FHHSKNTKD I'.Y / 96 AXCIEXT NORMANS. — Frontispiece. YOUNG PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND BY GEORGE MAKEPEACE TOWLE AUTHOR OF " HISTORY OF HENRY V," " HEROES OF HlSTOKYj " MODERN GREECE," " MODERN FRANCE," " ENGLAND AND RUSSIA IN ASIA," "ENGLAND IN EGYPT," ETC., ETC. BOSTON LEE AND SHEPARD PUBLISHERS NEW YORK CHARLES T. DILLINGHAM 1 88; Tin Copyright, /SS6, By Lee and Shepard. All Iti^/ils Reserved. HISTORY OF ENGLAND. Electrotyped by C. J. Peters & Son, Boston. \ PREFACE. The attempt is made, in this volume, to present clearly and concisely the main facts in the history of England, from the Roman Conquest to tlie present time. The author has especially had it in mind to show the growth of the political liberties and institutions of the English people ; and to indicate, in some degree, in the chapters entitled " Progress of the People," the changes in the social condition, and the advance in literature and the arts, of the English between one period and another. It has also been his earnest purpose and endeavor to relate events, and to describe persons, without bias or partiality; to avoid obtruding judgments of his own on these events and persons ; and to leave it to the reader to make up his judgment on the many disputed points in English history, from facts which have been accepted as true on all sides. G. M. T. Boston, February, 1886. iii CONTENTS, Chapter Page I. Ancient Britain i II. Reign of the Romans 6 III. Britain becomes England . 12 IV. The Early English Kings . 18 V. Growth of the English Nation . 26 VI. Progress of the People . • 32 VIL The Danish Conquest . 38 VIII. Canute and his Successors • 43 IX. The End of the Saxon Dynasty . 4S X. The Norman Conquest • 54 XL Progress of the People . . Co XII. William the Conqueror . . 66 XIII. William Rufus, or the Red 7- XIV. Henry the First • 77 XV. The First Plantagenet • 83 XVI. Henry's Reforms and Conquests . 90 XVII. Progress of the People . . 96 XVIII. Richard the Lion-Hearted . 100 XIX. The Great Charter . 106 XX. The Rise of Parliament . . 112 XXI. Edward the First 119 XXII. Edward the Second . 127 XXIII. Edward the Third . ^33 XXIV. Progress of the People . 141 XXV. Richard the Second 148 XXVI. The House of Lancaster . 155 XXVII. The Wars of the Roses . 162 VI TABLE OF CONTENTS. XXVIII. The House of Vork . XXIX. Progress of the People . . XXX. The House of Tudor XXXI. The Rise of Protestantism XXXII. The Protector Somerset . . XXXIII. Queen Mary . XXXIV. The Maiden Queen . . XXXV. The Defeat of Spain . XXXVI. Progress of the People . . XXXVII. The House of Stuart . XXXVIII. The Struggle between the Cro\ vn and Parliament . XXXIX. The Civil War . XL. The Commonwealth . XLI. The Restoration of the Stuarts . XLII. The Revolution XLIII. Progress of the People . . XLIV. William of Orange . XLV. Queen Anne XLVI. The War with France . XLVII. The House of Hanover . XLVI 1 1. The Seven Years' War . XLIX. George the Third . L. William Pitt . LI. The Napoleonic Wars . LIL Progress of the People . LIIL George the Fourth . . LIV. Victoria .... . LV. Later Years of Victoria's Reign . . . . Chronological Annals Sovereigns of England First Lords of the Treasury and Prime Ministers of England . Index ?Si YOUNG PEOPLE'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND, CHAPTER L ANCIENT BRITAIN. FIFTY-FIVE years before the birth of Chiist, Julius Caesar, the great Roman general, invaded the island of Britain. It was his ambition to extend his power over all that part of the globe which was then known. He had conquered, one after another, the tribes and nations which dwelt between Italy and the northern seas ; and now his heart was set on subduing this furthermost island. We know almost nothing of the history of Britain before his invasion, and so it is necessary to begin with that. Caesar's fleet anchored off the foggy coast. As his well- drilled legions landed, and marched across the ° ' The Ro- marshes and through the dense forests, what sort man in- of people did he find there ? He and his generals must have been surprised to observe that they were not an utterly savage people, like many of the tribes he had before met on his conquering march. The Britons, in- stead of roaming wild, and sleeping in the forests or in damp caves, lived in low huts gathered in villages. It I 2 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. was clear that they did not Hve peaceably, for the vil- lages were surrounded by hiirh, rude fences, en- Character ° . and habits circled by ditches, serving them as a protection against their neighbors. These villages were commonly planted in the midst of the forests, or on the islands with which the lakes (many of which have now disappeared) were studded. Caesar remarked, too, that the Britons were a very thrifty and industrious race. Their pastures were alive with the cattle they raised ; the fields outside the \'illage walls smiled with waving grain ; in some parts of the country he found the people mining tin and lead ; and everywhere he saw signs that the Britons were bold and skilful hunters. There were then many wild beasts in Britain, which have long since ceased to exist there. For instance, the men brought in from their hunting expeditions bears, wolves, elks, and wild boars. The Britons had also found out the value of horses, which, however, they used only to draw their chariots in battle ; and they had discovered that dogs could be trained to run down the game which the Britons hunted. In many arts the Britons were even then skilful. They could make pretty baskets and many kinds of pottery. They could fashion stones, bones, and horns in- to the points of deadly weapons. But they had not yet learned the uses of iron, or of any other metals except lead Personal ^^'^^^ ^i^"'- The Romaus could not but admire the traits. g'2g^ Strength, and manly beauty of the Britons. Their stalwart frames and shoulders, their fair complex- ions, large, clear blue eyes, and the long, light liair which fell in thick masses over their backs, their long mous- taches, and their scant but graceful clothing, gave them an attractive aspect. Ancient Britain. 3 C£esar found, to his cost, that they were as vaHant and warlike as they were handsome and noble-looking. Armed with their spears and javelins, and with Methods hide-bound wooden shields, they made terrific i"war. attacks on his troops. But Csesar's army was much better armed and trained than the Britons were ; and he had, besides, another great advantage. The Britons were not united as a nation, but were divided into many tribes, each with its own chief; and these tribes were often hostile to each other. They could not, therefore, com- bine very well to resist the invader. The govern- Govern- ment of the British tribes was peculiar. The chiefs '^^'^^^ were by no means despotic rulers. On the contrary, the men of the tribe usually decided on any war, and how to carry it on ; and the chief had to act on their decision. Thus the rude tribes which inhabited the British island nineteen hundred years ago had something of that sort of self-government which is so securely established in the England of our day. Many of the Romans who went with Caesar were intel- ligent and observing men. They were very much struck, among other things, with the religion of the Britons. They found among the Britons a body of priests, T^e called Druids, who received far greater reverence Druids, and obedience from the people than did the Roman priests at home. These Druids, indeed, not only ruled the souls of the Britons by their religious rites, but had a large influence over their worldly affairs. They were the most learned men among the Britons, and taught them about the heavenly firmament, the use of herbs as medicines, and the traditions of the past. They gave counsel to the chiefs as well as to the common people. The person of 4 ^ YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. a Druid was sacred. To kill or even harm a Druid was the deadliest sin a Briton could commit. In some respects the religion of the Druids was like Religious that of the Jews ; in others, like that of the belief. Romaus. They taught that men would be pun- ished for bad deeds, and rewarded for good deeds, here- after ; that the soul did not die, but passed, on the death of the body, into another body. Like the Romans, they believed in sacrifices, and, probably, in human sacrifices. But, unlike the Jews or the Romans, the Druids did not conduct their worship in temples or other covered build- ings. Their altars were erected in the open air, some- times in an opening in the forests, and sometimes on the summits of high hills ; and thus, under the blue sky, their solemn rites were performed. There are many ruins, consisting mainly of large stones placed in circles or long lines, still existing in England, which probably mark the spots where the Druids held their ceremo- nies in the presence of their rude congregations. The most remarkable of these ruins is the celebrated Stone- he nge. Caesar coveted for Rome the possession of a country inhabited by so skilful and warlike a race, and resolved, if possible, to conquer it. But he found this no easy task. So bold a front, indeed, did the Britons Landing: ' ' of coesar's offcr whcu hc attempted to land, that the Roman soldiers, victorious though they had been in a hundred battles, shrank from leaping on shore. At last a rash Roman standard-bearer set the example. He jumped into the midst of the enraged Britons. His com- rades, seeing his bold act and his danger, could no longer hesitate. They plunged into the sea up to their waists, ANCIENT BRITAIN. 5 and hastened to save him. After a brief struggle, the Britons, overpowered by the superior weapons and csesar's skill of their enemies, were driven back ; and the ^^"^"j.^^^.^ Roman general advanced with his troops into the treat, heart of the country. It was not hard for him to subdue the tribes, as he came up with one after another of them ; but their resistance constantly hindered and checked him. Before he had reached the Thames, he found it necessary to return and recross the Channel ; for the time of year was approaching when it w^ould be difficult, if not impos- sible, for his galleys to make the short voyage across that stormy strait. Caesar was a man of strong will. He was not easily dismayed or discoura";ed. Having once set foot „. -' . His see- on the island of Britain, he was resolved to use ond inva- every effort to subdue it, and add it to the do- minions of Rome. So the next year he brought a still larger army to its shores, and once more landed. Mean- while the Britons, who suspected that they had not seen the last of him, had settled their own quarrels, and w^ere now combined, under a valiant chief named Caswallawn, to oppose him. Though they fought stoutly, the genius of Caesar and the splendid discipline of his Roman veterans were too much for them. After several battles, Caesar compelled the Britons to make peace with him and to sub- mit to his terms. This conquest of Caesar, however, proved for the time a fruitless one. The only advantage he gained from it was to prevent the Britons from sending aid, as they had before done, to his enemies in Gaul. Gaul (now France) had become a Roman province ; and Caesar had much trouble in keeping down the Gallic tribes, which were still restive under his rule. CHAPTER II. REIGN OF THE ROMANS. FOR ninety-seven years after Caesar's second invasion, the Britons were left undisturbed by Roman attacks. They began to think that they were forever rid of their Invasions ^^es. But it appeared that the ambitious Roman Claudius ^"^P^^C)^s had by no means forgotten the thrifty andNero. Uttlc island in the northern seas. In the year 43 A. D. the Emperor Claudius sent an army to their shores, which conquered the southern portion of the island ; and Roman governors were set over the people. A great chief, Caractacus, held the northern portion against the invader; and although he himself was taken prisoner, and was car- ried in triumph to Rome, his brave tribe successfully resisted the advance of the enemy. Eighteen years later (6 1 A. D.) the Emperor Nero sent another army to Britain. This time the struggle between the invaders and the Britons was more obstinate than ever before. A brave Queen quccu of ouc of the tribcs, named Boadicea, who Boadicea. j-j^j bccu cruclly treated by the Romans, took command of a great army, burned many towns which had been settled by the Romans, and drove the intruders southward in a panic. A fresh Roman army, under Sue- tonius, hastily crossed the channel, and joined battle with Boadicea. The conflict was fierce and long. Boadicea herself, 6 BOADICEA AMONG HER TROOPS.— Page 7. REIGN OF THE ROMANS. / with her fair young daughters at her side, rode in a chariot among her troops, exhorting them to fight to the death for their country ; and when at last her enemies won the victory, she poisoned herself in the midst of her flying soldiers, rather than fall again into Roman hands. Eighty thousand Britons fell on this memorable and fatal battle- field. The sway of Rome was at last established g^j^^j^ over all of Britain that lay south of what we now submits . to Rome. call Scotland ; and a wise and good governor, named Agricola, was sent by the Emperor Vespasian (78 A. D.) to govern the new province. He reduced Britain to order, successfully repelled the attacks of the Caledo- nians, who dwelt in Scotland, erected a great wall across the island from the river Forth to the river Clyde, to protect the Roman part of Britain from the northern tribes, built paved roads, and gave to the Britons many wise and just laws. The rule of the Romans over Britain continued about four hundred years, and produced many good results in the island. In some respects it ^ ^ Benefits was a wise and civilizing rule ; and many of the of Roman British tribes became quite reconciled to it. At the end of their long dominion both the country itself and the people wore a very different aspect. Walled towns, with houses built of brick and stone, theatres, public baths, and temples, had here and there replaced the rude villages of half-underground huts. Vast walls had been erected across the island in two places — the one built by Agricola, and another further south, from the river Tyne to the Solway Frith, Many excellent high- ways now stretched across the island. Waste lands had been converted into smiling fields of wheat and barley; and the Britons had learned from their Roman masters 8 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. how to procure iron, as well as lead and tin, from the depths of the earth. Their trade, moreover, with the Gauls and other continental peoples, had grown rapidly. They had begun to exchange their productions for those of for- eign lands. London had become an important centre of trade, and was growing into a metropolis. So valuable did the Roman emperors regard their do- minion of Britain, that three of them made the The em- ' perorsin joumcy all the way from Rome to inspect it. These were Hadrian, Severus and Constantine. Severus, who was so old and feeble when he went to Britain that his soldiers had to carry him everywhere on a litter, died at the town we now know as York. Constan- tine, the first of the Christian emperors of Rome, whose Christian- niothcr was a Briton, introduced Christianity, ity. ^vhich had before taken some root in Britain, but had been suppressed. It was now, through the zeal of Constantine, ver}^ generally adopted as the creed of the British people. Though subdued by Roman arms, and benefited by the laws and the improvements of the Roman governors, the Britons had by no means lost their language Britons un- or their national traits. At the end of four changed. centurics of Romau rule, they still remained a distinct people, adhering to their ancient customs, speak- ing their ancient tongue, and retaining to a large degree their ancient dress, food, and occupations. The Romans were finally worried out of Britain by the ^ ^ constant ravao^es of hostile tribes and the incur- The Ro- => mans sions of forcigH invaders. The Picts, or Caledo- abandon . , . , the is- mans, swept down upon their settlements from ^'^'^^- the northern highlands ; the Scots, who dwelt in northern Ireland, crossed the water, and laid waste the REIGN OF THE ROMANS. 9 western colonies ; the Saxons came in their fleets from what is now northernmost Germany, and played sad havoc along the eastern British coast. Meanwhile the troops of the Roman emperors were sorely needed in other parts of Europe, and at last soldiers could no longer be spared to keep Britain in subjection. So it came about, that, early in the fifth century, the Romans left the Britons Domestic once more to themselves. But, unhappily, the q^^rreis. Britons were not long to enjoy the blessings of peace. The Picts, the Scots, and invaders from Europe, still assailed them ; and the British tribes soon broke out into fierce quarrels among themselves. Then there arose a great chief named Vortigern, who, having learned a lesson in war from the Romans, called in foreign aid to ^^^ g^^_ rid the Britons of their most formidable foes — ons in- the Picts and Scots ; and this act led directly to a second conquest of the Britons by strangers. These strangers were the three hardy tribes of the Saxons, Jutes, and Angles, who were the ancestors of the modern Eng- lish. These three tribes dwelt on the borders of the North Sea, in that part of northern Europe which lies at the base of the Danish peninsula. They were intrepid sailors, full of the spirit of adventure, the bravest of warriors, fond of peril and difficulty. They were far in advance of their German neighbors in the arts of workmanship and in their manner of living. Their houses were, for that remote period, comfortable ; their fields were skilfully „ ' ' ' -' Manners tilled ; they were laborious and thrifty ; and they and cuar- were devoted to hardy sports. They loved to follow the chase and to race their horses. There were no merrier feasters, no more ardent lovers of music and 10 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND, dancing in the world. They were a law-abiding people. P^ach village governed its own affairs ; and twice a year there met a general assembly, composed of delegates irom all the villages, to consult about the common good, i ere we find the origin of the English Parliament and of he legislative bodies of our own country. The grievances li the people were often settled in these councils ; but u e Savage custom of " ordcal by battle " prevailed amon • customs. ii^QiYi, by which a man might fight his enemy hana to hand, and he who won the victory in such a contest wa. supposed to have justice on his side. These people were heathens, and worshipped gods of their own. They had temples in the depths of the forests, before which they often burned the trophies they had taken in war. The week-days Tuesday and Wednesday were named from two gods, Tew and Woden, and Thursday and Friday from Thor and Friga. The Saxons, Jutes, and Angles, even in that early age, were very intelligent. They could write, and carve letters on monuments ; but there were no books among them. This was the hardy race that the perplexed Vortigern summoned to aid him against the Picts and Scots. In doing so, he destroyed the independence of the Britons. Like the fisherman in the "Arabian Nights," who opened the jar on the seashore, and let loose the mighty spirit who overwhelmed him, Vortigern admitted to his island realm a race that was destined to overspread and rule it. The strangers crossed the sea under two gigantic and The sav- h^roic chicfs, Hengist and Horsa. At first they pfovi"'^^ faithfully helped Vortigern and the other British treacher- priuccs in their wars with the Picts and Scots, and gained many hard-fought battles. But soon the REIGN OF THE ROMANS. II ambition of the Saxons was aroused by the aj:pect of the • fair and flourishing lands of the Britons. As new armies came over the sea, and the Saxons received new strength thereby, they began to covet the kingdoms of Britain for themselves. Finally Hengist and Horsa boldly turned their arms against their old allies. The Britons held out bravely against them for a while ; l^ut the numbers, discipline, and prowess of the Saxons proved too much for them in the end. They first conquered what is now Kent ; then Sussex ; then western Britain, which they conquer called Wessex ; later, the lands along the eastern coast, which they called East Anglia, and Essex, and Middlesex. These successive conquests were spread over a period of one hundred and tifty years. At the end of that period, the Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes — the three tribes who had crossed the seas and invaded Britain, and who were near kinsmen in race — had taken posses- sion of nearly all of the British Isle, excepting Wales on the west, and Scotland, as far as the Frith of Forth, on the north. All these tribes came to be known Ti,ey make under the common name of " the Enfrlish." England. What they did in Britain after they had thus conquered it will be told in the next chapter. CHAPTER III. BRITAIN BECOMES ENGLAND. BY the beginning of the seventh centur}' (607), but few of the Britons remained on their native soil. The Enghsh had massacred them as they conquered them, The Con- and had taken possession of their fertile lands rib!yVom'. ^"^1 snug villagcs. The English had also killed piete, their priests, and had thrown down their lempies. A few Britons, no doubt, escaped into Wales, Ireland, and Scotland ; but from their own country they had almost completely disappeared. The English, having thus spread themselves over the island as far as the Frith of Forth on the north, and as far as the fastnesses of Wales on the west, multiplied rapidly in numbers, and thrived on their new domain. They planted the manners and customs and heathen religion of their old country in the new ; but as they increased in numbers, and as the various tribes grew jealous of each other, they could no longer maintain their The Saxon o^^l f^ec fomi of govemmcnt. Gradually neigh- kmgdoms. boring settlements joined together in self-defence, and for the purpose of making war on rival settlements; and thus kingdoms came into existence, and kings were chosen to rule over them. These kings had far more power than the English chiefs of the old country, and often ruled their subjects with an iron hand. As the kingdoms grew, they began to engage in fierce 12 BRITAIN BECOMES ENGLAND. 'I3 and bitter wars with one another. The kings grew ambi- tious to extend their dominions over the island, and the warhke EngUsh readily responded to the call to arms. By and by, three of the seven realms into which Eng- The Hep- land was now divided, became greater in prowess t^^^^y- and territory than the rest. These were, Northumberland, which lay in the north of England, and in Scotland as far as the Frith of Forth : Mercia, which occupied the central portion of the island and Wessex, which included the territory south of Mercia, and found its southern limits along the English channel. Able and warlike kings arose to reign over these kingdoms, and to battle with each other for supremacy ; and thus England was plunged in a succes- sion of bloody wars for several centuries. Not internal only did the English fight each other, but they "^'^''^■ were often engaged in stubb:)rn conflicts with the Welsh on the west, and the Picts on the north ; so that, thrifty as were the people, they had little time to cultivate their farms, or to engage in the industries in which they were skilled. The kings of Northumberland were the first to attempt the conquest of the rest of the country. Four „ ^ ^ -^ North- of these, named Ethelfrith, Edwin, Oswald, and umbrian Oswy (whose reigns extended from 593 to 670), were one and all valiant generals and able rulers. Ethel- frith won his first victories over the Picts. He next fought the Welsh, and, having also subdued them, marched against the East English. He fell in a battle with this race, and was succeeded by Edwin. Of Edwin many romantic stories are told. He was a yet greater warrior than Ethelfrith ; and so orderly were his subjects, that property was safe, wherever it might be left, throughout his dominions. He 14 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. built a city in the north, \vhich he named after himself, " PkhvinsboroLigh," the same city that we now call " Edin- Rise of burgh.'- Edwin was extremely fond of pomp and Mercia. parade. He continued the wars of Ethelfrith with vigor and success. His most formidable enemy was Penda, king of Mercia , and he was finally slain by Penda in a battle at Hatfiekl Oswald next ascended the throne of Northumberland ; but he, too, fell in battle against Penda. Then Oswy, the last of the great kings of North- umberland, marched against Penda, defeated him, and chased him and his army into a river, w^here the Mercian king and many of his soldiers were drowned. Oswy then advanced promptly into Mercia, and at last established his sway almost throughout England. But Northumberland did not long retain its supremacy, Egfrith, Oswy's suc- cessor, after gaining many brilliant victories, was defeated and slain by the Picts, and Northumberland now lost its hold upon the other kingdoms. I'he most powerful of the English kings, after the death of Eirfrith, was Cadwalla, kins: of Wessex. On Wessex fci ' 'is rivals his northern border lay the rival realm of Mercia, which had become so strong under the warlike Penda. It was the task of Cadwalla and of his successors on the throne of Wessex, to subdue Mercia, and to subject it to their rule. For a long while the conflict for suprem- acy between these two kingdoms was doubtful. Some- times the kings of Wessex overran Mercia, and seemed on the point of completing its conquest ; then an able king of Mercia would arise to drive back the tide of invasion, and to penetrate far into the downs and vales of Wessex. The most vigorous of the kings of Mercia was Offa, who was, however, as cruel as he was brave. BRITAIN EECOMES ENGLAND. 1 5 Offa fought the West Saxons with great pertinacity, and at last overcame them, and became the most powerful monarch who had yet reigned in England. All its kings became for a while subject to him. He defeated the Welsh, and built a great dike as a boundary and defence between England and Wales. Offa was a wise sovereign. He made many good laws, and took great pains to promote the welfare of his people. , The monarch who at last united all the English king- doms under one sceptre was Eg-bert, kin": of ^ & ' fc> Wessex Wessex ; and now for the first time (800 a. d.) becomes the whole country w^as known as " England." Its capital was at Winchester. Egbert also subjugated the Welsh and the Picts, the kings of which nations be- came his obedient vassals. Many great changes had taken place in the English kingdoms during the long struggle for chiefship between the rival rulers. Of these, the most important w^ere the conversion of the heathen English to Christianity, and the beginnings of an English literature. It has already been told how the Roman emperor Constantine restored Christianity among the Britons. When the English first invaded the island, a very large portion of the Britons were still Christians. They had their Christian temples, priests, and monasteries. The wrath of the English pagans was especially directed against the faith of their victims. The churches ,j,^^ Pa^an were ruthlessly burned, and the priests were killed saxons ■' root out at their very altars. When the English had christian- completed their conquest, therefore, they estab- ^ ^' lished their own religion, and raised temples to their ter- rible gods — to Woden, the war god, Thor, the god of thunder and storm, and Tew^, the god of darkness. Mean- l6 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. while, Christianity took refuge behind the fastnesses of Wales and in sea-girt Ireland. But in due time the English also were converted to Christianity. Toward the close of the sixth cen- England becomes tury (597) Etliclbert, king of Kent, married a Gallic princess, named Bertha. She was a Chris- tian ; and on her marriage she insisted on exercising the rites of her religion in her new home. She built a church, and had a Gallic bishop to officiate in it ; and sought, Mission of though with little success, to win her husband's Augustine, subjects to hcr own faith. Not long after, how^- ever, a learned and zealous monk, named Augustine, ar- rived in England, attended by a company of brother monks. Augustine had been sent by the Pope to convert the heathen English ; and so earnestly did he exhort the people of Kent, that both King Ethelbert himself, and large num- bers of his subjects, submitted to be baptized by Augus- tine in the Christian Church. Augustine, thus encouraged, widened the field of his labors, and began to preach and baptize in the neighboring kingdoms. He was made a bishop, and ordained priests among the natives ; and to the last day of his life, Augustine labored with unflagging zeal in the sacred cause to which he had devoted himself. But the northern part of England — the part included in the kingdom of Northumberland — was still uncon- verted, at the time of Ausfustine's death in 6io. Christian- ' <=> ityinthe Edwiu, king of Northumberland, however, had nortli. married Ethelburg, the sister of the converted king of Kent ; and Ethelburg had brought with her to the north a Christian monk, a friend of Augustine's, named Paullinus. Queen Ethelburg's first child — a daughter — was baptized as a Christian by Paullinus, whose zeal in BRITAIN BECOMES ENGLAND. 1/ making converts in the north rivalled that of Augustine in Kent. He induced King Edwin himself to be baptized ; and ere long the good monk was busy from morning till night baptizing the converts who flocked to him from every part. Thus Northumberland in a few years became, like Kent, a Christian kingdom. In the course of the next hundred years, Christianity spread rapidly through the other English kingdoms. Missionaries went forth from Northumberland to preach and to convince; and many were the ardent Irish Aidfrom' priests and monks who crossed into England, i^^eiand. and joined the others in making converts. At last, in the year 66S^ the Pope sent a priest named Theodore to England, to fully establish the Christian faith, and to organize the Church. Theodore set bishops in all the kingdoms, and appointed priests to minister in TheBritisb the various parishes. Long before Egbert came chriitian- to the throne and united the English king- i^ed. doms under his rule, the Christian religion had become the general faith alike of the English, the Irish and the Welsh. CHAPTER IV. THE EARLY ENGLISH KINGS. ALTHOUGH Egbert extended his rule over all Eng- land, Wales and Scotland, the lesser kingdoms still survived, and were still governed by their own kings under Esibert's lordship. But from that time Egbert and ^ ^ the under- England was a nation, with one supreme head and a common destiny. The English no longer fought among themselves for supremacy, but thenceforth were united in their conflicts with foreign foes. Egbert was a statesman as well as a soldier, and succeeded in bringing about a condition of order which had never be- fore prevailed. But after he had established himself securely on his throne, the English were assailed by fierce and The Danes. . ^ . . i • i i persistent enemies, who were destmed to keep the island in turmoil for two centuries. These were the people called the Danes. Many of them came, as the name implies, from Denmark. Others were natives of Norway and Friesland, and were therefore related in race to the English themselves. The Danes were very daring and skilful on the ocean. They were pirates, and scoured the northern seas in search of prey. They were heathens, and worshipped the same deities as the English had done before they were convertec''i to Christianity. Many of the i8 THE EARLY ENGLISH KINGS. I9 petty Danish rulers, who were called "vikings," being banished from their own domains, took to the sea, and engaged in piracy along the various coasts. It Tiieir pira- was towards the end of Egbert's reign that the '^^®^- Danes began to make their appearance off the English shores, and to ravage the villages and hamlets. They came usually in small fleets of three or four ships, sailed up a river, landed and built a fort, and then issued forth on their errand of plunder. They seized horses and cattle, and entering the huts, stripped them of everything of any value. Nor did these ferocious Northmen confine themselves to deeds of robbery. They fiercely Their sav- hated the Christian priests, and murdered them ^sery. in cold blood whenever they could seize them ; and burned and robbed every church which they met on their expeditions. From this time the depredations and massacres com- mitted by the Danes were almost constant. They began to get a foothold on the island, and erected forts on the coast, and even made settlements, from which the Their coio- English were unable to dislodge them. Danish "'°^- colonies sprang up here and there. They were of the same race, and spoke the same language as th:i English ; and so, little by little, many of these colonies mingled with their English neighbors, and at last becam.e one community with them. But this was not until long after King Egbert had ceased to reign. Egbert had two sons, Ethelwolf and Ethelstan. To Ethelwolf he left the English crown (836), and Ethelstan became under-king of Kent, Sussex, and Essex. The sons Ethelwolf's reign was long and stormy. He was °^ Egbert. almost constantly engaged in bitter warfare. He sturdily 20 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. fought the Danes, who had now begun to swarm along the southern coast, and defeated them in a great battle at Oak- lea, so that for a short while the land was free of them. But no sooner had the Danes been overcome, than the Britons, who were settled in Devonshire, rose in revolt, and were only suppressed after a bloody conflict. Ethel- wolf was a pious king, and made a pilgrimage to Rome, where he made his submission to the Pope, and gave him many rare drifts. The latter part of his reign was Ethelwolf J b ^ . . , , . and his peaceful, and at his death (860) he divided his kingdom among his four sons. Ethelbald, the eldest, became over-king of England ; Ethelbert became under-king of Kent, and the other two, Ethelred and Al- fred, became jointly under-kings of Wessex. These four brothers were destined to reign in turn over the whole kingdom. The reigns of the first three were brief. Ethelbald, who was a good and wise man, wore the crown only two years ; but during that period he won the respect and love of his people, so that when he died they " mourned greatly for him." He was succeeded by his brother Ethelbert, in whose reign the Danes renewed their attacks upon the English. Ethelbert's death, after a reign of six years (866), left the throne open to the next brother, Ethelred, in whose time the Danes became more bold and The Danes formidable than ever. They came with large once more, flge^s, landed on the northern and eastern coasts, and advanced into Northumberland, over a portion of which they set a Danish king. They invaded Scotland and Ireland, penetrated into the southern country of the Marchland, and found their way into the middle of the island. Here they were encountered by King Ethelred and his brother Alfred, who fought them with great vigor. THE EARLY ENGLISH KINGS. 21 and at last drove them in disorder back to the coast. In East Anglia the Danes captured the under-king, Edmund a Edmund, and killed him with their arrows. It is ^^^ty^- related that when Edmund was taken, he was brought be- fore a council of the Danish warriors. They told him that if he would renounce Christianity, and return to the worship of the heathen gods, Thor and Woden, his life should be spared. He proudly declined to accept his life at such a price. " Cannot we slay thee ? " the Danes sternly asked. " Cannot I die ? " the brave king replied. Edmund was made a saint for his courage and piety, and a noble abbey, called Bury St. Edmunds, was built over his grave. King Ethelred was killed in battle with the Danes, after a reign of five years, and was succeeded by his Alfred the brother Alfred (871). This brings us to the ^'■^^'^• first lofty and towering figure in Phigland's history. Alfred was truly " the Great," as he was called. He was the favorite, though the youngest, son of the good king Ethelwolf, and was also the best beloved of his mother, who was " a religious woman, noble by birth and nature." Alfred was ardently fond of learning from his early boyhood. When he was very young, his mother one day showed him and his brothers a richly ill us- ^ royai trated book of poetry, and said to them, " Which- scholar. ever of you soonest learns this volume shall have it for his own." Although he was the youngest, Alfred was the first to complete the task, and €0 won the book. He learned to read at the age of twelve; and in his youth went twice to Rome, and travelled in many European countries. These journeys served to train his mind, and to create in him a taste for knowledge and refinement. Alfred was 22 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. married at the age of nineteen to the daughter of a Lon- don alderman. On the very day of his wedding he was smitten with a painful disease, which clung to him for the rest of his life. He had not long sat on the throne before he gave his A brave and subjccts ample proof of his courage as a soldier, wise king. ^^^^ q£ ]-^-g Yvisdon-j ^s a rulcr. Early in his reign the Danes began once more to swarm along the English coasts, to land and plunder the villages, and to seek settle- ments for colonies of their own. A Danish chief named Halfdan established his followers in Yorkshire, and a Dan- ish king, Gorm, committed many ravages in Wessex. A New inva- little later the Danes crossed the sea in such for- sions. midable numbers that Alfred was forced to take refuge in a small island in Somerset, where he remained for some time in hiding. It was at this time that he had an Alfred in adv^cuturc which has often been related. One adversity, ^-j^y }-^g ^ycnt iuto a hut, in disguise, to elude his enemies. While there, the poor woman who lived in the hut asked him to watch some cakes which were frying in the fireplace, while she went out. But so absorbed be- came Alfred in mending his bows and arrows, that the cakes altogether escaped his mind. When the woman returned she found the cakes all burned and spoiled. She did not know that her guest was the king ; and she grew very angry, and exclaimed that he was ready enough to eat the cakes, but was too lazy to watch them. While Alfred was hiding, his generals were not idle; and in no long time he was able to leave his retreat, and once more put himself at the head of his army. He He reap- ^ -^ pears in marchcd against' the Danes, inflicted upon them a severe defeat, and drove them back to their strong- KING AI>i KKD AND THE CAKES. — Page 22. THE EARLY ENGLISH KINGS. 23 holds on the sea-coast. He pressed them so hard that they were at last forced to surrender ; and he persuaded Gorm, the Danish chief, and his men, to renounce their pagan faith and be baptized as Christians. The Danes Makes peace -with were too strong and numerous to be entirely the Danes, driven out of the island ; and so Alfred made peace with them, and gave up to Gorm the kingdom of East Anglia and the northern part of the Marchland. The Danes also ruled in Yorkshire. So near akin were they to the English that they mingled with thejn, gradually adopted their laws and customs, and from having been rovers and pirates, settled down into peaceable farmers and shepherds. For a while there was tranquillity in England. The P'.nglish, taught in arts, trades, and learning by the monks, who in many parts of the country were gathered in large monasteries, became more and more one people, and advanced in civilization under their wise and good King Alfred. Towns grew up where there had once been only solitudes. The foundations of a mighty nation were being laid. After an interval of peace, Alfred's reign was again disturbed by the incursions of foreign foes. An ^ew intrepid pirate named Hasting, after ravaging piracies. Gaul, turned his attacks upon the English coast. Hasting was a warrior of great energy and courage. He landed with a large force on the coast of Kent, built forts there, and prepared to make a conquest of the neighboring regions. Other Danes sailed up the Thames, and pene- trated mid-England ; yet others sailed up the river Lea, and fortified its banks. Alfred fought these invading bands one after the other, and succeeded in .,^ ^, Alfred's driving them before him wherever he encountered navai them. He caused a canal to be cut, which 24 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. diverted the current of the Lea, and thus left the Danish ships dry and unable to be taken out. So the Danes took horse and fled across country to the Severn. Alfred also caused some ships to be built, which he himself designed, larger and stronger than those of his enemies, and with these he was able to protect the English coast better than ever before. This great king did not permit the harassing conflicts Alfred a ^^i^-h the Daucs to divert him from his schemes civihzer. £qj. improving the condition and welfare of his people. He framed wise codes of law for them, sup- pressed robbery and crimes of violence, and called together councils of wise men to advise him, and to aid in the execution of his reforms. As far as possible, he himself administered justice among his subjects. He corrected the mistakes of his judges. When he came to the throne he found the people in a wretchedly ignorant He favors statc. Thcrc wcrc few or no schools, and learning learning. ^^.^^^ confiucd to the pricsts and the monasteries. Many of the clergy, even, could not read or write. Alfred revived the old schools, and established new ones. He opened a large school in his palace, where his own children and those of some of his nobles were taught. He was very zealous in encouraging scholarship, and in pre- serving such literature as already existed in England. Alfred was also a very relio;ious man. He was Alfred's -^ * pious piously devoted to the Christian Church, and w^as always its ardent friend and protector. He re- solved to give to God '' half of his time, labor, and money." He was wisely charitable, saying that what he gave in alms should always be "bestowed discreetly."' In spite of the disease, which never left him, Alfred THE EARLY ENGLISH KINGS. 25 was very active and laborious in his habits. He was always busy. He carried a note-book constantly about him, to jot down what occurred to him from time to time. He was a lover of hunting, and encouraged his people to indulge in that sturdy pastime. He used to teach his goldsmiths how to work in gold, and was j^assionately fond of music. He invented a horn lantern, in nisinven- which candles were burned so as to measure ^^°^^ ^^^^ accom- time. Alfred was very curious about foreign piish- countries. He listened eagerly to the stories of °^^" ^' mariners and travellers, and sent messages and presents to rulers and churches, even as far as India. Alfred's reign was a great blessing to England. Under his wise and loving rule the people advanced rapidly in know- ledge, trade, the arts, and in moral virtues. They became more submissive to the law, and enjoyed a greater degree of security and justice than ever before. Alfred died at the age of fifty-five (901), leaving behind him a name honored and revered far above that of any king who had yet risen in England. CHAPTER V. GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH NATION". ONE result of Alfred's rule was that England, under his successors, took her place as an equal among the other nations of Europe. England now grew stronger as a united kin2:dom every vear. Edward, called Results of c> J ^ 7 ^ Alfred's "the Elder," Alfred's son, who succeeded him on the throne (901), had a troubled reign. His cousin, Ethelwald, tried to seize the crown, and, joining arms with the Danes in Eastern England, invaded Kent and the Marchland. After a long and savage contest, EdAvard Edward at last made peace with these enemies. a^-i He had a sister named Ethelfled, who was a Ethelfled. woman of strong, vigorous nature, and who greatly aided him in over-coming his enemies, and strengthening his kingdom. She built the fortified town of Chester, where the lofty walls she erected are still to be seen ; and she both governed wisely in that part of England which her 'brother gave her to rule, and victoriously battled with the Danes and Welsh who ever and anon assailed her. She even advanced from Mercia to lay siege to York, but cUed before the walls Of that city. Edward won many triumphs over the Danes, the Welsh, England's ^^^^^^ the Scots. Hc reconqucrcd the Marchland, place reduced the Welsh to submission, compelled among the ' '■ nations. the allegiaucc of the Danish Kings in York- 26 GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH NATION. 2/ shire, and even brought the King of the Scots to ac- knowledge him as sovereign. While all these wars were going on, Edward followed his father's wise example in extending the relations of England with the other European realms. One of his daughters married the Emperor Otto, another the French king, Charles the Simple, a third the king of Aries, a fourth the Count of Paris, and yet a fifth the Danish king, Sigtric. Thus he brought England within the circle of nations, and formed alliances which were destined to serve the country in good stead. Edward was as ardent as Alfred in his devotion to the Church. He founded new bishoprics, protected the monasteries, and permitted his sixth daughter to become a nun. To Edward succeeded his son Ethelstan, called the "Steadfast" (925). Ethelstan, when a boy, had been a great favorite with his grandfather, the good King Alfred. He was a very handsome lad, with Etheistan-s long, bright golden curls and sparkling blue '^^'^s- eyes, and was gentle and kind-hearted as well as brave. When he was four years old, King Alfred gave him a purple cloak, a handsome sword, and a shield which was fastened to a belt studded with gems. Ethelstan's reign was even more disturbed by wars than those of Alfred and Edward had been. He, too, was attacked by a rival claimant to the throne, and the Danes in the north rose in revolt. But Ethelstan inherited the warlike qualities of his predecessors, took and added Northumber- land to his realm, and at one time (937) fought a great batlle with the Danes, Welsh, and Scots combined. A story is told that one of the Danish chiefs, named Olaf, went into Edward's camp the day before this battle, dis- 28 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. guised as a harper. His object was to see how large the kin2:'s force was. It happened that a stratagem ^ of a Danish soldicr who had once fought under Olaf saw him, and recognized him. His suspicion was confirmed ^vhen he perceived that Olaf refused the money which was offered him for playing on the harp. But he said nothing until Olaf had departed, when he told Edward who it was. " Why, then," said the king, " did you let him go free ? " " If," replied the soldier, " I had betrayed him whom I once served, how shouldst thou, whom I now serve, have trusted me ? " The result of .the battle was that Ethelstan vanquished and pursued his combined enemies, and compelled them to make peace with him. Ethelstan not only added to the dominions of his father, but, like him, strengthened the friendly relations between England and the other European nations. He exchanged costly presents with the kings, and encouraged intercourse and commerce between the English and their neighbors, the Gauls. His reign, however, was a brief one ; and he Reign of ^^^s succccded (940) by his younger brother Edmund. Edmund, who in his turn only wore the crown six years. But it was during Edmund's rule that there arose a very able statesman, whose acts had a large influence upon the destinies of the English. This was Dunstan, a monk, and abbot of the famous monastery of Glastonbury. Dunstan was the chief adviser, not only of Edmund, but of several of the kings who succeeded him. For many years he was very powerful ; ^, ^ and he used his power with rare eners-v and Character i -^^ of Dun- effect. He aided the soverei2;n in more com- •tan. . , . pletely uniting the various sections of England GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH NATION. 29 under one crown, and in greatly reducing the authority of the under-kings who still remained. But Dunstan's chief work was in advancing the Church. His purpose was to increase its power, and to securely establish its influence throughout the realm. He saw many evils in the Church, and these he labored earnestly and honestly to correct. Perceiving that many of the clergy who were set over the parishes were ignorant and corrupt, he strove to put in their places the monks, who had more learning, and were more zealous in their religious duties. Then he tried to make the priests abandon their wives, and forbade them to marrv, so that their whole „. ■> ' His ser- thoughts and time miirht be p^iven to their vices to the sacred calling. He sought to restore the inter- course between the English Church and those of the continent. Besides these measures, Dunstan in many ways labored to increase learning, piety, and attention to religious duties. He subjected the clergy to a series of strict rules governing their conduct. He told them that they must take good care of their churches ; refrain from the vices of drinking, gambling, and careless speech ; distribute alms, teach the children, study the Bible, and preach regularly every Sunday. In a word, Dunstan did more than any man since the great Alfred, both to strengthen and unite the English monarchy, and to raise the Church to a great height of power in the land. King Edmund was slain by an outlaw, named Leof, as he was feasting with his courtiers. Three brief reigns followed. Edred, Edmund's brother, occupied the throne nine years, and, although in feeble health, Edmund's fought the Danes with success, and ardently ^^ccessors. supported Dunstan's reforms in the Church. Then 30 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. came Edwy, Edmund's son (955), who was a hot-headed and quarrelsome prince. He exiled Dunstan, and quar- relled bitterly with his brother Edgar, who at one time led a revolt against him. Edwy only reigned three years, Edgar the whcn hc was probably slain in secret; and Peaceable. Edgar, Called the " Peaceable," came to the throne (958). This young king called Dunstan back to England, and restored him to the high position in the kingdom of which Edwy had deprived him. Edgar was a wise and vigorous ruler. He had a large fleet built, which sailed every year completely around England and Scotland, to guard the coasts from Danish invaders. He spent much of his time in travelling among his subjects, inquiring into their needs and grievances, and seeing to it that his magis- trates dealt justly by them. Edgar's reign of seventeen years was for the most part a His success- peaccful as well as a prosperous one. Although, fuiruie. ^^ ^j-g^^ i-,e 1-ij^d iQ f^gi^,- y^riiY^ ^i-^g Scotch and Welsh, and subdue them to his crown, he had time, dur- ing the greater part of his rule, to devote himself 10 the improvement of his people. He took care to treat the Danes, who were now^ quietly settled in various parts of the island, as kindly as he did his English subjects. They were permitted to make their own laws, and to live in a condition of complete equality with their English neigh- bors. Many anecdotes are told of Edgar's sturdy courage and strength of character. It seems that, though strong in body, he was very small of stature. One day he was told that the king of Scotland had exclaimed, *' It is wonderful that so large a realm should obey one little Courage, mau." Pklsjar thereupon sent for the kins:, led notcize, , . . , , , . the test. hmi nito a wood, and producmg two swords, GROWTH OF THE ENGLISH NATION. 3 1 offered one of them to his royal vassal. " Now," said Edgar, "we will try which is the better man, and see whether I am unfit to rule men taller than myself." The Scot fell at Edgar's feet, and craved his pardon, declar- ing that he had only spoken in jest ; whereupon the king readily forgave him. Edgar was succeeded by his son Edward (975), who reigned four years only, and who submitted himself com- pletely to Dunstan's guidance. His reign was not a very eventful one, although an unsuccessful attempt was made to substitute his step-brother, Ethelred, in his place on the throne. With Dunstan's able counsels, the affairs Dunstan in of the kingdom progressed almost in peace dur- ^^^e^^'^d. ing the brief period of Edward's rule. His ward, death was one of the most cruel crimes in English history. On returning, one day, from the hunt, Edward rode up to the house of his stepmother, Elfthrith, and stopped there a moment to rest and refresh himself. She offered him some drink : and as she was handing him the mug, one of her attendants sprang upon him and stabbed him in the back. The king, feeling himself wound- Edward's ed, spurred up his horse, and rode rapidly "^^^der. away. But he became faint, and fell from his saddle. He was dragged through a forest by his frightened horse, until he died in great agony. This deed was done at the instigation of Elfthrith, who desired to see the crown pass to her son Ethelred. CHAPTER VI. PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. DURING the century which elapsed between the acces- sion of Alfred the Great and the death of Edgar the Peaceable (871-975), many changes took place in the condition of the English people. The various ranks, or classes, into which they were divided became more settled and distinct. The ancient Saxon social divisions The feudal system be- remained, and gradually developed into what is ^^'^^' known as the '' feudal system." The social ranks consisted of the "earls," or ancient nobility, who owned large landed estates, were almost always warriors, Ranks and ^^""^ wcrc adviscrs of the king ; the " thanes," orders. ^y|^Q wcrc noblcs of a later date, being chiefly followers and adherents of the kings, or successful sol- diers, to whom the king gave domains and titles ; the " churls," who were freemen, and usually possessed small landed estates; and the " slaves," who were held as such, for the most part, by the earls and thanes. Of these classes the slaves were by far the largest part The churls o^ the population. They were the tillers of the or serfs. ^qJj^ ^j-^g shcphcrds, the servants, and the me- chanics of the time. They were entirely subjected to the will of their masters, who were permitted by the law to put them to death if they were disobedient or ran away, 32 PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 33 to whip or chain them, and to sell them at will. The price of a slave in those days was only five or ten shillings ; but a shilling represented a much larger sum than it does now. When an estate was sold, the slaves were generally sold along with it. The principal influence against inflicting cruelty on the slaves was the Church. The ^'-.i 1 1 .1 The church Church grew^, as we have seen, to be very power- litigates ful ; and it did very much to miti2:ate the evils theeviisof ' ■' ^ serfdom. of slavery. It compelled a master who killed or was cruel to his slave to do painful penance. Many of the bishops and priests gave their slaves their freedom. In time, the care of the Church for the slaves reaped good fruit. Many privileges were given to them by the law. The master was obliged to feed them well, and to give them Sunday as a holiday. Slaves often found time to work outside of their regular tasks, and so saved enough to purchase their liberty. In the course of time, large numbers of the "churls," or freemen, fell into poverty and distress. They could no longer support themselves and their families by cultivating their little farms. They therefore resorted to the Relations neighboring earls or thanes for help and pro- gerJ^nd tection, and became subject to them as to ^oxas. powerful masters. Although they did not become slaves, they were bound to the great estates. The lord protected these dependents from poverty and injustice, and gave them and their families the means of support. They, on the other hand, tilled his acres and took care of his cows, sheep, and pigs, and, when he went to war, followed him as soldiers. Thus a new social class came into existence, lower than the churls, and higher than the slaves ; and those who belonired to it were called "villeins." This ;°arliament. 34 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. relation between the lords on the one hand, and the villeins on the other, was the beginning in England of that " feudal system " which, in the process of centuries, extended through the greater part of Europe. There appeared, too, in this century of progress, the germ of what became long afterwards the English Parliament. A council, composed of the earls, thanes, bishops, and abbots of the monasteries, was formed, and held meetings once or twice a year for the purpose of advising the king. This council was called the " Witen- agemote," or" assembly of wise men." It finally became very powerful ; so much so, that even the king found it prudent to adopt its advice, and did not dare to act con- trary to it. As time advanced, the English towns grew in size and Growth of importance. The country people flocked in and towns. dwelt in the settled places ; villages swelled into thriving cities, which were made secure by thick walls and towers. Each shire or county had its sheriff ap- pointed by the king, the duties of the sheriff being to maintain order and enforce the law. Each shire and town, too, had its council of wise men, cor- responding on a small scale with the Witenagemote, which made rules and regulaiions for the locality, dispensing justice, and seeing to it that the lawc were carried out. The chief executive officer of the town was called the " alderman ; " w^ho presided over the town councils just as the sheriff did over those of the shire. Thus the people became more and more bound together by the ties of common interest and mutual protection. They ceased to live apart, as rival and jealous family clans, and came to have a feeling of pride and loyalty towards the community in which they dwelt. PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 35 And how did the English Uve in those early days ? What did they eat and drink ; how clothe them- Domestic selves; what amusements did they have; what manners arts and trades did they practise ? The richer people lived in much greater comfort than did their ancestors of a century before. For the most part their houses were wooden, and were plain and unpretending on the outside ; but, within, the houses of the nobles and well-to-do freemen were comfortably and even handsomely furnished. They were hung with richly embroidered curtains, and provided with heavy carved chairs and tables, which were sometimes decorated with gold and silver. They drank from horns and golden cups, but used no forks. As for their food, the richer people ate wheat bread, and the poor, bread made of barley, poo^ ^^^ The English of that time, as now, were fond of '^"'^^• beef and mutton, fowls, venison, and all kinds of game ; and these they • had in abundance. They were also in the habit of eating horses and goats. From the sea and the rivers they were supplied with oysters, lobsters, and very much the same variety of fish as their descen- dants of our own day enjoy. They drank strong ales, and a beverage made from barley. Wine had not come into general use, though grapes were already cultivated in many parts of England. The English had a great passion for feasting, and on such occasions often indulged themselves to excess. The dress of the wealthier classes was expensive, and profuse in ornament. The men as well as the Dress and women wore a great deal of jewelry, and were ornament. fond of displaying their glittering necklaces, rings, and bracelets. Their robes and under2:ovvns were of 36 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. various colors, and were often richly embroidered. These garments showed that the arts and trades included weavers and spinners, dyers, people very skilful in many kinds of embroidery, goldsmiths, and, indeed, artificers in all the metals. The amusements of the English of that time still for the most part survive. They were then, as Hunting uow, lusty huntsmeu, and loved to roam their and sports, forests in search of wild beasts and game. They were adepts in all out-of-door recreations, and delight- ed to take their pleasure in the open air, in spite of their damp and gloomy climate. Music and song were very early practised, and made a feature of every Ballads. . ' , , . ,^, , feast or other merry gathering. The harp was the favorite instrument ; and the harper, with his heroic songs and ballads, singing in rude verse of the deeds of heroes and the loves of queens, was warmly greeted alike in the earl's great hall, and in the humble villages which nestled in the valley below his don>ain. The people Amuse- wcrc delighted, too, when a company of jug- ments. glcrs, accompanicd, perhaps, by a dancing bear or a monkey, came to beguile their hours on the village green. In those days, the English were exceedingly superstiti- ous. They held relics in sacred reverence. They believed, supersti- '^^'ith terror, in the existence of witches. They tions. attributed sicknesses to the evil influence of witches, and thought that witches killed the cattle and worked all sorts of mischief. Old women who were thought to be witches were cruelly persecuted. A frequent way of finding out whether a woman was a witch was to throw her into deep water. If she sank, she was con- sidered innocent ; if she floated, she was adjudged guilty. PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 37 Unhappily, those who were thought to be innocent were often drowned in the trial Another way of test- Trials of ing a supposed witch was to place a row of hot ^itciies. ploughshares, at brief intervals, on the ground. The prisoner was blindfolded, and compelled to walk across them. If she burned her feet in so doing, she was declared guilty. There were other trials, such as placing the hand in boiling water, or compelling the suspected person to hold a hot iron for a certain length of time. If the witch was by any of these means convicted, she was put to death. The English of that time devoutly believed in all sorts of signs and portents, and some of their super- g.gns and stitions still linger in the rural parts of England, omens. They considered some days fortunate, and others the reverse. Among their superstitious maxims were these : " He who sees the moon at its first appearance will be blessed." '' If New Year's comes on a Monday, the winter will be harsh." " If a man dreams that he hath a burning candle in his hand, good luck will be his." The wonders of the heavens were to the people so many mysterious signs, betokening good or ill. There v/ere lucky and unlucky stars. The appearance of the moon, of the sun, and of comets meant something of weal or woe to humanity. Any unusual event, or freak or violence of nature, was interpreted as being of good or bad omen to the community. CHAPTER VII. THE DANISH CONQUEST. THE successor of young King Edward, whose mur- der has been related, was his half-brother Ethel- red ; who, when he began to reign, was only ten years old (979). His reign, however, was both a long and an unfortunate one. Ethelred was weak, cowardly, and totally unfitted to govern his subjects. He had scarcely come to the throne before the Danes resumed their incursions upon English soil. They invaded the southern coast, and spread desolation through Thanet and Chester. Then they appeared in Somerset and Essex, „^ ^ fio-htinn; and plunderins^ as was their wont. In The Danes & » 1 & again are a great battle at Maldon, where the English were gallantly led by a brave earl named Bertnoth, and fought like lions and heroes, the Danes were victor- ious and completely routed their foes. Then the feeble king, who was anything but warlike, bethought him to buy peace from the invaders. He offered the chief who had been victorious at IMaldon the then large sum of ten thousand jDOunds. The Danes accepted it, and for a little while left Ethel- red and his subjects at peace. But as soon as the money had been squandered, back came the Danes again. The English sometimes tried to meet and repel them, and at 38 THE DANISH CONQUEST. 39 Other times again resorted to the miserable expedient of buying them off. Unhappily not only was the king a vacillating, cowardly man, but the English had few or no valiant generals to lead them to victory. Gradually the country was overrun with the persistent Danes. London alone, which had even then grown to be a gjege of populous and flourishing city, held out bravely ^o^^don. against the northern invaders. Four times was London besieged by the Danes during Ethelbert's reign ; and each time the assailants were forced to retire discomfited from before its w^alls. Ethelred at last formed a plan to get rid of the Danes, which was as cowardly and cruel as it was unsuccessful. He ^rave orders that, on a certain day, the „, f ' -" Slaughter English everywhere should fall upon the Danes of the who were peacefully settled in various parts of the country, and assassinate them. The king's order was eagerly obeyed. On the same day, thousands of Danes, men, women and children, were murdered in cold blood. This ferocious act of Ethelred was destined to result in the loss of his throne, and the final triumph of the Danes over all England. Among the victims of the massacre was a sister of Swend, who was at that time King of Denmark. She and her husband and only son were killed on the dav of the sreneral butchery. Swend was ° -' The ven- an able and warlike king. No sooner had he geance of heard of his sister's violent death, than he resolved to avenge her. He sent a large body of Danes to England, who landed in Kent, took Canterbury, made a prisoner of the archbishop, and " shamefully murdered him." The next year Swend, accompanied by his young son Canute, himself crossed the sea with a fleet, composed 40 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. of five noble ships adorned with rich gilding and carving. Capture of Hc landed with a large and well-equipped army, London. ^j-^^ advanccd upon London. The capital, after an obstinate resistance, fell into his hands ; and soon all England had been subdued to his prowess. King Ethelred had married Emma, the sister of the Duke of Normandy. Normandy was that part of France which had been conquered and settled by the North- Etheired In 'i^en, just as the Saxons, and then the Danes, Normandy, j^^^ subducd and had settled in England. The Northmen, indeed, were of the same race and country as the Danes and the Saxons ; and, like these, the North- men in France had become Christians. The Duke of Normandy was a vassal of the French king, but was still a very powerful and almost independent pringe. When Swend's conquest of the English was complete, Ethelred found an asylum, with his wife and son, in the dominions of his Norman brother-in-law. But Swend's period of rule in England was a very brief one. His death, the very year after his conquest (1014), is said to have happened in a strano^e wav. Swend seems to have had for Swend's ° strange somc rcasou a special hatred to the memory of St. Edmund, the story of whose murder has been told. He demanded a heavy tribute from the abbey which had been built in the saint's honor at Bury St. Edmunds. The tribute having been refused, Swend set out with some troops, with the avowed intention of burn- ing the sacred edifice. As he was riding along the road, of a sudden he thought he saw the spirit of St. Edmund, in full armor, coming to put him to death. *' Help, soldiers," he cried to his men, "St. Edmund is coming to kill me! '' He fell from his horse, in terror and died that very night. SWEXD'S FIA'E NOBLE SHIPS. — Page THE DANISH CONQUEST. 