 8i8£>to.i D. Tidd>fiedov l(TTG)fJ,edov 8i8a>fi,€0ov Ti6rja-0ov l(TTr}(r6ov 8i8£)o-0ov rcdfj(r3ov ia-Trjadov 8i8a>o-0ov P. Ti6a>}ie6a l(TTa>ixeQa 8i8d>ix€0a ndrjade i(TT7](rBe 8i8a>a0e riBcovrai io-Tcovrai 8i8a>VTat from )eiKvv 8l8ov TiOiaBco, etc. lo-Ta.o~dfiedov eTideo~dov LcrTaadov e8i8oo-6ov ibtiKvvcrOov €TL0eCT0T)V IcrTa.o'Brjv i8i86o-6r)v £8eiKVV0~6r)v P. €T10€/J.€0a iCTTafieOa i8i86fxe6a £8eiK.vvii€6a erldecrOe icrraaOe i8i8oo-6e £8eiKvvo-6e eriOevTo LCTTaVTO £8L8ovro £8eiKvvvTO Perf. TeOeijjbai earafiai, BeSo/JLCu from Tedeicrai, etc. eo-Taaac, etc. 8e8oo-ai, etc. AEIKQ Plupf. ire6ei[i7)v ea-rd/jtrjv iheSofirjv Note I, 15. As to the other moods, etc. of the Perfect, it is easy to form It* the Inf. reOelaOai, 8e86ir0ai, Part. reBeiuevo?, Imtfer. Z'crTacro, etc. The Subj. and Opt. do not occur. Fut. 1 redrjao/xac Aor. 1 iredrjv (TTaOTJaofjLcu icrrddrjv SodtfcrofjLaL i&odrjv from AEIKQ 136 IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN fit,. f 107. 16 Note I, 16. In eredrjv, redr]o-op.ai, the syllable re must not be taken for a reduplication j it is the radical syllable $e, which becomes re because of the £ in the ending, according to $18. n. 2. The form is therefore for i0e- 6t)v, 3edr)o~opai, Fut. 2 and 3, also Aor. 2, are wanting.* Fut. l Aor. 1 ^rjaO/jLCU i6r)Ka.jxrjv MIDDLE. ScacrofjLai edcoKdprjv (TTrjcrojjLai, iarr}ordfjL7)v from AEIKQ 17 Note I, 17. The Aorists idrjKdp.rjv, edcoKaprjv, with their participles, be long solely to the Ionic and Doric dialects ; the other moods do not occur. The Attic prose uses, from these verbs in the Middle, only the Aor. 2. Comp. the remarks on the Aor. Act. notes 8 sq. above.— The Aor. 1 eorr]- va\u)v is, on the contrary, very much used- see notes II. Aorist 2. Indicative. 13 19 20 eOepnv (edeo-o) € etc. Sov ^eo-Tdfxrjv see m. 20. edoprjv (e&Wo) e§ov etc. Declined like the I nperf. Passive. Infin. Sea6ai Part. Sepevos Subj. Sfofiat Opt. Seiprjv Imperat. (Secro) Sov ^o-rdo-Qai ^ardpevos ^orcojuai ^o-Taiyj]v ^oracro, o~to> boaOai dopevos dapai doiprjv (docxo) 8dv wanting. Note I, 18. All these are declined throughout like the corresponding forms of the Pres. Passive. — For the Attic forms of the Opt. and Subj. (npocrOoiTO, rrpoo-Oaipai, etc.) see notes III. Note I, 19. The Infinitive retains the accent even in composition, as dno6ea6at. y dnohocrOai. The Imperative retains it in the Singular in com- position, only when the preposition has but one syllable j e.g. npoo-dov, 7rpoabov, dcpov (from irjfii) ; when the preposition has two syllables, the ac- cent is thrown back upon it, e. g. nepidov, dnodov. In the Plur. the accent always comes upon the preposition; e. g. iiriSeade, irpoboo-de, a/o-ajLi7/i/ always has this latter signification. 2. Besides this the Perfect Active, as to its signification, is here not Per- 22 feet, but Present; and the Pluperfect is consequently Imperfect; comp. § 113. 7. Thus ecrrrjKa I stand, eor^Kcoy standing, etc.* ia-TrjKeiv I stood. 3. In the Perf. and Plupf. there is commonly used in the Dual and Plural 23 of the Indicative, and throughout the other moods, a syncopated form, re- sembling the Present of verbs in fit. As this form is likewise found in other verbs, it will be illustrated below in § 110. 10 ; but in the mean time it is exhibited here, in order to render the inflection of lo-rqfii complete. Perf. Plur. ecrra/zei/, ccrrare, i(rracn{y) Du. ecrrarov Plupf. Plur. e(TTap,ev, co-rare, ea-Taaav Du. ea-rarov, k(jrdrr]v Subjunct. i(TT(o, fj?, 77, etc. Opt. iaraLrjv Imperat. earddi, eordrw, etc. Infin. ecrrdvaL Particip. (iaraas) earoos, eorcoa-a, eo-ra>y,f Gen. eoreoToy Ion. eorecbr, eacra, ea>s" ecoros. Hence it appears, that this Perfect and Pluperfect have assumed, in the greater part of their flexion, both the form and the signification of the Pres ent and Imperfect. 4. In consequence of the Present signification of this Perfect, and because 24 the Fut. arrjarco means I will place, and Fut. vTr\ j as may be seen in the Paradigms. — The Subjunct. terras, iara, which is also ad- duced, belongs consequently to the form to-raw, and is, like the Inf. larav, dvicrrav (Plut.), less correct and less usual; see § 106. n. 5. 31 4. But the tendency to render these moods conformable in their accent to the general analogy, — according to which the accentuation of the conjuga- tion in p.L does not differ from that of ordinary barytone verbs, — has caused in the Passive several deviations, which in some verbs were more, in others less usual. In the two verbs Tidrjfti and irjpi (§ 108), the deviations are for the most part peculiar to the Attics, and consist in this, viz. that the stem-vowel is dropped, and then the endings of both moods are assumed from the ordinary conjugation ; while the accent, when possible, is thrown back ; so that these forms appear just as if derived from a common barytone verb. In the Subjunctive indeed, the accent constitutes the only distinction, e. g. rtddifiai instead of rtda>p.ai Aor. 2. Mid. npoo-Qrjrai, nporjrai, etc. But in the Optative the diphthong ot is further assumed, e. g. riOoLro, irepidoivro, irpooio-Qe. Comp. KdOrjixai under r)p,at. ("§ 108. II. 3) ; and p.ep,vr]p,ai under the Anom. pufivrjaKco. 32 5. From la rap. at the Optative alone assumes this accentuation, retain- ing its usual diphthong, and is thus used by all writers ; e. g. Icrraio, 'larairo, taraicrSe, taraivro. But the Subjunctive is always icrra>p.ai i avvicrrrjrai, etc. From oioop,ai however we find these moods sometimes accented as m no. 4, which also is regarded as Attic : Subj. bibarai Opt. aivoooivro.* In all other verbs which conform to lo-rapai and bidop.ai, these moods al ways have the accent on the antepenult j e. g. dvv&p-ai, dvvairo, ouairo, eVi arryrai, from dvpap,ai, ovivap.ai, eirlarap-ai (see in § 114) J ovoiro from Anom ovop-at with radical o. We find too in verbs in ap.ai, examples of transition to the form -oip.j\v \ see the Anom. p.dpvap.ai and Kpep.ap.at. * Our knowledge of this supposed Atticism, (see Fischer ad Weller. II. p. 469 sq. and espec. Gottling Ace. p. 79, 81-85,) is still very imperfect and uncertain , and more accurate investigation has yet to determine and rectify much in the above specifications. $ 107. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. VERBS IN fM. 189 6. Verbs in vfxi commonly form both these moods from the theme in vco, 33 as 8etKvvr]s, dencvvoi/jti. Still there are some examples, which shew that they could be formed here after the analogy of other verbs in /lu, by using simply long v instead of the usual mixed vowel or diphthong; e. g. Opt. dalvvro II. a>. 665 ; ixr^yvvro Plat. Phsed. extr. Subj. 3 Sing. aKedavvvcri ib. p. 77. d, like the old form tvtttvoi, ridfjcri. § 103. m. 37.* IV. Dialects. 1 . Many of the variations of the dialects in the ordinary conjugation, are 34 also common to verbs in fit ; as the iterative form in ctkov, which in these verbs always has the short radical vowel before this ending, e. g. Impf. TldecTKOV, didoCTKOV, deiKWCTKOV Aor. 2 (rrdaKov, docricov. Further the Infinitives ri6e\iev, iaTa.iJ.ev, ia-Tafievat (for riOevai, itrrdvatj, Qefiev, Se/xevai, dofievat (for Selvai, dovvai), everywhere with a short stem- vowel ; but with a long vowel in the Aor. 2 of those verbs which always retain the long vowel in this tense, as crTrjfiev, crTrjfievai, dv/iev, yvdifievai, etc. Also the Ionic ending of the 3 Plur. in arai, aro) e. g. rtQearai for riQevrai, idtdoaro, etc. — The Dorics of course, in those verbs whose stem- vowel is a, every- where insert their long a instead of rj ; e. g. i'crra/u, crravat. 2. For the sake of the metre the epic poets employ the Inf. ri6r]\ievai, 35 Part. Pass. Ti6r};xevos ; and didovvat instead of didovat. They sometimes re- tain the reduplication in forms where it is not customary, e. g. Fut. didacrco instead of dcbaco. 3. The Ionics, in verbs in r\\it from da>, change a before a vowel into e ; 36 e. g. Icrreacn for io-rdacrt comm. icrraoi. Comp. § 105. n. 8. — Hence they have in the 3 Plur. Pass, icrrearat (instead of to-raarcu) for torravrai- see n. 1 above. 4. The Ionic dropping of the cr in the endings crat and ao (§ 103. m. 17) 37 appears here less frequently; Herodot. eViVreat (for -acu) from iiricrrafiat, iirlcTTaaaf Horn. B-eo for Secro, fidpvao for fidpvacro, da two for edaivvcro. 5. The Dorics have n for en ; in the Sing. tl6t]ti for ridrjcri ; and in the 38 Plural, (the v being also restored., § 103. m. 28,) TtBevrt, icrravTi, dtdovrt, for -eicrt, acrt, overt. 6. The 3 Plur. of the Imperf. and Aor. 2 Act. in crav is made by the 39 Dorics and the epic writers a syllable shorter, and ends simply in v with the preceding short or shortened stem- vowel ; e. g. ertdev for irideaav ecpctv for ecpacrav (see (prjpi § 109) ecrTav (crrdv), fidv, for earrjcrav, eftrjaav edov, edvv, for edocrav, edvcrav. 7. For the 1 Sing. Imperf. iriQrfv, the Ionics say eridea. 40 8. The Ionic resolution of the Subjunctive-ending (§ 103. m. 38) here al- ways causes the stem- vowel to reappear ; yet only according to these rules : * a) Verbs whose stem- vowel is e or a, adopt here e as the stem- vowel 41 (see m. 36 above) ; thus rtdeco, rider]?, TiderjTe, Tidecocri, riQicofiai, etc. for riOco, fjs, etc. cofiai, etc. — and Seco, Bens, Seconal, etc. for &a>, Bfj?, etc. to- re co, iareys, areco, dreys, crrecofiev, etc. for to-rco, crrco, crrf}?, etc. b) Verbs whose original stem- vowel is o, take only co ; thus did coco, dcoco, 42 days, dcby, etc. for didcb, dm, dcps, dco } etc. * See below in § 110. 6, (pvrjv; and also ib. 7, , 3-eiys, &€i<£>p.ev, etc. for #a>, etc. and so also crre/co for orco. But where the original vowel of contraction is 77, only the doubling of the sound (7777) can have place, § 105. m. 38. This occurs in those verbs whose stem- vowel is a, usual- ly; and for crrto, or^r, 0-777, e ^ c - from r icrTT]fj.i, we accordingly find areico, o-tt)vs, o-tt]t]. In those with the stem- vowel e the usage is variable; and we find both Selys, Seiy, SeirjTe, and ^for, #7777, etc.* 14 b) They shorten the peculiar vowel of the Subjunctive (§ 103. m. 39) . but for the most part only where the stem- vowel is prolonged as above ; thus Seiofiai, o-reio/iev, for ^eco/xat, o-recD/xei/ CTTT)€TOV for ((TTTJTOv) (TTTJTJTOV ' dd>0[l€V fOY 8a>COfJ.ev. *5 10. Since the epic writers make the 3 Sing, in all Subjunctives in a-i (§ 103. m. 37), some forms arise here which must be carefully distinguished both from the Indicative, and from the 3 pers. Plur. e. g. IcrTJjcri for to-777, d&ai for 8g>. 16 11. The Optative is never resolved • except that the Ionics say SeoLfx-qv for Setprjv, precisely as if from GEO. Hdot. 1. 53. § 108. Verbs in fit from 'Eft, 'Eft, 'J/2. Among the anomalous verbs in fit are several short ones, some of which have f Efl for their root, and others 'Efl and '1/2. These are very liable to be confounded ; especially in composition, where the breathing in many cases disappears. Thus irpocreivai can come from both ehai and elvat, while in afyelvai and aireZvai the breathing is distinguished ; though not even here in Ionic writers, who in such words omit the aspirate. The theme 'Efl has three principal significations : 1) to send, 2) to set, place, 3) to clothe; Efl has the signification to be; and '1/2, to go. I. LTjpi, send, cast; from 'Efl. 1. This verb may be compared throughout with rldrj/u, from which it deviates very little. The c stands instead of the redupli- cation (§ 106. 6) ; in the Attic dialect it is long. When a form begins with the short radical e, it is susceptible of the temporal augment, and e passes over into ei, k 84. 2. Note. An actual comparison with the form tiBrfju is here presupposed. It may also be remarked, that the simple verb trjfii occurs but seldom ; and that the greater part of the forms here given are found only in the compounds. * The ancient Grammarians themselves are not uniform on this point, and we find both modes of orthography in the best editions ; and besides these a third, which drops the i subscript in the 2 and 3 person (Steirjs, 3-eiTj), and thus makes them pre- cisely like the Optative. Still, this last appears to be the least correct form ; and seems to be founded solely on the supposition, that the i has passed over to the pre- ceding vowel. &€77, &et77. See § 103. m. 38. $ 108. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. irjfll. 191 Active. Pres. Sing, 177/zi trjs 1770-1(1/) Dual — terov 'Utov Plur. i€fxev tere lacri or ielo~i(v) the former contracted from ieaai, comp. nSeao-i. Subj. l£> .Opt. le'irpt Imper. (U61) lei, ierco, etc. Inf. levai (comp. dcpievai) Part, tetr, ielaa, lev. Impf . S. irju and tow l^s and teis 177 and tei D. — 'Utov lerqv P. tepev tere Uo-av. The form low is regular from C IEQ, $ 106. n. 5. § 107. m. 6. Comp. deploy or T)(plow, § 86. n. 2 ; 3 Plur. rjcplea-av. Perf. elita* Plupf. etneiv Fut. 770-0) Aor. 1 r}K.a § 106. 11, Ion. erjKa. Aor. 2 Sing, not used ; for it the Aor. 1 . D. €TOV €TT]V P. epev ere ecrav commonly with the augment : elpev, elre, elaav, comp. nadetpev, dvelre d(pelaav.'f Subj. a, ^r, etc. Opt. etrjv, Plur. elp.ev : elre, elev, for eti]p,ev, etc. Imper. es, erco Inf. elvai Part, etr, eura, ev. Compounds: d(pelvai, d(pa>, a(pe?> dcpets, etc. Opt. Plur. dvelpev, etc. Passive and Middle ; comp. ti%z». Pres. tepai, teaai, terai, etc. S>W&/. la>pai Opt. leiprjv, etc. Perf. eipai, etc. [peOeipai, peQeladai, p.eo'BeLo-dai, etc.) Plupf. eifiTji/, efo-o, etc. comp. Aor. 2 Mid. Aor. 1 Pass. C$771/, comm. with the augment etdrjv, e. g. d(peWrjv. Part. d, dcpeca for Subj. d 3 eKadr/ro or Kadrjarro'f Inf. KadrjcrBaL^ Part. KaOrjfievos^ Imp. KaOrjcro Subj. Kadoopai, 77, rjraCy etc. Opt. K.aQo'i\ir\v, 3 Ka6oiTO.% Later writers employ also for the 2 pers. the form Kadn, and in the Imperat. Kadov, for mdrjcrai, mdrjero. — The Ionics in their manner have r instead of 3-; as Karrj/jLaL, 3 PL Karearai, etc. 4. All the defective parts are supplied from egecrdai or t^ecrOai, and its compounds with Kara. § 114, i£a>. III. evvvfii, Ion. elvvfAi, I clothe. This verb is inflected like heUvvfii, and has its defective parts from the theme c E/2. Comp. § 106. 8, 12. § 112. 15. Except in composition, this verb is only poetical. Besides the Pres. and Impf. the following forms occur : Fut. ecrco, ecraco, Aor. ecrcra, Inf. ecrai, ecrcrai, Mid. ecrcrd\xr)v Perf. Pass, elpai, elaai, elrai, etc. hence 3 PL Plupf. etaro II. cr. 596, — and from a form ecrfiai, Plupf. 2 Pers. eacro, 3 pers. ecrro. Also with the syllabic augment, Aor. eecraaro, Plupf. eecrro. In prose the compound dfic\>ievvvpi is usual : * The present signification occasions also a present accentuation in the Pai'ticiple, but not in the Infinitive; as may be seen in the compound /ca077 Attic dfxcjiiS) Aor. 1 r)[x(pieca, dpcpieacu. Perf. Pass. r)[x(pieafxai, rj^cpieaai, rjfKplearaiy etc. In/". r)fjL(piea6ai. Mid. ifo cZoifAe oneself, Fut. diicpieaofxai, Xen. Plato. Probably also Aor. 1 ^/^ecra/i?^, since Xenophon (Cyr. 6. 4. 6) has from the compound in im the Inf. eitikaaaBai, in like manner without elision of the i. That the vowel of the preposition is commonly not elided (emei- /xeVor Horn. eWcrrai Hdot. 1. 47), is to be explained from § 6. n. 3. IY. etyLtt I am; from \E/2. 1. The usual flexion of el/it is the following : Present S. elfii e?y. comm. ei iariv, IcttI (eari 3 below) D. iv (G. oVror), ovaa, ov Subj. o), fjS, rj' rjrov, rjTov aifxev, rjre, wai(v) Opt. e'lrjv, ewjff, e'Lr) • eirjTOV, elrjrqv or e'irrjv e'lrjfiev or elfxev, eujre, or etre, e'irjaav comm. eUv^ Imp. 10-04, f eVrco-f D. earov, ecrrcov P. eore, earaaav or eoTCOi'.t Imperf. S. ^v ^or^a$ __ i)v D. — ^rov or rjarov fjrqv Or rjarrjv P. ^juw ^re or ^crre ^crav The Fut. is formed as Middle : e&ofial 2 ear] or eaei 3 earai, old and epic eaerai Inf. eaeadai, etc. Verbal Adjectives (Neut.) eareov {avveareov) etc. 2. There is further an Imperf. from the Middle, Impf. 1 Sing. rj/jLrjv, which is equivalent to that of the Active, but less frequent in earlier writers. A form of the 3 Plur. e'iaro for rjuro Od. v. 106, is recognized by the ancient Grammarians, but is doubtful ; see under r)[xai, and the Ausf.. Sprachl. — The Dorics and epic writers have the 2 Sing. Imperat. eao, e'aao 3. The whole Present elfii etc. is enclitic; but actually takes the inclina tion, only when it is merely the logical copula, connecting the subject and its predicate ; whenever it signifies actual existence, it retains the tone. The 3 Sing, especially, then takes the tone on the first syllable; e. g. $ebs eariv eari \ioi doiikos; eariv ol (but Plur. elalv ol § 150. m. 21). Further, eariv always stands after the unaccented particles <»r, ovk, el, and after tovto and dX\d when these words have an apostrophe : ovk eari, tovt eariv. Elsewhere however, when the inclination is only hindered (§ 14. 6), the tone remains on the final syllable; e. g. Xo'yoy eari, dyado? S* eariv, eofiev yap. — The 2 pers. el or eh is never inclined, except in the dialect-form iaai (4), and sometimes eh, c. g. Od. 6\ 371. 4. In no verb are the dialects so various and multiplied as in this. We adduce here, for the most part, only such as do not follow of course from the general principles stated in § 103. Present. Doric, S. ififil, iaai, evri, which last stands likewise for the 3 Plur. elai. — Ionic 2 Sing, also earai, 1 Plur. elfxev, 3 Plur. edai{v). — A poetical form is epev for la\iev. =* The particle ehv be it so, well, seems to have come from the 3 Sing, e^ ; for the Sing, is requisite, whether we supply tovto or ravra. t The 2 pers. 'Ivdi is not to be confounded with XaQi know, see otda § 109. — The 3 pers. Sing, has also a later form ^tb; and the 3 Plur. is in Plato (Legg. p. 879) once uvtoju, Ion. 46vtccv. t In latpr writers ijs. Comp. § 103. m. 36. N 194 IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. elflt, h 108. Imperf. Ion. sometimes rja and ea, 2 e'as, 3 rje or rjev, 2 PL eare, etc. and sometimes eov (1 pers. in Horn.) and ecrKov, from the theme 'EG. — From the form ea comes the Attic form of the 1 pers. rj for rju. For the 3 Sing rjv the epic writers have also the doubled sound rjrjv and erjv* The Dorics have for the same, by a peculiar anomaly, r)s) for the 1 Plur. Tjp.ev and rjp.es ) and for the 3 Plur. rjaav the Ion. and Dor. is eVai/.f — Also 2 Sing, in Horn, erjada. Infin. Ancient and Ionic ep,ev, ep.evai, ep.p.ev, ep.p.evai ; Dor. rjp,ev and rjp.es (like 1 Plur. Impf.j, elpep and et/xef. Finally, the Ionics form from the theme 'EG the Part. ea>v with the accent on the final syllable, Subj. eco, Opt. eoifii. 5. In composition the preposition, in all cases not contrary to the general rules (§ 103. m. 1), takes the accent upon itself.: e. g. ndpeipa, 2 pers. jrapei. But in 7raprjv on account of the augment, TtapearaL on account of the syn- cope, irapelvai (§ 103. m. 6), Subj. 7rapa>, fjs, fj, etc. and Opt. 3 PL naptiev on account of the formation in fit ($ 107. m. 28), the accent remains upon the verb. The participle also retains the tone, napcov. — For irdpa, evi, etc. in- stead of Tzdpecm, eveori, etc. see § 117. 3. Y. el /xl I go; from 'Ii2. 1. The radical sound of this verb is i, which when lengthened passeis over into ei. With this change are connected many anomalies, both of form and of signification. The following are the forms in use. Present S. elp.i eh comm. el (Horn, elada) elai{v) D. — 'ltov 'ltop P. 'Ifxev 'ire 'Lacri{v) Inf. livai Part, lav, lovaa, Uv, G. Iovtos, always with the accent on the ending, as in other verbs the Part. Aorist. Subj. ico Opt. loip.i or lolrjv Imperat. Wi (in composition el, as irpoaei, e£ei), 'irco etc. 3 PL 'ircoaav or loVT(£>V. Imperf. S. yew, Ion. fj'ia, Att. ya fieis or TJeicrda r/ei or rjeiv,% Ion. rj'ie or rj'lev P. r\eip.ev or fip.ev jjeire or fire jjeaav, Ion. rfiarav, Horn, and Att. rjcrav The Dual is formed after the analogy of the 2 pers. Plural. Verbal Adj. Ireos, Iros, or Irrjreos, Ittjtos. A Middle is also adduced, with the signif. to hasten, hasten away; of which however only the Pres. and Impf. are in use : 'Lep.ai, lep-rjv, Imper. 'iecro. But the Middle of 177/u also, (i. e. Tep,at i. q. 6pp.dco, to put oneself in motion, to hurry, to rush,) is identical with these forms in signification ; and this too accords far better with irjp,i. As now the whole matter depends on merely exchanging the smooth breathing for the rough, and inasmuch as the former ('Ujxai) is feebly supported by ancient testimony, it is usual in * In U. A. 762 erjv stands for the first person, but is doubtful ; see the Ausf. Sprachl. p. 530, marg. t That ?iu is sometimes adduced as being used for -Tjcrai/, rests solely on some poetical passages, where i\v stands with the Plural, but so that it always precedes the subject, as Hes. h. 321 rrjs 8' i\v rpe?s Ke avaicevao-dpevos; a)? dird^iDv v pas eh ttjv 'EAAdSa, ko.1 avros djriaiv eVi rr\v epavrov dpxrjv. — But in most instances, the other moods and the par- ticiple appear in a present sense, and so stand for the same moods of epxo pai> to which they are commonly preferred because of their shortness. 7. The learner must take care not to be misled by the anomalous accent on ld>v, so as to regard this participle as an Aorist. The same anomaly appears in the Ion. eoov from dpi, and in kkov from the Anom. ki'co.J * Single syncopated forms, which follow the same analogy in other verbs (§ 106. n. 8), are the Plur. of the Perf. Se'Sict, and the Aor. 2 Mid. ifyeipijv; see the Anom. deTcrai, (pOla. t This usage is by no means limited to the Attics ; see e. g. Hdot. 3. 72 irapl- {iev. Horn. II. k. 450. In Homer however there are some examples of this vert> as Present, e. g. Od. k. 191 ; while among the Attics, at least in prose, there are no genuine examples ; for all those are not genuine, where the Fut. can indeed be expressed by the Present in English, but the sense nevertheless undeniably points to the Future ; e. g. I go home or am now going home, instead of I will or am about to go home. t The form \div can indeed be taken as preterite in such connections as e. g. II. o. 179 oucaS' ikv . . . N.vp/j.ib'Svecro-iv avacrffe. Bat we shall hereafter shew (§ 144. n. 3), that other Presents stand in the same manner. The real Part. Aor. is i\9d>v ; see the Anom. epxopai. 196 IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. elfU. § 108. 8. Instead of the Imperfect above given, the ancient Grammarians have another, viz. eh, eh, el, Ipev, ire, 'icrav ; and likewise another Aor. 2, 'iov,'ies, etc. to which they erroneously refer the Part. lu>v on account of its accent. All that is found of these forms belongs solely to the epic language ; and varies in signification, like other old preterites, between the Imperfect and Aorist. But except the third persons, te or 'Lev, 'Lttjv, Icrav, there is nothing to be found. * From these the Grammarians, and they alone, have supplied the other forms by analogy ; for eh has the same rela- tion to eijii and 'icrav, as iri6r]v to ri6r]pi and endecrav. 9. From these two simple preterite forms, however, arose in actual usage two fuller forms; viz. from 'Lov, in the epic writers, fj'iov or rj ov; and from eh, in the common language, the fjeiv given above. This latter form passed over at the same time into its Ionic shape, rj'ia or fja; just as in Tidrjfii the Ion. eriBea comes from eTiOrjv, and in elpi am the Ion. r\a from rjv; except that here this rj'ia, or §a, remained in use in the Attic language along with rjeiv. The ancient Grammarians very erroneously brought forward this rj'ia, r)a, as Perfect, and yew as the corresponding Pluperfect; although this is entirely contradicted by the signification, and although no further forms from rj'ia occur which are at all characteristic of the Perfect, neither in acrt, -evai, nor Part, coy.f This Impf. r)a, rjeis, etc. seems principally to have remained in use, in order to take the place of the Impf. r)pxppr]v from epypp.ai, which was less used because of its ambiguity ) it being also the Impf. of apxopcu.% * When in the editions of prose writers, airip-ev, irpocncrav, etc. are occasionally found as Imperfect, such cases are either false readings, as fyev for fp.ev : or the corrupted language of later writers. t With this yew and ij'iov, as protracted forms from eh and Xov, compare the form iieiSeiv for ijdeiv or e'tSeiv, in § 109 under 6!8a. The orthography yew with i sub- script was introduced only by the Grammarians, on account of this erroneous der- ivation from tfia. The protraction itself arose simply from an effort to render the augment audible, without obscuring the sound of ei. The forms feijxev, feire, fecrav, however, which really occur, have without doubt crept into use from the seeming analogy of the Pluperfect; since at first only rjipev, ijire, rfierav, were used ; which last form (ri'icrav) has actually been preserved in the Ionic dialect; see in 1 above. X It is proper to bring forward here some examples, to shew this use of fa as an Imperfect. Plato Rep. 5 init. na\ iyca jxev fa ras i (olba) : especially since Homer makes also ielaaro, and does not elide the vowel of the preposition; as Karaela-aro went down. Comp. etdco in § 114. § 109. The irregular Verbs (jyrjfjbl, /celiac, 618a. There remain the following verbs, which require to be separate- ly exhibited : I. (jyrjfil I say ; from &AI2. Pres. S. D. Tl s (pUTOV 4>r](ri(v) Opt. (fiairjv (pare (pao-[(v) Imperat. . i'cprjv e'cpajxev ecprjs comm. CCpUTOV ecpare Aor. ecprjaOa 1 ecprjaa. icpdrrju ecpaaav poet. e< The MID. cpdarBat, (pdfievos; icpdfujv {Imperat. cpdo for cfidcro in Homer), is also used; and in the PASS, some forms of the Perfect are found, as 7T€(f)d(rda) be it said, Trecpaafievos. Verbal Adjectives : (pareos, cparos. 1. The forms of the Pres. Indie, except (fry?, are enclitic (§ 14. 2), with anomalous accent and t subscript. — The compounds are accented like dfiej/os denying, since oil pruju is just the opposite of r]v t e'077 [(j)rjv, , etc. Subj. Keoafiai, Kerj, etc. Opt. Keoifxrjv Impf. eKeifirjv, eKeicro, e/ceiro, etc. Fut. Keiaropai Compound, KaraKeipai, KaraKeicro (KaraKeiai Hymn. Merc. 254), etc. but Infin. KaraKelcrBai.^ 1. To the theme KEQ belong further among the Ionics Ketrai, Keovrai, Kzeadcu. Other Ionic forms are Keiarai, Kearai, for Kelvrai, and the iterative KZCTKeTO. 2. The Homeric Active form Keiio, /ceco, has the signification of the Future, I will lie down; comp. S^co under Anom. AA- no. 4. § 114. 3. According to some Grammarians, this verb had no Subjunctive form; nence we find here and there Keipai, Kelrai, in the Subjunct. construction; e. g. Sia/cei/xat Plat. Phaed. p. 84. e. So also Kelrai in Homer, where others read Krjrai, Od. /3. 102. 4. Besides its simple signification, this verb must also be regarded as a Perfect Passive of riOrpxi. Hence all its compounds correspond in their sig- nification to the compounds of ridrjiii; e. g. dvaTi$rj[xi I consecrate, avaKtifiai T am or have been consecrated. f III. olSa I know ; from eiBeo. 1. The old verb ei'Sco has for its proper signification, to see; and only some of its tenses have the signification to knoiv. No form which has the one signification, occurs in the other. But as the parts which belong to the signification to know, have many other anomalies, it will be useful to ex- hibit them here separately. The forms which signify to see, are given under e'looi and 6pda>, § 114. 2. OtSa is strictly the Perfect 2 from etSo, i. e. I have seen, perceived; like eoiKa, Ion. olm, from etW It acquires however, in the signification to know, the power of the Present; and consequently the Pluperf. that of the Im- perfect; see below § 113. 7. Of the regular flexion of olba, the 2 pers. albas, and the whole Plural o'ibafiev, o'ibare, o'ibaai, are rarely found in Attic writers. In place of them are used syncopated forms, which will be ex plained below. * Comp. ^ifxeuos, Ko.Qr)crQai, in § 10S. II. t The difference between this and the real Perf. Pass, of r'iQr\iu consists merely in the circumstance, that Ke?/j.cu denotes a continued passive state or situation ; and therefore does not so commonly as redeifiai take after it the subject of the Active with vtt6 or irpSs; e. g. gvvt'lQt](ji.i I put together. crvvTtQenai vn avrov it is put to- gether by him ; ffvyseirai it is put together, it is composed or consists of. $ 109. IRREGULAR CONJUGATION. olSd. 199 Pres. S, oI8a ola0a% oWe(v) D. — t&rov 'iarov P. lcrp.ev tore 'icrd(ri(v) Inf. eldevcu Part. eio\»y, via, 6s Imper. io-#i,f icrra>. etc. Opt. eldeirjv Imperfect, S. #cW Att. §8rj, I knew comp. § 103. f/Sety and fideiada, Att. #oV and jjdrjo-Ba m. 12. $§ei Att. #8e«/ and rj8r] P. ydei/jLev or rjafiev f/deire or r/crre TJdeaav or 770-az/ Dual after the analogy of the 2 Plur. Future eio-o/zcu, more rarely eto^o-co, J sAa?Z Anow, experience, etc. Verbal Adj. Neut. lo-reov. The Aorist and the real Perfect are supplied from ytyyoooTca). 3. The Ionics and Dorics have to^iet- for to-pev; the epic writers '18/ievat and tSjuei/ for ddevai ; and for the Pluperf. rfdeiv, these latter have a length- ened form, e. g. 2 ^«d«r, qeifyy, 3 $e£d«, rjeiSrj, (II. x- 280. Od. i. 206. Apollon. 2. 822,) and Herodotus has rjeide, with shortened ending, 1. 45. See the first marg. note to § 108. V. 9. — Instead of ySeifxev, jjdeire, modern critics for the sake of the metre read rjdefxev, jjdere, in Soph. OT. 1232. Eurip. Bacch. 1345. — Instead of fjaav Homer has, by a sort of aphseresis, la-av, Od. 8. 772. 4. It was formerly customary in grammar to introduce here a peculiai verb to which all the above forms beginning with i were referred, and explained by syncope ; while the forms olda, elbevai, etc. were given only in the anom- alous Catalogue under ei'Sco. There is indeed actually extant in the Doric dialect a verb Xcrafu, Xarjs, 'icrari, 'lo-a/iev, Part, tcras (Dat. laavri Pindar) j but even if it be assumed that all those forms really come from this verb, it is nevertheless certain, that usage has mingled the forms of the two themes ; and that in the earliest, as well as in the latest periods, the current language employed throughout ol8a in the Sing, and Xct/jlcv in the Plural. So fai therefore as usage is concerned, the above mixed paradigm is the only cor- rect one. 5. Meanwhile, whoever observes more accurately the analogy which prevails in the anomalies of Greek usage, will easily perceive, that those forms, after all, really belong to olda or e'ldco. For in the first place, the Ion. 'ihjjLev and the Inf. tdfievai, belong manifestly to et'Sco, and not to larrjpi. And secondly, we have for this conclusion the most striking analogy, not only in the language generally, which so easily causes the forms of the Perfect to pass over by syncope into the forms of the conjugation in pi (§ 110. 9 sq.) but also in this very verb itself; for just as the Pluperf. forms go-pep, flare, have arisen by this syncope from rjheipev, ydeire; so also the forms 'lo-fjL€p, 'tare, from o'i.8ap,€i/, o'idare; see the marg. note below. To these forms was then joined the Imperat. 'icrdi, just as KenpaxQi, avax^h to similar syncopated forms (§ 110. 9) ; and also the 3 PI. 'icracn (see the marg. note), from which the collateral form lo-qpi seems first to have been derived .% * Syncopated for oiZaaQa, o'ld-aQa; see § 103. ra. 36. — A manifestly erroneous, but yet old and Attic form is olffdas; see Piers, ad Mcer. 283. t Not to be confounded with '{&0i from dpi. t This question is entirely decided by some very clear analogies, which will be given in § 110. 9 ; especially iire-KiQixev and itKrrjv. Still, here is the proper place to take a view of the analogy of all the forms wliich are derived from eouca and olSa. Just as from 7ret0« we find TriiroiOa, so also from efrcw and elfSw come 200 VERBS. SYNCOPE AND METATHESIS. § 110. 6. The sound et instead of oi in the other moods from olba, accords with the analogy of eoiica (Ion. oha) Part, cIkcos • see the Anom. ei/cco, and see the preceding marg. note. — Here too a transition into the formation in fit is not to be mistaken ; for while the participle eiSco? follows the common analogy, the Subjunctive and Optative take the terminations of the conjugation in au, viz. elda> (with circumflex), eldeirjv. Nevertheless, the epic writers could disregard this accent and shorten the long vowel of this Subjunctive, just as well as in other Subjunctives; e. g. ha e'ldofxev for eldcofiev. § 103. m. 39. — Further, the stem- vowel was here sometimes shortened into i ; e.g. Subj. Idea, Part. I8v?a Homer. * General View of the Anomaly of the Verb. § 110. Syncope and Metathesis. 1. In all languages, every thing which deviates from the great mass of regular forms, follows even in this deviation a certain analogy or regularity, more or less clear according to circum- stances. In order not to render the general view of the regular verb too complex and difficult, these minor analogies are in Grammar usually brought together and regarded as the Anomaly of the Verb. Zoina, and strictly speaking eoiSa, because the e takes the place of a reduplication (§ 84. n. 6). A shorter form oiKa, oida was adopted in the first verb in the Ionie dialect, and in the second in the common language. But from the full forms ZoiKa, ZoiSa, arose likewise, by shortening the oi into i and by contraction, (consequently as if from eiKa, elSa,) the forms Part. eiKCtis, dSdos together with the moods et8<£, elSe'njv, for which see no. 6 above. A proof, how the usage of language sometimes retains several synonymous forms at once, and sometimes only one, is here afforded even by the written language ; for the Part, of Zoitca occurs in all the three forms iouccos, eiK^s, oIk&s, while that of olda is found only in one, eld 6s. — The Pluperf. required a new augment; Zouca took it commonly after the analogy of eoprdfa, ed>pTa(ov, viz. icpKeiv; sometimes also regularly; except that oi was shortened into i, as in the Pass, form 3 Sing. Pluperf. %ikto, without augm. Z'Ckto, from Perf. Ziyf.iai, Pluperf. ri'Cyixriv. In the same manner arose from Zo3a the Pluperf. {rj'fieiv) ijdsiv. To all this was superadded the syncope, by means of which, as we shall see below in § 110. 9, was made from ZoiKa (with a difference of vowel-sound) the forms 1 Plur. Perf. Zoiy/xet/, 3 Dual Pluperf. iticTijv, and from 6l8a (with the same difference) the forms (oTd-ff6a) oTtrda, also Xdjiev and itr\xzv, iWe, but in the Pluperf. from rjSeiv ycr/xtv, f)(TTe, rjcrav. From this ycrav (for rj§-(Tav) the Homeric 19A) ecpdaKa, Flit. cpdr)crop,ai — ecpdrjv -rjfiev, (p#co, (fidairjv, (fi8r}> vai, cpdds. cr^evvvyn (2BE) ecrftrjua — eafirjv -rjp-ev, or^eirjv, a(3r)vai. dXicrKopai (\AAO) idXcona — idXcov -cofiev, aXco cos co, aXoirjv, aXcovai } dXovs. yiyvcouKco (rNO) eyvcoKa — eyvcov -co/xev, yvS> 7 yvoirjv, yvcoBi, yvcovai, y^cu?, fiioco, (BefilcoKa — efticov -cofxev, /3ta>, fiicorjv, (Bicovai, (Siovs. 8vco, dedvKa — edvv -vfitv, bvco, dvrjv, dvdi 7 bvvai, dvs. cfivco, necfivKa — ecpvv -vfiev, (pvco, cpvrjv, (pvvai, (pvs. Single rare forms of such Aorists are also found in the anom. verbs SdXXco, (3ij3pcocrK.co, yrjpdcrKco, tcXdco, ovrdco, nXeco, ttt^ctctco ) see in § 114. — Varying from this analogy by its short vowel is the poetic (epic and tragic) Aorist of Kreivco, eKro.Ka — (eKrctv) 3 Sing, e/cra, Inf. KTap-tv, Krds ', see in § 114. Note 1. Here the following particulars are to he noted : 1) For the Subj. and Opt. bvco, bv-qv, cpvco, cpvrjv (for cpvirjv), compare § 107. m. 33 3 also the instances which occur under dvco and cpvco § 114. 2) In ebpdv (bebpaita) the long a (Aristoph. bevpo 6° av ovk aTredpapev) ap pears instead of rj, because preceded by p ; comp. also yqpdvai in yrjpd- LTK.CO § 114. 3) The Aorist eirXcov (see nXeco § 114) is the only one which retains the co in the Participle ; and this because it is formed from ttXcoco, not TrXo'co ; nXcos (e7mrXcos II. £. 291), which thus probably either had in the Gen. covtos (for ovs ovros), or was indeclinable. 4) In the Opt. the co for oi is found in the common language only in ifiicov, fiicprjv, to distinguish it from fiwirjv Opt. Pres. In the early poets also ill a.Xcpr)V : yvcor\v. 5) The apocopated 3 Plur. in v instead of crav has here also (as in ea-rrjv) the vowel before the v always short; e. g. (3dv, Hbpav, § 107. m. 39. Note 2. We have seen above (§§ 106, 107) that the Imperative-ending Si belongs to the syncopated formation, i. e. is annexed immediately to the root; hence the Imperative of the above Aorists, so far as it occurs, is everywhere so formed; as firjdi, bpddi, yvcodi, bvdi, PI. /3^re, Sure, etc. Con- sequently the following four Imperatives in Si and in the s which stands for it (§ 106. 4. and n. 1) are to be reckoned under the Aorist forms above exhibited : 7rZ#t, KXvdij (rye?, cppes. See in tt'ivco, kXvco. t'xco, (ppew, § 114. ? L10. VERBS. SYNCOPE AND METATHESIS. 203 7. With these Aorists Active is also connected a corresponding Passive Aorist form in firjv, o~o, to, etc. which consequently cor* responds to the Aor. 2 Mid. of the regular formation. It must however be noted : 1) That the far greater number of examples of this form have not the signification of the Middle, but are whol- ly Passive ; 2) That in respect to the vowel they conform to the Perfect Passive ; 3) That they belong only to the earlier poetical language. Some of these forms moreover really belong as Pas- sives to some of the Aorists Act. above quoted, viz. e[3Xr)p.r]v Opt. ^Xeiprjv — from ejSXrjv (£-vp(3Xr)Tr)v), see /3aXXco § 114. eKra.iJ.rjv, KracrOaL, Krdpevos — from e/crav, see Kreivai § 114. See too the forms o-vyyvolro. ovrdpevos^ under ytyi/axr/cco, ovrdco ; and see in reference to the Imperat. kXv6i above cited, the old participle tcXvpevo?. It follows consequently, that all such forms, which exhibit the same analogy, even where no Aorist Active occurs, are to be re- garded in the same manner ; e. g. 7TVe(0, 7T€7TVV[Xai (e7FVV[Jt.r}v) apTTVVTO Xvco, XeXvpai — Xv fxrjv, Xvto or Xvto II. (p. 80. (pOia, ecpdlpai — £pro Inf. opQai Part, oppevos Imp. opcro. * The idea of such identity is opposed, partly by the fact that even the dialects, which neglect the augment, never drop the reduplication (§ 83. n. 6, 8, 9) ; and partly by the decided Aorist signification of nearly all the examples above cited. Only the epic BexOai, Seypevos (§ 114, dexofiai), perhaps also Ke7/j.cu (Jlusf. Sprachl. § 109. II), and a few single instances, (like yevfieda Theocr. 14. 51 ; eAenrro Apoll. 1. 45,) might perhaps be explained in this way, because of their clearly Perfect signification. For this reason, and considering too that even decided Pluperfects are in Homer often used in an Aorist sense (ej3e/37J/cei, ySejSATjKei), the answer to the inquiry, how all these forms have arisen, must still be regai'ded as a subject of difficult gram- matical investigation. See JLusf. Sprachl. ed. 2. I. p. 318. II. p. 17-20 204 VERLS. SYNCOPE AND METATHESIS. § 110. Also some others like eyevro for iyevero, evtcro see euj(o/xat, SXro see aXXopat, iXeXiKro see iXeXi£a>, app,evos see dpapiaKco. For the doubtful 'Upevos see iKveopai § 114. Note 3. The o- in the endings beginning with ad falls away here, just as in the Perf. Passive (§ 98. 2); hence Se^ai, opOai. — Here belongs con- sequently the Dual form pidv6f]v (see pLaiva>), and the Inf. nepdat, where two consonants are dropped ; see 7rep#co. Note 4. In all verbs where the reduplication passes over into the simple augment, the Indicative of these Passive Aorists, when it retains its aug- ment, is not to be distinguished, as to form, from the Pluperfect ; thus copp-qv, eKraprjv, i(p6ipr]v, iaavprjv. 9. Finally : C) By means of this syncope the longer forms of the Perfect and Plupf. Act. are sometimes shortened ; and since, as we shall see, (§ 113. 7 sq.) some such Perfects receive a Pres- ent signification, they take also a 2 pers. Imperat. with the end- ing *n ; * 106. 4, and n. 8. Thus : Keicpaya — KtKpaypev Plupf. eKetcpaypev Imperat. k e KpaxQi ) see Kpdfa § 114. aumya (see in § 114) — avcoypev Imp. ava>xdl dXrjXovda — elXrjXovdpev, epic forms for iXr]Xv6a, see epxopai § 114. The alternate oi of the Perf. which comes from ei, passes over in this syncope for the most part into i ; e. g. neTToiBa from neided — Horn . i w e n i Op e v eoika from cikcd — eoiypev, 3 Du. Perf. c'iktov, Plupf. et'Krrjv, merely poetical forms; see p. 199 sq. marg. Hence appears the correctness of the above derivation of 'Icrpev, etc. p.. 199 and note, viz. olda from eX8co — Wpev or tarpev, '(are, 3 PI. Plupf. epic tcrav, Imper. 'io~di> Inf. epic Xdpevat for eldepevai (comm. eldevai) ; with the Attic forms of the Pluperf. fjcrpev, yure, fjaav, for r}8eipev : fjheiTe, rjbecrav. Note 5. When by means of this syncope the consonant of the root comes to stand immediately before r in the ending, this r sometimes passes over into £, on account of the similarity of sound with the Passive endings, re- rvcpOe, ex6a>; and thus also from Perf. iyp-qyopa, eyprjyopare^ — eyprjyopde, see iyeipca § 114; and in the same manner is most naturally explained the epic Trerroo-Oe, see Tracryo § 114, TveTTOvOa, 7r€7r6v6are — 7re7rocrde' } that is, so soon as the # came to stand before the r, it passed over into a (like idpei/i '{are), and the v fell away (7renoo-Te) j after which the transition was natural to the Passive form, TrenocrBe II. y. 99. Od. k. 465. y\r. 53. 10. This syncope is more natural, when the characteristic of the verb is a vowel. Such a vowel however appears pure before the ending a of the Perfect, only in a few verbs ; as we have seen in § 97. n. 7. Thus dedia, see dtlaai § 114; hence Perf. PI. deoipev, SeStre, for debiapevy -are. Imperat. o eo id i. Plupf. idedip-ev, ededne, edebiaav, for eSeS/ei/xev, re, eSeSiWai/. k 110. VERBS. SYNCOPE AND METATHESIS. 205 Further, as some Perfects in rj/ca, in their epic syncope, cause the radical vowel (a) to reappear before the ending, e. g. ftefirj/ca (fie/3 aa) /3e/3dao-L, ftefiaws (k 97. n. 7) ; we can in the same man- ner explain — as coming from an older form by means of that syncope — some forms of the Dual and Plur. Indie, and of the Inhn. which occur from such Perfects in the Attic and common language. E. g. from rerX^fca (see rXrjvcu § 114) TETAAA — TerXa-fieV) etc. Inf. rerXdvac (for rerXa-evai). And as this co- incides fully with the form of the Present of verbs in fit, Utrra* uev, lardvaL, so most of the other parts of the formation in fit are likewise adopted in this Perfect ; thus Perf. Plur. rerXafiev, reVXare, rerXdcn(v) Dual t€t\o.tov Pluperf. PL irerXafjiev, ererXare, irerXao-av Dual ererXaTov, ererXdrrju Inf. rerXdvai (short a) Imperat. rerXadt, rcrXarco, etc. Opt. TerXaLTjv. The Subjunctive of this verb is not used in this form ; instead of it we sub- join that of (BefirjKa, fiepa/jiev, etc. Subj. /3e/3(£, 77 y, 77, etc. The Participle alone is not formed after the conjugation in fit, but is con- tracted from a«y into coy ) so that the Masc. and Neut. are alike (acoy and ao'y, G. ciotos, contr. coy, Soros) ] and this contracted form then takes a special feminine in cocra; e. g. from fieftrjKa Part. fiefirjica?, via, 6s, /3fj3a>y, (3ej3S)ara, j3ej3oos, G. /3y /3e/3cocra. c) That the participial ending acoy, Neut. aos, (according to § 27. n. 10,) becomes among the Ionics ecoy (with fern, ecocra) ; see larrj^i § 107. m. 23, and § 114. Svyjo-kco ; in which latter verb this is the common Attic form. — Compare also 7re7rrcoy, Tveirrecos, in the Anom. ttiWco; and /3e/3pcoy in (SlfipaXTKO). 11. The verbal root or stem is further sometimes changed by Metathesis * This however did not hinder the poets, especially the earlier ones, as iEschylus, from employing the contracted form for the sake of the metre, e. g. Agam. 558 Tt6vai/cu. That it was short in the common language is shewn by the manner of using it in comedy ; e. g. Aristoph. Ran. 1012 rzOvavai. — The epic Infinitive forms rsSvdfxevcu, redyd/xev, are explained by comparing § 107. m. 34. 206 VERBS. NEW THEMES. V 111. or transposition of the letters. This takes place, as in the noun (§ 19. n. 2), with a vowel and liquid, especially in two cases : 1) In the Aorist 2 ; see $ 96. n. 7. 2) In several verbs, where the simple theme has a liquid for its charac teristic. E. g. in the root 0AN, Aor. eOavov, Fut. &avovp.ai, there takes place, for the sake of easier flexion, a transposition of the vowel, 0NA ; hence reQinjica, Tt6vap,ev, etc. In some verbs the new Present in actual use arises from such a transposition \ as in the above example, 9-vfjcnco). The same takes place in the root MOA. But on account of the difficulty in pro- nouncing p.X, the letter j3 was inserted between these two letters in the middle of a word (§ 19. n. 1), as /xep/3Xa>j- ctkco.^ This being premised, the three following verbs have a complete and manifest analogy : Svtjo-kco, Savovjxai, Wavov, reOvrjua (0AN, 0NA) ^pcbo-KO), S^opovp-aL, Wopov. . . . (©OP; 0PO) /3Att)o-/cco, fiokovfxat, ep.o\ov, p.ep.j3\a>Ka (MOA, MAO) See all these in § 114. In the same manner belong together the defective forms eVopoi/, 7reVpo)rai ; see irop^iv § 114.f With entire certainty can be referred to this metathesis only those verbs 3 in which the transposed vowel is clearly to be recognized in some of the forms; as the a in redvdvai, Ttdvairjv, and the o in /zep/SXco/ca. But where merely 77 appears, it may be a matter of doubt, whether to assume a meta- thesis or only a syncope, e. g. whether Se/ico (AEM, AME) 8e8pt] A. erep.ov Pf. Terp.rjKa Kap,vc£> F. Kap.ovp.ai A. e, 7T€pdco under irnrpdo-Ko), § 114. This takes place in the root itself in the verb rapdrrco (short a); by metath. Sparrcc (long a) : and in like manner o-rpavvvp.1 from o-ropewvpu; see both in § 114. § 111. New Themes from the Tenses. 1. Another, though not an extensive species of anomaly, is when some one of the tenses other than the Present is converted * Precisely the same relation exists between j6Aa£ and paXaicSs, fiXiTToo gather honey and pe\i ; see Lexilog. II. art. 108. A still more decisive analogy for (j.o\e?y, ^p/3\oo;(TKw, the corresponding radical form BOPH has been preserved only in the verbal subst. fiopa. X Comp. § 95. n. 12. The usual Pres. /ca\ea> has arisen out of this Future ; just as the Ion. Pres. ^ax^opai l'"om Fut. pax^oyLai. See § 95. n. 1G, marg. § 111. VERBS. NEW THEMES. 207 into a new theme ; either because it could be taken in the sense of the Present, or because it was more agreeable to the ear than the Present. Such themes occur only from the Perfect and the Aorist 2 Active and Passive. 2. As the Perfect not unfrequently takes the signification of the Present (s s 113. 7), it sometimes also passes over into the for- mation of the Present. Such instances belong for the most part to the Doric or the epic language. Thus we find in Theocrit. 15. 58, deboiKo for dedoiKa I fear, see Anom. SeTo-at- and in Homer KeKXrjyovres, see Anom. ic\d£a> • in Hesiod eppiyovTi, see Anom. ptyeco. Hence the Imperfects in ov derived from Perfects; e. g. Hesiod inecpvKov from necpvica- and here belong too the third persons like yey cove, dvr)vo8e, avoaye, which in Homer are not only Perfect (i. e. Present), but often also Imperfect or Aorist. Note 1 . The clear exhibition of this anomaly is rendered more difficult, by the circumstance of there being undoubted traces, that a part of the Dorians gave to the real Perfect, in many of its parts, the same endings as those of the Present. Thus Pindar Inf. yeydneiv, see Anom. yiyvop.ai ; Theocrit. bebvKTjv (for -Keiv) instead of behvicevai ; also Theocr. Treirovdrjs TrecpvKT] (for eir, ei, instead of -af, -e). So the Participle in co^, ovaa, in- stead of coy, via, e. g. Pind. tt ecp piKovras) Archimed. /xf fievdicovcra. from p.ep.evrjKa. See the Ausf. Sprachl. § 88. n. 11, 14. § 111. n. 2. — The redupli- cated Aorists, like Tremdov, apapov, etc. do not belong here; see § 83. n. 10. § 85. n. 3. Note 2. In the Passive, several Perfects, when they receive a Present signification, take also the Present form; that is, they take the accent in the Infin. or Part, not upon the penult, but upon the antepenult syllable. Thus we have seen above the Part, rjp,evos and tceifxevos; and here be- long also the Participles i\rfkdp.evos, dpt]pep.evos; iaavp-epos, see under iXavvco, dpapiaKoo, o-euci), § 114. Also the Infin. and Part, of these two verbs : dtd^T] p. a i — aKd)(r), (pei8op.ai; also the Present-form in it pane ova i II. k. 421, and SaXedto, (paedco in § 112. 12. Thus, it is not to be assumed that there were actually such verbs as cupeco, ri^eo), etc. but that from the Aorist 2 evpov evpelv, eruYoi/ rvx^lv, there arose the formation evprja-co, evprjKa, TeTv^rjica, etc. for which a cor responding Present was later introduced ; see evpio-Ka>, rvyxdvco, and also similar forms in p.av6dvu>, fiXao-Tavio, yiyvop.ai, etc. § 114. 208 VERBS. CHANGES OF THE THEME. § 112. In some other verbs, whose Aor. 2 Pass, has, as deponent., an Active signification, there is formed in like manner from rjv 9 a Perfect in t]Ka : ippvrjKa from eppvrjv flowed; see pea>. Kc-^dprjKa and Ke^dprjpai from e^dprjv rejoiced; see ^atpco. deddrjica. and deSdrjpai from eddijv I learned; see AA-. § 112. Anomalous Changes of the Theme or Stem. 1. By far the greater portion of the anomaly of Greek verbs consists in the mixing together of forms from different Themes ; so that several of the derived tenses, when traced back in the reg- ular manner, presuppose a different Present from the usual one. We give here a general view of these variations. 2. These different forms of the theme or stem very often exist together, side by side, especially in the Present. Or, what is more common, different parts of the verb, derived from different forms of the stem, are mingled together. This then is the real anomaly, so frequent in the Greek verb. 3. We must here assume it as a fundamental position, which has already been developed in \ 92, that just in the most common verbs the Present is only a fuller derived form of the simplest theme as it appears in the Aor. 2 ; and this fuller form does not in general extend beyond the Imperfect, § 92. 10. Thus, Aor. 2, ekaftov, AABI2, AHBI2 — Pres. Xa^dvco, Impf. i\dfA(3avov, Fut. \r)-^ro[iai. 4. The case of a double form of the Present in actual use at the same time, occurs even in common prose ; and many such instances as Xeiirco and XifiTrdvco, fcreivco and ktlvvv/jli, are found in the best prose writers. Not unfrequently, however, one of the forms belongs rather to some particular dialect ; thus dytveco for ayco, (pvyydvco for (pevyco, were more common among the Ionics. More especially, the poets of every period, as was natural, held possession of such secondary forms, handed down as they were from the earliest times. Note 1. With such modifications of the stem were also connected differ- ences of sense. With the fuller forms, in contrast to the idea of the Aorist. there very naturally became connected the idea of what is repeated, fre- quent^ customary. Thus the Pres. (popeeo, derived from cpepco, serves mainly to express more definite relations; as to wear a garment, i. e. to have it on customarily. — All this belongs, however, rather to the lexicon; and can therefore only be alluded to here. Note 2. The instances, in which a secondary form was in use only in the Present and Imperfect ', e. g. XipnaviSi and AaVa), are also anomalous ; since the writers who use Xipizdvco form nevertheless the Fut. Xei'\^co, etc. Such instances may be regarded as secondary Present forms. Note 3. In this way it is possible, that one verb may appear in its con juration to be a mixture of three or more. Thus from the theme IIHGQ or ITA0£J there exists only the Aorist eiraOov; another form strengthened $ 112. VERBS. CHANGES OF THE THEME. 209 with v, IIENGQ, is retained in the Perfect TriirovOa • while in the Pres. and Impf. both have yielded to the form Trdaxco, which gives name to the whole verb. From the theme IIETAQ comes 7rerao-oo; in the Perf. Pass, the syn- cope appears, TrerrTapai; while in the Pres. and Impf. only the lengthened form ireravvvpi is usual. 5. Many derived forms of the Present are of such a kind, that few or no other examples of a like change of the stem are at pres- ent extant in the language ; as e. g. ayiveco from ayco, iratryw from IIA@f2, iaOcco from e$oo, iXavvco from i\dco. The most however stand in a clear analogy with others ; and this the learner must endeavour to embrace in one general view. Remark. The verbs cited here below are mostly given in the Anom. Cat- alogue, § 114. The rest, and indeed all those quoted as examples through- out our discussion on the verb, may be found, so far as it regards their sig- nification, in the Catalogue of regular Verbs, App. F. 6. One of the most common anomalies is the mixture of the formation in co and e&>, contr. w ; as is seen (I) even in the Pres- ent of these verbs : pinrai and pnrrea), eiAco and elXeco, kvco and Kvea>, Kvpeco and Kvpopat, crrepeco and arepopai, £vpe(£> and fjvpopai. Yet regularly (II) only one form of the Present is the usual one ; and the other, as an unusual Present, serves as the basis for other tenses. Hence the verbs in question fall into two classes, viz. a) Those in which the tenses (except Pres. and Impf.) are de-' rived either from the Future, or partly from the form in co ; which however in the Present has been supplanted by that in ico ; e. g. Sofceco, F. Sofa), from AOKfl. Here belong the anom. So/ceco, wdeco, yapico) also on account of single poetic forms, yr/^eco, 8ov7reoo, KTVTreco, KevrecOj iriTveii), piyeco, crrvyeco, , nareopai, dareopca * comp. § 96. n. 5. b) Those which in the Pres. have the form in &> ; but derive the tenses' either wholly or in part from that in eoo, Fut. eaw or rjcro) ; e. g. Bio), F. Setfaco ; d^6o/uiat, F. a^Oeaoiiai. Here belong the anom. a-^Qopai^ akdopat, aa> 2, deco to lack, dee- pen, eSco, euSco (Kadevda), Krjdoo, pdxopai. o'lopai, o'l^opai, 7ratco, irero pat, tvtttco. The same takes place in some because of a double consonant in the Present ; e. g. (tyco, F. e^rrjaco. Thus in anom. dXe^oo, av £a>, j36(x ko>, ex^co, i'£co (KaQifa, Kadi^opai), pv£a), o£a>. Also in some in \fivp, which either wholly or partially go over into the formation in ico ; e. g. fieWco, F. fjueWr/crco. So in the anom. fiovXopai, eppew, &e\u> or etfe'Xco, KeXopai, peXXco, fie'Xet (einpeXopai), pevoo, vepoo, 6(pei\u>, ^aipco' and with a syncope of the stem- vowel, /3aXXco, 8ep<£>, cfceXXco. Further, we must reckon here (III) all those in which the forma- tion of the tenses presupposes both the themes in co and eo) ; which O 210 VERBS. CHANGES OF THE THEME. $ 112 however are both unused, and have been supplanted by a new and generally a strengthened Present-form, in ltkco, dvco, etc. Here "belong the following anomalous verbs, which are all to he again cited in their proper place : a/ca^i^to, dnacptaKco, enavptcricopat, yiyvopat, i pea-Oat. evpia-Kco, eyw with its compounds. XdcrKto. rpe^co. Also the most in dvco (alvco) : alaOdvopat, dXircuVco, dpaprdvco, dv8dvco, (SXaaTcivco^ dapddvco, dne^Odvopat, Kt^dvco, pavOdvco, 6Xto~0dvco, oaCppaivopat, 6, crrpcoc^dco, for fipepco, vepco, r pence, errpeepco. — An exception is nor do pat from neropat, found along with the regular secondary forms noreopat and ncordopat. 9. The endmgs dco, d£co, alco, are very often secondary forms of each other. Thus in epic writers : E. g. dvTtdco for dvTtd^to, cmendo for anend^co, crKtdco (aKtocovro) for aKtd^co, neXdco and neXd£co, bapdeo and hapd^co. ovrdco and ovrd^co. See too /3td£opxit. The interchange of dco and alco is most frequent in the two verbs § 112. VERBS. CHANGES OF THE THEME. 211 K.ala) and /cXato), Att. Kaio and /cXaco, both with long a; for their flexion see h 95. n. 9. — But ala-, like dfo and dvvv/M, forms also a strengthened Present for the short a in flexion ; e. g. vatca from NAQ (hence z/ao-cm) ; Sou'co from AAQ (hence (Wao-£at) . See also \ialo[Lai from MAO, dyalopat in ayap.ai. 10. Another anomaly is produced by the circumstance, that, oefore the ending co of the simple theme indicated by the tenses, the consonant v is inserted in the Present, and the preceding vowel often lengthened ; e. g. eXavvco, F. eX&crco, from EAAI2. Here belong the anom. fialvco, eXavvco, ir'tva, cpddvco ; and the sec- ondary forms ri'yco, (pdivco, bvvco, from rtco, <£#tco, 8vco. See also I8pva>, cpaivco ; and in the Catal. of regular verbs, %va> and ivrvvca. — Also where there is a preceding consonant in the stem; as dd/cva, Ka/xvco, ripivco, Fut. 8f]go[xai, etc. This anomaly is sometimes increased by the fact, that, besides the v, the Pres. and Impf. take also the formation in eco ; e. g. Suveco, P. (Bvaco, from fivco. So in the anom. /3 vi/ e©, Kvveio (7rpoo-Kvveoo). iKveo p,ai. v7ria^viojiat under e^co. 11. Many simple themes are lengthened in the Pres. and Impf. by the insertion of av, rarely atv. Most of these have an Aor. 2 from the simple form ; from which also the other tenses are de- rived, but with the formation in eco ; e. g. fiXacrrdvco, F. ffXao-Trj- crco, Aor. 2 e/3\a, ala ddvo p.ai, dAiratW, dXcpdvoo, aTvex^dvop-aL (e\da>), /3Xacrrdi/co, hapOdv co, epvdaiva), t£di/co, iKdva>, /ayavco, Kepdalvco, oXicrddvco^ dcrcppaivofiai. Comp. above in no. 6. III. This species of anomaly also is increased by the circumstance, that many verbs so formed insert in the radical syllable a nasal letter (v, /x, 7), and shorten the long vowel of the same or retain the original short vowel ; e. g. Xelyrco, Xc/uirdvco, (fievyco cfrvyy dvco, ' AAfl dvhdvco. The further flexion, though with some anomalies, is always from the simple form. Here belong the anom. dv8dv(o, XavOdva, p.av6dvco, nvvOdvoiiai, ^avddvco' \ap.fidva), Xifxndvco • Qiyydvco, e pvyydvto, Xayxdvoo, rvy- ^ai/co, (pvyydva. See above in no. 6. III. Note 6. In respect to the quantity of the doubtful vowels before the end- ing pea in the two preceding paragraphs, it is to be remarked in general, that iVco and vvco are long; e. g. tt'ivco, 8vv<£>, and so in Kpivoo, 6plva>, /3pa8uz>co; but the ending dvco is short. Yet, if we regard only the usage of epic writers, the following are long, viz. cpOdvco, Udvoa, Kixdvco. — The Attics have likewise some deviations, inasmuch as they not only use t'ivg>, (pdivco, as short ; but also bring , preceded by different vowels ; but only in the Pres. and Impf. Thus (pXeyedoo for (pXeyco, vepeBco for vepco' (pivvOia for (pOlvco. As epie forms we may note rjyepeOovTai, rjepedovrai, with altered quantity for ayeipovTai, deipovrai, see § 114; also SaXeBco and cpaeOco, formed from the Aor. 2. Here belongs consequently the lengthening of a verb by means of the letters a0 before the ending, which occurs even in Attic prose ; but is found only as preterite, either Impf. or Aorist in -adov, and in the dependent moods. Of this kind are the following : §iG0Ka8eiv, ehiwKddov, from 8lcokco' elicddeiv, elKaOoipi, from eiKw dpvvd- Beiv, dpvvadoLprjv^ from dpvvco- elpyadeiv from e'lpyio • and the epic pereKtadou from kicd. With these are to be compared the forms vrjdco, aXr/^co, Kvfjdoo, which came into use at a later period instead of veco spin, aXeco, Kvdco. See also 7r\r]d(£> and np-qdco in nipTrXrjpt and 7Tip.Trpr]pi, arj6a> in craco, and 7re\a0 7rXd#co in 7reXa£<». 13. Some verbs take in the Pres. and Impf. a reduplication with t, (without the ending a/cco or /xt, see in no. 14, 15,) which falls away in the other tenses ; e. g. yiryvojuLcu, F. jev^aojuac, from FEN 12. Here belong y[yvop,ai, pipvm (pevco), ttltttoh, tit pace. But rcrpaiVoo, with an anomalous reduplication in the Present, retains it also in the other tenses ; as rerpavSy, etc. Those themes which begin with a vowel, take a reduplication like that of the Attic in the Perfect. E. g. aKct/a^co (comp. dnacpicrKoi, dpapicrKco, below); also even with t, as artrdXXco from drdXKco, 6m7rreva) from oTrreuoo: comp. dvlvqpi in no. 15. 14. Almost all verbs in , dpecrKti), p,e6vcrKa>; fiiooaKopai; #j/ 170- /ceo, Qpcocr kcg, /SXcotr/co) (§ 110. li)j a/x7rXaKto-KO), iirav pi a Kop,at, evplcncco, Kincr/eco, trrfpicr/cco ; aXtcKo/tat, dvaXicr kqd, ap/3X t cr/cco. Some Presents are still further strengthened by taking also the reduplication before them (as in no. 13) ; which however is again dropped in the tenses ; e. g. fjui^vrjcricw^ F. fivTJcrco, from MNAfh. Here belong the anom. di$ pder kcc, niTrpdaKca, KiKkr) (KaXeco) pipvT}(TK(0, TnivicrKa (7TiVco), j3 1 j3p a) or K co, y ty v co cr K(S), tit pcodKco; dpa- picr/cco, drra^)i(TK(£). One verb also is further strengthened by inserting the syllable av in the ending crico), as in no. 11 above, viz. o(pXicrKdz/&), f. o, ^/3do-Kco, I am or become of ripe age. Com- monly the simple form either had the same signification, or was wholly obsolete. On the other hand, the form in o-kco takes sometimes the causa- tive sense (§ 113. 2) to make or cause another to do, etc. e. g. peOvco I am drunk) peOvcrKa I make drunk (see in § 114); ttittlctkco give to drink) from rrtVco, I drink. For fiioocrKopai see j3ioa>. — That the Ionic Iteratives in ; but they vary from it by retaining the k in flexion, while StSdo-Kco retains also the reduplication,' as Fut. aXv^<0) St8d£co. — Different is it with AdaTcco from AAKQ, et'oveco from el'/cco be like, titvctkco for ret/yw ; in all which the k is radical, and the o- only an addition for strength. — For (36(tkco see above under no. 6. b. 15. We here bring together those verbs, which in the Present and Imperfect have mostly or exclusively the formation in jm, either with or without reduplication ; while in the other tenses they present various anomalies, as may be seen in the Catalogue, * 114. a) Those in pi (or pai) with the stem-vowel a; as aya/xai, bvvapai, eTricrTapai, epapai) "nrrapai) 'iXrjpi (apai)) Kixpijpi ( ai ^d -apai)) Kpepapai, ovivqpi (and -apai). pdpvapai) tt IpirXr) pi, ir iprrpr] pt, trpiaa-Qai an Aor. in signification. Also larrjpi, (prjpi] and comp. Xpf) under XP"- 03 ' b) Those in pi (or pai) with the stem- vowel e ; as arjpi, Sirjpi, dldrjpi, ki~ XVPh perh . also 8i£rjpai' } and further, riOrfpi, trjpi, elpi. c) In pi (pai) with the stem- vowel o; e. g. didapi) ovopai. — Also in pt with the stem- vowel t, as elpi. d) Those in vvpi with a preceding consonant or diphthong, § 106. 8; as ayvvpi, axwpai, 8e Itzvv pi, e'ipyvvpi, daivvpi, £evyvvpi) Krivvvpi, p,iyvvpi, o'iyvvpi) oXXvpi (for oXvvpi), opvvpi, opopyvv pi, opvv- pi, rrrjyvv pi, prjyvv pi, apvvpai, Ttrdpvvpai. e) Those in vwpi with a preceding vowel, § 106. 8; as Kepdwvpt, Kpepdvvvpi, Tverdvvvpi, cr KeDdvvv pi' evvvpi, £ivvvpi, Kopivvvpi, afievvvpi, aropevvv pi (also crrpcovvvpi)- rlvvvpi' £d>vvv pi, pcovvv- pi, xp^vvvpi, x^vvv pi. 16. A change which belongs rather to the poets, is the inser- tion of v before the ending dco, viz. cico into vdeo, vt)/jU. E. g. dapdio and 8apvd<£>) bdpvqpi) irepvdo), nepvqpi. from rrepdeo. So too with a change of e into t, Kipvaa, Kipvqpi, from Kepdca (Kepdv- vvpi) ; also TriXvrjpi) 7rirvr]pi, aKidvrjpi. from 7reAdco, IIETAQ, 2KEAAO ; and with a change of e into 77, Kpr\pvr\pi from icpepdu). 17. Some minor analogies will appear on comparing the two verbs eyw (root 'EX) and eWca, in both which the rough breathing (after dropping the e) passes over into the sibilant cr ; but see eVo), k 114. — Also the two verbs tiktio and neKTO), 214 VERBS. CHANGES OF THE THEME. $ 112 in which the simple themes TEK-, TIEK-, reappeai in the tenses, after the analogy of verbs in tttw. — Further, the two verbs vi£(o and 7recrcrco, both of which in the tenses have a lingual for their characteristic — And lastly the two verbs a/jLCKo and yj/dco, comp. also veca swim, which form some of the Passive tenses from secondary forms in 18. Finally, in a number of verbs the different tenses aie de- rived from entirely different themes ; like the Lat. fero, tuli, la- tum. So the corresponding verb in Greek : c^epco, Fut. otaco, Aor rjveyicov. Here "belong the Anom. aipea), elirelv, epxopai, eV^tco, 6pd(o, ird- o-^o), irlvv), rpdx^i (pep®. Comp. also £doi, Sea. ttitt pacrfcco, 7r\r], pefa, rpcoyco, i|rv%ft), %ao7ca) ; others are defective, like ipeaOai, fielpopcu, etc. or are extant only in isolated forms, as ^seaaaaOai, Xvyge, roercrai, etc. — The learner will also find a number of otherwise regular verbs inserted in the Catalogue (§ 114) ; partly in order to exhibit a view of the actual usage, whether poetic or prosaic ; and partlv on account of single variations in form and signification. See e. g. ayco, alpco, Krelvco, \eyoy, fialvofia, , Kvaioz or Kvdoo, ^avco, 7r\eco, 7rveoo,~\ , and all those noted in § 95. n. 4 as fluctuating between a short and long vowel in their theme, never have the cr j with the single exception of the Aor. €iro0ear6t)v. c) Further, with cr, the following in all the three verbal forms, except * See, on the whole subject, Lobeck ad Soph. A;, p. 315 sq. t The epic Perf ire-rcvvimi, Treirw^vos, has a social signification ; see in § 114. $ 113. VERBS. ANOMALY OF SIGNIFICATION. 2x5 that the Perf. has also a secondary form without a, viz. /cXe/co, KeAeOco, Kpovoo, Spavo, XP' lfSy ' d) Especially does it appear as an anomaly, when the Perf. never takes the o-, while the Aor. 1 and verbal Adj. have it; so in yeuco, navoi, pcdvvv [xi, p. i p. v t] a ko). e) Still more variable in usage, and therefore all to be sought in the anom. Catalogue, are: Spaco, ^paco (op.at), ^aco, veoa heap up and spin, koXouco, /cat co, kAgugo; also those which may be referred to a pure theme, as rlpoa (rt'co), op,vvpn, Trip.n\r)p,i, tt'l\itx prjpu, Tverav- vvp,i, £(£>vvvp.i, . Comp. also da. co, /3oaco, pLa^opiai, craco, '^/xat. Note 9. Compare with the above also the a inserted in substantives de- rived from verbs, § 119. m. 17, 19. s s 113. Anomaly of Signification. 1. Whatever relates to the signification of verbal forms, be- longs strictly to the Syntax. Still the deviations from the regu- lar meaning, ,^o far as they have become more or less fixed in particular veri.s, cannot well be separated from the anomaly in their formation ; just as in Latin in the words odi, hortor, audeo, ausus sum. 2. Here belongs first of all one subject, which has a very close connection with the anomaly of the Greek verb, viz. the Immediate and Causative Signification of verbs. In the first, the action or state belongs immediately to the subject itself, e. g. to fall ; in the other, the subject causes an action or state in some other object, e. g. to fell. The regu- lar proceeding would be, that for each of these significations there should be a separate verb; but so that the causative might be derived from the immediate. Thus e. g. in Grerman and En- glish the verbs fallen, to fall, are immediate ; and from them are derived the causatives fallen, to fell, which express the state of falling, not in the subject, but in another object. On the other hand, it is an anomaly, when one verb, in one and the same form, unites both these significations ; which however occurs in all lan- guages.* So in Greek : i\avveiv, Imm. to be driven, to move rapidly, Caus. to drive ; Ka8l(eiv, Imm. to sit, Caus. to seat. In other verbs this usage belongs more to the poets, who can even combine both significations in one clause, e. g. /3piaco, Imm. to be strong, Caus. to make strong, Hes. e. 5. wove'co, Imm. to be in pain, Caus. to cause pain. Anacr. 40. Note 1. Less accurate is it to comprise the distinction just treated of under the terms transitive and intransitive. The causative, indeed, is in its very nature always transitive; but the immediate maybe either transi- * E. g. brennen, burn, Immed. to be on fire, Caus. to set on fire ; suppeditare, Imm. to be ready at hand, Caus. to cause to be ready at hand, i. e. to present ; sor- ts., Imm to go out, Caus. to bring out ; to drop, Imm. to fall, Caus. to let fall. 216 VERBS. ANOMALY OF SIGNIFICATION. $ 113 tivc or intransitive. E. g. transitive are the Immediates learn (Cans, make learn, teach), drink. Again, a verb may be both transitive and intransi- tive, without ever being causative; e. g. intrans. (pevyeiv to flee, trans. (peu- yeiv Tivd to flee any one; (rnevdeiv to hasten, to make haste, crnevdeiv n to has- ten any thing, but never (nrevdeiv nvd to cause any one to make haste. Note 2. It is a different case, when both significations are united in one verb, but in such a way that the causative belongs to the Active form, and the immediate to the Passive or Middle form ; just as in English we have Act. Causat. to seat, Pass, or Mid. to be seated, to seat oneself, i. q. Immed. to sit. So in Greek : Causat. StSao-Kco make learn, teach; Immed. dibdo-Kopai am taught, teach myself, i. q. I learn. Causat. Kadlleiv to seat, Imm. Ka6i(ecrda: to sit, for which also kuOl^iv is used, § 130. n. 2. 3. Those verbs, which unite the two significations in the man- ner specified in no. 2, are noted in the lexicons. Here we can treat only of those cases where different tenses of the same verb belong to different significations, as we have seen above in wmy- fu, § 107. II. For example, in several primitive verbs, the tenses vary in signification thus : Fut. and Aor. 1, Act. prefer the causative. Aor. 2, and Perf. Act. espec. Perf. 2, the immediate, and mostly the intransitive. In such verbs the intransitive tenses of the Active commonly unite with the Mid. or Pass, in one and the same signification. But sometimes in the Present another form is assumed for the one or the other signification ; e. g. 7rtW, iriirlcriccd. Note 3. I. Aorist. The verbs, in which this relation of the two Aorists is most clearly presented, are the following : €Tas, TrprjyparevdevTes, Kara(ppao-6eis, inroTOTrrjOrjvai. Note 6. Not unfrequently however the Greeks allow themselves to form, from a deponent verb, tenses .with a Passive signification. This takes place : 1) In the Perfect, where however the construction generally determines, whether it is to be taken as Passive; e. g. Plato Legg. 4. p. 710. d, rravra d-nelpyacxrai rco 5e<5 (from dnepyd^opau do, make, produce), where the Dative, according to the rule of Syntax § 134. 4, is to be rendered by or through: 1 all has been done by the divinity.' 2) In the Aorist Passive, when the deponent, as such, forms an Aorist Middle; e. g. fiidfypai I force, e/3/acra- \ir]v I forced, i^ido-6r]v I was forced; §e£dpevo? having taken, Se^ei? been taken. Comp. § 136. n. 3. 5. It is a very frequent case, that in verbs Active the Fut. Act. is either not used at all, or very rarely ; while the Future Middle takes the signification, transitive or intransitive, which is con- nected with the Active. In such instances the rest of the Middle form, with its peculiar signification, for the most part does not occur. This remark applies to a multitude of the most common verbs ; e. g. a/covco I hear, a/covo-ofAcu I will hear, never dfcoixrco. Note 7. We subjoin here some of the most usual Futures of this kind : dyvorjoropai, acropai from adco, aTravTrjaopai, drroXavo-opai, fiadiovpai, fiorjcropai, yeXdaopai, yrjpdaopai, eyKcopidcropai, enaiveaopai, iTnopKrjcropaL, Savpdcropai., Srjpdcropai (also -crco), KXey^opm, KoXdaopai, (also -crco), olpw^opai, ovptjcropai, 7rr)dr}cropai, nvl^opai, cnyrjo-opai and aLatnrjo-opai, dKco-^ropai, cnrov8daopai, avpl- tjopai, Tcoddo-opai, x^PW ^ - 1 ' To these may be added the Futures of elpi and olba (§§ 108, 109). See further in the Catal. § 114, the verbs dpaprdvco, (3ali>a), /3idco, f3Xcoo~K.co, Scxki/cd, 8ap6dv(S>, Seicrai, SiSpacKco, Seat, Qiyyd- vu>, Qvrjcncai.j Qpd>o-K, Kapvat, KXala>, Xayxdva, Xapfidv<£>, pav6dvn>, veco (vcvaopai), opvvpi, 6pd, 7rcu£co, ndax^>i 7ti7Ttco, 7rXeco, Trveco, peco, tlktod, rpe^co, rpcoyco, cpevya, x^'C 03 * I* must however be observed, that here, as in other cases, usage was not entirely fixed : and we therefore still find many instances of 220 VERBS. ANOMALY OF SIGNIFICATION. § 113. Futures Act. where other writers have the Fut. Middle. In such instances however it is necessary to observe carefully : 1) Whether the text may not be corrupted;^ 2) Whether the writer does not belong to the later period, i. e. to the kolvol, who in this respect often varied from Attic usage, e. g. Fut. a/coi»o"co.f 6. The Future Middle was also used as Passive; but this usage never became so fixed in particular verbs, as that exhibited in the preceding paragraph (no. 5). It depended for the most part on euphony ; and consequently, in the poets, on the metre. They strove to avoid by this means, in long verbs, the still longer form of the Fut. Passive ; e. g. Lcr(3r)Te2v, 6/jio\oyelv, anraXkcuTTeiv, (fivkdrreiv, yvpjvaC^iv, aSixecv, tyjjjbiovv. Still, there are examples of this usage in shorter verbs, as {3\dtyeTciL, ^pe^erac, otcrerac ; and likewise several of those enumerated in note 5 may be referred hither ; as ^ttyjo-o- fiai, iXaTTooaojjbai. Note 8. It is easy to conceive, that this usage should occur least frequent- ly in verbs, whose Middle approaches nearest in signification to the transi- tive Active ; still less frequently however, and perhaps not at all, in verbs whose Fut. Mid. is employed for the signification of the Active; see Text 5 above. Note 9. The instances where the Aorist Middle occurs as Passive, are extremely rare ; and are found mostly in the epic poetry. Yet some com- pounds of o-x^o-^at are used by the Attics as Passive; as Karaax^cr$ai, 6/j.evo?, Eurip. Hippol. 27. Plat. Phsedr. 49. p. 244. e ; avcrxofievos; id. Theset. 58. p. 165; but these passages may also be taken as neuter. 7. In respect to anomalous signification in the Tenses, we note here only the instances where the Perfect takes the signification of the Present. This transition is readily explained from the present nature of the Perfect, as developed in §§ 81, 137. In every such instance, of course, the Pluperfect becomes an Im- perfect. Note 10. It is consequently incorrect, to assign to the verb etSco in the Present the two significations I see and I know. The Pres. eiSco means 1 see, perceive, comprehend ; the Perf. olda I have comprehended, and conse- quently, I know. Note 11. It was very easy, in consequence of the near relation of the ideas, for the Present itself to pass over into the derived present significa- tion of the Perfect, and vice versa. Hence it arises, that, in the poets espe- cially, the Present and Perfect sometimes have the same meaning; e. g. fieAet (strictly) goes to the heart, /xe^Xe is laid to heart; hence both signify it grieves. So oVoko/zch get a view of, dedopica have got a view of; hence both, I see. Note 12. A few examples in the epic poets are particularly deserving of notice, where the Pluperfect takes the place of the Aorist or Imperfect, * Nothing is easier or more common, than e. g. the confounding of the Attic form of the 2 pers. Mid. in ei (for r?), with that of the Act. in eis : e. g. tyev^is and eu£e(, which latter form of the 2 pers. was less familiar to the copyists. t But the learner must be upon his guard not to mistake the Subj. A or. 1 for the Future, e. g. in vvv aicovaca addis, § 139. m. 2. k 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 221 although the Perfect of the same verb does not occur as Present. See in the Catal. /3atW and /3aXX assemble, Perf. Pass. dyrjyeppai. Aor. 2 Mid. Inf. epic dyepeadai, Part, dypojxevos; see § 110. 4. a. — For ijyepedovrai, see § 112. 12. ayvvfit break, § 106. 8. $ 112. 15, Fut. afa). The preterites have the syllabic augment (§ 84. n. 5), Aor. ea%a (Horn. r)%a), Subj. agco, Aor. Pass, idyr/v (long a). The Perf. 2 ei/ya (Ion. erjya) has the Passive signification, I am broken in pieces, k 113. n. 3. The a of the Aor. 2 Pass, idyqv was also shortened in epic metre Comp. €7rXr]yr]v and KareTfXdyrjv. This syllabic augment is also found, even in such forms as according to their nature ought to have no augment, e. g. the compound Part, tca- rtd^avres Lys. p. 158, ed. Reiske.f — The form nava^ais in Hesiod stands for the Opt. Aor. K.a.Td^ais.% dyopev, see elnelv. || aypo/xez/or, see dyeipca. ayo) lead, Fut. a%a>, takes in the Aor. 2 a reduplication, r/yayov, Subj. dydyco, Inf. dyayelv, etc. § 85. n. 3. Perf. 1 rjx a an( ^ ^79" o^a (§ 97. n. 2), Perf. Pass, fjyficu.— MID. The Aor. 1 ^£a, atjai, a^aaOai is also found, though not often in Attic writers. § — For the Homeric Imperat. agere see § 96. n. 9. * We could also assume AH as the primary theme, and then derive the other forms from it by resolving a into the double sound (§ 105. n. 10). But the doub- ling of a long sound which has not arisen from contraction [aa>, &, a from /3aAAa>, etc. (§ 117. n. 2). No wonder, then, that the Digamma thus doubled and bound by the metre, maintained itself here, while it vanished elsewhere. That it should pass over into v was very natural in the close relation (oi rather in certain respects the identity) of the sounds T and F, U and V ; see p. 5 marg. note. Comp. evadov in apSdvce below. § The learner must take care not to mistake for this Aorist the similar Aorist form of the Attic verb for ctWw, which sometimes approximates to the for mcr in signification also. * 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 223 AA-. The forms aara, daat, satiate, which are commonly referred to this root, see under am 3. On the other hand. Homer has dSrjo-ai, ddrjKevai, to feel weariness, disgust, as if from AAE£t; hut these forms are commonly written dddrjcrai, etz.^ adelv see dvSavco. || aeipco see aipco. arjjii blow, § 112. 15. see aco 1. It retains the n throughout, Inf. dr\vai, Pass. dr]\x.ai\ but Fart. Act. dels; devros. The Passive form has the Active sig- nification; except Od. £ 131, where it is Passive. alveoa see § 95. n. 4. alpeco take, § 112. 18. § 95. n. 4. Fut. alpr^aco, Aor. 1 Pass, ypidrjv, Subj. atpe6co, etc. — Aor. Act. elXov, Subj. eXco, Inf. ekelv, Part. i\a)v, (compounds KaOeTkov, KaOeXco, etc.) from 'EAfl. — MID. has the signif. choose, Aor. elkopi^v, Inf. eXeaOau, etc. A less frequent Future is iXw, e. g. Aristoph. Eq. 290. The Aor. 2 Mid. was formed by writers not Attic in -dp.i]v, as dcpoXaro instead of -ero, see § 96. n. 1, marg. ; — In the Perfect the Ionics had a peculiar redu- plication, dpatprjKa, dpaip-qp,ai, with the smooth breathing. — In the signifi- cation seize, capture, the verb akio-K.op.ai may be regarded as a real Pas- sive of alpeca ; see below. culpa contr. from aecpco, take up, raise^ is declined regularly ; Aor. 1 Mid. r)pdp.r)v, Aor. 2 Mid. r\p6p.t)y. For the poetical usage alone it is to be observed : 1) That the Attic poets employ the unaugmented moods of the Aor. 2 Mid. (e. g. dpoip.rjv Soph. Electr. 34), when a short syllable is necessary, instead of the elsewhere usual Aor. 1, whose a is long according to § 101. n. 2. — 2) That Homer in the same circumstances avails himself of the Indie. Aor. 2 Mid. without augment (dpop.r]v) ; but elsewhere has throughout in the Indie, the Aor. 1, and in the other moods only the Aor. 2 ; as rjpdp.r]v — dpeadai, dpoip.r]v, etc. — 3) That the epic writ- ers use in the Pluperf. aapro (as Impf. hovered, hung) instead of r/pro or rjepro] see § 97. n. 2. — 4) That the Attic poets make the a of the Fut. dp5> long, as being contracted from depco ; see the Ausf. Sprachl. — For rjepedovrai see § 112. 12. — See also apvvp.ai. alx@c>>, ava>x^, (§ HO. n. 5,) Plupf. as Impf. (r)vd>~ yetv) Ion. rjvayea. Since now this Perfect has the Present signification, it takes also sometimes the Present form, as 3 Pres. dveoyei Hdot. 7. 104 : and hence Impf. fjva>yov, Fut. dvd>^co, Aor. fjvcoga. It is to be noted, that the Perf. avaya itself never takes the augment. d-ircKplo-KCD deceive, § 112. 13, 14, Aor. with redupl. fJTracpov, diracpoov, (§ 85 n. 3,) from 'A$Q (whence also dcpr) and aTrrop-ai), strictly touch, feel, pal- pare; from which Aorist the Present is formed. Fut. aTva^cru). — Middle synonymous with the Active. dnokava, for the augm. see § 86. n. 2. || drrovpas see AYP. 'apdopLai, Att. 'apdofiai, Depon. Mid. invoke, curse. From this there occurs once an Inf. Act. dpr]p.evai Od. x- 332 ; or perhaps it is Inf. Jior. 2 Pass. * This form also, like icavd^cus under ayvvpi, may be explained from the epic Di- gamma; for the verb avddvw belongs likewise to those mentioned in § 6. n. 3. From this Digamma, i. e. from FAAfl, comes the syllabic augment in e'aSa, and also this euaSey, which has arisen from doubling the Digamma after the augment (EFFAAE like l'AAa/3£v) ; for here, where this letter made a position, it could not fall away, as in other cases. The apparent significancy of this e3, well, as in English well- plcn"°;?. s may have contributed to the preservation of this form. P 226 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. § 114. from APOMAI ; see the Ausf. Sprachl. — The isolated Homeric Part. Perf. Pass. 'aprjfjLtvos has a different signification, oppressed, grieved, pained. cpapio-Kco, fit, adapt, join, § 112. 13, 14. From the simple theme AP£2 come F. apo-oo, Aor. 1 rjpaa, apcrai, etc. (§ 101. n. 3.) Aor. 2 rjpapov (§ 85. n. 3) ; whence is formed the Present, and thence Impf. dpdptaKe Od. £. 23. — With the causative sense (cause to suit, adapt) the theme API2 unites also an immediate sense, viz. the intransitive to suit, fit close, § 113. 2. This intransitive sense alone is found in the Perf. 2 as Present, apapa, Ion. ciprjpa,* Part. Fern, epic dpapvla, § 97. n. 3; and occasionally, though more seldom, in the Aor. rjpapov. — Synonymous with ap-qpa in sense, is the Perfect Pass. dpr)pepai,\ formed after the analogy of the Fut. apeVoo. This Future itself however, as well as the forms derived from it (see dpecrKco), has the special signification to adapt one's self, please; into which also some of the above forms occasionally pass over, as II. a. 136. Soph. El. 147. — The Part. app.evos suitable (Od. c. 234) is the svncopated Aorist, § 110. 8. apeo-fca trans, gratify, intr. please, § 112. 14, Fut. dpeaco, Perf. Pass. rjpecr/JLcu, Aor. rjpiadrjv. — MID. content myself. This verb comes from APQ, of which dpecrm is the old form of the Fu- ture, § 95. n. 15. This Future assumed exclusively this special signi- fication, and then the other tenses and a new Present were formed from it. apvvficu, related to alpoj as Trrdpvv/JLai to irralpco, k 112. 15, stands instead of a'ipop.ai in certain special significations, earn, acquire by labour, as wages, booty, etc. The other tenses, i. e. all but the Present and Impf. come from the radical theme : Fut. dpovp-ai, Aor. 2 r)p6p.vv (cipovro, dpoipnv).% apiraCfjd seize, rob, has in the Attic writers F. dpirdaco and apira- cto/jLcu, jjpTrafca, fjpTrdaOrjv, etc. In the koivo'i, or later writers, it has dpird^co, rjpTrdyrjv, etc. Homer has both formations § 92. n. 4. A.PQ see dpaplaicco and ape'o-Kco. avfjco and av^dvco increase, § 112. 11, Fut. av^tjcrco. — Pass, with Fut. Mid. increase intrans. § 113. n. 5. — Another epic Pres. is AYP-. To this root, with the general signification take, belong the two following compounds :§ 1) diravpaco take away. From this verb occur in the poets solely the Impf. (with Aorist signification) dnrjvpov, and Aor. 1 Mid. dnnvpap^v (from AYPQ). Besides these are found the two following Participles, formed by a peculiar anomaly of the vowels, and closely related in sig- nification to the above forms, viz. Part. Aor. 1 Act. d-novpas, and Mid. (with Passive sense) dirovpap-evo^. 2) liravpiaKoiiai have advantage or disadvantage, enjoy, see § 112. 14 ; Fut. €7ravpr)aopai, Aor. eV^updp^y, enavpeardaL, and in writers not Attic enavpaadai, $ 96. n. 1 marg. — The earlier poetry employed also the Active form; as Aor. 2 irravpov Pind. Pyth. 3. 65, Subj. eVaupco, Inf. tTravptiv or iiravpep-ev. The Present eVaupeco, derived from these, is found in Hesiod. * In Od. e. 248 the trans. &prjps is a false reading for apaatrev. t In Apollonius, where apr)pd/j.evos is a false reading for ap-qpep-evos. Corap. aicv- Xe/icct and opcoperai, also § 111. n. 2. X Comp. II. C 446, with touch, feel, whence Part. depoavra, d'Kpacpocov-, Mid. dpcpacpocovro Horn. An Ion. secondary form is d(pdcra(o, Aor. fjcpdaa, Imper. adpacrov Hdot. depvacra) draw, as water, etc. F. dcpvtjo), Aor. 1 fj(f>v. This theme appears under four different significations : 1) blow, Impf. aov (Apollon.) commonly arjp.i q. v. 2) sleep, Aor. ao-a and aWa § 112. 6. Iu/. deVai Horn. 3) satisfy , satiate, Fut. aVco, Aor. ao-a, j&i/". aa-ai ; Mid. aaeaBai, ciaa- aOai. Hence in Pres. Pass, drai, and hy doubling the vowel aarat (Res. a. 101, as Fut. see § 95. n. 12). Inf. Act. apevac Horn, contr. from depevat for cieiv. Verb. Adj. drdV, and hence with a priv. aaroy (Hesiod), contr. ctros (Horn.) insatiable. — To this verb is also reckoned the Subj. form icofiev (or eco/xev) with neut. or mid. signif. II. r. 402, as if from edco. See Lexil. and Spitzner Exc. 31. — See further the marg. note to ddco and comp. AA-. 4) injure; in this signification it is exhibited above, as contracted from ddco q. v. acopro see a'tpco. B. 3aivco go, § 112. 10, Fut. ftijaoficu Pf. j3e/3r)/<:a. — Aor. 2 or sync. €/3r)v, like ecrTTjv ; thus, efirniev, re, crav, Subj. ftco, Opt. $aur\v, Imper. f3r}6i, (compound Kardfia, as in larTj/ni) {3rjr(D, Inf. /3f}- vcu, Part. /3a? fiaaa ftdv, § 110. 6. — Some compounds have also a Passive ; e. g. TrapafiaivcD tra?isgress, Perf. Pass, irapafiefta- fJLcti, Aor. 1 Pass. 7rape/3d9r]v. — Yerb. Adj. /5y (§ 110. 10) are in this verb xurfrequent, except in the dialects and poets. — In the Aor. 2 Homer has the short forms : j3dv for i'^aav (§ 110. n. 1, 5), fiaTTjv for €J3tjtvv, vnep^acrav for vnepe^crav. The Aor. Mid. (as Act.) occurs also in the epic writers, but fluctuates in form: i^o-aro or ij3r](reTO (§ 96. n. 9), Imperat. firjaeo. — For fieopai, see below in its place. This verb has also the causative signification, cause to go, conduct, but only among the Ionics and poets. The Fut. Act. (3r) is partly to go (/3ao-/c' Wi), partly to bring (esn/Sao-Ke/xey) J the usual secondary form /3tj3d- £(o is only causative, with Fut. Att. BdWco throw, cast, $ 112. 6. § 110. 11, Fut. ftaXco and sometimes fiaWijcTG), A. efiakov, Subj. (3dXco, etc. Perf. /3e/3\7]Ka, Perf. Pass. Piphnficu (Subj. see § 98. n. 9) Aor. 1 Pass. i/3\r)67)v.— MID. From a syncopated Aorist (eftXrjv, see $ 110. 6, 7) come the epic forms : Aor. £v{x8\t]tt]v (3 Dual), Pass. eSXijTo, [SXrjcrdai. Opt. BXtiprjv, 3Xe?o, etc. °28 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. $ 114. Suoj. jQAj^erat for (SXrjrjTai ; and thence again a Future avp^hrjo-opai. — Tha Perf. Pass, takes also in epic writers the form /3e/3oA?7/zai, as if from BO- AEQ.* — The Plupf. ifisfSkrjKeiv has in epic writers the sense of the Aorist (did hit), e. g. II. e. 66, 73; comp. Batvio, ifiefirjiceLv. 3apvva> burden, § 112. 19, Perf. Pass. fSefidprmm Plat, from /3apicD. From the same form Homer has Part. Perf. Act. fieftapeoTa, -ore?, with intrans. signification; § 97. n. 7. pao-rdfa carry, F. {Boardo-a), etc. takes ill the Passive the other formation, e. g. i/3cwTd^07]v, § 92. n. 3, 4. BA-, (Biprjfu, (3daKco, /3t/3a£co, see j3aiVoo. fieopai or /3et'o/xai, a Homeric Future, J $AaJJ /ire, which may be regarded either as a really irregular Future (like uiopai, or like k«o, /ca'oo, see /ceT- juat § 109. II.), or as a Subjunctive used for the Future (§ 139. n. 5), in- stead of fiecopai. It is also doubtful, whether it belongs to an old verb BEIQ (whence perhaps (3lo?, /3idoo) ; or whether the Passive form of the verb jScuVco assumed the secondary sense to walk, i. e. live; in which case fteiopat corresponds to the Active form (3eico Subj. for /3£>. fiid&ficu force, subdue, Depon. Mid. is used also as Pass. § 113. n. 6. The Ionics have the form in dopat (§ 112. 9), Inf. fiiaaOai, Imper. (3i5>, Aor. e^irjo-aro. Homer has also Perf. Act. fiefiirjKe. l3c6pcocTKco eat, § 112. 14, Fut. {j3pd)(ro}xat), Perf. ftiftpoofca, etc. The Fut. first occurs in late writers ; both Fut. and Aor. are usually taken from the synon. iaBlca. The Part. Perf. (3e(3podKoo? is sometimes con- tracted, comp. § 110. 10; hence Soph. Antig. 1010 |2f/3pG)res\ — Epic Aor- ist e/3pcoz>, § 110. 6. — The Homeric fiefipwdois belongs to a derived verb with an emphatic sense, viz. fie(3pd>8co devour. /3i6(o live, Fut. ^tcaaopiai, Aor. i^lcoaa, comm. Aor. 2 i/3loov, fica)- vai, Part, ftiovs, (Siovrra, neut. doubtful. Subj. ftico, &<;, etc. Opt. Pi(prjv § 110. 6, Perf. fieftiwfca (Pass. (3ej3icoTai piot Dem.) Pres. and Impf. are usually from £r\v. — The forms fiiuxTKoptu and dva- (BiGo&Kopcu have both the intransitive and transitive signification, e, g. in- trans. revive, Plat. Phaedo. p. 72. c, d: trans, animate, vivify, id. Onto 9. — In the latter signification only it has the Aor. 1 e[3ia>crdp.rjv (Od. S-. 463. Plat. Phaedo. p. 89. b) ; in the former, the Active dvafii&vai is usual. jSXacrrdvco sprout, § 112. 11, F. /3\acm](Ta>, A. ejSXacrTov, ^Xaarelp. ftkooafcco go, § 110.' 11- § 112. 14, has its forms as if from MOAO, Aor. epoXov, pokftv, poXcov, Fut. poKovpai. Perf. pepfiX&Ka (by § 19. n. 1 for pepXcoKa) as if from MAOQ, from which the Present (SXuxtkco has arisen. The Pres- ent jLtoAeco is doubtful. Sodoi cry out, Fut. fiorjaopai (poet, and later fiorjo-co), among the Ionics always contracts orj into co,f Fut. (3dxropai ; it then draws back the accent, Aor. e/Scoc-a ; and takes or in the Aor. Pass. e^aaBrjv. But Part. Perf. fiefiapevos Hdot. BOA-, see /3dXXco and j3ov\opai. (36cTfcco pasture, § 112. 6, Fut. ftoa-tcrjacD, etc. — MIT). /3ov\o/jlcu will, desire, § 112. 6, Fut. fiovktfcrofjLcu, Perf. fiefiovMj- * The old root of this verb had e, (comp. repveo rcLpvca, rpeVo) Tpctirw, and ovceAAcy below,) as is shewn by the derivative /3eAos and especially the verbal fieAer-qs in licaTTjjSeAeTijs. Hence BOAEH, § 112. 8 ; and also, by the metathesis BEA, BAE, the forms )8e/3A7]/ca, fi\dfj.r)u, etc. § 110. 11. t That this is the correct representation is shewn by a comparison of the Ion verb /3a>0eu/ for $ot\0£v help. Comp. voea> below. $ 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 229 fiai, Aor. i/3ov\i]d7]v, r)(3ovXrj6r)v, ftovkrjOfjvcu. For the aug- ment see f 83. n. 5. Homer has also a Perf. 2 7rpo(3ej3ov\a prefer. — In Homer and in the old language generally, the first syllable was also short ; in which case it is written with o, as fiokeade, § 5. n. 3. ptpaxe'tv, eftpaxov, an epic Aorist, crash ; different from /3pe^eii/ steep, /3pe ye~ a6ai, ^pexOrjvai and fipaxqvai, to be wet ; § 113. n. 5. I3PO-, see /3t/3pa>crKco. BPOX-, a root signifying to gulp, whence in Homer Aor. 1 Karaj3p6$ete, dva(3p6£€ie, Aor. 2 Pass, dvafipoxtv. ftpvxdopai roar, Depon. Pass. The Perf. Act. fiefipvxa (§ 112. 7) has in the poets the same Present signification; comp. prjicdopai and pvKaopai. — For the Perf. peppvxa H- P- 54 ; see Lexilog. JJ. 85. ftvveco stop up, § 112. 10, F. ftvaa), Aor. efivcra, Perf. Pass. fiefiv- o-ficu. r. yajxeco marry, from TAMfL \ 112. 6, Fut. also y&fiia, ya/bico, Aor. 1 eyrj/ia, yrjficu, etc. Perf. yeyd^Ka, etc. — Mid. enter into mar- riage, take as wife or husband. The form iyajjurjOriv (whence Theocrit. has yafjLedeiaa) is simply Passive. The forms yaprjcrco, tydprjcra, "belong to the later Greek. — Fut. Mid. ya~ /ueVo-erat II. i. 394, has a causative signif. give in marriage, yeyoova, a Perfect with Present signification, I call, proclaim. Most of the other forms, however, are made as if from a Present in co or eco derived from this Perfect : Inf. yeycoveh, Impf. iyeyavevv (for -eov) 3 pers. iyeyco- vei, but also (iyeycove) yeycoi/e ; which form consequently occurs as Pres- ent, Impf. and Aorist; see § 111. 2. TEN-. This root, which corresponds to the Latin gigno, ge- nui, unites in Grreek the causative signification beget, and the immediate or intransitive be born. The forms are anomalously mixed. In the Active, only the Perfect yeyova is in use ; all the other forms, in both significations, belong to the Middle- Passive. So far as usage is concerned, the whole may be re- ferred to a two-fold form of the Present : 1) ye Ivo fiat refers only to literal birth. In the Present it is po- etical, be born and beget ; in the Aor. 1 iyeivdfirjv only transitive, beget, bear, both in prose and poetry. In this last signification the regular verb yevvdw is elsewhere used. 2) yiyvofiai old and Attic, comm. ytvo^at, h 112. 13 and 6, F. ryevrjcroficu, Aor. 2 eyevo^v, yeveaOat', Perf. yeyevrj/jbai, or with Active form, yeyova', forms not Attic are iyevrjOrjv, yevrjOrjaofiat All these forms are throughout intransitive ; not only in the lit- eral sense be born, but also and more frequently in the general sense come into existence, fieri. "With this connects itself the signification to exist, to be, so that eyevo/jbrjv and yeyova serve at the same time as preterites of elvai. Where however yeyova can be translated as a Present, i" am, it has always the more special sense I a m by birth, or I have become, etc. 230 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. § 114. For yeyova there is a poetical form (ye-yaa) PI. 1 yeydfxev, 3 yeydaaiv, Inf. yeydp.ev (for -avai) Part. yeyaoi?, via, Att. yeycos, a>cra, cos (see § 110. 10), as it seems, from TAQ; hence also the older form yeydneiv in Pindar for yeyrjKevai ($ 111. n. 1).* — The form eyevro, yevro, in Hesiod and Pindar is syncop. Aor. for eyevero; see also the following article. yevro, he seized, an old verb in Homer, from which only this form occurs. — In other poets this form stands simply for eyevero, eyevro ; see the pre- ceding article. yevco let taste. Mid. taste. Perf. Pass, yey evfiai ; but Verbal Adj. , etc. Opt. yvolrjv ; Imper. yvwOi, yvcorco, etc. Inf. yvcovat ; Part, yvovs, yvovaa, yvov, Gr. yvovros, h 110. 6. — Perf. eyvco/ca, Perf. Pass, eyvuxr^ai, Aor. iyveoaOrjv, Verb. Adj. yvocxJTGS and yvwros. In the causative sense fo persuade (§ 113. 2), which the compound awzyiyiwKco takes particularly among the Ionics, it forms the Aor. 1 dveyvoDo-a. yodca bewail, Aor. 2 eyoov, II. £ 500. See § 96. n. 5. § 112. 7; yprjyopea), see eyeipco. II Ti2N-. see yeycova. AA-, Sa/co. The forms which belong to this root, have four principal sig niiications : divide, give to eat, burn, teach. 1. Scuoo cut, divide, distribute, has in this form and signification only Pres. and Impf. and is solely poetic. To the same sense however be- long, as Depon. Mid. the Fut. 8daop.at, Aor. e8aadp.rjv, which are also used in prose; and the Perf. 8e8ao-p.aL with Passive sense (am divided, cut), whose 3 Plur. follows, for the sake of euphony, the root cWco, viz. debaiarai ; see 112. 9. — The Pres. 8areop.ai (see below in its place) stands in the same relation to these forms, as ivareo\iai to irdcrao-Bai ; § 112. 6. 2. §aivvp.i § 112. 15, entertain, give to eat, Mid. haiwp.ai feast, revel, consume, (2 pers. Impf. baivvo, § 107. m. 37,) forms, after the analogy of § 106. 8, 12, its tenses from cWg>, which however never has this meaning in the Present : Fut. dai'o-co, dalo-ofiai, etc. * The anomalous yeyddre (Batrach. 143. Horn. Epigr. ult.) can be explainea from the Present-Perfect yeyaa (-dare for -are ; but see Lexilog. I. note or addition to Art. 2. 1) ; hence also ettyeydovrai Hymn. Ven. 19S ; this last by a new anomaly as Future. \ 114, CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 23 J 3. Saiio has also in the Present the sense burn, kindle, set on fire. In the Perf. Se^a (§ 97. 4. § 113. 3) it has the intransitive sense of the Mid. Satofiai bum, be on fire, Aor. 2 (idaopt]v) 3 pers. Subj. SdyTai.