4 1 SwencFs death opened the way to Ethelred's return. He promptly came back from Normandy, and Return of was greeted with an ardent welcome from his ^theired. English subjects. He was their king; and, in spite of his faults and weaknesses, they were rejoiced to receiv'e him back again. Ethelred, indeed, showed more courage and character after his return than ever before. He summoned the Witenagemote, raised an army, and pre- pared to dislodo^e the Danes from their hold ^^ ^ ^ ^ The Danes upon the country. Canute, the son of Swend, under ... 11 , ,., Canute. was a young man of spirit, intellect, and warlike energy. Resolved to recover the dominion which his father had established over the English, he soon appeared off the coast with a formidable fleet. Once more the conflict raged between the rival aspirants for the English crown. In the midst of it, Ethelred died ; and now the Witenagemote was compelled to elect Canute the Dane king in his stead. But Canute was not destined to retain the crown without a struo'Sfle. In voung Edmund, Ethel- ^ oo ' o ' Canute's red's son, who is known in history as " Edmund struggle for Ironside," the English had still a resolute and valiant chief. The patriotic citizens of London rejected Canute's claim, and chose Edmund as king. London successfully resisted three assaults by the Danish prince ; and Edmund went forth to confront him on the battle- field. The war raged for a few months furiously. Six desperate battles were fought between the royal rivals. The valor and prowess of Edmund recalled the Defeats his days of England's great warrior kings, and at rival, Ed- first he repulsed Canute on several hotly-con- ^^" tested fields. In one of these battles the two 42 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. young kings met face to face. Edmund, raising aloft his heavy sword, brought it down upon Canute's shield, and split it into two parts. The sixth battle decided once for all the fate of England. At first the Danes were almost driven from the field, and the English seemed sure of a de- cisive victory. But Edric, one of the English earls, at this critical moment deserted Edmund's standard. The Danes turned from their flight, rushed upon their foes, and at last completely routed them. The result of this victory of Canute was, that the two England is kiugs agreed to divide the English realm be- bLTween twccu them. To Edmund was given the over- them. kingship, and the eastern and southern portion of the island. Canute assumed the sovereignty of the Marchland and Northumberland. The river Thames was the boundary of the two kingdoms. In token of this settlement, Edmund and Canute exchanged their cloaks and swords, warmly embraced each other, and took a solemn oath to be friends and allies as long as they lived. But the arrangement w^as of short duration. Edmund, though young, of gigantic stature and almost superhuman strength, died suddenly within a year after his treaty with Canute. It was thought that he was slain by the same Canute be- pcrfidious carl, Edric, who had deserted him in comesking. ^j^^ f^^^^ battle with the Danes. However this may have been, the death of Edmund left the whole of England at Canute's mercy ; and he now became its undisputed sovereign (1017). CHAPTER VIII. CANUTE AND HIS SUCCESSORS. CANUTE was not only a brave and skilful warrior, but a wise statesman. He was short of stature, but was very strong and lithe of body. He had been Canute as a baptized into the Christian Church, and had statesman, become very much devoted to its creed and ceremonies. He had a taste for music and singing, and was him- self a poet. When he at last found himself the undis- puted king of all England, he resolved to govern his new subjects to the best of his ability. There were many colonies of Danes, as we know, scattered through the island, especially along the coasts ; and it might have been expected that Canute, himself a Dane, would now show his fellow countrymen especial favor. Instead of this, he was kind to the English, and devoted himself ear- nestly to the task of winning their affection. He He wins set English earls over the various provinces, and ^^^°'' ^*^ ° i ' the Eng- chose two Englishmen, Godwin and Leofric, as ijsh. his most trusted advisers. Before he had long been king, he sent to Normandy for Ethelred's widow, Queen Emma ; and although she was some years older than himself, he married her and restored her again to the throne from which she had once been driven. 43 44 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. At first Canute did some harsh and cruel things. He „ . sent the two infant children of Edmund Ironside Banishes th3 chii- to his half-brother, who was then King of Sweden, dren of Ed- . , , i i • i i r i mund Iron- HI the hope that he might put them out oi the ^''*®' way. But the King of Sweden spared the lives of the little princes, and sent them for safety into Hungary. Canute also caused the perfidious Edric, who had deserted Edmund Ironside, and had perhaps murdered him, to be executed. This Edric was a crafty, treacherous man, and the people were not sorry when Canute put an end to him. In the early part of his reign, too, Canute pursued several warlike enterprises. Though King of England, he had retained the crown of Denmark, which he had inherited His exploits from his father, Swend. He now invaded Nor- in Norway y^r^y clrovc out its ruler, and himself assumed the and Scot- - ' land. Norwegian crown. He also went to Scotland, forced its ruler to do homage to him as over-king, and re- ceived the allegiance of the Scottish thanes. Among the thanes who came to acknowledge Canute as their ruler, was Macbeth, of whom we read in Shakespeare's tragedy. Canute thus became a mighty sovereign, and wore the crowns of four crreat kino:doms. A Ions; interval Ruler of . . four king- of pcacc and prosperity succeeded his conquest °°^^' of Norway and Scotland. Order reigned through- out the English realm. Canute made many wise and good laws, and all who did unjustiy, or who committed violent crimes, were severely punished. The farmers and mer- chants were protected in the tranquil pursuit of their in- dustries, and the king held in restraint the fierce passions General ^f the great lords. It was, for years, a very prosperity, ^^ppy q^sl for the Euglish, who were now fast growing into a great, rich, and powerful nation. All this CANUTE AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 45 time the Church maintained its influence among the Eng- hsh, and continued to be the guardian of learning and the educator of the people. Happily, King Canute, though a Dane, was himself a Christian. He gave many costly gifts to abbeys and monasteries ; restored and decorated the shrine of St. Edmund at Glastonbury; built several churches ; and in many u'ays befriended the monks, by whom, in return, he was greatly honored and beloved. So devoted a Christian, indeed, was Canute, that twice he made the difficult and dangerous pilgrimage Canute a from England to Rome. It was a very different ann^^Ju- journey then from what it is in these days of rail- s'^^"'- ways and steamers. Pilgrims were often attacked, robbed, and murdered in the lonely valleys of the Alps, by bands of robber mountaineers ; and so severe were the hardships encountered on the way, that sometimes travellers died from exhaustion, Canute, however, undertook the journey, with the double purpose of confessing to the Pope and re- ceiving absolution for his sins, and of accomplishing good for his subjects. He carried splendid presents to the Pope, who received him with much honor and respect. While in Rome, Canute met and talked with Meets the the German emperor and other potentates, by fb^'Km-'^ whom he was treated as an equal. He wrote a peror. long letter from Rome to his people, in which he de- scribed his journey, and promised that upon his return home he would rule them wisely and justly. And this promise he faithfully kept to the day of his death. Many anecdotes are related of this good and wise ruler. One day, wearied with the flatteries of Canute and his courtiers, who kept saying that there was ^^® ^'*^®®- nothing which his power could not achieve, he caused 46 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. his throne to be set on the seashore. As the tide rose ever higher and higher towards his feet, he commanded it to recede. The tide rolled on, however, and presently the waves were dashing around the throne, and splashing over the king's robes. Whereupon Canute stood up, and, turn- ing to his fawning courtiers, said, " Though kings are mighty and rule wide realms, yet will not the seas obey them ; therefore to God alone be honor and praise ; for He rules all things, and the wind and the seas obey Him." After that, he would never wear his royal crown again ; but caused it to be placed on the head of Christ's image in Winchester Cathedral. Another story shows Perils of -' poets under that Cauutc, thougli a great king, was some- what vain. A minstrel, who had written a song in the king's praise, came to sing it to Canute while he was holding a court of justice. Canute would not post- pone his business, but kept on hearing and adjudging the complaints of the suitors. At last the minstrel be- came impatient, and asked the king to pause and hear his song, which was very short. Canute thereupon turned to him indignantly and said, " Are you not ashamed to write a short poem about me ? Unless by dinner to- morrow you bring a poem of over thirty verses in my praise, you shall lose your head." The minstrel hurried away, and next day, sure enough, he appeared with a poem of the length which Canute had demanded, and received therefor a generous sum of money. Canute died at the early age of forty, having reigned Harold eighteen years. He was succeeded (1035) by Harefoot. Harold, his son, who was called " Harold Hare- foot," because he could run very swiftly. He was quite unworthy of his wise and pious father. Instead of cherish- CANUTE REPROVING HIS COURTIERS.- Page 46. CANUTE AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 4/ ing the Church, he scoffed at it, and showed his contempt for it in many ways. Fortunately for England, Harold reigned but four years, and, dying, left the throne to his half-brother, Hardicanute (1040). It will be remembered that Canute had married Emma, the sister of the Duke of Normandy, and the widow of Canute's predecessor, King Ethelred. Hardicanute was the eldest son by this second marriage. But Emma already had two sons by Ethelred, named Alfred and Edward. Harold Harefoot had Alfred put to death with great cruelty ; but Hardicanute treated the remaining son of Ethelred, Edward, with kindness, and adopted him as his successor to the throne. Hardi- canute at first gave promise of being a good ruler, jj^^.^. But he proved to be even more tyrannical than Canute's Harold had been. He governed his people severely, and imposed burdensome taxes upon them which they could ill bear. In some places the people rose in revolt against this grievous imposition. At Wor- cester two of the king's tax-gatherers were slain. Hardi- canute, in retaliation for this act, caused ^^'orcester to be ravaged and burned by his soldiers. Hardicanute reigned but two years. One day, at a great wedding- his ignoble feast, he drank to excess ; and as he was stand- ^'^^■ ing up to drink yet more, he suddenly fell to the ground, and died without uttering a word. CHAPTER IX. THE END OF THE SAXON DYNASTY. IN Edward, who succeeded to the throne (1042), the English had once more for their ruler a descend- Edward a ^^^^ o^ their Saxon kings. The Danish line, Saxon king, founded by Canute, had become extinct. Once more a scion of the family of Egbert sat upon the throne. Through his mother, however, Edward was of French, or Norman, blood ; and he had been reared from childhood in Normandy. Thus he grew^ up with the tastes, feelings, and manners of a Norman rather than an Englishman. No sooner had he ascended the throne than he began to show in many ways his preference for his Norman friends. Favors the Many of thcse foreigners crossed into Eng- Normans. land, and were received with especial favor at Edward's court. The king gave them lands and offices, and he appointed Norman priests to the bishoprics of London and Dorchester, one of whom afterwards became Archbishop of Canterbury, and thus the head of the Eng- lish Church. This office was regarded by the people as the highest dignity in the realm, next to the crown ; and the selection of a Norman to fill it gave the English great offence. Edward's partiality for the Normans, indeed, made The power his English subjects very angry. The ablest win,^' ° ' ^^^^^ most powerful lord then living in England 48 THE END OF THE SAXON DYNASTY. 49 was Earl Godwin. He had long taken an active part in tlie affairs of the reahn. He was suspected by Edward of having had something to do with the killing of young Alfred, Edward's brother ; but this was never fully proved. Earl Godwin was intensely English in his feel- ings. He hated the foreigners who came to enrich them- selves on English soil. He was looked up to by the English as their leader and protector. King Edw^ard, in order to conciliate his English subjects, married Earl Godwin's daughter, iLdith, a young and very beautiful woman ; and Earl Godwin had done much to make Edward's patlnvay to the throne an easy one. a king- The earl had two sons. One, Harold, was "^^^^r. brave, generous, and much beloved. The other, Tostig, was cruel and tyrannical, and was very much disliked by the people. It was this great Earl Godwin and his sons who stirred up the English and gave the signal of revolt against the Normans who had been brought over and petted by the king. An altercation between Eustace, a Norman prince, and some of the people at Dover, formed the pretext for a rising, Godwin hastily gathered a force of the indignant English, and the king hastened to lead his troops Godwin re- against the rebel earl. But when the two bec^irTJf armies came in sight of each other, Godwin's ^" ouuaw. men weakened and fell away from him. The earl and his sons were forced to fly for their lives across the seas, and were declared outlaws, Edward also banished Queen Edith, his wife, on account of her father's treason. So the Normans continued to enjoy their wealth and power, and flocked across the Channel in greater numbers than ever. 50 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. After a while the Duke of Normandy himself came in splendid state to pay a visit to his cousin, the William of i. , i • n-i, t^^ t i i- i ^ i i Normandy English King. 1 hc English little thought, when Edward'"^ they saw this tall and noble looking young man of twenty-three passing with his gay retinue along their roads, that he would one day not only be their ruler, but would completely change the destinies of the nation. William of Normandy was very ambitious and very bold in war. As he saw the prosperity and wealth of the English, he resolved that he would some day try to win the English crown for himself. He had a powerful influence over King Edward ; and he afterwards declared that, while he was on this visit to England, Godwin re- Edward promiscd to make William his heir, appears. William had scarcely returned to Normandy when Godwin and his sons landed once more in England, collected a large body of men and a goodly fleet, and advanced on London. The king hurriedly gathered his troops and ships ; and soon the opposing forces found themselves face to face. But now the wisdom and patriotism of the king's coun- cillors averted the spectacle of civil war. Instead of fighting, the king and the earl came to terms and made He is re- pcacc with cach other. Godwin and his sons stored. were restored to their earldoms and former power. Many of the Normans were deprived of their offices and estates, and were banished from the country. Among these was the Archbishop of Canterbury, who made all haste to return to his native land. Earl Godwin only lived a year after thus triumphing over the foreigners he so heartily detested. It is rplated that while he was revelling at an Easter feast with King Edward, the latter THE END OF THE SAXON DYNASTY. 5 I again accused him of the murder of Prince Alfred. God- win rose from his chair, stretched aloft one hand, and with the other held a piece of bread to his mouth. "May this morsel of bread be my last," he cried, " if I had any share in that bloody deed ! " He attempted to swallow the bread, but it choked him ; and falling to the ground, he died in agony. Godwin's brave and brilliant son Harold succeeded to his father's power and popularity. The king Godwin's liked and trusted him, and sent him to fight ^°''' Harold, the Welsh, who had risen in revolt under a mountain chief named Griffith. Harold marched into the fastnesses of Wales, and attacked the rebels with such vigor and courage that the revolt was soon crushed, and Griffith himself was killed. Soon after, Harold was at sea with his brother, when he was shipwrecked on the French coast. He was at once seized by Count Guv, 1 1 1 r 1 • 1 -1 -^ He is en- the lord or the region, and carried at once to trapped by Duke William of Normandy. William knew how much the English loved Harold, and availed himself of the chance w^hich had put Harold in his power, to further his own scheme of obtaining the English crown. So he made Harold solemnly swear that he would do all that he could to make William king after Edward's death, and then he set him free. ' Meanwhile King Edward had sad need of Harold at home. He had made Harold's younger brother, Tostig, lord of Northumberland. It was not long before Tostig's overbearing temper incited the Northumbrians to rebel against his rule. So Edward sent Harold thither Harold's to aid Testis: in restoring: order. But Harold's dealings ^ ^ with Tos- generous nature revolted against forcing a tyrant tig. 52 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. upon the people, though that tyrant was his own brother. When he found that the Northumbrians would not submit, but had chosen another earl to govern them, he refused to aid Tostig, who was forced to make all haste to leave the country. This conduct of Harold made him greatly beloved and honored in Northumberland. King Edward was now fast approaching the end of his reign. His rule had been, on the whole, a wise and gentle one. His most prominent trait was his exceed. Edward's i i • piety and ing picty and devotion to the Church, and he is justice. i^nown in history as "Edward the Confessor." He is said to have been very handsome in person, with long white hair and beard. Although at most times mild and cheerful, he was quick-tempered and easily angered. He relieved his people of some oppressive imposts, and generally governed them justly and mildly. As he per- ceived that his end was approaching, he conceived a great desire to leave some pious monument behind him, to per- petuate his memory among his subjects. So he caused He builds Westminster Abbey to be built on a spot which ol^^^est^/ was then a small island at the western extremity minster. of Londou. But vcry little remains, in the pres- ent abbey, of the original structure ; but there may be seen the beautiful shrine of Edward the Confessor, within which the remains of the good king lie. Thouo;h a descendant of the Saxon line was still livinc: in the person of Edgar, the grandson of Edmund Ironside, Harold be- Edward the Confessor chose Harold to be his comes successor. Harold was not of roval blood, be- king. ing the son of Earl Godwin, a subject. But Edgar, the next heir of the royal line, was of feeble mind and body ; and the English wanted an able, vigorous, and THE END OF THE SAXON DYNASTY. 53 warlike king. Harold was beloved and respected through- out the land. So he was designated to succeed the now dying monarch. Edward the Confessor passed away on the very day that his noble sanctuary, Westminster Ab- bey, was completed. He never entered it except to be buried. As he lay dying, he said, " I hope that I am pass- ing from the land of the dead into that of the living." On the day of the good Confessor's death, the He is Witenagemote confirmed his choice of Harold as ^^^^^^^^ ^^ o the ne-w king ; and Harold was the first of the long line abbey, of English sovereigns who have been crowned, in great state and splendor, within the walls of Westminster Ab- bey. K CHAPTER X. THE NORMAN CONQUEST, ING HAROLD, though not of royal blood, was be- loved by the English for his courage, wisdom, and kind and merciful temper. Yet his reign [1066] lasted King less than a year, and from its very beginning was Harold. attended by turmoil and disaster. When a pris- oner in Normandy, Harold had solemnly sworn to Duke William that he would support William's claim to the Eng- lish throne. This oath, however, had been taken under compulsion, and when Harold found himself upon the Harold's throuc hc was resolved to retain it. Duke Wil- broken |j^-^j-,-j Jq^^ j-j^ [[^q in remindinsf Harold of his promise. ^ oath, and demanding its fulfilment. Harold re- turned a prompt and brave reply. He told the Duke that the oath had been wrung from him by violence ; that, in- deed, he had had no right to dispose of the English throne ; and that, now that the English had with one voice chosen him to rule over them, he would only give up his crown with his life. The enraged Duke of Normandy promptly made ready Anjrer of to asscrt his claim to the English throne by the Duke of fQ^-ce Qf arms. His first step was to seek for Normandy. '■ and obtain the sanction and aid of the Pope of Rome, and to secure allies among the other princes of Europe. The Pope responded favorably to his appeal. 54 THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 55 He sent him, with his blessing, a consecrated banner and a lock of St. Peter's hair. Many of the princes, who feared and respected William for his martial prowess and resolute will, gave him support. Among those who inter- ested themselves in his cause was Tostig, Harold's own brother. Tostig, after having been expelled from North- umberland, fled to Norway and formed a close Tostig's friendship with the king of that country. He har- ^^^^*- bored a deep resentment against Harold, because Harold had refused to sanction his tyrannies in Northumberland ; and now that Duke William was about to attack Harold, Tostig saw that the moment for his revenge had come. While Duke William, therefore, was busy gathering togeth- er a large army, Tostig, with his friend the king Treachery of Norway, took time by the forelock, invaded °^ Tostig. northern England, besieged the city of York, and carried his ravages far and wide. In vain did Harold try to be- come reconciled to his treacherous brother. When he sent a messenger to Tostig, the latter asked what Harold would give the king of Norway. " Seven feet of English ground for a grave ! " was the envoy's proud and brave reply. Harold hastily marched northward to give battle to Tostig. The brothers met at Stamford Bridge. Battle of Harold led the forefront of his troops, and, after Stamford ^ ' ' Bridge. a bloody conflict, overcame the invaders. His triumph was complete. The Norwegian army was cut to pieces, and both Tostig and the Norwegian king fell on the field, mortally wounded. But Harold and his valiant English had little time to spend in rejoicing over their sig- nal victory. Scarcely had the battle ended, when messen- gers arrived in hot haste from the south, with the tidings that the Normans had already landed on the coast and 56 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. were advancing northward into the interior. Harold made all haste to encounter this new and far more formidable foe. He summoned a fresh army, called his earls to his support, and promptly set out to meet the proud Norman Duke wii- ^^^'^^ ^^^^ warriors. Duke William had landed at liam lands Pevenscv, had built a wooden fortress at Has- in England. -^ ' tings, and thence had salhed out to plunder and lay waste the country round about. Unhappily for Harold, the earls Edwin and Morcar, who were jealous of him, re- fused to come to his aid with their vassals ; so that his army, on the eve of his struggle with the Normans, was smaller and weaker than he had confidently hoped it would be. Harold took up his position at Senlac, not far from The English Hastings, in an orchard which crowned a sloping position. i-jiii^ jj^ ^j-jg pi^^jj^ below tiie English could distinct- ly see William and his valiant and gaily attired Normans. With Harold were his two brothers, Gurth and Leofwin. Gurth urged the king to lay waste the country, so that the Normans could not subsist thereon, to return to London, gather a larger army, and then confront the enemy. But Harold proudly refused, declaring that it did not become The night ^ l^i"g to turn his back upon his foes. The night before the bcforc the battle the English camp resounded battle. ° ' with music and merrymaking. But the Normans spent the dark hours in prayer and preparation. At dawn^ the rival hosts began to move towards each other. The En"-lish excelled with their battle-axes and broadswords; the Normans as bowmen and in horsemanship. Harold fortified the hill with a rough fence of stakes ; and dispos- ing his men within this hastily constructed fort, he awaited the Norman onset. The Normans advanced, William and his brother in their THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 5/ midst, their coats of mail glistening in the rays of the rising sun. They were mounted on swift and spirited steeds. When they drew close to the English, a Norman minstrel The conflict in the front of the cavalcade suddenly threw his ^^gi^^. sword aloft, and began to sing loudly a Norman war-song. This was the signal of attack. The Normans threw them- selves upon the palisade, and again and again sought to ride in upon the English. But the sturdy soldiers of Harold wielded their battle-axes with deadly effect. The Normans were driven down the slopes, and, for a moment, victory seemed within Harold's grasp. But William again rallied his knights, and once more led them up the hill. The two armies now came to close quarters. Raging of William slew Gurth with his own sword. At last ^^° ^^"^^• the Normans broke through a part of the high fence. Then William resorted to stratagem. He ordered his men to retreat, as if overwhelmed. They descended the hill ; the hot-headed English rushed pell-mell after them. The con- flict now raged in the open field. The battle might have been long doubtful but for a crowning disaster which befell the English. The brave and undaunted Harold fell, struck by an arrow in the eye. He fell beneath his standard, wounded to the death. When the Normans saw that the Saxon king was dying, they hurled themselves with fierce ardor upon the dis- Triumph mayed and disheartened Enjrlish. A Norman °^ ^^^ _ ^ Normans. knight slew Harold as he lay drawing his last breath. The English slowly retreated, still fighting brave- ly ; but the day was lost to them, and that night William encamped on the field of battle. The death of Harold, and the complete discomfiture of 58 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. his valiant arm)^, put England at the mercy of the Norman invader. There was no longer any force strong enough to resist his advance. The conqueror lost no time in follow- ing up his triumph. He led his army along the southern coast to Dover: then along the banks of the Thames to Duke wii- Londou. Everywhere the people were forced to liam enters submit to him. Hc entered London at the head Loudon. of his armored knights, and was duly crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey. An incident hap- pened at the coronation, which nearly caused a desperate conflict between the English and the Normans on the very first day of William's reign. The bishops, as they stood at William the Abbey altar, asked the assembled multitude accepted whether they would accept William as king. The as king. -' ^ *-* people responded with a loud cry of assent. The Norman soldiers outside the church supposed that the noise meant that the people \vithin had revolted against their lord. So they began to set fire to the neighboring houses. The people ran out, and for a moment a bloody conflict seemed certain. But the mistake was soon ex- plained, and the ceremony was peacefully brought to an end. William found it no easy matter to bring the English completely under his rule. In various parts of the country the authority of the foreigner was long resisted. In the English re- ^orth of England, Edwin and Morcar, Harold's ^°^*^^^^^'^^* brothers, raised the standard of revolt. The William. ' southern English for a while supported the claim to the throne of Edgar, the grandson of Edmund Ironside ; but Edgar was of feeble mind, and in the course of time went to reside at William's court as a pensioned depen- THE NORMAN CONQUEST. 59 dent. The Danes joined arms with the English in North- umberland, but William met the allies at York and com- pletely routed them. The Norman conqueror thus over- came, one after another, the attempts made to resist his rule, and, long before he died, became the absolute and undisputed king of all England. CHAPTER XI. PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. DURING the period between the landing of Julius Caesar on the shores of Britain, and the victory of William the Norman near Hastings, the island was con- quered, as w^e have seen, four times, by four different in- The four vadcrs. First the Romans came, and for a long conquests, ^yi-^iig established themselves in the country, hold- ing it always by military force. They erected walls, fort- resses and highways, built towns, and introduced the Christian faith. But they finally left Britain without hav- ing planted any settlements of Romans, or having greatly modified the character of the people. Then came the Eng- Engiish, bsh — the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes — who not Normans'"** ^"^^ conqucrcd the land, but permanently occu- pied it, driving out the Britons and becoming themselves the inhabitants of the island. Next the Danes, near relatives by race of the English, invaded the country, made settlements side by side with the English, for a while gave England Danish kings, and became gradually merged into the mass of English citizens. Finally the Normans landed and conquered, and imposed themselves upon the nation as the ruling race. The Norman con- quest was the last. The descendants of William have ruled in England from that time to the present. 60 J PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 6l It was the second conquest, however — that of the Eng- lish — which really settled the character, language, and destinies of the insular nation. They were the real basis of the nation, and they absorbed the other two supremacy races — the Danes and the Normans — who of English character. after them ■ conquered the country. It was the English type which survived every attack and dan- ger, and it is the English type which prevails to this day. Yet the Normans in some sort modified that type, and made some changes in the language. The English, while they were fond of freedom, and had a great respect for law and order, were coarse, brutal, self-indulgent and uncouth. The Normans, on the other hand, Traits of the were spirited and chivalrous, bold and enterpris- Normans, ing in war, and polished and elegant in manners. They mingled much more with the rest of the world than the English, and were more accomplished in worldly graces and talents. They liked to travel, and were restless and ambitious of adventure. When they came and settled among the English, therefore, they infused into the people more refinement and activity, and added to the English qualities of industry, love of liberty, and persistency, the Norman traits of enthusiasm, ambition, and polish. The Romans had not planted their language among the Britons ; but the Normans brought with them a language to a large degree derived from the Latin, and blended with the Saxon tongue many new and graceful words and phrases. Thus the English language became a combination changes in of Saxon and Norman, or, as we should say now, of ^^'^s^'^se. German and French, and combined much of the strength and beauty of both. It has been well pointed out that in this way there came to be often two words — a Saxon and a 62 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. Norman word — to express the same thing; such as "truth'* and ".veracity," "heavenly" and "celestial." Another Norman interesting fact is, that while most of the words and Engush sinrnifvins: hlsih and loftv things, such as " rovaltv," words. o J & ir^ ^ O ' . . ? "palace," "castle," "sovereign," came from the Norman, the words expressing humble and homely things, like "home," "farm," "hearth," were of Saxon origin. The Normans for a long period used their power over the subjected English with cruelty. Yet they did a great deal, in many ways, to improve and elevate the people. Government William made the nation more completely one of William I. ^j^.^^ j^ j-,^j^ g^,gj. \)QQY] beforc. The power of the under-kings fell before his might. He subjected the influence of the great nobles to his iron will. He made England respected and feared abroad as it had never been under its native kings. It was in the early period of Norman ascendancy, too, that the "feudal sys- tem " took root so deeply in England, that some vestiges of it still remain in the England of our own time. With William came and settled in England a host of Norman nobles, knights, soldiers, and gentlemen. To these he gave many houses, manors, and lands, all over the country, which he ruthlessly took from their native owners. He turned Eng- lish bishops and priests out of their dioceses and j^arishes, and gave them to Norman ecclesiastics. He surrounded himself with Norman guards and courtiers. After the Nor- occupation man lords and soldiers had thus fairly taken by th^ "^"^ possession of the land, a multitude of Normans Normans, ^f ^ Jowcr class flockcd across the Channel, and settled in the English towns and villages. These Nor- mans, whether nobles or commoners, one and all treated the English as their inferiors. PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 6^ The extension of the "feudal system," which had already taken some root in England, was one result of the Norman conquest. This system regarded the king as The feudal owning all the land of the country, and all its ^y^^^^- lords as holding the land they occupied under him. The lesser lords in like manner held their land under the greater lords, and the farmers and small «occupiers in turn held under the lesser lords. So it was that every man who had any land at all held it under some one above him. The conditions under which the land was so held were, that the king should protect and defend the lords, and the lords those who held land under them : and that, on the other hand, the "vassals," as those who Lords and held under a superior were called, should fight ^^^sais. for and aid their lords whenever called upon. Thus the chief service which the vassal owed his lord, and the lord the king, was military service. There was no standing army in England. The king had, at best, but a few com- panies of guards. So, when a war broke out, the king called upon the lords to bring their quotas of men, and the lords in like manner commanded their vassals to gather together, arm themselves, and join the royal standard. The Norman lords, to whom so many great estates had been given, rigorously enforced this feudal system. They built all through the country strong and lofty Norman castles, which served both as fortresses and as nasties, residences. These castles were supplied with every appli- ance for military defence. They had great towers, with mere slits for windows ; around them were dug deep moats, which, when the castle was attacked, could be flooded with water ; there were prisons where captured enemies were 64 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. confined ; portcullises completely barred the portals from a hostile entrance, and drawbridges enabled the dwellers in the castle to cross the moat in times of peace. Sometimes the castle was built in two spacious quadrangles, within which huts were erected for the lord's attendants. The castle usually stood aloft, on an eminence or crag, or on the brow of a high hill ; while below nestled the hamlets and villages occupied by the lord's vassals. The lord was The obiiga- bound to protcct his vassals from all attacks, and tionsofthe -J- ^y^^ j-j-g ^^g|^ ^Q settle their differences, punish lords. _ ' '^ them for their misdemeanors, and generally to regulate their affairs. On the other hand, the vassals, at the summons of their lord, were bound to abandon their work at once, and to follow him to the wars. English society, then, as it w^as at the time of the Conquest, consisted of the feudal lords and squires at English t^'^G head ; then the yeomanry, who were farmers society holdinoj undcr the lords: and finally the work- under the ^ ' -' Normaus. mcu, who owncd no land, but labored for wages. Meanwhile, in the towns and cities, the number of trades- men was ever increasing with the swelling urban population. People more and more fiocked to the thickly settled places from the country. A lively trade had already sprung up with foreign countries, and, from the time of the coming of the Danes, the English had taken to a seafaring life more than ever before. So many seaside towns had grown Towns and ^'^P ou the coast, and the foundation of English villages. supremacy on the ocean was thus laid. The church, too, had waxed apace. Every village now had its priest and a more or less humble sanctuary ; and very soon after the advent of the Normans, the earliest of the PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 65 splendid cathedrals which may now be seen in England — such as those at Durham, Peterborough, and Gloucester — were built for the service of the bishops. Monasteries and abbeys, too, were erected in many places, whither commu- nities of monks retreated, to engage in study and perform their pious offices in solitude. CHAPTER XII. WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. WILLIAM the Conqueror — as the first Norman king of England has always been called in his- tory — was a man of striking personal appearance, and of ■William the ^^^^ mental and moral qualities. He was tall Conqueror's ^^^ corpulent, with a stern, shaven face and a personal '■ appearance, very kingly manner. He was exceedingly pow- erful of body. He was strong-willed and fierce in tem- per. He loved to live in splendor, and to display his royal magnificence to the world ; yet was he also greedy and avaricious of money. He was bountiful, but inspired fear rather than affection. Perhaps the most attractive of his personal traits was his ardent and faithful love for his wife. Throughout his stormy career, his devotion to the partner of his throne was tender and constant. He ruled always William's ^vith a resolute hand, and made war valiantly vigor of rule, ^j^^^ cruclly. Hc put down rebellions with re- lentless vigor, and without pity scourged the people among whom rebellion had been stirred up. When he had put down the revolt in Northumberland, he scattered his sol- diers through the region, and ordered them to burn the orchards and villages, and to massacre the inhabitants and kill their live-stock. This great king, while he gave lands to the Normans, and permitted them to build castles and to establish feudalism 66 WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 6/ among the people, took good care that they should not be- come too powerful. He made every owner of land subjection in England take a solemn oath of fidelity to the of the lords * -'to the crown. He would not allow any lord to hold a vast crown, estate in any one district, but, if he wished to reward him, he would give him several estates at a distance from each other. He restricted the powers of the lords to administer justice. When certain of the barons, enraged at William's high-handed rule, rebelled against him (1075) ^^^ seized and promptly beheaded the Earl of Nottingham, who was their chief. William was ardently fond of hunting. Not wniiam's finding enough scope for gratifying this passion ^°^® °^^ in the royal parks, he seized upon a vast tract of land in Hampshire, ninety miles in circumference, and caused all the villages, churches, and buildings upon it to be destroyed. The inhabitants were driven away to find homes where they might. Then the king caused a forest to be made ; and here he had ample space for his hunting. He planted a preserve for deer, which were his favorite game ; and forbade any one to kill the deer or the boars in the forest. Whoever did so was deprived of his sight. This great pleasure-ground was always afterwards called the New Forest. William did another thing which, although at the time it greatly displeased his English subjects, proved to be of lasting service and benefit to the nation. This was to cause the " Doomsday Book " to be written. He The Dooms- sent officers throughout England to find out the ^^^^ ^°°^- condition of the land ; to make a record of the land-own- ers, the amount of acres which each held, and the number of serfs on each estate ; to set down how much of the land was cultivated, how much consisted of meadows or forests, 6S YOUNG people's ENGLAND. the number and kind of fisheries, and the population of each town, village, and hamlet. These officers in due time made their reports, which, collected and arranged, made' up the Doomsday Book. This book enabled the king to know upon whom to levy his taxes, and how to divide up the taxes, so that each should pay his proportionate share. But it has had the still greater use of enabling land-owners, ever since, to trace the titles of properties, and make se- cure their tenures. The Doomsday Book still exists, and gives a vivid picture of the state of England in the remote time when the stern and masterful Conqueror reigned. When William undertook the conquest of England, the Pope of Rome had sent him flags which the Pope had blessed, and had aided him as far as he could. After Wil- Engiandand li^m had bccu somc time on the throne, the Pope the Pope. demanded of the King that he should do homage to him for the kingdom. This William respectfully but stubbornly refused to do. On the contrary, he forbade the English bishops to go to Rome and do homage to the Pope, and compelled them, as well as the lords, to do homage to him instead. Yet, though William thus resisted the Pope's demand, he did many things to favor William the cliurch at home, to build it up and extend favors the ^i-^ influence over the people. He caused cathe- Church. 1 r drals and monasteries to be erected, gave rich lands to monkish orders, and himself regularly attended re- ligious services. The wisest counsellor whom he had during his reign was a learned and good Italian priest, named Lanfranc, whom William made Archbishop of Canterbury. William listened to Lanfranc's advice, and implicitly trusted him in many affairs of state. WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 69 Lanfranc devoted himself with all his energy to reform- ing the church, and, as far as he could, to bettering the condition of the people. He supported the king in his refusal to do homage to the Pope. He carefully selected good and able Norman priests to be Eng- lish bishops and abbots ; and persuaded William to allow the bishops to have courts of their own, in which all cases relating to the clergy and the rules of the church were adjudged. Lanfranc also founded a number of schools, and did his utmost to destroy the slave-trade in England. His influence was therefore almost wholly beneficial both to the church and to the English people. In the early part of his reign William paid a visit in o:reat splendor to his duchy of Normandv, tak- ^ ^ ^ . ^ ' William's ing with him a large company of bishops and visi lords, and making a brilliant display among his Norman subjects. He gave a great feast to the Norman no- bles, and showod them the gold plate and rich embroidery which he had found among the English. But his visits to Normandy were afterwards not very frequent. In spite of his occasional harshness and cruelty, William retained the old English laws and customs, caused the laws to be strict- ly enforced, and maintained civil order throughout his realm. He protected his humbler subjects from the tyranny of the great lords, and so won their gratitude, though he was too stern and despotic a ruler to win their affection. He imposed grievous taxes, reviving the old " danegeld,'* the tax which was formerly exacted to defend ■^ _ Imposition the country from the Danes, who had long since of heavy ceased to trouble the English. William combined the English system, which consisted of a strong central ts to Normandy. 70 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. power, with the Norman system of feudal vassalage, and thus created a really great and powerful kingdom. William had three sons, Robert, William (called "Rufus," William's or the " Red," because of his red hair), and sons. Henry. Throughout his rule, the eldest son, Robert, was disobedient and rebellious. He claimed the right to govern Normandy ; and when the king refused to admit this claim, Robert joined hands with the king of France and rose in revolt. Queen Matilda, William's wife, brought about a temporary reconciliation between her hus- band and her son ; but Robert was soon in rebellion again, and his conduct cast a dark shadow over- his father's later years. William at last became involved in a war War with with the Frcnch king. He crossed the Channel France. ^^,j,-|-^ |-^jg amiy, and advanced into the country. In a fit of rage at some hasty word, he set fire to the town of Mantes. As he was riding among the smoking ruins, his horse was burned by the hot ashes, and stumbled. The heavy -bodied monarch was thrown suddenly forward, and was mortally injured. He was carried to Rouen, where, perceiving that death was approaching, he made a final dis- position of his worldly affairs. To Robert, in spite of his unfilial conduct, \\'illiam left the duchy of Normandy. He designated his second son, William Rufus, as king of England. Stricken, at the last hour, by his conscience, he sought to atone for his mis- deeds by leaving large sums of money to the poor, ordering the release of his prisoners, commanding that the church at Mantes should be rebuilt, and bequeathing many of his lands to the English cathedrals, churches, and monasteries. Death of After lingering for several weeks, the Conqueror William I. pjissej away, just as the bell for the early WILLIAM THE CONQUEROR. 7I in a neighboring belfry. He was entombed in a beautiful church at Caen, which he him- self had caused to be erected ; but it is said that not one of his three sons was present at the last rites of their great and valiant sire. CHAPTER XIII. WILLIAM RUFUS, OR THE RED. WILLIAM RUFUS, without waiting for his father to die, hurried home (1087) to take possession of the kingdom which the Conqueror, in his hist hours, had ■William II., given over to him. WilUam knew that a powerful "the Bed." p^rtv in England preferred his brother Robert to himself ; and he lost no time in making sure of the crown. As soon as he reached England, he repaired to Winchester, where the Conqueror's treasure was, and se- cured it for himself. He then hastened his coronation, and began a rei2:n which left few other than cruel and bitter memories behind it. William Rufus was a coarse, brutal, headstrong tyrant. He had his father's stubborn ^"^' will, without his nobler and more admirable qual- ities. He was the slave of his passions, grossly ignorant, and thoroughly heartless. During the first two years of his reign he was somewhat curbed by the good Lanfranc, whom, from necessity, William retained as his chief adviser ; but on Lanfranc's death, the king gave full rein to his t3Tannical nature and his rude passions. He now chose for his principal counsellor a shrewd, cun- ning priest named Flambard. This man was the pliant instrument of his master in wringing oppressive taxes from the people, and in ministering to his vices. William was 1^ WILLIAM RUFUS, OR THE RED. 73 greedy of money, and by every device added to the bur- dens of the people in order to gratify his avarice. i^ ^ o J William's At the same time he treated both his subjects, greed and and the clergy whom they venerated, with abuse and contempt. He scoffed at religion, and was so devoid of all reverence, that, when he needed money very much, he stripped the churches of the gold and silver ornaments which the people held sacred, and converted ^ ^ ' , Robbery them to his own uses. Crosses, shrines, sacra- of the mental cups, and the boxes in which relics were kept, were thus seized by this greedy monarch, and their proceeds spent in riotous living. William Rufus sometimes pretended to repent of his evil actions, and made fair promises to his people. This was when he found himself in some trouble. The proud lords of England had always washed to have Hostility of Robert for king, and were inclined to be arro- *^® ^°'"^^- gant and rebellious. In order to keep them in submission, the king tried to win the people to his side. But as soon as the danger which had threatened him had passed, he fell again into his old vicious and tyrannical ways. For four years after Lanfranc's death, William left the church with- out a head. He depended wholly upon his pliant adviser, Flambard, to aid him in governing the kingdom. But it happened that the king fell desperately ill. He feared that he was going to die : and he dreaded to die ,^^.„. , o •=> ' W^illiam's Without having received the consolations of the fear of church he had so much abused. He professed to be very repentant, and made haste at last to choose a new Archbishop of Canterbury. Fortunately for England, his choice fell upon a wise and devout old man named Anselm. Anselm had been a 74 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. friend of Lanfranc, and resembled him in the simplicity and goodness of his character. Knowing what sort of a ruler William was, Anselm was very reluctant to be made Archbishop archbishop ; but he at last consented and went Anselm. |-q £ngland. By this time, however, William had recovered from his illness, and had returned to his old habits of tyranny and debaucher}^ Anselm was brave enough to reprimand the king for his crimes, and to oppose the cruelties which he had again begun to practise ; so that William soon grew to hate him, and to thwart the good the archbishop tried to do in the kingdom, Anselm also incurred the ill will of the people by preaching against extravagance in dress. He reproved them for wearing long curly hair, and long pointed shoes, but could not Anseim's prcvail on them to abandon those vanities. Dis- departure. couragcd and heartsick, the old man soon left England, and repaired to the papal court at Rome. William Rufus was as greedy of dominion and power as he was of money. He had long looked with covetous eyes upon his brother Robert's duchy of Normandy. An important event took place which led to his obtaining it. This event was the famous war of the " Crusades." The Chris- The war . ... r i r i • • of the tians of that tune were fond ot makmg journeys to Crusades. p|^(.g5 sacrcd to their faith. These journeys were called "pilgrimages." Large companies used to travel to a great distance, in order to worship and pray at some sacred shrine. Pilgrimages were constantly being made to Rome, where lived the head of the church. Not only kings and princes, but many humble folk travelled slowly, through many perils, to pro.strate themselves at the Pope's feet, or kneel in the churches of the holy city. It was a still more dangerous and distant expedition to the holy WILLIAM RUFUS, OR THE RED. 75 places of Palestine ; to adore at the tomb of Christ, and visit the scenes of Biblical history. The Holy Land was in possession of the cruel, semi- barbarous, infidel Turks. They detested and despised the Christians, and refused to permit Land and them to make pilgrimages to the sacred shrines. *^®'^'^^^^- They would attack and murder the pilgrims, and abuse and imprison the priests. This caused a deep emotion and excitement throughout the Christian nations, which at last resolved that Palestine should be wrested from its ferocious heathen masters. An ardent and eloquent priest called Peter the Hermit, who had once been a sol- pg^er the dier, rose to inspire all Christendom with the eager Hermit, desire to assail the Turks. Peter went from city to city, from country to country, preaching the " crusade," or " war of the cross" (iioo). He kindled everywhere a mighty enthusiasm, and thousands of people of every social degree flocked to hear him, and to volunteer for the sacred war. Among those who went were many English and Normans. Robert, Duke of Normandy, was aroused to enthusiasm by Peter's fervid eloquence. He summoned his Robert of knights and soldiers, and determined to lead Normandy, them himself to the Holy Land. But unfortunately he had but little money. This was the opportunity for which William Rufus had long been looking. He now offered Robert all the money he wanted, on con- dition that Robert should pledge the duchy of Nor- mandy to him for five years. To this Robert reluctantly agreed. He departed for the crusades, and the govern- ment of Normandy fell into the English king's hands. In order to pay Robert, William Rufus fairly ground down his subjects with heavy taxes, so that there was misery 'J^ YOUNG people's ENGLAND. throii2;liout the leniith and breadth of the land. For more William Ru- than twclvc ycars, indeed, during which this bad fusopresses Y\w2, Tilled over England, the people were almost the English. ^ o 7 i i constantly plunged in distress and poverty. William Rufus, like the Conqueror, was passionately fond of hunting ; and it was through this rough pastime that he met his death. He used often to go hunting in that New Forest which his father had made at so much cost of suffering to the people w^ho had dwelt on the land. An elder brother of William Rufus had already come to his death in this fatal forest. One day, the king set out through the forest with a company of nobles. With Sir Walter Tyrell, he became separated from the rest of the party. When the party returned from the hunt, the king and Sir Walter were missing. A search was made, and at about dusk the kins^ was found Death of . ' '=' William lying in the forest, his heart pierced by an arrow, dead. Sir Walter Tyrell had disappeared. When he came back, he declared that he knew not how the king had come to his end. So rejoiced, however, were the cour- tiers and the people at the tyrant's death, that few cared to ask how it had come about. William Rufus was buried in Winchester Cathedral. CHAPTER XIV. HENRY THE FIRST. ONCE more a great and good king sat upon the throne of England. William Rufus was succeeded by his bro- ther Henry, the Conqueror's youngest son (iioo). Robert, who was older than either, might have become king had he been at hand ; but he was far off in the crusades, and Henry lost no time in seizing upon the throne. Although the English liked Robert, they were not unwilling to accept Henry ; for Henry was the first Norman character prince born on English soil, and he had al- of Henry i. ready shown that he had qualities well befitting the ruler of a nation. Henry was a man of ripe education and fine tastes. He loved books, so that he received the name of " Beauclerc," or "excellent scholar." He was fond of travel, of music, and of natural history. He was the first English ruler to make a collection of wild animals. He formed a sort of zoological garden, with lions, leopards, and camels, in one of his parks. He was a man of order, law, and peaceful disposition ; yet resolute, sometimes to severity, and fond of exercising power. One of Henry's first acts as king was to grant a charter to his people. A charter is a written agreement, Henry's in which a ruler promises liberties and grants charter, rights to his subjects. It may be given either to the whole n yS YOUNG people's ENGLAND. body of the nation, or to a town corporation, or lo a busi- ness enterprise. Henry's charter was the first issued by an English monarch, in which it was plainly written down what rights were accorded to the people by the throne. We shall see that other charters were granted to the Eng- lish by later kings. Henry promised that the church, the lords, and the common people should all be protected in the rights due to them under the laws of England. Two other things which Henry did early in his reign served to Anseim "^^'i^i ^o^^ ^^'^^^ the gratitude and affection of his sub- recaiied. jects. He recalled the good Archbishop An- seim to England, and appointed him as his chief minister; and he wedded an English princess, a descendant of the old Saxon kings, who soon became greatly beloved through- out the land as " the good queen Maud." She was very comely in person, and was devout, kind, and charitable. Henry had established his rule in Normandy as well as England ; so that when his brother Robert returned from the crusades, he was unable, not only to obtain the Eng- lish crown, as he had hoped, but to recover his Norman duchy. He was thrown into prison by Henry, and there mysteriously died ; and when, soon after, his Henry ,. . . . recovers SOU William also died, no one was left to dis- orman y. ^^^^^^ ^j^^ duchy witli the Euglisli king. Having thus become the undisputed ruler over the two realms, Henry set vigorously to work to improve the con- dition of his subjects. He curbed the power of the great lords, and, when they resisted him, seized their lands. He maintained, against the claims of the Pope and the sturdy opposition of Archbishop Anseim, his right to the homage of the bishops and clergy, and his right to ap- pcinl the bishops and abbots. Like his predecessors, he I HENRY THE FIRST. 79 heavily taxed his people. He taught his soldiers the art of war, so that the English became far more skilful English on the battlefield than they had ever been before, soldiers. Many of the institutions which still exist in England, and of which the English are very proud, took their rise in the time of the first Henry. After the death of Anselm, with whom Henry had quarrelled about the affairs of the church, but to whom he had again become reconciled, the king chose as his chief councillor a wise man named The wise Roger, who was Bishop of Salisbury. This able Bishop of prelate held the office, then newly created, of ^ '^ "''^" "justiciar." It was his duty to carry on the government whenever the king was absent from his realm, and to aid the king in administering justice. The " justiciar " after- wards became "lord chief justice," and the principal com- mon-law judge of England still bears that title. The only other chief officer of the king was the treasurer, who kept the royal accounts. This official became in time the " lord high treasurer," and the office is now represented by the " lords of the treasury." In course of time the Witena- gemote, or council of wise men, had gradually changed in its composition. It now included not only a few of the chief bishops and chosen councillors of the king, but many of the great lords. It was still powerless Thewitena-' to resist the king ; but, under the king, it held gemote, the powder to make laws for the country. We shall see how, in time, this council grew to be the stronghold of English liberties. In Henry's reign, also, was laid the foundation of two courts of justice which have survived through all the centuries since, and which still sit and perform their functions in London. These were the Court of the Ex- chequer, and the "Curia Regis," which is now known as the King's or Queen's Bench. So YOUNG people's ENGLAND. The Court of the Exchequer was at first composed of the Early Eng- justiciar, the chancellor, and the principal ofBcers lish courts. o£ ^i^g j-o^.^i household. The name was derived from the checked cloth on the table in the hall in which the court held its sessions. The court sat twice a year, and its province was to receive the money accounts, rents, and taxes of the kingdom. The revenues derived by the king from the rents of his estates, the taxes levied on culti\-ated farms, and the fees and fines paid by those who committed crimes or violated the law, and on various occasions by the nobles, were all paid into the Court of the Exchequer, and were by that court paid out again in accordance with the The King's king's wishcs. The Curia Regis, or King's Bench, Bench. compHsed the king himself, his household offi- cers, and a certain number of the barons who sat in the Witenagemote. It was the duty of this court to adminis- ter justice, to settle disputes between the king's subjects, especially between the lords, and to punish violations of the law. Besides these courts, shire courts were established throughout England ; and the judges of the Curia Regis were sent from London to one place and another to pre- side over these shire courts. This was the beginning of English judges going " on circuit." The same system prevails at the present day. When the judges were not on circuit, the shire courts were presided over by the sheriff of the county, who represented the king in them. There were yet lower courts to deal out justice — courts "of the hundred," and the manorial courts, in which the lord of the manor settled the disputes between his vassals. Local and punished them for wrong-doing. These courts. manorial courts were very much to the English HENRY THE FIRST. 8 1 of Henry's time what the magistrates' courts are to the Enghsh of the present day. Thus it was that, during the long and vigorous reign of the first Henry, the political and judicial institutions of England as they exist to-day began to take form and shape. Henry was not only a good and wise king, but was a faithful husband and a loving father. He was children of destined to suffer deeply in the loss of those ^enry i. who were dear to him. His amiable queen, Maud, died (1118); and two years later his young son William, in whom the king reposed his fondest hopes, was drowned while crossing the English Channel on his return from a visit to France. The young prince was only nineteen, and had given the brightest promise of a good and useful life. His death cast a gloom over the remaining years of his royal fatlier's life. Henry is said never to have smiled after hearing of the prince's death. A daughter, named, after her mother, Maud, still survived to him; and Henry ordained that she should succeed him on the throne. Maud was the widow of the German emperor, and was a very imperious, domineering woman. She married, a second time, the Count of Anjou. It is well to remember this, as the future kings and queens of England were all descend- ants of this marriage. Henry summoned the barons to swear allegiance to Maud. Not long after this had been done he set ^eath ot out for a visit to his Norman duchy. He was ^^^^y^- destined never to see England again. He soon fell ill in Normandy and died there (1135). Men noticed that there was that year an eclipse of the sun. They took it as a sign foretelling the end of the good monarch who had reigned so wisely and so well for thirty-five years. 82 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. Henry's remains were brought back to England, and en- tombed in the midst of his faithful people. But Maud found it impossible to obtain the crown which her father had bequeathed to her. No sooner was he dead than Accession great coufusion arose in the realm. The lords of Stephen j-efuscd to acccpt Maud as queen, and after a logne. period of cival ccmmotion they chose Stephen of Boulogne, the son of Henry's sister Adela, to be king of England. CHAPTER XV, THE FIRST PLANTAGENET. THE accession of Stephen (1135) was the beginning of a troublous time for the English people. Nearly the whole period of his reign was turbulent, and shaken by civil convulsions. Stephen himself was brave, amiable, and was at first well liked by the nobles and the character people. But he was not a strong or resolute ruler, o^stephen. He did not understand the art of governing. He made lav- ish promises to his subjects, but was not able either to curb the lawlessness of the great lords, or to maintain order in the land. The lords built stronger castles than ever, and oppressed and plundered the common folk without hin- drance. Stephen offended the clergy, moreover, by im- prisoning the good Bishop of Salisbury and taking his castles from him. Thus he lost the support of the church while he did not gain that of the nobles. The country sank into dreadful misery. The people were not Misery in only robbed by the feudal lords, but were tortured, England, starved, and killed by them. These cruel robbers spared nothing. They plundered and desecrated the churches. They compelled whole communities to seek safety in exile. In many parts of England no crops were planted, and famine was added to the other horrors suffered by the people. 