^ 4. AA£2 unites the causative sense teach, with the immediate learn, In the first, only the Aor. 2 occurs, edaov or dedaov (§ 83. n. 10), to which the Homeric Se'Sae helongs. But in the latter sense, learn, there is found, Perf. (8e§aa) deddaai, dedaas (§ 97. n. 7), Aor. Pass, iddrjv (strictly was taught, i. e. learned, § 100. n. 9) ; whence the new Perfect 8eddr]Ka (§111.3) or deddrjpai, Fut. darjaopai. — From 8e8aa, as from a Pres- ent, is derived (6Voacr#ai) beMacrdai become acquainted with, search into, Horn. No other Present form occurs from this solely poetic verb, in either sense; but the usual Stoaovcco is evidently derived from it; see below. To this root belongs also the epic o^co, S^eis, etc. an anomalous Future with the special signification I shall find. f SdfcvG) bite, from AHKI2, F. S^o/iai, Pf. 8i8r)%a, etc. Aor. eSa/cov, Ba K elv, * 112. 10. dajj-dco see under Select. 8ap6dvG> sleep, § 112. 11, F. hapOrjao^at, Pf. BeSdpOrjfca, Aor. e&z/>- #cw, BapOelv. For edapdov a poetic form is ebpaOov (§ 96. n. 7) J and the compound with Kara, in the Aorist, passes over sometimes into the Aor. Pass. KareddpOriv, Karadapdei? fallen asleep. This form may be considered as Aor. 1 for ihdpad-qv (comp. Ketcdpdat for -cr6ai, and irepdai in nepOm) ; or also as the sole example of an Aor. 2 Pass, with the characteristic B-; § 100. n. 9. dareopai (see Sato 1), Aor. 1. Inf. SareW&u Hesiod e. 795. See § 96. note 1, and comp. aXiopai. bearcu, see doarai. || bel, see Sea). || Set'Sco, see Seicrat. SeUvv/M point out, § 107. § 112. 14, Fut. Se/f*>, etc.— MID. The Ionics form Fut. degee, eSe^a, oYSey/xai (aVoSede'x&u), see $ 27. n. 3. The Mid. SeUvvpai has in the epic writers (II. t. 196. Hymn. Apoll. 11) the signification salute, welcome, drink to; and consequently this sig- nification belongs also to the Perfect with Present sense deLSeypai (for dedeiypai) 3 PL SeiSe^arat, 3 Sing. Plupf. as Impf. 8e[8eKTo.X — Rarer forms, all of similar signification, are deimvdopai, deiSiaKopai and dedlo-K.op.ai ; not to be confounded with 8e8io~o-op.ai, beidto-aopai, frighten, fear, from oV/crat. EelcraL fear, Innn. from Aor. 1 eBetaa, Fut. Beiaoiiai. The Perfect takes the signification of the Present, and has two forms, of which the alternate use depended on euphony, hehoiKa (§ 97. * The intransitive sense burn, flame, is assigned to the Present form 8cua> merely from a misunderstanding of the passage II. e. 4, 7. Comp. II. cr. 206, 227 ; and especially II. v. 316. where this verb occurs in three forms : ^778' ottot av Tpoirj p.a- Ae/>w Trvpl SdrjTai (intrans.) hawjxevr] (Pass.) Zaiatxi (trans.) 8' 'Aprjioi vhs 'Axaicou. x Comp. ks(o) under Kup.ai § 109. II. Both are old Futures in the form of the Fut. 2, from AAX1, KEfl ; and are consequently instead of Saeco, Keeca (§ 95. n. 16), with a contraction of the first two vowels, as in the Gen. /cAelbs (from /cAeeos) for KAeous; see § 53. n. 5. t Many refer the form SeiSe/cro to Sexo^ai, because the meaning receive, welcome, is thought to come more easily from this. But the primitive idea is unquestiona- bly that of offering the hand ; and Sei/ccw probably signified originally simply to stretch out the hand • from which likewise SeKOfiai, Se'xo^at, are very naturally de- rived. Comp. SeiSoiKa, SeiSia, where the redupl. 8e* occurs in like manner, because the radical syllable is also Set. 232 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. § 114 n. 1), and SeSZa. From BeSia come syncopated forms: SeSi- fjuev, SeBtre, 3 PI. Plupf. iBehicrav, and 'in the Imperat. BeStdi § 110. 10. The epic writers have also 8ei8oiica and deidia (comp. the preceding SeideKTo) ; so also 8e r L8ip.ev etc. and the still more syncopated Pari, 8ei8v7a (in Apollon.) Hence arose a new Present 8ei8u>, which occurs only in these poets j but to which all the above forms were formerly referred. In Homer the Aorist is always found written ebdeiaa, which is the only example of a mute doubled after the augment.* The epic poets employ 67co, Impf. %8Xov, in the sense to fear, and also to flee, II. x- 251. From this the causative signification (§ 113. 2) is cause to flee, frighten away. It is however singular, that Homer expresses this idea only by means of the Passive form, 8ieo-0ai, Subj. 8i<£>p.ai, etc. In another form Sirjfii, on the other hand, the Active signifies to hunt, chase [iv8Ucrav II. ar. 584); and the Pass, to flee, run (dUvrai II. y\r. 475). The Infin. hUa-Qai can belong to both these forms, and has also both sig- nifications ; II. [i. 276, 304. AEK-, see beUvvfii and bexo/xat. &e/KO build, Aor. eBeifiq, Perf. 8e8pr]Ka, etc. § 110. 4, 11. — The form 8e[pop,ev in Homer is syncopated Subj. Aor. see § 103. m. 39. In the common lan- guage olKobofieoo is used for this verb. — MID. The same theme furnishes also the tenses for 8ap.d(£> subdue, tame. § 112. 7. Pf. 8ed[xr]Ka, Aor. Pass. e8p.r)6r]v and i8dp,r)v. — The forms 8apa and Sanaa are both Present and (Att.) Future; 3 PI. Sa/xoWiv II. £. 368. In prose the usual verb in this sense is the regular 8apd£<$. — A strength- ened Present-form in epic writers is 8ap.vdco, 8dp.vr)p.i, 8dp,vaa8ai ; but only in Pres. and Impf. § 112. 16. bepKo/xai or Perf. 2 SeSop/ca see, catch a view of, Aor. eSpanov § 96. n. 7 ; also edp&Ktjv and i8epxdr)v, all Active. Seyopcu ta&e, receive, Ion. 8eKop.ai, Fut. 8e£op,ai, Aor. ids^dp-qv, etc. In the same tense occurs also Aor. sync. (e8eyp,r]v) 3 pers. e'Sejcro fte £oo&, In/. hexOai. The Perf. 8e8eyp,ai in epic writers has also the signif. J expect. In this its special present sense, which the Pres. Se^opat never has, this Perfect exhibits the peculiar anomaly of dropping the reduplication ; e. g. 3 Plur. bexarai they expect, Part, 8eyp.evos, also Plupf. (as Impf.) i8eyp,rjv, which first pers. never occurs in the sense I took, i. e. as syncopated Aorist; see § 110. 8, and marg. — Here belongs also the epic 8e8oKrjp.£vo?, waiting, lurking, II. o. 730, comp. 8. 107; see § 112. 8. Seco bind, Fut. S^W, see § 105. n. 2. § 95. n. 4 —The Fut. 3 Se- Brjo-oficu (§ 99. n. 1) takes the place of the Fut. 1 Bedijo-oficu, which is not Attic. — MID. A Present form diBrjfii ($ 112. 15) is implied by the forms : 3 Plur. beacri Xen. and 8[8rj, bibevrav, Horn. Seco fail, be wanting ^ h 112. 6, F. Ssrfcro), is usually impersonal : hel it is necessary, one must, il faut ; Subj. 8iv, Opt. Seoi, Inf. Betv, Part, heov, Fut. Serjcrei, etc. — The Pass, heo/jbai, hey or Beet (not contr.), Belrau, is always personal, I need ; Berjcro/nai, iBetj- 0rjv, § 113. n. 5. The contraction into ec in this verb was sometimes resolved, even by the Attics, in order to distinguish it from the preceding verb ; e. g. Isocr. * Dawes, in Miscell. Crit. p 168, has shewn that the true cause of the long syl- lable, by which this orthography was occasioned here and in viroddeiaacra, aSSee's, lay in a misapprehended Digamma after the 5 (dv). S 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 23fi Busir. 2 loaovrov Beets, and in Xenophon often 8eerai, beeadiu. — ^)n the other hand Homer has drjaev II. o\ 100; but also another peculiar form devojAdi, devrjcrojAai, edevrjcrev. AHK-, see bdnvco. II &)co, see AA-. SiSda/cco teach, § 112. n. 8, loses the a in conjugation : F. ScM^co, Pf. SeSlBa^a, etc. In the poets also BiSao-Krjaoy. It comes from zM/2 ; comp. the note under dXvatcco. — MID. SSpaGrKO) run away, \ 112. 14, occurs only in composition : airo- hihpdaKw, SiaBi&pdcnceo. From APAfL comes Fut. Spdaofiac, Perf. SiSpdfca — Aor. sync, ehpdv, d?, a, d/xev, are, 3 PL eSpdaav and eBpdv ($ 110. 6 and n. 1), Subj. $pw } a?, a, etc. Opt. Spal- t]v, Imp. BpdOi, Inf. hpdvai, Part. hpd$. The Ionics have r] throughout : didprjaKoo, bprjaop-ai, edprjv, etc. — This verb must not be confounded with dpdoo, see below. bi£r)fj.cu seek, § 112. 15, a form from a verb in jut, retaining the 77 in the Pas sive, § 106. n. 3; Fut. 8i£r](rop.ai Horn. diKelv, edtKov, cast, a defective Aorist, Eurip. Biy\rfjv, see § 105. a. 5. || St'co, Sfy/xi, see delo-ai, || AME-, see Se/ico. Soarcu or hearai [bearo)\, it seems, Aor. SodcrcraTo, Subj. hodcrcreTai (-rjrai) Horn. See Lexil. II. SoKeco seem, appear, think, h 112. 6, from AOKI2, F. Sogco, etc. The Perf. is from the Passive form, heho^fiai have appeared The regular formation (W^crco etc. is poetic. — The epic dedoKijfievos see under Se^o^iai. hovTveco give a heavy sound, fall, Perf. bebovna (§ 97. n. 4. § 112. 6), Aor. edoimr](ra and iyhovir-qaa from a form rAOYII-, which stands in the same relation to dovTreon, as KrvTreca to rwrco. dpape'iv, 8e8pop.a, see rpe^co. || APA-, see diSpdaKO). opaa> <&?, $c£, regular F. Bpdcro) (a), etc. hence Perf. BeSpa/ca, like Perf. of Bihpdcrico}. Pass, sometimes with and sometimes with- out cr ; e. g. BeSpd/iai, Behpaafiai, hpaaOefc, § 112. 20. Biwafiai can, am able, § 112. 15 ; Pres. and Impf. like XaTayuai ; 2 pers. Pres. hvvaaau, poet, and later Sw>#, p. 184. marg. For the Subj. and Op£. see § 107. m. 32 ; and for the augment, h 83. n. 5. — Fut. Svvrjcro/Mu, Aor. rj^vvrjOr^v (also iSvvdaOrjv), Perf. Se8vv7]jicu. Verb. Adj. Svvaros possible. In Homer this verb is commonly Depon. Mid. and has dwrjcraro instead Of edwrjOrj, $ 113. 11. 5. Sua). This verb divides its forms between the immediate signifi- cation go in, enter, and the causative enwrap, immerse, h 113. 2, The Pres. Act. Bvco has the latter, enwrap, immerse, and retains it in the Fut. and Aor. 1 Act. Svcrco, eBvcra, Pass. i8v- Orjv, $ 95. n. 4. The MID. Byo/mai, wrap myself up, Svaofiau, iSvadfjLTjv, passed over into the intransitive (immediate) signi- fication, go in, sink, go doivn, etc. which however again takes a transitive relation, e. g. to put on sc. clothes ; comp. § 135. 4. The significations thus belonging to the immediate sense, connect now with this Middle form the Active forms of the 231 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. § 114. Perf. SeSv/ca and Aor. 2 (« 110. 6) eSvv, Subj. Svco (II. p. 186. Plat. Cratyl. p. 413. b) Opt. Bvrjv,* Imp. SvOl, Svre, Inf. hvvai, Part. Sw9, Svo-a, hvv, G-. SiWo?. To these is still to be added a new Active form in the Present, hvvco go in, $ 112. 10 ; which, together with the Aor. ehvv, is preferred to the form hvoyuai, iSvcrdfirjp, in certain connections and in compounds. Such is the general outline of the usage in this verb ; the modifications arising from the different turns and shades of the signification, especially in the compounds, are left to the lexicon and to observation. — The Aor. Mid. idvadjjLrjv has in the epic poets the secondary forms ebvaero, idvcreo, Imperat. Svaeo, for which see § 96. n. 9. Here belongs also the Part, dvaopevos with Present signification, in Od. a. 24. Hesiod e. 382. — From 8vvio Herodotus forms also dweovai, § 112. in. 5 ; and late writers an Aor. 1 edvva. E. idcpdrj or ia etc. Aor. 1 Inf. eXarcu, eVAcreu, Part. eXaa?. Perf. Pass. eeXpai, .Aor. Pass. i&Xrjg, Inf. dXrjvai or dXrjfievai, Part. aXei?, (all which forms fluctuate in the editions between the rough and smooth breathings) ; comp. eardX-qv, araXrjvai, from crreXXco. From the same root (EA12 or EAAQ) with the simple meaning press, impel, thrust, comes also iXavvm (see in its place) ; and hence in the special signification, beat, lash, occurs likewise the Aor. eXaai in Homer, e. g. Od. e. 132. — Here belongs also (by § 112. 8) the Pluperf. iokrjTo was pressed, Apollon. 3. 471. — See on all these forms, Lexil. II. 88, and 76. 7. eipaprai see MEIPOMAI. || ei/u and elpi see § 108. IV. V. elirelv to say, § 112. 18, an Aor. 2. Indie, elirov (epic eearov), Imperat. elire (compound irpoetire, see k 103. m. 4). This Aor. is more usual than the Ion. Aor. 1 elira (§ 96. n. 1), Imper. elirov, incorrectly elirov, see Excurs. I ad Plat. Meno. The Attics however use both eliras and elires equally ; and employ the forms elirare, elTrdrco, etc. by preference. With this Aor. 2 are closely connected in usage, the Fut. ipo> (Ion. epeco) from elpco, which Present is employed by the poets ; and also from 'PEfl, the Perf. etprj/ca ($ 83. n. 3), Perf. Pass, elpinpuai, Aor. Pass. epp^Orjv and eppe6r)v, (not At- tic elprjdrjv, elpeOrjv,) pr\6r\vai, prjOefc ; Fut. 3 elpr\o-o\iai as com- mon Fut. Passive.^ — Verb. Adj. fareo?, pifros. * The Grammarians further increase the themes of this verb with e'pc'oj, on ac- count of e'tpriKa; but this word (ipsco) is either a regular Fut. from e'ipec. or a Present fn the sense to ask, interrogate ; see ipeaOai below in its place. But since PE& unde 236 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERES. $ 114. As the Present of this verb the Greeks employed (fa fit, as mentioned above in § 109. 1. 2 ; and in some phrases also dyo- peveiv (properly to speak before an assembly), e. g. iccucm dyo- peveiv Tivd, natcm elirov. In most compounds dyopevco is always employed ; e. g. aTrayopevco I forbid, amelirov I forbade ; in some Xeyco, e. g. dvriXeyw, avrelirov. The poetic Imperat. eo-nere comes from a secondary form with , synonymous with e:, relv ] to which {rjvKrirov) evicnrov may be referred as Aorist ; since a Pres. Indie, ivta-iron does not occur, ^ and the Inf. has the circumflex, eVt- cnrelu Od. y. 93. Fut. evto-Trrjcroa or eViS/z'co.t elpyco shut out, exclude, F. elp^co, etc. — But eipyvvpLi with the rough breathing, shut in, include, F. eup^co, etc. $ 112. 15. The old and epic language has for both significations epyoo or eepyco (eepyov, iepyvv, iepyjievos). Hence 3 Plur. Perf. eep^arai, and without' aug- ment epxarai, are shut in, Horn. eipoo, see elneiv and ipeaOat. — In the signification join, connect, lenity it is a separate verb ; Aor. 1 elpa (Hdot. 3. 87 i^eipa? exserens), Pf. Zepfiai (on account of the Digamma, see § 84. n. 6), Part. iepp.£vos Horn, ipjxevos He- rod. 4. 190. €ia>6a, see e#co. iXavvco drive, $ 112. 10, F. iXdcrco (short a), etc. Pf. eXrjXaKa. Pass. Pf. iXrjXafiai, Aor. rjXdOrjv, Verbal Adj. iXaros ; in later writers eXrjXacrfiaL, rjXdaOrjv, iXacrro^. The theme e\a&) is rare in the Present ; on the other hand iXw, iXas, iXa, etc. Inf. iXav, constitute in prose the Attic Future, $ 95. n. 12. See also elXco, eXo-ai; and for iXrjXddaro see § 103. m. 24. marg. note. — For I\rp\dp.evo? (proparoxyt. e. g. Arat. 176) see § 111. n. 2. EAEYG-j EA©-, see epxpfiat. iXicco draw, takes the augm. ei (§ 84. 2). Fut. eX£a> and cAkWco § 112. 7, Aor. el\£a and efKKuaa. Pass, only et\K.vcrp.ai, eikKvaQ-qv. — MID. e\7rcD cause to hope, eXnopai hope, (epic eeX7rouai), Perf. eoXna the same with e\7Top.ai. Plupf. as Impf. ecohirtiv, $ 84. n. 6, 9. EA-, sec ei'Xco. 'EA-, see oupeco. || Ikva, see eiXuco. ENErK-, ENEIK-, etc. see cpepco. || everrco, see etVeu/. hr]voBa, an old Perfect, which presupposes a theme ENE012, EN0S2 ; iirevi]- vode, Karevrjvode, is, sits, lies on any thing, Homer. See § 97. n. 2, and comp. dvr]vo8a above. niably belongs among the themes of this verb,.on account of ipp-ftdriv, pr\p.a. ; so a]so e'lprjua is most naturally referred to the same theme, after the analogy of ejX??0a, el/jLapTcu, § 83. n. 3. * II. A. 839 and Od. i. 37 iviffww is Subj. Aor. f The eir, and Aor. 1 rjpei^a, etc. — Plupf. Pass, ipepmro epic, instead of ep-^pmro, § 85. * The explanation of this form is. not without difficulty. According- to some ZffiTov and t^xov (from e%w) have arisen from syncope (like e?rAe, eVToV^j/, itt4 (F. e£a>) at the same time passing over into zo-rrov, ia-ir6p7]j/. The first of these changed the rough for the smooth breathing, because of the fol- lowing aspirate, tcrxov; in which form, and misled by the close analooy 5 usao-e came to regard the strictly radical e as a mere augment, and formed the moods ac- cordingly, (rx«, o"%eiV, etc. The same analogy was now followed, without the like reason and merely from the close resemblance of the whole form, by the Act. %, draw, has the v short in flexion. Fut. also epvco, Mid. epvo- fiai II. A. 454; see § 95. n. 12. Hesiod, however, has (e. 816) the Inf. elpvpcevai (short v), after the formation in pi. — In the epic writers the MID. ipvop-ai passes over into the signification rescue, deliver ; in which some critics, where the syllable must be long, still write the v with one o- (elpvcrciTo), as being originally long; while on the contrary in the sig- nification draw, they write it with double cr (epvcrcraTo), as being origin- ally short. But since it is also found short in the former meaning (e. g. II. 8. 186. x- 351), and the significations often run into one another, the lengthening of the v is in all cases more correctly marked by era. — On the other hand, the secondary form pveadai, which signifies only to rescue, has among the Attics long v, eppvaaro ; but in epic writers this also is short (pvcrdp.T]v II. o. 29), and should consequently be written, where the syllable is long, with crcr, eppvero-aro, pvcrcraro ; which, however, is com- monly neglected. — Finally, there is also a secondary syncopated form (§ 110. 5) epvcrOai, eXpvcrOai, and pvcrdai, usually with long v, epvro (once epvro Hes. S. 304), e'lpvro, elpvarai, pvaro, etc. This syncopated form be- longs almost exclusively to the meaning rescue, guard, except Od. x- 90 eipvro drew ; and must not be confounded with the Perf. and Plupf. Pass. of the theme epva, viz. etpvpai, have been drawn. — See further Lexilog. I. 18, with the additions in Vol. II. epxofiat, go, § 112. 18, from EAETOfl, Fut. iXevaofiac, Aor. fjkv- 6ov, comm. rjXOov ($ 110. 4), Subj. eXOco, Inf. iXdelv, Imperat. eX6e, etc. see § 103. m. 4. Perf. eXr)Xv6a. Verbal Adj. iXev- (TT60V. The Perf. in epic writers has the form el\r)\ovda ; for the augment »o k 84. n..l. Also 1 Plur. with syncope eiA^Aou^pey, § 110. 9. For the Doric rjv8ov, evBelv, see § 16. n. 1. d. Further, it has already been shewn m § 108. V", that instead of tin- § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 239 other moods of the Present epxopai, which very rarely occu r, those of elpt are far more usual, especially in the compounds; so that in ordinary usage this verb is made up thus: Pres. epxopai, Subj. uo, Opt. 'loipt, Imp. Wi, Inf. Uvaij'Part. Icov; Impf. §ew or 97a, Perf. eXrjXvOa, Plupf. eXrjXvdeiv, Aor. rjXdov, Inf. eXOelv, Fut. elpi. tadrjpevos' Ionic, r) hate, only in the Pres. and poetic. Hence a MID. (£%0d- voyuai) anreyQavopbai am hated, h 112. 11 ; F. aire^Qr^oybai, Aor. rjyfiofJbijp, anTi}ydoiir)v, Inf. with anom. accent anrkyQecrQai ; # Pf. air^Oijfjiat am hated. e%o> have, § 112. 17, Impf. el^ov, Fut. ef&> with the asper h 18. n. 4. — Aor. eay^ov (see above in eirco and marg.) $«#/. crx^ '® 03 ' m compounds irapdcrxpv. — Hence a new Fut. Gyjqcrai, Perf. eayjqica, Pass. Pf. ecr^/^at, Aor. 1 iaxWrjV.— - Verbal Adj. e/CTo? and crx eT °s> From the Aor. cr^eli/ there has come also another secondary form of the Pres. to-^co, which is preferred in certain special significations, (as fo ZioM, check,) where also the Fut. o-y^o-co properly belongs with it.f — An old Perf. from eyo) is 6'^coKa; II. j3. 218 avvox^<6re.X * A Pres. a-rrexdo/jiai is nowhere found ; see Ausf. Sprachl. t The I in the Pres. iVx*? stands in the place of a reduplication like that in (jlI}jlj/oj, ttltttw, precisely like the t in 'iffTi)p.i, except that in iVx^ the rough breathing went over into the smooth on account of the x- t This is sometimes derived from OXOH, and oXx^ Ka ( see o?xop-ai) from OIXOH. But the true derivation appears from a comparison of the subst. oKooxh- The sim- plest Perf. from ex« is o'x«, and with augment &x a \ so a ^ so from OIXH — cpx a - With the Attic reduplication both would become in the nmiql mflnnPi- 'A*,.,-** ■#*.*. 240 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. $ 114. Homer often uses a lengthened Aorist-form ecrx € @ ov {^ n f- o"X e ^«w) in the emphat. signif. to hold fast. But it is hardly advisable to assume a Pres. o-xe&o ; see Ausf. Sprachl. § 112. n. 15. The following anomalous compounds of e^co are still to be noted : avkyp. "When the Mid. avkyeaQai has the signification en- dure, it takes the doable augment in the Impf. and Aor. rjvev- X°M V > r)v6ayo[irjv, § 86. n. 4. dfjureyw envelope, wrap around, Impf. djjbirelyov, Fut. dfju^e- goo, Aor. ryinTiaypv, aiimiayelv* — MID. a/juire^ofjiai or aybiri- cr %v o v [A a i, wear, have on, F. d^k^oyLai Aor. i)ybiTi into £coco by doubling the sound (§ 105. 11. 10); and hence arose a new Ionic formation: ^bco, ^coeir, £a>ere, e£ etc. Aor. 2 Pass. efu- ^(ovvv/jll gird, § 112. 15, Fut. facrco etc. Perf. Pass. efocr/uLai, more certain in earlier writers than efafiai (Thuc. 1. 6), Aor. e§». o-^.f— MID. IT. f){3da?cG) come to manhood, pubescere, § 112. 14; Aor. rjfirjaa came to manhood, from Pres. rjftda) am in the prime of life. ijyeofxai lead on, suppose. The Perf. rjyrjixai has sometimes the Present sig- nification, to regard, hold as, e. g. in Herodotus. Pind. ciyv^ai lead on. rj/xai, see § 108. 2. || ^lu, ^v, see 4>rjfj.i § 109. I. 4. T]fxv(£> bend down, sink. Hence is best derived the Homeric vneiivqixvKe (II X- 491) ; i.e. we can assume that when a verb began with a long vowel, Xa; (for the t from dixoi-i-ai would naturally stand only once, as in SeidtKro :) but since of two aspirates, the second can likewise be changed instead of the first (§ 18. n. 1), there arose also the forms ox<*>xa, of%»/ca; and these were afterwards retained for the sake of perspicuity. — Also the Homeric iirci!>xaro were shut to (II. fx. 340, eomp. oxeus) may be explained, by transition from d>xa, 2>y/j.ai, as 3 Plur. Plupf. Pass, of eVe'xw. * The i belongs therefore in the Aor. to the preposition, ^'/xTn-crxof, inasmuch aa the Aor. takes the augment, at the beginning, § 86. n. 2. On the other hand, &,u7r itrxvovnai like \i^-Lvvjxos. fjTrdopai, rj era do pat, am vanquished, only Passive. — The Ionics have a form in oca, e. g. iaaovpai, Aor. io-croiOrjv. § 113. n. 5. e. 0AN-, see -Sb^cr/cco. Suopai regard with wonder, behold. From this earliest main theme, somrs forms of which are preserved in Homer and in Doric writers (3do~6e, &rj- vao-dai, Dor. SdaraaQat,, Imp. Sacrai, Sao-dpevo? Theocr.) arose two other themes: 1) Baeopai Doric, Srjeopat. Ionic; 2) The common Sedopat, Fut. Sedcropai, Ion. Serjo-opai. In Herodotus is found also the form iOrjrJTo (§ 105. n. 16. marg.) though commonly with the various reading ed^elro. Verbal' Adj. ^arjros, S'tjtjtos; Searo?. As to the signification, Homer (to whom the form Sedadai was unknown) has only the idea admire; but la- ter writers use all the forms in the simpler sense behold. — This verb must not be confounded with 0AQ suckle; see below. ^dirrco burp, Aor. 2 Pass, irdcprjv (§ 18. 2), yet Aor. 1 i0ds, G. otos, § 97. n. 7 ; and in Homer also retfj/etcor, G. S>tos. Sopelv, see ^pcoovcco, || &pdcrcra>, see rapdao-co. 6PE$-, see Tpecfxo. || 0PEX-, see rpex, see § 18. n. 2. § 95. n. 4. I. tSpuco se£, j}Zace, has in Homer (and also in the later writers, ol kolvoI) Aor. 1 Pass. IdpvvdTjv, as if from'lAPYNO. With this compare § 112. 10 ; also dp.TTvvv6rj under ttv£ and IdvvTara § 115. n. 6. T£g>, /codify), seat, seat myself; Mid. seat myself; Fut. Att. Ka0i in both significations, § 112. 11. — The affinity of the three verbs KaOLfa, Ka8egop,ai, and Kadr)p.ai, is manifest. We may here bring together for the current prose all the forms connected with the ideas to set and to sit, in the following manner: KaOl^ui comm. I set, seat, F. kclOlg), Aor. eKdOicra; ica0L£op,ai I set or seat myself, F. Ka6i£rj- aop,ai and Ka8e8ovp.cu, Aor. eKa6e£6p.r}v ) Kadr)p,ai, I sit, Impf. it, iadvo)), Perf. rj/coo, Plupf. tjkov, Aor. d(piKop,r]v, Fut. j^co. It is further to be noted, that the Pres. t'/cco has i long; and hence, in the epic language, all the forms belonging to this Active, (and these are solely Pres. and Impf.) occur also only as long. But the form iKop-rjv is Aor. 2, and has therefore as to its root a short i, which in the Indie, only is made long by the augment ; while in epic writers, who can neglect the aug- ment, it is therefore sometimes long and sometimes short; but in the other moods (iKecrBai, iKoip.r]v, etc.) it is always short. The derived form LKava, on the other hand, has in the Pres. short i. — The Part. 'Up.evo? (Aor. sync. § 110. 8) is a doubtful reading in Soph. Phil. 495; others lyp,€vois. — For anix-arai see § 103. m. 22. IXdcTKopac expiate, § 112. 14, Fut. Zkacrop.ai (short a) from the less usual tk&fiai § 112. 15, for which Homer has also l\aop.ai II. j3. 550. — The Active has the intransitive sense be propitious ; hence in the poets Imperat. 'ihr}6i and l\adi, Subj. and Opt. Perf. (as Pres.) ikrjica), ikrjKoipi. i7TTap,ai, see irerop,ai. || io^/xi, see § 109. III. 4. || 'ia-\w, see e^co. ! 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 243 K. KAA-. 1) KeKaafiai., K€Ka8p.ai, see Ka.Lvvp.ai. 2) KeKadetv, Fut. rjaeiv etc. see kt]8(o and x^C" 3 ' Kade£o[iai, naOevbco, Ka.6rjp.ai, Kadifa, see e£bficu, euSco, r)p.ai, t£co. Kaivvfxai am distinguished, surpass all; here belongs the synonymous Pcrf. KeKacr/Jiai, Dor. K*Ka8p,at ; with which comp. also paiva, pdcra-are, eppdSarai. (Perh. from Kabvvp.ai by § 112. 15. d.) fcalco burn trans. Att. k&cd (long a and without contraction), F. /cave-Co etc. § 95. n. 9. In the Pass, the Attics have Perf. /ce/cav- jxai, Aor. 1 i/cavOrjv ; in Horn, and late writers is found also Aor. 2 etcarjv (short a). Verb. Adj. tcavo-Teos, KavaTos, kclvtos. Comp. fc\CLLG). The epic writers have also an Aor. 1 without ^ Gren. otos and cotos, $ 97. n. 7. KaraTrpoL^adai, Ion. Karcnrpotgeo-Oai, a defective Fut. in the common phrase ov /cara7rpoi|ei, you shan't get off free, followed by a participle. tcavd^cus; see ayvvpn. II Kelfmi, see § 109. II. K€Kacpr)6?, a defect. Part. Perf. Act. from the root KA<£- in Homer, gasping for breath, as one dying- § 97. n. 7. ice\op.ai call, command, § 112. 6, F. Ke\r)cropat, etc. — Aor. €Keic\6p.r)v (k€k\€to) § 110. 4. b. — But exXeo see in ^Ae'co. KevTefa prick, regular. But Homer II. -^. 237 has the Jw/. Aor. 1 Kevacu § 112. 6, from the theme KENTQ (whence kovtos pole). (cepavvvfii mix, or Kipvdco, /cipvrj/M, old and epic Kepdco (h 112. 15, 16), Fut. fcepdcro), Aor. ifcepacra with short a. In the remain- ing forms occurs the metathesis (§ 110. n. 7) with long a, as Perf. Ke/cpa/ca, Perf. Pass. Keicpafiai, Aor. 1 i/cpd07)v, Ion. Ke/cpr]- fiai etc. Still we find also KeKepaafxai, ifcepdaOrjv. Homer has in Aor. 1 also Kprjcrai. Od. 77. 164. — Further, the accent is to be noted in the Homeric Subj. Kepavrai II. 8. 260 ; which implies a form Kepapai after the analogy of § 107. m. 32. Comp. Kpep,dvvvpi, Kpep.apai, Subj. Kpep.(op.cu. Kephaivw gain, among the Attics regular (Aor. Kephdvai) ; in Ionic and many later writers KepSrjo-oficu, iicepfyaa, etc. Perf. /ce/cep* &r)fca Demosth. and K€Kep$a/ca p. 145. marg. 244 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. $ 114. Kevdo) cover, hide, regular. Aor. in Horn, (eaevaa) imKevcrrjs, and (envdov) nvde, KeKvdaxri. Perf. kskcvOu as Pres. II. %. 118. In tragic writers both Pres. and Perf. intrans. am hid. Kea>, see Kelfiat. and kcuco. fa;Sco make anxious, § 112. 6, Fut. kj^S^ctco ; ktjSo/xcu and KeiajSa am anxious; whence the Homeric Fut. KeKadfjo-ofxai (II. £. 353) with short a for rj (like reOrjha, re&iAvia), Imperat. Aor. Mid. /cqSecrcu for -?ia-ai iEschyl. Kivai/co and Kixdvop-ai, reach, attain, find, § 112. 11, Fut. Kixwopcu, Aor. e«- xrjerd^v. — Aor. 2 sklxov. — Further, it takes a secondary form of the Impf. and the dependent moods of the Pres. from KIXHMI, which in most cases leaves its rj unchanged ; eKixvp-zv, eKixr)Tr]v. — Subj. (kix^>) /ayetco, Opt. ki- X«V» Inf. Kixnvai, Part. /ayeis 1 , kixw^vo?, etc. § 112. 15. — For the quantity see § 112. n. 6. KLxprjfii, see XP" 00 - Kt'co go, occurs seldom in the Indie. Present ■ but so much the oftener in the poets in the Impf. eiuov and the dependent moods, e. g. kloljxl, Part, kivv, which has the accent on the last syllable without being Aorist, just as Icov from a/it ; of which verb in general the above are to be considered as secondary forms (I£2, KIQ). — The epic pereKiaOov see in § 112. 12. Kkafyo sound, cry, k 92. n. 3, F. KXdy^co etc. Pf. KeicXayya, the same with the Present, § 113. n. 13 j hence Fut. /ce/cAay£co and KeicXdygo- fiai. — The poets have, without the nasal sound, Aor. eickayov Pf. KeKkr^ya. Part. K€KkrjyovT€9, § 111. 2. — But e/cXa^a see under /cAeuo. fckaicd weep, Att. tcXaco (long a and without contraction), F. kXclv- aofjLcu or KXavcrovpiaL, Aor. eKXavaa k 95. n. 9, 17. — Less fre quent is the Fut. fc\cur]crco or tcXcnjcrco. — The Pass, fluctuates between the formation with and without fM7]v see Ausf. Sprachl. § 98. n. 17. Hence Fut. fcefcrrjcrofiai, shall possess. But Aor. efcrrjOrfv is always Passive ; see § 113. n. 6. fcrelvco kill, slay, (Att. secondary form /ctlvvu/lli,) Fut. KTevw etc. § 101. In good writers the Aor. 1 efcreiva and Perf. 2 etcrova are more usual than Aor. 2 e/cravov and the non- Attic Perf. 1 €KTa/ca and etcTayKa. Instead of the Passive the Active of ^vtj(tkco is in common use ; e. g. direOavev vir avrov. Homer has also a Future Kravem (see Ausf. Sprachl.) and the Mid. of this form as Passive, II. £. 481 KaraKraveeaSe. Besides these there occurs the poetical Aorist (§ 110. 6, 7) eVrai/, ar, a, 3 Plur. %ktov for -aaav, Subj. Kreco for ktg> (§ 107. m. 41), Inf. Krdpev, urdpevat, for /cravat, Part. kto.s, Pass. eKrdprjv, KTapevos, KraaOai, all with short a, by § 110. 6. 7. Homer has also Aor. Pass. eKrddrjv and eKrdvBiju, § 101. n. 6. Besides the above Perfects, there is still a form i/cTovrjica (§ 112. 8), whose Attic character is doubtful. icTipevos; see § 110. 7. KTvneoi resound; poet. Aor. 2 zktvkov § 96. n. 5. §112. 7. kuXii/Sco roll, later kiA/co, Fut. kiA/o-co, Aor. eKvXicra, Pass. Perf. KeKvXicrpai, Aor. €kvXlo-6t]v. Mid. Kv\iv§ea6ai Horn, also nvXivdelo-Oai from Att. kiAh/- decc. For the various secondary forms, e. g. (aAiVSco) egaXlaai to let roll sc. a horse, as also the derivatives, see Lexil. II. Kvvico kiss, § 112. 10, from KTfl, Fut. awo), Aor. e/cvcra, with short v. The compound irpoaKvveco prostrate myself adore, is usually regular ; but in the poets also Trpoo-Kvaai, etc. — Another verb kvco see in its place. * Aristoph. Vesp. 298 KpefioLtrOe, see § 107. m. 34, and comp. (iapvolp.r)v. t It is just the same in English with the forms hung and hanged. 246 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. $ 114 Kupeta find, hit upon, is regular ; "but has also a secondary form Kvpa (long v) § 112. 6, Depon. Kvpopai, Impf. e. \afA/3dv(D take, § 112. 11, from AHBfl, F. Xrj-tyofiai, Aor. eXafiov, Imp. Xd/Se and Xa/3e § 103. m. 4 ; Pf. eDi^a § 83. n. 3 ; Pass. Pf. et\7]fjL/jbaL (poet. Xekrjfifiai), Aor. eXrjcfrdrjv. — MID. The Ionics formed XeXd^rjKa (§ 111. 3), and (from AAMBQ) Xdpyj/opai, eXdp(p8r]u, XeXappai, XapitTeos. XavOdvco, less often XrjOco, am hid, concealed, § 112. 11, F. Xrjcra), Aor. eXaOov, Perf. 2 XeXrjOa. — Mid. XavOdvoficu, less often Xr)6o- jjcat, forget, F. Xr\(Joyiai, Aor. eXaOo/ub^v, Pf. XeXrja-fiai. Homer has in the Aorist XeXadeiv, XeXadeadai ; the former however only as a regular causative of the Middle, make forget ; in which sense Homer has also the Pres. Xrjddvic, and also Aor. 1 iiriX^a-ev Od. v. 85. — In the Perf. Pass, the Ionics have short a, as XeXao-pai, § 27. n. 6. In the signif. to forget we find further iXrjadprjv in late poets, Xaa6ri - pev (Xrjadrjvai) Theocr. eiriXeSada Pindar. Aao-Kco mai« a noise, rattle, talk, (Ion. X^kccd Dor. Xa.Kea>) § 112. n. 8, from AAKJ2, Aor. 2. eXdicov, and as Mid. XeXaKoprjv (Hymn. Merc. 145), whence, according to § 111. 3, Fut. XaKrjaopat, Aor. 1. eXaK^cra.f — Perf. as Pres. XeXtim Ion. XeXrjica (§ 113. ii. 13) ; epic shortened form XeXaKvla, § 97. n. 3. Xdco, see X<5. II AErX-, see Xayxdvco. Xeyco in the signification to say has no Perf. Active ; in the Perf. Passive, XeXeyixai, eXe^Oijv. In the signification to collect, in which especially" several compounds occur, it has Perf. Act. el- Xo%a (avvelXoj(a), and in the Perf. Pass, most commonly eiXe- y/jLciL (§ 83. n. 3), Aor. eXeyrjv (e. g. KareXeyrjcrav § 100. n. 5) ; together with a MID. — Moreover haXeyoixat converse with, has also Pf. SieiXey/jbac, but in the Aor. ^leXe-^Brjv, Fut. hiaXe^ofiai, less often ScaXe^Orjcro/iaL. Homer has also the syncop. Aor. iXeyprjv joined myself, Od. i. 385; and XeKro counted, Od. 6\ 451; see § 110. 8. Different from this is the old poetic Xegai to lay down, let lie down, XegavOai to lie, rest, which along with this form has also the syncopated * The common orthography Kvavafxevr} rests merely on the seeming relation to tKixra from Kvvico. t The short a is found e. g. Aristoph. Pac. 382. The passage Aristoph Nub 410 lo ctAaxricrao-a) is different. * 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 247 Aorist ($ 110. 8) iXeyprjv, Xe/cro, Imperat. Xe£o and Xe|eo by § 96. n. 9. This verb however belongs to a different root ; see Lexilog. II. 78. 9, 10. XeXeixpore? lapping, playing with the tongue; a defective Part, in Hesiod; see Lexil. I. 1. p. 7, note. Ausf. Sprachl. § 110. n. 14. XeXiqpat. strive, hasten, an epic Perf. that seems to belong to AIAQ, but cor- responds to none of the significations of that root. The suggestion is therefore probable, that it stands for XeXiXrjpai, dropping the last X for the sake of euphony, from XtXaco, XiXaiopai, desire, strive* See Lexil. I. 21 AHB-, see Xapfidvcn. I! XfjOco, see XavBdvco. XrjKeco, see Xao-Kco. II AHX-, see Xay^dvoo. Xly£e twanged, a defective Aor. in Homer. Xiao-opai, rarely Xiropai, beseech, § 92. n. 2, F. Xiaopai, Aor. iXiadprjv and eXtropiju; comp. eirerov and eVeo-co in ixmrai. Xovoj wash. In the Impf. Act. and in the Pres. and Impf. Pass, the Attics shorten all the forms which have e and o as the end- vowel and union- vowel ; e. g. 3 pers. Impf. e\ov Plur. ekovfiev, etc. Pass. Xov/jLcu, (\oveo) Xovrac etc. \ova6cu. Impf. iXovfzrjv (i\ov) i\ovro etc. Perf. Att. only XeKov^iai without vn, a Doric defective. M. aaivofiai am mad, furious, F. fiavovfjuai, Aor. i/jLavrjv, Perf. fii/jirj- va, synonymous with the Present. But the Aor. Act. e/nyva (Aristoph. Thesm. 561) has the causative sense to make mad, in which the compound ifCjjLaivco is more usual, § 135. n. 1. Theocritus (10. 31) has pepdvrjpai (§111. 3) with the same Present signification as palvopai. palopat, see MAO. || MAK-, see prjKaopai. fiavOdvco learn, k 112. 11, from MHOI2, Aor. efiaOov, F. /naOrjo-o- fJLCU, Pf. fjL€fjLa07)Ka, § 111. 3. The Fut. fiaOedfxat see in $ 95. n. 16. [xaneeiv, see papnTOi. pdpvapai strive, fight, § 112. 15, like larapai; only in the Present, and in Impf. 2 pers. pdpvao, § 107. m. 37. Opt. papvoiprjv, § 107. m. 32. p,dp7TTco take hold of, seize, F. pdp\jfco, etc. Part. Perf. pepapno)?, Aor. 2 (epapnov) pepapTTov, and syncopated (§ 96. n. 7) epanov, pankziv, 3 PL Opt. pepdnoiev. (Jba^o^ai fight, § 112. 6, F. fia^eaofjiac comm. /xa^odfiaL (§ 95. n. * Such sacrifices of analogy for the sake of easier pronunciation are not uncom- mon in the earlier formation of a language. A case similar to the above is the poetic word tKirayAos striking, terrible, which unquestionably comes from iKirXayrj- vcu , not however by transposition, but with the ending Kos (§ 119. 13. e), for e/c7r\o- yAos. In like manner irveAos stands for irAveAos from irAvw, ttAvvu. 248 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. § 114. 15, 16), Aor. e/jLa%€ad[ir)v. Pf. fiefia^fjiaL. Yerb. Adj. fjua^ereo^ and fJba^rjTeo^. From the Fut. arose the Ion. Pres. paxeopai; and Homer has not only pax^topevos, but even paxeovpevos, all as Present. — For the sake of the metre the epic writers have Fut. paxwopat, hut Aor. epax^o-o-aro.^ — For the non-Att. Aor. epax^crOnv see Ausf. Sprachl. MAQ an old verb, which occurs chiefly in three forms, viz. 1) Perfect as Present, strive, (pep a a) pepdaai, pepacos (Gen. pepacoros and pepaoTo?), and with syncope pepapev, pepare, 3 PI. Plupf. pepaaav, § 110. 10 sq. 2) Present Middle, p.a>pai, desire, seek, pcd>pevos, contracted from pdo- pai) but the a remains predominant, and therefore e. g. Inf. paxrOai and Imperat. paeo (like pvcoeo from pvdopai, pvtbpai) ; see § 105. n. 10 ult. 3) Pres. Mid. paiopai touch, feel after, seek, § 112. 9: Fut. pdaopai, Aor. epaadpnv, with short a, especially in compounds ; thus in Homer the Impf. eirepaiero Od. i. 441 corresponds exactly to the Aor. inLpacradpeuos ib. 446. Comp. 8aia> MaaaOai, vaiio vdcracrOai. (leOvco am drunk, fjueOvaKOfiai get drunk, § 112. 14 ; Aor. e^eOv- crdnv from the Pass. The other tenses of the Active, except the Imper- fect, belong to pe6vaic, and dp-fipepai in dpaplo-Kia. fiivco remain, has in the Perf. iiefievrjKa § 101. n. 9. § 112. 6. — Yerb. Adj. fievereos. A poetic secondary form is pipva, § 112. 13. — From another MENQ, not extant in the Present, (whence pevos,) comes the Ionic and poetic Perf. pep,ova intend, purpose (comp. peveaLvo), which is related to pepaa ) comp. yey ova yeyaa.% * Some critics for the sake of uniformity write also iuax-fi^aro etc. contrary to the text which has come down to us. f In the earlier epic writers there is found only the 3 pers. eppope, and in most instances clearly as Perfect, like KeKT^rai, e. g. Od. e. 335 ; also in II. a. 278 it may be taken as a Perfect. The Aorist-form (e. g. epitopes Ap. Rhod. 3. 4) seems there- fore unknown to the early epic writers. t The lyric passage, Eurip. Iph. Aul. 1495, where fxefxova is Perfect of the com- mon fxeuoo, can prove nothing, isolated as it is, against the otherwise invariable usage, which prevails not only throughout the Attic poets, but even in the prose of Herodotus (6. 84). The two verbs must be carefully distinguished, even /? it be thought advisable to arrange them under the same etvmoloqv. § 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 249 METIO. pep-enpevos, see § 108. I. 5. fXT]Kdo[xai bleat, low, § 112. 7. Old poetic forms are Part. Aor. pdicnca>. pvfa murmur, grumble, whence inepvgav in Horn. — Not to be confounded with pv^co suck, § 112. 6, F. pv£r]o~<£> : nor with pvo~o~co {cnropvTrvi) F. [xvgco etc. wipe the nose. livKa.op.ai, bellow, roar, is to be noted on account of the epic forms tpvuov, pepvm, from MYKQ. Comp. prjKaopai. uvco shut, e. g. the eyes, has v in flexion, as pvaav II. co. 637; Karapvo-r] Aristoph. Vesp. 92; Perf. pep.vica shut the lips, be silent. — But the com- pound Kappvco has icappvo-ai Batr. 191. N. vai(£> dwell, § 112. 9, takes its tenses from the Pass, and Mid. of NAO with short a, F. vaaropai, Aor. ivdoS-qv or evao-dprjv, Perf. in late writers vkva- apai. The Act. evaaa (evao-cra) has the causative sense, cause to dwell. — A secondary form is vaierdco, vaurdaaKov, vaierdcoaa, § 105. n. 10. vaacTCD stuff, F. vd^co, etc. — vevaafiav, vclcttos. § 92. n. 2. vefjuco allot, distribute, k 112. 6, F. ve/nco and vefjurjaco, Aor. evec/ia, Perf. vevefir}Ka, etc. Aor. Pass. evefirjOrjv and evefjueOrfv. — MID. vecfrei, comm. avvvecpei, it is cloudy, Perf. o-wv£vo, atto-Brjv. oh/piiau depart, am gone, § 112. 6, Impf. (as Aor.) w-xp^v de- parted ; F. olyjqaoiiai, Pf. wyj)imi or Qiycaica, see the marg. note under e^co, o%cofca, above. Homer has also a>x 7 7 Ka > tFapw^Ka II. k. 252. — On this whole verb, see the Ausf. Sprachl. OI-, see oLoficu and cpepa). * According to the ancient Grammarians, the forms ol/xai, ynw, were employed only in cases of entire conviction ; where however Attic urbanity avoided, in this way, t /z6- drjv.— MID. dfiopyvvju wipe off, § 112. 15, Fut. b\xbp%w, etc. — MID. bvlvr)\ii* am of use, profit, S 112. 15, (like Ilctttj/m,) has no Impf. Act. but for it employs axfiikovv, and takes its forms from ONAI2, F. bvrjcrco, Aor. covrjcra. — MID. bvlvafiau have profit, am benefited, F. bvrjcro/iac, Aor. 2 chvtf/jLTjv (rjcro, rjro, etc.) or chvd^v, Opt. 6val/j,7]v, Inf. ovacrOai. — For the redupl. see § 112. 13. The Indie, chvdprjv belongs to late writers. In Homer however it comes from ovo[xai' } see the next verb. — The Aor. Pass. u>vr]6r]v also occurs, Xen An. 5. 5. 2. ovopai insult, § 111. 15. cj radical farm ONOO $» hence the Pres. and Impf. like didofJLai, viz. 2 pers. Sing, ovocrai, Opt. ovoiprjv, Imp. ovoa-o. — Fut. ovo- aofxat. Aor. av6o-6r)v and oivoo-dp-qv. — Homer has also, from the simpler form ON£2, 2 Plur. Pres. ovveaBe, Aor. covaro. bpdeo see, h 112. 18, Impf. Ion. copcov, comm. icopcov (§ 84. n. 8), Perf. ecopa/ca.f — Aor. elBov, Subj. lSco, Opt. Ihotfit, Imp. the Att. ISe etc. Inf. ISeiv, Part. IScov, Mid. elhbfiTjv, IhecrOau, ISov, and as Interjection IBov lo ! See elBco above. — Fut. o^opbai I shall see, from OUTH. — PASS. Perf. ecopafiat, or cbfifiac, ay^rai, cotttcu, etc. axfiOat. Aor. ot(f)07}v, bcpOrjvat (in late writers also opadijvcu). Yerb. Adj. bpareos, bparbs, oitto^. The Perf. 2 on con a have seen, belongs to the dialects and poets. — For 07ra>7j-ee see § 112. n. 5; and for oprjai (Horn.) see § 105. n. 16, with the marg. note. From eVo^o/zcu must be carefully distinguished the antique eirioyj/opat choose, select, Aor. enicoylrdp-qv. opvvpi move, excite, § 112. 15, from OP£2, F. opo-co, Aor. 1 copcra, § 101. n. 3. — Mid. opwpai arise, come into existence, Aor. topop-qv, 3 Sing, copero and atpro (§ 110. 8), Inf. opOat, Part, oppevos (for opecrdcu, opopevos), Imp. opcro and opaeo by § 96. n. 9. — The Perf. 2 op co pa belongs to this intransitive * The Inf. ovivdvai is probably to be read in Plato Rep. p. 600 ; Part, dvivacra (not ovivaffa) Plato Phileb. p. 58. t In Attic poetry the Perfect, and this only, was shortened at the beginning ; and according to traces in the manuscripts, as often in the later vulgar language, was written and pronounced kopaKa. See Jtusf. Sprachl. I. § 84. n. 12. p. 325. 252 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERF° § 114. and immediate signification, have arisen, exist; but the form apopev (§ 85. n. 3) is Aorist (e. g. Od. r. 201) like fjpapev, and has also like that form more commonly the transitive and causative signification, he excited. — With the Perf. 6'pcope coincides as to sense the Passive form opaperai ; comp. above apvpa, dprjpep.ai, in apapiaKco. — Finally, Homer has also forms of the Pres. and Impf. from opopac and dpeop.ai, hurry, move about, (Od. f. 104. /3. 398,) which however are not without difficulty; see the Ausf. Sprachl. oacfrpaivo/jicu smell, perceive by the smell, k 112. 11, F. bpr\ao- p.ai, Aor. a>cr(pp6p,r]v Ion. 6o~cppdp,T)v (Hdot. 1. 80, 26) by § 96. n. 1 and marg. Later, a(ppdv6r]v. ovX6p.€vos, see oX\vp.i. \\ ovvecrde, see ovop,ai. ovpeco void urine, F. ovprjcropbai, Impf. eovpovv etc. § 84. n. 5. ovrd(£> wound, F. ovrfjcra), etc. — Syncop. Aor. {ovrav § 110. 6, 7,) 3 Sing, ovra, Inf. ovrdp-ev (for ovrdvai), Part. Pass. ovrdp.evos. — Along with these exist also the forms ot»ra£cD, ovracre, ovTacrp,evos. ofetkco, 1) owe, e. g. money ; 2) ought, must ; $ 112. 6. — F. b$ei- \rjaw etc. The form a>cpe\ov, er, e, (comm. ocpekov,) occurs only as expressive of a wish; see Syntax, § 150. m. 20. — In Homer we find instead of dfeiXa also ocpeXka (II. r. 200), and for axpekov on account of the metre also axpeWov (II. £. 350) ; which forms must not be confounded with those of 6(peXk<£> increase, glorify. From this last verb Homer has in the Opt. Aor. 1 by anomaly, 3 pers. Sing. d^eKXeiev II. tt. 651. Od. /3. 334. 6\eiv, Part. ocpXcov. Comp. necpvcov. We find also accented ocpXtiv, e. g. Plato Rep. p. 451 and often. For axjAee see § 112. n. 5. IT. iraiCp play, jest, F. Tral^ofjuat, irai^ovpbai. We find after this formation in late writers also enai^a, ireiraiypai etc. but good Attic writers always have errato-a, 7reTvaujp,ai etc. notwithstanding the similar tenses of the following verb. iralod strike, § 112. 6, F. iraiaco and Tracr/aco, but the other tenses come only from the first formation : eiraicra, irkiraiKa, irkirai- orfjuai, 67raia6r]V. — MID. 7raAAco swing, brandish, Aor. 1 Trrj\ai, etc. Sync. Aor. Pass. TrdXro § 110. 8 ; Act. dp.7reTra\cov Horn. § 83. n. 10. — Here belong also the Homeric forms dvenaXro, KarenaXro, (not dvendXTo,) e. g. II. S. 85; but eTraXro, Kareivak- p.evo?, belong to a\\op.aL, II. v. 603. A. 94. See Spitzner Exc. XVI. LTAP-, Trenapelv, see in rropelv. TrdaaaGat, acquire, eTrdo-dfirjv, Pf. ir^ap-ai (Xen.) possess; — different from eVa- (idp.rjv, TveTvaafxai, see 7ra.Te0p.cu. irdcrxco suffer, § 112. 18, from UH&fl, Aor. eiraOov ; — also from IIENOfl, Pf. nreirovOa, Fut. TrelcrofMao according to the rule $ 25. 4. — Verb. Adj. iraOriTos. From U.HQQ comes also 7reiradvla (Horn.) and the doubtful forms Trrjao- pat., enrjaa. — For jreTroo-Be instead of 7re7r6vdaT€ see § 110. n. 5. JJ7T7W0-CO, See TfKr](T(T(i>. k 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 25*3 Tra.Teop.ai taste, eat, § 112. 6, Aor. e7racrdpr)v, Perf. Tveirao-pai : comp. dareopai^ ddaaadai, under 8aia>, and Trdo-aaOai above. iravco let cease, stop, F. iravcrco, etc. Mid. cease, Perf. ireiravixai, with Fut. 3 nreiravaoijuai ivill cease. Pass. Aor. iiravOrjv and €7ravcr07]v. Verb. Adj. always Travareo^. . The Imper. 7rat)e stands often for Travou cease. — In Od. 5. 659 pvrjo-Trjpas is to be read in Acctis. 7T£i6co persuade ; Pass, believe, obey ; to which signification be- long also R iretcro[jLai, Pf. irkireiaixai. But Perf. 2 irkiroiQa trust Poetic forms are : 1 PL Plupf. eiremOpev belonging to nevoida § 110. 9 , for the Imper. iveTteivQi in iEschyl. see Ausf. Sprachl. Aor. 2 enidov, iiri- 6opev, ireirtdov, for eiretaa) and Mid. erndoprju for eTvelo~6r}v etc. — Hence a new formation: F. 7rcdrjo-a>, Aor. iirL6r)(ra (§ 111. 3), in the signif. o6e7/, £r«s £ / it en: idrjcr<£> persuade . ireivrjv, see § 105. n. 5. II rreia-opai, see 7racr^;co and ireWa. 7re/cco, 7re/creco, epic neUoo, shear, comb, F. 7re£co, etc. — MID. 7reXa£o) 5 old 7reAaw, approach, epic secondary form niXvrjpi, § 112. 9, 16, and in the earlier language cause to approach, has also in the poets the Aorists formed by metathesis (TreAa, 7rXea, § 110. n. 7), viz. eTrXdQrjv (long a, falsely iiikdcrOr^v), and enXrjprjv, nXrJTo, both in the sense approach; Part. Perf. iv€irkr]iievos . — Another secondary form is 7reXdda> (a), or with long a, rrXadio, § 110. 12. Whether also 7rXd£<», which occurs twice in Homer {npocreTrka^, Trpoaiikd&v) in the signification approach, while TreXdfa in Horn, is always cause to approach, is a secondary form of this verb, is doubtful ; since it can also be referred to nXdfa, F. 7rXdyg pass over, cross over, regular nepdaco with long a (Ion. nepr}o-a>). But the formation 7repdcrco etc. with short a, in the epic poets, belongs to 7rL7rpdaK(£> sell^ which see in its place. TrepSco, comm. 7rep8opai, Aor. enapfiov, Fut. Trapftrjcropai, Perf. Treiropfta. irepOat desolate, destroy, Aor. errpadov § 96. n. 7. — Homer has also a synco- pated Aor. Pass, with Inf. ivepOai (as from eirepOp-qv), strictly izepB-Qai (or TrepaOat) like bi x -^h k HO. 8. and n. 3.* necrelv, see ttIittco. Treaaco, irerTO), boil, bake, cook, h 112. 17, F. ire-^jrco etc. from 7re7TTw, which occurs in the Present only in late writers. freravvvfu, secondary form TUTvaco, ttltvthjli, h 112. 15, 16, expand, * Lobeck derives this very anomalous form by metathesis from the kindred theme irp£a> (Aor. iirpiixr}v — eitep^v), irp^Oa); see Lob. in Ausf. Sprachl. II. p. 19. 254 CATALOGUE OP IRREGULAR VERBS. $ 114, F. irerdcrco, Att. irerw, etc. — Perf. Pass. ireirrdjuaL § 110. 4; rarely ireireTacriiai ; but Aor. Pass, again eireTaaOriv. 7reTO{iatfly, § 110. 4. § 112. 6 ; from this theme comes by syncope an Aorist eirTo/Jbi^v, irreaOai, Trrofjuevos, etc. Fut. Trerrjoroiiat comm. nTTrjo-ofxai. Along with these exists also a formation in fit, § 112. 15; Pres. I irrapb at, Aor. iTrrdfjbrjv, TrrdaOat, irrd- /jlevos, etc. and from the entirely obsolete Pres. Active of this formation, comes another Aorist eTrrrjv, irrrjvat, irrd^, etc. syn- onymous with the two former, k 110. 6. The forms of the Pres. Trerapm and nerdofiai., with the Aor. ineTacrBrjv (e. g. Anacr. 40. 6), belong to the poets and the later prose. As Perfect, only 7re7r or^cu seems to have been in use. The poets employed also the Pres. TroTa.op.ai) irwrdopai, § 112. 9. IIET-, see 7ri7rrco. |] 7T€v8o[xai, see irvv6dvo\iai. Trecfjvov, errecpvov, I hilled, the reduplicated and at the same time syncopated Aorist, § 110. 4, from ENQ (whence (TnpnKav, efjLTwrXav) is not good Attic, except in those instances where it occurs also in Ho-TTjfLi.. For the Passive Aor. ijv\r]prjv, Opt. 7rXeip.r]v,-\ Imp. tAtjo-o, etc. see § 110. 7. It was not unknown to the Attic language ; Aristoph. ipiik-qpevo^ ipTrX^iprjv. From the intrans. 7r\rjd(£> there occurs as a poetic Perfect, TreTrkrjda with the like meaning, am full. 7rl/jL7rpr)fu bum trans. Inf. irtfiirpdvat, § 112. 15 and 12, declined in the Pres. and Impf. like torrjfii. The rest comes from IIPAfl or irprjOoy (Horn.) e. g. Perf. TreTTprjcr/jLat (more certain than 7re- * That iricpvwv is really Aorist, is clear from the connection in the two passages,- II. 7T. 827. p. 539. Comp. 8cp\av. t The orthography irX-pp^v has no analogy. Instead of ei, one might indeed have expected the diphthong at; since the form iripirXavai presupposes a theme riAAfi. But in the same manner xph, which comes from xp™ (see below), has also in the Opt. XP^V 5 ant * a t l ieme nAEH (Lat. compleo) is implied in the form -iriu.Tr\f.vcrai ot Hesiod, &. 880. $ 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 255 7rpr)/jLcu), i7rpr)a6r]V. — "With epmlirprnii, heiripnrpap,ev, the case is the same as in irlfjuTrXiifu above ; and so also with the for- mation in day, from which however Xen. has iveirlfnrpzdv, Hell. 6. 5. 22. The shortened form eirpecre for errprjae in Hesiod (-9. 856) is to he re- marked ; since the analogy of iiripirpapev would lead us to expect here an a. — A rare secondary form is jrprjdco; II. i. 589 evetrprjOov. ttlvcd drink, h 112. 18. from ITI/2, Fut. irlopbai (95. n. 18), Aor. eiriov, Trielv, etc. Imp. comm. ttWl (h 110. n. 2), poet, irk Od. t. 347. — All the rest is from IIOS2 ; as Perf. irknrwica, Perf. Pass. ireirofiai, Aor. Pass. iiroOyv. Yerb. Adj. irorioq, 7toto9. The i in iriopat is commonly long (see Athen. 10. p. 446) • but in emov etc. short. — The Fut. iriovpai belongs to late writers, ^95. n. 16; the Pres. niopac (l) occurs in Pind. 01. 6. 147. The forms 7riVco, eVicra, have the causative sense give to drink, and he- long to the Present ttltt'lo-kco, § 112. 14. TTiirpdaKco sell. Ion. 7TL7rprjcrK(D, epic secondary form irkpvrwxi, \ 112. 14, 16. Fut. and Aor. wanting. The forms in use are : 7re- irpdKa, Triirpaficu, eirpdO^v, F. 3 irerrpdaoiiai instead of Fut. 1 7rpa6}j(To/LLcu, which is not Attic ; and in like manner the Perf. ireirpaaOai very often stands instead of the Aor. irpaOrjvai. The Ionics have all these forms with 77. The common language^ supplied the tenses still wanting, by means ot anodcoaopat, aire§6pr]v. The old and epic language had Fut. rrepdaai with short a, and hence contr. 7repa>, nepav, Aor. eVepacra, from 7repaco, which we have seen in its place above in a kindred signification, and with long a in flexion. From this 7re pdaai arose afterwards the other preceding forms by the metathesis mentioned in § 110. 11. 7. — An isolated form is 7re7T€ prjpevos instead of Treirprjpevos, II. s, § 110. n. 6. The latter im- plies an original Perf. form neTTr-qua (from IIETO like dedprjica from depot) , whence TveirraiKa has been formed with an alternate vowel (§ 27. 1) ; see Lexil. I. 63. p. 295. The regular forms of the Aor. from IIETi2 also occur ; as Aor. 1 enecra Eurip. Troad. 291. Alcm. 465; Aor. 2 enerov in Doric writers, e. g. Pindar. Comp. XiWopai. niTpeco fall, Aor. eniTvov § 96. n. 5. § 112. 6. — But iriTvaoa, Trlrvrjpi, is the same with Tverdvvvpi. irXd^co cause to wander about, Pass, wander about, rove ; F. nrXdry^o) etc. § 92. n. 3. IIA-, see 7reAc0. || IIAA-, 7rX^co, see TreXd^m and TrlpTrXrjpi. irXeco sail, F. TrXevaofiat, irXevaov/iao, i 95 ; Aor. eirXevcra, etc. Pass. ireirXevapbai, eirXevaO^v, Yerb. Adj. irXevaTeos [airXev- oto?). An Ionic form is 7tXcocd, TreirXaKa, etc. Hence Verb. Adj. nXcoros, and the epic (syncopated) Aorist eVXcoi/, or, co, wpei/, etc. Par£. 7rXa)r, for whioh see § 110. 6 and n. 1, 3 256 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. $ 114 ttXiJo-ctg), TfkrjTTw, strike; rarer form ifkr^vvpa. It retains the r\ in the Aor. 2 Pass. hfKffpiv, except in those compounds which signify to terrify, as i^eifKa^v, KareirXd^v, Fut. iK7r\ayrjao- fjuu. — In the signification to strike, the Attics never employ the Active of this verb, but instead of it ttcltcujgw ; which lat- ter they never use in the Passive. The Perf. 2 irerrk-qya has in later writers also a Passive significa- tion, § 113. n. 4. Homer has likewise the Aor. 2 Act. and Mid. but with the reduplication, Treiikqyov, ireTrkr)y6pr)v. Trvecd bloiv, F. 7rv6vcrofiaL and irveverov/JLcu, Aor. eirvevaa, etc. Perf. Pass, ireirvevcrfjiaiy Aor. eTrvevcrOrjv. Yerb. Adj. irvevaro^ (S-eo- TTvevaTos). The Perf. Pass. TreTrvvfiai (§ 98. n. 4) is merely poetic, with the special signification to be animated, intelligent; hence by some it is not derived from 7rveo), but compared with ttivvtos. After the same analogy occurs also the syncopated Aorist uprnvvTo (Horn, for dvenvvro § 110. 7) ; further d/jL7Tvvvdr) for aveTTvvdrj, comp. idpvco, I8pvvdr)v j also the Imperat. apnwe re- cover thyself. 7rodea>, see § 95. n. 4. noveco, toil, suffer, F. Trovr)(ria\ but in the signif. suffer pain, F. 7roi/eo-co, Perf. 7T€7r6vr}Ka, § 95. n. 4. See also § 113. 2. iropelv (Hesych.) enopov gave, Part, iropav, a defective poetic Aorist. To the same theme, with the sense divide out, allot, belongs by metathesis (§ 110. 11) the Perf. Pass. 7reVpcorai it is appointed by destiny, Part. 7re7rpa>- [xevos. The Infin. Trerrapelv or Tvenopftv in Pind. Pyth. 2. 105, is better referred to a separate theme of its own, with the meaning to shew, cause to see. The former is the best orthography. See Bockh. IIO-, see 7rlvco. — ireiTocrOe, see 7racr^co. IIPA-, 7vpr]8u>, see 7TiTrpdaK(o and 7rip.7rpr]pi. irpdcrcrw do, fare, long a. For the Perf. see § 113. n. 3. nrplaaOai buy, § 112. 15, a defective Aorist (like e.irTdp,r)v), the forms of which are used only as Aorist of the verb wvelcrOai, viz. iirpid[Jb7]v, Subj. nrploopbai, Opt. irpiaipb^v, Imp. irpiaao, irptWy Inf. irpiacrQai, Part, irpidfievo^. IITA-, 1ITO-, see ireravvvpi, 7T€Topai, ttt^cto-co, and ttltttoo. TTTTjcra-a) stoop down, is regular. The form KaraivraK^v in JEschyl. Eum. 247, implies k as the characteristic. — In the poets there are a few forms from IITAI2; e. g. 3 pers. Du. Aor. 2 KaTairTrjTrjv § 110. 6; Part. Perf. TTeTTTrjtos. But -neTTTecos see in ntTrrco. irvvOdvofjiai inquire, perceive by the senses, learn, § 112. 11 ; from the poetic irevOopiai, Fut. Trevcrofjiai, Aor. i7rv06pbrjv, Pf. irkizvapuai. Yerb. Adj. 7revo-Teos. P. paiva sprinkle. For pdcraare and ippabarai see § 103. m. 24. pefa and epdco, do, § 112. 19, F. pz£a or (from EPri2) ep£co, etc. Perf. eopya. Pass. Aor. p€x^ vai - But €px^n v % eepyftat, belong to el'/ryco. peco flow, h 95. n. 9; F. fisvj-ojjbcu, Aor. eppevcra. In this Active $ 114. CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 257 signification however, the only genuine Attic forms are Aor. 2 Pass, eppvrjv, with the Fut. pvrjcro/jLai, and a new Perf. formed from this Aorist, viz. eppvrjtca, § 111. 3. C PE-, see elne7u. pijyvvfM tear trans. § 112. 15 ; F. prj^co, Aor. Pass, ippcvyrjv. — Perf. 2 eppcoya (§ 97. n. 2) with intrans. signification, am torn in pieces, § 113. n. 4. puyeco shudder, § 112. 6. § 97. n. 4; Perf. eppiya the same with the Present. plirTw and purreco, cast, § 112. 6 ; the characteristic is <£, $ 92. n. 1. In the Pass, and Impf. both forms are in use ; all the other parts come from the first form, as pu^rw etc. The i is long ; hence plirre, pl-tyai. — Aor. Pass, eppfyrjv (short v) and epplcpOrjv. piTTracrKov. poL^aaKe, see § 103. m. 11. 'PY-, see peco. — pvop,ai, see ipv^a>. (xda> an old form for o-fjdoi sift, whence a&ai in Herodot. I. 200. Secondary forms in the Pass, without or (o-earjixai, arjdets) for the sake of euphony, were derived from this form. affivvvfu extinguish, § 112. 15, F. crfticrco etc. Pf. Pass, ea-^ecrfiai, Aor. io-fieo-Orjv. — The Perf. eo-ftrj/ca (with tj), and the Aor. 2 e07}v s from the older form aaoco, i(raa>07]v. — MID. From o-adoa are found in epic writers : 1) The regular formation o-a aoaxriv. 3) The 3 pers. Impf. (eadov) and the Imperat. (adov) again contracted would form €o-&>, era) but the epic writers resolve these last forms into the double ' sound (§ 105. n. 10) ; yet not as usual by means of o, but with a, just as in vauTCLUHTa (§ 105. n. 10. ult.) ; hence 3 pers. Impf. io-aco, aaco, II. (p. 238. 7r. 363: Imperat. o-aoo, Od. v. 230. p. 595; instead of eVcofe and o-o>£e. § 114 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 25H T. TAr-, see TA-. II rakdm, see rXrjvai. ravvco stretch, takes a in the Passive, and has v short in flexion. — Fut. also ravvco, Od. (p. 174. ($ 95. n. 12.) Pass, epic rdvvpai. rapdaaco, ttq), disturb, has contracted secondary forms, viz. 1) Among the Attics the Present, Spdrrto, where r becomes S, and the vowel is made long ; hence Part. Neut. to Spdrrov. 2) In the epic writers the Perfect, but with an intransitive signification, rkrpr\xa am disturbed, un- quiet, where the Ion. rj takes the place of long a.% — MID. racpeiv and racprjvai, see #a7rrco and 0A-. TA-, the apparent stem of reivco, re'raica, etc. (§ 101. 9.) To a similar theme with the meaning lay hold of take, belongs the Imper. rrj take; kindred with which (from TAro) is the epic Part. Aor. 2 redupl. reraycop, taking hold of. See Lexil. I. 41. p. 162. TEK-, see rUrco. Tefxvco cut, § 112. 10, F. re/jbco, Aor. erefiov. — The further forma- tion is (by h 110. 11) : rer/miKa, TeT/jqficu, ir/jLrjOrjv. For the Subj. Perf. Pass, see $ 98. n. 9. Less frequent is the Aor. erapov. The Ionics say also in the Present, rdpvio) and Homer has further the stem-form Te/xco, as II. v. 707 repei; see Ausf. Sprachl. § 92. n. 13. — An epic form is rprjyoa, Aor. erpr}£a and erpayov, Pass. irpdyrjv. ripTT(£> delight, in the Passive form ripiropai am delighted, satisfied, has in the epic language a threefold Aorist, erepcpdrjv or erdpcpdrjv, and erdpnrjv, whence by transposition (§ 96. n. 7) Subj. rpaireiio for rapirto,— and Aor. Mid. (irapnoprjv) TerapnopTjv, Subj. rapucopeOa and rerapTvcopecrda. repaopai dry intrans. Inf. Aor. 2 Pass. reparjvai and reparjpevai. — But rep- oratVco dry trans, dry up, ircpcxrjva, etc. is regular. T€T€vxrjcr6at to be armed, Od. x- 104; a defective Perf. Pass, from ra reject. Comp. iaBrjpivos. rerpov, ererpov, meet with, find, Subj. rerpy?, rj, a defective Aorist. T€Toprjo~(£>, see rope'eo. || rerpaivo), see rirpdio. rev^a). Two kindred verbs must be here carefully distinguished : 1) rev^co make, a poetic word, regular, rev^co, erev^a, rervypai, ervxBrjv, tvktos or revKros, § 98. n. 4. 2) Tvy%dv(D happen, take effect, attain, § 112. 11. § 111. 3, F. t6v%o/jLcil, Aor. erv^ov (epic e.Tvyj](ra), Perf. reru^/ca. The idea of rvyxdvio has arisen out of the Passive of reu^co ; hence in the epic writers the Passive forms rervypai, ifvxOfjv, very nearly coincide in sense with rvyxdvio, ervxov. And the Perf. rerev^a, whose Part, in Homer has the Passive signification of rev^co (Od. p. 423; see § 113. n. 4), passes over wholly into the signification of the Present rvyxdva in Herodotus (3. 14. ult.) and in the koivoi or later writers. The Perf. Pass, rervypai takes also the diphthong ev ; hence in Homer 3 Plur. rerevxarai, and Fut. 3 only rerevgopai, § 99. n. 1. To revx? from the Active form. § 97. n. 7. tlktco bear, § 112. 17, from TEKfl, Fut. regco, comm. Tegoficu, Aor. ereKov (poet. €t€k6/h7}v), Perf. reroKa. In late writers we find also rereypaL and irexOrjv. — For the Fut. reKtl- a6ai see § 95. n. 16. rtVco, see r/co. TLTpdw bore, § 112. 13, from TPAfl, F. rprjcrco, etc. A second- ary form more used by the Attics is rerpalvco, rerpavw, ereTpr]- va, later -ava. The Perfect is always from the usual theme, Terprj/ca, reTprj/JLcu. TiTpcbo-fco) ivound, § 112. 14, F. rpcoaco, etc. Perf. Pass. rerpcofAcu, etc. The simpler form rpoxo, with the more general signification injure, is found in Homer. Both forms are connected -with, ropelv through the metathesis TOP, TPO, § 110. 11. 7-/g> honour, is in this signification only poetical, and is conjugated regularly. Part. Perf. Pass, renpevos. — In the signification to pay, atone for, it is in the Pres. and Impf. solely epic ; in prose we find instead of it the fol- lowing form, viz. rlvco pay, atone for, h 112. 10, Fut. rlo-co, Perf. reraca, Perf. Pass, rencr pal, Aor. 1 Pass, irl(T07]v. The MID. rlvo/iai (TLcrGfjLaL, eTLcrd/jLTjv, direrccrd/jLyv) has the signification punish, avenge. The Ionic form of the Present is rlvvvfu, TivvvpLat,, h 112. 15. The i in tiVco is in the epic writers long ; in Attic writers short, accord- ing to § 112. n. 6. The Attic poets shorten also the first syllable of riyvfii. See the Ausf. Sprachl. § 112. n. 19. rkrjvai to bear, venture, sin Inf. from sync. Aor. erXrjv (§ 110. 6), Opt. rXaLTjv, Imp. rXfjdi, Part. rXds, Fut. rXTjcrofiaL, Pf. TerXrjrca. From this Perfect are derived (by § 110. 10) the forms rerXapev etc. rerkdvai, Opt. rerXairjv, Imp. TtrkaOi, and the Ionic Part. TerXrjois § 97. n. 7 ; but all these are found only in the poets, and with a Present mean- ing. — An epic secondary form is the Aor. 1 erdXao-a. — The place of the Present is supplied by dvexopai or vnopevoo. TM-, see repvco and rirpov. || rprjyan, see repi/oo. ropelv pierce, thrust through, eropov (§ 96. n. 5), a defective Aorist; comp. rirpcbo-zcco. — In the kindred signification, to yield a piercing sound, Aris- tophanes has the Fut. reroprjaoa and the Pres. ropevco. roao-ai an Aorist synonymous with rvx^v, from which there occurs in Pindar the Part, roaaas and the compounds introvert, eiriroa-aas: rpcnreiii), see re'/wco. II TPAT-, see rpcoyco. rpi(j)CD nourish, support, F. ^peijrcD (§ 18. 2), Perf. rerpocpa, Perf. Pass. rWoa/jb/jLai, reOpdfyOat, (less correctly rerpdcpOai,), Aor. Pass. irpa(j)r]v 3 less often i6pe(p0r)v. Yerb. Adj. ^e7rro?. — MID. In the early language rpecpa had the immediate signification to become thick, stout, large ; and the Passive also adopts this signification, as Pass. am nourished, become stout, etc. Hence in Homer the Aor. 2 Act. and the Aor. 2 Pass, are used synonymously, e. g. erpacpe the same as erpdcprj ; rpacpepev (rpacpelv) the same with the common Tpacprjvai. See the Ausf. Sprachl. — The Perf. rerpocpa has both significations ) see § 97. n. 1. marg, § 114 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 261 rpi'xpi run, k 112. 18. § 111. 3, seldom forms its tenses from it- self, as ^pego/jLcu, Wpe^a, k 18. 2; most commonly from APE- MI2, Aor. eSpctfjLov, Fut. hpafJuovpLcu, Perf. Se^pd/irj/ca, epic Se- hpo/jua. TPY$-, see SpinrTco. rpvxco wear away, exhaust, consume, h 112. 7, forms its tenses from the less frequent rpv^cxo ; as irpvx^cra, Terpvxco/jLevos, etc. Tpcoycd eat, $ 112. 19, F. rpco^o/jbac. Aorist erpayov from TPHTfL. rvyxavoo, rervKelv, see under rev^co. Tvirroo strike, § 112. 6, has in Attic writers commonly TvnTr)(jw, TeTinrrrj/juai, TV7rT7]reo^. Aor. Pass. efvTrrjv. — MID. rv^co smoke, burn, trans. F. ^v^co etc. § 18. 2. — Aor. Pass. irv(f>r]V. T. hiTHTXveoiicu, see under e'x«. II V7rep,vr}p,vice, see ^/wo>. (palvG), 1) trans. sAottf, j9om£ oz^, FTcpavto, Aor. eayfca. Pass, ^aivopxii am pointed out, Aor. icfrdvOrjv, Perf. 7re- fyaaiiai, h 101. 2) Intrans. shine, give light, only Pres. and Imperfect ; comm. (palvofiao § 113. n. 5. Aor. i(f>dvr)v, F. a- vovfiai and (fravrjcrofiai,, Perf. again Tri^ao-fiac, comm. Perf. 2 irk$r\va. — MID. in compounds. Homeric forms are: the Iterat. cpdv evict appeared (from e has a long; see Ausf. Sprachl. <£A-, cpd(TK(o t see (prjpi \ 109. I, tpaiva), necpvov. || Ar-, see eaSico. (ptiSopai, spare, regular. Hence the epic Aorist-forms with redupl. 7re$i- hto-Oai, irefadolprjv ) and from these again by § 111. 3, the Fut. necpibrjao- l&ai II. o. 215. EN-, see 7re(pvov. (f)£pco bear, carry, § 112. 18, forms its tenses from quite different roots : Fut. olaco, with an Aorist Imper. olae, for which see § 96. n. 9. Then Aor. 1 fjveyica, Subj. ivey/cco, Opt. ivey/cai/M, Imp. (evey/cov) ivey/cara) etc. Aor. 2 tfvey/cov, Opt. iviyfcoifju, Imp. eveytce, Inf. iveyicelv, Part, iveyfccov ; from the former are espec. in use the Indie, and those endings of the Imper. which have a ; from the latter espec. the Inf. and Participle. Perf. ivrj- voya \ 97. n. 2 ; Perf. Pass. ivrjveypLai, 3 Sing, ivrfvefcrai and -eyicrai, Inf. ev^vexOai, Aor. Pass. rjvexd^Vy Inf. ivexOrjvai. — Fut. Pass. iveyQr\ are Infin. Aor. 1 dvaaai and Verb. Adj. dveo'io-Tos in Herodotus (1. 157. ib. 6. 66), where the to has no gram- matical basis; and the Perf. irpooio-rai in Lucian (Paras. 2), where the diphthong oi, which remains unaffected by the augment, is according to § 84. n. 2. (pevycoflee, F. fyev^ofiai and fev^ovficu, Aor. ecfrvyov, Perf. irefyevya. Verb. Adj. cpev/cTeos, favKTos. A secondary form is (ftvyydvco § 112. 11. Homer has the Part. Pf. Pass. ire(pvyp.£vos with active sense, escaped , also the Verb. Adj. cpvKTos, whence acpvicros Attic; and a Part. Perf. ne- (pv£6re? fugitives ; comp. 0d/juevo(;) , § 110. 6. Fut. #??- (jo/juai, less often (in Xen.) and later fyOao-co, Perf. ecpOdfca. In II. k. 346, 7rapa6elp(o corrupt, ruin, is regular ; but the Perf. 2 e^Oopa, SiefyOopa, has in Ionic (also II. o. 128) and later writers the signification am ruined; Attic, have ruined, the same as e<$>6apica. k 113. n.4. Homer has Fut. cpBepcroo. — Fut. 2 Mid. with alternate a, diacpdapeop-ai. intrans. occurs in Herodotus for the comm. (pdaprjaopLcu or , a verb which in this Present form is only Homeric, with both transi- tive and intransitive signification: consume, destroy (II. o\ 446), and per- ish Od. /3. 368. The other forms are more usual, but still on the whole more poetic. Fut. and Aor. (pOlo-a, ecpdicra, are simply transitive. — On the other hand the derived Present , § 112. 10, (secondary form (pdiiw8(o § 112. 12,) is commonly intransitive, and borrows its tenses from the Mid. of (pdioa, viz. Fut. (pdiaop-ai, Pf. ecp6ip.ai, Plupf. e(j)6lp.rjv, which last form is at the same time syncopated Aorist (§ 110. 7 and n. 4), and therefore has the other moods, viz. Opt. cpdipirjv, To, Tro, (Od. k. 51. X. 330 ; see § 107. m. 33. marg.) Infin. , etc. (Plut.) The t in (pdlva> (§ 112. n. 6), as well as in (pdlcroa, etc. is in epic writers always long; in Attic writers, short; ecpdi/iai, etc. is everywhere short. — For a7re(pdidov see Ausf. Sprachl. (piXeco love. Instead of the regular Aorist from this verb, Homer has the Middle form ecpiXaro, Imper. (pTXai, with long t, (a Deponent from the simpler theme 3>IAG § 112. 6,) where the long i comes from the nature of the Aorist; see § 101. 4. (ppafa say, intimate, § 92. n. 3. § 83. n. 3, has in the earlier poets an Aorist necppadov, enecppadov, Inf. Kepl^co etc. Pf. •nkfypiica from $PIKf2, whence also the subst. ippifcrj, etc. (JivXda-a-oo watch, guard, Mid. beware. The form 7rpo(pv\ax6e in Hymn. Apoll. 538, is anom. Imper. with active signification. (j>vpco mix, knead, $ 101. n. 3. § 112. 7 ; old Fut. (pvpaco, ecfrvpaa, comm. (j)vpdcrco etc. Ion. (frvprjaco. Perf. Pass, irk^vp^ai and 7r€(j)vpa/uLai,. — MID. (f>va) generate, produce, F. fyvo-co, Aor. e(f>vvfca and sync. Aor. 2 ($ 110. 6) e^w, fyvvai, Subj. (f>vco (Xen. Hier. 7. 3), Opt. <\>vr]v (Theocr. 15. 94), Part. uo- fiat, (frvo-ofiat, $ 113. n. 3. Writers not Attic employ instead of cpvvai, cpvs, etc. an Aor. Pass, cpvrj- vaiy (pveis, etc. — For the Homeric forms irecpvavi, 7T€ rejoice, k 112. 6, F. ycuprjcrw, Aor. (from the Pass.) e^dprjv, and from this again a Perfect with emphatic Present signifi- cation, iceyapr\Ka or ice^apr/pcai, exult, § 111. 3. From the regular formation there is still found in the poets, Perf. Pass, /ce'xap/xat, Aor. 1 Mid. ixrjpdp.rjv, and Aor. 2 with redup. Kexapop-rju. — The Fut. x a PW°l xa '' belongs to late writers ; Homer has icex a PW<»> and -opai, $ 111. n. 3. Xavddvoi grasp, contain, § 112. 11, Aor. i'xadov. — Perf. Kexavda (same with the Pres.) Fut. ^ei'tro/itu Od. °"- l^j as if from XENAG; comp. arirevha fr7reiVco, and TriirovOa Treiaofxai. ya, Fut. ^ecroOjixat, Aor. e^ecra and %x e(T0V - Perf. nexoda § 97. 4. a, c. X^icrofxai, see ^avSai/co. %ea> j9owr, epic %e/«, Fut. also %ea), %et?, %et, Fut. Mid. %kotiai see § 95. n. 12 ; Aor. 1 e^ea (§ 96. n. 1), e^ea?, e%ee(z/), see p. 174, marg. Inf. %kai, Imp. %eov, ^edrco, etc. Perf. Keyyua, Perf. Pass. Kkyyyiai, Aor. Pass. e.yyQr}v, h 98. n. 4. — MID. The forms ^eucrco, e^euo-a, are not usual ; although they were the orig- inal ones, as is shewn by the subst. x € ^H- a ^ an< ^ the f° rms °f flexion e^u- tfr/z/, e^eua, etc. See § 95. n. 9. The epic language has Aor. 1 e'xeva, whence the Subj. x^co passes over into the future signification Od. j3. 222 \ see § 139. m. 5. — Aor. Pass, sync exvfflv, ^u/zei/or, etc. to be poured, gush, § 110. 7. 264 CATALOGUE OF IRREGULAR VERBS. $ J 14. Xpaiafj.e'iv to help, expaurpov, a defective Aorist; whence arose Fut. xpuvph- o-co, expalcrnrjcra, §'111. 3, and Lexil. I. Xpdo). From this verb there exist Jive different forms of flexion, with their respective significations ; all with the contraction into 7] in the common language, Ionic into a, contrary to the usual analogy. 1) xpau) utter an oracle is regular, § 105. n. 5 ; F. xP^ a(D etc. Pass. /cixpV v -> wva, <*>v* Impf. dirixpy, F. dwoxpweL, Aor. direxprjcre. — MID. airoxp&fiai have enough, am contented, like no. 0.% XpcovvvjjLL colour, § 112. 15, F. xp^^ e f°- Perf. Pass. Kexpcoo-fiat^ Aor. exptecrdrjV; later without a. yGxwvpi heap up, dam, § 112. 15 ; in earlier writers we find the regular simple form : %oo), Inf. %ow ; Fut. ^oScrw etc. Perf. Pass. Kexwcr^ai, etc. W. ^/•dco rub, contr. into 77. § 105. n. 5. — The Pass, forms of the Perf. and Aor. were in earlier writers by preference derived from the secondary yj/rjx^' e. g. e-^-TjKTaL, hjrrix&} v ) prob. for the sake of euphony and for the same reason as in oymco, § 112. 17. * See further on this Particip. § 57. n. 1. This Participle also is to be explained by the Ionic change of ao into e&> § 27. n. 10 ; while the accent is still anomalous. And since the Ionics generally transformed verbs in aw into c'&j, we can thence ac count for the e in the Opt. x/> e "7 5 comp. the marg. note under iri/xTrXrifjLi. t This anomalous accentuation, instead of expw (§ 12. 2. a. § 103. m. 1). is founded on ancient usage; comp. Eustath. ad Od. k. 00. t Herodotus has atrexp^ro impers. for airexpa. The Active was used imperson ally only for the most part, not always : as is shown hy the Plur. olwoxp^o-lv. * J 15. PARTICLES. PREPOSITIONS AND ADVERBS. 265 yJAvx^ cool, § 112. 19, forms the Aor. 2 Pass, after the analogy of opvaaa) (secondary form optica, see Catal. of reg. verbs) ; e. g. €\jfvyr)v Aristoph. On the other hand in Plato Phsedr. p. 242, the reading airo^rvxfi is now- preferred, which presupposes a form tyvxnv } see Ausf. Sprachl. a coOeco thrust, push, $ 112. 6, has the syllabic augment (icbOovv) § 84. n. 5 ; and forms Fut. wOrja-w and (from flGfl) coaco, Aor. eaxra, Inf. axrat, Perf. Pass, ecocrfiac, etc. — MID. wveofiai buy, § 112. 18, has also the syllabic augment {iwvovfirjv etc.) § 84. n. 5. Instead of the regular Aorist of this verb {iwv7](rdfir]v, cov7]ad/jbr)v) , the Attics employed the forms enrpid- /jltjv, irpiaaQai, etc. which see above. On the other hand, ico- vrjOrjv was only Passive ; see § 113. n. 6. — Perf. i&prjpat, both as Act. and Passive ; Demosth. PARTICLES. § 116. Prepositions and Adverbs. 1. The Particles are said to be indeclinable, because they ad mit of no declension, flexion, or conjugation. Still there are among them certain minor changes, or mutual relations of one to another, (comparison and correlation,) which may here be sepa- rately exhibited. 2. Under the general idea of particles we distinguish first the Prepositions, viz. the following eighteen : dfJL^l, dvd, dvri, anrb, Sid, els, ev, ef, eirl, Kara, fierd, irapd, irepl, 7Tp6, 77-/90?, CTVV, V7T€p, V7T0. These have always been called distinctively the Prepositions of the Greek language ; we call them Primitive Prepositions, With these alone are verbs compounded in the simplest manner, i. e. without change (§ 121. 2) ; which is not the case with other particles, although they may be just as much prepositions, e. g. dvev, eveica, iyyvs, &>? to, etc. 3. The most common form of Adverbs is the ending gj?, which may be regarded as a termination properly belonging to the for- mation of the adjective ; since it is appended only to adjectives and participles. The ending o>? takes exactly the place of the oase-endings ; so that it is only necessary to change the ending of the Nom. or Gen. o?, into «?. Where the Nom. ending 09 has the tone, the adverbial ending retains it as a circumflex ; and if the ending o? (Nom. or Gren.) suffers contraction, the same is re- tained in the adverb. E. g. (filXos, (pCkcos ' cro(f)6<;, cro^w? (T(^(j)pCDV ((T(t)(f>pOVG<;), (TCOCppOVCDS ' ^v) o-vvrjOcos', but voaa>8r]? (vo(tg)8ov?, voaodwv Plato Rep. p. 438 j vocr<£>da>9 J comp. above was (navTos; iravT&v) iravras. — In like manner adverbs formed from adjectives in -voos, -vovs, follow in their accent the analogy of those adjectives in declension (§ 60. 5); hence from eiivovs — «/- j>a)s; but better evvo'iK.5)?, as in the next note. Note 2. Adjectives of one ending, which fluctuate as it were between substantive and adjective, in order to form the adverb in cor, assume first an ordinary adjective termination; thus i/o/zaSiKcor, /3AaKt/caj?; comp. § 63. n. 3. § 66. 4. marg. 4. Certain cases and forms of nouns, by virtue of their inher- ent power which will be explained in the Syntax, and also by el- lipsis, often supply the place of particles ; and when such a form occurs in this manner particularly often, it passes entirely for an adverb. E. g. the Dative: icofuhfi lit. with care ; hence, very, very much. airovhfi lit. ivith zeal, with pains-taking ; hence, hardly, scarcely. Further a number of feminine adjectives, where the idea 68w from rj 6$6s ivay, manner, lies at the basis ; e. g. ire^jj on foot, KOivfj in common, IBia privately, h^fioala pub- licly, etc. Comp. aXkrj and the like, h 116. n. 7. So the Accusative : dpyfiv and rr]v dp^v, lit. in the beginning, foundation, plan ; hence, wholly, entirely. TrpoLfca gratis, from irpotf; gift. fjLa/cpdv (sc. 6B6v) far. See also note 3. — The Neuter of an Adjective likewise forms an adverbial Accusative, when it stands, either in the Sing, or Plu- ral, instead of an adverb. This usage nevertheless, except in the comparative and superlative, is for the most part peculiar to the poets (§ 128. n. 4) ; though in some few adjectives it is the com- mon usage in prose ; e. g. Tayy swift, puicpov or \xiKpd little. Note 3. In the manner mentioned in the preceding paragraph have arisen many particles, whose radical form as a noun is either obsolete, or occurs only in the poets. Datives of this kind are then usually written without i subscript; e. g. dicrj in vain, 8ixV twofold; comp. § 116. n. 8. Here belong also the Genitives: e£rjs in order, successively, dyxov near, 6}xov at the same time (epic adj. 6fx6s) ; the Neuter forms Trkqo-iov near (poet. adj. ir\r)(rios\ a-Tjfxepov to-dxy, avpiov to-morrow; and particularly many in a, as fxaka much, *dpTa very, §t'y;a in two, apart, etc. Here it is to be remarked, that these ? 115. PARTICLES. PREPOSITIONS AND ADVERBS. 267 last in a are paroxy tones, even when adjectives derived from the same root are oxytone ; e. g. ra^a (raxys) swift, perhaps; acpodpa (ak v out of the way, aside, for etc 7ro8a>v; ip.iv oh a>v in the way (which is at the same time syntactically irregular for h ttoctiv) ; iirio~x € P < * > successively, by turns, for -<£, from a Nom. ax^pds. 5. In regard to Comparison, it is the almost exclusive usage that the Neuter Sing-, of the Comparative, and the Neuter Plur. of the Superlative . ot adjectives, serve at the same time as forms of comparison ior the corresponding adverbs ; e. g. ao^axrepov irocel^ l thou actest more wisely ;' aio-^to-ra SteTeXeo-ev i he spent his time most in- famously.'' — Less frequently the degrees of the adverb are form- ed, by appending the termination oj? to the degrees of the adjec- tive. This last is done more especially, when the idea of man- ner is to be made conspicuous ; e. g. KaXkiovois in a more elegant manner ; hence peydXcos in great style, compar. fieu^ovco^. The Superlative in -rdrco^ is not used. 6. An older adverbial ending is o instead of w? ; hence ovrm and ovrco (§ 26. 4). This ending is found particularly in some adverbs derived from obsolete adjectives, as cxpvco suddenly, oiriaoa behind ; and in some formed from prepositions, e. g. €%C0 without, eaco and elaco within, avw above, k&tcd below, it poaco forwards, iroppco far* These all form their degrees of comparison in the same manner, i. e. in co, as dvcoripo), avcordrco. With the same ending are formed degrees from some other particles ; e. g. diro far from (§ 117. n. 3) dirooTdrco very far off; evhov ivithin, ivSordra) ; e«ra? far, ifca<7Tep(0 ; d signifies fonvards, and ir6ppv, viz. rjacrov, rjrrov, less, r\KivTa least, h 68. 2. Note 6. As peculiarities of the forms of comparison, we may notice also the following i nepa (§ 117. 1) — 7repairepa> or irepalrepov 7r\r)(TL0V — 7rkr)cnaiT€pov or -ecrrepov vvKrcop — WKTiairepov irpovpyov — Trpovpyialrepov. Further, from 16 v straight forwards, the Homeric XQvvrara instead of I6v- rara', comp. the marg. note to anom. tSpvco, § 114. — That some such ad- verbs, in their forms of comparison, actually become adjectives, has already been remarked, § 69, 2, and marg. Note 7. Some forms of verbs have, in common usage, become particles, and chiefly Interjections. We have already mentioned etev, p. 193. marg. note; axpeXov, in 6(pet\a>, § 114; rrj, in anom. TA- ; l8ov lo! in anom. 6pd(£>. An old Imperat. of the same meaning is rjvide, by apoc. rjvl and fjv. So aye, 'Ire. This last phrase is sometimes found fully written, e. g. Aristoph. Eccles. 882. § 116. Correlative Particles. (Compare the correlative Adjectives, §§ 78, 79.) 1. Several of the relations of place are marked by annexing syllables or syllabic endings to words. So the following, viz. in answer to the question Whence? — ^ev e. g. aWoOev from another place Whither? — ere — aXXoae to another place Where ? — &t — aXKoOi in another place. The vowel before these endings has some variations, and can best be learned by observation ; e. g. 'AQrjvrjOev, ovpavoOev, ay pod l in the field, 7roripco6c on which of the two sides ? iroTepwcre to ivhich of the two sides ? erepcodi on the other side. The accent is com- monly retained on the syllable where the radical word has it, or $ 116. CORRELATIVE PARTICLES. 269 as near it as possible ; except that words with o before the end- ing, are chiefly paroxytone, e. g. ttovtos nrovrodev, kvk\o^ kvk\6(T6. Note 1 . But those from or/cor, na?, aXkos, eV(W, £ktos, follow the general rule ) as o'UoOev, Travroae, aXkodi, eKrodev. 2. In answer to the question whither ? the Enclitic he is also appended ; and always upon the form of the Accusative without change ; e. g. ovpavovBe to heaven, akahe (from aX?) to or into the sea, epefioaOe from to e/06/3o?, etc. Note 2. The forms oi/caSe home from oikos, and cpvyaBe to flight from (/>uy?7, are deviations, probably for easier pronunciation. — In 'A6r)va£e, Qrj(3a£e the § (in 6V) has passed over with the a of the Ace. Plur. into £, by § 22. n. 2. Still some words have assumed the f without being in the Plural, as $vpa£e, epa£e, ^a/mfe 'OXv/Mrta£e; so that the ending £e may best be regarded as a special local-ending, like 6V. Note 3. Homer sometimes joins to the Accus. in this form still an ad- jective ; e. g. KdWS° evvaio\ievr\v II. £. 255 ; and he even repeats this local ending like an ordinary case- ending in ovbe bopovde to his house, from bs dofxos. — When however Homer in a'idoo-de appends this 6> to the Geni- tive, it arises from the fact that this Genitive commonly stands in an ellip- sis; eh aido? sc. dojiov, § 132. n. 30. 3. In answer to the question where ? the ending env or an is appended to many names of cities ; so that it becomes rjcri, after a consonant, and den after a vowel ; the accent of the radical word being retained ; e. g. *A6r}V7](TL, IFkaraiacriv, 'OXv/nridcn, from ^AOrjvai, UXaraial, '0\v{i7rla.* — Some other like names re- ceive oi, as 'Iadfiol, UvOol, Meyapol, from 'lo-^/io?, IIvOco, rd Meyapa. This ending always has the circumflex, except in oikol at home.i 4. To the three preceding relations of place, the three follow- ing common interrogatives likewise have reference ; but only in the earlier language and the poets : TroOev; whence? nroae', whither? iroOu) where? * The ending yvi very often has the i subscript ; and 'Ae^rjcri is then explained as the Ion. Dative. But the ending acri shows that this orthography is false. Nevertheless, these endings come strictly from the Dative Plural, comp. § 133. n. 8 ; and then, like a(e, passed over to names in the Singular. See the reverse of this in the next marg. note. — 'OXvfnridcri with short o is from f) 'OAv/xmds. t This form is the actual Dative of Uvdd>, and in the other instances it is the Dative of Dec. II, with the ending somewhat changed ; which then was appended to Plural names (Meyapa), and to other words, as ivTavQot from ivravOa (see Text 8). We must therefore not consider these forms as correlatives of the following interrogative iro? whither ; although this very ivravdo? sometimes actually stands in answer to the question whither; e. g. Aristoph. Lys. 568. Plut. 608. Such inter- changes of the correlatives, however, not unfrequently occur; see the note on p. 271, and on Soph. Philoct. 481. On ivravQoi see espec. the Ausf. Sprachl. § 116 n. 28. 270 CORRELATIVE PARTICLES. U16. In the common language they read thus : iroOev ; whence ? irol ; whither ? irov : where ? These and some other interrogatives — of which the more common are irore and TrrjvUa where ? 7rw? how ? tttj which way ? how ? — stand with their immediate correlatives (indefinite, demonstrative, relative) in the same analogy as the correlative Adjectives in § 79. E.g. Interrog. Indefin, Demonstr. Relat. all enclitic. simple, compound. noTe; when? 7rore TOT€ 6W — onore ttov; where? TTOV . . . 0V OTTOV 7toi ) whither ? rroi . . . ol OTTOL rroOev ; whence? nodev rodev 66ev — orroOev 7ra>s ; how ? TTtoS Ts OTTCOS 7rrj ; how ? 7TT) rfi ' fj OTTT}^ ir-qv'iKa ' } when ? . . . TTJVlKa ■fjvUa — OTrqviKa until. The significations follow the analogy of § 79. Thus e. g. irore at some time, once ; nroQkv from some place, etc. — Further, as the postpositive article o?, besides the compound Saris, is also strength- ened by nrep {oairep etc.) so the same thing occurs with several of the relatives which belong here ; as coairep, fjirep, ovirep. There are also two minor and defective sets of correlatives : Demonstr. re'cor ) ■, Relat. ecoy ) rocppa poet, j °." ocppa J Note 4. Of poetic forms we further adduce the following; viz. for irov etc. the complete series : nodi ; where ? nodi toBl odi and oirodi. So for 77oT and ottoi, — 7roVe, orroo-e. There belongs here, further, the old epic adverb of time : rrjpos {tthiovto? Hes.) the?i, relat. r^ios (strengthened oTrrjjxos) when. 5. The demonstratives in the above table are the original sim- ple ones ; like 6, y, to among the correlative adjectives, § 78. 1. But of these, only rore then, at that time, is in common use ; the others occur only in certain phrases (see k 149. m. 14), or in the poets. Moreover, instead of the poetic tgos we sometimes find W9 as a less frequent demonstrative ; and as such it takes the acute accent, to distinguish it from the relative form &>?. In this form it is usual also in prose especially in these phrases : /cat w? even so ; ovf? w?, fjLT}^ w?, not even so, in no way. 6. There are some other demonstratives, which instead of hav- ing the initial t, come from an entirely different root, and have a more definite sense. Such are ifcel (poet, iiceWi) there, i/ceiOrjv from thence, e/cecae thither; answering consequently to the interrogatives ttov ; iroOev ; ttoI ; — Ionic and poetic forms are also /celdi, /ceiOev, Keiae. Bevpo hither, answering to ttoI ; For the Iota subscript in this series, sec note 8. § 116. CORRELATIVE 1 ARTICLES 27 1 vvv now, answering to 7roVe ; evda here, there ; evOev hence, thence ; which last two have this peculiarity, that they are at the same time relatives, synonymous with ov and oOev, and are usual in prose. 7. Of the demonstratives hitherto adduced, five exhibit the twofold strengthened form described in § 79. 4. Hence arise the common demonstratives of prose, in the following manner ; for the accent see § 14. n. 3. rrjvLKa TrjviKa.be TTjviKavra ev6a evOdbe^ evdavra Ion. ivravBa Att. evQev evdevde evBevrev Ion. evrevQev Att. rfj Tfjhe ravrrj cos &§e ovtcos or ovrco. On the last two series see note 7. 8. Some of these demonstratives assume in addition the Demonstrative i, h 80. E. g. ovtcdctI — from ovrcoalv see § 80. n. 3. ivrevOevl, ivOahl, d>Sl hevpi from Sevpo • vvvi from vvv. 'EviavOa forms in this manner not only ivravOl, but also more commonly evravOol', comp. p. 269 marg. 9. The relatives here, as in adjectives (§ 80), in order to strengthen the idea of generality, append the particles ovv and hrjirore. E. g. ottovovv wheresoever, ottcdg-ovv (and with rl inserted, oirco- cttlovv), oirovhrjiroTe, etc. Note 5. Just as the corresponding adjective forms ($ 79) give rise to still other correlatives, by appending their characteristic endings to words expressing general ideas (such as dWolos, ttovtoIos etc. § 79. n. 2), so like- wise do the adverbs, e. g. iiWore another time; aWy (corr. to interrog. nr}) in another way, manner; 7raiTcoy, iravrrj (to ircos, 7rrj) in every way, wholly; avrov, avrodt (to irov, nodi) in the same place, there, etc. — Very commonly however the adverbs derived in this manner from aXXos, 7ro\vs, nds and eKaarros, are lengthened by inserting the letters ax ', e. g. aXXaxov elsewhere, TtavTayov everywhere, noXXaxov in many places, €Kao-Taxp6ev from every quarter, aXXaxrj, etc. Also from the obsol.'AMOS (whence a}ia) are derived the Homeric dpodev from some place or other ; and in the Attic language the phrases : dfxcos ye ircos, dfirj ye -nr], a\i66ev ye irodev, ci/xov ye irov, in some way or other, etc. Note 6. In most of the above relations, there are also formed correspond- ing negatives, (e. g. from ttotc and na?,) just as from ris, mostly by compo sition : ov7TOTe> jir]iTOTe, never; ouVcof, fiances, by no means. * This demonstrative-ending Se is of course not to be confounded with that cor- responding to the question whither (Text 2 above) . The two however were some- times confounded even by the ancients, and in this very word eV0a5e ; see the note to Soph. Philoet. 481. Comp. also p. 269. marg. 272 CHANGES IN PARTICLES. § 117. These latter forms in Homer drop their $■ before a consonant, oujtco, /x^rcD, II. y. 306. p. 422. They must then not be confounded with the adverb of time, 77co, — o#7roo, ^777700, woi yet. — Most commonly however the negatives are formed from the old and Ionic adjective ovdap,6s, /x^Sa/xor, none : ovda.fjLG)s by no means j ovdaixjj, ov8ap.ov, ovbafiodev, etc. Note 7. It is evident that the simple demonstrative and relative forms come from the prepositive and postpositive articles, of which they are in part actual cases, as 777, 77, ov, and so also ol for r, the forms i/ceivrj and eKeivoos are used. The forms ttoO, nr), nus, etc. and others of which no Nom. is extant, as ^avrrj, navraxov, etc. are formed after the analogy of the preceding. Note 8. The 1 subscript under 77 is improperly written (§ 115. n. 3) in those forms of which no actual Nominative, as root, is extant ; consequently 77J7, 077-77, TrdvTT], aXXaxr) j on the other hand, 77, rrj, ravrrj, 0AX77. Many how- ever, for the sake of uniformity, write the former in the same manner. Note 9. The forms rore and ore, when they stand repeated (and some- times when they stand only once) for TTore . . . 7707-6, sometimes . . . sometimes (§ 149. m. 14), take also the accentuation of 7rore; thus rore — , ore — . Note 10. Dialects, a. Epic writers double the 77 for the sake of the metre, in otittcos, oTrnore, etc. b. The Ionics have k instead of 7r in all the above forms; e. g. kco?, kov, o/ccor, oKodev, ovkio, see § 16. n. 1. c. c. The Dorics for nore, ore, etc. have tto'kct, oica, etc. ibid. For ckcI they have rnvei, § 74. 11. 1. d. Instead of the ending 3ev the poets have the shorter form Se, e. g. uKXode, eKToade. e. For 77 an epic form is rj^i or r^t. f. For rewr and- ecor there are epic forms reiW, elms. Hence in Homer, when recoy and k'cos stand in the place of a trochee, one must read re 10 s and elo?; see Aasf. Sprachl. II. p. 358. g. Other epic particles are : r lit re wherefore ? for r/ 7rore, avdi for avrodi there, ^a/mSir for ^a/jia£V, iiKkvbis for aXhocre. § 117. Mutations of some other Particles. A. In the Letters. 1. "We have already treated of the changes in ov, ovk, ob% and 6%, etc, as also of the movable final v or 9 at the end of certain particles ; see h 26. "We remark further here, that in some of these last, there arises by this means a difference of sense. So the following : irepav, trans, beyond, on the other side, chiefly of rivers and other waters. On the other hand ire pa, ultra, over, etc. where the object is conceived * With the ending fav compare the Genitives of some pronouns, which end in the same manner, § 72. n. G. 5. 4 117. CHANGES IN PARTICLES. 273 as a "bound, limit. Both are used as prepositions and as adverbs. See Lexil. II. 69. dvriKpv and dvrcKpvs, with different accentuation. Homer uses the first form in all the significations. But in regard to Attic usage the Gram- marians give the rule, that dvriKpv is to be employed only in the literal local sense, straight forward, over against; and avTiupvs only in the metaphorical sense, straightway, without hesitation, at once. But there are many opposing examples of both kinds. See the Ausf. Sprachl. evOvs and evdv, § 115. n. 4. In the relation of time only eidvs, immedi- ately, is used ; but in the relation of place, commonly evdv, straight to, directly to ; e. g. evdv AvKeiov, evdv 'E(peaov, straight to the Lyceum, to Ephesus ; and seldom, for the metre or to avoid hiatus, evdv?, Eurip. Hippol. 1197. — The Ionic forms Idvs, Idv, are used without any differ- ence, and solely in the local sense. 2. The following differences of form are employed without any difference of sense ; and either belong to the Attic poets, or as Ionisms are also not unknown to the Attics : idv, fjv, au, if, (see § 139. m. 24,) in the first and third forms with long a. arjpepov, Att. rfjpepov, to day ; — xdis and ex&es yesterday. avv, old £vv, with ; — eh, Ion. er, in. iv, Ion. ivi, in; see further in n. 1. del, Ion. and poet, alei and alev, ever. evena or evenev (and this even before consonants, e. g. Xen. Hier. 3. 4. ib. 5. 1), Ion. etveKa, e'iveKev, on account of. eWra, Ion. enetrev, afterwards. on because, in common language also onr) (Aristoph.) comp. § 77. n. 2. For ov no, not, and vai yes, the Attics use for the sake of emphasis ou;(/ (Ion. ovk'l), vaixh § 11. n. 2. Note 1 . Other differences of dialect are the following : For npos to, old irporl, Dor. irori. — For perd with, iEol. rreSa. For ovv therefore, Dor. and Ion. Z>v. For avdt? again, Ion. avns. For Ke, KeV, an enclitic particle used by the epic writers for av (§ 139. m. 10), Dor. kol. Hence oiaca instead of orav. For ye at least, Dor. ya. For el if, Dor. at, which form is used also by the epic writers, but only in at Ke, al yap, and aWe, § 139. m. 7, 8, 66. Other epic forms are rje for fj or, as; eiretr] for eVetS?; since, because; elv, eivi, for ev and ivi) pdv, pev, for pr\v, tridy; air dp and drdp but. Some prepositions, especially irapd and into, take in the earlier poetry, instead of a and o, the ending ai; as trap al, inr at. Some other differences of dialect see in § 116. n. 10. Note 2. The conjunction apa, and the prepositions 7rapa and ava, often drop the final vowel among the Dorics and in the epic language, even be f'ore consonants, as ap, nap, av (or av) ; e. g. ovt dp (ppevas, nap Sea, dv 8e. When in this case av comes to stand before a lingual, it is an old usage, instead of av neXayo?, av peya, and the like, to write apire\ayos, appeya. See § 25. n. 4. — The same apocope occurs also in the prep. Kara; but since t cannot stand at the end of a word (§ 4. 5), this preposition connects itself in like manner with the following word. The r is then alwajs assimilated to the following consonant, which consequently is written double : or s 274 CHANGES IN PARTICLES. § 117. where this latter is a rough mute, the t becomes the kindred smooth mute before it 3 thus Karrov • Kadde, Kappiv, Kayydiw,^ Ka7T(pdXapa, for Kara tov, koto. Se, koto. piv, Kara, ydw, Kara cpdXapa, etc. The Doric vori (for 7rpo'y) does the same, but only before another r, e. g. irorrdv for 7tot\ rov.f — We add further that all these changes and modes of orthography occur also in compound words ; thus : 7rapdefX€Voi, 77ap Karravvaai, KarBaveiv • Ka/3/3ar, KaKKeiovres, KaWnrov, Kappvco, Kavvevaas, KaTrrreare, Kappzfa • Ka/c^euat. So to avoid the concurrence of three con- sonants, we find KaKrave, Kao-xe#e, apvdo-et, for KaKKrave, Kaa-ax^Oe, dfifivdaei II. X. 702. Pind. Pyth. 4. 54. In like manner the prepositions and and vird are also apocopated in compo sition, though seldom, and only before kindred consonants, as aTrirepneiv, vj3(3d\eiv. B. Changes in the Accent. 3. Most of the primitive prepositions of two syllables (§ 115. 2), which have the accent on the last syllable, draw back the tone in the following manner : 1) "When they stand in the figure Anastrophe,t i. e. after the noun which they govern ; c. g. rovrov irepi for irepl tovtov ^rewv diro for airo ^ecov. But from this rule are excepted dpfyi, dvri, hid, and dvd. 2) When they are used alone, instead of forming compounds with the verb elvcu ; or, more accurately, when the .verb is omit- ted, and they stand alone as adverbs ; in which case the common language also adopts the Ion. ivl for iv ; e. g. eyoo irdpa, for Trdpeijii eiri, evL, v7ro, for hreariv^ etc. to which we must also reckon ava for dvdo-rr)0L, up ! Note 3. More exact critics accent the prepositions in the above manner, when in poetry they stand after their verb, e. g. Xovar) airo, for diroKova-r] • and when also in poetry they stand as adverbs, e. g. irkpi very, before others. They write also airo, when this preposition means not merely from, but apart, remote from, comp. § 115. 