83 84 YOUNG people's ENGLAND, ' The Empress Maud did not submit to her exclusion from Attempt of her father's throne without a struggle. She Maud to landed in England with a larsje force, and for gain the ^ ^ '_ throne. fourtccu ycars civil war desolated the kingdom. Maud was aided by the king of Scotland, and by her half- brother, the Earl of Gloucester. The conflict between the claimants to the throne was protracted and bitter, and was long doubtful. Stephen was at one time captured and im- prisoned ; at another, the Empress only escaped capture by hastening over the snow in a white robe, so that she might not be seen. At last both parties, as w^ell as the countr}-, grew sick of the long contest, and a peace was patched up between Stephen and Maud. It was agreed that Stephen should continue to reign as long as he lived, and that upon his death, Maud's son, Henry, should succeed to the throne. Deatu of The year after this treaty was concluded, Ste- steptfien. pheu died (1154); and Henry, the second of the name, was hailed as king by the once more united nation. Henrv the Second w^as the first Endish sovereiiin who Accession bore 2L sumamc which became that of a family of Henry II. ^,^^ ^ j-q^^J |-j^^_ j^g ^^,^^ ^|^g ^^^^ ^^ ^|^g u pj.^j^_ tagenet " kings. The name " Plantagenet " had been giv- en to Henry's father, Geoffrey of Anjou, because he was in the habit of wearing a piece of broom in his hat ; the Latin name of " broom " being planta genista. At the time of his accession Henry was just twenty-one years of age. He had seen something of war, and was skilled in the science of arms. He soon showed, moreover, a rare capacity for governing men. He had been carefully educated, and was far more than an ordinary scholar. THE FIRST PLAXTAGENET. 85 He loved reading, and liked best the society of learned men. He was extremely active and industrious, had a strong will, and entered as vigorously into the characterof hardy sports of his people as he did into the ^^"^""y "• task of ruling them. "No one," says one who knew him, " is more gentle to the distressed, more affable to the poor, more overbearing to the proud. No one could be more dignified in speaking, more cautious at table, more moderate in drinking, more splendid in gifts, more gener- ous in arms." It was a ruler possessed of such high qualities that now entered upon the work of restoring order and law to the long-suffering and long-distracted English people. One of his first acts was to grant to ^he second his subjects a charter ensuring them their lib- c^^^^t^r. erties. He took the wise Theobald, Archbishop of Canter- bury, into his confidence ; and, quick to perceive merit and ability in others, he found in Thomas a Becket, who was the archbishop's clerk, a witty companion and a wise coun- sellor, and made him his chancellor. Thomas a Thomas a Becket was destined to play an important and becket. stirring part in the events of Henry's reign. He was tall and comely, of a merry and social nature, and full of bright and sparkling talk ; and soon completely won the king's affection and trust. Aided in his regal duties by this able adviser, Henry entered upon a resolute course of internal reform. He compelled the haughty and jealous lords to pull down their castles, and took from many of them the lands w^hich Stephen had given them. When a lord refused to obey, Henry went himself at Henry the head of his troops to enforce obedience. It ^^^^"^ *^^® ^ lords. was not long before the great lords were entirely subjected to the royal will, Henry jDlaced sheriffs of 86 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. his own selection in the counties, and these restored the reign of justice through the land. - When Henry had been on the throne six years, the good Archbishop Theobald died. The king, after an interval of a year, appointed his favorite, Thomas a Becket, to the vacant see. As time went on, Henry's affection for Becket had constantly increased. He had made him the favor- ite companion alike of his labors and of his Anecdote of Henry Idle liours. It is related that one cold winter's and Becket. , . . ,, , . , ^ day, as they were ridmg together m the Lon- don streets, they espied a beggar shivering in his rags. " Ought not that poor wretch," cried the king, " to have a cloak to cover him from the cold?" "To be sure he ought," replied Becket. Whereupon the king playfully seized Becket's mantle of fur, and threw it to the trembling Becket as Hiendicant. When Becket, however, found him- archbishop. ggif Archbishop of Canterbury, and. the head of the church in England, he seemed to completely change his character. He at once abandoned his gaiety of talk and conduct, ceased to make merry with the king, and gave up his lavish style of living. He adopted the severe and self-mortifying habits of a monk. He wore a hair- cloth next to his skin, scattered money among the poor, and devoted many hours each day to prayer and penance. Every night he washed the feet of thirteen beggars, as a sign of pious humility. He appeared, indeed, to have given up the world and its vanities, and to devote himself entirely to the service of the church. This conduct on the part of his old friend and favor- ite amazed and disappointed the king. Henry had hoped that Becket would aid him in bringing the church into complete subjection to the crown. Instead of this, the new THE FIRST PLANTAGENET. 8/ archbishop became the champion of the church, and as- serted its superiority to the royal power. The Quarrel be- two bitterly quarrelled. It was not long before t^^en ■' / » Henry and they came into open conflict. Becket stood Becket. stoutly by what he regarded as the rights of the bishops and clergy. He maintained that they owed their allegi- ance, not to the king, but to the Pope. Henry, on the other hand, demanded that the clergy should do homage to him as his subjects. Another matter of violent dis- pute between Becket and the king was that of Bishop-s the courts of law. William the Conqueror had courts, established special courts, presided over by the bishops, for the trial of clergymen who committed misdemeanors or crimes. King Henry, in order to increase his royal authority, was resolved that these bishops' courts should be abolished, and that the priests should be tried for their offences in the ordinary courts of law. This was resisted by Becket with all his might. In order to settle the matter, Henry summoned Becket and the rest of the bishops to meet him in a The council town called Clarendon. He demanded of them ofciaren- that they should agree to certain articles which ^°'^' he laid before them. According to these articles, the bishops and clergy were to hold their abbeys and domains as vassals of the king ; the king's court was to determine whether an offending clergyman should be tried in a bishop's court or in an ordinary court ; and an officer of the king was to be always present in the bishop's courts, to see that they did justice in accordance with the king's will. Becket for a while stubbornly resisted these proposals ; but as all the other bishops assented to them, he was at last compelled to submit. No sooner, 88 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. however, had he left Clarendon than he repented of his compliance. He sen-t to the Pope to beg his forgive- ness for havins: yielded. Henrv, on learninir this, Becket ° "^ . ? rssiststhe angrily summoned the archbishop before him for ^^'^^' trial. A council of bishops and nobles was held at Northampton ; and before this body Becket appeared, carrying a heavy wooden cross. As he entered the royal council he was received with jeers and mockery ; and as he was about to retire, the cry of " Traitor ! " was flung after him. Becket's proud spirit was aroused. Turning fiercely at the insult, he retorted, " Were I a knight, my sword should answer that foul taunt ! " But Becket found his enemies too strong for him. That Flight of night he tied in disguise to France ;. and for Becket. gj^ years the struggle between the king on one side, and the adherents of Becket on the other, raged in England. At last the king became so deeply involved in quarrels with the Pope and the French, that he was forced to recall Becket from exile. As the returning archbishop passed along the roads of Kent, he was re- ceived with noisy welcome by the people ; and he entered Canterbury once more, surrounded by a multitude of warm adherents. No sooner had Becket found himself again in Eno-land, than he bes-an to excommunicate the Becket . . returns to bishops who had so bitterly opposed him. The ng an . ]^ing, who was in France, heard of these acts ; and, overcome with anger, was heard to exclaim, " Is there no cowardly courtier of mine who will rid me of the insults of this low-born priest ? " Four knights who heard this hasty exclamation hur- ried across the channel, and made their way to the arch- bishop's palace. They penetrated to his chamber, where THE FIRST PLANTAGENET. 89 they upbraided him with angry reproaches. No sooner had they withdrawn than Becket, with a few friends, fled into the cathedral for safety, and stood on the steps of the altar, awaiting his fate. Presently the four knights, flourishing their arms, rushed in, crying, "Where is the traitor?" ., The archbishop turned upon them proudly. " Here am I," he replied ; " no traitor, but a priest of God." He went down the altar steps, and stood with his back against a pillar, confronting his assailants with un- blanched brow. "You are our prisoner!" cried one of the knights ; and they seized him and tried to drag him out of the cathedral. Becket shook them off, and threw one of them upon the ground. But they soon overcame him; and, as he knelt upon the altar steps, crying, "Lord, receive my spirit," their blows fell upon him Death of thick and fast. One of the knights with his becket. sword scattered the archbishop's brains on the cathedral floor. "Come," he cried to his companions, "let us away. The traitor will never rise again." So died the proud and brave Thomas a Becket. Soon after he was enrolled as a saint in the calendar of the church. CHAPTER XVI. henry's reforms and conquests. KING HENRY heard of the murder of Becket with alarm and dismay. Becket had always been loved by the English people, who had remained steadfast to his cause against the king and the bishops. All Europe, more- over, was shocked and outraged by his violent death. The kins: onlv escaped excommunication bv submit- The king O . 1 submits to ting himself in all humility to the Pope. In every °^^' w^ay he tried to atone for the deed which had been prompted by his own hasty and passionate words. He made a pilgrimage to Becket's tomb at Canterbury, and with bare feet walked three miles along the road leading to the cathedral. Kneeling at the tomb, the haughty king bared his back, which was flogged by the priests (i 174). Henry was forced, for a while, to refrain from asserting the authority which he had acquired over the church. But in the course of time he* resumed it, and the terms which he had compelled the bishops to accept at Clarendon were carried out. This struggle ^ between Struggle for suprcmacy between the king and a d^thJ^" the church was the first of a long series of sim- church. ji^^ contests which extended through many cen- turies of English history. Having reduced the bishops and clergy to submission 90 HENRY S REFORMS AND CONQUESTS. QI to the royal rule, Henry was forced to undertake a series of warlike operations. Despite his courage, he disliked war, and would have much preferred to devote himself to the peaceful government of his realm. But his enemies all of a sudden attacked him on every side. The ... . 1 1 1 • 1 , AVars with French kmg invaded his duchy of Normandy. France and The Scottish king descended upon his northern counties ; and, what was the bitterest blow of all to Henry, his own sons, Richard and Geoffrey, inspired by an un- fihal ambition, attacked their father's troops in Aquitaine. His eldest son, Henry, whom he had caused to be crowned with great pomp, also turned against him. Meanwhile the English lords, whose power had been so sternly broken by the king, began to revolt from his rule. But Henry's resolution and promptness overcame one and all of these stubborn foes. One of his generals took the king of Scotland prisoner in battle. The barons were overcome bv the faithful train bands who flocked to the t Triumph king's succor. In France the success of the of the English arms was equally decisive. In no long ^"s^^^**- time Henry found himself again the undisputed master of his dominions, and really more powerful than he had ever been before. Peace being thus restored, Henry turned eagerly to the reforms which he had long desired to bring about. Many of these reforms had to do with the execution of the law. The king divided his kingdom into circuits and Reforms in sent his judges from circuit to circuit to collect *^® courts, taxes and to hear and adjudge causes. He took the office of sheriff from the nobles, who had greatly abused it, and gave it to his officers of the exchequer and his courtiers. The judges who went on circuit were those who sat in the 92 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. king's court, and this brought the county courts and the central court into close connection. It was Henry, too, who established a system of trial which later developed into the sjreat and peculiarly English system of Beginning _ v o ^ of trial by trial by jury. In each local community, called ^^^^' the "hundred," twelve men were summoned to present those who, within their district, were accused of crimes. These twelve men not only bore witness against the accused, but decided on the truth of the charges. Then it came to pass that these "jurors," as they were al- ready named, were allowed to call other witnesses, who had seen the offences committed ; and so the jurors, or the jury, became at last only the judges of the accusations made. Henry caused his rules and orders for the execution of the law to be written out in codes, which he called " assizes." These assizes were issued, with the consent of his great council, to the judges and sheriffs, to regulate their action. In his law reforms we find not only the beginnings of trial by jury, but of the whole modern judicial system of England. The circuits, the union of the judges in the king's court to hear appeals, the reform in the office of sheriff,^ the issuing of the assizes, may all be found in an expanded and developed form in the England of to-day. It was Henry, moreover, who established what was called "scutage." The king had always had the right to call upon his lords outage. ^^^^1 vassals to take up arms and fight in the wars. They were now compelled, if they did not take up arms, to pay a certain sum of money into the royal treas- ury. This fine was large or small, in proportion to the amount of land held by him who paid it; and this system 93 of fines was called "scutage." With the money thus ob- tained, Henry hired foreign troops, principally in Flanders, to fight his foreign wars for him ; and he thus deprived the English lords of the power to rise, with their retain- ers, against him. For internal defence, Henry relied on the "assize of arms," by which every freeman in Assize of the kingdom was obliged to serve in what we arms, should now call the militia. One of the most important events of Henry's long and enterprising reign was the conquest of Ireland. There had been a time, many centuries before the period in which Henry reigned, while England was yet barbaric and pagan, when Ireland was renowned for Christian piety and even for learning. Christian priests had gone from Ireland, as early as the seventh centur}^, to preach the gospel among the heathen, not only in Britain, but even conquest on the European continent. Ireland was then o^ Ireland, called the " Isle of Saints." St. Patrick had preached Christianity in Ireland more than a century before St. . Augustine went to convert the men of Kent. Churches, monasteries, and schools dotted the Emerald Isle. But the Danes had invaded Ireland as well as England. They had spread havoc through the land. They had destroyed the sacred edifices and the schools ; and under their bar- barous rule Ireland had long since sunk into anarchy and ignorance. For generations now, Ireland had been the prey of rival and savage kings and chiefs, who produced continual disorder, and who again reduced the Irish well nigh to a state of barbarism. King Henry, bold and vigorous in nature, was also a very warm hearted prince. He devotedly loved The king's his sons ; and of them all, his youngest son, ^°'^^- 94 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. John, was the most dear to him. It was in order to pro- vide a kingdom for John that Henry turned his eyes to Ireland and resolved to conquer it. Dermot, one of the five kings who ruled over Ireland, afforded Henry the wished-for opportunity. A valiant English soldier, Rich- ard Strongbow, Earl of Pembroke, crossed into Ireland uith a large force, and after a bitter struggle, subdued the country. Then Strongbow, who married Dermot's daugh- ter, declared himself king of Leinster. But Henry would Defeat of ^^^ submit to this. He, too, crossed into Ireland Strongbow. ^^.j^]-^ ^^^ army, and Strongbow gave in his submis- sion. The English monarch kept his court at Dublin, caused castles to be built in many places, gave lands to his English courtiers, and carried his sway over a large part of the island (1171). Then he sent John to rule Ireland in his stead. But John, who was a mean and despicable prince, made himself so hated by the Irish that his father was forced to command him to return to England. At the end of Henry's reign, but a small portion of Ireland re- The mained in English hands. This portion com- "Paie." prised the country round about Dublin, which was always afterwards known as the "English Pale." The long and splendid reign of Henry the Second now drew to its close. Two of his sons, Henry and Geoffrey, had preceded the aged king to the grave. His elder remaining son, Richard, was allied with Henry's enem}^, the French king, and was fighting the English troops in France. Henry, with his army, was trying to hold his French dominions against Richard, when his final hour came. He fell ill after a defeat which Richard and the French had inflicted upon him. As he lay in suffering, a list of those who were leagued against him was shown HENRY S REFORMS AND CONQUESTS. 95 to him. Among the names he saw with anguish that of his best beloved son, John. " Now," cried the ingratitude dying monarch, turning his face to the wall, ofJo^^- "let things go as they will. I care no more for myself or for the world." He was tenderly borne on a litter to a town called Chinon, where, just before he breathed his last breath, he exclaimed, " Shame, shame Death of on a conquered king!" Thus (1189) passed ^^^^y ^^^ away in misery the greatest sovereign who had reigned in England since Alfred. CHAPTER XVII. PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. THE English people made rapid advances in civ-ili- zation, industry, and arts during the reigns of the last three kings. They continued to grow more and more Fusion of i^to one nation. The divisions between the races. Saxous and the Normans were fast disappear- ing. They had freely intermarried, and under Henry the Second the Normans had to a large extent become Eng- hshmen. The two languages — the Saxon and the Nor- man — remained for a while, it is true, side by side. The upper classes, the nobles, the higher clergy, and the royal court, for the most part spoke French, while the mass of the people spoke Saxon. The proceedings of the law courts and the church services were still in Latin. But nearly the whole population, whether they habitually talked in French or in Saxon, understood both languages. In The English ^uc time Saxou, or old English, prevailed over language. Normau, and became the language of the whole people. Almost all the literature of the period of Henry the Second was written either in Latin or in Saxon. Education had made marked progress. There were, in- deed, but few schools, and these were not open to the Early children of the poor. But the clergy, who were schools. ^^Q chief and almost the sole educators of the 96 PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. Q/ time, paid a good deal of attention to the teaching of the young. In the schools there were, of course, no books. A long period was yet to elapse before the art of printing would be invented. The only books were those written with great pains by the monks in the monasteries. So it was that the children were taught either by word of mouth or by means of pictures. The walls of the church- Method of es were painted with scenes from the Bible or teaching, from the lives of the saints ; and these were described by the priests to the children, who thus learned the Bible sto- ries by heart. Another method which the priests had of impressing lessons on the minds of their scholars was to represent scenes from the Bible and from church history in plays. The priests themselves performed these i3lays in the churches or churchyards. They would represent the crea- tion, the story of Cain and Abel, the story of the ark. One of the priests, standing by, would explain the play as it progressed. The actors were attired in the costumes proper to their parts. An angel would appear in sacred white robes and with wings ; a saint, with a rude piays. representation of a shining glory about his head. These sacred dramas at once gave great delight to the people, who had but few recreations, and indelibly fixed the events described by the Bible in the memory of the young. As years went on, and the English thrived and multi- plied, they gathered more and more in the large towns, which grew rapidly in population and in the range of their industries. The government of the towns had The large changed in process of time. From being ruled towns, by sheriffs, as the people in the country were, the towns became more independent, and had something to say as to how they should be governed. These privileges they 9o YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. obtained by purchasing charters of the king, or of the great lords on whose domains the towns had grown up. The charters granted the towns a certain degree of self- government. They now had their own magistrates and law-courts, and regulated the collection and expenditure of their own taxes. It was in the period of the early successors of the Con- Trade queror, too, that the trade and craft guilds, which guilds. j-^^^,g gygj. since played so large a part in English municipal affairs, took their rise. These guilds were asso- ciations of men engaged in the same trade or craft, for the purpose of protecting their common interests, and assisting each other. For instance, there was the merchant tailors' guild, the grocers' guild, the goldsmiths' and the weavers' guilds. These guilds, even thus early in English history, took an important part in directing the public affairs of the towns. King Henry the Second encouraged the growth of the towns, since the money paid for their charters filled his treasury, and their increase in wealth and prosperity enabled him to lay heavier taxes upon them. In a short time after his death, the citv of London obtained, The gov- / eminent of by a hcavy payment, the right to choose its own governing body, and thus the lord mayor and corporation of London came into existence. We are able to perceive, in the events of the century just preceding Henry the Second's death, the first faint beginnings of that great principle in the English govern- ment which consists in its representative character. The Witenagemote, whose advice the king sought more and more as time progressed, and to whose opinions he gave Represen- Hiuch weight, represented, in a small body, the tation. great body of wise and able men throughout the PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. QQ realm. The jurymen, chosen, as we have seen, to adjudge the crimes of a neighborhood, were selected to represent the general population of that neighborhood. The judges, sitting in the circuits, represented the body of justices of the king's court. Thus it came about that the custom of having a few men to represent, and to act in the name of, the mass of the people, or at least of a larger body of men, was being almost silently developed in the midst of wars, civil commotions, and the bitter rivalries of princes, bish- ops, and nobles. The English of the twelfth century lived far more com- fortably in every way than their ancestors of the Mode of two preceding centuries. It was an age, it is living:, true, in which there was at times much lawlessness. Bands of robbers infested the forests in many parts of the island. The power of the great lords to oppress their vas- sals was not yet broken. Still the condition of the people as a whole was much improved. Many industries and arts had been added to their means of livelihood. The rei^n of justice was more even and uniform. Many new pas- times, too, had come into use to vary the recrea- Medigevai tion of the people. Chess, bowling, wrestling, sports, fencing, quarter-staff, occupied the idle hours ; while jug- glers and dancing bears, minstrels and singing girls, drew rustic crowds in delight, on summer afternoons, to the village greens. CHAPTER XVIII. RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED. RICHARD, known in history and legend as "the Lion-Hearted," succeeded his father, Henry the Second, as his eldest living son (1189). He was a warlike, chivalrous, and romantic prince, and had scarcely been crowned when he left his kingdom to go upon the third crusade. The infidel Saracens had taken Jerusalem, and now the crusaders were gathering from every part of Eu- rope to attempt the recapture of the holy city. Richard Character of ^^'^s advcnturous and fond of glory and display. Richard I. j^g joined the Christian hosts who besieged Je- rusalem, and many stories are told of his knightly prowess and valor in the East. But his reign, as far as the history of England is concerned, was not a momentous or impor- tant one. Richard appointed some of his wisest counsel- lors to take charge of his realm during his absence ; and state of so wcU did they fulfil this duty that the country England. remained, during the greater part of the time, peaceful, law-abiding, and prosperous. It is true that the people were very grievously taxed to support Richard and his knights in the distant war. At the very outset of Richard's reign, too, several dreadful massacres of the Jews took place in different parts of England. This was the result of religious fanaticism, and RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED. lOI perhaps in part of the dislike with which the common people viewed the business skill and keenness Persecution which marked the Jews. Richard punished some oft^e Jews, of the leaders of the massacres. He needed the loans which the Jews made to him, and it was therefore his inter- est to protect them. No sooner, however, had Richard turned his back on England, than his younger brother, John, began to conspire to wrest the throne away from him. John sought the good will of the great lords, and per- suaded the French king to aid him in his designs. He dismissed and banished Longchamp, Bishop of Ely, whom Richard had left as chief minister; and at one time seemed about to succeed in his project. Meanwhile Richard, who had fought gallantly but vainly in the Holy Land (for the Saracens held out in J ■ \ Richard Jerusalem against the crusaders), was taken pris- taken 11 T^ 1 1 11 • prisoner. oner on his way back to England, and thrown m- to a dungeon by the Emperor of Germany, John, encour- aged by this event, resumed more vigorously than ever his attempts upon the throne. He gave out that Richard was dead. At the same time he offered the Emperor a large sum of money to keep Richard in prison. He prompted the French king to make charges against Rich- ard to the Emperor. But a faithful priest, Hubert Walter, balked John's designs, and, by his energy, put down the revolt which John had stirred up. The Emperor ^. ^ ^ *' ^ ^ Richard released his royal prisoner, and at last Richard returns to once more set foot on the soil of his realm. He was crowned a second time, so as to wipe out the disgrace of having been in prison, banished his unruly brother, and punished those who had given him aid. But Richard's restless and warlike nature would not per- I02 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. mit him long to reign quietly at home. Soon he was off to the wars again, this time to give battle to his former friend, but now his bitter enemy, the French king Philip. War with He crossed over to Normand}', and was soon France. engaged in a vigorous conflict. He built a for- midable castle on the Seine, called the Chateau Gaillard. When Philip saw the towers of this lofty fortress looming above the river, he angrily shook his fist towards it and exclaimed, " I will capture it, though its walls were of iron." " I will hold it," cried Richard, when he heard of his rival's boast, " were its walls of butter ! " Soon after, Richard attacked the Chateau of Chalaix, one of Philip's stoutest strongholds. While he was riding beneath its walls, seeking a good place to make the assault, he was fatally wounded by an arrow. As the brave monarch lay stretched out in his tent, in his last hours, he heard the victorious shouts of his soldiers. The fortress had been taken. Presently the man who had given him his death Death of wound was brought before him, bound hand Richard. ^y^^\ foot. " Lct him go free!" feebly murmured the dying king. A few moments more and Richard was dead (1199). The true heir to the throne was young prince Arthur of Brittany. He was the son of Geoffrey, an elder brother of John, who had died some years before. But Prince Arthur was away in Brittany, and so John succeeded in obtain- ing the throne without a struggle. A few years after, young Arthur mysteriously disappeared, after having been taken prisoner bv his uncle and shut up in Fate- of ^ , ^ '^ Prince Roucn ; and it was generally believed that John had caused him to be foully murdered. John was perhaps the worst king who has ever worn the English RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED. IO3 crown. He had, to be sure, some good qualities. He was a brave soldier and an able general. He is said to have been handsome in person and pleasant in manners. There were times during his reign, too, when he seemed to be stung with remorse, and sought to expiate his crimes by founding monasteries and giving domains to the church. But John's good qualities were far overbalanced by his bad ones. He was cruel and perfidious, miserly character and fierce-tempered, heartless and mean. In the of Jo^m. early part of his reign his true character did not fully appear. His aged mother. Queen Eleanor, and Hubert Walter, who had become Archbishop of Canterbury and chancellor, restrained his evil tendencies by their resolu- tion and wise counsels. But from their restraints the tyrant soon broke loose. Meanwhile the strange fate of young Arthur was in due time avenged by the mis- fortunes which, one after another, overtook his probable murderer. The Norman barons, who were attached to Arthur, were outraged by his death. The French king Philip, taking advantage of their wrath, invad- invasion of ed Normandy, of which John was duke, with Normandy, his army. Deserted by the barons, and distrustful of the loyalty of his soldiers, John did not even seriously attempt to retain the duchv. The French kino^ ' . ° The French took possession of Normandy, which was thus conquest of forever lost to the English. This, however, °^"^^° ^■ proved a good thing instead of a misfortune. England had no longer to spend money and troops in fighting to protect Normandy. The English now held sway in Eng- land alone ; and the Normans in England became thor- ough Englishmen. Scarcely had John found himself deprived of Normandy, I04 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. when he was involved in a bitter conflict with the Pope. John's Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury, had quarrel died: and the question was, who should ap- with the 3 17 r Pope. point his successor. The right to do so was claimed by the king on the one hand, and the monks of Canterbury on the other. Both sides appealed to the Pope at Rome. He refused to confirm the choice of either, and commanded the monks to elect a third candidate of the Pope's own selection. This was Stephen Langton, a good man, whose name holds a high place in English history. But King John would not permit Langton to set foot in England. The Pope retorted by forbidding the English lo hold religious services. The churches were closed, the The "In- gravcyards were shut up, there were no bap- terdict." tisms, and marriages were celebrated in the open air. This "interdict," as it was called, gave great distress to the people, to whom the services of the church seemed of vital importance to their daily life. But even this heavy penalty, visited on his innocent subjects, did not move the king. The Pope then exccm- municated John by name. John went on his way, as if indifferent even to this penalty. He employed himself in extending the conquest of Henry the Second in Ireland, and in putting down the rebellious Welsh. But news came John takes ^o him which at last quelled and cowed even his alarm. stubbom Spirit. The French king was prepar- ing to invade England. A monk, named Peter, had gone among the people, prophesying that in a few months John would cease to be king. There were many and fast in- creasing signs that his subjects were beginning to hate him. These tidings filled John with terror. He now humbly submitted to the Pope. He permitted Langton to RICHARD THE LION-HEARTED. IO5 assume the archbishopric of Canterbury ; and it is said that, in his new humility, he Liid his crown at john-s re- the feet of the Pope's envoy. He did more than pentance. this. He agreed that England should thenceforth be sub- ject to the Pope, and that the English kings should do homage to the Pope as his vassals. John's submission was promptly rewarded. The Pope forbade the French king to invade England, and removed the stigma of excommunication. Church services were re- sumed throughout the kingdom. Langton was in peaceful possession of the see of Canterbury. It seemed as if, at last, there was a prospect of tranquillity in the English realm. But it was really on the eve of a convulsion far greater even than that which followed the conflict between the king and the Pope. Events were about to ensue which were destined to have an immense influence on the destinies of the English race. The momentous struggle between John and his o^reat barons, the latter be- -' ^ ' The revolt ing aided by Langton and the bishops, was pro- of the yoked by the headstrong, rashness of the king himself. He began to raise a large army to put down the great lords who were now in revolt against him. He was stoutly and successfully resisted ; and the result was the Great Charier of English liberties. CHAPTER XIX. THE GREAT CHARTER. THE power of the great barons had been curbed and ahuost broken by Henry the Second. But during Richard's absence at the crusades, and amid the troubles and cruelties of John's reign, they had once of the more grown powerful. They had become bold enough to refuse to aid John in the defence of Normandy ; and their hostile attitude was one of the influ- ences which frightened him into submission to the church. The time had now come when the barons, uniting with the bishops and clergy and the common people, could compel the king to yield to their terms. The leading spirit in the revolt which sprang up against the king's brutal Stephen tyrauuy was the patriotic Stephen Langton, Langton. Archbishop of Canterbury. In vain had he urged John to be just, and to give to his people the rights and liberties which they had once enjoyed. At a council held in St. Paul's, London, Langton told the bishops and barons that he had found the charter of liberties granted to his people by the first Henry. " With this precious charter," he exclaimed, "we will win back the long-lost rights of the people." A year later, a still more notable gathering took place at the shrine of St. Edmund. A great company of barons io6 KING JOHX AND THE GREAT CHARTER. - J^A(,e 107. THE GREAT CHARTER. lO/ met, and swore upon the altar that, unless the king grant- ed them a new charter of liberties, they would The barons make war upon him. Then they raised a for- combined ^ -^ against the midable army, with headquarters at Brackley. king. Upon this, the king sent for Langton, and asked him what the barons wanted. When Langton told him of their de- mands, he refused, in a great rage, to grant them. The barons thereupon marched with their troops to London. The king's adherents, even his courtiers and retinue, be- gan to desert him. Presently he found that he had no force adequate to resist the advancing barons. It was clear that everybody was against him. The Lord Mayor and citizens of London espoused the cause of the insurgents, and sent train-bands to their camp. Perceiving that all would be over with him if he further resisted, John at last sent word to the barons that he would concede what they demanded. The meeting between the baffled tyrant and the barons took place in a beautiful meadow called Runny- ■' The meet- mede, not far from Windsor. The Thames ing at Run- wound gracefully through the meadow ; and a "^^^ pretty, verdant island rose in the midst. The king had his camp on one bank of the river, and the tents of the barons rose on the other. Each side appointed envoys, who met on the island and discussed the terms of the new charter. Before the sun went down that night, John had yielded to every demand of the barons, and had signed his name to the Great Charter. The very document still exists, and, faded and torn, may ' ' ^ •' John signs be seen any day by the visitor to the British Mu- the great seum. After John had signed it, he was almost beside himself with rage. He is said to have gnashed his I08 YOUNG PEOTLe's ENGLAND. teeth, and in his hatred and despair, to have grasped some sticks and gnawed them savagely with his teeth. (12 15). The Great Charter, thus wrung from King John by his barons and people, not only restored the rights which Henry the First had granted, but went much further than Henry's charter in restricting the powers of the crown. It bound the kin^ not to levy any taxes upon Provisions ^ -^ , of the the people without the consent of his great coun- cil. It pledged him not to levy fines capriciously upon those who were guilty of offences, but to give over the levying of such fines to juries composed of the offend- ers' neighbors. It secured the rights and liberties of the English church, freeing it from the king's dictation. It required the king to give up the power which he had as- sumed to take and hold the estates of the lords who died, and to compel the heirs to such estates to pay into the ro}'al treasury any sum the king chose to fix ; and to aban- don the power to compel widows to marry whomsoever the king pleased. It exacted from the king a promise not to any longer permit his retainers to take from the people, at will, whatever horses or food they required, without making any payment for such things. It also ordained that the oppressive laws in regard to priests should no longer be put in force. But the greatest concession made by King John in this Principal mcmorablc charter was, that no freeman should concession |^g deprived of his personal liberty, or otherwise charter. puuishcd, uutil hc had been tried by his "peers," or equals ; or otherwise than in strict accordance with the law. The king had been in the habit of throwing such offenders into prison and imposing heavy fines upon them without a trial, and at his own despotic will. But THE GREAT CHARTER. IO9 now he was forced to give this power up. Thus one of the greatest principles of EngUsh Hberty became settled and established. "To none will we sell justice," the king was obliged to swear, " to none will we de- justice lav or denv it." Thus equal justice was ensured secured ^ -' to the to rich and poor, powerful and feeble, alike. people. The execution of justice was taken from the king, and placed in the courts. Thus were the people guarded from the tyranny of bad rulers. The charter not only protected the lords and the people from the king, but it also protected the people from the lords. It was a noble feature of the charter that the lords, while enforcing their own rights, at the same time took care of the rights of their vassals. They caused it to be inserted in the charter that the lords should The rights no lono^er compel their vassals to work for them °^ *^® '-' '■ common without pay, or tax and fine them unjustly. The people, vassals were no longer to be imprisoned or otherwise pun- ished at the caprice of their lords, but were to be allowed a trial by their fellow vassals, just as the lords who were charged with offences were to be judged by their fellow lords. Thus the charter secured the rights of the lords, of the common people, and of the church, at the same time. It was forthwith proclaimed in all public places, and read in all the churches, so that the people everywhere might know what rights they were now entitled to enjoy. John hurried from Runnymede to the Isle of Wight, beside himself with o^rief and rasfe. No sooner ° ^ John did he find himself at a safe distance from the resists the barons and their army, than he began to form ^f^he execution of the schemes to break the charter and to recover his charter, lost power. He sent to the Pope, who took sides with no YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. him, denounced the charter, suspended Langton from his archbishopric, excommunicated the English lords, and issued his " interdict " (ordering all the churches to be closed) against the city of London. But these commands of the Pope were little heeded. The church services con- tinued to be held, and the lords continued to maintain the charter. John then hired a large number of soldiers from abroad, and entered boldly upon a campaign against the lords. Civil war began to rage with fury and war. (-|g3Qiation through the land. The hired mer- cenaries of the king spread havoc wherever they appeared, robbing, burning, and killing the people, violating the churches, and torturing the priests. Their barbarous con- duct only aroused the people to a deeper hatred of their perfidious and cruel king. The lords, in despair, at last resorted to a dangerous expedient. They appealed for help to the French king, The barons pi'omising him that, if he would come to their call on the j-escuc, they would confer the Eno-lish crown French ' •' ° for aid. upon Louis, his eldest son. Louis accordingly landed in England with a large force, and advanced to meet John and his foreign troops. These French inva- ders soon conducted themselves in a way to make the barons bitterly regret having summoned them. They, too, began to commit ravages and outrages wherever they went. Louis seized rich domains, and gave them to his French followers, and bore himself in a haughty and over- bearing manner towards his English allies. Just at this time an event occurred which happily put an end to the troubles of the English, and brought the civil war to an abrupt close. This was the sudden and violent death of King John. THE GREAT CHARTER. Ill It appears that as John was hurrying southward with his army to encounter the French, he lost the great- john er part of his bao:p:a2:e, and the money and jewels ^^^tens to " oo o ' J J encounter which he carried with him, by a sudden liigh the French, tide in the estuary of The Wash. Even his crown was swept away by the rushing waters. This accident over- whelmed the miserly king with grief, and he was attacked with a furious fever. In spite of this, he imprudently ate too much fruit and drank too much cider at dinner. He was hastily conveyed to the abbey of Croxton, near New- ark. As he lay dying, a terrible fear of his future seized him. He eagerly enjoined that, upon his death, he should be arrayed and buried in a monk's cowl and gown, in the hope that he might thus atone, in the sight of heaven, for his misdeeds. Soon after, the tyrant breathed his last (1216). In all England no man was found to John's mourn his loss. He died unloved and unhon- '^®^^^- ored, and the news that he was no more inspired universal Joy and relief through the realm he had governed with so much cruelty and greed. CHAPTER XX. THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT. THE reign of Henry the Third, who succeeded his father John (12 16) was one of the longest in English history. Henry was only nine years of age when he ascended the throne. He continued to rule Henry III. ^^j-j^-Q^gj-^ ^ period of no less than fifty-seven years. This period was a remarkable one in many respects. It witnessed the rise of the English Parliament. It pro- duced the first great English philosopher, Roger Bacon. It witnessed the widespread religious revival inspired by the Franciscan and Dominican friars. It was a period of almost constant internal disturbance, but also of almost continuous peace with foreign nations. Henry was a w^eak, Character good-uaturcd man, pious, extravagant, loving dis- of Henry, play, and greedy of money. He had refined tastes, being fond of music, poetry, and architecture. But he had little fitness for governing, and was indifferent and at times hostile to the rights of his people. In the early years of his reign, before he had grown to manhood, Henry was guided by two able counsellors. These were the noble Stephen Lnngton, Archbishop of Canterbury, and William Marshall, Earl of Pembroke. It was Pembroke who, winning to the young king the alle- giance of a large majority of the barons, succeeded in driv- THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT. II3 ing the French prince Louis out of England, and in firmly establishing Henry's authority throughout the realm. Ste- phen Langton used his influence over the boy king's mind to induce him to favor the church and perform religious works. By Langton's advice, Henry caused the westmin- Westminster Abbey which Edward the Confes- ster Abbey, sor had reared to be demolished, and another and far more splendid edifice to be begun in its place. The abbey which now stands in London is that which Henry designed. The young king also made pilgrimages to Canterbury, and other shrines of saints. But Langton did not forget that he had been the leader of the lords in compelling John to grant the Great Charter. He persuaded Henry to adopt and confirm the charter, and to act in accordance with it as long as Langton lived. Unfortunately both for the king and for his subjects, this great and good man died just as Henry came Death of of age. No more noble or more earnest patriot Langton. ever rose in England than Stephen Langton. His death left the weak young king without a strong guiding hand. Henry soon aroused the hostility of many of his lords and of tha common people. He spent money in prodigal ways, and laid heavy taxes upon the people in violation of the charter. He conceived a fondness for Frenchmen, multitudes of whom came over to reap the benefit of his favors. Henry gave lands to these foreigners, made them lords and bishops, and promoted them over the heads of his English courtiers. He thus gave great offence to all Fniilish classes. This feelins: was intensified bv ^ ^ ^ ^ ■' Henry the king's submission to the demands of the submits to Pope of Rome. The' Pope had taken Henry's side, and in return claimed that he should receive one 114 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. tenth of the movable goods of the EngUsh. This de- mand was strenuously resisted, not only by the people, but by the barons, and even by many bishops and priests. But the Pope did not confine himself to claiming Eng- lish money and goods. He also asserted his right to appoint Italians to places in the English church. He sent many ItaHans over to be bishops, abbots, and priests in England. Against this the people protested even more bitcerly than they did against the Pope's claim to a tenth Troubles in P^rt of their property. Some of the bishops and the church, priests rcsistcd the Pope, who excommunicated them, and declared an interdict in their parishes. The English, on account of these things, were beginning to lose their respect for religion, when a great revival, inspired by two fervid and eloquent priests. Saint Francis and Saint Benedict, took place to bring them back to (he fold of the church. Many friars belonging to the orders founded by these two holy men came to England, estab- lished monasteries and schools, and engaged in dispensing active charities among the English poor. It was Henry's fondness for foreigners, weakness in yielding to the Pope's demands, and greed and prodigal use of money, which provoked the great movement that The first resulted, durmg his reign, in the formation of Parliament. England's first Parliament. Of course Parlia- ment did not spring into being all at once. It grew into shape gradually, through a period of many years. But at the end of Henry's reign it had become, in its essential features, very much what the English Parliament of our own day is. We have seen how the Witenagemote, or council of wise men, came into existence in the early days of the Saxon kings ; and how, in process of time, it ex- THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT. II5 panded into the " great council," composed of the chief lords, bishops, and abbots, which assembled from time to time to advise the king, and which had eventually grown more and more powerful in its influence over him. Un- der John, this great council had expanded into a large body of men, who came from all parts of the kingdom, and who, under the Great Charter, had obtained larger rights than the councils had ever before possessed. Besides the great council, moreover, smaller councils had long been in the habit of meeting in the Local several counties ; and in time these county coun- councils, cils had come to be composed of men who represented, or took the place of, the towns or villages in which each lived. Thus came into existence the representative feature which was to be the basis of the general Parliament, and which became developed and settled during the reign of Henry the Third. Another new element in forming Parliament was that by which not only the great lords and the bish- ops, but also land-owners of a lower rank and smaller es- tates, obtained a share in the government of the kingdom. These smaller land-owners, instead of going to London in a body themselves, would meet and choose several of their number to represent their interests and wishes in the great council ; and these representatives of the coun- Knights of ties .are even now called " knights of the shire," *^® ^^''■®- just as they were when they first began to sit in Par- liament. The growth of Parliament was greatly hastened by the revolt of the chief lords a^-ainst the kinj^'s extravao^ance and other shortcomings. The leader of the re- Revolt of volt was a very able man, Simon de Montfort, Montfort. Earl of Leicester. Montfort was a Frenchman by birth, Il6 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. but was the descendant of an English lord, and had mar- ried the king's sister. He had a resolute will and a quick temper, with a high sense of honor, a fervid patriotism, a sincere piety, aiid an upright character. Henry greatly dreaded this vigorous antagonist. It is said that when, on one occasion, the king was overtaken by a thunder- storm on the Thames, he hastened for shelter into the Bishop of Durham's palace, where Montfort happened to be. Montfort began to reassure the king, by saying that the storm had spent its force. " I fear thunder and light- ning not a little, Simon de Montfort," exclaimed Henry ; "but I fear you more than all the thunder and lightning in the world." Under this great leader, the lords arrayed themselves against the king. Already the word " parlia- ment " (derived from the French word " parler," to talk) had come to be used as the name of the national assembly, in place of "great council." A Parliament met in London (1258) and demanded that Demands of t^"*^ ^Ing should allow twcuty-four of their num- pariiament. ]^q^^ j^^|f choscu by himsclf, and half by the lords, to find out and correct the abuses of his rule. Later another Parliament met at Oxford, wherein the council of twenty-four was duly chosen, and the king solemnly swore to be guided by its action. But Henry only made promises to break them as soon as he dared. He placed obstacles in the way of the council, and at last persuaded the Pope to release him from the oath he had taken to abide by its advice. Then the lords took up arms against the king (1263) with Montfort at their head. After a brief conflict, both sides agreed to lay the causes of their quarrel before the French king, and to abide by his judgment as to which should yield to tlie other. The THE RISE OF PARLIAMENT. IT/ French king decided in favor of Henry, though he added that Henry was bound to abide by the pledges Quarrel of the Great Charier. But to this decision the t'^^^ween Henry and lords refused to yield. Again the resort was the lords. had to arms. At Lewes, Montfort gained a decisive vic- tory over the king, who was himself taken prisoner. This victory made Montfort the virtual ruler of England; and during the brief period that he held power, he Montfort used it wisely and well. One of his first acts ^" power, was to call together a new Parliament (1265), and this Parliament, for the first time, included all the elements which are to be found in that which meets at Westminster in our own day. Not only were the great lords, the bish- ops and the abbots summoned to attend it in person, but the cities, counties and towns of the entire kingdom were commanded to send their representatives. Thus we see the beginning of the House of Lords and the Division of House of Commons. In due time the lords P^^'ii^-inent into tw^o and bishops sat apart in one House, while the Houses. " knights of the shire," representing the counties, and the burgesses, representing the towns and villages, sat in the other. Montfort did not live long to continue his reforms in the government. In, the summer of the same year in which the first complete Parliament met, he was confronted on the battle-field by young Edward, the king's son and heir. Montfort was overwhelmingly defeated by the royal forces, and was himself slain in a great battle at Evesham. But even the death of this brave leader did not quell the roused spirit of his followers. They went on sturdily fighting the king's troops, and holding out in their castle strongholds. At last Prince Edward, who held command of the royal Il8 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. army, grew weary of the conflict. He offered terms to Prince ^hc rcvolted lords. If they would lay down their Edward amis, he told them, they should be restored to cames to i i • roi terms with their titlcs, powcrs, and domams. The lords, the lords. ^^^^ j^^^ ^^^^^ grown sick of fighting, and reluc- tantly accepted Edward's terms. And thus, live years before King Henry's death, the long civil war came to an end. Its result was to give a temporary triumph to the royal cause. CHAPTER XXI. EDWARD THE FIRST. "TOURING the long reign of Henry the Third numerous J-^ important events, besides the rise of ParHament, took place in England. The English people made marked pro- gress in education, in intelligence, and in the re- changes in linements and comforts of life. The universi- England, ties grew rapidly in numbers and influence, were crowded with professors and students, widened the range of their studies, and became the centres of learned thought and discussion. Roger Bacon, England's first great philoso- pher, did much by his scientific teaching to dispel the superstitions of former ages. It was in this reign that coal was first used for fires ; that gold coinage was begun ; and that the art of distilling liquors was introduced Death of into England. The old king died (1273) ^^ the ^^"^^ "^• age of sixty-five, leaving the throne to his son Edward, who, at his father's death, was with the crusaders in the Holy Land. Edward the First, as he is usually called in the roll of English sovereigns (though, as we have seen, three Ed- wards had reigned before him), was well entitled to the surname of " the Great." He was great in the best sense, as a good, brave, earnest ruler, who used his brilliant tal- ents for the benefit of his people. It is true that Edward 119 I20 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. was wilful and loved to exercise power. He was proud of Character ^^is Toyal officc aiid autlioritv. He was resolved ofEdwardi. ^Q be tlic real governor of his realm. And he was of a truly high and kingly nature. He was tall, full of dignity, and imposingly handsome in person. His head was crowned with dense curls of golden hair; his large eyes beamed with spirit and courage. From early youth he had shown himself a faithful, devoted son to both fa- ther and mother. When he heard, in the remoteness of the Holy Land, of the old king's death, he broke into a wild paroxysm of grief ; and he brought back to England the most costly ornaments with which to adorn his father's tomb. Edward's prowess and valor, his chivalry of nature and bearinii, his sincerity and ardent love of truth, Edward be- &' J ) lovedbyhis his wlsc and virile intellect, and, above all, his su jects. steadfast devotion to the well-being of his peo- ple, won their love and admiration, and made them proud of him and loyal to him throughout his reign. He was sometimes haughty and overbearing, and occasionally re- sorted to stern measures. But the Enojlish would fors^ive much to so noble and energetic a ruler. Edward adopted as his motto, " Keep troth ; " and although he was not al- ways true to his word, he remained for the most part faith- ful to his motto. He was unusually happy in his marriage. Queen Hc had wcdded, when a very young man, a Eleanor. Spanish princess, Eleanor. She proved to be all that his heart could wish. She was gentle and affection- ate, and was greatly beloved by all the people. When she died, Edward caused monuments or crosses to be put up in several places to her memory. The two most strikin": events of Edward's reisfn were the KING EDWARD AND QIteen ELEANOR. — Page 130. EDWARD THE FIRST. 121 subjugation of Wales and the attempted conquest of Scot- land. It was a heroic period, full of valiant ex- subjugation ploits, and of stirring deeds done by doughty °^'^^^^®- wairiors. Wales had been more than once conquered by the English kings. When Edward came to the throne, a part of that country was still under English rule. But a much larger part was ruled by native kings, who, while they paid homage to the English crown as vassals, yet clung obstinately to their right to reign over their Welsh subjects. The Welsh remained in many respects a very different people from the English. They may almost be said to have been a separate race. They were for the most part descended from the Britons, who had been driven into the fastnesses of the Welsh mountains by the invading Saxons. They had always clung to Christianity. They were still a rude and warlike, yet a warm-hearted, quick-witted, and generous people. They were characterof exceedingly fond, from the earliest tiiues, of ti^eweish. poetry and music. The Welsh bards and harpers were cherished everywhere in their romantic valleys. The Welsh dearly loved their mountain land, and fairly hated the English for trying to subjugate it. They even hoped that some day they might drive the Saxons from the island altogether, and restore the rule of the Britons over all its territory. But Edward was resolved that the whole of the island of Britain should be brought under his sway. He wished to create an empire which should include both Britain and Ireland. Ireland was already conquered. So Edward turned his attention to the two countries which lay on the west and the north of his dominions. A powerful prince, Llewellyn, now reigned in Wales. He had inspired his 122 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. subjects to resist in every way the encroachments of Prince England. Under his leadership the Welsh had Llewellyn, become more formidable than ever in arms. Edward summoned Llewellyn to do homage to him in London. The brave Welsh prince proudly refused ; and Edw^ard straightway marched an army into Wales (1277). The triumph of the English king was easy. The Welsh, though brave, did not possess the virtue of endurance ; some of the Welsh princes, moreover, proved faithless Submission to Llcwcllyn. Bcforc even a battle had been "yn.^^^ fought, Llew'ellyn was forced to submit. He went to London and did homage to Edward, paid a large fine, and sealed his peace with England by wed- ding a daughter of Earl Simon de Montfort. This settlement only lasted four years. Then the Welsh, under the lead of David, Llewellyn's brother, once more broke out into a fierce resistance to their English masters. David crossed the borders with a band of mountaineers, assailed Hawarden Castle, near Chester, laid waste the country and killed the people for miles round about (1282). Edward lost no time in crushing this fresh re- volt. Two English armies entered Wales at the same time ; one from the north, led by the king, and the other from the southeast, under the command of two of his great barons. At first the fortune of war favored Llew- ellyn, who had hastened to take up arms against his old enemy. He for a moment stopped Edward's advance and hurried southward to check that of the other English Completion amiy. Straying from his camp, he was killed of the ]^y ^j-j Ki^orlish knio^ht. The loss of their val- conquest ■' ° ^ _ of Wales, iant prince and chieftain reduced the Welsh to despair. Within a year the conquest of the country EDWARD THE FIRST. 1 23 was complete. David was taken, tried for treason and sacrilege, and executed. Edward had promised the Welsh that, if they would submit to him, he would give them a native ^ The first prince to rule over them. He was as good as his Prince of word, though he kept it in a different sense from that in which the promise was taken by the people. His eldest son, Edward, was born at Carnarvon Castle, in Wales ; and him he created " Prince of Wales." Ever since, the eldest son of the reigning sovereign of England has borne this title. Edward no sooner found himself in complete possession of Wales, than he devoted his ener- gies to giving his new subjects a good government. He himself spent several months in Wales ; divided the coun- try into counties, and, as far as he could, introduced the J^^nglish laws and methods of securing justice. Reforms in For all this, the Welsh for a long time continued ^^^^^s. restive under English rule, and had to be kept in subjec- tion by force of arms. It was twelve years' after the conquest of Wales that Edward resolved to undertake that of Scotland Attempted (1296). The people who lived in Scotland were conquest of of two races. Those who dwelt between the English border and the river Forth — a region which has always been called the "Lowlands" — were for the most part of English descent. Their customs, language, and laws resembled those of England ; and many Norman knights and soldiers had settled in the Lowlands after the conquest. But north of the river Forth — in the " High- lands" — the people were to a large degree of Celtic ori- gin, and were nearly related in blood to the Irish. Their laws differed completely from those of the Lowlanders. 124 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. The Highlanders were a sturdy race, hving in huts of Character of turf, and being for the most part farmers and the Scots, shepherds. They were very brave and obsti- nate soldiers, as Edward and his successors had good reason to know. The Scots had sometimes so far come under the dominion of the English that their kings had paid homage as vassals of the English king. But they had long been practically independent, and had grown into a powerful and flourishing state. It happened that while Edward was meditating an at- tack on Scotland, the king of that country, Alexander III., died without any direct issue, or even any near relative to Claimants succccd to the throuc. A fierce dispute arose to the amono: several claimants to the succession. Of Scottish ° crown. these claimants the most prominent were John Balliol, John Hastings, and Robert Bruce. They were all descended from King Henry, who had died more than a century before. At last they agreed to leave the decision to Edward of England. Edward took a year to consider the matter, and then awarded the crown to John Bal- liol, who thereupon assumed the Scottish crown. But a cause of quarrel soon arose between the two kingdoms. Edward ^ Scottish lord, having failed in a certain law- arouses g^^j|- j;,^ade an appeal to Edward to grant him the anger ' ' ^ '^ of the justice. Edward, claiming to be "lord superior" of Scotland, summoned Balliol to London to make answer in the suit. Balliol reluctantly obeyed the command ; but Edward gave judgment in favor of the lord who had appealed to him. All this aroused the angry pride of the Scots, who stoutly denied Edward's claim to be their lord superior. They took advantage of a war in which Edward became EDWARD THE FIRST. 