6. But in all this, and in the exceptions from the preceding rules, there is no uniformity in our editions. Note 4. Another rule is, that when in the first of the above cases, (the anastrophe,) the preposition is elided, it takes no accent, as £ea>z/ an — , not Secbv aV — ; but not so in the second case, e. g. ov yap eV dvr]p (for eirecrnv). * In this single instance 77 is of course pronounced like gg, and not like ng. t Recent editors mostly prefer to write ap. ireAayos, /co5 Be, Kap ph, Kay y6vv x tot t6v, by which means they separate in writing, that which is united in pronun- ciation. If we would be consistent, we must write av iriXayos, just as we divide the EMnTPI of the ancients into eV irvpi. But then follows of course Kar Se, which is absurd. It is better therefore to write /ca55e, Karrdv, etc. like dol/xdriov, ovttI, cy bs fxedijica, unhappy man that I am! a> rrjs dvcudcla? O the impudence ! & fioc wo is me ! and so also in the exclamation and &avp.alva, e'X7j-ir ek7ri£a. Every ending not thus kindred is appended to the consonant of the Genitive ; e. g. (pvyas (pvyadevco, XPW a XPW 17 '^- 3. As to the signification of these endings, we can here take into view only general usage, and specify the primary idea of the greater number of verbs under each ending. a. — eco and evco. These verbs are formed from nouns of al most all endings, and mostly express the state or action of that which their primitive word signifies; e. g. Koipavos ruler : , Koipavkm rule; koiv&vos partak er, Kowcaveco partake; SoOAoy servant, dovXevco serve; KoKa^ flatterer, KoXaKevca flatter; aXrjdrjs true, dXrjdevca speak the truth; (3acri\ev? (Ba, etc. They are most commonly intransitive ; sometimes however transitive, e. g. cplXos friend, cpikeca love. . In general these two endings are the most common ones in derivative verbs, and serve therefore to express a multitude of relations, which are likewise partially included under the following endings ; thus especially the practice of that which the radical word signifies, e. g. iTo\ep,eli>, ddXelv ; Tvop-ireveiv, yopeueiz/, cpoveveiv, (BovXeveiv ; or whatever else is in each case the most natural relation, e. g. ai\6s flute, avkeiv play the flute; dyopd assembly, dyopeveiv address an assembly; hnvevew ride on horseback, etc. — The ending ■eco more especially, as the simplest of all, is used for most of those deriva- tives which are first formed by composition, as evrvx^co, e7nx et p«o> olKo8op,ea>, epyoAa/3eoo, p^o-tKajceco, etc. — In all instances these endings are most com- monly intransitive. b. — dco. These verbs arise most naturally from words oi Dec. I, in a and rj, but also from others. They express chiefly the posses sion of some thing or quality in a special degree, and also the performance of an action ; e. g. Kop-rj hair, Kop.qv to have long hair; xoXrj bile, xoXqv to hav much bile, be angry ; X'nro? fat, \iirqv to have much fat, be fat ; J3or} cry, yoos lamentation, — fioqv, yoqv ; rokp.a boldness, rokp-qv dare. Hence, as transitive, they denote the performance of an action towards others ; e.g. Tifirj honour ^ rifiqv nva to honour any one.^ See also the verbs of disease in m. 13, below. * Here and in other similar cases it may appear strange, that the abstract noun should be the primitive word, from which the verb is derived. But this case is not rare ; if, as is very common in all languages, the substantive is first derived from an older and simpler verb, and then again forms from itself a verb, which supplantc I 119. FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. 277 c# — 6co, These come mostly from words of Dec. II, and ex- ? press: 1) The making or transforming into that which the radical word signifies; 8ovX6a> make a slave, drjXooa make known from hrjkos known. 2) The working with or applying the thing signified by the root ; xpvcroco S^j fxikrooo paint with vermilion (ptXros), nvpoco put in the fire, ropvoco form with the ropvos; turn, fypwoi punish from fypia. 3) The furnishing with or impo- sing the thing signified by the root j arecpavooi crown, mp6, irpooipidfa, opinio, (LteXifea, Sepl^, XaKri^, etc. Still it deserves to he noted, that when they are formed from the proper names of nations or persons, they mark the adoption of the manners, party, or language of the same ; e. g. pr)8i£eiv to become a Mede in sentiment, tXXrjvi&iv to speak Greek, dapidfciv to speak Doric, $ikimrt£etv to be of Philip 1 s party. See also below in m. 14. e. — alvco and vvw. The latter ending comes always from ad- 9 jectives, and expresses the making or causing to be such as the adjective signifies ; e. g. rj^vvetu to make sweet, aepvvveiv to make venerable, dignify. It must here be observed, that those adjectives, whose degrees of compari- son in i.W, lo-ror, presuppose an obsolete positive in vs, form the verbs in vv<£> from this last; e. g. alaxpds (ato-^iooi/ from AI2XY2) — atcr^uj/co ; so fxctKpor, KaX6s,—prjKvva>, KaXXvva, etc. — The same signification is often found in verbs in aiVto, as Xivizaiveiv to make white, KoiXaiveiv to hollow out, etc. Still several of these have a neuter signification, as ^aXeTrcuVeiz/, (W^epcu- v€iv, become angry, etc. They come sometimes also from substantives, especially those in pa (arjpa arjpali/co, Selpa, oVi/xaiW>), and express various relations. 4. A special mode of deriving verbs from nouns, is simply to 10 change the ending of the noun into a); and then the preceding syllable, according to its consonants, receives one of those addi- tions which we have noted in § 92, as giving a strengthened form to the Present. Thus are formed from noiKiXos ttolklXXco, ayyeXo? dyyeXXco, mdapos Ka- &alpa>, paXaicos 1 paXdacrw, (pdppaKov (pappdcraa), /xeiXt^or peiXicrcrco, nvpeTos irvpecr, ^aXeTror ^nXeVrco, etc. The relation of the sense to that of the root, is in every instance the most natural and obvious one. 5. There remain still the following more limited classes of de- i j rived forms of verbs : 1) Desideratives, which mark a desire, and are commonly formed by changing the Future in -o-co of the verb expressive of the thing- desired, into a Present in -aeico; e. g. yeXacrtico I should like to laugh, iroXe- prjo-eloi I long for war, etc. Another class of desideratives, is formed in don or idea, derived properly 12 from substantives, e. g. Savarqu to long for death, a-Tpar^yiqv desire to be leader ; then also from verbs, by first forming these into substantives, e. g. bwelaQai (wvrjTr)?) — wvrjTiqv to wish to purchase j kXcu'co (KXavcris) — KXavcriav to long to weep. This form passed over very naturally into a sort of imitative verbs, e. g. 13 the first. This is manifestly the case in t/w, ti/xtj, ri/j.dco ; and it may therefore well be assumed in others, as £077, v'ikt). etc. although in many instances neither the one uor the other can be definitely maintained. 278 FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. 5 119. rvpavviav to play the tyrant. But it is incorrect to reduce under this head the verbs of disease, as ocpdaXptav, vdepiav, y^copav, etc. which are better re- ferred to m. 6. above. J 4 2) Frequent atives in £&>, e. g. piirrd^eiv (from piTrreiv) to cast hither and thither. Mid. to cast one's self hither and thither, be unquiet; ore- vd£ecv (from o-reveiv) sigh deep and often; alreiv ask, alrigeiv beg; tpiveiv creep, £p7rv£, see h 112. 14, and n. 7. II. Substantives. 6. We here begin with substantives derived immediately. A. From Verbs. In respect to these it must be premised in general : 15 1) That the endings beginning with a consonant or with a vowel necessarily accord with the corresponding forms of flexion in the verb only in those points, which rest upon the fundamental rules of the language, (§ 16 sq.) e. g. Nouns in oy? with the Fut. in era), as i^era^cD -daco -a {hrjaw, hehefiat) hefia and ScdSrjfia ; but /3coco {fiiocxjojiai etc.) (SioTos, and the like. 16 2) That the endings beginning with a vowel (as rj, o?, ei>?) are also formed from contracted verbs in ico and dco in such a man- ner, that e and a fall away ; except however in the shorter verbs, which cannot drop then* vowel, as belonging to the root, but only change it, as peco, por). 17 Note 2. Before r and p. the letter a Is inserted, as in the Perf. and Aor. 1 Passive ; and this in all nouns der twd from verbs whose characteristic is a lingual, a few poetic forms excepted; § 102. n. 1, Savparos. Those from verbs pure, on the contrary, sometimes take the cr and sometimes not, with- out reference to the flexion of the verb. — Where the o- is not inserted, we can in general in all the endings safely follow the analogy of the Future ; thus e. g. SeaTrjs, Seapa, Svpa, have the vowel (a, v) long, like Sedcropai, Svcroa ; but with this limitation, that those endings which begin with cr and r sometimes shorten the long vowel, especially when the verb itself short- ens it in the Aor. 1 Passive; see below, m. 23 and 30, also § 95. n. 4 and marg. note. — The endings beginning with p., on the contrary, conform in this respect almost without exception to the analogy of the Fut. 1, neglecting even that of the Perf. Passive; see below, m. 19. 18 7. In order to express the action or effect of the verb, the fol- lowing endings are principally employed : /jlos, fir), fia, cris, cia, rj or a, o? Masc. o? Neut. 19 a. — /i-o?, /jurj or \ir), \ia, Gr. tos. These endings can indeed be compared with the Perf. Passive ; but nouns in pos, when a vowel precedes > in the radical form, commonly assume cr; while on the other hand those in $ 119. FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. 279 both the other endings do not commonly take o-, not always indeed even when the Perf. Pass, has it. Those which do not take the (SeSe/itu) — Secr/xor, dear fir), 8ep.a, diddrj pa; yiyvaxxKoa (eyv(Ocrp.ai) — yviop.r]\ Xva> (XeXu/icu) — Xvp.a. — Inrespect to signification, those in p.6s commonly denote the proper abstract ; e. g. TraXKco 7raX^or a swinging, ddvpopai oftvpp.6s a lamenting, oiKret'pco ol) \vyp-6s a sobbing, hiccough, aelco a-eiap-os a shaking. — The ending pa on the other hand denotes rather the effect of the verb as a concrete, and even the object ; so that it mostly coincides with the Neuter Part. Perf. Pass. e. g. irpdypa that which is done, deed ; p,lp,r]p.a the imitation, i. e. the copy ; o-Treipco airepp,a that which is sown, seed, etc. — The ending prj fluctuates between the two ; e. g. p-vr)p.n a calling to mind, recollection ; eVt- o-Tr)pr) a knowing, knowledge; tlllt) honour shewn; but also o-nypxi point, ypapprj line, which differ only in secondary meanings from ariyp-a puncture, thrust, ypdp.p,a a letter, writing. Note 3. Some nouns in /xo'y from the more ancient language, have before 20 p. simply the vowel, without o- ; e. g. 8eip,6? fear, Kpvp.69 a being cold, frost; — or they have instead of a- a &; e. g. 6pxr)0p.6s dance from opx^op.ai, p.vicr)- 6p.6s, K\avdp.6s, p.7)vi6p,o9, etc. /3a0/*o'y (strictly a treacling from (3alva>, hence) a step of a stairea«e 3 etc. — So even after p, as aK.ap6p,6s from aKaipoa • with which we may compare Wpa a going, step, lardpo? gangway, neck, isthmus both from Ii2, etfii, to go ; also aa6p,a asthma from aco. Note 4. The above differences of signification it is necessary to mark as 21 a ."basis ; but at the same time it must not be forgotten, that both in the poets and in the common language, the significations especially of the ab- stract and concrete, often flowed into one another. Thus e. g. \axp-6s (comp. § 23 note) and xpWH-°* mean, not the act of casting lots and of prophesying, but the lot, the oracle; on the other hand, ; Adyor discourse, from Acyco; poo? (poCs) from peco. — But also eAey^oy confutation, from eXeyvca; TV7roy from tvtttol> ; tvoXos from 7raAAeo, etc. To these may be added substantives in ror, which are commonly oxytone, e. g. aixrjTos mowing, k&kvtos howling ; sometimes with slight changes, as veros rain, from uco ; nayeros frost, from ir^yvvpL. Some have the tone drawn back; e. g. ft'ioro? life; iroros drinking, from mv(o Tseiropai. 28 e. — 0? Neut. E. g. to /o}8o? care, from fojBco ; Xa^o9 lot, from Aayyaz/o) ; Trpayos i. q. irpdypa etc. These verbals never have o in the principal syllable; hence r6 yeVov race, genus; but 6 yovos procreation. 29 8. The subject of the verb, as a person or maw, is marked by the following endings : a. — T7] ; Kpirrjs from /cptVco etc. But also KvfiepvrjTns steersman, from Kvftepvda) ; Trkda-rn s (from 7rAarrco, 7re7rAao-pat), Sui/dor^r, \lfaXrns; etc. — T77p and reap are less frequent forms, which in the dialects and in the poets are often in use along with rrjs ; and in many words are usual in the common language ; e. g. acor^p saviour, prjroop orator, (from o-adco and 'PEQ,) io-Tidrcop host, etc. 30 Note 7. Some of these shorten the vowel before the ending (see m. 17) ; e. g. cvevdvrrp, Svrrjp, Serv?, aipe'r^r; and especially those from rjyeopai com- pounded with a substantive, as odnyerw?, Movanyerr)? or Movcrayerns. 31 b. — ev$. E. g. from mXo? (KaXXitov), alcrxpds (atV^toros), paicpos (prjKcaros). Comp. m. 9, above. 11. Of the substantives which come C. From other Substantives, 40 are first to be remarked some endings, which are formed simply after the analogy of verbals. Thus : 1) Masculines in T17? (of which all in Ittjs have long 1) often denote simply a person in some relation to the object expressed by the rad- ical word ; e. g. 73-0X1x775 citizen, from ttoXc? city; ottXiti]? an armed man, from ottXov ; t7T7roTj/y rider, from cttitos ; yevecrjrr]? a bearded man, from yevecov ; \r)S pvpon&Xis a female dealer in ointment. Comp. iirrerLS etc. § 70. n. 2. 46 c. • — aiva, chiefly from Masc. in cov, e. g. ^epdircov (ovtos) ^e- pdnaiva female servant, Xecov (ovros) Xeaiva lioness, rtKT&v (ovos) reKraiva fe- male artisan, Acikcoi/ (covo?) Admiva. Also from some masculines in os, e. g. Seos Seaiva. 47 d. — eta, from two masculines in evs, viz. iepeca priestess, from lepevs ) fiacriXeia queen. 48 e. — craa from several endings of Dec. III. E. g. j3aa-[\ccrcra from -evs ', Tvzvqcrcra from -rjs; avacraa from ava£ ', KiXicraa, Qpfjcraa (Attic Gperrra), from KiXtg and Qpj}g or Qpag. 49 4) Gentile nouns, or national appellatives. These are com- prised in three classes : A. Masculine ; B. Feminine ; C. Possess- ive (adjectives). A. Masculine. — to?, also — KciL€vs or better QuKaevs a Phoccean from Kaia, Evfioevs from Evfioia. 53 B. Feminine. — Besides the usual change of the Masc. ending or into 77 and a, e. g. 'Aaiavrj, 'AOrjvaia, these either simply change (by m. 45) the t)S of the Masc. endings into is, e. g. 2irapTidTis, 2u/3aptnr, etc. — or they * The rule, that gentile nouns in arris have long a, must not be extended to ♦hose which are not derived from some primitive name, as in "Xapfiarrjs Sarmata. $ 119 FORMATION OF AVORDS. DERIVATION. 283 append the endings is and ay, as euphony may require, to the stem itself; e. g. AioAi'y, Acopi'y, Meyapt'y, &a>Kts, &&mts, Arfkias, Ids from "loor, anc. 'leuou. All these names are used either of a female or of a country, according as the sense may require ywr\ or jr) to he supplied. C. Possessive gentile words (kt^tcko), as they are called, are 54 adjective forms derived immediately from gentile nouns, and express only a relation to these, mostly that of possession, like -ish in the words English, Spanish, etc. They have almost exclusively the ending kos, see m. 71 ; e. g. 2u/3apirtKoy, Kopivdiaicos, Aaice$aip,oviK6s. 5) Patronymics, or names derived from ancestors. 55 A. Masculine. The endings here are : — /S?7?, a&7?, ta&y?, Gren. ov. These are the most usual end- ings ; and indeed the form in idrjs may he considered as the primary one, which is derived from names of most terminations ; while on the contrary, the form in dhr^s comes only from names in ay and rjs of Dec. I. E. g. KeKpoyjr K€Kpo7ri8r]s, Kpovos Kpovidrjs, 'AXkcuos y A\Kat8r)S • Bopeas BopeaS^y, 'l7j-7ror7/y 'iTnroTadr)?. The ending iddrjs prohahly arose chiefly on account of names in toy, where this form was occasioned hy a regard to euphony ; e. g. MevoLTios MevotTidSr]?. But the agreeable cadence of this ending (- ~ - -), and especially the wants of hexameter verse, occasioned this form to he ap- pended also to many names, which presented a long syllable before the patronymic- ending; e. g. ^eprjnd^s from G. (60s) ovs Latona. Note 12. Not unfrequently the proper name of a man has in itself the 59 patronymic form, e. g. MiArido^y, Sipamo^y, AeuKaAiW. Sometimes the same name appears in both forms ; e. g. Evpvros and EupunW. This gave occasion to the epic writers, in such names as did not commonly end in coi>, to presuppose such a form, and thence to derive a patronymic suitable to their metre ; e. g. from 'AKpiVioy — 'AKpio-tWtdoV, from 'laireros — 'icureTZovt- 6>/y. But, for like reasons, they sometimes omitted in the patronymic the cop of such words as really had it; e. g. Aeu/raAiW— Aevnakidrjs. B. Feminine. These correspond in general to the masculines ; 60 viz. to those in [drjs, ddrjs, the feminines in is and ay, e. g. TavraXis, 'Arkav- n'y, Qeo-Tids; — to those in eldrjs, the feminines in rjts, e. g. N^pqiy; — to those in lav, the feminines in tavrj and Ivrj, e. g. 'AKpicriowr], 3 A8pt]aTLurj. 6) Diminutives, viroKopiaTiKa. Of these there are various 61 endings : a. — lov (to) is the chief ending ; e. g. iraihlov a small child, o-oopdYioi> a small body, pdiaov from to pdxos, etc. In order to render the di- minutive more emphatic, this ending is often made a syllable longer in the 284 FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. $ 119. following ways : ibiov, dpiov, vXXiov, vbpiov, vcpiov. E. g. mvaKibiov from 7u- vag : iraibdpiov from 7rais, peipaKvXKiov from jt*etpa^, peXvdpiov from r6 /xeXo?, £u>v vs ; Iparidiov from ipdnov. Words in tp and v? (G. ecoy) contract into eidiov, as prjareidiov from prjcri?, apcpopeibiov from dpcpo- ptvs. The form iSioi/ in those in is- G. ecoy is in Attic writers doubtful. — The ending dpiov has always short a. 64 Note 15. Many words in iov have entirely lost their diminutive sense; e. g. Srjpiov beast from 6 ^p, /3i/3Aioz> 6oo& from /3i/3Aos. b. — /cr/co?, /otc?7. E. g. o-Telos) as more definite and em- phatic; e. g. ndrpios generally, 'what relates to one's forefathers, native country,' 7rarp&>os- specially, 'what relates to one's father; 7 and so then also the forms prjrpaios; irainrwos. — More especially is the ending 69 — eto? in use, as a derivative from words denoting living be- ings ; e. g. dvdpativcLos human, Xvkclos of a wolf, dvdpelos, yvvaiKelos, etc. (On the contrary of lifeless objects, olicelos one's own.) This is the most $ 119. FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. t£85 common form of derivation from proper names of persons, the ending of which in any way admits it ) e. g. 'Ofirjpeios, ' Err ucovpeios, ILvOayopeios, Ev- pm'idtLos, etc. b. — eo? denotes chiefly the material from which anything is 70 made, and is contracted into ovs; see § 60. 6. c. — /eo? is to be taken in a sense quite as general as £09, and 1 1 extends itself also to verbs, (as ypatpiKos belonging to painting, dpxiKo? fit to rule, etc.) The most usual form is -ucos, and when ai precedes, there com- monly arises the form -a'iKos, e. g. rpoxa'iico? from rpoxaio?. From words in v? is formed -vkos, e. g. StjXvkos; and -aicos from endings which have i he- fore them, e. g. '0Xiyx7n'a, "l\ios — 'OXupTriaKor, 'iXta/coy p.avia, fiaviaKos • ctttov- §elos, (TTrovbeiaKos • Kovpelop, KovpeaKos. Instead of the simpler -ik.6? however, he ending -iclk6s is often preferred, on account of its better cadence, although ft is strictly a double derivation, e. g. KopivOos, — KopiV0io?, a Corinthian, KopivdiaKo? Corinthian. Comp. above the ending -tdo^y. d. — vo$ an old Passive ending (like T09, reos:) ; hence Setvos 72 terrible, aepvos (from o-efiofiai) venerable, orvyvos hateful, etc. — Ivos as proparoxytone, denotes almost exclusively the mate- rial, e. g. t-vkwos wooden, \L6ivos, etc. A single exception is dvOpSmvos i. q. avdpoaneios human, etc. — As oxytone, it forms adjectives of time, e. g. r\\xepi- vo?, x#eo-ivo'y of yesterday, from x^e'y ; seldom with long i, as in dnoapivo? in Horn. The word nc^vo? and those in eivos indicate & fullness or something entire, etc. ivehivos entirely level, SptLvos mountainous, evduwo? entirely cheerful, etc. — «/o?, aw, rjvos, belong only to gentile words ; see m. 50. e. — X09, an old Active ending ; hence 8et\6$ one who fears, 73 timid; eWayXos one who makes others fear, formidable, see p. 247. marg. Most common are the lengthened endings rfkos and coXds 1 , which indicate propensity and habit, as d7rarrjX6s deceitful, dpaprcoXdy accustomed to sin, a sinner, etc. f. — iyu-09 is confined almost wholly to verbals ; it marks fitness 74 both Active and Passive, and is appended after various analogies ; e. g. Xprj(Tip.os useful from xpdop.ai, rpo(pip,o$ nourishing, Savd(np,o? deadly, Trorip-os drinkable. This ending is also sometimes lengthened by cuq?, as v7ro/3oXt- jxaios. g. — po?, epos, ypos, express mostly the idea of fullness, e. g. 75 oiKrpos full of grief, (pdovepos full of envy, vocrrjpos and vovepos sickly. h. — dkeos signifies nearly the same ; e. g. ^rappaXios (from Qappo?), pa>p,aXeos, SeijuaXeov, i/z-oopaXeor, etc. i. — to? and reos, see $ 102. 14. Other adjective endings are the following : 76 a. — • et9, Gr. evTos, with preceding i, r), or o, denoting a fullness ; e. g. xapieir full of grace, vXrjei? full of vjoods, ttv poets full of fire. — For the contraction of these adjectives, see § 41. n. 5. § 62. n. 3. b. — 779, 69, Gr. 0U9, serves for derivation only in composition 77 (§ 121. 9. a) • still there arises from it the special ending ^ — cc>8r]9, Sides, G. ovs, with a shifting of the accent, from -oeidrj? (stem tlbos form, manner); e. g. crept) Koadrj? wasp-like, yvvaiKcobrjs womanly; but 286 FORMATION OF WORDS. DERIVATION. $ 11^. most commonly denoting a fullness, multitude, and especially frequent in a sense of censure : e. g. yjrafifi^dqs full of sand, alp-uTcodris full of blood, bloody, iXvoo&^r full of mire. 78 c — - ficov, Gr. oz/o?, belongs to verbals after the analogy of sub- stantives in pa, and in part first formed from these. The signification for the most part follows the active quality denoted by the verb. E.g. voqpow intelligent, from voeiv, irokvnpdypcov busy, busily occupied, from tto\vs and irpdypa or Txparreiv', in Ck-qap&v forgetful, etc. Finally, a multitude of adjectives arise simply through compo- sition, of which we shall treat in the following sections. IY. Adverbs. 79 15. Besides the simple mode of forming adverbs by changing the flexible ending of adjectives into a>?, which has already been treated of in § 115, there are still to be noted the following ad- verbial endings : a. — Stjv. These are solely verbals, and express the manner of the verbal action. The ending is appended partly in the manner of the endings reor, to?; but with the necessary change of the verbal character- istic, and never with . In most cases nevertheless, where the ending of the first noun has v or t, the o is not assumed. E. g. €v6v$lkos, 7ro\v(j>dyos, irokiiTopOos, from evOvs, 7ro\u?, 7ro\t?. Fn the same manner after ov and av, e. g." {3ov({>opl36s, vavpLayia, from /Sou?, vavs, and often after v, e. g. fjLe\ay)(o\la, pbeXa/jLTreirXos, from pceXas, avos ; irapLcjxiyos from 7ra?, ttclvtos. Note 1. The o remains sometimes before vowels, especially before those Df which it can be assumed (§ 6. n. 3), that in the earlier language they had the digamma • e. g. p^i/oeiSqv, pevoeacf)?, dyaOoepyos. But in compounds with epyov or EPrQ, the o is commonly contracted with the e ; as drjfuovp- yof, Xeirovpyos; mKovpyos. Note 2. An co in place of this o, comes either from the Attics, or from the contracted forms of declension; e. g. vecoKo'poy from i/e&>? ; opeco/copo? from >p€vs G. 6pe(£>s; Kpe&cpdyos from /cpear G. aos, coy. The word yr} earth be- comes in all compounds yew-, e. g. yeaypdcpos; instead of yao-, from the old 'orm TAA; see § 27. n. 10. Note 3. Some primitives in pa, G. p,aro?, simply change their a into o, »r cast it off; e. g. aijioa-Tayrjs, oropaAyia, from afpa, arop.a. Note 4. In some compounds, especially in poetical ones, the form of the Dat. Sing, or Dat. Plur. is assumed in composition: e. g. irvp'nrvovs, wkti* 258 FORMATION OF WORDS. COMPOSITION. § 120. Tropes^ yaarpipapyos^ opeivopo? (from opo?, for), vavcwropos; eyxecripiopo?.^ — A shortening of this last (the Dat. Plur.) is the very common form in eo- (from or G. eo' - ), e. g. reXeacpopos, aaKearraXos, from to re'Ao?, craKoy. Note 5. There are still some peculiar single forms, which must be left to observation ; e. g. p.eo~ai7r6Xio? from peao? ) obomopos from ohos ) dpyinovs from apyrjs or apyos; irobavmrrip from irovs; 7ro§d?; dicpdxoXo? from aKpo?; Qrjftayevrjs; poiprjyevfjs; from Ot](3r], polpa ) eXa(pr)t36Xo?, Xaprrabrjcpopos, from eXcxpos; Xapnds ; — and the apparently retained os of the Nominative in $eoo~- Sotos, Xaoo-croo?, comp. marg. note. 3. When the first word is a Verb, its ending is commonly changed into e without change of the characteristic, or else intc , Trpooirros ) especially with the augment, see § 86. n. 1. - -For the shortened forms K.a(3{2dXet,v, etc. see § 117. n. 2. Note 8. That ire pi does not lose the i in composition, follows of course from § 30. 2. But dp.(pi likewise often retains it; e. g. in dpcpiaXos, dpcpl- erer, from aXr, eror. The other prepositions retain their vowel only in the Ionic dialect, especially the old Ionic of the epic writers, in some compounds, where the second word originally had the digamma ; in the Attic dialect this takes place only in iiriopKeiv, iirieaao-dai ($ 108. Ill), and the adjective eiriciKZjS. Note 9. In respect to the division into syllables the common rule is, that when the preposition by itself ends in a consonant, this consonant remains with the first syllable; as eicr-epyopcu, 7rpocr-ayco, ev-vbpos, e^ep^opai. But when the consonant regularly begins in the preposition itself the second syllable, it continues to do the same in the compound, even when its own vowel is elided ; e. g. ira.-pdya>, d-Traireiv. * Of course in these compounds real Datives are as little to be sought as real Nominatives in d-eJcrSoros, Aeoo-coos, in n. 5. The coincidence with these cases is only accidental. $ 120. FORMATION OF WORDS. COMPOSITION. 5. Of the Inseparable Particles the principal are : 1) rj p, t- ; half, e. g. ^fMiirovi half a foot, rjfilecfrOos half-cooked, rj/uLlovos a mule ; 2) Sv a-, which signifies difficulty, adversity, etc. e. g. hvcr- PaTos difficult of passage, Bvo-Baifiovla adverse fate ; 3) The negative a, called a privative, which marks a direct negative, like the Latin in-, and the En- glish in-, un- ; e. g. aftaros impassable, airais childless. Before a vowel this a commonly assumes v, e. g. avavrios innocent, avrj- koos deaf Note 10. Many words beginning with a vowel, especially those cited (in § 6. n. 3) as originally beginning with a digamma, take nevertheless the a alone • e. g. drjTTTjTo?, aowos, etc. Hence the a is subject to contraction, as in aKoav unvjilling for deicav, dpyos unemployed from aepyos with a change of accent, § 121. n. 6. — On the other hand, the v remains even before a con- sonant in dvvecpeXo?, dfxcpaa it) from d and cprjp.1. Note 1 1 . Wholly different from this a is another, which from its inher- ent augmentative power is called by many grammarians, in antithesis to the former, a intensive. With it we here connect also the a which has a copulative or uniting power. But the nature of this a in both these senses differs essentially from that of the preceding, in that it cannot be put arbitrarily before every word, the idea of which is susceptible of amplification ; but is limited rather to a com- paratively small number of words, which therefore must be noted each by itself. The following examples are among the most decisive : 1) Intensive : e. g. drevfjs very intent, d^az^y ivide-gaping, dairepxe? and do-Keke? very violently t dicfjdeia deep sorrow ; prob. also in agvXo? very woody : afipopos very noisy. 2) Copulative : e. g. aKoLrqs fern, clkoitls and tj akoxos (from koitt) and Xe^os) bedfellow ; dydXaicTe? suckled together; dyao-rope? from one womb, kins- men, also d8e\(p6s, -77, brother, sister; drakavros of one weight, equal; dico- Kovdo? (from Kfkevdo?) a follower, companion; dfioXelv to meet together. In all these examples the d probably has its origin from the asperated d in cbrAouf, anas, apa. There remain still some instances, where the a is superfluous, or is of uncertain and difficult origin; e. g. ddax^ros; afiXrjxpos, aj3io?, ann-pos, dVe- Sor, etc. Note 12. An infrequent form of negation is the inseparable vrj-, e. g. vrj- tvolvos unpunished; vrjcms fasting, from vrj- and i'dco; vawpos from vr\- and ovopa. Note 13. We may further note as inseparable particles, dpi, epi, and £a, all intensive; e. g. dpnrpeTrr]? very distinguished; ipifipopos loud sounding; gapevrjs very bold. 6. In all compounds, where the secood word begins with p, and a short vowel comes to stand before it, the p is regularly doubled (§ 21. 2) ; e. g. laoppeirr}?, from titros and peirw ; Trepippe(o, a7T0pp7]T0^, app^ro^ from a and pyros. T 290 FORMATION OF WORD?. COMPOSITION. § 121. $ 121. Second Part of Compound Words. — -Two kinds of Com- position. 1. The form of the last part of a compound determines the character of the whole word ; which accordingly is either a Yerb, a Noun, or a Particle. 2. The most usual method with Verbs is the loose composition so called, irap&Oeais ; in which the verb remains unchanged, and retains its own peculiar flexion with both augment and endings. But, strictly speaking, this occurs only with the eighteen primi- tive prepositions (§ 115. 2) ; and is in fact no real composition. The prepositions in this case can properly be considered only as adverbs closely connected with the verb ; in the sense of up- wards, inwards, forwards, away, etc. Every similar connection of an unaltered verb with ordinary adverbs and other words, is always regarded as a simple juxtaposition, and the two are there- fore for the most part separately written ; e. g. ev irpaTreiv, /ca- /CCO? 7TOL6LV. Note 1. In the earlier poetry it was sometimes customary to write in one word certain verbs, especially participles, with a preceding adverb in- timately connected with them ; e. g. avepvaav for av epvcrav they bent back, i. e. the neck of the victim; 7raAi/z7rAayY0eVrar, etc. So too even with an Ac^ governed by the verb ; as haKpvx^v. Such double compounds also, as durevnoielvy avrevnda-eTai, (Plato, Demosth.) can well be written only as one word. See Wolf. Prsef. ad Iliad. LXI. Note 2. For the very reason that the usual composition of verbs with prepositions is to be regarded in this same manner, such compounds admit in poetry the figure called Tmesis ; see § 147. n. 7. 3. The proper or close composition (crvvOeais) on the contrary, in which the first word unites itself completely with the follow- ing, (which is true also of the inseparable particles,) can be ad- mitted by verbs only when they undergo some change in their forms. That is to say, there thus arise peculiar compound forms of verbs with a derivative ending, most commonly in eco ; where, for the most part, a noun compounded in the manner shewn be- low (4-7) lies at the basis. E. g. from epyov and Xajubftdveo comes ipyoXdfios, and hence ipydXafteiv; from ev and epSco (EPFI2) comes evepyerr]? benefactor, and hence evepyereiv to do good ; from hva- and dpia/cco comes hvadpearo^ displeased, Bvcrapeareiv to be displeased, etc. So when instead of falhecrOai to spare, the negative idea of not to spare, to neglect, was to be expressed with a privative, there arose from the Adj. aet$/?? the verb aet- helv. — In the same manner there exist some instances of closa composition even with prepositions ; see § 86. 2. Note 3. When in this kind of composition the verb sometimes appears unchanged, it arises from an accidental coincidence of the derivative end. § 121. FORMATION OF WORDS. COMPOSITION. 291 ing with that of the verbal root; e. g. Troieco make, peXorroios, /ieXo7roieci make verses. So pvponioXico comes not from pvpov and 7ra>Aec0, but from pvpoircoXrjs ; d not from d- and (ppoveoa, but from acppcov, etc. In like manner artyiaG> is not formed from ri/iaco, but is a secondary form from dn- p.d£co, which comes from ci.Tip.os. 4. In compound Nouns, only the close composition can prop- erly have place; although the last part is often an unaltered noun. But even when both parts remain unchanged, they are still regarded as expressing a single compound idea; and are consequently never separated by Tmesis. It is here the less usual case, that the last noun continues to express the principal idea, which then is modified or defined by the preceding part ; and the instances which do occur, are for the most part words compounded with prepositions ; e. g. 7rp6%€vo$ the public or stale guest; cvvobos a coming together; 6 fjiohovkos fellow -servant. Only Adjectives usually have their simple signification modified by means of this kind of composition ; e. g. ttmttos credible, aino-Tos not to be credited ; (/>/Xo? loved, vTrepfyCkos immoderately loved. But when e. g. an abstract substantive, as tl/jltj honour, is to receive a negative form by means of a privative (dishon- our), there is first formed in this manner (no. 5) an adjective art/Mis, and thence a new substantive, ciTtfjula. — In such com- pounds, adjectives in v? mostly adopt the ending ^? ; e. g. rjSvs, pleasant, arjSfc unpleasant ; fSapvs heavy, olvojSaprjs heavy with wine, etc. 5. But in most nouns compounded in this manner, the second part does not express the principal idea or subject of the thought which lies at the basis of the compound ; but only its object. This last part of the compound is very often an unaltered noun ; and is indeed always so, whenever the simple noun has an end- ing not incompatible with the nature and gender of the compound to be formed. Thus : (ittoikos, 8eicri8alp,iov, do not denote an olicos, a daipcov, which are then rendered determinate by the first part of the compound ; but the former means one who is arro tov o'Lkov absent from his house or home; the lat- ter, one delcras tovs ha.ip.ovas fearing the gods. So airais is one ivho has no child, childless; paKpo^eip one who has a long hand; evdeos inspired from God; iiu-)(aip£KaKos one who eVt^at'pet toIs Kanols rejoices in evil t malicious. When however the original ending of the noun is not compatible with the intended compound, the latter assumes the simplest kindred ending of declension, i. e. consequently either a simple ?, or some one of the endings o?, w? G-. co, ??? Gr. ou?, t? Gr. So?, or of those which arise from the alternation of vowels mentioned $ 63. 2, viz. cov and cop ; e. g. abaupvs (from baKpv) tearless ; rpexehenrvos (from rpe^co and deinvov) one who runs after suppers; evdvdiKos one who exercises exact right (dUrj) 292 FORMATION OF WORDS. COMPOSITION. $ 121. arifxos deprived of honour (np,rf), dishonoured; (pikoxprjp-aros one who loves money (xprjpara) ) evyeas (from ev and yrj) of a good soil (yrj, yea-), fertile; Xnropeio? leaving his ship; KaKor)6rjs of evil disposition (rjdos) ; aVaA/cty G. i$o9 without courage (d\Kr)) ; o-acppcov one who has sound sense (eras and (pprjv), sensible; evrrdroop noble. Compare for all these forms § 63. In this way arise a great part of all compound adjectives, as also of substantives which imply an attribute. 6. Most frequently, however, when a compound noun is to bt formed by the help of a verb, the verb stands last and takes thfe ending of a noun. In this case the preceding word or first part contains either the limitation or the object of the verbal action ; e. g. ipyo\dj3os one who undertakes a work, lirirorpo^os one ivho raises horses, etc. The simple ending o? is the most common in this sort of composition. Besides this there are, for substantives, the endings 77? and as of Dec. I, see the examples § 119. m. 32 ; and for adjectives the endings 779 of Dec. Ill ; e. g. ev/juaO^ Neut. e?, one who learns well. There are further the other noun-end- ings mentioned § 119. 8 ; e.g. vopuoOerrjs from vo/jlos and TiOrj/jLi, etc. 7. From all such primary compounds, there are found again other derivative compounds, like SecatSaifiovLa, vopuoOeala, vo/jlo- Oerucos, etc. So likewise the compound verbs mentioned in no. 3 above ; as i7r7rorpo(f)e(o from lirTroTpocpos, eviraOeco from evira- Orjs, etc. 8. Among the changes which sometimes occur in composition in the second word or last part, it is to be particularly noted, that words beginning with short a or with e and 0, very commonly assume tj or co. This is never the case with verbs compounded with prepositions in the manner exhibited in no. 2 above ; but it can have place in attributive words derived from such verbs, and consequently in compound verbs of the second class (no. 3 above) ; e. g.^ \mr]KQos obedient, from vrraKova) ; crrpaT-qyos leader, commander, from o-rpa- tos and ayco, (but see p. 14 for those with d derived from ayu> and ayw- fxi) ', Karrjyopos accuser, Karrjyopea), from Kara, and dyopd, dyopevoa • evr)- vepos with fair wind, from avepos ', dvcrf]\aTo? from iXavvco ) dvJopoTos un- sworn, from opwpi, etc. In the compounds from ovofxa, the second o is also changed into v, as avojvvfjLos, evoivvpuos, etc. 9. In respect to the Accent, the general rule is, that in com- position the accent of the simple word (according to the analogy laid down in § 12. 2. a) is drawn back as far as the nature of the accent permits. Thus, e. g. from re/cvov, S-eo?, come (piXorefcvos, cpiXoOeos ; from 686s avvo8os ', from irals, ircuhos, comes airais, a7rai8os ; from ripbrj artpios ; from ercupos, irapOevos, come epco. Also aSucrjTifcos from dhaceiv, irapo^vajLos from irapo^vvw, TrpocrSofcrjTos from irpoaZoKav. But see note 7. So soon however as such words are again compounded, they draw back the accent, e. g. aTrpocrBoKrjTOs. d) Those compounds, whose first part is formed from a noun or adverb, and the last part from a transitive verb, with the sim- ple ending 0?, (not T09, w?, etc.) take the accent in the active signification regularly on the penult, if that syllable be short ; but in the passive sense, on the antepenult ; e. g. \l0o/36\os throwing stones \l66j3o\os thrown at with stones. Orestes is a fJL7]rpoKr6vo<;, but the children of Medea are pa]Tpo- ktovol. So St/coypacpos one ivho writes accusations, Xeirroypa- 00? written neatly ; and thus throughout, even where only the Active signification can have place, as in olkovojulos, olvo^oo^, roi- %wpv^(p9 from opvaaco, dSrjcpdyo^, etc. — When however the penult is long, the accent goes to the final syllable ; e. g. ^v^oiropbiro^, GKvrohetyos, t7T7ro/3oo-/co9, XiOovKkos from €Xkw, /xeXo7roto9, Seivco- T09 from OUTfl, 6877709, 7raiSaya)y6<;, apyvpap,oi(36s. Note 4. Compounds of this kind, which contrary to the rule here given are proparoxytone, are few, with the exception of some epic adjectives (wr- 7rdSa/ior, craKto-irako?, TVTok'nropOo?) ; and are found only from some few verbs beginning with a vowel, as fjvloxos (from fjvlov e'xoo), vavap^o^ etc. This 294 FORMATION OF WORDS. COMPOSITION. § 121 accentuation lies also at the basis in the properispomena, as dadovxo? (from 5a8a ex™)' KaKovpyos, navovpyos, from EPrQ. The other compounds of the same verb, which fall under this head, follow the rule ; as dyadoepyoss \160vpy6s, etc. Note 5. When the verb is intransitive, the compound remains subject to the general rule. Thus we find indeed clvtoktovos (from ipLavrbv /cretvco), but avrofxdXo? (from avrb? ep-oXov) ] and likewise laoppoivos, (Sapvftpofio?, etc. So too aip.6ppovs, irvpLrrvovS) etc. because in these the verbs peiv, 7rve7v, are aitransitive, and the nouns are to be taken only as Datives. Note 6. Some compounds became oxytone contrary to the general rule, because their derivation was less obvious ; e. g. arptmos, a8e\(p6s; fiovXvros. See also apyos § 120. n. 10. Note 7. The few single instances, where words compounded with prepo- sitions do not draw back the accent, e. g. avTios, ivavrlos, or where a word derived from a compound nevertheless draws back the accent, as especially many in to?, e. g. i^alperos^ iirikqiTToS) vno7tTos, itepippvTos, may be best learned from observation. PART III. SYNTAX. § 122. Definition. 1. Syntax teaches the proper use of those forms, the origin and derivation of which have been shewn in the preceding parts of the grammar. For this purpose it follows the same general di- vision of the Parts of Speech, which we have given in h 31. 2. We therefore here treat of the several parts of discourse as follows : 1) The Noun by itself, or as connected with other nouns and like words ; 2) The Noun in construction, or as dependent on verbs and other words ; 3) The Verb ; 4) The Particles ; 5) Various compound Phrases and Figures of Construction. THE NOUN. § 123. Substantives and Adjectives. 1. A substantive is rendered more definite by attributive ad- juncts in apposition with it. These again may be : 1) A Sub- stantive, or apposition in the strict sense ; 2) Adjectives, to which are also reckoned the Article, Pronouns, and Participles. 2. When one substantive is put in Apposition with another, it must always stand in the same case, and usually in the same number ; e. g. TlXdrcov, 6 (pikoo-ocjyosy etc. Note 1. When the subst. added has special endings for the Masc. and Fem. e. g. ftaaikev? and ^aaiXia-aa, (as in Lat. victor and victrix,) then of course it conforms to the first subst. in gender also. Hence derived sub- stantives with a special ending of gender are not put in apposition with a subst. of different gender. Still the poets sometimes take the liberty of con- necting with feminine words, nouns expressing attributes, which as to form are only masculine (§ 119. 8) J e. g. Movaat laropes ^eco and tolv ^reolv (Ceres and Persephone) from rj S-eo? ; to) %et/oe Xen. As now we have seen above (s s 60. 3, 4, comp. § 79. n. 4), that adjectives in o?, especially among the At- tics, are often of common gender ; so here we need only to make the supposition, that in the Dual this is commonly the case with all adjectives and other like words. Examples: Xen. Cyr. 1.2. 11 \iiav apcpco % ovtw ra> rjpepa Xoyi^ovrai they regard them as one. Plat. Phsedr. p. 237. d, rjfiwv iv eKdara 8vo rive iarov Idea ap^ovTe Ka\ ayoi/Tf, oiv enop-eOa. So too tovtolv tolv Kivrjo-eoiv Plat. etc. Note 4. The mixing of Dual and Plural forms occurs for the. most part only in the construction of the subject and predicate; see § 129. 6. But when Homer often connects oaae (paeivd, alparoevra, akicipa dovpe, this is quite analogous to the construction ocrae daierai Od. £. 131, see § 129. 3; from which it is evident that he takes ocrcre and dovpe as Plurals of the neuter gender. 5. An Adjective can stand without a substantive, not only in reference to a substantive expressed in the same connection or sentence, but also very often without any such reference. In this latter case a substantive is either actually omitted where it might stand, or at least the idea of such a substantive is always im- plied ; as man, woman, thing', etc. Such an adjective then ac- quires entirely the nature of a substantive ; e. g. 6 aocpos the wise man, ol 7ro\\ol the many, the people, ra ifid my things. Note 5. Such omissions of substantives, by which the adjective and its appropriate article come to stand alone, (with which is to be compared the usage in § 125. 5, 7,) have in many instances become established by usage. Thus, besides the above, we may note the following : fjpepa, e. g. rj eiriovcra, r) varepala, r) Trporepaia. yrj, ^co pa, e. g. r) ciwdpo? the desert, fj r)perepa, etc. X*' L Pi e - §• V de^ia, r) dpiarepd. yva>IAT), e. g. Kara rrjv ipr)v Plato. From this obvious tendency, for the sake of brevity, merely to indicate those substantives which may easily be supplied from the connection, has arisen the very frequent usage, that in a sentence the substantive implied in the idea of the verb is omitted, and the adjective alone remains; e. g. rr)v avrr)v levai sc. odov a>9 {5a6vv eKoiprjdrjs sc. vttvov ■ e'r fiiav fiovkeveiv sc. fiovXrjv * tovtov oXlyas eTraicre sc. rrXrjyds. Note 6. Vice versa, the Greeks often connect with those personal appella- tions, which denote an occupation or character, (as herdsman, judge, etc.) the words dvr)p and avOpumos in the manner of adjectives, whenever those terms are to be taken as referring to personal individuals, and not as mere appellatives. Thus e. g. Troiprjv herdsman stands alone only in actual reference to his herd ; but dvr)p 7roipr)u stands, where we indeed commonly say a herds- man, but where the more exact idea is, a man who is a herdsman. So Horn, . \v emfiovKoXou avdpa, Plato dvbpl o~TparT]yv Tvqyds. 6. An adjective not unfrequently (oftener than in Latin) stands m the place of the English Adverb ; that is, certain adjuncts, especially of time, instead of being referred as adverbs to the pred- icate, are referred as adjectives to the subject of the sentence, and agree with the same in gender, number, and case ; e. g. 6 Be i6e\ovT7]$ diryet he went away voluntarily, of his own accord. We find many adjectives construed in this way, especially those ending in alos ; e. g. acrpievos glad, Spo/iaio? fleet ; also Tjav^o^, av^vo^, aOpoos, cnravios, vTrocrTTovhos, etc. So too those marking time, as rpiTcuos, e/erato?, after three or six days ; a/coralo? in the dark ; also /Mjvicuos, yQCCps, fieo-ovvKTios, irav7)jjLepios, oy\rios, eapivos, and many others. Further, those of place, but more in the po- ets ; e. g. icpearios on the hearth, ^vpatos at the door ; also dyo- palos, ^aXdcrcrios, pLerewpos, ifkar^io^, virepirovTLOS. EXAMPLES: ol "EXXrjve? elbov ao-pevoi toi>? yrjXocpovs' — rjXdov be i/cratoi eh Xpvo-dTroXiv Xen. An. 6. 4. 38. — ecpecrriot e^opeOa Soph. OT. 32. — to be p-fj (pevyeiv tov? irovovs, dXXa e OeXovTrjv vTropeveiv, r<5 ap^eiv rraibevopevco av 7rpoo-6ei.r}pev Xen. Mem. 2. 1. 3. 7. The Comparative degree, when the idea with which com- parison is made is omitted, has as in Latin the force of our Posi- tive with too, quite too, very. Examples: Hdot. 6. 108 repels eKao-Tepa> otKeopev. 1. 116 eboKee f] aTvoKpi- o~i? eXev6epa>repr] eivai. Thuc. 8. 84 6 be avdabeaTepov ti aTreK.piva.TO. Note 8. The comparative is strengthened by ert, ttoXv, and even (pleonas- tically) by pdXXov) e. g. II. Tepo9. Plat. Legg. p. 781 to drjXv yevosXaOpaioTepov paXXov ko\ eVt/cAo- TraTepov e(pv bia. to derOeves. Comp. also with the Dat. § 134. 4. d. For the comparative in construction with the Genitive, and also before rj, fj Kara, with whole clauses, see § 132. 11, and n. 22, 23. Note 9. The Superlative is strengthened in a corresponding manner by 7roXv, ttoXXw, /xdAiora, (epic o%a } ego^a,) and especially by the relative par- ticles obr, 77, and the pron. olos, oaos, followed (or not) by bvvaaOai or bvva- tov eivai, or the like. E. g. j/ av bvvoopai ra^icrra, a>s evi pdXicrTa Xen. TvXitt- ttos rJKe, ciycov dno Ttov noXecov aTpaTiav oarjv TrXeiarrjv ebvvaro Thuc. 7. 21. For oTi see § 149. m. 3. 8. When a comparative refers to another quality of the same object, this latter stands, as in Latin, not in the positive, but also in the comparative. Examples: Aristoph. Ach. 1078 ia> o-TpaTrjyol rrXe Loves r) ft cXt Loves. Hdot. 3. 65 beLcras pr) drraipedeco tt)v dpxr)v, eTroirjcra Ta%vTe pa r) (ro(pa>re« pa. Eur. Med. 490 iKoprjv npodvpo? paXXov r) croT*pa. 298 SYNTAX. 9 124 § i24. The Prepositive Article. 1. The Prepositive Article, 6, r), to, being in itself originally a demonstrative Pronoun, possesses a demonstrative power ; since it brings an object, whether abstract or concrete, distinctly before the mind of the hearer, as one well known or already definitely mentioned. It serves therefore, first, to individualize, or point out one object as a definite individual from among the rest ; and, secondly, to mark also a class or genus, where the speaker takes for granted, that he may refer to a generic idea as one familiar to all. E. g. ol ^eot eKokacrav rr)V rod avSpbs v/3ptv. — at r/Boval 7T6i6ovorc tt]v ^vyrjv pur) acotypoveiv. — o e'/Vea? tov hpcuKOvra oppoohel. 2. The indefinite article of modern languages is in Greek never expressed ; and it is only when that which is indefinite, is at the same time to be clearly marked as an individual, that the pronoun rh, rl, in some measure takes its place. E. g. yvvrj rt? opviv el- yev. Hdot. 7. 57 Xttttos ere/ce \aycov. Eur. Or. 716 7updT7]<; 7rorajj,6<; ; but, on the other hand, %e\i- vovs irorafxos a river named Selinus. Note 1. The Greek article corresponds in many respects to the English the; but more nearly to the German der, die, das. It may indeed be as- sumed in general, that where in En'glish or German the article is or may be omitted, there the Greek usually omits it. But the learner should re- member, that, both in Greek and in modern languages, it often depends on the taste and choice of the writer, whether to conceive of an object as definite or indefinite ) comp. n. 7. — We have therefore now to point out par- ticularly those cases, in which the Greek usage really differs from our own. Note 2. The Greek language employs the article in connection with many Pronouns, where the English omits it; especially with the demon- stratives, which with us include the definite article in themselves ; e. g. ovroe v. eKehos 6 dvfjp; see more in § 127. — With demonstratives which in- clude the idea so, such, (as toiovto?, tchtovtos,) where we use sometimes the indefinite article [such a man) and sometimes none at all, there is also in Greek a twofold usage, with and without the article, according as it is either the object so qualified or the quality as such, that is to be made prominent. E. g. after a general description, it is said, 6 toiovtos dvrjp ovk av jxol dpeaKoi, lit. the such man, Engl, such a man. On the other hand, Dem. 01. p. 35 ol 'Adijvaioi olKobrjfiara Kai KaXkr) roiavra Kal roaavra KareaKevaaav such and so beautiful, etc. 5 124 THE ARTICLE. 299 Note 3 The article is found also in Greek, but not in English, before interrogative Pronouns; that is, when they refer to something before men- tioned. So in scenic dialogue: Eur. Pham. 718 to iroiov) to. iroia ravra: So in familiar discourse : Aristoph. Pac. 696 navx^ he SavpaaTov. To t'l; also in Plato, as Gorg. p. 521 em irorepav ovv pe 7rapaicaXeh ttjv Qepaneiav, re- ferring to the Sepcnreia before mentioned. Note 4. Before Possessives the article is essential in Greek; because these in general are used of definite objects. E. g. 6 oo? doiiXo? thy slave; but v 'Adrjyaiav ai pev e£ tg>v privav dcpoprjTos otor yiverai Kpvpos. Comp. Plato Rep. p. 460. e. Xen. An. 2. 6. 15 rjv he, ore ereXevra, dpcpl ra TrevTr]Kovra err), as a round number. Note 6. The learner must however guard himself against the impression, that in certain cases the Greek article could stand directly like our indefinite one. The true view depends rather on a right estimate of the manner of conception, which lies at the basis (n. 1) ; as is manifest from the following examples. Xen. GEc. 15. 7 e't pot alrim ho£eie yempyelv, opoios av pot hoKco etvai Tea rrepuovn larpS, elhori he ovhev o,tl avpcpepei rois Kapvovaiv, where we commonly say, to a physician; here the object is in itself indeed indefin- ite, but it appears in this connection and because of the epithets nepuovTt and eldon as distinctly marked and almost individualized. Plato Lach. p. 184 ko\ yap en tov hianpivovvTos hoKel poi helv rjplv rj (SovXr), Engl, there is need of a man, of some one ; but also : of the man to decide, etc. This usage of the article is common with Participles, see § 144. 1, and n. 1, 2. Plato Rep. p. 329 to tov Qepio-TOnXeov? ev e%ei, 6s ro> Septupled Xothopovpevco . . . aTvenpivaTo, where we commonly translate, but inexactly : to a certain Seri- phion; so too Cic. de Sen. 3, Seriphio cuidam. But in Plat. Charm. 7 is now read : 6s eVi mXov Xeycov naihos ktX. Note 7. On the other hand, it is far more common, that the Greeks, even when speaking of entirely definite relations or things, could omit the arti- cle; where we either must or at least do usually insert it. But this must not be understood, as if sometimes an indefinite mode of expression might stand instead of a definite one. It appears rather as a license, which in the earlier language, and especially in the poets, was without much lim. itation ; while in common usage it was gradually contracted to some par- ticular instances. Thus the article is omitted : 1) Before words implying a general idea in sententious expressions; e. g. Plato Legg. p. 727 Seiovyap dyadov ttov Tiprj. Charm. 18 ovk apa o~<£>(ppoo~vvr] av e'lrj alhais ; Theset. 13 aXaOrjo-is, v lepeiov ris. 2. When the adjunct thus inserted has also the article, it can happen, that two or even three articles may come to stand one after another ; but only when they differ from each other in form. E. g. to Trjs aperr}? K&Xkos the beauty of virtue; 6 ra t?}? ttoXco)? TrpcuyfxcLTa irpaTrcov he who manages the affairs of the state ; /Eschin. Tim. 2. 36 evo%o<; eo~Tco tco t^? tcov ikevOepcov cpOopds vo/ulco. 3. But the adjuncts of the substantive can also, for the sake of emphasis or perspicuity, be placed after it ; and then the article must ahvays be repeated before adjective expressions ; e.g. 6 dvyp 6 dyados, tov nralha tov crov, 6 ^iXlap^o<; 6 t«? dyyeXia? elaKOfjul- t,cov. "With other (adverbial) adjuncts belonging to the substan- tive the same holds good, at least as the rule ; e. g. rj f^d^rj rj irpbs TaXdras. The position of the Genitive is the freest ; since it may stand either after the substantive with or without the article re- peated, or also before it ; hence not only t) io-ftoXrj rj tcov IleXo- irovvr\cricov, but also rj eajBoXr] tcov H. and tcov II. rj eV/3oA,7/, or finally by no. 1 above, rj tcov II. iaftoXr). — But in every instance, where the adjunct with the article repeated follows the substan- tive, and the substantive is one of those which are sufficiently in- dividualized without the article, or in general can stand without the article by § 124. n. 7, then the article before the substantive can be omitted ; e. g. o-vvetfic dvOpcoirois tols dyadots • {3ao-i\ev<; 6 fieyas Plato Eryx. p. 393, comp. PL Soph. p. 230; 7^0? 6 ik fiettyvcov Xen. Hier. 1. 27; kcltci e%^o? to 'Prjylvcov Thur. 4. 1., 1 125. THE ARTICLE. 301 Note 2. The partitive Genitive can never be inserted between the article and its substantive; nor, when it stands after the governing noun, can the article be repeated before it ; e. g. to 7rXr)8os twv vewv, ol apiaToi avT&v. Es- pecially is this the case with participles, in phrases like tv op-fiaTcov Ids. Comp. r) o~Tevr) avTrj 686s in n. 2. Stilly the article is sometimes repeated with the second ad- jective, both before and after the substantive, in this manner : iv ttj dpxaiq. rfj Tj/xeTepa vfj Plat. Cratyl. p. 398; iv tjj tov Aios 777 fxeyio-Tj} iopTjj Thuc. 1. 126; to. Teix>] to. iavToov to. fxaicpa eVereXecraz' ib. 1. 108. Adjuncts other than adjectives, when put after the substantive, can also stand without the article repeated, by no. 3 above; e. g. 1) p.eydXr] o~Tpa.Teia ' A.6nvai<£>v kcu tg>v gvnp.dx<0v Thuc. 1. 110. Note 4. When an adjective without the article stands either before ©r after a substantive which has the article, but not between the two, the ad jective takes the place of a minor clause, of which it would be the predicate, E. g. rj8eTO eVt 7rXovo-iois tois 7ro\tratr does not mean, 'he rejoiced on ac- count of the wealthy citizens,' but, ' he rejoiced on account of the citizens, that they were wealthy;' Luc. D. Deor. 8. 1 e^ei tov iviXeKvv ogvTciTov, 'he has an axe, that is very sharp.' Eurip.rEA. 305 icaXov ye /xot rovveibot i^(Hv€t8io-as. Isocr. p. 212 'HpaK.Xr)s kcu Qrjaevs i£ d8ek(pv lirixe&v leader, ol irapa tov /3ao-iAecoy envoys; comp. 6 navv, ol rore, in n. 7 below. 2) When the omitted idea is a thing or things, the neut. to or to. takes with it : a) A Genitive, in order to express in a general way something which refers or belongs to an object, which proceeds or is derived from it ; or it may serve as a periphrase for the simple substantive itself; e. g. ra ttjs 7r6Xecos. Dem. p. 772 tt)v Alktjv 'Opcpevs cprjai ttavTa to. tg>v dvdpanrcov ecpopav. — to 8e tcov xpypaTiov irodeiTe aKOvaai, Tv66ev ecrrat, luhat concerns the money, Dem. — to. tcov 3e£>v cpepeiv Set. Dem. 01. 1. p. 15 ra tcov Beo-o-aXcov drno-Ta io~Ti cpvo-ei, as if ol QeaaaXoi. Plat. Menex. p. 245 to ttjs noXeoos (as if t) ttoXis) yevvaxov Ka\ iXeiidepov eVrt. Phaedr. init. TrdvT&v he Kopyj/oraTov to ttjs Tvoas, i. e. the grass, b) Or some kind of adverbial ex- pression ; the great variety of which will best appear from a number of ex- amples ; e. g. tcl rrpos eco, i. e. lands, regions ; ra KaTa yrjs the under-world ; Ta els tov noXepov do-Keiv Xen. — tcl irpb tcov rrodcov things present, the present. So Plato Phsed. p. 75 to. eic tcov aia6r)creoov the perceptions of the senses. Thuc. 8. 48 ra aVro tov 'AA/«/3iaSoi; the promises of Alcibiades. Hdot. 1. 51 to. dno ttjs deLpys the neck- ornaments. 8. 15 to dnb Sep^eco the punishment of Xerxes. Thuc. 1. 110 to. Kara ttjv o-Tparelav eTeXevrrjo-av, i. q. r) o~TpaTeia. Xen. Cyr. 3. 1. 30 ra ivddbe ev e^et the affairs here; to. Tore Plat. etc. 6. Every adjunct in itself indeclinable, can be declined by the aid of the article, that is, can take the appearance of a noun. Hence adverbs are without further change converted into ad- jectives by simply prefixing the article ; especially those of place, time, and measure. E. g. from fxera^v between, 6 fiera^i) tottos the intervening place. Or the adverb follows with the article repeated, as above in no. 3. Examples : al rreXas v. al ttXttjo-lov utopat the neighbouring villages; ol tot€, vvv, ivOdbe avdpcoTroi ; ol ndXat, ao irepnraTelv I delight in walking about. But the learner must be on his guard against the impression, as if in this way the verb assumed also the nature of a substantive, so as to change the subject or object into a genitive, or adverbs into adjectives ; as is the case with the English participle, e. g. 1 the loud crying of the children,' ' the falling of the trees.' In- stead of this the Infinitive retains its full verbal power ; as is shown below in ^ 140. 2) Every word and every phrase, which is to be regarded as an independent object ; e. g. to Xeyo) i. e. the ivord \eyco. Plat. Prot. p. 345. e, irepl eavTov Xeyeo tovto to ifccov. Phsedr. p. 273, KaTa^p7]aaa6aL Bel avTOV t£> IT ; and so 6 eVet, the conjunction eVa, because of 6 avv$eo-p.bs the conjunction. Note 8. Ey another peculiarity the article to (to) with its accompaniment stands adverbially ; so with adjectives of the neuter gender, e. g. to reXeu- Talov at last, to np&Tov or to. Txp^Ta at first, to \olttov for the rest, henceforth, already ; which is to be explained by § 128. n. 4, 5. Also before wholly indeclinable adverbial ideas, so that then to and to, are quite redundant : e. g. to /car ap^as at the beginning, to rrapdnav altogether, to irplv formerly, Tavvv (prop, ret vvv) for the present, to curb roGSe from now on, henceforth. All this again is sometimes made dependent on prepositions ; e. g. is to. /xaXiaTa chiefly, maxime, Hdot. «e tov Trapaxprjp-a immediately Bern. In general, too, adverbial expressions are often formed with prepositions; see § 147. Note 9. The article stands sometimes in an elliptical manner even before relative clauses, which is to be explained from no. 8. 2, above. E. g. Plat. Rep. p. 510. a, to 6p.ono6ev ivpbs to a apoicodrj, that which is compared, against that with which it is compared, where for to the Pron. e/celi/o could also stand. Hdot. 3. 133 ovdev tG>v ocra alayyvr\v eVri (pepovra. Plat. Phsedr. p. 329 tyjs (avvovo-ia?) b6ev av (fipovip,a>Ta,Tos e'lrj. Pollux 7. 75 to coanep Kapvov that nut- like thing ; hence, by attraction, toTs olois rjp.lv, etc. § 143. 16. — It sometimes stands in like manner before other words which govern a clause ; e. g. r6 Trore del \eyeiv Si'oW/ce p.e, literally, teach me the i when it is necessary to speak;' ev eri AaWrat, to r)v Treicnopev vpds, i. e. one thing still remains, viz. this, ' if we could persuade you,' Plat. Rep. 1. p. 327. e. 9. The smaller particles, Be, re, ye, B?j, yap, [juev, fjbev Br}, toIvvv, are usually put between the article and the substantive or word standing for it ; e. g. 6 yap avOponros, rj fiev yap Teyyr), etc. 10. When several substantives are connected by conjunctions, if they are of different gender or number, the article must be re- peated before each ; as 6 iraTrjp teal rj fir]T7]p. If they are alike in these respects, the article sometimes stands but once with :J04 SYNTAX. § 126. copulative conjunctions ; but with ad\ ersatives and disjunctives, and even very commonly with teal, the article is repeated ; espe- cially when the clauses are in a certain degree antithetic or inde- pendent ; e. g. ol Aa/ceScu/jLovioi, teal ol avy^ia^oi, etc. Note 10. The poets of course can omit the article at their pleasure in the first or second place; e. g. Soph. Aj. 1250 ov yap ol 7rXardr, ovd* evpv- vmTOL epeores 1 dcrcpaXeaTaroi. Eur. Phoen. 506 elnov kcu o-ocpol? ml roitrt (pavXoLs evbiica. § 126. The Articles 6, 7), to, and o?, r\, 6, as Demonstratives. 1. Both the Prepositive Article 6, rj, to, and the Postpositive o?. rj, 6, were in the earliest language demonstrative pronouns for ovtos or iteeivos. As the language became more copious and cul- tivated, these words gradually assumed their later and more lim- ited usage ; but still, in many particular cases, they both retain- ed, even in common prose, the power of real demonstratives. 2. The most frequent case is in the distinction and distribution of objects ; where 6 fiev commonly stands first, and then 6 Se fol- lows, either once or oftener, as the case may require. This takes place properly only in respect to definite objects, where in English we employ this . . . that. Still, it occurs also with indefinite ob- jects, the one . . . the other . . . another ; and so through all the genders and numbers. Examples : tov pev eripa, tov 8e ov, the one he honoured, the other not ; to aev yap dvovrov, to 8e paviKov) tu>v TroXepioav (or also ol Trohepioi § 132. n. 4) ol pev eBavpa^ov to. yiyvopeva, ol S' efiocov, ol 8e o-vveo-Kevd^ovTO, Xen. KotXeoy Treveadac Kpelaaov rj K.aKa>? irkovTelv • to pev yap e\eov, to 6° euLTLprjo-iv cpepei, Stob. III. p. 259 ; tg>v £d>a>v to. pev e^ei 7r68a?, to. S' iariv anoba. — So also ol pev avTcov . . . ol 8e, some of them . . . others. For 6 p,ev, 6 §' ov, see § 149. m. 14. 3. The postpositive article stands in the same manner, o? pev, o? Se, etc. a fxev, a he, etc. but less frequently among the genuine Attics. It occurs very often however in the later writers, as Plutarch. Note 1. An example from Demosthenes is in pro Corona p. 248 Reisk. nokeis 'EXX^i/i'day, as pep dvaipeov, eh ay 8e tov? (pvydda? /cara-ycoz/. But ray is also read in both places. 4. In the narrative style 6, rj, to often stands only once and with Se alone, in reference to an object already named ; e. g. Xen. An. 5. 6. 21 'ZuvameZs Se irkyjirovai 73750? Ti^aaiwva- 6 8e Xeyet TaZe. 5. When this demonstrative article is the subject of a clause and stands for persons, it can stand also in a clause connected by icai with what precedes, and then its place is next to the conjunc- tion. In such instances, for the Nominative, the forms of the postpositive 6'?, r\, ol, at, are used ; for the Accus. (with Infin.) those of the prepositive, tov, etc. E. g. Xen. An. 3. 4. 48 teal 6'?, aieova-as ravTa, ohOelrru avrov ite tt} tol npocppovicos epe'co tiros, l therefore will I frankly tell thee.' The same can also be expressed by the Accus. (§ 128. n. 5,) II. y. 176 'AAAa ray' ovk eyevovTo • to kcu Kkaiovaa TerqKa, c therefore am I dissolved in tears.' Note 7. In poetry, and especially epic poetry, the use of both articles as demonstratives is far more general ; and in Homer 6, 17, to, is almost every- where to be so taken ; those cases excepted where to, tov, etc. stand for 0, oi>, etc. by § 75. n. 2. In order to make this perfectly clear, one needs only to consider the following passages in Homer- II. a. 340. 6\ 399. e. 715. £. 407. Od. e. 106. These at first view seem to present only the ordinary ar- ticle of prose ; while to the attentive observer, to whom such an article in Homer is unknown, the context easily shews, that in all these and many similar passages the article is really demonstrative ; but that the demon- strative force is there not absolutely essential, and is for this reason appar- ently weakened. The passages are few, where this word expresses an ob- ject merely as well known and distinguished, or as particularly present to the mind of the poet 5 or where the demonstrative force is really so much weakened, that the transition into the true Attic article becomes apparent ; e. g. II. a. 167. 7]. 412. /x. 289. — Especially must we be upon our guard, not to take this form as an article, where it is separated from the substantive by the verb or a whole clause, as H pev ap &>s elTrovo-' cuKe^T) vivas a>K.ea *Ipis. Here the f), as demonstr. Pron. is to be taken for our she , for the article cannot be separated in this manner from its substantive : • She then thus speaking departed, the swift-footed Iris.' This is rendered evident by those passages, where the substantive is in like manner placed after the real pronoun ol (to him), e. g. Od. v. 106. — From this substantive nature of 6, rj, to, arises also in Homer the case, that an adjective is thereby appar- ently converted into a substantive; e. g. II. p. 80 tov apio-Tov the bravest ; a. 33 6 yepiov the old man, elder; and often ol aXXoi, TaXXa. In all these in- stances 6, tj, to, as Subst. has its adjective ; and the shape of the thought is strictly this : ' him the bravest,' ' he the elder,' l they the others ' etc. U C06 SYNTAX. S 127. § 127. Pronouns. 1. The Demonstratives, a) Of these ovtos and 68e sometimes stand instead of adverbs of place ; e. g. Plat. Rep. 1 init. rjpo/jLrjv o7rov €L7] ' ovtos, €(j)7j, oiriaOev irpoakpyeTai, ' I asked where he might be ? Here he comes, said he, behind thee.' The demonstr. o8e occurs in this manner chiefly in the poets, (e. g. Od. a. 185. %. 367,) and particularly often in the tragic poets ; see Schsef. Meletem. p. 77. b) As between themselves, ovtos and oBe are in so far differ- ent, that ovtos refers mainly (not always) to what precedes, and 88e to what follows. So too with tolovto? and toloctBe, the ad- verbs oi>to>? and a)$e, etc. A relative clause is by rule preceded by ovtos, unless where a special emphasis requires oSe. Examples: Xen. An. 2. 1. 21 6 be elnev ravra p.ev Si) dnayyeXovpev • dXXa Kal rdbe eKeXevaev elnelv j3aaiXevs. Isse. ad Nic. p. 18 rav 7ro\iT€icc>v avrai irXelarov ^povov biap.evovaiv, alrives av cipiara to nXrjdos Sepairevojaiv. Or with a relative clause preceding ; Id. Demon, p. 5 a noielv alaxpdv, ravra vopu£e p.rjbe Xeyeiv eivai KaXov. Contra: Soph. OT. 645 niarevov rdbe, rovb' opKov aldeadel? Secov, eireira Kap,e, rovtrSe S-\ ot ndpeiai croi. Plat. Lach. p. 191 dvbpelos ttov ovto? bv Kal av XeyeiS' dXXa ri av 6 be, bs av (pevycov p-d^j] rat rois TvoXep.ioi$. — Poetic is avros before the relative; e. g. Eur. Tro. 684 aiseTrrva avrrjv, rjris avbpa . . . d7roj3a\ov(T ciXXov (piXel. Or it stands for the strengthened avro? ovro? (lett. c) ; e. g. Plat. Rep. p. 362 avrb ovk elp-q- rai, b pdXiara ebei prjdrjvai. c) Several demonstratives strengthen each other ; thus avrb tovto this very thing, id ipsum ; tovt eicelvo, oS' eicelvos, etc. E. g. tovt 6K6iv ovycoXeyov Aristoph. and still stronger : tovt €ctti tovto to tcaicbv civO* ovycoKeyov ib. d) The demonstratives are often omitted, as in Latin, before relatives ; whether in the same or in a different case, and whether the relative precedes or follows. Examples: Plato Gorg. p. 485 dp.eXels hv del o~e imp-eXe'iaOac. Soph. Ant. 582 evbaipoves, oiai KaK&v ayevaros ald>v. Od. tv. 383 oiKia Ke'ivov p-qrepi boi- pev e\eiv, rpV oaris dirvioi. Xen. Symp. 4. 42 oh p-aXiara ra napovra dpKcl. r]Kio~ra rcov dXXorpicov opeyovrai. In this way the two clauses often flow together into one ; es- pecially when the demonstrative was governed by a preposition, and this now comes to stand before the relative ; but also with- out a preposition. The relative clause then stands as a substan- tive ; the relation of which to the whole clause (its case) appears from the connection. Comp. also the attraction in § 143. 8. Examples : Xen. Mem. 2. 6. 35 iyylyverai p.oi eiivoia npbs ov? av v7roXd(3a evvo'iK&s %X eLV "^P 05 6 V e '* Pi a t- Prot. p. 359 enl a ye Sappovai irdvres ep^ovrai Kal beiXol Kal avbpeloi. Phsed. p. 116 emov evtoi (sc. the cup of poison), gvy- yevop.evoi (sc. rovroi?) cov av rv\ci>o~iv eiriOvpovvres. Cyr. 7. 5. 72 vvv e^opev Kal yrjv 7roXXr]v kuI dyadr/v Kal olirive? ravrrjv epya^opevoi Qpeyjsovaiv rjpd?. — For ear iv ot see § 150. m. 21 ) and for. the elliptical phrases arjpelov be, reKp,y]piov be, see § 151. IV. 10. e) On the other hand, the demonstratives are often in a meas- } 127. PRONOUNS. 307 ure redundant, when they merely introduce a following Infini- tive, or a whole clause ; comp. h 132. n. 22. Examples : Plat. Phssd. p. 75 to eldevat tovt eari, \afiovTa tov encarrjfirjv e)(€iv. Eur. Suppl. 310 to avve)(ov dvdpamiov 7ToXety tovt eo~d\ OTav tis tovs vofxovs a-co^T] Kakws. So with a. relative : Time. 5. 6 onep npoae^e^ero 7roirjo~eiv uvtov, . . . eVi tyjv 'A/x^)t7ToXtv duaj3r]a€o-6ai. 2. The three principal significations of the Pron. clvtos (k 74. 2) must be carefully distinguished, as follows : I. It means self, viz. a. "When joined to another noun so as to stand as if in appo- sition with it, i. e. either after the noun, or before both the noun and its article. E. g. fiaWov tovto (fiofiov/LLai rj tov ^avarov clvtov, i than death itself /' clvtov tov fiaaikea airo- KTelvai efiovXeTo, ' the king himself' Also separated : Xen. An. 7. 7. 19 6 Be eicekevcrev cli/too eXdelv tw Ad/ccove irapd Z/c€v0r)v, themselves, the Lacedemonians. b. "When it stands alone, the personal pronoun being omitted or implied, for I myself, he himself, etc. In such case the Nominative is chiefly employed; e. g. Plat. Phaed. init. av- to<$, o) <&aihcov, rrrapayevov %WK.paTei . . . i) aXKov tov tjkov- aas; . . . irapeyevojirjv clvtos, I was myself present. — The oblique cases are so employed only when for special empha- sis they begin the construction ; e. g. clvtov yap elBov, c for himself have I seen.' Or also when they stand in manifest antithesis to other objects ; e. g. Xapfidvovcnv clvtov kcli jv- val/ca. Comp. Xen. CEc. 12. 17. etc. II. It stands instead of the personal pronoun of the third person in its simple form, but only in the oblique cases ; con- sequently like the English him, her, it, etc. Lat. eum, earn, id, etc. In this signification it can only stand after other words in a clause. E. g. eSco/cev clvtols to irvp he gave them the fire ; ov% icopa/ca? clvtov ; hast thou not seen him ? Plat. Charm, p. 161 KpLTiov diafjicocLs clvto rj oXkov tov Twv aoepcov. See also in no. 7. 2, below. III. It means : the same, when it has the article immedi- ately before it ; e. g. 6 v S' avTwv l but they pressing on; ? pera tcivto. a7reX- 6elv clvtov 'that upon this he went away.' Soph. Phil. 777 (pray) p.rj aoi yeveo-Bai 7roXi)7rova civ to. SC. to. t6£cl, the bow. 308 SYNTAX. $ 127. Note 2. Epic writers use aires without the article tor 6 avios-, so Od. $. 107 rjpxz 8e tg> avrrjv 6SoV, rjvivep ol aXkoi. — It stands sometimes also ; even in prose, for povos alone; e. g. Plat. Legg. p. 836 airol yap eapev for we are alone. Xen. Lac. 3. 4 AvKovpyos iirtra^e rots veavlais iv rals 68ois 7repi(3\€7T€iv prjdapol, aXX' air a. ra rrpb rcov nodcov opav. — Also with ordinal numbers, self; e. g. avros nipirros himself the fifth, himself and four others. 3. In the Reflexive pronouns i/iavTov, aeavrov, etc. (§ 74. 3,) the pronoun avros loses its emphasis ; avrov ere signifies thee thy- self, but aeavrov only thyself, as reflexive, e. g. eOc^e aavrov ac- custom thyself. So also the reflexive of the 3 pers. eavrov or av- rov corresponds to the Engl, himself But this latter is likewise used, like the Latin se, not only where it refers to the subject of the same clause, but often also where it refers to the first subject of two connected clauses, and where we consequently employ only him, etc. E. g. vo/jbi^eu rovs irdXiras viryperelv eavrS, 'he sup- poses that his fellow-citizens serve him? see other examples in n. 3. Still in this last instance the Greek usage is in so far freer, that it can employ either the reflexive eavrov, etc. or also the sim- ple avrov, etc. according as the writer would make the chief or the secondary subject prominent ; see examples in n. 3. In like manner also, the simple e, a, etc. can be thus used, though rarely ; see n. 4. Note 3. Examples of the reflexive form eavrov, etc. used in the above manner are: Xen. Hell. 5. 1. 31 'Apra^ip^s vopifci hUaiov, rds iv rfj 'Acrta nokeis iavrov elvai, 'should belong to him? — Isocr. Paneg. p. 49 iicarepoi e'xovaiv i(p* ols (pikoripiqBcbcnv, ol pev (sc. ol Qearal) orav iScocrt rovs ddXrjrds av- ra>v evem (sc. rcov Searoov) irovovvras, ol S' (sc. ol dOXijral) orav iv6vpT)6a>G~iv, on rrdvres eiu rrjv crcberepav (sc. rcov affkrjrcov) Qeooptav rjicovcnv. Further, Mem. 1. 2. 52. Phsedr. p. 259. a. Eur. Hipp. 977. — Examples of the other form avrov are : Dem. 01. 2. p. 20 oldels ecrriv ovnv ov necpevdiaKev 6 ^lKittttos ra>v avrco xPV°' a l JL ^ va)V ' Xen. Ages. 6. 4 'AyrjcrCkaos rovs arpariaras dpa nei- Gopevovs K.a\ (pikovvras avrov 7rapft^e. Further. Dem. Phil. I. p. 42 vnep avrov, and others in Exc. X. ad Dem. Mid. Note 4. As to the use of the simple forms of the third personal Pron. ov, ol, e, and especially the Plur. acpels, acpas, etc. it may be noted, that Homer first, and after him other poets, employed them not. only as reflexives, but also in a transitive sense instead of the oblique cases of avros; e. g. II. ^3. 197 (pikel Se i (j3aaiX.r]a) perUra Zeus. a. 104 oaae Se ol irvp\ Xapnero&vri Iiktt]v. In Attic writers they are employed principally as follows : 1) When no emphasis is to be laid upon them, and where in the 1 pers. the enclitic fie would be used: e. g. Plat. Rep. 1. init. Karih&v rjpas 6 UoXepapxps eW- Xevae dpapovra rov iralda nep i/xe Iva l k KeXevaai, 'he commanded the slavt to tell us, that we should wait for him? so espec. Dat. ol, Xen. An. 3. 1. 5 Plat. Phsedo p. 117. c. Protag. p. 316. c ; and acpio-iv, Xen. Hell. 5. 4. 11. etc. 2) But when in quoting the words of a person in indirect discourse, the speaker himself is introduced, this pronoun is often employed in an an- tithesis etc. precisely like ifie. See e. g. Plat. Rep. 10. p. 617. d. e, where o-epds, ov, e, thus occur. — Further, the Singular of this form (ov and e) is on me whole everywhere rare in Attic writers ; and the Plural was more fre- quent in both the cases above stated. Even the Nominative thus occurs, when in a discourse or opinion so quoted in sermone obliquo the speakers or thinkers are themselves the subject, but only in a direct antithesis to oth- ers; e. g. Xen. An. 7. 5. 5 'Hpa/cAeiS^r Xeyeiv exeAeue rovs j-rparrjyovs irpbi * 127. PRONOUNS. o09 2ev8rjv, on ovdev av rjrrov acpels dydyoiev rrjv arpanav rj Eevocpfov, ' he direct- ed to say, that they might just as well lead the host as Xenophon.' In such a case avroi could indeed be used, hut would mean rather they themselves , and so Sing, avros. Without a reference to others, no pronoun would he expressed. See too the example, Thuc. 8. 76, in § 142. n. 3. Note 5. The reflexive of the third person acquires sometimes the power of a general reflexive, which may stand also for the first and second persons ; consequently iavrov or avrov also for ep,avrov and aavrov. This remark is certain; is recognised by the ancient Grammarians (vid. Tim. c. not. Ruhnk. p. 92); and extends itself also to prose. But the prosaic passa- ges by which it is supported, still require for the most part some critical investigation. As an example for the first person: Soph. GEd. T. 138 ovx vnep rcov cplXoav, aXX' avros avr.ov, rovr dnoo-Keda) p.vaos, c on account of my- self.' For the second person: Trach. 451 el §' avros avrov hbe 7rai8eveis 7 . . . dcpdrjcrei naicos, thyself. — In other poets this usage goes much further, so that e. g. acperepos stands without distinction of person or number for the general idea of own; and also e, of, ids, serve e. g. in Apollonius, partly (like the Lat. se) even for the Plural, and partly as reflexives for the first and second persons. Some of the more common passages of this kind in epic writers, though in part still assailed or otherwise explained, are the following: Od. v. 320 aXX' del (ppealv fjonv e^coi/ 8e8a'iyp,evov rjrop rjXa>p.rjv, instead of epais. a. 402 Krrjp.ara 6° avros eyotf kou 8a>p.ao~iv ola-iv dvaaaois, instead of vols. Hes. e. 58 anavres repnovrai ebv kukov dpicpayanavres, in- stead of acperepov. Scut. 90 os TrpoXnvoav o~ ris, a>s eoiKe, 8vap.a6rjS. So too ttoIos ris, ivocrov n, roiavr' arra dieXe^drjaav, etc. 5. The Interrogative pronoun rfc as also all direct interroga- tives, whether pronouns or adverbs, (ttov ; 7tg£o?; irore ; etc.) in the lively tone of free conversation, are written not only at the be- ginning of an interrogative clause, but also in the middle of othei * Hence it may often be translated many a one, II. (p. 126. Hence too the ap- parently inconsistent junction ncis ris, Scph. Phil. 174. Aristoph. Av. 526; see too Eurip. Rhes. 683, in § 129. n. 13. olO SYNTAX. V 127. clauses, whether relative, participial, or even interrogative ; in which last case more than one question may be included in one clause. Examples : Plat. Gorg. p. 448. c, vvv ineidr] rlvos Te^vr/s imo-T^pcov io-ri, rlva av KaXovvres avrov opdas KaXolpev ; Rep. p. 322. C, r) he rial tl cltto- didovaa rex VT l laTpiKr) KaXe^rai ; Theag. p. 125 ra>u tl cro(f)a>v XeyeLS avrov?; Note 8. So too in indirect interrogative clauses : Plat. Rep. p. 569 yva>- orercLL tot 6 drjpos, oios olov Speppa yevvq. Soph. Ant. 940 XevacreTe, ola npbs ot<£>v dv8pa>v 7racr^co. Such sentences are often for us very hard to translate; e. g. Xen. Cyr. 4. 5. 29 o-ntyai, o'lco outi poi nepl ae olos cov nepl e/xe en-eiTa pot pep?, as compared with oiroios, oirocros, ottgos, etc. Hence the compound forms are used also in indirect interrogative clauses ; § 139. m. 63. But the simple relative with av becomes also general ; § 139. m. 32. Note 9. Homer commonly lets the relative be followed by the particle re, see § 149. m. 8. The relative is also strengthened by nep, e. g. ITeAXa, TJTre p pey[crTT] tcov ev MaKeboviq noXeoov Xen. — For relative clauses in general, which in Greek are of such manifold application, see § 143 and § 139. B. Note 10. The passages in which 8o~tl? refers to a definite noun, are for the most part susceptible of special explanation: e. g. Eur. Hipp. 1063 w Seoi, tl 8rjTa Tovpbv ov ~kv aTopa, octtls y 5 vcji vpcov dcoWvpai, peril, instead of os dpi tolovt&v olrives atrSXkvvTai. Comp. Soph. Aj. 1055 o&tls orparoj ^vpiravTi ktX. 1299 eic iraTpbs ooms dpio-Tevo-a? kt\. In Homer alone it sometimes seems to stand directly for os) as II. •*//•. 43 Ou pa Zr}v, out is -re Secov vnaTOS ical ciptaTos. Note 1 1 . The idea of generalness in oo-tls is still further strengthened by appending to it the particles ovv, br), br)irore ; which moreover very com- monly impart to the relative the force of a general Indefinite, so that these forms then stand without a verb; e. g. Plat. Rep. p. 335 earcv apa ducalov dvdpbs IBXaTTTeLu otlvovv av^pconcov ; So too r) otovovv pr)rrjp ktX. Some- times this occurs even with outi? alone; Plat. Hipp. Maj. p. 282 nXeov dpyv- piov e'lpyaaTai rj oAXor Sr/piovpyb? dcj) r)cmvos Te^vr/v, and often. 7. The place of the Possessives is often supplied by the Geni- tive of the personal and reflexive pronouns. The following is the general usage : 1) Instead of the possessives of the first and second persons Sing-, are used : a) The enclitic forms fjuov and aov ; but so that they either precede the article or follow the noun ; thus /jlov (aov) 6 (f)L\os, or o 0/Xo? jiov, aov. b) The reflexives i^avrov, aeavrov, ?}?, when the possessive word refers to the subject of the clause ; and then these are put either between the article and noun, or after the noun with the article re- peated. Thus, ijjbavrov (aeavrov) l\os 6 ijjuav- rov, aeavrov. 2) Instead of the possessives of the third person, which are § 127, PRONOUNS. 311 scarcely used in prose, we nngl : a) The Grenitives avrov, r)<;, avrcov ; but so again (as in 1. a) that they either precede the article or follow the noun, when the possessive word does not refer to the subject of the clause ; thus avrov 6 <£/Xo? or o /Ao? avrov. b) The reflexives eavrov, rjs, eavrwv, in the same position as above (1. b), when the possessive word re- fers to the subject of the clause ; thus 6 eavrov rai$. Hell. 2. 4. 17 ol Imrei? Kal Xyara? e^eipovvro kol tt)v (pdXayya avrcov eicaKovpyovv •nepiervyov 8e icai Tiaiv €9 rovs avrtov dypovs nopevopevois. Sometimes also words may inter- vene: Cyr. 2. 1. 21 evOvr avrcov 7rapeo-icevacre rds yvcopas, etc. Note 12. Other examples for this usage, which in general is closely ob- served by the Attics, may be seen in Kriiger on Rost's Grammar § 99. The non-enclitic form of the 1 pers. epov stands in this connection, by rule, only when the substantive is omitted; as fji in the Sing, commonly stands for ettao-ros ; e. g. 7ra? dvqp every man. Note 14. The same position is assigned to several adjectives, as oXos, fieao?, etc. for which see § 125. n. 5. Note 15. The article is by rule omitted with the pronouns specified in no. 9, when the latter are not connected with their substantives as adjec- tives, but the noun as predicate refers back to them. Thus alrlai p.ev avrai rjcrav these were the causes (but avrai ai atrial these causes) ; rovra 7rapa§ei- yjxan xp&vrai this they use as an example. But the article can also again stand, when the substantive is the subject, to which the pronoun as predicate refers ) e. g. Plat. Rep. p. 338. b, avrv rj Sco/cparotir ao(pia 1 avrbv p.ev p.rj ide- Ae«/ diddo-iceiv, Tvapa 8e roov aAAcoi/ ivepuovra fiavOaveiv, i. e. not 'this is the wisdom,' but ' the wisdom of Socrates consists in this, that,' etc. This is different e. g. from Dem. 01. I. p. 10 eari rovro 6Voy, fxrj 6 navovpyos rpty-q- rai n rwv 7rpayp.dr(x)v, i. e. not 'the fear is this, 7 but 'there is this fear. 7 metuendum est. Comp. Dawes' Miscell. p. 300. Reisig. Conj. p. 177. Note 16. Real exceptions to the rule in no. 9 above, are only those ex- amples, where ideas are connected with the words in question, which strictly taken do not require the article • e. g. ode 'Apio-rapxos, airb? (3acri\ev?, ttclv- res avdpanroi i. e. ' all who are men? ivdvras Seov? del iiraiveiv Plato • Traam Tro'Xecoy , A0rjvai p.akiv ^vppd^v rb npoOvpov elxov, shewed a readiness. Hdot. 7. 209 el rovrovs re kclI rb vnopevov (instead of rovs vrropevovras) ev "ETrdprv Karaarpe^/eat. ovdev aXXo e6vos ' Ay rjcrtkao 9, comp. Thuc. 1. 4. etc. Note 2. The periphrase of substantive ideas by means of the Neut. of the article (to or ra) before a Genitive, etc. has already been treated of, § 125. n. 6. Analogous to this is the case, where substantive ideas are ex- pressed by the Neuter Plur. of Adjectives, commonly also with the article ; e. g. ra UeXoTrovvrjo-iaKa the Peloponnesian war; eVi r£>v HeXoTrovvwcnaKcov at the time of the Peloponnesian war; ra iroXepiKa the same as ra eh v. nep\ rbv Tiokepov in § 125. n. 6. b. It is further to be remarked, that also the Neut. of the possessive with the art. to serves as a periphrase for the personal pro- noun; e. g. rb epov for e'yco, strictly that which concerns me, my person. Plato Rep. p. 533 to y ipbv ovhev av irpoOvpias airoXiTroi. Hdot. 8. 140 ro v per epov. Note 3. The Greeks use the Plur. navra, as we use the word all, to ex- press the idea of every one; e. g. Eurip. Hel. 276 rwv [3ap(3dpcov yap 8ovKa ndvra n\f]v eras', l among the barbarians all is slave, save one ;' in full, ra ra>v fiapftdpodv -navra, i. e. ol (3dp(3apot rrdvres. Note 4. The Neuter of the adjective used instead of the adverb (§ 115. 4) is rare in prose; but in the poets it is very frequent; e. g. beivbv (3oav, eKirayXa (piXelv, i to cry out fearfully, to love immoderately.' In prose this usage is chiefly limited to the comparative and superlative; see § 115. 4. Examples of the positive in prose writers may for the most part be other- wise explained; as e. g. Xen. An. 5. 9. 5 rjXkovro v\lrrp\d re nal ncixfioas, i. e. j^/rfKa Trrjtypara, according to § 131. 4; so too Soph. OT. 1300 6 Tr-rjhrjo-as peitova. For no\v, etc. see § 133. 4. d. 31 1 SYNTAX. * 129. Note 5. On the other hand, the Neuter of the Pronouns, both Sing, and Plur. is very often used adverbially both in poetry and prose. E. g. Horn. II. e. 185 ovx oy' avevQe Sewv rdde /xaiverai, 'in such a way,' instead of ryvde fiaviav see § 131. 4. Thus too o, tovto, ravra, often express the rela- tion of cause, wherefore, therefore; e. g. Eur. Her. 13 6 Kai p.e yrjg ot^ Trefiyj/ev. Plato Prot. p. 310 aXX' avra ravra vvv 77/cco napa ae. — In prose we may further note : to irav wholly ; to. noXXd much, mostly ; tovto pev . . . tov- to 8e, also to. \xlv . . . to. 8e, on the one hand . . . on the other hand, partly . . . partly; e. g. Demosth. Lept. p. 474. 25 tovto fiev tolvvv, Qaaiovs ttws ovk d8iKr)o~€T€, iav acpeXrjade ttjv drekeiav ; tovto S'e, 'Ap^e/3tov ko\ 'HpaKkeidrjv] Xen. Mem. 1. 3. 1 ScoKpar^y axfieXe'iv donel p.01 tov? ^wovTas, tcl p.ev epyco deiKvixav eavrov oio? r)v, to. de kol 8ia\ey6p,evos. Note 6. The Neuter Sing, of the ordinal numerals, with or without the article (comp. § 125. n. 8), stands in like manner adverbially, as in Lat. tertium, quartum; e. g. rpi'roz/, TeTapTov, to rpiTov, thirdly, fourthly, etc. THE NOUN IN CONSTRUCTION. § 129. Subject and Predicate. 1. The Subject of a clause or sentence is that of which some- thing is affirmed ; the Predicate expresses that which is af- firmed of the subject ; the Copula shows that the subject and predicate stand thus in relation to each other. The subject is al- ways a substantive or some word standing in the place of a sub- stantive ; the predicate, when independent, is usually an adjective or some equivalent word ; and the simple copula is the verb to be, in Greek elvai, etc. More commonly, however, the idea of the predicate and that of the copula are united in one word, viz. the verb. — The general rules for the correspondence of the subject and predicate, which are common to all languages, hold good also in the Grreek. The following remarks therefore are limited to the peculiarities of the Grreek idiom. 2. "When the Predicate is a substantive, it commonly expresses a general affirmation, and therefore omits the article. If the subject has no article, the predicate usually stands first. Examples : vv£ f) f)p.epa iyevero Hdot. Xen. An. 2. 5. 41 )lp6gevo? *ca x Mevav elalu vperepot p-ev evepylrat, rjp,erepoL 8e arpaTrjyoi, comp. § 124. 11. 4. Plato Theset. p. 152. a, the saying of Protagoras : rrdvTOiv xPVf JL "- Ta)v perpov avdpcd7ro?. See other examples in § 124. n. 7. — Contra, Isocr. Nic. p. 28 Aoyo? dXrjdrj? -v^ir^y dyadrjs e'ldcoXov io~Ti. Note 1. The predicate however can affirm, and yet at the same time re- fer to something well known or already mentioned ; in which case the pred- icate also takes the article; e. g. Luc. D. Mort. 18. 1 tovti to upaviov 77 'EXevrj iari. Such examples, however, must always be taken in connec- tion with the context on which they depend ; and it may therefore suffice to cite here a few: Xen. An. 6. 4. 7. Cyr. 3. 3. 4 dvaieaXovvTe? avrov tov evepyerrjv, tov TrpoboT-qv. Plato Phffid. p. 64. C, f]yovp.eda tov Sdvarov elvai ttjv dnaXXayriv, etc. So too with adjectives as substantives : Plato Phaed. p. 78 Tavr ecrri rd d£vv8era. Hipp. Maj. p. 296 r6 u>cps\ip.6v eari to KaXov ko.1 to ttolovv dyadov. We must distinguish between elprjvr) eariv dyaOov and rdyaBov. 3. The predicate agrees with the subject in number and per - \ 129. Sin. EOT AND PREDICATE. U15 son. But, when the subject is a Neuter Plural, the verb by rule, whether predicate or copula, is put in the Singular. Examples: ra {'wa rp£x ei animals run; rwv ovt&v rd fj.lv iariv £

7rcoy d7roA.c0A.ez', eppei ra epd 7rpdypara. — ra rcov ' 'Adrjvaicav earl KaXd. Note 2. Yet "both in poetry and prose the Plural is sometimes found in such constructions, when the subjects denote rational heings : Thuc. 7. 57 Tocrdbe pera 3 A0r)VQiv "x vr l ^oKKd t comp. 4. 1. 13. Thuc. eyevovro e'tKocrt kcu inarov rdXavra'. In like manner also Participles connected with a Neuter Plural prefer the constructio ad sensum (Kara avvecnv) : in which case too the predicate fol- lows the same ; see examples in no. 11, below. — The poets sometimes write the Plural without any such grounds; Horn. II. j3. 135. Od. /3. 156. 4. Where there is more than one subject, the predicate by rule must be in the Plural. Here too, as in Latin, the first person is preferred before the second, and the second before the third. Note 3. Here, of course, if all the subjects are in the Neuter Plural, tho predicate remains in the Singular. The same takes place, though rarely, when the subjects are merely abstract or impersonal objects; e. g. II. p. 386 yovvard re Kvrjpai re nodes' re . . . X eL P^ s re ' ocpdaXpoi re TraAdtr KaK&s eppovova e pr/xcivr] a dp,r)v. — Instead of 2 Plural : Xen. Mem. 4. 4. 7 oure av ovr av aXXos ov§e)s bvvair avreinelv. — Instead of 3 Plural: Eur. Supp. 155 TuSeus j Ltc *X 7 7 I/ £ vv * : i y l / ' € UoXvveiKrjs- 3* apa. Thuc. 1. 29 e'errpa- rrjyei 8e tcov vecov 'Apicriev? kcu KaWiKpurrjs kol TtpdVcop. II. 77. 844. etc. Comp. also § 143. 3, on the relative. Note 4. When the predicate (or copula) stands first, it is not unusual, that even when the nearest substantive is a Plural, or only Plurals follow, the verb nevertheless stands in the Singular ; e. g. ecrri kcu £v reus aWcus iTokeaiv apxovres re kol brjpos, where if apxovres stood alone the verb must have been el&i. Examples: Xen. An. 5. 10. 10 rjv t)e vnep rjpicrv rod crTparevparos i Apicd~ bes ical 'Axjouoi. Plato Rep. p. 363 rrapaKeXevovrai ol irarepes vlecriv, cos xph biKaiov elvai, Iva ylyvrjrat. avrols dp^at re kol ydpoi Kal aAAa rouivra. Note 5. Wholly poetic is the usage called, after the poet Alcman, the Schema Alcmanicum; in which the predicate stands in the Plural (or Dual) when it belongs in sense to several subjects, but by its position refers express- ly to one, and that in the Singular. Examples: Od. k. 513 evda pev els 'A^e'poz/ra HvpicpXeyedcov re peovatv Kcokvtos re. II. e. 774 r}x L pods 2ipoeis crv pfidWerov r]8e 2. Note 6. Some dialects connect also a verb Singular in particular in- stances with masculine and feminine Plurals which relate to things, This peculiarity is called from the usage of Pindar, Schema Pindaricum ; e. g. 01. 10. 5 peXiydpves vpvoi . . . re'XAerai. The construction is somewhat more 316 SYNTAX. § 129. natural, though still always rare, when the verb -precedes; as in ttjs 6° tjv rpel? Ke 8e ra^' eyyvOev rj\dov, ekavvovr areas' 17T7TOV9. Xen. Mem. 1. 2. 18 IZcp/cpdrei crvvrjarrjv, ov (po(3ovp,evco, p.rj £r)p.iolv- to vtt* avrov. Horn. II. n. 279 p-rjKen, 7raiSe (pCKco, no\ep,i (er e, prjde fid- Xecr8ov. Soph. OC. 1435 ov fioi ^covtI y* avdis et-erov. p-edeade §' rjtrj, %aipe- tov r. ov yap /a en eoo^read* kt\. Note 7. Those forms of nouns, adjectives, etc. which belong immediately together, observe here the conformity required by § 123; except: 1) The numerals dvo and ap.qboa sometimes have Plural forms connected with them, e. g. bvelv jjp.epSiv, fjp,as ap-cpos. 2) The construction of the Participle shares the license of the verb; e. g. Eurip. Ale. 903 8vo S' dvrl puds "Aidrjs ^ipy o-vveax^v 6p.ov, x^ovtav \Lp,vav biafidvre (§ 123. 4) ; comp.Od.o-. 65. — Examples in which a Plural subject denoting objects really Plural has a predicate in the Dual, are very rare, and occur only in the earliest poets. They arise probably from the circumstance, that in the earliest times the Dual forms of the verb had still a Plural signification. As this topic therefore belongs rather to the subject of forms, we refer the student to the Ausf. Sprachl. § 87. n. 1, and to § 33. n. 4 above, for such passages as Horn. II. o\ 452 x e ^H- a PP 0L o~vp.fi dXkerov. Hymn. Ap. 456 rjadov renrjOTes. Pind. 01. 2. 87 yapverov. 7. "When the predicate is an Adjective, it of course agrees also In gender with the subject ; e. g. 6 it ah ecrri /ca\6$. 8. From this rule it is a very common exception, that when the subject, whether it be masc. or fern, whether Sing, or Plural, is conceived of as a thing', or when the idea thing fyprj/jLa, kttj- /jlo) or something (rl) can be subjoined to it, the adjective is put in the Neuter Singular. Examples : rj aperr} eanv eiraiveTov virtue is (something) praiseworthy. — II. /3. 204 ovk ayaQbv rroXvicoipavLr) • eis Koipavos eara. Eur. Med. 1083 ol y areKvoi, ei#' rj 8v (3poTo7s; e'lr aviapbv 7ral8e? reXedova {aireipoi). — xa^- €7rov aKpoarrjS aavveros. Arist. Eccl. 236 xPW ara iropi^eiv evir o pcorarov yvvrj. Note 8. In a manner wholly similar the Neuters ovbev and p.r)8ev are often connected with masc. or fern, subjects; e. g. Eur. Androm. 1066 ovdev elpu, i. e. diT(Si\6p.rjV. Plato Rep. p. 556 avhpes oi rjp.erepoL t-\ovo-lo'l elaiv ovdev, are of no use/& So too the Neuters ir\eov, irXelv, p.eiov, etc. are employed in attributive relations as wholly indeclinable; e. g. Xen. Hell. 7. 1. 20 rpiypeis rrXeov rj e'Uoaiv. Cyr. 2. 1. 6 irnveas [dyet?) p.elov rj to Tplrov pe- oos tov t£)v 7ro\ep.ia>v Itttukov. Thuc. 6. 95 eirpdQrj TaXdvroov ovk eXarrov nevre na\ e'Uoo-i. Contra, regular in Xen. Cyr. 2. 1. 5. etc. Note 9. When the subject to which an adjective refers as predicate, is a v)hole clause or a thought, the adjective is put in the Neuter Singular; as, * Even in connections which required a different case, the Neuter remained anehanged, as if indeclinable: Eur. Heracl. 1GS yepouros ovvekcl, rb jj.7)8ev Zvtos. ? 129. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 817 koXov earn Savelv vnep rrjs irarplbos. But the usage is not rare, that the ad- jective stands in the Neut. Plural. Comp. the Verbal Adj. § 134. Examples: Hdot. 1. 91 rrjv Tren p^pevrjv polpav dbvvard earc dirocpvyeeiv. Thuc. 1. 125 dhvvara rjv emxeipe'iv dnapaaKevois ovaiv. Eur. Hec. 1222 ux6 e iv a pev poi, rdXXorpia Kpiveiv icaicd. 9. The rule, that an adjective-pronoun as subject must agree in gender with the noun-predicate, (Lat. hie est pater mens,) holds also in Grreek : ovtos icrriv e'yao? iraTiqp. Yet it follows from Text 8, that, in speaking of things and abstract objects, expressions like the following may also have place : tout 6 ian Trrjyr] teal apyj) ryevecrea)?, though still in Lat. hie fons est, etc. Examples : Plat. Crat. p. 428 ovoparos 6p66rrjs earlv avrr], fjri? evhel^erai olov eari to Trpdypa. Euthyphr. init. ovroi de 'Adrjvcuoc 8lktjv avrrjv koXov- aiv, dXka ypacprjv. Rep. 1. p. 336 rovro ecpdvrj rj SiKaiocrvvr] ov. Note 10. On the other hand, the Neut. Plural of a demonstrative some- times refers to persons, yet not without a certain ethic shade; e. g. Eur. Andr. 168 ov yap eV0' "Exrcop rdhe. Tro. 99 ovKeri Tpola rdde. Thuc. 6. 77 ovk "laves rdde elalv ovd' 'EXkrjairovTioi Kal vrjcricorai, dXKd Acopirj?. 10. "When there are several subjects, and the predicate is an adjective, the same rules hold good in respect to the gender of the latter, as in Latin. Here too, as above (no. 5) in respect to number, the adjective may inform refer to only one of the sub- jects. Examples: Cyr. 3. 1. 7 as ei$e top narepa re Kal prjrepa al^paXarovs yt yevrj pevov s, eddKpvae. So in the Gen. absol. Hdot. 3. 119 irarpbs Kal prj- rpbs ovKert pev ^coovrav. II. e. 891 alel yap rot epis re (piXrj trokepol re paxai re. Sometimes the reference is to the remoter subject, when the sense accords better with this : Thuc. 8. 63 envdero 2rpo/z/3t^i(57?i/ ml rds vavs drre\r}\v66ra. Note 11. After several subjects singly enumerated, which are all or in part things, the predicate commonly stands in the Neuter Plural. E. g. Hdot. 2. 132. rbv av^va Kal rrjv KecpaXrjv cpaivei Kexpvcra peva. Xen. Mem. 3. 1. 7 \l6ol re Kal ttKlvOol Kal £v\a Kal Kepapos draKras e p pipeva ovdei Xprjo- ipd ecrriv. 11. The grammatical accord between the subject and predicate is further disturbed : a) When with a collective noun in the Sing, the predicate is pat in the Plural, b) When the predicate follows, not the grammatical, but the natural gender of the sub- ject. — These instances form what is called constructio ad sensum v. Kara avvecriv, an important feature of the Greek Syntax; which applies also to other portions of it, and especially to relative and participial clauses. Examples : a) Horn. as v, Demosth. Mid. § 45. 318 SYNTAX. § 129. participial construction: Od. £. 156 o-cpio-i Svpbs lalperai, Xevao-ovrcov (Gen. absol. instead of Xevacrovai) roiovbe SdXos (Navo-ucdav) yopoy elcroix V€ vo~ai>. Time. 4. 15 ebo^ev, to. reXrj KarafiavTas es to o~TpaTorre8ov j3ovXeveiv napa- Xprjpa. Plato Lach. p. 180 ra peipaKia rrpbs dXXr)Xovs 8iaXeyopevoi Qapa iinpepvrjjrai 2(HKpdrovs kol acpodpa eiraivovo-iv. Also in periphrases with the Genitive, where then the predicate takes the gender of the main idea as contained in the Genitive : Plato Rep. p. 563 to t&v Srjpioov (i. e. tcl Srjpia) eXevOe pa>Te pa io~Tiv. II. j3. 459 opvLOiov edvea 7ToXXd...dyaXX6pevai nrepvyeo-aiv. — So too with the relative : (3lr) 'HpaKXrjelrj, 6V ktX. § 143. Note 12. Out of a Plural subject there is often evolved a collective pro nominal idea, like e/cacrror, SXXodev aXXo?, etc. which then, where the subject is not further expressed, stands without change along with the Plural pred- icate* e.g. Od. a. 424 8r) Tore KaKKeiovres efiav olnovde enacrros. II. i. 311 cos pf} pot Tpv£r]Te ivapr)pevoi aXXodev aXkos. Plato Charm, p. 153 r)p6iT(av be aXXo? aXXo. Note 13. In addressing several, it is often the case that only the chief person is named, and yet the verb is in the Plural : Soph. Phil. 466 77877, rewov, aTeWeo-de. Vice versa, when several are actually named and addressed, the Sing, of an Imperat. is often used, as ei7re, aye, (pepe, 18 e, $ 115. n. 7 ; so Arist. Pac. 383 elite poi, ti irdarx^T, &v8pes. Dem. Phil. 1. p. 43. — Further, according to the analogy of the preceding note, there may be joined to this Imperative a pronoun, like rh, nds; irds nf, without any change of person^ especially in scenic dialogue ; e. g. Arist. Av. 1186 x<°P el devpo irds vTrrjpeTt]S - cidpei 8e 7tds kvkXco o-/co7jw. Eur. Rhes. 683 iV^e nds tis. Comp. Eur. Bacch. 327, where the two persons alternate. Note 14. As in Latin, so in Greek sometimes, and in tragedy often, a single person speaks of himself in the Plural. Here it is to be noted, that, even in the case of a female person, the predicate or other declinable ad- junct is then put in the masculine Plural. Thus Electra says in Soph. El. 391 ireo-ovped', el xpriyTrciTpl Tipicapov p.evoi. Clytemnestra in Ear. IA. 818 ov Savpd o-' f]pds dyvoelv, ovs pr) ivdpos Karel8es: On the other hand, when these adjuncts stand in the Singular ', they take the natural gender : Eur. Here. F. 858 fjXiov paprvpopeaOa 8pa>o-\ d 8pav ov (3ovXopai. IA. 980 ot/crpa nenovdapev, r) . . . 01 77 6 el era . . . Kevr)v Karea^ov eX7ri8a. 12. When the copula (ehac, ylvecrdcu, etc.) stands nearer to the predicate than to the subject, it takes also the number of the lat- ter ; comp. § 143. 4. Examples : Hdot. 6. 112 rj o-av 8e oraSioi ovk eXdo-o-oves 1 to peraixpiov avrav rj oktco. Thuc. 4. 102 ol 'Adr/valoi eKTicrav to ^copioy, onep irporepov 'Ewea oSoi e kuXovvto. Hdot. 2. 15 to ndXai at Qr]j3ai KtyviTTOs eKaXeero. 13. The predicate can also be expressed by an Adverb ; either when no adjective belonging to the adverbial idea exists in the language (comp. \ 125. 7) ; or when the adverb combines with the copula into one idea ; or when elvai has the more emphatic sense of being, existence. Such adverbs are : aXt?, alya, aiu)v Horn, e/ca?, iyyvs or iyyvOev, irXrja [ov, Bi^a, % cop /?, irapa- irokv Plato Apol. p. 36 ; and others. Examples: ol rroXepioL eyyv?, x M P^ W av i eyyvrepov eyiyvovro Xen. ai yvcopai eylvovro St'^a Helot. Eur. Hec. 527 alya nds terra) Xecos. Further, the predicate ideas K.aXa>s, micco?, xaXerrcos elvai; e. g. ib. 716 etrtrcovo' torlv Ka\a>c: 14. The subject corresponding to our substantive pronouns i, thou, he, she, it, etc. whenever it is sufiicientlv obvious from thd 9 129. SUBJECT AND PREDICATE. 319 verbal ending or from the context, and when no emphasis rests upon it, is commonly (as in Latin) not expressed. Note 15. Yet, with the omitted pronoun thus implied in the ending of the verb, an adjunct may be connected by apposition; e. g. 6 8e Maias tt)$ "ArkavTos: BiaKovovfiai avTols, i. e. and I, the son of Maia, etc. Lucian. Here it is to be noted, that when to a personal pronoun, even though only im- plied in the verb, there is subjoined the noun or idea for which it stands, the Greeks put the latter with the article; e. g. Xen. An. 4. 4. 16 eya) vp.as aKovco tovs '&6rjvaLovs beivovs elvai kK(7it€Lv to. 8t]p,6aia. Comp. Kriiger on An. 1. 7. 7. 15. When the subject of a minor clause (whether co-ordinate or subordinate) is the same with that of the main sentence, it is commonly not again expressed in the minor clause. If however it stood in the main sentence in an oblique case, there must be, in the minor clause, at least a corresponding pronoun as subject. But even this is sometimes neglected, where no want of clearness can arise, in order to avoid the verbosity of such constructions ; e. g. Plato Rep. p. 533 tclvtcls ra? re^va^ eirLcrrrjiJia^ fiev irdXXaias 7rpo(TeL7rofi€v, Siovrcu Se ovofiaros oXkov. So too in several con- nected relative clauses ; see § 143. 7, 8. — Comp. the special syn- tactical usage in dependent clauses, the subject of which is con- tained in the main sentence as the object, either near or remote, in k 151. I. 6. Note 16. Sometimes the subject of the minor clause must first be sup. plied out of some other word in the main sentence; e. g. Hdot. 9. 8 top y Ia6p.6v irei^eov kcll acpt rjv ivpbs reXe'i, sc. to ret^os. 16. The subject- word is also omitted, when the verb itself ex- presses the customary action of that subject. Such verbs are : G-a\7TL^€t, or (TTjfjLalvei sc. 6 o-ahnri cmoxprj, SokgI, irpiirei it becomes, is proper, ii/Bexercu it is possible ; or also whole phrases, as lyei Xoycv, consent aneum est, and the like. These verbs admit in part also the personal construction; as opOorara vvv fxoi 8otce2s elpyfcevai Plato ; see further on this point in § 151. 1. 7. 19. The English indefinite subject one, some one, (Fr. on, Grerm. man,) is very commonly expressed in Greek by the indef. pron. tU, § 127. 4. It is also made, as in Latin and English, either by the 3 Plur. Act. as cpacrl they say, fcaXovcrt, ovofid^ovcrc ; or by the 3 Sing. Pass, as Xeyercu it is said, and so other verbs ; or also by the 2 pers. Sing, as 0a/??? av you might say. Examples: Soph. Trach. 2 ovk av al£>v eKp,d6ois ftpoTobv, np\v av Qdvy ti?, ovt el xprjaTos, ovr e'i no KaKos sc. 6 alcov. Xen. Mem. 2. 2. 1 tovs ev Tradovras, orav x ( *P LV PV airob&ariv, d^apicrTovs KaA overt. Is. Demon, p. 10 y.rjh)ev\ ^pco 7rov7}pa>' hv yap av iicelvos dpdprjj, cro\ rd? alrlas dvaOf] crov criv. Pint. Apopllth. p. 185 'Adeip,dvTov elirovTos • 'Q, QepLcrTOKkeis, tov? ev rols dycocri /rpoe^avLcrrap.evovs /xacrr lyovcr i • Nat, eirrev 6 Qep,., tovs de \emou.evovs ov jrefpavovcriv. Note 17. The word rig can be omitted, and consequently the verb stand alone in the 3 pers. Sing, when under the idea of one, some one, we under- stand either: 1) The person on whom the action is incumbent (comp. no. 16 above), e. g. tov \ap.TTTrjpa 7rpoaeveyKaTco, ' let some one bring hither the lantern,' Xen. Symp. 5. 2; or 2) The indefinite subject of a preceding verb, e. g. ovk ecrriv opdas fjyelcrdai edv p.f) Jam a Greek. Plato Rep. 331 2i[iti>vidrj ov padtov amo-relv • crocpos yap K.a\ Selo? 6 dvrjp. Eur. Or. 724 Koiva rd tcov 8a[u.(£>v. For that of the Subjunct. in relative clauses, see § 143. 9. Note 18. Some words are scarcely found construed otherwise than in tnis elliptical manner. So e. g. the substantives dvdyicr), XP € ^ Qepus, Kai- o6s, &>pa] the adjectives eroip.os, (ppovdos; oUtlos, paBio?, ^aAeTror, etc. So too the phrases, Savfiaarov ocrov, du.r)x avov ocrov, § 150. m. 8 : also the Verb. Adj. in reov or Plur. re a. Examples : rots 1 dp^ovai neiOecrOai dvdyKrj Xen. ov to prj \a(3e7v Ta dya- 6a outcd \a\eTTov, coenrep to XafiovTa crTeprj6r)vai Xvnrjpov Xen. Cyr. 7. 5. 82. Kayo) Trdcrx. €LV otlovv eToip.os Demosth. and so even without eyd> Plato Parm. p. 137. Luc. Cat. 10. Verb. Adj. tovto iroirjreov', also in relative and other like clauses : Plato Rep. p. 392 tovto vvv crKenTeov, ko.1 fip.lv a re XeKTeov Ka\ obr XeKTeov eaKe^reTai. See Heind. ad Parm. 1 c. Valck ad Pham. 976. THE CASES. k 129 a. Nominative and Vocative. 1. The Nominative names the persons or things spoken of; and is therefore naturally th ; case of the subject in ordinary discourse. § 130. THE OBJECT. OBLIQUE CASES. 321 — The Vocative differs from the Nominative only in that it serves to call to or address any one ; hence likewise in respect to form it varies very little from the Nominative, and often not at all. It commonly takes before it the interjection is put between the two, or is even put twice ; e. g. II. p. 716 ayaAcXeey a> Mevehae. Eur. Or. 1245 MvKrjvldes & (pikat. Soph. Phil. 799 & reicvov a> yevvaiov. 2. Adjuncts in apposition with the Vocative, whether expressed by a noun, or by an adjective or participle as a noun, take the article. The same rule holds good, when in like manner an ad- junct is put in apposition with the person addressed with av or tyxet?, or also with the person implied in the verb, but not directly expressed. Examples: Plato Hipp. maj. init. "linnas; 6 tcaXos re /cat a o epos, cos did xpovov rjfxiv KaOrjpas els ^Adrjvas. Xen. Cyr. 6. 3. 33 av 8e, 6 apYCOi> tcov dvbpcov, oTTicrOev eKrarrov • rjp.els Se, ol rjye proves ktX. Mem. 3. 14. 4 Ttaparr] pelre tovtov, ol 7r\r)(TLov. Plato Symp. p. 172 6 ^aXrjpevs ovtos 'AttoXXoSco- pof, ov irapap.eveis . So too even with adjuncts connected by kui, as Cyr. 3. 3. 20 & Kvpe Kal ol aXXot TLepcrai, e-yco d^Bop^ai ktK. — On the other hand ex- amples like the following are not apposition, but a repetition of the Voca- tive ; Soph. OC. 1700 co ndrep, co cpCXos, a> rbv del Kara yds o~k6tov elp.£vos. Id. Aj. 977 co (piXraT A tar, co f~vvai\xov o/z/a ifioi. Note 2. By a very peculiar attraction there is sometimes found in the poets, in the clause immediately following the Vocative, a predicate-adjunct in the Vocative instead of the Nominative ; so that this clause and the Voca- tive entirely coalesce. E. g. Soph. Philoct. 760 tcb dvcrTrjve o~v, dva-rrjve ^rjra did ttovodv Trdvrav (Ravels. Aj. 695 co ILdv dXinXayiCTe KvXXavias drro Seipdbos cpdvrjdi. Comp. Eur. Tro. 1229. Horat. Serm. 2. 6. 20. Note 3. Vice versa, that after a Vocative the following clause is often apparently separated by de and other adversative particles, see in § 149. $ 130. Tft Object. — Oblique Cases. Omission of the Object. 1. That en which an action is exerted, or to which it refers, is called the Object ; and always stands in one of the three cases, Grenitive, Dative, or Accusative. These are hence called depend- ent or oblique cases, Casus obliqui. 2. The immediate object, upon which the action of a transitive verb is directed, and without which we cannot conceive of such a verb, commonly stands in the Accusative ; e. g. Xajjufiava) rrjv aanrlha I take the shield. The remote object, which may stand along with tha Accusative, or with an intransitive verb, often has with it a preposition ; e. g. XafifidvcD ttjv aairiha airo rod TraaaaXov l I take the shield from the nail f earrj/ca iv r

u 7rAeio"roi oxtiv dvbpix.d>- tcltoIj enaivovcriv ol noXirai, here supply in mind ravrvv before enaivovo-iv. Hell. 3. 4. 3 ervayyeiXapevov rov 'A.yr]cnXdov ttjv (TTpareiav Agesilaus offering himself as leader of the expedition, biboaaiv ol AaKebcupovioi (sc. avrcp) oG-cnrep fjTrjaev. A then. 8. p. 399 bv rju Idv, rd? -^eipas ovk dcpe^erai sc. avrov. Plato Rep. p. 465 npea^vrepco vearepoov tvclvt&v ap^iv re Kal KoXd£eiv (sc. avrovs) ■npoo-Terdi-erai. Soph. Antig. 901 Qavovras eya> eXovera, KaKoo-prjcra, Kamrvp.- fiiovs xod.9 ebana. Corap. ib. 537. Dem. de fals. Legat. p. 426 ol be 7roXXo\ ov% O7rcoy a>pyi£ovTO rj KoXd^etv rj^iovv rov? ravra noiovvra?, dX)C enefiXeTrov, e£r]XoW) erlpcov, tivbpas i)yovvTO. Note 1. When two connected verbs, and especially a participle with its finite verb, have an object in common, the Greek inserts the latter only once, even when the two verbs govern different cases ; and then it is com- monly put in the case required by the nearest verb. Examples: II. a. 356 iXcou yap e^ei yepas, avrbs aTrovpas. v, enopevero. — /3aAAeii>, e. g. in the phrase (3d\X els Kopanas, and in compounds like elcrftdXkeiv spoken of a river (comp. II. A. 722 els a\a j3d\- Acoy), 7rpoo-fidXXeiv of an attack. — iXavveiv, veho and vehor, Cyr. 1. 4. 20 eyii 8e iiri rovcrde e\a> • ourco dr] 6 Kva^dprjs irpocre\avvei. — e^eii/ in the signif. to hold, e. g. e^e df], koXcos e'xeiv, and so in many compounds, e. g. dveyeiv to rise up, to jut out. — Also many other verbs, as oppav, reXevrav, olKelv, 8rj\ovv, app.6£eiv, Xe'nreiv, Kkiveiv, KaOi^eiv, KaropOovv, and in the poets \r]yeiv, navea; etc. The principle holds good also, as appears from the marginal note, in a great number of compounds, even when the simple verb is not so found ; e.g. aTraXXdo-areiv, as oi 'Adr]valoi evOvs a7rr]XXa^av Thuc. 1. 90 ) irpoo-p.'i- cryeiv, as ol 'Adrjvaioi npoaep-icryov rc5 ^euypan id. 7. 70 ] also those from 8i- hovaL and levai, e. g. eKdidovat and e^tevai, spoken of rivers, eniSido- vai to increase, etc. Note 3. The case governed by any verb, can properly be further governed in the same manner only by the participle of that verb. The substantives and adjectives derived from the same verb, usually change the case into the Genitive, or render a periphrase necessary. We find however not un- frequently in Attic writers, not only the Accusative but also the Dative of a verb, joined with a peculiar force and conciseness to the verbal noun or adjective. E. g. dicoXovSrjriKos rivi addicted to something ; rj iKacrrco Sia- * When we farther consider, that intransitive verbs just as often become transi tive by taking an object (§ 131), we perceive that a strict line of separation between verbs transitive and intransitive is impossible. This is one of the cases in which we see how language unfolds itself continually more and more; and hence the topic in its full extent is fitted rather for discussion in another form; and the mass of particulars must be left to the Lexicons. We note here only the general princi- ple. We may conceive, in the multitude of words expressing action (verbs), that a portion of them would be employed absolutely, i. e. without reference to any ob- ject, e. g. to go; these would be intransitives, and become fixed in this character; while another portion would be used chiefly ivith an object, e. g. to take; and these would be transitives. But a large number would still remain, which couid every where be employed in both relations, e. g. to move ; or in which, although general usage might already have decided for one or the other signification, yet the further development of the language, or the peculiarity of an individual writer, had seen fit to depart again from the common usage. This would show itself on the one hand, in transitive verbs, by omitting the object, as being already sufficiently implied in the verb (e. g. to ride) ; and on the other hand, in intransitives, by subjoining an objective adjunct, so as to mark the person or thing to which the action of the verb so extends as to bring it into the relation of an object; see § 131. 1, and the ex- amples in § 131. 3. It may also be noted, that, in all languages, by means of com-' position, transitive verbs often become intransitive, e. g. to take, to partake , and vice versa intransitives become transitive, e. g. to come, to overcome; see the examples under note 2, above. 324 SYNTAX. $ 131 rtfirjo-is the distributing to each; vrpos errldeigiv rolr tjtvoi? in order to shell to strangers. — ra perecopa (Ppovrio-Trjs one who meditates on things above tht earth (Plat. Apol. 2) from (ppovTi£eiv ti meditate on any thing. — Plat. Alcib. [I. 7. p. 141, dvrjKoov eivai evid ye X^ L C^ T€ Kai 7rpcoi£a yeyevnpeva not hav- ing heard of some . . . occurrences (elsewhere dvrjKoov eivat tivos). So too €7riarr]pa)v, and in the poets cpv^ipos, ^vvio-rcop, from eViVra/xat, cpevya, £vvoidd ti. — The adjective e^apvos is always so construed, and in connec- tion with the substantive verb (elvai) signifies therefore to deny, disown, and governs (precisely like dpvelaOai) not only the Infinitive (e^apvos dpi nocrj- aat), hut also the Accus. e.g. onus pi) e^apvos ecret a vvv Aeyeiy, Plat. Euthyd. p. 283. c; also id. Charm, p. 158 e^apvos elpi ra epaTcopem. Note 4. Many verbs can have not only a proper object of their own, but by means of a conjunction can likewise have with them another dependent clause. We sometimes find both modes of construction at the same time in one verb* e. g. kcu -^pripara Trapao-Kevd^ovrai kcu cpiKovs, kcu on cos av hcriv cos mQavcoTaroi Xeyeiv, Plat. Gorg. 77. p. 479. — tcov ttoXXcov LKavcbs Idovres rip paviav, kcl\ on ovbeis avrcov ovdev vyus 77-parrei, id. Rep. 6. p. 496. c. § 131. The Accusative Case. 1. The Accusative is the case of the passive (suffering) rela- tion ; that is, it marks the object, upon which the action of the operating subject is directed, and which therefore appears as sub- jected to that action, or suffering from it. Hence in all languages it is the case of the (immediate) object with transitive verbs : tvtttcd ere, aya7rco rov iralha. But in Greek, we often find that as the immediate object, which in other languages is expressed by a case (Gren. or Dat.) of the remoter object; and, just as often, ideas are expressed transitively, which in other languages can take no object. We also see clearly, in what way many ideas originally intransitive have become transitive, by connecting with them an accusative of object (see the last marg. note, and no. 3 below) ; that is, by conceiving the action of the verb as so extend- ing to some person or thing, as to bring it into the relation of an object. Hence, whenever the language connects with any verb, be its signification and form whatever they may, the idea of effi- cient action, it can govern the Accusative. Note 1. Hence it is already obvious, that many verbs might be variously- construed; since the choice of the case so often depended on the mode In which an individual writer conceived the action of the verb. In many verbs usage had settled down upon a particular case ; in many others not ; see marg. note to § 133. 4. c. A complete specification of syntactical usage under particular verbs is not to be expected here. This belongs to the Lexicons ; to which, once for all, the student is referred, for the construc- tion of every individual verb. The Grammar, especially in this department, can only follow out the more general principles ; and avails itself of par- ticular examples mainly in order to set forth clearly the nature and true con- ception of the case, or when other practical reasons require it ; which here, as every where, must prescribe the limits. 2. Thus in GS-reek the following verbs especially all take the object in the Accusative ; unlike the English and Grerman usage. $ 131. ACCUSATIVE CASE. 325 in which they are often translated by verbs requiring a different case or a preposition, viz. 'Ovivdvai, axpeXelv to be useful, /3Aa7rreiz/ do injury, ddiKelv do ivrong, elepye- Telv, Kanovpyelv, v(3pi£eiv, Xvp-alveadai, \<£>(3dcr8at, also kcik£>? V. ev rroielv, /ca- kg>s v. ev Xeyeiv, to do or speak ill or well; — Xarpeveiv (oftener c. dat.), Sepa- jreveiv ivait on; — SconTeiv, Scdneveiv, KoXaKeuetv to fawn upon, flatter; — pip.el- a6ai, (jjkovv, copy after; — (pddveiv come before, XavOdveiv be hid, cpevyeiv, eKCpei- yetv, to flee away, dnodidpaaKeiv run away, Xeiireiv, eniXeineiv to be in leant; — op-vvvai. to swear, e. g. toils' Seovs by the gods, emopKelv, daej3elv, dXirelv to sin against. — Also the Impers. del and xpv with Ace. of pers. see note 4. Examples: Mem. 2. 1. 28 ei're tovs Seovs TXecos chat col fiovXei, Separrev- t±ov tovs Qeovs • e'vre vtto (piXmv edeXeis dyando-Bai, tovs cplXovs eve pyeTi]- reov ' e'lre vivo tlvos noXeas eiriOvpLels rifiacrdai, rrjv ttoXlv a>(peXr]Teov ' eire V7rb rrjs 'EXXdoos Trdo-rjS d^iols eV aperr} Qavp,d£eo-6ai, ttjv '~EXXdda ireipareov e v noielv. Cyr. 1. 4. 13 (3ovXevop.ai ottcos ere aTrodpSi. Eur. Hel. 940 p.Lp.ov Tpoirovs narpo? diKaiov. II. r. 265 Seol aXyea didovaiv, oris o~(f) dXiryrai ofxoo-cras. — Passive, Xen. Hell. 7. 4. 4 eKrjpv^av ol Koplvdioi, e'lTis ddiKolro 'A6rjvai(£>v, a7roypd(pea6ai, that he should bring an action, sc. against tov ddi- Kovvra, by § 130. 5. Note 2. In order to bring to view some of the variations of usage (see note 1), we further note, that many verbs belonging to the ideas of profit or detriment are construed only with the Dative (Dat. commodi) ; espec. Xvo~i- reXelv, dpr)yeiv, fiorjdelv, eniKovpelv. Further, among those above cited, these are construed also with the Dative: axpeXelv Eur. Or. 658 ; ^Xdnreiv iEschyl. Eum. 658; Xvfiaivecrdai Hdot. 9. 79; Xcofidcrdai, as a to abiKov A avTo tovto Dem. irpd^Lv rjv fjXyrja iyco Soph. Some also, by the rule in no. 3, both of persons and things ; as dvcrx^paiveiv ^ovs, tov eva p.6vapxov Plat. eppiya /xa^z/ Horn. Or in connection with the participial construction, § 144. 6. b ; e. g. ^at'pco ere ev exovra. — More commonly these verbs are construed either with the Dative (§ 133) ; or, especially as to things, with eW and the Dative; see eVi, § 147. Note 4. The Impersonals del and xpl are construed so variously, and occur so often, that it is worth while here to bring together the whole usage into one view. When the person or thing is expressed by a noun, del com- monly takes the Dat. of pers. and Gen. of thing, as Set pol tivos ; far less often the Ace. of person, as del p.e tivos. But if the thing be represented by an Infinitive (del u-dxeadai.), the person appears in the Accusative (Ace. c. Inf.) del ere p.dxecr6ai) or the Dat. can remain, although seldom: del aoi p.dxeo-dai. — On the other hand, XPV> when both the adjuncts are nouns, is connected only with the Ace. of pers. and Gen. of thing : XPVH-* tivos; but it prefers in most instances the verbal construction, Ace. c. Inf. xPl °~ € ^ e '- yeiv. The person is very rarely found in the Dative, and rather gives to Xpr) the signification it is fit, proper. Examples : Xen. Cyr. 7. 5. 9 del rjp.lv tcov (fivXaiceov. — Eur. Rhes. 834 fia- icpov del ere koI aocpov Xoyov. — Cyr. 1. 4. 5 ri del ere Srjpia ijjTovvTa irpd.yp.aTa '4xeiv } — An. 3. 4. 35 edv tis $6pv(3os yevrjTai, del emo-d^ai tov Itvttov tleporj 32G SYNTAX. $ 131 dvbpi. — Od. (p. 110 ri /xe vprj firjrepos a'Lvov ; SO too XP €< ^- XP €ia > sc - ^°" r h !'• A. 650. — Hell. .5. 3. 7 ou§ ot/ceVa? ^P 7 ? ere /coAa^^ opy^. — Soph. Antig. 730 aAA

pav Karabpo- fxai? Xeiav eVoteiro. Other examples are: Thuc. 4. 15 ebo^ev airotr, (nrovbds Troirjaapevovs ra TvepX UvXov, a7J-ocrreiXai rtpeo-fiei?. Hdot. 1. 68 Tvyxdveis 3d>v- fxa TToievpievos rrjv epyacriav rov o-tbripov. The poets often make use of this freedom to introduce new turns : Soph. Aj. 1107 aXX' hvirep ap^eis apx e i Kal rd aepv eTrrj KoXa^ eiceivovs; where ra o-ep.v en-q ko\. unite as it were into one idea, and there is no need of supplying Xeycov etc. comp. OT. 339. II. 3. 171 KTime Zeis, arjpa ridels (i. e. arjpaivcav) Tpcoecrcri p-dx?]? erepaXnea viktjv. iEsch. Ag. 824 #eoi dvbpodvrjras'ikiov (pdopas tyr)va. This construction occurs often in Greek ; is less fre- quent in Latin ; and in English is strictly found only in the verb to teach and perhaps a few others. In Greek it is most frequent with verbs of doing', iroieiv, Spav, ep baiponv, bs rov piovvov pie na- uiyvqrov cruXa?. — Hec. 282 rov irdvra §' akj3ov rjp-ap ev pH depe i\ero. — Hdot. 7. 121 rpel? poipas 6 Sepfjrjs daadpevos irdvra rov ne^ov crrparov, (enopeve- to). — Eur. Hippol. 912 ov p.rjv vp-ds tovs twv npoyovoav Kivbvvovs. — - So Homer says, Od. /3. 203 ovde tvot iaa eaaerai, oeppa x.ev rjye diaTpLfirjcriv 'Axalovs ov ydp.ov; — and so too are naturally explained: dno^vpelv riva rr)v Ke ) comp. also § 132. 4, where it appears that verbs of taking away are just as often construed with a Genitive. — Further also, Troielv, as An. 5. 8. 28 tovtco rdvavria noirjo-ere rj rob? kvvcls 7TOiovcn. — Like dvapipvrjo-Keiv, SO virop.ipvr)0~Keiv rwd ri, e. g. Dem. p. 704 dvdyKrj vnopivrjaai rays' xpovovs vpds ; yet also (by § 132. 10. d) with the thing, of which one is reminded, in the Gen. e.g. Thuc. 7. 69; also dvap,ipvrjcrKeiv Plat. Menex. p. 246. For the Pass. dvap,cp,vrjo-Keo-8ac etc. see § 132. 10. d. — In like manner alrelv often has the person with rrapd c. Gen. e. g. Trkola, rjyep,6va alrelv napd nvos Xen. etc. Note 9. With verbs of distributing, the whole can also stand in the Gen itive; that is, the whole as a partitive Gen. is made to depend on the noun expressing a part, and not on the verb. E. g. Hdot. 1. 94 6 (Bao-tXevs Bvo poipas bieVke Av8a>v ndvrmv. Xen. Lac. 11. 4 AvKovpyo? p.6pas bieXkev e£ kou t7T7recoi/ Kai oirXirav. Also Passive: Cyr. 1. 2. 5 SadeKa Uepo-av (pvXai birjprjvrai. Note 10. To the construction of the double Accusative explained in no 5. belongs also especially the crxvi^ - Ka ^' oXov /cat p.£po? so called: or the construction in which both the whole and the part are put in the Ac- cusative; e. g. Horn, ttolov ere eiros (pvyev epKos odovrav ; — rbv de otkotos ovaC Kakv\rev. — ri be ere eppeva? 'Uero nevdos ; Comp. also § 132. n. 4, and § 133. 5. 6. Different is the construction of the double Accusative (found also in Latin) with verbs signifying to name, choose, make, hold for any thing ; where then an Ace. stands in the relation of predicate to the proper Ace. of object. — In the Passive the Norn, is double, as in Latin. EXAMPLES : aocpLarrjv 6vopd£ovcn rbv avbpa rovrov. — rovs *A6r]vaiov? eTkovro o~vp,pdxov$. — Soph. OC. 919 Kai roi ere Qrj(3ai y' ovk eiraibevo-av kclkov. — Cyr. 6. 2. 19 KpoTcroy yprjrai ra>v 7ro\ep.i<£>v arparrjyos. Note 11. When with verbs of naming this predicate adjunct is merely a pronoun or the like (ri, rovro, etc.) it is usual to insert ovopa. E. g. Eur. Ion. 269 ovopa ri ere KaXelv fjp,ds xpetov. — Mem. 2. 2. 1 rovs ri rroiovvras rb ovop.a rovro (sc. dvapierrous-) dnoicaXovaLv. Likewise when the thing is named, ovopa can still remain ; but then, by virtue of a special syntactical inexact- ness, the thing named is put in the Dative ; as Plato Polit. p. 279 rovrot- cr\ d?) rols o- Kendo- p,ao~i rb p.ev ovop.a ipdria eKoXeaapev, we have given (to) them the name. Other examples see in Heind. ad Crat. 6. 7. The Accusative expresses further the remote object in con- nection with intransitive verbs or other predicates, especially adjectives, when it specifies the part, circumstance, or definite object, to which the general idea contained in those predicates ex- tends, or by which it is limited. This construction is known un- der the name of the Greek Accusative ; and is often imitated by Latin poets, e. g. os humerosque deo similis. That the Ace. does not here come from an omitted preposition (/card), follows from § 130. 4. § 131. ACCUSATIVE CASE. 329 Examples: koXo? icm to o-ap-a he is handsome as to body; noda? g>kvs swift-footed; irovfiv ra o-KeXr) to have pain in the legs; dXyel to.? yvdSovs. Also Sav/ACLo-ros 1 to. tov 7roXep,ov admirable in the things of war; *2vpo? rjv ttjv narpiba he was a Syrian as to country; 'EcoKpdTrjs tov v op. a Socrates by name, Ail prjTiv arakavros. Eurip. Bacch. 1301 (46) opyas Trpenei Seovs 1 ov^ opoiovadat (BpoTcls. Note 11a. In like manner the names of games, contests, sacrifices, are subjoined in the Ace. to the acts of contest, sacrificing, etc. as 8pap.e7v to o-tcl- h\ov, vimv 'OXvprna, icrrecpavooada Ilvdia, evayyeXia (in the Pythian games, en account of the good tidings), baivvvai ydp.ov, Sveiv emviKia, etc. 8. "Whenever in place of this substantive-object there comes a pronoun or adjective in the Nent. Sing, or Plural, this last can stand in the Accusative even with such verbs as are elsewhere construed with a different case or with a preposition. E. g. hei- crdac rod apyvpiov to be in need of money ; but generally, r\v it Secovtcu if they need something. Examples : tovto dnopSi in this I hesitate; tl xpa>pai airco j ovk oiba o,ti Xp£>fiai avrco for what (how) I can use it. Plato Phileb. p. 36 777 o-Ke-^ei rode Xprjacop-eda. — Plat. Apol. p. 17 tovto vpcov beo/xai. — Xen. Cyr. 7. 2. 22 ovk alriwpai Tabe tov 3eov. Hell. 7. 5. 12 to itrevOev yevo p.evov e^eaTi to Selov aiTiaadai. — Cyr. 1. 6. 5 tl yap pep,vr]o~ai eKelva' — Hdot. 7. 139 TavTa Xeyiov ovk av dpapTavoi TaXr)6es. Cyr. 2. 2. 3 6 be pdXa tovto ye evTaKTcos virrjKovaev. — Soph. OC. 1106 curet? a Tev^ei. Eur. Suppl. 266 ypav? Tv^ovaai ovbev u>v ai>Ta? exPW- Comp. Xen. An. 6. 4. 32. — Plato Crit. p. 45 ov biKaiov p.01 boKels eVi^a/jeTy n pay pa, § 133. 2. h. Note 12. This usage has been the occasion of very greatly and unneces- sarily extending the number of verbs with a double Accusative ; since from clauses like these : ra p,eyio~Ta axfieXrjcreTe ttjv ttoXiv, noXXd pe r)biKr]Kev, tovto p.e avayv Qqfieov oraSiovy efibop,r)KOVTa. 10. Finally, the Accusative is often employed as an adverbial adjunct ; and some examples in the neuter gender have been al- ready given in h 128. n. 4. So too tlvcl rpbirov ; in What way ? Kvvbs hUrjv in the manner of a dog ; ifir)v X^P LV f or m V sa ^ e (§ 146) ; ttjv copav the right time ; tt)v rayiaTiqv, evOeiav, fjuaicpav sc. 6$6v 3 etc. Note 13. An Accusative is sometimes subjoined (especially by the poets) to a clause, as if in apposition with the action therein expressed. E. g. II. co. 735 rj Ti? 'A^atcoy ptyei (avTov) dno Trvpyov, Xvypov oXedpov, ' which is a dreadful death;' Eurip. Orest. 1105 'EXevrjv KTavv goodwill towards the Athenians; r) rov Seov Xarpeia the worship of God; evypara UaXXd8o?. Xi- ral SeS>v prayers to the gods; i) rwv ILXaratecoi/ emo-rpareia, against the Pla- tceans; acorrjp kclkwv, from evils; peXe8r)paTa Trarpo?, etc. — Both Genitives : tcdv 'icovcdu r) rjyepovlrj rov npo? Aapeiov 77oXepov Hdot. r) eKelvav peXXrjai? rwv el? r)pd? 8eivcov Thuc. 3.12. Note 1. It is to be noted, that instead of the objective Gen. of the pers. pronoun after a substantive, the possessive pronoun (as in Latin) may be used in the same case with the substantive. Thus in Horn. Od. X. 202 ads 77660? longing for thee; also JEsehin. r) ipr) al8d)s, and Thuc. to r)peTepov 8eo?. — Xen. An. 7. 7. 29 ol vvv o~oi inrjicooi yevopevoi cv (piXiq ttj crjj e77eio~6rj- o~av, aXX* dvayKrj. 2. In the mention of cities with the countries in which they are situated, where we employ the Prep, in, the Greek naturally uses the Grenitive. Thus, tt}? 'Am/cris e? Oivbr)v Thuc. iv Ko- prjaaa) rf}<; E(pecrlr}s Hdot. 3. In order to comprehend the Grenitive in its full syntactical relations, especially with verbs, we must premise, that the fun- damental idea of the Grenitive is that of Separation, a going forth, whether out of the interior of any thing or from its exte- rior ; and that therefore the idea of the Prepositions i/c out of the interior, and «7ro from the exterior or side of an object, lie pri- marily in the Grenitive case itself. When, therefore, in construc- tions where the common language employs only the simple Gren- itive, we occasionally find one of these prepositions inserted, this i f 32. GENITIVE CASE. 331 is only to be regarded as an addition for the sake of clearness ; $ 130. 4. And even where in prose the construction with the preposition is the common one, the poets again can employ the simple Grenitive. Examples of such Genitives in the poets, where the more precise Ian guage of prose inserts the preposition, are these : dvabvvat &X6? Horn. /3dX- \eiv la> rei^co? id. 86 pad v tl Cpepeiv Soph, ocrcrcoi/ d(pievai avyds Eur. OXvpnov 7TTdjAr TpiaKovTa erraSia. — II. £". 107 'Apyeloi Xrj^av (povoio. — Od. 8. 659 pvr]aTrjpa? '4.iravo-av dedXayv, see iravn § 114. — II. 8. 234 peOieTe Sovptdos aX/o)r, comp. Od. v8* dvcLKTopcov (temples) Seas. — ib. 374 yvvr) dv8p6? dpapTdvova' apapTavei. Q'lov. — Mem. 4. 2. 26 ol avdp<£>7roi 8id to e\j/evar6aL eavTwv 7rda^ovo-i 7rXei- crra icaicd, — Hec. 852 iya> ere Srjcroii tov8' iXevQepov v Thuc. aoo^ecv €K klv8vvcov Plato ' iraveiv, dnaXXaTTeiv e'/c kci- Kv crrpaTiiOTcov rols pev eooKec, roty d ov • avrai tv ttoXit&v bebiao-iv, airoKTelvovcnv ol Tvpavvoi Xen. Hier. 6. 15. Also ol (ppovipot t£>v dvOpancov i. e. genr. clev- er persons : tS>v dvdpcov rot? KaXols Kayadols alperooTepov ecrri Savelv rj 8ovXeveiv. — T(ov TroXeplcov tov? Trpocrpi^avra? pd^j] eKpdrrjcrav. — 6 pel£a>v rolv bvolv irai- hoiv ' r) peyiaTrj t£>v voaaiv dvaldeia • KTr/pdrcov ripicorarov eariv dvrjp (filXos avve- tos re KQ.I evvov?. Note 3. When any thing in the Sing, is to he expressed as heing a part of some whole which is also in the Singular, the Greeks are accustomed to put the part, not in the neuter, but in the same gender with the Gen. of the whole; just as in the Plur. phrase ol cppovipoi tcov dvdpcotrav above. E. g. r) ttoXXt) ttjs TLeXoTTovvr)o-ov the great (greater) part of the Peloponnesus ; 6 77/xt- crvy rod xpavov half of the time. Thuc. 1. 2 tij? yrjs r) dpio-rrj del to.? pera^o- Xas tcov olK7)Top(£>v el%ev. — Also in superlatives, e. g. r) opdordri] rr)s aKe\j/ecos the most correct mode of investigation. Plat. Cratyl. 18. Note 4. With ol pev . . .ol Be, the whole is also sometimes put in the same case with these pronouns. E. g. Od. p. 73. 101 01 Se 8veo aKoireXoi, 6 pev ov- pavbv evpvv lpovcrtv, ol Se a>s eKao-roi dvvavrai.— In like manner, An. 5. 5. 11 duovopev vpds . . . ivlovs o-kwvovv ev rals oIkims. II. X. 11 'A^atotcr iv adevo? epfiaX e/cacrro. Comp. § 131. 11. 10, and § 133. 5. Note 5. The usage so frequent in Latin, when the Gen. of a substantive stands after a neuter pron. or adjective, (as quantum hostium, parum dili- gentice,) is indeed found also in Greek ; but for the most part only in phrases which actually relate to quantity, (e. g. 7roAu tg>v noXepioov, oaov dp- yvp'iov) ) and even here the mode of expression with an adjective (not neu- ter) is more common; as iroXXol tcov rroXeptav. The same Latin idiom occurs also in marking extent or degree ; see in n. 6. — The extension of this usage to phrases relating to quality, belongs almost exclusively to the poets : Soph. Ant. 1229 ev ra> £vp ttot el cppevcov ; rl Xe£oo ; ttoI cppevoov e\6ti3, ndrep ; So too in prose, in phrases marking extent or de- gree; as els tovto dvaio~xvvTlas Trpofiefirjice, to this degree of shamelessness; TTpo? rovro kaipov napeo-Ti to. rrpdypara, to this (decisive) point of time . An. 1. 7. 5 iv tolovtco rjo-av tov kivSvvov. In like manner, Eur. Ale. 9 roVS' eo-<£>£ov oIkov is rd6° f]p,epas. c) The G-enitive of the whole is often put with verbs whicL imply or refer to a part ; especially with elvcu. For explanation it is usual to supply rh, rl. Examples : Thuc. 1. 65 'Apio-Tevs rj6e\e tg>v p.evovrcov elvcu. 3. 70 6 LTei- 6 las eTvy%ave ttjs (3ov\rjs a>v. — Xen. Hell. 6. 3. 5 el op.oyv&p.ovolp.ev, ovk av tS>v Qav p.ao~T(ov (sc. t\, i. q. Savpaarov, see in lett. a) etrj, p,r] elprjvrjv Tvoiel crdai. — Further, eSco/ra aoi tv Horn. etc. d) With all verbs and adjectives which include the idea of a part ; e. g. of taking part, partaking, as fjuereivcu, perkykCv (Adj. fi&TO'Xps), fJLeTairelv, fieTa^ihovat, fMeraXa/ji^dvecv, avTiXcqiftdveaOao, KOLvcovetv (Adj. kolmovos) ; t also of sharing, obtaining, as Tvy%d- veiv, \ayydveiv, dvrcav (dvrcdt,€cv, dvrav), KVpelv, fcXrjpovo/jLeop. Examples : Mem. 3. 4. 14 f) yj/vxq tov Selov /z ere yet. — Isocr. p. 22 eneibrj Svtjtov aapaTos erv^es, neipa) ttjs ^j/v^rjs dSdvaTov ttjv yv(apr\v KaTaXiireiv. — Dem. p. 690 ovtol k\tj p o v o p. o v o~ i ttjS vperepas 86^rjs Ka\ twv vp-eTep(£>v dyadeov. — Soph. El. 869 i^Opeo-Trj?) Keicevdev, ovte tov Ta(pov avridcras, ovt€ yocoi nap rjp5)V. Note 7. With the most of these verbs the Accusative is also not unusual, (and so with p.eTelvai the Nom.) because it is easy to connect with them the transitive ideas to have, to get, to possess, to give. E. g. Thuc. 2. 37 peYeo-rt irdcri to 'Lvov. — Aristoph. Plut. 1144 ov yap perei^es Tas 'io~as TrXrjydi, ep,ol. — Xen. An. 4. 5. 5 p.eTedocrav avTols rrvpovs r) aXko ti, comp. Hdot. 8. 5. — II. 5. 580 j3d\e ^eppaSio) dyicebva tv^iov p,eo~ov. But evrvyxdvoi on the contrary commonly with the Dative, because of its composition. — iEschyl. Sept. 684 KaKos ov Ken\r]o-r) (3lov ev Kvprjaas. — With k\t) povo p,e7v, both the thing inherited and the person from whom are put in the Genitive ; only in later writers the thing is put in the Ace. as Luc. D. Mort. 1. 3 ovk eTredv- p,eis Kkrjpovop.elv divoBavovros ep,ov to. /cri^para ko.\ tov ttIOov koi ttjv 7rr]pav. Note 8. As ovo\ia above (§ 131. n. 11), so here, with verbs of partaking, the sub st. pepo? is often added in prose, to mark extent or quantity (much, little, etc.) so that then the Gen. seems to depend on p.epo?. Examples : iEsch. Ag. 518 ovk ^'pw Savcov p-edetjeiv (piA-rctrou rdepov p,e- pos\ — Is. Nic. p. 35. d, tS>v dpeTcov ovdev p.epos toZ? Trovrjpols /xereart. — Cyr. 7. 5. 44 p.iKpov ti vp.1v p-epos ep.ov p-ereaeTai. e) Finally, this partitive Grenitive is put with verbs which in- clude the closely kindred ideas to hold fast, to lap hold of, to touch, and the like, viz. dirTeaOai, \api(3dvea9ai with its com- pounds espec. dvTt\ajxj3dvecr6ai, eyeaQai, ^fraveiv, ^vyydveiv, hpdr- reaOai, KaOucvelaOai, and the like ; comp. also no. 10. h, below. Examples: Soph. OC. 955 Savovrcov ovdev akyos anTeTai. — An. 7. 6. 41 rjv croocppovwpev, i^opeOa avrov, we shall hold him fast. — Eur. Or. 780 (W^e- pes "fyaveiv voaovvTos dvdpos: — Dem. 01. p. 15 ecos earl Kaipos, avTikafieaOe ra>v 7rpayp,aTL0v. 334 SYNTAX. § 132. Note 9. Some examples of varying construction occur, as in n. 7. E. g. with the Accus. Od. a. 342 paXio-rd pe KadUero ivtvOos aXaarov. With, the DaL Pind. Pyth. 4. 527 acrvxiq Siyepev, and often. Note 10. To the same principle are to he referred constructions like the following : rrj9 x el pb? ciyeiv rivd to lead one by the (his) hand ; iirio-irao-as nva KOfjLTJs to drag one by the hair ; rbv \vkov tcov atrcov KparS) to seize the wolf by the ears. Here too the prep, etc can stand; see § 147. n. 1. — This of course must not he confounded with : \aj3e7v nva x el Ph t° se ^ ze one with the hand. Examples :"I1. y. 369 rj, koL eTratigas KopvOos \dj3ev imrobaa-elris.- — Xen. An. 1. 6. 10 e\dj3oVTO TYjS £cOVT]? TOV^OpoVTTjV. Note 11. From the custom of regarding a suppliant as one who embraces the knees of the divinity or of the person entreated, it has come to pass that verbs of entreating or supplicating , otherwise purely transitive, are con- strued with the Genitive, espec. Xtaaeadai, Ik€T€V€iv, yovvd£eaBai, licveiaOaL. So fully in Homer, (II. £. 45. cp. 71) Aa/3obz/, i\(bv, ayjsdpevo? AtVo-ero yovvcov; with Accus. and Genit. ^. 345 prj pe, kvov, yovvcdv yovvd£eo, prjSe toktjcov. Eur. Or. 660 ravTrjS (ttjs bdpapros 1 ) iKvovpai ere. Hec. 752 tKereuco ere rcovde yovvdrcov K.al crov yeveiov Se£iay r' evdalpovo? : and hence also finally, Od. {B. 68 \[(r(Topac ijpev Ztjvos 'OXvpnlov r)8e 0e/xierroy. Comp. belcrdai in n. 14, and npos $ 147. n. 1 ; also ev^ecr^at c. Dat. § 133. 2. c. 6. But as the part may be conceived as still connected with the whole, and all the parts together form, the whole, so that out of which any thing consists or is made may be expressed by the G-enitive relation, the Genitive of material. Examples : arecpavo? vaKtvdcov a garland of hyacinths ; Hdot. aTJjXr] \i6ov a column of stone ; id. 7. 63 poiraka £uAcoz\ So with verbs : Cyr. 7. 5. 22 (polviKos (elcriv) at Qvpat, 7T€7roir]pevaL. Hdot. 2. 138 ecrrpiopevr) ian 68b? \L6ov. 7. The G-enitive serves naturally to express, not only the^ out- ward material (no. 6), but also the internal relations of an at- tribute or quality connected with the object, i. e. Genitive of quality; as also the more personal relations of possession and property, i. e. the possessive Genitive. Hence arises the most common signification of the G-enitive after substantives ; e. g. ol rod rrcLTpos 7re)i/rcoi/ icrriv. Note 12. The poets sometimes employ a substantive in the Genitive as a periphrase for an adjective; e. g. Eurip. Phcen. 1590 rpavpara aHparos wounds of blood, for alparoevra bloody. Soph. OT. 533 roaovb'' e^eir rd A prjs Trpoaconov. Antig. 114 Xevtcr)? x L ® V0S VTepvg, a wing of white snow, for snow-white. Aj. 1003 a> bvadearov oppa ical roXpr]? TriKpds. — [This is the Hebrew construction so frequent also in the prose of the Septuagint and New Testament; e. g. Luke 4, 22 Adyot ttjs ^ciptror, gracious words. 16, 8 oiko- vopos ttjs aSiKtas 1 , the unjust steward. Rev. 13, 3 fj 7r\r)yf) rod Savdrov, the deadly wound; and often. Sometimes, though rarely, the qualifying word takes the other in the Genitive ; e. g. Rom. 6, 4 iv Kaivorrjn ^co^y in newness of life, i. e. a new life. 1 Tim. 6, 17. See Herm. ad Viger. p. 888. Winer Gramm. des N. T. § 34. 2. Gesen. Heh. Gr. $ 104. Lehrgeh. § 163— Tr. Note 13. The connection of the Genitive with elvai, (also ylyveadai, and with predicates where elvat can he supplied, as rjyeladai, ndevai,) does not * 132. GENITIVE CASE. 335 correspond entirely to the Latin construction of esse c. Genit. (v. Abl.) and therefore needs to he here more fully considered. Thus I. Where the subject is a thing, an abstract, or something conceived by the mind, that to which it belongs (the person) is put in the Genitive. Such a clause may always be rendered : is a thing of, etc. or more exactly : a) The property of; e. g. irdcra. rj yrj eari /3ao-iA eco? is the property of the king, belongs to him; Trorepcov rldrjs (sc. elvai) rrjv ovaiav, Plato Theaet. p. 186. b) The wont j part, duty of; e. g. to>v pdxj] vikmvtcov koI to ap-^eiv icrriv An. 2. 1. 4; dvdpo? eVrt cfypovlpov axfieXelv tovs dvdpJmovs; comp. 7rpoi? § 147. n. 1. In this case instead of the person in the Gen. the correspond- ing abstract noun can be used, as in Lat. est stulti v. stultitice; e. g. Soph. El. 1054 7ro\\rjs dvo'ias (earl) Kai to Qrjpdo-dai Kevd. Dem. 01. p. 12 tu TToXXa dnoXaiXeKevaL ttjs vpeTepas dpeXe las av rtr $elr] St/ccu'coy. c) The power , ability of i. e. in the power of; as in the proverb : ov ttclvtos dvbpbs ds JLoptvdov io~6* 6 ttKovs. Soph. OT. 393 to a'iviyp ov^l tovtt iovtos (i. e. tov TvyovTOs) rjv dvbpbs hienreiv, dWd pavTeias e'Sei. II. Where the subject is a person, the Latins usually express any perma- nent quantity belonging to it by the Genitive (or Ablative), as Ccesar erat magna prudentia, etc. In Greek this is very rare; e. g. Hdot. 1. 107 Kap- (3var]s oli, 7rp\v Tpboas cidrjv ekdcrai tto- Xepoio. Note 14. On the construction of Set, XPV> Trpoarjicei, see also in § 131. n. 4, and § 133. 2. e. — From the idea of need it likewise comes, that 8e7o-6a<. and xpf}( elv a ^ so i 11 the signif. ?o ask for, entreat, take the Gen. of pers. as Cyr. 5. 5. 35 o-u i/w epo\ ^aptcrat 6 aV crov 8er}6oo. Hdot. 5. 19 eya> crev Xprjtfa prjdev veoxpooaai. And from the union of the two ideas is to be ex- plained the double Gen. e. g. Cyr. 8. 3. 19 e8eovro Kvpov aXXos aWrjs irpd^e&s. Hdot. 7. 53 rcovd* eyeo vpeoov xPlK^i comp. Hdot. 5. 40; see too Xlao-opai in note 11 above. But dgiovv in the same signif. has only an Ace. of person. — The verb j3pl6eiv has commonly the Dative ; yet Od. t. 219 rvpcov (3pldov. b) "Words signifying value or want of value : a£ to?, avafyos, a^iovciQai ; a^iovv, irpoTieiv, artfid^eiv rlva tlvo$. Examples: Xen. Ag. 10 eyK.oop.ioov tl dgiooTepov rj vikcu. — Cyr. 2. 2. 17 ovdev dvtcrooTepov tov toov Xcroov roc re kcikov kcu tov dyaQov a^iovadai. — ■ Staph. Ant. 22 rdepov Kpeoov tov pev npoTLcras, tov 5' aTipdcras e^et. c) Especially is the relation of value expressed by the Grenitive after verbs of estimating, buying and selling, etc. There is here a twofold construction, viz. 1) The value itself or price is put in the Grenitive, Gen. of price. 2) Also the goods or wares bought or sold, Gen. mercis ; this last, however, only in certain connections with the verbs SiSovai, XapLfSaveiv, KaranQevai, and the like. — In both these constructions (b and c) the prep, avri is alsc- found before the Grenitive ; see dvn h 147. n. 1. Examples: 1) 8 paxpij ? dyopd^eiv ri. Mem. 3. 7. 6 ol iv rrj dyopa cppovT'i £ovcriv, o\ti ekdrTOVos irptdpevoi r n\e'iovo l s dirodoovrai. 2. 1. 20 toov tt 6 vcov 7rco Xovaiv fjpuv irdvTa Taydd* ol Qeoi. — 2) Dem. p. 529 xPVP- ara °v Trpoar/fcei toov ToioxiTisov \apfidveiv. Cyr. 3. 1. 37 dirdyov tovs Traidas, prjdev avToov Ka.Ta.6ei?.— rpel? pvds KareOrjKe tov Ittttov. See on Plat. Meno. 28. d) The Grenitive stands also after the ideas of being skillful, capable, experienced, mindful, and the contrary : e jjltt ei pros, eVt- crnjpLwv, iSpis, fjLvrjpLcov, a7r€Lpos, ISlcott}^, aZar)$. Hence also in the poets with participles, as II. (3. 720 to^mv ev elBm. it. 811 StSa- encopbevo? iroXepioio. Further, with the verb TretpdcrOac to try, prove, with all its derivatives and compounds. Also with verbs signifying to remember and forget : pLLfAvrjcnceaOai with its com- pounds, pLvrjpuoveveiv, kirikavQaveo-Qai. But these last admit also other constructions, espec. with the Ace. of thing and irepi c. gen. See n. 14 a. Examples: Dcm. p. 1414 tt)? yeoopeTpias kcu ttjs aXAr/r Toiavrri? tvol- he ia? dnetpcos i'xeiv alaxpov. — Mem. 1. 2. 21 otov tSov vox BeTircov koyooi $ 132 GENITIVE CASE. 337 im\d8rjTai rcr, tovtov ovbev Sav/xacrrbv kol ttJs p o a v v y s eivikaOecrOai. — Plisedr. p. 234 av toov elp-q p.evv eirecrLv, r)yx e ' L V Tfetp^trofiat, wobeacrw eVetpTjo-ai/ro Horn. — That dvap,[p,vr)o-Koi and imojxiiivrjo-Koi take a double Ace. see in § 131. 5. — Examples of the Ace. and also irepl: Cyr. 6. 1. 25 (Kvpos eVparre Tavra), orrcos ev rais dyayats ras rage is v7rop,ip.vrjo-KOLVTO. — Eur. Hel. 265 Tas tv^o-s . . ."EWrjves ineXdOovTO, comp. Od. §. 119. — With nepi: Xen. Hell. 4. 5. 9 ol npeo-j3eis irepl ttjs elp-qvrjs ovKeri Ip.ep.viqvTO, comp. 4. 4. 15. — Andoc. p. 73 fxr} nepl twv ireirpay- p.eva>v axiTols e7fiXd8r]a6e. e) Yerbs signifying to care for, to be anxious, and the con- trary, take the object (or cause) of such care, etc. in the Geni- tive ; as e7TL[Jbekea6ai, KTqheaOai, cppovrl^ecv, pbekei /not twos, a/xe- Xeiv, akeyl&Lv, oXtycopelv. Also verbs signifying to admire, to pity, to contemn ; as dyacrdat, ^avfjua^eiv, evhaifjuovi^eiv, naicapi^eiv, cp6o- velv, olfcrelpetv, /caraeppovetv, fcarcvyekav. So too (fielSecrdat to spare Examples : Cyr. 5. 3. 40 ol apxpvres eTripi,eXelcr6oiv ivdvTav. — Soph. OT 1060 fiJ7, TTpos Beav, e'tnep ti tov aavrov fi'iov Kr]8ei, fxarevarjs. — Eur. Med. 1046 p.ev tovs ev t<5 7roXep,oi TeTeXevTi]- kotus p,aros aKOvnae. «. 263. etc. g) Yerbs signifying to accuse, to condemn, as Karrjyopeiv, /carjifyvcoo-Kecv, KarahiKd^eiv, take the Gen. of pers. and Ace. of crime. Yice versa, the verbs ypdfaadaL, Kplveiv, hmiceiv (Pass. (pevyecv), alriacrdcu, alpelv (Pass. aklo-KeaOai), take the Ace. of pers. and Gen. of thing. Examples: Dem. p. 1319 ris vp,(bv av Karayvoir] p,ov roaavT-qv paviav ; Cyr. 5. 5. 19 e^eis riva vrXeove^iav pov Kar-qyoprjaai; — Ar. Eq. 367 8id>- £o/xcu ere deikias. PL Apol. p. 35 (2a>Kp.) darefiela? eepevye vtto MeXirov. Mem. 1. 2. 49 ovk e£eo-av rov cpovov rco icrelvavri. The Adj. evoxo? is put sometimes with the Dative, and sometimes with the Genitive of the crime. — With the Gen. of thing, prepositions are sometimes employed; e. g. nepi, as rrepl Trpobovias exipive Isocr. Note 17. The punishment to which the person, accused or condemned is exposed, is usually put in the Accus. e. g. KaraoiKa^eiv nvbs Sdvarov, gr)p,iav ocpXelv rdXavra 8ev Kap.rp\u>v. — Dem. p. 782 rovs yevop,evovs kvvcls rcov 7rpo/3d- nov KaraKonreiv (petal delv. — Mem. 2. 4. 1 iJKOvad nore rov "2(£>Kpdrovs 8ia- * The verb aicoveiv and its compounds, c. genit. often have the special signif, to listen, to obey ; e. g. Cyr. 8. 6. 1 robs x i *- l( *-PX ovs °^ K a\\ov % eavrov efiov\ero anoveiv. Hence also avr)Kov rXrjpcov eya>, ob? cipn TrevQov? Tovbe yev op.au niKpov.— Iph. T. 1047 ovaio~6e p,vd<£>v /cat yevoicrO' ev8alp.oves. — II. X. 562 e ko peer craro (jjopfirjs. II. o. 317 8ovpa XuXaiop-eva xpob? dcrai. Od. co. 717 acreaOe KkavOjidlo. — Xen. Hell. 3. 3. 6 ovk ibvvavro KpxmTeiv to p.r) ov^ r)8ea>s av Ken oipLwv eaSLeiv avToiv, i. e. out of hatred. Note 18. The natural prepositions with these verbs are i< and 0770, which are often found before the Genitive; e. g. Plat. Apol. p. 31 d dno tovtcov dneXavov kcu pnoObv iXdp.fiavov, ei^ov civ Tiva \6yov. Comp. Rep. p. 395. c. 11. From no. 9 above it is to be explained, that with all Comparatives the object with which comparison is made, is put in the Grem tive ; Lat. in the Ablative. E. g. aocpcorepo^ ecrrc rod StSacT/cd- \ov he is wiser in comparison of (with) his teacher, i. e. than his teacher ; koXXlov epuov aSets thou singest better than I; ape- tt}? ovhev KTrj/jLci ecrrc aefivorepov. Note 19. Prepositions which explain this Genitive of comparison, are -rrapd and irpos c. Ace. with both of which examples actually occur; see § 147. n. 1. — The rule that this Genitive is only put, where it can be re- solved by rj, than, quam, with the Nom. or sometimes the Accusative, is not rigidly observed in Greek ; since it often occurs instead of rj with the Dative ; e. g. p,el£cov tw elnovri ylyverai (SXaj3r) tov tr eiro ltjkotoS 1 i. e. rj t5> Treiroir}KOTi. Thuc. 7. 63 TCWTa toIs oTrXiTais ovx rjacrov twv vavTwv 7rapaKeXevop.ai, comp, 1. 85. ib. 2. 60. Note 20. In such examples as kuXXlov ip.ov a8ei?, p,el£ova epya ep.ov 8u- Ttpa^ev, the Gen. strictly stands for a whole clause : rj eyeb q8a>, bienpat-a. The ambiguity which sometimes thus arises, can be cleared up only by the context; e. g. Hdot. 2. 134 Trvpap,i8a aTreX'nreTo 7roXX6v e'Aao-crco tov naTpos, \. e. rj 6 7raTr)p cnveX'nveTO. Aristoph. Plut. 558 tov UXovtov 7rape^co fieXTiovas av8pas, i. e. rj 6 II. Trape^et. Especially, the Greek language could express such minor clauses by means of certain abstract nouns ; and this usage the Latin imitates. Examples: Hdot. 2. 35 epya Xoyov fiefa. Thuc. 2. 50 Kpelcraov \6yov to el8os T7j? vocrov, greater than language, beyond the power of speech. 2. 64 Arci'Sor K.peicro~ov spe melius Hell. 2. 3. 24 7rXeove? tov Kaipov. Plato Gorg. p. 484 nepaiTepo) tov deovTos i. e. rj del. So too is to be explained Thuc. 1. 84 ol AotxeS. dpadeo-Tepov tcov v6p.<£>v Tr)s vnepoy\rias naidevovTat, i. e. l are educated with too little learning to despise the laws.' S40 SYNTAX. § 132. Note 21. When ir\eov or eX otto *> is followed by a numeral, the 9 (as in Lat. quam) may be omitted without any change of case. Examples : Plat. Legg. p. 856 ^77 eXarrov 8ev noXep-icov r) rcov r)8ovcov 8vvavrai k par el v. — Cyr. 8. 2. 21 01 pev, e7rei8av rcov dpicovvrcov 7repirra v Kara Qecov 8lktj Soph, f] Tvopeia 6p.oia cfivyrj? iyevero An. 4. 1. 17. So too with Participles : to tov KpeiTTovos gvpcpepov instead of tco KpeiT- rovt Plat, rrptivov dalfiovo? tov *p,ov To8e Soph. Note 27. In other examples we might easily regard this Genitive with adjectives as identical with the Accusative- adjunct treated of in § 131. 7. It is however essentially different. That Accus. is rather an adverbial ad- dition, by which a declaration already complete in itself, though general, is modified and limited to some particular thing: /ca\6r t6 areola. The Genitive, on the other hand, marks the object, from which as it were the quality first proceeds ; and is therefore the necessary complement of the at- tribute not yet fully expressed by the adjective ; as e. g. iroXts evcowp.os (sc. KaS/iou) receives its essential and complete sense when the Gen. Kd8p,ov is added. The following examples may serve to illustrate what is here said ; among which are several from the poets, who in this way can adopt many new turns of construction. E. g. ev8a[p,cov tov Tpoizov icai tcov Xoyiov Plat. vtt€v$vvos dp^T]? iEsch. a> (r^erXt'a rdXp/y, co TaXaiv eyco creOev, dv(TTt]ve kclkccv. dvarrjvos (ppavcov Soph. Eurip. £evo9 tov Xoyov Tovde Soph. reAeio? tyjs dpe- ttjs Plat. crvyyvcop,cov tcov d/xaorq/zarcoz/ Xen. 7rcuy copalr) ydp,ov Hdot. eVt- aTGCpr)? o'lvov Horn. KaTi]pe(f)rjs TravToicov dyadcov Anacr. kclkcov ovbeis 8vad- \007-or Soph. — Hence also the Genitive stands especially with adjectives compounded with a privative; comp. the Genit. in no. 10. a. E. g. aVcuy dp- pevcov Ttaibiov Hdot. Uepi/cXr}? eyeveTO -^p-qpLaTiov dhcopoTaros Thuc. Tip.rjs ari- p,o9 ecrrco Plat. (filXcov a.K.Xavo~T09, a\a/A7rey fjXlov, avaros ko.kcov> etc. Note 28. To the above is closely related the Genitive with the phrases a>?, 7ra>r, ottcos e^ei; KctXco?, p,€Tpico9 e^etr, etc. E. g. cos rrobcov etyov Hdot. o>y eKarepoy tls evvoias fj p,vr)p.r]$ e^ot Thuc. icaXcos KadlcrTa- ctOcu tov 7roXep,ov id. Also generally with very many verbs, which are not adduced in the above specifications.* * Indeed, to specify all the verbs which happen any where, and especially in the poets, to be construed with the Genitive, and thus increase the number of di- visions without end, would be just as fruitless as it would be without object. Here too the same remarks hold good, which have already been made in § 130. n. 9„ § 131. n. 1. The above divisions and specifications serve only to shew, how the 342 syntax. < 132. 14. As in general the cases often serve to express adverbial rela- tions ($ 115. 4 and n. 3), so the Genitive especially is employed for general specifications of time and place ; in distinction from the Dative, which is the case of definite specification. Thus : a) The Genitive is put in answer to the question when ? but only of indefinite and continued time ; e. g. vvktos, rj/jiepas, by night or by day ; SeiXr)?, xeificovos, eapos, ^e^of?; also tt]v ov p.ep.e\err)Ka for many days. — Hell. 7. 5. 18 oXiyav r)pepa>v dvdyKrj cnruvai in {after) a few days. — Plat. Phsedr. p. 248 etcelcre ovk d(piKve7rai eru>v p.vpia)v in ten thousand years, as an indefinitely long period. b) That the Genitive is also the case for general specifications of place, is apparent from the form of the most common adverbs of place, 7rov, oitou, ov ; and from poetic usage, as "Apyeos *Ayai- itcov, JJvkov leprjs, Mvfcrjvrjs, IOd/cr)?, Od. 7. 251. (f>. 108. But this usage never passed over into prose ; except perhaps in the phrase Sefta? v. apio-repas %et/3o? Hdot. # Prose writers employed the prepositions, especially Kara ; see § 147. n. 1. Note 29. Sometimes the Gen. stands nearly absolute at the beginning of a sentence, in order to shew beforehand, that something is about to be said respecting that object. Here it is customary to supply in mind the Prep. we pi about, as to; which also can actually be so written. E. g. Xen. CEc. 3. 11 rr}? te yvvancos, el di8ao-K.op.evr) vtto rod dvdpbs ray add KaKOTroiel, di- Katcoy av r) yvvr) rr)v alriav e^oi, comp. Plat. Legg. p. 794. a. Comp. also the relative clauses in § 143. 11. In like manner in Homer, Od. A. 174 elne 8e p.oi irarpos re . All these are causal relations; which later usage expressed differently, or with the help of a preposition. * This whole use of the cases to express adverbial relations obviously belongs less to syntax, than it does to the formation of words. At least we find here, as everywhere in the progress of language, a mutual influence and action. At first, in order to mark such relations, they made use of certain final syllables appended to nouns, as (pi, be, Si. But inasmuch as such forms often approached in significa- tion the forms of the cases (§ 56. n. 9), it happened by degrees, that the real case- endings were employed for the same purpose ; as vv>cr6s, Kcuas x eL P^ s i Mwk^wjs, comp^Lat. node, marl, and the names of cities; Germ, cines Tages, linker Hand. etc. In respect to many adverbial forms, however, which manifestly according to this analogy have genitive-endings, very often no corresponding Nominative can be found in use; and such forms, therefore, have become fully adverbs; e. g. nod, iffis, comp Lat. noctu, Germ, links, des Nachts ; see §§ 115. 116. § 133. DATIVE CASE. 34S el? *AAKt/8ia5ou, into the house of Alcibiades. Hence too iv aSou, els a8ov f in or into the house of Hades, the infernal regions. Comp. § 125. 5. — A special anomaly is iv jj/zerepou Hdot. 1. 35. ib. 7. 8 [14.] Note 31. From no. 10. e, above, and the similar usage in other lan- guages, may be explained the very common use of the Genitive in exclama- tions of wonder or complaint. Thus sometimes with an interjection, e. g. oijxoL t£>v kclkcov alas what misfortunes ! o'l fxoi rdkaivr]S Antig. 82 ; v. Comp. Plut. Mor. p. 229. c. Note 2. Generally speaking, most of the above verbs are more or less also construed with the Accusative ; and therefore the lexicon should be consulted under each verb. — Especially, for the Gen. and Ace. with other verbs of beseeching, entreating, as SelaOm, Xio-aopai, TrpoorKwelv, etc. see § 132. n. 11, 14. § 131. 3. d) "With verbs signifying censure and reproach; espec. pe^e- (jQai and its compounds, eiriTipbav, eiriifX^craeiv, iytcaXeiv, \ol8o- pelv and -elcrQai. The thing with which one is reproached is put either in the Accus. or with a preposition. — For (pOovelv see § 132. 10. e, and n. 15. Examples: Xen. Hier. 5. 3 37 rvpavvls dvayKa^et kcu rais iavrcov nxarp'io-iv eys pot, en t7rX 77 crcreiy dyopfjenv. Cyr. 1. 4. 9 6 &elos avroo eXotSopetro. Note 3. The Accusative is also in use along with all these verbs, just as in notes 1 and 2. E. g. Cyr. 1.4. 80! §e (pvkaices e\oi86povv avrov. An. 2. 6. 30 tovtwv ov8e\s Kareyeka ovt avrov 9 epepepero. e) "With the verbs nrpeirei, irpocrrjKei decet, e^ean licet ; which can also be construed with the Ace. c. Inf. see § J 42. n. 2. — For the construction of the impersonals Set and xpV> see ^ 131. n. 4. Examples: Aristoph. Av. 970 tl npnariKei S^r' epol KopivOiav ; — An. 3. 2. 11 dyaOois vp.lv 7rpoo"f]K€i elvai, see § 142. 2. b. — Cyr. 7. 5. 83 ov tov apxovra tg>v dpxopevoiv irovn pore pov Trpoai']K€i eivai. — Soph. El. 612 noias d i pol Set 7rpo9 ye rrjvde (ppovrldos. f) With words signifying likeness or unlikeness ; as ojllolos, t'0-09, TTapa7r\rjcrio<; ) ivavrios. This holds good, not only where we put the Dative (to with its case) in a direct comparison, but also where we introduce the object compared by as, like as; conse- quently for &)v "(rcov fj p.lv ' vvv 6° e£eari vp.lv els rbv avrbv fjp.lv Kivbvvov ep,(3alv6Lv kol rcov 6p.oic£>v fjplv a^iovaOai. — Qrjaevs Kara rbv avrbv xp^vov *H p a k A e I iyivero. Note 4. The adjective o/xoios and the like can also be construed with the Genitive (§ 132. n. 26) ; but only in a direct comparison. — As above in respect to the Gen. of comparison (§ 132. n. 20), so here with 6 alrds and the Dative, ambiguity may sometimes arise ; as ra avra Xeya e/cetVco, I say the same to him, or as he. — This use of the Dative with 6 avrds is imitated in Latin : Ov. Am. 1.4' Vir tuus est epulas nobis aditurus easdem.' As too in Lat. the object compared can be introduced by ac after ceque, idem, so likewise in Greek by Kai, see § 149. m. 8 ult. g) With every action which tends to the advantage or disad- vantage of any one. This is the Dat. commodi et incommodi so called ; the use of which in Grreek is far more extensive and pe- culiar than in Latin. Examples, see in n. 5-9. h) Peculiar is also the use of the Dative with such substan- tives, as are either derived from verbs governing the Dative, or imply a relation of advantage or disadvantage. Examples: Hes. $. 93 Movadav leprj 8do-is dvdpdmoio-iv. — iEsch. Pr. 617 nvpbs fiporols dorrjp* opqs Hpop.r]8ea. — Plat. Ale. I. p. 116 rrjv rols cplXots (Sofjdetav Xeyco mXrjv eivai. — Rep. p. 332. C, rols crd>p.aai ra f)8vap.ara. — Thuc. 5. 5 (pikta Toiy' ? Adrjvaiois. — In the poets this usage of the Dative is extended still more widely. Note 5. Under the Dative of advantage and disadvantage (Dat. commodi et incommodi) is included, first, that relation of this kind which is com- mon to almost all languages ; which exists e. g. in the Homeric neto-erai, acra-a o I Aicra yeivop,eva inevrjae Xiva, ' what Fate has spun for him at his birth (of good or evil),' II. v. 127; MeveXdto rdv8e ttXovv io-reiXapev 'for Menelaus (for his benefit) have we undertaken this voyage,' Soph. Aj. 1045. — On this is founded the less direct Dative of advantage or disadvantage, which is subjoined with reference to the purpose or wishes of a person; e. g. eneiddv rdx^ra avrols ol nalfies ra Xeybpeva £vvia>cnv, where avrols re- fers to the expectation of the parents. In like manner this Dative refers to the emotions excited by an action; e. g. fj p.f]rr)p eq ae notelv o, ri av /3ov- X77, lv avrfj [xaicdpios ys Plat. Lys. p. 208. d. Soalso in the case of disad- vantage, ol rrartpes rovs vlels rrapapvOovvrai, brav avrols ££ap.aprdvao~i Plat. Soph. p. 230, where we are not to seek in avrols the persons against whom the transgression is directly aimed (to their disadvantage), but simply a minor reference to the feelings of the fathers. — From such passages we can now advance further and easily comprehend those instances, where in a manner quite common in Greek, the Datives /not, trot, etc. are inserted, merely in order to give to the discourse a touch of feeling and sentiment ; c. g. Od. 6\ 569, where it is said to Menelaus, that the gods (564) would send him to Elysium, ovvck e^eis 'EXevrjv Kai acpiv yap,(3pbs Aids eaai. Note 6. It is a special Grsecism, when to this Dat. commodi just described there is added an adjective or participle, in order to mark more fully the condition into which the object affected by the action is brought, or in which t appears in relation to the action. E. g. the indefiniteness of e/zol rjXOev is removed so soon as I say, ep,o\ do-p.eva v. f)8op,evcp rjXOev, he came to me to my joy, I rejoiced that he came. Plat. Crat. p. 418 dap.ivois rols dv6o&- 34(5 SYNTAX. $ l'3-j. ..ols to ; e. g. et avro> ye croi (3ovkopiv(o eVrii/ a7ro- KpivecrdaL, briefly, when thou wilt thyself answer. So too with ekiropiva, $e- \ovtl, ttoOovvtl, ukovti, &xdopevcp, 7rpoo-§eYO/ieV». Od. y. 228 ovk av epoiye eKnopiva to. yevoir , ouS' d $eoi coy ideXoiev. Comp. also § 145. 5. Note 7. Kindred with this is the Dat. of person, by means of which an assertion appears as the subjective judgment of the person thus put in the Dative. Thus the naked averment : Xen. Mem. init. agios icrn Savdrov, becomes a personal judgment by means of the Datives : ipoi, rrj ttoXci agios io-n Savdrov, in my judgment, in the eyes of the citizens, he is worthy of death. Soph. OC. 1446 dvdgiai yap nao-iv icrri SuoTvyeTy. Ant. 904 Kalroi a eyco Tifjirjcra to"is (ppovovaiv ev. — Hence we may explain the frequent paren- thesis of a Dative with cor, as cos ipoi, cos ipfj bogy, Soph. Plat. Comp. § 143. 16. Note 8. Not only intrinsic and ethic relations, but also those of time as affecting a person, may be thus expressed by means of the Dat. of person, when there is connected with it a participle or a clause with a conjunc- tion of time. E. g. Soph. Phil. 354 rjv 6° rjpap fjdr) devrepov nXeovri poi, II. (p. 155 fjde 8e poi vvv rjcos ivdeKdrrj, or is"lXiov elXrjXovda, comp. co. 765. Freer, Thuc. 3. 29 rjpepai de rjaav ttj MiTvXrjvrj iaXcoKvia. cnrd, or is to "EpfiaTov KaTe7r\evarav. Comp. § 145. 5, and n. 3. Note 9. Out of this same Dat. commodi has arisen the usage of joining to a whole clause or proposition the Dative, instead of the Genitive belong- ing to a substantive j e. g. Hdot. 1. 31 eVt ttjs apdgrjs be acpi oxeeTo rj prjTijp ' upon the wagon sat to them the mother,' instead of l sat their mother.' Hence such a Dative is sometimes, by a sort of negligence, followed by a real Genitive; e. g. Od. p. 231, 232. — A Dative which cannot thus be re- ferred to the whole clause, stands sometimes instead of the Genitive after words expressing relations, as kindred, friend, guest, etc. e. g. tov gevov fjplv rjdeojs av TzvvOavoiprjV, Plat. Soph. p. 216. ult. Note 10. Yet sometimes, vice versa, the Genitive of a pers. pron. which belongs to a following substantive, is put instead of the Dat. commodi ; e. g. Plat. Phffid. p. 117. b, idv crov fidpos iv toIs cr/ceAecri yevrjTai, where crov, which belongs to criceXeo-i, stands with the verb instead of aoi. So too : 8ta ti pov dvdpids ov Keirai T?vv6dvovTai, where indeed pov has its full meaning, but is thus placed first, because it stands at the same time for po'i. See further the Index to Plat. Meno, under Genitivus. 3. Not only in the case of personal objects, but also in general a Dative can always stand after compound verbs, where we com- monly employ a preposition with its case. This actually takes place, however, only under two conditions, viz. 1) When by means of this Dative there is really expressed a relation of ap- proach, a tendency to any thing. This usage is much less ex- tensive than in Latin; since with objects not personal the Greeks prefer the prepositions, as efc, irpos, hri s c. Ace. 2) When the verb is compounded with a preposition, which in itself already governs the Dative, as , iv, eirl ; so that consequently the preposition and the verb have as it were a like power over the following Dative ; as crvvairo6vr]aK6iv nvt. See more in § 147. n. 9. Examples: Pind. Isthm. 6. 60 6 £' dvareivas ovpavop xelpas av8ao~e. Plat. Legg. p. 783 TVpoae-xpvaiv avTols re koi ttj npagei tov vovv. Hdot. 1. 1 l^uivtK-i 77/ re aWfl X^PJl ivaniKviovTO Kal drj koi is "Apyos. Soph. 00 ! 1"8. DATIVE CASE. 347 372 elarjX&e rolv r puradXloiv ept? kokt]. Isocr. Paneg. p. 67 nepifidXXet ra? noXeiS' rals p,eylarais av p(po pals. De Pao. 176 TrXeloai iv re TrevraKoalois kol ^iXt'oty oiiklrais kcll rcov £vppd%ti)v pvplois. Note 14. The place of the prep, avv is often supplied, by joining with the Dative the pron. avros in the same case ; and the being together then appears as something inseparable and immediate in respect to place and time. Xen. An. 1. 3. 17 cpofiovpai, prj rjpds avrals rals r pit] pea 1 Kara- hvarj. Comp. Elmsl. ad Eur. Med. 160. b) The mode or manner ; e. g. tclvtcl iyevero TcpSe tw rpoTrw this occurred in this manner ; Bpofjucp 7raprj\6ev he came run- ning; pb€ rfj dnoKXrjcrei jjlov rcov irvkcov. — But ifrl is often inserted, see hri § 147. d) With comparatives, and similar verbs (as Scacpepetv), the Dative expresses by how much any thing is more or greater, or wherein one thing surpasses another ; e. g. 7ro\\S dfielvcov, oKuycp pbet^cov. Examples : Xen. Hell. init. ov TvoWals f)p,epai? vcrrepov. Mem. 3. 3. 13 ovre evqb&via roaovrov 8 ia(pe povcriv 'Adrjvaioi tfxj], oaov cpikoTLfxia. — But very often, instead of this Dative, we find the adverbial Ace. noXv, okiyov, etc. e) The definite time ivhen (comp. § 132. 14) ; e. g. irapr\v rfj Tpirr) r)fiepa he was here on the third day ; rfj varepaia rrjv (3ov- Xrjv i/cdXovv the next day they called together the senate. f ) The definite place where; see n. 15. Yet here by degrees usage has decided in almost all cases for the preposition. Note 15. Some names of cities received a special Dative-form in answer to the question where ? see § 116. 3. In the poets the usual Dative is more frequent; e. g. of cities: 'OAu/x7ua Pind. 01. 7. 16; MvKrjvais Eur. Phcen. 621 ; 'Ekeva'tvi, Mapad&vi Aristoph. also Thuc. 1. 73. So in other specifica- tions of place, as ovpecriv erpecpe Hes. 3-. 1001. e. 232; comp. Theocr. 3. 16; dypolcri rvy^dvei Soph. El. 312. * Such examples, so instructive for the right understanding of the cases, where the same word is connected with two and even all three of the cases, are the fol- lowing; e. g. iraidbs ovk aXyeiv BoKeis- rb , Kd5p.e • evyevws dKyei KaKots, Eur. Hec. 1232. Bacch. 1280. Tro. 729. — Further: 8a eirl ttjs vedes § 147. n. 1, eir'i) ; also in a hostile sense, by § 132. 10. f, as Tpoi-qs eirifiyixeuai Od. £. 229. In the signif. to set upon, attack, it. takes the Dative, by no. 2. b, above; Xen. Cyr. 5. 2. 26. And finally, especially in the poets, it takes an Ace. of the object; as Uiepir]u, Xeip.S)ua imfids Horn. Soph, comp Hdot. 7. 50. 5 134. VERBS. THE PASSIVE. 349 5. Finally, a verb may be accompanied by two Datives ; yet not so, as in Latin with certain verbs, that one Dative marks the person to ox for whom, and the other the thing or object for which; but rather, in a manner similar to the double Accus. treated of in § 131. 5 and n. 10 (*•&#' okov ical fiepos:) ; or so that one Dative is rather subjoined epexegetically to the other. The usage is for the most part poetical. Examples: II. A. 11 'A^atoicr iv he peya uOevos e/i./3a\' €ko.cttco icap dirj. Eur. Iph. A. 1589 epol 8e t cikyos ov piKpbv elo-yei (ppevL Heracl 63 j3ov\ei ttovov jjlol t fj 8 e npoa6e7vai -^epi) Pind. 01. 8. 110 Kocrpov ov crept Ztvs yevei coTraijev. 2. 27 Zed, apovpav en Trarp'iav o~(pLcrtv Koptcrov \onrc2 yevei. For 'A^atolo-iv eKacrro) and the like, comp. also § 132. u. 4, and § 129. n. 12. VERBS. § 134. The Passive. 1. The Passive, from its nature, takes as its subject in the Nominative, that which in the Active stood as immediate object in the Accusative. The subject or Nominative of the Active, on the contrary, becomes now the object from, by, or through which I suffer or am affected. "When this is a person, it is most com- monly expressed in Greek by means of the preposition viro with the Grenitive ; e. g. Act. 6 'i^\A,eu? KTeivei rbv "Etcropa ; Pass. 6 "Efcrcop Krelverac viro rod 1 A / ^i\\€co<;, Hector is killed by Achilles. 2. Many verbs of the Active form, in which the idea of suffer- ing, being affected, is predominant (e. g. irdo-^co itself), may be construed wholly like Passives, i. e. with viro c. gen. They then serve to supply the place of less usual Passives. E. g. aireOavev vir avrov, instead of the unused eKraOrj. See these verbs and the examples in § 147. n. 1, under viro c. gen. 3. Instead of viro, the preposition irpos with the Grenitive is likewise used ; e. g. irpbs airdvrcov ^epaireveaOai to be honoured of or by all. — Sometimes also it a pa \ e. g. olfiat, yap fie irapa gov aocpias 7r\r)pcodr]o-eo-6aL, Plat. Symp. p. 175. c. — Further, and by the Ionics especially, e f ; e. g. el rl troi fce%apLcr/iivov e'f ijiov iocDptfOr] l if any thing agreeable is presented thee from or by me,'' Hdot. — Homer uses especially viro c. dat. e. g. viro Tpweaau ha- (ifjvcu. — See more on this whole subject under the prepositions. § 147. n. 1. 4. Not unfrequently the Dative of person alone, without any preposition, is put with the Passive to mark the author. This occurs most frequently with the Perf Passive, as a periphrase for the less usual Perf. Act. see 5 97. n. 6. Examples: Dem. 01. p.. 35 ovk eh nepiovcriav enparTero avrols ra rrjs jrdXecor, not for their own advantage urns the state administered by them. Soph. El. 621 alaYpois yap alaxpa tt pay par e/cSiSacrKerat. — KaXcb? Xekeicrai o-oi well has it been said by thee, thou hast well said. Xen. Cyr. 3. 2. 16 a 'nTUaxyov Troirjcreiv ayaBa rjpas; airoTeTekepoavv7]v the boys are taught a proper behaviour, Lat. docentur modestiam. Examples : Dem. p. 217 ol Maicedove? Trap' eXay/n-roi> (almost) cKpypedrio-av ttjv kcltcl SaXcLTTCiv Tj y e p. o v i a v. — Xen. Apol. 17 ti airiov tov e/*e (Socr.) pt]8* yep* epos cmaiTeio-Qai evepyecrlav; Note 2. For the Accus. with Passive verbs, see further in § 131. 1, 3. $ 136. n. 1. — The other idiom treated of in § 131. 4, namely, that Active (and mostly intransitive) verbs take the Accus. of the kindred abstract noun in order to give more definiteness to the idea of the verb, has place also where the verbal idea is a passive one ; and consequently is found with Passive verbs. E.g. TvirTeTai TrX^yay 7roAXay he is beaten many blows. Eur. Hipp. 1227 6 TXrjpcov (Hippolytus) dearpov ^vae^fjvvaTov eX/cercu 8e- 6eLs. Plat. Legg. 3. p. 695 iraibeiav ttjv MrjdiKrjv jrepieibev TrcubevBev- Tas avrov tovs vUZs. Hence also is to be explained : HvBayopas ndo-as ipvrjBq reXerdr, Diog. L. 8. init. 7. The two constructions last mentioned can also be united in one clause ; namely, so that the Dative of person, which stood as the remote object of the Active, becomes the Nom. of the Pas- sive ; while the Accus. of the Active remains as object of the Pas- sive. E. g. from eiriTpkirew rep ^cotcpdrei, rr)v hiaiTav, comes 6 XodKpaTT]^ eirirpe7rera>y ttjv Siairav. 5 134. VERBS. THE PASSIVE. 351 Examples: Eur. Andr. 654 r^i/S' e/c x e P&v a f manual. — Soph. Tr. 157 hekros eyyeypap,peprj ^vv6r\\iara. — An. 2. 6. 1 ol ararrjyol rav '~EXkf)voov a.TT0Tfir]8evTes raf KecpaXa? irikevT-qo-av. — virb 7roAeeoy rrjv t]yep,opiap Trento-Te v- to. — UpoprjOevs vrf derov eKeipero to rJTrap. — Dem. p. 247 ecopcov QiXimrov top 6(p6a\p.bp eKK€Kop.pevov, ttjv nXelv nareayoTa, tt)v ^e2pa, to crKe- Xos Treirrjp&nevov. Note 2 a. Those constructions, where the verb in the Active is connected with a Genitive of person and an Accus. of thing, as KaTayipwaiceip and the like, are by late writers changed to the Passive in precisely the same man- ner ; e. g. Diog. L. 2. 51 Bepocpcop (pvyrjp vrr 'Adrjpalaip KaTeypoocrdrj. App. 2. 3 (pvyfjv KCLTahiKaaOeis. Dion Cass. 68. 1 ttoWoX Sclvcitop K.aTe8iK.da8r), comp. ib. 7. 3; 7. Dem. p. 721 ea>s av eKTicrrj o,n av KaTayvcoadrj avTov. Comp. Hdot. 7. 146. 8. The Verbal Adjectives in reos and to? are in their nature Passive ; for their signification, see § 102. n. 2. 9. In consequence of their passive nature they are also con- strued like the Passive ; (that in ros, however, only when it ex- presses possibility, see n. 6 below ;) and hence the subject of the Active is put with them in the Dative by no. 4 above, while the object of the Active appears with them as the Nominative. E. g. 7] iroKi^ a)e\r)Tea aoi eari the state must be benefited by thee, i. e. thou must be useful to the state ; tovto ov prjrov earl /not,, this must not be said by me, I must not say this. Yery often however this reference to the person is omitted, and then the sense is to be expressed by must, can, or the like ; e. g. Xf reo? 6 tolovto? vo/aos kcli ovk eWeo? fcvpcos elvat, ' such a law must be repealed, and not be suffered to remain valid.' Examples: Plat. Rep. p. 459. e, vp.poi TvoirjTeot toIs rjpeTepois TroirjTal? npe- TTOVTes Tolsyafiois. — id. Conv. p. 189. b, mi p.01 eVrco cipprjra to. elprjpepa. — Cyr 5. 3. 43 ep tjj Tvopeia r) re ai(onr} riV/c^rea, ko.1 ?} ru£i? 8iav eTno-Tapevoov pa- OrjTeov koX daKrjTeov. Hes. $.732 evSa TiTrjve? KeKpvcpaTai, roTr ovk e^iTov eWt, •who cannot go out.' Note 3. The Attics use also the Plural in Tea (of the Neut. in reov) in the same signification. E. g. /3aSio-rea 'one must go;' Aristoph. Plut. 1085 o-vv- €K7roTe' eWi ttjv Tpvya ' one must drink up even the dregs.' Comp. § 129. n. 9. Note 4. By another Attic peculiarity the form in Teov, as if in conse- quence of the idea Set which lies in it, sometimes takes the subject of the Active in the Accusative instead of the Dative ; e. g. Plat. Gorg. 507. d, top 3ov\6 p.evov evdaipova elvat cr(£t(ppoavvr]v dioDKTeov kol dcncrjTeov. Xen. Hipp 352 SYNTAX. § 135. 1. 5 rov? iTvneas do-Krjreov, 07rcoy en\ tov? "ltttvovs dvcnrrjdav dvvavTai. Other examples see in Plat. Crit. p. 49. a. Dem. 01. p. 21. Heind. ad P]at. Phsed. 128. Note 5. Since Deponents are also used passively in some of their forms ($ 113. n. 6), the verbal adjectives are formed from them in a like sense; just as elsewhere from regular Actives ; e. g. epyd^ofiai I work, epyaarov what can be or is accomplished by labour, epyaareov one must work. Indeed, in certain verbs whose Passive or Middle receives a signification, which may be considered as a new Active, the verbal adjectives in some cur- rent instances have both significations, viz. that which comes from the proper Active, and that from the Passive or Middle. E. g. ireio-reov 'one must convince ,' from Treida), and l one must obey,' from Treidofiai. Just so a-vveQirrreov, TrapaaKevaareov, 'one must accustom himself,' 'one must pre- pare himself,' without iavrov, Plat. Gorg. p. 507. Rep. p. 520; f) 686s nopev- rea Soph. Phil. 994. — On the other hand, from TpeTrop.cu I turn myself away, go away, there is formed in order to express this sense the very unusual verbal adjective rpairnreov, from Aor. 2 irpdirnv. Note 6. Verbals in tos sometimes take the signification (but not the con- struction) of the Particip. Perf. Pass, and then stand only as adjectives; e. g. TroirjTo? made, TrkeicTos plaited, crrpeirTos twisted. § 135. The Middle. 1. In treating of the Middle we may exclude all strictly De- ponent verbs ; since in their signification they belong wholly to the Active. Not to be excluded, on the other hand, are those Middles which take their Aorist from the Passive ; see the list, § 113. n. 5. 2. The fundamental idea of the Middle is the reflexive. The strict and complete reflexive signification is, when the subject of the verb is at the same time its immediate object, and stands with the Active in the Accusative. Hence the Mid. Xov/jlcli, is the same as iyco \ovco ifie v. i/xavrGv, I ivash myself, I bathe. It is how- ever to be observed, that only a very limited number of verbs actually have the Middle in this its first and appropriate signifi- cation ; and indeed such only as occur very commonly in this wholly reflexive meaning. In most verbs, therefore, when this sense is to be expressed, it can be done only by means of the re- flexive Pron. i/iavrov, eavrov, etc. Examples of this Middle proper are : dndyx^rdai to strangle oneself, dire- XecrOcu to withhold oneself, d/xvveo-dai to defend oneself, (pyXdrreadai to guard oneself, iyyvdadai to pledge oneself alo-xvveo-6ai to shame oneself, rrapavKevd- £eadai to prepare oneself, Kp*\idvwcr&ai to hang oneself, and its compounds. So of other actions which take place on one's own body, and where instead of the person in the Ace. we can supply to o-6op.a with the Active; e. g. XovaBai, xpiW#at, yvp.vd^ea6ai, ivbvaacrOai, diropupypvadai, KelpecrOat, crrecpa- vovarOai. 3. In many verbs this original reflexive meaning of the Middle recedes more from view, while they either become real intransi- tives, or at least are translated by us as intransitives, for want of a suitable reflexive mode of expression. ' Exam t les: ore)Xer/ to siti'J. Mid. tnre'XXecr&u to send oneself, to journey } § 135. VERBS. THE MIDDLE. 353 daiwadcu to feast oneself to banquet. So too nopeveo-Oai to go, to journey ; (paivecrdat to shine, naveadai to cease. irXcifccrdcu to roam about, evoy^eludai to fare sumptuously, Koipdo-$at to go to bed, to rest. Note 1. These Middles obviously correspond to their Actives, precisely as immediates to their causatives, § 113. 2. So further yevopat to taste, ay- tropai to decay, rot, eXnopai to hope ; of which the infrequent Actives can he expressed in English only by means of a periphrase with cause, make, let. etc. as yeu&> to cause to taste, arjirco to cause to rot, e\7rco to cause to hope. Sec also the Anom. p,aivopat, § 114. 4. But the Middle can also readily become transitive ; and thus in most instances can have with it an object in the Accusative. The simplest instance of this is where the Active i« construed with two Accusatives, one of which then remains with the Mid- dle ; e. g. ivSveiv Tiva yiT&va to put on one's coat for him, Mid. e.vhvaaaOai yiToyva to put on one's oivn coat. Of this kind are most of the actions done to one's own body ; which in Greek are for the most part referred to the construction with a double Ac- cusative. Examples : eaaaadat (from evvvpt) to put on, Kelpeadat to shear oneself (e. g. tceipopat ttjv Ke(paXr\v i. q. Keipoa epavTov ttjv K.e- vrjcrev re. — II. y\r. 739. oi S', dnopop^apevoi kovitjv, bvaavro ^iifflvof. 5. The Middle can also take an object of its own, whenever there arises out of the reflexive action (as described in no. 2 above) a new simple sense, which can. be regarded as transitive. E. g. irepaiovv Tiva to set one over a river, Mid. irepaiovaOai to set oneself over, i. e. to pass over ; and then it takes the river in the Accusative, irepaiovaOai tov Tiypiv to pass over the Tigris. Examples : p la? oti deoi (pvXaTrea 6 at ovdev tjttov 77 rd Qrjpia. 6. In all the preceding instances, the Mid. sense arises out of the usual transitive construction of the Active with the Accusa- tive, viz. (po/3ov/jiao for ijco o/3vi- £eadai, most of which, like /xa^ecr^at, have become Deponents. 8. Another kind of reflexive action is expressed, when any- thing is said to take place about my person by my order; which $ 136. VERBS. PASSIVE AND MIDDLE. 355 we express in English by cause, let, etc. Thus KGipoiiai means I cut my own hair, but also I let another cut it ; while the Pas- sive fcapfjvat is used only of an entirely passive relation, e. g. of the shearing o f sheep. — Here too the more remote reference has place ; e. g. 7raparl0efiat rpdire^av * I let a table be spread for me.'' Examples : fxicrdoio I hire out, p,ia6ovp.a.i I let hire out to myself, i. q. I hire ; didd£acr6ai vlov to let teach one's own son; KarabiKaCeiv tlvos to condemn any one, said of a judge, but KaTaSiKafco-dai tlvos to let condemn any one, procure his condemnation, and KaTa8iKd£eo-6ai BUrjifrivoi to gain one's cause against; ■nrpeafieveiv to go as ambassador, Trpecrfieveadat to send an embassy. — Hell. 7. 4. 33 ol apxovres KaTedinacrav civtcov, comp. An. 5. 8. 21. But Dem. p. 1144 ttjv diKnv vfj.lv 8iT)yr)(rofiai, «/' eiS^re, on aStKcor ep,ov KarediKao-aTO. — Cyr. 5 in. rrpo? /3ao-tXea irpeo-ftevaiv w-^ero. But Ages. 2. 21 elptjvn? €Tn6vp.rjcravT€? a 7ro\epLoi iTrpeo-fievovTO. — Od. o. 475 ol p.ev dvafiavres iirtTrkeov vypa icfkevda, va> (Ace.) dvafirjo-cifxevoi, taking us up also to them into the ship. 9. "We find also the Middle, in this manner, without any ap- parent reference whatever to the subject ; and it is then conse- quently to be translated simply by the Infin. Act. with cause, let ; e. g. Xen. Cyr. 1. 4. 18, where it is said that young Cyrus put on the arms a 6 iranriro^ iireTroiTjTo l which his grandfather had let be made.'' Note 3. Finally, in many examples, though perhaps only poetical, the reference to the subject has entirely disappeared ; e. g. in Idelv and IbeaQai. Such examples are indeed to be noted, like other peculiarities and anom- alies of idiom; yet this mode of explanation must be adopted with caution, especially in prose writers, in whose style the use of the Middle, as of other grammatical forms, had by custom become more fixed. As therefore even we can distinguish between alpelv to take and alpelo'dcu to choose, so doubtless some like distinction had place between dnocpaiveiv and dno(pal- veadai to shew, to prove, irap^iv and rrape^eadac to present, Sveiv and %e- a6ai, crKOTTciv and o-Koneladat, etc. Note 4. Where, for the sake of emphasis or clearness, a remoter refer- ence to the subject is expressed by means of a pronoun, as ip-avrov, e/xor, etc. the form of the Middle is still retained (where it can have place), al- though it is then not required. Thus Demosthenes says : Mid. p. 557 yeypap.fxaL ifiavTco raCra, I have written this dozen for myself. Mem. 2.-1. 22 tt]v 8e yvvcuKa tcarao-KoneladaL Sapa eavrrjv, eVicrK07mi> 8e kol el tls aXXos avrrjv Sedrai. Plut. Prot. p. 349 aavrbv VTroKrjpv^dpevos. § 136. Distinction between the Passive and Middle Form. 1. The number of those Middle verbs, which may be taken as more or less Passive (s s 113. 4 and n. 5), might be still further in- creased, were it possible to draw a strict line of distinction be- tween the Passive and Middle. For, manifestly, the tenses, as the grammar has distributed them under the Passive and Middle, belong, in respect to usage, only predominantly to the one or the other. 2. Least of all can the construction with an Ace. of the object decide as to what verbs are Passive and what Middle ; since both forms admit this construction. E.g. in KareitKcvyT) rbv $1- Xlttttov he dreaded {terrified himself at) Philip, r)cricrfir]v t?V 356 SYNTAX. $ 137 rexyrjv I trained myself in the art, we may indeed translate as Middle ; but yet in Greek both may just as well be taken pas- sively. Note 1. In respect to this Ace. of object, it may be remarked in general, that all verbs Middle and Passive, which take such an Accus. of their own, may be regarded as receiving a new intransitive signification; and then their construction accords with that of intransitives in the Active form, which are so often construed with an Accusative, § 131. 1, 3. But when verbs, which in the Active are already construed with two objects, in the Passive or Middle retain one of these in the Accusative (§ 134. 6, 7. § 135, 4), this is to be explained by considering, that the idea of these verbs, in- dependently of the (Passive or Middle) form, carries with it its real object ( Ace. of thing), and as it were combines with the same into one idea ; while the personal object, by rule, passes over into the Nominative. See also § 131. n. 7. Note 2. In some verbs the Passive form has a special signification, e. g. Pass. areXkeaBcu to travel, o-Takrjvac; Mid. crTeWeaOai to dress, also to send for, crrelXaadaL. Note 3. When the Aor. Mid. is in use, the Aor. Pass, can also be used as Passive of a special signification of the Middle. Thus ypacpeis written, from ypdcpeiv; but also sued at law, from ypdepecrdae, ypd\j/acrdai, to sue at law. Also fipz6r\v Aor. Pass, both of alpelv to take and alpeiadai to choose, e. g. Mem. 3. 1. 3 ; indeed this verb even in the Present is both to choose and to be chosen, as Mem. 3. 2. 3 fiacrikev? alpelrai, and directly thereafter: o-rpcLT-qyovs alpovvrai. — Further, ixp^o-Qrjv belongs as well to XP" 03 t° & ve response, as to xpdop.ai to use, but in each in the Pass, signif. e. g. Hdot. 1. 49 to. eK AeXcpcov ourco tg> Kpoicrco exp^crdt] ) 7. 144 al vrjes, is to p.ev e7roirjdr} crav, ovk. expwdrjerav. 3. That the Perf. and Plupf. Pass, are at the same time (like the Present Pass.) the real Perf. and Plupf. Middle, is placed beyond doubt by many examples. "We have already adduced two, in the preceding section {k 135), viz. iireTroLrjro in no. 9, and yeypa/jLfiat, in n. 4. Xen. Cyr. 7. 3. 14 afcivd/crjv iraXai irapecncev- ao-fjuevi] acf)drT€L eavTijv i having long before furnished herself with a sword, she stabbed herself.' 7. 2. 12 hiaireTrpwyfiab I have ef- fected. Xen. Symp. 8. 25 fjLe/Mo-Oco/uLivos %&pov having hired a piece of land, etc. h 137. Of the Tenses. The Greek language has two Tenses peculiar to itself, the Ao- rist and Put. 3. The latter is treated of in h 138. In order to become acquainted with the Aorist, we must compare the other Preterites 1. From the series of Preterites is to be separated the Perfect, which never narrates, but from its nature stands in connection with the Present. It diners from the Present only in this, viz. that the latter marks an action at present not completed and still going on ; the former, an action at present completed and finish- ed. It consequently presents that which has taken place, as al- § 137. THE TENSES. 357 ready past, but in connection with the present time. E. g. i I know it, for I have seen it,' i. e. am one who saw it. Examples : Cyr. 2. 2. 22 rovro ye yjsevbopevo? eaXcoKa, different from ovk op6a>5 eXe^a. — Plat. Euthyd. p. 272 'Eidvdrjpos ko.1 Aiovvaodiopos 7rp6 rod pev ravra §eiv yeyovarov ev rois Xoyois ktX. — Dem. p. 845 ovro? Meyapab* e^oj/q/ce, /ca/cei peroUiov (protection-tax) redeiKev. 2. The narrative (historical) tenses are the Aorist, Imperfect, and Pluperfect. Of these, the Imperfect and Pluperfect in nar- rating presuppose a definite reference to another time ; the Ao- rist on the contrary narrates without any such presupposition or reference to any other time. That is to say, a narrative carried, on by means of the Aorist, transports us into the past, and so lets the events pass on before us one after another, without bringing out to view the relations of time existing among them, but leav- ing all these to the hearer or reader. On the other hand, so soon as the circumstances, under which the thing took place at the time, are to be mentioned ; or, in other words, when it is to be expressed, that an event took place at the same time with an- other ; this is done by the Imperfect. And when that which was then already past is to be referred to in the narrative, this is done by the Pluperfect. Examples: Plut. Mor. p. 969 Hvppos 6 j3ao-i\ev? oSeucoy evervxe kvvi f>povpovvTi veicpbv . . . Koi eKeXevcre ped* eavrov KopL^eiv • oXiyats 8e varepov 'ip.epa.is e^eracn? rjv koi Trap rjv 6 kvchv • Ihwv 8e rov? cpovia? e£eb pape kt\. — Thuc. 2. 103 oi 'Adrjvaioi aparjpi Kare7r\evarav e$ Ta.s y A^f]vas^ kcu 6 %eipo)v treXevra ovtos. — 3. 34 edXa be paXiara r) 770X1?, ore r) devrepa UeXoTrovvr)- frlcav eafioXr) eyiyvero. — 36 Karacrracrris rrJ9 eKKkrjuiaS' aXXai re yvS>pai eXe- yovro, icai. KXecoi>, ocrnep kcu tt)v irporepav (yvu>prjv) evevucr) net, eXeye roiabe. 3. When however this reference or relation of time is sufficient- ly clear from the context, the Aorist can be employed instead of the Perfect, and in narrative instead of the Pluperfect ; see note 1. Especially in every discourse where the past is much mentioned, and so mentioned that the mind always remains in the present, the Aorist is often employed in Greek ; contrary to the usage of our language, where the Perfect alone would in such a case be used. It is indeed, for the most part, only when the speaker wishes particularly to express the exact relation of time, that the Perfect, and in narration the Pluperfect, are employed ; where nevertheless a regard to euphony has always great influ- ence on the choice. Examples: Mem. 1. 6. 14 tov? SrjaavpovS' ra>v rr&Xai crocpcov, ov? enelvoi KareX nrov (have left behind) ev /3t/3Xi'oir ypa^ravres, diep^opai. — Thuc. 4. 17 (beginning of the address, comp. 1. 73) eTvep.-<\rav rjpas AaKebaipovioi, nepl tS>v ev rjj vtj(T(o avbpwv tt pa^ovras, o,ri av Treld&pev, Subjunctive, see § 139. m. 9. — 7. 77 a to) Sewv erricpdovoL ea-Tparevaapev, a.Troxpa>VT(£>s r]dr] rert- pt£>pr)pe6a. — 4. 92 rjpel? viKr)o-avres ttoXXtjv adeiav rfj Botcorta pexP c T °v$t KareaTTjo-apev. — In like manner of course in the poets; e. g. Oct. a. 17C 358 SYNTAX. § 137. rt'y, Trodev u'y dvdpcov, omroLTjs 8' eVt y^or dcpliceo. — 182 vvv 8' o>Se £iw 1/77* Karr]\v6oVi etc. Note 1 . The less pliant form of the Pluperfect was avoided in prose, as well as in poetry. It may indeed he noted, that in the dependent clauses of narrative with a conjunction of time (eVei, eirei8rj f o>r, etc.), where conse- quently the relation of time is sufficiently apparent from the context, the place of our Pluperfect is very commonly supplied hy the Aorist y and, where duration or repetition is to he expressed, even hy the Imperfect; comp. Kriiger ad Anah. 1.1.6. E. g. Thuc. 7. 1 Vvkumos ml Hvdrjv, eWt e t: ecr Kevacrav ray vavs, TrapeTrkevcrav is Aonpovs. Cyr. 6. 2. 21 eneX de ravra elirev 6 Kvpo?, dveo-rrj XpvcrdvTa? kt\. So too in relative clauses. Less frequent is it in clauses not dependent; e. g. Cyr. 5. 1. 1 6 dvrjp avrris Trpeafievidv , (3dXha), § 114,) SeideyaTO, iXeXiKro, 6pcdpex aT0 > Trenovrjro, iXrjXaro. Herodotus also, whose style of narrative approaches nearest to that of the epic poets, inasmuch as he prefers (like them) to make his clauses coordinate rather than subordinate, employs therefore the Pluperfect more frequently than does the Attic prose; e. g. 1. 84 avros re dvafiefirjK.ee Ktti kclt avrbv aAAoi Uepaeiov dvefiaivov ovrco Sr) SapSiey rjXcoKecrav Ka\ %dv rb ao-rv eivopOeero. Comp. 8. 38, 114, and often. 4. With the idea of sameness of time there very naturally con- nects itself also that of duration. By this is not meant, that what takes place at the same time must necessarily and always be something having duration ; but only, that what thus takes place, and because it takes place along with and during the oc- currence of something else, may be considered as having some duration ; even though the action requires but the interval of a moment. E.g.' all slept ; then arose a cry ;' or, ' I opened my mouth to call him, as he came in.' — Hence there arises a second usage, by virtue of which, without any reference at all to the relation of time, the Imperfect is connected with the idea of duration; and the Aorist, on the contrary, with the idea of something momentary. — Thus it also comes, that the Imperfect is always used, when any thing in the past is to be represented as customary, or as having often occurred ; differing however from the Aorist, see note 5. Examples : Xen. An. 5. 4. 24 rovs pev ovv irehrao-ras edegavro oi fidpfiapoi ( received them, momentary) kcu epdxovro {and fought with them, continued) ; eVet S' eyyvs rjvav oi onXirat (as they approached, natural Imperfect) irpd- vovto (they turned to flight, momentary) ; kcu oi 7Te\rao-ra\ ev6v? ehrovro (pur- sued them, continued). In the example from Plut. in no. 2 above, it is fur- ther said : 6 kvodv e£edpape, kcu KaOvkaKrei avrovs, and we must understand a continued barking ; had it been KaOvhaxmcre, it would have meant hut a single hark. — M.i\wv 6 Kporoividrrjs fjadie (ivas wont to eat) pvas Kpecov eUocri. ./El. V. H. 1. 25 'AAe^avSpoy ffrooKiWt p6vu> rv rrpoo-erldei to ^aipetv. 5. Although the distinction between the continued and the momentary exists just as well in the Present and the Future, yet the language has no double form to mark this in the Indicative. \ 1-37. THE TENSES. 359 But in the dependent moods, the Subjunctive, Optative, Impera- tive, and Infinitive, the Greek language can always distinguish between the two. That is to say, the moods of the Perfect and Future have the same relation of time as their Indicatives ; while, on the other hand, the moods of the Present and Aorist mark no time whatever, like the Present Infin. in English.* In these latter, consequently, there arises a double form without difference in respect to time, e. g. Tvirreiv or rv^ai, (friXfjs or $Ckr}ar)<$, etc. and of this the Greek language avails itself in such a way, that it employs chiefly the moods of the Present to mark a continued action, and the moods of the Aorist to mark a momentary one. Here however it must be noted, that this difference in many re- spects depends entirely on the view of the speaker or writer ; and that therefore, in numberless instances, it is really indifferent, whether Xeyeiv or Xegcu, Xeye or Xe%ov, is written ; since the real- ity of the distinction in general would not be thus at all affected. Examples: Dem. Phil. 1. p. 44 irpa>rov pev rpirjpei? 