125 involved with France, to make an alliance with the French king, and to cross the English border and lay waste the fields and villages of Northumberland. The alliance thus made between Scotland and France was des- Alliance of tined to continue for three centuries. As soon Scotland with as Edward had concluded his warlike operations France, in France, he led a great army across the Scottish fron- tier. His advance was rapid and triumphant. He be- sieged and captured Berwick, Dunbar, and Stirling, took Balliol prisoner, and in a few months had suppressed all resistance to his victorious arms. But the Scots were by no means conquered, as was proved in the following year. William Wallace, the son of a small land-owner, a young man of almost wiiiiam gigantic stature, handsome, and as bold and waiiace. brave as a lion, aroused his countrymen to a desperate revolt against their English masters. He swept down with his rude mountain bands upon the towns and fort- resses held by English troops ; and having quickly recov- ered Scotland, he crossed the border, and spread havoc with fire and sword through the northern English coun- ties. But Edward, at the head of an irresistible force, soon returned to meet and overcome the heroic Scot. He inflicted a decisive defeat on Wallace at Falkirk. But a more formidable foe than Wallace made the victory a bar- ren one. Edward's army was overtaken by famine ; and the proud king was forced to retire southward, and to postpone for five years the hope of restoring his sway in Scotland. Edward's second conquest of the northern kingdom (1303-4) was accomplished as quickly as the ^^ first had been. This time he led his army rap- conquestof idly to Edinburgh, took Stirling in spite of ob- 126 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. stinate resistance, and became once more master of the country. Edward always showed himself to be a wise and far-seeing statesman. Instead of oppressing the Scots now that they were again in his power, he promptly set to work to make his rule a benefit to them. He called some of the greatest Scottish lords into his councils, drew up a wise and tolerant code of laws, and appointed Scotsnien to the posts of power in their own land. One man only Edward could not forgive. William Wallace had b^en taken prisoner in the latest war. He was carried to Lon- waiiace ^^^o^"** tried for treason, put to terrible torture, executed, ^j-,^ finally executed. But ever since, the name of Wallace has been embalmed by the Scots in song and story, as one of their noblest patriots and heroes. CHAPTER XXII. EDWARD THE SECOND. THE year before Edward the First died another hero rose to rekindle the struggle for Scottish freedom (1306). This was young Robert Bruce, grandson of the Robert Bruce who had contested the crown of Robert Scotland with John Balliol. The younger Bruce Bruce, had passed his boyhood at the English court. A quarrel with the king caused him to fly from London. He has- tened to his native country, raised the standard of revolt, and had himself crowned king. The Scots were so dis- heartened, however, by their past defeats, that Bruce's call to arms brought only a few recruits to his standard. With these devoted adherents he fought the English with a prowess and valor which enshrined his name Bruce-s with that of Wallace in the Scottish heart. As heroism, long as Edward lived, however, Bruce's attempts to recov- er his country's independence were made in vain. The English king, though ill and feeble, hastened northward to put down the revolt ; and Bruce, with his scattered war- riors, was forced to take refuge in the bleak hills of west- ern Scotland. Not only was Edward the First powerful and victorious in war, but as a maker of laws he was the wisest Edward i. Ill , -r^ 1. , , as a law- sovereign who had ever sat on the English throne, maker. 128 YOUNG people's ENGLAND, A large part of his reign was occupied with the conquests of Wales and Scotland ; and now and then he engaged in brief wars in France and Flanders. But he found time, also, to greatly improve the "English system of gov- ernment. At first he resisted the claim of Parliament to levy taxes for his use. He was wilful and self-reliant, and clung tenaciously, for a while, to his royal powers. But several considerations finally induced him to yield to the Taxation principle that the taxes should only be levied by consent. ^^,j|-|-^ ^\^q conscut of the representatives of those upon whom the taxes were to be imposed. From the out- set the great barons stoutly resisted Edward's attempts to levy taxes by his sole royal will. They were led by a cou- rageous noble, the Earl of Hereford, who maintained their cause in open opposition to the king, and finally persuaded him to concede their demands. The wars, too, in which Edward was engaged compelled him to go often to his Parliament for the funds necessary to support them ; and this necessity resulted in firmly Powers of fixing the principle that Parliament should vote Parliament. ^|-)g suppHcs. This principle, thas established at the close of the thirteenth centur}-, lies at the very foundation of the liberties which the English of to-day enjoy. In the thirteenth year of his reign Edward sum- moned a Parliament <:o meet at Westminster (1295). It included all the essential features which mark the Par- liament of our own time. It was composed of the lords spiritual and temporal, knights of the shire, and bur- o-esses of the towns or boroudis. Two years later (1297) The char- auothcr Parliament met ; and to this Parliament ters affirm- Ed^y^rd oucc morc acknowledged that to it alone ed by ^ Edward. belonged the right to levy taxes. The two char- EDWARD THE SECOND. 1 29 ters were once more solemnly affirmed by the crown; and clauses were added to them, by which the king again gave up to Parliament the sole right to lay taxes, and to vote the supplies needed to carry on the affairs of the realm. One act of severe intolerance sullied the splendor of Edward's reign. This was thj banishment of all the Jews from the kingdom. Nor was this the ^ ^^^* worst. The Jews, as they made haste to leave England, were subjected to barbarous cruelty and even to massacre. It is just to Edward, however, to say that he sternly pun- ished the Englishmen who committed these crimes. Many signs of civilized progress appeared during Edward's rule. Gunpowder is said to have been invented by the philoso- pher, Roger Bacon. Paper was for the first time intro- duced and used in England. The mariner's compass was received from Italy. Westminster Abbey, after having been in process of erection for sixty years, was at last completed. Edward died, after a brilliant and Death of powerful reign of twenty-four years (1307), while ^^^^ard i. on his way to chastise Bruce in Scotland. His body was borne to London, and entombed with great solemnity in Westminster Abbey. The son and successor of this masterful king was entire- ly unlike his father in character. Edward of Carnarvon, now Edward the Second, was indolent, pleasure- character of loving, feeble of will, and lacking in courage and^**^^"^^ "• spirit. He had neither the taste nor the capacity for war or gov^ernment. Early in his reign he made a weak attempt to crush Bruce in Scotland. He led an army thither, but his enemy evaded him, and the king was forced to return to England. Then Bruce was aroused to fresh activity. He swept over the country with his devoted 130 VOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. Highlanders, until onlv the fortresses of Berwick and Stir- ling remained in English hands. Edward, for once dis- playing a sudden vigor, hurried with his forces to the relief of Stirlins:. The Scots and the English joined Battle of ^ , _^ , . . Bannock- amis at Banuockbum, and Bruce won a decisive ^^^'^' victory over his enemy. Edward and his army were driven from the field and sought refuge in Berwick, the last of his strongholds. A few years later Bruce took Berwick also, and even advanced some distance upon English ground. He compelled the English king to make truce with him, and to acquiesce in Bruce's assumption of the Scottish crown. The independence of Scotland was thus achieved ; and in the year after Edward's death, by the peace of Northampton, England conceded that in- dependence, and recognized Bruce's right to the throne he had so bravely won. Edward the Second's reign was Edward's othcrwisc full of troublc and misfortune. Like fondness other wcak kinirs before him, he chose a foreign- for for- ^ ' , ^ eigners. er as his favorite, and lavished wealth and fa- vors upon him. This favorite, whose name was Gaves- ton, was flippant and insolent, and soon deeply offended the proud lords of Edward's court. His rich costumes, his skill in the tournament, his supercilious bearing, kindled their fierce resentment. The lords demanded of the king that Gaveston should be banished. Edward declined to part with his favorite. Then Parliament refused him the supplies which he needed for his pleasures and his govern- ment. Edward was married to a beautiful and imperious French princess, Isabella. She, too, hated Gaveston, and joined the lords in their demand for his exile. The quarrel soon became exceefUngly bitter. The feeble king was at last deprived of his power, which was as- EDWARD THE SECOND. I3I Slimed by a committee of the lords, who called themselves the "Lords Ordainers." A brief civil conflict fol- 1 1 • .-1111 -1 • • '^^^ lory the lords and by the people at large. Mor- Mortimer, timer proved to be grasping and overbearing. The queen was haughty and selfish. When young Edward had reached his eighteenth year, he showed his spirit by freeing himself from the control of his mother, and taking the reins of government into his own hands. Mortimer was tried and beheaded for high treason ; and Isabella from that time ceased to take any part in the affairs of the kino^dom. CHAPTER XXriI. EDWARD THE THIRD. IT is a common opinion in England," wrote the old chronicler, Froissart, " that between two valiant kings there is always one weak in mind or body." The English crown often fell, indeed, alternately to a bad or feeble, and then to a powerful king. Thus the brave English Richard the First (" the Lion-hearted ") was sue- ^^^ss. ceeded by the mean and cruel John, and the weak Henry the Third by the great and just Edward the First. So, now, the miserable Edward the Second gave place to one of the most vigorous and warlike sovereigns who ever sat upon the English throne. Edward the Third began to reign when he was fourteen, and his reign lasted for fifty years ; and that long period was one of almost unexam- pled glory to the English arms. It was also re- progress of markable for the progress made by the English t^e English, people in freedom, customs, comfort, literature, the arts, and religious reform. Very soon after the third Edward assumed the reins of government, Charles the Fair, king of France, Edward's died, leavinc: no direct heir. Edward was the ^^^'™, *° ^ ' •=> the French son of Isabella, Charles's sister; and, already crown, stirred by a great ambition, he promptly laid claim to the crown of France. This claim had no foundation in right 133 134 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. for two reasons. According to the French law of succes- sion no female could inherit the crown, nor could any male inherit who derived his claim from descent through a female. Besides, if it were admitted that the title to the throne could descend through a female, Charles of Navarre, a grandson of King Louis X., Charles's eldest brother, had a better title than Edward the Third. So weak, indeed, did Edward himself feel his claim to be, that he abandoned it, and recognized Philip of Valois, the cousin of Charles, and the legal heir, as king of France. Events, however, soon occurred to induce Edward to revive his claim, and to prosecute it with all the vigor and persistency of his am- bitious nature. Within a year after Edward's accession, peace was con- cluded with Scotland, by which Robert Bruce Relations , with Scot- was acknowledged king, and the independence of Scotland was conceded. A year after this peace Robert died (1329), leaving the throne he had so valiantly won to his son Dovid, who was an infant only live years old. A regency was established to govern Scotland until David should come of age. Edward took advantage of some troubles on tlie border to undertake the reconquest of Scotland. He entered the northern kingdom with his army, and had soon seized upon its principal strongholds. He seemed on the point of once more extending English rule over the entire country, when the French king, Philip^ appeared as the ally of the Scots. He sent ships and soldiers to their aid, received young Bruce as a guest in Paris, and prepared to invade Guienne, in southern France, which had long been in the possession of the English. Edward was aroused to anger and retaliation by what EDWARD THE THIRD. 1 35 he deemed the perfidy of the French king. He once more put forward his claim to the French crown, and -y^-ar with made all haste to support it by force of arms. France. Then began that long and mighty struggle between France and England, which, by reason of its duration, is known in history as the "hundred years' war." It was not, indeed, a continuous struggle throughout that long period. There were intervals of armistice and peace, and several treaties were meanwhile concluded between the combatants. But the war did not come to an end until, more than a century after it was begun by Edward, the English claim to the French crown was finally abandoned. The events of this war which occurred during Edward's reign may be rapid- ly stated. The conflict opened in Flanders, from campaign which country Edward sought to invade the do- ^"^ Flanders, minions of his enemy. He had as allies not only the Flemings, but the German emperor. But the only note- worthy success gained in his first campaign was a naval victory over the French off the Flemish coast. Two years later (1343) Edward led a large army into invasion of Brittany, where he went to aid John de Montfort, ^"ttany. who claimed the dukedom of Brittany against Charles of Blois, who was supported by King Philip. But it was not until four years after his invasion of Brittany that Edward won his first great and decisive victory. In the midsum- mer of 1346 he crossed the Channel with thirty thousand men, and rapidly advanced along the river Seine towards Paris. Philip promptly set out from the capital to check him with a force of one hundred thousand men. The English found it necessary to pass the river, and at last, after much difficulty, found a ford, which they crossed in the face of the French troops posted on the opposite side. 136 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. Edward continued his march along the river banks until he had reached a place called Crecy. Here he halted to Battle of await the onset of his foe. The English forces Crecy. were arrayed in three divisions, commanded res- pectively by Edward Prince of Wales, the earl of Northamp- ton, and the king. The shock of battle was fearful. The English archers were pitted against fifteen thousand Geno- ese cross-bowmen, and after an obstinate conflict repulsed them. Then the French, under the Count of Alen^on, fell with fury upon the Prince of Wales's division. This prince, Edward's eldest son, was then but sixteen years of ao^e. But in this, his first battle, he displayed Edward ^ , , . 1 , . , r i the Black the prowcss and chivalry which afterwards won him high renown as the " Black Prince." At the moment when the attack of the French upon his col- umns was most furious, the king was besought to send succor to his son. "What," cried the king, "is my son 'wounded or unhorsed? " "No,"' was the reply; "but he is terribly pressed by the enemy." " Well," said Edward, "go back and say that I will not send so much as a sol- dier to help my son ; for I am resolved that the boy shall this day win his spurs and gain the glory and honor of the fight." The result of the battle of Crecy was a complete victory for the English. The blind king of Bohemia, a brave ally of the French, was slain ; Philip fled from the field on his horse ; more than thirty thousand Frenchmen and Geno- ese lay dead upon the scene of conflict ; and the proud legions of France were driven in confusion in all direc- tions. The victorious king marched upon Calais, and Siege of after an obstinate siege of nearly a year entered Calais. ^^^^ town. The stubborn defence of Calais EDWARD THE THIRD. 13/ had greatly incensed him, and at first he threatened to wreak his vengeance on the inhabitants. But at last he consented to accept six leading citizens, with whom he might do as he pleased. When these citizens came into his camp, with bare heads and feet, and with ropes around their necks, Edward sternly ordered them to be executed. But Edward's gentle queen, Philippa, fell on interces- her knees before her lord, and besouo-ht him to ^^°" °^ ' * Queen have mercy on the brave citizens. " Ah, lady," Pbmppa. exclaimed the king, " so sweetly have you pleaded, that I can refuse you nothing." So the citizens were spared, and, after having been royally feasted by the queen, de- parted free men. The English were now satiated with triumph, and the French were exhausted ; so that active warfare almost ceased for a long period. In the mean time the Scots grew bold, and invaded the northern counties of England. But an English force under Percy and Neville hastened to join battle with them. The Scots were completely defeat- ed, and their young king, David, who had returned from France to head the invasion, was taken prisoner and car- ried to England. He remained a captive for eleven years. About this time there came a terrible affliction on the English. An epidemic, called the ''Black Death," spread through the kingdom, and committed ravages The " Black among the people far more terrible than the ^^^^^" most destructive war. It is said that nearly one half of the population of England perished by the Black Death within a year (1349). Nine years after the battle of Crecy, war again broke out between the English and the French with all its for- mer fury. King Philip of France was dead, and his son 138 YOUNG PEOPLE'S ENGLAND. John reigned in his stead. Edward the Black Prince was governing Guienne, that southern province of France which had long been held by the English. The first act which led to fresh hostilities came from him. The Black Prince crossed the northern frontier of Guienne with a force of eight thousand men, and entered the province of Poitou, where he committed depredations far and wide, seizing the goods of the people. On returning southward, the prince found himself brought to bay by a great French army of sixty thousand, commanded by King John in per- Battie of ^^"> which barred his passage. One of the most Poitiers. memorable battles of history, the battle of Poi- tiers, ensued (1356). The Black Prince stationed his little force. of archers on either side of a ravine, and as the French advanced they fell in hundreds beneath the Eng- lish arrows. Then the Prince charged impetuously upon the foe with his mounted men-at-arms, utterly routed the remainder of the French army, took king John and his son prisoners, and returned to Guienne in triumph. A few Royal months after the Black Prince went to England, captives. taking King John with him as a captive. Thus two kings, David of Scotland and John of France, were prisoners at the same time in London. Another long lull now intervened in the great war be- tween the two nations. A treaty of peace was made, by which the English were given possession of Poitou in addi- tion to Guienne. These two provinces included a large part of southwestern France. King John agreed to pay a heavy ransom for his liberty, and returned to France to raise the required sum. Failing to do this, he again gave himself up to his captor, and some time after died in the Savoy Palace in London. Edward, in return for the EDWARD THE THIRD. 139 French concessions, abandoned his claim to the French crown. This treaty was called the treaty of Bre- Treaty of tigny (1360). During the interval of peace Bretigny. which followed, the Black Prince, wdiose deeds of prowess had won for him the ardent admiration and affection of his father's subjects, engaged in a war in Spain, which led indirectly to a resumption of that between France and England. In order to carry on his Spanish operations, the prince wrung heavy taxes from the people of Guienne, over whom he was set as governor. In their despair the oppressed people appealed to Charles, who had be- come king of France on the death of his father John, and Charles promptly espoused their cause The war assumed a monotonous and uneventful charac- ter. There were no great battles, like those of Crecy and Poitiers ; but for a long period the operations of the hostile forces were confined to skirmishes and alternate devastation of the country. The tide of war now turned. The Black Prince, brave and chivalrous as he was, com- mitted many acts of cruelty in the French provinces over which he ruled. After taking Limoges, he caused its peo- ple to be ruthlessly massacred. These deeds aroused the hatred of the inhabitants, and they rose in revolt against him. ThB Black Prince fell desperately ill, and mness and at last w^as forced to mve up fi2:htin2f. He re- *^^^*^ °^ ==" i & & tjie Black turned to England, where he lingered, ill and Prince, worn out, for six years. Then he died (1376) amid the universal grief of the English, who had adored him as the very personification of valiant knighthood. King Edward only survived his brave son and heir a year. He had grown old and feeble, and in the latter part of his reign affairs had gone badly, both on the scene 140 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. of war in France, and at home in England. The French had won back the i^reater part of the provinces Last year , . of Edward which English valor had wrested from them; while in England the royal power had for some time been really exercised by John of Gaunt, the king's fourth son, who was greatly disliked by the people. Par- liament stoutly opposed John's rule, and had grown so strong that it compelled him to yield to its will. After a reign of fifty years the old king passed away (1377). The loss of the Black Prince had broken his heart. CHAPTER XXIV. PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. THE century covered by the reigns of the first three Edwards was notable for the progress of the English people in many ways. It witnessed the dawn of ^ '^ ■' •' _ A progres- a national literature, and the beginning of a great sive cen- religious upheaval. It added many comforts and ^'^^^' refinements to domestic life. It marked a distinct advance in political liberty and in the growth of the powers of Par- liament. It changed for the better the social condition of the Ipwer classes. It improved the arts already known, and contributed new arts to popular pleasures and occu- pations. It saw English come into more and more gen- eral use as the language of all ranks of society. During its period Parliament not only maintained its sole right to levy taxes, but acquired other and novel powers. It ratified treaties, and its advice was Growth of sought by the kings when they thouo:ht of mak- *^® power o J t:> J is of Parlia- ing war or concluding peace. To some extent at ment. least, it enacted laws for the government of the kingdom. It acquired the habit of making the king pledge himself to "redress grievances," as a condition of voting him the money he needed. Toward the end of Edward the Third's reign. Parliament established the right to impeach any official of the crown before his peers. A very important 141 142 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. change took place in the constitution of Parhament in the time of this king. It was divided for the first Division into two time into two Houses, which sat separately. The lords, bishops, and abbots composed the upper House, and the knights of the shires and burgesses, representing the towns and villages, formed the lower House. Thus there became a distinct House of Lords and a distinct House of Commons, as they exist to-day. The first famous names in English literature appear in the history of the century of which we are speaking. There had previously lived chroniclers, historians, and some poets : but Sir John Mandeville, who wrote a Early r ? J ^ - English quaint book of travels, William Langlande, the author of "Piers Plowman," Geoffrey Chaucer, who wrote the "Canterbury Tales,'' and Gow^er, were the first Englishmen who produced books of literary skill and permanence. All these, moreover, are notable as having written in English ; the older chroniclers and poets con- fined themselves to Latin or French. Chaucer was the greatest of this group. He had rare genius as a poet, and the " Canterbury Tales," which preserve to us a vivid picture of the times and customs of the third Edward, are still read and enjoyed wherever the English language is spoken. The upper classes, in the course of years, had become more refined in taste and more elegant in manners. It had become a part of the education of young Condition of i J ts the upper peoplc of rank to be taught how to bear them- selves in company, at the table, in their recrea- tions, and in the family circle. They were trained not to spill their food, or stare, or put their elbows on the table. The young men were taught how to ride horseback, to be PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. I43 skilful in the use of arms and in the tournament, to sing and play on musical instruments, to carve at table, to read and write, and to dance. In the universities, which were almost always thronged with students, the stud- ies had become much wider in range, and more thorough in treatment. Philosophy, metaphysics, logic, history and the languages were diligently pursued. As- trology, which, it was believed, enabled men to read for- tune and the future in the position and movements of the stars, and alchemy, which was thought to give men the power of making gold, were eagerly studied. These sci- ences were the result of ignorance and superstition ; but they had a valuable use, for out of them grew the true and noble sciences of astronomy and chemistry. As civilization advanced and the arts matured, the Eng- lish upper classes became more luxurious in their habits. This appeared in fondness for display in dress Luxury m and in jewelry, in the lavish expenditure on England, feasts and merrymaking, and in the show and numbers of the great people's households. So prevalent did this fond- ness for display become, that Parliament made sumptuary laws regulating what sort of clothes each rank ^^'^^• in society should wear. The king amd his relatives alone might wear ermine and pearls. The lords and knights and their wives and daughters were allowed to adorn themselves with cloth of gold or silver. The lesser gentry were restricted to cloth and ornaments of silver. All be- low this rank were forbidden to put on silk, or to wear jewelry of any kind. The food of the upper classes, which comprised beef, game, fish, and many sorts of wine and ale, was always highly spiced, and filled their hospitable tables in lavish abundance. 144 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. The lower classes lived to a great extent on salted meats and coarse bread. There was a great deal of misery among the very poor in the time of the third Edward. They were Condition of the very much oppresscd by the rich. They were bur- dened with the taxes which went to support Ed- ward's foreign wars. Their food was scant and poor in quality. They were doomed to unceasing labor in order to keep body and soul together. Yet the condition of the peasantry was in some respects far better than it had been formerly. Many of the serfs had been able to throw off Decrease of their boudagc, and to become freemen, owning serfdom. HhIq patchcs of grouud for themselves, which they industriously tilled. It had become the custom for the peasant, instead of serving his lord whenever called upon, in return for his land, to pay rent for it. The lord then hired laborers on wages to till his acres for him. Thus there was gradually formed a large body of small freehold farmers, who had once been serfs. In the third Edward's reign the English began for the first time to weave wool ; and this added a new and very thriving industry to the occupations of the people. The weaving of wool was taught the English by some Flemish weavers, whom the king summoned to England for the purpose. The most important event of the third Edward's reign, if we consider its results, was the attack made by John John Wycliffe on the Papal Church. Wycliffe was a wyciiflfe. priest, who for a long time presided over Balliol College, Oxford. He was devout, learned, and very bold and earnest. He began his stormy career as a reformer by publicly rebuking the worldliness, self-indulgence, and indolence which now widely prevailed among the clergy, WYCLIFFE ON HIS WAY TO THE COUNCIL. — Page 145. PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. I45 and especially among the friars. The friars had once been pious and zealous, and had done much to Corruption instill piety into the people. But in course of of the time many of them had become corrupt and ^ ^^^^' neglected their religious work. The higher clergy, too, had become in many instances grasping and greedy of wealth and power. Wycliffe wrote and preached against these vices, and thus aroused great numbers of his fellow priests and the friars against him. He found, however, a powerful protector in John of Gaunt, who virtually wielded the royal power in the last years of his father, King Ed- ward. John had political reasons for opposing the priest- hood, and so encouraged the fearless Oxford scholar in his assaults upon them. Wycliffe next attacked the Pope himself. There w-as at this time a schism in the Roman church, and ■Wycliffe two rival Popes claimed the allegiance of the assaiis the people. One, a Frenchman, had his court at °^^" Avignon, in France ; the other was at Rome. The hos- tility of the English towards the French impelled them to reject the French, and to accept the Roman pontiff. But Wycliffe opposed the Pope whom the English supported. For this offence he was summoned before a council of bishops in St. Paul's Cathedral. He went attended by John of Gaunt and Lord Percy. In the council a bitter controversy took place between Percy, who defended Wy- cliffe, and the bishop of London, which resulted in the breaking up of the assembly in great disorder. A year after, another council was held at Lambeth, also con- vened to try Wycliffe; but the people broke tumultu- ously into it, and again the heretic escaped the wrath of his enemies. 146 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. Hitherto Wycliffe had confined himself to denouncing the habits and vices of the clergy, and the political claims Wycliffe at- ^f the Popcs. He had not assailed the doctrines tacks the q£ ^j^e church. But now he bes^an to question doctrines of *=" ^ the church, the doctriucs themselves. He first attacked the doctrine of "transubstantiation," or the turning of bread and wine into the body and blood of Christ. Then he threw doubts upon the sacredness of pilgrimages, the right of the priests to pardon sins, the propriety of worshipping saints and paying homage to their images. So bold did he become in* these attacks that he lost his powerful friends, the chief of whom was John of Gaunt. Wycliffe wyciiffe's ^^'^^ at last bauishcd from Oxford, and took up banishment |-,-g ^^^odc in a Small country parish at Lutter- from Ox- -^ ^ ford, and worth. Thcncc he was summoned to appear before the Pope at Rome ; but he was too old and feeble to obey the summons. Soon after, he was stricken down with paralysis as he stood at the altar of his little church, and died in a few hours (1384). The great work of Wyciiffe's life was the translation of the Bible from Latin into English. For a long time it had been the policy of the church to confine the Translation ^ -^ of the reading of the Bible to the priesthood. It was claimed by the Popes that the people could not comprehend the Bible if they read it by themselves, and that it was necessary that the priests, who were men of learning, should explain it to them as it was read. W}'- cliffe, however, placed the Bible within the reach of all who could read, and who were rich enough to buy copies of it. At that time printing had not been invented. All copies of books had to be written, and consequently they were PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. I47 very expensive. Only those who were well ofif, therefore, could afford to buy Wycliffe's Bible. His translation was bitterly opposed by the bishops and clergy ; but it spread through the kingdom, and did much, in the course of years, to hasten and mature the cause of religious refor- mation. CHAPTER XXV. RICHARD THE SECOND. RICHARD the Second, who ascended the throne as the successor of Edward the Third (1377), was the only child of the Black Prince, and hence was Edward the Third's grandson. He was eleven years old at the time of his accession, and his reign covered the brief pe- riod of twelve years. At first the government of the king- dom was carried on by the Duke of Gloucester, a younger son of Edward the Third ; but while the king was still in his teens he took the reins of pow'er into his ow^n hands. Character of Richard was comcly in person, warm-hearted, Richard II. ^^-,j bravc. Hc lovcd show and splendor, and spent money lavishly. As he grew up, he became haugh- ty, obstinate, and revengeful ; and tried, though in vain, to recover the royal power which had been restricted by the rise of Parliament. At first beloved by the people, he soon became one of the most unpopular monarchs who ever sat upon the English throne. Early in Richard's reign the working classes through- out England rose in revolt asjainst the oppres- Revolt of . ^ ^ ^^ the work- sious of the crowu. This revolt is memorable mg c asses. .^^ history as the rebellion of Wat Tyler. For a long period the peasants and working people of the towns had suffered severe hardship and misery ; and they had 148 RICHARD THE SECOND. I49 been ver}^ restive under the taxes which had been wrung from them for carrying on the war in France. At last a tax was levied by the king, with the consent of Parliament, which aroused the poor people to active resistance. It was voted that every person in England over fifteen years of age should pay at least twelvepence into the royal trea- sury. No sooner had this tax been levied than risings among the peasantry took place simultaneously in various parts of the kingdom. The laborers of Essex, Yorkshire, Suffolk, Norfolk, Hertford, Devon, and notably of Kent, gathered in warlike bands, and openly resisted their op- pressors with arms in their hands (138 1). The leaders of this formidable revolt were Wat Tyler, Jack Straw, and a hot-headed priest named John Leaders of Ball. Tyler led the men of Kent, and with his *^« ^«^°"- undisciplined columns advanced on London. The young king quickly took alarm at the insurrection, which seemed to spread at once through every part of his kingdom. The merchants shut the gates of London upon Tyler's rabble ; but so great was the agitation within the city, that at last the rebellious multitude was admitted. They rushed fu- riously through the streets, pillaging and murdering, sack- ing the houses of nobles, and burning the Savoy palace, the residence of the hated John of Gaunt. Richard, courageous though a mere lad, now performed the most cou- conduct of *^ ' '■ the young rageous and generous act of his life. He per- king, suaded Tyler and his men to retire to an open space out- side London, promising to meet them there and listen patiently to their demands. Attended by only a few courtiers, the young king en- trusted himself to the mercies of an angry body of sixty thousand insurgents. The leaders boldly presented to 150 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. him four petitions. They demanded to be freed, one and all, from their serfdom to the great estates ; to be par- doned, every man, for rising in revolt ; to be allowed free markets everywhere for barter and sale ; and that the price of arable land should be fixed at fourpence an acre. Quelling Richard promptly granted each of these peti- the revolt. ^Jqus, and the multitude which had clamored around him peacefully retired. All would have gone well but for a number of the insurgents who had remained with- in the citv limits. Here the rioting and carnao^e continued. The Archbishop of Canterbury, the king's treasurer, and many other notable men were killed, and public buildings were savagely attacked. Once more Richard tried to ap- pease the wrath of the insurgents. He went with a few retainers to Blackheath, where he held parley with Wat Death of Tvlcr himsclf. While they were talking, sud- wat Tyler. ^|g,-,|^^, Walworth, Lord Mayor of London, fell upon Wat Tyler and killed him on the spot. The king was now in the greatest peril, for Tyler's angry followers became furious, and were eager to avenge his death. But Richard's presence of mind stood him in good stead. Ad- vancing toward the angry crowd, he shouted, " 1 am your king; I will be your leader." Strange to say, this brave speech at once quelled the rioters. They permitted Richard to lead them away, and gradually broke up and departed to their several homes. So prompt a submission deserved a better return than Richard made. He broke his solemn pledge to carry out the demands which had been pressed upon him. He caused Ball, Straw^ and many other leaders of the people to be beheaded. Serfdom was not at once abolished, and the price of land was not restricted. But the revolt at least RICHARD THE SECOND. I5I caused the hateful poll tax to be abandoned. Its remote effect, moreover, was to secure greater liberties Effect to the common people. Gradually the system of the '^ _ ' ■' people s of villeinage, by which the peasant was bound to revolt. serve the owner of the land he tilled, gave way to the sys- tem of free tenantry and hired labor. The people had become aware of their power ; and after Wat Tyler's re- bellion they were never so grievously oppressed as they had been before. Other troubles soon ensued to disturb Richard's rule. Religious agitation continued, and assumed two Religious entirely different phases. On the one hand, the agitation. Pope continued to assert claims over the English church, which Parliament stoutly resisted. He appointed bishops and abbots to offfciate in England, and demanded that they should be allowed to perform their functions. At last the House of Commons passed a law, which was called "the law of praemunire" (1393). It forbade any person to publish the Pope's decrees in England, or to at- tempt to exercise any power whatever in the Pope's name. Those who violated this law were condemned to forfeit their property to the king. On the other hand, the fol- lowers of Wycliffe had grown to be a formidable body. They included not only large numbers of the common peo- ple throughout the kingdom, but many nobles and cour- tiers. They came to be known as " Lollards ; " The loi- a name probal^Iy given to them by their enemies, ^^''^s. since the word meant those who "lolled" about indolent- ly. The Lollards had one powerful friend in the queen, Anne of Bohemia. But they were subjected to persecu- tion by Parliament, and for many years suffered bitterly for their heresy. 152 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. Meanwhile, the war wkh France went on in a languid way, until the ninth year of Richard's reign (1396), when he concluded a truce of twenty-eight years with the French king. Richard made several attempts to subdue the Irish, and to reconcile them to the Enojlish rule. Soon Richard's . 111 visit to Ire- after he took into his own hands the royal pow- er, he went to Ireland, held counsel with the Irish princes, and used every effort to persuade the people to adopt the English manners, customs, and even dress. At first his efforts seemed successful ; but no sooner had he departed, than the Irish princes and people returned to their old turbulent ways. After the conclusion of peace with France, Richard again turned his attention to Ireland, He once more crossed the Irish Channel, and set about restoring order among the hostile and semi-bar- barous clans. This visit to Ireland proved a fatal misfor- tune to the king; for it was during his absence there that the events occurred which cost him his throne. Widespread discontent at many of Richard's acts had General growu up, not ouly amoug the people, but in Par- discontent. Jiament, and among the powerful nobles. His extravagance and love of pomp were bitterly denounced. He had tried to recover the old royal power, and to sub- due Parliament to his will. He had become arbitrary and overbearins:. His treaty with the French was Richard's * ■' unpopular- almost univcrsally condemned ; and his second ^*^' marriage with a French princess who was a mere child was equally unpopular. And now he had made inveterate enemies in the royal family itself. His uncle the Duke of Gloucester, the most ambitious and able of the living sons of Edward the Third, who had controlled the affairs of the realm while Richard was under age, op- RETlUVrilAL OF I'llL: I-'RENCII PRINX^ESS TO RICHARD II. — Page 153. RICHARD THE SECOND. I 5 3 posed the treaty with France with all his might. Richard caused the duke to be seized and thrown into the castle of Calais. Soon after it was given out that Gloucester had died in an apoplectic fit. But it was universally believed in Eno^land that he had been slain bv order of the kinir. A yet more redoubtable enemy of Richard soon after appeared in the person of his cousin, Henrv of ^' ^ ' •' Henry of Bolingbroke, the eldest son and heir of John of Boiing- Gaunt. Richard had chosen, as the heir to suc- ceed him on the throne, Roger Mortimer, the grandson of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, who was the third son of Ed- ward the Third. Mortimer, indeed, was the rightful heir according to the law of hereditary succession; for while he was descended from the third son of Edward, Henry of Bolingbroke was descended from John of Gaunt, who was Edward's fourth son. Roger Mortimer was dead, and his son, Edmund, was still a child; while Henry of Boling- broke was an able man and was everywhere popular. His manners were gracious towards every one, high or low. The common people liked him because he talked freely with them, and treated a mechanic or a peasant as politely as he did a lord. Bolingbroke looked upon the choice of Mortimer as the heir as an affront to himself. The breach between the roy- al cousins was widened by a bitter quarrel which BcUng- took place between Bolin2:broke and the Duke I'roke's ^ '^ quarrel of Norfolk. Each charged the other with being a with 11- A 1 11 1 r 1 Norfolk. traitor to the king. A challenge to combat fol- lowed, and the antagonists met, in presence of a great as- semblage of courtiers and notables, to settle their dispute by prowess of arms. When they were about to attack each other, the king stopped them. Sternly reprimanding them 154 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. for their conduct, he banished Norfolk from England for life, and Bolingbroke for six years (1398). Soon after Bolingbroke left the country, his father, John of Gaunt, died, and Richard seized his estates and took them for his own. This confiscation of his property aroused Bolingbroke to Bolingbroke opeu rebellion. Richard was heartily detested rebels. |^y jj-^^ nation, and Bolingbroke was more than ever beloved by reason of his banishment. The Arch- bishop of Canterbury, who had also been driven into exile, joined hands with Bolingbroke, Taking advantage of Richard's absence in Ireland, the rebellious prince land- ed in the north of England, and straightway adherents flocked to him from every direction. Great nobles like the Duke of Northumberland and Lord Westmoreland came into his camp, followed by a host of armed retainers; and as Bolingbroke advanced towards London, the Duke of York himself, who was acting as regent in Richard's absence, gave in his adhesion to the revolt. Richard ' ^ taken pris- Richard hurried back from Ireland only to be taken prisoner by Bolingbroke's followers in Wales. He was brought captive to London, shut up in the Tower, and there forced to sign his abdication of the throne in Bolingbroke's favor. CHAPTER XXVI. THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. RICHARD the Second was the last of the Plantagenet Hue of kings. With Bolingbroke, who ascended the throne with the title of Henry the Fourth, the line of Lan- castrian kings began. Henry was descended from the Dukes of Lancaster through his mother ; his father, John of Gaunt, having assumed that title after his father-in-law's death. So Henry and his successors were known as the "House of Lancaster." Henrv was not content ^ Henry's to rest his possession of the throne merely upon title to the Richard's forced abdication in his favor. He knew that a title derived in this way would be a slen- der one at best. So he submitted the case to Parlia- ment. A long list of the grievances of the nobles and the people against Richard was read to the Commons, and Richard's abdication was placed before them. Richard was then solemnly deposed by act of Parliament ; Henry was acknowledged as king ; and he was duly consecrated by the two archbishops. Thus the principle that Parlia- ment might depose one king and set up another, in an extreme case, was established in England (1399). Henry the Fourth was both an able and a popular prince ; yet his brief reign of fourteen years was full of character of turmoil and trouble. The Parliamentary sane- ^^"'•y ^^■ 155 T56 YOUNG PEOPLK's ENGLAND. tion of his title did not, after all, make his tenure of the throne secure. He was still, in the eyes of very many Englishmen, a usurper. Richard was a prisoner in Ponte- fract castle. He had still many friends, and might at any time escape and put himself at their head. Young Morti- Henry's meY, too, after Richard, had an undoubted right rivals. ^Q j.|-^g throne by hereditary succession. The new king was sadly perplexed how to deal with these two rivals. At last it was announced that Richard had sud- denly died at Pontefract. Many people at once suspected tliat, like Edward the Second and the Duke of Gloucester, he had come to his death by foul means. Henry was ac- cused of having connived at his murder. For a long time, moreover, people refused to believe that Richard was dead. Henry kept young Mortimer near him at court, in a sort of gentle captivity ; and thus was able to prevent him from asserting his right to the throne. In order to strengthen his position, Henry took care to keep on good terms with Parliament and with the church. His father, John of Gaunt, had been the powerful protector of Wycliffe and his followers. Henrv took the di- Henry hos- ^ ^ tile to the rectly opposite course with regard to the Lollards. He joined Parliament and the bishops in sternly repressing them. Early in his reign laws were passed and ]3ut into execution which empowered the bishops to try |)ersons who were charged with heresy. Those who were found guilty were burned in a public place. If a Lollard lecanted and returned to the church, he was pardoned ; but if he became a heretic a second time, he wms promptly condenmed and executed. The first victim of this law was a priest named William Sawtre. After being dejorived of his sacred office, he was burned at Smithfield before a large concourse of people. THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 1 5/ During Henry the Fourth's reign, his kingdom was dis- turbed by several risings and revolts. The ad- ^ ° Revolts herents of Richard, declaring that he was still against alive, tried to induce the people to rebel and ^'^^^' drive Henry from the throne. Some of the great northern lords called their vassals to arms to resist Henry's author- ity. Among these was the noble family of Percy. The bravest of the Percys was Harry, called Hotspur. He led a valiant force against the king; but was defeated and killed in the battle of Shrewsbury (1403), made famous by Shakespeare's play. A few years later Hotspur's father, the Earl of Northumberland, met a similar fate at Bram- ham Moor. The Welsh, under a very bold and owenGien- warlike native prince, Owen Glendower, for years ^ower. held out against the English from behind their wild moun- tain fastnesses ; but were finally overcome in the succeed- incf reiiin. o o Although Scotland had not engaged in open war with Henr}', it had sympathized with, and to some extent aided, the rebellions of Percy and Glendower. It so „ ^ _ The Scot- happened that James, the young heir to the tish king Scottish throne, fell into the hands of the Eng- ^^^p*'^^' lish at sea. He was brought to London, and while a pris- oner there became king of Scotland by his father's death. He remained a captive in England for eighteen years. James was a scholar and a poet. He married an English lady, and on his return to Scotland ruled wisely and justly over his hardy people. Some of his nobles, however, were against him, and finally put him to death. During the reign of Henry the Fourth a terrible plague swept over P^.ngland, and it is said that thirty thousand people per- ished by this terrible disease (1407). Henry the Fourth' I5S YOUNG people's ENGLAND. died (1413) in the Jerusalem Chamber, Westminster Ab- Death of bey. It had been foretold that he would "die in Henry IV. Jerusalem." As he lay ill in the chamber of that name, he asked where he was. On being told, he mur- mured, " Now I know I shall die in this Chamber, since it was prophesied I should die in Jerusalem." Henry of Monmouth, who now ascended the throne as Henry the Fifth, was one of the most brilliant, attractive, and triumphant kings v»'ho ever ruled over the ^^^^ ' English realm. Plis reign, though brief, was a glorious one. As a young prince, he had been wild and full of noisy pranks. At the same time he was generous, high-spirited, and princely, both in personal appearance and in manners. On one occasion, he was committed to prison by Chief Justice Gascoyne, for contempt of court ; and so gracefully did he submit to the punishment that his father, the king, thanked God joyously that he had a son who so willingly obeyed the law. When he succeeded to the throne, however, Henry put aside the gay companions of his roystering days, and assumed all the propriety and dignity befitting his royal office. He devoted himself seri- ously and wisely to its labors, and soon showed what a strong and high-minded nature he really possessed. Henry began his reign by several acts of magnanimity. He released vounsr Mortimer from the constraint Magna- - "^ nimity of uudcr whicli the last king had placed him, re- enry V. gj-Qj-g^i ^j-^g lately rcbellious family of Percy to their titles and property, and treated the young Scottish king, his prisoner, with marked kindness and respect. On the other hand, Henry followed his father's example in persecuting the Lollards. He was a devout and earnest son of the Church, and undoubtedly believed it right to put down THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. 1 59 heresy. Besides, the Lollards, whom oppression did not crush or dishearten, were accused of being disloyal to the crown. Their leader was Sir John Oldcastle, better known under his title of Lord Cobham. This able and gir joim sincere man was accused, with his followers, of oi^castie. conspiring against the king. Henry took prompt measures to suppress the Lollards. Many of them were seized, tried, and burned. After a time, Cobham himself was taken and shared the same fate. The most brilliant event of Henry the Fifth's career was his successful renewal of the war with France. He v/as induced to put forth a claim to the French crown, and to maintain it by force of arms, alike by his own towering ambition, and by the persuasion of the leading spirits of the church. His claim to the French crown was utterly absurd. It was not even as strong as that of state of Edward the Third had been. It was put forward t^echurch. merely as an excuse for war. In this he was encouraged by the bishops and abbots, ii^ order to divert the attention of the people from affairs at home. The wealth and lux- ury of the church had given rise to widespread discon- tent ; a great French war would perhaps lead the people to forget this grievance. Henry listened with eager ear to the advice of his spiritual counsellors. It happened, moreover, that France at this moment was plunged in dis- cord and civil war. The country was distracted by a fierce rivalry between two royal princes, the Dukes of Orleans and Burgundy. It was a most favorable time, therefore, for the English to once more invade the neigh- boring kingdom. Henry crossed the channel at the head of his army and laid siege to Harfleur, which yielded to him in about a l60 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. month. Thence he set forth across Normandy, with the in- tention of reaching Calais. But on crossins; the Henry _ ° '=' invades rivcr Sommc, he found himself confronted by a large French army, at least six times as numer- ous as his own. The young king now showed splendid cou- rage and brilliant military genius. The French had taken up their position in an open space between two thick copses of shrubbery. The ground on which they stood was slip- pery from recent rains. They wore heavy armor, and could with difficulty move over the muddy space. Henry rested his hopes on his cool-headed and lightly-attired archers. A palisade, erected in front of the English force, protected them from the French cavalry. As the latter advanced, Thebattieof ^^^^y ^^'^I'S rcccivcd by a storm of arrows. Then Agincourt. j_|-,g English rushcd forth, and plied their battle- axes with deadly effect among the confused ranks of the foe. The conflict was brief, sharp, and deadly. The French fell in hundreds ; hundreds more were taken pris- oners. Among the latter was the proud Duke of Orleans. As last, the French army which had marched forth so gaily and gallantly in the morning against the invader, was completely routed, and scattered in confusion in every direction. Thus was fought and won the memorable battle of Agincourt (1415). Henry returned in great triumph and glory to England. But the battle of Agincourt had not accomplished the ob- ject at which he aimed — the conquest of France. Two years later he again landed in Normandy, besieged and took Rouen, and forced the French to make a Rivalries of • 1 • 1 the French humiliating peace. Once more the rivalries be- princes. ^^vecn the French princes had broken out, with re- doubled ferocity. The king of France was insane ; his son, THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER. l6l the Dauphin, was cruel and treacherous ; and the whole kingdom was rent by the quarrels of the rival aspirants for power. The Duke of Burgundy had been lured into the hands of his enemies and perfidiously murdered. His son, abetted by the queen, preferred to make peace on any terms with Henry, rather than join arms with his father's assas- sins. The treaty of Troves (1420) was therefore concluded. By one of the provisions of this treaty, Henry obtained in marriage Katherine, the French monarch's daughter, whom he soon after wedded at Troyes. He Treaty of was recognized as the regent and heir of France, ^royes. and, on the death of the reijrning; kine^, would become his successor. After spending two years in England, Hen- ry again returned to France ; for the party of Orleans and the Dauphin still stood out against the treaty of Troyes. But the victorious career of the young warrior-king was fast draw'ng to a dose. In the prime of early manhood, at the are of thntv-four, Henrv the Fifth was taken sud- denly ill and died (1422). He was carried to Death of England, and was entombed with statelv and ^enry v. solemn pomp in Westminster Abbey. Above his tomb, to this day, may be seen the helmet, shield, and saddle which Henry wore so valiantly on the field of Agincourt. It seemed, at his death, as if the conquest of France by the English was complete. But in a few years the great re- sults of his brilliant triumphs were destined to melt away. CHAPTER XXVII. THE WARS OF THE ROSES. THE short reigns of Henry the P'ourth and Henry the Fifth were followed bv the lono; and tumultuous rei2:n of Henry the Sixth. For the period of thirty-nine years which it covered, England was plunged in almost ^^^^ ' continual external and internal conflict. The two main events of this reign were the closing acts of the hun- dred years' war with France, and the mighty and long-con- tinued struggle of the great English princes and lords for supremacy, known as the "Wars of the Roses." On his accession to the throne, Henry the Sixth was a feeble babe of nine months old, the only child of Henry the Fifth. It was necessary, therefore, that the kingdom should be governed for many years by a regency. Two brothers of Henry the Fifth, Humphrey Duke of Gloucester and The king's John Duke of Bedford, at first divided the pow- uncies. gj-g q£ |-j-jg crown bctwcen them. Bedford was a very able general, and to him was confided the conduct of the war in France. Gloucester, who was ambitious, quar- relsome, and grasping, and whose only pleasant trait seems to have been a great fondness for books, was put in charge of the home affairs. But Bedford's military genius did not a%'ail to preserve to England her conquests in France. Soon after the ac- 162 THE WARS OF THE ROSES. 163 cession of 3'oung Henry, the conflict broke out afresh. Bedford, with the bold and brave Earl Talbot as his sec- ond in command, fought a great battle with the Bedford in French at Verneuil, in which he fairly over- France, whelmed the enemy. His object now was to take Paris and cause Henry to be crowned there, according to the provisions of the Treaty of Troyes. But first it was neces- sary to get possession of the ancient walled city of Or- leans, which was strongly garrisoned by the French. The siege of Orleans is one of the most memorable in history. The English, flushed with victory, sat down be- The siege fore the fortress, confident that it would ere long °^ oneans. fall into their hands. They soon so closely invested it that supplies could not be conveyed within the walls, and the garrison and people were threatened with starvation. A French army which came to raise the siege was re- pulsed with heavy loss. It seemed inevitable that Orleans must soon surrender to the English. At this juncture a wonderful event took place. A young peasant girl from Champagne, Joan of Arc, who declared that saints and angels had commanded her, in visions, to go to the relief of Orleans, approached the city at the head of a troop of soldiers. She was attired in shining white armor, and rode a magnificent coal-black horse ; her face was lit up with a strange, inspired light ; and the news of her divine mission, which had preceded her, spread terror among the English besiegers, and made the beleaguered garrison take fresh heart. Her presence at the head of her devoted soldiers acted like a spell. In ten days she had raised the siege of Orleans, driven the English from their every stronghold, and compelled Bed- ford's retreat. Her next object was to have the young 164 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. French king, Charles the Seventh, crowned at Rheims, the ancient city where his predecessors had been crowned. Joan at She led her forces thither, winning victory after Rheims. victory, and taking town after town from the English, and at last witnessed the coronation of Charles in Rheims cathedral. Joan of Arc now longed to return to her simple rural home. But the French king would not permit this. She remained in command of her troops ; but now she failed as often as she succeeded, and the faith both of her sol- diers and the people died out. Then the brave heroine was delivered over, first to the Duke of Burgundy, and then to the English. She was tried for witchcraft, and, to the indelible disgrace of the English of that time, was burned at the stake. The death of the Duke of Bedford, soon after that of Joan of Arc, was a fatal blow to the English arms in France. The rivalries of the French prin- ces died out, and they united in defence of the kingdom. Meanwhile, rivalries had arisen among the great English lords, so that the war was not carried on by the invaders with its former energy. The result was that, after a series of lano^uid hostilities, the EnMish lost one by Victories ^ ' ^ ■' by the one all the provinces which they had taken from French. fi-ance, the seaport town of Calais alone remain- ing in their possession. The same fierce discords which had long rent France broke out, soon after Bedford's death, in En-gland. Hum- phrey Duke of Gloucester was "protector" in the king's minoritv ; but he was bitterly opposed bv a party Gloucester ^ ' \' \ ^ / V,- and Beau- headed by the powerful Cardmal Beaufort, Bish- ^°^^' op of Winchester. Beaufort was half-great-uncle of the king ; and his two brothers, the Earl of Somerset JOAN OF ARC IN BATTLE. -Page i 64. THE WARS OF THE ROSES. 165 and the Duke of F^xeter, supported him in his opposition to Gloucester. The main issue between the rival parties concerned the war with France. Beaufort wished to make peace, and finally succeeded in that end. It was he, too, who brought about the marriage of King Henry with Mar- garet of Anjou, who was destined to play a bold and stir- ring part in the events to come. To this marriage Glou- cester and his faction were bitterly hostile. It happened that Beaufort and Gloucester died within a very brief pe- riod of each other (1447). But they only left the held to other fierce contestants for power. A claimant to the throne appeared in the person of Richard Duke of York. He based his claim on his de- scent from Mortimer, w^ho had been the rightful Richard heir by inheritance of Richard the Second. o^York. York was also the heir of Edward the Third's fifth son, Edmund; so that in him was united the blood of two of Edward the Third's sons. The youth and weak character of Henry the Sixth, and the death of his two most power- ful relatives, the fact that the House of Lancaster held the throne by Parliamentary election and not by hereditary right, and the discontent of a large body of the nobles at Gloucester's policy, seemed to open the way for York's vigorous prosecution of his claim. He had two Rival par- very able and warlike friends in Neville Earl of ties in Salisbury, and his son, Neville Earl of Warwick, "° ^"^ the former of whom was York's brother-in-law. But on the other side was the resolute Margaret of Anjou, Hen- ry's queen ; and with her stood, in defence of the House of Lancaster, De la Pole Earl of Suffolk, and Beaufort Duke of Somerset. The appearance of York as claimant to the throne was 1 66 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. the signal for the beginning of the long, dreary, and devas- outbreak tating conflict known as the Wars of the Roses, of the Wars Yhe emblem of the House of Lancaster was a of the Roses. red rose, and that of York, a white rose ; hence the name given to the civil war. The first event was the impeachment and execution of Suffolk, who had been Margaret of Anjou's fast friend, and was her chief adviser. Somerset took the helm, but only held it for a short time. York entered London at the head of a considerable force, compelled Henry to summon a Parliament, and this Parlia- ment threw Somerset into prison. But he was soon re- leased and restored to power. Not long after, a son, Edward, was born to King Henry, and this event for a while strengthened the power of the Lancastrians. But York's Henry fell ill, and became for a while insane, victories. York took advantage of this circumstance to again cause Somerset's imprisonment ; and Parliament made York himself protector of the kingdom. The restoration of the king's reason once more turned the tables in his favor. Somerset replaced York as pro- tector, and York's friends were compelled to retire. And now civil war broke out in earnest. York summoned his adherents to arms, and, after being joined by the Nevilles, marched on London with a considerable force; He was met by the king's troops at St. Albans, where the The battle ■' & r ofst. Ai- first battle of the war was fought (1455). It re- sulted in a complete victory for York. Somerset was killed on the field, and Henry was led captive to Lon- don. The great conflict thus begun raged for thirty years. It was essentially a war of the great nobles and their vas- sals. The general mass of the people took but little part in the struggle, but continued their avocations very much as if THE WARS OF THE ROSES. 16/ there was peace in the land. It was a war, too, of con- stantly varying fortunes. Now Henry was victorious, and reio^ned in his feeble way ; then he was a prisoner, ^ ■' r > Varying for- and his rival York held the royal power. Some- tunes of the times the red rose, and sometimes the white, was victorious on the battle-field. It was a war of constant ups and downs for both factions. In all, twelve battles were fought during the Wars of the Roses. There was now and then an interval of armistice and seeming reconciliation; after each period of peace, however, the conflict broke out more fiercely. As it went on, the leaders changed. Many great lords were killed in the battles ; others, when taken prisoners, were beheaded by their enemies. Thus the Earl of Salisbury, York's chief adherent, was executed after the battle of Wakefield (1460). In this battle, too, York himself was slain while valiantly leading his men in the onset. But his place was at once filled by his son Edward, who now became Duke of York, and was destined to become king of England. So utterly incapable was King Henry, that his resolute queen, Margaret of Anjou, took the lead of the Margaret Lancastrian cause, and herself commanded his °^ Anjou. soldiers in the field. A new and powerful adherent of the House of Lancaster appeared in jasper Tudor, whose de- scendants afterwards came to the throne. Edward of York pursued his campaign with great vigor, ably seconded by the great Earl of Warwick. Within three months after his father's death (1461) he entered Edward London at the head of a victorious force, and was °JJJ'^'"^^j crowned king of England. The hapless Henry ^^"^s- was consigned to the Tower. But Margaret of Anjou and her followers, though defeated, were not crushed. Ed- l68 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. ward was still forced to fight for his newly-assumed crown. With Warwick at his side he inflicted an overwhelming defeat on Margaret at Towton, and for a long period after- ward maintained himself on the throne without serious conflict. Margaret, however, would not desist from her attempts to recover power. Several times she landed from France on the English coast, only to be driven back across the Channel. With Edward's accession the reign of Henry the Sixth virtually came to an end ; though, after an in- terval of nine years, he was restored to the throne, and occupied it for a few months, only to be again driven from it by his rival. The chief domestic event of Henry's reign was a formidable rising of the people, under a bold Irishman Jack Cade's n-'imed Jack Cade (1450)- The revolt of Wat rebellion. Tvlcr, in Richard the Second's reign, was in- spired by the craving of the peasantry to become free from their bondage to the nobles and to the great estates. It was a rising against the oppression of the feudal system. Cade's rebellion, on the other hand, was political in its objects. Cade and his followers demanded that the people should be allowed to vote freely for members of Parlia- ment. The right of suffrage had become much restricted. The lower classes were compelled by the great lords to vote as those lords pleased. Cade appeared at the head of a vast multitude, and was victorious over the king's troops at Sevenoaks. He marched to London and en- tered it. His adherents seized Lord Say and executed him. Then they began to pillage the houses. This aroused the citizens, who had at first abetted the insurgents. Cade's followers were finally dispersed, and Cade himself was taken and put to death. CHAPTER XXVIII. THE HOUSE OF YORK. EDWARD the Fourth, the first king of the family of York, was noted for his personal beauty, his cou- rage in battle, his fondness for luxury, his immorality, his polished manners, and his many acts of heartless cruelty. Towards his enemies he was relent- character of less, and to his friends not seldom treacherous, ^^^ard iv. The first few years of his reign were fairly peaceful and prosperous, and he was liked, though never warmly loved, by his subjects. But after he had exercised almost un- disturbed authority for nine years, he took a step which for a while lost him his throne, and nearly excluded him from it altogether. The Earl of Warwick, his cousin, had always been his closest friend and his strongest supporter. To Warwick, indeed, Edward owed his conquest and pos- session of the crown. Against Warwick's strenuous pro- test, Edward married Elizabeth Woodville, a lady of infe- rior rank. Warwick had already displeased the Edward kino; bv brinmno: about a marriag^e between his ^i^^rreis » -- o o o with War- own daughter and the Duke of Clarence, Ed- wick. ward's brother. These events caused a bitter feud be- tween the king and the earl. Warwick suddenly deserted Edward, and joined the standard of Margaret of Anjou and the House of Lancaster. 169 I/O YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. Margaret of Anjou had a young son named Edward ; and to him Warwick gave his second daughter, Anne, in marriage. Joining Margaret in France, the great Earl raised an army and soon landed again on English shores (1470). As Warwick advanced, his forces were continu- ally swelled by multitudes who flocked to his banners. So formidable did he become that King Edward fled in dis- may across sea to Holland; while his queen, Elizabeth, sou2;ht sanctuary in Westminster Abbey. Hen- Warwick & ^ J restores ry the Sixth was brought out of the Tower, and Warwick set him upon his throne once more. But the tide of fortune soon turned again in favor of the House of York. The Duke of Clarence deserted War- wick, his father-in-law, and rejoined his brother Edward, who suddenly landed with an army on the east coast and boldly advanced on London. Warwick marched out to meet him, and the hostile forces came into col- Edward again victo- lisiou at Bamct. Edward was completely victo- "°^^' rious. Both Warwick and his brother Montague were killed in the battle ; and his shattered army was forced into hurried retreat. By Warwick's death England lost her most valiant warrior, and the nobility its most brilliant ornament. So powerful was he in seating and unseating kings that he is known as the "king-maker." The last battle between the rival forces of York and Lancaster took place at Tewkesbury (147 1). Margaret, who had come over with a fresh armv, foug^ht The battle . ^ ' o of Tewkes- dcsperatcly for her sinking cause. But her hero- '^'^^' ism was in vain. Her forces were decisively de- feated ; her young st)n, Edward, was cruelly murdered ; and she herself, and her feeble consort, Henry, were taken captive in the conqueror's train to London. Henry soon I THE HOUSE OF YORK. I/I after died, it is supposed by foul play, in the Tower. The last, he was also the weakest of the kings of the Lancas- trian line. He was very devout, and it was often said of him that he. ought to have been a monk instead character of a king. He was gentle, amiable, and sweet- "^^^"'■y^^- tempered, with simple and retiring tastes, and a great dis- like of war and government. Had it not been for his brave wife, Margaret of Anjou, he would have lost his crown much sooner than he did. After being kept captive for five years, Margaret of Anjou was ransomed by her relative, the king of France, to which country she retired, and in which she dwelt during the few remaining years of her life. The House of York now seemed firmly established on the throne. Edward the Fourth's principal enemies had either been slain, or were in prison or in exile. For the remaining twelve years of his life, his tenure of the throne was uncontested. The civil war over. Edward turned his attention to a war with France. He invaded -^^^r with that country, but soon made a treaty with Louis France, the Eleventh, by which Louis agreed to pay to England a yearly tribute of fifty thousand crowns. Soon after this the Duke of Clarence, Edward's next brother, was tried and condemned for high treasop, and died in the Tower. He is said to have been drowned in a butt of Malmsey wine, but this is not certain. A brief war with Scotland, towards the end of Edward's life, resulted in the taking of the border stronghold of Berwick from the Scots by the king's surviving brother, Richard, Duke of Glou- Death of cester. Edward died (1483) after a reign of ^^^■^'•** ^^• twenty-two years, leaving two young sons, of whom Ed- ward, the elder, succeeded him at the age of thirteen. 172 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. This boy king, Edward the Fifth, can scarcely be said to have reigned at all. Richard, Duke of Gloucester, soon seized upon the royal power. He succeeded in taking young Edward and his brother from their mother and her relatives, in whose charge they had been left at their father's death. Richard was cruel, crafty, ambitious, and able. Aided by a group of powerful nobles, he ■ was proclaimed protector of the kingdom. His first use of the authority thus placed in his hands was to imprison the two little princes in the Tower. Then he caused all the most powerful friends of the young king to be seized and executed. Lord Hastings, Earl Rivers, (the queen's brother). Lord Grey, in turn suffered death. Richard boldly asserted his own claim to the throne. He declared that Edward the Fourth's marriage to Elizabeth Woodville had not been a valid one ; and that therefore he, Gloucester, was the real heir. He was now too power- ful to be resisted. A deputation of lords and commoners offered him the crown, and Gloucester ascended the throne as Richard the Third. The reign of this vigorous, cruel, and tyrannical prince, whose body was as misshapen as his mind was malignant, was brief and stirring. He sought to strengthen his hold Richard's ^u the throuc by marrying Anne, the daughter marriage, ^f Warwick the " King-maker," and widow of the ill-fated young Edward, son of Henry the Sixth. Then, in order to rid himself of possible rivals, he caused the little princes, whom he had already branded as bas- tards, to be put to death in the Tower. There were, never- theless, many good features in the rule of the hunchback king. He promised, of his own accord, to restore the liberties which his subjects had enjoyed before the civil THE HOUSE OF YORK. 1/3 wars. He was a liberal patron of literature and the arts. He made wise regulations for trade and com- ^ _ Good acta merce. He enjoined upon his officers to see that of Rich- good order and justice should be established throughout the realm. He gave freedom to the few serfs who still remained bound to the great estates. He thus sought to win back the affections of the people, which he had forfeited by his cruel crimes. But these attempts to make himself popular failed. Richard w^as distrusted and hated by the people. Ere long a large part of the nobility were also arrayed against him. And now a fresh claimant to the throne appeared in the person of Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, who Henry declared himself the heir of the House of Lan- ^udor. caster. Katherine of France, the queen of Henry the Fifth, had, after his death, married Owen Tudor, a Welsh gentleman, who was not even of noble blood. The eldest son of this marriage, Edmund Tvdor, wedded Margaret, great-granddaughter of John of Gaunt through Beaufort, Earl of Somerset, the eldest son of John of Gaunt by his second marriage. By this marriage of Edmund Tudor with Margaret of Beaufort, the claim to represent the House of Lancaster came into the Tudor family. Hen- ry Tudor, who now resolved to contest the throne with Richard, was Edmund Tudor's eldest son. There still re- mained, too, an heir of the House of York, who had a better title to the throne than Richard. This was Eliza- beth, eldest daughter of Edward the Fourth. Richard, finding himself detested, and his tenure of the crown in danger, conceived the project of marrying his niece Elizabeth, and so getting rid of at least one claimant. He applied to the Pope to divorce him from his wife, 1/4 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. Anne of Warwick, and grant him a dispensation to re- place her by Elizabeth. But meanwhile the Richard ^ -^ • r -^ i i seeks a leaders of the once rival factions of York and Lancaster, now united in their common hos- tility to Richard, came together and agreed to combine the claims of the two royal houses, and thus to end forever the civil discord to which they had given rise. Before Richard could accomplish his purpose of marry- The white i"g l^^s niccc, lie learned that young Elizabeth and red }-,j^(^ bccomc the wifc of Hcury of Richmond. roses •' blended. Thus the whitc and the red roses, blended at last, formed a common cause against the usurping tyrant; and thus the foundation was laid of a new and powerful line of English kings and queens. No sooner had Henry raised the standard of revolt, than it was joined by many of the great nobles and by multitudes of the common people. The Duke of Buck- ingham, hitherto Richard's most steadfast friend, deserted him. but was taken and promptly put to death by the king's order. The friends of the family of Edward the Fourth and of Elizabeth his queen rallied to Henry's cause. His first attempt, indeed, was a failure : but, undis- Battie of mayed, he landed in Wales, the country of his Bosworth; fathers, and, with a large and ever-increasino^ fol- death of ' ' ^ ^ o ^ Richard, lowing, marchcd eastward. With all his wick- ednesses Richard the Third was as brave as a lion. He promptly sprang to the defence of his crown. Gather- ing all the forces he could raise, he marched rapidly to meet his enemy. They came into collision at Bos- worth, not far from Leicester. Richard was overwhelm- ingly defeated, and while fighting desperately was killed in the midst of the battle. His roval crown was found 1 THE HOUSE OF YORK. 1/5 hanging on a bush, and there, on the battle-field, it was put on Henry's head. Henry soon after entered London, and was proclaimed king, with the title of Henry the Seventh. Thus came to an end the long conflict of the "Wars of the Roses" (1485). CHAPTER XXIX. PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. THE most important result of the Wars of the Roses was to lessen the power of the great English lords, so that they were never so strong after these wars as they Decline of had bccn before. In former times, as we have the power geen, the nobles had often, when combined, been of the ' ' ' lords. more powerful than the kings themselves. In- deed they had sometimes set up and pulled down kings at will. But the fierce rivalries of the struggle of the Roses, the executions of the defeated leaders after the battles, the exile of many of the lords, had rapidly reduced their num- bers and influence. And as the power of the nobles de- creased, that of the crown became greater; so that during the century following the battle of Bosworth, the kings and queens held supreme authority in the realm, and were able to rule with strong hands the nobles as well as the common people. With the waning of the power of the great lords came the decline also of that feudal system which had made them so strono: in the by-o;one time. The ties of the vassal Decay of ^ ^ -^ ^ the feudal to liis fcudal chicf wcrc loosened, and the laboring sys em. classcs becamc more free, more prosperous, and more comfortable. Indeed, so lavish did the lower orders become in the expenditure of their money, that in the 176 PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 17/ time of Edward the Fourth laws were passed forbidding them to wear clothes which Parliament thought too fine for their condition. Servants and workingmen were not allowed to wear cloth which cost more than two shillings a yard, and they were prohibited from display- social con- ino^ silv^er ornaments on their persons. Mean- ^}^^°^ °^ ^ ^ the Eng- while the lords, in consequence of the War of lish. the Roses, had become poor, and for the most part could not afford to live in the luxury and magnificence to which they had once been wont. A great lord's household, in the time of the York kings, would seem very rude and comfortless to those who live in the nineteenth century. The lord and his lady a lord's subsisted for the most part on coarse fare, such household, as beer, boiled beef, and salt fish, sometimes varied by fowl or pork. As for the servants, they were forced to content themselves with salt meat and a few vegetables almost daily throughout the year. The provision for fires was very meagre in the castles and manor-houses, and the servants had to submit to being cold through the winter days. Those great houses, too, must have been very dirty, as there was no such custom as "house-cleaning," and the linen and other clothing were only washed at very long intervals. ^ In the very midst of the conflict of the Roses, an event quietly took place in England which was destined to bring about greater changes among the people than did many kings and many wars. This was the introduction ^ Introduc- mto England of the art of printing, by the good tion of merchant and scholar, William Caxton. Caxton p*''"^^"^^- had lived for a long time in Flanders, where printing had become known. Havin^r translated a French book on the 178 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. siege of Troy, he thought he would try the new art, so that many Enghsh people might read the book (147 1). A few years afterward he returned home, and set up a small print- ing shop in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey (1476). caxton's Happily he received the protection of the king, books. queen, and court, and plied his new vocation in peace. He printed a book written by Lord Rivers, the queen's brother, and afterwards issued Chaucer's " Can- terbury Tales," "^sop's Fables," "Reynard the Fox," and other works. It may be judged what an influence printing had upon the intelligence of the people, when it is remembered that, before it was introduced, all the books had to be copied by hand, or at least, printed from rude blocks of wood. Results of These books were of course very expensive, and printing. eveu the richest men could only afford to pos- sess a few of them. But printing cheapened the produc- tion of books, so that very many more people could afford to buy them than before. Thus printing very soon re- sulted in spreading information among the people, and in elevating and broadening the general standard of intelli- gence. It cannot be doubted that the introduction of printing had much to do with the great changes in reli- gious thought which very soon followed it. The Wars of the Roses left the crown stronger than the nobles, but did not lessen the power of Parliament. The representatives of the people still voted the of Pariia- taxcs which were levied, and the king could not ™^^*' even now raise money from his people without their consent. The people had taken more and more inter- est in the election of members, and had come to learn bet- ter how to use the rights which in the course of centuries PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 1 79 had been won by their champions. Parliament met more often than in former times, and this increased its powers and strengthened its position as one of the estates of the reahn. The general result, in short, of the struggles of three centuries had been to secure a larger degree of lib- erty to the English people. CHAPTER XXX. THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. THE rule of the House of Tudor forms a very inter- esting period in English history. The kings and queens of that family had marked traits and strong wills, and wielded the royal power with great vigor. Henry the Seventh, the first king of the Tudor line, united Henry VII. |^^^ j^^^ ^^^^^^ descent and his marriage the rival claims of the Houses of York and Lancaster to the throne. But while his accession (1485) put an end to the Wars of the Roses, it did not suppress all civil discord. His reign of twenty-four years was disturbed by many internal and external troubles. At first, Henry's subjects admired him for his valor in battle ; but it soon turned out that he was a harsh, stern, cold man, excessively fond of money, and unscrupulous in his ways of getting it. Henry's difficulties began at the very outset of his reign. A rising of Yorkist partisans took place in northern Eng- land before he had been on the throne a vear. Pretenders •' to the Scarcely had this been suppressed, when a pre- tender to the throne, in the person of one Lam- bert Simnel, who claimed to be a nephew of Edward the Fourtii, appeared in Ireland, and was actually crowned king at Dublin. He invaded England ; but was speedily defeated and taken prisoner, and finally became a servant 180 THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. 151 in the king's kitchen. Later in Henry's reign another pre- tender, Perkin Warbeck, gave the king more trouble than Simnel had done. Warbeck declared that he perkin was a son of Edward the Fourth, and one of the warbeck. princes who were supposed to have been put to death in the Tower. He was encouraged to assert his claim by the king of France, who was just then on bad terms with Henry, and by the king of Scotland, who gave War- beck a near relative of his own. Lady Gordon, for a wife. Warbeck succeeded in inducing many Englishmen to be- lieve his story. His struggle to obtain the throne lasted for five years. But at last he was captured near Newark, and two years later was executed. These were not the only plots against Henry's throne ; but he dealt with each revolt, as it arose, with a strong hand, and finally succeeded in crushing out all formidable opposition to his rule. Henry showed in many of his acts statesmanship and wisdom. He devoted himself '■ Henry's vigorously to subjecting the nobility, already states- weakened by the civil wars, to the royal power. He created a court to try nobles who attempted to combine for mutual defence, or to keep up a body of armed retain- ers. This court is famous in history as the " Star Cham- ber," because it met in a room the ceiling of which was stud, ded with stars. It met in secret, and soon took ^^e star to itself the power of trying not only nobles, but chamber, any one who was obnoxious to the king or the court. It thus became an instrument of tyranny, and often of cruelty. But it at least served the purpose of effectually curbing the power of the nobles ; and this, in the end, was a great gain to the English people. Henry was very shrewd in his dealings with foreign 1 82 YOUNG PKOPI.e's ENGLAND. nations. He greatly preferred peace to war, and he con- stantly labored to keep on good terms with his brother sov- ereigns. He made friendly treaties with France, Scotland, and Spain ; and he cemented these alliances by giving his eldest son Arthur in marriat^e to Katherine, the Alliances ° with foreign daughter of the Spanish king, and his daughter powers. Margaret in marriage to James the Fourth, king of Scotland. From this latter marriage sprang the line of the Stuarts, who afterwards reigned in England. Thus Henry avoided war with all foreign powers during his reign. He also brought Ireland into more complete sub- jection to English rule, by extending English laws to the sister island, and forbidding the Irish parliament to sit and make laws without the royal sanction. While Henry gave order to his realm, and saw that justice was done, and that the laws were everywhere obeyed, his love of money led him to commit many harsh acts. To be sure he did not violate the right of Parliament to vote the taxes; but he very seldom called Parliament together, and he resorted to various unjust ways of extorting money, espe- extortions cially froui his rich subjects. He used to openly of money. ^^^ ^^^j^ ^^^^ £^^ large sums ; and when money had once been promised to him, he took it by force. Old laws imposing fines were also revived, and the king made use of every excuse to get money by granting special privileges. As Henry was very parsimonious, and spent little for show or luxury, he amassed a large fortune by these means. He was, indeed, prudent in all things, and, with all his miserly ways, governed his people on the whole with a view to their benefit. During his reign commerce flourished, and the English advanced rapidly in prosperity and riches. It was an era, THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. 1 83 also, of distant discovery. The successful voyages of Co- lumbus and of Vasco da Gama stimulated the An era of ambition of adventurous Englishmen. John and discovery. Sebastian Cabot, encouraged by the king, made the dis- covery of Newfoundland (1497), and afterwards of other places on the American coast ; and thus prepared the way for the later English settlements, and the founding of a great American nation. Sebastian Cabot published the first map of the world representing the two hemispheres, and maps and charts were now used for the first time in England. Shillings were first coined in the reign of the seventh Henry; and the chapel after his name Death of in Westminster Abbey, one of the most beautiful ^enry vii. pieces of architecture in the world, was erected. Henry the Seventh died (1509) at the age of fifty-tw^o, respected, though not at all beloved, by his subjects. Arthur, the eldest son of Henry the Seventh, had died during the lifetime of his father ; the crown therefore devolved upon the second son, who assumed it with the title of Henry the Eighth, and became one of the most powerful and most famous kings in English his- character tory. At the time of his accession he was only andappear- -' •> ance of eighteen years of age; but he was tall, hand- Henry viii. some, manly in features, stately in bearing, and conducted himself with true princely dignity. From the first his subjects admired and were proud of him ; and although during his long reign he committed many despotic acts, and subjected all men and all things to his imperious will, he never entirely lost the affection of his people. At the very beginning of his reign he showed that he meant to govern his kingdom with a strong hand. One of his first acts w^as to marry his brother Arthur's widow, Katherine 184 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. of Arragon. The laws of the church forbade this mar- Marriage riage; but Henry persuaded the Pope to suspend, of Henry, qj- "dispense" with this law. One reason why he wished to have Katharine for his wife was, that he was ambitious of military glory, and desired to obtain the alliance of her father, who was then king of Spain. Henry remembered the victories which had once crowned the arms of England, and resolved to invade France, He accordingly crossed the Channel with an army, and captured the town of Tournay. But now he heard that a Scottish army, taking advantage of his absence, had en- tered English territory with their king at their head This force was met, at a place called Flodden, near the border, Defeat of ^^Y ^^^^ EugHsh uudcr the Earl of Surrey The the Scots. J-e>^^l^- of the conflict was that the Scots were ut- terly defeated and driven back, and their king, James the Fourth, was killed on the field. Henry did not, however, think it wise to continue his campaign in France, and so made peace with the French king. A few years afterward Henry paid a visit to France and met the young king, Francis the First, at a splendid festival called "The Field of the Cloth of Gold ; " where brilliant tournaments were fought, and right royal feasts were held, in honor of the two sovereigns. Before Henry had been long on the throne he took into his counsels a man who was destined to play a great part Thomas '^^^ ^hc affairs of England. This was Thomas woisey. Wolsey, a priest, who soon rose to the dignities of Archbishop of York and Chancellor of the kingdom. Wolsey was the child of obscure parents. It was even said that he was the son of a butcher. But he had graduated at Oxford at the earlv ajje of fifteen, and had been noted THE HOUSE OF TUDOR. 1 85 there for his fine scholarship and brilliant talents. Then he had become a chaplain to Henry the Seventh, and had served him so well in many ways that he became one of the king's chief favorites and advisers. He Rise of showed, even in early youth, great energy, am- woisey. bition, and tact. Henry the Eighth perceived that such a man would be of invaluable use to him ; and, being him- self fond of pleasure, was glad to find an able adviser who would relieve him of many of the cares of state. Wolsey, on his side, perceived that by humoring the king, and by faithfully carrying out his wishes, he himself would gain the power and wealth which he craved. Wolsey's fame as a statesman rests mainly on two grounds. His policy raised England's authority among other nations to a higher point than it had ever before reached; and his zeal in serving the king's cause in the contests which arose with the monasteries and with the Pope, prepared the way for the religious reformation of the English people. Let us first see what he did in his dealings with foreign nations. There were at The rival this time two great rival kings in Europe. One ^^'^ss. was the vouns; and chivalrous Francis the First, kino; of France ; and the other, Charles, king of Spain, who soon became also emperor of Germany, with the title of Charles the Fifth. Both Francis and Charles were ambitious and warlike, and for a long period they fought each other with varying fortunes. Francis wished to conquer certain parts of Italy and add them to his dominions, and this was the original cause of the wars. England was now so strong that both the combatants desired her alliance and aid. Wolsey shrewdly took ad- vantage of this fact to lean first to one side and then to 1 86 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. the other, never, however, completely involving England with either. At one time Eno^land was friendly Wolsey's -it? i ^ foreign with Spaui, at another with France ; but always policy. ^^\'^\^ an eye to the increase of her own power. At last Francis was defeated and taken prisoner at Pavia, in Italy (1525). Wolsey demanded of Charles that another king should be put on the French throne, who should be really subject to England. But the Emperor feared lest this should make England too strong ; and, after holding Francis for a while in captivity, made a treaty with him and released him. Eno-land now bei^an to draw England favors the away froui Charles and to favor the French side. The refusal of Charles to consent to Wolsey's ])roposal was not the only reason for this. Henry the Eighth had become tired of his queen, Katherine of Arra- gon. The sons she had borne him had died, and their only surviving child was a daughter. Henry was anxious to have a male heir to his throne. He resolved to put away Katherine and take another wife ; and it was the consequences of this resolve which gave rise to the move- ment of religious reformation in England. CHAPTER XXXI. THE RISE OF PROTESTANTISM. IN seeking for a divorce from his wife, Henry the Eighth relied upon the aid of Wolsey, and this aid was at first zealously given. Wolsey was now not only chancellor, but a cardinal of the church, and the Pope's legate, Henry's or representative, in England. The law forbade divorce, any Englishman to hold this latter office ; but Wolsey ex- ercised it in spite of the law, and as legate he had great power over the church. Wolsey's wealth, moreover, and the pomp and splendor in which he lived, added to his in- fluence. He had built as his residences Hamp- ton Court and Whitehall, which were sumptuous magnm- palaces; his retinue was only less numerous than that of the king ; and he lavished enormous sums on the feasts with which he regaled the nobility and the envoys of foreign powers. No subject in England had ever dis- played more magnificence and state. Wolsey put forth all his power and ability to bring about the divorce of the king from Katherine. He hoped that when this had been effected, Henry would marry a French princess. He appealed to the Pope to revoke the dispen- sation which had allowed Henry to marry his brother's widow. But just now the Spaniards were victorious. Charles the Fifth had even taken the Pope prisoner, and 107 1 88 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. had held him captive for some lime. So the Pope dared not offend Charles by annulling the marriage of Charles's aunt, the English queen. But he sent a legate to England, The Pope Cardinal Campeggio, wlio, wiih Wolsey, tried to interferes, persuade Katheriiie to assent to the divorce. This she proudly refused to do. She was resolved to stand upon her rights, and demanded that the Pope him- self should try the matter. The failure of Wolsey to procure the divorce greatly an- gered the imperious Henry ; and now another event hap- pened which hastened the great cardinal's downfall. The Henry falls ^^i"g ^^^^ ^^"^ ^^jvc with a young lady of the court, in love with ^/\nne Bolevn, and this made him more imi3atient Anne Bo- -^ ' ^ ieyn. than ever to get rid of Katherine. Wolsey, who desired him to marry a French princess, became hostile to the king's union with Anne Boleyn, and ceased trying to get the divorce from Katherine. This aroused the hatred of Anne Boleyn and all her friends, and Henry was per- suaded to depose and disgrace the chancellor. Wolsey was charged with having illegally exercised the office of Pope's legate. He appealed to the king, and gave up to him his splendid palaces and long-garnered wealth. But Henry turned a deaf ear to his once powerful counsellor. Fall of Wolsey was arrested at York, whither he had retired Wolsey. overwhelmed with grief, and was being carried to London to be tried, when he" suddenly died at Leicester. Just before he breathed his last he exclaimed, " Had I as zealously served my God as I have served the king, he would not have deserted me in my gray hairs" (1530). Henry the Eighth now openely defied the Pope, and, in spite of the Pope's refusal to grant him a divorce from Katherine, he married Anne Boleyn. He compelled a THE TRIAL OF C^UEEX KATHERIXE. — Page ibb. THE RISE OF PROTESTANTISM. 1 89 number of the English bishops to pronounce this second marriage vahd ; and, soon after, I^rUament declared that the Pope had no longer any power in England, ^he king but that the king was the sole head of the Eng- f^f J^^^ ^^ lish church. Thus began the revolt of the Eng- the church, lish from the Roman church, which resulted in the Refor- mation. But at first this revolt was confined to throwing off the Papal authority. It did not reject the doctrines of the Roman Catholic church. For a long time Henry ad- hered to the faith, and severely punished those who de- parted from it. But it so happened that Henry's resolve to marry a second time came at a period when the English people were becoming ripe for great religious changes ; and thus the king's wishes and those of his people com- bined to bring about a reformed church. For a long time the people had been disgusted with the indolence, greed, and corruption of many of the ' o ' ^ ^ The people clergy, and especially of the monks who gathered and the in the monasteries. There was a general desire ^ ^^^^' that these abuses should be reformed, that the clergy and monks should lead more simple and holy lives, and that the riches Wiich they had amassed should be used for the spiritual and intellectual benefit of the community. The introduction of printing, as a result of which books became cheap and plenty, had enlarged the intelligence i- r ji & & Increase of of the people, so that they more clearly perceived popular in- the deceptions and pretensions practised by many of the monks and priests. Learned men, like Erasmus, vSir Thomas More, and Colet, wrote books which exposed the abuses which flourished within the church. Even VVolsey had effected some reforms, by which the clergy 190 , YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. were restricted to their pious duties ; and Wolsey had also Christ aided the cause of learning by founding the col- church. iggg Qf Christ Church at Oxford, and a school at Ipswich. Not only were the people anxious that the clergy should become purer and better, but they, as well as their kings, had for many generations been restive under the powers claimed by the Popes. More than once, in this history, have we seen the English resisting the interference of the Popes in their affairs, and making laws to prevent them from doing so. When, therefore, Henry resisted the au- thority of the Pope altogether, and announced himself as the head of the church, he won the hearty support of the Parliament great mass of his subjects. Soon after his mar- annuis the j-iasfc to Aunc Bolcvu, laws were passed by Parlia- power of ^ ^ ' •* -^ the Pope in mcut which Completely did away with the Pope's England. ,.._,,,'' ^^. . , authority in England. His power to appoint the bishops and clergy of the English church was annulled ; il was enacted that no more money should be collected for him in England ; and the clergy were freed from their obli- gation to obey him. The Lollards, followers of John Wycliffe, w^ere still nu- merous in England. They had always been persecuted, ever since the time of Wycliffe himself ; but even oppres- sion had not entirelv crushed them out. They Doctrines ^ of the went fuither in their belief than those who mere- ly wished to reform the abuses of the clergy, and even than those who desired to free England from the Pope's authority ; for they rejected many of the doctrines themselves of the Roman Church. They urged that since reform had once been begun, it should extend to making religious faith more simple and more reasonable. This :"W!^ii ENTRANCE OF ANNE BOLEYN INTO LONDON. — Page 190. THE RISE OF PROTESTANTISM. IQI sect was greatly strengthened by the movement begun, just about the time of Henry's revolt from the Pope, by Martin Luther in Germany. Luther boldly attacked the Martin doctrines of the church. He and his followers Luther, "protested" against the injunction of the Diet of Speyer (1529) that mass should be said in every church; and so they came to be called " Protestants." Henry the Eighth did not at first go so far as to wish to change the doctrines of the church. Indeed he persecuted the followers of Wycliffe, and put some of them to death for heresy. The first step taken by the king and his advisers was to procure an act of Parliament which fixed the succession to the crown. Oueen Kalherine had borne to the ^ The suc- king a daughter, Mary; and Queen Anne Boleyn cession to had also now borne another daughter, Elizabeth. Both of these princesses afterwards reigned, the latter glo- riously, as queens of England. Henry resolved to ex- clude Mary from the succession, and so he caused Parlia- ment, which was always very subservient to his will, to de- clare Elizabeth his lawful heiress. Wolsey had been suc- ceeded in the king's confidence by a harsh, stern, and energetic man, Thomas Cromwell ; and Crom- Thomas well soon learned how to serve the king as effec- cromweii. tually as Wolsey had done. He not only secured the act of succession in Elizabeth's favor, but also persuaded Par- liament to pass a law which made it high treason to deny that the king was the supreme head of the English church. This law was resisted by many of the clergy, and espe- cially by the monks who were gathered in the monasteries. Cromwell dealt with the rebellious monks with ^ Severity a severe and strong hand. He caused some of against the the most obdurate to be executed. Then he pro- 192 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. cured an act which suppressed all monasteries, throughout England, whose incomes fell below two hundred pounds annually. The property of the monasteries thus sup- pressed was given over to the king, who thus became very rich. Two of the most noted and pious men in the kingdom, Bishop Fisher and Sir Thomas More, Deaths of ^7 ' , , , rr 1 i r ^ ■ 1 More and suffcrcd death on the scaffold for denymg the Fisher. i^ii-ig's supremacy over the church. Sir Thomas More had at first favored reforms in the church, but had been startled by the progress of the Reformation, and gave up his life for his loyalty to the Pope. Both of these good men died a heroic death. At a later period (1539) all the monasteries in England were suppressed by act of Henry's always obedient Parliament, and their wealth. was added to the coffers of the king. He founded a few bishoprics and schools with a portion of this wealth ; but it was mostly spent in ministering to Henry's luxuries. Some of the abbots and monks were executed, and others were exiled ; all of them, for a time, disappeared from the pub- lic view. Besides the stern Cromwell, Henry had another adviser and servant who proved quite as devoted to his wishes. This was Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterburv ; Cranmer. ^ _ ^ a man whose acts form a conspicuous part of the movement of religious reformation. He, too, had aided Henry in procuring his divorce from Katherine ; and It was he who caused the English translation of the Bible, by Tyndale, to be scattered broadcast through the' land. For a long time Tyndale's translation had been forbidden by the king and the bishops. It had Tyndale's ' ° ^ translation bccu bumcd publicly in St. Paul's, where Prot- of the Bible. ^ , , ' n i r- estants themselves were compelled to set nre to THE RISE OF PROTESTANTISM. I93 the pile of volumes. It had been denounced by friars from the altars, and bravely defended by Latimer, one of the noblest of the early Protestants, who was after- wards made Bishop of Worcester by Henry the Eighth, but later suffered for his faith at the stake. Tyndale, too, the translator of the Bible, suffered for his faith and deeds on the scaffold. But under the influence of Cranmer the king gradually came to approve, not only of reforms in the church and the suppression of the Pope's authority in Eng- TheBngush land, but also of chano-es of doctrine. An Eng- ^'^^^ ^^^^ ' C" ® in the lish Bible was placed in every English church churches. (1539). The convocation of the clergy adopted ten arti- cles of religion, which nearly conformed to the teachings of Luther. Certain religious festivals were abolished, images were suppressed, and the shrines of saints done away with. Henry even declared that Thomas a Becket had been a traitor, and commanded that that saint's tomb at Canterbury should be demolished, and that his bones should be removed. The king at one time began to fear that he was goins: too far, and took some back- =' ^ ' _ Henry ward steps. He caused Parliament to adopt six takes back- .,,.., . , T-> ward steps. articles, directed agamst the more extreme Prot- estants, forbidding priests to marry, and re-establishing confession. Those who refused to submit to these articles were executed. But, in the end, Cranmer's influence pre- vailed, and the party which desired a reform of doctrine came into the ascendant. Cranmer was aided in his effort to reform the doctrines of the church, in the latter part of Henry's reign, by a statesman of great ability. This was the Earl of Hertford, who afterward became Duke of Somerset, and is famous in 194 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. history as the "Protector Somerset." Between them these two had pretty much their own way with the king. Henry had caused his second wife, Anne Bolevn, to be The Protec- ' ^ ' torsomer- bchcadcd, profcssiug that he suspected her of unfaitlifuhiess. Cromwell had then arranged his marriage with Anne of Cleves, a German princess, who proved so distasteful to Henry that he soon got a divorce from her. Henry's fourth wife was Jane Seymour, who was a sister of the Earl of Hertford, and whose marriage enabled Hertford to rise to power. Jane Seymour died in giving birth to a son, who afterwards reigned as Edward the Sixth. So angry was Henry with Cromwell for bring- ing about his marriage with Anne of Cleves, that, on the Fall of charge that he had deceived him, he caused Cromwell. Cromwcll to bc put to death. So it was that Cromwell, great, powerful, and obedient as he had been, fell, as Wolsey had fallen before him. 1 CHAPTER XXXII. THE PROTECTOR SOMERSET. THE reign of Henry the Eighth was for the most part taken up with rehgious struggles and changes. He w^as a very ambitious monarch ; yet his rule was marked by no long conflict, either civil or foreign. He had brief wars with Scotland and France, and Features of took Boulogne from the French; but he won the reign of 1 . „,, ^ ^ ^. Henry VIi:. no glory as a warrior. 1 here was, too, at tunes, more or less internal discontent. Revolts took place, one led by the York party, who desired to dethrone Henry, and -others instigated by abbots and priests. But these risings were in every case suppressed with an iron hand. The birth of a son to Henry (1537) firmly fixed the Tudor dynasty on the throne, and for the last ten years of his life Henry was more powerful than any English king had ever been. He married as his fifth wife Katherine Howard, a niece of the Duke of Norfolk (1C40). But ^ -'^ ^ Birth of an she suffered the fate of Anne Boleyn, and was heir to the executed, the year after her marriage, for incon- stancy. Henry the Eighth married for his sixth and last wife Katherine Parr, who survived him. Katherine Parr befriended the Protestants, and it was after her marriage with Henry that the Litany and English prayers were for the first time used in the churches. 195 196 ^ YOUNG PEOPLE-S ENGLAND. Henty the Eighth died (1547) after a reign of thirty- eight years. Cruel and despotic, he yet used his power to make England strong abroad, united and prosperous at Death of home. His share in bringing about the reforma- Henry VIII. j-jq^-, ^^,^g ^q doubt prompted by selfish motives ; still it was under him that Protestantism took such root in England that it could never afterwards be torn out. Henry completely ruled his Parliaments, which submis- sively passed the laws he dictated. In his dealings with the people he was often harsh and overbearing. But his robust and wilful character enabled him to retain the re- spect of his subjects throughout his reign. Henry lived in great splendor and luxury, and kept up the state which he thought befitting a powerful sovereign. Edward the Sixth, who succeeded to the throne, was a child of nine years. The kingdom was therefore governed for a while by a council of regency, composed of "^^^ ' sixteen noblemen, at the head of whom was the Earl of Hertford, or, as he had now become, the Duke of Somerset. Somerset was the brother of Queen Jane Sey- mour, and was therefore young Edward's uncle. He was Government ^ ^^^^^^ o^ such forcc and ability that he soon of Somerset. ^qq|, j-|-jg ^yholc power of the government into his own hands. He caused himself to be proclaimed " Protector of the realm," and the other members of the council became wholly subject to his will. Abetted by Cranmer, Somerset went very much further in making changes in the doctrines and practices of the church than Henry the Eighth had done. He was harsh and intolerant towards those who still clung to the old belief, of whom there was still a very great number, especially in the inte- rior of England. Those who would not accept the new THE PROTECTOR SOMERSET. IQ/ creed were persecuted, and even sometimes burned ; while Roman Catholic bishops, Hke Gardiner and Bonner, were thrown into prison for refusing to adopt the reformed re- ligion. The principal changes made by Somerset and Cranmer were that the English instead of the Latin language was used in church services : images, pictures, and ' & ' r- ' Tjie church Other symbols were for the most part removed reforms of from the churches ; worship of the Virgin and and'cTan- of the saints was forbidden ; confession of sins °^®^- ceased to be obligatory, though the people might still con- fess if they wished ; the doctrine of transubstantiation w^as struck out of the creed ; and the priests were allowed to marry. Thus some of the most vital points in the Ro- man Catholic doctrines were altered. The English prayer- book was also adopted. In many parts of the country the people rebelled against its use, but it was welcomed by the population of the larger cities and towns. The rash- ness, severity, and even cruelty with which the cruelties Protector and Cranmer enforced these changes ^p^n^the provoked a revolt in western England, which catholics, threatened to grow into dangerous proportions. Thou- sands of Cornish and Devon men, led by priests, banded together to resist the decrees of Somerset. An army was sent to put them down, and several hotly contested bat- tles ensued. At last the insurgents were overcome, and their leaders were executed (1549). About the same time Somerset had to deal with another revolt which broke out in the eastern counties, ^ ,^ Revolt from an entirely different cause. The owners of a-aiust 1 r -r-. t 1 1 1 • landlords. large estates in that part of England had got into the habit of enclosing the commons which, for a long pe- 198 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. riod, had been freely used by the people for their general use and recreation. These open spaces were fenced in by the land-owners, and cultivated for their own profit; and thus many poor people lost their means of living. Other land-owners, by turning their ploughed lands into sheep pastures, had deprived many laborers of work. Great distress followed these acts in the eastern districts ; and the people finally rose in revolt. The insurgents took and Taki-gof held Norwich, the principal town of the eastern Norwich. shorcs. Somerset hired some German troops, and these, with his English soldiers, engaged in an obsti- nate conflict with the rebels. It was only after ten thou- sand rebels had been slain, and desolation had been spread over a wide tract of country, that the rebellion was subdued, and its leaders were seized and hanged. The harshness with which Somerset treated the Scots revived all the old animosities between that people and the English. Henry the Eighth had done his best to keep on ofood terms with the Scots, so as to prevent Relations ^ , , ^ With Scot- them from allying themselves with France. He had not wholly succeeded, for James the Fifth of Scotland had married a French princess, had formed an alliance with the French kins:, and had even invaded Eno^- land with a considerable army. Defeated on the banks of the Solway, King James had suddenly died of grief. Henry had wished that Mary, the daughter of James, afterwards famous as Mary Queen of Scots, should wed his own heir, young Edward ; but died before he could put this plan into execution. Somerset rashly reversed the policy of seeking Religious friendship with the Scots. The Reformation **!^*l^''^'°''^ had made headway in Scotland as well as in 01 the ^ Scots. England. The Scottish lords and people were THE PROTECTOR SOMERSET. I99 divided into bitter factions, tlie one Catholic and the other. Protestant ; and fierce dissensions soon arose between them. Cardinal Beaton, who was conducting the Scottish government, was killed by the Protestants in the Castle of St. Andrews, because he had ordered a Protestant minister to be burned. Somerset, while he did not aid the Scottish Protestants with soldiers, encouraged their warfare upon the Catholics. France, on the other hand, sent some troops to aid the Catholics, and these French troops succeeded in taking the Castle of St. Andrews from its Protestant captors. Then Somerset in turn invaded Scotland with Somerset his army, defeated the Scots near Edinburgh, invades and plundered and burned the villages round about, committing many acts of barbarous cruelty. But he returned to England without having achieved his main end, which was to force Mary to wed young King Edward. Not long afterwards Mary went to France, where she was betrothed to the French Dauphin, whom she afterwards married. After Somerset's invasion, the Scots became more devoted friends of France than ever. Somerset was an able man, and was no doubt sincere in his religious faith and zeal. But for many reasons he had somerset's become very unpopular. He had been cruel in ''"^®- his methods, had made enemies of the Scots, had lived in great pomp and ostentation, and had shocked the coun- try by consigning his own brother. Lord Seymour, to the block. It is no wonder that he was overthrown as soon as a powerful rival rose to assail him. This powerful rival was John Dudley, Earl of Warwick, who afterwards became Duke of Northumberland. War- wick managed to win a majority of the council of regency 200 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND^ away from Somerset ; and the Protector was forced to resio^n his office, to which Warwick succeeded. John Dud- ^ ° ' ley. Earl of Three years after (1551), Somerset was behead- arwic . ^^^ ^^^ ^ charge of felony. Warwick's rule was quite as bad as that of Somerset had been. He was cold and selfish, and cared more for his own power than for the well-being of England. He had an unsuccessful war with France, as a result of which he surrendered Boulogne. Yet he managed to retain for a while a firm grasp upon authority. He soon began to plot to alter the succession to the throne. The health of the young king, The disputed Edward the Sixth, wrs failing rapidly. It was succession. Joubtful which of his sisters, Mary or Elizabeth, would secure the throne after his death. Each had her fervent partisans. Warwick resolved that, if possible, they should both be excluded from the succession. Edward the Sixth was a prince of fine intellect, of vir- tuous character, and strong, generous impulses. He was a very ardent scholar and lover of books. He was deep- ly religious, and a zealous Protestant. But his health was delicate, and he was easily persuaded by the strong- willed Warwick. The result of Warwick's persuasions was that Edward set down in his will that Lady Jane Grey should be his successor on the throne. Lady Edward changesthe Janc Grcy was the grand-daughter of the young- succession. ^^^ ^j^^jghter (Mar)') of King Henry the Seventh. Her claim to the throne w-as therefore remote. Even if Mary and Elizabeth, the daughters of Henry the Eighth, were both set aside, the next heir, by hereditary right, was Mary Queen of Scots, who was descended from the eldest daughter (Margaret) of Henry the Seventh. But Warwick, who had now became Duke of Northumberland, had two THE PROTECTOR SOMERSET. 201 reasons for insisting upon Lady Jane Grey as Edward's heir. Slie was a very earnest Protestant ; and L^dy jane she was the wife of Northumberland's son. °''®y- Northumberland thought that, by raising her to the throne, his own power would become thoroughly established. The act of Edward the Sixth in altering the line of succession was illegal, since it had not the sanction of Parliament, which had been accorded to his father's will. Yet when Edward died (1553), Northumberland made a desperate attempt to seat Lady Jane upon the throne. She was a young lady of rare beauty and accomplishments, and seems to have shrunk from the perilous destiny which her father-in-law sought to obtain for her. struggle for Northumberland attempted to seize the princess *^® t^^rone. Mary, Henry the Eighth's eldest daughter; but she escaped from his clutches, and rallied her adherents around her at Cambridge. She was as devoted a Catholic as Lady Jane was a Prorestant. The Catholic party therefore promptly hastened to Mary's standard. But many others, who hated Northumberland, also came to the princess's aid ; and ere long the Protector found himself almost deserted. He then turned round and submitted, and even proclaimed Mary as queen in his own camp. But he was Marys seized, and was soon after tried for high treason t"umph. and beheaded. His son. Lord Guildford Dudley, and Lady Jane Grey, Lord Guildford's wife, were incarcerated n the Tower of London ; and Mary ascended the throne unopposed. / CHAPTER XXXIII. QUEEN MARY. QUEEN MARY was the daughter of Katherine of Arragon, the Spanish princess who was Henry the Eighth's first wife, and from whom he was divorced. Like Character ^^r mother, Mary was a very earnest Catholic, of Mary. ^^^ ^^^^ Sufferings of her mother and herself only bound her more closely to her faith, and increased her attachment to Spain, the land of her mother's ancestors. Mary was plain in person, was not gifted in intellect, and was gloomy in disposition and frail in health. She was undoubtedly an honest and sincere woman, and in all the cruel acts she caused to be committed she believed her- self to be doing right and serving God. Her accession to Return of the throuc (1553) was the signal for a return of the catho- j^j-jg Catholics to power, and for an attempt to lies to pOAV- '^ ' ^ er. undo the work of the Reformation and restore the ancient faith. At this time it is probable that a large majority of the English people were still Catholics at heart. The persecutions of Henry and Somerset were remem- bered with deep bitterness; and the severity with which the Reformation had been forced upon the nation caused great numbers of the people to hail Mary's accession with plea- sure and relief. QLTEEN MARY. — Page 202. QUEEN MARY. 203 When she found herself armed with royal powers Mary- began at once to set about the task of bringing back Catholic ascendancy. She ordered the two Catholic bish- ops, Gardiner and Bonner, to be released from Gardiner the Tower, and restored to their sees. In their ^'^'^ Bonner released places, Cranmer, Latimer, and Ridley, the Protes- from the tant bishops, were arrested and imnrisoned. The °^^''' English prayer-book was replaced in the churches by the old Latin forms. Lady Jane Grey and her husband were tried on a charge of high treason, and in the following year were beheaded. In a little time Mary had re-estab- lished the Catholic form of worship throughout England. Her next step was to contract a marriage which she fondly hoped would strengthen her position as a Catholic sove- reign, as well as add to England's power among the nations Her chosen husband was Philip, the heir to the Phuip of Spanish crown, to which he soon after succeeded. spam. Her subjects were very hostile to this marriage. They did not wish a foreigner to be their king, and they feared that Philip would come and reign in England. Even the Catholic advisers of Mary sought to dissuade her, and to prevail on her to marry an English nobleman. But Mary had all the stubbornness of will which was a family trait of the Tudors. Aside from her belief that a marriage with Philip would be wise as a public measure, she was really in love with him. When it became known that she was not to be moved from her purpose, there ensued a profound agitation among the people. There were risings of the Protestants in various parts of southern England. In Kent a gentleman of rank, Sir Thomas Wy- Revolt of att, headed a revolt which soon attracted a large wyatt. body of men, at the head of whom he marched on London. 204 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. Mary now showed all the high spirit of her kingly race. She summoned the Londoners to her defence, and Wyatt entered the capital only to be utterly routed, taken pris- oner, and, with his lieutenants, promptly put to death. Five months later Philip arrived in England and Marriage of _ . . Mary and married the queen. This marriage, besides be- ^ ^^' ing entirely distasteful to the English, turned out to be a most unhappy one for Mary herself. Philip dis- liked and neglected her, and in spite of her eager plead- ing did not even consent to live with her in England, He went off to his wars, and left her to bitterly bewail her un- returned affection. Mary had restored the Catholic service and practices in the English churches. She now resolutely advanced one step further, and restored the authority of the Pope in En2;land. The Pope, with this end in view, sent The Pope's ^ ^ . ' authority the English Cardinal Pole, a cousin of the queen, to London as his legate. Both Houses of Par- liament joined with Mary in an act of solemn submission and homage to the Pope's representative. Queen, lords, and commons knelt at the feet of the cardinal, who grant- ed them absolution for past heresy. All the laws which had been enacted against the Papal authority were re- pealed ; while those which had in former reigns been directed against the Lollards were not only revived, but An era of P^t iuto vigorous usc. Then began an era of bit- persecution. ^gj. persccution. Mary caught the spirit of the cruel Spanish Inquisition, and by her command Protes- tants were seized, tried by the bishops, and tortured and burned. For three years these cruelties continued almost without cessation. The Protestants could now only wor- ship after their own way of belief in secret, and in peril of QUEEN MARY. 205 their lives. The English Bible was read in out-of-the-way places, in fear and trembling. Finally it came the turn of Latimer, Ridlef}^, and Cran- mer, the three great leaders of the Protestant cause and faith, to suffer for their share in furthering the Reformation. Latimer and Ridley were burned at the stake, side by side, at Oxford. As the fire mounted and tant mar- wrapped about their bodies, Latimer exclaimed to *^'"^" his fellow-martyr, " Be of good cheer, Master Ridley, and play the man. For we shall this day light such a candle in England, by God's grace, as I trust shall never be put out." At the prospect of death, Cranmer for a time fal- tered in his courage. He wrote a recantation of what he had taught, in the hope that he would thereby be spared. But when he found that, after all, he too would be led to the stake, his courage returned to him, and he solemnly reaffirmed his belief in the Protestant faith, cranmer-s When he was tied to the stake he loudly called courage, upon the people to witness that he died firm in that faith ; and added, " Forasmuch as my right hand offended, writing contrary to my heart, my hand shall first be punished therefor, for when I come to the fire it shall first be burned." He then held his right hand steadily in the mounting flames, until it had been consumed. So Cran- mer died bravely at last. Even when the bishops got tired of persecuting, Mary sternly commanded them to continue ; and it was thus that she received the name of " Bloody Mary." ^ Mary at- She even tried to restore to the church and the tempts to monasteries the lands and other property which chm°ch had been taken from them in the reign of her ^^^^s- father, but did not wholly succeed in this. The monks 206 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. and friars, however, reappeared, and in many cases returned to their former habitations. The last year of Mary's later trou- M^ry's reign was full of trouble and disaster to her. Her neglectful husband, Philip of Spain, in- volved England in a war with France, as a result of v^hich the English lost the town of Calais, their last remaining possession on French territory. This so deeply grieved the unhappy queen that she exclaimed, "When I am dead, Calais will be found written upon my heart." The Pope had taken the part of France in the war, and this added to the weight of Mary's sorrows, though it did not lessen her zeal in persecuting the Protestants. She had grown to be thoroughly detested by her subjects, and her last days were passed in loneliness and gloom. The nation which Death of ^ad wclcomcd her advent to the throne, in the Mary. hope of pcacc and prosperity, as eagerly wel- comed her death, which occurred after a brief reign of six years (1559)- Mary was succeeded by her younger half-sister, Eliza- beth, the daughter of Henry the Eighth by his second wife, Anne Boleyn. Elizabeth ascended the throne with- out opposition from any quarter. At the time of her ac- character ccssiou shc was twenty-fivc years of age. She ofEiizabeth. |-,.^^| \oug bccu a favorltc of the English people. Her sister Mary had persecuted and ill-treated her, had at one time kept her a prisoner, and had even contemplated putting her to death. This was because Mary felt outraged by her father's marriage with Anne Boleyn after putting aside her own mother, and also because Elizabeth was a Protestant and represented the Protestant cause. Mary feared, and perhaps believed, that Elizabeth conspired to deprive her of the throne. Yet, with all her cruelty QUEEN MARY. 20/ towards the Protestants, Mary had a kindly heart ; and her sisterly affection for Elizabeth prevented her from taking extreme measures against the young princess. Elizabeth herself, throughout Mary's reign, conducted herself with great prudence and tact. Already, in her vouth, she showed those rare qualities of judg- ' n J & Elizabeth's ment which were afterwards to serve England so caution and well. She was somewhat giddy and vain, but in politics she never allowed herself to pass the bounds of caution. When she came to the throne, the event was wel- comed with rejoicing throughout the land. At this time Elizabeth was good-looking, and possessed many personal accomplishments. Tall and stately in form, with rich au- burn hair, bright blue eyes, and aquiline nose, she appeared to her people every inch a queen. She had a Kuzabeth's quick, keen intellect, and was a remarkable learning, scholar for her times. She knew Greek, Latin, French, and Spanish, and ardently loved poetry and music. Like her father, whom she in many ways resembled, Elizabeth was fond of pomp and display, of splendid costumes, and of all the magnificence of royal state. On the other hand, Elizabeth had grave faults. She was capricious, deceitful, was not always true to her friends, and was weakly sus- ceptible to the flattery of her courtiers. CHAPTER XXXIV. THE MAIDEN QUEEN. THE reign of Queen Elizabeth was in many respects the most brilliant and glorious in English history. It covered a period of forty-four years. During its course A brilliant England rapidly increased in power, intelligence, reign. ^j^^ wealth. Flourishing colonies were founded; the arts and industries made rapid advances; English lit- erature reached the greatest height it had ever attained ; and England became the undisputed mistress of the seas. At the same time, although Elizabeth was resolutely des- potic, the people grew in political intelligence, and the powers of Parliament, while seldom invoked against the Religious queen, were well maintained. The early years changes. q£ Elizabeth's rule were taken up with religious changes. Mary's work in restoring Catholicism and the au:hority of the Pope was undone ; not violently, but slowly and cautiously. Elizabeth was a Protestant, but, like her father, she supported and established Protes- tantism rather from political motives than from religious zeal. Elizabeth aimed, not at suppressing all the practices of the Catholic church, but at forming a Church of England, The Church which should unite the great body of the people of England. -^.^ ^^^g rcligious crccd. She was certainly re- 208 THE MAIDEN QUEEN. 2O9 solved that she, and not the Pope, should be the head of the church. At the same time she believed in preserving many of the observances and customs to which her people had always been accustomed. On the one hand were the Catholics, who desired their faith to be maintained in all respects. On the other were the extreme Protestants, who came to be known as " Puritans," and who desired to sweep away every vestige of Catholicism, and establish a severe and simple religious service. Between these two extremes was the great mass of moderate-minded people ; and It was these whom Elizabeth desired to unite in a na- tional church. In making the religious changes upon which she had determined, Elizabeth showed herself to be wise, politic, and shrewd. She wished to remain at peace Eiizabeth-s with France and Spain, both of which were "moderation. Catholic powers , and she wished to avoid alienating the Catholic party in England. Gradually, however, the Eng- lish Bible and prayer-book, to which were added the lit- any and creed, were used again in the churches; while many of the symbols of the old faith, such as crucifixes, candles, and priestly robes, were retained. Solemn and stately ceremonies were still kept up ; the mass was said ; and priests were forbidden to marry unless they obtained the queen's consent. Parliament declared the supremacy queen to be supreme over the church, and the °^ ^'^^ . revenues which had been restored by Mary to the church, the monasteries and bishops, were taken from them and returned to the royal treasury. A body of commissioners was appointed to reorganize the church according to the plan adopted by Elizabeth ; and all the priests and bish- ops were obliged, before entering upon their functions, to 210 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. take an oath acknowledging the queen to be the head of the church. Then 'Elizabeth and her Parliament advanced a step further. A law was passed compelling the people to go regularly to church, and to use the English prayer-book Use of the i'^ their devotions. The new i\rchbishop of Can- prayer-book. terbury, Mathew Parker, was a morlerate Prot- estant, and cordially aided the queen in her policy ^ and there were many bishops and priests who readily fell in \vith it. There were others, however, who desired to imi- tate the persecutions and cruelties of the preceding reign, and to punish the Catholics and Puritans who did not ac- Treatment ^^P^ ^^^ ^icw ordcr of thiugs. Puritau preachers of Puritans, ^ygj-g tumcd out of their parishes, and in some cases were cast into prison for refusing to obey the new laws. But men were not put to death for their faith's sake. It was only when those who were hostile to the new church also conspired against the throne, that they were led to the scaffold. The same religious discords and troubles which existed in England, prevailed also in the other European countries. In Spain the horrors of the Inquisition had Religious discord in long bccn practised; and Philip of Spain wrs Europe. ^^^^ ^^^ head of the Catholic party of Europe. He was engaged in trying to put down the revolt in 'the Netherlands, where the Protestants especially had risen against the cruel rule of the Spaniards ; and he desired to wed Elizabeth, so as to finally add England to his Philip re- jo jected by dominious. Elizabeth, however, not only refused her hand to Philip, who had married and then neglected her sister Mary, but she gave some ^id to the Netherlands in their struggle against Philip's tyranny, The THE MAIDEN QUEEN. 