7revrr)Kovra rrapa- (TKevdcracrdal cprjpt delv, err' avrovs 1 ovrco rds yvcopas e^etj/ — , i.e. he wishes to have the galleys fitted out immediately, but the disposition of mind which he recommends by yvoopa? e^etv should have duration. And when he says further, p. 45, lv % j] did rbv cpofiov . . .T}v eveKa (Bov\ei £rjv, iva avTov? iK0pe- tyrjS kcu, 7rai8ev(TTjS. Plat. Ale. 1. p. Ill ol 7roX\ol ovx Ikouo'l elcri tovto d 1- dd£ai. 6. Participles have the same relation of time as their Indica- tives. The Participle of the Aorist especially has always the ex- press signification of the past and of something completed, not only when it stands as a noun or adjective, but particularly in the strictly participial constructions. The Participle of the Present, on the other hand, expresses either a present action, still going on and incomplete (the true Present) ; or, in a narrative of past events, an action taking place at the same time (the Imperfect). Examples : Thuc. 6. 75 01 SvpaKoarioi, rov? 'A$*ivaiovs eld ores' ev rfj Na^ia Xeipd^ovras, ecrrpdrevaav navdrfpel enl ttjv Kardvrjv, kou rb arpaToirebov e p- npT)o-avres dvexaprjcrav eV o'Ikov. * Yet these moods of the Aorist have sometimes a past signification : as the Subjunct. Arist. Ran. 1416 rbv erepovXafiwv foret, 'iv e\6r)s p.)) pdrrjv, in order that thou mayest not have come hither in vain. The Opt. II. e. 311 koX vv nev evd' air6- Koito klvetas, el p^ dp o£v vovtre Aibs ^vydrrjp 'AKpctT7js inroTrreixras, /x-f) ti irpbs t?is ir6\eds ol birairiov etr] Kvpcp (p'iKov yeveadai, avpfiovXevei r$ aevocpwvri ktX. — For the Particip. of the Aorist see Text 6 ; and for the Subj. Aor. with dv, corresponding to the Latin Fut. cxactum, see § 139. ra. 4 360 SYNTAX. § 137. Note 3. In analogy with what is said in no. 3 above, the Part, of the Aorist sometimes passes over entirely into the sense of the Part. Perf E; g. airofiakcov having lost and now not possessing; padcov, having learned knowing ; 3ava>v, rekevrrjo-as; having died, dead ; oi Treo-ovres the fallen, tht dead. So too Demosthenes says, Mid. p. 576, ' Of a discourse full of mer ited reproaches, the true author is 6 napeaxv^^ ra epya . . . ovx 6 iaiceppevoi ot>6° 6 pe pipvrjcras ra 8iKaia Xeyeiv, i. e. ; he who has afforded the facts not he who with consideration and care has prepared himself to speak thai which is right.' Consequently pepipprjo-as is entirely parallel with the two Participles Pcrf. and is manifestly used in order to avoid the less agreeable fie/iepcjiVTjKa)?. Note 4. We have hitherto spoken chiefly of the Attic dialect. In Homer the Aorist, like many other forms, appears only in the beginning of its ex- istence, i. e. the other tenses had not yet become so definitely separated from it. The Imperfect especially cannot yet in him be distinguished often from the Aorist. We leave the examples to the learner's own observation.* — In Herodotus also the Imperfect, especially in continued narration, is often employed as Aorist, at least according to our notions, i. e. it is used to narrate actions or transient events, the occurrence of which as simultane- ous with other events does. not necessarily appear from the context. E. g. 3. 28 eKaXee, eiceXeve, and very often rjpeora, dpeiftcTo, etc. 1. 31, 35, 36, etc. See marg. note. Note 5. Whenever anything customary, or of ordinary occurrence in the world, is mentioned elsewhere than in narration, instead of the Present by which this is expressed in other languages and usually in Greek, we often find by a special Grecism the Aorist, which is then in the fullest sense ill- definite. E. g. Dem. 01. p. 20 fiiKpbv nraio-pa aveyaiTMjt ical duXvae jravra l a slight mistake often disturbs and destroys all again.' Id. Mid. 21 ov yap f) nXrjyr) napear-qcre {does not cause) rrjv opyrjv, dXX' r) dripia • ovbe to rvTrrecrdat . . . earl deivov, dXXa to ecj) vfipei, where the eori shews how the preceding Trapiarrjae is to be understood. II. a. 218 or /ce Qeols eniTreLdrjTai, pdXa r ZkXv- ov avrov, where eicXvov is Aorist. see in § 114. Isocr. Paneg. p. 50 at fiiv aXXai navrjyvpeis dca noXXov XP°' V0V crvXXcyeio-ai ra^ecoy b teXv 6r) aav, rj fie- 17/zerepa 7r6Xi? artavra top al<"hva TravrjyvpLs icrriv. Hence so often in the Ho- meric comparisons ; e. g. II. 8. 275 a>s S' 6V otto ctkotti^ eldev vecpo? aliroXos avfjp, piyrjerev re Ihcov ktX. y. 33. etc. Note 6. Another case, where the Aorist seems to stand instead of the Present, is the Indie. Aorist after the interrog. t'l ov ; E. g. ri ova ejToirjaa- pey; 'why have we not done it?' i. e. let us do it; t'l ovk eeppaaas; i. e. * We adduce here some passages, in which the Imperfect stands in the same connection with the Aorist, where however there is no such difference visible in the action as to imply any difference in the two tenses; II, a. 437, 438, 465. /3. 43-45. Here it would be absurd to assume, that the disembarking of the mariners, the cutting up of the flesh, the throwing on of the large cloak, must have been pres- ent to the mind of the poet as actions implying duration and requiring time ; while ihe leading out of the (many) victims, the fixing upon the spits of the (many) pieces of flesh, the girding on of the sword, appeared to the same mind as momentary. Still more decisive is Ae?7re, /3. 107, comp. 106. On the other hand it will be of great use in reading Homer to observe, how the far greater number of the Im- perfects mark a necessarily and manifestly continued, repeated, or simultaneous ac- tion ; and also serve, in the description of important events, to let the mind of the hearer dwell longer upon each single occurrence. In the simple narrative style of Homer, moving along in short and loosely connected clauses, the representation gains by these interspersed Imperfects certain resting-points; while, if all were Aorists, the single events would be hurried over as it were in flight before the mind of the hearer. Further, it will not be easy to find in Homer the converse of this exchange, viz. the Aorist to express what is necessarily simultaneous or •epeated. — Similar remarks may be connected with the reading of Herodotus. ) 137. THE TENSES. 361 'tell me now.' The Present is also sometimes found; Mem. 3. 1. 10 rl dvv ov a-K07rov fiev ', Hell. 4. 1. 11 rl ovv ov 7rvv6dvr]. See Heind. ad Plat. Charm. 5. — A similar and with Attic writers favourite periphrase for the Imperative, is the negative interrog. Fat. Indie, e. g. ov napapeveis ; dost thou not wait, for Imper. wait, Plat. Hence also in a negative admonition prj is added by § 148. 3; Arist. Ran. 202 ov prj cpXvaprjcrei? ; don't talk nonsense. Plat. Symp. p. 175 ovkovv KctXdy avrov Kal prj dcprjcreis ; Comp. Soph. Aj. 75 ov aly dve^et, pr)8e deiXiav dpay ; Note 7. The Greeks further had a great freedom in the choice of tenses from this circumstance, that in a narration, where the real time was obvi- ous from the context, they could everywhere introduce the Present. This they did not merely, as we also sometimes do our historical Present, for the sake of animated discourse throughout whole paragraphs; but even in the midst of a sentence or construction. E. g. Xen\ An. 1.7. 16, where it is related, that the army of Cyrus came to a trench ; then follows immediately ravTrjv 8e ttjv rdeppov ftacrikev? ptyas tt o l e I dvrl epvparos, eTreidr] TrvvSdverai Kvpov Trpoo-ekavvoura. Every other language must here in both places have employed the' Pluperfect. — Similar is the case with the Indicative in paren- thetic clauses in sermone obliquo ; see § 139. m. 69. Note 8. There are some verbs, which in the Present seem also to in- clude the sense of the Perfect. Thus especially fJKa> I have come, I am here , e. g. Plat. Crit. 1 cipri rjiceis r) 7rd\ai. Also oi^o/xat lit. I go away, coram, 1 am gone; whence too the Impf. acquires the appearance of the Plupf. see Ausf. Sprachl. § 114. Very commonly also verbs signifying to hear and learn (as aKovco, vrvvddvopai, pavddva, alcrddvopai) are put in the Present, where we use the Perfect; e. g. An. 4. 6. 17 to>v rjyepovoov tvvvQdvopai, on ovk a/3a- rov io-ri to opo?. Dem. Phil. 1. p. 46 o~vpTv\oiv KeXeuco, otl Kal Trporepov 7ror' dicova> i-eviKov rpecpetv iv Koptvdco ttjv tvoKiv. Cyr. 5. 4. 11 to pev eV ipol o'Lyppai (perii), to 5' eVt cro'i, creVoocrpcu, i.e. thou alone hast saved me. — Further, tlktciv, tckvovv, yevvav Tiva, besides the meaning to bear, to be- get, signify also to be the father, mother, of any one ; and hence the Present in often to be taken wholly as a Perfect; e. g. ttoXXov ae ^roiy cigiov t'iktci 7raTrjp. Anthol. 4. 83 vdao? epa SpeTTTeipa Tupoy irdrpa Se pe tckvoI 'Ar#tr. Note 9. Special peculiarities of the Greek idiom are, further, the follow- ing : a) The phrase rjv a pa, especially in dialogue, for our Present ; e.g. Soph. Phil. 978 o'lpoi, ci7rdXa>X' • 00' rjv a pa 6 gvXkafionv pe Kanovocrcpicras oVAcoz/, i. e. c it was he and is still, though I marked it not.' See other ex- amples in Heind. on Plat. Phsed. 35. b) Further, and likewise in dialogue, certain Aorists of the first person, as rjo-drjv, eTrrjveaa, instead of the Pres- ent, in order to express decided emotion or disposition of mind in any action ; e. g. Soph. Aj. 536 enrjveo-' epyov Kal irpovoiav r^v edov. See Herm. ad Viger. note 162. Buttm. ad Soph. Phil. 1289, 1314. Comp. the epic eVXero un- der rreXco § 114. Note 10. Since the Present and Imperfect always imply duration, and consequently not completion, there arises the usage, that several verbs, whose action can strictly be expressed as complete only by the accession of another verb, (e. g. to give completed by to receive, to send away by to go away,) are used in these tenses merely to express this partial (incomplete) action, or as it is called, de conatu, i. e. an endeavour or purpose, though these expres- sions are not exact. E. g. Hdot. 7. 221 Aetovidrjs cpavepos eWt tov pdvTiv drroTri pir a>v, iva pr) avvaTvoK-qTai crept • 6 Se aTTOTTepiropevos avrbs pev ovk dire- \ure (did not leave, did not go away), tov 8e nalda . . . dtveitep^e. Id. 3. 81 ra pev 'Oraz^r eine, Tvpavvi8a 7ravn>v, XeXe^c^co Kapol Tavra. Eur. Iph. T. 350 cocrre pocrx ov Aavatdai ^eipovpevoi p' ecrcpa^ov. So too cu'Scoo-i, ecu'Sou, is often to be translated only by to offer; ireiQei is strictly only sxadet, not persuadet; also Krelveiy (povevei, eK(3d\\ei, espec. in the tragic writers. See examples in the Index ad Pemosth. Mid. art. Pmsens. 362 syntax & 338. Note 11. As a periphrase for the Future, we And peXXtiv with the In- finitive; yet with this difference, that the Fut. form places the action in the future indefinitely, while the periphrase at once marks the point of time from or after which the action is regarded as future. Thus iroi^aa simply I will do; /LieXXco iroifiv I am (now) about to do; epeXXov iroieiv I was (then) about to do. — This verb marks elsewhere also the idea of intention, might, should, could; as a rjpeXXov 7rdTa. But since, in such cases, the moods of the Present and Aorist are generally sufficient with the help of the context ; and since also the Indie, in sermone obliquo is very common (comp. § 139. m. 69) ; the forms in question are employed only when they specially promote clearness. But even then, instead of the proper Subj. and Opt. of the Perfect, writers prefer to use in most verbs the periphrastic form; e. g. necpiXr] kcos g> and e'Lrjv. Note 13. The Imperative of the Perfect, in its principal form, i. e. the second person, occurs for the most part only in verbs whose Perfect has the signification of the Present ; as neicpa-y di, Kextyere, pepvrjao. But the third person, chiefly in the Perf. Passive, has a conclusive sense, ' let it be done;" and often affords an energetic mode of expression; e. g. vyv de tovto T€ToXprjard(£> elnelv, let it be ventured. Arist. Vesp. 1129 ireTreipdo-Oa let it be tried, i. e. try it then. § 138. Third Future. 1. The Future 3, both in form and signification, is strictly compounded from the Perfect and Future. It transposes an ac- tion, viewed as completed, into the future ; or anticipates a fu- ture action as completed. And when the Perfect denotes a state or condition continued in the present, as iyyeypafifiai I am in- scribed, I stand on the list, this also remains in the Future 3. Examples: Plat. Rep. p. 506. a, t] noXireia reXe'coy KeKoo-pi^crerai, eav 6 toiovtos avrrjv e7naKonfj s reddyJAerai (comp. § 151. I. 6), where the common Tacj)f)cr€T(u would be far less forcible -or: 2) immediate action, haste, e. g. <£/>a£V, kcu 7reir pdgeTcii, speak, and it will have been done, i. e. immediately, Arist. Plut. 1027, comp. 1200. From such passages the old name of this tense would seem to have been derived, viz. Paulo-post Future. 4. The Active has no separate form for the Lat. Fut. exactum, and employs therefore for the Indie. Opt. and Infin. in this sense, the natural periphrasis ; thus ire^iXrjKa)^ eaofjuai, icrolfMrjv, eaecrOcu, I shall have loved, etc. In clauses which require the Subjunc- tive, this sense is expressed by the Subj. Aorist with a v, § 139. m. 16. — Those verbs which cannot form a Fut. 3 (§ 99), natu- rally take in the Passive the same periphrasis. Examples: Dem. 01. p. 30 Sedo~aq~6e bv rporcov vpel? eo-rparvyrjKOTe? ndvTa eaeaOe vnep QCk'nnrov, comp. p. 13. Xen. Hell. 7. 5. 24 ^inpavdiv- 6as ivopi^ev o\ov to dvTi7ra\ov vevivrjicco? eareo~6ai. 18 ev6vp.ovp.evo? on \e\vpao-p.evos eo-otro rfj eavrov Sd^fl. Dem. p. 1452 ra deboypeva vvv vOuels eo-eaO' rjprjpevoi. § 139. The Moods. 1. The Indicative as the mood of certainty in matters of fact, and the Imperative as the mood of command, accord in general with the usage of other languages. But in conditional or de- pendent relations, expressed in Latin by the Subjunctive, the Greeks employ the two moods, Subjunctive and Optative. Their essential difference is this, viz. that the Subjunctive marks a specific relation or manner of expression, as to which experience must decide how far it is valid or not ; while the Optative im- plies, that the expression is to be taken merely as a supposition, as something conceived in the mind and subjective, without at all considering whether experience will confirm it or not. Note 1. Although according to their nature the Subjunctive and Opta tive would stand only in minor or dependent clauses, yet there are partic- ular cases, where they are also used in simple clauses. We treat first of these, before taking up the use of these moods in dependent clauses. I. The Subjunctive in Simple Clauses; 1) It expresses doubt and deliberation (Conjunct, dubitativus v. delibera- tivus) ; but very seldom except in the first person. Such clauses are to be regarded as in their nature dependent : since (3ov\et, 3eXeir, ovk olda, or the 364 SYNTAX. § 139. like, either stand with them or are to be supplied ; e. g. iroBev j3ov\ei apgat pai; l whence wilt thou that I begin V /3ouAei ovv o-KOTrvpev; Anacr. ri o~oi •SeAetr 7rotr)o-o>; Subj. Aor. Or also without such words: eiVco ovv aoiro aiTiov; l shall I then tell thee the cause?' Plut. Theset. 17. — vvv aicovo-io av- 6is ; Luc. D. Mort. 30. 1. — rl Troia>; irr) j3a> ; noi rpanapai; Eurip. Ion 758 e'inapev rj aiyapev, rj tl dpdaopev ; — This Subj, is also possible in the third person; e. g. iroi ti? eh fly; Dem. Mid. 10 6 rotovros irorepa pr) bta diKr)v ; 2) It serves for incitement or exhortation (Conjunct, adhortativus) ; but only in the first person, and especially in the Plural; e. g. 'Iccpev let us go, Ib&pev, avpfiovkevaipev, etc. In the Sing, it commonly stands in connection with an Imperative (aye, (pepe) ', e. g. (pep iSco Eurip. (pepe §r) ray paprv- plas avayva> Demosth. comp. II. f. 340. In this way, though very seldom, even the second person occurs: Soph. Phil. 300 (pep', & reKvov, vvv ko\ to rrjs vrjo-ov pdOrjS. 3) For the Imperative, in the second and third persons, but only in nega- tive entreaty or admonition with pr), prjbe, etc. Here too, it may be noted, only the Subj. Aorist is used, § 148. 3. E. g. pr) rpeo-rjs tremble not. Soph. Ant. 84 akX ovv it poprjvvcrrjS ye tovto p,rjbevL. Dem. Phil. p. 114 nai prjbel? €17777, ti tovtcdv peXei rfj 7ro\ei. 4) In epic writers the Aorists of the Subj. often stand for the Future, which indeed has in general a close affinity with the Subjunctive,* inas- much as that which is to take place, must in any case be left to experience. In translating such passages, therefore, it is better not to use the Future directly. E. g. II. a. 262 ov yap 7700 tolov? Xdov dvepas ovhe tbeopai, nor can (shall) I ever see them. £. 459 ko.1 nore tis emfjcrt. Also along with the Future, Od. p. 383 bvo~opai els 'Atbao ko.\ iv veKvecrai (paeiva>. 77. 437 ovk eo~6* ovtos dvrjp, old* eVcrerai, ovbe yevrjrai. 5) In later writers also, and especially the Attics, there is a Subjunctive, which in a certain degree stands for the Future, viz. the Subj. after ov p.r), espec. in the 3 pers. Sing, and Plural; by which the occurrence of some fact is denied by the speaker. This construction most commonly is made to depend on some omitted verb of care or solicitude; but it is better to re- gard such phrases, as also the very similar case of the Opt. with ovk av, as independent hypothetical modes of expression ; and explain them from the nature of the Subjunctive alone, without recourse to such aids, which do not always meet the case. E. g. in Soph. Phil. 102, Neoptolemus asks, why he should use stratagem against Philoctetes, and Ulysses replies : ov prj tt idrjrai • Trpbs fi'iav ovk av \dfiois. Id. El. 1035 dXX* ovttot' e£ epovye pr) pdBrjs robe, but never from me shalt thou learn this. Xen. Hi. 11. 15 eav tov? (pi\ov$ Kparfjs ev noicov, ov prj o~oi bvv(£>vrai dvreyeiv ol iroKepioi. Comp. Dem. Phil. 3. p. 130. etc. — Instead of the Subj. we sometimes find after these particles the Fut. Indie, in the same sense, but more emphatic; e. g Eurip. Med. 1149 ov pr) bvcrpevrjs earei (pCkoi?, iravo-ei be Svp.ov ko.1 naXiv arpe-^ei? Kapa, i. e. be not thus disinclined towards thy friends, etc. Comp. further § 148. n. 5, and Dawes's Canon in marg. note to m. 46, below. II. The Optative in Simple Clauses. 1) Without av, as expressing a wish, desire; so Plat. Phsedr. extr. S Seol, doirjre poi Ka\cp yeveadai ravboOev • TrXovaiov be vopi£oipi rbv (ro(p6v kt\. In this sense it is often accompanied by a particle of wishing, as el (at), e'iOe, el yap, a>? utinam, also ot/rcor so (§ 149. m. 1) ; e. g. Xen. Hell. 4. 1. 38 e'L6\ Si \cpare, (p[\o? r)piv yevoio. This Opt. also softens the tone of command, and thus stands for the Imperative ; e. g. Horn. Od. |. 407 rdx^o-Ta poi evbov eraipot etev. It stands then also as the expression of one's will, commonly * This affinity is indicated in the language itself; since the forms of the Future and of the Subj. Aor. 1 Act. (Mid.) are^in most verbs very much alike. $ 139. THE MOODS. 365 in the first person, and similar to the Subjunctive; only that the Opt. does not like the latter directly incite to action. Od. tt. 383 aXXa (pBeco/xev eAdvre? (sc. Telemachus) . . . /3ioroz/S' avrol kclL KTi^/xar* e^co/ze^, bacrcrdp-evoL , . . oIklq 6° avre Keivov p.rjrepi dol/Jiev e'xeiv, rjd' 6Wtr ottvlol, comp. II. v. 119. Comp. also marg. note to m. 14 below. 2) Without av, as a continuation of an indirect clause ; see m. 70 below. 3) With av, see m. 15 below. Note 2. Inasmuch as the Opt. Aorist implies no definite relation of time ? (§ 137. 5), strict analogy would require, whenever the wish is to be ex- pressed as in the past, (e.g. that I had done this !) that the Opt. of the Perfect should be employed. But as this form was avoided, and was in- deed unusual, its place was supplied by the Indie, of a Preterite with a par- ticle of wishing; e. g. Mem. 1. 2. 46 eWe croi rdre avveyevopirjv, ore det- voraros cravrov rjcrBct. Eur. Suppl. 824 eWe /xe Kabp,eliov evapov crrt'^es iv Koviaio-iv, comp. Andr. 1185. That is to say, inasmuch as the wish can no longer be realized, this mood (by m. 12 and 13 below) is fully adapted to this matter of fact. Hence, also, when a wish of the like kind refers to the present, the Indie. Imperf. is employed with eWa etc. e. g. Eur. Heracl. 733 «<9' rjo-Ba Sward? bpav, ocrov Tvp66vp.os el. El. 1061 et#' et'^ef, a> reKOvcra, QiAriov? eppevas, utinam haberes, not utinam habeas. — With this we may con- nect the usage, mostly poetical, of introducing such clauses of wishing by axpekov (commonly with a particle of wishing) and the Infin. Pres. or Aor. depending on it; e. g. II. §e kg toi m- raXe^co. II. a. 174 nap ep.oiye ko.1 aXXoi, ol Ke p.e rcp^o-ovo-t. This is rare in prose writers: Xen. Cyr. 7. 5. 21 nokv av en p.dXXov rj vvv dxpeloi eaovrai V7r6 rov €Knen'krjx^ a '" 12 2) With the Indic. of the Historical Tenses av has the following sig nifications : a) The repetition of an action, or something customary, so far as this rep etition is supposed to be dependent on certain conditions, the existence of which however is only suggested by av; e. g. iwoiei av he was wont to do. sc. when circumstances permitted, as often as he pleased, etc. This usage is very common in all writers. E. g. Anab. 1.9. 19 Kvpor, et nva Span] 8et- vbv ovra oiK.ov6p.ov, ovdeva av ncimoTe dfpeiXero [tt)v ^copcr-], dXX' del nXeia) Trpocr eSt'Sou, comp. 1.5. 2. — Hdot. 3. 119 r) Se yvvr) (poireovcra enl rdy Svpas rod (3ao-i\e(x>?, Khaieo-Ke av kcu (bbvpero. — Soph. Phil. 290 sq. the sufferings of Phil- octetes : npos t)e rov6', o p.oi /3dXot arpaKro?, gvtos av rdXas elXvop.rjv 8v crrnvos' . . . e "i t' edec n Kal tzotov Xaffelv kcu £vXov n Spavcrai, ravr' av e£ep mov rdXas ep,r)-^av6i p.r) v • eira nip av 7rapr)v ktX. b) Equally common is the use of av with the historical tenses in order to signify, that, in consequence of the impossibility or non-fulfillment of cer. tain conditions, some action or thing in like manner cannot or could not be fulfilled; and consequently, with the negative {ol). that something which now takes place or has taken place, would not do so or have done so, had certain conditions been realized. Here by rule the Imperf. with av is used when the thing relates to the present ; and the Pluperf. or Aorist with av, when it is .n the past. E, g. eiroiovv av tovto I would do this (implying : dXX' ov ttoio) ; and with the negative : ovk clv eirolri&a, ovk av e'7reiroir)Keiv, I would not have done it (implying : dXX' enoirjo-a). Examples: Xen. An. 4. 2. 10 avrol pev av eiropev6r)crav, yrrep ol oXXoi* ra t)e vno^vyia ovk t)v ciXXi] rj ravrr] eKJ3rjvai. Dem. p. 242 Sid tovtovs vp,els ecrre crcoot, enel did ye vp.d? avrov? ivdXai av drr oX d>X etre, where the unful- filled condition is : 'if ye had been or acted for yourselves alone.' Od. /3. 184 v dyd- peves: Other examples see in m. 28 below. 13 Note 3. This av is omitted with verbs which declare, that something must take place or was permitted; such as xPl v i *®"» 7rpoo-rJKev, «?£:>, evr)v Lat. debebam, etc. E. g. Soph. EI. 1505: XP r ) v °° evdvs eivai Trjvte rol? ndaiv diKijv. oaris irepa Trpdo-o-eiv ye tcov vop-cov SeXei, KTeiveiv • to yap travovpyov ovk av r)v ttoXv. The reason is. that there is not here implied : dXX" ax ^pr) ; since not the f 1^9. THE MOODS. 367 necessity of the fact, but the fact itself, is denied. On the other hand, it is afterwards replied : aXX' ecrri 7ro\v. 'E%rjv yap drrofpevyetv I could have fled (implying: aXX* ovk dnecpvyov). Comp. An. 7. 7. 40. So soon however as one can rejoin : dXXd del, extort, or ov Set, the av must resume its place. An. 5. 1. 10 et /zeV rj7rio~Tap.eda, on rjgei Xeipiaocpo? — , ovk dv eoei Xeyeiv ktX. — Also with cocpeXov, epeXXov, ecprjv, e {3ovX6p.rjv, the omission of av is common for the same reason; e. g. II. a. 415 aid 1 ov. For axpeXov comp. also m. 8 above. — Another case of the omission of av see below in m. 51 and 30. 3) "Av with the Subjunctive is in itself an unnecessary connection. For. 1 1 since the Subjunctive represents a thing as dependent on certain conditions now or hereafter to be realized, it everywhere includes in itself the power of av. Hence av is never joined with the mood itself; and consequently there can never be, at least in good Attic, a simple clause with the Sub- junctive and iiv.% When, on the contrary, the Subjunctive stands in de- pendent clauses, or such as are introduced by a conjunction or a pronoun, it is the usage of the language, that then av is evolved from the idea of the Subjunctive, and connects itself closely with the particle or pronoun; e. g. edv and oirorav (for el av, ottot dv), eeos av, 09 av, etc. For examples see § 139. A, sq. 4) "Av with the Optative serves to express a subjective opinion depend- 15 ent on or qualified by some condition; that is, it expresses a less positive affirmation, or a merely supposed possibility, for which in English we use a periphrase with can, might, could, would, should, etc. E.g. Mem. 1. 2. 19 'icrws ovv emoiev av noXXoi, on ovk av ttotz 6 creoeppoiv yevoiro vfipio~rr}s. Cyr. 6. 1. 45 dcrpevios dv npos dvdpa, olo? av el, dTraXXayelnv. Plat. Phsed. p. 81 to o-mparoeiftes ecrnv ov ns dv a^airo, ' the corporeal is what one can touch 1 sc. if he will. — This mode of expression is especially at home among the Attics ; who, in consequence of the tone of moderation peculiar to them, employ it in the place of the most positive affirmations, or also to avoid the definiteness of the Future ; e. g. ovk dv cpvyois, i. e. ' thou wilt not escape ;' Dem. Phil. p. 44 ov yap dv rdye rjht] yeyevqpeva rrj vvvl fiorjdeiq KcoXvcrai dvvr]- Oeirjpev. Hdot. 5. 9 yevoiro 5' dv nav ev tg> paKpco xpovep. — Finally this Opt. with dv is also used to soften the tone of command ; thus Xeyois dv for Xeye ; also xiopoi? dv eicrco Soph, ovk dv (pOdvois see § 150. m. 37. 4. When the particles and pronouns to which dv is subjoined 16 have with them the Subjunct. Aorist, this forms an implied Preterite ; and, consequently, when the context refers to future time, a Future Preterite, Lat. Fut. exactum; see § 138. 4. Examples : Dem. Mid. p. 525 XPV °" e > otav pev riQno-Oe robs vopovs, ottoIol rives elm aKorrelv • e7reiddv 8e drjerde, (pvXdrreiv kat xPW@ a h !• e - 'when ye have made them.' Phil. p. 44 eneiodv anavra aKovavre, Kpivare, 1 when ye shall have heard all, judge.' Xen. Cyr. 2. 3. 5 ris eOeXrjaei prjdev KaXov ttolcov, a dv dXXoi 177 apery Koran pdtjiDa t, rovrcov laopoipelv ; ibid. e£ fav (i. e. e£ tovtoov a) dv eyco ttoitjo-id, ovk dv Kpideirjv ovre irpwros ovre devrepes. Plat. Prot. p. 311 nepuovres ev rrj avXfj diarpixjscopev, ems dv ? yevnrai. 5. Whenever the construction requires it, the Greek language 17 can change any clause made conditional by dv into the Infinitive or into the Participle, leaving the dv standing with the Infinitive * la Homer there are such clauses^ see U. o. 184, 205. 7. 54. But this is ex- plained by m. 5 and 11 above. — The same poet writes both moods (Subj. and Opt.) in one construction : Od. 5. 692 r\f £v (whoever should say) crcoTrjpa? yeveo~6ai rrjs 'EXXdbos ovk av egapaproi. Plat. Crito p. 48 oi paSteo? cnroKTivvvvTes Ka\ dvaj3icocr Kop.evo I y civ, el oloir rjcrav, 'who lightly kill, and would also perhaps bring back again to life, if they could;' from dvefiicoo-KovT* av, see m. 12. b. — The same holds good with the Participle, when it stands with the verb in the con- struction described in § 144. 6, where we often render it by a clause with that ; e. g. after eipicrKeiv, elhevat, opav, etc. Thuc. 7. 42 Spa to Tmparet'xt- orp.a djfkovv re ov, teal el eTriKpaTrjcreie ris tov arparoTTebov, pahlcas av avro \rj- cpdev. See also the example Xen. An. 7. 7. 40, and in m'. 44 below. 18 After the verbs So/ceip, olecrOai, eXirl^eip, ovk eari, and the like, dp gives to the Infin. of the Aorist, and not seldom to that of the Present, the force of the Infin. Future. Examples: Cyr. 3. 1. 20 TroXet? dXovaai, avpp.dxov? irpotrkaftovarcu, o'lovrat dvap.a-^eo'ao-Bai. av. Dem. Phil. p. 53 ovk eanv eva civdpa av dvvqOrjvai tv ore ravd* vjiiv rrpa^ai ajvavra. ibid. p. 40 fjyovpai ko\ npcoTos avao-ras el<6 rcor av avyyvcop,r]9 Tvy\dveiv. Xen. An. 1. 3. 6 vo}d£i£> vp-as ep,o\ elvai (pi Xovs Ka\ crvp-pd^ovs; /cat avv vp.lv av elvai ri/xtor, oirov av a>. — The Infin. Fut without av (§ 140. 1. c) presents a thing as a supposed certainty; e. g. Cyr 2. 1. 12 06 6° rjadrjcrav, vop.i£ovTes p-era TrXeiovcov aycavielcrOai. Whethei also av can stand with the Infin. Fut. is not entirely certain, though a sup- posable case ; sec e. g. Cyr. 1. 5. 2, and espec. Agesi. 7. 7. Matth. Gr. Gram, p. 1406. 19 Note 4. As to the position of av, it can regularly never stand first in a clause. But, after what word it shall be placed, depends manifestly in many cases on the choice of the writer, or on the propriety of letting the uncertainty be earlier or later felt ; in many cases also not. Thus it stands indeed very often immediately after the Opt. and Indicative ; but never so after the Subjunctive, for the reasons above assigned (m. 14). Yet, not only in clauses with the Subjunctive, but also with the Opt. and Indicative, av connects itself by preference with certain words, as ris, nebs; yap, the ad- verbs, the negatives ovk, ovoVt'r, etc. — Of the phrases olp,ai av, ovk av olda, we have already spoken, in m. 11 above. Examples: Plato Phsed. p. 102 av S' olp.ai av, «y eya> Aeyco, rroiols, where av belongs to noiols. Tim. p. 26. b, ovk av old' el dvvatprjv aixavra iv p.vt]iirj rraKiv A.a/3ai/, i. e. el dvvatjxrjv av, whether I could, i. e. if I were asked. 'Eoo/cet av fjfuv rjbeoa? navra diarrpagai, where av belongs to the Infinitive. We may further note the position of av in clauses like Dem. 01. p. 13, t'i ovv civ ris e'liToi ravra \eyeis av 7tot dv ireiveov v ttIol. 6. The subordinate or dependent clauses, in which, the Subj 2 J and Opt. moods have their proper place, are of various kinds. The consideration of these moods in such clauses, however, is not to be separated from that of simple clauses ; since even in the former the Subj. and Opt. are only used, when they can stand according to the general rule. It is therefore a wrong supposition, that the choice of the mood depends on the preceding particle ; indeed, on the contrary, the particle is often modified by the mood. Still, it will be of use, to go through briefly with the several kinds of dependent clauses, in order to follow out the general definition in the application of the moods, and render it clear by examples ; and especially in order to know what constructions are by pref- erence employed in the different kinds of dependent clauses, and why. — "We proceed therefore to treat of these clauses, under eight kinds, viz. conditional, relative, those with particles of time, caus- al, telic or final, ecbatic, transitive with on or &>?, interrogative. § 139. A. Conditional Clauses. In every conditional clause, the condition is viewed either as 22 possible or as impossible. Possibility is expressed either as al- together definite, or as depending on experience, or merely as a subjective supposition. Hence arise three principal cases. 1. Possibility without the expression of uncertainty : el ivith the Indicative ; e. g. el iftpovrrjo-e, kcl\ rjcrrpa-^ev ' if it has thun- dered, it has also lightened ;' el tl e^et?, So?, - if thou hast any- thing, give it me.' — Plat. Symp. 188 el tl e^eXuirov, abv epyov, avairXrjpoocrato Note 1. That which is future is always uncertain, or at least dependent 25 on certain conditions ; hence the Greek in such cases prefers the next follow- ing construction with the Subjunct. Yet we find el with the Indie. Future, even in the indirect style, whenever the fulfillment of the condition is either hoped or feared ; because in such instances the mind of the speaker is not tranquil, but affected, and therefore anticipates the case as definitely realized in the future. E. g. Xen. An. 4. 7. 3 777 yap o-rpana ovk eWt ra e7riTr]8eia, el p.Tj \r)y\rop.e6a to x<*>piov. Plat. Phaed. p. 107. C, 6 kivSvvos ho^eiev av deivbs eivai, el tls avTrj? (ttjs ^t>X*? y ) dp,e\r)o~ei. Eur. Hel. 1010 d8tKolr]p,ev av, el pr) a 7T S a) 0- co. See too the example from Eur. Or. 559, in m. 30 below; also other.-: j n Krijger ad An. 7. 1. 16. 370 syntax. § 139. A. 24 2. The condition is such, that experience will decide, whether the case happens or not. That here the Subjunctive must be used, follows from the general definition in § 139. 1 ; and that av is then joined with the particle (idv, rjv, av epic el ice, birorav, etc.) appears from m. 14. E. g. idv rt e^fiev, Scoaofxev, ' if we should have any thing, we will give it;' idv rk rwa rebv virapxovrcdv vofMcov jj,r) koXws e^eiv yyrjrat, ypacpeo-dco. iEschin. c. Tim. 4 TOVTO iaV £eiVy ivravda dr/ rov "nntapyov hd (proTeTekeo-pivov avdpa elvai, where however a^icocrr) is also read. On the other hand, we oftener find d av separately with the Optative ; and then the av is to be drawn to the Op- tative (which for the most part is actually done, e. g. Cyr. 4. 2. 37), and thus forms the mood described above in m. 15. E. g. Dem. p. 196 d dUaid tis av (fi-qcreie 'PoSt'ou? TrenovOevai^ ovk eVir^Seioy 6 Kaipo? icprjadrjvai. Comp. Mem. 1. 5. 3. Cyr. 3. 3. 55 ; also below in lett. H. no. 2. 28 4. Impossibility or disbelief, or in general the filling out of the relation specified above in m. 12. b. Here, in the protasis and apodosis there stands by rule : a) For the present time, in the protasis, el with the Indie. Impf without av ; in the apodo- sis the Impf with av ; e. g. el n el^ev, iSlSov av, if he had any thing, he would give it; where there is necessarily implied: ' but he has nothing.' b) For the past time, in the protasis, el with the Indie. Aorist ; in the apodosis the Aor. with av, e. g. el ri ea^ev, eBco/cev av, if he had had any thing, he would have given it. c) Or the clauses refer to unlike times, e. g. el iirelaO^v, ovk av rjppdxrrovv, if I had obeyed, I should not (now) be ill. — Of coarse? » 139. B. THE MOODS. 371 also, where a clause not conditional would have the Perfect, it passes over as conditional into the Pluperfect, just as the Present into the Imperfect ; e. g. Dem. 01. 3. p. 32 el yap avrdp/cj] rd \jr7)(f)LcrfjLa,Ta rjv, ovk dv ^tXfc7T7ro? roaovrov v/3pi/cec %p6vov. — For the omission of dv, see note 5. Examples: Mem. 2. 6. 26 iv to"ls dyacnv el e£-rjv toIs KpariaTots o~vv6epe- vovs (all at the same time) eiri tovs ^eipovs levat, navras dv Toys' dycovas ovtoi ivLKu>v. Plat. Apol. p. 31 el eyco 7vaXai ine^ei prj cr a Trparreiv to. ttoXl- riKa irpayjiara, ndXai dv dnoXcoXr] (§ 103. m. 12) Trjs &>v eKpdrei, el p.rj tl kcu vavri- ?, ottois, etc. The relative clauses (from which the indirect interrogative clauses are to be well dis- tinguished, see in H below) are either construed as independent 372 syntax. § 139. B. clauses ; or else as dependent, and then the very same construc- tions have place, which we have above developed in respect to conditional clauses. 32 2. "We therefore only repeat here in particular : 1) That rela- tive clauses with the Indie, either refer back as matter of fact to a demonstrative expressed or implied ; or they may be of a gen- eral kind, with octtls, octtlovv, and then they correspond to the Lat. with quicunque. 2) That in relative clauses with the Sub junctive, av always connects itself with the relative ; and then the clause is always general. 3) That in relative clauses with the Optative, sometimes av is omitted, and then they are either of a general kind, or are intermediate clauses in sermone obliquo, see m. 69 below ; or sometimes av is inserted, and then it forms with the Opt. the ordinary (independent) mood, m. 15 above ; or it arises out of the change of construction from the Subj. to the Optative, see m. 68. 4) That in relative clauses the historical tenses in the Indie, with av stand just as they do in simple claus- es, m. 12. a, b. — All this will be apparent from the examples. Examples: Ae'^co a rjnovara. An. 6. 5. 6 edanrov, oiroaovs e7reAaju,/3tt- vev 7] arparla. Cyr. 3. 2. 26 dcocrco, oaov ti? drjTrore edioice. — Eur. Iph. T. Qv(£> ydp, 09 av Kare\6r) rrjvbe yrjv "EWtjv dvrjp. Id. Troad. 1031 vop,ov 3e rovbe tcus aXkaicri $er yvvaii-i, Qvf)(TK.eiv, tJtls av Trpodv ttoctiv. — Xen. An. 2. 5. 32 ol imreis did rov TtehLov eXavvovres, cotlvi irvy^dvoiev "EXXrjvi, Trdvras eKreLvov (comp. m. 39). Cyr. 3. 1. 28 toiovtols ey&ye vttt] perais; ov? eldeirjv dvdyKr] VTrrjperovvTas; dr)d£>? av p-oi Sokco -feprjaOai. Hell. 2. 1. 32 Avo-avbpos, QiXoaXea epmrrjaas; 6? rovs 'Avdpiov? KaraKprj^vlaeie (a supposed case), rt et'77 a^ios tradew, aTreacpatjev SC. rov «£. — Od. 1: 126 ouS' avbpe? vq&v %vi removes, ol K€ Kap-oiev vrja? evo-aeXpiovs, at Kev reXeoiev eKaara. Eur. Hel. 815 /Lit" eariv ikiris, jj p,6vrj o~ a> 6 ei ft e v av. — An. 7. 6. 26 7jp.lv Be oitXitlkov p.sv rjv, ? for on ourcor, etc. Examples: Mem. 2. 7. 13 ^av/xaarrov 7roiels, or i?alz/ ou§ei> Si'Scor. Hdot. I. 33 (26Xcoi> Kpoioru) Kapra e'8o£e dfiadrjS ehai, oy ra Trapeovra ayada Merely ttjv reXevrrjv navTos xPW aT09 °P az/ eiceXeve. 1. 31 at 'Apyeiat ipaicdpi£ov rrjv ytTjTepa, oia>v retcveov eicvprjcre. Eur. Hel. 74 #eot a-', ocrov /-"u^' *X as> 'EXe- 1/77?, a7ro7TTwaiei/. Plato Phsed. p. 58. e, euSaip,coi/ fioi ScOKpar^s" icpalvero, a>s d8ea>s /eat yevvaleos ireXevra. — Similar is the usage of oo~os and olos in Homer, in clauses like II. o\ 95 aKvp-opos S17 pot, re/cos, eaaeai, oV dyopeueis. Here the relative approaches nearly to the demonstrative in exclamations ; comp. II. x- 347 ota /x* eopyar. Od. 8. 611. II. p. 471, 587. ^sch. Prom. 915. Note 4. After a preceding demonstrative, as outgo? etc. the relatives have 35 an ecbatic power, implying result or consequence; and stand then for wore; b see below in F. Such clauses also are construed only with the Indie, or other moods which stand for it. But the usage is not frequent. — For otoy and oo-o? c. inf. instead of coo-re, see in m. 57 below. Examples: An. 2. 5. 12 rt? oureo paiVerat, o arris ov o-oi /3ouXerat (ptXos elvai. Soph. Antig. 220 ovk eanv ovtcos jxwpos, os Savelv ipa. Plat. Rep. p. 360 ouSetr av yevoiro ovtoos ddap.dvTivos, or dv peiVetez> iv rfj diKaiocrvvt]. Note 5. In certain phrases, in consequence of sudden transition to a di- 3C> rect address, the Imperative also can stand after relatives; e. g. in tragic writers, in the phrases: oTaO* 6 Spdcrov, oto-0' cos Troirjo-ov, which are also explained by inversion : dpdaov olcrd' o, etc. Also in the 3 pers. olo-8a vvv a pot y€veo~d(o Eurip. Here we may compare the Imper. 3 pers. after on, see m. 61. Thuc. 4. 92 XPV oVt£at, on, fov \ikv eajUvrai, KTdcr6<£>o-av, Note 6. For the simple Subjunct. and other moods in indirect questions, see in m. 63. — For the Opt. with dv after an historical tense in the main clause, and for the Opt. and Indie, in intermediate clauses in serm. obliquo, see m. 68, 69. — For the Future with ne in epic writers after the relative, see m. 11. C. Clauses with Particles of Time. Particles of time are &>?, ore, oirore, eirel, iireihrj, eW, ef ov, irplv, 37 eare, the epic ^to?, ocfrpa, evre, and the like. As they are them- selves mostly relatives, their construction accords essentially with that of relative clauses. "We therefore limit ourselves here to what is- special; and give, for the general usage, only the examples. The construction with the Subjunct. again connects av with the particle, as orav, eireihav, eco? av, etc. with the exception of go 9, which in this construction signifies as, or else is final ; see below. Examples: Ot 7roXe'piot, a>s eiSov tovs M-qdovs, ecrrrjerav. An. 3. 1. 9 ei7re Se, on, in e 18 dp Tcr^ara f] arpareia Xrjgt], evdvs anone/x^i avrov. lb. 3. 5. 18 7rapr}yyeikav, eVetS^ 8e i7rvr)0~e lav o~vvecrK€vao~p.evovs iravras dvanav- eaOat, koX eireo-dat tjvLk dv ns napayye IXtj. Plat. Phaed. p. 101. d, et 8e ns avrrjs rrjs vnodeaews exoiro, x a ' L P eiv ^VV? "" Kai °^ K diroKpivaio, ea>? dv ret aV eiceivT)? opfiTjOevTa (rice^ato. Note 1. Here too the remark holds true, as in the case of the relatives 38 and conditional particles, that Homer more commonly omits dv or ne; e. g. dAX' ore yrjpdaKooat noXiv Kara cpvX* dvdpd>7T(£>v Od. o. 408, and often. See ex- amples from later writers in Herm. Op. IV. p. 103; e. g. Soph. Aj. 1182 dprjyer, ear eya> /xoXw, where the mind is abstracted from every possibility of hindrance ; ib. 554. Note 2. After particles which imply a repetition, e. g. 671-0x6, the regu- 39 lar mood is the Optative, even when the reference is to definite facts which / 374 SYNTAX. * 139. 0. have already taken place; less frequent is the Indicative. With the Sub- junct. again Snordv is used ; except that Homer sometimes puts Snore with the Subjunctive, see note 1. The reason of this lies in the nature of the moods ; since, e. g. in Snore ol noXepiot, enidoivro, ane^/opovvy the approach of the enemies is viewed as the subjective motive of repeated retreat, although it is a fact already specified. When, on the other hand, it is said : Snorav crrparonedevoovraiy rds (oKcoy in Hdot.) and especially relative clauses, receive by means of this Opt. the sense of repeti- tion. E.g. TllUC. 7. 79 el pev enioiev ol ASnvaioi, vne^oapovv, el 8' dva- X&potev, iireiceivTQ. Hdot. 7. 119 okods 8e an licoiro tj arparirj, aKrjvr) pep ecr/ce nennyvla eroipn • o>y 8e delnvov ylvoiro &pv, ol pev e^eo-Kov novov • okchs be vvKra aydyoiev, dneXavveaKov, KrX. II. /3. 188. 198 ovrcva pev $ao~Ckr\a Ki^eir], rbv 8' . . . epr}Tvo~ao~K.e • ov 8' av drjpov r' avdpa Xdoi, fiootovrd r' ecpevpoi, rbv aKrjnrpco iXdo-acricev ktX. Comp. also § 103. m. 11. 10 Note 3. The particle ecos (epic ocppa) with the Indie, expresses the time during which any thing takes place, and may be then rendered as long as, or in momentary actions, until, i. e. ' as long as until f e. g. Dem. 01. p. 15 ea>9 earl Kaipos, avriXafieadai ra>v npaypdrcov. — But eooy av with the Subj. (also ear* av, epic elaoKe or eh ore K.e,) signifies until; and is distinguished from the simple Optative, in that in the former the occurrence of another action or of some event sets a limit to the main action, while in the latter this is done by the acting subject himself in the mode of presentation. E.g. Mem. 4. 8. 2 6 vopos ovk ea bnpoaia nvd dno6vr\o-Keiv, 6 coy av f) Secopla e< ArjXov enaveXdrj. II. a. 509 roeppa 8' enl TpcoeaoL riBei Kpdro?, oepp' av 'A^atot vlbv epbv rio-acriv. An. 2. 1. 2 ebotjev auroly npoievai, ecoy Kvpeo crv ppi^eiav. Od. e. 385, of iEolus : a>po~e 8' eVi Kpamvbv ftopevv, ecoy oye $air]Keo-o-t piyeln. — For the Opt. with av after ecoy, see the example from Plato in m. 37 above, also in m. 68; and for the Subjunct. without av, se8 above in m. 38. 41 Note 4. The particle rrplv or nplv fj, before, sooner than, is construed with the Infinitive; but admits also the construction with the finite moods. Thus, where the reference is to definite facts which have already taken place, it is put with the Indicative; where something merely possible, sup- posed, or future, is spoken of, it takes the Infinitive, Subjunctive (with av), and Optative; but with this difference, that the Subj. with av (in the poets likewise without av, m. 38), and by rule also the Opt. without av (after historical tenses), are only. used, when the main clause expresses a negative, ' not . . . before or until ;' while after a positive clause the Infinitive is em- ployed, l before, sooner than.' But the usage of the Infinitive is wider, since it can stand also after negative clauses ; and hence Homer uses both con- structions, viz. that with the Subj. or Opt. and that with the Infin. without essential difference and even united into one clause, II. p. 504. Od. /3. 373. The same poet inserts np'iv also in the first clause ; so that it then stands double. The epic ndpos before, wherever it is a conjunction, is put with the Infinitive; except II. n. 629. EXAMPLES. — Indic. Soph. OT. rjyoprjv 8' dvrjp dcrrcov peyiaro? rcov enel, np'iv pot rvyr\ roido* eneo-rrj. An. 3. 2. 29 ov npocrBev et-eveytzelv eroXpncrav npbs T)pd? noXepov, nplv rovs arrparnyovs rjptov arvveXafiov. — Subj. with av : Xen. Hier. 7. 13 o,ri av ns Xdfir] napa rov rvpdvvov, ovhels ovdev avrov vopi£et, nplv av egeu rrjs' rovrov eniKpare'ias yevrjrai, comp. Eur. Med. 277, 677, etc. Without av: Soph. Aj. 741 (dnr]v8a) prj e|co naprjiceLv, nplv napaw avrb? ri^Tl-. comp. Eur. Or. 1351. — Opt. 11. ?, 15 oVa)?, ha (epic ocfipa), and firj ; with which we may also reckon oVa)?, when it is to be rendered that, after certain verbs im- plying exhortation, care, endeavour, effort, etc. as irapaicaXeiv, cppovrl^ecv, (ftyXdrreaOac, bpav, liripieKeo-Qai, /jueXei fioi,, irpdrreLv, irapaa-Kevd^eaOai, and the like. And although the specification of end and purpose must always appear as the thought of the acting subject and wholly founded therein, yet the most natu- ral and frequent construction, often even after historical tenses, is that with the Subjunctive ; since for the most part this speci- fication is not meant to be merely something supposed or possi- ble, but the acting subject is at the same time eager and striv- ing, that his purpose may be realized, — that his thought may come forth into life. It is only where the end or purpose is expressly to be understood as a subjective thought, that the Optative is em- ployed ; and this even after the primary tenses, although seldom. Still, nothing is more common, (just as with relative clauses im- 376 SYNTAX. § 139. E plying purpose, see m. 34,) than for this Subjunctive to alternate with the Indie. Future ; see no. 2 below. Examples: Mem. 3. 1. 8 iv peaco del tovs x €l P L(rT0VS Tarreiv, iva vtto pev tov ayovTai, vtto S' av tov codovTai. Thuc. 3. 4 ol Trpeafteis tov Muri- Xrjvaiov eTTpacrcrov, ottos tis [Borjdeia rj^ei. 1. 56 HepfttKKas is rrjv Aaicedai- fiova irepirov eirpaaaev, ottos iroXepos yevqrai rots- ' Adrjvaiois irpos HeXoTrovvr]- crlovs. 1. 65 'Aptorevr avveftovXeve toIs aXXois eKTrXevaai, ottos 6 ctItos clvtl- crXfl' Xen. Cyr. 4. 1. 18 6'pa, prj ttoXXov eK.do~To fjpov kcu ocpdaXpov kcu ^a- pov 8er]? and 07ra>? often take the particle av ; but ha, in the signif. in order that, is al- ways without av, so that tv av can only signify ubicunque. Nor, in the signif. in order that, can ha ever be put with the Indie Future. Examples : iEsch. Suppl. 937 aXX os av elbjjs, eweiro cracpecrTepov. Aris- toph. Plut. 1151 naTpls yap icrTi iraa', tv" av TTpaTTrj tls ev. See Herm. Op. IV. p. 121, 132. 48 3. Bat all these conjunctions, after historical tenses (as also af- ter the hist. Pres.), can be construed with the Optative ; see m. 9. Examples: Xen. Lac. 2. 2 edoicev avro paaTiyocpopovs, ottos Tipopoli\ (tovs nalbas), el Scot. Plat. Rep. p. 393 dmevai 8e eneXeve (tov Xpvarjv) Kai prj epe8i£eiv, Iva aos oXica8e eXdoi. Cyr. 1. 4. 25 Kvpos eXeye, oti d-mevat (SovXoito, prj 6 TTaTrjp ti ax^oiTO, Ka\ f] ttoXis pe pcpoiTO a&TO. Comp. II. e. 1. t. 351, 347. 19 Note 2. When to ottos and cos with the Opt. the particle av is subjoined, there is formed again the mood specified above in m. 15. Thus, e.g. An. 1. 9. 21 (piXov oeTo belaBai, w? avvepyovs e'xoi, he thought himself to need friends, that he might have helpers ; but Cyr. 4. 2. 29 Kpolaos tc\s yvvalnas 7rpoa7TeTTepylraTo ttjs vvktos, os av pqov TTopevoivro, in order that they might (per- il aps) travel more easily. 1. 2. 10 avros re Srjpq, ml tov aXXov eiripeXelTai, * Dawes, in consequence of too limited observation, proposed the rule, that in good Attic writers the particles oiras and ov fvf) never have the Subjunctive of the yirst Aor. Act. and Mid. but always instead of this the Fut. Indicative. This rule was found to be often confirmed by manuscripts ; and on this ground in modern editions a multitude of passages have been altered even without the authority of manuscripts ; since for the most part this required only small changes like crys into ffeis, croofiev into crofiev, etc. But it was soon found, that there would be no end of such corrections ; and also that some passages occur which cannot be easily so corrected ; as Eurip. Troad. 445 oirus yripdofxeQa. Plat. Rep. p. 609. b, ov yap Toye ayadhv pAita' 4 ti cbroAeV??. The canon of Dawes is therefore now given up. I 139. F. THE MOODS. 377 oiras av Srjpaev, in order that they could hunt. Comp. Cyr. 3. 1. 1. II. r. 331. Eur. IT. 1025, etc. also m. 68 below. Note 3. Here too belong most naturally such clauses as express fear, anx- 50 ietyj after beboiKa etc. where p,i), also O7rco? p.r), is rendered by our that, lest, (like Lat. ne,) and consequently p.rj ov by that not; see § 148. 4, and n. 7. The construction is wholly like that of final clauses; viz. the Subj. Opt. and especially the Indie. Fut. e. g. Soph. OT. 1075 deboix onus p,r) Ve ttjs o-icotttjs r?)o-S' avappr)£ei koko.. But the Greek has this advantage over the Latin, that it can also use the Indie, of past tenses in connection with these particles, in order to mark the object of fear as already existing ; e. g. Plat. Lys. p. 218 (£o/3o0/z.ai p.r) \6yois rial yj/evbeo-iv h>Tervyj\K.a\m>, vereor ne inciderimus. The Greek has more freedom in this respect also, that other particles and constructions can in like manner stand after these verbs, as the context in each case may require ; as el, on, and even &o~re and the Infin. E. g. Cyr. 3. 1. 1 icpofielro on 6(p8r)o~eo-dai ep,e\\e ra (3aaiXeia oIko- dofiwv. Eur. IT. 1391 qbofios 6° rjv, &are p,r) rey^ai noda. Hec. 756 7rarr)p viv ei-eTrepsty-ev oppaidcov Qavelv, ne periret. 4. "When, finally, it is to be expressed, that a purpose was at- 51 tained or had been attained, when something else took place or had taken place, in this case the Indie, of an historical tense is employed, but without av. Examples: Soph. OT. 1386 sq. where the blind CEdipus complains, and Would gladly deprive himself also of hearing: tv* rjv rv(p\6s re /cat kKviov HrjSev, that I were, etc. And further on: la> Ktdaipav, ri p.' ov Aa/3aw eicrei- vas evdvs, as e8ei£a p,rjTrore, evBev rjv yeycos. So too in Plato, Crit. p. 44 el yap a>(pe\ov oioi re elvai ol ttoWoI ra p-eyiara kokcl e£epyd£eadai, iva oiolre fjcrav av Kal ayaOa. ra p.eyiara • vvv be ovberepa oloire. Id. Meno p. 89 raw ve<£>v rovs dyaOovs av eqbvXdrropev . . ., 'iva firjbels avrovs bies firjbe, el efiovkero, ebivaro av ravra e^anarav. F. Ecbatic or Consequential Clauses. 1. These express a result (erc/3acns) or consequence. The ec- 52 batic particle coare is compounded from co? and re, literally and so; in which sense it begins a clause, and corresponds fully to the Lat. itaque ; e. g. Anab. 1. 7. 7. In the signification so that, it is put with the Indie, of all the tenses, when it can be inter- changed with and so ; and likewise, in general, when the result or consequence is presented as one not actually purposed, but only as de facto existing, and mainly external. 2. On the other hand, ware (for which also we find &>?) is con- 53 strued with the Infinitive, when the result or consequence is to be regarded as in itself necessary, either as a matter of purpose, or as implied in the main clause. See m. 56, and § 140. 4. 3. Instead of the Indicative, cocrre can naturally also be put 54 with the Opt. and av, and with the historical tenses and av ; for which the Infin. with av can likewise stand, see m. 17 above. These constructions are sufficiently explained by the general def- inition, $ 139. 3. Examples: An. 2. 2. 17 ol be icpavyr)v iroXkr)v erro'iow mXovvres dXhr)\ovs mare Kal rovs woXefuovs aKoveiv, a purposed consequence J ware ol p.ev e'yyv- 378 SYNTAX. * 139. ft rara rcov TroXeplcov kol ecpvyov eK rcov aKr)v<£, t iaTcov, a consequence arising only out of the preceding purposed one. 3. 3. 14 rois Scots x^P iv - 0Tt °v °"^ v 7ToXXtj pa/xi], d\\a avv oXiyois rjXQov (sc. oi TroXepioi) • coare (BXdijfai pev fir) peydXa, dr/Xcoaai Se, cov deopeda. Mem. 3. 1. 9 dXX' ovk e8i8a£jev • coare avrovs av rjpas beoi rovs re ayaOovs kcu rovs kclkovs Kp'ivew. Agesi. 1. 26 Trdvres iroXepiKa onXa KareaKeva^ov, coare rrjv ttoXlv ovrcos rjyrjaco av noXepov epyaarrjpiov eivai. Thuc. 2. 49 tci 8e euro? ovroos emero, coare p,rj8e yvpvol ave^ecrOai, rjdiard re av es vdcop yjfvxpbv acpas avrovs pinreiv. Comp. An. 5. 9. 31. 4. After a preceding demonstrative, as outgj? etc. we find ware followed sometimes by the Indicative (or other forms expressing the same relation), and sometimes by the Infinitive ; according to the mode of presentation which the writer connects with the clause. Examples: Cyr. 1. 4. 15 'Aarvdyns ovrcos fjadr) rfj rore Srjpa, coare de\ avve^rjei rco Kvpcp. — Mem. 4. 4. 1 (2ooKp. dnedeLKwro rols ap^ovai) TreiOope- vos ourcor ? coo-re t)iddr]Xos eivat irapd rovs aXXovs evraxrcov. 55 Note 1. The Subjunctive is never used in connection with coare • because the relation of cause and effect is not an uncertain one, as to which experi- ence has still to decide (comp. m. 43) — not even when the ecbatic clause contains a Future ; which again is to be explained in the manner specified in m. 43. Still more would the relation of cause and effect be done away, were we to connect av immediately with coare ; since just this relation must ever be regarded as remote from all accidental conditions.* For the like reason the simple Optative is also not admissible ; nor can an example like Xen. GEc. 1. 13 : e'l rts XP$ TO T< P apyvplco, coare naKiov rb acopa e^ot . . . ttcos av en rb apyvpiov airco cofpeXipov evrj : contradict the truth of this remark ; since here the Opt. still belongs as it were within the conditional clause expressed by means of the Optative. 50 Note 2. In like manner 77 coare (less often 77 cos) after comparatives, is con- strued most commonly with the Infinitive; e. g. vecorepoi elaiv 77 coare elde- vai oiW irarepcov eareprjvrai, they are younger than that they could Jcnow 7 Engl, 'they are too young to know.' Also with the Indie, and av; e. g. An. 1. 5. 8 Sdrrov rj cos ris av coero. Here it is to be noted, that, instead 01 the comparative, the positive may be employed, and consequently the fj falis away before coare, and this without any change in the sense ; since the negative meaning of the whole necessarily follows in every case from the context. E. g. Plat. Prot. p. 314 veoi en eapev, coare roaovrov npdypa dieXtadai, i. e. ' we are too young to be able ;' not : { we are so young, that we can^ etc. Cyr. 4. 5. 15 oXiyoi eapev, coare eytcparels eivai avrcov. Mem. 3. 13. 3 yjsvxpbv coare \0vaaa6a1 lar'iv. Eur. Androm. 80 yepcov ?, after Verbs of saying, etc. 1. The English that after verbs of saying and the like, is ex- .*>*■ pressed in Greek, sometimes by means of the Infinit. with the Ace. or Nom. k 142. 2, in many instances also by means of the participle, § 144 ; and sometimes by means of the conjunctions on, W9, poet, ovveica, oOovveica. These particles are followed by the simple Optative, when the idea introduced by on etc. is to be regarded expressly as the supposition of the subject speaking or thinking ; otherwise, they are followed throughout by the In- dicative, or the moods which come in place of it, viz. the Opt. with av, and the historical tenses with av. — The Subjunctive cannot follow these conjunctions ; for the same reason as above under causal clauses, m. 43. Examples: Havre? opoXoyovcnv, cos j; dperr/ Kpdnarov eari. An. 4. 5. 10 avrat qpcorcov avrovs, rives eiev • 6 be. eppevevs eiirev, on Trapa [Baaikecos Tropev- oivro rrpbs rbv aarpdnnv ai be arreKpivavro, On ovk evravBrj e'i-q Krk. Or alternately the Indie, and Opt. ib. 2. 1. 3 ovroi eXeyov, on Kvpos pev reQvrj- kcv, 'AptaToy be necpevycos e'i-q kt\. Also the Opt. with av) ibid, ko.1 Xeyot, on irepipeiveiev av avrovs KrX. Comp. Cyr. 1. 6. 3. ib. 1. 3. 13. Note 1. For the personal construction of certain phrases, as Xeyerai, (pavepov eariy with on etc. and for other like matters, see § 151. I. 6. 7. Note 2. The English that can also be given in Greek by ore, when, as, 59 after verbs signifying to remember, know by experience, and the like; e. g. Thuc. 2. 21 pepvqpevoi kal HXeicrrodvaKra, ore elafiaXcov direx^prjo-e irdXiv, lit. remembering also PI. when he, etc. comp. II. o. 18, and the example in § 131. n. 15. Note 3. The English that can also be expressed by el, if, after the verbs 60 $avpd£a> to wonder, dyaivdco to be content, alcrx^vopai to be ashamed, and some other verbs implying an emotion of mind ; since the Attics preferred to avoid a decided tone, even in things quite certain (ra. 15). Yet this el can properly be translated by that, only when it is construed with the Indicative; Cyr. 4. 5. 20 ovbev &avpd£co, el Kvagdprjs oKvel rrepl fjpeov. Dem. Mid. 29 ovk r/o-yw^?;, el roiovro kukov endyet rg>, thai he brought such evil upon any one. iEschin. p. 537 ovk ayaTrq., el prj biKtjv ebcoKev, lit. that he was not punished. So too after x a ^ncds (pepto Cyr. 5. 5. 12. — But on can also be used, e. g. Dem. 01. p. 37. Note 4. We also find w even before the words of a speaker quoted 61 without change, and therefore wholly redundant ; Cyr. 5.2.9 6 Kvpos 380 syntax. § 139. H direKplvaro, on, ecprj, a> Ta>(3pva, o'lopai kt\. — When minor clauses intervene immediately after on and a>9, the conjunction may be repeated : An. 5. 6, 19 Xeyovaiv on, el fir/ eKnopiovo-i (m. 23) rfj o-rpana pucrdov, on Kivdvvevcrei pelvai roaravTrj 8vvap,is. Or the two conjunctions may alternate; Cyr. 5. 3. 30. Hdot. 3. 71. Or further, in the like case, after the intervening clause, the construction of the Ace. c. Inf. or that with the Participle, may be in- troduced; and then on again is redundant; Cyr. 1. 6. 18 Xeyetr av, ore, &cnrep ovde yeoapyov dpyov ov8ev oT£>o~iv et ns cBeXoi avp7ropevecrdai. Other examples will occur in reading. See also for the Indicative the general remarks below m. 67 sq. § 139. H. THE MOODS. 381 Note 2. That the Subjunctive also is found after affirmctive clauses (no. 85 2 above), is to be explained from the circumstance, that there are certain affirmative modes of expression, in which the Conjunct, dubitativus is sup- posable ; e. g; in double questions: iEsch. Prom. 779 iXov yap, r) to. Xotnd aoi qbpdo-co, rj rbv eKXvaovr' ipe. Comp. II, v. 742. t. 701 ; or alternately with Subj. and Opt. II. or. 307. Or, as in Hdot. 1. 53 (comp. 2. 52) KpoTo-oy evereXXero eTreiparav ra xPV a " r ^lP ia > el orr parevqrat eVt Tlepaa? Kpotcror, ' whether he might venture to make war against the Persians ;' and yet it is then said further: koL el nva crrparbv npocrdeoiTO o-vppaxov, i.e. a single question, and ivhether, if so, he might better secure allies. Note 3. To such indirect interrogative clauses, even when they are in 66 the Subjunctive, Homer adds the particle ne, e.g. II. x- 244 ; especially in the apparently independent a'i ice or e'lice with the Suhjunct. e.g. II. e. 279. a. 420 a'i ice rt^co/u, iziBr\rai, Od. a. 379 Seov? eirtfiaxTopai, a'i ice noOt Zev? dooo-t naXivTira epya yevecrdat. — In close connection with this is the pro- saic usage of eav after verbs implying to examine, see to, as o-KOTreh, opav. E. g. Plat. Gorg. p. 510. b, tnconet of), eav crot Sokcd ev Xeyetv, comp. Theaet, p. 192. e. So too elliptically, like the Homeric e'Ue ; e.g. Alcib. I. p. 122 prjbe tovto fjplv apprjrov eorco, eav Trees a'tcrOrj ov el. Note 4. For other remarks upon the interrogative clauses, see § 127. 5. § 151. I. 6, 7. General Remarks on the use of the Moods in dependent Clauses. Note 1 . The rule that the Subjunctive is used after primary tenses, and 67 the Optative after historical tenses, we have found to be confirmed ; but only in general. Accordingly, the change of a primary tense in the main clause for an historical tense, must have an influence upon the mood of the de- pendent clause ; and particularly, in all cases where the Grammar makes a distinction in the double construction with the Subj. and Optative, the con- struction with the Subj. connects itself by preference with a primary tense, and that with the Opt. with an historical tense. E. g. the clause : tcai, eav tl e^co^ei/, dcooopev, if made dependent on eiceXevo-ev would read : ko\ fjpd?, el rt exotpev, eiceXevo-ev Sovvat. Or, the example in Dem. Phil. 3. p. 122, oi y A0r)valot eic6Xa£ov Ka\ enpeopovvro, ov? a'ioOotvro bcopoboKovvra?, if referred to the present time would read : oi *A$. KoXd^ovat ml Ttpcopovvrai, ov? av a'i- o-8iovTat dapoo'oKovvTa? ) and so vice versa. So too Isseus de Arist. Her. 17 oi piv, orav irepX xprjpdrcov dvarvx^ari, rov? crcperepovs avrcov Tralda? eh erepov? o'iicov? elo~Trotovo~ tv, tva prj /xerao-^cocri rrjs rod ivarpb? artpia? • ovtoi Se apa el? vrroxpecov ovaiav /cat oiKodev elo~eTvoiovv trcpas avrov?, Iva koX to. vTrdpxovra it poo-airoXecretav. Still, as both the Opt. and Subj unct. depend wholly on the supposition which the writer in every case connects with the clause, and not alone on the preceding tense, there are examples enough of departure from the above rule ; e. g. 1) Where the Subjunctive folloivs an historical tense ; thus after the final particles (tva etc. m. 45), and with pfj after verbs of fearing, etc. see m. 50. We find also, just as often, idv, oo-Tt? av, ottov av, erretbdv, with the Subj. in narration, especially in the indirect style, when the same construction would have place in the direct style ; e. g. Xen. Hell. 2. 1. 24 Avaavftpos ra? vav? e/ceXevaev eneadat • eirei- bav be eic{3a)oiv, aTroTrXelv. 2) Where the Optative folloivs a primary tense; e. g. after final particles, and after pfj implying fear, anxiety. But also elsewhere; e. g. Dem. 01. 3. p. 38 ttjv avrrjv orvvragtv arravTcov (sc. Xeyco v. fiovXopat), 'tva tcov koivcov eKaaro? to pepo? Xapj3dvcov, orov beotro fj noXts, eh Tov8 y eroipos vTrapxy. See other examples in m. 64, 65. Note 2. In respect to the particle av, we have seen, that it often stands 68 382 SYNTAX. § 139 in dependent clauses expressed by the Subjunctive, while the Optative re- jects it. Nevertheless, the case is not infrequent, (although the learnej will do well at first to regard such cases rather as exceptions from the rule,' that, since in clauses with the Subjunctive the civ is always closely united with the conjunction or pronoun, when the construction passes over into the Optative, this latter retains the civ with the conjunction or pronoun, withoul forming the mood described above in m. 15. Hence examples are not seldom of oaris civ, ineiddv, ea>? civ, irpiv civ, oivorav, ott<£>? 'civ, even orav and edv, con- nected with the Optative; e.g. Xen. Cyr. 5. 5. in. eireo-TeXXev avrco rJKeiv. O7rcor crvp.(3ovXos yiyvoiTO, 6,rt av doKoirj Trpdrreiv. An. 7. 5. 8 ifiefxvijtc^ cos, eneiddv eVi SaXarrav drveXOoi, Trapaddxroi avrco ~Biadvdr]v. lb. 7. 7. 57 ebeovro p.rj aTreXOelv, tt p\v av array ay ot, to arpdrevp-a kcu Qiufip&vi Trapa- doiT]. Comp. Hell. 2. 4. 18. ib. 5. 4. 47 'AyrjaiXaos eiceXeve cpykdrreiv, ecus av avrbs eXdoi. Dem. Mid. 5 ttjv napacrKevrjv, r/v av Tropic air 6 tis, ovk coecrde xPV vaL vj3pi£ea6ai. So after orav iE.sch.yl. Pers. 448; after idv Thuc. 8. 27. Still, many of these instances are not sufficiently settled by the manuscripts; so that the editions often vary between the Subjunctive and Optative. See also Thuc. 2. 93 prj av. Anab. 7. 4. 2 oVcor av. 69 Note 3. The usual mood in sermone obliquo, especially in narration, is the Optative ; and hence also the Optative is commonly found in inter- jected clauses in the indirect style; e. g. Xen. Agesi. 1. 10 Tio~o~a(pepvr}? a>p,o- aev, el o~7reicraiTO, ecos i'Xdoiev, ov? irep.Tvaeie irpos (BacriXea dyyeXovs, dianpdge- o-Bai ktX. But as the Greek language, in dependent clauses in general, employs the Indicative far oftener than the Latin, (e. g. after final particles and those marking consequence, comp. m. 34,) it also does the same in in- terjected (parenthetic) clauses in sermone obliquo. For as Greek writers in general are fond of a sudden transition from the indirect style to the direct, (e.g. Hell. 2. 1. 25 'AXKiftiddrjs ovk iv koXco e(pr) avrovs 6pp,elv, dXXd p,e6op- picrai es 2t)o-t6v naprjvei' ov ovres vavp,axr}0-ere, ecprj, orav (3ov\r)cr8e. Comp. Cyr. 1. 4. 28 extr. 5. 3. 54. ib. 8. 3. 3,) so too the Indicative is not sel- dom abruptly introduced, where according to all the laws of construction we should expect a dependent mood, and where too the Latin regularly em- ploys the Subjunctive. We give here a single example from Xen. An. 1. 3. 14: Eiy 8e S?) elrre, aTparrjyovs p.ev eXeo~0ai aXXovs a>s ra^tcrra, el p-q (BovXe- rai KXeapxo? dirdyeiv ■ — iXOovras Se Kvpov alrelv nXola, cos diroTiXeoiev • edv de p,rj didco ravra (see m. 67), rjyep.6va alreiv Kvpov, octtis bid (piXias rrjs x<*>P as dird^ei' — neural SV, Ka\ TtpoKaTaXn^rop-evovs ra aKpa, onoos p.rj cpddo-u>ai (see m. 45) p-rjre 6 Kvpos p.r\re oi KiXiKes KaraXafiovres, hv noXXovs Kal noXXd XPV~ p.ara exop.ev qpiraKores. Comp. Cyr. 4. 2. 36. Dem. 01. 1. p. 12, etc. 70 Note 4. Here also is to be noted, though not of frequent occurrence, the Optative without av in the indirect style, instead of the Indicative. This corresponds to the German Subjunctive in the indirect style ; and is found only when it forms the continuation of an indirect clause introduced by on, cos, or the Infinit. e. g. An. 7. 3. 13 eXeyov 7roXXoi, on rravrbs agia Xeyei 2eu 6rjs • ^et/xwi/ yap e'i-q ko.\ o'Uade aTro7rXelv ov hvvarov e'lrj. Also Soph. Phil. 615. Plat. Rep. p. 420. c, etc. 71 Note 5. In conclusion of this whole discussion respecting the moods, it may be well to note here some especially instructive passages from the books most frequently read; e. g. Demosth. Phil. 3. p. 128. (14 ineivo ye alcrxpdv, varepov ttot elnelv ktX.) Xen. Cyr. 5. 3. 26-28. Mem. 1. 5. ib. 1. 2. 55 and espec. 59 sq. ib. 3. 6. 16-18; also the continuation of the example in m. 69, An. 1. 3, 15 sq. 72 Note 6. The syntax of the Imperative does not require a separate dis- cussion The single passages which treat of it are fully given in the Index. * 140 THE INFINITIVE. 383 THE INFINITIVE. § 140. General Construction. 1. The Infinitive is that form of the verb, which merely ex- presses the idea of the verb indefinitely, that is, without any re- lation of person or mood. In this way, on the one hand, it ap- proaches the nature of a substantive ; as is shewn by its receiv- ing the article (no. 5), and by its position as subject or object in a clause. On the other hand, it retains its verbal character, in that it admits the distinction of tenses and the various verba] constructions. It is used wherever not only the Latin, but also the English, requires the Infinitive, either simply or with to; and frequently likewise where both these languages employ the Subjunctive. Thus it is found : a) As the subject of a clause, as in Latin, after the impersonal words and phrases Set, nrpoo-rjiceL, tcaXov ian, ayaOov ean, and many others ; e.g. Sec \eyetv • r)8v ^rrjpav. b) As the complement of an incomplete verbal idea ; and this, not only as in Latin after verbs signifying to be wont, to be able, to think of, to endeavour, etc. but also where in Latin a con- junction is employed (ut, quin, quominus), as after verbs of en- treating, commanding, exhorting, doubting, etc. E.g. oloar' elfu iroielv • Sio/ial gov nrapafieveiv • irapaivco \eyeiv, etc. c) After verbs which imply a reference to the future, (as pik- \eiv, eXiri^etv, avaftaXkeaOat, vTrLa^vetaOai, and the like,) the Grreek language fills out the idea by subjoining the Infinitive Future ; where in English we do it less perfectly by means of the Infin. Present. Examples: Dem. 01. 3. p. 31 et tis vpcov dvafidWeTcu Troiqore iv rot biov- ra y I8e7v iyyvOev fiovkeraL ret deivd. Cyr. 1. 6. 4 ekirl^eLS 1 rev^eadai coy dv hirj. Comp. also § 137. n. 11. Note 1. That instead of the Inf. Fut. we often find the Inf. Aor. and Pres. with dv, has already "been noted. § 139. m. 18. Still, not unfrequently the simple Inf. Aor. as an indefinite tense 3 fills the place of the Future; e. g. Plato Phsedo p. 67. e, e/celo-e ep^ovrai, oi dcpiKopevois thirls io~Tiv, ov did fi'iov fjpoiv, tvx*1v- So too with ace. c. infin. Cyr. 2. 4. 15 ikirifa, eW- vovs i\6elv irpbs ere pdXkov. See Heind. ad Plat. Phsed. 32. d) For the Infin. with purj, after certain verbs, see § 148. n. 9. 2. Kindred with this is the Infinitive, which is put after an adjective (or also a substantive), either for completeness or for greater definiteness, like the Ace. described in \ 131. 7. Here the Infinit. Active is employed, not only where the relation is active, but also where it is of a passive kind, where the Latins put the Supine in u. Still, in such cases, the Infin. Passive is not unusual. Examples : imTf)8eio$ ttoieiy ti. — ov deivos eon XeyeiK, aXX' dbvvaros crtyav, — Eur. IT. 1002 deival yvvaiizes evplarKeiv Tej(pas. — rjdv duoveiv, suave auditu —Saviia IbeoOai, mir^hile visu, Horn. — pddtos vorjaai. — 7roXty ^aAe^ Xa/3«z>. — 384 SYNTAX. t 140 to. deovra dnt.v, dicenda, Dem. — Plut. Thes. 23 veavio-Kos SrjhvcpavrjS 6(p0r)vai, as in Horace ni'jeus videri. — a{-ios [xiaeiaOai iEschin. p. 67. Note 2. By means of a certain syntactical license, this Infin. of comple ment is sometimes put epenthetically after a word, on which other noun- adjuncts already depend ; or, these noun- adjuncts are made to refer to the other word rather than to the Infinitive. E. g. Plat. Crit. p. 52. b, ovk eVt- 6vp.ia ae £\\r]? 7rdXecoy ovd' aWcov vop.cov ekafiev elbevai. Legg. 1. p. 626 donel? fioi rr)s Seov eTroovvpias a£io9 elvai pdXkov err ovo p.d£eo- 6 ai. Soph. Phil. 536 rrpos ri p.evovp.ev Trpacrcreiv. Comp. II. co. 35 rov vvv ovk erX-qre aacoaat fj r' ako^co Ideeiv kclI p,r)repi ktX. 3. The Infinitive is put also after a complete predicate-idea, to express purpose or result ; where the Latin employs either con- junctions, or the construction with the G-erund or Particip. Fut. Passive. Examples: edooKev airo dovXco (poprjcrat,. — 6 avdpanros necpvKe (pikelv. — Plat. Apol. p. 33. b, Trape^co ep.avrdv epcorqv, 'that they should ask me.'— Ittttov Trapeze rep dvdpl dvafirjvai. — Xen. Ages. 4. 3 'Ay. ray avrco ^aptrar {gifts) dcpet,- Xop.evas rfj TTCLTpLbi KapTvovcrOai rrapedioov. — Anab. 2. 2. 3 ep.o\ Svop-evco levat irri rov fias fiefiovkevadai. — Hdot. 6. 5 'larialos ovk erreide tovs Xiovs coo-re ecovrco dovvai veas. — Plat. Gorg. 478 'Ap^eAao? d ierr pd£aro chare pr)re Ko\d£eadm p.r)re didovcu 81kt)v. — Thuc. 5. 14 £vve(3r) coare 7ro\ep,ov pL7)8ev en a^-aadai p-rj^erepovs. — Plat. Prot. p. 338 ddvvarov vplv coo-re IJpcorayopot aorepov riv ekeaOai. Note 3._ The omission of coo-re before the Infin. after a preceding demon- strative of degree, is poetic; e. g. iEschyl. Ag. 490 ris code cppevcov KeKop,p.e- ves, dXXayq \6yov Kap.elv. See the example from Eur. Or, 559, in § 139. m. 30 a. So too the omission of ofor (ib. m. 57): II. £. 463 XV T€ '^ toiovo* dv8po9, (sc. olov) dpivveiv dovkiov f)pap. Compare the use of the demon- strative before the Infin. in § 127. 1. e, and § 132. n. 22. And following the same analogy, ovrcos is found sometimes, though not often, in prose, as redundant before the Infinitive, or preparing the way for it; e. g. Cyr. 8. 7. 10 eTratdevdrjv ovrcos 1 vtto rrjs Trarpidos, rols Tvpeo-fivrepois vrr eiKeiv • koX vp-d? 8e ovrco? erraldevovj rov? pep yepairipovs tt ponp-av, tcov be vecorepcov irpoTeriprjcrdai. Note 4. The Infin. of some short parenthetic cla.uses may be referred to the preceding constructions ; e. g. drfkcos elrrelv to speak briefly, in short. So too efjtoi SoKelv it seems to me, in my opinion ; okiyov v. paKpov delv, it $ 140. THE INFINITIVF. 885 wants little, almost, nearly; ttoXXov Sea/, it wants much, not by a great deal. For the i^ersonal construction of such verbs, see in § 151. 1. 7. So too the [nfin. often stands after as, oaov, in parenthetic clauses ; e. g. <»r awTopcos sljreiv, ws arvvehovTi elirdv (for which also simply orvveXovn can stand, comp. § 145. n. 3), so to speak briefly ; oaov y' ip.e dbivai so far as I know; a>v twos elrrelv so to speak; as elicdo-ai, etc. See Heind. ad Plat. Hipp. maj. 11. 5. The Infinitive also takes the article to, and thus is capable of declension ; as has already been noted, in § 125. 8. It admits likewise therewith the nearer adverbial and objective adjuncts ; as to fcaXcos airoOavelv, to tovs (f>l\ov<; ahi/celp, to vtto toov (pl\rov dhucelcrQat, etc. The article is commonly prefixed, whenever the Infinitive fills the place of a substantive and can readily be ex- changed for one. This occurs in a threefold way : a) When the Infin. is the subject of a clause, and the clause contains a general sentiment ; e. g. ^aXeirov to iroielv, to he /ce\ev- o~ai pahiov. Note 5. If the clause contain no general sentiment, the article is not in se/t^d ; e. g. Hdot. 3. 71 inel fie is Aapelov cnri/cero yvcopuqv aTroCpaiveadac. eXeye roidbe. We must distinguish between r)hv to Srjpdv and r)8v Srjpav. Also after a preparatory demonstrative in the main clause (§ 127. 1. e), the article is commonly omitted; since the former supplies its place; e. g. Eur. Hipp. 470 iv aocpolcn yap rdfi' e'crrt SvrjTeov, \av8dv€Lv ra p.r) naXd. Eur. Or. 1161 fidpos tl Kav r«uS' e'crnV, alvelcrdai Xlav. Comp. § 132. n. 22. Note 6. But when the Infin. stands as if in apposition with the subject- noun, the article is inserted; e. g. Time. 1. 41 77 evepyeaia r) is 2aplovs, to t>C rj/jids UeXoTTOvvqcriovs toIs *2ap,iois p,r) (3 or) Or) o~ at, ixapeo-^ev vp.lv tt)v ^aplodv Kokaaiv. Cyr. 7. 5. 52 rjXdev r) heivr) dyyekia, to TvdvTas dvdpdnrovs i(f> r)p,ds avWiy eadat. b) Yf hen the Infin. is the object of a clause ; and consequently depends on verbs which govern the Accusative, or also the Geni- tive of object. Here the Infin. must be regarded as the real ob- ject of the action expressed by the principal verb, and conse- quently as a substantive. Examples : Cyr. 1. 4. 21 coenrep kv&v yevvaios (pepeTau npos Kairpov, ovtoos 6 Kvpos icpeptTO, novov opa>v to Traieiv tov d\io-Kop,evov. Dem. Phil. p. 41 ctkottwv to re Tikr)8os tt)s 8vvdp,ec£>s ml t 6 To. ywp/a rravra oV o X co X e v a i TTj rrokei. Mem. 4. 3. 1 to p.ev ovv XeKTiKovs kal TtpaKTiKovs yiyveaBai tovs avvov- Tas ovk eo-nevdev. Comp. Hdot. 9. 79. Note 7. So soon however as the Infinitive is only the complement of the idea expressed by the governing verb, and consequently combines with this into one predicate, it admits no article ; since it then is taken merely in a verbal sense. E. g. (3ov\op.ai \iyetv, also ivudvpLG), napacvS), /ceXet> XPV~ adai paWov i) iv rco KeKTTJadai. — Dem. 01. p. 16 to yap ev irpdrTeiv napd ttjv d£iav dcpopp.rj tov kcikcds (ppovelv roTr avorjTois yiyveTai, SidVep 7toWo.kis 8oK.el to (3aai\ev, dvTi p.ev 8ovXiC>v iffoirjaas e\ev6e- pov? Tlepaa? elvai' dvr\ 8e apx^o-Qai vir y aX\v, apx^v dirdvTcdv. Note 9. Sometimes the Infin. with to (Acc.) is found, where the con- struction strictly requires the Genitive. E. g. Thuc. 3. 1 tov opuXov e tpyov to prj to. iyyv? ttjs 7r6Xecoy naicovpyiev. Comp. 2. 53. Plat. Lach. p. 190. e. See also the next note. Note 10. The Infinitive with the article in the Genitive sometimes ex- presses a purpose; but commonly only in entire clauses ; e. g. Thuc. 1. 23 gvveypayjsa tci? dtacpopds, tov p.rj Tiva ^nrrjerai iroTe, e£ otov toctovtos 7roAepor KaTeo-Tt], that no one may ever have to inquire; comp. Cyr. 1. 3. 9. It is usual here to assume an omission of evetca ; § 132. 8. — The poets in this sense can even put to before the Infinitive : Soph. OT. 1416 napeo-d' ode KpeW,. to it pdo~ creiv Kal to fiov\eveiv. Eur. Ale. 710 av y' ovv dvaidas; 8iep.d- Xv TeOrjvai. 6. Between the article and the Infinitive, there may be inter- posed not only near adjuncts of the Infinitive, but also entire sub- ordinate clauses. Example : Mem. 1. 2. 4 (2a>KpdTn?) to p.ev ovv vrrepeadiovTa v-nepnoveiv dTceooKip.a(e [he disapproved) , to 8e, ocra y' rfieoo? fj yfrvxrj 8ex €TCtl > ra ^ Ta iKavcos eKnovelv, edoKip.a£e. Comp. CEc 13. 6. 7. The Infinitive often stands wholly independent, instead of the Imperative of the second person. In this case, the subject (if expressed), and all the declinable adjuncts belonging to it, re- ? 141. THE INFINITIVE. 38 main in the Nominative ; comp. § 141. n. 6. Hero it is usual (though unnecessary) to supply ^efiv^ao or the like. Examples: II. p. 692 JXXa crvy' aty 1 'A^tX^t, $ev enl vrjas 'Axaiav, elrrelv. — Plat. Soph. p. 218. a, av §' apa ti tQ> prjKei ttovcov a^%, prj e/xc atTiao-dat tovtcov. See Heind. ad Plat. Lys. 18. § 141. The Infinitive with its Subject. 1. When the Infinitive has a subject of its oivn, that is, a dif- ferent one from that of the main sentence, the fundamental rule is, that this subject, with all its declinable adjuncts, whether substantives, adjectives, or participles, is then put in the Accu- sative. Thus with the Infin. introduced by the article, to, tov, tS : Examples : Soph. Trach. 65 to ere Trarpos pr) nvdecrdai ttov 'gtiv, alcrxyvrjv (pepei sc. croi. Plat. Symp. p. 218 epol ovdev earn TtpeafivTepov tov r, etc. § 139. G), often in one and the same sentence ; e. g. Xen. Hell. 4. 3. 1 ayyeXXet AepKuXXtSar, on viKaev re AaKedaipoviot, koi avT&v pev Tedvdvai 6kto>, rcov Se rto'Xepicav irapTrXrjde'i?. Indeed, by means of a certain anncoluthon x 388 SYNTAX. § 141. {he two constructions pass over the one into the other ) see ar example above. § 139. m. 61. Xen. Hell. 6. 5. 42 iXiri^eiv xpfy "$ av8pa? dyadovs pdXXov i} kcikov? avTovs yevrjcreo-dat. Comp. Cyr. 2. 1. 23. Hdot. 7. 226.— From the converse of this relation has probably arisen the very extensive usage, that the subject of a dependent clause introduced by a conjunction, is put with the verb of the main sentence in the Accusative ; e. g. aicovco avrov, as a77fe)Xero. See more on this construction in § 151. I. 6. Note 3. Through a want of syntactical exactness, we sometimes find, even in the direct style, main clauses with the Accus. c. Infin. This arises from an almost involuntary attraction towards some preceding verb of speaking, etc. and the clause appears grammatically incomplete. E. g. Hdot. 4. 5 cos Se 2,Kv6at \eyovai, vecorarov cmavTv iQveuov elvat to crcpeTepov (as if preceded by : 2k. Aeyouo-i). 95 6)S eyco irvvBdvopai tovtcov, tov ZdXpo^iv dovXevaai iv 2dpcp. Comp. also Xen. An. 6. 4 (2). 18 cos eya> fJKovo-d twos, otl KAecu'Spo? /liXkei rj^eiv. 3. When the subject of the Infinitive is one and the same with that of the main sentence, it is not expressed ; not even after verbs which are usually followed by the Ace. c. Infin. e. g. ecprj • vnco- tttcvov yap eVi fiao-iXea iiycw pio-8a>6rjvai Se ovk irri tovtco ecpaaav ktX. Cyr. 2. 2. 10 nidavoX ovTOiS elai Tives, aiare, irplv eldevai to npocrTaTTopevov tt poTepo* Trtldeo-dai. Note 4. A deviation from this rule is rare, at least in good prose ; e. g, Plato Charm, p. 173 olpai p.ev Xnpdv /xe, and often after olp.ai, Legg. p : &60. c. Soph. p. 234. e. In strictness such a deviation can only have place ' 1) When some special emphasis requires the express repetition of the sub- ject in the dependent clause; see the examples. 2) When still other sub- jects are introduced in the dependent clause ; but then the Nominative also can stand with the Infinitive. On the second point see more in $ 142. n. 3, and comp. § 144. n. 8. Examples under 1. Hdot. 2. 2 ol AXyimrioi £v6p.i£ov iavTovs 7rpu>Tovs yevecrdai ttcivt&v dvOpooncov, that they themselves, etc. 1. 34 Kpolcros ivopi^e iiovTov elvai dvOpcoircov andvTcov dXfticoTaTOv, coinp. 1. 171. — Plat. Apol. p. 36 rjyrjadpevos epavTov too qvtl emeiKecrTepov elvat rj waTe els ratir' Iovtci aoo(eadai. Isocr. Paneg. p. 58 (ol irpoyovoi) eviaTas acpds avTovs eivai vopi^ovTes. Comp. II. n. 198. v. 269. — For examples under 2, see § 142. n. 3. Note 5. In the use of the Infinitive for quoting the language of another, or in any other dependent discourse, the Greeks go further than the Latins, in this respect, viz. that they more frequently employ this construction with relative and other minor clauses. E. g. Plat. Alcib. I. p. 123 ecp-q napeXdelv X^pav . . . fjv KaXelv tovs enix^piovs £eovr)v, 'he said he had passed by a country, which the inhabitants call the zone.' Hdot. 1. 86 a>y 8e cipa piv irpoo-Tr)vai tovto, dvao-Tevd^avra is Tpls uvopdo-ai 20AQN, 'as this presented itself to his mind, he groaned three times and pronounced the name Solon :' comp. 6. 137. Thuc. 2. 102. Xen. Mem. 1. 1. 13 2ooKpaTns idavpaaev, el flfj (pavepov avTOis io~Tiv, oti Tavra ov bwarov £o~tiv dvOpco-rrois evpelv • eVel kcu tovs piyiuTOv

TOVS 1 pvpprjKCtS crv^Xeyeadai, ovbeva av cr^ecoi/ airocroi^eaOai. 4. For tlie personal construction so called after Xeyerat, Bokel, BrjXov € avrjp ayaQbs elvai. b) "When the omitted subject of the Infin. stands with the pre- ceding verb only as an immediate or remote object, the adjuncts 390 SYNTAX. $ 142 connected -with the Infinitive must in like manner stand in that oblique case in which their subject thus stands as object. Thus in the Genitive : iSeovro avrov elvai irpoOv/JLov, they besought him to be o) good courage , Xen. Hell. 1. 5. 2. Or in the Dative ; e. g. etjearl fioo avicr6rjvai, 77 8ovXais 6(p6rjvai yevopevais. — Time. 7. 77 avayKalov eanv vfj.lv dv8 pacriv ayaOols ylyveo~6ai. — Hdot. 1. 176 rcov Avklcov (papevcov Sav- 6 lav elvai oi ttoXXo'l elai eTrrjXvdes. — Plat. Apol. p. 21 r/XBov en'i riva to>v 8oKovvTiov cro(p(ov elvai. Note 1. That however this attraction is not absolutely necessary, is shewn by the many examples where it is neglected, even after a Genitive or Dative expressed ■ and where consequently the adjuncts of the dependent clause, both predicates and participles, stand in the Accusative ; comp. § 144. n. 12. Examples: Hdot. 6. 100 'Eperpiees 'Afyvaitav e8er]Br]o-av acpicri j3onBovs yeveaBai. — Isocr. p. 297 8eopai vp&v, aKpodcraoBai t&>v Xeyopevcov, evBvprj- Bevras on ktX. — An. 3. 2. 1 e8o£ev avrol? 7rpo(pvXaKas Karaarrjo-avras o~vyKaXei~v tov? arpaTicoras. — Mem. 1. 1. 9 e(prj 8elv : a pev paBovras ivoielv edcoKav oi Seo\, pavBdveiv. Here after edoncav we must supply roly dvBpa- ttois, and yet the Ace. paBovras appears; but comp. below, in § 144. n. 12, the similar clause from the same passage, where dvBpomois is expressed, and the attraction (paBovcri) takes place. Note 2. In like manner after npeTrei, Trpoo-rjicei, egeari, orvpfialvei, and the like, the predicate-adjunct often stands in the Accusative by the side of the preceding Dative, especially after efecrrt. More commonly how- ever the person follows after, and passes over in like manner into the Accu- sative ; so that such verbs are then construed simply with the Ace. c. Infin. Examples: Xen. Lac. 13. 9 e^eari r<5 veco kuX (paidpov elvai koi ev86- Kipov. see the example in § 139. m. 28. — Plat. Ion. p. 539. e, ovk av irpeiroi e 77 i\i]o- pova elvai av8pa payjsepdov. — Cyr. 1. 6. 17 ovnore dpyelv Trpoarj- Kei err pandv. 7. 5. 83 ov rbv ap^ovra tcov dpxopevoov rrovq pore pov Trpocrr]Kei elvai. 3. The same attraction takes place, when the clause with the Infinitive has the article (to, tov, tS) before it. Examples: npo? to ervpepepov (a>o-i 81a r6 qb IXavroi elvai, they live only for profit , because they are selfish. Dem. Cor. p. 262 ArjpoaBevrjs aepvvverai rco ypacpel? arrocpvyelv, Demosthenes is proud, that being accused he was acquit- ted. — ov yap etcnepTTOVTai ear! rcu 8ovXoi, aXX iiii rw opoioi rols Xenrope- voi9 elvai. Aristot. Eth. 3. 5 e(/>' ijplv eari to emeiKeo-i /cat (pavXoi? elvai. — So too the Accusative, referring to a preceding like case : Isocr. Ar. p. 154 enedei^e to.? koXcjs TroXirevopevas noXirela? Trpoe-^ovo-as r<5 8 iKaiore- pas elvai. Comp. iEschyl. Prom. 235. 4. In like manner, in the construction with ware, the Nomin- ative stands with the Infinitive, when the preceding clause re- quires it. Examples : Dem. 01. p. 34 ov yap ourcor clcppcov elp\ eyoo, wore a.TT€)(ddv£~ « 143. THE RELATIVE. 391 v$ai fiovXeo-dat pndev iacpeXelv vopl^wv, i. e. thai I should be willing to incur hatred, not expecting to do any good. Also the cause ib. p. 32, made inde- pendent, would read : prjdels rnXiKovros ecrrco rrap vplv, aare rovs vopovs Trapafias pr) dovvai dUvv, let no one be so powerful among you, that having transgressed the laws he cannot be punished. See note 3. Note 3. According to § 141. 3 and n. 4, when the subject remains the same in the dependent clause, it either must not be expressed in the dependent clause, or must be put in the Accusative. Hence in the phrase vTreo~x STO avrbs Troirjaeiv, the pronoun avros is not the subject, but only a qualifying adjunct belonging to the omitted subject : se ipsum facturum. But when, in a dependent clause, there are introduced other subjects besides that of the main sentence, and. consequently for the sake of antithesis a repetition of the subject in the dependent clause seems necessary, a twofold construc- tion may take place, viz. either all the subjects are put in the Accusative ; or the repeated subject stands alone in the Nominative antithetic to the others in the Accusative. Examples : a) With Accus. Xen. Hell. 2. 1. 26 ol arparnyol dmevai avrov eKeXevcrav • avrovs yap vvv arparrjyelv ovk enelvov. Plat. Hipp. M. p. 282 olpai ipe nXeico xpi)para dpydadai r) dXXovs crvvbvo. Comp. Charm, p. 195. e. Euthyd. p. 305. d. Amat. p. 133. b. Gorg. p. 452 t'i eari rovro, o cpfjs av pe- yiarov dyaObv eivac koI ere bnpiovpybv elvai avrov ; b) With the Nominative : Dem. Mid. p. 579 epe o'ieo-6' vplv elo-olcreiv, vpels de vepelaBai; do ye sup- pose that I shall always contribute, and ye always consume ?■ and further on : vopl£eis rjpds pev d7TO\lfn£eiv (sc. rovs vopovs) j also ante: dvva- ra>repot elvat (repels e^ovres rds vavs 7ropt^ea6aL ret e7rirr)deia rcov ev rfj 7rdXei, i. e. than those in the city. Comp. also Xen. Mem. 2. 3. 17. Cyr. 2. 4. 25. Plat. Agesi. 10. So likewise after axxre : Thuc. 7. 6 (ecpdaaav) coare pr)re avroX K(£>Xveo~6ai, eKelvovs re a7rearepr]K.evai kt\. Cyr. 6. 1. 14 (dvaKopl^ovrai rd enirrjdeia), axrre avroX pev eyeiv, rjpds de pi) bvvacrBai Xapfidveiv. — Also in later writers: Muson. ap. Stob. p. 167 2ooKp. ecpn robs pev noXXovs (fjv Iva io-QloicnVy avrbs de eadleiv Iva £ij. (Contra, Diog. L. 2. 34 avrov de eadi- uv.) — Comp. further § 144. n. 8. Note 4. When after the verbs mureveiv nvi, TreiBecrdat nvi, there follows an Infinitive-clause, the subject of which is the remote object (Da- tive) of those verbs, the pronoun avros being omitted, the simple Infinitive is put instead of the Ace. c. Inf. E. g. Plat. Charm, p. 161 c Opi)pa> m- o-reveis KaXoos Xeyeiv. Phffidr. p. 271 pi) rreidcoped' avrols, reyyr\ ypdcpeiv. — Whatever belongs to the omitted subject is likewise put in the attraction ; «. g. Xen. Cyr. 3. 3. 55 ovd' dv rovrois erriarevov e pp.6vois ecreadai. § 143. Construction of Relative Clauses. 1 Of all minor clauses, those with Relatives present the great- est variety of construction and idiom ; and thus form a very im- portant portion of the Greek Syntax. It will be the object of the present section, to bring these together and exhibit them in their proper connection. For the relative pronoun (o) ; os \abv fjyeipa. Her. 2. 115 iyoo av ere iTiardprjv os epyov dpoatcorarov ipyd- aao, § 139. m. 35 a. Here "belongs also Eur. TA. 991 olx.Tpa -nenovOapev, ?*; Kevrjv Kareo-xov i^nlda, by § 129. n. 14. Note 1. When the relative clause refers to a Vocative, it must of course stand in the second person; as II. k. 278 k\vul pot, Aios re/coy, rjre pot ale\ 7rapio-rao-ai. The following passage can he regarded only as a very rare exception : II. p. 248 d> (ftCkoi, 'Apyeicov rjyrjTopes r]8e pedovTes, otre Trap 1 'Arpei- $t]S brjpia ttiv ovcriv, kcli at] patvovo'iv \aols. 3. When a relative refers to several single objects, the same rules hold good in respect to it, as in k 129. 4, 5, 10. Examples : Isocr. Panath. p. 278 ravra S' elnov^ ov npbs tyjv evaefieiav oioe irpbs rrjv biKatocrvvqv ovoe 7rpbs ttjv (ppovrjcnv d7ro^\e\j/-as, a, cry dirj\des. De Pac. init. fjKopev eKKkrjcridcrovTes 7repl jroXepov kcu elprjvijs, a peyLarrjv e)(£i bvua- pi> iv T(5 /3tiXov -$aAor (Hector), bv reaov avrfj. Comp. the ex ample Od. £. 156, in §129. 11. d) The relative sometimes refers to an antecedent, whicL u only implied in the sense of the main sentence. Examples : Thuc. 6. 80 dno UeXowovvrjo-ov ivapeurai axpekia, ot (sc A HoCpdXeiav (pepovres) rcbvSe Kpeiaaovs elal ra TroXepaa. Eur. Hec. 420 qwp r, awp-evaios, hv (sc. vp-evalcov) p? exPV v rvxelv. ^o ^ 00 ^ ne P ron - demon r. Thuc. 1. 36 6 QepiaroKkrjS cpevyei es Kepicvpav, cbv avroiv (sc. KepKvpai v) evepyerrjS. 6. That the postpositive article sometimes retains its original demonstrative power, has already been shewn in § 126. On the other hand, the usage so common in Latin, that a relative clause comes in place of a subjoined demonstrative clause and conse- quently stands independent, is far less frequent in Greek ; aad has for the most part a colouring of emotion, or belongs to 'die poetic language and especially to the dramatic dialogue, or ialls within a later Latinizing period. Examples: Plat. Apol. p. 35 el ovv ol doKovvres biacpepeiv tolovto rovrai, alcrvpbv av e'lr). . . . ot epol doKOvcriv aio~yyvr)v rrj noXei Trepidnreiv. S h. OT. 723 roiavTCL (prjpai p.avTLKa\ oicopio-av. a>v evrpenov av prjdev. Eu Or. 424 (in dialogue) MEN. TJaXaprjbovs ae rip-ccpel (povos. OP. ov -y' ov aKeis 7 ovre bieiXe^ai ov8e7ra>nore. b) II. a. 79 AyapLep-vcov, bs peya 7rdvro>>v 'ApyeLoov Kpareei, Kai o I ireiOovrai A^atot. Plat. Meno. p. 90. e, napa rovra>v, ot prpre Trpoanoiovvrai bibdaKaXoi elvai, p.f)T* earlv avrwv p.adr}rrjs p-rjbeis, see § 148. 2. e. Dem. 01. p. 35 ot rrpoyovoi, ols ovk exapiCovO* ol Xeyovres, ovo' icpiXovv avrov s coanep vpas ovroi vvv, tS>v 'EWrjvvv rjpgav. Comp. Thuc. 2. 74. Od. a. 70. j3. 54, 113. 8. When to a relative clause another minor clause is subordin- ate, in which latter there would naturally be a demonstrative referring to the main antecedent, but in a different case from the relative, the two clauses flow together into one relative clause, in which the relative takes the case of the demonstrative, and the demonstrative falls away.* See also k 127. 1. d. * We find the like construction in clauses with yap, especially in Herodotus ; e. g Hdot. 2. 101 t«c &7\Acov flao-iXecov ov yap eXeyov ovdepiav epyav airSoe^Lf, 394 SYNTAX. & 14^ Examples : Isocr. de Pac. p. 168 avropoXol eltri, ol?, onorav ti? bibio 7i-Aeio) fiicrdov, per eKeivov e<£' fjpd? a.Ko\ov8r)crovaiv, instead of ol, onorav avrol? kt\. — Dem. Phil. 3. p. 128 noWa av elirelv e^oiev 'OXvvdioL vvv, a tot' el npo- eibovTo, ovk av dircokovTO. — Plat. Rep. p. 466 ol cpvkaKe?, ol? e^bv navra £X €Lv Ta tcdv 7ro\iTcbv, ovbev e'xoiev, see § 145. n. 10. 2. 9. Every relative clause, in order to be complete, must have in it a finite verb. Yet the omission of the copula is not unus- ual. Comp. § 129. 20. Examples. II. rj. 50 TrpoKakecro-ai 'Aya£coi> oo-tls apio-To?. Eur. Phoen. 746 ekov irpoicpiva? o"mep akKip.coTa.Toi. Plat. Rep. p. 466 at-ovcri tcov Traibcov el? tov TToXepov ocroi dbpoi Sometimes, though very seldom, the Subjunctive copula is thus omitted : ib. p. 370. e, Kopi£ovTai, hv av avTols xP*' La > Note 2. A like omission of the copula occurs also in the very common attraction with the relatives olos, oaos, ffktKos, etc. for which see below, no. 16, and § 151. I. 5. Note 3. When the predicate of a relative clause would be the same with that of the main clause, the predicate may be omitted in the relative clause, in order to avoid repetition; e. g. Od. A. 413 ktclvovto ave? c%? dypiobovTes, ol pa r' ... r) ydpcp 7} ipdvco sc. KTeivovTai. For this elliptical usage, which occurs also in other minor clauses, (e.g. Xen. Hell. 1. 7. extr. naTekOcov. ore ml ol €K Heipatco? sc. KaTrjXdov,) see more in § 151. IV. 5, and comp. § 150. m. 8. 10. As to position, the relative clause may naturally also stand first; e.g. Cyr. 1. 6. 11 o,tc S' av \a/i/3dvrj Tt?, %apiv tovtcov et/co? el&evcLL t£> BlBSvtc- — For the frequent omission of the corre- sponding (antecedent) demonstrative, see § 127. 1. d. 11. When the relative clause thus stands first, it is a very common and peculiar usage in Greek, (as also partially in Latin,) that the following clause does not grammatically fully correspond to the preceding relative clause, but takes some other turn. Such clauses are of many and various kinds in Grreek writers, who so often sacrifice strict grammatical accuracy to other considera- tions, e. g. to symmetry, ease, and vivacity. All this will be seen in the examples. Examples : Mem. 2. 2. 6 a pev av avrol evcocnv ol yovel? dyaBa npos tov (3lov, diddo-Kovari tov? 7ral,ba? • a S' av o'icovTai aWov licavcoTepov eivai bibdtjai, TTtpnovo-i irpb? tovtov. Plat. Euthyd. init. o be av epcoTa?, ttjv aocpiav av- toIv, a> Kptrcoi/, Tidvaocpoi are^z/cor. Xen. An. 6. 1. 29 6 §' vpel? evvoelre, oti tjttov av ardai? e'lrj evb? cipxovros rj noXXcov, ev lore on kt\. Hell. 2. 3. 45 a 8' av einev, cor eyco elpi oios peTafiaXkeadai, KaTavorjaaTe kt\. Luc. Deor. Cone. 5 koX b ndvTcov yeKoioTaTov, K.a\ tov Kvva ttjs 'Hpiyovrj? dvtjyayev. In this last case a clause with ore or yap can immediately follow: Plat. Rep. p. 491 6 irdvTcov SavpacrTOTaTOV anovaai, oti ev eicaarov hv eTvrjveaapev tt)s rod crlrov, ovirep avrhs e^ei^, thou sharest with him the food, which thou thyself hast ; where ovirep, because of the Gen. crirov to which it refers, stands also in the G-enitive, instead of the Accus. ovirep which the verb e%eiv requires. So likewise ev irpocr^eperai, roh cfiiXois, oh e-^ei, he meets with kindness the friends, which he has. So when the proper Accusative would strictly express only a re- mote object ; e. g. Dem. Mid. 35 Bl/crjv oov civ aoi/crjOj} rt? Xa/ju- ftdveiv, from the expression a dBiKov/jiai, l as to which I am of- fended.' Plut. Mor. p. 334 tov jmgOov &v erepire^ cnreXa[A(3aves avTirepiropbevo^, [ the wages for that by which thou didst delight me.'* This attraction naturally takes place only when the relative clause contains a near and almost adjective qualification of the substantive ; consequently not in clauses like this : iirrjveOri viro TTcivrcov t6)v eavrov iroXirwv, ot)? jjiejdXa G)(p€\7]CT€v. See \ 151. I. 2. Examples: II. a//-. 649 ov ae X^co riprj?, qsre p' eoiKe reriprjcrdai per 'A^aioTf. — Hdot. 7. 164 Kddpo? Kcoos eKpdrrjcre peydXoav ^p^^arcoz/, rwv oi Te- \ ddSres r&v ?jV irepl 2ap5is. Comp. Thuc. 7. 67. 396 SYNTAX. k 143. Plat. Gorg, p. 452. a, ol drjpiovpyol rovrcov, hv iTrrjveaev 6 to o~ko\i6v ttoitj- aas.^ Xen. OEc. 2. 1 imo ye toi'tcoi/, cov o~v deanoLvcou naXels, ov KooAuopat. This last is at the same time an example, where the Accusative-predicate, which is dependent on the second clause (8eo~7roii>as), is also drawn into the attraction. 14. Along with this Attraction there can also be connected the usage described in no. 12 above ; so that the antecedent or noun of the first clause is transferred from that clause to the second in such a way, that, together with the relative, it remains in the case required by the word on which it depends : fieraSiBa)^ avrcp ovirep avrbs e^et? cr ltov ev irpoo-^eperaL o 1 5 eyei <£ / X o 1 9. It sounds still more strangely to us, when to all this is added the inversion of the clauses : oh e%ei (plXois ev 7rpoa(f>eperaL. Examples: dnoXava) hv e^oo dyaOcov. — Dem. 01. 3. p. 35 roVe p.ev koXcos ei^e ra irpayjiara eKelvois ^pcopevocs, ois eiirov 7rp o crrarair. — An. 1.9. 14 Kvpos, ovs ecopa eBeKovTas Kivbvveveiv, cip^ovras inolei rj s Kareo-rpecpeTO ^ cop as. Soph. OC. 333 rfkdov £vv cpnep efyov oiKercov ttlcttco pdfco. 15. When the antecedent would express no definite idea, or has been already once mentioned, it is often omitted ; and then the relative stands alone in a case not properly belonging to it ; /jL€/jivr)[ievo<; &v eirpa^e, instead of fiefivrj/jbivo^ rcov ir pay pudrcov, &v eirpa^ev, and this for a eirpa^ev. — And with the inversion : oh e%co yjpoi\xai. EXAMPLES : heivoTepd io~TLv a peAAco \eyeiv hv (i. C tovto>v a) e'tprjua. — Hell. 3. 5. 18 Avcravdpos i-vv ois et^ev ijet npos to ret^oy. — Eur. Or. 564 ei> pf} Sopvfieiv ecp' ois av Xeyco. — Soph. OT. 862 ovbev yap av irpd^aip! dv cov ov aoi ;Sea)? yapi'CpVTai olw crol avhpi In such instances too the noun itself often falls away ; c. g. Plat. Soph. p. 237 %aX€7rbv r/pov kcll oXcp ye ifiol airopov, 'thou askest something difficult and not to be answered, at least by such an one as J.' — And further, as the whole expression (oi