211 breach thus caused between Elizabeth and Philip resulted later in one of the most brilliant events in English history — the invasion and defeat of the Spanish Armada; of which we shall soon hear. In France and Scotland, too, the strife between the churches became bitter and even bloody. These two na- tions were still, as they had long been, in alliance against England. Mary, the young Queen of Scots, was the wife of the heir of the French king ; and she Queen of also laid claim to the English throne, ,as the i- descendant of Henry the Seventh's daughter Margaret. Mary's party declared that Elizabeth was not entitled to the throne, on the ground that the marriage of her mother with Henry the Eighth had not been legal. Many Eng- lish Catholics supported Mary's claim, and many plots were formed to get rid of Elizabeth, and elevate Mary in her place. In Scotland the nobles and people were sharply divided between the Protestants diviS^ons^n and the Catholics. At the head of the reformers Scotland, was the stern and resolute John Knox, who had been a prisoner in France, and had returned to Scotland to preach and teach the Puritan faith. Knox boldly denounced the frivolities and vanities of the Scottish court, and waged a fierce warfare with the Catholics who rallied to Mary's support. A certain num- ber of the Scottish lords bound themselves by a solemn covenant to defend Knox and the other Puritan preachers They seized Edinburgh, and appealed to Eliza- Ascendancy beth for aid in their conflict with the Catholics. °^ *^® ®''°*- tish Protes- The Protestant party in Scotland at last pre- tants. vailed. Puritanism became the religion of the kingdom, and the Scottish alliance with France was broken off. 212 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. Mary, who was all this while in France, refused to accept this settlement of the religious question. Her husband, Francis II., had succeeded to the French throne, but soon after died (1560). Then Mary returned to Scotland and assumed the governmenr of her realm. At first, being wisely counselled by her half-brother, the Earl of Murray, she treated the Protestants in a friendly spirit, and they, in their turn, did not resist her rule. But after a few years Mary's conduct aroused anew a fierce spirit of resistance to her, which in the end drove her from the kinirdom. Marv Queen of Scots Mary's ° . ^ beauty and was Celebrated far and wide for her radiant per- sonal beauty, the exceeding charm of her man- ner, and for her gaiety and love of pleasure. She seemed to fascinate every one who came near her, except the stern Puritan preachers. A lovely and attractive widow of nine- teen, with a crown as her dower, she was eagerly sought in marriage. She finally bestowed her hand upon her cousin, Lord Darnley, who, like herself, was a descendant of the English Henry the Seventh. By this marriage Mary thought that she strengthened her own claim to the Eng- lish throne. It proved, however, a most unfortunate union. Death of Darnley became jealous of the queen's favorite, Darnley. Rizzio, and causcd him to be murdered. About a year afterward Darnley himself was killed, the house in which he was staying being blown up with gunpowder. Rightly or wrongly, Mary was suspected of having con- nived at this crime. Two months after the death of her second husband, Mary married a powerful Scottish nobleman, the Earl of Bothwell, who w^as also suspected of having been concerned in Darnley's death, and who had put away his wife in order CAPTURE OF MARY QIJEEX OI' SCOTS. — Page 21.^. THE MAIDEN QUEEN. 213 to wed the queen. This marriage aroused a storm of in- dignation throughout Scotland, and Bothwell was forced to flee from the country. He escaped from his angry ene- mies : but Mary was captured and incarcerated •' Mary takes in the Castle of Loch Leven. She succeeded, refuge in however, in making her escape ; but her adher- '^^ ^" ents being defeated in the battle of Langside, she fied to England, and threw herself upon Elizabeth's protection (1568). Elizabeth treated her cousin as a prisoner, and never allowed her to go free again. The presence of Mary in England was a constant danger to Elizabeth. The English Catholics looked upon the Scottish queen as. a martyr, and many of tlum believed that she had a right to the English throne. Hence arose conspiracies, not only to dethrone Elizabeth, but to murder her. The first of these attempts to get rid of the queen was made by the northern earls of Northumberland and West- moreland, whose rising, however, was speedily subdued by the Earl of Warwick. Then an Italian named Ridolfi concocted a scheme for marrying Mary against Queen of Scots to the Catholic Duke of Norfolk ; but this, too, miserably failed. Twelve years later a Cath- olic gentleman, Throgmorton, made a deep-laid plot to murder Elizabeth, and in this plot it was said that the Spanish ambassador was concerned. But Throgmorton, too, was seized and speedily executed. The enemies of Elizabeth were not easily discouraged. Three years after Throgmorton's failure, a number of young Catholic gentle- men, led by Anthony Babington, combined to Babington's take the queen's life. Their letters were inter- conspiracy, cepted, and it was found that they were in communication with the imprisoned Mary Queen of Scots. 214 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. At last the conspirators were arrested, and Mary herself was put on trial for plotting against the life of Elizabeth. Mary eagerly denied that she had been concerned in the attempt ; but aside from the fact that the proofs of her guilt seemed strong, Elizabeth's advisers were resolved to get rid forever of so dangerous a claimant to the throne. Mary was adjudged guilty. But now Elizabeth shrank Execution f^om putting her cousin to death. Mary had Qu^e^n"'L'f sought rcfugc at her court, and there were ties Scots. Qf blood between them. Elizabeth, though often arbitrary and capricious, was not cruel by nature. At last she was persuaded to sign Mary's death war- rant; and the fair Queen of Scots met her fate with the courage and dignity of a heroine. Elizabeth repented the execution as soon as it had taken place ; and rather meanly charged it upon her advisers, saying that when she signed the warrant she did not intend that the penalty should be inflicted. (1587). Mary's death put an end to the trouble as to the posses- sion of, and succession to, the throne. She left an only James soH, Jauics, who at the time of her death was Stuart. l^ing of Scotland, and was now the undoubted heir of Elizabeth. As James had been reared as a Prot- estant the Catholics did not care to try to place hrni on the throne, as they had done in the case of his Catholic mother. But the troubles which Mary's presence in England had for many years created were not the only ones which beset Elizabeth's reign. The religious con- flict still went on with almost unabated bitterness. The Pope excommunicated Elizabeth, and in many ways en- couraged the English Catholics to oppose her. The ruling Protestants retorted by making more stringent laws I I THE MAIDEN QUEEN. 215 against Catholicism, declaring it treason to question the queen's supremacy, and holding the clergy to a , ' r 1 11- ■, Severe laws strict observance ot the new church services and against the rules. The French and Spaniards were always ^^*^°"^«- seeking to stir up religious discord in England, and this served to draw the English together, and to induce them the more readily to receive the new religious settlement. The enemies of Elizabeth did not confine their attempts against her to England. They also stirred up several re- volts in Ireland. The Irish had always been Revolts m steadily hostile to English rule ; and the English ^'•eiand. power was by no means complete over the subject isle. Elizabeth ruled the Irish with great severity and cruelty, as most of her predecessors had done before her. So the Irish were easily incited to rebel against her authority. Several risings took place (1565-79), in the last of which the Irish were aided by Spanish and power in Italian troops: but in each case they were sub- i'^^^^'^'* i ' -' restored. dued by the superior prowess of the English arms. Elizabeth finally asserted her power throughout Ireland. But a greater struggle, with a far mightier foe, was now at hand, to meet whom required all the resources and energies of the proud queen and her realm. CHAPTER XXXV. THE DEFEAT OF SPAIN. THROUGHOUT Elizabeth's reign the Spanish king, Philip the Second, had been either actively or passively- hostile to England. His pride had been deeply wounded at Philip of Elizabeth's refusal to marry him. Besides, he was Spain. ^i^g champion of the Catholic cause in Europe, and hence was bound to oppose Protestantism wherever it had become strong ; and he recognized in England the most powerful of Protestant nations. Nor were these the only reasons for Philip's enmity. England had now^ be- come Spain's rival on the sea. A race of great English sailors and buccaneers had come up, who roved over the Great Eng- occaus, and oftcu did great damage to the Span- lish sailors. jg|-^ fleg^s and gallcous. Among them were the bold Sir Francis Drake, who was the first Englishman who sailed completely round the world ; Sir John Hawkins, Martin Frobisher, and the courtly and adventurous Sir Walter Raleigh. England, by her prowess on the sea, had become Spain's rival in making distant conquests and founding remote Distant colouics ; and the proud Spaniards therefore and'^coio*^ looked upou England with redoubled jealousy nies. and hatred. Philip had for some time been en- gaged in quelling a rebellion in his dominion of the Nether- 216 THE DEFEAT OF SPAIN. 21/ lands, and Elizabeth had in some ways lent aid and com- fort to these rebellious subjects of his. She had sent a small army under her favorite, the Earl of Leicester, to the Netherlands, but it did not perform any notable ex- ploits. It was during this expedition that the noble and gallant Sir Philip Sidney was killed. Lying mor- Death of tally wounded on the battlefield. Sir Philip was ^'^^^y- about to drink a cup of water. Seeing, however, a poor stricken soldier lying near him, parched with thirst, he gave him the water, saying, " Thy need is greater than mine." At last Philip, exasperated by the depredations of Drake, Hawkins, and Raleigh on the sea, and by the aid sent to the Netherlands, resolved to undertake the invasion of England. He had a very fine army in the Netherlands, commanded by the Prince of Parma, one of the foremost generals of the age. He had also a powerful fleet, which he had taken years to build and get ready for Phmp-s action. With these, the haughty Philip did not ^®^*- doubt that he could invade and conquer the English. But happily England had in Elizabeth a ruler of stout heart and ardent love of country. It was fortunate for Elizabeth, too, that she had at her service so many able generals and brilliant admirals, the latter of whom, at least, were unrivalled in genius and experience throughout the world. She possessed another great advantage in the rare wisdom of her advisers. A o;roup of pru- * '^ ^ Elizabeth's dent, far-seeing, and devoted statesmen sur- wiseadvis- rounded her throne from the besinninof to the ers. & end of her lons^ reis^n. The most famous of them were Lord Burleigh, Sir Francis Walsingham, and, later in her reign, Lord Bacon and Sir Robert Cecil. 2l8 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. While Philip was getting ready to invade England, an English fleet, under the intrepid Drake, suddenly entered Cadiz harbor, attacked the Spanish ships anchored there, destroyed forty of them, and retired again to England in safety (1587). This blow delayed Philip's enterprise for a year. But late in the following spring (1588) Philip's great fleet, consisting of one hundred and thirty war-ships, ^ and boastfully called "the Invincible Armada," Sailing of _ -^ _ _ ' the Arma- set Sail for the English waters. A Spanish army under Parma meanwhile was assembled at Dun- kirk. Philip's plan was that the Armada should go to Dunkirk, take Parma's army on board, and land it on the English coast. The Armada had twenty five hundred cannon, and the captains of the ships were picked from the flower of the Spanish navy. As soon as it became known in England that the Ar- mada had set sail, the fervent patriotic spirit of the coun- trv, led and inspired by the dauntless queen herself, was Elizabeth instantly aroused. Elizabeth made ready to prepares to YYieet hcr aucicnt foe with unquailino; heart. meet the ^ invasion. Her fleet was small and weak. She asked the city of London to give her fifteen ships and five thou- sand men. The city, in reply, promptly agreed to fit out thirty ships and to furnish ten thousand men. But after all was done, the English fleet only comprised eighty ves- sels all told, the largest of which was scarcely larger than the smallest of the ships in the Armada. The command of the fleet was given to Lord Howard of Effingham. Under him, as captains, were Drake, Hawkins, and Fro- bisher. The fleet assembled at Plymouth, on the English Channel, to await the approach of the Armada. Mean- while the queen quickly assembled her army, which had THE DEFEAT OF SPAIN. 219 been raised with marvellous rapidity, at Tilbury ; and she herself appeared among her soldiers, arousing Elizabeth their ardor to the highest pitch. "I have," ^t Tiibury. she exclaimed, "but the body of a woman. But I have the heart of a king, and of a king of England, too ; and think foul scorn that Parma, or Spain, or any prince of Europe should dare to invade the borders of my realms ! " When the Armada sailed into the Channel (July 21, 1588) the English fleet waited in Plymouth harbor until it e:ot by. Then Howard and Drake sallied forth and assailed the big Spanish galleons in the da in the rear. At the same time numberless small craft ^^^^ ' issued in swarms from the English harbors along the channel, and joined the fleet in harassing the enemy. This continued for several days. The Armada cast anchor off Calais, in order to effect a junction wath the army under Parma. But Parma's troops, held in check by an English squadron off the Netherlands coast, failed to make their appearance. The English continued to assail the great Spanish ships ; and one night Howard caused six of his old vessels to be filled with combustible matter, set on fire, and driven into the midst of the enemy's fleet. T^e English This caused the greatest confusion to the Armada, ^-t*^*^^- The cables of the galleons were cut in haste, and the ships were forced to retreat out of Calais harbor, re. lentlessly followed up and fired into all the while by the English craft.^ The Spaniards were now forced to give up the project of invading England, and could only try to get back home in safety. As they fled northward, the ships of the Armada were scattered here and there, and met with nothing 220 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. but disaster. They were assailed by furious gales, and many of them were wrecked on the Scottish and Irish tureofthe coasts. Of the ouc hundred and thirty noble Armada. yggseig which had proudly set sail from Spain, only fifty-three returned to tell the tale of their complete discomfiture. The defeat and destruction of the Armada was a most important event and turning-point in English history. It put an end to all further danger from Philip and the Spaniards. It established England's supremacy on the high seas. It raised Elizabeth's power at home and influence abroad to a great height. It made the Pro- testant party in England stronger than ever. The English Results of Catholics, indeed, had shown themselves as the defeat patriotic and as eager to aid the queen in of the ^ ° ^ Spaniards, repelling the Spaniards as the Protestants ; and after the splendid victory over the Armada, the English people were far more united than before. This event, indeed, may be said to have changed the whole course of the world's civilization. One of its indirect results was to make North America the possession of the English in- stead of that of the Spaniards. But for the defeat of the Armada, the Pilgrims might never have landed at Plymouth, nor John Smith at Jamestown. For eight years after the defeat of the Armada, England and Spain were at peace with each other. Lord Bur- A period of l^igh, Elizabeth's oldest and wisest counsellor, peace. ^^^^ opposcd to the Continuation of the war, and for a long time his counsels prevailed. But gradually the older statesmen were passing away, and a race of younger statesmen, who were enterprising and fond of warfare, were gathering about the queen. Of these younger men, the most conspicuous was the Earl of Essex, who was THE DEFEAT OF SPAIN. 221 impulsive, generous, liandsome, and cliivalrous. Eliz- abeth's favorite courtier, the Earl of Leicester, The Eari of died soon after the victory over Spain ; and ^^sex. ere very long Essex became her favorite in Leicester's place. Essex persuaded her to resume hostilities with Spain, and himself commanded an expedition, which at- tacked and plundered Cadiz (1596). But this naval war was a brief one, and came to an end in the follow- ing year. A revolt soon after broke out in Ireland, headed by Hugh O'Neil. Essex, who was appointed lord-lieutenant, went over to put down the rebel chief. But o'Neirs when he got there he made peace with O'Neil. ^^voit. The favorite returned to England to find himself in dis- grace. Sir Robert Cecil, Burleigh's son, had acquired a supreme influence over Elizabeth, and Essex was excluded from the court, deprived of his offices and detained in his house as a prisoner. At last Essex, with his friends, con- cocted a plot against the queen. This plot miserably failed, and Essex was tried, found guilty of high Execution treason, and executed (1601). Elizabeth had o^^^sex. been very fond of Essex ; and the death of her favorite, though she had unwillingly consented to it, gave her great and lasting sorrow. Elizabeth in her old age became unpopular among her subjects, and found herself bereft of many of her old counsellors by death or desertion. She was sad, lonely, and irritable ; and her latter years were full of gloom. She died at the age of seventy (1603), hav- Death of ing sat upon the English throne for a period ^li^abeth. of no less than forty-four years. She left England far more rich, strong, and prosperous than when she became queen. 222 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. Throughout her long reign she had been entirely devoted to the well-being of her realm; and although she always ruled with a strong hand, she knew how to yield when she became persuaded that it was the will of her subjects that she should do so. i CHAPTER XXXVI. PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. THE period included in the reigns of the five Tudor sovereigns (i 485-1 603) was one of remarkable growth in every direction. Early in that period, what was known as the "Renaissance," or revival of the spirit of Rapid learnino^ and art from a lono^ torpor, took place f;^"'^^^ °^^ c> & r ' 1 the English in Europe. Literature, painting, architecture, nation, the study of the Greek and Latin languages, discoveries in the sciences, religious and philosophical discussion, im- provements in the methods of living, researches into an- cient history, began to be vigorously cultivated in every part of the continent ; and the influence of this wonderful revival made itself strongly felt in England. It was an age, too, in which momentous discoveries were made in various parts of the world remote from Europe. Columbus discovered America, Vasco da Gama An age of found the sea route to India, and the Cabots Severity- vices. He was, however, more severe towards against the Puritans than towards the Catholics; for he and Puri- thought the Puritans wished to do away with the *^''^- bishops, and to rule the church, as it was ruled in Scotland, by the popular will. As the bishops were appointed by the king, to do away with them would be to lessen the royal power; and of the royal power James was very tenacious. Besides, the bishops taught that the king had a "divine right" to rule ; a doctrine very acceptable to James's arbi- trary spirit. Parliament, on the other hand, rather favored the Puri- tans, and was bitterly hostile to the Catholics. It wished to o:ive the Puritans the liberty to worship in their own wav ; while it suspected the Catholics of plots against the kingdom, and desired altogether to suppress them. Thus, at the very beginning of his reign, James began to dis- 230 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. agree with Parliament. At first he tried to treat the repre- sentatives of the people with a high hand, as the Disagree- 1 r & ? ments be- Tudors had done. He forbade Parliament to cTo^^and deal with church matters at all ; and he at times Parliament, disregarded the laws made by Parliament. But he soon found that the English people and their represent- atives would not submit to the same despotic treatment from him which they had quietly borne from the Tudors. They saw in him a very different ruler from the Unpopular- ■' . •' ity of majestic and patriotic Elizabeth. She had ames. j^nowu how, at the proper tim.e, to yield to her people's desires. James was not so wise. In the third year of James's reign, a plot was formed by a small party of Catholics to blow^ up the Houses of Parliament (1605). The leading spirit in this conspiracy was Guy Fawkes. A number of barrels filled The conspir- acy of Guy with gunpowder were secretly hid in the cellar ^^ ^^' under the Houses, on the eve of the day when the king would open Parliament in person. The inten- tion was to blow up king, princes, courtiers, lords, and commons, all at once. But the king's advisers got wind of the plot, and Guy Fawkes was seized in the cellar, where he was getting ready to set the barrels on fire. Fawkes and several of his confederates were executed. This "gun- powder plot," as it is called, created a great excitement throughout England. The Catholics denounced it as bit- terly as the Protestants; but the result of the abortive conspiracy was, that the Catholics were treated more harshly than ever, and many innocent men of that faith suffered for the crime of a handful. The Puritans did not conspire against the crown ; but they were so much restricted in their liberties, and were so GUY FAWKES AT WORK. -Page 330. THE HOUSE OF STUART. 23 1 tyrannically dealt with if they ventured to worship in their own way, that at last some of them left Eno^land -" '^ Emigration forever, and settled at Plymouth, in Massachu- of Puri- setts (1620). Others went later to Salem in the same State. These were the founders of our great nation. As the years went by, more and more Puritans •^ -" . . . New Bn^- crossed the Atlantic to join their brethren in landsettie- America, and seek freedom on the rugged New ^^^ ^' England shores. The disagreements between James and Parliament in- creased as time advanced. The king desired to make peace and be friendly with Spain, England's ancient ene- my and rival on the seas. With this end in view, he pro- jected a marriage between his e'dest son, the Prince of Wales, and the daughter of Philip the Third, the Spanish king. James had a handsome and dissolute favorite, Georo^e Villiers, whom he created Duke of Buck- . . The Duke ingham ; and this favorite entered heartily into of Bucking- the marriage project. P)uckingham accompanied ^^' Prince Charles (the king's eldest son, Henry, had died young) to Spain to see the Infanta ; but on their return to England, Charles refused to accept her as his wife. Still the king did his utmost to be on good terms with Spain. Parliament and the people ardently opposed an alliance with that nation, both because Spain had long been Eng- land's foe, and because Spain was the leading Catholic power of Europe. James's daughter Elizabeth was married to Frederic, the Elector Palatine of the Rhine. This prince was The Elector one of the leading Protestant rulers in Europe, ^''ederic. Frederic was elected king of Bohemia ; but the emperor of Germany made war upon him, and expelled him not only 232 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. from Bohemia, but from the Palatinate. One reason why James desired to be on good terms with Spain was, in or- der to induce Philip to befriend his son-in-law. But he did not succeed in winning the alliance with Spain, although he caused the brave Sir Walter Raleigh, who had Execution r- i o • i of Sir wai- alwavs bccu a relentless enemy of the Spaniards, ter Raleigh. ^^ ^^ behcadcd, in order to please the Spanish king. The marriage of the English princess Elizabeth to the Elector is important to us, because from that marriage sprang the House of Hanover, which has reigned in Eng- land for nearly two centuries. As James's reign drew to a close, the breach between him and Parliament became wider and wider. James was The "divine ^^^ ^^'st English king who claimed to rule by right." "divine right;" which meant that, no matter how badly he governed, his right to rule was sanctioned by God, that he acquired this right by birth, and that no human power could depose him. To this doctrine Parlia- ment became more and more opposed as James grew more arbitrary. He refused to submit to the demands of Par- liament, and summoned it as seldom as possible. He tried to do without its consent to the raising of money, and on various pretexts extorted money from the people in spite of the refusal of their representatives to grant it. He chose his ministers as he pleased, and kept them in office after they had become obnoxious to Parliament. Thus there arose a contention between the crown and the Parliament, which was destined to continue for many years, and to result fatally to the House of Stuart. One of the most notable events of the latter part of James's reign was the impeachment and disgrace of the great Lord Bacon. Lord Bacon was famous both as a SIR WALTER RALEIGH IX PRLSOX.- p.,oe 232. THE HOUSE OF STUART. 233 lawyer and as a philosopher. He had become Lord Chan- cellor of England, and had made many enemies, ^riai and He was now impeached by the Commons before disgrace of ^ ■' Lord Ba- the Lords on the charge of having accepted con. bribes in his judicial capacity (1620). He was found guilty, deprived of his otBce, and condemned to pay a heavy fine. It was fully proved that Bacon had taken money from suitors in his court. But it is doubtful wheth- er he looked upon such presents as bribes to affect his iudgments. In the last vears of his rei2:n, Tames •' =* ^ " . . Last years broke the promises which he made to his Parlia- and death f. f , , , ^ of James. ment in return for a grant 01 money ; and thus left a legacy of trouble to his unfortunate successor. James died after reigning in Englar.d twenty-two years, in the fifty-eighth year of his age (1625). CHAPTER XXXVIII. THE STRUGGLE BETWEEN THE CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. CHARLES the Eirst, the son and successor of James, was a very different man, both in person and in character, from his father. He was tall and dignified, Character ^^ith a rcfincd face and a graceful figure. He of Charles I. ^^g courtlj. Upright in his habits, a faithful hus- band, a devoted father, and sincerely pious and moral. Yet there were defects in his character which made him more obnoxious and far more unfortunate as a ruler than James. When he gave his word, he could not be trusted to keep it. He held the same convic- Charles's arbitrary tiou which his father had, that his birth entitled him to rule by divine right ; that his will was therefore above and independent of that of his subjects ; and that there was no power which could deprive him of his crown. At the very beginning of his reign, Charles committed acts which were as offensive to his people as those which James had committed in his later years. Charles carried Charles matters with a high hand from the first. He as- asserts his gertcd his roval " preroo^ative," or authority, as preroga- ^ i o y j ' tive. soon as he took the reins of power. The first thing he did which his subjects disliked was to marry the French princess Henrietta Maria, who was a Catholic. The 2:14 LANDING OF THE PRINCESS lIENRIPmA MARIA. — Page 234. THE CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 235 new queen brought over with her a host of French follow- ers and attendants, who swarmed in the palace, much to the disgust of the English. Charles at last had the sense to send away these foreigners, and thus to get rid of one source of disagreement with his subjects. But, ere long, far more serious subjects of contention between the crown and the people arose. As time had gone on, the Puritans, who were opposed both to the Church of England and to the Catholics, had increased rapidly in numbers, and had grown strong in the country- They now included a large por- ^he Puri- tion of the middle or trading classes of the *^''^- towns, and of the small farmers and plain people of the rural districts. In religious feeling, the Puritans were for the most part austere, narrow, intolerant, devoted to a severe simplicity of worship, hostile to hilarity or amuse- ment, gloomy of manner, and rigidly plain in attire. They adopted many customs which seem strange to us. They took to themselves not only Biblical names, such as " Eze- kiel," and " Matthew," but even more ridiculous names, expressive of religious qualities, such as " Praise-God," "Mercy," and "Kill-sin." Yet, with all their solemnity and dismal austerity, the Puritans were ardent lovers of liberty, were full of sincerity and truthfulness, and pos- sessed a grim and steadfast courage which finally tri- umphed over all their enemies. The Puritans became bitterly opposed to Charles, from the moment that he showed his intention to maintain his prerogative, to support the Church of En2:land, . . to ' Puritan op- and to suppress their own worship as well as the position to liberties of the people. Charles, however, had a vigorous and powerful party which stood stoutly by his 236 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. throne. The Puritans came to be called " Roundheads," because they cut their hair very close to their heads. Charles's party was known by the more romantic name of "Cavaliers." Among the Cavalieis were a large majority of the nobles, the wealthy land-owners, the teachers and students of the universities, the bishops The Cava- ^^^^^ clcrgy of the church, and all the higher liers. social elements of the country. From the time that these two parties of the Roundheads and the Cav- aliers were formed, it was vv^ar to the death between them. The struggle between the crown on the between the one hand, and the people through their rep- plrnTmtnt. rescntativcs in Parliament on the other, now began, not to end until the crown had become forever subject to the popular will. The Duke of Buckingham, who had been the favorite of James, became Charles's closest friend and adviser when he came to the throne. Parliament distrusted Bucking- ham, and in the first year of Charles's reign demand- ed his dismissal. To this the king would not consent. Parliament retorted by refusing the supplies for which Charles asked. Then he dissolved Parliament, Charles dis- solves Par- and boldly usurped the right to levy taxes of lamen . j^.^ ^^^^^^ accord. He commanded that duties should be paid on the wine and goods imported from abroad. He also tried to force loans from his wealthy subjects; and those who refused to lend him money were put into prison or compelled to join the army. At this time Charles was engaged in a war with France, to which he had been prompted by Buckingham ; and as he could not raise all the money he needed to carry it on by THE CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 237 his illegal acts, he was forced to summon a new Par- liament. The new House of Commons, composed largely of Puri- tans, proved more firm and obdurate than that which had preceded it. It was willing to grant the king money, but only on condition that he "redressed the grievan- ^he new ces " of which it complained. In order to make Parliament i demands its demands clear and precise. Parliament drew up redress of 1 1 11- ^^ r, • • f n • 1 ^ u grievances. and presented to the kmg a " Petition ot Right (1628). This petition declared that no subject should be deprived of his liberty without a trial, or without the privi- lege of the "habeas corpus." The habeas corpus The habeas was a legal process, by which a man who had been ^^^p^s. arrested could cause himself to be brought before a judge, and find out thereby the cause of his arrest. If the judge thought the cause a good one, the prisoner was re-commit- ted and held for trial ; but if there were no just reason for his arrest, the judge could set him at liberty. The second demand of the Petition of Right was that the king should levy no taxes without the consent of Par- liament. Of course this was only the assertion of an old rule, to which the sovereigns of England had long submit- ted. Charles, in order to get the money he needed, reluc- tantly signed the Petition, and agreed to abide charies by it. But he soon violated this promise, and ^^^"® *^® ■' ' i ' Petition of went on as before. The war with France turned Right, out badly for the English ; and the king's favorite, Buck- ingham, after some inglorious military ventures, was assas- sinated (1628). Soon after, Charles made treaties of peace with France and Spain. The king now be- gan once more to raise taxes in the same way as violates the before ; and when Parliament protested against 238 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. this violation of his promises, he dissolved it, seized some of its more outspoken members, and threw them into the Tower. The most eminent of these prisoners was Sir John Eliot, one of the best and wisest men of the time, who died in the Tower three years after. Charles now resolved to do without Parliament alto- gether. He was determined to rule as he pleased, with- out regard to the wishes of the people. In pursuing this rash course, he was supported and prompted by two very able Archbishop advisers. One of these was Laud, soon after made Laud. Archbishop of Canterbury. Taud was a man of rare learning, of great energy and vigor, haughty and wil- ful, and sternly intolerant. He wished to put the Church of England above the people, and to compel every one to conform to all its ceremonies as well as its doctrines. With the king's sanction. Laud proceeded to enforce submission to the church, and to punish bitterly all who refused to comply with his will. In doing this. Laud was aided by two tyrannical and secret courts, the High Com- mission, and the Star Chamber. These courts, at his instigation, condemned many Puritans to be fined, impris- oned, whipped, branded with hot irons, and even to have their ears cut off. The other adviser of the king was Thomas Wentworth, soon after created Earl of Strafford. Wentworth had at Thomas ^^^t bccu ou the sidc of Parliament in its oppo- wentworth. gifion to Charlcs, and had advocated the Petition Earl of _ ' Strafford, of Right. But hc had entered the king's coun- sels, and was now as resolved to secure to the crown as much power as possible, as he had once been to guard the rights of the people. Wentworth was imposing in personal appearance, strong-willed and passionate in character, THE CROWN AND PARLIAMENT. 239 overbearing in conduct, and fervidly eloquent as an orator. He conceived a great project for making the king an ab- solute ruler, and rendering him entirely independent of the will of his subjects. Wentvvorth went to wentworth / Yorkshire as p-overnor, and afterwards in the ^^ ssiemmeiy OiJt^' ^ ' and Ire- same capacity to Ireland. In both places he land. ruled with iron severity, magnifying the king's power, and treating the people with contempt and cruelty. But Went- worth, with all his despotic intentions and severe acts, did not favor the entire abolition of Parliament. His purpose was that Parliament should still meet, but that, when it met, it should be entirely obedient to the king. For eleven years Charles, with the aid of Laud in the affairs of the church, and of Wentworth in the affairs of state, governed his kingdom without calling to- Eleven gether a Parliament. In this lons^ interval he years with- ^■>" ^ ^ out a carried matters with a high hand, and did many Parliament, things which displeased and outraged his people. Charles's navy was weak, and he had no standing army. Pirates infested the seas, and there was a prospect of a war with France. In order to create an effective navy and army, money was needed ; and Charles had none. So he resorted to an ancient custom, which had not been made use of for a long period. This custom was for the king to call on the various sea-coast towns and the counties to supply him with ships, with which to protect his kingdom from invasion or piracy. Those towns or counties which could ghip- not provide ships were taxed for the money money, with which to pay for them. This tax was called " ship- money." Charles now levied this tax of ship-money (1637) with- out regard to the consent of the people. It was really to 240 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. be used, not necessarily for building ships or raising troops, but in any way the king saw fit. This unjust and illegal tax was stoutly resisted in many parts of the country. Refusal of Jo^'^^^ Hampden, a courageous patriot, absolute- johnHamp-jy rcfuscd to pay it. He was brought to trial, den to pay •' '■ -^ * ' ship- and was condemned by a majority of the twelve money. ju^jges. Fivc of the judges, however, declared against his condemnation. His trial aroused great ex- citement throughout England, and greatly strengthened the party which opposed the king. Another act of Charles provoked a rebellion in Scotland. With the aid of Laud he tried to force the ceremonies and creed of the Church of England upon the Scots, who were for the most part Presbyterians. This was resisted in Edinburgh and other places by force of arms. Charles had no army strong enough to cope with the revolt ; neither did he, even with the forced ship-money, have funds with which to raise one. So it was that at last the king was compelled, quite against his will, to once more call together a Parliament Charles (1640). No sooucr had the Lords and Com- summons nious met, than they be2:an once more to de- a ne-w Par- ' •' c> liament. maud tlic rcdrcss of grievances, and the carrying out of the Petition of Right. Charles got angry, and called upon them to vote him some money ; and on their refusal, he abruptly dissolved Parliament. But his needs had become so great that he was obliged, in the The "Long ^ . pariia- samc year, to order a new election and summon yet another Parliament. This body, which met for the first time in November, 1640, has become famous in history as the " Long Parliamen-t." CHAPTER XXXIX. THE CIVIL WAR. THE Long Parliament was largely made up of Pres- byterians and Puritans, who were opposed to the king's arbitrary conduct, and were determined to main- tain the liberties of the people. The Puritan leaders were resolute and able men. Chief among them were John Hampden, who had been tried for refusing to pay the ship-money, and John Pym, an earnest patriot and an eloquent orator. Instead of granting the king the money he sorely needed. Parliament set promptly to work to suppress the illegal powers he had assumed, and to get rid of the advisers who had' encouraged him in his tyrannical acts. The levying of ship-money by the kino^ was plainly denounced as unlawful. . Changes The secret courts of the High Commission and made by the Star Chamber, which had been the king's ^"^ i^'^s" • instruments in punishing his enemies, were done away with ; and it was declared that Parliament should meet, with or without the king's consent, at least once in three years. The Puritan leaders then caused Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, who had been the king's chief counsellor in the acts of which Parliament complained, to be impeached and tried for high treason. In vain did the king seek to 241 242 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. save his devoted minister. Strafford was found guilty, and Death of ^^'''is beheaded (1641). Then it came Laud's turn. Strafford, p^^^ ^^,^g j-,q|. jg^.g obnoxious to the Puritans than Strafford ; for he had persecuted their sect, and had tried to force all men to submit to the creed and forms of the Church of England. Laud suffered the same fate as Straf- ford, dying on the scaft'old with a calm and dignified cour- age "which seemed to prove his sincerity in what he had done. For a time Charles appeared to yield to the lessening of his powers by Parliament. An obstinate rebellion broke Rebellion in 0"^ in Ireland, as the result of long years of Ireland. oppressiou by the English, and especially of the cruel tyranny practised by Strafford. In order to put down the rebellion, the king needed the support of Parliament. He therefore chose for his new advisers Falkland Falkland and Hyde, who, while they were patri- and Hyde, ^j-g^ werc uot SO extrcmc and bitter as the Puri- tan leaders. But Charles soon became impatient of the wise counsels of these new ministers, and resolved to re- cover, if possible, his former authority. There was a party favorable to him in Parliament, and outside of Par- liament a large majority of the upper classes, and the bish- ops and clergy, were devoted to his cause. A paper called " the grand remonstrance " had been proposed in the House of Commons, and had given rise to an an2;ry debate. This paper recited the The grand * '' ^ ^ remon- dccds of the king of which the Puritans com- s lance. pj^ined, and the patriotic action of Parliament in opposing them ; and declared that the king must choose sjch advisers as had the confidence of the representa- tives of the people. The remonstrance was finally printed THE CIVIL WAR. 243 and spread broadcast among the people. Then the in- censed king committed an act which was the signal for civil war. He sent his attorney-general to the House of Lords, to impeach five leading members of the House of Commons for high treason, and to demand their ar- rest. Among the five members were Pym and Hampden. The House of Commons, however, refused to give them up. The next day Charles himself, attended by a guard of five hundred cavaliers, made his appearance at the door of the House of Commons. P^nterins:, he looked •11-1 '^^^ ^^^s with lowering brow around the House for the and the five five members, and not perceiving them, asked °'®'^^®''^- the Speaker where they were. The Speaker replied that "he had not eyes to see, nor ears to hear, except as the House commanded him." The five members, indeed, had received warning of the king's intention, and had fled into London city. Charles retired in discomfiture. A day or two afterwards the five members were brought back by the river Thames to Parliament, attended by a great mass of citizens, who escorted them with a fleet of decorated boats, while trainbands paraded the streets in their honor. The members again took their seats in the House, and were enthusiastically welcomed by their colleagues. The king left London in ansrer and dismay, and was des- , . . , Charles tmed never to see his 'capital again, until he leaves Lon- returned to it a prisoner in the hands of his ^°'^' enemies (1642). Despairing of being able to either subdue or to make terms with Parliament by peaceful means, Charles resolved to have recourse to arms. He repaired to Nottingham, and appealed to his adherents throughout the kingdom 244 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. to rally to his support. xA.t the same time Parliament promptly set about organizing an army, and appointed the Earl of Essex commander in-chief of the Parliamen- tary forces. The civil war thus begun lasted four years ( 1 642-1 646). The first battle was foue^ht at Civil war. \ ^ ^ ^ Edgehill. It did not result decisively in favor of either side. The king's troops, being composed of "cav- aliers," were for the most part men of good birth, and were proud, chivalrous, and gay of temper. Those of the Parliament comprised mainly men from the middle and lower walks of life. It was soon after the opening of the conflict that Oliver Cromwell became conspicuous. He belonged to a good family of land-owners in the east of England, Oliver ^"^ ^^'^s a member of the Long Parliament. Cromwell. wq^^eQ ^hg ^Ya^- brokc out, he received a com- mission as captain in the patriot forces. He had not been bred as a soldier, but he soon showed remarkable mili- tary talents. He chose his men carefully, and organized them ; and they soon won the name of " Cromwell's Ironsides," by reason of their prowess and endurance in the field. Later, Cromwell was chosen as second in command of the Parliamentary army (1644) ; and he organized it into one of the best disciplined and most formidable forces that ever fought on English soil. He was deeply religious, and belonged to the sect of the " In- dependents," who believed that each congregation should manage its own affairs. The army was infused wath his sturdy religious spirit, and with his rough intolerance of other sects. They caught, too, his fervid patriotism and his ardor in the pursuit of liberty. The results of Crom- well's training and energy soon appeared in the ensuing THE CIVIL WAR. 245 conflicts with the adherents of the king. The Scots had sent a force to join that of ParUament ; and in a great battle which was fought at Marston Moor, near York (1644), in which the impetuous Prince Rupert, 1 1 11,1 Battle of the king s nephew, led the royal troops, and Crom- Marston well the combined army of the Scots and the ^°°''' Roundheads, a complete victory was won by the latter. Rupert and his cavaliers were driven in complete disorder from the field. After the battle of Marston Moor, Essex was succeeded as commander-in-chief of the Parliamentary army by a much abler general. Sir Thomas Fairfax; Crom- well still being second in command. The war went on more vigorously than ever. In less than a year after Mar- ston Moor, the final decisive battle was fought. Battle of Cromwell encountered Charles at Naseby (June, Naseby. 1645), completely defeated him, and compelled him to fly for safety into Scotland. England had now no ruler except Parliament; and Par- liament was controlled by the Puritans and the Presbyte- rians, who formed political parties as well as religious sects. They made a compact, or what they called a " solemn league and covenant," in which they were joined by the Scottish Presbyterians, to suppress Catholicism and to put a stop to the services of the Church of England. Perse- cution of these sects followed, in which clero^y- ^-^ Persecution men were turned out of their parishes, and Pres- of catholics byterian and Puritan ministers took their places, men.'^ "^^ ' Parliament also made many severe laws against popular recreations. The people were forbidden to ob- serve sacred holidays as they had been wont to do ; and the laws were especially stringent in prohibiting the keep- ing of Christmas Day. Many innocent amusements were 246 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. in like manner suppressed, and the people were forced to lead a very dull and solemn existence. Meanwhile the king was as obstinate and self-willed as if he were still holding the royal power. The Scots, in Charles in whosc country hc had taken, refuge, tried to in- scotiand. c|,^,ce him to establish the Presbyterian as the State church in England. This he haughtily refused to do. The Scots then delivered him up as a prisoner to Par- hament, and he was confined at Hampton Court. What to do with the captive king became a serious question. The Puritans and Presbyterians in Parliament, despite their "solemn league and covenant," now utterly disagreed. The Puritans wished to bring Charles to the block; the Presbyterians shrank from so extreme a measure. There were more Presbyterians than Puritans in Parliament ; but the army, under Cromwell, was Puritan to the core, and clamored for Charles's death. A short and sharp method of bringing Parliament into agreement with the army was adopted. One day, an officer of Cromwell, Pride's named Colonel Pride, entered the House of Purge. Commons with a regiment of soldiers, and ex- pelled a hundred Presbyterian members from it ; and thus the Puritan members were turned into a majority. This violent act is known in history as " Pride's Purge." The Puritans promptly resolved that King Charles should be put on trial for his life. A special court, com- posed of one hundred and thirty-five judges, was created, and the unhappy king was arraigned before it in the an- Triaiofthe cicut Hall of Wcstminstcr, on a charge of high king. treason. The trial was hurried through. Charles persistently refused to defend himself. Throughout the ordeal, he bore himself with right kingly calmness and dig- THE CIVIL WAR. 24/ nit}'. He was declared guilty and sentenced to death, and was publicly beheaded on a scaffold erected in front of Whitehall Palace, where he had lived as king (Jan. 30, 1649). He died bravely, exclaiming, just before he lay his head upon the block, " I go from a corruptible to an incorruptible crown, where no disturbance can charies-s take place." Charles was forty-eight years old "leath. at the time of his execution, and had reigned about twenty- four years. He was the only king of England who suffered death on the scaffold. CHAPTER XL. THE COMMONWEALTH. ALL classes of the English people were deeply moved by the death of Charles the First. His tyrannical acts were soon forgotten, and men recalled the better traits of his character. Many believed his trial and execution to have been grossly unjust. A reaction of feeling, hostile Royalist re- to tlic Puritans, and in favor of the royal house, action. quickly set in all over the country. A party was formed with the purpose of restoring young Prince Charles, the eldest son and heir of the " martyred " king, and this party grew stronger from day today. Meanwhile the Puri- tan Parliament continued to make changes in the govern- ment. It abolished the House of Lords, and set up what The Com- '^^'^s Called the " Commonwealth " in place of monweaith. ^]^g mouarchy. But the chief power in the coun- try lay in the veteran army, which had been so victorious everywhere ; and of the army Cromwell was the leading spirit. From the time of Charles's death, indeed, Crom- well was the real ruler of England. At the outset this grim Puritan soldier had to contend with grave disorders. The Irish, long and grievously op- pressed by their English masters, rose again in rebellion. Cromwell hastened with his veterans to put down the revolt. He speedily overcame the. Irish, and followed up 248 THE COMMONWEALTH. 249 his triumph by wreaking upon them the most ruthless cruelties. He caused the crarrisons of Wex- ^ _ _ CromweU's ford and Drogheda to be massacred, and it is cruelties in even said that many of the peaceable inhabi- tants were slaughtered by Cromwell's soldiers. Scarcely had Ireland been brought once more into submission to English rule, when another peril menaced CromwelTs power in the north. Large numbers of the Scots had espoused the cause of Prince Charles. The brave and chivalrous Marquis of Montrose headed a rising in the prince's favor, and paid the penalty of his devoted loy- alty on the scaffold. Prince Charles himself then landed in Scotland, and hosts of adherents, under valiant leaders, hastened to his standard. Once more Cromwell set out at the head of his sturdy Ironsides. He met Charles near Dunbar, . . . Prince and inflicted upon him a severe defeat (1650). chanes in Charles led his forces southward into England, hoping that the people would everywhere rise in his sup- port, and that he might recover his throne before Cromwell could overtake him. But Cromwell followed so prompt- ly that once more the hostile forces met at Worcester. A sanguinary battle resulted in another and Battle of overwhelming defeat of the prince, who was Worcester, forced to flee to escape being taken prisoner. After many adventures and perils, Charles succeeded in reaching the sea-coast, and so crossed the English Channel to France. Ciomwell's victories over the Irish and the adherents of Prince Charles made him more powerful than ever. The army was devoted to him ; and Parliament (the same Long Parliament which had been summoned by Charles the First), although it dreaded and distrusted Cromwell, was no 250 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. longer strong enough in the respect of the country to op- cromweii's Posc him. Cromwcll himself treated Parliament power. ^^,m-^ disdain. He demanded that it should dissolve itself, and that a new Parliamentary election should take place. To this the Long Parliament refused to agree. Cromwell then adopted a rough and abrupt method of compelling a dissolution. He one day entered the House of Commons at the head of three Violent dis- solution of hundred soldiers, caused the Speaker to be ariamen. ^^j-^^gg^j ^^^^ q£ }-j-g q\]^[y^ gruf^y Ordered the mace, the symbol of the Speaker's authority, to be taken away ; and ended by turning the members out of the House, and locking the door upon them (1653). The government of England now became a virtual dictatorship. Cromwell, supported by the army, assumed supreme authority, with the title of " Lord Protector." In reality he exercised more than ro^al power. He sum- moned a new Parliament, which was called " Barebone's Parliament," from one of its leading members, a Puritan leather-dealer, named " l^raise-God Barebone." But the life of this Parliament was brief, as was that of the suc- ceeding Parliament, both of which Cromwell abruptly dis- solved because they tried to restrain him. Like Charles the First, the Protector now essayed to rule without any Parliament whatever ; and in many of his acts he was as despotic and overbearing as either of the Stuart kings had ever been. He levied taxes without the consent Despotic ™ . , . rule of of the people, put military officers in authority lomwe . .^^ niany places instead of the civil magistrates, and even imprisoned men whom he suspected to be his enemies, without warrant of law. Yet with all his tyrannical acts, Cromwell's rule con- CROMWELL BEFORE THE PARLIAMENT. — P \GE 250. THE COMMONWEALTH. 25 I ferred many benefits upon the country. It was strong and vigorous, and restored England to the high place among the nations which it had held under Elizabeth, Restora- and from which it had fallen in the reigns of the tionofsng- Stuarts. The English navy was rebuilt, and e^. ^°^' its prowess on the sea became once more ter- rible to England's enemies. In a war with Holland, the English fleet under Admiral Blake inflicted heavy defeats upon the Dutch. Cromwell also formed an alliance with France against Spain ; and in the course of the Acquisition war which followed, the port of Dunkirk, in FJan- of Dunkirk ' '■ ' and Jamai- ders, and the island of Jamaica, in the West ca. Indies, fell into the possession of the English. Cromwell's rule at home, if despotic, was nevertheless on the whole just and wise. He was sincere in his desire to foster the well-being of his subjects. He encouraged education and trade, and did all he could to preserve or- der, and to see that justice was duly executed throughout his dominions. He was also as tolerant as the circum- stances of the time would permit. He allowed the Jews, who had been expelled from England in the time of Ed- ward the First, to return and settle in the coun- Return of try. He did not forbid the members of the t'^ejews. Church of England or the Catholics to worship in pri- vate in their own way. He chose his advisers and the generals of his army wisely, from among the ablest of his Puritan adherents. He also succeeded in suppressing the many plots which were formed to overturn the Protectorate and to restore the monarchy. Yet Cromwell was never thoroughly liked by the English people. He was so austere and overbearing, so wilful and quick of temper, that few men, perhaps no man, loved 252 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. him. In the latter part of his rule he stood in constant fear of assassination. He wore a shirt of steel CromweU's unpopular- beneath his coat, and was always surrounded by ^ ^' his guard whenever he went out of doors. His last days were imbittered by this dread of a violent death. Yet, after all, the stern old Protector died quietly in his bed. He was seized with an ague, and passed away in the fifty-ninth year of his age, having controlled the destinies of England for a period of nine years (1658). xA.s he lay Death of flying, he said, " I would like still to live, to Cromwell, g^rvc God and the people. But my work is done. Truly, God is good. He will not leave me. He will be with His people." Cromwell was succeeded as Lord Protector by his son Richard. But Richard Cromwell was entirely different in character from his stern and iron-willed sire. He was good-natured, easy-going, fond of pleasure, indolent, and Richard without any capacity or taste for governing men. Cromwell From the time that he became Protector, the as protec- tor, thoughts and hopes of almost all Englishmen turned towards a restoration of the monarchy. The peo- ple had become weary of the severe and solemn rule of the Puritans. They longed to revive the recreations, amusements, and social customs which the Puritans had suppressed. Richard's government was brief and inglori- ous. The army was still in the ascendant, and its leaders summoned the old Long Parliament to come together once more. So much, however, was this body despised by the people, that they nicknamed it " the Rump." It met only to quarrel with the army, and to be speedily dissolved again. By that time all things were ripe for the return of a Stuart king. CHAPTER XLI. THE RESTORATION OF THE STUARTS. THE great mass of the English people had become heartily tired of Puritan rule ; and now the army, which had so long controlled the affairs of the coun- try, being no longer united under Cromwell's Discord in strong, resolute will, fell into discord, and di- *^® army, vided into two hostile sections. One of these sections de- sired to continue the Commonwealth in all its severity and rigidness. The other sympathized with the majority of the people in wishing to see the monarchy restored, and the heir of the Stuarts recalled and enthroned. The leading general belonging to the latter section was a shrewd, taciturn man, named George Monk. He was in George command of a considerable force in Scotland, ^°'^^- whence he resolved to march to London, and there restore the king. Monk's march was unresisted. Everywhere, as he ad- vanced toward the capital, the people flocked in his path- way, imploring him to dissolve the Long Parliament, to turn out the Puritans, and to recall the heir to the crown. He entered London amid great popular rejoicings, without having shed a drop of blood on the way. Par- The king is liament, after ordering a new election, dissolved ^®"* ^°''- itself. Monk declared openly for the king. A squadron 253 254 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. of gayly decked vessels was sent across the German Ocean to fetch back the exiled Stuart. Soon Charles the Second landed on English soil ; and, as he proceeded from the coast towards London, he was welcomed by every demonstration of hearty rejoicing. The bells were rung ; bonfires flamed from the hill-tops ; guns boomed forth a noisy greeting ; and multitudes hailed their new ruler with joyful acclamations. When he reached London, the con- duits flowed with wine, and oxen were roasted whole and distributed among the people in the streets. At the time of his restoration, Charles the Second was thirty-four years of age. He had spent most of his life abroad, so that his character was little known to Charles II. his subjects. His good-nature and love of pleas- ure, his lively ways and witty talk, his pleasant face and the easy charm of his manners, soon made him very pop- ular. Charles surrounded himself with a gay, reckless, merry-making court ; and the people, relieved of the long gloom of Puritan rule, plunged into all sorts of amuse- ments and dissipations. It seemed as if the restoration had effected a sudden and strikino: chans^e in the habits of Englishmen. The reaction from Puritanism appeared not only in the revival of o:ay customs and more Persecution •' ^ '^ •' ofthePuri- chccrful Hving, but also in the bitter persecution •^'^^" of those who still adhered to the Puritan faith. Charles had solemnly promised that when he came to his throne, all religious sects should be allowed to worship freely in their own way. But, like all the Stuarts, he vio- lated his pledges as easily as he made them. Puritan ministers were forbidden to preach, and were expelled from their parishes. Many of them were thrown into loathsome prisons. Even those persons who were only KING CHARLES 11. ENTERING LONDON. - Page 254. THE RESTORATION OF THE STUARTS. 255 guilty of attending Puritan meetings, held in private holises, were imprisoned, sometimes for a long period. Among the Puritans who thus suffered for their faith was John Bunyan, the author of " Pilgrim's Progress," jonn Bun- which he wrote while the inmate of a jail. Se- y^"- vere laws were passed from time to time by Parliament against both the Puritans and the Catholics. These laws are known in history as the " test and corporation acts." Some of them remained in force until the earlv .-' The test part of the nineteenth century. By their provi- andcorpor- sions no one could hold office in a city or town, ^ ^°^ ^^'^ or in the government, or receive a commission in the army or the navy, or be a professor or a student in a university, without submitting to the forms of the Church of England. It was ut this time that all those who did not conform to the Church of England, except the Catholics, began to be called " Dissenters." This term included .Presbyterians, Puritans, and Independents. The king himself, while he was willing that the Dissenters "Dissent- should be persecuted, had a leaning towards the ®^®-" Catholics, and, as far as he could, prevented the laws from being pressed hardly upon them. Charles was unprincipled and untrustworthy ; but he was too prudent to act in direct opposition to Parliament, as his father had done before him. He loved to live a life of ease and pleasure, and did not wish to be ^ ' The King driven from the throne, from which he had been and Pariia- so long excluded. He therefore yielded when ^^^ ' Parliament was firm, and got money from it as best he could to spend upon his recreations. In the fourth year of his reign (1664), he made war upon the Dutch. The result of the conflict was disastrous to the English. It 256 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. ended by the sailing of the Dutch fleet up the river War with Medway, and the burning of some EngHsh war- the Dutch, gliips which Were moored at Chatham (1667). This disgrace for a while made the king unpopular. It was suspected that he had spent the money which Parlia- ment had voted for the building of men-of-war on the friv- olous pleasures of his court. Parliament examined the accounts of his expenditures, and put greater restrictions upon him in granting him supplies. While the war with the Dutch was going on, two terri- ble calamities visited London. The first of these was what was well called the "great plague" (1665). It swept The great through the city with desolating fury, carrying plague. Q^ hundreds every day. It lasted for six months ; and during that period it is believed to have de- stroyed one hundred thousand liuman lives. When the inmate of a house was stricken with the plague, a red cross was chalked on the door, and the house was shunned with shuddering fear. Within a year after the plague had ceased its awful ravages, a devastating fire broke out in the centre of London, and spread far and wide (1666). The great It cousumcd the entire area between the Tower ^'■®- and the Strand, including St. Paul's Cathedral, the Royal Exchange, Guildhall, and other ancient and stately buildings, as well as a great number of shops and dwellings. The lire burned furiously for three days and nights, and at the end of that time more than two thirds of London was destroyed. It is said that four hundred streets, eighty-nine churches, and over thirteen hundred dwellings were laid waste. At least one good result fol- lowed this wide-spread conflagation. It swept away dis- tricts which had been full of filth, and had bred and THE RESTORATION OF THE STUARTS. 