i ££rjei. — Apol. p. 39 (fir) pi., &j av8pes, TLp,c£>plav vp.lv rj^etv ^aXeTrcorepav f) otav epe aneKTOvare. — Arist. Acharn. 601 opwv veavlas, olovs crv, 8ia8e8paKoras. Comp. Dem. Androt. extr. Hell. 1. 4. 16. 17. When, vice versa, the antecedent is attracted by the case of the relative, (which of course remains in its own proper case,) this is a species of Anacoluthon (k 151. II), or departure from the construction as begun. E. g. Xen. Yen. 1. 10 Mekeaypos he ras T(/ia?, a? eka(3e, (fiavepal, instead of at rtfial, a? M. e\a(3e, etc. This more commonly takes place, when instead of a substantive the antecedent is a general pronominal idea, (as aWos, rh, ere- pos, iras,) which may be readily connected with the relative. Examples: Plat. Meno. p. 96. a, e'xeis elnelv aXXov brovovv irpdypa- ros, ov oi (pdcrKovres 8i8do-KaXoi elvai bpoXoyovvrai ovk iir'io~Taa6ai to Trpdyjxa] comp. ib. c. Hdot. 2. 106 rds be crrr]Xas rds tara 2ecrcoo-Tpiy, at p.ev TrXev- ves ovKeri (paivovrai TrepLeovaai. Dem. Cor. p. 230 ere pa o oroo kcikov ti 8d>crop,ev £rjrovpev. Hell. 1. 4. 2 KaKe8aip.6vioi Trdvrcov hv 8eovrai neTrpayo- res elaiv. (Such examples therefore do not need to be explained by an in- version : orcp 6° erepa>, hv 7rdvT(£>v.) — II. cr. 192 aXXov 8 , ov rev ol8a, rev av kXvto. Tevxea 8voo. Here rev (for rivos) stands where we should expect rov (ov), and has arisen out of the simple thought : ovk olda, rivos aXXov reuyea 8va>. Note 6. The same occurs again here, as in note 5, with adverbial cor- relatives ; e. g. Plat. Crit. p. 45 noXXaxov p.ev yap koL aXXoae ottoi av d(piKT], dyanrjo-ovcrL ere, instead of dXXaxov ottoi, ktX. Note 7. The same takes place in the phrase ov8eh oari? oi, nemo non. i. e. every one, which is declined like a simple word ; see more in § 148. n. 8. —Similar is the phrase often used by Plato, oy (3ovXei, Lat. guivis, i. e. each, every one, which also is declined : brov fiovXei cujusvis, wvtlvcov [3ovXei, etc. E. g. Plat. Crat. p. 432 avrd rd 8ex.a rj oar is fiovXei aXXos dpi6p.6v, Comp. Ion. p. 533. a. 18. A relative clause becomes more complex and difficult of translation, when it stands in connection with other construe- 398 SYNTAX. § 144. tions ; e. g. with that of the Ace. c. Infm. as ovtos eariv, ov fyruit elvai ifcav&TtiTov. So with the participial construction, se*c $ 144. 4 ; with interrogative clauses, see $ 127. 5, and n. 8. Note 8. For relative and other minor clauses in the Ace. c. Infm. see § 141. n. 5. 19. Finally, it is to be noted, that relative clauses often take the place of other minor clauses. Thus we have already seen them as final clauses, as causal clauses, and as ecbatic clauses ; see $ 139. m. 34, 35 a, 35 b. We may here further remark, that as el tls, rjv res, often stand for octtls (§ 149. m. 5), so also vice versa octtls, o? av, are sometimes put where we should naturally expect clauses with el tl povov pevoi koi an pa £6 pevoi (cbcriv. — Dem. 01. p. 31 ovx evpr]TST€ tov y pd-^rovra a cru/xepepet, Sta to 7ra8e7v tl kukov tov ei776v- ra Kal yputyavra. See also $ 124 n. 6, and no. 3 beJow. J 144. THE PARTICIPLE. 399 Note 1. When the participle as substantive is intended to mark an in- definite person or thing, the article must be omitted. But since it is by the article that participles become substantives, without the article they would assume again their verbal character ; thus rj\6ov ayovres can only mean : they came bringing. Hence in such a case, either the indef. pron. r\s must be inserted with the participle ; or else the article must remain, wherever the mind anticipates (as it were) some definite object, without being able or willing to name it expressly: that is, marks as it were the class 01 genus; see § 124. 1. Examples: rjk8e ns \eyoav, there came one saying, one who said. Here the English idiom is the same with the Greek. Hell. 7. 5. 24 ^aXe7roz/ ev- pelv rovs ede\r]crovras ptevetv, e7rei8dv ni/ar (pevyovras rwv eavrov 6pa>- 8el ras y'voopas e%eiv, cos, eav derj, rrkevareov els ras vavs e p. /3 a a i v, that, if necessary, we ourselves must embark and set sail. Note 3. In all participial constructions, there strictly lies at the "basis a relation of time; i. e. the action of the participle, in whatever connection it may stand with that of the other verb, is almost always to be regarded either as antecedent, cotemporary, or future, in respect to that other ; and is put accordingly in the required tense. But in viewing this relation, a mode of conception is often possible, different from that which is familiar to ourselves ; and hence it happens, that we often find in writers the Part. Aor. where we should expect the Part. Pres. and vice versa. E. g. in the 400 SYNTAX. $ 144. Homeric e Q,s elnoov corpvve p.evos ml Svpov emaTov, we should expect the Present \eyav ; for in that he so speaks, by his discourse, the leader en- courages Ins troops ; hut he must also already have said something per- suasive, when they "become moved. So also in Xen. Mem. 3. 6. 2 roidde Kegas mreo-x ev avrov. — But the Part. Pres. can stand, when "both actions are conceived of as continued or constantly repeated; e. g. Xen. Mem. 1. 2. 61 (of Socrates) /3eXrtouy yap noiav tovs avyyiyvopevovs aTreirefXTrev. Here iroirjo-as would refer only to a single instance ; but the meaning is, 'he made (customarily, every time) those who came to him better, and then sent them away.' — The Part. Pres. stands also for many actions which are necessarily connected with, or presupposed by, the following one, and must almost be conceived, of as one with them, as to go, run, lead, bring, etc. comp. § 150. m. 33 sq. E. g. II. a. 179 oi/caS' Icbv Mvppidoveo-aiv avaaae, ' go home and rule — ;' II. p. 707 o-rrj de Seav, 'running he placed himself;' Od. a. 127 ey^os ear^ae cpepuov npos Kiova, 'bearing the spear away he placed it by the column;' Plat. Charm. 2 mi /xe mdi£ei ayoov, 'he leads and seats me;' Hdot. 8. 118 tovs 8e npoo-Kweovras eKTvqbeeiv — , because the genu- flexion is conceived of as inseparable from the act of quitting the royal person. — Other instances are to be explained from a peculiar signification of the Aorist, by means of which it marks the beginning of an action. Thus crTpaTrjyrjcras, (S aa i\evcras, ap£as eiroiei, may indeed mean : as gen- eral, king, ruler, he did so and so ; literally however : having become gen- eral, king, ruler, etc. See Kruger de Auth. p. 8. — Finally, it is not at all unusual to subjoin to an Aorist a cotemporary action in the aorist participle; where then by way of explanation the participle can be changed into the Indicative of the same tense and connected by kciL E. g. Cyr. 1. 3. 8 (ecpacrav) 'AcrTvdyrjv o-Kco^ravTa dire'iv. See Herm. ad Vig. note 224; also below in note 6, \av6dveiv. .3. Especially do the Greeks employ the participle of the Fu- ture to express a purpose, where we employ a clause beginning with that, in order that, or the Infinitive with to, in order to. Examples : ravra p.a6cbv 6 Kvpos znepj^e tov Tcofipvav ziro-fyopLtvov, 'Cy- rus sent Gobryas to see, or that he might see. 11 Plat. Gorg. p. 478 tov ddi- kovvtcl rrapa tovs bimo-Tas ayeiv Sei biKrjv ddxrovra, in order that he may be punished. Dem. 01. p. 14 tovs avpijiaxovs del ad>£eiv, mi tovs tovto rvoir\- o-ovras arpaTicoTas eKirepneii/ (see no. 1 above), 'and to send out soldiers in order to accomplish this? Note 4. As the Present likewise often implies a purpose [de conatu § 137. n. 10), the same idea can also be given by the participle of the Present, whenever the context readily suggests the sense. E. g. eVe/^ey avrov dyyeWovra, in order to announce. Plat. Euthyphr. p. 8. ndvTa noiovai ml \iyovo~i (pevyovres ttjv dikrjv. Hdot. 8. 143 Seolcri avp-jxaxoiai TTiavvoi p,iv ine^ip,€v ap.vvo pievoi. 4. The Greeks can interweave into one clause what in English we express in several clauses ; and this without confusion, in that they connect the participial construction with that of the relative and that of the Infinitive ; insert also interrogative words ; and even make one participle dependent on another. In this last case the participle cannot be connected by /cat. Examples : 'Eneha p,6vov Sie^ei, a tovs Idovras rjyelro TedvrjKevai, where we say : ' he narrated only those things, as to which he supposed, that they who saw them were now dead.' Dem. Mid. 42 ri/xare avrco ovk. ekdaaovos, rj ocrov s. Comp. Eur. Suppl. 231. Iph. T. 714 [696]. For interrogative clauses in the participial construction, see \ 127. 5, and n. 8. Note 5. With the participle also, the constructio ad sensum (Kara o-vveaiv) is not unfrequent ; this here takes place not only in respect to number and gender, e. g. Cyr. 7. 3. 8 a> dyadr) ^v^f), o'ixn §j) cnro\nTa>v f]p.ds) (other examples see in $ 129. 11 :) but also in respect to case, in consequence of a change of construction mentally. Thus the participle is put in the Nom- inative both before and after a noun or pronoun in the Dative; as Plat. Apol. 6 ml dia.Xeyop.evo? clvtw, edo£-e p.oi ovro? 6 dvrjp eivai aocpos, i.e. 4v6p.i£ov tov avbpa ktX. comp. Legg. p. 811. d. — Thuc. 7. 42 ml roly 2vpam- criois mTarvX^^is ovk oXiyq eyevero . . . 6 patvTes; i. e. KaTenXdyrjaav^ After the Accusative: Eur. Hsc. 964 at'Scor /a' ex ft » *v T(58e norp-to Tvyxdvovo*', tv elp.1 vvv ktX. i. e. aldovpcu. After the Genitive: Hdot. 4. 132 Aapelov rj yvd>p.rj %r]v . . . eiKa£cov, I.e. Aapelos ttjv yvcop.rjv eiye. Comp. Eurip. IT. 680 o-coOel? 8i ktX., So too the Dative after the Genitive : Thuc. 1. 61 rjv 8e yvd>p,r) tov 'ApioTecoy, to p.ev p.e8* eavrov o~TpaT07re8ov e^ovri, eTnrrjpelv ktX. —Comp. further, $ 145. n. 1, 2, 4, 8. §151. II: 5. By rule the main action should always be expressed by a finite verb ; and the minor circumstances by participles. But the Greeks, and especially the poets, could sometimes reverse this construction, at least according to our ideas, in order to give, more peculiarity to the expression. Examples: Soph. OC. 1038 x a P^ v airetXei vvv, i. e. begone with thy threatening ; for afterwards it is said : av 5' rjp.1v eicrpXos avrov p.lp.ve. Plat. Gorg. p. 486 rbv roiovrov ei-eariv enl Kopprjs tvtttovto. p,rj didovai dUrju, where evidently the idea tvtttciv depends on egeern : such a fellow one may cuff without being punished. II. t. 540 mm irokX epdeanev edav. This us- age is imitated by the Latin poets, especially Virgil. Note 6. Hence may be explained a usage, which is very current in prose also in a certain number of verbs. These, which according to our ideas would express only minor or adverbial circumstances, take in Greek the form of the main verb ; while that which with us is the main action is express- ed by a participle dependent on that verb. Such verbs are the following. tv yxdveiv and in the poets Kvpelv, happen, come to pass : a>y §e r}Xdov, eru- %ev dnioiv, as I came, he ivas by chance going away. Similar is V7rdp%e iv : Dem. 01. p. 30 vnrjpxov oi 'OXvvBioi dvvap.lv Ttva KtKTrjpevoi, they possessed at the time a force. Xavddveiv be hid, concealed: tclvto. TroLrjaas 1 eXadev vrre Kv, having done this he fled secretly, unperceived. Or the reference may be to the subject itself: tov cpovea Xavddvei (36a kg v he nourishes uncon- sciously his murderer; eXade neo-cov he fell unawares, which phrase belongs to the anomaly mentioned in note 3 ; because the Part, stand-- in the Aorist, while the verb itself is also an Aorist. So too Xdde /3tto- aas c live unnoticed.' But also vice versa, oXto Xa8oov II. p.. 390. (pOdveiv anticipate, come before: ecpdrjv dcpeXcov I took it away just be- fore. See further among the phrases in § 150. m. 37. biareXdv continue: StareXa napav, he is continually present. Dem Lept. 4 ol 'Adrjvaioi vnep do^rjs to.? Idia? ovaia? irpoaavaXicrKovTes Sterc- Xovv. So too dtdyeiv and dcaylyveadai. E. g. Mem. 4. 8. 4 2coKpd- tt)? ovdev aXXo 7tolcov biayeyivqTaL r) n paTToav to. dUaia ml twv db'iKcov d.7rexdp.evo?. Similar is : Xeyeov Starpi/3a>, I speak long or too long, Dem.Ol.p. 11; also Xiirapelv in Herodotus, e.g. 3.51 eXindpee tcrro- o(.i.ov, he narrated per severingly ; comp. 1. 94. iEs. Fab. 131. Cc 402 SYNTAX. $ 144. oT^ojuai, go, am gone, often serves for peripnrase, in that it takes with it the main idea expressed by a participle ; e. g. oo^ero cpevyav v. drricov, he is fled and gone ; o^erai Savoov, he is dead and gone. For the omission of Sv with such verbs, see in note 7. — In like manner the verbs ^capeti/, dyanav, fjbea8ai, ax8ea0ai, (sec Text 6,) when followed by a participle, may often be translated gladly, sadly, or the like : e. g. Eur. Hipp. 7 ol $eo\ Tipapevoi x a lpovcn dvdpwTrcov vtto. Soph. Phil. 673 ovk a^Oo- pai o-' Ideov re ml \aj3oov cpiXov. — Comp. e#e'Aco in § 150. m. 36. 6. Not unfrequently a clause which is the complement of a verbal idea, and which in English we introduce by the conjunc- tion that, is in Greek expressed by a participle. Here, as in other participial constructions, such a participle, considered as a verb, either has the same subject with the preceding verb, and conse- quently stands in the Nominative ; or it has a different subject, and stands consequently, with the same, as a near or remote ob- ject of the preceding verb, in one of the oblique -cases. Yet this construction with the participle can only take place, when the latter can actually stand from its own nature, i. e. when it can be resolved into a clause with in that, while, as one who, etc. Where this is not the case, the Infill, is used ; which indeed not unfrequently occurs in place of the participle; but never vice versa* The difference between the two constructions may be clearly seen in the following examples: cpalvopai o)i/ apparet me esse, cpalvopai eivai esse videor; — pavddvco Sv I learn thai 1 am, pavddvco elvai I learn to be j — ov Trepiopco ere tovto iroirja-avra I do not overlook it that thou didst this, ov 7rep. ere tovto iroirjcrai I do not allow thee to do this. In like manner, pepvrjo-Qai: pepvnero avOpumos a>v. Plat. Charm . p. 156 pLep.vrjp.ai eycoye Kpirm Tcode ^vvovra ere. Apol. p. 27 {/pel? de. « avdpe?, pepvnerde poi pr) 3-opv(3elv. — a I cr^uj/ecr 8ai : Cyr. 5. 1. 21 x^P iv vf JL * v d7ro8i86vat o#7rco d^iav bvvap.iv e^etz/ poi Sokco, Ka\ tovto pev ovk alvxvvopai A e- * The difference between the two constructions is founded on the difference of the two verbal forms. The participle namely, as is shewn by its more definite sys- tem of endings and declension by number, gender, etc. is a verbal form susceptible of a far greater number of relations, than the Infinitive ; since this latter expresses the idea of the verb only in the most indefinite manner, and admits at the most only a distinction of time. Consequently, when one action (or condition) comes to stand in a clear and definite relation towards another, — a relation limited by a reference to place, time, or other circumstances, — the participial construction will naturally be preferred and applied. E.g. An. 1. 8. 16 6 Se fropvflov rjnovcre Sia riav rd^euv Iovtos, kou V\peTo ris 6 fropvfios etn, i. e. he hears the clamour (himself) and follows its course (as it were) through all the ranks. Also Xen. (Ec. init. Iikovw ZcoKpaTovs TOLavTa SiaAeyopevov, i. e. ' I follow the discourse of Socrates.' Con- tra, Mem. 3. 1. 1 clkovw aWiv els rr}v tt6\lv 7\Keiv, i. e. 'I hear (from others) thai he has come to the city.' But on the other hand again : Cyr. 2. 4. 12 6 'Appevios KO.Ta(ppove? crov, oti cucovei Tubs TroAepiovs it po cr i6vto,s icp' rjpas, where aKovco in- deed also implies 'to learn from others;' but the approach of the enemy stands in emphatic relation to the subject or person hearing; comp. Cyr. 1. 3. 1. Hence it is not a mere accidental construction, when verbs of internal and external percep- tion (espec. of seeing), of learning, of knowing, and of an emotion of mind, are con- nected with a participle far more frequently than with the Infinitive ; while on the other hand those verbs which express mere belief, opinion, conjecture, and all those which include a reference to the future, (as those of hoping, promising, etc.) are oftener connected with the Infinitive. Hence, further, verbs of speaking and nar- rating could take either construction ; but QtAnnros ayyeAAeTai t)]v"OAvvQov noAiop- kwp is manifestly more emphatic than tV "OA. iroAiopxeh. The Infin. names an ac- tion generally; the participle describes it. — Finally, we may also hence see, how the Jntin. as a more general verbal form may often come in place of the participle, but not vice versa. \ 144. THE PARTICIPLE. 403 y co v • to 8e, rjv pevrjre nap epoi, anoocoaco, ev 'tare on ruvro alcrxyvoiprjv civ elneiv. — yiyvcotr Keiv : TllUC. 7. 77 yvcore [know) dvaynalov bv vplv dvdpd- (Tiv ayaOols yiyvecrdai. Hell 4. 5. 5 6 cV fA-y^criAaoy) eyvco (determined) napa- dovvcu avrov? rols cpvydai, ru cV aXXa ndvra npaQrjvai. For aKoveiv see also note 6 above. — Since therefore there is no particular class of verbs, with which this construction with the participle is specially connected, but it depends in every case simply on the nature of the whole clause; it will be sufficient here to point out with what verbs by preference this construc- tion may be employed. These are the verbs of physical and mental per- ception; of an emotion of mind (either of joy or sorrow) : the ideas of being and making public ; of being full; of permitting, persevering, beginning, ceasing, doing wrong, and many others. a) Examples of the Nominative, where also the proper subject of the participle can be omitted, as in the construction with the Infinitive : ol avviecrav p.arr)v novovvres: — Hdot. 3. 1 8 iaj3e /3 X 77 p.evos' ov p.av6dveis ; — Eur. Med. 347 ev rcobe SVi|co npcora pev o~o(pbs yeycos, eneira craxppcov, elrd ctql p,eya? (pCXos. — Plat. Gorg. p. 470 p.r) Kciprj? (pfoov dvdpa evepyercov. p. 489. b. ovrocrl dvrjp ov navcrerai (pXvapcov. — Xen. CEc. 1. 23 at iniOvpiai aiKi£6 p.e- vai tcl acopara rcov dvdpconoov ml rets -^v^ds ovnore Xrjyovat, ecrr' dv apxcoaiv avrcov. — Plat, ev y inol-qaas dvap,vr)cra? p.e. — Thuc. 1. 53 a§i/cetre, co dvdpes, noXepov apxovres ml anovod? Xvovres. — Also with civ, see § 139. m. 17 • Isocr. p. 311 aK.07rovp.evo? evptcrKov ovdap.co? av ciXXcos tovto o lan pa£dp.evos i.e. 'I found that I could by no means accomplish this differently.' — Hence also with Passives, arising out of the next following construction in lett. b : Demosth. 6 &LXinno? e^eXr]XeyKrai ndvr' evem eavrov noicov. So likewise with the phrases oyXos v. - cropai. Eur. Hipp. 1090 rob' epyov ae p.-qvvei KaKov. — So too very often with the verbs in note 6 ; as Hell. 2. 3. 25 ol |3eArtcrTot del avmaTol SiareXolev. Soph. El. 313 vvv dypolcri rvyx^vet. sc. ccv. Note 8. When the subject in the participial clause remains the same as in the main clause, it is by rule omitted. It can however be inserted, a? with the Infinitive (§ 141. n. 4), for the sake of special emphasis; but the construction then immediately passes over (as there also) into that of the Accusative. Examples: Cyr. 1. 4. 4 Kvpos ovxi « Kpeiaacov fjdei a>v, ravra npovKa- Xelro tov? avvovTas; dXX' arrep ev //Set eavrbv rjrTova ovra. Soph. Trach. 708 opco be p? epyov detvbv e^eipyaap-evrjv. — Dem. Phil. p. 70 dpcporepa oloc, Kal eavrbv vp.lv emfiovXevovTa ml vpd? alo~8avopevovs. Note 9. After verbs which have with them a reflexive pronoun in the Dative, (e. g. avvoida ep.avra I am conscious to myself,) this participle can stand in either of the *wo cases belonging to the verb ; e. g. oi're p,eya ovre 404 SYNTAX. 1 144. crfxiKpov ^vvoiba ep.avrco aocpbs cov Pla,t. Apol. p. 21 J and also: ^vvoiha ip.avrto ovbev eV tarapevcp ib. p. 22. So too we find avyy iyvu) cricei v con- strued with both cases; Hdot. 5. 91 avyyivcoaKopev avroiai fjplv ov 7rou']o~ao~i opdcos. Lys. p. 164 avveyvccaav avroi crcpicnv cos ^81/07/coresv Comp. Soph. Ant. 926. — An example of Sfioios elfit with the Nom. is Xen. An. 3. 5. 13 opoioi rjtyav $avp.d£ovres. 7. All the declinable adjuncts of the participle naturally pass over with it into the same case in which the participle stands ; and this not only with elvai, but also with such verbs as icakei- (jQai, vofjLi&G-dcu, etc. Examples: vpiv 0€ ovcriv 'Ad-qvaiots ov 7rpenei. — Xen. An. 7. 5. 12 eVo- pevovro did rcov MeX lvo cpdycov KaXovp-evcov Qpancov. — Hdot. 6. 140 evopeco vpiv ovk otourl re ecrop.evoicTi iroXepeeiv Sep^j], — Cyr. 1. 6. 14 e. — An. 1. 2. 25 ov hvvdp,evoi evpelv ras odovs, eira 7rXavcop.evoi. dirco- Xovro, not being able to find the way, they thus perished in wandering about. — For the particles eneira and elra, see further, § 149. m. 19. For p,eragv and ap,a, see $ 150. m. 27, 29. — In like manner phrases with prepositions, as p.erd ravra, did rovro, 4k rovrov, are put after participles ; see Kriiger de A.uth. Anab. p. 55. * In a manner entirely analogous, when the participle stands with the article, and consequently instead of an adjective (relative) clause, the pron. ouros is in liie manner inserted and in the same case with the participle; e. g. Hdot. 9. 67 oi irp nrjdi^ovres rwv ®r][3aici)u, ovroi elxov Trpo9vpir]v ov« r,\iyr)v. Comp. Cyr. 4. 2. 39. fc 144. THE PARTICIPLE. 405 Note 14. The particles are, ola or olov, are often connected with par- ticiples, when the latter express a cause or reason as real and objective. On the other hand, cos or cocmep is employed, partly when a cause oi reason is presented as existing in the mind of another (see more in § 145. n. 7), and partly in order to express an appearance, quasi, as if. More especially the participle of the Future with. cos is used to express the purpose of an action (no. 3 above) as it exists in the mind of the subject. Examples: Cyr. 1. 3. 3 Kvpos, are ttols cbv kol (piXoKaXos kcu cpLXoripos, rjBero rfj arokjj. lb. 2, K. eldvs, oia dr) reals (piXocrTOpyos cbv cpvaei, r)arrd(ero tqv Ticm-nov. Plat. Rep. p. 329 dyavaKrovcriv cos peydXcov tlvcov dneare prj- pevoi. Soph. OT. 955 (f]K€i) rrarepa rbv aov dyyeXcbv cos ovk er' ovra, dAV oXoiXora. Cyr. 8. 1. 42 ol 8e ov peTecrrpecpovro eir\ Qeav oiuevos, cos ovdev Qavpd^ovres. An. 1. 1. 11 Kvpos Upo^evov e-rd>VTcov elne rotdbc. — Plut. Per. 29 /zero ravra KVfxalvovTos rjbrj tov ILeXo-rovvrjcriaKov 7roXep,ov UepiKXrjs eneicre tov drjfxov, Kep- KVpaiois aVocrreiAat ftorjdeiav. — Thuc. 1. 105 noXefiov Ka.Tao~Ta.VTOS npbs Alyt- vrjTas 'ABrjvaLOis vavpaxLa yiyveTai peydXt]. id. 2. 2 ol Q-qfiaxoi r}(3ovXovTO ttjv liXcLTaiav €tl iv zlpr}vrj re na\ tov TroXep.ov p-rj-rai (pavepov KadeaTcoTOS; npoKaTa- Xafie'tv, ktX. 3. But this construction serves also to express many other re- lations or connections, such as we express in English by if, ivhen, since, because, in that, etc. or by our Nominative absolute. "We may here remark in general, that in consequence of the greater number of participles Active, the instances of the Gen. absol. Pass, are much less frequent than in Latin. Examples : Thuc. 3. 82 ndv to 'EWijvlkov eKivrjBrj, diacpopcov oiaeov eKacrra- \66ev. 5. 116 ol MrjXioi elXov ttjv ttoXlv, napovTav ov ttoXXcdv tcov (pvXaKoov. ko\ ikdovo~r]s o~Tpa.Tias vo~Tepov aXXr]?, yevopevrjs /cat irpohoo'las Tivbs d(p' eavTOiv, £vve)(a>pr)o~av. — Mem. 3. 1. 3 'OXt]? ttjs noXeids iv roTy -roXep.iKo'is Kivdwoi? eVj- Tp€7ropevr]$ rc5 crTpamya, p-eydXa to. re dyaOd, KaTopOovvTO? avrov, Ka\ Ta icaicd, diapapTdvovTO?, cIkos yiyveadai, ktX. An example of the Part. Fut. see in note 7. Note 1. Not unfrequently, however, even when the subject of the par- ticipial clause is already contained in the main clause, the construction of the Genitive absolute is admitted, contrary to grammatical rule. This takes place, e. g. when the participial clause precedes the main clause, and 5 145. CASES ABSOLUTE. 407 the effect of the latter is thus less prominent ; hut more especially in the participial construction introduced hy as, for which see note 8. Examples: Cyr. 1. 4. 20 ravra elnovro? avrov, eSo£e tc Xeyeiv r« 'Aarvdyei, instead of Nom. elncov. — Hdot. 9. 99 ol 2dpioi, d7riKop.ev6ev &7TTO p.evs; 'Pipcpa i yovva cpepei p.erd r rj6ea kcu vop.bv "nrmov, comp. e. 135. Also with the like case in the main clause: II. y. 211 ap.r cob' exdvTcov Tcovd' e7ri.0-Ta.adai ere XPV- Cyr. 1.6. 11 a>y epov p.rj- $£77\ re dpeXrjcrovTOS (tcov (fclXcov), ovrcos e^e ttjv yvcoprjv. The Dative: Soph. Phil. 33 crTeirrrr] ye (pvXXcis a)? evavkit^ovri tco. .ZEsop. Fab. 181 eXacpos eVt roTy 7joo~\v rjx@ eT0 <° s Xe7rroIy overt Kal dcrBeveo-iv . The Accusative : Soph. Phil. 415 cos finker ovra Keivov ev cfrdei voei. Now the same thing also takes place when the construction requires a case absolute ; most naturally with Geni- tives, e. g. Plat. Phffid. p. 61 ernKeXevei povaiKrjv Troielv, cos s rjdiKr) kotos ipov fieydXa, where the parti- cipial-clause, although grammatically referring to the subject of nddco, is yet put in the Genitive as expressing what is in the mind of the friends. Plat. Charm, p. 165 av pev, cos cpdcrKovTos ipov eldevcu, npoacpepr] npos pe, kcu opoXoyrj aavros o~oi. Still more free, Hdot. 1. 84 M^A^r Kcm^oy^cre rov- tov (tov rei^eos), a> s i 6 1> apaxdv re kcu diroTopov. Note 9. Every impersonal verb, properly so called, i. e. one which has only an indefinite subject unexpressed (§ 129. 17, 18) may pass over, as a case absolute, into the Genitive Sing, of the participle. E. g. aaXniCovTos 1 the trumpeter sounding ;' vovtos ttoXXco (from vet noXXa sc. opfipep) ' it rain- ing heavily J Xen. Hell. 1.1.16. So Plat. P^ep. p. 381 ourcoy exovros. Aris- toph. Eccl. 401 irtp\ aarnpias npoKeipevov. Soph. Ant. 1179 as o>S' exdvrav. Note 10. Those- Impersonals or impersonal constructions, where in strict- ness the clause dependent on the verb (commonly an Infinitive or clause with on, etc.) is the real subject of the verb (§ 129. 10), are treated as cases absolute in 'two different ways : 1) When the mere relation of time is to be expressed, the Genitive is em- ployed. This occurs chiefly with the Passives of verbs signifying to say, announce , etc. and then it is usually the Genitive Plural, where r&vde from rdde can be mentally supplied. E. g. 6 HepiKXrjs c£x €T0 e7r * Kawou, icray- ye\3evTOiv ore &oiviao-cu vrjes eTnnXeovacv, 'it (these things) having been announced, 7 Thuc. 1.116. So o-qpavQivrozv Cyr. 1.4. 18 ; dnXadivTos Thuc. 1. 74; but also in other verbs : ovrco yiyvopevav Cyr. 5. 3. 13. 2) In all other connections the Accusative Neuter is employed. Thus elpT] pevov (from eipnTai) it having been notified ; ix poo~Tax0ev it having been commanded, Lysias; i£6v (from e£ecmv) it being permitted; irapexov it being in one's power Hdot. also ev, koXcos napderxov it being well in one' s 'power, a good opportunity, Thuc. 1. 120. ib. 5. 14; xpecoy, tt pocrr^Kov, deov, it being needful ; rvxdv, Traparvxdv, it happening; doKovv, do- ^ai/,* it seeming; peTapiXov it repenting him, Plat. Phsed. p. 113; pi. Xov it being for care. E.g. Aristoph. Cyr. 13 elpnpevov avrols irapeivai, oi>x fJKovai ' it having been notified to them to be present, they yet do not come.' Cyr. 7. 1. 42 aipovvrai vpds aacrcu, i^bv diroXeo-cu, it being permitted to slay you, i. e. although they could. Epict. ap. Arr. 3. 26 aneipi irdXiv, eW- va boKovv (sc. ipe dnievai) ' I will go away again, since he thinks it prop- er.' Plat. Phajd. 235 8\s kcu rpls rd avrd e'lpvKev, cos ov irdvv e&nopoov, r) tcrcos ovdev avTco piXov tov tolovtov. — Even adjectives, as bvvaTov, alcrxpov, dnop- pnrov, are thus found, the Participle ov being omitted : Plat. Rep. p. 519. d, 7rotr}aopev x e ^P°v £f] v i Swcitov clvtoIs cipeivov (sc. grjv) 'we shall make them live ^orse, it being possible for them to live better.' See also Cyr. 2. 2. 20. Soph. Ant. 44; and Herm. ad Vig. not. 214. * Also with a pronoun subjoined in the same case ; as S6£av T\plv ravTa (froru tavT e5o£e An. 4. 1. 13) ; also Plur. S6£avTa Se TavTa KaX -xepavdivTa Hell. 3. 2. 19. JJut also in the Genit. ^avTos tovtov, hol&vTtav tovtcov, Hell. 1. 7. 32. ib. 1. 1. 3Q, 410 SYNTAX. § 146. THE PARTICLES. § 146. Adverbs. 1. Adverbs derived from adjectives by means of the ending ws, have the same syntactical relations as their adjectives ; e. g. a%i- a>? rjfjicov 7ToX€fjLrjao/i6v, i in a manner worthy of us ;' 6/jlolcqs tlvl, etc. In like manner, adverbs which admit of comparison, even when there exists no corresponding adjective, have the connec- tions of the Comparative and Superlative ; e. g. fiaXio-Ta ttclvtwv most of all ; ol irevrjres tcov evSacfiovcov [xaXKov hvvavTai ecrOieiv re real KaOevheiv, i. e. better than the rich. See § 132. 10. b, 11. 2. We have already seen, that some adverbs serve at the same time as adjectives, e. g. ifK^albv earl, alyd eari, \ 129. 13 ; also that vice versa an adverbial sense is often expressed by adjec- tives, k 123. 6 ; and further that, by prefixing the article, parti- cles become nouns, § 125. 6, 7. 3. To the adverbs belong strictly also the Prepositions ; since they all are of adverbial origin. To the latter, according to the definition, ought also to belong all those primitive adverbs (i. e. not derived from adjectives) on which a substantive depends in an oblique case. Nevertheless, the Greek grammar reckons among the proper (or primitive) prepositions only such as are employed in composition, i. e. loose composition, § 121. 2. All the rest re- tain the name of Adverbs, even when they strictly, according to the definition, have become prepositions. These last also can only be connected with one case, the Genitive, (except a/ia or 6/iov and a>9, see note 1,) while the primitive prepositions are construed with one, or two, or all three of the cases. Note 1. Of the two adverbs just mentioned, a\ia (6 pod) is also connect- ed as a preposition with the Dative, and then marks more strongly than avv a direct and close conjunction in time or place ; as ap.a rfj f]p>epq, ap.a ra> 77X10) together with the sun; ocraoi a\i 'ArpeiBys vtto "XXlov rfk6ov Horn. — On the'other hand, «y is put as a preposition of place with the Accusative, in answer to the question whither; but always referring to persons alone.* E. g. elo~rj\6ev o>? ipi he entered to me; avrj-^drjcrav a>? t6v fiacriXea. 4. Of those adverbs which are construed with the Genitive, and more or less occur only so (i. e. strictly as prepositions), are to be noted : 1) Those which are derived from the primitive prepositions by means of an adverbial ending or by composition. 2) Those which are formed in any other way ; of which also many are strictly prepositions according to the definition. Under no. 1 belong, with the endings in co : ava>, euxo>, e£co, Karoo, 7rpoo~co; in or : €vt6s, euros', ill £ez>, #e : rrpocrOev, e'fnrpoo-dev, vnepOev, Kadvnepde, dno- * The instances where ws does not refer to persons, when such passages occur in good writers, are, as has been shewn by modern criticism, most probably cor- rupt ; and instead of it, els should everywhere be read. S 146. ADVERBS. 411 rrpodev (also -S-i), dtidvevBev, TrpoTrdpoide ; further aWa, avrlov, dvria (see avri), dvriKpv (KaravTLKpv), ap(pt'r, fxeragv. Under no. 2 belong : avev, arep, sine; irX-qv, voo-Kev limreas ttXtjv fierpiovs rivas Xen. Further, it also connects whole clauses, and thus becomes a conjunction, and then stands often in connection with other conjunctions, as irXrjv el. — "Eveica (§ 117. 2) stands sometimes before and sometimes after its substantive. Originally it signi- fied in respect to, ratione habita alicujus rei; as Hdot. 1. 42 dnrjfxova rov cpv- XdcrcrovTos e?venev Trpoadoica tol aTTovoo~Tr\o~eiv {irdiha) ; comp. 3. 122. In con- nection with ye it receives a peculiar modifying power: Plat. Charm, p 158 e'l aoi (piXov, edeXco o~Konelv, el 8e fir), eav. 'AAXa rravrav p.dXio~Ta, e(pr], (piXov, &are tovtov ye evem a/conei, as it respects this indeed, so far as respects this. Mem. 4. 3. 3 el p,rj to (pas e'lxofxev, 6p.oi.oi rols rv(pXols dv rjp.ev, evexd ye rS)v rjixerepav 6(p6aXp.cov . Comp. Plat. Phsed. p. 85. — Aiktjv is often used by some writers, e. g. iEschylus, Plato, as a periphrase for the more usual cos; as Agam. 3. kvvos dUrjv. Phsedr. p. 249 opvidos hU-qv (SXeinov uvea. — Xdpiv stands almost always after its noun, and is in like manner most used by the poets. As being originally a noun, like the Lat. gratia, causa, it is put with the possessive pronoun in the same case, thus : ep.r)v x&P Lv i ah v xdpiv, on my (thy) account ; and in a similar way Euripides writes even 7rarpcoav x^P lv -> x - , etc. are connected with the Dative, they are not so construed as prepositions, but form then with the verb (elvai, yiyveardai, to-raadai, etc.) a predicate- idea, to which the Dative belongs. E. g. Cyr. 2. 3. 2 6 pe> dycov eyyvs ■f) p,7v, sc. ecrrt. Eur. Phoen. 40 rv pdvvois itcTrodcov [xedio-Taao. Hel. 783 quels efnTobcov epois yapols. 5. Other adverbs refer to verbs, and in this way connect two clauses together. So especially relative adverbs ; e. g. irapecrojjiaL oirore /ceXeuei?, I will be present whenever thou shalt command. This is the origin of Conjunctions ; for the construction of which with the different moods, see § 139 ; and for then further usage, M 149, 150. 412 syntax. § 147. k 147. Prepositions. 1. Besides the adverbial prepositions mentioned in the preced- ing section, the following are the ordinary primitive Prepositions {) 115. 2) with their cases; expressing originally the most simple and general relations of place : dvri, airo, ef (eVc), irpo, govern the Genitive ; iv, avv, the Dative ; avd, ek, the Accusative ; hud, Kara, virep, the Genitive and Accusative ; dfJL(f>t, eiri, fierd, irapd, irepl, 7rpo?, u7ro, the Genitive, Dative, and Accusative. 2. The use of the prepositions is very various and peculiar, for these reasons : 1) In many instances the preposition is in- serted, where in English and other languages a simple case is employed. 2) Although most of the prepositions, in their pri- mary signification, can be referred to definite relations ; yet in their general application, and especially when used figuratively, these relations are so obscured, that in translating one and the same Greek preposition we often have to employ in English dif- ferent ones of various significations. Note 1. Let the student endeavour to obtain, under each preposition, a clear idea of the two characteristics, oneness of signification and variety of usage, by following out the investigation here indicated. The prepositions here follow in the same order as above in no. 1. a) Prepositions with one Case. 'ANTI. The earliest signification seems to have been over against, as ap- pears from the adverbs dvrlov, avria, avra, from the compounds with avrl (note 6), and from single examples in the epic writers, as ncos p.ep.ova$ avri epelo , vvv ouS' eVor d^io'i elp.ev. Dem. 01. p. 33 Set ra ^fKriara avrl tcov fjdecov dv fjefj o-vvajj-rporepa e^fj, Xapftdveiv. Hence may be explained some peculiar idioms of expression, as II. (p. 75 dvri to'l elp iKerao instead of (i. e. as) a suppliant. Mem. 2. 7. 14 avrl kwos el cpiiXa^ like a dog. ib. 12 IXapai dvr\ aKvdpconcov rjaav. All. 3. 1. 17 eo-Tpa.Tevo-ap.ev en\ j3acri\.ea oby 8ov\ov avrl (3aai\eco9 noir\- aovres instead of {out of) a king. So with comparatives : 6 ^poi/or p.d6rjo-iv dvri tov rdxovs Kpeicraco StoWi Eur. Suppl. 420. Also the frequent con- structions with dvd* ov, dvd' o)v, on this account that, because : Hell. 2. 4. 17 ndvres, dvd' cov vftpicr8r]p.ev, Tip.copcop.eda tovs civbpas. An. 7. 7. 8 av ev TTotfjaas rjfJ-ds; dvd' cov ev ena6es, dnonepneis, comp. § 143. 13. Eur. Andr. 389 ri Ka'iveis p.' ; dvri tov ; 'AIIO marks the going forth or away from an object, i.e. separation, re- moval ; and in respect to time, from, after, since. The wider usage of this preposition may be seen in the particular examples. E. g. J/ E Eur. Or. 269. e£ ov since. — §eti> ti e/c Tvaacrakov, eK tcov (o^o-T-qpoov (popelv ti, Kpepdo-ai Tiva en tov tto86s, on a nail, by the foot, etc. — Particular phrases are : eK. Tptrcov one of three, the third, Plat. Symp. p. 213; eK tvx 7 !*' eK T0V rrpocpavovs publicly Thuc. 3. 43; eK (3paxeos briefly 3. 92; eK no86s close behind; s • fiovXeveo~6ai rrpb tcov OTpartcor&Jv Xen. Trpb ttoX- Xq)V xP r )P aTWV Tiprjaaadac ti Isocr. oi8e\s ovrco dvorjTos icrri, oo~ris noXepov irpb elpfjvrjs alpeerat Hdot. 1. 87. — Particular phrases are : Trpb ohov elvai opportu- nism esse ; irpb (p6j3oio for fear Horn. yr]v rxpb yrjs iXavvopai iEsch. Prom. 687. 'EN stands in answer to the question where; and signifies in, often also by, at, among (inter). Hence arises in respect to time the meaning in, dur- ing ; and in a tropical sense, in, with, penes. E. g. 37 iv AevKTpois pdxrj, iv MavTiveiq at Mantincea ; iv pvrjo-Trjpcn Horn. Xeyeiv iv Tracri' ohelv iv irovrj- pols iEschin. ev Sea, ev ipol, iv aoi eari, compare irri c. dat. — With iv are formed many adverbial expressions : as iv opolco, iv iXacppco, iv Kep8e'i Troiel- adai, to regard alike, to make light of, to make gain of, Hdot. iv (ppovribi, iv rjdovrj io-ri pot Xen. iv Si/07 by right, jure ; iv Kaipco seasonably ; iv KaXca well, conveniently, and with following Gen. f] KepKvpa Kelrai iv koXco tov Ko- pivOiaKov koXttov Hell. 6. 2.9. — Further may likewise be noted the Homeric use of iv for eh with verbs of motion, as Karnreo-ov iv Arjpvco, iv itvp\ (BdXXcv ) as also its seemingly pleonastic use along with the Dat. of instrument, as iv dcpdaXpolaiv opco Horn. Ilttttov iv x a Xivu> vmreveiv Xen. iv tovtols ev8rfXov id. 2YN, with; e. g. TreipaadaL xph °"vv to7s Seols apxeo~Bai iravrbs epyov Xen. (Ec. 6. 1 ; avv tco Sikcu'g), avv tco vopcp, in accordance with laiv, etc. 'ANA signifies primarily up, upon, on; comp. avco and the compounds. In this sense it governs in the poets also the Dative, II. a. 15. Od. X. 128. In prose it is construed only with the Accusative ; and is used of any all- pervading motion, strictly from bottom to top, throughout, in respect to both place and time. It often passes over likewise into a distributive sense. E. g. pvrjarrjpes 8' opadrjcrav dva peyapa aKioevra Od. a. 365. ol 'AXK/xatcoz/tSat e/3a)- o~6rjcrav dva. ttjv 'EXXdda Hdot. 6. 131. ol "'EXXrjves dpio-Trfia idldovv tco a^tcora- tco yevopevco dva tov noXepov tovtov id. 8. 123. dva rrdo-av ttjv rjpepav through- out the whole day. But without the art. dva Trciaav rjpepav, dva nav eTos, daily, yearly; and so inopevdrjcrav dva rirrapas by fours, dva nevre Trapacrdyyas 1 ttjs rjpepas Cyr. 1.2.8. An. 4. 6. 4. — We may also note : dva xpbvov for a time, dva tov rroTapov up along the river, dva Kpdros up to full strength, i. e. strong- ly, vigorously. EI2, is, Mol. and Dor. also iv Pind. Pyth. 2. 21. ib. 5. 50; see Greg. Corinth. Dor. 159. It stands in answer to the question whither, and signi- fies into, often also to, as far as to, towards ; and in a still more general s-ense, in respect to, as to. E. g. is pev MeveXaov iyco KeXopai eXOelv Od. y. 317; KaXeei re piv is e eKaaros II. yjr. 203; els ae tJkio Soph. Phil. 500;=* * On this mainly epic use of els with persons after verbs of motion, see Spitzn. Exc. ad II. 35. In Attic prose we find instead of it regularly d>s (by § 146. n. 1) ; 414 SYNTAX. § 147. i< SaXdrrrji els QaXarrav Xen. ol pev ebpapov els tovs noXepiovs id. ov pet ti KaKco els cona icoxei Od. a. 411 J eh piaXaKiav aicodiTTeiv Tivd Dem. 17 noXis ev e%ei els ra noXepiKd Xen. acrae Iv to. els tgv noXep-ov id. Kvpos noXv dirjveyicev eh rb apxeiv dvdpamau Cyr. 1. 1. 6; e'ls ti to what end? wherefore? why? — In specifications of time, it marks about the point up to which any thing happens or is to happen; e. g. 6 'Appevios Tvpoemev els rplr^v fjpepav irapewat Cyr. 3. 1. 42 5 ixd^eo-Oai dv fiovXvade, iJKere eh ttjv TptaKocrrrju rjpepav, i. e. within 30 days, Cyr. 5. 3. 6; eh avpiov, eh rr\v imovo-av, eh rbv eneira XP°~ vov. — With numbers it signifies either about, circa, and then o>r often stands with it : a>s is eirTaKoo-'iovs ; or else it is distributive : els eva, els dvo iropev- eo-dai, to go one by one, etc. Xen. — When eh is put with verbs of rest, (as vice versa with ev,) the idea of previous motion must he supplied: thus often with Kelpai (for Tedeipai) ; ards is p.eaov Hdot. Trapelvai, cpavrjvai eh ttjv ttoXiv, etc. — Adverbial expressions are : els xaipov comp. in iv ; is Kevov in vain, frustra ; is tovto, is roaovro (with foil. Gen.) so far, so much; eh dv- vap.iv, els to dvvarov as far as possible, els t6.)(os, etc. b) Prepositions with two Cases. AIA c. Genit. signifies : 1) through, both of place and time; and here too belong e. g. evboK.ip.elv did navrav tS>v 'iLXXrjvov, throughout, among ; eTrperre did Trdvr&v, before, Hdot. Horn, also the signif. after of time: did Tpirijsrjpe- pas, St' eYeW e'iKoo-i, St' oXlyov Hdot. Thuc. 2) through^ spoken of the means or instrument, especially with persons, but also of things, which also can stand in the Dative. So too with the Passive, where in Lat. per, not a, would stand, i. e. when the person is the means, and not the efficient cause ; see in vtto and iic. Thus : dvepcoTqv Tiva did epp.rjveo)S, eXe^av St' dy- yeXcov, but also St' cotcov, St' 6(pdaXp,cov alo~6dveo~6ai ti Xen. Bid yvp-vaaiiov ttjv vyieiav TVopi^opeBa JEl. 2. 5. tovto peyiarov icrTi iv rravrX epyai, ottov ti St' dvdpa>7raiv yiyverai, Kai iv yeoopyia de Xen. (Ec. extr. TavTa did tov Itvtto- Kop.ov StareAetrat id. — Various peculiar turns of expression are formed by Sta and the verbs etVat, yiyveadai, e\eiv, e. g. did arop-aros eyeiv Tiva to have in one's mouth, upon the lips ; did ^etpor ex* LV Tl t° have in hand, to be oc- cupied with ; St' dpyrjs, St' imdvpias e'xeiv, ' to be angry or eager;' did x a p' L - tcov, St' ddvp.ias, St' %x&pas yiyveadai, 'to be graceful, despondent, hostile;' St' rjcrvxias, did (f)nj3ov elvai. — Adverbial expressions are : Sta rdxovs, did tci- xioov Hell. 7. 5. 6; Sta ^pa^vrarcoi/ Dem. etc. — c. Accus. signifies on account of, propter, (not causa.) and marks the ground or motive from which I do or suffer anything: pivpias ^/xiv daxoXias napex^t to aa>/j.a did ttjv dvayKaiav Tpo(pr]v Plat. Phoed. p. 66. did tovto, did ae, did tovs &eov? ev irpaTTO), etc. — In epic writers it sometimes stands for did c. Gen. as dp.fi payer inv did vvktol, Kpovldeco did fiovXds. KATA c. Genit. implies direction down, down from, as appears from the compounds, and from the adv. Kara. E. g. Kara tg>v irerpaiv p'nrTeiv Tivd, to cast down from the rocks; firj de kcit OvXvp7roio Kapijvcov II. (S. 167 ; /i£>K.air]v nokiv Hdot. 1. 80. (avr)p) rov icXeos evpv kclO' 'EXXdSa icai peuov "Apyos Od. a. 344. — Also of time: Kara "Apacnv fiao-ikevovra, Kara ndvra rbv n\6ov Hdot. Kara robs avrovs xpovovs Time. Kar' ip.£ in my time. — Only seldom does Kara c. Ace. express a motion forth ; and that, only when the indefiniteness of the direction, or mere approximation towards it, is to be expressed; e.g. oi 8e dve'Ckovro ra vavdyiard Kara crepds e^evex^evra, ' into or upon their territory,' Time. 1. 54. Also levai Kara Seav, Kara \rjtrjv, Time. Hdot. where ini would be more definite. — In a tropical sense, likewise, it marks only the most general relations towards an object; hence it is some- times put with the Accus. treated of in § 131. 7, as 'Id pis Kara yvapvv Soph. OT. 1087 ; and it stands especially where the Accus. alone could not stand, as with a substantive to form a periphrase for an adjective, e. g. at Kara, rb trcopa rjdovai, enidvpiai, Plat, or for the Genitive: ra Kara TIavaaviav, 'the deeds, fortunes of P.' Thuc. 1. 138. With verbs of saying, believing, etc. it expresses of, concerning, de, as Kara rr)v rpocpr)v rwv naldav roaavra eXeyov Hdot. while with some others it may be rendered on account of, propter: ovros (6 npohor-qs) ripcopevos e£ dp^r/s, Kara rbv narepa* Ayv&va, Hell. 2. 3. 30. Kara ri wherefore? why? alriav, Kad* rjvnva alKi^erai pe, aacptjvia, iEsch. Prom. 226. In other instances it has the more definite signif. after, accord- ing to, secundum j as Kara vopov, Kara dvvapiv, Kar' epavrov after my way ; Kara rb pavrelov, noir)o-a> Kara rov (3aaiXea>s ypdppara. Here belongs also the distributive use, in Kara Kcopas vicatim, Acar 5 livbpa viritim, man by man, Ka6 y ripepau daily, Kara prjva, Kad* eva, etc. — To be noted is also the current phrase : airbs md' eavrov, by or for oneself as e^onXiodrjre Ka6* vpds avrovs, by or for yourselves alone, Xen. Cyr. 6. 3. 32. — Adverbial phrases are : Kara piKpov by little and little, by degrees; Kara Kpdros very; Kara rb Icrxvpov by force, vi; Kadoaov in so far as ; mddnep according as ; Kara rd^os, etc. 'YIIEP c. Genit. 1) over, above, expressing what is or happens over any person or thing; e. g. Mem. 3. 8. 9 6 rjXios vnep r)pS>v avrcou Kal ra>v areycov nopeverca. Time. 1. 46 eari Se Xipr)v koX noXis vnep avrov. 2) for, for the sake of, because of; as npdrreiv v. elnelv vnep rov koivov, also beipaiveiv v. Bappelv vnep rivos ' for the sake of any one ;' evdaipovlfa vpds vnep rrjs eXev- dep'ias An. 1. 7. 3, comp. the Gen. alone in § 132. n. 15. It is used also in- stead of nepi, de, of, concerning, without the accessory idea of advantage to a,ny one; but more in later writers, as Polybius, etc. — c. Accus. expresses that over or beyond which anything goes, Lat. super; as vnep ra reaaapaKovra err] over forty years; vnep r)plo~eis, etc. Hence: bvvapis virep avOpamov super-human power Hdot. 8. 140. 2; vnep opKia against the oath II. &. 47 ; vnep Seov invito deo II. p. 327 ; vnep iXnida beyond hope, contra spem, Soph. Ant. 366. c) Prepositions with three Cases. 'AMI and IIEPI, about, around, round about, agree together essentially in their meaning; except that primarily dpcpl signifies on both sides, as dpcpl- o-ropos ; while nepi. implies on all sides, and is in prose far more usual. With the Dative they express the being round about a place or object (in prose only nepi) ; e. g. reXapcov dp(p\ crrrjOeaaiv Horn, ^pvaovs dpcpl KparX nXoKos Eur. SJopa^ nep\ rois arepvois koi yeppov ev 777 dpiarepa Cyr. 1. 2. 13. — In a tropical sense, about, on account of, for the sake of (in prose only nepi and this but seldom,) e. g. ov vepeais, Tpcoas roirjd' dpcpl yvvaiKi noXvv Xpdvov tiXyea ndo-xew ; II. y. 157. Sappelv, delcrai nepirivi, Plat. Time. comp. nepi c. Gen. just below. — Wholly poetic is the signif. prce, for, by reason of in dpcpl rdpfiet, nepi <£d/3w. — c. Accus. also very commonly round about: cpi/XaKes dficpl rfjv o'lKrjaiv fj nepi rrjv x&pav SdXarra Xen. Also as implying direction : Bcopams nepi ra crrepva Kal yeppov els rrjv dpiarepdv Cyr. 2. 1.9. Of time, about: nepi pecras vvKras, dpcpl deikrjv Xen. and so of numbers : rjv dpcpl ra. rpiaKovra err] • nepi rerrapa rakavra, Xen. — In connection with eyjw and ehai both prepositions 416 SYNTAX. § 147. imply: to be employed about, to be occupied with; e. g. ol nepl ra emrrjdeia ovres ■ 6p£> o~e apep' tnnovs e^ovra, Xen. — Finally, nepl alone stands with the Acens. in many connections in a sense precisely similar to Kara c. Accus e. g. e^ap.aprelv nepl rov? &eov? about the gods, i. e. towards, against; ex* lv v. elvai nepl nva, c to be disposed towards any one,' Cyr. 4. 5. 29 ; ScoKpcirns 7rep\ Seov? eneipdro aaxfipova? noielv rov? avvovras Mem. 4. 3. 2. — The peri- phrase ol nepl v. djACpL nva, see in § 150. m. 25. — c. Genit. also about, i. e. concerning, of, corresponding to the Lat. de in almost every respect. Yet here too dpept belongs almost wholly to the po- ets. Tims we find : Xeyeiv, (po/3eio"#cu, (piXoveitcelv, pavecr&u, dnoXoyelo-Qai nepl tivos. Further : nepl p.ev Tpocprj?, eneladrju licavov eivai 6,ti nape^ei Kva- {■dprjs Cyr. 1.6. 15; o'lKTiaai ap(pi reKvav pe Uerav Eur. Suppl. 278; also the phrases nepl noXkov, nXelovos; nXelarov noielo~6ai, to make much of, etc. 'EITI c. Genit. is used: 1) Of place, in answer to the question where, and then it marks the two relations : on, upon, and at, by, i. e. near by; e. g. e(f> tnnov^ o^etcr^ai, fielvat enl rov norapov, etc. and in a similar sense, enl dvo paprvp&v before, in presence of. Especially Attic is the usage of inl c. Gen. in answer to the question whither, in order to mark the direction or aim of the motion; as nXelv eVi 2dp.ov, eV o'Ikov. 2) Of time, in answer to the question when; as eV elprjvrjs Horn. enl r&v wvl Kaip£>v iEschin. In prose for the most part only when the specification of time is connected with a personal idea; as enl Keicponos Thuc. 2. 15; eV epov in my time, enl TipoOeov Dem. enl T&v f]p.eTepav npoyovow. Also in connection with the Part. Pres. by § 145. n. 5, e. g. enl cipxovro? EvuXeldov. 3) In other rela- tions, not referring to place or time, we often have to render ini by various and different English prepositions; yet it always expresses (contrary to Kara c. Accus.) a definite relation, a near and almost immediate connection and belonging together ; to which then there also comes the more free po- etic usage of this preposition. Hence we may explain the following exam- ples : $t'Xi7T7Toy ovx oloctt' earlv e\(£>v a Kareo-rpanraL peveiv irii tovtcov Dem. Phil. p. 42. tls av KcoXwcrair' avrbv npdrreiv ravra, e(p' cov earl vvv ib. p. 6Q. ol enl t(ov npayp-drcov those over the affairs, managers, Dem. p. 309. ra^Or). vai iiri twos to or over anything, Hdot. Kvblas elnev, enl koXov Xeyow naiboi kt\. Plat. Charm, p. 155. Especially with verbs of shewing, perceiving, etc. by: enl noXkcov TeKprjploav dno8el£<£> croi Plat, enl noWcov civ ri? loelv 8oKel pot ttju napd tcov Secov evvoiav (pavepav y iyvop.evr)v rfj noXei Dem. 01. 2. init. also with verbs of naming, after : Kakelo-Bai, ovop.a ex eLV * nl Tlv °s Hdot. rj eV ' 'AvtoKkl8ov Ka\ovp,evrj elprjvr) Xen. — Poetic : KaOrjcrTO Kddpov Xads danldcdv em, Eur. Phcen. 1467. enl npocrnoXov p.ids ^copeT^ (leaning upon) Soph. OC. 746. — Further to be noted is the distributive use : exj) evos, enl rpLav three and three, Xen. Thuc. And finally the frequent phrase, e 8etnva>, enl reXevrfj rov (3iov Xen. eo~6Lovcri ndvres enl rat aiTG) aprov Mem. 3. 14. 2. oyx vr ] ^ °yx v Tl y^pdo-Kei Od. v. 120. cpovo? enl d>6vco, enl S' (iXyeaiv akyea Eur. — In time it marks immediate succession, after ; as enl tovtois after these things, thereupon ; r\p.epa enl rfj vvktI ravrrj. — From the same idea come readily the tropical senses : penes, i.e. in, with, in the power of (see in h) : t(p' vpuv co-rt K.o\d£eiv avrov? Dem. Chers. init. yiyveo-Qai inl /3ao-iXeT under the power of the king; eft rjfxiv noielv, etc. Also * In Cyr . 5. 2. 1, e^' %-k-kov is now correctly read instead of e' iWw, since in cjood prose hci c. Bat. will sciirr^ly he found in this sense. V 147. PREPOSITIONS. 417 over, in such, phrases as em tois Tvpaypaaiv elvai to be over the affairs Dem, 01. p. 21, see in the Gen. above ; vaiapxos em rals vavcriv Xen.*" — Peculiar for mi c. Bat. are further three modes of usage very common in prose, viz. 1) When it marks an agreement under certain conditions; e. g. em tov- tois rf]V fiaaikeiav i\ apekafiov Xen. rr)v pvdv davei£eiv em oktco u/3oXoir Dem bovva'i rt em reaaapatcovra pvals, etc. For e'0' wre see in $ 150. m. \). 2) When it marks the purpose with which an action takes place, comp. in Accus. below ; as em rovrco for this purpose, e. g. Xen. Conv. init. lipmrayopa ttoKv dpyvptov dedaxa em (rocpiq, for wisdom, in order to learn wisdom ; dyecv riva «rl ydpco, etc. 3) When it is put before the Dative described in § 133. 4. b, especially with verbs signifying an emotion of mind; e. g. eV cl'Bepifi alrirj Hdot. 3. 35 ; ye\av, peya typovelv, x ai P elv > dyavaKrelv im rivi. Also with adjectives, as evboicipo?, Siafio-qros, and others. — Poetic: Od. n. 216 ov yap tl crTvyepfj em yacrrepi. nvvrepov aXKo, almost like o~Tvyepr)? yacrrepos. — c. Accus. marks simply approach to or towards an object; hence again n^elv em 2dpov, to sail for Samos, differing in the mode of conception, but not in sense, from 7rXeii/ em 2apov. Also with the secondary relation of purpose, comp. ini C. Dat. e. g. ievai em rrjv Srjpav, e\8elv em rrvp, e^)' i'Scop, i. e. for fire, water, in order to fetch it. — The specifications of duration of time are to be explained from the idea of the Accusative itself, where then em appears rather as an adverbial addition; e. g. ol ' 'aOtjvcuoi, arxovres rrjs 'HXeiay, ebrjovp ttjv yrjv em dvo fjpepas Thuc. 2. 25. ovk eylyvero rd lepd em rpels r]pepas, for three days, An. 6. 4. 36. So too in adverbial phrases: as em xpovov for a time Horn. eft rjpepav Thuc. 4. 69. Hence also etr' rjpap elxpv Eur. Phcen. 412. eV eKarocrrd, em rpiaKoaia, a hundred (three hundred) fold, Hdot. 4. 198. em irokv, em 7rXeio-roy, em ivdv omnino ; em noda dva- Xcoprjcrat, to withdraw gradually Xen. Polyb. META c. Genit. both of persons and things, signifies with; e. g. perd aov with thee, with thy help ; oo-tis eavrdv v Dem. etc. — c. Dat. with, among, in, is everywhere poetic : perd irdcriv dnpoTaro?, perd pvrjo-rrjpo-iv, etc. Sometimes it is put almost pleonastic with the Da- tive : nrjdd'KLov perd x*pvw ex eiv ^- 7* 281 . prjriv vcpaivew perd (ppealv Hes. Sc. 28. — c. Accus. after, both in time and in order or succession; as ol per' e Cyr. 5. 5. 20. — It is to be noted, that by means of the article and napd c. Gen. various substantive and verbal ideas are often indicated, which in each instance may be easily filled out from the nature of the construction and from the context ; comp. in § 125. n. 6. E. g. ol napd Kvpov i. e. am- * Thuc. 2. 35 ayopeveiv iirl to?s SaTrropevois, lit. to speak over those buried, i. e. di- rectly after or at the burial of the slain, as if over their grave. Comp. Plat. Menex init. ipe? e.rl rols airoQavovci. Dem. Epit. init. Dd 418 SYNTAX. § 147. bassadoiv : ra Trapa. Kvpov i. e. commands ; ra rrapa Qea>v, f) rrapa. rovrcov ev- vota, etc. — c. Bat. signifies : by the side of. by, as rrapa ra 7r0rap.cZ, etc. — c. Accus. of place, to the side of, i. e. to, espec. of persons ; more com- monly alongside of, near, by, both with verbs of motion and of reft, the latter in answer to the question where. E.g. ol rrapa fiacriXea rropevopevoi ■ Trapa. QdXarrav rropeveadai : napa. rroXtv rroXepiav ayeiv rbv arparov [by, past) Xen. to\ be nap' avrbv avbpes Koiprjcravro Od. £. 523. rrapa. rrjv rroXiv rjv rrvpa pis \16Lvq An. 3. 4. 9. Also tropically : rrjv vvv Trap' epe eovaav bvvap.iv Hdot 8. 140. — Used of time, it marks duration, as rrapa rrdvra rbv xpdvov Plat. Trapa rbv rroXepov, rrapa rrjv rrocnv during Hdot. 2. 121. 4. — Tropically it is used in three different senses, arising out of the primary idea : 1) aside from, against, beyond ; e. g. Trap' eXrriba, rrapa robs vopovs, rrapa qbvo-iv, rrapa. 86£av, rrapa rb beov, etc. hence Trap' ev rrdXaia-pa ebpape vikqv Hdot. 9. 33. 2) along with, i. e. by, on account of, propter: QiXiTrrros ov Trapa rr)v avrov pecprjv rocrovrov errrjvtjrjrai, ouov rrapa rrjv rjperepav dpeXetav Dem. Phil. p. 43. rj ortoTTjpla rroXXols fjbrj rrapa rovro eyevero Xen. Hipp. 1. 5: comp. Dem. p. 688. 3) It implies the placing together of different objects side by side foi the sake of comparison ; hence it is used especially after comparatives, as also after aXXos, erepos, and the like, which often gives rise to peculiar turns; e.g. rjXiov e'/cAen^eir rrvKvorepai rrapa ra pvr;povev6peva ^vvefirjaav, as compared with, Time. 1. 23. rrapa ra aXXa £5>a coarrep Seol ol dvdpcorroi /3to- T€vovcn Mem. 1. 4. 14. 'A^iXXevs rod Kivbvvov Karecppovrjae rrapa. rb alo-^pov ri vrropelvai, Achilles disdained danger rather than suffer anything shameful, Plat. Apol. p. 28. 'AyrjcriXaos eirovei rrapa rovs aXXovs, beyond (more than) others, Xen. Ag. 5. 3. — Adverbial are: rrapa piKpov by a little, well-nigh, almost ; rrapa rroXv by much. — An example with all the three cases see in Xen. Mem. 1. 3. 4. KEPI, see in dp-cpl, p. 415. IIP02 c. Genit. accords in its main signification with rrapa ; yet it marks much more comprehensively not only the idea from the side of, as rrpbs prj- rpos v. rrarpos from (on) the maternal or paternal side, geivor ob' 1k€t epbv bco r)e rrpbs Tjoiav rj icrTrepiidv dvQpcorr^v Od. $. 28 ; but also alongside of, towards, against, as rraprjyyeCXe rovs Xo^ayovs rrpbs rav KapSou^coz/ levai, ovpayovs be Karacrrrjo-ao-Oat, rrpbs rod rrorapov An. 4. 3. 26. — In a tropical sense it ex- presses what goes forth or proceeds from a person or thing ) or more gener- ally, what belongs or is appropriate to, also promotive or worthy of a person or thing; e. g. rrpbs Aids elcriv arravres t-elvoi re rrroa^oi. re Od. £. 207. ovk rjv rrpbs rod Kvpov rpdrrov, e^ovra p.r) aTrobibbvai An. 1. 2. 11. arorra Xeyeis, a> Sdxpares, s rrpbs crov Mem.- 2. 3. 15. o-rrovbas erroLrjaaro rrpbs Qrj- fiat&v pdXXov r) rrpbs eavrcbv, for the benefit of; be£iov rrpbs dvbpds eari Aristoph. ov Trpbs larpov aocpov Qprivelv Soph. (comp. § 132. n. 13) j cibiKos, dae^rjs Trpbs rcov Secov ka\ rtov dvdpoorrow before (in the eyes of) gods and men; np.r)v, bb£av e'xetv, dpeo-Qai rrpbs rravrcov II. rr. 84; comp. Thuc. 1. 71. An. 2. 5. 20. ib. 1. 6. 6. ib. 5. 7. 12. — Further, rrpos stands more frequently than rrapa after passive and neuter verbs to mark the author or cause, as 6p.oXoyelrai rrpbs rrdvroov An. 1. 9. 20. ra\exdevra rrpos rivos, aTroOvrjcriceiv, okicrOai rrpos rtvos.* So too with verbs of hearing or learning, Hdot. — Peculiar for rrpos is its use in oaths, protestations, etc. as rrpbs r&v Secov, w rrpos ore yovdrcov sc. Uerevco r,urip. See more in § 151. III. 6. — - c. Bat. by, near by, like rrapa ; e. g. ol 'Adnvaloi &pp.ow rrpbs rj} rrokei Xen. It is also according to Homeric idiom to say : rrori be aKrjrrrpov /3aXe yairj II. a. 245; comp. under iv above. — Further, rrpos also very commonly * Hence may be explained the poetic usage of irpSs in the sense, to do anything by command of, by the will of: Kai Kev iv 'Apyei iovcra irpbs aWrjs Iffrhv xxpa'ivois II. £ 456. nKovaa irpbs rod Srqpbs (the Centaur) ttolw ra5e Soph. Trach. 935. § 147. PREPOSITIONS. 419 implies addition; as Tvpbs tovtols to this ; Trpbs de tovtco (IXovto \\beifxavTOP to him (besides him) they chose Adimantus. — c. Accus. Here rrpo? is the appropriate preposition to express both in place and time, and also tropically, a direction or motion towards or to an object.* This comprehensive idea again shapes itself in the particular in- stances so variously, that here too in translating we have to use various and different English prepositions; most frequently towards, tc ; upon, against, as may be seen in the following examples: avaTtivai ras x f ip ay irpbs rbv ovpavov Xen. vaUiv Trpbs tjcc rjeXiov re Horn. — Trpbs ianepav, Trpbs ttjv aeXrjvrjv, marking time. — Xeyeiv npos 1 tovs 'Adrjvaiovs (to), 6 Trpbs AenTivrjv Xdyos (against), Trpbs to (3ekTio-TOV Xeyeiv (for) ; oi etXcoTes TToXXa kXItttovt€S iircoXeov irpbs tovs klyivr]Tas Hdot. 9. 80. ov8ev Trpbs Xoyov nothing to the purpose Plat. o~KoireiTe to. vii€Tep' ovtcov Trpbs tcl tcov aXXcov avOpcoircov Dem. Trpbs tt)v d^lav eKacrrw 5iSoi/at Xen. 7rpb? t'l ; wherefore? why? Ta^drjvai irpos rt, cppovco to. Trpbs ae, etc. — Like Trapa (c. Ace. 3), it marks the placing together of objects for comparison ; e. g. Mem. 1.3.4 ScoKpar??? irdvTa TavOpwmva vire- pecopa Trpbs ttjv Trapa tcov Secov £vp.(3ovXlav. 3. 5. 4 rera7retVoorai r] tcov 'Adrj- vaccov 86£a Trpbs tovs Bolcotovs, eTrrjpTai 8e to tcov Qrjftalav cppovrjpa Trpbs tovs 1 'Adrjvalovs. Dem. p. 185 iv Tavrrj Trj ttoXzl xP^ aT ^ evevtiv irpos dndaas to.s aXXas iroXeLS. Id. Lept. 9 npbs anavra tov iic tcov aXXcov ipTropicov d(pLKvovp,e- vov, 6 iic tov Uovtov otto? tlcnrXecov io-riv, i. e. the grain from Pontus exceeds that from all other markets. — Less closely it may be rendered with, e. g. cruppay/'ui/ Tvoieio~6ai irpos Tiva, iwoa> Trpbs epavrov. — Adverbial are : Trpbs j3iav perforce, per vim, different from /3ta, see § 133. n. 12; Trpbs ^apiv, Trpbs axiTols TTOLrjo-aadai Xen. — The poets employ vtto c. Bat. in most of the senses of vtto c. Gen. see § 134. 3. — c. Accus. signifies under, in answer to both the questions where and * Strictly towards or to the side of; which idea in napd c. Accus. is just the least frequent; on the other hand, iiri c. Ace. is towards or to a pointy etc. In naTtx and Tepi c. Ace. the idea of motion is less prominent. 420 SYNTAX. § 147 whithet comp. rrapd. E. g. vtto yrjv sub terra j ottoioi rives av ozow oi 7rpo- crrdrai, tolovtol kcu oi vtt' avrov? a>? emroiroXv yiyvovrai Cyr. 8. 8. 5. rjyei vtt' air a ra rei^r? Xen. Klyvrrros irakiv vtto ftacriXea eyevero. — Of time it cor- responds to the Lat. sub, i. e. about, towards, near j as vno rov avrbv yjpdvov Time. 5. 3. v7ro rrjv Karakvo-iv rov iroXep.ov. — It sometimes alternates with vrpos, yet with some little difference : Xen. Conv. 6.3?} ovv fiovXeoSe, cacrnep NiKoarparo? rerpdaerpa npos rov avXov KareXeyev, ovroa Ka\ vtto rov avXov vp.1i bcaXeyapai. — Special is vir' avyas Ibeiv, to look at by the light, Plat. Note 2. When two or more substantives following one another are de- pendent on the same preposition, and are connected together by copulative conjunction? (re, Kal, or also rj), the preposition is usually written only once, and that before the^rs£ substantive; e. g. vtto re avbpa>v kcu yvvaiKtov. The poets in such instances are fond of placing the preposition only before the second noun: rj dXos rj eVi yrjs Od. p.. 27. irork p.ev kcikov aXXor* err* ecrOXbv epnei Soph. Ant. 367. — But when in relative and other correspond" ing clauses, the relative or other like word is dependent on the same prepo- sition as is the antecedent in the other clause; in such cases the preposi- tion is by rule inserted before both words, and very rarely only once ; e. g. Eur. Hipp. 474 is be rr)v rvyjqv 7recrovcr, oarjv crv, ttcls av (Kvevaai boKels ; So too Od. b. 413 Xegerat ev p,eo~o-rjcn, voaevs a>? iraeo-i urjXcov. In dialogue: Plat. Soph. p. 243, nepl rov ueyicrrov vvv aKerrreov. Tivos brj, Xeyar. Note 3. The prepositions are sometimes separated from their noun at the beginning of a clause by the small particles te, ye, yap, p.ev, etc. as with the article § 125. 9; e. g. iv p.ev rrj x<»P?j e *c — Other like separations belong rather to a freer position of the words ; as Plat. Rep. p. 564. a, e£, olp.ai, rrjS aicporar-qs eXevdep'ias. Od. e. 155 7rap' ovk c6eXa>v eOeXovcrrj. Pind. Pyth. 10. 83 e7r' aXXor aXXov Quvei, Xoyov. — For irpos ere yovdrav see § 151. III. 6. Note 4. Sometimes the case of a preposition is apparently wanting, viz. when instead of it a whole phrase or clause is inserted. E. g. Soph. Phil. 469 77p6r 7rarp6s, npos ei ri croi nar* olkov ecrri 7rpoo~va' — arvv 6° avroos eyco • — ev be Xip.r)v evopp.os • — vtto b* rjpiovoi abp-TJres. So especially ivapd, thereby. This usage is often imitated by Herodotus. — The preposition rcepi (or Tvepi, § 117. n. 3) takes .in the epic poets, as adverb, the signification very. Note 6. In this manner have arisen all the instates of composition with prepositions. They all consist of the radical word with a preposition taken adverbially ; as SiajSouVco ' I go throughout,'' etc. § 121. 2. In such compounds the prepositions often take all the different meanings which they have when not in composition. Hence we may refer in general to the preceding ex- planations-; and call attention here only to some peculiarities. dp.cpi- with the idea cf two sides, see above in duv for ovv\ e. g. Hdot. 2. 39 an &v eBopro, for dire- Bopto ovu. Hence too it comes, that in those emphatic repetitions to be mentioned in § 149. m. 12, instead of the compound verb, the preposition only is repeated; e. g. Hdot. 3. 126 6 Be Kara p,ep eKreive Mirpoftdrea — , Kara Be tqv Mirpo/Sareo) iralBa. — In the tragic poets the tmesis occurs only where small words thrust themselves in, as it were, between the preposition and verb; e. g. £k 6° eirpevae, Kara B* eKreipas, Bid fi* e(p0eipas; Bidr* evpaaai, Eur. Phoen. 904. Hipp. 1373 j and with the preposition following: Hec. 502 tJko) 'Ayap.ep.popo? ire p.yjsapros, & yvvai, p,era. — Even in Attic prose we must refer to the same usage the insertion of the qualifying r\, somewhat, between an adjective and the preposition to (sub, a little), which serves to diminish the signification of the adjective; e. g. vtto n dae(3h somewhat impious, vtto rt aronovy etc. Heind. ad Plat. Phaedr. 43. Note 8. But in ordinary prose, likewise, there are some prepositions, which, though standing in compounds, are still to be taken as if separate. So especially irpos and crvv. Every verb, whether already compound or 422 SYNTAX. § 14 S not, could always be again compounded by the Greeks, chiefly with one ©f Miese two prepositions, merely in order to shew that the thing took pk,ce besides or in addition to something else (7rpdr), or in connection with some other person (avv tivi). E.g. o-vo-Tparevopai aoi C I make a campaign with thee? crvve^atpei civtoI? 2eXkaaiav t he assists them to conquer Sellasia,' Xen. Hell. 7. 4. 12 ; dXXd kcu Tvpoabufiahe p.e 'but also in addition to this he has calumniated me.' So too Thucydides says, 3. 13 p.r) £vp kcikS)? rroielv avrovs aX\a gvveXevdepovv, and Plato Gorg. p. 520 x 6p.oydaTptos "Efcropdy elpci.* he has so acutely developed, ad Viger. no. 267. He there lays down the princi pie, that ovk alwa) 7 s denies the thing itself, and pr\ only the idea of the thing; or that ov denies objectively, and p-f] subjectively. I acknowledge, that, by assuming this theory, we can bring under it most of the actual appearances : and at all event? nothing is more useful or more strengthening for the critical judgment and tact, than to follow out such a philosophical principle with all possible impartiality, or even to take some pains in order to find it confirmed. With all this, however, I cannot deny, that 1 have not yet been able so to reduce under this theory all which occurs, that I could not in the same manner have brought under it much which does not occur. It will easily be seen on comparison, that I have made use of Hermann's views. A better principle of unity than his, I could not give ; but yet I did not wish to bring under a theory by force, that which according to my con- viction could not come under it. Let my theory therefore stand as it may, by the side of his; or let it be thrown into the shade. * There occur some passag'es, where et is construed with ov. Such of these as are found in epic writers, e. g. II. o. 162. Od. j8. 274, I would not in any way en- deavour to refer to the common usage ; because in my opinion they are well enough accounted for by the remark, that at that period the more exact grammatical rules were not settled with entire consistency. The case is different with the examples in Attic writers. Hermann (ad Vig. not. 309, and p. 890) considers them as suffi- ciently explained by the remark, that in such cases ov does not stand for itself sep- arately, but forms with the following word one idea. I acknowledge this in such passages as Soph. Ajax 1131, Et tovs &av6vTas ovk ids frdirretv irapv i]KoveT€, 'if there were few ;' where also belongs the ovk elvai in the comic-philosophic passage in Athen. 3. p. 99. a. But I regard this explanation as admissible only in instances, where the negative thus stands directly for the op- posite idea ; so that ov may be considered as forming a sort of compound with the following word. In ov (pypi, ov cpdcKeiv, this seems to have become an established rule ; so that even idv is used in connection with them ; see below in- § 148. n. 2. In other cases we must seek in the context some perceptible ground for the choice of the unconditional ov instead of p/f\. Thus in the example from Andocides de Myst. p. 5, ei 5e ovdev rjpdpTWTal poi, Kal tovto vuav diroZeiKvvpi cracpus, deopai vpav avrb cpavepbv to?s "EAArjo't. irdo~i iroirja'ai, the purpose of the orator to assert his inno- cence in the most positive manner, is evident : ' since, as every one knows, I have committed no fault at all.' In Eurip. Med. 87, Et rovaSe (his children) y' evinjs ovvsk' ov arepyei 7raT7jp, the form ov ffrepyei expresses this circumstance as notori- ous, and the et refers solely to the specified cause, evvrjs ovveKa. The case is differ- ent with the three examples in Herm. ad Eur. Med. p. 344, 361. All these three belong to the construction with pev and Se' (see § 149. m. 11-14), of which the last 424 SYNTAX. * 148. c) lo that which exists only in idea belongs also purpose ; and hence [if] stands in like manner everywhere with the particles tva, cos, ow-coy, coo-re, whenever these actually denote a purpose or intended result. In the same manner therefore it necessarily stands with all expressions which imply wish, entreaty, prohibition. In all these instances it corresponds to the Lat- in ne ; and it stands also, like this particle, at the beginning of a clause. — ; the idea of wishing, etc. being not expressed, but retained in the thought; e. g. fj.rj yevoiTo, let it not be ! i. e. I wish that it may not be ! d) Further, an appearance of dependence belongs also to whatever is brought forward as the opinion, conclusion, conjecture of any one • either as introduced by on, wy, etc. with the Indie, and Optative, or as expressed in sermone obliquo, Ace. c. Infm. Nevertheless, as this species of discourse differs only in external form from the judgment which is directly expressed, usage has here in most cases preferred the direct and independent ov, and we therefore find vo/j.l£ei ov koXov elvai • — ovk edeXeiv cprjaiu. An. 7. 2. 27 (rv drreKpiva), on ovdev tovtov eveKa deoi reAeIi> oirre crot ovt' aXKco. In many such cases however \xr\ can also stand, e.g. Xen. Hell. 3. 2. 27 evoLiiaav avrbv ju.77 3ovkeo-6ai fiaXkov, i) /jltj 8vvao-0ai. — The dependent or indirect question, with el whether, commonly has prj. e) To the conditions and suppositions (in lett. b) belong also all relatives, whenever they refer not to definite antecedents, but to such as are merely implied in the thought. Thus e. g. ov8e\s Ai^erai xPW aTCL i oar is- /irj irape- arai 'no one will receive money who is not present, 7 indefinite; on the other hand ovto'l elcnv, ot ovS' otiovv tovs TroXeplovs fi\6.TTTovo~i Xen. Cyr. 6. 1. 28, definite, ■ these are they, who do not injure the enemy at all. 7 — The relative clauses with fxrj are consequently for the most part of a general nature ; and therefore can also be changed into conditional clauses. f ) Hence all those shorter phrases, which can be referred back to one of the dependent constructions, have always prj. Thus the prepositive article when put briefly for the relative with the verb elvai, e. g. ra p,rj Ka\d, for aTiva jj-rj Kakd eo-riv, whatever (i.e. all that) is not handsome. So Xenophon says (An. 4. 4. 15) of a man of veracity, that he had constantly stated to [irj ovra cos ovk ovra. Here ra pr] ovra is the abridged form of the dependent half only is the proper object of the thought, while the first is merely the antithesis of the second. We give here the passage from Thuc. 1. 121, literally: 7) deivbv av €^7], el ol /xev eKelvoov ^vfx/xaxoL eVi dovXeta rfj avrtav (pepovres ovk airep',ws re ko\ fir) ypdcpeiv; Here certainly fir) only renders negative the KaAco?; but even if it stood alone it must also read, rt'y ovv Tpoiros tov fir) koX&s ypdcpeiv ; and the fir) has consequently its ground in the dependence of the Infinitive ypdqbeiv, — fully, rt'y ovv Tponos, et tls fiovkerai fir) koXcos ypdcpeiv ; See further the similar phrases § 151. IV. 6. — So in the question apa del fie napayeveadai, r) fir); this last means: 'or shall I not?' and the fir) then renders negative merely the dependent Infinitive irapeyeve- o~6ai. The force of del is not thereby destroyed ; it means : ' am I compelled not to be present? 7 Were it r) ov, then the del would become negative, r) ov del; 'or is it not necessary V In like manner: rouroty e^ecrTi fiev ireldeaOai, e^eo-TL de fir) sc. neideadai, Plat. Phsedr. p. 252. Note 1. It is however easy to conceive, that it very often depends solely on the will of the speaker or writer, in the case of a negation in itself de- pendent, to treat it nevertheless, either for the sake of perspicuity, or of some distinction or emphasis, as a direct negation and only interwoven ill the construction ; and that vice versa many a negation which is founded on complete reality, but is nevertheless interwoven with the participial con- struction, is for the same reason given with fir). An example of this last is Demosth. Cor. p. 276. 6 qv de (6 Q'Ckntrros) ovr* ev ttj SaXaTTn Tore KpeiT- Tuav vficov ovt* els Tr)v 'ATTiKrjv iX8elv dvvaros, firyre QeTTaXa>v aKoXov8ovvTwv, firyre Qqfiai&v duevrtov, 'the Thessalians neither following him, nor the Thebans suffering him to pass through.' This refers to actual facts, and the negation is not that of any mere idea or supposition, nor of any thing dependent ; and therefore in every other such case ovtc would stand Avith these participles, But here ovre had already been used ; and hence if ovre had stood here again instead of fiqre, it would necessarily (by no. 6 below) have expressed the meaning, ' Philip could not enter Attica, neither if the Thessalians followed him, nor if the Thebans let him pass through.' Con» Bequently firyre stands here, in a negation not indeed dependent, but still subordinate, simply for the sake of distinction from the preceding ovtc. Note 2. The particle ov has with some words the power, not merely of rendering them negative, but of giving them the directly contrary sense. <*26 SYNTAX. § 143 Thus especially ov ndvv is to be translated not by not wholly, bat by noi at all, by no means; ov cpvp-i means not 'I do not say,' but I deny; ovk ecpaaav livai 'they refused to go;' ovk vmcrxvovvTo avv8ei7rvr']o~eiv 'they de- clined the invitation,' Xen. Conv. 1. 7 ; ovx vnedeKero refused, Hdot. 3. 50; oi>x fJKiara not least, i. e. most of all. In dependent clauses, both negatives are employed in this manner by the best writers; e.g. Plat. Gorg. p. 457 iav nepi rov dp.CpLo-(Br)Tr)cndcn jcal p,r) s Aeyeiy, ^uXe- Ttaivovo-Lv. In Plat. Apol. Socr. p. 25 (§ 12), instead of iav re — p.r) (pyre, Bekker has adopted ov . 248. The third pers. of the Imperat. Aor. in connection with fii] is not unfrequent ; e. g. fir) SoKrjcrdra) tlvl iEsch. fi7)$eh vofiiadrco Xen. 4. The expression of fear or anxiety, which we make positive, i I fear that something will happen to him,' is introduced by the Greeks, as also by the Latins, with a negative : BeBoc/ca fir] tl TTciOr), vereor ne quid Mi accidat, Engl. I fear lest, etc. Note 4. The construction of these verbs in respect to moods (Subj. Opt. Future), and the examples, see in § 139. m. 50, comp. m. 23. Note 5. Sometimes also with the sense of fear or anxiety, pr) constitutes a clause or proposition by itself; e. g. pr) tovto aXXcoy 'iyj\. II. a 26 p.q ae, yepov, Koikrjo-Lv iyu> irapa vr)vo\ /a^a'a). The greater part of such clauses can be explained by supplying before them cpo(3ovp.ai I fear, or opa see to it, take care. Often however this assumption would be too unwieldy ; and there- fore it is perhaps better to say, that the Greek language by means of this p.7) with the Subjunctive and a certain tone of emphasis, formed an inde- pendent clause expressing care or foresight; see \ 139. m. 6. $ 148. PARTICLES OF NEGATION. ^±27 5. Often also /^ (or apa jjutj, § 149. m. 18) is merely an em- phatic interrogative particle ; the negative form of which has its ground in the indefinite and doubting tone of the question ; and it may therefore expect in answer either yes or no, according to the context and the tone ; as in Engl, perhaps, perhaps not, per- haps not indeed. E.g. /jlt) SokeI vol tovto elvai evrjOes ; seems this to thee perhaps to be foolish? Soph. OC. 1502 t/? ^eiTai fCTViros ; firj Tt? Albs tcepavvos, r) rt? bjJL,j3pla ^(aKoXfL ; iEschyl. Pers. 344 /jltj ctol Sokov/jL€p rfjSe \eL(f)6r}vai fid%r] ; Plut. Mor. p. 181 teal fjurj tl aXXo ; shouldst thou ivish nothing else ? For fxwv fir), see § 149. m. 18. — On the other hand, ov (or ap ov, § 139. m. 62) is the negative interrogative, by which the inquirer lets it be understood that he expects an affirmative answer ; e. g. ov teal koCKov io-Ti to ayadov ; is not the good also beautiful ? 6. When to a sentence already made negative, other qualifi- cations of a more general kind are to be added, such as sometimes, some one, somewhere, or the like, these are all commonly sub- joined in words compounded with the same negative particles ; e. g. ov/c iiroiiqae tovto ovScl/jLov ovSek ' no one has anywhere done this ;' Plat. Parmen. extr. TaXXa tcov yJr\ ovtcov ovSevl ovSa^fj ov- Safjicos ovhefiiav kolvmvIclv e%«. And, in the same manner, to the negation of the whole is subjoined the negation of the parts ; e. g. ov hvvaTai out* ev Xiyetv ovt' ev iroielv tovs cf)l\ovs, where we say 'he can neither . . . nor.'' Consequently, in Greek, these co-ordinate negatives of the same kind in the same clause do not (as in Lat. non nunquam and the like, and as in modern Ian guages) serve to destroy each other, but thus strengthen one an- other. Only when the simple negative stands last, does it de- stroy the preceding ones ; see note 7 sq. Note 6. In some phrases both the particles ov and 1x77 are united for the sake of emphasis, viz. 1 ) ov fxrj in assurances which refer to a future time (hence the construc- tion in § 139. m. 6), and in the confiding entreaty arising from them. The two connected particles can also he separated by other words ; and instead of ov, its compounds (ov8e, ovdelr, etc.) can also stand ; see the examples in § 139. m. 6. 2) fir] ov, but only in the simple form of both, and not separated ; most commonly before Infinitives instead of yu.77 alone, e. g. nolov napa/jLvOiov Trocr]o-€L9 avTcp, /xrj ovxi aivemeiv ; 'what consolation wilt thou give him, that he may not despair ?' cuo-;(ui/o/xcu /xt) ov noielv tovto ■ I am ashamed not to do this.' Sometimes also before Participles, instead of el p-rj with the verb. Schsefer Melet. p. 108. Soph. OC. 360. Note 7. But from this and also from the general rule, that two or more negatives only strengthen each other, there are two principal exceptions, where the negatives actually destroy each other, as in Latin and in the modern languages : a) When 1x77 is not merely a negative, but also a conjunction ; and conse- quently in clauses implying purpose, fear, anxiety, wish, etc. E. g. II. a. 28, where Chryses is ordered to depart, with the threat firj vv toi ov xpm 07x77 aKrJ7TTpov kcu crre/x/xa Seolo l lest the sceptre and fillet of the god afford thee no aid.' So too after verbs of fear when 7x77 is rendered 428 SYNTAX. § 149. simply that; e. g. a. 'A. ovdeva irpovhcoKare rcov (piXcov, QerraXol de ovdeva ttcottoO* ovriva ov sc. 7rpovbcaKav, i. e. 'they have betrayed all their friends.'* Note 9. But as the Greeks were in general so accustomed to the rule, that one negative only strengthens another, it often happens that a verb, which in itself implies a negative, is still construed with another negative. This is the case with verbs signifying to hinder, deny, beware, disbelieve, and the like ; as hre^Eiy, e'Lpyeiv, KoaXveiv, Karapvelcrdai, ef-apvov elvai, a7rayopeveiv, 7raveiv,Xr)yeLv, direyeo-Qai, (pvXdcraeo-daL, dmo-relv, eKtpevyeiv, etc. E. g. Hdot. 3. 128 Aapetos drrayopevei vpiv p,rj dopvcpopeeiv 'Opoirea. Also T)vavTico6r\v avrco fi-qBiv iroielv napa tovs vop.ovs 'I opposed myself to him, i. e. 1 hindered him from doing anything against the laws;' Xen. Anab. 1. 3. 2 [xiKpbv e^eepvye tov /lit) KaTaireTpcoOrjvai. "he but just escaped being stoned.' See the Index to Plat. Meno. v. p.rj. Exc. XI. ad Dem. Mid. and comp. Dem. 01. 1. p. 15, 16, without yu.77. Note 10. For the phrase el 8e p,r], see § 151. IV. 7. § 149. Yarious Particles. 1. The use of tne particles in Greek is so various, and in some respects so difficult, that we select here several of the most im portant for particular illustration. a)? as a relative Adverb has the following significations: 1) as, so as 2) It strengthens the superlative (§ 123. n. 9), chiefly with adverbs, e. g cos Taxiora as swiftly as possible; and with some adverbs also the positive. especially in cos dXrjdcos really, most certainly, cos erepcos, and some other examples; see in Heindorf ad Plat. Apol. Socr. 23. Praef. The instances where it stands after the adverb, $avp.ao~Tcos cos, vivepepveos cos, are explained in § 151. I. 5. 3) about, nearly, cos irevT^Kovra about fifty. 4) To the prep- ositions eni, els, rrpos, in answer to the question whither, e.g. in erropevero cos eiri tov Tvorap,6v, it gives the signification towards, in the direction of ver- sus ; lit. as if he would go to the river ; leaving it undetermined whether he reaches it. Thuc. 6. 61 dnenXeov p-erd rrjs 2aXafiivlas ck ttjs 2i.KeXl.as cos «$• 'Adrjvas. Hence it can everywhere be used of a journey not yet complet * The omission of 'Sams in this phrase in the passage Xen. Conv. 1. 9, is doubt- ful (see Schneider's note) ; but it is certain in the oracle in Hdot. 5. 56. 149. VARIOUS PARTICLES. 429 ed : e. g. Soph. Philoct. 58 nXels 6° coy npos oIkov, 'thou saile.st for home.' 5) Before certain words or qualifying phrases, it often signifies m, as beings according as, like Lat. ut ; e. g. An. 4. 3. 31 rjaav co7r)uo- pevoi, coy iv rois ope- cnv, ' as is customary or possible nr mountains.' Thuc. 4. 84 Bpaaidas rjv ovde dfivvaros; coy Aa/ceScu/xcVioy, elireiv, he was by no means unable, as being (although he was) a Lacedemonian, etc. — uy in tcov dvvarav v. inrap^ovroiv, etc. 6) In a laxer construction it sometimes stands in the place of a rela- tive pronoun : e. g. II. 77. 407 pv$ov 'A^atcoz/ aKovei?, coy tol viroKplvovrai, comp. £. 44. \j/. 50. Soph. OC. 1124 ao\ Seol iropoiev, coy iycb £eAco, lit. ' as I wish,' coy for a. cos- as Conjunction signifies: 1) that, see § 139. G. 2) that, in order that, § 139. E. 3) so that, with the Infinitive, more commonly coo-re, § 139. F. § 140. 4. 4) as, of time, § 139. C. 5) as, inasmuch as, because, in the par- ticipial construction, § 144. n. 14, and especially § 145. n. 7. — Hence also : 6) as, since, for, J, it. quippe; e.g. Kpanarov earat avyx^pwac, coy cru SoKeis ovk d(pr]v brjpiovpyos, aTreiepivaTu av. — There are found also some elliptical terms with this conjunction; for which see § 151. IV. 3. oilrcoy and code, so, thus, are distinguished like the corresponding ad- jective pronouns, ovtos and ode. — We may here note further the use of o'v- r coy ... coy in clauses of wishing; e. g. Luc. Philops. 27 ovras ovalprjv tov- r<£>v, coy aXrjdrj npo? ere epco. Comp. II. v. 825. — In Homer code often occurs in a local sense; e. g. rrpopoX code, vvv 6° code j-vv vql Karr]Xvdov II. o\ 392. Od. a. 182. O7rcoy as adverb, signifies as; as a conjunction, that, in order that. For its construction, see § 139. E. iv a as adverb, where; as a conjunction, that, in order that, § 139. E. — Also tva ri, wherefore? as if: 'in order that ivhat? should happen.' &are, so as, so that, § 139. F. § 140. 4. § 142. 4. — Herodotus uses it in the manner of are before participles, § 144. m. 14; e. g. Hdot. 6. 44 coo-re Q-qpicdbeo-Tarris eovarjs rrjs S^aXdcrarjS 1 ravrrjs, 8ie takes the Indicative; since this av (as in cbenrep av el in m. 1) strictly belongs to the apodosis, which hoAvever is often retained in the mind, or follows another construction. See the note to Dem. Mid. 15. Heindorf ad Plat. Soph. 69. e'lTis, fin, lit. if any one, if any thing ; but this expression stands fully in place of the pronoun oans, with greater emphasis: Xen. Hell. 7. 1. 20 ecpdeipov eiTi xpw^fiov rjv ev rw irebito, i.e. ivhatever, all that, etc. Comp. the converse in § 143. 19. el yap, Lat. utinam ! that! in wishing; for which elsewhere e'ide. § 139. m. 7. errei, enei8f) 1) Lat. postquam, after. 2) Lat. quoniam, since, because, § 139. C, D. 3) Before questions and before Imperatives, since, for ; e. g. eVet ncos av 8ia.icpivoip.ev avro ; for how then could we distinguish it ? enel Seaaai avro? for see then thyself. — Compounds with av are: eiredv, iireibdv. ottov 1) where, there where. 2) As conjunction, since, siquidem, Cyr. 2. 3. 11. oirore, ore, stands likewise often for since, like Lat. quandoquidem : Dem 01. 1. init. Soph. El. 38.— Also ore, that, § 139. m. 59. edv, rjv, av, also orav, eVetSai/, see in § 139 ; comp. Index. — For edv espec. after verbs signifying to examine, see too, see in § 139. m. 66. fj or; which signification it always retains likewise in interrogations; e. g. ovtcos eo-riv • fj ovk o'lei ; ' thus it is ; or dost thou not think so ? J nodev rJKet; fj 8r)\ov on eg dyopds ; 'whence does he come? or is it plain (and therefore the question unnecessary) that he comes from the market ?' — The disjunctive fj . . .fj in epic writers takes also the particles p,ev and 8e, as fj p.ev . . .fj be; but then commonly signifies as well . . .as also; hence fj8e (18 e) standing alone in Homer signifies and. In comparisons fj signifies than, quam; e. g. o~o\ tovto p.dXkov dpeo-Kei fj epol. If the first part be negative (or interrogative) then in the second part dXkd can stand instead of fj; e. g. Time. 5. 99 ov vop,i£op,ev f)p2v tovs fjneipco- ras 8eivorepovs, aWa tovs vrjcricoTas. 1. 83 eanv 6 7ro\ep.os oi)( oiihcov to irkeov aWa 8airdvr}?. Or else in such a case the negative is repeated after fj, and is then redundant, as with the Infln. § 148. n. 9 ; e. g. Hdot. 4. 118 rjnei 6 Tleparj? ov8ev tl p,dWov eir r)p.eas fj ov kol en\ vp.eas. Hell. 6. 3. 15 ti ovv Set dvapeveiv p.aXKov fj oi>x cos rd^iara elpfjvrjv noielo-Bat, ; Comp. Thuc. 3. 36. Less accurately and with a certain anacoluthon, instead of fj, after com- paratives we find cos (ocrov, olov) ; e. g. Theocr. 9. 33 ov yap pe\io-o-ais dvdea ykvuepcoTepa, oaaov ep\v Moicrat (piXai. Hence sometimes ovtcos likewise stands with a comparative, e. g. Plat. Apol. p. 36. d, ovk eo-6* o,ri p,a"h\ov Trpeirei our cor, cos rbv toiovtov av8pa iv irpvTaveico o~iTe1cr6ai. So too after ovk aXXo and the like fj should follow by rule ; yet we find cos, as with com- paratives ; e. g. Eurip. Fragm. 75 ovk earn \vwrjs aXXo (pdpp,aKov fiporols, cos dv8pos eo~6\ov koX (piXov TrapaLvetris. — Vice versa, this comparative fj can like- wise be put after the positive, or generally after all those predicates, which either include in themselves the idea of comparison (as alpelcrOai), or else receive it by means of this fj. E. g. Hdot. 9. 26 f)p.eas 8iKaiov e%eiv to erepov vitpas, fjtrep 'AOrjvaiovs. II. c^. 117 fiovkop? e'yco Xabv o~6ov ep.pevai fj dno\e- adai. Lys. p. 171 {wtovctl Kepbalveiv fj vpcis neideiv. When the comparative refers to a relation or proportion, it is followed by rj irpos or r) Kara ; e. g. p.ei(cov fj Kar avQpvmov greater than according to man j f) 86£a eo-riv eXaTTOiv fj irpbs to KaTop6pa, the renown is less then in propor- tion to the merit ; Lat. quam pro. 1 149. VARIOUS PARTICLES. 431 r\ is wholly different from rj, and originally signifies certainly. In common usage it is simply an interrogative particle, num, whether. — For rj p-qv see below, m. 29. — Further, rj yap; in dialogue signifies always: not so? Germ, nicht wahr? zeal and re correspond entirely to the Lat. et and que; and. Kat has also 3 the significations also, even, etc. — When re precedes Kai, the former means not only, the latter but also ; e. g. avros re rvpavvos eyevero, kcu tols rratal rrjv Tvpavv'tha Kareknrev. In other cases, both . . . and. Still this double con- nection is often used in Greek, where we employ a single and. re' moreover in epic poetry seems very often entirely superfluous. This arises from the circumstance, that in the most ancient language this par- ticle first lent to many classes of words that connective power, which after- wards, as the language became more cultivated, they retained for them- selves alone without the re. Hence in the epic poets we find so often piv re, Se' re, yap re, and. even mi re (also), for pev, 8e, yap, ml, alone. Most commonly however the particle re follows the relatives of all kinds, because all these in the ancient language were already forms of the demonstrative, which by means of this re acquired a connective power (and this), and so became relatives (who, ivhich). But so soon as the relative sense was ex- clusively allotted to these forms, the re fell away as superfluous. Hence in Homer so frequently still os re, ocrov re, etc. for 6s, oaov, and the like. In the common language are further derived from this ancient usage the par- ticles ware and are, and the phrases olds re and ev vperepcov ecrrlv 6 dyd>v, /crfi irepl yvvatKcov 8e Kal reKv&v. If now we should here translate Kal . . . 8e literally : \ but also for your wives and children,' this would give an entirely false emphasis to the construction ; it means simply : \ the contest is now for your own lives, and also (and in addition) for your wives and children.' In the common language this junction of Kal and 8e occurs only in such a way, that the principal word to which Kai refers always stands before he ; while in the epic language, on the contrary, the two particles al- ways stand together, Kal 8e ; e. g. II. i. 708 KapTraXlpios Trpb vecov e%epev AaoY re Kai Irnrovs 'Orpuv&v, Kal S' avro? ivl 7rpopd)(ot.cn pd-^aBai. ... pev and 8e are two particles belonging together, which have nearly the same character as 8e alone. They serve to form a connection, like our in- deed . . . but; but are far more frequently employed than these English particles, which usually require a strong antithesis; while pev and 6V only place two propositions or clauses in a connection, which with us is either not expressed at all, or at most by but alone. Thus very frequently a chap- ter or longer division of a book ends in this way : ko.1 ravra pev ovt&s eye- vero, these things then were so ; and then the following chapter must nec- essarily begin something in this way; rfj 8' va-repaiq, but on the following day. MeV must be given by indeed, only when the context manifestly re- quires it. But ph and be are often employed also to connect two clauses, of which only the second properly belongs in the connection; while the other is merely inserted in order to heighten by contrast the effect of the second. E. g. Dem. 01. II. p. 25 d\X eKelvo Savpdfa, el (that) AaKedaipovioi? pev nore vnep rcov 'EWwvikcov St/ccuW dvrrjpare, Kal, tva oi aWoi rv^coari tgov SikcuW, to. vperepa avrcov dvrfkiaKere elcr 8e o~vvei\x.i p.ev Seols; uvveiiii 6' dvdpamoL? roty dyaOols, in- stead of the feebler avveip-i Seols re ko.\ av6. r. a. And in the same manner also without ueV in the first part, when the ordinary form of connection would be with /cat only; so in Soph. Philoct. 827. Comp. § 147. n. 7. In general, ueV can strictly never be -used, unless 8e, or at least some 13 other particle of a similar meaning (aX\d, jueVrot), corresponds to- it in the succeeding clause. But nevertheless: 1) On rhetorical grounds the apod- osis is sometimes omitted, or otherwise expressed ; e. g. Plat. Charm. 2 nap eyevov iiev, rj 6' 6'?, ffj p-d-XO » HapeyevoiLrjv. 2) In some common expressions, where the apodosis is to be regarded as entirely obliterated, fiep is employed (like quidem) merely to insulate some person or thing, and thus to exclude everything, which one perhaps might otherwise expect ; so especially e'yo> Liev (equidem) Cyr. 2. 2. 10. etc. See Heind. ad Plat. Charm. 36. Thea3t. 49. — For fiev instead of firjv in epic writers, see m. 29. From jiev . . . 8e, come the forms 6 ueV ... 6 SV, or 6s iiev . . . or 8e, which 14 we have already seen in § 126. Similar distributives are formed with the help of the same particles, for the various adverbial relations ; and indeed not only the demonstrative and relative forms, but also the indefinite forms are so employed : 7rore p.ev . . . nore §e, sometimes . . . sometimes, or once . . . again; and so also with rore and ore (§ 116. n. 9). So further 777 ueV . . . rrj 8e ) or nrj fiev . . . tttj 6e, in one way . . . in another way, etc. euBa p.eu . . ev6a be, etc. In respect to all such distributives it is to be remarked, that sometimes such a formula stands without a verb in reference to a preceding clause ; where consequently \iiv in itself alone seems to have an affirmative sense, something like our indeed, forsooth; e. g. ndvras (pi\T]Teov, a\X ov rbv ueV, top 6' ov, ' one must love all, and not the one indeed, but the other not;' naprjaav ovx 6 p.ev 6 6' ov • dXka. ndvres, ' they were present, not the one for- sooth, and the other not, but all.' ovre, fxfjTe- ovde, Lirjde. Both these forms express a negative con- 16 nection, and correspond to the Latin neque, and not. There is between them however, this difference, that ovre, /x^re, affect parts of clauses, or represent that which is denied as belonging to that with which they connect it ; while ovbe, p,r]8e, on the contrary, rather connect whole clauses and sensesj partly by way of strong contrast, and partly by way of transition and in the regu- lar progress of discourse. Oure and jx^re are more copulative, like the affirmative /cat; ovbe and jxrjbe more disjunctive, corresponding to' 67. The same difference is found when either particle is repeated ; as ovre . . . ovre, ovde . . . ovde, p,r)Te . . . Lirjre, etc. like Lat. neque . . . neque, i. e. neither . . . nor. Here too it must be noted, that, according to the nature of the clause-mem- bers thus connected, at one time the direct, and at another time the de- pendent negative may be employed; e. g. Dem. Phil. p. 138 tovto [xrjre yevoiro, ovre \eyeiv 'd^iov. — When one of the two members is positive, we find re . . . ovre (ovde), or ovre . . . re, etc. like Lat. et . . . neque, and neque . . . et; e. g. Hdot. 5. 49 ovre yap oi fidpfiapoi oXkilioi elai, ifxeh re e'y ra /jLeyiara dvrjKere aperr}? nepi. Soph. OC. 367 avrols rjv eptr, Kpeovri re Spovov? edaOai, Hyde xp a ^eadai nokiv. Comp. Eurip. IT. 698 ovoiid r eiiov kt\. On the other hand, in Eur. Here. F. 1106, ovre 2iavqbeiov etcropco nerpov U\ovT Kvpe, irdre Koo-pr)o~n ) ov yap vvv, e(pr) 6 K. §okg> vplv avro? KocrpelaOat, vpd? Koapcov ; — After a preceding demonstrative it* is either not to be rendered in English at all, or at most by our namely; e. g. Xen. Mem. 1. 1. 6 dXXd pr)v erroiei km rdde rrpbs tovs eniTrjbeiovs • rd pep yap avayKoia awefiovkeve itpdireiv ktX. i. e. 'he did for his friends all this, viz. that which was necessary he advised them,' etc. See also Plat. Lys. 14. Heind. 5 8 ovv therefore, consequently, stands only after other words in a clause. — For the ovv appended to words [ogttio-ovv, etc.) see ^ 80. 1 . § 116. 9. dp a is the most general interrogative particle, Lat. -ne ; e. g. dpa tovtq pe epcoray; — The negative dp' ov, nonne, awaits an affirmative answer: dp'' ov tovto KaXkiarov; — The formula dpa pr) gives to the question a tone of more doubt : is it then so? not surely so ? comp. § 148. 5. E. g. Plat. Phsed. p. 103 dpa pr) ttov kol ae tl tovtcov erdpa^ev cov o8e eiirev ; and with the next following aXko tl rj, ib. 64 dpa pr) dkXo tl rj Tr)v Tr)s "V^v^? and tov ad>paTO? dfioKkayrjV (rjyovpeSa tov Sdvarov ;) dWo ti rj, a very common particle of direct interrogation, which awaits the answer: 'nothing else,' i.e. affirmative; e. g. Plat. Gorg. p. 481 el pev yap Tvyxdvei Tavra dXrj8r) dvra, a Aeyei?, d"h\o tl r) r)pa>v 6 fiios dvarerpappe vos dv e'lrj. But rj can also be omitted; e.g. Plat. Rep. p. 369. d,' «XXo tl yecopyo? pev eh, 6 Be olKoBopo?, anything else ? i. e. not so ? one is a husband- man, the other a builder ? * Also even in Ionic prose : Hdot. 5. 35 iroWas eTx 6 eKiriSas perrjcrea-Oai (of being dismissed) iwl baXaffcrav • n$] 8e vecorepSv ti Troievo-rjs ttjs MiK-fjTov (but Miletus mak- ing no new movement), obSa/xa a -A. * 149. VARIOUS PARTICLES. 435 pcov, contr. for prj ow, an interrogative particle, strictly : but surely not ? is it then I It loses for the most part its negative tone, (like interrog. pr\ oimply, k 148. 5,) and then is either not to he rendered at all, or at most by our perhaps. The answer can he yes or no, according to circumstances. — The compounds \i5iv ovv and pwv prj are only a strengthening of the sim- ple particle; the latter like apa prj. See Eur. Hec. 754. Plat. Lys. p. 208. C. e, pwv fxf) tl rjdiKTjaas t6v 7rarepa; Ma At", ovk eyaye. ovkovv, ovkovv. The particles ovk and ovv express in the tone of asser- tion an inferential negative, consequently not, therefore not. Hence arose in daily language a manifold use of these particles, which is in general obvi- ous from the connection, and is in part also indicated by the accentuation. 1) Put interrogatively they express the thing denied as being, in the opinion of the speaker, affirmative : Eurip. Orest. 1238 Ovkovv ovetdrj rale k\vcov pv- rotovde poi Ovkovv dripdaaipb' av, 'but although he was wholly such towards me, yet I would by no means dishonour him.' Soph. Philoct. 872 Ovkovv 'ArpeZdat tovt* *4t~kr,crav evcpopoos Ovtcd? iveyKeiv, a>ya- 6o\ o-TpaTrjkaTai, ''not lightly did the Atridse bring themselves to bear this.' — This sameness of the accent in the forms under 1 and 2 (ovkovv), in distinc- tion from that in 3 (ovkovv), is given in general by tradition in the editions. With this coincides also the testimony of the ancient Grammarians ; see in Hermann ad Vig. not. 261 ; to which may be added Apollon. de Conjunc- tione p. 496. 9. Phrynich. Bekk. p. 57 ; all of whom assume this difference only as between the illative and the negative words.* From the form in 3 it is not usual to distinguish the direct illative negation, consequently not, with the accentuation ovkovv. Since however it is customary to distin- guish such compound particles as retain their original signification un- changed, by writing them separately, it seems to me that this is also the most natural here, and also no violation of the tradition; e. g. Plat. Pheedr. p. 275. a, where Thamus, after saying to Theuth that men would become forgetful through this security, continues : Ovkovv (better Ovk ovv) pvrjpr]?, aAA' v7Topvrjaeo)S cpdppaKov evpev, i therefore not for the memory, but for the recollection, hast thou found a 'medicine.' Eurip. Or. 1640: Men. f/ Oo-rty 5e npa prjrep' — . Or. Evdalpcov ecpv. Men. Ovkovv (better Ovk ovv) avye, ' consequently thou not.' eir a and eVetra both mean : 1) after, afterwards j 2) then, see Herm. 1£ ad Vig. n. 239. — Both often assume a tone of censure and reproach : 1) The ground of the indignation or surprise being first stated, e. g. Ar. Ach. 311 ravra drj roKpas \eyecv — , elr* eyo) aov (peiaropai ; ' thou art so bold as to say this, and then (after all this, notwithstanding) shall I still spare thee ?' * In some recent editions, Hermann and others have first begun to distinguish die illative interrogation by the accentuation ovkovv; which I cannot approve. The forms under 1 and 2 have essentially one and the same affirmative significa- tion. The tone of interrogation itself is an ethical accent, to distinguish which by a grammatical accent, is what can be prescribed to no language. Both species of tradition are here against it ; for the Grammarians, in all the passages above re- ferred to, do not mention the interrogative meaning in this connection. 436 SYNTAX. $ 149 2 y When it stands at the beginning of a sentence, with reference to the dis- course of another ; where we also can say : l thou wilt then consequently — ,' or more "briefly, therefore, itane ; e. g. iEl. V. H. 1. 34 elra roA/x^crety rbv view airodvr)(TKovTa. dcropav ; ' wilt thou therefore (or then) bring thyself to see thy son die? 5 Xen. Mem. 1. 4. 11 eireir* ovk. o'Ul cppovrifciv (sc. tovs Seovs tcop av6pom<£>v) ) ot 7rpcorov p.ev av6pirov up86v dvecrrrjo-av ktX. In all these rela- tions both particles are also construed with participles, as we have seen in § 144. n. 13. The instances, however, where efra and eneira are supposed to be dependent on the following participle (Herm. ad Vig. not. 219), all admit of being referred also to the preceding one ; which is to be preferred as being the more natural construction. £0 av 1) again, another time; 2) on the other hand, vice versa; 3) fur- ther, and then also. irpiv before, sooner, is in its signification a comparative, and takes there-- fore the particle fj, than; though less often among the Attics. For its con- struction, see § 139. m. 41. vvv Br) just now, this moment; and especially with the preterites, just now, a moment since, before. 21 7T o> and 73-0077 ore. In these particles, the idea till now, hitherto, lies at the foundation; their usage is limited to the following cases: 1) Most commonly they are appended in this sense to negative particles, and then express the English yet, still, Lat. dum, as ouVco, fxtjirco, not yet, nondum ; where however they must not be confounded with the similar epic forms, for which see § 116. n. 6. The form Trtonore however is seldom appended to the simple ov or fxrj ; but we find ovSe7ro)7rore, p7§e7ra>7roTe-, never yet ; and indeed, in reference to the past, this form is almost 'solely in use, so that the form without irco (i.e. ovdeTrore never) is mostly used only in general, or in relation to the future. See Wolf ad Dem. Lept. 76. Lobeck ad Phryn. p. 458. Moreover both rroo and ncoirore can be separated from the negative particle, by the intervention of other words. 2) Except with a negative these particles stand only occasionally, and indeed emphatically, with in- terrogatives, with relatives, and with participles used instead of the con struction with the relative; e. g. Thuc. 3. 45 rls ttw iireyeifniafev ', Dem. Phil. 1. extr. 6o~a 7twttot6 fonto-ap-ip riva Tvpa^eiv virep f]p.wv, 'what we always hoped.' Plat. Phscd. p. 116. c, apiaro? tg>v 7ra)7rore devpo acpacofievav. Very often also in conditional clauses. 22 en alone means yet, still, yet further ; and with a negative ovKen, (xrjKe- ri, no more, no further. 23 p. a and vq are particles of swearing, which are always followed by the object by which one swears, in the Accusative : e. g. vrj Aw by Jove ! — Th • oath with vrj is always affirmative ; that with p.6, on the contrary, is sub joined both to affirmations and negations;' e. g. vol p,a Aia and ov p.a Ala but when it stands alone, it serves merely as a negative ; p,a Aia, no, cer- tainly not; nothing less. 24 2. .These and some other particles have in Greek various other uses, which require a more extensive investigation than can be given here. This is especially true of several particles, which have formerly been called expletives, Parttculce expletivce. In all languages there are particles, which are often employed only for the sake of completeness, or in order to produce a well-sound- ing fullness, yet never without their own peculiar sense ; al- though they could also be omitted, since that which they ex- press is often understood of itself. In estimating these parti- cles in Greek, peculiar caution is necessary. Their full and k 149. VARIOUS PARTICLES. 437 original meaning has in most cases become partially lost ; and they now give to the discourse only a slight colouring, which we cannot properly feel except after long acquaintance and practice. For this purpose, however, a knowledge of the fundamental sig- nifications of these particles is necessary ; for which the follow- ing may in part serve. ye enclitic, strictly at least, for which however yovv is more usual; while 2.*> ye is almost always employed, wherever a single object, or a part, is named with reference to the whole or to a greater number. Hence it is so oftei appended to the pers. pron. as eya> (eyoaye) etc. by which means one always places himself as it were over against all other men; strictly, I at least, I foi my part. Not unfrequently it can also be translated by certainly, truly, certe. apa, epic ap and pd, of which the last is enclitic; it always stands after 26 other w-ords,* and means: 1) Most commonly, therefore. 2) Where it seems to be without any power, there lies at the basis the idea : conformably to nature or custom, properly, ex ordine, rite ; hence it serves as a transition to a clause which may be anticipated. 3) After el, edv, and the like, it means perhaps. — Different is the interrogative apa, see m. 18.f rot enclitic, is strictly an ancient Dative for r<5, and means in conse- 27 quence of therefore certainly ; which significations however are in roi itself extinct, and therefore miydp, rotydproi, roiyapovv, are found as strengthened forms of them; while roivvv is used when one proceeds with an inference etc. as it were, ' now I further say,' but now. — The particle rot by itself, retains only a sort of confirmatory sense, something like our words indeed, forsooth, just, also, yet, etc. Other compounds with rot are: Kairoi, which signifies: 1) and truly, and yet; 2) although. — Mevroi, from pr\v, epic p.ev, and rot, comp. m. 16; it signifies: 1) indeed, truly, certainly ; 2) but indeed, nevertheless, a more em- phatic form for 6V, especially after a preceding p.ev. — "Hroi comes either from t) roi, and then is often used by Homer as a particle of introduction or transition; e. g. II. a. 68 rjrot oy a>r eliroov Kar ap e£ero • or else from rj roi, and then it is a strengthened rj, used also in prose. — Also r apa, rj rap a, t ap, (see § 29. n. 8.) are forms of apa strengthened by rot, used by the poets. 8fj strictly now, at present, for which rjdrj is more usual. It serves in 23 various ways to increase the vivacity of discourse ; e. g. aye dr) come on now ; ri 8f] ; what then ? — It means also certainly, in truth. After relatives, e. g. 6Vrtr 8f], ottov S77, it serves to render them still more general, whoever now it may be, wherever now it may be, etc. or also some one or other, somewhere or other, etc. — When the strengthening 7rore is sub- joined, the whole is commonly written as one word : 6ariadr]7rore, see § 80. n. 1. § 116. 9. 8r)ra, certainly, serves for emphasis both in declarations and in questions; ov drjra certainly not. 8 a 1, only in colloquial language, especially in interrogative clauses ex- pressing wonder ; commonly after ri and in unfinished clauses : ri dai ; p.r\v, Doric p.dv, epic p.ev and p.dv, a particle strengthening affirmation: 29 1) in truth, assuredly; 2) but certainly, nevertheless; e. g. Plat. Soph. 1 /cat p.01 doKel Seos p.eu dvrjp ouSa/xaJj eivai, Qelos p.r\v. * When sometimes &pa or ap' ovv stands at the beginning of a clause, it is in prose always to be changed to Spa, which in such cases is an interrogative supply- ing the place of a direct assertion. See Heind. ad Plat. Charm. 15:' ed. 2. t The Attic poets can nevertheless change the quantity, and use Spa for there- fore and &pa as an interrogative; but their position in a sentence remains the same. See Herm. ad Soph. OC. p. xvi, sq. 438 SYNTAX. § 150. So in questions which in dialogue follow a negative of another speaker, e. g. Tj-dre fxrjv ; when then ? r/s ur)v; who then ? i. e. when or who else then ? Hence ri ur)v ; equivalent to why not ? ye jjL-qv, epic ye uev, yet certainly, but truly ; hence likewise a stronger §e : see Exc. I, ad Arat. — Also kci\ ur)v, and truly, yea; in contradictions, atqui, and yet, nevertheless. In the tragic poets a person is often first in- troduced by the chorus thus : kcu ur)v 6p5> TLvpibiK-qv, yea truly I behold Eurydice! Soph. Ant. 1180. rj p.r)v, Ionic and epic rj pev, is the usual formula of oaths and affirmations, sometimes with the Indicative, rj urjv eycb eiraOov tovto, l I swear, that I have suffered this ;' and sometimes with the Infinitive, dependent from other verbs, as opwui rj ur)v 8axreiz>, ' I swear to give.' Also in the third person: vnebe^aro rj ur)v ur) drropeiv avrovs 1 rpocpr)?, l he undertook, solemnly promised, that they should not want for food.' ov urjv, 1) yet not, assuredly not; 2) As a negative assertion correspond- ing to the affirmative rj urjv. In dependent clauses, ur) urjv. SO 9-r)v enclitic, (peculiar to the Ionic and Doric poets,) also a particle strengthening affirmation ; which however gives to the discourse much the same tone, as when we say, I thought though; hence especially in a con- temptuous and sarcastic sense : rj Srjv, ov $r)v, but yet though, but not though. vv, vvv, short and enclitic; only in the Ionic dialect and in the poets: 1) Strictly the same with vvv, for which it also sometimes stands; 2) For ovv, therefore, now; 3) Like our expletive now, then, e. g. Svyro? de vv Kai aii rervgai 'and thou too now art born mortal,' II. tt. 622. 77 e p enclitic (probably derived from irepl in the sense of very, § 147. n. 5). wholly, entirely. — Hence axnrep lit. entirely as; Ka'nrep although, with participles, § 144. n. 15. 31 7rdre enclitic, once, ever, some time or other. In interrogatives it expresses surprise, e. g. ris rrore ecrriv ovto?; who now can this be ? ttgv enclitic : 1) somewhere; 2) perhaps ; 3) In conversation, when one fciays anything half interrogatively, in order to found something upon the answer, yet, but yet, yet perhaps. See Ind. ad Plat. Meno. in voce. — The same with greater emphasis is brjirov; and when to this is joined a tone of half contemptuous defiance, so that the opposite assertion is represented as inconceivable, this particle becomes brJTrov6ev, less strong br)6ev. Dem. Mid. 26 eardvai yap egeo~Tcu or)ivov6ev avrco ' for there, I think, he is likely to be allowed to stand.' § 150. Particular Words and Phrases. oii x ° rl an d ov X o7rois. These two forms of expression are often re garded as synonymous, though they are in reality opposed to each other. Before each of them some verb like Xeyco is to be supplied. When the form ovx otl then follows, the clause is affirmative; e.g. Xen. Mem. 2. 9. 8 kcu ovx ° Tl P-dvos o Kpircay ev rjavxla yv, aXka kcu ol v IdicoTcov, aXXa. kcu napa tcov ndXeoov, ' not only from private persons, but also from cities.' When this phrase is to introduce a negation, this must be already implied in the clause itself; and then it can be rendered still stronger by dXX' oi8e. Demosth. c. Tim. p. 702. 2 ovx ° Tl ™ v ovrav dnecrTe- prjurjv av, dAV ovd' civ egrpt. Thuc. 2. 97 ravrrj de (Scytharum potentiae) dbvvara e^LcrovcrQai ovx ° rt T " * v T V El/peon^, dXX' owS' ev rfj 'Acrta edvos ev irpas ev ovk ecrriv ktK. — More commonly, when the negative is to be express- ed, ovx onois is used, where consequently oira>? as, becomes equivalent to that not. E. g. Demosth. c. Pol. 1225. 12 rj be yrj ovx ottcos nvd Kapnov rjveyKev, dXka. kci\ rb vbcop ... ex tcov eppedroov errekmev, l not only the earth § 150, PARTICULAR WORDS AND PHRASES. 439 bore no fruit.' Xen. Hell. 5. 4. 34 ecn8a tov t)r)p,ov, cos ol Aa/ceSat/xdviot ovx o7Tco? TifxaprjcraivTo, dWd kcu enaiveaaiev tov "2(po8piav, 'that the Lacedaemo- nians not only would not punish,' etc. ib. 2. 4. 14 ovx oncos dducovvres dXX' ovd' €Tridr]fj.ovvT€s e(pvyadevop.eda, l having not only not done them any wrong, but not having even entered the land, we were banished.' Comp. Thuc. 1. 35. Less frequent, in the same sense, were ovx oaov and o^ olov. The 2 former stands for ovx ° Tl > or a ^ l eas ^ Thucydides uses it with a second ov subjoined for the negation : 4. 62 ol p,ev ovx 00 ~ ov 0VK r)p.vvavTo, aXX' ot>§' icrco- &rjo~av. — Ovx 0L0V stands for ovx oVrcoy. Polyb. ovx OLOV ^> < p e ^ €lv dvvatr* dv rovs (p'CKovs, aXX' ouS' avTohs crco^eiv. Preceded by yu.77, both on and O7rcoy must have v7ro\dfir) ns or the like sup- 3 plied ; or they are to be taken like the Lat. ne dicam. In this way they are stronger than with ovx, an( ^ ^oth have a negative sense. Xen. Cyr. 1. 3. 10 /i.77 oTTois opx^to-dai iv pu#p<5 dXX' ovd* opdovadai ibvvao~6e. ib. 3. 2. 21 ovk av r)p,e7s dcnpaXaJy ipya£olp.eda, yu.77 on tt)v tovt&v, aXX' ou§' civ tt)v r)p,erepav SC. x^°P av ' Mem. 1. 6. 11 /cairot roye ipdriov rj tt)v oliclav ovdevl dv p.r) on TrpolKa dolrjs, aXX' ovb* av eXarrov ttjs d£ias Xa/3a>i>. All these constructions are easy to fill out and explain. When pit] ore follows, the mode of expression becomes still more em- phatic, and is then to be given by the Latin nedum, much less, not to say: Plat. Crat. p. 427 SokcI o~ol padiov elvai ovtoo ra^u padelv onovv npaypca, p,r) on roaovTOV o 8r) 8oku iv Tols peylarois peyiarov elvai ; Phsedr. p. 240. d, a kcu Xdyco icrnv duoveiv ovk iiTLTepnis, p.r) otl 8t) epya>. Xen. Hell. 2. 3. 35 ov8e TrXeti/, p,Tj otl dvaipeicrdai tovs av8pas Svvarov rjv. In the same sense Lucian uses ovx oncos, e.g. D. Mort. 27. 5 old' iardvai x^cd oi>x oWcd? (Sadi^cLv idvvaro. Sometimes a seeming objection is introduced by ovx ° r£ > which is then im- 4 mediately (commonly by means of dXkd) refuted ; fully : i not that it troub- les me — , but — .' If no refutation follows, ovx OTt can ^e rendered by al- though, etc. See Heind. ad Plat. Lys. 37. Protag. 66. otl p,r) after negatives, except. to he — , an elliptical phrase which it is hard to fill out, and which 6 serves to introduce a clause contrary to what has been before said, some- thing like our since nevertheless, but since ; e. g. Plat. Theset. p. 157 ovx 0Tl rjvayKaapLeda xpyadai avT. — Hence too comes the elliptical mode of expression rd re aXXa Kal, lit. among other things ; but inasmuch as we render thus prominent only that which is distinguished, it is always to be translated. particularly, especially. aXXcor re Kal signifies in like manner especially, and has arisen in the same manner as the preceding. dpcporepov is used by the poets adverbially (or elliptically) where we 15 say both; e. g. x < x >0 ~ aT0 6° alv&s 'Kpcporepov vlkyjs re Kal ey^eoy, 6 £vvea£ev. — With this coincides the usage in prose, where the Accus. dp(j)6repa com- prehends two preceding adjuncts which stand in a different case; e. g. dia- cpepovres r) crocpia rj KaXKei rj dpcporepa (Heind. ad Plat. Charm. 2); and so likewise in the corresponding usage with Sdrepa; e. g. Plat. Leg. 6. p. 765. e, eario naidoov yvrjaiav irarr)p pdXiara pev iueW Kal Svyarepcov, el Se pr), $d- repa. Kal ravra, and that too, and that indeed ; e. g. Luc. D. Deor. 8. med. rrj- 16 XtKavrrjv ivapOevov ev KecpaXrj edpeyjsas; Kal ravra evoirXov, ' so stately a maiden (Pallas) hast thou nourished in thy head, and that too armed !' — It is also inflected: ko.1 ovroi, Kal rovrav, etc. An. 2. 5. 21. Hdot. 6. 11. avrb deigei v. o-rjp,ave7, the thing itself will shew, etc. 17 avras and aurcoy, see Lexil. I. 37. 7rpo rod or Tvporov, before now, sooner, already, i.e. npb rovrov v. eVcei- vov rod xpdvov) see on Plat. Alcib. I. 14, tov Xolttov sc. xpdvov, in future, for the future, comp. § 132. 14.— Also r6 Xonrov, or simply Xoi7roV, from new on, henceforth. noXXov del Impers. it wants much, it is far from. So also personally, 18 7roXXov dea>, I am far from, e. g. Xe'yeu/ rovro, comp. § 151. 1. 7. For 77-0XX0G 8elv see § 140. n. 4. In the same manner, for the contrary, stands p,iKpov oroXiyov Set, 6Vco, detv, for non multum abest quin, i. e. almost, nearly ; oXlyov 6Vco eiVeu/ ' I could almost say.' — Often also dXlyov or piKpov stands alone in this sense. pdXXov 8e, when standing alone, is to be translated or rather. 19 pdXiara p.ev, (with reference to a following el 8e pfj,) before all things, best of all, if possible, strictly indeed; e.g. Karayiyvcoo-Kere avrov paXiara pev Sdvarov, el 8e pr), detcpvylav, ' condemn him, best of all, to death : but if not, to perpetual banishment.' With this coincides the use of pdXiara when connected with interrog- atives, where it demands a specific answer : iroaoi pdXiara ; ' how many then strictly ?' With actual numbers, however, it expresses their amount (e. g. ev reaarapaKovra pdXiara rjpepcu?) with the conviction indeed that they are correct, probably, surely, certainly; but yet so as to imply that it is not entirely decided; hence therefore 77-77, ttov, etc. are frequently subjoined. See Ind. ad Plat. Meno. in v. Wessel. ad Herod. 8. 65. 7rcpe\ov (non-Attic ocpeXov) is inflected; strictly, I ought ; and hence it takes the sense of wishing, partly alone, e. g. prj-rror'' acfieXov -noielv had I never done this ! and partly with coy or with e'lde or el yap, that, utinam; e. g. co? a>cpe\es napelvai hadst thou been present ! el yap a>cpe\ov Savelv that I had died! In later writers only it became an indeclinable interjec- tion. See also § 139. m. 8, 13. d/xe'Xet, be unconcerned; hence: 1) As an assurance, without doubt, positively, certainly ; 2) In confirmation of a general proposition by a par- ticular one, and really. 21 ear i stands before relatives of all kinds in the following manner : eariv ore est cum-, i. e. sometimes.; eariv os est qui, i. e. some one. So even be- fore the Plural, e. g. ko\ eariv ot avreov erirpaaKovro 'and some of them were wounded:' ecrriv ols oi>x ovrois edo£ev 'to some it did not appear so.' (Still one can also say elalv ot.) Xen. An. 1. 5. 7 rjv he rovroav rcbv araOpav ovs 7Taw paKpovs fjXawev, ' some of these day's-joumeys he made very long.' — This expression came afterwards to be regarded as one word, and was even interwoven in the midst of a clause; e. g. el yap 6 rponos eariv ols dvaa- pearet 'for if the manner displeases some ;' KktTrreiv 8e ecpr/Kev eariv a 'but he permitted to steal certain things, 1 Xen. Laced. 2. 7; ovairep eldov ecrriv o7rov 'Avhich I have seen somewhere or other.' — So also interrogatively, ecrriv ovarivas avOpcoirovs re6avp.aK.as eVi aocpiq. ; 'hast thou perhaps ad- mired certain men for their wisdom?' Mem. 1. 4. 2. 22 ovk ecrriv o7rcof, it is impossible, inconceivable; Dem. 01. p. 13 y\ cpiko- rrpaypoavvq, yep* r}S ovk ecrriv ottoss f]avx<-av axwei ' the love of strife, on ac- count of which it is not possible for him to remain quiet.' 23 eariv, e^eariv, evean, Trdpeo-ri Trpdrreiv, (absolutely or with a Dat. of person,) all signify, one can. But evean refers to the physical possibil- ity, it is possible ; e^eariv to the moral, it is lawful, permitted, one may ; ean stands indefinite between the two, it may be done ; and likewise ndpean, except that this includes the idea of facility, it lies with him, i. e. ' he can at once, without hindrance.' When e£eanv and evean are interchanged, this takes place simply on rhetorical grounds ; as we also say for the sake of strength : ' it is not possible for me' instead of ' I may not;' and ' I am permitted' instead of ' it is possible for me.' coy evi. In this phrase evi stands (by § 117. 3. 2) for evean it is possible; hence before superlatives, cos evi pakiara, the most possible, in the highest degree. 24 ev rols. When this phrase stands before a superlative, it signifies om- nium, of all, among all; e. g. Thuc. 1. 6 ev rols npcoroi 'Adrjvaloi rbv aibrjpov Kark&evro, 'first among all, the Athenians laid down their weapons ;' rovro eya) ev rols (3apvrara civ eveyKaipi ' this I of all should bear the heaviest.' — If one would resolve this construction, some participle must always be sup plied after ev rols, such as the context suggests ; thus in the first example above, ev rols irapovaiv, in the second ev rols $apea>s cpepovaiv avro. We must therefore be upon our guard, in cases where the superlative is an ad- verb, as here in the second example, not to construe thus: eycb rovro av iveymipi ev rols fiapvrara cpepovaiv avro, which would give a feebler sense (' I should be one of them who bear it most hardly'), and is incorrect, as those instances shew, where this cannot be applied ; as in ev rols irpcbroi. — This ev rols stands even before the Feminine, e. g. Thuc. 3. 17 ev rols rfkelarai v^es a/x' avrols eyevovro. 3. 81 rj ardais ev rols Trpdtrr] eyevero. \i < 150, PARTICULAR WORDS AND PHRASES. 443 is often put before the adv. fidXio-ra for strength; e. g. Plat. Symp. p. 173 epao-Tris rjv ev rots p-dXiara ra>v Tore. Comp. Plat. Crit. p. 52. a. ol dfiqbi or ol nepl with an Accusative. Here e. g. ol dp,cpl "Avvtov usu- 25 ally means not merely 'those who are with or about him,' but: 'Anytus with those about him, his companions,' etc. So ol dficpl QaXrjv, ' Thales and other wise men of his sect,' Plat. Hipp. Maj. 2. The Attics especially avail themselves of this indefinite expression, even where they wish to speak chiefly only of the owe person, leaving it from some cause or other doubtful, whether it really concerns only this one or not. Thus ol dficjA Evdvcppova (Plat. Cratyl. p. 400) means indeed Euthyphron, but still with the implication that there may perhaps also be others belonging to his party and opinion; ol dficpl QefiurroKKea (Plat. Meno. extr.) 'the Themistocles' as Plural; further ol nepl KeKporra (Mem. 3. 5. 10) only Cecrops, where how- ever the obscurity of the ancient fable seems to be alluded to. — Plutarch says even : ol nepl AevrXov virarevovTes fjdrj, i.e.' Lentulus being now consul,' Pomp. 59. el fir] did with the Accusative, lit. if not on account of, i. e. were it not 2b for ; hence e. g. 6vevaev avrov, he murdered him while he was at supper ; i. e. inter ambulandum, inter ccenandum. — As preposition it is put also be- fore the Genit. absol. § 145. n. 5. dp, a, and in the apodosis nal; so soon as, when . . . then; e. g. dp.a dn-qKoa- fiiv tl ko.1 rptrfpdpxovs Kadiarafiev, ' so soon as we have heard anything (of the enemy), we will then appoint captains of the ships.' Also construed like fiera^v, e.g. dfia ravr* eliroav dvearr], 'as he said this he stood up.' — The construction with the participle in the Dative, see in § 145. n. 5. 7roWaKi? has in suppositions and questions the meaning perhaps, per- 28 chance, forte; e. g. Plat. Lach. p. 194 gt]Tovp.ev, el dpa 7roAXa/ar avrrf f) Kapre- prjcris io-Tiv dvbpla. Heind. ad Phsedo. 11. Index ad Meno. in voc. 6 del. When this phrase stands before participles, del means : every time, 29 in every case, always; e. g. 6 del rfbiKqpevos, 'he who always (i. e. as often as the supposition has place) suffers injustice;' 6 del apxa>v dp^dpevoi oiidels Trcoirore e^efjev dbiKiav. See Ind. ad Meno. in v. Heind. ad Plat. Alcib. I. p. 104. reXevrav, the converse of the preceding, can usually be rendered by 32 the Engl, adverb at last; Cyr. 1. 6. 19 of a hunter: rjv be woWaKi? y^evbrf- rai tci? Kvvas, reXevrcocrai old' oirorav Kakfi TreLOovrai. dyav, cpepav, e^^v, Aa/3(»v, are all used by poets and prose writers 33 as a sort of periphrase for an adverbial idea : in company with, or simply with. The choice of the particular participle depends on the context : Cyr. 1. 4. 17 iroXkovs avrbs eywz/ rjKev 'nnrea? ko.1 7re£ovs. An. 4. 4. 16 6 be avbpa a-vXKafi&v r}Ker d\v, la>v, p.o\cov, Secov, and the like, are often, especially in epic poetry, apparently superfluous additions along with verts of motion ; but by means of them the expression gains in vivacity and fullness; e. g. II. e. 134 Tvdeldrj? e£avTi$ lav irpop.axoicnv efiix^r). Other examples see in § 144. n. 3. 35 p,e\\eiv as forming a periphrase, see in § 137. n. 11. — Out of the natu- ral signification of the verb : to be about to do, i.e. in future, arise two oth- ers, which must not be confounded: 1) The hypothetical, conjectural, e. g. Horn, outgo nov All pieXkei . . . (piXov elvai, where we also make use of our auxiliary will, l thus then will it be agreeable to Jove.' 2) The significa- tion to delay, i. e. to be always about to do, always intend. tl S' ov ixeXkei; t'l §' ovk ep.e\\e ; why shall he not? why should he not? l. e. most certainly, assuredly. — But also without the negative the significa- tion comes to the same thing: tl fxeWei; lit. what (then) shall be? hence, why not? certainly. Heind. ad Plat. Hipp. Maj. 17. 36 i6e\eiv (but never SeXeiv) when followed by an Infin. must very often be rendered as an adverb before a finite verb : wilhngly, voluntarily ; e. g. Xen. Hi. 7. 9 dcopelaSaL iOeXovai, lit. ' they are willing to make presents' i.e. 'they willingly make presents.' Cyr. 1. 1. 3 Kvpco 'lapev ideXrjo-avTas (i. e. on rjdeXov) TreLdetrOai tovs kcli dnexovTa? 7ra/x7rdXXcoi/ rjpepcov 686v kcl) o/iooy rjdeXov clvtco vtvclkovclv . 37

o-dp.evoi Kal Trpoorov clvtov cpvyrjv KaTeyvcccrav ' they had no sooner sub dued you, than they banished him first.' Comp. dp.a above, m. 27. 3) In a negative clause with the participle expressed or implied, but without any further necessary connection, ov cpddveiv is used for to be ready, not to fail ; and thus imparts to the verbal action expressed by the partici- ple the accessory idea of certainty and speediness. In this sense it never oc- curs except in the Optative with dv ; viz. a) Instead of the Imperative . ovk dv cpddvoLs Xeycov i be ready, fail not, to tell us,' i. e. tell us at once. b) As confident prediction, promise, etc. e. g. ovk dv qbddvoLpu (in answer to a challenge) f I will not fail, I am ready; 1 e. g. Eur. Or. 930 ovk dv qbOdvoi tls aTTo6r)j/ curat, fully : l so that I am unconstrained' i.e. if it depends on me, of my own accord, etc. It usually stands after a nega- tive : ovk av £kcov elvai yp-evdoiurjv 'I would not intentionally lie.' Rarely without a negative, e. g. Hdot. 7. 164. Different from this is elvai in to vvv elvai, for now, for the present ; e. g. to rfjfiepov elvai xPW^y-^ avTco for to-day ice will use, etc. See on the phrases which belong here, Reiz. ad Viger. n. 178. ed. Herm. e^fti/ with an adverb means lit. to have oneself so and so, i. e. to find one- 39 self be circumstanced ; but can generally be translated by the verb to be, e. g. /caAco? e^ei it is well ; a>? et^e as he was, i. e. undressed. — Its construction with the Genitive, see in $ 132. n. 28; and in connection with the preposi- tions duv iXevdepovs TvirTeis; 'what has got into thee, to beat those who are free?' This rather blunt expression therefore refers originally to fits of passion approaching even to insanity. — In an analogous manner is the other also to be explained, which is more ironical: n p.a8cov ; 'what hast thou learnt so wise?' i. e. what hast thou taken into thy head? what has got into thy head? see Wolf ad Demosth. Lept. p. 348. Further, as we have just seen above that from the interrogative ti e^coz/ has come the direct excov, so likewise we here find padcov without interrogation, but only with oti: e. g. Plat. Apol. 26 ti a{-i6s elp.i aTTOTicrai, 6Vt uadcov ev tco f3lco oi>x rjcrvxlav rjyov ) where in uadcov there clearly lies the idea of considerate purpose : ' what punishment do I merit, who so intentionally, in my whole life, had no rest.' If now one would supply the object omitted after padcov, it would perhaps be something thus : oti, padcov ovk oi'6° o,ti, rjavx^av ovk rjyov. But it is by no means to be sup- posed, that the full sense of p.adcbv, as here developed, was in every single instance present to the mind of the speaker; this or something similar was only the origin of the expression, and oti uadcov became then only a more emphatic oti. See the other examples in Heind. ad Plat. Euthyd. 30. Comp. also in Hdot. 3. 119 Tiva e'xovcra yvoopinv t6v dde\(peov eTXev irepielvai rot, which, is nothing more than a softer ti p.adovaa ; how comest thou there- to ? what thinkest thou . 2 * * Since it is apparent, that the three phrases of censure, ri ex^v, rt rraBcov, tI uaOwv, are essentially the same, and are to be explained in the same manner, we 446 SYNTAX. • § 151. \? fVpoov seems also to be superfluous in some phrases; but it always ex« presses a free and decided propensity connected with an action, not however ^•iihout censure ; e. g. vT>tfioX*v iaurov cpep&v Qrjfiaiois, c he delivered him- self up at once to the Theb^ns,' ^Eschin. p. 482 ; eh tovto cpepav irepieo-Tnae ra irpay/jLara. l to this state he has unceasingly brought affairs, ; id. p. 474 Comp. Herm. ad Vig. x»-im. 21'8 ; and see m. 33 above. § lo 1 . ij T or.iAnc Forms of Construction I. Attraction. 1. Although ws ii«we already particularly treated of the two principal forms of attrJMjtioii ($4 142, 143), the subject nevertheless deserves to be here presented under one point of view; since both of those forms, together with some other instances occurring in single phrases, have manifestly a com- mon principle as the basis. There existed, especially among the Attics, a strong propensity, to which indeed they often sacrificed the strict rules of logic, for introducing eyery where a rounded conciseness. For this end they sought as much as possible, where two clauses or propositions were closely connected, not merely to let them immediately follow one another, but to concentrate both into one. Hence the frequent use of participles, even in cases where the nature of the sentence seems to require a different con- struction; see § 144. 2. 2. But participles could not everywhere be employed. The construction with the relative was also necessary, which consists of two clauses follow- ing one another. In order now to give to these the shape of one clause, the pronoun of the last was made common to both, by attaching it, as to form, to the first, while in its nature it remained a part of the second. E. g. in the sentence /^eraSi'Scc? rov airov ovnep avrbs e^e ir, the Genitive ovirep causes the whole of the second clause to become a sort of adjective qualifying (titov; and it is only from an indulgence of our own habits and preconceived notions, that we separate such clauses by a comma, which the Greeks so evidently drew together into one. 3. Whenever, further, the subject of the Infinitive has already been men- tioned with the preceding verb, there thus arises a connection in the sense, which the Greek endeavoured to render perceptible also in the form. He melted down, therefore, as it were, both verbs, so far as the thought is con- cerned, into one compound (vneo-xeTQ 7rotrjo-eiv, egeari. yevecrdai) ; and by caus- ing all that belonged to the subject of the Infinitive to be atir acted to the subject of the first verb, he produced the appearance of a single clause ; as 6 dvrjp v7reo~x eTO TroirjaeLv tovto avTos; — egeo~T(, pot yeveaOai evda.ip.ovi. This too in like manner we most inappropriately separate by a comma. 4. Further, the same effort after unity lies at the basis, wherever the preceding noun or pronoun (the antecedent) is attracted by the relative ; and the same analogy extends also to adverbs; see fully in \ 143. 17, and n. 6. may therefore regard that as the most natural explanation of '6tl paOuv, which, without robbing oti of its natural connective power, regards paddov thus left standing alone, in the same manner as ix cav standing alone. For this reason I cannot alter the above paragraph, notwithstanding all that has since been said upon this phrase ; all of which I have well considered. Were I disposed to change anything, it would be merely so far as not to be at the pains of supplying the omission after pa9wv, but simply to represent the matter thus, viz. that in the phrases rl i%<^v SiaTpifieis ; rl /xaduiv irpoaiypatyas tovto ; only the ethical force of the participle was felt, without a clear consciousness of its grammatical construction ; and therefore it was transferred also to other constructions, where it does not indeed sland with grammatical accuracy, but was employed in order to impart the same tone wtiioh exists in these interrogatives. See Herm. ad Arist. Nub. p. xlvi, sq. $ 151. ATTRACTION. 44? 5. Hence it clearly appears, that all those phrases, in which an expression of surprise or amplification seems to be strengthened by means of a sub- joined relative, are to be explained solely through this attraction. Thus when it is said (comp. § 150. m. 8) : Savpaarov oaov 7rpovx<*>PW € > ^ s i g strictly to be so taken: BavpaaTov (co-tip) oaov 7rpovxG>pr)aev, 'it is wonderful how far lie is advanced.' But when the relative stands in any other form, the preceding word also passes over into the same form ; as the Neut. Savpa- o-t6v into the Fern. e.g. Savpaarrj oar) fj Trpoxcoprjais civtov, where the clause can also be inverted : r\v he 17 npox^prjais clvtov Savpaorrj oar). From this the like form was adopted into other phrases, which can no longer be so well, nor even at all, resolved ; e. g. oXX' rjv nepl avrbv o^Xos vnepcpvrjs 000?. Aristoph. Pint. 750; ehcoKev ovtco TxKeuTTa ova, etc. But when the relative word is the adverb cos, the same adjectives are attracted by it even into the adverbial form: e. g. from Savpdaiov (eoTiv), cos adXios yeyove, comes Savpa- aicos cos (18)110? yeyovev, and in the same manner vnepepveos cos, and the like. And this representation is confirmed by the actual occurrence of the un- changed form; e. g. Hdot. 3. 113 diro^ei (to. Svcopara) SearreaLov cos fjdv. 6. An attraction of a different kind embraces the very extensive usage, that, when verbs of speaking, knowing, feeling, and the like, are followed) not by the Accus. with an Infin. or participle, but by conjunctions like cos, ottcos, otl, or by an indirect interrogative clause, the subject of the subordinate clause is put after such verbs as the object in the Accusative ; e. g. olha yr)v, ottoo-t) earl, for oiha, oiroarj earl yrj. Or also thus arranged : yrjv Sirdar/ earlv elhevai • tovtov ovo 1 el yeyovev jjdeiv. In this way is pointed out, as it were, how such clauses stand in place of the object with the main verb, and how they effect a closer junction of two clauses into one whole. Hence they may be regarded as a transition from the construction with the Infin. or participle into that of a conjunction with its clause; compare § 149. n. 2. Further, when the predicate of the main clause acquires an (objective) Genitive, the subject of the minor clause can be put in this case with the main -verb. Examples: Ar. Pac. 603 el /3ot»Aecr#' aKovoai rfjvd', ottcos dncoXero, £vvl- ere. An. 1. 2. 21 yodeTO to Mevcovos arpaTev pa, otl fjdr) ev KikiKia e'lrj, for fjdr) ev K. elvai. Soph. Aj. 1141 ov £' avTtiKovaei tovtov cos TeOd^reTai. Time. 3. 51 NiKias e{3ov\eTO Tr)v (pvXaKrjv avToOev toIs 'Adrjvaiois elvai, tovs. re Ile\o7rovvr)a iovs, ottcos pr) ttoicovtol etarkovs avToOev, a combining of the two constructions, with the Infinitive and with a conjunction. Thuc. 1. 59 rj\8e r) dyyeXia tcov irdXecov, otl dtpeoTaoiv. Mem. 4. 4. 13 ov yap alodd~ vopal aov ottolov vdpipov r) nolov htKaiov \eyeis. 7. From the same propensity and effort arises further a construction, which in Greek is far more frequent and comprehensive than in other lan- guages, viz. the personal construction, so called, in connection with certain predicates. We here give a general survey of this topic, as the most ap- propriate place; although it can hardly be any longer regarded as attrac- tion. Yet its affinity with the preceding constructions is obvious. The subject namely of the secondary clause, as in the preceding case the object, becomes the subject of the main clause, instead of an impersonal it or one (Germ, man), and as in Latin : diceris esse, instead of dicitur te esse. But the Greek language goes further in this respect, that the dependent clause can be put not only in the Infin. or participle (with or without as), but may also be a clause of indirect interrogation, or one introduced by the conjunc- tions on, cos, ovveKa, etc. Hence one can say : Kvpos Aeyerat tovto 7Toir)aai • QikiTTTTOS ayyeXXercu TroXiopKcov v. ccs TToXiopicfjocov • 8r)\os rjv otl (cos) tovto en-olriae • (pavepos eoTiv o fiovXeTai. — The following especially are often put in the personal construction, and occur also in prose : a) The Passives of verbs of speaking, etc. or of such verbs as in the Act. take an objective clause (no. 6 above) ; as \eyopai, dyyeWopai, (paivopai, evptaKopai, emheiKvvpai, and others. 448 SYNTAX. $ "J 51 b) Many neuter verbs; as do/c<£, KivBvveveo, avpfiaLva), tmokeln s> \ also ttoX- Aov v. 6\lyov V. rocrovrov Se'co, etc. c) Also adjectives as predicates; as o^Xof, cpavepos, iiraioros Hdot. ini- 8o£o?, agio?, 8iK(iio?, 8eiv6s Hdot. avajKaios elfii Plat. d) Jiess frequent and more poetical are various other predicates; inas much as the poets very naturally would prefer this construction to the im- personal : e. g. dpKco, 7rpeVco, npoo-rjicai • ^aXenos, (Sapv?, Kpeiaaoav dpi, and others. In all these examples the impersonal construction is likewise in use at the same time. Examples: Hell. 4. 3. 13 6 UelaavSpo? rjyyeXXero TereXeur^Kcof. 6. 4. 16 £covTe? rjyyeXpevoi rjaav. Dem. Macart. illit. ovtol €7rt8eL^6r]aovTai, oloi elaiv dvOpcimoi. Mid. p. 522 eari 8e eKelvo? ovk. ao^Xor ipa>v. Cyr. 4. 4. 3 hrjkoi (are, obr (iy8pes ayafiol eyevecrde. An. 1. 5.- 9 8rj\os rjv las (nrevft&v. Dem. Cor. p. 227 tovtov ttjv air lav ovtos ecrri diKatos 1 e^eiv. Cyr. 4. 1. 20 bimios ei dvTixap[£ecrdai fjplv. 5. 4. 19 af-io'i ye pzvTOi iupev rov yeyevr/pevov Trpdypa- tos tovtov aTroXavo-ai ti dyaQov. Isocr. Plat. p. 297 toctovtov 8eopev twv 'io~a>v d£JLovo-dai toI? «XXoty "EXkrjo-iv, coure ovde Trjs Koivr>s eXevdepla? peTe^opev. Thuc. 7. 70 j3pa)(V yap aTViXiirov tjvvapcpoTepai vrje? biaKoaiai yzveaOai. — Po- etic : Soph. Ant. 547 ap/ceo-co $vr]o-Kovo-' eyco, it is enough that I die ; av e£ap- K«y also in Plato. II. (p. 482 ^aXe^ tol iya> pevos avTicpepeadai. Soph. Aj. 635 Kpeiacrcdv yap aba Kevdcov rj voaau paTav. 8. Finally, it belongs also to attraction, when an adjunct or relation properly belonging to the noun, is so attracted by the verb, as to be changed into one belonging to the latter ; thus the local relation where into that of whence, e.g. Dem. 01. p. 13 6 ineldev noXepo?, 8v eh €K.do~T-qv tu>v 7ro'Xecoi>, tovs veovs, oh egeaTi to>v iavTcov tto\ito)v Trpolica ^vvelvai co av /3oiAcoz/rai, tovtov? jreioovcn . . . crcpiai gvueivat. Here tovtov at the beginning refers to several preceding names of Sophists; and both the progress of the discourse and emphasis required that the new period should thus commence: ' Each of these has it in his power to persuade the young men, etc.' In this way consequently after $ 151. ANACOLUTHON. INVERSION. 449 oloar icnlv the Infinitive neidetv would have been requisite. But further on, since the mention of the youth intervenes with circumstances which the contrast made necessary, (' the youth to whom it was permitted to have free intercourse with such of their fellow- citizens as they chose,') the writer forsakes the first construction, the grammatical connection of which has now become obscure, and finds it more natural to refer back with another Toy- Toys' to the veovs, and so "begin a new construction : tovtovs ireidovo-i — , i.e. those Sophists persuade the young men. 3. Another example is Plat. Phsedr. p. 232, ToiavTa yap 6 epas embeUvv- rat • byo~TyxoyvTas pev a pr) Xvnrjv toi? uAAoty Tvape^ei, aviapa note! vopl£eiv • €vtvx°vvto:s he kou to. pr) r)bovr)S a^ia nap eiceivoiv eiraivoy dvayicd^ei rvyxd- vecv, i Such things are wrought by love .- the unfortunate it makes regard as grievous that which causes no pain to others; the fortunate — ' (but here the writer will express the antithesis forcibly) l it necessitates that even in- different objects should receive from them praise.' Strict logic, however, demanded that the second clause should be given thus : irap evTvxovvr&v de — , but this would have destroyed the symmetry : dvo-ruxovvTas- pev — , Trap' evTvxovvTcov 8e — . But neither symmetry nor emphasis does the Greek writer sacrifice so lightly to logic; he leaves the Accus. eyTvxovvTas, which the analogy of the first clause required, standing as an Accus. absolute, and then refers back through Trap' enelvcov to the same object, in order to bring out the forcible conclusion enaivov auayicafci Tvyxdveiv. 4. Other examples of minor anacolutha are the following : a) Where a preceding case, in respect to what follows it, is ungrammatical : Cyr. 2. 1. 5 rovs "EW-qva?, toijs ev ttj 'Aaia olv exQiatoi elan Tram e P. — Plat. Phsedr. p. 277. c, TroiKikrj pev TTOutikoys "fyvxfl Ka ^ navap- uovloys dibov? Xoyov?, dnkoy? de aTrXfj. — In consequence of this propensity. Ff 450 SYNTAX. § 151, tliey even separated the article from the noun, see § 127. n. 6; and preposi- tions from their cases, see § 147. n. 3. 2. The natural tendency, moreover, to express as early as possible in a sentence the part on which the emphasis rests, also gives occasion for trans- positions ; e. g. Dem. 01. III. p. 36. infr. to pev npcoTov . . . aycnr-qTov rjv irapd tov drjuov TG)i> oXAco*' e/cacrra) na\ Tipi]s kcu dp^r/S 1 kcu dyadov tlvos peTaXafielv ■ vvv 8e Tovvavriov ktX. Here the Dative e/cacrro) depends on dyamjTov rju, 1 formerly it was pleasant to every one of the other citizens, when he re- ceived honour from the people ; hut now just the contrary ;' but the irapd tov drjfiov which is dependent on peTaXafieh has the greatest emphasis, and therefore stands before that Dative. 3. In the same manner the emphasis sometimes removes an adverb which should stand after a relative, and causes it to stand before it; e. g. vvv Srj a eXeyov, l what I said before,' Plat. Euthyd. p. 288. b. Hence ambiguity can sometimes arise, as in Theocr. 10. 17 e^eis 7raXat hv i-rreOvpeis, where nakai belongs not to eya?, tut to eVetfyueir. Comp. Spald. ad Dem. Mid. § 30. 4. In the following example a want of perspicuity is avoided by means of inversion : Dem. 01. III. extr. d^ico vpd? . . . prj Trapa-^aipeiv ttjs Ta^ecos, r\v vp.lv ol npoyovoL tt)s aper?)r p.€Ta ttoXXcov kcu KaXcov Kivbvvav KTt]crdpevoi KareAi- 7tov. Here the Genitive ttjs dpeTrj? depends on the other Genitive Ta£ea>s (tcl^i? Tij? dpeTrj? series or degrees of virtue) ; but both standing together would have occasioned confusion. 5. It is often apparent, however, that a writer has gained by inversion, although it cannot be explained in the above ways. Thus in the fine pas- sage, Plat. Phsedr. p. 230. d, cocnrep yap ol to. TravavTa SpeppaTa SaXXov rj Tiva Kapnov TrpocreLOVTes ayovcn, o~v ipo\ Xoyovs ovtco TrpoTeiv&v . . . cpalvet. 7repi- df-ziv ktX. where ol is the article belonging to rrpoo-eiovTe?, and to. ireivoivTa SpeppciTa is dependent on dyovaiv, i.e. 'like those who, holding out boughs or fruits, lead hungry cattle,' etc.^ Xen. Cyr. 6. 4. 8 rjt-eiv clvtg> ere noXv 'Apdcnrov avbpa kcu TTicrTOTepov kcu dpeivova, where the rroXv strengthens the comparative, and the Gen. 'Apdcnrov is governed by this latter ; precisely as in Dem. Mid. p. 573 ol 8e rjTtpcopevoi bid noXXa tovtcov elalv eXdrrco KpdypaTa, instead of r]Tipa>pevoi .eiai did npdypaTa rroXXa e'Aarrco tovtg>v. 6. In the formulas of adjuration, Trpb? Se&v, npos yovdWav, etc. the expres- sion of emotion draws back the personal pronoun ere', without however caus- ing it to stand before the preposition; because this orthotone emphasis would announce an antithesis, which does not exist. For this reason the ere is inserted between the prepositions and their cases : co 7rpoy ere yovaTcov, •rrpos ere $ea>v, sc. iKeTevco, which however is usually omitted. Soph. OC. 1333 Hpos vvv ere Kprjvoov, Trpbs Qeoov opoyvicov Atrco nLdeadai.f IV. Ellipsis. 1. Ellipsis, or the omission of a word or words, opens a wide field, espe- cially in the Greek Syntax, upon which we can here enter only in a very gen- eral manner. This figure is used, for the most part, only when that which is omitted is already obvious from the nature of the clause or from the con- * I leave however to the learner the option between this explanation and that by means of an anacoluthon, viz. that the writer began with ol with the purpose of afterwards using the participle ayovres ; but then, in consequence of the disagree- able concurrence of two participles [ol — -rrpoadovTes &yovTes, Lat. ii qui — porrigen- do ducunt), passed over to the verb 'ayovaiv. t See Matthiae Gr. § 465. 3. Porson Adv. p. 220. — The necessity of leaving the TT(£>v rivl. An. 5. 3. 3 ol be aXXoi o.7tco\ovto vtto re tcov noXeplcov Kcu ttjS yiovos, kcu e'i ris v6o~co. Thuc. 4. 55 es ra 7ro\epiKci, etnrep iroTe, oKvrjporepoi eyevovTo. Also even shorter, so that only the particle remains : e'lwep, or emep cipa, i. e. if it be so, if it should be so, etc. Plat. Euthyd. p. 296. b, ovkovv r)pds ye acpaXXei, dXX', e'iirep, ere, l not us then does it deceive, but, if any one, thee.' — Vice versa also the main clause can be elliptical after a conditional clause; e.g. el br) tco a-ocparepos (fxtirjv elvai, tovtco av SC. (palrjv elvai. 3. In like manner frequently the conjunction &v y' av, beboiKa kt\. 5. The same holds true of relative clauses, in which the sense must be completed from the main clause; see § 143. n. 3. § 150. m. 8. This often happens, when a verbal idea is connected as a participle with the relative clause; as II. Q. 306 firjKoav cos ere'pcocre Kaprj (3aXev, rjr* evl ktjttco Kapna j3pi8o- fievr) sc. Kap-q /3dXXei er. And like e'inep above, so here the relative strength- ened by nep can stand in place of the whole clause ; e. g. Plat. Legg. p. 710 TxdvTa ayebbv drreipyao'Tai tw Sea, arrep orav (3ovkr)0f) biacpep6vT<£>s ev Ttpd^al Tiva 7t6Xlv, i. e. 'whatever he is wont to do, when,' etc. 6. In the same manner, the negative particles also stand without the word or clause which they render negative, and which is then to be supplied out of the preceding discourse. Thus especially pr) often in the middle of a clause (§ 148. 2. h), so that it then comes to stand before other words to which it does not belong, and thus occasions perplexity to the learner. E. g. Plat. Phsedr. p. 237 rco br) tov epavrd re Kal pr) Kpivovpev, where ko.1 fir) stands for /ecu tov fir) epoovra. Id. p. 258 t'ls ovv Tponos tov Kak&s Kal fir) ypd- cpeiv ; where /eaXcoy is omitted after fir). — dyadol r) pr) avbpes l good men or not good men;' — koi oiroTe, Kal fir), for /ecu oirore fir), Plat. Alcib. I. p. 109. d. 7. The elliptical phrase el be pr) after another hypothetical clause, has become very frequent in the colloquial style. In such case, according to our feelings, the first hypothesis must always be positive ; but this ex- pression became so generally current as qualifying what precedes, that it is used also after negative clauses, and consequently then affirms; e. g. An. 4. 3. 6 ovk ev tco vbaTi ra 07rXu r)v eyeiv • el be pr), fjpira£ev 6 noTapos. Comp. ib. 4. 4. 17. Cyr. 3. 1. 35. Also, directly the reverse, we find the elliptical expression el be after positive clauses, where we should expect et be pr), e. g. Plat. Euthyd. p. 285 el pev /3ovXercu e\|/-eYco • et b\ o,tl fiovke- Tai, tovto 7rotetrco. Comp. further Plat. Alcib. I. p. 114. b. Soph. Ant. 722 ; also the formula of encouragement, et b' aye, on! come on ! 8. Easily supplied, and current in all languages, is the omission of the Infinitive, when the verb has already been given in what precedes, or is readily suggested by the context. E. g. Od. y. 275 eKreXeVar peya epyov, o ovTTOTe f)\7:eTO Svpco Xen Conv. 8. 7 irdaa r) troKls olbe, noXXovs S' olpat Kal 452 SYNTAX. * 151. rcov £evcav. Arist. Ran. 1275 eyco p.ev ovv e's to fiaXavelov (3ov\op.at I will to the bath. Hell. 2. 3. 54 eKehevaev 6 Krjpvt; rov? evbeKa eVt rbv Qr)pap.evqv. ib, 20 Kehevcrai eVt to. oyrXa, to call to arms. 9. We find also not only relative clauses (as above in no. 5), but also other minor and even main clauses, which instead of a finite verb have only a participle. Here too the predicate is to be supplied from the con- text. E. g. II. co. 42 Ae'coi/ coy, ocrr', eneX ap peydXrj re ftir} kcu ayrjvopi Svp,co elects; etcr' «rl p,r)Xa. Hdot. 7. 23 copvcrcrov 8e cobe • da.o~dp.evoi tov x&pov Kara eBvea kcu orei>es 7roi.rjo-dp.evoi. Comp. Thuc. 1. 25. 10. The omission of the words tovto io~n, or tovt^ eanv 6Vt, after relative clauses, has already been explained in § 143. 11. The same takes place also, without any such relative connection, in some short elliptical phrases ; e. g. to 8e p.eyurTOv, ixdvTa TavTa p.6vos KareipydaaTO . . . kcu to ttovtccv a'io-xio~Tov, 7rpocr€\lsr]Cpio~ao~8€. Further likewise in the familiar formulas of proof: Te Kp,T) piov de or ar]p,e7ov 8e (sc. tovtcov ecrri tovto) 'the proof of it is this,' etc. E. g. arjjieiqv 8e, to!? Trovripols £vvovo-id£ei, i. e. ' and as a proof, he associates with bad men.' — This form of expression also usually takes ydp; e. g. Demosth. Androt. near the end: 'the people of Athena have ever prized honour more than money,' T€Kp.rjpiov Se, xPW aTa p.ev yap TrXelaTa twv 'JUXXrjv&v ttotc o~x-° v to. irdvd* virep s avrb? kut edoKee. Compare the next paragraph. VII. Epezegesis. This, as the name imports, is a word or clause added by way of explana- tion or illustration. Hence, in respect to mere form, it often appears as apposition or pleonasm ; but yet retains everywhere its own character of explanation. This takes place in a threefold way: 1) Either one word explains another; e. g. Eur. Hel. 1 NeiAo? Alyvirrov irehov, \evKr]S raKelaijs ■ftiovos, vypalvei yvas. 2) Or a word is explained by a clause; e. g. II. i. 125 "lttttovs ddXofpopovs, ot de6\ia noo-alv apovro. Compare Od. init. 3) Or one clause explains and confirms another clause; e. g. Xen. Ag. 2. 7 el yap ravra Xeyoipi, 'Ay^crtAaoz/ r av pot 8oko> a(ppova d7ro(paiveiv Kal epav- rbv pcopov, el eTvaivoir]v rbv Treplrav peyicrrcov elicr/ Kivbvvevovr a. VIII. Zeugma. This is a figure current especially in the poets ; in w'iiich, for the sake of brevity, only one predicate is put in connection grammatically with sev- eral words, while in sense it can refer to only one of them ; and conse- quently from it the reader must infer a suitable predicate for the rest. E. g. Hes. ■&. 640 veKrap r' dpfipoo-tr) re, rdirep 3eo\ avrol edovcri. Soph. OT. 371 rvcpXb? ra r cora, rdv re vovv, rd r oppar' el. Comp. II. y. 327. Hdot. 4. 106. — This usage passed over into the later prose and to the Latin writers; and was by many regarded as elegant; e. g. Virg. i£n. 1. 355 crudelis aras, trajectaque pectora ferro nudavit; comp. 2. 320. Floras 4. 12. 37 his oculos, aliis manus amputabant. Even the contrary can be thus supplied from the predicate; e. g. Cic. Nat. Deor. 2. 64 nee vero supra terram (sc. patet), sed ttiam in intimis ejus tenebris plurimarum rerum latet utilitas. IX. Asyndeton. 1. Every regular clause in the progress of narration or other discourse, unless otherwise conjoined (e. g. by pronouns) with what precedes, musIT strictly have with it in Greek one of the short movable conjunctions, which serve to connect clauses. In like manner also, co-ordinate single words standing together must be connected by conjunctions. This rule is for the most part everywhere observed ; so that even the larger sections and books begin with a conjunction, by which they are joined back to the preceding one. Nevertheless, there occur instances where a connection is avoided ; and both clauses and single words are intentionally made to follow one an- other without any connecting particle. This is called Asyndeton. 2. Between co-ordinate words the connecting particle is thus omitted : a) Commonly in enumerations ; e. g. Plat. Prot. p. 319. d, opolcos 8e ^aA/eei'?, o-Acuroro/xor, 7r\ovo-tos; Trevq?, yevvalos, dyevvf)?. b) When several epithets follow a substantive for ornament^ especially in Homer; e. g. II. tt. 140 tyX oS eXero, ftpidi peya, ariftapcv. a. 97 vtto ttoo-q-Xv edr)o-aro KaXa nediXc. 454 SYNTAX. § 151 dfifipocria, xpvo-eia. — On the other hand, for the connection of two adjectives by mi or re icai, contrary to our English usage, see in § 149. m. 8. > t ote. For the apparently asyndetic construction of some participles, see $ 144. 4. 3. Between whole clauses the connecting particle is omitted as follows ^,) In the language of emotion, where the predicate is put first, especially in Homer: II. A. 196 firj 8e . . . eh"l\iov iprjv evp* vibv Tlpiapoio ktX. II yjs. 352 iv 8e KKrjpov? ifiakovro • iraW' 'A^tAeus- ktX. comp. x- 295, 391 ; so in Xenophon often : edoge ravra, or avereivav iravres^ etc. Also when the predicate does not stand first : II. p. 50 bovTrqcrev Se necraiv • aipari ol hevovrt> Kopai. Od. p. 428 rj\6e 6° em voto? cokci • 7ravvvx l os cpe po prjv, apa § ijeXicp kt\. In all such cases it will be found, that by inserting the parti- cle the clause loses in vivacity and warmth of description, b) In clauses for explanation, where we are accustomed to insert namely; especially in prose, after a preceding demonstrative which refers to what follows. Yet here yap can also stand. E. g. II. /3. 217 a'Lcrx L(Tros ^ °-vrjp vtto "ikiov rjXdev • (poXno? erjv, ^coXos §' ktX. Plat. Gorg. p. 450. a, at aXXai re^i/at ovt&s €X 0V(TLV ' etacrTr] avrcov Trepl \6yov? iarl tovtovs ktK. Dem. Phil. 1. p. 44 Seo- pai vp5» toctovtov • eVetSaz/ cmavra dicovo-rjTe, Kplvare. APPENDIX. On Versification.* 1. For the full understanding of what follows, it is necessary to pre- mise some remarks on the different kinds of Greek poetry, and their con- nection with the dialects. All the species of Greek poetry have their origin in three principal classes of poetical diction, viz. The Epic, or poetry of narrative ; The Lyric, or poetry of song ; The Dramatic, or poetry of action. 2. Each of these classes of poetry, in its most complete form, became ippropriated among the Greeks to particular tribes. The Epic was brmed and cultivated among the Ionics ; the Lyric among the Dorics tnd iEolics ; and lastly the Dramatic among the Attics. Hence it arose, that each of these classes, in language, metre, and adaptation to music and song, united the character and more or less of the dialect of the tribe, in which it was chiefly cultivated, to the peculiarities of its own nature. Comp. § 1. 10 sq. Note 1. It must here be noted, that in speaking of dramatic and Attic poetry, we mean chiefly the iambic and trochaic parts of the drama gener- ally, and the anapaestic parts of comedy, in which the strictly dramatic dialogue is contained. Tlie other parts belong more or less to lyric poetry, and the choruses wholly so. 3. The chief influence which is hence exerted upon the metre and poetic quantity, is, that the epic diction has more softness, and, in order to bring the narration more into the restraints of metre, more license in the forms of words and in the pronunciation. Dramatic poetry, on the other hand, and particularly comedy, being derived from the language .)f ordinary life, confined itself more strictly to the customary forms ; and of course more particularly to the language and pronunciation of the Attic people, of which it sacrificed very little to the metre. The lyric diction approached in this respect more nearly to the epic ; from which, as the mother of all Greek poesy, it derived the greater part of its poet- ical language and forms ; while with these it mingled also the harsher and rougher peculiarities of the Doric dialect, and thus exempted the melody of song from the monotony of narrative recitation. 4. The alternation of long and short syllables in discourse is called, from its impression on the ear, Rhythm. So far as this alternation fob * In order to render this work complete in itself, the following treatise on Greek Versification is here subjoined from the author's Schul-Grammatik. — Ta. 4o(> Appendix A. — versification. lows certain laws, which limit it by a certain measure, it is called Metre. Single parts of such discourse, which can he embraced and recognized by the ear as a metrical whole, are called Verses. 5. Verses are subdivided into smaller sections of a few syllables each, which are called Feet. The most usual feet are the following- ■ Spondee e. g. SovXovs Trochee - - e. g. 8ov\os Iambus - — e. g. \6yovs Pyrrhic - - e. g. \6yos Dactyl ~ e. g. rvTTTere Anapsest ~ ~ - e. g. Xeyerot Tribrach ~ ~ ~ e. g. Xeyere Note 2. In the examples here adduced, each foot consists of a single word. All verses, however, are measured likewise by feet, of wiiich the beginning and end fall in the middle of the words. 6. To determine the measure of the feet and verses, a short syllable is assumed as unity, and a long syllable as the double of this, or two. Every such unit is called a time or interval, onora. Note 3. Consequently the tribrach is equal in time to the trochee and iambus j and the spondee to the dactyl and anapaest. 7. The length and shortness of syllables, or their quantity, is determ- ined by the rules and principles given in § 7. For the use of the Hia- tus and Synizesis in poetry, see § 6. n. 3. § 29 ; and § 28. n. 6. § 29. n. 11. — It is here only necessary to remark further, that in most species of poetry the last syllable of every verse is common, i. e. a short syllable can stand instead of a long one, or a long syllable instead of a short one. 8. In some kinds of verse, and likewise in sections of verses, there re- mains, after dividing them into their feet, a single syllable over and above. This is called the catalectic syllable. A verse whose symmetry requires that this syllable should be counted instead of a full foot, is called a cata- lectic verse ; while if the syllable is regarded as supernumerary, it is a hyper catalectic verse. The principles by which this is to be determined, must be sought in more extended treatises. 9. The most common kinds of verse are those made by the repetition of one and the same foot. Among these, the dactylic, iambic, trochaic, and anapcestic, are the most frequent. 10. The most usual dactylic verse is the Hexameter, which is em- ployed in epic and heroic poetry in uninterrupted succession, without the mixture of any other species. It consists of five dactyls and a spondee. — I — I — I — I — 1-- But instead of each of the first four feet a spo?idee may stand ; and as the last syllable of every verse is common (no. 7), instead of the sixth, a trochee, e. g. 1. K\v6l pev, 'ApyvpoTo^, or Xpvarjv ap(pifie($T)Ka<:, 2. KlXkav re £ader)v, Tevedoio re icpt dvaacreis, 3. 'Zpivflev, e'lnore rot ^apt'e^r' im vrjbv epe^a, Appendix A. — versification. 457 4. 77 el S17 Trore rot Kara iriova p.r)pC i'tcrja 5. ravp&v r)8' alya>v, rode pot Kprpr\vov eekdoop 6. riaeiav Aavaol ep.d 8aKpva crotcrt (3e\eacnv. 1- 1 ! - -I- H-~ 2 _ _|_.„|„„|_ — 1^> 3-- - 1 I 1 I"- 4 - - |-_-|-_~ |-~_|_~ 5 ,_ _|_ - | ^.|- -|- r 6.- _|_^|„-| — |_ S Note 4. Sometimes also we find a spondee inserted in the fifth place in- stead of the dactyl. Such a verse is called a spondaic Hexameter. E. g. aKpordrr] Kopvcpfj Trohvbeipa&os OvXvjjnroio f f 1 1 — 1 — or fir} de *rar' Ov^vpuroLO K.apr]va>v ait-acra — — [ — I 1 : — I — i — 1 1 . The (dactylic) Pentameter is composed of two parts or halves, separated by a close or cadence ; each of which parts consists of two dactyls and a catalectic syllable. — 1 — |_n — , — ,_ For the first two dactyls, and for them alone, spondees may be substi- tuted. The middle syllable is always long ; the last, as the final sylla- ble, may be also short. This kind of verse is commonly found only in connection with the Hexameter ; so that one Hexameter and one Pen- tameter follow each other alternately. A poem of this kind was called "EXeyoi, Elegi ; for which at a later period the Sing. Elegia became usual. Hence an apothegm or inscription in one such double verse (diarixov) is called e\eye7ov. 1. 'EX7rtr iv avdpanroiai povt] Seos ea6\r] evecrriv, aXXoi §' OvXvpnoi'ft' eKTrpoXinovres e(3av. 2. torero pev Hian?, peydXrj Seos, d>X eT0 ^' ^-vdpcov Saxppoavvr], Xdpire? r\ a> cpi'Ae, yr]v e\mov. 3. OpKOL S' OVK€Tl TTKTToi iv dvOpcOTTOlCTl SlKCUOl, ovde Seovs ovdels a£erai d6a.va.T0vs. 4. evaefie&v S' dvhpwv yevos e(p6iro, ovbe Sepnaras ovKeri yiyvd>o~Kovcr 7 ovde p.ev eiaeftias. I--- I -I I-r 12. The iambic, trochaic, and anapaestic verse, is measured by dipodes, e. double feet or pairs of feet. In accordance with this, verses of four 458 Appendix A. — versification. feet are called dimeter, those of six feet, trimeter, etc. The Latin names, on the contrary, quaternius, senarius, etc. refer to the number of single feet. 13. Every iambic diipode, instead of the first iambus, may also havp a spondee ; thus - - ~ - or , Hence it follows that in every iambic verse the spondee can stand in every odd place, in sede imparl, 1, 3, 5, 7. 14. In every foot also a long syllable can be resolved into two short ones. Consequently the tribrach may stand instead of the iambus in every place except the last. Inasmuch, however, as the last syllable is common, the last place can be occupied by a pyrrhic ; and in all the odd places, instead of a spondee, the anapaest and dactyl may be sub- stituted. Note 5. Of the feet of four units or times, however, the anapaest can also stand in the even places. Still this does not hold of tragedy; which does not easily admit the anapaest even in the third and fifth places. 15. Hence arises for the Iambic trimeter or Senarius the following scheme. But the other kinds of feet, especially those of three syllables, must not be so frequent as to obscure the iambic metre. rXcocrcr^y paXiara Tvavra-^ov Treipw Kparelv • 6 Kal yipovri Kal vea riprjv (pepsi, fj yXcbcrcra aiyrjv aaipiav KeKTijpevr). Et to (jvve-^tiiS kol 7roAAa Kal ra^eosy Xakelv rjv tov (ppovelv Ttapdo-qpov, al ^eAiSdi/er zkeyovr' av rjpcov crco(ppoveaT€pai ndvv. UXovto? 5e fiaaavos iariv dvdpdnrov rpotroov. os av ev7rop5)v yap alcr^pa Trpdrrrj Trpdypara, * See § 7. n. 19. Appendix A. — versification. 459 Aecnroiv', orav ris opvvovros Karacppovfj, a> prj ^vvoibe rrporepou eV.co pKrj koto, ovto? Karacppovelv rcov Secov epol doKel, kcu nporepov opoaas avrb? eV-G-pK^K-Vcu. 16. Besides the senarius, the most common species of iambic verse is the catalectic tetrameter (no. 8 above). E. g. Ei' poi yevoiro Trapdivo? Kakrj re kcu repeiva --,—'(-- ,~|~-,~- | --,- The rules and licenses are essentially the same in this verse as in the senarius ; and the catalectic syllable is common. 17. The trochaic dipocle, instead of the second trochee, may have a spondee : •, — ~ or - -. Hence it follows, that in trochaic verse a spondee can stand in every even place, in secle pari, 2, 4, 6, 8. — The rule holds also here, that in every foot a long syllable can be resolved into two short ones. The tribrach can therefore stand in all the places ; and the dactyl and ana- paest (instead of the spondee) in all the even places. Note 6. Among the feet of four units, however, the dactyl, though very seldom, is found also in the odd places. 18. The most usual trochaic verse is the catalectic tetrameter. E, g. Nouy opa, kcu vovs dicovei • raWa noocpa kcu rvcpiXd 'ireow a>9 avavbpov a/cXecos KarOavelv. Alva rdde. The catalectic syllable is common. 19. In the anapcestic verse, the spondee can stand instead of the ana- paest, by uniting the two short syllables into one long one ; and then again, by resolving the second long syllable of the spondee into two short ones, a dactyl can be introduced. As an example we give the catalectic tetrameter so common in the comic poets. E. g. "Or eyco to. hittaia \eya>v rjvOovv kcu o~oora hiapa-^ovpai / _ U _ I _ _/ _ ^ __/ I ' J _/ w I w _/ _ ' 'I I ' I i Svvveia Sep pa Kara(payd>u kcit* Itvlttlwv aupdrov — ', — ' | - -' -^ - -' I — ' -> — ' ! — '. - Troclisiic tetram. catalect. — Ground-Sch erne. Examples. Trepiopqs p.' ovtcos vtt dvdpcav (3dp(3apa>v ^eipovpeuov U ~ J, -' 1 | -' ~, -> - | -' ~, -' - | -' ~, -' aXka p.6. At' ou pabis ourcoy av civtovs biefyvyes ei7rep erv)(ov rd>v pekcov tcov QiXoxiXeovs fiefipooKore? ~'~, ~' — | ~' ^ -' ~ | -' ~ -' " | ~' - ~, - / -_ ^ w w I _' w — ' — I U ~ ^ —t w I _' ~ ^ Aiiapcestic tetram. catalect. — Ground-Scheme. — '> — — ' I — — '> — - — ' { — — ^', — ' i ^ — , — Examples. akX oKoXv^dre (patvopevrjatv rcti? dp-^aialcnv A8i)vais kcli Qavp-acrTais k.cu Tiohvvpvbis lu' 6 Kkeivo? dr)p,os evoiicei _ u _, _ U ^ I _ u w / I / / I w _ _/ _ ' I ' I ' I > 21. The C centra is properly the division or separation, by means of the ending of a word, of something which rhythmically or metrically be- longs together. Hence there arises a Ccesura 1) of the Foot, 2) of the Rhythm, 3) of the Verse; all of which must be carefully distin- guished, since the word ccesura is very commonly used without addition for each of the three. 22. The Ccesura of the Foot is where a word ends in the middle of a foot ; e. g. in the first (dactyl) of | Mrjviv a- | eiSe, and in the second (spondee) of | Ov\op,e- \ wjv ?} I -. This is the least important of all, and 462 Appendix A. — versification. is without any influence of its own on the metre ; since the division into feet is in a great measure arbitrary. 23. The Ccesura of the Rhythm is where a word ends with the arsis, i. e. where the arsis falls on the last syllable of a word ; by which means the arsis is separated from the thesis. Such a final syllable receives from the ictus a special emphasis; so that not unfrequently the poets place here a short final syllable, which by this means alone is made long, and fills out of itself the arsis ; comp. § 7. 15. Of this lengthening by the ccesura, the epic poets particularly avail themselves ; e. g. TnXep.a%e | ttoIov o~e ervos cpvyev epnos obovrcov ; Avrap €7T€iT y avToicri /BeAoy | e%e7revK.es ecpieis:^ 24. The Verse-Ccesura is where the final syllables of words fall into such places in the verse, that a Rhythm which by this means is made full and pleasant to the ear, closes, and another begins. To judge of this requires a deeper knowledge of versification, than can be imparted here. — In a narrower sense, that is called a verse-caesura which occurs in certain determinate places, and of which every verse must have at least one, when it is not faulty. In this sense the name is understood, when we say of a verse that it has ?w ccesura. This point also we cannot here exhaust ; and therefore subjoin further only the following remarks : a) Several kinds of verse have their caesura in one fixed place. Such are, of the above kinds, the following : 1) The pentameter, in which a word must end at the division mentioned above. This caesura is never neglected. 2) The iambic, anapcestic, and trocJuiic catalectic tetrame- ter ; all of which have their natural caesura at the end of the fourth foot. This caesura is sometimes neglected. b) Other kinds of verse have more than one place for the caesura 5 and the choice is here left to the discretion of the poet. Still some one caesura is commonly the principal one. In hexameter the predominant caesura is that in the middle of the third foot ; either directly after the arsis, e. g. Mrjviv aeihe, Sea, \ HnXrj'id8eoi 'A^iArjo? • Ovk apa p.ovvov erjv | epidcov yevos, dXX ezrt yalav • or in the middle of the thesis of a dactyl, e. g. "AfSpa p.oi euvene, Movaa, | TroXvrpoTTOv, os pdXa TroXXd. The first species is called, by a modern expression, the masculine caesu- ra ; the second the feminine (or trochaic). It rarely happens that both are wholly wanting in this verse. In such case, however, they are re- placed by a caesura in the second or in the fourth foot, which are then usually masculine, and produce the best, effect when both occur to- gether ; e. g. akXd veov \ crvvopivopevoi \ k'lvvvto (pdXayyes. * This usage is most known from epic writers ; and since, in hexameter verse, which always has the arsis at the beginning of the foot, this caesura and the caesura of the foot fall together, this circumstance has often occasioned the erroneous sup- position, that this prolongation is effected by the ccesura of the foot (no. 22). With this was connected another erroneous idea; for the name ccesura was also given to the case, where a word was cut in two in the division into feet. But it is easy to see, that in all cases where any effect is produced by a caesura, it has respect alone to the ending of a word; which therefore may be a monosyllable. Appendix B. — greek alphabet. 463 Note 8. In order to guard against misapprehension and confusion, we remark here further, that writers on metre, when they speak of the caesuras of the hexameter, often understand, in a wider sense, only those which oc- cur in every place of the hexameter, and by the choice and alternation of which, depending as they do solely on the poet, the positive euphony not only of single verses, but also of the whole series of verses, is produced. But on account of the many final syllables in every verse, the mere ending of a word is not enough to mark a verse- esesura in this sense; but it must be connected with some perceptible break in the sense, or with some striking position of the words. In this way the verse-cgesura then forces itself upon the ear, even over those indispensable csesuras, which, as well as these op- tional ones, must not be wanting, but which also very commonly compre- hend the latter in themselves. B. History of- the Greek Alphabet, p. 5.* It may not be superfluous to give here a short view of the history of the Greek alphabet, as derived from the ancient accounts and internal evidence. The ancient tradition was, that Cadmus brought sixteen letters from Phoenicia to Greece, to which Palamedes afterwards added four more, viz. 3, £, cf>, x> an cL Simonides still later four others, viz. (, rj, \^, a; Plin. 7. 56. On comparing, however, the Phoenician alphabet, as it has come down to us in the Hebrew, it is very apparent that this story must be thus understood ; viz. that the Phoenician alphabet was introduced into these western coun- tries in a more or less perfect shape; that some tribes, perhaps those in Greece Proper, were satisfied with sixteen letters ; that they were not how- ever unacquainted with the more perfect system of other tribes, but adopt- ed by degrees such other letters as they found convenient ; and this, accord- ing to the tradition, occurred at two different epochs. Taking away now the letters ascribed by Pliny to Palamedes and Simon- ides, there remain the following, as the sixteen ancient letters, viz. aj3y8eiK.\fJi,vo7rp(rTv. The same letters are also given in Schol. ad Dionys. Thr. p. 781. 1. But since this alphabet certainly ended, like the Oriental one, with r, there can be no doubt that the v was transferred to its present place from later alpha- bets ; since it was originally the same with the Bad i. e. Fav. Marius Vic- torinus, 2468. If now we restore this F or Y, which was used at a later period only as a numeral, the traditional alphabet of Cadmus was unquestionably the fol- lowing : A B P A E F I K A M N O H P 2 T and the names were J/ AX0a, B^ra, la/j^a, AeXra, Ef, Fav, 'icora, Karma Aa/x/3Sa, MO, Nu, Ov, lit, 'Pa>, Styjua, Tav. The letters which were after- wards adopted, so far as they belonged to the original Phoenician alphabet and were in use among other tribes, viz. £, 77, £, £, assumed their original places. The others, which were added later, and were formed either by a change of the old ones or in some other way, were annexed after the T. In this way T became the nineteenth letter : since the Y, which was formed from the Fav by splitting its upper part, was already placed after the T, while the F itself was omitted. Indeed the F was employed as a regular letter of the alphabet only by a few tribes ; in the others it was afterwards used, along with the Ko7T7ra, only in the system of numerals, and was * From the author's Ansfuhrliche Sprachleh e, Bd. II. Abth. ii: p. 375, Berlin 1S27; or Edit. 2. Bd. I. p. 9-12, Berlin 1830. 464 Appendix E. — greek alphabet. dropped in the alphabet. If now we count these two (Fav and KdVm:), and also reckon 2ty/xa and 2di> as two, which they were originally, we obtain from A to T inclusive just the twenty-two Phoenician-Hebrew letters ; and, as we shall see, also the very same letters. The Oriental alphabet contained four sibilants, Zain, Samech, Tsade, Sin; and there were likewise four in the Greek alphabet before T, viz. Z, S, 2, and 2dv. The names Samech, Tsade, Sin, correspond clearly to the names 2/y/xa, Zrjra, 2dv ; and the name Zain is consequently merged in EI. Just as clearly, however, can we recognize in the forms of the Greek letters £, cr, £, the common forms of the Hebrew Tsade, Samech, and Zain (% t>, i). We see then evidently, that the four sibilants, in their wanderings from tribe to tribe, became confounded, and exchanged their places in the alphabet. But this took place in such a way, that a sibilant came to stand in the Greek alphabet in the place corresponding to each Phoenician sibilant ; as is evi- dent of itself in the case of £, £, cr. The place of the old 2dv consequently was between n and Komra. The Zain (Dsain), which along with £ was as superfluous as 2ai> by the side of cr, was not however dropped like the lat- ter ; but common usage employed it as a double sound or letter ; or perhaps it was retained because the original sound dsi passed over, in the dialects, into ksi. In the Oriental alphabet, several of the soft or gently-aspirated conso- nants were at the same time employed as vowel letters. This continued to be the case in Greek (including the Latin dialect) with 'lira and with Fav or Y, the Latin V. The *A\qba was considered in Greek simply as a vowel j inasmuch as the consonant power of the Oriental Aleph was re- garded by the Greeks merely as an affection of the vowel sound, or the spiritus lenis. The Phoenician He and Hheth were sounded alike by the Greeks, (because they could not easily make the distinction between these two aspirates,) and furnished therefore two. forms of the spiritus asper. Of these the one (E) still maintains its place in manuscripts in the form of the breathing placed over a letter £ or [-: while the other (H) is often found on coins and in inscriptions. In the Latin alphabet this H has retained its Oriental power, and occupies nearly the same place as the -q in the Greek alphabet, viz. immediately before the I, — the having been dropped by the Latins, like all other aspirates. At the same time this double form (E and H) furnished also two forms for the vowel E, and in thi? shape alone they remained in the Greek alphabet, and were early employed to dis- tinguish the quantity. This was afterwards imitated also in the case of O, by writing a double o, which still appears in the cursive co, and had pre- cisely the same form in the ancient cursive alphabet, as we still find it in Egyptian papyrus manuscripts.* The Greek O corresponds of course to the Oriental Ain, and has the same place in the alphabet. Of the five letters then which were annexed after the T, the origin of Y and Q, has been already shewn. <£l and SE"I are simply modifications of lit, as is evident from their names and value. XI in like manner is a modifi- cation of EI* since this latter in the Italic-Greek and Latin alphabets was written X, and corresponds to XI both as to name and value, precisely as ^t to <±>I. Moreover, sound ch, has its parallel in the Spanish language Of the remaining letters of the Ionic- Attic alphabet, viz. those which were ultimately employed only as numerals, the F retained the same posi- tion in the Latin alphabet, with a more strongly aspirated pronunciation; hence the V stands there likewise after T, and in its double capacity of vowel and consonant. The KoWa (Latin Q) has in all the ancient alpha- bets, the Phoenician included, the same name with Kdnira, except that it was * The form £2 seems to have been derived from * yap y^f yap y§ yeX fy yep <$ yep ffi yiverau fl ^Q y* 7° «ft? Be% M> Bev 2y^ Bia oJg> Bca ev Kara 4, V. JUjffi flCOV (Tvpv Of OLOV ~* » CtfX. owe ^^5 irapa ^* 7T6/J §* 7T€/)t Tf 7TO C5 />° VI. ^ty fiarwv yLtez^ 4 fjbev fiifyj fJiev juSlt/ p*v fievos (TO COT (TIT 09 fK$> fiera fiUi^x. fiera OS & 3 r era ltco rat rat? ravQa V rrjv 3* nr y r Cub- TOV9 £9 rpo (9§ TCO TO TOl TOV TOV T 3 ^} T&P T TCOV H vi VJJ vv f \S5f VTT $ x° <£ CO 4 ep 468 Appendix D. — technical expressions. Technical Grammatical Expressions. I. Greek. 1. Letters, crrot^eia letters; cpcovrjevra kcu avp-cpoava voivels and conso- nants ; acpoava mutes, r)p.[va semivowels, vpyd^ liquids ; Sacrea, x^tXa, [xeo-a, rough, smooth, middle. — iirla^fiov, an old letter used only as a numeral, p. 6. 2. Accents, etc. Tvpoacohiai accents ; but under this name are also com- monly included quantity, breathing, apostrophe, and hypodiastole (§ 15. 2 7 comp. § 7. l) : o£e!a, /3apeTa, Tvepiurrcop-evr}, grave, acute, circumflex. — irvev p.ara breathings ; Sacreia kcu ^l\tj (sc. Tvpoa-cobla) rough and smooth. — orriyp-r], rekeia (TTiyfirj, point, period, uearj crriyur] colon, vTroo~Tiyp.r] comma.— xpoi/os quantity. o-vXkafir] Sixpovos (anceps) doubtful syllable. — xaoyxwSta f hiatus. 3. Parts of Speech. ovop.a noun (ovop.a Trpoo-rjyopucov substantive, iiride- tikov adjective, Kvpiov proper name) ; dvTcowp.ia pronoun, dpdpov article (ivpo- raao'op.evov, vnoTaacrop.evov., or -ciktikov, prepositive, postpositive) ; /xero^ par- ticiple, prjp-a verb, iir'ipprjpia adverb, irpoOecris preposition, avvdeap-os conjunc- tion. The interjections are included under adverbs. 4. Accidents of Nouns, etc. yevos dpo-evikov, StjXvkov, ovberepov, Masc. Fern. Neut. — dpi6p.b$ £vikos, bv'iKos, TrX-qdwriKov, Sing. Dual, Plural. — kXlctis declension, TTToocreis cases; 6p6r) or evdela, or also ovop-ao-riKr], Nom. yeviKrj Gen. doriKT] Dat. alriaTLKr] Ace. kK^tikt] Voc. Trraaeis irkdyiai oblique cases. ovop.a d7r0X.ekvp.ev0v or dnokvTov, also dnkovv and Sctikov, positive J arvyicpi- tikov comparative, vnepOeTiKov superlative. 5. Accidents of Verbs, etc. avfyyia conjugation, under which how- ever the Greeks understand different classes of verbs which are conjugated alike, e. g. the verbs X, p., v, p. What we mean by the verb conjugate, as also by declension, is called in Greek KXiveiv, /cXtVir, inflect, decline ; inflec- tion, declension. — $ep.a theme § 92. 6. — 7rpoo-co7ra persons. avgrjen? cruXXa/3tK?) ml xpovucfj, Augm. syllab. and, temp. — dvahnrXacriao-pLos reduplication. t diddeais character of the verb, according to which it is a p^p,a evepyrjriKov, naOriTiKov, p.ecrov, Active, Passive, Middle. — avroTraBes intransitive, aXXonades transitive. eyicXicreis Moods ; opict'Tikrj Indie. vtxotgktikt] Subj. cvktikt] Opt. 7Tpoara- ktikt] Imper. dirape p.(paros Infinitive. XpovoL Tenses ; eveo-rcos Present, irap(x>xw* vos Preterite, p,eXXa>v Future • — TrapaKe'ip-evos Perfect, TraparariKos Imperfect, virepavvTeXiKos Pluperf. dopicrros Aorist. — 7rapdraaL9 duration, avvreXeia completion, momentary action. avvBe a i9 proper composition ; TrapdQeo-is loose composition, i.e. arising from mere juxtaposition; Trapao-vvdera words derived from compound words. II. Latin and English. | Prosody, see § 7. 1. Pure vowels, § 28. 1. Synccresis, the contraction of vowels Position, § 7. 8 Hiatus, § 29. 1 * These are also called aperafioXa, because they are not changed in declension and conjugation. t The form x a $vs having gaps. t From the author's Schid-Grammatik. Appendix D. — technical expressions. 469 § 15. 3. Resolution into a double sound, § 105. n. 10. Synalcephe, the union of two syllables in one, chiefly in two words follow- ing one another. It includes both Elision, § 28. 3. and || Crasis, § 29. 2. Synizesis, Synalcephe, Synecphonesis, § 28. n. 6. § 29. n. 11. Append. A. 7. Jphceresis, the taking away of one or more letters from the beginning of the usual form of a word; e. g. eificD poetic for X, rj for rj t § 29. n. 11. § 109. I. 4. Syncope, the same in the middle of a word ; e. g. ripaos for reparos; narpos for narepo?, § 47. § 106. n. 6. $110. Apocope, the same at the end of a word, e. g. irdp for 7ra/x£, § 117. n. 2. Prosthesis, the addition of one or more letters at the beginning of the usual form of a word, e. g. a-piKpos for iwcpos. Epenthesis, the same in the middle of a word, e. g. 7rTo\ep,os poetic for 7ToXe/LlOf. Paragoge, the same at the end of a word ; e. g. ivi for eV. Metathesis, the transposition of letters, § 19. n. 2. § 110. 11. Diastole, Hypodiastole, § 15. 2. Heteroclite, § 56. 5. Genus Epicanum, § 32. n. 3. Theme, § 92. 6. |§ 113. 2. Metaplasm, § 56. 5. Abundans, § 56. 4. Characteristic, § 91. 2. Union-vowel, § 87. 5, and n. 1. Anastrophe, § 117. 3. Tmesis, the separation of the preposition of a compound verb from the verb, e. g. air* &v ehovro Ionic for diredovro ovv> § 147. n. 7. Correlatives, § 78. § 116. Fer&s Transitive, those which take an immediate object in the Accus. upon which the action passes over, § 131. 2. Intransitive or Neuter, those which take no immediate object, §131.2. reflexive and reciprocal, $ 89. 1. § 135. 2, 7, 8 ; comp. § 74. 3, 4 and marg. note. causative immediate impersonal, § 129. 18. Apposition, when one noun is joined to another in the same case, for the sake of explanation or further description; e. g. Kvpo? jUao-ikevs, Cyrus the king; ifiol era narpi, to me thy father. § 123. 1, Hypothetical or Conditional Construction, § 139. m. 22. Attraction, § 142. 2. § 143. 3. § 151. I. Asyndeton, § 151. IX. Inversion or Hyperbaton, when one or more words are placed out of their natural order ; e. g. iv aXKore oXXg>, for akXore iv aXXo, c another time in another; 5 § 151. III. 1. Ellipsis, the omission of one or more words, § 151. IV. Pleonasm, when one or more words, strictly taken, stand superfluously, in- asmuch as their sense is already contained in the context, § 151. VI. Anacoluthon, § 151. II. Aposiopesis, § 151. V. Epexegesis, § 151. VII. Zeugma, §151. VIII. 470 Appendix E. — tables for declension. Tables of Woeds for Declension. dyopd market 'Ayximjs (long t) ddoXeorxy? prattler 'Adrjva Minerva Alveias JEneas arnvda thorn apiWa combat apovpa ploughed land dfTxpKla business yaKrj weasel yrj earth yXaxrcra tongue 86ga opinion e^toVa adder £02/77 zone fjpepa day SaXaacra sea Svpa (short v) door Keicpo7rldr)S (short 1) FIRST DECLENSION, p. 47.* Kecpakrj head k\€7ttt]9 thiej Koprj maiden Kpirfjs judge ktktttjs founder Xavpa lane \v7n] (long v) grief pa6r)TX)$ scholar peXicrara bee pepipva solicitude Midas (short 1) poipa portion v'ikt] (long t) victory vvpcprj bride dpyr) wrath 6pvi6odi)pas G. a, bird- catcher HepP a country y\rvxr) soul SECOND DECLENSION, p. 49. Feminines in 0?. 1. Besides trees (§ 32. 4) also the following plants : 77 /3t/3Xos or /3u/3Xor the papyrus-plant fj kokko? the scarlet- oak berry dxolvos bulrush With these connect: fivcrcro9 fine linen /3t/3Xos- and dekro? book but 6 kokkos a berry, and especially the sca?'lei vdphos spikenard * pdXor clod ov6os dung aV/3oXor soot * These Tables of Words for Practice are ai-ranged simply in alphabetical order, that the learner may be exercised in judging which of the l'ules given in the gram- mar is to be applied in each instance. Appendix E. — tables for declension. 471 3. Belonging to the idea of vessel, KifSaros ark XqXo? chest cropos coffin appi^os basket Kapdonos kneading-trough dadpivBo? and nveXo? bathing-tub 4. Belonging to the idea of way : 686? and KeXevOos way oipos (6, fj) path 5. The following single words : Xepo-o? and rjiveipos continent vrjaros island v6(ro? disease Spocro? dew yvdOos jaw-bone Kepico? tail pivos (fj, 6) hide ty'iado? (fj, 6) mat and with a difference of meaning rj XeKidos yolk receptacle, etc. Xtjvo? wine-press oLKaros (fj, 6) kind of ship crrdpvos (fj, 6) jug XtjkvBos oil-jlask irpoxoos, 7rp6)(ovsj watering-pot Kapivos stove SoXos (rj, 6) cupola arpaTTos and rpifios footpath rdtppos and Kantros trench p.f]piv6os twine rrjfievvos toga fidpfiiTos (fj, 6) lyre rdpto-os runnet yepavo? crane Kopvdo?, Kopv8aXo9 y lark ko^Xo? (6, fj) snail 6 XeiciOo? pea-soup ayyeXos messenger aeros eagle aOXos combat affXov prize fj apTrdkos vine avdpanros man apyvpos and dpyvpiov silver epyov work evpo? east- wind {ecpvpos west-wind Ipdrcop over-garment Words for Practice. top violet KapKtvos crab KacrcTLTepos tin 6 icepaao? cherry-tree 6 kotlvos wild olive-tree prjXov apple fj prjXo? apple-tree poXifio? or p.6Xv(S8o$ lead popcou part votos south-wind f-vXov wood oIkos house TraibLov child p'68ov rose aldrjpos iron (iTvacrpos spasm a-rparos army ravpos bull (pdppaKov medicine fj cpt]yo9 beech-tree cpopriov burden XclXkos copper Xpvcros and Xpvcriov gold THIRD DECLENSION. Catalogue of words which have the syllable before the case- ending long * $ 41. n. 1. Nouns in ir and v? which in flexion have 8 ; all Feminines. d\lrls vault KrjXi? spot, stain pacpavis radish fiaXfils goal kXtji? (Ion. for kXcl?) key yjsrjcpLs pebble mpis sea- crab Kv-qpL? greave dayv? puppet nrjids sap Kpr)7ris stand, base or which in flexion have 3- : fj ayXi? clove of garlick 6, fj opvis bird fj peppi? string fj Koopvs bunch, tuft. * The learner must here pay particular regard to the accent, in respect both to its position and form, according to the general rules, and also the special ones re- ferred to in § 43. 2. 472 Appendix E. — tables for declension. ( n tr and vs which in ilexion have v : t] 'Is smew r) pis nose rj a.KTi? ray f) yXco^t? point 'EAeuo-i'y Toprvs 2a\apis In av, vv, ap : 6 naidv paean 6 -ty-ap starling In ap G. to? : to cppeap well In £ G. ko? : /3Xa£ fiXaico? stupid 6 Sa>pag breastplate 6 Upa£ kite 6 i£ (an insect) r) (pi!- sphinx r) (ppi£ shudder 6, rj Sis heap, shore 6 diXcpi? dolphin fj co8ls throe Tpa%i? $6picvs 6 poo-vv vjooden tower 6 Kdp a Carian to areap tallow 6 avpcpat- filth cpevat- deceiver Qalag a Phceacian r) pahit; branch 6 a-Kavbi$- chervil r) cnrabi^ palm-branch r) o-avhvt; vermilion 6 Kopda£ sort of dance 6 \d(3pag shark 6 o'Lat- rudder r) aig crowd, press r) /3<='p/3i£ child's top 6 7rep§t£ partridge 6 <$>oivi$- Phoenician, palm, redness 6 /3op/3u£ silkworm 6 Krjijg (a sea-bird) 6 doidvg pestle Krjpvg herald In £ G. yo?: r) pd£ grape 6 kokkv^ cuckoo r) pdcrTi£ scourge r) 7re/x(pi£ bubble, blister 6 tItti^ cricket In £ G. x os: 1 ^ 4 '£ crumb. In yjs G. iTos : 6 n//, Kvty, Qpty, names of insects 6 pi\jf bulrush 6 yv-^r vulture 6 ypv^r griffin, condor Words for Practice, p. 57. The letters before the case-endings, which cannot be determined by the general rules given in the grammar, are subjoined in parentheses. All the following words have the vowels a, i, v, before the case- endings short. Those which have them long are given in the preceding lists. 1. Words having a consonant before the case-ending. o dyicav elbow r) drjdoov (o) nightingale 6 dr)p (e) air 6 aWrjp (e) ether 7 at'l (7), 8 oat r) akcoirrji- (e) fox 6 dvdpid? (vt) statue 6 a£a>v (0) axle r) avka£ (k) furrow h Pj£ W cou S h 6 yepcov (out) old man r) dais (t) feast r) 8a? (h) torch 6 dpaKcov (ovt) dragon r] 'EXXd? (d) Greece 6 "EXXrjv a Greek h iXni? (5) hope r) epis (8) strife 6 Sepdn&v (ovt) servant 6 Ipd? (vr) thong r) KaTrfkiyjs (cp) ladder 6 icXoiv bough ?/ Kopvs ($) helmet 6 ktzl? (ev) comb r) kv\i£ (k) cup to Kvpa wave rj XcuXcn//' (it) hurricane 6 AaKedv 6 Xdpvy£ (y) larynx 6 Xiprjv (e) haven r) Xtyl (k) lynx 6 pr)v month to veKrap nectar 6 owg (x) nail, claw x4_PPENDIX E. TABLES FOR DECLENSION 473 6 vprv£ (y) quail so ovOap (r) udder 6 nevrjs (t) poor man 6 7rlva£ (<) tablet 6 7roi[Mr]u (e) shepherd r) ivrepv^ (y) wing V *tv£ (x) f old r) crdp£ (/c) flesh rj aeiprjv siren to crrofxa mouth V 2™g (y) 37 ScpLyg (y) r) Tipvvs (3) 6 cpdeip louse fj (pXeyjs (/3) vein r) cp\6g (y) flame 6 a thief to s (t) light 6 ^dXv^ (/3) steel 6 x €l H-^ v tempest, winter r) ^eXiSooi/ (o) swallow 6 xv v goose rj yd<° v (°) earth r) ■x i( *>v (0) snow r) xkap-vs (S) war-garment r) a>yjr countenance 2. Words having a vowel before the case-endings, and more or less con- tracted, p. 61 sq. to av6os flower 6 fiorpvs bunch of grapes to yivos race r) yews jaw-bone to o-KzTras cover r) dpvs oak 6 imrevs rider to Kop.p.c gum r) ArjTo* Latona 6 udvTis seer 6 fivs mouse 6 opevs mule to opos mountain r) o\jns face r) 7rei0a> persuasion 6 7re\env? axe (§51) to neTrepi pepper rj ttltvs pine r) 7voir)o~is poetry r) irpagis action 6 a-Taxvs ear of grain r) (pvcns nature ADJECTIVES, p. 78. Examples of adjectives in or of two and three endings, for applying the rules in § 60. 2 and 4. All are to be considered as having three endings 3 which are not limited to two by some definite rule. ayairrjTos beloved ahiKos unjust adXios unhappy ap-axos invincible agio? worthy dpLarepos left j3ap(>Tovos barytone (3ao-i\iKo? royal yecopyiKos agricul- tural yvp,vos naked def-ios right (dexter) drjXos manifest SiaXidos set with stones Stdcpopos different dUatos just dwaros possible e\a(pp6s easy ipvOpos red evKaipos opportune £rj\6rv7ro? jealous r)p,lyvp.vos half-naked 3avp.daios wonderful $e7os divine Seppcos warm Svijtos mortal 'idios own lepos holy Kadapos clean, pure kolvos common \d\os talkative Xelos smooth XevKos white p-aXanos soft pidvos alone gevos strange 6£v6vp.os wrathful op66s right, straight 7ro\v(pdyos gluttonous irp66vp.os ready, willing o-ep.vos venerable o-Kkrjp6s hard aocpos vjise andvios rare o~T€vos narrow Taka'nv&pos miserable tv(J)K6s blind (pikoreKvos loving children ^coXoy lame 474 Appendix F. — catalogue of regular verbs. Catalogue of Regular Verbs. Preliminary Notes. 1. In this Catalogue, it is to be assumed of every verb in respect to which nothing is specified, that it has the Aorist and the Perfect after the first form ; and that its whole conjugation is sufficiently obvious from the rules given in the grammar. This is also the case in respect to every particular tense, which is not expressly specified. Consequently, when e. g. under any verb there stands simply Aor. 2, in order to show that this verb has this form of the Aorist, it refers solely to the Aor. Act. (and Mid.) while the Aor. Pass, and Perf. Act. are to be made according to the first form. 2. Where the Aor. 2 Pass, is specified, the Aor. 1 Pass, must neverthe- less be always formed • since it very often exists as a less frequent form together with the Aor. 2 ; and the verbs in which it was not used at all cannot with certainty be specified. 3. The whole Catalogue serves at the same time as an Index of all the Verbs treated of or cited as examples in respect to form, throughout the whole discussion on the Verb ; if tljey have not already found their place in the anomalous Catalogue, §114. 4. The expression — Pass, takes a — refers everywhere to the Perf. the Aor. 1, and the Verbal Adjectives; but stands only with verbs in which this does not follow as a matter of course. §§ 98, 100, espec. § 112. 20. I. Barytone Verbs, p. 146. dydXXco adorn. MID. be ostentatious. dyyeXXco announce. — MID. — Aor. 2. Act. and Mid. see § 101. 8. dyka'i£co make splendid, Fut. § 95. n. 14. ay^co strangle trans. MID. (drrdyxo- /xat) strangle oneself, § 135. 2. a'Sa) contr. from dei'Sco sing. Augm. § 84. 