25/ nourished the plague. After the great fire, the plague entirely disappeared. The dissensions between the various religious sects col- ored all the important events of the reign of Charles the Second ; and an almost continuous struggle for the con- trol of affairs went on between the Catholics, Religious the Dissenters, and the members of the Church dissensions, of England. The great fire itself was attributed to the agency of the Catholics. When the lofty monument to commemorate the fire, which still stands in London, was built, an inscription was placed upon it to the effect that the calamity was due to Catholic plots ; and this inscrip- tion remained upon it until the present century. There is no proof, however, that the Catholics had anything to do with causing the conflagration. The people sus- The king pected Charles, and not without reason, of beinor suspected ^ ' ' » of being a at heart a Catholic. His brother James, the catholic, next heir to the crown, was openly in communion with the Catholic church ; and it was believed that the royal bro- thers were planning to restore Catholicism as the State church of England. This suspicion was strengthened by the relations be- tween Charles and the French king, Louis the Fourteenth. Louis was by far the most powerful sovereign in Europe. During his reign, he had raised France to the first rank and power amon^ continental nations. France, too. Supremacy had taken the place of Spain as the champion of of France Catholicism and of the Pope in Europe. At ^^ ^"^^p®- first, Charles allied himself with the Protestant powers of Holland and Sweden against Louis, But after a time he fell from this alliance, joined Louis against the Protestant powers, sold Dunkirk to him, and even accepted large 258 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. bribes of money from the French king. He again went to war with Holland, but Parliament refused to grant him money with which to carry it on, and he was forced to con- clude a peace (1674). In their fear of the Catholics, the Churchmen and Dis- senters sometimes joined their forces in opposition to the kinir. They attempted to exclude Tames, the Attempted & J ir j i exclusion king's brother and heir, from the succession to ames. ^j^^ thronc. But this was opposed by those who, though stanch Protestants, still believed that the throne belonged by divine right to the legitimate heir ; and al- though the conflict between those who wished to exclude James, and those who opposed his exclusion, lasted for a number of years, the attempt to deprive him of his birth- right failed. Charles, however, became alarmed at the strength of his opponents, and promised that he would break away from Louis, and make war upon France. Parliament granted him money for this purpose ; but when he had got the money he refused to fulfil his promise, and kept the army which he raised by the grant at home. He probably wished to use it to defend himself from his ene- mies, in case they should revolt from his rule. It was while these contentions between the religious sects were at their height, that a man named Titus Oates, The "Popish who was chicfly known as having changed his plot." religion several times, startled the country by declaring that he had discovered a Catholic plot to kill the king, burn London, massacre the Protestants, and seize upon the royal power (1678). This asserted conspiracy is known in history as the " Popish plot." No proof exists that any such project as that which Oates de- ^ °^' scribed ever existed among the Catholics. But THE RESTORATION OF THE STUARTS. 259 his Story was believed far and wide. It created intense agitation throufrhout the country, and the Protestants fell into a panic of fear, and a craving for revenge upon the accused sect. To add to the excitement, Sir Ed- mondsbury Godfrey, a Protestant magistrate, was at about the same time mysteriously murdered on the highway. Many Jesuits and other Catholics were put to death after hurried trials ; and the opponents of the Catholics in Par- liament, taking advantage of the anger of the people, carried through a law excluding Catholics from the House of Lords. The English were now divided into two political parties, the names of which, "Whig" and " Tory," still whigs and survive in PZnglish politics. The Whigs were '^°"^s. composed of the Dissenters, and of all others who most bitterly opposed the Catholics, and who wished to exclude James from the throne. The Tories were those who be- lieved in the divine right of kings, and who stood by James in spite of his being a Catholic. The Whigs, as has been said, failed to exclude James ; but they succeeded in compelling the king to assent to a law which has be- come famous as the Habeas Corpus Act. The right of every Englishman who was arrested to be brought to a speedy trial, which is essentially the right of the habeas corpus, had long been established. But the Stuart kings and their advisers had sometimes managed to evade this right, and had kept men in prison for long periods without a trial. The new law left them no loop-hole. It distinctly laid down that if a man were arrested for any The habeas crime, he should be brought before a judge «o^p^s law. for trial within a specified time, or else should be set free. Soon after the Whirrs had secured this jjreat law, their 26o YOUNG people's ENGLAND. influence in the country began to wane. A reaction in public feeling came. The people began to repent that they had too easily given credit to the story against the Catholics told by the infamous Oates ; and were shocked at the cruelties which, they now saw, had been visited upon large numbers of their innocent Catholic fellow-subjects. CHAPTER XLII. THE REVOLUTION. NOW that the sentiment of the people was turned In some sort in his favor, Charles showed the same des- potic tendencies which had marked his father and his grand- father. For four years he ruled his kingdom ■' "^ Despotism without calling Parliament together; and during ofcuaries this period he did many things which he knew would not have been approved by the representatives of the people. He took away the charters which had been given to London and many other towns, and granted them other charters, which much restricted their municipal lib- erties, and curtailed the right of their citizens to vote for members of Parliament. Meanwhile his court became more and more reckless and profligate, and the king him- self set his courtiers a flagrant example of extravagance and immorality. The Whio^s were subjected to •''=>■> Persecu- harsh treatment, and often to tyranny. Charles tion of the favored the Catholics as much as he dared, and ^ ^^^' became more than ever subject to the influence of the French king. All these things greatly increased the bitterness of the Vv^higs towards the king, and they began to form conspira- cies for his overthrow. One of these conspiracies, called the " Rye House plot," was said to have for its object 261 262 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. the murder both of Charles and of his brother James. The Rye It \vas discovercd before it was ripe for execu- House plot. i[qyi^ and many leading Whigs were arrested as accomplices. Among the conspirators were a number of old Puritan soldiers, who had fought under Cromwell in the civil war. The Whig prisoners were put on trial ; and Lord William Russell and Algernon Sydney, two of the ablest, most upright, and most popular men in England, were found sfuilty of treason, and suffered death Death of i=> J Russeiiand on the scaffoM (1683). Most historians are ^ ^^^' convinced, however, that, while Russell and Syd- ney were hostile to the king, and were anxious to expel him from the throne, they were not guilty of conspiring against his life. The Earl of Essex was found dead in his cell in the Tower ; Shaftesbury and Monmouth suc- ceeded in making their escape. Many other Whigs were banished from England. Charles the Second survived the Rye House plot two years, and during this period ruled with well-nigh absolute power. To the last he continued dissolute and lavish ; yet he never entirely forfeited the liking which his people had for him, on account of his gayety of spirit, wit, and Death of pleasant manners. He died of apoplexy, at the Charles II. ^„^ q^ fifty-ninc, having reigned for twenty-five years (1685). In his last hours Charles received the last sacrament of the Roman Catholic church, towards which he had always leaned. In spite of Charles's numerous unpopular acts, the people were sorry to hear of his death, for they dreaded the accession to royal power of his heir. Unlike Charles when he came to the throne, his brother James, who now became James the Second, had long been well known to the nation. He had THE REVOLUTION. 263 been in command of the royal navy, and was a familiar figure at his brother's court. He was a risjid and ^ ^ James II. outspoken Catholic, harsh and solemn in manner, obstinate, heartless, and narrow-minded in character. He, too, like all the Stuarts, had no sense of honor in the keeping of his promises. He was as little trustworthy as any king of his line. / James began his reign by declaring that he wished to maintain the Church of England, and to establish reli- gious toleration among his people. But before he had had a chance to show his qualities as a ruler, a formidable re- bellion broke out against him in the western Monmouth-s counties. This rebellion was headed by the ^^^^^i^^^- young Duke of Monmouth, an illegitimate son of Charles the Second. His standard was joined by many of the Whigs who had been banished, or had voluntarily left Eng- land towards the close of Charles's reign. The purpose of the rebellion was to drive James from the throne, and to place Monmouth upon it in his stead. A large number of the lower classes rallied to Monmouth's aid ; Defeat and. but scarcely any of the nobility responded to execution his summons. Ihe result was that, when tne mouth, royal troops met the insurgents at Sedgemoor, Monmouth was utterly defeated, his hastily-gathered force was scattered, and he himself was taken prisoner and soon after beheaded (1685). The events which followed Monmouth's overthrow form one of the darkest pages in English history. The revenge of the king was swift and appalling. He sent an infamous judge, Jeffreys, into the counties which had been the scene of the rebellion, to try those who had taken up arms in Monmouth's cause. Jeffreys went on his "bloody 264 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. circuit," as it lias ever since been called, and on tiie The "bloody slightest evidence condemned men and women circuit." i^y ^|-,g clozen to bc hung, drawn and quartered, and embowelled. Within a month this bloodthirsty judge caused more than three hundred persons to be put to ter- rible deaths, besides condemning eight hundred more to foreign slavery. Meanwhile the royal troops were allowed the most cruel license among the terror-stricken population, and spread desolation, outrage, and death, far and wide among rural homes. The only Parliament summoned by James contained a large majority of Tories, who were his supporters. But at the very beginning he alienated from him many who A Tory Par- thought it their sacred duty to sustain the throne, liament. |-jy ^|-^g clemauds he made upon them. He asked Parliament to grant him money for creating a large stand- ing army, and to repeal the laws w^iich forbade the Catho- lics freedom of worship. Even the Tories refused to con- sent to these demands ; whereupon the king angrily dis- solved Parliament. James now resolved to accomplish his ends by means of the powers which, he claimed, still belonged to the crown. He established a standing army of thirty thousand soldiers; and, contrary to the law which excluded Catholics from all offices, military or civil, he commissioned Catholic officers to command his troops. Charles the First had asserted his right to raise ship- money without the consent of Parliament. James the Second now claimed that the crown had the power to "dispense with," or suspend in particular cases, pensing thc laws made by Parliament. The judges, who power. were his appointees and his creatures, sanctioned this claim. James then proceeded to exercise the dis- THE REVOLUTION. 265 pensing power in spite of the protests of a large majority of his subjects. Not only did he continue to commission Catholics as army officers, but he caused a Catholic to be made Dean of Christ Church College, one of the most important of the Oxford colleges, and a Catholic to be chosen a Fellow of Magdalen College ; and appointed Catholics to be members of the royal council. James thus alienated from himself the support of large numbers of Tories, and the mass of the members of the Church of pLngland. He therefore tried to conciliate those Whigs who were Dissenters. The Dissenters still rested under the same ban as the Catholics. They too were forbidden by law to worship in their own way, and they too were ex- cluded from public office. In order to bring the Dissenters to his support, James issued what he called a " Declaration of Indulgence" (1687). This decree accorded liberty of worship ^ ' ^ - ^ Declara- to both Dissenters and Catholics. The king tion of in- ordered the bishops and clergy of the Church of *^^^^®^*^®- England to read the Declaration from their altars. Seven of the bishops, among them the Archbishop of Canter- bury, and large numbers of the clergy throughout Eng- land, refused to obey the royal command. They asserted that the Declaration of Indulgence was contrary to the laws of the realm, and that in making it the king had ex- ceeded his powers. The bishops drew^ up a petition, giving the reasons of their refusal to read the Declaration, and presented it to Tames. This was the moment ^ ■' Arrest of when James, by yielding, might have saved his the seven crown. But he did not think of yielding. He ^'^^°p^- ordered the seven bishops to be arrested, confined in the Tower, and brought to trial on the charge of libel (1688). 266 YOUNG PEOP^LE's ENGLAND. Amid the most intense excitement both in London and throughout the country, the bishops were put on trial. As they proceeded to the court of the king's bench, great mul- titudes cheered and blessed them in the streets. After a brief trial, in which the judges, though the appointees of the king, were equally divided as to the justice of the charge of libel, the jury brought in a verdict of ofthebish- acquittal. As soon as this became known, the multitudes in the streets, and even some of the royal troops, went wild with joy. Dissenters joined Churchmen in their demonstrations of delight. The church bells rang merrily, and the streets were ablaze with bon- fires. At last the patience even of the Tories was ex- hausted. Many of them now joined the Whigs in a pro- ject to expel James from the throne. The birth of a son Hostility to ^o the king and queen, which occurred about the the king. i-jj-^-jg q£ ^j^g ^j.-^j q£ ^j^g bishops, strengthened the desire of the nation to get rid of the House of Stuart. It was feared that this son would be trained in the religion and despotic political faith of his father; and the people could not patiently look forward to a line of kings hke James the Second. The allied Whigs and Tories, who were now resolved that James should no longer reign, had not far to look for a champion of their cause, and a successor to the throne. W^illiam, Prince of Orano^e, was the leader of ■William. ' ° ' Prince of the Protcstant party in Europe. He had fought Orange. bravcIy and steadily for Protestant and civil liberty on the continent. It happened, too, that he was nearly related to the royal house of England. He was a grandson of Charles the First, his mother having been Charles's daughter. He had married the Princess Mary, THE REVOLUTION. 267 the elder daughter of James the Second. He was thus connected by a double tie with the English royal fam- ily. • To William of Orange, then, the English revolu- tionists sent word, imploring him to come over with his army, to expel James from the throne, and to himself as- sume the English crown. William responded wniiam promptly to the appeal. Within a few weeks he ^Je^^^^l^gj^ had landed on the coast of Devonshire with a coast. a well-disciplined force of fifteen thousand Dutch soldiers, and without delay marched on London (November, 1688). The attempt of James to oppose William's advance was feeble and short-lived. Day by day his adherents, and even his officers and soldiers, deserted him. He thought of confronting William at Salisbury ; but was forced to turn back without a conflict. His younger james de- dausfhter, Anne, instiiiated bv one of James's ^^''ted by *= ' ' o .J j^js adhe- most trusted generals, John Churchill (afterwards rents, famous as the great Duke of Marlborough), left the unhappy monarch and went over to Jjis enemies. James saw that any further attempt to retain his crown w^ould be useless. He managed to escape from London with his queen and infant son, and took refuge in the dominions of his friend, the king of France. William entered the capital without havino^ struck a blow or havino^ fouo;ht a battle, and * fc> O 9 William is was welcomed on every side as the future ruler accepted of the English nation. This sudden and peace- ^^ ^'^^' ful change of dynasty, and the results it brought about in the English monarchy, are known in history as " the Great Revolution." T CHAPTER XLIII. PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. HE reigns of the four Stuart kings very nearly cov- ered tiie span of the seventeenth century. James the First came to the throne in 1603, and James The period _ of the stu- the Second was deposed in 1688. The progress ings. ^^ ^j^^ English people during this period was re- markable in many ways. They made great strides towards political liberty, and some progress, at least, in religious toleration. The Catholics were still excluded from the right to freely worship, and suffered, as they were yet long to suffer, under many grievous disabilities ; but the other sects, towards the close of the century, were relieved of their most oppressive burdens. At the beginning of the century, the crown was almost absolute ; at its end. Parlia- ment had obtained crreater political power than 1 icreased ° ^ ' power of the crown. There had been progress and reaction Parliament. . , n' ^ i i • 11 m the conflict between the kmgs and the repre- sentatives of the nation ; but, on the whole, the gain was decidedly in favor of the latter. During the period of the Stuarts, also, the English peo- ple made very marked advances in the arts and sciences, Progress in i" litcraturc, iu manufactures and commerce, the arts. ^j^^| jj^ ^j^q material comforts and conveniences of living. In the arts, Kneller and Lely produced paint- 268 PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 269 ings by which they are still honored and remembered ; and Sir Christopher Wren reared the stately pile of the modern St. Paul's Cathedral. Inigo Jones left monu- ments as an architect, only less noble and stately than those of Wren himself. Literature flourished under the impulse given by the splendid circle of Elizabethan au- thors. Milton, the poet of the Puritan era, wrote " Para dise Lost;" and Dryden, the poet of the Res- toration, founded a new school of versification, the seven- Among the other noted writers of the century J^t-y!^^ ''^''" were Herrick, Samuel Butler, the author of " Hudibras," Beaumont and Fletcher, the dramatists, Eve- lyn and Pepys, the authors of famous diaries, and Claren- don and Burnet, historians of the times in which they lived. The power of the press had steadily increased throughout the century, despite the restrictions of censor- ship within which the Stuarts confined it. The seventeenth century was an era of varied intel- lectual activity in research, discussion, and invention. During its progress. Sir Isaac Newton discovered the great law of gravitation, and Harvey proved the circulation of the blood. An important though at the time little heeded event in the promotion of science was the founda- T^e Royai tion of the Royal Society (16^^). This famous s°^^^*y- body originated in a gathering of educated and thoughtful young men, who were believers in the philosophy of Lord Bacon, and who proposed to promote "the improvement of natural knowledge." They studied and made experi- ments in anatomy, astronomy, and chemistry, and were aided by the use of the newly discovered telescope and microscope. In time, this society became the nucleus of the philosophical thought and activity of England. As- 2/0 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. tronomy was, moreover, adv^anced by the establishment of Greenwich the obscrvatory of Greenwich, in the reign of observatory. ^1-jg second Charlcs (1676). In commerce and manufactures, England rose, during the seventeenth century, to be one of the leading nations in the world. When the century closed, a wide variety of manufactories were flourishing in different parts of the country. The fleece grown in Wiltshire was woven into woollen fabrics in the rural homes of the western counties. Birmino-ham was alreadv makins; knives, nails, bridle-bits, English in- ^^'^^^ agricultural implements from the iron pro- dustries. curcd in the forest of Dean. Manchester was turning out cotton goods. Staffordshire was producing pottery from its native clay. Coal mines were being worked on the banks of the Tyne, and tin and lead mines in western England. Gloucester was finishing fine cloths in gay and brilliant hues, which vied with those produced by southern Europe. Warrington was making linen ; Derby was thriving upon the manufacture of silk ; bone-lace was a profitable industry among the young women in the west and south ; Sheffield was turning out cutlery; Norwich was spinning tions of the yam ; and glass was a growing industry in the mid- land districts. The people of Cornwall and adjoin- ing counties pursued a great variety of occupations. They were farmers and gardeners, miners and operatives, shep- herds and weavers, fishermen and sailors. London, Bris- tol, and Hull had become busy commercial ports, trading with France, Spain, Holland, the Indies, and North shipbuiid- America ; but as yet Liverpool had no docks, uSut^"^ nor even a harbor. Shipbuilding was active at houses. Plymouth and Portsmouth ; and in the last years PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 2/1 of the century the first Eddystone light-house was com- pleted, and shed its friendly warning rays out over the tempestuous English Channel. The Hudson Bay Com- pany, for dealing in furs and minerals, was chartered (1670). The recreations and pastimes of the people had multi- plied as years went on. Horse-racing had come into vogue, and Newmarket had become the annual scene of a boisterous racing carnival. Bull-baiting and bear-baiting, cock-fighting and Maypole festivities, had been popular revived when Charles the Second returned to set ^^"""^^ ^'^^ recrea- the example of habitual pleasure-making to his <^^°^s- subjects. It became the fashion to resort to Bath as a watering-place. The theatre had become an established place of entertainment, and theatres rapidly increased in number in the later years of the Stuart era. Tobacco and potatoes began to be extensively cultivated and used in the reign of the first James. Coaches came into frequent use early in the century, and brick was employed for the first time in the building of houses. The social condition, as well as the general intelligence of the English people, greatly improved amid the political convulsions of the seventeenth century. At the revolution (1688), the population of England was estimated r r r~ "^^^ popu- at not tar from five and a half millions. Divided lation of into various occupations, this population con- ^''^^^''**- tained 1,300,000 cottagers or tillers of land, 750,000 far- mers, 940,000 free-holders of land, 1,275,000 laborers and servants, 220,000 people of rank or official station, 52,000 clergymen, 70,000 lawyers, 64,000 merchants, 235,000 re- tail shopkeepers, 240,000 artisans, and 75,000 persons devoted to the liberal arts and sciences. The combined 2/2 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. army and navy of the kingdom comprised 256,000 men. Of the population, nearly three fourths lived in the coun- Towu and ^O'^ ^^^^ ^"^Y ^^^ fourth in the cities and towns, country. London had a population estimated at a little ovtr half a million. The food and clothing and general style of living of the upper classes had become much more luxurious. The nobility wore finer clothes and more elaborate costumes, had larger retinues of servants and ijiore numerous residences, and spread for their guests a more various and more daintily served table. The condition of the lovv^er classes had also somewhat improved. But the wages of the laboring classes were verv low, the averao"e wasres of the as^ricultural Condition " ' . f , r of the low- laborer bemg at the close of the seventeenth er classes. ,.gj^^,^y f^^g shilHngs 3. wcck. Whcatcn bread was still too dear for him. He lived upon the coarsest fare, and it was rarely that he could afford his family a taste of meat. It is said that one half of the labor- ing people did not have any meat from one year's end to the other. They could never afford tea or sugar. They lived in cottages which were little better than hovels, with almost no furniture whatever, wherein the family lived in common with their pigs, poultry, and dogs. Still the English peasant was not without enjoyment in life. He was fond of sturdy games, and went to the fairs, and al- though he worked hard, he worked cheerfully and lustily. The farmers were slow to adopt new inventions ; and the agricultural implements of 1700 were but little better than those which had been in use a century before. CHAPTER XLIV. WILLIAM OF ORANGE. SOON after William of Orange, or William the Third, had taken possession of the government, a new Parlia- ment was summoned. But this Parliament was brought together, not, as always before, by the sovereign, but by those who had brought about the revolution. It was there- fore called, at first, a " convention," though it afterward took upon itself the duties and the name of a regular Par- liament. This body had a task to perform, harder, per- haps, than ever fell to an English Parliament. It had to fully establish a new dynasty on the throne, to ■' ... . Settlement settle permanently in the constitution the liber- of the con- ties which the English people were to enjoy in ^ ^ ^ ^'^^' the future, and secure, for all time, the supremacy of the authority of Parliament over that of the crown. The most important result of the Great Revolution, indeed, was to make the sovereign dependent on the representatives of the people, and to substitute their will in all great matters of state for his. From that time, first the Lords and Com- mons, and then the Commons alone, became the real ruling power in the kingdom. The first act of the new Parliament was to choose and proclaim William and Mary joint king and queen of Great Britain and Ireland (February, 1689). This was the only ^-73 2/4 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. time that England was governed by two sovereigns, hold- injr equal authority the one with the other. But William and o ^ ^ Mary pro- Mary, though legally as much a ruler as her hus- c aime . ]Q^y^([^ fgok but little part in the affairs of state. The government was really carried on by her wise and able consort. It had now been settled that the kings of Eng- land had no " divine right " to rule ; that an obnoxious king might be got rid of ; that the power to change the dynasty, and elect a new king, rested in Parliament ; and that, as a consequence, since the king's only claim to the throne was Parliamentary election, he must do as Parlia- ment chose, and not as he himself wished. Parliament Liberties went on to secure the liberties which, although secured. niauy of them existed before, had been violated by the Stuarts, and which were confirmed and settled by the revolution. This was done by a formal declaration of 'liberties by the two Houses, called the " Declaration of Rights ; " the leading points in which were' afterward em- bodied in a law known as the " Bill of Rights." The main features of the reforms thus adopted w^ere as follows. It was laid down that the sovereign could not raise taxes in any way whatever, or keep a standing army, without the consent of the Lords and Commons ; Restric- tions of roy- that a certain fixed sum should be paid to the power. i>i,-)g annually for the expenses of the state ; that every sum voted should be applied to the purpose speci- fied by the vote, and that the expenditure on the army and navy should every year be reported to the House of Commons ; that the judges, instead of being appointed and removed at will by the king, should hold their seats for life or during good behavior ; that no subject should be kept a prisoner by the sole order of the king, but that WILLIAM OF ORANGE. 2/5 everyone should have the right to a speedy trial ; that the press should no longer be compelled to procure a license from the king's censor, but should thenceforward be un- restricted and free ; that all bills relating to money should be first considered and passed by the House of Commons, so that if the king or Lords did not do as the Commons approved, the latter might withhold the supplies ; that the king's subjects might freely petition him to re- Right of pe- dress grievances ; that the debates of Parliament *^ti°^- should be free from any interposition of the king; and that the king could make no law, and "dispense" with no law, without the assent of Parliament. In this manner the authority of the crown was ef- fectually bound and subjected to the superior will of the two Houses. But these were not all the important acts of the first session of the first Parliament of William and Mary. It was settled by law that no person should sit on the English throne who was not a Protestant. ^ The Protes- This was done lest the Catholic Stuarts should tant suc- cession. seek to return, which they actually did. An Act of Toleration was passed, by which the Dissenters were permitted to have their places of worship, and to hold their religious services as they pleased. But the Catholics were not only still forbidden this right, but were subjected to many other harsh restrictions. The Dissenters were still prevented by the Test Act, which continued in operation, from holding any military or civil office. All clergymen, whether Dissenters or of the Church of England, were required to take the oath of alle- Division in giance to William and Alary. This requirement tbe church, resulted in a serious division in the Church of England itself. Some of the bishops, and many of the clergy, 2'j6 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. were unwilling to acknowledge William as king. They adhered to their old doctrine that the king had a divine right to rule, and could not for any cause be removed from the throne; and that therefore the expelled James was still the rightful sovereign. Strange to say, several of the seven bishops whom James had imprisoned in the Tower, took this ground. They and four hundred of the clergy re- fused to take the oath of allegiance to William, and hence were called " non-jurors." They were excluded Non-jurors. ^ from their sees and parishes, and tried to set up a separate church of their own. But after a feeble exist- ence of about a century, this "non-juring" church died out. William the Third is described by Bishop Burnet as a man " with a thin and weak body. He was always asth- matical ; and the dregs of the small-pox falling on his Appearance huigs, he had a coustaut deep cough." He was and traits cadavcrous iu appearance, and wholly unattrac- of W^illiam _ ^ ^ ' ^ J and Mary, tivc iu persou. His disposltiou was morose, and he had cold, solemn, and irritable manners. Yet he was the master of seven languages, had a wonderful mem- ory, was ardent and valiant in battle, and wise, prudent, and far-seeing in council. He was, moreover, patient in the pursuit of his ends, and had a remarkable power of self-control which stood him in good stead throughout his uneasy reign. His queen, Mary, presented a marked con- trast to him in her traits and manners. She was cheerful, amiable, pious, charitable, and her pleasant ways soon at- tracted and held the love of her subjects. Her husband was disliked in England from the first ; and it was as much Mary's charms of character, as William's sincerity and executive ability, that reconciled the English to the new dynasty. WILLIAM OF ORANGE. 2// William did not like the English any more than they liked him. He often sighed for the flat expanses of his native Holland ; and more than once, harassed by the per- plexities of his government, and annoyed by the wiiuam's conduct of his ministers, he threatened to abdi- discontent, cate his crown and return to his continental home. His troubles, indeed, began before he had sat a year on the throne. He did not secure the throne without bitter oppo- sition in several quarters. The exiled king James was re- solved not to rest quidtly under his expulsion. Louis the Fourteenth of France, who recognized in the new king of England his deadliest foe and rival, as well as the foremost champion of the Protestant cause in Europe, en- Enmity of couraged and helped James in his designs to re- ^=^"1^. cover the throne. It was the chief object of William's life, on the other hand, to humble, and if possible to crush, the haughty and intolerant monarch who had sought to de- prive Holland of her liberties. The chief reason which induced William to accept the English crown, and when he had assumed it not to resign it, was his purpose to employ the power of England to overcome the Frencn king. Within a month after William and Mary had been pro- claimed king and queen, the exiled James, encouraged by Louis, landed on the shores of Ireland (March, ^ _ James in- 1689). An overwhelming majority of the Irish vades ire- people, then as now, were Roman Catholics. They adhered to the cause of James. They had long been grievously oppressed by their English masters. They did not look for any mercy or favor from William or from the English. Only the small minority of English settlers in Ireland recognized the new king. These hastened from the country into the fortified towns. James arrived in 2/8 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. Dublin, summoned the Irish Parhament, gathered together such forces as he could, and laid siege to Londonderry, where the adherents of William sturdily held out. This siege is one of the most memorable in history. It lasted three months. Finally, just as the devoted garrison were about to yield to starvation, succor came from England. The siege was raised, and the Irish forces were compelled to retire. The Irish Parliament met, declared its adhe- sion to James, and passed several severe laws against the English who lived in Ireland. In spite of the failure of James at Londonderry, his hold upon Ireland seemed so formidable that William William in placcd himsclf at the head of thirty thousand Ireland. men, and crossed the Irish Channel. James, with a force of about the same number, a part of which consisted of French soldiers sent over by Louis to help him, took up his position on the banks of the river Boyne. Here the famous battle of the Boyne took place, in which James was utterly defeated, and as a result of which he retired to France (July, 1690). William marched to Lim- erick, took that town in spite of an obstinate resistance, and then returned to England. His generals finished the work he had so promptly begun. Athlone was captured Defeat of ^Y ^^^^ English, and the Irish were again defeat- the Irish. g(-| ^|- Aughrim. A treaty of peace was made, in which William accorded to the Irish liberty of worship, and the right to keep their lands. This treaty, however, was soon shamelessly violated by the victors. Once more Ireland felt the rigors Penal laws. of foreign tyranny. The first penal laws were passed, which excluded the Irish Catholics from the army, the magistracv, all civil office, and the university ; which KING WILLIAM AT IllE BATTLE OF THE BOYNE. — Page 278. WILLIAM OF ORANGE. 2/9 deprived them of the right to vote, or to be members of Parhament, or to marry Protestants, or to purchase land or inherit it from Protestants ; which forbade all foreign priests to come to Ireland, and prohibited Catholics from keeping schools, or sending their children to schools of their sect in foreign lands. The domains of the Irish were in many cases violently confiscated. Bishops and monks were banished from Ireland, and forbidden to re- turn on pain of death. Ireland, indeed, rested under an oppression as bitter and hopeless as that which she had suffered in the time of Cromwell. CHAPTER XLV. QUEEN ANNE. WHILE the conflict was going on in Ireland, William had plunged into a war with France, and had also been called upon to put down an obstinate revolt in Scot- war with h^^nd. The war with France was caused by the France. open aid givcu to James by the French king. It lasted eight years (1689-1697), and began by an attempted invasion of England by the French. The soldiers of Louis succeeded in landing on the English coast, but were soon compelled by the uprising of the country to recross the Channel. In the struggle which followed, England was in alliance with Germany, Spain, and Savoy. Nevertheless, the English arms did not achieve brilliant success. The English fleet was defeated by that of the French at Beachy Head, but succeeded in repelling a second attempted in- vasion of England two years afterwards (1692). The Eng- lish took Mons and Namur ; but not only lost them again, but were severely defeated by the French general, Luxem- bourg, at Steinkirk, and again at Landen. Then the tide of war turned. William retook Namur, and had some Peace of Other succcsscs. At last a temporary peace was Byswick. concluded at Ryswick (1697). Louis recognized William as King of England, and agreed to cease from giving aid and comfort to the exiled James. 280 QUEEN ANNE. 28 1 A large majority of the Scots had accepted William as king of Scotland as soon as he had been proclaimed king of England. Scotland was still a kingdom by g^ate of itself. Its only relation to England was that un- Scotland, der the Stuarts the same king was the legitimate ruler of both countries. The Scots, therefore, chose William as their king by the election of their Parliament, just as the English had chosen him. The later Stuart kings had griev- ously oppressed the Scots. James the Second, before he came to the throne, had been the governor of Scotland, and had oppressed the Presbyterians and other Dissenters without mercy. So the Scots, for the most part, welcomed the accession of a king who was himself a Presbyterian, and who would be likely to treat them fairly, and allow them to worship in their own way. Still there was a courageous party of Scots, by no means contemptible in either rank or numbers, who refused to accept William as their king, and who promptly raised the standard of revolt. They Scottish were mostly Highland chieftains, who believed in ^avoit. the right of James to rule ; and at their head was the im- petuous Graham of Claverhouse, Lord Dundee. The struggle between these Scottish insurgents and William's adherents was bitter and bloody, and lasted about a year. Dundee put himself at the head of two thousand hardy Highlanders, and encountered and de- feated a force twice as large as his own in the rugged pass of Killiecrankie (July, 1689). But this was Dundee's only important triumph. The Highlanders in vain sought to capture Dunkeld by assault, and were finally surprised and decisively defeated at Cromdale. A terrible retribution awaited at least one of the clans, Clan MacDonald of Glencoe, for its resistance to William. A company of sol- 252 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. diers, apparently with friendly intentions, entered the val- ley of Glencoe, where this clan dwelt ; and in the early Massacre of •'•"'o^^^i^S f ^11 upon the unsuspecting people and Glencoe. savagcly massacred them. Those who escaped fled into the mountains, where some of them froze and starved to death. Although this cruel deed was not done by William's orders, he failed to punish the assassins as they deserved. Not only was William's reign disturbed by these strug- gles with the Irish, the French, and the Scots, but it was also a period of much political commotion at home. Par- liament felt and firmly exercised the powers which had been confirmed to it by the Declaration and Bill of Rights. It granted William an annual sum of ;^i, 100,000, and Fresh re- votcd funds for his wars ; but it hedged these forms. grants about with careful restrictions. It passed a law limiting the duration of Parliaments to three years, and a law regulating cases of treason, which secured to the subject the right to have counsel, and ensured him a fair trial. At one time it restricted William's standing army to seven thousand men ; and compelled him to send back to Holland the Dutch soldiers, whom he had brought over to act as his body-guard. It also forced him to re- store some Irish estates, which he had given to his Dutch favorites, to their former owners. Other misfortunes befell the upright but unhappy king. His queen, Mary, died (1694), and left him not only a widower, but childless. Plots were discovered Deatli of / Queen Ma- for taking his life. The struggles of the con- ^^' tending parties, the Tories and the Whigs, per- plexed and worried him. It was in William's reign that the system of party government which still Exists in Eng- QUEEN ANNE. 283 land took its rise, and that what is called the "cabinet" assumed definite shape. At first the king chose his min- isters from both of the political parties ; but after a time he came to choose them from one party exclusively. Thus those ministers who held the highest offices, such as Lord Chancellor, Secretary of State, Treasurer, and so on, formed an inner and secret council within the ministry, and were called the " cabinet." Of course the 1 r I 1 1- Thecabinet. cabu:iet was always composed or the leadmg men of the party in power. It was the majority of the House of Commons, moreover, and not the king, who de- cided which party should hold the power, and supply the cabinet. Since William had no children, it became necessary for Parliament to decide upon a new line of succession to the throne. The next heir was the Princess Anne, the second daughter of James the Second, who, unlike her father, was a Protestant. Anne was married to the Prince of Denmark ; but her only child had recently died. After Anne, therefore, there was no recognized heir to the English crown. In the year before William's death, Par- liament passed a law which was called " The ^ct of suc- Act of Succession." By this law, the succession cession, to the crown was settled upon the Electress Sophia of Hanover, and her heirs. Sophia was a grand-daughter of James the First. She was therefore a Stuart by de- scent; and she was a Protestant — the Protestant who stood nearest in kinship to the throne. The act of settle- ment also provided that no foreigner should be entitled to a seat in Parliament ; that the king should not make war on behalf of any other nation without the consent of the two Houses ; and that he should not pardon any offi- 284 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. cial in order to protect him from impeachment. Soon after this law was passed, the dethroned king, James the Death of Sccond, died in France (1701), and the French James. king at once recognized James's son, James Ed- ward, as the rightful sovereign of England. William saw in this act of Louis his long wished-for op- portunity. The English people were deeply incensed, and became as eager for war with France as the king himself. Preparations ^^^ilJi^^^'' immediately began his preparations for for war. ^ great struggle with his old enemy. But he was destined not to live to witness its opening. He was riding one day in the park at Hampton Court, when his horse stumbled and threw him violently to the ground. The king's injuries from this fall proved fatal. He lin- gered painfully for several weeks, and then died, at the age of fifty-two, having reigned a little more than thirteen years (1702). With Qireen Anne, whose accession to the throne was warmly welcomed by nearly all classes of the English Accession pcoplc, a rcigu began which was remarkably bril- of Anne. Yi^ut both ou the field of war and in English lit- .erature. The English had never liked William's morose temper and foreign w'ays. In Anne they saw a native Englishwoman, in whose veins ran the blood of the royal house. They knew her to be a devoted member of the national church, and they believed that she had at heart the interests of the people. She was dull, heavy, and un- attractive, but kind-hearted and honest, and was called by her subjects " the good Queen Anne." Her husband was an insignificant person, who took no part in the affairs of state. But the queen had two intimate friends, whose influence over her, and whose share in controllina^ the THE ACCESSIOX OF (^t^'KKX AX \K.- Page 2^:4. QUEEN ANNE. 285 destuiies of England, form a memorable feature in the history of her reign. These two friends were John Chur- chill, afterward famous as the great Duke of Marlborough, and Sarah Churchill, his wife. John Churchill came of a good family in Southern Eng- land, and was bred as a soldier. In his early j^-^ chur- vears, he took part in the wars with the Moors, ^'^i"- ^^^^ ^ \ ^ , of Marlbor- and with the. Dutch, and was an officer in the ough. king's army at the battle of Sedgmoor. He became a favorite of James the Second, but basely betrayed his royal benefactor, and carried his sword over to the side of William of Orange ; persuading James's daughter, Anne, to also abandon her father's cause. Churchill married Sarah Jennings, a brilliant, beautiful, and high-tempered maid of honor in attendance on Anne ; and from the time of the revolution, the influence of this pair over Anne was long supreme. King William had created Churchill an earl ; and shortly after her accession, Anne conferred on him the title of Duke of Marlborough. Churchill w^as covetous and unprincipled, but kind-hearted, and possessed a singular influence over men. As a soldier, he was brave, full of resources, and wonderful in tact and skill. It was this extraordinary man who was now chosen to take the chief command of the English army, in the mighty strug- gle in which it was about to engage with the legions of France. CHAPTER XLVI. THE WAR WITH FRANCE. THE long war which broke out between England and France in tiie first year of Queen Anne's reign is usu- ally called "The War of the Spanish Succession." It The war of camc about from two main causes. As has been the Spanish g^^^^ Louis the Fourteenth, on the death of the succes- sion, exiled James the Second, had openly recognized James's son, James Edward, as the rightful king of Eng- land ; and this had aroused the indignation of the English. The other cause of the war was the attempt of France to place a French prince on the Spanish throne, and unite the destinies of the two countries. Two years before (1700), Charles the Second, king of Spain, had died, leav- ing no direct heir. He had left his dominions by his will to Philip, duke of Anjou, a grandson of Louis the Four- teenth. But two other claimants to the Spanish throne appeared, in the persons of Joseph of Bavaria and the Emperor Leopold of Germany. All three of these prin- ces derived their claim from their descent from Philip the Third of Spain. Of course King William could not consent that the hands of his French enemy should be strengthened by the acqui- sition of the Spanish realm. At first, however, several at- tempts were made by the sovereigns to settle the matter 286 THE WAR WITH FRANCE. 28/ by treaty, giving a portion of the Spanish dominions to each of the claimants. But from various causes these at- tempts all fell through. Philip of Anjou ascended the throne of Spain, but it was agreed that Spain should never be annexed to France. Then war broke outbreak of out between Germany and France; and within *^® '^^^• a year England, under the guidance of Lord Godolphin, the lord treasurer, and Marlborough, also declared war against Louis. In alliance with England were Holland, Prussia, and Hanover. Marlborough took command of the English forces, and England and France came into armed collision, on sea and land, in many parts of the world. The leading events of this memorable war, in which Marlborough won undying laurels, may be briefly stated. It lasted for a period of eleven years. In its course the four p^reatest battles were plained by Marlbor- ° . Marlbor- ough. These four battles were Blenheim (1704), ough-s Ramillies (1706), Oudenarde (1708), and Mal- plaquet (1709). Besides these signal triumphs, the Eng- lish fleet under Sir George Rooke took the giant fortress of Gibraltar, commanding the entrance to the Mediterra- nean Sea (1704), which remains in possession of the Eng- lish to this day. The fortress of Lille \vas successfully besieged by Prince Eugene, one of Marlborough's most valiant generals, and the French were entirely driven out of the Netherlands (Holland). The campaign in Spain resulted in some advantage to England and her allies, and the English captured the island of Minorca. Before the war closed, however, Marlborough in spite of his splendid achievements, was deprived of the command of the Eng- lish army, and dismissed in disgrace from all his offices. 288 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. This was the result of the intense strife of political parties in England. Marlborough and Godolphin were Whigs. But in time the Tories got the upper hand in the cabinet and in Par- The Tories liainent ; and they hastened to visit their hatred in power, both upou the great Whig general and the great Whig statesman. The Tories had opposed the war. Many of them were friendly to the exiled house of Stuart, and were hostile to the settlement by which the Electress of Hanover was designated as the successor of Anne. These " high Tories " secretly hoped for the restoration of James's son after Anne's death. In alliance with them there grew up a strong "high church" party in the national church, which revived the old doctrine that it was sinful to resist or disobey the rightful king. One of the most distinguished divines belonging to this section of the church, Dr. Sacheverell, preached a series of sermons in which he denounced the revolution, and almost openly advocated the return of the Stuarts. He was tried and condemned by the House of Lords ; but his teachings pro- duced great excitement and won many adherents through the country. The Tories came into power (1710) under the brilliant leadership of Harley, afterwards Earl of Oxford, and St. John, afterwards Viscount Bolingbroke. Two years later they dismissed Marlborough ; and the year after Marlbor- ough was disgraced, peace was concluded between Eng- land and her allies on one side, and France on the other, The treaty by the famous treaty of Utrecht (17 13). By the of Utrecht, terms of this treaty, Philip was allowed to retain the Spanish throne, on condition that he should never be king of France, and that Spain and France should forever THE WAR WITH FRANCE. 289 remain separate nations ; England acquired the possession of Gibraltar, Minorca, and Nova Scotia, and the privilege of selling slaves to the American colonies of Spain ; the French king agreed to refrain from lending aid to the heir of the Stuarts ; some minor concessions were made to Holland ; and Austria obtained the Spanish Netherlands and Naples. In the fifth year of Queen Anne's reign England and Scotland were combined into one kingdom (1707). They had been ruled by the same sovereign, indeed, union be- for nearly a century ; but each had had its sen- tweensng- ■I J ' i land and arate Parliament, laws, and church. The Scots scouand. had become very much discontented with the duties im- posed by England on Scottish productions, and the restric- tions put by England on Scottish trade. The Scottish Highlanders, moreover, were dangerously favorable to the house of Stuart. On both sides it came to be thought best that the two kingdoms should become one. Commis- sioners were appointed on behalf of each kingdom, who drew up and carried into operation the "Act of Union." By this agreement, the Scottish Parliament was abolished, and Scotland was given the right to be represented by forty-five members in the English House of Commons, and by sixteen peers in the English House of Lords ; the Pres- byterian was established as the State church of Scotland; and the Scots were accorded the same freedom of trade which the English enjoyed. Thus was created the " United Ki-ngdom of Great Brit- ain " ; and Parliament became the " British Parliament." Another century was to elapse before Ireland was also included in the united kingdom. In the interval, Ireland continued to have her separate Parliament. In Queen 290 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. Anne's reign Ireland was more grievously oppressed than ever. The most severe of the cruelly unjust "penal laws," The Penal directed against the Catholics, and put most vig- Laws. orously in force against the Irish Catholics, were passed at this period. These laws forbade Catholics to teach, prohibited them from inheriting land, crippled their industries, and excluded them from all local and national offices. They could not be judges, lawyers, magistrates, sheriffs, or jurymen. The penal laws, in short, put the Irish Catholics completely at the mercy of their Protes- tant fellow-countrymen. The contention between the Tories and the Whigs was at its height in the last year of Anne's reign. Anne her- party con- sclf Hkcd the Torics best, and was thought to tentiono. sympathize with them in looking favorably upon the restoration of her half-brother, James Stuart. The Whigs charged Bolingbroke and other Tory chiefs with plotting to bring about a restoration, and there certainly was a very formidable party in England which desired such an event. If James Stuart had been a Protestant he would with little doubt have succeeded Anne on the throne. But he adhered firmly to the Catholic faith, and thereby forfeited the opportunity which seemed to be open to him. In the midst of the bitter strife of parties, Queen Anne died, after a reign of twelve years (17 14). It happened that the Electress Sophia, who had been cho- sen by the Act of Settlement as her successor, had died two months before Anne. The next heir was Sophia's son, George of Hanover, who now ascended the throne cf Great Britain as George the First. CHAPTER XLVII. THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. GEORGE the First was fifty-four years of age when he ascended the British throne. He was a dull, stubborn man, of dissolute habits and sluggish temperament. He could not speak a word of English ; and after character he came to England, he could only make himself of George i. understood in very poor Latin. Yet he was prudent and cautious, and was quite content to reign according to the will of his subjects. He never tried to exercise powers which exceeded the provisions of the Bill of Rights. He never attempted to set the royal authority above the law. The English did not love him any more than they had loved William of Orange ; and like William of Orange, George never felt at home in England, but was always looking with longing eyes to his snug little German realm of Hanover. The thirteen years of the rule of George the First were chiefly notable for the struggles between the two great political parties for ascendancy in his councils. These two parties had now become well defined ; the system by which England was governed by the party which succeeded in securing a majority of the House of Commons was permanently settled. The cabinet, in all its members, represented the dominant party of the day. The Tories 291 292 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. v.-ere, as they have been ever since, the champions of the royal power, of the privileges of nobility and of property, Tories and ^nd of the State church. They did not wish Whigs. great changes to be made in the constitution. They feared reforms, and were in favor of " letting well enough alone." The Whigs, on the other hand, advocated such changes in the constitution and the laws from time to time as advancing years and circumstances seemed to them to demand. They were for keeping up with the pro- gressive intelligence and wealth of the country. They leaned to the side of political liberty and of religious toleration. Although the Whigs were thus the party of progress, many great and powerful nobles were included in their ranks. It had been chiefly the influence of the great \\'hig lords, indeed, which had expelled the house of Stuart, placed William of Orange on the throne, and made Parlia- ment superior in power to the crown. These '' revolution TheRevoiu- ^^ higs," as they were called, were really the con- tiou Whigs, trolling power in the reign of George the First, The House of Commons had become the most powerful a;2:encv in the realm, and contained a large number of members who had been elected by the influence of the Whig nobles. Many boroughs were situated on the estates of these nobles ; and the voters in these boroughs always elected the man whom the lord of the manor dic- tated to them. Thus the " revolution Whigs " had a strong following, both in the House of Lords and in the House of Commons. George the First found the Tories in office. But not only did he himself prefer the Whigs, in whom he recog- nized the party which had awarded him the throne, but THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 293 the country now chose a Parliament in which the Whigs had a decided majority. Tlie Tory cabinet was dismissed , and a Whig cabinet, the leading members of which were Robert Walpole, General Stanhope, and Lord Townshend, took office. The Whig cabinet lost no time in Tories calling their Tory predecessors to a sharp ac- "^^^[^^^^ count. Bolingbroke, Ormond, and Oxford were Treason, charged with high treason in favoring the Stuart " Pre- tender," and in making a disgraceful peace with France. The two first fled to the continent. Oxford was thrown into the Tower. After being kept a prisoner for two years, he was tried and acquitted by the House of Lords. Before they had been in office a year, the Whig cabinet was called upon to put down a rebellious attempt to restore James Edward Stuart to the throne. Two risings took place on behalf of the exiled Stuart prince, or, as he was called, "the Pretender." The Earl of Mar proclaimed a revolt in the Highlands of Scotland ; and many warlike clans, led by their Pretender, chieftains, joined him. At the same time a small band of Jacobites (which was the name given to the par- tisans of the Stuarts) gathered under the Earl of Derwent- water in the north of England. Both of these insurrec- tions were crushed on the same day. The Duke of Argyll, at the head of clan Campbell, defeated Mar at Sheriff- muir, and General Carpenter captured Derwentwater's entire force at Preston (17 15). Mar retreated to Perth, where he was deserted by most of his Highland bands. The Stuart Pretender landed on the Scottish coast, only to find his cause lost, and to seek safety, in company with Mar, in hurried flight back to the continent. A stern fate awaited the leaders of this abortive revolt. Derwent- 294 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND, water, Nair, Kenmuir, and between thirty ^nd forty other noblemen and gentlemen were hanged for treason ; and nearly a thousand rebels were transported beyond sea. James Edward made several further attempts to recover the crown of his ancestors, but miserably failed in each instance. According to the then existing law, the duration of a Parliament was three years. Soon after the sup- Duration 1 II- ofPariia- pression of the Jacobite rebellion, the term of a ments. Parliament was extended to seven years ; and to this day seven years is the period during which a Parlia- ment may remain in existence ; although, as a rule, Parlia- ments are dissolved before they complete their legal limit. Foreign affairs now engaged the attention of the Whig cabinet, and excited dissension between the Whig leaders. An alliance was formed between England, France, and Hol- land, against Spain; and, after a time, the Em- Alliance ' ^ . . . with peror of Germany cast in his lot with the allies (17 17-17 1 8). Louis the Fourteenth, the great French king, was dead, and had been succeeded by his great-grandson, Louis the Fifteenth, who was still a child. The government of France was meanwhile carried on by the Duke of Orleans as regent. English statesmen desired the friendship of France, whom they had once so much feared. It was well that France should abandon the cause of the Stuarts, and bear good will to the House of Han- over. The regent Orleans, on his side, feared the ambi- tion of Philip of Spain, and wished for allies with whom to hold him in check. This alliance was bitterly opposed by Townshend and Walpole, who retired from the cabinet. The allies made war upon Spain. The Spanish fleet was completely de- THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 295 feated by the English under Admiral Byng, and the allied forces made such progress in their invasion of Spain that Philip was soon compelled to come to terms, invasion of He abandoned all the claims he had made, and spain. agreed once more not to aspire to the French throne (1720). This military success had the result of once more unitins: the Whio; chiefs. Those who had left the cabinet now returned to it. One of these reconciled chiefs was Sir Robert Walpole, who, it was clear, was the rising man in his party. Within two years after the peace with Spain, Walpole became the head of the cabinet as prime minister (172 1), and he continued to guide the destinies of Great Britain without interruption for a period of twenty years. Walpole was admirably fitted for the politics of the age in which he lived. In spite of some conspicuous sir Robert faults and vices, he was one of the greatest prime waipoie. ministers England has ever had. He had a clear insight into character; his intellect was at once keen and practical; he was a master of the details of public business ; he had a marvellous dexterity in ruling, guiding, and persuading the House of Commons; he well understood how to man- age the stubborn old king; he was shrewd and cautious; he was not vindictive towards his opponents ; and he sin- cerely desired that P^ngland would remain at peace with all the world, and pursue in tranquillity her progress as a great commercial and colonizing power. On the other hand, Walpole was corrupt in his methods, unscrupulous in pursuing his ends, coarse in his habits, and rough in his manners. He did not believe in the integrity of men, but declared that "every man has his price." Acting on this maxim, Walpole often resorted to the bribery of mem- bers of Parliament in order to carry his measures. 296 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. The long period during which Walpole controlled the affairs of Great Britain was for the most part one of inter- nal and external tranquillity. Now and then he found himself forced to yield to a determined public opinion which opposed his proje-cts ; but in general, by retaining the support of the great Whig families, and by shrewdly managing the House of Commons, he contrived to have his own way. In the midst of his administration, the old king, George the First, suddenly died (1727). George had crossed the ocean to pay a visit to his beloved Hano- ver, and on the way was seized with a fatal fit of apoplexy. He expired in his carriage. His son, who was forty-four George the yG^rs old, asccndcd the throne of Great Britain Second, ^g Gcorgc tlic Sccond. This king was a coura- geous, choleric, bustling little man, who spoke broken English, was as immoral as his father had been, and had a fondness for war. He was called by the English " dap- per little George." For a long time the younger George had been on very ill terms with his father, and they had mutually hated each other. George the Second visited his hostility also upon his father's favorite minister. Sir Robert Walpole. But he had not long been on the throne before he discovered that without Walpole he could not get along at all. So he grudgingly kept him in power. In spite of Walpole's War with ^^vc of pcacc, hc was at last driven into a war Spain. .^^,j^|-|-^ Spain by the overwhelming pressure of public opinion. The Spaniards, jealous of the trade which the English were busily cultivating with the Ameri- can colonies of Spain, began to seize upon and search English merchantmen, and to cruelly maltreat English sailors. As a result, war broke out between the two coun- THE HOUSE OF HANOVER. 