5. Fut. Mid. ddpotfa assemble. — MID. ddvpca play oIkl^co abuse. — MID. dtWco Act. also Pass. Depon. spring, hasten. Att. arrco or arrco, Aor. M a i ?£ a£ > a l s0 without i subscript. alarxvvoi shame. Pass, am ashamed, $113. n. 5. §135. 2,5. Perf. Pass. see § 101. n. 8. dtco hear, only Pres. and Impf. — Augm. (inrj'ia-a) § 84. n. 2. dKovrlCu hurl. MID. in comp. § 135. 7. duovco hear, Fut. Mid. very rarely Fut. Act. § 113. n. 7.— Perf. dtf- Koa, Plupf. TjKr)Koeiv § 85. 2, 3. — Pass, takes a ; Perf. Pass, without redupl. dXaXd^co shout for joy, F. £co and £o- jiai Eurip. § 92. n. 3. d\a7rd£a) overcome, Fut. £co. dXei(pa> anoint (t). — Perf. § 85. 2. Perf. Pass. a\r)\ip.pai and rfXei/xfiat. Aor. 1. P. rarely Aor. 2. P. — MID. dXkdo-o-co, tt<£>, change; Charact. § 92. n.2. Aor. 2. P. §104. n. 2.— MID. in comp. (Fut. 1. M. and Fut. 2. P.) § 135. 7. d/ijSAvj/co blunt d/iei/3ci) exchange. — MID. comp. dnap.. § 113. n. 5. extr. dpekyio milk dfxvvco ward off. — Perf. wholly want- ing.— MID. § 135. 2, 5. dvTidfa go to meet, § 112. 9. dvvca complete, § 95. n. 3. — Pass, takes ^ o-.— MID. aTroXavco enjoy, Fut. M. see § 114 aiTTco kindle dVrco fasten to. MID. seize, touch dpdcrcrco smite apdio water. Pass, only Pres. and Impf. dp/xoTTOi, dppofa, adapt, § 92. n. 5.— MID. dpyco draw water, forms its tenses like di/vco. — MID. dpx& rule. — MID. begin danalpo) palpitate Appendix F. — barytone verbs. 475 daTpdiTTco lighttn, glisten avaivm become dry. Angm. § 84. n. 2. /3a8t£oo go. Fut. Mid. /3a7rra> dip. Char act. (p, § 92. n. 1. — Pass. Aor. 2. /3SaXXco miZ& 8rj(T(ro>, tt(o, cough. Char. § 92. n. 2. @i(3d£(o, see /3aiVco, § 114. SkaiTTGi injure. Charact. /3, § 92. 5, and n. 1. — Pass. Aor. 2. — Redupl. $ 83. n. 1. BXeVco see. Fut. Act. and Mid. Pass. Aor. 2. § 100. n. 5. SXlttco gather honey, § 92. n. 2. 8Xv£co spring up (as water). BovXevco counsel. — MID. 135. 7. Qpabvva be slow. Perf. § 101. n. 8. marg. 3pa£<0 or j3pdo-(r(£>, ttg>, boil, ferment, winnow. Fut. o-co, § 92. n. 2. QpepLco murmur, roar, only Pres. and Impf. fipex carve, v, § 7. n. 8. Redupl. § 83. n. 1. yXcorrt^a) &iss, § 83. n. 1. yvcoplfa recognize. Redupl. § 83. n. 1 . ypdcpio write. — Pass. Aor. 2, and Fut. 2, § 100. n. 4.— MID. § 136.. n. 3. ypv£oo grunt, Fut. £co. yvp,vdg<£> practise. — MID. § 135. 2. daicpvti) weep baveifa lend on interest — MID. bor- row on interest depcoflay. — Pass. Aor. 2 (a). decnroC^ rule devco moisten diKd£a> judge.— MID. § 135. 8. 6Wra£co dow&f Sicukco pursue, Fut. Act. and Mid. 8ovkevc£> serve SpeVco pluck. — MID. dpvTTTco (Spucpco) tear, § 92. 5. marg. eyKG)/zia£co praise, Fut. Mid. rarely Fut. Act. Augm. § 86. n. 3. iyxetptfa hand over. Augm. § 86. n. 3. iOLfa accustom. Augm. «, \ 84. 2. etm^co conjecture. Augm. § 84. 5. eucco 3/ie/d. Augm. § 84. 5. Not to be confounded with the Anom. eipyo) exclude. Augm. § 84. 5, and n. 4. See also in § 114. €KKkr]aid£ai hold an assembly. Augm. § 86. n. 3. e'Xey^co confute. — Att. redupl. — Perf. Pass. § 98. n. 7. eXiVorco, TToo, wind. Augm. ei, § 84. 2. — Perf. Act. does not occur. Perf. Pass. eiXiyuai and eXrjXiyuai. MID. iXirtfa hope. — eX7rco see Anom. § 114. ep.(pavl£(x> make clear. Augm. § 86 n. 3. ivTvoi and ivrvvm equip, forms tenses only from the latter e^era^co search out. Augm. § 86. n. 2. eoprdfe celebrate. Augm. § 84. n. 9. eWyco (not a compound) impel; Pass. hasten, § 113. n. 5. imfiarizvui sail in a ship. Augm. $ 86. n. 3. emTrjdeva) be diligent. Augm. § 86. n. 3. epeidco prop. — Att. redupl. § 85. 1. — epeVo-co, ttco, rot<7. Fut. o-co, § 92. n. 2. epevyoa spit out, see anom. epvyydvco, § 114. epecpco deck, crown. — MID. ept § 97. 4. b. $0X77(0 warm &avp.dfa wonder at. Fut. Mid. SeXyco enchant 3epi£ whet Srjpevto hunt 3\i(3o) crush. — Pass. Aor. 2. 3pava> break in pieces. — Pass, takes j Tree, proclaim be in danger KXeVrco steaZ. Fut. Mid. — Perf. Act. § 97. n. 1. Perf. Pass. § 98. n. 3. Aor. 2. Pass. § 100. n. 5. incline, § 101. 9. — Pass. Aor. and Fut. 1 and 2.— MID. kAv£oo rinse Kvat'co scratch. Pass, takes accomplish. Perf. § 101. n. 7. Kpivco judge, § 101. 9.— MID. § 135. 7. — aTroK.pLvop.ai answer, § 113. n. 5. K.pov(£> strike. Pass, takes a-, § 112. 20. c— MID. § 135. 6. KpvTTTO) conceal. Charact. /3, § 92. n. 2, and marg. — Pass. Aor. \ and 2. —MID. KTeariCoo gain. Augm. § 83. n. 1. b. . StOOp. Perf. KCKVCpa kukvco howl. Fut. Mid. fccoAiJa) hinder \a/n7rco shine. Fut. Act. and Mid. — Perf. 2 XeXap-na Aeyco sai/.— MID. — See in § 114. Aei'/3co powr ow£ Aei'jToo (eaue, secondary form Xipirdva), § 112. 4. 11. Aor. 2. Perf. 2.— MID. AeVco shell. — Pass. Aor. 2, § 100. 11. 5. XevKalva make white. Aor. 1, § 101. n. 2. Xevcro-co see (poet.) Fut. § 95. 6. marg. Aewo stone. Pass, takes cr, §112. 20. a. A^y© leave off Xvy'ifa bend, § 95. n. 2. marg. Aup.au/co spoil, see Depon. Xvp.aivop.ai. Aixd loose, see Anom. § 114. fiaAacrcrco, rrco, soften p.apalv suppose £r]paivca make dry. Perf. Pass. § 101. n. 8. £uco raa/ce smooth. Pass, takes o - , § 112. 20. a. otaKiXco steer. Augm. § 84. n. 2. olicTeipcD bemoan olpLGofa wail. Char. § 92. n. 3. — Fut. Mid. olvifa smell of wine. Augm. § 84. n. 2. oKeXXoa land, trans, and intrans. oXoXvfa cry out. Fut. £op.ai. 6£vv<£> sharpen, irritate. Perf. Pass $ 101. n. 8. tWtSi'£co reproach, revile 6vopa£o) name 67rAt^co arm. — MID. dpeyco reach out. Att. redupl. — Aor. Pass, and Mid. § 113. n. 5. optica bound. — MID. opyat'z/co make angry. Aor. 1, $ 101 n. 2. dpiaaoo, tto), efc'gj Char. § 92. n. 2. — Att. redupl. $ 85. 1.— MID.— Sec- ondary form opvxa, § 92. 5. marg. § 114 in ^u^co. o£ra£o> wound, § 84. 5. §112. 9. f 1 14 in oirao). Appendix F. — barytone verbs. 477 TraiSevco educate. — MID. 7raXai'co wrestle. Pass, takes or, § 112. 20. a. ndWoi brandish. — Pass. Aor. 2. see in § 114. naa-aco bestrew. F. crco, § 92. n. 2. 3. —MID. nelpco pierce, § 101. 8. — Pass. Aor. 2. n-epnco send. Perf. § 97* n. 1. — Perf. Pass. § 98. n. 8.— MID. 7re7raiv(£> ripen. Aor. 1, § 101. n. 2. nrjaa-o), see § 114 nfj-yvvfju ttuuvo) fatten. Aor. 1, § 101. 4. ■Kiefa press . (megevv §112. n. 5.) 7rtcrT€va> believe n-Aacro-co, rrw, /brm, Fut. crco, § 92. n. 1. B.— MID. rrAe/eco 6raid — Pass. Aor. 2, § 100. n. 5— MID. TrXvvio wash, § 101. 9. irvlym suffocate trans. Fut. Mid. £o- pu. — Pass, suffocate intrans. § 113. n. 5. TTopevai bring, conduct. — Pass, jour- ney, $ 113. n. 5. § 135. 3. 7ropi, do, find myself (well or ill), §113. n. 3. extr. TrpeTTco become; only Active 7rpe(r(3ev(A> am ambassador. — MID. § 135. 8. TtpLio saw. — Pass, takes cr, § 112. 20. a. Trpo(pr]Tevoi prophesy. Augm. § 86. n. 3. 7JTata> stumble. — Pass, takes (long v) cause to rot. — Pass, am rotten paiu) smash, shiver. Pass, takes a-, $ 112. 20. a. pdnrco sew, § 92. n. 1 . c. — Aor. 2. Pass. peVco sink valve* wag, flatter;, only Active. — Aor. 1. takes t?, also a. craipco sweep. — Aor. 1. takes rj. — Perf. 2. has the special signif. grin, as Present 0-ei'co shake.— Pass, takes a, § 112. 20. a.— MID. TTjpaiva mark. — Aor. 1. takes rj, later a.— MID. 0-JJ7T6) cause to rot. — Pass, am rotten, Aor. 2. and Perf. 2, $ 113. n. 3, 5. $ 135. n. 1. ctku£cd fo'mp vKcmToa excavate. Charact. cp, 4 92 n. 1. c. — Pass. Aor. 2. cTKeTra^cD couer, $ 112. 9. aKevdCoa prepare, eo-Kevdbarai $ 103 m. 23.— MID. § 135. 2. (tkt]itt(£> Act. and Mid. teem upon, sup port myself aicidfa overshadow, § 112. 9. crKC07rrcD scoff. Fut. Mid. a-rreipoi sow. — Pass. Aor. 2. — MID. anevdd) hasten. — MID. o-7roi;Sa£co do with zeal. — Fut. Mid. crra£co drop, trickle, § 92. n. 3. areyco cover o-ret/3<» tread upon. — Pass. Aor. 2. o-ret^co stride, proceed, Aor. 1. and 2. o-reXkco send, § 101. 8. — Pass. Aor. 1. and 2.— MID. § 135. 3. § 136. n. 2. o-reW sig/&; only Pres. and Impf. (rrei>a£co groan. Char. § 92. n. 3. arepya) love, am contented. — Perf. 2. crre^co s£w/J, crown. — MID. o-T-qpifa prop, support. Char. § 92. n. 3.— MID. (TTifa prick. Char. § 92. n. 3. arparevco Act. and Mid. take the field fix, limit. — Aor. 1. takes 77 . — MID. prove TeKTaiv<& work as carpenter, etc. — Aor. 1 . takes 77. reXXco, only in compounds, e. g. eVt- TeAAco order, give commission, $ 101 . 8.— MID. 478 Appendix F. — catalogue of regular verbs. rerpcuVco bore, § 101. 4. § 112. 13; see § 114 riTpaisi TrjKca soften, melt. — Pass, melt intrans. §113. ii. 5. Aor. 2. Perf. 2. §113. n. 3, 5. § 92. 9. But Aor. 1. Pass. was melted, § 113. n. 6. tlKKco pluck, pull, § 101. 4.— MID. § 135. 5. Tivdcrcra shake vehemently. — MID. rpaxvvco make rough. Perf. Pass. § 101. n. 7. b. rpepco tremble; lias no Aor. and no Perf. rpeVco turn. Perf. Act. § 97. n. 1. Perf. Pass. § 98. n. 3. Aor. 2. Act. Pass. Mid. § 100. 4. Aor. 1. Pass. ib. n. 3. — Verbal adject. rparvryriov § 134. n. 5. rpi/3co rub (l). — Pass. Aor. 2, § 100. n. 4. Tpifa chirp, Fut. |co, § 92. n. 3. — Perf. rerplya as Present, § 113. 7, and n. 13. rpuco rw6 away. Secondary form rpv- X<*>, see § 114. T(£>dd£a> mock. Fut. Mid. v(3pi£& insult, abuse v7T07TT£v weave. Aor. 1. takes 77. uco ram. Pass, takes need, require; only Pres. and Impf. — Comp. Anom. xpdco, §114 Xptco anoint. — Pass, takes count, reckon. — MID. decide. by vote a>SiVco am in travail II. Contracted Verbs, § 105, comp. p. 177. dy love dyvoeoa know not. Fut. Mid. (Fut. Act. in Demosth.) dStKeco do wrong aipaTod) make bloody alveco praise, § 95. n. 4; alvio § 105. n. 7. aipeco, see Anom. § 114. atreco ask, demand. — MID. § 135. n. 2. dtcoXovdeod follow aKpifioco know accurately. — MID. dXyeco suffer pain d\od(j) thresh. Fut. dtrco and 770-0), § 95. n. 6. apace mow. — MID. dp sit upright. Augm. § 86. n. 4. avriftdXeaj meet, entreat. Augm. §86.2. dvTi^LKeoD join issue. Augm. § 86. 2 d£toco esteem worthy. — MID. doidida> sing (poet.) § 105. n. 1. d7rai/rdco meet. Fut. Mid. (later Act.) — Augm. § 86. 11. 2. awarded (not a compound) deceive a7reiXeco (not a compound) threaten dpi0peto number. — MID. dpKeco suffice, retains e in flexion § 95. 11. 3. — Pass, takes a-, § 112. k>. b. dpdea till, plough, retains o in flexion. § 95. n. 3. Att. redupl.— Pass' without a; § 112. 20. b. dprda hang up, fasten. — MID. dcr/ceco exercise. — Pass, train myself do-^aXdco am unwilling, § 105. n. 10. dnpdco dishonour, Fut. 3, § 99. n. 2. avddio talk, § 105. n. 16. duXe'co play the flute deppoveco am foolish. Augm. § 86. 2. /3odcj cry out, § 95. 5. See in s N 114. Appendix F. — contracted verbs. 479 ftovKo\eoi pasture trans. § 105. n. 12. (sptdco am strong, § 113. 2. (3povT(ioo thunder yeXaco laugh, Fut. Mid. — Has a short in flexion, § 95. n. 3. Pass, takes o-, § 112. 20. b.— Dialects, § 110. n. 10, 14. yewaco 6ege£. — MID. hatravdm Act. and Dep. Pass, expend, lay out, §. 113. n. 5. 6yi*da>, Att. Sj]6oo, treat as an enemy, § 105. n. 11. IfyXeco injure. — MID. i^Xoco wm&e known biairaa) (not a compound) am arbitra- tor. Augm. § 86. n. 4. — Pass. § 113. n. 5. dictKoveco (not a compound) minister to, serve. Augm. § 86. n. 4. — Also MID. Depon. 8iKai6(o hold to be right, § 105. n. 13. 8tyjrd(o am thirsty, § 105. in. 5. SovXdco enslave. — MID. dva-apearea) am displeased. Augm. § 86. 3. 5u0-rt>x«<> «w unhappy. Augm .§86.3. dva-coTreo) put out of countenance. Augm. $ 86. 3. idco let, permit, § 95. n. 7. — Augm. ' ei, § 84. 2. iyyvdm give*as pledge, pawn. Augm. § 86. n. 3.— MID. pledge myself, $ 135. 2. e Vx 6t P"° ^ e * n Aawd. Augm. § 86. n. 3. eXeeco compassionate t/zeto vomit, retains e in flexion, § 95. n. 3. Att. redupl. — Pass, takes o-, § 112. SO. b. e/i7reSo'co wiafo /as^, ^rm. Augm. $ 86. 2. ipTroXdco traffick. Augm. § 86. n. 3. eVo^X eco trouble, molest. Augm. § 86. n. 4. eTriOvpeoo desire. Augm. § 86. n. 3. dniopicea) swear falsely. Augm. in middle. Fut. Mid. fmxeipeco undertake. Augm. § 86. n. 3. epevvdeo Act. and Mid. search out, in- vestigate eprjpooo make desert. Fut. § 95. n. 13. ipv6pida> blush, § 97. 2. b. epcoraco ask, question eaTida entertain. Augm. ei, § 84. 2. — Pass. § 113. n. 5. erepoiota make otherwise, § 105. n. 1. evepyereco do good to. Augm. § 86. 3. e£o-e/3e<3 am pious evco^eco entertain. Pass, feast, revel. $ 113. n. 5. § 135. 3.— Augm. § 86. 3. £ea> 6o&7 intrans. retains e in flexion, §95. n.3. § 112. 20. b. Secondary form {ewvpi. ^Xo'co emulate, rival £r]pi6a> punish £r)T€& seek £coypa(pect> paint fjftda) am young; see § 114 rj^do-Koo. Tjpepoco tame. — MID. rjx*(*> sound; j^eovce § 105. n. 12. Sappeco, Japo-eco, have confidence Srjpdo) hunt, Fut. Mid. and Act. SXdco crush, has a short in flexion, § 95. n. 3. — Pass, takes o-, 9 112. 20. b. ^prjveoa lament, bewail $vp,Laco burn incense Svp6a> become angry. — Pass. § 113 n. 5. IBpoco sweat, contr. § 105. n. 6. lpd(£> draw sc. water. — MID. l7T7rorpocpe(£> keep horses, § 86. n. 5. io-TopeoD search into, inquire Kaicoti) injure, weaken Kar?jyopeco accuse. Augm. § 86. n. 3 Kevrea prick, sting Kivea) move /cXaco break, see Anom. § 114. Kkrjpoco choose by lot. — MID. cast lots, § 135. 6. Kvdoa scrape. Flexion, § 105. n. 5. Pass, takes , § 112. 12. Koipd&put to sleep. Pass, (epic Mid.) sleep, k 113. n. 5. § 135. 3. KOLvom Act. and Mid. make common, share KotvoaveoD participate KoXXdca glue KoXvpfidio swim Kopdoi wear long hair, § 105. n. 10. Kopeco sweep; diff. from Anom. ko- pevvvpi * /coo-pea adorn, § 105. n. 15. Korea Act. and Mid. excite a grudge, irritate; retains « in flexion, § 95, n. 3. Kparem have power, hold fast Kporeco beat, clap KTV7rea> resound, make a noise, § 114. Kvfiepvdco steer, guide XaXeco speak Xwrape'co implore XotSopeco Act. and Pass. Dep. rc« proach, revile, § 113. n. 5. 480 Appendix F. — catalogue of regular verus. Xu7reco grieve, mortify. — Pass. ^ 113. n. 5. Aoxpdco relax, yield pap-rupeco testify fieididco smile peXoTroieco make songs. Augm. § 86. 2. perpeco measure. — MID. piaeco hate veiKeco wrangle. Flex. § 95. n. 3. j/ea>, see Anom. § 144. viicdtii conquer voeco think; see Anom. § 114. vovBerea) admonish £ea> scrape, polish; retains e in flex- ion, § 95. n. 3. Pass, takes cr, § 112. 20. b. o25aco make swell. Pres. secondary- forms -dvi£>, -aivco. oiKetoai make my own. Fut. § 95. n. 13. oIksco inhabit; oiKearai, § 105. n. 9. olKodofxeco build. — MID. oi/coupeco keep the house. Augm. § 84. n. 2. oiVo^oeco pour out wine. Augm. § 84. n. 8. olvooi get drunk olooa leave alone. Augm. § 84. n. 2. olarrpeco make wild. Augm. § 84. n. 2. owed) am slothful, will not ouaprea) accompany, § 105. n. 16. 6/iiAeco have intercourse with opoXoyeco agree, confess 6tttcl<£> roast opdoco set upright, erect. — MID. — Compound dvopdoa, Augm. § 86. n. 4. dppdto Act. and Dep. press forward, endeavour, § 113. n. 5. dppeco lie at anchor d^eco drive trans. — Pass, drive intrans. Trapavop-eco transgress the laws. Augm. § 86. n. 3. Trapoii/eo) am enraged. Augm. § 86. n. 4. Trareco tread • TTeivdd) am hungry, contr. § 105. n. 5. iretpdoi tempt, prove. — 7reipdop.cn with Fut. Mid. and Aor. Pass, attempt, undertake, § 113. n. 5. Trrjbdco leap. Fut. Mid. TrXavdco cause to wander. Pass, wan- der, ) 113. n. 5. TrXeoveKTfOi am greedy, covetous TrA^pda/ Jill, £ 105. n. ]3. 7roj/eco labour; see Anom. § 114; also § 113. 2. TTordopai, see Anom. 7reYopcu, $ 114. 7rpo£ez/eco aw a public guest. Augm. § 86. n. 3. 7rpoo-So/caco expect. Augm. § 86. n. 2. 777-epdco furnish with wings moil* frighten. § 83. n. 1. c. 7rwAeco seZZ ptyda) am co?d ; contr. § 105. n. 6. pi£oco cause to take root. Pass, take root poi^eco whirr. Iterat. -ao~Kov § 103. m. 11. pocpeat gulp down. — MID. pWaco am filthy. Redupl. § 83. n. 4. arjpeLoco mark. — MID. o-iydoa am silent. Fut. Mid. o~i(D7rdco am silent. Fut. Mid. o-Kipraco leap about, spring apace, see Anom. § 114. a-7rdco draw, has a short in flexion, § 95. n. 3. — Pass, takes cr, § 112. 20. b.— MID. aneipdio coil up o~T€(pav6ti> crown. — MID. § 135. 2, 4. o-uAdco plunder o~vvepyi& work with. Augm. § 86. n. 3. o-cppiydas swell from fullness reAeco finish; retains e in flexion 5 § 95. n. 3.— Pass, takes vi£op.ai contend together, § 135. 7. Fut. Mid. atSeo/xat feel shame, am ashamed, Dep. Pass, and Mid. § 113. n. 5. Flexion § 95. n. 3. §112. 20. b. alKi£op.ai maltreat alulaaofxaL speak in riddles alndofxcu accuse aK.eop.at heal. Flexion § 95. n. 3. § 112. 20. b. a.Kpodofj.ai hear. Flex. § 95. n. 6. d\a£ovevop,ai boast dpao/jicu pray dcnrd£op.ai salute degioofiai welcome dexofj-ai receive, admit, § 113. n. 6. 8r]\eofxai injure drjpidop-ai contend 8peop,ai present elpoivevofxai dissemble evavTioopai am opposed, Dep. Pass. § 113. n. 5. Augm. § 86. 2. ev6vpeop.ai lay to heart, (evdvp.. irpo- Ovji.) Dep. Pass. §113. n. 5. Augm. § 86. n. 3. i7np.rj6evop.a1, rrpoprjO. think of after- wards, beforehand. Augm. after, § 86. n. 3. epyd£op,ai work, \ 113. n. 5. Augm. ei, § 84. 2. evxop.ai entreat. Augm. § 84. 5. fjyeopai lead on, see Anom. § 114. — egrjyeo § 105. n. 7. rjTTaop.at am inferior, worsted^ § 113. n. 5, also Text 5. Augm. § 84. 4. %dop.ai view ; see Anom. $dop.ai § 114. ldop,ai cure lo-xvpifajiai affirm H Kav)(dop,ai boast ; Kav^dcrai § 103. m. 16. marg. \oyi£op,ai reckon, conclude Xvp.aivop.ac cause ruin. Perf. § 101 n. 7. \(£>(3a6p.ai maltreat p,a\aKi£op,ai am effeminate p,avTevop.ai prophesy p.aprvpop.ai call to witness, invoke p.r)dop,ai devise p.r)TLop.ai. devise (poet.) § 95. 11. 5 marg. p,r]xavdop.ai invent, contrive, § 105 11. 9. p.ip.eop.ai imitate p.vdeop,at tell; p.v6e1ai, p,v6eai, § 105. n. 7. p.u>p.dopLai find fault with vrj^op-at swim; see Anom. ve'co § 114. 6dvpop.ai lament ol&vi^op.ai take omens 6pxeop.ai dance Trapprjo-id£op.ai speak plainly. Augm. § 86. 2. Trevop-ai am poor ; only Pres. and Impf. 7ro\iTevop.ai live as a citizen, Dep. Pass, and Mid. see Passow Trpayparevopai carry on business, §113. n. 5. extr. Trpooip-idCofxai make a preface TTpo(pao~i£op,ai set up as pretext. Augm. after, § 86. n. 3. 7T(£>\eop,ai frequent, Lat. versari in loco; § 112. 8. aivop,at harm. Perf. aeaip.p.ai aiTeop-at eat, feed o-iceiTTop.ai look upon, consider; see Anom. o-Konea) § 114. a-7:ovboTroieop.ai make a truce, § 135. 7. o-Ta6pdop.ai measure H 482 Appendix F.— catalogue of regular verbs. o-Toxa£ofxai aim at (TTpaTOTTedevo/iai encamp (r€idofjLai spare cpOeyyofiai utter a sound. Perf. like crcptyya) (6o/3eojuai fear ; Dep. Pass. § 112. 8. $ 113. n. 5. § 135. 6.— $o/3eo § 105. n. 7. §28. n. 7. XapievTL&fxai speak with grace, Lat. festive loqui Xapi£op,ai gratify, favour yjrevdoixai lie, deceive, Mid.— am de- ceived mistaken^ Pass. ENGLISH INDEX. Note. The following Index embraces only the more important principles and particular examples, which are scattered throughout the work. The general di- vision and arrangement of the subjects must be sought in the Table of Contents, after the Preface. The figures refer to the sections and subdivisions. — Tr. A. Abbreviation of letters 2. n. 2, 3 ; App. C. p. 466. Ablative by the Dat. 133. 4. Absolute, see Case absolute. Absorption of diphth. in crasis 29. n. 4, 7. — of o in contract verbs, 105. ii. 14. Abstract into concrete 119. m. 21. — expr. by neut. sing. 128. 2. — in Ace. after verbs 131. n. 3 ; 134. n. 2. — as Inf. 140. 5. c. Abundans 56. 4. Accent on diphth. 6. 2. — on comp. of vovs and irkovs 60. 5. — on verbs 103. m. 1 sq. — never back of augm. 84.n.4; 103. m. 10; p. 224, marg. — on compounds with Ses and fids 107. m. 13, comp. m. 19. — on Gen. and Dat. 33. 7. — drawn back 12; 45. n. 1; 47. n. 2; 49. n. 7; 103. m. 1 sq. 107. m. 31.— shifted 12; 14. n. 3. — on contr. forms 28. n. 9; 41. n. 7. — Rules of accent in com- position 121. 9. — See also Ana- strophe. Accusative, in v, 44. 1 . — as form of ad- verbs 115. 4; 128. n. 4; 131. 10. — as abstract after verbs {naxqv ixd x .) 131.4; 134. n. 2. — after adj. 130. n. 3; comp. 131. n. 6, and text 7. — without prep, with verbs of motion and rest 131. n. 5. — with eu v. KaKcos \eyeiv v. Troiciv 131. 2. —double 131. 5 sq. n. 12; 135. n. 2. — Greek 131. 7. — pronom. ex- pressions for other cases 131. 8. — of time and distance 131. 9, and n. 15. — as Appos. to a whole clause 131. n. 13. — appar. for the Voc. 131. n. 16. — with verbs Pass. Mid. and Intrans. 131. 1, 3, 7 135 4; 136. 2, and n. 1. — instead of a Dat. with verbal Adj. 134. n. 4. — in- stead of a Gen. with Infin. 140. n. 9, 10. — See also Object. Accus. with the Inf. c. art. 141. 1, 2 ; 142. 2. b, sq.— Ace. c. Inf. 141. 2 sq. — for the Nom. c. Inf. 141. n. 4; 142. n. 3. — after on, as, see on. — instead of a finite verb in the direct style 141. n. 3. — in minor clauses of the indirect style 141. n. 5. — as exclamation 141. n. 7. Accus. with Particip. 144. 6. b. — in- stead of a Nom. c. Part. 144. n. 8. Accus. after olda, a/covco, instead of the subject of the depend, clause 151. 1. 6. — for other cases with the Inf. 142.n. 1, 2. — absolute 145. n. 6, 7. 10; comp. 131. n. 13-16; with cos 145. n. 7 ; instead of Gen. absol. 145. n. 8. Active used passively 134. 2. Acute accent on contractions 9. n. 1 ; 28. 6. — in elision 30. 3. Adjectives 59 sq. 119. m. 66 sq. — ac- cent of feminines 34. III. 1, 3. — of one ending 59. 1 ; 63. 4 sq. — for- mation of the neut. 59. 4. — Synt. Adj. instead of a subst. 123. 5 sq. — as adverb 123. 6. — with a subst. but without art. 125. n. 4. — refer- red to a diff, subst. 123. n. 7. — made by the Genit. in poets 132. n. 12. — with an Ace. see Accusa- tive. — Adj. in Dat. 133. n. 6, 8.— in neut. plur. instead of subst. 128. n. 2. — as predicate 129. 7; in neut sing. 129. 8 ; in neut. plur. 129. n. 11; comp. 134. n. 3. Adject. Verbal in reos and ros 102 ; 129. n. 18; 134. 8 sq.— withou! copula 129. n. 18. — with Ace. in 4S4 ENGLISH INDEX. sread of Dat. 134. n. 4. — in neut. plur. 134. n. 3. — from Deponents 134. n. 5. Adverbs 119. 15. — Synt. 146. — in- stead of adj. and subst. 125. 6, 7. — Adverbial phrases with the art. 125. n. 8. — Adv. as predicate 129. 13. — made by an adj. (x@ L & s e ^ c -) 123. 6. — by the neut. of an adj. 128. n. 4, 5. — by a verb with a foil, particip. 144. n. 6. — suffers attrac- tion 143. n. 5, 6; 151. I. 8. Adverbial endings in cor, a, etc. 115. 3, and n. 3. — adv. adjuncts with subst. 125. 1, 3.— with art. with- out subst. 125. n. 6. — Adverbial pronouns 116. 2 sq. and n. 7. Alexandrine dialect, 1. n. 8. See also Aorist. Alphabet, history of, App. B. p. 463. Alternate vowel or sound (Umlaut) 27. 1 y 92. 3. — r) and co in adj. 63. 2. — in Aor. 2, 96. 2, and n. 6.—o. oi, co, in Perf. 1 and 2, 97. 4. c, and n. 1, 2 ; 101. 6.— in Perf. Pass. 98. n. 3.— a in verbs \fivp, 101. 8. — o in first syll. of dissyll. bary- tones 112. 8. — in adv. 119. m. 79. — omitted in Perf. Pass. 98. n. 3 ; in Aor. 1. Pass. 100. n. 3 ; in Aor. 2. Pass. 100. n. 5; in verbs \pvp 101. 8, and n. 5. Anacoluthon 151. II. Comp. 141. n. 2, 3- 143. 17; 144. n. 5; 145. n. 4; 139. m. 61. Anastrophe 117. 3 ; 147.. n. 10. Ancipites 7.6. Animals, names of, gender, 32. n. 3. Aorist 96: 100.— Synt. 137. 2 sq.— for the Perf. and Plupf. 137. 3.— instead of the Pres. 137. n. 9. — impl. what is customary, and in comparisons, 1 37. n. 5. — in hypoth. constr. 139. m. 28. — Aor. and Impf. in Homer 137. n. 4. — in clauses of wishing 139. m. 8. — relations of time in the moods of the Aor. 137. 5, marg. — See also Participle and Preterite. Aorist, Alexandrine, in a, 96. n. 1, marg. Aor. in aa in verbs \pvp, 101. n.3. Aorist 2, accentuation 103. m. 4. — . with long penult 96. n. 7. — Syn- copated Act. in rjv, w, etc. 110. 6; 106. 7, and n. 4-8. — Syncop. Pass. (Xvro, tWo) 110. 7, 8.— with re- dupl. 83. n. 10: 85. n. 4. — gives rise to new theh.es 111. 3. — want- ing in derivative verbs 96. 4; 104. 2. — Act. is rare in verbs \pvp, 101. n. 4. — in o~ov, croprjv, 96. n. 9. — Aor. 2 Pass, more used than Aor. 1. 100. n. 6; 101. n. 4. — without alternate vowel 100. n. 5. Aorist Pass, as Mid. 113. 4, and n. 5. — Aor. Mid. as Pass. 113. n. 9.— Aor. 1 Pass, in poets 100. n. 6; 101. n.6. Aphceresis 29. n. 10. Apocope 117. n. 2; see Elision. — Apoc. forms of nouns, 56. n. 8; 57. n. 3. — of particles li5. n. 7 ; in compos. 117. n. 2. Apodosis omitted 151. V. Aposiopesis 151. V. Apostrophe 30. — with enclitics 14. 7. 2.— sign of, 15. 3. Apposition 123. 1 sq. — with the Voc. 129 a. 2. — with an impl. subject 129. n. 15. — in the Ace. instead of a whole clause 131. n. 13. — in Gen. with a possess. 127. n. 13 and marg. — Art. with Appos. see Article. Arsis 7. n. 15. 2. App. A. 20. Article, prepositive, in cr.asis 29. n.3. — signif. 75. 1, and marg. — Synt. 124. — with pr. names 124. 3. — with Appos. 124. n.2; 129. n. 15; 129 a. 2. — with cardinal numbers 124. n. 5. — with pronouns 124. n. 2, 3, 4; 127. 9. — for our indefinite 124. n. 6; 144. n. 1. — separated from its subst. 125. 1 sq. 140. 6.— repeated 125. 3, 6, 10.— with foil. Gen. or adverbial phrase 125. 4; 147 napa c. Gen. — with an adv. 125. 6. — re- dundant 125. n. 8. — with the Inf. 125.8; 140.5 sq. 6; 142. 3.— with a Particip. 124. n. 6; 144. 1 sq.— before relat. and other clauses 125. 8. — with the predicate 129. 2. — Art. in Homer 126. n. 7. — and post- positive, as originally demonstr. 126. 1 sq. — See also 6, and to, rd. Article omitted 124. n. 7 ; 125. 3.— in poets 125. n. 10. — with Partici pies 144. 1 fin. — with the Infin. 140. n. 5, 7. — with pronouns in cer- tain cases 127. n. 15 sq. — indefinite 124. 2, and n. 7; 144. n. 1. Aspirates 17 ; 21. 3 sq. — become smooth in Ion. 27. n. 1. e. — Neglect of the aspiration by the Ion. and Att. 17. n. 1; 108. II. 3; 114 &\- \opai. — before Srjv 18. n. 2. ENGLISH INDEX. 485 Asyndeton 149. m. 9 : 151. IX. Atona 13. 3. Attraction 142. 2 ; 151. I. — with the relat. 143. 13; see Relative. — with adverbs 143. n. 5, 6 ; 151. 8.— with participles 144. n. 12. — with the Inf. 142. 2 sq. 144. n. 11; 151.1.3. — neglected with Inf. 142. n. 1. Augment 82-86. — before a vowel 84. n. 5. — before the prep, of a com- pound 86. n. 2. — retained in the moods of the Aor. 108. II. 1. — neg- lected 83. n. 6-8 ; 84. n. 2, 3 ; 103. m. 2. — syllabic with the temporal 83. n. 5 ; 84. n. 5-9. — before or after the prep. 86. n. 2-4. — in to-r^fii 107. m. 7. — Accent never back of augm. see Accent. Authority in prosody 7. 11. B. Barytones 10. 2 : 13. n. 1. Barytone Verbs 103. — Catalogue of, App. F. Breathings, see Spiritus. Byzantine dialect 1. n. 8. Caesura, App. A. 21 sq. — lengthens a short vowel 7. 15 sq. App. A. 23. Canon of Dawes 139. m. 6, and 46 marg. Case absolute 145. 1 sq. — apparent 145. n. 3 sq. Cases of verbs put with derived nouns and adj. 130. n. 3. Catalectic syllable, App. A. 8. Causal clauses, 139. m. 42 and 35 a. Causative signif. of verbs 113. 2; 135. n. 1. Changes, see Mutations, Interchange. Characters, abbrev. in writing, 2. n. 2; App. C. p. 466. Characteristic of Verbs 91 sq. — often difF. from that of their derivatives 92. n. 2. marg. Circumflex in contractions 28. 6. Circumlocution, see Periphrase. Cities, names of, gender, 32. 4 sq. — as place where, 133. 4. f, and n. 15. —in Gen. 132. 14. b. Classes of Verbs 91. 4; 100 a. 1. Clauses, whole as object, 130. n. 4. — with Infin. and art. 140. 5. c. — de- pendent on a prep. 147. n. 4. Common gender 32. n. 2 ; 60. 3 sq. 62. n. 1. Commutation, see Interchange Muta- tions. Comparison 65-69. — double 69. n. 3. The Comparative governs the Gen. 132. 11 sq.— signif. too, 123. 7. — strengthened 123. n. 8. — double 123. 8. Composition 120, 121. — with numer- als 70. n. 3. — loose and close in verbs 121. 2, 3. — elision in compos, as Kaj3j3ds: etc 117. n. 2 ; 120. 3.— changes the signif. 130. n. 2, and marg. Conatus, see De conatu. Concrete made by neut. sing. 128. 3. See Abstract. Conditional clauses 139. m. 22. — m Ace. c. Inf. 141. n. 5. — elliptical, see eiVep. Conjunctions, their origin 146. 5. — clauses with, made by Infin. with art. and prep. 140. 5. c. See Par- ticles. Consequential (ecbatic) clauses 139 m. 52 sq. Consonants, division of, 4. — at the end of words 4. 5. — simple instead of double 21 . n. 2. See also Doub- ling, Aspirates, Tenues. Constructio ad sensum, Kara avveaiv, 123. n. 3; 129. 11, and n. 2.— with the relat. 143. 5. — with Par- ticip.l44.n.5. — Personal construc- tion 151. I. 7. Contraction 28. — double 53. 3. — omit- ted 49. n. 3; 50. n. 3; in dissyl. in eco, 105. n. 2. — of adjectives 60. 5; 63. n. 3. — elision in contr. 28. n. 7. — mixed sound short, 28. n. 10 ; 53. n. 3. — See also Resolution. Copula agrees with predicate 129. 12.— omitted 129. 20. Coronis 15. 3 ; 29. n. 2. c. Correlatives 78, 116. — in attraction 151. I. 5. Crasis 29. 2 sq. Customary, wont, idea expr. by ehai and Gen. 132. n. 13.— by the Impf. 137. 4.— by the Aor. 137. n. 5. D. Dative, elision of t, 30. n. 3. — Sing, and Plur. in compounds 120. n. 4. —Synt. 133. — with subst. 130. n. 3.— for the Gen. 133. n. 9.— With verbs of approach 133. 2. a, b. — of setting upon, ib. 2. b. — of com- mand, admiration, entreaty, ib. 2. c. — of censure, reproach, ib. 2. d. — after 7rpen(i etc. ib 2. e. — of like 486 ENGLISH INDEX. ness, 6 avro?, etc. ib. 2. f. — of subj. judgment and in parenth. with o>y, 133. n. 7. — with compounds in- stead of a prep. 133. 3. — with verbs of motion ib. n. 11. — double 133. 5. — Dat. of instrum. 133. 4. a. — with verbs signif. emotion of mind ib. 4. c. — with compar. and superl. ib. 4. d; 123. n. 8. 9. — commodi et incommodi 133. 2. g, and n. 5-10; 1 31 . n. 2. — without avv for divisions of troops, and with avros, 133. n. 13, 14.— with the Pass. 134. 4.— as form of adv. 115. 4. — as marking time 133. 4. e; also place where, ib. 4. f, and n. 15. — with the Inf. with or without to, 142. 2. b; ib. 3. — with a particip. in attract. 144. 7, and n. 12. — absolute 145. 5; comp. 133. n. 6 sq. — with par- ticiples 144. 6. c. — Dat. of partici- ples 133. n. 8; 145. n. 3. — instead of Ace. with naXelv, 131. n. 11. Dawes' canon, see Canon. Declensions 33 sq. — their original identity 56. n. 7. marg. De conatu, verbs, 137. n. 10; 144. n. 4. Defective nouns 56. n. 8; 57. — def. adjectives 64. 4. Demonstratives 76; 116. 5, 6. — Synt. 127. 1.— strengthened 79. 4; 116. 7. — several strengthen each other 127. 1. c. — in like gender with the subst. 129. 9. — in Neut. sing, and plur. 129. n. 9, 10.— with the art. 124. n. 2; 127. 9,— between art. and subst. 125. n. 2. — flow together with the relat. 127. 1. d; 143. 8. — for the relat. in second clause 143. 7 ; 151. II. 4.— See also Omis- sion. Deponents 113. 4, and n. 5. — Pass, ibid. Derivation 118, 119. — verbs from nouns 119. 2. — of nouns 119. 6 sq. —of the Adj. 119. 13 sq.— of Adv. 119. 15. — by composition 120. 1 sq. Desideratives 119. 5. Desire, verbs of, construction, 132. 10. f. Diceresis, sign of, 15. 3. Dialects 1. 1 sq. 16. n. 1; 27. 3 sq. 28. n. lsq. 34. IV; 35. n. 4; 116. n. 10; 117. n. 1. Diastole 15. 2. Digamma. 6. n. 3. — causes a position 7. n. 15 3. — special instances 84. n. 6; 114 ayvvfii marg. ib. avhava. mafg. Dimeter, App. A. 12. Diminutives 1 1 9 . m . 6 1 . — gender 32.2. Diphthongs 5. — diphth. and long vowels used as short 7. 16. — im- proper diphth. 5; 28. 3. 2. a. — ab- sorbed in crasis 29. n. 4. — See also Mixed Sound. Diplasiasmus 21. n. 1 ; 17. n. 14 ; 95 n. 5. Dipode, App. A. 12. Direct style instead of indirect, 139 m. 69. Distribution, verbs of, c. dupl. Ace 131. 5.— c. Gen. et Ace. 131. n. 9 Distributive usage of ava 147. n. 1 ; els ib. Kara. ib. iiri ib. Double Letters 22. — interchanged with kindred single ones 16. n. 1. g. — Double Forms and Themes 56. 5; 67. n. 3 sq. 92.1 sq. Ill, 112. — Double Questions 139. m. 62; in the Subjunct. ib. m. 65. — Double sound, see Resolution. See also Doubling. Doubling of consonants 21 ; 27. n. 14; 95. n. 5; 114 ayvv\ii marg. ib. delo-at marg. 116. n. 10. — not writ- ten 27. n. 15 sq. — after a long vowel 27. n. 17. — Doubling of vow- els 28. n. 3. 105. n. 10; 114 Kpal voa. See also Resolution. Doubtful vowels 7. 6 sq. Dropping of a consonant 28. n. 4, 117. n. 2.— of a vowel 28. n. 7; see Elision. — of the vowel of the stem 110. 4. — of a in the 2 pers. Sing. Pass. 103. m. 17 ; 107. m. 37. Dual for Plur. 33. n. 4; 129. 6. — in verbs, 2 pers. instead of 3d, 87. n. 7. — Synt. 129. 6 sq. comp. 87. n. 7 .— of subst fem. with adj. masc. 123. 4.— Dual as neut. Plur. 123. n. 4. Ecbatic or consequential clauses 139 m. 52 ; comp. m. 35 b. Elision 28. 3, and n. 7 ; 30. 1 ; 34. IV. 5; 53. n. 2; 105. n. 7.— in composit. 120. 2. — not with v, irepl, Dat. sing, and plur. of 3 Decl. on. and the like, 30. 2, and n. 3, 4.— removes the accent of Prep. 117. n. 4. — in words in k\t}s, 53. 3. — in composit. Kaj3(3ds etc. 117. n. 2. — See Apostrophe, Aphceresis, Drop- ping, etc. ENGLISH INDEX. 487 Ellipsis 151. IV. See also Omission. Emotion of mind, verbs of, 131. n. 3; 133. 4. c; 147 em c. dat. p. 417. — with a Particip. 144. n. 6 fin. and text 6. Enclitics 14. Entreaty, verbs of, 132. n. 11, 14; 133. 2. c. — with firj 148. 2. c. and text 3. Epenthesis 19. n. 3; see Insertion. Epexegesis 151. VII. Epic language and dialects 1. n. 2, and text 11 ; 114. 6. See Dialects. Epicene gender, Genus epiccenum, 32. n. 3. Etacism, 3. note, marg. Exclamations 132. n. 31; 141. n. 7. Expletives 149. m. 24. Fear, anxiety, etc. expr. with oTrcor, /if), oriy el, &o~Te, and Infin. 139. m. 50. Feminines with masc. see Dual. Final letters 4. 5. — movable, y, s, etc. 26. — Final clauses 139. m. 45 ; com- pare ib. m. 35 a; 144. 2. Formation of words, see Derivation. Forms, double, 56. 2 sq. — simpler of subst. 56. n. 8. — various of adjec- tives 64. Fractions, j?/u-, etc. 71. n. 2. Frequentatives 119. m. 14. Future retains the short vowel 95. n. 3.— Mid. instead of Act. 113. 5; instead of Pass. 113. 6.— Synt. Fut. Indie, after el, 139. m. 23; after a relat. 139. m. 34; after O7rcoy in- stead of Imperat. 139. m. 46 ; after ov [xr), 139. m. 6, 46 marg. — with av 139. m. 12.— Fut. exactum 138. 4 ; 139. 16. — Periphrase with pek- Xeiv 137. n. 11. Fut. Attic 95. 7. — Doric 95. n. 17. Fut. 2, 95. 10; 114 6aco 4. marg Fut. 3, 99.— Synt. 138. G. Gender, rules of, 32. — of 3 Decl. 38. — of a part the same as of the whole 132. n. 3 ; of the predicate 129. 9-11 sq. — Genus epiccenum 32. n. 3. Genitive, Attic 51. 2, and n. 3; 52. n. 2. — as form of adv. 115 n. 3. — Synt. Position with the art. 125. 1, 2, and n. 2. — Gen. with to, to., oi, etc. ib. 5, and n. 6. — of country with cities 132. 2.— -partitive 132. 5; in distribution 131. n. 9; position 125. n. 2. — Gen. of time and place 132. 5.b; ib. 14. b. — of separation after verbs and adj. 132. 4. — after Iva, 7rov, Trot, els tovto, toctovto, etc. 132. n. 6. — after the idea capable of, etc. 132. 10. d.— with elvai 132. 5. c, and n. 13. — of price, etc. 132. 10. c. — after Comparatives 132. 11. — for nepl 132. n. 29. — in exclam. and protestat. ib. n. 31. — special examp. Seeiv 7re8ioioi, etc. ib. n. 28. marg. — ev eldoos twos ib. 10. d ; ayeiv X^pos, etc. ib. n. 10. — Gen. for Dat. fiov for pot, 133. n. 10; comp. 145. n. 1, 2. Genitive of object, after subst. 132. 1 sq. 9 ; after verbs and adj. 132. 10. — of quantity, quality, degree, ib n. 5, and text 7. — partitive with verbs, etc. 132. 5. c, d, e. — with the idea of partaking, ib. d ; and of entreating, klcraopai, iKereva), ib. n. 11; delaOai 132. 10. a.— Gen. of material 132. 7. — possessive, ib. — causal 132. 8. — With words sig- nif. fullness or want ib. 10. a. — — worth or the opp. ib. 10. b. — re- membering or forgetting ib. 10. d. — care for, admire, contemn, spare, ib. 10. e. — accuse and condemn, ib. 10. g. — with verbs of sense, per- ceiving, etc. ib. 10. h. — enjoy, prof- it, ib. 10. i. — with superlatives 132. n. 23. — surpass, rule, and opp. 132. 12. — after adj. and Particip. e. g. in ikos, with a priv. 132. 13, and n. 27.— with cos, nas e^ei, etc. ib. n. 28. — with subst. omitted, ib. n. 30. — absolute in beginning of a clause, ib. n. 29. — double, ib. n. 14. Genitive of a Subst. with pron. possess. 127. n. 13. — in apposit. with an adj. ib. marg. — in answer to the question whence? 132. 3. — after neuter pronouns 132. n. 5. Genitive with Particip. 144. 6. c- Gen. of the Infin. (eW/ca), 405. 5. c. —with the Infin. 142. 2. b.— Gen. in main clause instead of subject in minor clause 151. I. 6. Genitive absolute 145. 2, and n. 7. — laxly instead of the particip. alone, 145. n. 1, 8.— instead of Dat. 145. n. 2; 133. n. 10. — without subject expr. 145. 4, and n. 9. — from an impers. verb, 145. n. 9 sq. — from 4.S8 ENGLISH INDEX. verbs Pass, as drfKo)6evros, o-quav- OevTcov, 145. 3, and n. 10. — with cor, 145. n. 7. Gentile nouns 119. m. 49 sq. Gerund made by Infin. 140. 3. Grave accent 9. n. 1 ; 13.2. and n. 1. H. Hearing, verbs of, constr. 132. 10. h. Heteroclites 56. 5, and n. 4 sq. Hexameter, App. A. 10. Hiatus 29. with Horn, digamma 6. n. 3. — after ti, on, etc. 29. n. 1 ; comp. 30. n. 3. Hyperbaton 151. III. 1; comp. App. D. p. 469. Hypercatalectic verse, App. A. 8. Hypodiastole 15. 2. Hypothetic clauses, see Conditional. I. Ictus 7. 15 sq. App. A. 20. Imitative verbs 119. m. 13. Immediate signification 113.2; 135. n. 1. Imperative 88. 6 — in Si, see Si. — of the Fut. 96. n. 9.-3 Plur. 103. m. 15. — 2 pers. for 3 pers. with iras etc. 129. n. 13. — in Plur. instead of Sing. 129. n. 13. — in Sing, in- stead of Plur. ib. — Dual 129. 6. — Perf. Act. and Pass. 137. n. 13. — Pres. and Aor. 137. 5. — in relat. clauses and after on, 139. m. 36. — after wore, 139. m. 55 marg. — with negation 148. 3. — Periphrases for, 103. 15. — made by ov and 2 pers. Fut. Ind. 137. n. 6. — by rt ov ; ib. — by oVcor, 139. m. 46. — by 1 pers. Plur. and Sing, of the Subj. 139. m. 3. — by the Subj. with p.r}, ib. m. 4. — by the Opt. and Opt. with • av, ib. m. 7, 15. — with (fiddveiv, 150. m . 37.— by the Infin. 140. 7.— by the Ace. c. Inf. 141. n. 6. — omitted 129. 20. Imperfect, Synt. 137. 2, and n. 7 marg. — Impf. and Pres. de conatu 137. n. 10. — impl. what is customary, wont, 137.4.— with av, 139. m. 12, 28, 29.— instead of Aor. 2, 96. n. 3. —instead of Plupf. 139. m. 29.— in clauses of wishing 139. ra. 8. Impersonals, 129. 18. — in the Par- ticip. 145. n. 9, 10. — in the Ir.fin. 141. n. 6. Inchoative verbs 112. n. 7; 119. m. 14. Inclination of the accent 14. 1 sq. Indefinite pronoun 77 ; see t\?, n, ir. Greek Index. Indicative in the indirect style and parenthetic clauses 139. m. 23, 34, 69. — Preterite without av, as \PV V . e'Set, etc. 139. m. 13. Indirect style, see Oratio. Infinitive 88. 7. — of contr. verbs 105. 4. — in vai, accent, 103. m. 6. — Aor. 2, 103. m. 4. — in p.ev, [xevai, ib. m. 33. — in ev, nv, eiv, ib. m. 34. — in ais, oi?, 105. n. 18. Infinitive with and without art. 140. 1 sq. see Ar- ticle. — as subject 129. 18. — with av, 139. m. 18, 54. — after coo-re, cVor, ofor, 139. m. 53 sq. 140. 4. — after demonstr. without coo-re 127. 1. e; 140. n. 3, 5; comp. 132. n. 22. — as neut. subst. 140. 5 sq. — Act. in- stead of Pass. 140. 2. — as object, ib. 5. b. — after a prep. ib. 5. c. — in oblique cases, ib. n. 9-11. — with- out art. after subst. adj. or prep ib. n. 8. — instead of Imperat. 140. 7; 141.n.6. — Pres. instead of Aor. 141. n. 1. — Aor. instead of Fut, 140. n. 1. — after on, cor, see on. — with relat. and conjunct. 141. n. 5. — expr. entreaty, command, 141. n. 6. — instead of Ace. c. Inf. 141. 3; 142. n. 4. — in parenthetic clauses 140. n. 4. — with other subst. ad juncts, Inf. epexegeticus, 140. n. 2, 11. — in apposit. with a subst. 140. n. 6. — after the idea of fearing, etc. 139. m. 50. Infinitive in Gen. with rov, 140. n. 10, 11 . — with to instead of tov, ib. n. 9, 10. — in oaths, see rj p.f]v. — absolute 140. n. 4. — Fut. and Aor. after pek- \eiv, i\7rl£eiv, etc. 137. n. 11 ; 139. m. 18; 140. 1. c — Attraction of cases with Infinit. 142. 2 sq. — near adjuncts with the Infin. 140. 5,6 141. 1. — with negatives 148. 2. g — omitted 151. IV. 8. — with Norn or Ace. see Nominative, Accusative Infinitive and Particip. as comple ment of a verbal idea, 140. n. 7 144. 6, and marg. Inseparable particles 120. 5. Insertion of conson. 19. n. 1. — of a vowel, as e, 28. n. 3. — in aurdr, 74. n. 1. Interchange of consonants in the dia- lects 16. n. 1. — of forms in declen- sion 56. 2. See Mutations, Meta- plasm, etc. ENGLISH INDEX. 489 Interjections 115. n. 7. Inter rogativcs, direct and indir. 17. 2; 78. 1-3 ; 79. 2-5.— Synt. 127. 5 sq. 139. m. 62 sq. — with art. 124. n. 3. — Interrog. clauses, direct and in- dir. 139. m. 62 sq. — several in one clause 127. 5. Intransitives 113. n. 1; 130. n. 2. — with an object 131.1-3. See Verbs. Inversion 151. Ill; 143. 14. — of the suhst. in relative constructions 143. 1'2. See Transposition. Ionics sometimes contract 28. 5 ; 105. n. 1. Itacism, 3, note, marg. Iterative forms of verbs 83. n. 8 ; 103. m. 11; 105. n. 12; 107. m. 34. L. Labials, changed into fx, 23. 1. Latin words in Greek 3. n. 1. — Lat. mode of writing Greek words 3.2; 5. 1. Lengthening of vowels 27. n. 15, 16 ; 28. 3 sq. 54. n. 2.— of the stem- vowel in verbs in yn, 106. 7, and n. 7; 110. n. 1. See also Long. Let, expr. by Mid. 135. 8. Linguals before liquids, changes, 24. 1 . — sometimes unchanged before fi, 24. 1 ; 98. n. 5. Liquids doubled 7. n. 15; 83. n. 2. Local endings en, aiv, 26. 3. — fail. Resolution into the double sound, 105. n< io. — of a vowel 28. n. 3. — of the Inf. elv into eeiv, 95. n. 11; 103. m. 4 marg. m 38. — of the Subjunct. Aor. Pass, in eco, eico, 103. m. 38. — of the diphth. in verbs in dco, dec, and in pi, in epic writers 105. n. 10, 11 ; 107. m. 40. Rhythm, App. A. 4. Rivers, names of, gender, 32. 3 — Synt. 124. 3. Root 39. 1, and n. 1 ; 91. m. 2. Sampi, figure, 2, n. 3 and marg, App. B. Schema Alcmanicum 129. n. 5. — Pin- daricum 129. n. 6. — , flexion 92. 10, and n. 3; 95. 6 sq. — derivat. and signif. 104. 3; 119. 2; ib. m. 14. See -do. drjdav 56. n. 7. 'addvaros 7. n. 14. 'AOrjvd 34. n. 1. — sec. forms 56. n. 2. -adov, -ddeiv, verbs, 112. 12. ddpoos, adpovs, 60. n. 1, 5. — ddpoos as adv. 123. 6. ddvpelv Trpdyp.a(Ti, 133. 4. c. -ai, elided 30. n. 5. — three like verbal forms in -ai, 103. m. 7, marg. — -at and -oi short 11. 7; exceptions ib. n. 3. at yap, aWe, at k«t, 117. n. 1 : 139. m. at ice iridrjrai, tvx&P-i, 139. m. 66. aiSor etc. 56. n. 8. — d'idoade 116. n. 3 -air) instead of rj, 56. n. 2. atKta 7. n. 10. a Dor. for 77, 27. n. 5; 34. IV. 1. 4; (piXdo-co 95. n. 8. — Ion. into e, 27. n. 9 j 105. n. 8. — alternate, see Alternate, a for 77, 27. n. 5; 34. IV. 1, 4; 95. n. 7. — after p, e, t, 34. 2; 53. 1 ; * 60. 2, 6; 95. 5, and n. 6; 101. 4; 110. n. 1, 2. a for 77, 27. n. 6; 97. n. 3 dpapvla. — a and o before e into at and 01, 27. n. 2. a impr. diphth. 5. 2. a privative 120. 5 sq. comp. 26. n. 2. — with adj. fem. 60. 4. — Adj. with a priv. take the gen. 132. n. 27. a intensive 120. n. 11. — copulative, ib. -a, quantity, 34. II. 1-4; 43. n. 3; long in acc. sing. 52 ; in adj. fem. 60. 2. — As ending of acc. sing, in- stead of v (/3o'a) 44. 2, and n. 2. — of adv. 115. n. 3. —of subst. 119. m. 24. -a in neut. plur. of words in or, rd oW/na, etc. 56. 6. -aa in hypothet. Perf. 97. n. 7. ddaros 114 ddco. — aaro? 114 aco. liyapai constr. see 3avp,d£ co. ayav in compos. 25. n. 3. dyavanTelv, see Emotion, dyaivav c. acc. 132. 10. f, marg. — with Particip. 144. n. 6. — with «, 139. m. 60. dyyek\op.ai in pers. constr. 151. I. 7. a'yf, for plur. 115. n.7; 129. n. 13.— before 1 pers. Subj. 139. m. 3. — aye dr), 149. m. 28. dyeiv and compounds, signif. 130. n. 2. — x 6t P°' y 132. n. 10. — aycoj/, with, 150. m. 33; comp. 144. n. 3. 496 GREEK INDEX. -aiva subst. fern. 119. m. 46. alvodev aiva? 151. VI. 2. -mW, verbs in, flexion 101. 4, and n. 2. — derivat. and signif. 104. 3; 119. m. 2, 9. — from verbs in dco and to, 112. 10, 11. -aio?, adj. in, constr. 123. 6. alpelv constr. 132. 10. g. — alpelaBai Mid. and Pass. 135. n. 3; 136.. n. 3. u'lpeiv and compounds, signif. 130. n. 2. -atpco, verbs in, flexion, 101. n. 2. -ai?, ending of Particip. and Inf. -accra Part fern. 103. m. 29 ; 105. n. 18. aladdvofj.cn in Pres. 137. n. 8. — c. gen. 132.10. h.— with Particip. 144. 6. c. alaxpov sc. ov, 145. n. 10. 2. alcrxvveo-daL c. ace. 135. 5. — c. Inf. et ^Part. 144. 6.— with d, 139. m. 60. alrelv, dnaiTelv, c. dupl. ace. 131.5. — with napa twos 131. n. 8. — alrovp-al o~e tovto, 135. n. 2. aiTiaddai, constr. 132. 10. g. -ou'co, see -dco. dtco, augm. 84. n. 2. dicfjv as predic. 129. 13. Hkovtl rfkOev, etc. 133. n. 6; see ckcoiv clkovt'i^lv c. gen. 132. 10. f. aKoveiv and compounds, constr. 132. 10. h, and marg. 144. 6, marj -m Pres. for Perf. 137. n. 8. dvpai c. dupl. ace. 131. 5 — Mid. with object 135. 4. 'Afx(pi6ee, 35. n. 2. ap,, dp-Cporepos, 78. 4. — dp-Cporepov* -pa, 150. m. 15. — position of ap.(pa) and dp.(por. with art. 127. 9. — d/zcjbco with plur. 129. n. 7. ap.(£>sye7ras, &p.r)y£firr], etc. 116. n. 5. -av 3 plur. Perf. instead of -aai, 103. m. 27. •dv for -ai/ Inf. 105. 4. av, idv/fjv, 117. 2. — Synt. 139. m. 14, 24. av, epic Ke, KeV, 117. n. 1. — Sfyraf. sig- nif. and usage 139. m. 10-20, 68. 70. — omitted, 139. m. 13, 30 b, 51 • om. with Subjunct. (Horn.) 139. m. 25, 33, 38. — dv appended to parti cles 139. m. 14, 24, 37.— with his- tor. tenses 139. m. 12. — with Fut. ib. m. 11. — with Inf. and Part. ib. m. 17; 144. 6. a. — after SokcIv, etc. with Inf. Aor. 139. m. 18. — position of dv, ib. m. 19. — repeated, ib. m. 20. dvd apocopated 117. n. 2. — Synt. 147. p. 413. — in compos. 147. n. 6. ava up! 117. 3. 2. — Vocat. 41. 5, marg. 45. n. 5. dvafiaivsiv, -veaOaL, 135. 8. GREEK INDEX. 49^ dvaftdXXeaOai c, Inf. fui. 140. 1. C. — before an Inf. with or without to, 140. n. 7. dvaym^iv with two ace. 131. n. 12. avayKaios elp.i 151. I. 7. C. avayK-q without copula 129. n. 18. dvayvoio-erai, sc. 6 dvayvu>o~TT]?, 129. 16. dvcLKOiveo 105. n. 7. dua/jLi/jLvrjaKetv, constr. 131. 5; comp. 132. 10. d, sq. duaaaelaaKe 103. m. 11. dvdo-aeiv c. gen. 132. 12. — c. dat. ib. n. 25. avftpdnodov 32. 1 ) -8ecro"i 56. n. 8. dvdpeia, dvdpia, 119. m. 35. avev 146. 4. dvrjKoos c. acc. 130. n. 3. dvriKovcTTelv c. gen. 132. 10. h, marg. dvrJTTTov, augm. 116. n. 4. dvrjp (-) 7. n. 12. — dWp 45. n. 1. — with pers. appell. 123. n. 6. — im- plied 125. 7. avrjp, avQp&nos, 29. n. 3, marg dvd' hv : 147 avrL p. 412. avdpoo7roi implied 125. n. Q; see also dvrjp. dvla (i) 7. n. 10. 'Avvifias 34. n. 4. -avos genit. quantity 41. n. 1. avTevnelo-eTai, 121. n. 1 ; 147. n. 8. avrL c. gen. 132. 10. c; 147. p. 412. — in compos. 147. n. 6. dvTidfctv, dvTLqv, dvrav, 131. 3; 132. 5. d; 133. 4. c, marg. dvTinpv, avTiKpvs, 117. 1) 146. 4. dvTikap.fidveo-6ai c. gen. 132. 5. d, e. dvri^oos 60. n. 5. ovt'iov, dvria, avra, 147 dj/ri. p. 412. dvTLTrotelo'daL c. gen. 132. 10. f. -dv(£>, verbs in, 112. 11 ; quantity, etc. ib. n. 6. a!>aH 0. gen. 132. 10. a, i, do-efielv C, acc. 131. 2. -ao-iy local ending, 116. 3. I 1 498 GREEK INDEX. 'do-i dat. plur. 47. 1 ; 58 vlos -aa-Kov iterative tense 103. m. 11 sq. aarpevos compar. 65. n. 4. — as adv. 123. 6. — do-pevcp ipo't, etc. 133. n. 6. aaaa, dacra, 77. 2, 3. acro-ov 115. 7; see d'y^t. darrjp, darpdcri, 47. n. 3. -arai, -aro, 3 plur. 103. m. 20; 105. n. 9; 107. m. 34. drdp after a Voc. 149. m. 9. are with Particip. 144. n. 14. dreovra, 114 ddco. drep prep. 146. 4. arepos 29. n. 5. aTifiageiv c. gen. 132. 10. b. -aroy, -drior, old superlat. 68 ult. 69. n. 3. dros, 114 ddco marg. and d'co. drpepa, drpepas, 26. n. 2 ; 115. n. 4. arret, arret, 77. 2, 3. av 149. m. 20. avepvaav 121. n. 1. aS0t 116. n. 10. g.— aZfos 117. n. 1.— au&y au, 7rdXtv avdis, 151. VI. 2. avpwv, f), 125. 7. avrdpuT)?, gen. plur. avrdpucov 49. n. 4. airro? 72. n. 1; 73. 2. — in compos, (ecu) 27. n. U.—Synt. 127. 2 sq.— for 6 auTor, /xoj/or, and with ordi- nals 127. n. 2. — avrov and avroV, ib. 3 sq. 7. — in genit. with pron. possess, ib. n. 13; as periphrase for possess, of 3 pers. ib. 7. 2. — in dat. without o~vv, 133. n. 14. — 6 avros c. dat. 133. 2. f; with mi (atque) 149. m. 8. — avrb rb koXov, etc. 128. n. 1. — avrb be'i^ei, 150. m. 17. — before a relat. 127. 1. d. — eV avros avrco 127. n. 6. — avros eavrov se ipse, ib. — avrb rovro 127. 1. c. avroas, avroos, 150. m. 17. dcpaipelv, -elo~6ai, constr. 131. 5, and n. 8: 132.4; 135. n. 2.— Pass. 134.6. dvrai 108. I. 1, marg. dcpuvai c. gen. 132. 4. ciepdovo? compar. 65. n. 2. 2. depvrj, rj, 34. III. 1. b. d^eatv, ovaa, 114 d/ca^ifa, -a^ri, -ax°v, etc. 116. n. 5. uxdeaOai with Particip. 144. n. 6. — d^dopeua rfkQev, etc. 133. n. 6. See also Emotion, etc. a^pi, a'xpir, 26. 4. — Si/n£. 147. n. 2. -dco, fut. -ao-co 95. n. 3. — with altern- ate e (e'eo) 105. n. 8, 13; cornp. 107. m. 36, 41. — derivat. and sig- nif. 104. 3; 119. m. 6. — from verbs in co, 112. 7. — with alternate to (o) in the first syll. ib. 8 — dco. d£to, aico, sec. forms of each other, ib. 9. — desideratives 119. m. 12 ; see -idto. -dcoi/ into ecov, in 1 Decl. 34. IV. 5. B. (3 inserted 19. n. 1 ; 110. 11. 2, and marg. — as characteristic 92. 8, and n. 1. fidXkeiv and compounds, signif. 130. n. 2. fiapvs dpi, pers. constr. 151. I. 7. d. fiacrikeveip c. gen. 132. 12. — fiacriXev- o~as iirolet, etc. 144. n. 3. fiaariXevs without art. 124. n. 7. (3ao~iXevrepos 69. n. 2. Bav num. sign. 2. n. 3 ; 6. n. 3 ; comp. App. B. (Bevriaros 16. n. 1. d. /3i'a, npbs fiiav, 133. n. 12; 147 irpvs c. ace. p. 419. ftidgecrOai c. dupl. ace? 131. n. 12. /3Ad£ 66. 4, marg. 110. 11. 2. marg. 114 rapdo-0-co, marg. fihdirretv c. ace. et dat. 131. 2, and n. 2. — KeXevdov 132. n. 28, marg. fi\€7T£lV (pOVOV 131.3. /3X^coj/ 16. n. 1. b. fionQelv c. dat. 131. n. 2. fiopeas, (3oppds, 34. n. 1. povXopai without foil. Inf. 151. IV. 8.—povXet 103. m. 18. — ifiol /3ou- Xopevco 133. n. 6. — ifiovX6pr)v with- out av, 139. m. 13. @ovs, declined 50. — /3a>y, @£>v, ib. ll. 2. —at (36e? 32. n. 3.— /3da 44. n. 2. (3pdcro~cov, 43. n. 4. d. Soto), 8otoi, 70. 2. So/ceiy C. Inf. et av 139. m. 18. — So/cety ejuot absol. 140. n. 4. — 8okovv, 86- gav, absol. 145. n. 10, and marg. — doicS) personal 151. I. 7. b : comp. 129. 18. 8opv£ 57. n. 3. bus, f], 57. n. 2. e for a before liquids 27. n. 9. — Ion. in verbs in aco, 105. n. 9, 10. — in- serted 28. n. 3 ; 74. n. 1 ; 76. n. 2. — as union- vowel 87. 5. — for ei 27. n. 3. — changed into et, 25. 4; 27. n. 1.— for r] in Subjunct. 103. m. 39. e instead of iavrov 127. n. 4 ; see Re- flexives. ea for -rjv 107. m. 40. — for -eia 62. n. 1. -ecu, -eo, 2 pers. Pass. 103. m. 17; comp. 105. n. 7. idv, fjv, av, 139. m. 14, 24. — after o-Kcmeiv, etc. ib. m. 66. — with Opt. ib. m. 68, comp. m. 27. tap, rjpos, 41. n. 7; 43. n. 4. c. tapivos as adv. 123. 6. -earo 3 Plur. Pass. 103. m. 21; 105, n. 9. iavrov as subj. in ace. c. Inf. et Part. (se) 141. n. 4; 144. n. 8. See avros and Reflexives. eao retains a, 95. n. 7. idcov gen. plur. 58 evs. iyyvs c. gen. et dat. 133. 4. c, marg. 146. 4, and n. 3. — iyyvs, iyyvBev, iyyvrepov, as predic. 129. 13. eymXetv constr. 132. n. 16; 133. 2. u eyKparrjs c. gen. 132. 12. iyw8a, ey<5/xcu, 29. n. 9. -eetv Inf. see Resolution. eepp,evos, 114 etpco. eeWaro 108. II. 1 ; ib. III. efyv from elfii 108. IV. 4, marg. erjos and e^or, 58 eur and marg. er)? for r/r 75. n. 1. ideXetv, periphrase, 150. m. 36. idikovrrjs as adv. 123. 6. et diphth. 5. 1, and n. 1. — resolved into rfi 27. n. 8. — contr. in dissyll. verbs 105. n. 2; see in e. et- augm. syllab. 83. n. 3. — temporal 84. 2, and n. 1. -et, 2 pers. Pass. 103. m. 18; 113. n. 7, marg. et conjunct. 13. 3. — with Indie. Subj. Opt. 139. m. 23, 25, 26, 67 sq. — as particle of wishing 139. m. 7. — with Indie. Fut. ib. m. 23. — with Opt. in repetition, ib. m. 39. — after verbs of fear, etc. ib. m. 50. — in indirect questions, whether, ib. m. 63-65. — after Savpdfa etc. ib. m. 60. — in double quest, et . . . fj, ib. m. 65. — et av ib. m. 27.— et p,r) 148. 2. b.— et Se prj 151. IV. 7. ib. V. 2.— et Se', et 8* Zye, 151. IV. 7.— et ^ 8td 150. m. 26. — et yap, et mi, 139. m. 7 : 47. — secondary form for -77, 56. n. 2. — Fern, from --qs, 63. n. 1. -eia, -etas, etc. Opt. 103. m. 14. etaro 108. IV. 2. — etaro ib. II. 2, and III. etSo> signif. 113. n. 10. elev 108. IV. 1, and marg. eirjv from efpt go, 108. V. 3. eWe 11. n. 2.— Synt. 139. n. 8. e'Uetv c. gen. 132. 4. e'iKocrt, -crtv, 26. 3. eifii go, see lei/at. -etv instead of -rjv, 108. I. 3. — 3 pers. Sing. Plupf. and Impf. 103. m. 12 105. n. 3. GREEK INDEX. 501 thai 108. IV.— c. gen. 132. 5. c; ib. 7, and n. 13. — elvai did twos 147 did, p. 414. — dfufii et irepl riva, ib. p.415sq_.— omitted 129.20; 143.9; 149. n. 8; see also a>v and Copula. — pleonast. in Inf. 150. m. 38. — elvai with Particip. 144. n. 16. — ecrri and io~Ti 108. IV. 3. — ecrrtv oi etc. ib. and 150. m. 21. — ecrrt, phrases with, 150. m. 21-23. — ovk can with Inf. and av 139. m. 18. elveica, see eueKa. -eioi/ in subst. deriv. 119. m. 33. -eios in adj. deriv. 119. m. 69. cine instead of Plur. 129. n. 13. — elrrelv dnXcos absol. 140. n. 4. — as crvvTOfJuos 1 (avveXouTi) elirelv, cos €7ros elrrelv, absol. 140. n. 4. ewrep ellipt. 151. IV. 2. e'ipyeiv c. gen. 132. 4. — with prj and Inf. 149. n. 9. elprifievov absol. 145. n. 10. elpvio, etpcoraco, Ion. 84 n. 1. els, is, prep. 13. 3; 117. 2. — Synt. 147. p. 413. — put for iv 151. I. 8. — compounds with eir, constr. 133. 2. b ; ib. no. 3. — eo-co is, 151. VI. 2. acrtfa in Horn, for els or et, 108. V. 1. elcrKofxi^eip, constr. 133. 3. elaoKe, els ore ice, 139. m. 40. tiro. 149. m. 19.— after Part. 144. n. 13. «re...eire 139. m. 63. e'lns 149. m. 5. — for it ocrns 143. 19. -e/o) instead of a> Subjunct. 103. m. 38. — in Indie. 105. n. 1. eiada, augm. 84. n. 1 ; 97. n. 2. etc prep. 4. 5 ; see e£. — e« unchanged before all consonants, 20. 4 ; 22. 2 j comp. 86. 1. — signif. 147. p. 413. — adv. 147. n. 5. ev and ip.no8cov 115. n. 5 : comp. 147 €«e, p.413. tKCpevyeiv c. gen. et ace. 131. 2, and n. 2. — with /^ and Inf. 148 n. 9. e/coov emu 150. m. 38. — eKovra ovk ukovto. 151. VI. 2. eXarrov. p.elov, indec. 129. n. 8. — with 7 omitted 132. n. 21. iXavvew, signif. 130. n. 2. eXacpos 32. n. 3. eXeyxees 69. n. 1. eXeuTTo 110. 8, marg. iXevdepos, -povv, constr. 1 32. 4, and n. 2 eXdcov, la>v, etc. 150. m. 34. eXp.ivs 25. n. 2; 41. n. 4. elos, Telos, 116. n. 10. f. iXiri£ew, constr. 139. m. 18; 140. I.e. iXnop-eva rjXdev, etc. 133. n. 6. ep-avrov and p.ov 127. 7. 1. ip.oi dokelv 140. n. 4. epos 72. 4; 127. n. 12. — ret ep,d 128. 1, and n. 2. — to ip.6v instead of eyu 128. n. 2. ep.ov instead of p,ov 127. n. 12. epLjreipos c. gen. 132. 10. d. ep.7roda>v 115. n. 5. eV prep, unchanged before p, cr, £, 25. 1. — signif. 147. p. 413. — adverbial 147. n. 5.— for els 147. p. 413. — in compounds, 86. 1, 2; Synt. 147. n. 6, 8; comp. 133. 3. — iv rots with foil, supeiiat. 150. m. 24. ivavTios c. gen. 132. n. 26. — c. dat. 133. 2. f; ib. 4. c, marg. ivapi£eiv c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. Merjs 53. 1. ivdoTciTos 69. 2, marg. — eVSoraraj 115. 6. ivdvoo Tivd ti 131. 5; -op.al ti 135. 4. eW^ee Hdot. 112. n. 5. evena, eveicev. Ion. eiveica, etc. 117. 2. —Synt. 132. 8; 146. n. 2. — omit- ted ? 140. n. 10. — evem ye 146. n. 2. ew, eveo-Ti, 117. 3. 2 ; 150. m. 23 ; see also as evi. — ivrjv 139. m. 13. ev8a, evOev, 116. 6.—ivBdde, 14. n. 3 ; 116. 7, marg. evoxos, constr. 132. n. 16. iTavOa, ivTavOol, 116. 3, marg. and 8. ivTvyxdva c. dat. 132. n. 7. e'| prep. 13. 3. — i£ and «, 26. 6.— ac- cent in anastrophe 13. 4. — to be supplied ? 132. 3. — with Pass. 134. 3; 147 e/fc— signif. 147. p. 413.— adverbially 147. n. 5. — in com- pounds 20. 4; 22.2; 86.1; 120.4; 147. n. 9.— e£ ov of time 139. m. 37. — ex tovtov 144. n. 13. igaiqbvrjs 115. n. 5. i\avio~Tdvai c. gen. 132. 4. e^apvos c. ace. 130. n. 3. — et-apvov elvai with foil, firj and Inf. 148. n. 9. 502 GREEK INDEX. egetrrt 133. 2. c; 150. m. 23.— with ace. and Inf. 142. n. 2. — e|oV 145. n. 10. — igrjv 139. m. 13. igerdgeiv c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. e^o^a with superlat. 123. n. 9. -eo, see -eat. eoiKa, eoXna, etc. 84. n. 6. — eoijca, oi/ca, 109. III. 5, marg. eo'f, d, oV, pron. poss. 72. n. 7. — for 1 and 2 pers. 127. n. 5. %-naivov e^etp vno twos, 147 v7ro, p. 419. errata crew c. gen. 132. 10. f. eVai'o-ror, personal, 151. I. 7. c. eVaico, augm. 84. n. 2. — Synt. 132. 10. h. €7TavpL<7Koixai c. gen. 132. 10. i. e7ra. earacrav and ecrracrai/, earr/re, eare'are, ea-reWi, 107. m. 26, 27. eare 150. m. 10. — constr.139.rn. 37, 40. ear*, see clvau taxo-Tos 69. 2. — place with art. 125. n. 5. ea-co is 151. VI. 2. ere polo? 79. n. 2. erepoy 78. 2. — in crasis 29. n. 5. — Synt. 127. 10. — before a genit. 134. n. 24. — in attr. 143. 17. — Sdrepa 150. m. 15. irrjo-iai, oi, 34. III. 1. b. en 149. m. 22. — with comparat. 123. n. 8. eroipos, without copula 129. n. 18. -ev and -cu, Voc. 11. 3; 45. 2, 5. ev for eo and eou, 28. n. 5 ; 95. n. 16 ; 102. 3, marg. 103. m. 19, 28 : 105. n. 13. — augm. 84. 5. — instead of in Fut. 95. n. 9. GREEK INDEX. 503 ev, compounds with, 28. n. 3, marg. 86. 3. — ev iroifiv v. \eyeiv c. ace. 131. 2. — tv old' on 151. IV. 4.— ev aKoveiv vtto twos 147 vtto, p. 419. evdaifxovlCeiv c. gen. 132. 10. e. evdios, compar. 65. n. 2. fvepyereiv c. ace. 131. 2. €v6v, evtivs, 115. n. 4- 117. 1; 146.4. ei/p/xeXtco 34. n. 5. eimeidrjs c. gen. 132. 10. h, marg. ev7rvovs, evxpovs, 60. n. 5. cvnopelv c. gen. 132. 10. a. evplo-Kop,ai, personal, 151. I. 7. a. us subst. decl. 5 119. m. 31, 52. -evo-a Dor. Part. 105. n. 13. €vre, constr. 139. m. 37. €v(pvr)s 53. 1. €vxea6ai and compounds, c. dat. 133. 2. c. c&xpovs 60. n. 5. -evco, verbs in, 104. 3; 119. m. 2, 4. ecpeo-Tio? as adv. 123. 6. e(pieo~dai c. gen. 132. 10. f. e(f> s, KaXcoy e^ei c. gen. 132. n. 28.— did twos, 147 did. — dp,(pi v. nepi riva, 147 d/xs 145. n. 9. — €x&v, with, 150. m. 33. — "Krjpels i'xcov, etc. 150. m. 40. — e^eo-t^ai c. gen. 132. 5. e. eco for ao, see ao. -eco, verbs in, 104. 3; 119. m. 2, 4.— Fut. -eVco 95. n. 4. — dissyl. not contr. 105. n. 2. — for -co, and vice versa 112. 6. a, b. — with alternate o (co) in the stem-syll. 112. 8. — Ion. secondary forms in Pres. and Impf. 112. n. 5.— derivat. 119. m. 4. -eco, ending of Fut. 95. 8, and n. 11 ; 101. 2. — of Subjunct. instead of a>, 103. m. 38; 107. m. 40, 41. eWa 108. I. 1, marg. eaKeiv, ico\TT€iv, etc. 84. n. 9 : 109. 5, marg. ea>p.ev, ecop.ev, 114 aco. -ecpv gen. Dual, 52. n. 6. ecof 116. 4 ult. — also el'to? ib. n. 10. f. — ecos and eW civ, constr. 139. m. 37, 40, 68. -ed>s Part. Perf. 107. m. 23 ; 110. n. 6. c. Z. tf, 3. 2 ; 24. 1. — characterist. in Pres. 92. 8. 3. -£e, local ending, 22. n. 2; 116. n. 2. foXovv c. ace. 131. 2. -£co, verbs in, characterist. 92. n. 3-5. — flexion 95. 3, 6, and n. 2. — fre- quentatives 119. m. 14. £c6r 64. n. 2. H. r\ pronunc. 3. 2. — rj diphth. 5. 2, and n. 2. »7 for a 27. n. 7. — in crasis 29. n. 7. — in 1 Decl. 34. IV. 1.— in verbs 95. n. 7. — as mixed sound in verbs in aco and /u, 105. n. 5, 15, 16 ; 106. 5. rj for a, 34. IV. 1 ; 70. p. 90; see also a. — in compos. 121. 8. rj for e 27. n. 8. -?7, subst. in, derivat. 119. m. 24. rj or 149. m. 7. — rj npos, r) Kara, ib. — rj after a positive, ib. — omitted after a comparat. 132. n. 21, 22 ; and in rj (bare 139. m. 56. — rj ov 149. m. 7. — rj . ..rj m double ques- tions 139. m. 63. — rj fiev...rj 8e 149. m. 7.— See aXXd f) for tyrj, said he, f) 8' 6s, 109. I. 4; comp. 126. n. 2. t% 149. m. 7 ult.— t) pirjv 149. m. 29. ?/ with superlat. 123. n. 9. r)yelcrdai, r)yep.ov€veiv, c. gen. 132. 12, and n. 13. — c. dat. ib. n. 25. r)yepe6oi/Tai, rjepeOovrai, 112. 12. r)8e, 184, 149. m. 7. fjdop.ai, see Emotion, verbs of. — with Part. 144. n. 6. — rjdofjLevcp rj\6ev etc. 133. n. 6. rjdos 57. 2. r)e for rj 28. n. 3; 117. n. 1. r)i\ios 6. n. 2; 28. n. 3. rjepeOovrai 112. 12. f)6os, compounds with, 49. n. 4; 115. n. 1. rj'i for ei 27. n. 8. ij'ia, fjci, only Impf. 108. V. 9, and marg. rjKiara 115. 7. j^Kco 137. n. 8. rjXiKos in attr. 143. 16, in examp. rjXios without art. 124. n. 7. r)p.*pa impl. 123. n. 5; 125. 7; 129 17. rjp.€Tepov, iv, 132. n. 30. -rjfxi, -rjcri, Dor. flexion, 106. n. 9. rjpno-vs, rjpLiaea, 62. n. 1. — r)p.icrr}, etc. 52. n. 5. — place with art. 125. n ft. 504 GREEK INDEX. rjp,os, rrjfxos, etc. 116. n. 4. — Synt. 139. m. 37. -■qv Dual instead of -ov 87. n. 7. r)v apa 137. n. 9. — rjv 6° eyco, for e^y, 109. I. 4. rjv, Tjvi, r)vi8e, 115. n. 7. -770$- gen. of 3 Decl. 42. n. 1 ; 52. n. 3 ; 53. n. 5. ^pe/xeVrepo? 69. 2. -rjs in heterocl. nouns 56. 4. — in adj. and pr. names of 3 Decl. 49. 1 sq. 53. 1, 3; 56. n. 4, marg. 63. 4. — Ace. r}v and 77, 56. n. 4. — derivat. 119. m. 32. fja6r)v instead of Pres. 137. n. 9. -770-1 3 pers. Sing. 106. n. 9. — local ending 116. 3. rjcrKciv 3 pers. Sing. 105. n. 3. r\(T(Tov 115. 7. — fjo~a4i eivai twos 132. 12. rjavxos 65. n. 2. — as adv. 123. 6. rjroi 11. n. 3. 3; 149. m. 27. — in era- sis 29. n. 8; 149. m. 27. — 7 rapa 149. m. 27. rjTTaadcu c. gen. 132. 12. tJttoh v. KpeirTti) eivai twos, 132. 12. r)v diphth. 5. 1, and n. 2. r, X h fe 116 - n - 10 - e - -j7Xco secondary form 112. 17. e. $, for r in crasis 29. n. 4, 5. — for o- before /z, 24. 1; 119. m. 20.— 3 characterise 92. n. 2. B. &akao~o-a with and without art. 124. n. 7. ^aXdaaws as adv. 123. 6. SaXetfco 112. 12. Sap.ee?, &ap,eiai, 64. n. 3. 6. Qappew Tiva 131. 3 . Sdao-ew c. ace. 131. n. 5. Sdo-acov 18. 2 ult. 67. 3. SaTtpov etc. 29. n. 5. — Sdrepa Synt. 150. m. 15. $avp,d£ew c. gen. 132. 10. e, and n. 15. — c. dat. 132. n. 15 ; 133. 4. c. — with the three cases, ib. marg. — with ei 139. m. 60. Savp.aaTov oaov 129. n. 18; 150. m. 8; 151. I. 5. SavpLdTo? poetic 102. n. 1. Seew 7reSioto 132. n. 28, marg. Seivai and Svew 18. n. 2. — Selvai v. SecrOai vopovs 135. 6. Seiop.at 107. m. 44. SeXouTi rfkQev etc. 133. n. 6. Sepir indecl. 58. — without copula 129. n. 18. -Sev, Se, 26. n. 2; 116. 1, 4; ib. n. 10. d. $eoip,r)v instead of $eip.r)v 107. m. 46. Seos without art. 124. n. 7. — omitted 129. 17. — Voc. 35. n. 2.— ro> Sea 123. 4. Sepana, -es, 75. n. 8. Qepajrevew c. ace. 131. 2. SeW Part. 144. 11. 3; 150. m. 34 Srjp 149. m. 30. -& Imperat. 103. m. 37; 106.4; 107. m. 5; 110. n. 2; ib. 9. — as adv. ending 116. 1. — goes into -rt 18. 3 5 and n. 2; 107. m. 5. Styydveiv c. gen. et dat. 132. 5. e, and n. 9. &vr)o-KG>, aTToOvrjo-KG, with wo, 134. 2; 147. p. 419. SoifiaTiov 17. n. 2; 29. n. 4. Spdo-o-a> 17. n. 2, marg. Qprfi£, Opag, etc. 41. n. 7. SvydTTjp 47. 2 sq. — implied 125. 5. Qvew, see Sewai. — Suei, sc. 6 SvTrjp, 129. 16.— Sueti; c. ace. 131. n. 11 a. — eVi e^oSw etc. 124. n. 7. Superior as adv. 123. 6. -Sco, verbs in, poetic 112. 12. Samevew, Sodtttcw, c. ace. 131. 2. &&?, gen. Plur. Saxai/ 43. n. 2. d, Saw/Act 27. n. 11. I. 1 and v long in penult of verbs in a>, 7. n. 8.— 1 elided 30..n. 3. 1 demonstr. 26. 3; 80. 2sq. 116.8. — shortens preceding long vowel 7. n. 16. 1 subscript, 5. 2 sq. — in contraction 28. 3. 2. b; ib. 4. — in crasis 29. n. 2. — in the loc. ending -770-1, 116. 3, marg. — in 3 sing, of the Subj. Se/77, Sa/xe/77, etc. 103. m. 38; 107. m. 43, marg. — in 7^, etc. 116. n. 8 ; comp. 115. n. 3. — in Pe t rf. and Aor. of verbs \p.vp, false, 97. 4. b, marg. 101. n. 2, marg. — Inf. dv or dv 105. 4, and marg. ib. n. 15, marg. -1 adv. ending 119. m. 81. 1 case- ending, short. 43. n. 3. -1a, -lov, -10s, forms of nouns, short 1, 7. n. 10.— long a 119. m. 35. -idea, desideratives and verbs of dis- ease, 119. m. 12, 13., ide, l8ov, instead of Plur. 115. n. 7 - 129. n. 13.— l&e (rjSe) 149. m. 7 i'Sio?, comparat. 65. n. 2. ioWtjp c. gen. 132. 10. d. i'6>y c. gen. 132. 10. d. GREEK INDEX. 505 i'f/xai, tepai, 108. V. 1. pen. Ikvai with Part, as Fut. 144. n. 17. — rov irpoaoi 132. n. 28, marg. — em Srjpdu etc. 124. n. 7. — lav 150. m. 34; 144. n. 3. levai, Xeo-dai, and compounds, 130. n. 2. ult. — c. gen. 132. 4 sq. -i£o>, verbs in, 104. 3; 119. m. 8, 14. — flexion 92. 8; 95. 9. 'lyo-ov? decl. 56. n. 1. 16 1, 'ire, come on! 115. n. 7. Idv, Idvs, 115. n. 4. — Idvvrara ib. n. 6. imvos cocrre 140. 4. luereveiv, iKvelwBai, c. gen. 132. n. 11. -iKov neut. 63. n. 3; 66. 4, marg. — Synt. 128. 3. -tKor adj. in, c. gen. 132. 13. — derivat. 119. m. 54, 71. Ikov Imperat. 103. m. 4, marg. -'.Km adv. 115. n. 2. i'Xecor 27. n. 10, marg. Xp,ev, ifMevai, 108. V. 3. Xv pron. 72. n. 6. 6. -iv Nom. ending 41. 4, marg. ti/a constr. 139. m. 45-48. — «r aV ubicunque, ib. m. 47. — «/a rt; 149. m. 2. — 6i/a c. gen. 132. n. 6. -ti/or quant. 41. n. 1. -ivco, verbs in, quant. 112. n. 6. — from -ia> 112. 10. «yi«> Subjunct. 103. m. 39. -lov subst. 119. m. 42, 61. See also in -ta. -io9 gentile subst. 119. m. 49. — adj. ib. m. 66. 16s (l) 7. n. 10. inno?, f), 32. n. 3. Ipos (l) Ion. for lepd? 28. n. 5. -is fern. 63. 5; 119. m. 45, 53, 65.— Gen. tor and idor 56. n. 5 ; 63. n. 6. Xaav 109. n. 5, marg. lorOp.69 119. m. 20. Xcros and Taos 7. n. 12; 27. n. 13. — comparat. 65. n. 2. — c. dat. 133. 2. f.— Xcros elv Xcrois 151. VI. 2. icrrrjpi., 107. m. 21 sq. — crrr\cracrBai rponaiov 135. 6. laropelv, dvicrropelv, c.dupl. ace. 131.5. ire, see i'0i. i^S 56. n. 7. 2. -io>, verbs in, quant. 7. n. 10. -t£> Fut. Att. from -iVcd, 95. 9, and n. 14. ld>v : /xoXcoi/, etc. 150. m. 34. K. k for 7T (fedre) 16. n. 1. c; 116. n. 10. b. — goes into ^ in mi 29. n. 7. — /c of Perf. 1 is dropped 97. n. 7. — k as characterise 92. n. 2. Ka Dor. for jce 117. n. 1. m6d, mBdrrep, 115. n. 5. mOiCeiv, Ka6l{;eo-0ai t 113. 2 : 130. n. 2. — c. ace. 131. n. 5. Ka6LKvelo-6ai c. gen. et ace. 132. 5. e, and n. 9. mOicrTacrOai m\cos ttoXc/xov 132. n. 28. mi in crasis 29. n. 7. — %wi. 149. m. 8. — the art. to be repeated? 125 10; after iro\vs, okiyos, etc. 149. m. 8. — after op,oia>s etc. ib. — omit- ted, see Particles. — mi fxaXd, ml ndvv, 149. m. 8. — ml 6s, ml rov, 126. 5, and n. 2. — mi %pds 147. n. 5. — ml el, mv el, 149. m. 4. — ml de, ib. m. 10. — Kai ravra 150. m. 16. — ml fxr)v 149. m. 29. — ml &s 116. 5; 149. m. 1. ml and m'urep, although, 149. m. 30. — with Particip. 144. n. 15. — mi- ni 149. m. 27 ; 144. n. 15. mipds without copula, 129. n. 18 miTot, see in Kai, extr. micos mxlav 131. n. 6. mmvpyelv c. ace. 131. 2. mmvpyds twos 132. 13. mK&s Xeyew V. Troielv rwa 131. 2. mXeii/, KaXeladai, constr. 131. 6, and n. 11; 143. 4; 144. n. 10.— mXei- o-0ai in number of predic. 129. 12. — e'rri twos, 147 eVi, p. 416. — 6 m- Xovp-evos, so called, 144. n. 10. m\ld 7. n. 10. KaWio-Teveiv c. gen. 132. 12. m\ds, quant, of a, 7. n. 12. — iv mXaj c. gen. 147 iv, p. 413. mp.r)\os, tj, 32. n. 3. kov 29. n. 7.— mz/ ei with Indie. 149. m. 4. mveov, mvovv, 36. n. 2. mrd elided 117. n. 2. — implied ? 131. 7. — signif. 147. p. 414. — in com- pos. 147. n. 6. — j) mrd, see 37. mrayeXav c. gen. 132. 10. e. mTayiyva>o~Keiv, mTadim^ecrdai, etc. constr. 132. 10. g; 135. 8. — Pas- sive 134. 5, and n. 2 a, mraeio-aTo 108. V. 10. KaToXKaTTeaOai c. dat. 133. 2. b. KaravepLeiv C dupl. ace. 131.5; comp, ib. n. 9. mTcm\r)TTecr6a.i rwa 136. 2. Karairpoi^eadai, 114. p. 243. mrapvelo-Bai, with /x?; and Inf. 148. n. 9. mraaxio-6aL Pass. 113. n. 9. 506 GREEK INDEX. KaTandevai c. gen. 132. 10. c. Karacppovelv c. gen. 132. 10. e, and n. 15. elcrdai Pass. 134. 5. KciTeaya rrj? KecpaXTJS 1 132. 5. C. Karrjyopelv 132. 10. g. — Pass. 134. 2 a. KarrjKoos c. gen. 132. 10. h, marg. Karat Kara 151. VI. 2. ice, Kev, 14. 2. 5; 26. 3; 117. n. 1. See civ. Keladai 109. II. — c. ace. 131. n. 5. KeKop.p.evo? (ppevcov 132. 4 ult. KeKopvdfxevo9 92. n. 2 ult. 98. n. 5. KeK.pa.vTcu 101. n. 6. KeXaivos; p.eXa? y 16. n. 2. KeXeveiv constr. 133. 2. c. — without verb 151. IV. 8. Kevos c. gen. 132. 10. a. Kepay 54. 1. -/cepcoy, see -yeXcor. KevOeiv c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. Kex^pidaraL 130. n. 6; 103. m. 24. KTjdeadai c. gen. 132. 10. e. ktjvos 74. n. 1. Krjp, Kijpos; 41. n. 7 ; 43. n. 4. Krjpv^y K?jpv^, 41. n. 2. Krjpvcraei, sc. 6 Kt]pv£, 129. 16. -/a, -jar, 25. n. 2. KLvdvvevoi, personal, 151. I. 7. b. /cXaSi 56. n. 8. -AcXe^y, -kX?;?, 53. 3. — also -kXo? 56. n. 2. KX€o/3t, 28. n. 10. AcXeoy, KAelos", KAea, 53. n. 3, 5. Kk.rjpovop.eLv constr. 132. n. 7. koiv&vo?, -pew 1 , c. gen. 132. 5. d. KoAa^eti/ o-e/xv' eirj] 131. n. 7. KoXaKeveiv c. ace. 131. 2. Kop.Leai Hdot. 95. n. 14. /covt'a (t) 7. n. 10. Ko7r7ra, num. sign, 2. n. 3; App. B. Kopewvo-dcu c. gen. 132. 10. a, i. Kparelv c. gen. et dat. 132. 12, and n. 25- 133. 4. c, marg. — tg>v ootw 132. n. 10. Kparv?, positive, 69. n. 1. Kpeas 54. 1. KpeiTTti) elvai tivos 132. 12. — Kpeiaacav elvai personal 151. I. 7. d. Kpl 57. n. 3. KplveiVy constr. 132. 10. g. KpoKa 56. n. 8. KpilTTTaCTKOV 103. HI. 11. KpVTTTeiv, d7rOKpV7TT€LV, C. dlipl. aCC. 131. 5. Kpvcpa 146. 4. 2. KVKeu>v ace. 55. n. Kvvrepos 69. n. 2. jcuoeu/ 1 32. 5. d.— with Part. 144. n. 6. Kvav, gender 32. n. 3. KcciKveiv c. gen. 132. 4. Inf. 148. n. 9. i>, wifA, 150. m. 33. XavBdvew c. ace. 131. 2. — with Part. 144. n. 6. — Xav6dvecr6ai c. gen. 132. 10. d. Xds, Xdos, 43. n. 4; 44. n. 1. Xarpeveiv constr. 131. 2, and n. 2. Xey<0 c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. — Xeyop.ai in personal constr. 151. I. 7. — to Ae-yo^ez/oj/, 132. n. 14. Xeiireiv, e7TtXei7reH>, c. ace. 131. 2. Xeovrea, -ttj, 34. n. 1. Aecrxy?, Gen. Aeax eoo > 34. IV. 5. X^yeiz/, 130. n. 2; 132. 4. — with Part. 144. 6. a.— with pq and Inf. 148 n. 9. Xmapelv with Part. 144. n. 6. Xt'y, adj. 64. n. 3. 5. Xicraeadai c. gen. 132. n. 11. Xoyov p.ei£a>v, etc. 132. n. 20. Xoidopelv c. dat. 133. 2. d. X01770V, rov, 76 Xonrov, 150. m. 17; 125. n. 8. XolcrOos, Xoicrdios; 69. n. 3. Xovcrcu 7rorajLtoio 132. n. 28, marg. AvBicrri, 17, 125. 7. Xveti/ and compounds, c. gen. 132. 4 Xvfiaivecrdai constr. 131. 2, and n. 2. Xvo-iTeXelv constr. 131. n. 2. X(£>(3cicrdai constr. 131. 2, and n. 2. M. p. before /3, inserted, 19. n. 1. — drop- ped in redupl. 114 7rt/x7rX^i. — doubled after augm. 83. n. 2. fid Synt. 149. m. 23. -p,a subst. see -p.o?. p.aQevp.cu 96. n. 16. p.aKap 64. n. 3. — comparat. 66. n. 3. p.aKctpi£eiv c. gen. 132. 10. c. p,aKpdv adv. 115.4. — comparat. 115.6. p.aKp6s, comparat. 67. n. 5. p.dXa, p.dXXov, p,dXiara, 67. n. 7; 115, 7. — p.dXio-Ta p.ev, p-aXXov 8e, 150 m. 19. — p.dXXov, p-dXiara, with compar. and superl. pleonast. 123. GREEK INDEX. 507 n. 8, 9. — paXio-ra with numerals 150. m. 19. — eSTa/iaXio-TO. 125. n.8. fxaXrj, vtto pdXrjs, 57. 2. fiakKLTJv 105. n. 5, marg. paWov, see pdXa. -fiav for -fiTjv 103. m. 31. — pdv, see pr)v. pavddvoo, constr. 132. 10. h; 144. 6. a. — in Pres. instead of Perf. 137. n. 8. — 7-t /xa&oi/ 150. m. 41. — Dor. paOevpai 95. n. 16. pdo-Ti 56. 11. ? pd^eadai c. dat. 133. 2. a. — pd^o-dai pdyrfv 131. 4. peyas 64. 1. — ro Se p-eyio-rov 151. IV. 10. fieioi/ indeel. 129. n. 8. peioveKrelv c. gen. 132. 12. peKa? 16. n. 2. /neXet jlach c. gen. 133. 10. e, and n. 15. — with O7rcor 139. m. 45. — peXov 145. n. 10. 2. piXkeiv, Synt. 137. n. 11 ; 139. m. 13; 140. 1. c; 150. m. 35. p-ipvrjpai 83. n. 1. — Opt. 98. n. 9. — with Part, and Inf. 144. 6. — with ore 139. m. 59. pepcpeadai and compounds, constr. 133. 2. d. pev, pev.. . 8e, constructions, 126. 2 sq. 149. m. 11-14. — flip for pr)v, see pr)v. — pev, pev dr), place of, 125. 9. 126. n. 3; 147. n. 3. -p-ev, -p-evai, Inf. 103. m. 33 ; 107. m. 34 sq. fi€uoivf)7](Ti and -vr)o-eie 105. n. 10 ult. pevroi in crasis, 29. n. 8. — Synt. 149. m. 13, 27.—fxevTav 29. n. 8. pepo? with verbs of partaking 132. n. 8. -pes for -pev 103. m. 32. -peaBa, -peo~6ov, 103. m. 32. peaovv 26. 4; 115. n. 4. — Synt. 146. n. 2 ult. lit], constr. 148. 1, 2 sq. — with Subj. Aor. for Imperat. 139. m. 4. — with Part, and Inf. 148. 2. f, g.— with Subj. and Opt. 139. m. 45 j 148. 3, 4. — for o7rcos lit] and after fear 139. m. 50; 148. n. 5. — whether not? 139. m. 63. — independent in claus- es of fear 148. n. 5. — negatives parts of clauses 148. 2. h. — before subst. and other single words 148. n. 3; 151. IV. 6.— with Inf. after negative verbs 148. n. 9 ; also after fj, 149. m. 7. — instead of p&v in questions 139. m. 62; 148.5; 149. m. 18.— lit] ov 139. m. 50; 148. n. 6. — prj pr)v 150. m. 29 ult. — pf) ellipt. 151. IV. 6. — pr) on, pr) ott&s, 150. m. 3 ; on fir) ib. m. 4. — to fir) c. Inf. 140. n. 9, 10 ; 148. 2. g.— tov fir) c. Inf. 140. n. 10. -fit] subst. see -pos. firjbafiol Ion. 70. 1. prjde, prjbeis, prjdenamoTe, prjKen, etc, see ovde, etc. fir)v(fidv) 117.11.1. — Synt. 149. m. 29. firjviaios as adv. 123. 6. firjTe, pr)ns, see ovre, ovtls. fiTfrrfp 47. 2, and n, 2. — without art. 124. n. 7. prjn, pr)n ye, 150. m. 6. firfTp&s 37. n. 1 ; 56. n. 6. -pi Dor. instead of -co, 106. n. 9. — Subjunct. in epic writers 103. m. 37. — Verbs in pi, 106-109; see the list of such verbs, 112. 15. pia 34. II. 2. piyvvcrOcu c. dat. 133. 2. a. pipelcrdai c. ace. 131. 2. pcp,vr)o-v, c. gen. 132. 10. d. poyis, pokis, 16. n. 2. pokav, 150. m. 34. popeprjv eyet^ c. ace. 131. n. 7. -pos, -apos, -pa, -pi), subst. 119. m. 19 juou and epavrov 127. 7. — /mou, crov, in stead of poi, voi, 133. n. 10. 508 GREEK INDEX. uovo-tlV) povbcoicev, crasis, 29. n. 9. pv-^aros 69. n. 2. pfov, ficov ovv, [Aw fit), 139. m. 62 ; 149. m. 18. N. v ecpeXcpvo-TiKov 26. 2, and n. 2 ; 80. n. 3; 117. 1. — in Impf. of contr. verbs 105. n. 3. v in pronunc. changed, 25. n. 1, 4. — before other consonants, 25. 1 sq. — before o- and £, 25. 3. — inserted, 114 rjjjiva) — ins. before the ending of verbs in co, 112. 10; in a©, ib. 16. — in Perf. Pass, of verbs Xpvp, 101. n. 7. — v before p, ib. n. 8. — v with a priv. 120. 5, and n. 10. •v instead of -aav in 3 Plur. 103. m. 26; 107. m. 39; 110. n. 1. vol pa Aia 149. m. 23. vai X t 11. n. 2; 117. 2 ult. vavaiv without avv 133. n. 13. -vda>, -vrj/xi, from dco, 112. 16. vearos, i/e/aror, 68 ult. -vim, verbs in, 112. 10. vrj- insep. 120. n. 12. vr), particle of swearing 149. m. 23. vrjrr] 68 ult. iiKqv c. ace. 'OXv/z7ria, etc. 131. n. 11 a. — c. dupl. ace. 131. n. 8. vicpa 56. n. 8. vojjLi£ecrdai constr. 144. 7. -vos subst. derivat. 119. m. 50. — sec- ondary form in pr. names from voo?, 60. 5. a, marg. voacpi, voacpiv, 26. 3. — c. gen. 132. 4; 146. 4. 2. vov. ovap 57. 2. ovivavai c. ace. 131. 2. — ovivaaQai c. gen. 132. 10. i. 6Vo/>ia with verbs of naming 131. n. 11. 6vop.aC6p.evos, so called, 144. n. 10. oov 75. n. 1. 07T7]Setz/ constr. 133. 1, and marg. omaOev 146. 4. 2. oVioraroy 70. n. 2. 07rXTrat in dat. without crw, 133. n. 13. onXorepos 70. n. 2. 07roSa7rdf, 79. n. 1. ottou^, 67roo-oy, O7rco5, etc. 127. 6. 67rooTor 79. n. 1. onoTe 149. m. 6. — onorerov %tos 132. 5. b. — Snore and onorav, 139. m. 24, 37, 39. 68. ottou 149. m. 6; 139. m. 31. See ttov. OTTrrjcrai Kpeav 132. 5. C. o7rcoy ifAa?, in orJer that, 139. m. 45- 49; 149. m. 2. — with Subj. or Fut. instead of Imperat. ib. m. 46. — O7rcoy av, ib. m. 47, 48. — as relat. 139. m. 31. — in indir. quest, ib. m. 63. — after didoim, etc. ib. m. 50. Spav with oVcoy foil. 139. n. 45. — opav edv, ib. m. 66. opeyeo-dai c. gen. 132. 10. f. oprjai 105. n. 16, marg. 106. n. 9, marg. opvidodrjpa, rov, 34. IV. 4. -oy for -ovy 35. n. 4. b ; in Nom. Sing. 60. 5. b, marg. — subst. masc. and neut. 49. 1 ; 56. 6; 1 19. m. 28, 32, 39. -oy pure in genit. 42. 1 ; 48. 1. -o'y neut. Part, as eVroy, 107. m. 23. marg. oy pron. poss. 3 pers. 72. 4. — instead of 1 and 2 pers. 127. n. 5. 6'y, oarn?, pron. relat. 75; 126; 143; see also 6, Article, Relative. — oVm instead of oy 127. 6, and n. 10.— oo-rty, Sy au, after a noun in Plur. 143. 5. — for ei rty 143. 19. — Sorts av, 6s av, with Opt. 139. m. 68.— oaris, oo-nsovv, etc. 127. n. 11 ; 139. m. 32. — oo-rty for oansovv 127. n. 11 ult. — oy fiovkei quivis, in- flected, 143. n. 7. — 6y \iev . . . oy Be, 126. 2, and n. 3, 4. — o de iravrw yeXoiorarov, etc. 143. 11. -oo-av for -ov, Aor. etc. 103. m. 25. ocroy and o7roo-oy 127. 6. — 6Voy (and otoy) in exclam. 139. m. 35 a, ult. — for on TocrovTos-, ib. init. — with siiperlat. 123. n. 9. — for &crre c. Inf. 139. m. 57. — in parenthetic clauses 140. n. 4. — oVoy with art. 125. n. 9. — oaov y' ep,e eldevai 140. n. 4. — attraction with 143. 16, ex. — ocrov ov 150. m. 8. — oaov instead of rj, 149. m. 7. — irkelaO'' oaa, etc. 150.n.8; 151. I. 5; 129. n. 18.— roo-ovrco . . . ocro) 150. m. 8. — ellip- tical turns with oaov, oaa, ib.— octch r}p,epai, ib. — oaov re 149. m. 8 6Wep 127. n. 9. oaae as plur. 123. n. 4. oare, etc. in Horn. 149. 8. oo-riy, oarisovv, see 6s. oaepp iiveaOat c. gen. 132. 10. h. 510 GREEK INDEX. otclv 139. m. 14, 24. — with Opt. ib. m. 68. ore constr. 139. m. 37. — guandoqui- dem 149. m. 6. — that, after pepvrj- \iai etc. 139. m. 59. ore 116. n. 9. on, onr), 117. 2. — Synt. 139. m. 42, 58; 149. m. 3. — after verbs of fearing, etc. 139. m. 50. — after relative clauses 143. 11, ex. — strengthens the superlat. 149. m. 3; comp. 123. n. 9. — stands twice or interchanges with wr 139. m. 61. — redundant before an Inf. or a direct quotation 139. m. 61; 141. n. 2. — 8rj\6v on, ev old* on, 151. IV. 4.— on pr) 150. m. 3. oris, oreiov, Sreotcn, etc. 77. n. 4. ov diphth. 5. 1, and n. 2, 3. ov, ovk, olfo 4. 5; 13. 3; 26. 5. — ov and pr), Synt. 148. — ov before subst. and other single words 148. n. 2, 3. — in conditional and other de- pendent clauses 148. 2. b, marg. ib. n. 2. — in a direct quest. 148. 5. — redundant after rj, 149. m. 7. — ov liev dXkd, ov pevroi dXXd, ov yap dXkd, 149. m. 16. — ov p,r), pr) ov, 139. m. 6, 7; ib. m. 46, marg. 148. n. 6. — oi> pr)v 149. m. 29. — ov Trdvv, ov (prj/jLi, 148. n. 2. — ov mpi 150. m. 7.— ov be 149. m. 15 ult. — ovbeh oo-tls ov 148. n. 8. — See also in ovx- o$, see e. — as local adv. 116. 4; 132. 14. b. ovdapcos, -pfj, etc. 116. n. 6. — ovbapoi, prjdapot, Ion. 70. 1. ovbe and prjbe, 149. m. 15. — ovbe eh, prjbe ev, 70. 1. — ovb cos, pr) b cos, 116. 5; 149. m. 1. pen. ovbeis, ovdels, prjbeis, 70. 1 ; 78. 1. — ovdels oarts ov 148. n. 8. — ovdev olov 150. m. 11. — ovdev aXX' rj, ib. m. 12. — ovdev, prjdev, nearly indecl. 129. n. 8.— ovdev c. gen. 132. n. 5. ovdeircoirore^ prjdeTvccTrore^ 149. m. 21. ovk, see ov. ovKerc, firjKeTi, Synt. 149. m. 22. ovkow, ovkovv, 139. Hi. 62 ; 149. m. 18. ovv 149. m. 18. — appended 80. 1; 116. 9. -ovv ace. sing. 44. 1 ; 49. n. 7. ovveica 29. n. 10. — Synt. 149. m. 3; 139. m. 42, 58. ovirore, u.j]TTOTe) ov7ro), jLtTj7rco, 116. n. 6. —Synt. 149. m. 21. ovpavos without art. 124. n. 7. ovpeaiv erpecpe 133. n. 15. ovprjv 105. n. 5, marg.; sec § 114 ovpeco. -ovs, words in, 44. 1 ; 50. 1 . -ovr, ovvtos, 41. n. 5; 62. n. 3. -ovo-ara in names of places, from oeo-cra, 27. n. 17. ot/re, /x^re, Synt. 149. m. 15.— ovre ... re, ib. ovti?, prjris, 78. 1. — ovti, prjTi, 150. m. 6. ovtos, 76. — heus ! ib. n. 3. — Synt. diff. of ovtos and ode 127. 1, 2. — as adv. ib. 1. — Kai ovtos, Kai ravra, 15. m. 16. — place with art. 127. 9. — omis- sion of, see Omission. — tovtov, rov- 8e, pleonast. before Inf. and before rj, 132. n. 22; and so ravra 127. 1. b, ex. — ovros after preced. Part. 144. n. 13, marg. — without art. 127. n. 15. — See also rovro, and Demon- stratives. ovrcos- 26. 4. — Synt. before relat. clauses 139. m. 35 b. — before Zoo-re, ib. m. 5; 140. 4. — for rj after com- parat. 149. m, 7. — after a Particip. 144. n. 13. — in clauses of wishing 139. m. 7 ; 149. m. 1 ult.— diff. of ovras and o>§e 127. 1. b. oi>x on, ov% O7rcor, oi>x oaov, ovx oiov, 150. m. 1, 2. — ovx tfuo-ra 148. n. 2. ov X i 117. 2. ocpe\ov, Synt. 139. m. 8, 13 ; 150. m. 20. ocpeXos 57. 2. d(p\icrKaveiv c. ace. yfKcora, etc. 132. n. 17. oeppa 116. 4 ult.— Synt. 139. m. 37, 40, 45. b\a with superlat. 123. n. 9. o^rei 2 pers. Sing. 103. m. 18. byios, comparat. 65. n. 2. — as adv. 123. 6. tyoepdyos, comparat. 65. n. 2. 3. oco as resolution into the double sound, in verbs in ao> and o'co, 105. n. 10, 11. -dec, verbs in, 104. 3; 105. n. 11; 119. m. 2, 7. — not contr. in 1 pers. 105. n. 1. — from verbs in w, 112. 7. n. TraibiKa, rd, 32. n. 1 irals, genit. plur. naidoiv, 43. n. 4. d.— without art. 124. n. 7. — implied 125. 5. iraXato?, comparat. 65. n, 3. GREEK INDEX. 511 naXiinrXayxOevTes 121. n. 1. ndXiv "before conson. 25. n. 3. 7rap,(paivr)o-i 106. n. 9. rrav-, strengthening of adj. 60. n. 4. 7ravrjiJ.epi.os as adv. 123. 6. JJdvOov Voc. p. 50. marg. irdvv, 6, 125. 7. napd elided 117. n. 2. — signif. 147. p. 417. _ w ith Pass. 134. 3; 147. p. 417. — as adv. 147. n. 5. — in compos, ib. n. 6. — ol irapd, to. irapd, c. gen. 147. p. 417. — ndpa for ndp- eipt 117. 3. — napai 117. n. 1. — to irapaTrav 125. n. 8. irapaweiv c. dat. 133. 2. C. napaKaKeiv 07700? 139. m. 45. 770^0077X770-10? c. dat. 133. 2. f. 7rapa.crKzvd£so-6ai 07700? 139. m. 45. Tvcxpacrxov absol. 145. n. 10. 2. Txaparvxdv absol. 145. n. 10. 2. rrapaxprjpa 115. n. 5. — eV rot) irapa- X?W a 125. n. 8. rrapeyyvau c. dat. 133. 2. C. rrapeo-Ti, Synt. 150. m. 23. Trapexpv, irapacrxdv, absol. 145. n. 10. 2. Trapoitepo? 69. n. 2. napo^vveiv c. ace. 133. 2. c. Trdpos, constr. 139. m. 41. nds 43. n. 4- 62. 4; 78. 4. — and com- pounds 60. n. 4; 62. n. 2. — Synt. 127. 9. — 7rai>ra every one 128. n. 3. — ttclstls 127. 4. marg. 129. n. 13. : — Tias in attr. 143. 17. — to irav as adv. 128. n. 5. 7ra(rcre 6' dXo? #etoio 132. 5. C. 7rdo-crooi/, Tra^toTor, 67. n. 3. 7rdo-x elv with wo 134. 2. — irdcrx^v ev c. gen. 132. n. 28, marg. 7707-770 47. 1. — without art. 124. n. 7. — Tvdrep Voc. 45. n. 1. ndroo/cXo? 56. n. 2. 7rdrpco? 37. n. 1 ; 56. n. 6. naveiv, jraveadai, 130. n. 2, ex. 132. 4, and n. 2. — 7tavea6cu to cease, with Part. 144. 6. a.— with foil. £177 an( l Inf- 148. n. 9. ndxio-To? 67. n. 3. irehd JEo\. for /zero 117. n. 1. 7re£bi in Dat. without o~vv, 133. n. 13. ■rretOeiv, c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. — with (ucrre 140. 4. — neideordai with dat. c. Inf. 143. n. 4. — neiaTeov 134. n. 5. netpateu? 53. 2. neipacrdai and compounls, c. gen. 132. 10. d. n€io-T€op 134. n. 5. nivqacra 64. n. 3. 3. TreVocr^e 110. n. 5. TreTTTap-ai, 776777-7700?, 7reVrco/ca, 83. n. 1. c. 7rep 149. m. 30; 144. n. 15. — ap pended, 75. 3 ; 116. 4; 127. n. 9. 7T€pa, nepav, 117. 1} 146, 4. 2. — com parat. 69. 2; 115. n. 6. nepaiovcrdai c. ace. 135. 4. 7re/3i, signif. 147. p. 415. — omitted 132. n. 29; see Prepositions. — ol 77fpt, ol dpcpi, 150. m. 25. — ov nepi, ib. m. 7. — rrepl 770XX0O p. 416. — rrept in anastrophe 117. 3; as adv. 147. n. 5. — in composit. 147. n. 6. 7T€piyiyvea8ai, 77epieii/at, c. gen. 132. 12. Ttepiopav with Inf. and Part. 144. 6. TrepiTTos c. gen. 132. 12. rrepvcriv 26. 3. 7777 /*e'z/. . . ivr) 8e, 149. m. 14. TTipLTrkdvai c. gen. 132. 10. a. mo-Teveiv c. dat. et Inf. 142. n. 4. — Trio-Teveo-Oai Pass. 134. 5. 7riW, TrUipa, 64. n. 3. 4. — comparat. 68. 11. 77X0710? as adv. 123. 6. -77X00-10? numeral 71. 3. — c. gen. 132. 12. 7rXees 68. 6, and marg. irkeiv &dXao~arav 131. 3, ex. TrXeov, 7rXeu>, indecl. 129. n. 8. — with 77 omitted 132. n. 21. TrXeW 61. 2. — c. gen. 132. 10. a. 77X171/, 77X771/ et, 146. n. 2. 77X77/377?, rrXrjpovv, c. gen. 132. 10. a. 7rkrio-t.aiTepos, etc. 69. 2; 115. n. 6 77X770-101/ as predic. 129. 13. 77X01)?, compounds with, 60. 5. -77X01)? numeral 71. 3. TTveiv c. ace. 131. 3, ex. — c. gen. 132. 10. h. 77080770'? 79. n. 1. TTodovvTi i)\6ev, etc. 133. n. 6. 770T yrjs, 7701 v, 132. 5. b, and n. 6. Troielv Tivd ti 131. 5; rii/i ib. n. 8. — with coo-re 140. 4. — Troieicrdai Xei'ai/, Swvpa, arjrovbds, c. ace. 131. n. 7. — rrepi 770XX01) p. 416. TTOirjTOV, TO TOV, 131. 11. 14. 77010? with art. 124. n. 3. — 77010s tip 127. n. 7. 77oXepeii/ c. dat. 133. 2. a. — c. ace. TToKep-ov 131. 4. 770X4? 50. 1; 51. n. 3. — without art. 124. n. 7. — compounds with, 63. n. 6. 7roXXaKi?, Synt. 150. m. 28. Tr6X\a7Tkdo-io? c. gen. 132. 12. 512 GREEK INDEX. ttoWos 64.11.1. — 7roXXocrrdy7l.l,marg. noXvapvc 64. n. 3. 7. irokvs 64. 1, and n. 1. — 7roXu, 7roXXft>, with comparat. 123. n. 8; 133. 4. d. — ttoXv c. gen. 132. n. 5. — ra noWd adv. 128. n. 5. — 7ro\\ov del, heiv, etc. 140. n. 4; 150. m. 18; 151. I. 7. b. — nepiiroXkov TroielcrOai, p. 416. *t6ttoi, a>, 117. n. 5. Troppia 115. 6. TJ-ocraTrXacrios' 79. n. 1. noais 50. n. 5; 51. n. 3. ttoo-ov tl 127. n. 7. 7roo-Tcnos, 7roo-ror, 79. n. 1. 73-ore and nov, 149. m. 31. rrorepos interrog. and indef. 78. 2, and n. 1. — norepov . . .rj, 139. m. 63. jtot'l Dor. for irpos, 117. n. 1. — ttottov for ttotL tov, ib. n. 2. TToVwa (a) 60. n. 1 ; 64. n. 3. nov adv. of place 116. 4; 132. 14. b. — c. gen. 132. 5. b, and n. 6. nov, dr)7rov, etc. 149. m. 31. 7tov\vs 64. n. 1. nods, compounds with, 63. n. 4. irpaypaTa implied 125. 5. Tvpaos 64. 2. 7rpdrretv ottcos 139. m. 45. TrpaTTecrOai c. dupl. ace. 131. 5. 7rpeVet c. dat. also with ace. c. Inf. 133. 2. e; 142. n. 2. — irpeirov c. gen. 132. n. 26. — 7rpeVco personal, 151.1. 7. d. npecrfia for 7rpe'cr/3eipa, 64. n. 3. 3, 5. 7rpeo~(3eveLv, Trpearftevecrdai, 135. 8, ex. 7rpr) sc. teVcu, 132. n. 28, marg. 7rpoTL for Trpd? 117. n. 1. npoTepo?, TTpSiTos, 69. 2; 71. 1. TrpoTieiv, 7rpoTip.av, c. gen. 132. 10. b; ib. 12. TrpoTov, or 7rp6 tov, 150. 17. TrpovkLyoV) irpovpyov, 29. n. 9. — npovp- yov adv. 115. n. 5. — npovpyiaiTepos, -pov, 69. 2; 115. n. 6. TTpocpepeiu obov 132. n. 28, marg.; — 7rpocpepr](n 3 pers. 106. n. 9, and marg. 7rp6(ppoiv, 7rp6(ppao-o~a, 64. n. 3. 4. Trpco'ios, comparat. 65. n. 2. irpS>Tos 69. 2; 71. 1. — to Trp&Tov 125. n. 8. 7rr, characteristic 92. 8, and n. 1. ttt(£>)(6s, comparat. 65. n. 2. 3. ^veXo? p. 247, marg. nvdev Imperat. 103. m. 4, marg. UvOia viKqv 131. n. 11a. irufxciTos 69. n. 2. 7rvv6dvofiai 132. 10. h; 137. n. 7. 7rrpdy and irvpos (nvp) 7. n. 8 j 41. n. 3. 7J-o>, 7r<07rore, 149. m. 21. TraXelv c. gen. 132. 10. c. 7ro)paXa 150. m. 19. 7Jwore 149. m. 21. P. p takes after it a, see a.- — is readily doubled 7. n. 15.2; 21.2; 120. 6. p, pp, breathing, 6. 3. — pp and per 16, n. 3. pd elided 30. 2. 4. paStoy 68. 8.— no copula 129. n. 18. -paivco, verbs in, 101. 4; comp. n. 2. pdcro-aTe 103. m. 24. pea, peia, 68. 8. pen/ c. ace. 131. 3, ex. pepL>7rcopeVa 83. n. 4. p^rct kouk apprjTa 151. VI. 2. piyelv c. ace. 131. n. 3. pLTTTaaKov 103. m. 11. poOr 36. n. 1 ; 50. n. 7. GREEK INDEX. 5V6 2. a prefixed, prosthesis, 19. n. 4. — a for strength in Pres. a 112. n. 8. — in compound words 120. 3, and n. 6. — in the derivat. of subst. 119. m. 19, 20. — doubled 27. n. 17; in Fut. and Aor. 1 Act. 95. n. 5. — dropped in endings of Pass. a6ai etc. 19. 2; 98. 2 so.. 101. 7; 110. n. 3 ; also in verbal adj. as Savjxa- tos 102. n. 1. — See also -aai, -cro. a euphonic, in Perf. Aor. 1 Pass, and verbal adj. 98. 2, and n. 6 ; 100. 3, and n. 2 ; 112. 20. — See also Pros- thesis, Epenthesis. r final, appended 26. 4. — with change of signif. 117. 1. — as ending of Norn, in 3 Decl. 40. 1 ; 41. 1, 5, 6. — of the Imperat. instead of Si, 106. n. 1; 110. n. 2. — written in the middle of words 2. n. 1. -aai, -ao, 2 pers. Pass. 103. m. 16, 17 ; 105. n. 7 ; 106. n. 2. — in verbs in fit, p. 184. marg. § 107. m. 37. s. crdforf, 16. n. l.g. •ere adverbial ending 116. 1. veavTov and aov instead of pron. poss. 127. 7. 1. aeico, verbs in, 119. m. 11. a-eXrjVTi without art. 124. n. 7. arjpa ndevai c. ace. 131. n. 7. arjpaivei, sc. 6 aaKw. 129. 16. — arj- jj.av6evTtay genit. absol. 145. n. 10. 1. Ceiv e. gen. 132. 4; c. e/c, ib. n. 2. o-co/xa impl. 135. 2, ex. aco?, o~do?, 64. 3, and n. 2. crwrep Voc. 45. n. 2, 5. r, falls away, 41. 3, 4. — character- istic 92. 10, and n. 1; 96. 6. ra, see to. — to. pev . . . ra Se, 128. n. 5. — to. T€ aX'ka . . . Kai, 150. m. 14. raye therefore 126. n. 6: comp. 128. n. 5. rdde ady. 128. n. 5.- 129. n. 10. raAXa, crasis 29. n. 3 m. 14. tciv crasis 29. n. p. 76. t apa, Tapa, r apa, 29. n. 8. — Synt. 149. m. 27. rapcpee?, Tapcpetai, 64. n. 3. 6. TavTo tovto, the very same way, 131. n. 14. ra^vs, comparat. 18. 2; 67. 3. racos, raco, Taav, 37. n. 1 ) 56. n. 6. d. re Synt. 149. ra. 8. — place of, 125. 9; 147. n. 2. — re . . . ovt€, etc. 149. m. 14. redpnnrov 17. n. 2. reiV, rii/, 72. n. 6. 6. -Teipa, subst. fern. 119. m. 44. T€KprjpLov de 151. IV. 10. tzkvov, Tetco?, 32.,n. 1. — (pi'Ae tIkvov, ib. re/a/ow in Pres. 137. n. 8. T6K0?, See T€KUOV. TeXevToiov, to, 125. n. 8. T€\eVTaU VTTO TWO?, p. 419. TeXtVTCOV 150.' m. 32. re'o, rei), row, for two?, 77. n. 3. reoy, a, 6v, 72. 11. 7. -Tepo?, adj. ending, 69. n. 4. repnew, TepneaOai, see Emotion, verbs of. TtTpocpa 97. n. 1. — TtTpacpa, ib. marg. ■n) peV . . .777 8e, 149. m. 14. rrjXiKocrbe, tt)\ik.ovto? 7 14. n. 3 ; 79. 5. — for the fern. 79. n. 4. rrjpfpov, see arjpepov. TTJpO?, TrjpOVTO?, 116 4 ult. 7-771/0? 74. n. 1; Dor. rrjvei 116. n. 10. c. -ttjp, -tt)?, -Tcop, subst. 119. in. 29; comp. m. 44. -TijpLov, -Tpov, subst. 119. ra. 33. tt}? masc. see -T-qp. ttjs subst. fem. 119. ra. 37. ■tl instead of -ai, 3 pers. Sing. 107. ra. 38 ; see -3i. tl enclit. Synt. 150. ra. 6. — inserted in composition 116. 9. — vivo ri in Tmesis, somewhat, 147. n. 7. — r« c. gen. 132. n. 5. tl, 150. m. 6.—ti p.r\v, 149. m. 29.— tl yap, tl t)e, TL ovv dr], TL prj ; 150. m. 6. — ri ov with Aor. 137. n. 6. — tl xpapai avTW 131. 8. — ti 7radd>v, ■ri pa6d>v, 150. m. 41. — tl o - ' ov pe\- Xei 150. m. 35 tit;; 77. n. 2. Tibivai c. gen. 132. n. 13. — Setixu v. §io~8ai vopov? 135. 6. — diadeadai, ib. t'lktciv, to be a father, etc. 137. n. 8. tlv, see reti\ nVre 116. n. 10. g. ris enclit. Synt. 124. 2; 127. 4 sq. 129. 19 sq.— after adj. 127. n. 7.— with Imperat. 129. n. 13. — with Part. 144. n. 1. — Ion. put between art. and subst. 125. n. 1. — omitted 129. 11. 17.— in attr. 143. 17. tl?, tl, accent 14. 2.— quantity 41 n. 3.— Synt. 127. 5; 139. m. 63 sq —to tl; 124. n. 3.— tl c. gen. 132 n. 5. TiTvo-KeaOai c. gen. 132. 10. f. tUlv, Ticrao~6ai Ttvd tl, 135. n. 2. to, ra, Synt. 125. 5, and n. 6 ; 128. 1, 2 sq. see also Article. — as adv. 1 25. n. 8; 128. n. 5. — with a genit. or adverbial expression, 125. 5, and n. 6. — to, Tto, therefore, 126. 11. 6. — to prj, to prj ov, tov prj, 140. n. 9, 10: 148. 2. g, h; ib. n. 9.— to de' 150. m. 5. — to with Inf. instead of tov, after e'lpyeiv, etc. 140. n. 9, 10. — to ndv, to. TroXkd, adv. 128. n. 5. — tcl Kai Ta, 126. n. 5. — to 7rpa>- tov, to. vvv, adv. 125. n. 8. rot, in crasis 29. n. 8. — to'l, toww, etc. 149. m. 27. — place of, 125, 9. to"lo for tov 75. n. 1 j 77. n. 3. TOLoade, Toaoade, 14. n. 2, 3 ) 79. 4, 5; 127. 1. b. tolovtos, Toaoi/To?, flexion 79. 4, 5. — with genit. foil. 132. n. 6.— with art. 124. n. 2. — tolovto?, olos, c. Inf. 139. m. 57. — toiovto? and toi- ouSe 127. 1. b. — TOLavT^ cirTa 127. n. 7. roicrfiecrcrt 76. n. 2. To^eveiv c. gen. 132. 10. f. too-o?, oao?, usage 79. 4 sq. Toaoade, see roidcroV. rocrouror, see tolovto? and ocroy. — ToaovTo?, oao?, c. Inf. 139. m. 57. rore . . . ore, 116. n. 9 GREEK INDEX. 515 Tovvavr'iov, on the contrary ; 131. n. 14. tovto c. gen. 132. n. 6. — tovto, ravra, therefore, 128. n. 5; comp. 126. n. 6. — tovt* eKelvo 127. 1. C. — tovto jxiv . . . tovto de, 128. n. 5. -Tpa, -rpov, subst. 119. m. 33. TpaTTTjTeou 134. li. 5. rpavpa, rpcovpa, 36. 11. 11. rpexeiv 114; see dpapelv. Tpirjprjs, genit. Plur. 49. 3, and n. 4. rpi-, Tpicr-, 70. n. 3, and rnarg. -TpL?, -rpia, subst. 119. m. 44. rpiTaio? as adv. 123. 6. rpi^o? genit. of #pi|, 18. 2. -rpoi> subst. 119. m. 33. Tpcos, genit. Plur. Tpoocav, 43. n. 4. d. Tpcovpa, see Tpavpa. tt, -rrco, see crcr, -o"o"co, etc. ru'y^di'oj, ivTvyxavu), c. gen. dat. ace. 132. d, and n. 7; ib. 10. h.— with Part. 144. n. 6. tvvvos, tvvvovtos, 79. n. 1. TV7rreada[Tival35.5. — c. ace. ofthing, t\, -nXrjyas, 134. 11. 2. Tvcpoos, Tv, therefore, 126. n. 6. -rcop subst. 119. m. 29. toqvto, crasis, 29. n. 6. v initial aspirated 6. 4. — v and t long in penult of verbs in co, 7. n. 8. — v instead of ev in Perf. Pass. 98. n. 4. v{3pi£eiv constr. 131. 2, and n. 2. vj3pio-Tr)?, comparat. 66. n. 1. vyirjs 53.. 1. veiy 129. 17. — vovtos absol. 145. n. 9. -v£a>, verbs in, flexion, 95. 6. vi diphth. 5. 1, and n. 2. — vi dat. Sing. 50. n. 1. vlos impl. 125. 5. -upt, verbs in, Subj. and Opt. 107. m. 33 ; see -vvpi. wo? genit. in, quantity, 41. n. 1. -wco, verbs in, 104. 3; 119. m. 9. — come from verbs in -va>, 112. 10. — their quantity, 112. n. 6. viral 117. n. 1. una/covco, vnrjicoo?, constr. 132. 10. h, marg. virap 57. 2. iirdpxetv with Part. 144. n. 6. xnaTos 69. 2. inepvrjpvKe, 114 rjpvio. vnep prep, signif. 147. p. 415. — in cemposit. 147. n. 6. vTrepjSdXKnv c. gen. 132. 12. — c. ace ib. n. 25. virepopav constr. 132. 10. c, and n. 15 vTrepTrovTio? as adv. 123. 6. vneprepos; vrrepTaTo?, viraros, 69. 2 vtttjkoos, constr. 132. 10. h, rnarg.— to v7rr)Koov, the subjects, 128. 3. virio-xv^o-6ai c. Inf. Fut. 140. 1. c. vtro elided, u/3/3dA\eii/, 117. n. 2. — sig nif. 147. p. 419. — as adv. 147. n. 5 — in composit. ib. n. 6. — with Pass. 134. 2: 147. p. 419.— vttoti 147. n. 7 ult. — vno for vrreaTi 117. 3, 2. Imoftciv Tivd ti 131. 5. — vTrodeladai ti Mid. 135. 4. V7T0\l£0V€S 68. 5. v7ropip.vrjcrK.eiv Tivd ti 131. n. 8. t>7rdcr7j-oi'§or as adv. 123. 6. vTTOo'Trjvai ti 131. 3, ex. imoTideo-dai c. dat. 133. 2. c. -vpd? (v) adj. 7. n. 7. -ur, Nom. in, long 42. n. 2. — Adj. 62, 1, and n. 1 ; 63. 2. vcrplvi 56. 11. 8. vo-Tepelv c. gen. 132. 12. ucrrepoy, uo-raroy, vcrrdrtor, 69. 2, and n. 3. v^ois Infill. 105. n. 18. -wo), verbs in, quantity, 7. n. 10. — Fut. varo, 95. n. 3. — some from verbs in -co, 112. 7. i (pipeiv c. dat. 133. 4. c. — with el, 139. m. 60. ^a/xot and x&i/jaAor, 19. n. 3. Xapt£eo-dai c. gen. 132. 5. c. x dpiv, Synt. 131. 10: 146. n. 2. X*/p implied 123. n. 5. — t«» x eL P e 1 ^3. 4. — x ei P°? ayeip Tivd 132. 11. 10. — 6"e£i«r x el P°' y etc - J 32. 14. b. ^eXtSoT 56. n. 7. 1. vfpeuoi/, X«P»?i'; X^P 7 ?"' X^PV es * T ° X e P aa > 68. 2. Xrjpova$ai c. gen. 132. 10. a. xOapaXos 19. n. 3. X&Tos as adv. 123. 6. Xopeveiv c. acc. 131. 3 ult. Xpewv indecl. 57. n. 1 ; 114 XP^, an d marg. — without copula 129. n. 18. —Part, absol. 145. n. 10. 2. Xpf], 114 XP" 00 - — constr. 131. n. 4; 132. 10. a.— x pr)v 139. m. 13. XPfl&w constr. 132. 10. a, and n. 14. Xprjpara impl. 125. 5, and n. 6. Xprjardai tivi 133. 4. a, and marg. — z\pr](j6r)v Pass. 136. n. 3. Xprjo-Trjs 34. III. 1. b. Xcopa implied 123. n. 5; 125. 5. Xvpelv, x&pifciu, an( i compounds, c. gen. 132. 4. X^op/r as predic. 129. 13. — c. gen. 132. 4; 146. 4. 2. \\r, £, origin. 22 ; see |. -^, adj. ending, 63. 4. •ty-aveiv c. gen. 132. 5. e ; ib. 10. h. ^■evdeaBai c. gen. 132. 4. ijkuSqr, comparat. 66. n. 2. yjfT)(pi£eo-6ai, with worf, 140. 4. yf/T)(povs Seadai, c. acc. 131.il 7. i/nXor c. gen. 132. 10. a. a. co, as if short in Att. decl. and Ion. genit. 11. 8, and n. 4. — compared with 3 Decl. 56. n. 7. marg. co for o and ov, 27. n. 4. — for o, ib. • n. 13 ; 121. 8. — epic for o in Part Perf. 103. m. 30. — co alternate in Perf. 2, 97. n. 2; inserted, ib. — alternate in verbs in -dco and -e'eo, 112. 8. co contracted out of orj, 114/3oaco. — in compounds 120. n. 2; 121. 8. co, diphth. 5. 2, and n. 2. -co, acc. of Att. 2 Decl. 37. 2.— neut of adj. in -cor, 61. 1. — adv. ending for -cor, 115. 6. -co, -cor, subst. fern. 49. 1, 3. co genit. 56. n. 6. -co, Fut. Att. for -atrco, -e'trco, 95. 8. co and co interj. 1 17. n. 5. — Synt. 129 a. n. 1 ; 132. n. 31. — doubled 129 a. n. 1. coSe, local adv. 149. m. 1 ult. — Me and ourcor 127. l.b; 149. m. 1 ult. -a>r)v instead of -oinv 107. m. 3 ; 11C. V 1. 4. coXXot, copioror, crasis, 29. n. 6. -coi/ subst. decl. 55: 56. n. 6. cot and -cofta subst. ampliat. 119. m. 43. coi/, 6V, Part, omitted 144. n. 6, 7; 145. n. 10. 2. coi/ Ion. for ovi/, causes Tmesis, 147. cora, crasis 45. n. 5. cora|, covep, wvdp&ire, crasis, 29. n, 10 ; comp. 45. n. 5. wveopai c. gen. 132. 10. c. -coi/ia, see -d>v. hvTivcav, accent 14. n. 2; 77. 3. -coo, for -oio 2 Decl. 37. n. 3. CO TTOTTOl 117. 11 . 5 . -cop subst. 56. n. 6. copa without copula 129. n. 18. -wr Part. Perf. neut. 110. 10 ult comp. 107. m. 23. marg. -cor, -cor, adv. 11. 3; 115. 3; 116 n. 7. -cor subst. 49. 1, 3; 56. n. 6. — Adj 61 ; 63. 4. GREEK INDEX. 517 wr, wf, particle, 13. 3, 4 ; 116. 4, 5; 149. m. 1. — Synt. as relat. 139. m. 31 sq. — as particle of time 137. n. 1; 139. m. 37 sq. — in repetitions with the Opt. ib. m. 39. — final, that, ib. m. 45 sq. cos av ib. m. 47, comp. m. 37. — with Inf. for coo-re 139. m. 53; 140. 4.— for on ovtcos 139. m. 35' a.— that, like oti, 139. m. 58; the two interchanged, ib. m. 61. — in parenthetic clause?, as COS CTTOS e'ineiV, COS (flOLj 140. ii. 4 : 133. n. 7. — cor v. 7T