29/ tries (1739). Its fortunes were at first favorable to Spain. Walpole's enemies eagerly grasped at the defeats of the English to assail the minister; and a Parliament Fan of was chosen with a majority hostile to him. Wal- waipoie. pole was at last driven from power, and was transferred to the House of Lords with the title of Earl of Orford (1742). In the course of his long tenure of power, Walpole had alienated many able statesmen by his jealousy of their talents. One by one they had left him, and joined his opponents. He had, besides, proposed some measures which were very unpopular. One of these was a tax which was very obnoxious to the people, called the " ex- cise." This was a duty levied on goods sent from place to place within the kingdom. It w\is so bitterly opposed that Walpole had to abandon it. The minister who suc- ceeded Walpole was Lord Carteret, who only remained at the head of affairs two years. The Duke of The Newcastle, and his brother, Henry Pelham, then Newcastle came into power, supported by most of the great Whig families. Newcastle was a pompous, talkative man, who was little respected, Henry Pelham was more sensi- ble, a good man of business, with some political skill, and a trained experience in public affairs. But there was a young man belonging to the party which was now in the ascendant, whose genius and influence were soon destined to overtop all others. This was William Pitt, famous in history as the great Earl of Chatham. William Pitt was poor, proud, ambitious, upright, and marvellously eloquent. There was a certain dig- wnuam nity and loftiness in his bearing which led men ^'**^' instinctively to look up to him. In an age of general political corruption, he set a noble example of purity, 298 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. personal honor, and disinterestedness. He was bold and fearless, and always stood out bravely for that which he thought to be right. By these qualities he soon won a place in the hearts of his countrymen, and a position of great influence and authority in Parliament. Pelham wished to give this brilliant and popular young orator a place in his ministry. But it happened that Pitt had deeply offended the king. In the course of a debate, Pitt had spoken contemptuously of Hanover — which George the Second loved as much as his father had done — as a " despicable electorate." The king therefore for a long Pitt takes time refused to give Pitt an office. But at last office. j^g ^y^^ compelled to yield to the demand of Pel- ham, and Pitt became a minister ; and from that time Pitt was the leading spirit in British politics for many years. CHAPTER XLVIII. THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. '^ I ^HE last twenty years of the reign of George the Sec- -*- ond were largely taken up with a series of wars. The first of these wars was brought about by a disputed suc- cession to the throne of Austria, to which there ' The Aus- were two claimants. Maria Theresa, the daugh- trian suc- , I . f 1 1 -1 cession. ter and heiress or the last emperor, was sustained by England, Holland, and Austria. The Elector of Bava- ria, on the other hand, was supported by Bavaria, Prussia, and France. A combined English and Dutch force of forty thousand men, under the command of King George himself, defeated the French in a great battle at Dettin- gen ; but two years after, the Duke of Cumberland, a younger son of King George, was repulsed after a des- pera-te conflict with the French under Prince Maurice at Fontenoy (1745). The final result of this war was that M*aria Theresa obtained the imperial throne, but not until Frederick the Great of Prussia had seized and annexed to his own kingdom the Austrian province of Silesia. Peace was concluded by the treaty of Aix-la- Chapelle (1748). While the foreign war was going on, Charles Edward, the eldest son of James Edward, the Stuart Pretender (James Edward himself being now dead), raised the standard of 299 300 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. revolt in Scotland. He thought it a good opportunity, The young when England was involved in the conflict on Pretender. ^Yie Continent, to make a bold stroke to recover the throne. He landed with a few adherents on the coast of Inverness in the Scottish Highlands. The Highland chieftains soon rallied to his side. Charles Edward was young, spirited, gallant in bearing, and engaging in man- ners, and aroused the ardor of the rude warriors of the north. His progress was at first triumphant. He entered Edinburgh at the head of his clans, put the English army under Cope to rout, and advanced through England as far as Derby. But the English did not flock to his stan- dard as the Highlanders had done ; and Charles Edward retreated to Glasgow, and from thence besieged Stirling. Meanwhile the Duke of Cumberland hastened north- ward with a formidable force, and the insurgents were forced to retreat to Inverness. At last the royal troops confronted Charles Edward and his hardy followers at Battle 6f Culloden Field, and in the battle which ensued cuiioden. Cumberland completely shattered and dispersed the Pretender's army (1746). Twenty-five hundred Scots were left on the field, and the last attempt of the Stuarts to recover the throne of their ancestors had entirely failed. Charles Edward wandered for several months, amid con- stant perils and adventures, among the Scottish mountains and islands, and at last escaped to the continent. His leading adherents were tried for treason and executed, and some of the ancient privileges of the Highland chiefs were taken from them. Charles Edward died more than forty years after (1788); and his only brother, Henry, the last direct heir of the Stuarts in the male line, died a Catholic cardinal early in the present century. I^C \PL (). THE \Ol^-i> PHhlLNDlH — Txci ^ THE SEVEN YEARS WAR, 3OI After a peaceful interval of six years, war again broke out between England and France. This is known in history as the " Seven Years' War." Pelham, the prime These-^en minister, had died, and had been succeeded by '^®^'"®' "^^^'■• his brother, the Duke of Newcastle. But the most power- ful member of the cabinet was William Pitt. The conduct of the conflict which now broke out between England and France was left in his masterful hands. He was ably seconded by Lord Anson, who was the first lord of the admiralty. Anson was the most flamous of living naval heroes. He had sailed with his fleet around the world a few years before, and had done much damage to the Span- ish settlements in the Pacific. As soon as Pitt became the ruling mind in the cabinet, the war went on in dead earnest, and was pursued by Pitt with unfaltering vigor. It was sustained by the enthusiastic support of the coun- try, for he was the most popular minister who had been in power for a century. The most striking feature of the Seven Years' War was the struggle between the English and the French for supremacy in North America. Both countries had been establishing and increasing their settlements on our conti- nent through a period of many years. The English had planted colonies in New En2:land, Virs^inia, New ^ » 7 & T r^^^ Englisn York, Pennsylvania, the Carolinas, and Georgia, and French The French had taken possession of Canada ^^ ^^enca. and Louisiana. A dispute had arisen between the French and English colonies as to the country west of the Alle- ghanies. Both claimed the right to hold and occupy it. The French in Canada took the first active steps to make good their claim. They proposed to construct a line of forts west of the Alleghanies, from Ohio to Louisiana, and 332 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. actually did build Fort Duquesne, on the banks of the Ohio River. The English resolved to resist the project of the Canadians by force of arms. An expedition under George Washington crossed the mountains to attack the fort, but was forced to retire before the superior strength of the French. Then the English government sent an expedition under General Braddock across the ocean, to oppose the French advance. But Braddock was assailed in the woods by the French and Indians, lost a large portion of his force, and was himself fatally wounded (1755). The Eng~ lish had better fortune in the American struggle four years later. General Wolfe, at the head of eight thou- sand men, attacked Quebec, the capital of Canada, while other British forces captured Niagara and Ticonderoga. At last, after a long siege, in which the English suffered Capture of Hiauy hardships, Wolfe scaled the heights of Quebec. Abraham, took the French by surprise, and en- gaged in a bitter conflict. Wolfe himself was mortally wounded. As he lay on the field, he heard his soldiers crying, "They fly! They fly!" "Who fly.?" asked the dying hero. *' The French ! " " Then," nuirmured Wolfe, " I die happy." A few days after, Quebec was captured by the British troops (1759).. The next year Montreal also surrendered to the English, and the whole of Canada be- came an English colony. At the same time that this struggle for supremacy was going on in America, the hostile nations were fighting The struggle ^^ch otlicr in Europc. Frederick the Great, in Europe, j^jng of Prussia, became the ally of England. The early events of the war were favorable to the French. They took the island of Minorca, and the Duke of Cum- THE SEVEN YEARS WAR. 333 berland ^vas forced to retreat before their forces to the seacoast. But Pitt's energy soon turned the tide of con- flict. The allied troops were placed under the command of the Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, who chased the French out of Germany and across the Rhine, and gave ihem a severe defeat at Crefeld (1758). At the same time the English under General Amherst took the island of Cape Breton from the French, and added it to the Eng- lish dominion. Ferdinand was defeated in the following year at Bergen, but soon after retrieved himself at Min- den, where he completely routed- the French forces, and compelled them to seek safety at Frankfort. The later years of this memorable war brought almost uninterrupted success and glory to the English arms. Admirals Rodney, Boscawen, and Flawke de- ■' English ra- feated the French fleets which attempted to vai victo- make an invasion of England, sinking many of the most formidable ships, and almost extinguishing the French navy. Ferdinand held at bay, in Germany, a French army much superior in numbers to his own. At a later period in the war, Spain became the ally of France. But the English continued to advance from victory to vic- tory. They drove the Spaniards out of Portugal, and took Havana in the West Indies, and Manilla in the eastern seas. The Seven Years' War was finally brought to an end by the Treaty of Paris, by the provisions of w^hich England was awarded Canada, Cape Breton, several islands in the West Indies, Minorca, and Florida ; while Havana and Manilla were given back to Spain (1762). It was during the reign of the second George that tlie foundations of England's splendid empire in India were laid. English settlements had been established on the 304 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. peninsula of Hindostan for a century and a half. Queen Elizabeth granted to a company of English merchants, The Eng- afccrwards so powerful and famous as the East lish con- India Company, the exclusive ris^ht to the trade quest of : India. between that rich country and England From time to time the agents of this company had planted sta- tions at various points on the coast of Hindostan, had built forts and factories, and had paid rent for the land they occupied, to the natives. In the course of genera- tions these stations became more numerous, the settle- ments more populous, and the trade of the company more important and lucrative. But down to the time of George the Second, the colonies in Hindostan (or India, as it is more commonly called) had been purely mercantile, and no plan of political empire had been pursued. The French had also established stations at certain points on the Indian coast. When, therefore, the Seven Years' War arose between France and England, the rival settlements in India came into collision. Some of the native princes had become hostile to the English intruders, and the French sought the aid of these princes against their rivals. A war broke out between the English at' Madras, and the nabob of the large and powerful province of Bengal. At the head of the English troops of the East India Company was a brave and brilliant young sol- Victories of ^'^^^, Robcrt CHvc. Hc marchcd on Calcutta, ciive. defeated the nabob, and after a great battle with the native army at Plassey, in which he took the nabob himself captive, established the English power over Ben- gal (1757). Soon after, the English defeated the French at Wandiwash, took Pondicherry, the principal French station on the coast, and finally reduced the French to a THE SEVEN YEARS WAR. 305 few small settlements. The English company now be- came predominant at all the chief points along the coast ; and from that time the English gradually extended their arms and control over province after province of India, until at last nearly the entire peninsula became subject to their sway. CHAPTER XLIX. GEORGE THE THIRD, GEORGE the Second died suddenly, in the seventy- seventh year of his age and in the thirty-third year of his reign (1760). His eldest son, Frederick, having died before him, the old king was succeeded by his grandson, a young man of twenty-two, who ascended the throne by the title of George the Third. This monarch had the longest reign in English history. He wore the crown for the remarkable period of sixty years ; and during that period many of the most memorable events in the annals of the English people took place. To Amer- icans the name of George the Third is the most familiar in the roll of English kings; for it w^as in his time, and to a great degree owing to his conduct, that the American colonies threw off the English yoke, and became a free and independent nation. The accession of George the Third was hailed by his subjects with joy and enthusiasm. He was the first king of the house of Hanover who had been born and bred on Ensflish soil. His traits, moreover, were stur- The yotmg ^ ^ J king's char- dily and thoroughly English. He was an excel- lent type of the national character. He had strong common-sense, a genuine love of country, a true pride in England's greatness, a desire to benefit his sub- 306 GEORGE III. RECEIVING INTELLIGENCE OF HIS ACCESSION TO THE THRONE. — Page 306. GEORGE THE THIRD. 30/ jects, a profound reverence for religion, plain and simple tastes, and moral and domestic habits. He was always devoted to his homely little German wife, and his family circle. On the other hand he was obstinate, wilful, nar- row-minded, rather dull and slow in intellect, and was possessed of a great idea of his royal authority. He had not been long on the throne before the two political par- ties changed places. The Whigs went out of oifice, and the Tories succeeded them. This was mainly owing to the course pursued by the young king himself. During his early years, George had been trained and guided by a Scottish nobleman, the Earl of Bute. On his accession to the throne, Bute became his chief g^^e and adviser and friend. Bute was a Tory, and had ^°'^- taught the young king to dislike the great Whig families which had so long controlled the affairs of Britain. Early in George's reign, therefore, a bitter struggle for power took place between the Whigs, with Pitt as their leader, and the Tories under Bute. The question upon which the two parties finally joined issue was whether the war with France should be continued, or whether peace should be made. By the aid of Henry Fox, a very able but unscru- pulous politician, a vote was carried in the House of Com- mons by a large majority in favor of peace. Pitt had already retired from office, and now Newcastle, the Whig prime minister, resigned (1762). The new Tory prime minister was George Grenville. But it turned out that Grenville would not accept Bute as his guide, and, after holding office for three years, he in turn was driven from power by Bute's influence. The Whigs were now once more reluctantly called by the king into his councils, with the Marquis of Rockingham 308 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. as prime minister. But Rockingham only remained in office a year, when Pitt again became the leading spirit of British politics. The new prime minister was the Duke of Grafton ; but Pitt, who was created Earl of Chatham, and took his seat in the House of Lords, was the real chief of the cabinet. Pitt, however, was no longer either as popular or as powerful as he had once been. The peo- ple did not like his acceptance of a title ; and Decline of '^ _ ^ _ Pitt's influ- his desertion of his old friends, the Whigs, and his subservience to the king, still further les- sened his influence. Shattered in health, as well as shorn of his old authority, he retired from office ; and two years afterwards, the Grafton cabinet, of which Pitt had been the chief member, gave place to the cabinet of Lord North (1770). During the period of these various political changes, several important events took place. One of these events John was the arrest of John Wilkes, an able member Wilkes. q£ Parliament and a bold political agitator, who had written some very severe pamphlets against the mem- bers of the government. Wilkes was arrested on what was called a "general warrant"; that is, a warrant which did not name the person to be taken, but gave the officers of the law a general authority to arrest anyone whom they judged to be guilty of an unlawful act. The arrest of Wilkes caused a great commotion through the country; and the good result of it was, that from that time no general warrants were ever issued. A few years after, Wilkes caused further trouble to the ministers in power. He had been chosen a member of Parliament by the county of Middlesex, and had been thrown into prison lor wilting libels on certain public men. As he persisted GEORGE THE THIRD. 3O9 in doing this, he was expelled from the House of Com- mons. Three times he was re-elected by Middlesex, and each time the House expelled him. At last the candi- date opposed to him, although he had a far smaller num- ber of votes than Wilkts, was awarded his seat in the House. It was during the first ten years of the reign of George the Third that the laws were passed which provoked the grave discontent of the American colonies, and ^ _ ' The Ameri- instigated their final resistance to English rule, can coio- England had long subjected the colonies to her own interests in trade and manufactures. The colonies were restricted and were prohibited from trading in arti- cles which the home country produced, and from entering into competition with England in foreign markets. George Grenville, while prime minister, carried through Parlia- ment an act which first led the Americans to think of active resistance. This was the famous " Stamp Act" (1765). It proposed to levy a tax upon the Americans by a duty on stamped paper. The Stamp Act aroused so much opposition, even in England, that it was repealed by Grenville's successor. But the Grafton cabinet per- suaded Parliament to pass a law which the Americans thought even more oppressive. This law levied duties on certain articles entering American ports, notably a duty on tea ; and one of the first open acts of resistance in America was the throwing overboard of a cargo of tea which had been brought by an English ship into Boston harbor. The Americans protested against being taxed when they were not represented in Parliament, the body which levied the taxes ; and it was upon this principle that 310 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. they justified their opposition to the proceedings of the Causes of English government. The subject of the revolt the Ameri- ^f j-]^g American colonies and the American can Revo- ... lution. Revolution properly belongs to the history cf the United States. The leading events of that great slruf^f^le can only be briefly outlined here. King George and his advisers refused to abrogate the unjust laws which outraged the colonies, and resolved to make them submit to his rule by force of arms. In this he was supported by Lord North, who had succeeded Grafton as prime minis- ter, and by a majority of the House of Commons. On ths other hand, the king's tyrannical treatment of the colonies was bitterly and strenuously opposed by William Pitt, Earl of Chatham. The last years of that great man were de- voted to a heroic defence of the Americans against their oppressors. At first he strove to settle the difficulties be- tween the colonies and the mother country by peaceable concession. When he had failed in that, he justified the resistance of the colonies, and in words of burning elo- quence declared that their cause was just, and that they would never be conquered. The war of the American Revolution opened with the battles of Lexington and Concord (April, 1775), which were soon followed by the battle of Bunker Hill Events of n' r i i -i i tho Revoiu- (June, 1775). Li all of these battles, while the *'°''' English troops won the day, the bravery and de- termination of the Americans were amply tested. A year later, the American colonies, by their Congress at Phila- delphia, declared their entire independence of the British crown (J-uly 4, 1776). A little more than a year after, the English general, Burgoyne, with five thousand troops, sur- rendered to the Americans under Gates at Saratoga (Oct, GEORGE THE THIRD. 3II 1777). The events of the war were sometimes favorable to one side, and sometimes to the other ; but on the whole the colonists, though poor, ill-clad, and ill-fed, with an army less numerous and less disciplined than that of the British, progressed towards the achievement of their great purpose. Soon after the surrender of Burgoyne, France recognized the independence of the colonies, and sent troops under Lafayette and Rochambeau to give them aid (1778). A year later Spain followed the French example in acknowledging the new nation. Finally the surrender of Lord Cornwallis with his army to General Washington at Yorktown (Oct. 1781) at last convinced the English that their cause in America was defeated, and that the colonies were forever lost to the British empire. Throughout the period of the American war, Lord North had remained in power as prime minister. He was trusted and liked by the king, and, as a determined Tory, he did all he could to sustain and increase the royal authority. He agreed with the king in the policy of crushing out, if possible, the resistance of the American colonies. In this he was at first supported by the majority of the House of Commons and the nation, and in the early years of his premiership the power of the crown was greater than it had been since the Revolution. But when, in course of time, it appeared that the war in America was going against the English, the Whig opposition to it and to Lord North grew gradually strong. Several j^oung statesmen of rare talents arose to combat the Tory minister. One of these was Edmund Burke, an Irishman, and the 1 . . , . . . Burke and greatest political writer that the British king- the youn- dom has ever produced. Another was Charles ^^"^ ^°^' James Fox, a younger son of Henry Fox, who began his 312 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. political career as a Tory, but became the foremost cham- pion of the Whigs, and in time was recognized as the most powerful Parliamentary debater of his time. The Whigs were devoted to the cause of reform. They attempted, even while Lord North was still at the head of affairs, to cut down the expenses of the state, and to cur- tail the increasing power of the crown. It was a Whig maxim that " the power of the crown has increased, is in- creasing, and ought to be diminished." The turn of the Whigs to obtain office came at last. The failure to subdue the American colonies was a death-blow to the cabinet of Lord North. The House of Commons no longer sup- The Whigs ported it ; and the Whigs were once more called in power, j^^q ^j^g loyal couucils Under the Marquis of Rockingham. Both Fox and Burke were awarded high office ; and some reforms were promptly carried through (1782). But the death of the Marquis of Rockingham, a few months after his return to office, was followed by a split among the Whig leaders. The Earl of Shelburne became prime minister ; but Fox, Burke, and others re- fused to serve under him, and resigned their places. Shel- burne could not long sustain himself without the support of these able men, and he in turn, after a premiership of seven months, was forced to retire. Fox and Burke now committed an act for which they have been severely criticized. Laying aside their old ani- mosity against Lord North and the Tories, they formed an alliance with them. Fox proposed in the House of Com- mons that peace should be made with America. Shel- burne strenuously opposed the proposition. The vote was carried; Shelburne resigned ; and North and Fox, with a " Coalition Cabinet," came into office. One of the first _ GEORGE THE THIRD. 313 acts of this cabinet was to make a treaty, by which Eng- land recognized the independence of the United States of America (Sept. 1783). It is interestinsf that 1 1 T 1 XT , , • • The coali- this was done by Lord North, the very minister tion cabi- who had from the first advocated and conducted '^^*' the conflict with the colonies. The " Coalition Cabinet," however, composed as it was of Whigs and Tories, was not strong or united enough to last. The king bitterly disliked Fox, who was the leading spirit in the cabinet, and used all his influence to bring about Fox's defeat. An opportunity soon came. Fox brought in a bill to make some changes in the government of India. This bill was defeated in the House of Lords ; and the Coali- tion Cabinet, after holding office for only ten months, fell from power. CHAPTER L. WILLIAM PITT. THE great Earl of Chatham was dead ; but he had left behind him a worthy heir to his talents and his fame. His younger son, whose name was also William Pitt, was already a distinguished orator and statesman at the time of the fall of the coalition cabinet. He had en- tered the House of Commons when he came of age, and had made his first speech when only twenty-one years old. And now, when only twenty-four, he became prime minis- ter of England (1783). There is, perhaps, no instance in history in which a man so young, by the sheer force of genius, has risen to so great a height of political power. AVilliam Pitt continued to be prime minister through an eventful period of eighteen years, and showed himself to be the greatest executive officer who had been in power Character slucc Robcrt Walpolc. In many respects he of William resembled his illustrious father. He was proud, Pitt the -t ' younger. purc, ambitious, poor, and entirely devoted to the welfare of his country ; and he was gifted with an eloquence not as gorgeous and thrilling, indeed, as Chat- ham's, but clear, strong, and incisive, and abounding in sound and compact argument. At first Pitt had to contend with a powerful and persist- ent opposition, which constantly threatened to drive him 314 WILLIAM PITT. 315 from office. The House of Commons contained a major- ity liostile to him ; the eloquence of Fox and Burke stead- ily assailed him. He had only the support of pitt-s dim. the king, and of the king's personal adherents, c^^'^ies. But he fought his battle with unflagging courage. He dissolved Parliament, and was rewarded by the return of a new House of Commons which contained a large majority in his favor. Armed, now, Vv'ith irresistible power, Pitt entered upon an energetic career of internal reform. He reduced the national debt, which in course of The nation- time had swelled to the alarming figure of ^^250,- ^^ *^®^*- 000,000. He gave a public account, at regular intervals, of the condition of the treasury. At the same time he reduced the tariff on many articles, and thus gave a new impetus to British commerce. He reduced several taxes which weighed heavily on the poorer classes. He extend- ed soiTie of the benefits of his masterly financial policy to oppressed Ireland, and made a treaty with the French which increased the freedom and volume of trade between the two countries. Not content with financial reforms, Pitt set about politi- cal reforms. He desired that the House of Commons, which was now the most powerful of the three political estates, should more exactly reflect the opinions reforms. and wishes of the people. He tried to take away from some of the little boroughs controlled by nobles and large land-owners (called "rotten boroughs") the right to send members to Parliament, and to give this right to growing and thriving towns instead ; and he also wished to confer the suffrage upon larger numbers of the people. But England was not yet ripe for such changes, and the young prime minister was forced to give up his enlightened pro- 3l6 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. ject. When Pitt had been hi office about five years, King Insanity of George the Third became ingane (1788). The the king. question tlien arose, whp, -should exercise the royal powers during his incapacity. The king's eldest son, George, Prince of Wales, had quarrelled with his father, had separated himself from Pitt and the rest of the king's friends, and had formed a close friendship with Fox and other leading Whigs. So the Whigs demanded that he had a right to be regent, with full royal power, so long as the king continued insane. Pitt, on the other hand, maintained that if the prince was made re^nt, it should be by a vote of Parliament, and that Parliament should place him under whatever re- strictions it pleased. Pie brought in a bill to this effect; but, fortunately, before the bill had become a law, the king recovered his reason, to the delight of all his people. While the first years of Pitt's tenure of office were devoted to party conflicts and internal reforms, the later years of his premiership were largely taken up with foreign compli- Foreign cations and terrible wars. First, England made '^^'■^- an alliance with Pmssia to defend the stadthold- er of Holland from any aggression by France. Then the Russians attacked the Turks, and Pitt ardently wished to protect the sultan from his assailant ,- but in this the na- tion would not support him. Finally the mightiest politi- cal convulsion which had shaken Europe for centuries — the French Revolution — suddenly broke out; and from that time, for many years, England was involved in the conflicts which speedily grew out of that tremendous overturning. The French people had long been dreadfully oppressed, both by their kings and by the nobility. Their monsy WILLIAM PITT. 317 had been wrung from them to minister to the luxuries and pleasures of the great. At last the tyranny of their rulers could no longer be endured. The French rose ^he French in revolution (1789). At first their revolt was revolution, attended by moderation ; and the English, who sym- pathized with the cause of liberty, cherished hopes that the French were about to become as free as them- selves. Pitt and Fox, the two foremost of English states- men, were at the outset glad that the revolution had taken place. But after a while the French republicans . . , . Excesses of began to commit wild excesses and crimes. French re- They imprisoned the king and queen, tore down p^^^''^^^'"- the Bastille, and invaded the Tuileries. They then con- demned, not only the king and queen, but large numbers of priests, nobles, and titled women, as well as multi- tudes of persons of a lower rank, who were suspected of hostility to the republic, to cruel deaths by the guillotine. All the monarchs and privileged classes of Europe feared that revolutions would break out everywhere ; and in time all the powers combined against the French. The fury with which the revolution raged in France de- prived it of the sympathy of many Englishmen who, at the outset, had wished it to succeed. Among these English feei- were Pitt, the prime minister, and Burke, the '''^• most profound thinker among the Whigs. Fox still clung to his advocacy of those who were fiercely seeking to es- tablish a republic in France, and to do away forever with monarchs and nobles, and so separated from Burke, his lifelong friend. The English Tories, with Pitt at their head, pronounced against the revolution, and at last joined the continental enemies of France in making war upon her (1793). Austria and Prussia had alreadv formed 315 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. an alliance to put down the revolution, and had attempted to invade France ; but they had been driven back by the heroic legions of the young republic. The first war in War with whicli England engaged against the French last- France. Q^i j-jjj-jg years (i 793-1802). At first the French bravely held their own. The English gained some naval suc- cesses, and took some of the French colonies in the East and West Indies ; but on the continent the French for sev- eral years successfully defended their frontier from attack. While the conflict was going on abroad, there were dis- turbances at home in England as a result of the French uprising. Pitt feared lest the discontented classes should imitate the French example, and rise in revolt. He be- came severe and arbitrary in his policy. Fie ciiange of caused tlic Habcas Corpus Act to be suspended, ^°^^^^' curtailed the freedom of the press, and, as far as he could, brought the laws to bear harshly on the liberties of the people. Yet the great minister preferred peace to war, and would have made peace with the French if he could have done so on reasonable terms. But the French, answered because the En2:lish had taken sides with their foes, now assumed the offensive. They made a futile at- tempt to invade England by way of Ireland. This aroused the national spirit of the English, and the war was resumed with far greater intensity than before (1797). Spain and Holland had become the allies of France, But the Spanish fleet was defeated bv Tervis and Nel- Victories of ^ ' -' the English SOU at Cape St. Vincent, while the Dutch fleet met with a similar reverse at the hands of Dun- can at Camperdown. These brilliant victories of the English navy put an end to the scheme of an English invasion. WILLIAM PITT. 319 A man of surpassing genius had now risen in France, who was destined to dazzle the world with his triumphs and his splendid career for many years, and to almost bring all Europe beneath his sway. This was Napoleon Bonaparte, the greatest warrior who had appeared on the earth since Julius Caesar. Napoleon's first military exploit was his defence of Toulon. He won world-wide fame by a brilliant campaign in Italy, and later by his expedition to Egypt, and his attempt to carry his conquests to Syria and the far East (1798). The English, who had plunged into the war with new vigor, were resolved to protect Syria from French occupation. The fleets of the two nations met off Aboukir, at the mouth of the Nile, and the naval battle which ensued resulted in a Battle of complete victory for Nelson, the English com- theNiie. mander. The next year the French were again beaten at Acre, and Napoleon was forced to give up his project of Asiatic conquest; and two years after, the victory of Abercrombie over the French at Aboukir, and the sur- render by the French of Cairo and Alexandria, brought to a close their occupation of Egypt (1801). On his return from Egypt, Napoleon overthrew the Di- rectory, the executive body of the French republic, and took the supreme power into his own hands with the title of First Consul (1799). Five years afterwards he ^ 1/^^ J _ Napoleon assumed an imperial crown, and was proclaimed becomes emperor of the French. But he was destined ^'"i?®''"'"- to win many laurels of military glory before he reached that lofty elevation. As soon as he had established his power as first consul, he amassed a great army, and en- tered upon his career of European conquest. He hum- bled Austria to the dust, and compelled her to make a 320 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. treaty which gave up to France the left bank of the Rhine. He formed a close alliance with Russia, Sweden, Denmark, and Prussia, and now England was the only power which continued to be his adversary. Unfortunately for England, William Pitt was no longer at the head of affairs. He had desired to relieve the Catholics of their political disabilities, and allow them to vote and to be members of Parliament, pitfsresig- To this the obstinate old king would not agree, nation. and Pitt resigned office (iSoi). He was succeed- ed by Henry Addington, whose ministry lasted three years. The power of England on the seas was supreme ; and it was by her navy that she succeeded in breaking up Na- poleon's alliance with the northern powers. The heroic Nelson, the greatest of all English admirals, utterly de- feated the Danish fleet in the harbor of Copenhagen ; and soon after, England made peace with Russia, Denmark, and Sweden. Napoleon, too, was ready to come to terms. Peace of ^Y thc treaty of Amiens, concluded between Amiens. England and France (1802), each power gave up some of the conquests they had made. England surren- dered the French West Indies, but retained Ceylon and Trinidad. France loosed her hold on Malta, Rome, and Naples. But this peace was of short duration. Na- poleon's restless ambition once more provoked European conflict, within a year after the Treaty of Amiens had been signed. He seized Elba, invaded northern Italy, and es- tablished himself in Switzerland. England again declared war against him. Napoleon retorted by another vigorous attempt to land an army on English shores. The Endish volunteered for England ^ ° again de- the dcfcncc of the country by hundreds of thou- ^ r s war. g^j^^g^ 'pj^g incapable cabinet of Addington re- WILLIAM PITT. 321 signed under the pressure of public opinion, and William Pitt once more took the helm (1804). Napoleon's plan of invading England was frustrated by Villeneuve, one of his admirals, who, instead of obeying Napoleon's order to proceed with his fleet to the Channel, sailed away to Cadiz. There Villeneuve was joined by the Spanish fleet. Nelson and Collingwood followed up the enemy with twenty-seven English men-of-war, and, in the famous battle of Trafalgar, captured twenty French and Span- Battle of ish ships, killed the Spanish admiral, and took Trafalgar, the French admiral prisoner. But the brave Nelson was himself fatally wounded in his heroic attack, and expired at the very moment of his splendid victory (Oct. 21, 1805). But Napoleon, though discomfited at sea by English prowess, pursued his campaign on the continent with daz- zling success. Austria and Russia had now become the allies of England, and were eager to crush the daring and ambitious disturber of the peace of Europe. But Napo- leon won a series of rapid victories, the chief of which was that of Austerlitz, by v/hich he overcame the combined Austrian and Russian armies, occupied Vienna, and com- pelled Austria to yield to his terms. At this juncture, England's great minister, William Pitt, died (1806). It is said that his end was hastened by the crushing Death of defeat of his allies at Austerlitz. He was sue- ^^"■ ceeded by Lord Grenville, who formed a Whig cabinet, which, from the exceptional ability of its members, was called the " Cabinet of All the Talents." Its most con- spicuous figure was Charles James Fox. But Fox died a few months after the cabinet was formed, and soon after Lord Grenville gave way to the Duke of Portland and a Tory cabinet. 322 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND . Meanwhile Napoleon continued his military triumphs with scarcely a check. He overwhelmingly defeated the Napoleon's Prussiaus at Jena, and entered Berlin a con- triumphs. queror as he had before entered Vienna. He issued a decree forbidding all the nations under his con- trol from having any dealings with England. He terrified Russia into making peace with him, and once more se. cured the alliance of Denmark and Sweden. He seemed about to have all Europe beneath his feet. England alone stood sturdily against him from first to last. Once again the English fleet went to the rescue. It bombarded and occupied Copenhagen, and carried the Danish fleet cap- tive to England. But now the scene of the great war changed to the Spanish peninsula. CHAPTER LI. THE NAPOLEONIC WARS. '"T^WO years after the battle of Austerlitz, Napoleon -^ found himself almost supreme throughout the conti- nent of Europe. He was emperor of the French, and kins: of Italy. He was the virtual ruler of Ba- '^ •' ^ Napoleon varia and Wurtemberg. He had made his suprems in brother Joseph king of Naples, and his brother Louis king of Holland. Austria, Prussia, and Denmark were helpless beneath his power. England and Spain alone continued to hold out against his victorious legions and his all-grnsping ambition. But the conqueror of so many kingdoms and states was not yet satisfied. The dissen- sions of the reigning family in Spain gave him an oppor- tunity, which he quickly seized, to seek new conquests in the Iberian peninsula. He took the Spanish king conquest of prisoner, and brought him to France ; and he ^P^i"^- elevated his brother, Joseph Bonaparte, who was reignnig in Naples, to the Spanish throne (1808). The Spanish people were aroused to a fierce resistance to this foreign intrusion. They rose everywhere in revolt, and appealed to England for aid. England promptly re- sponded. An army of ten thousand men was sent to Spain, under the command of Sir Arthur Wellesley, who afterwards became illustrious as the great Duke of Wel- 323 324 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. lington. The " Peninsula War," as it was called, raged with fury and with varjdng fortunes to the two adversaries The penin- ^^Y several years. The French, who had invaded suia war. Portugal, were thrice driven from that kingdom, and by Wellesley's masterly generalship were at last also expelled from Spain. Wellesley won great renown by his brilliant victories over the French in the Peninsula War. The principal battles in which the English arms were triumphant were Corunna — in which Sir John Moore, the hero of Wolfe's poem, was killed — (Jan., 1809), Talavera (July. 1809), Albuera (May, 181 1), Salamanca (July, 1812), and Vittoria (June, 1813). The result of the battle of Vittoria was to drive the French forces altogether from Spanish soil ; and the house of Bourbon was restored to the throne of Spain. During the years which were occupied with these great wars on the continent, many notable events took place in England and in Ireland. One of the most im- impeach- pQj-j^^ut was the impeachment of Warren Hast- ment of Warren Hastings Warren lugs, thc govemor-gencral of the British empire of India. He was arraigned by the Commons before the House of Lords, charged with " high crimes and misdemeanors " ; and he was acquitted after a weari- some trial which lasted for more than seven years (1788- 1795). After the conquests of Clive, the rule of the Eng- lish in India had rapidly spread over many principalities The English and provinces of that vast Asiatic country, in India. cVwe himsclf had subdued the great states of Bengal, Orissa, and Bahar ; and Warren Hastings, who was a man of rare ability and energy, had carried the dominion and the influence of the English much further. The powers of the East India Company were in THE NAPOLEONIC WARS. 325 many cases abused, and were found to have grown too formidable ; and Parliament passed laws restricting its powers, establishing a " Board of Control " in London with authority over the company, and transferring the political rule of India to the home government (1784). The governors-general who succeeded Hastings continued to extend the area of the English dominion, fought many wars with the native princes, and at last established the su- premacy of English power and influence throughout India. The long oppression of the Irish by England resulted, towards the close of the eighteenth century, in a series of stirrino- events. The cruel and unjust " penal . . . . . Oppres- laws," passed in the reigns of William the Third sionofire- and Anne, still weighed heavily upon the vast majority of the Irish people. By their provisions, no Roman Catholic could vote, or sit in Parliament, or hold any civil or military trust. Other laws forbade Catholics from pursuing certain avocations. The restrictions on Irish trade well nigh stifled the commerce and industries of the island. Even education was hampered, and almost forbidden, in Ireland The landlords, many of them Eng- lish by descent, treated their tenants with remorseless cruelty, and wrung their earnings from them with unblush- ing greed. The Irish national spirit was at last aroused by these accumulated tyrannies. A force of forty thou- sand volunteers from every part of Ireland was enrolled ; and the English government, in the face of such ti^^ i^ish an array, conceded some points to Irish de- volunteers. mands. The laws which hampered Irish trade, and the Test Act, were abrogated; and a strenuous effort was made by the Whigs to relieve the Irish of their political disabilities. 326 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. These concessions emboldened the Irish patriot leaders to go a step further. Foremost among these leaders was the eloquent and upright Henry Grattan. He demanded that Ireland should be altogether freed from the control Grattan's o^ ^^c English Parliament, and that the Irish Parliament. ParHament alone should make laws for Ireland (1782). The demand came at a time when the English cabinet was perplexed by many difficulties ; and it was conceded. For a short time Ireland was practically free. Her Parliament had real power, and was sustained by the formidable force of volunteers. But the Irish Protestants were not yet willing that the Roman Catholic majority should have votes or sit in Parliament. Internal discus- sion soon brought about confusion in Irish affairs. Mean- while the attempts of Pitt to bring about a union between Ireland and Great Britain were strenuously opposed by Grattan and Curran, the chiefs of the Irish patriot party. The volunteers disappeared, and in a few years a new or- Agitation gauization, called " the Society of United Irish- in Ireland, ^^eu," was formcd for the purpose of separating Ireland from Great Britain altogether. This body not only stirred up agitation among the people, but appealed to the French to come to Ireland and establish a republic like their own. The French accordingly despatched a fleet of twenty- eight ships and fifteen thousand troops to the Irish coast ; but the ships separated in the fog, and were forced by a storm to seek refuge again in French harbors (1796)0 The Irish were now thrown upon their own resources. A scheme for a general revolt was matured, and committees were formed to put it into execution. One member of the committee at Dublin was a brave young Protestant, THE NAPOLEONIC WARS. 32/ Lord Edward Fitzgerald. The English authorities got wind of the scheme, and arrested the Dublin -jhe irish committee. Lord Edward resisted the officers, Rebellion. and in the conflict was mortally wounded. Southern and eastern Ireland were soon in arms. Martial law was pro- claimed, and many desperate and bloody struggles ensued, in which cruelties were committed on both sides. Finally the Irish were decisively defeated by the superior num- bers and discipline of the British troops at Vinegar Hill. They had fou2:ht valiantly, but the odds a2:ainst ^ -^ -" . * Battle of them had been overwhelming from the first. vinegar Their leaders were hung, and many of the Irish prisoners were ruthlessly killed with pikes ; and once more England visited Irish revolt from her rule with blood-thirsty retaliation (1798). A second attempt of the French to land troops in Ire- land ignominiously failed, and several of their ships were captured; and Wolfe Tone, one of the Irish chiefs, who was captured on board a French man-of-war, was con- demned to be hung. But he committed suicide in jail. William Pitt, the English prime minister, now resolved that he would press his project of a complete legislative union between Ireland and Great Britain to an issue. He succeeded in obtaining his end by of ireiaiT cajolinof, bribin":, and overawinsf members of the ^**^ Great y *' ^' » Britain. Irish House of Commons. The " Act of Union," was finally adopted by both the British and the Irish Parliament. The Irish Parliament ceased to exist, and Irish representatives were admitted to both Houses of the British Parliament. Twenty-eight Irish peers, elected for life, and four Irish Episcopal bishops, took their seats in the House of Lords, and Ireland was allowed 328 YOUNG people's ENGLAND, one hundred members in the House of Commons. There thus came about the '' United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland " ; and the legislative union thus formed be- tween the two islands has continued down to this day. Another important event of the period during which the Napoleonic wars were raging on the continent, w^as the agitation to abolish the trading in slaves by agaiust°the Englishmen, and to do away with slavery itself Slave throusfhout the dominions of England. This Trade. ^ * agitation was begun and vigorously pursued by that great and good man, William Wilberforce. In his noble cause Wilberforce was aided and encouraged by William Pitt, and later by Fox ; and he at last succeeded in carrying a bill through Parliament, abolishing the in- human traffic in slaves (1806). But nearly thirty years Abolition of ^^'^I'e yet to elapse before slavery was abolished Slavery. j^-^ j|-^g British colonies. This humane reform was finally achieved, and received the sanction of Parlia- ment in the very year of Wilberforce's death (1833). From that time, every human being who stepped upon British ground, the world over, became thereby free. After the death of Charles James Fox, and the fall of the " Cabinet of All the Talents," the Tories came into power under the Duke of Portland (1807); and from that Power of time the Tories remained continuously in office tile Tories. £qj. ^j-^g iQj-,g period of twcuty-four years. The Duke of Portland, after a premiership of three years, gave place to Spencer Perceval (1810). Soon after, George the Third became hopelessly insane. His disorder was aggravated by the fatal illness of his favorite daughter, the Princess Amelia. It became evident that the king had no longer the capacity to reign, and a regency was es- THE NAPOLEONIC WARS. 329 tablished with George, Prince of Wales, the king's eldest son, as regent. Parliament surrounded him with certain restrictions. The care of the insane monarch ^.^e Regen- was consigned to the queen, and to her also was ''^■ committed the control of the royal household. The re- gent assumed the royal power, and from that time George the Third virtually ceased to reign (February, 181 1). A little more than a year after this notable event, Spen- cer Perceval, the prime minister, was assassinated in the lobby of the House of Commons by a madman named Bellingham (18 12). The next prime minister was the Earl of Liverpool, who remained at the head of affairs for the unusually long period of fifteen years. The prince regent, who afterwards reigned as George the Fourth, was tail and nnposing in personal appearance, heartless, dissolute, selfish, pompous in manner, arbitrary ^he prince m his political ideas, and not gifted with more ^^gent. than an ordinary intellect. In early manhood he had favored the Whigs, rather from a spirit of hostility to his father than from honest conviction. When he became regent however, he deserted his old Whisf friends, and gave his confidence to the Tories, whom he continued to cherish until his death. The year in which the regency was formed (18 12), was signalized by the begmrimg of the second war between England and the United States, and by the opening of the last act in the Napoleonic wars wTr°with on the continent ot Europe. The American *^® united ^ states. war was brought about by certain '' Orders in Council ' which England issued, m order to prevent English commerce from being transferred to the ships of other nations while the European conflict was going 330 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. on. These orders sought to compel all ships on the way to blockaded ports to touch at English ports. The Americans had already been offended by the right claimed by England to board American vessels, and " search " them for escaped English mariners. To the Orders in Council the United States retorted with a " Non-Intercourse Act," by which all commerce between England and the United States was suspended. England was preparing to withdraw the orders, when the United States declared war. The first battles between the two powers were naval ones, and resulted in a succession of victories by the American men-of-war. These were followed up American naval victo- by a land campaign, in which Toronto and Upper Canada were occupied by American troops, and an English flotilla in Lake Erie was annihilated. The tide of war then turned for a while in favor of the Eng- lish. Upper Canada was re-occupied, and later a British force captured Washington and burned its public build- ings. But in the end the Americans triumphed. An English attack on Plattsburgh, on Lake Champlain, was repulsed, and General Jackson successfully defended New Orleans from the assault of General Packen- The battle of New Or- ham. The causes of the war had now disap- peared, and peace was concluded between the two powers by the treaty of Ghent (1814), General Jackson's victory of New Orleans, indeed, was gained several months after the treaty was signed, but before news of it had reached the L^nited States. All this while Napoleon had been pursuing his career of conquest. He had established his authority over many of tte smaller German states, and had made his brother. THE NAPOLEONIC WARS. 33 1 Jerome, king of Westphalia. England, Russia, and Sweden had made an alliance a^^ainst him. The very ° . ■' Alliance week in which the United States declared war against Na- against England, Napoleon set out upon his in- ^° ^°'^' vasion of the Russian Empire (18 12). This expedition was destined to be the turning point of his career. He advanced as far as Moscow ; but that city was burned by the Russians themselves ; and Napoleon was forced to retreat through a dreary and hostile country in the dead of winter. His splendid army was decimated by cold and hunger, and in the following summer he suffered an overwhelming defeat at Leipsic. He retreated into France, followed by his enemies, Paris fell an/a^di- before their assault (March, 18 14), and Napo- ^^"°^g°^ leon, abdicating his throne, retired to the island of Elba. The allies thereupon restored the Bourbons to the French throne, in the person of Louis the Eigh- teenth. In less than a year Napoleon suddenly broke forth from his island retreat, landed in France, and, joined at every step by multitudes of his old soldiers, once more entered Paris in triumph. The Bourbon king fled, and Napoleon resumed his imperial crown. He now gathered up his resources for a terrific and final conflict. The English and Prussians joined their forces to encounter him. Ar- thur Wellesley, now Duke of Wellington, and the most renowned of living English generals, took the command in Belgium, the rendezvous of the allied forces. The two armies met in deadly conflict at Waterloo (Tune, ■' \J 1 .pjjg battle 1815) ; Napoleon was utterly defeated, and made of water- all haste to regain Paris. He once more abdi- cated the throne, and delivered himself up to the com- 332 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. mander of an English man-of-war. His victors there- upon consigned him to the remote and lonely island of St. Helena, where he remained in captivity for the rest of his life. The allied armies entered Paris, and Louis the Eighteenth again returned to the throne of his ancestors. CHAPTER LIL PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE, THE progress of the English people during the one hundred and eighteen years included in the reigns of Anne and the first three Georges (1702-1820) was very marked and rapid. In political progress they advanced steadily towards complete popular self-government. The powers both of the crown and of the great fami- increase of lies became more and more restricted, and the t^e power ' of the peo- representatives of the nation acquired the au- pie. thority taken from the other two estates. The severity of the criminal laws was gradually relaxed, and public opin- ion became constantly broader, more humane, and more enlightened. In literature, in the useful and ornamental arts, in science and invention, in the comfort and conveni- ences of living, in industrial improvement and growth, in commercial prosperity, and in the settlement of English colonies in distant regions, the progress of the English dur- ing the eighteenth century was far greater than it had been for several centuries before. The reign of Queen Anne is only less celebrated for its brilliant literary products than is that of Elizabeth. It was adorned by poets like Addison, Pope, and T^. . Ti r-,To 1 iT->T Literature. Prior; essayists like Swift, bteele, and Eoling- broke ; philosophers like John Locke ; writers of fiction like 233 334 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. De Foe ; wits like Arbuthnot ; and theologians like Atter- bury and South. The succession of able writers was con- tinuous through the eighteenth century. In its earlier half, Young, Thomson, Samuel Johnson, Gay, Akenside, and Gray appeared as poets; Fielding, Smollett, Richard- son, and Sterne as novelists; 'and Hervey and Walpole as writers of delightful memoirs. The first half of George the Third's reign produced Percy, Goldsmith, Hume, Rob- ertson, Adam Smith, Hannah More, Gibbon, Burke, and Sheridan. The latter part of the same reign saw the rise of a splendid galaxy of literary genius. Of these the most eminent as poets were Burns, Cowper, Crabbe, Rogers, Scott, V/ordsworth, Byron, Southey, Coleridge, Moore, Shelley, Campbell, and Keats ; as essayists, Hazlitt, Leigh Hunt, Brougham, Lamb, De Quincey, Wilson, Croker, and Sydney Smith ; as historians, Godwin, Burney, and Scott ; as writers of fiction, Maria Edgeworth, Jane Austen, Fanny Burney; as theologians, Paley, Chalmers, Edward Irving, and Robert Hall ; as economists, Mill, Matthews, and Ricardo. In the course of the eighteenth century, newspapers very rapidly increased in numbers and circulation through- Newspa- C)ut England ; and the influence of the press was pers. constantly growing. Not only did daily and weekly newspapers multiply rapidly, but periodical essay- writing, the example of which had been set by Addison in the " Spectator," became fashionable, and maga- Magazines. • ■, • . , . ^ rr^, zmes and reviews came mto existence. Ihe "Gentleman's Magazine," the first of its kind, made its appearance early in the reign of George the Second (1731); and within ten years eight magazines were es- tablisked in London. Literary reviews began to spring PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 335 up about the middle of the eighteenth century ; and early in the nineteenth, the great English quarterlies, of which the " Edinburgh Review " was the earliest, were founded. Circulating libraries and book-clubs were formed, and gradually spread to many parts of the kingdom. PoHtical caricatures came into fashion in the time of Queen Anne, and had become a familiar and effective art in the Litter part of the eighteenth century. The results of the spread of newspapers, pamphlets, and magazines on the education of the English, during the period of which we are speaking, cannot be easily estimated ; but the press had certainly become one of the most potent agen- cies in the intellectual and jDolitical progress of the people. /•' The middle of the eighteenth century was the period of a great revolution in the arts in England. Up to that time, England had not produced a single great painter, and but one eminent musical composer. All the famous painters, who, in previous times, had adorned with their works the walls of English palaces, castles, and noble mansions, had been of foreign birth. The first native English artist of unquestioned geni-as was Vv^illiam Hogarth, who rose to fame in the early years of George the Second. Hogarth was speedily followed by many native painters of conspicuous talent. Wilson, the earliest English landscape-painter of the first rank, and Barry, the first notable historical painter, flourished in the generation succeeding that of Hogarth. After them came Sir Joshua Reynolds, Gainsborough, Copley, and West (the two last, Americans by birth) ; and Lawrence, Wilkie, and Turner became eminent as painters early in the nine- teenth century. 33^ YOUNG people's ENGLAND. The first exhibition of English works of art was held in Hogarth's time (1740); and twenty-one years later, the Art esbibi- custom of holding annual exhibitions of such tions. works was established. Seven years after the first annual exhibition, the Royal Academy was founded, with Sir Joshua Reynolds as its first president (1768). Water-color painting came into vogue towards the close of the eighteenth century (1790). The English made marked progress in other branches of art during the period of the first three Georges. Lithography was introduced, and Strange, Sharpe, and Woollett became eminent as engrav- ers, while Gillray carried off the palm as a caricature artist. In sculpture. Banks and Flaxman, and later, Chan- trey and Westmacott, produced works of high and endur- ing value ; while in the art of pottery, Wedgewood had established the works which still produce ornaments for Architec- the homes of two continents. The arts of archi- ture and lecture and eno-ineerins: also made a considerable engineer- ^ ^ ing. advance. It was in the eighteenth century that the first modern canals were built in England, and that many of the finest bridges were constructed. That century was also notable for the extensive reclamation of waste lands throughout the country, and the consequent increase of farming and graznig domains ; while many improvements were made, during its 'course, in the methods and appli- ances of agriculture. The period of the three Georges showed more astonish- ing results in science, invention, and industrial progress, perhaps, than in any other fields of human labor. Science i i ? j and inven- It produccd Herschcl, the greatest English as- tronomer, Jenner, who discovered vaccination, Sir Humphrey Davy, and Dalton. It was an era of the PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 33/ jnost prolific and varied triumphs of mechanical invention. Kay, Hargreaves, Crompton, Arkwright, and Cartwright brought the manufacture of cotton goods by machinery to a high degree of excellence. Watt made the steam-engine, a machine of almost unlimited power. The art of smelt- ing iron by pit-coal was invented. Davy devised the safety-lamp. Navio^ation by steam was proved . steam nav- to be practicable (181 1); and printing by steam igation and was first accomplished by John Walter, of the p""*^"^- " London Times " (1814). There was, indeed, no indus- try, no occupation of life, which did not reap great benefits from the genius and labors of inventors. They not only gave new powers to English industries, but they added very many comforts, refinements, and luxuries to English households. The eighteenth century witnessed two great religious revivals in England, which awoke the people from the re- ligious torpor and the recklessness of conduct which had followed the restoration of the Stuarts. In the early part of the century, great masses of the English were deplora- bly Ignorant ; the popular sports were rude and brutal, such as bull-baiting, prize-fighting, and cock- Religious fighting ; few churches were built, and there revivals, were no Sunday-schools ; and intemperance and gam- bling had become alarmingly prevalent among all classes. Several able, eloquent, and ardent clergymen, witnessing the deplorable condition of public morals, were inspired to rouse the people from their degradation. Chief among these were the brothers, Charles and John Wesley, and George Whitefield. They went from place to place, preaching the gospel, praying fervently, and exhorting their hearers to a more religious life. Their ardor and 338 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. eloquence created intense excitement wherever they ap- peared ; and they succeeded in infusing a new religious fervor among great masses of men. These revivals had many beneficent results upon the character and condition of the people. Hospitals and other benevolent institutions were founded by large- hearted benefactors. Foundling Hospital was estab- lished by Coram (1739), and his example was followed by many philanthrophists and societies as the cen- Charitable -^ ^ ^ institu- tury advanced. Charitable men and women *'°'^^' looked into the needs of the poor, and busied themselves with lightening their miseries. Schools were opened here and there for pauper children, and' Sunday- schools were established (1781). It became the custom of ladies of rank to tend the sick poor. John Howard, one of the noblest men England has ever produced, en- tered upon the humane work of reforming the prisons, and converting them from loathsome dens into places decent for the habitation of human, beings (1775). The severity of the criminal law was relax.ed, and early in the nine- teenth century, Bentham and Romilly succeeded in bring- ing about the substitution of milder punishments for small offences, which formerly incurred the penalty of death. The social life and customs of the English of every rank passed through many changes in the period between the death of Anne and the death of George the Social life . , . * . and cus- Third. Among the fashions which sprang up in °'^^' the early part of this period were the tastes for East India calicos for ladies' dresses, for rare porcelains and pottery, for collecting pictures, and for creating ele- gant and artistic gardens. As the century advanced, the art of gardening became more and more cultivated, and PROGRESS OF THE PEOPLE. 339 plants and flowers were introduced from every part of the world. The taste of the English for music, too, was rapidly developed in this period; although England pro- duced no great native composer throughout its course, Handel took up his residence in London, and Taste for exercised a powerful influence in creating a love ^^sic. for music of the highest order. Both Italian 'opera and comic opera were popular and fashionable amusements, and the drama flourished to a degree never before known. A taste for Shakespeare's plays revived towards the mid- dle of the eighteenth century, and they were reproduced on the stage with signal success. The custom of repairing to inland watering-places grew to be almost universal with the upper classes in the course of the eighteenth century ; but it \vas not until the middle of that century that sea-bathing and seaside resorts be- came popular. The country gentlemen indulged country in pretty much the same fleld^ports as had sports, their ancestors. Fox, hare, and deer-hunting w^ere the favorite rural recreations. Cricket took its place as a popular national game towards the close of the century. Life in the English rural districts became more refined as better systems of roads were built, and as locomotion from place to place, became more easy and more safe from the attacks of highwaymen. Country squires went oftener to London and to the country towns, and country society became more susceptible to the influence of the press, literature, and the public opinion of the great cen- tres. Yet the landed class clung obstinately to The landed the political precepts of Toryism, bitterly -op- '=1^^^®^- posed reforms and changes, and maintained an unswerving allegiance to the Church of England. 340 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. The condition of the laboring classes perceptibly and on the whole steadily improved during the Georgian era. Wages advanced and the quality of the food of working- people became better. Wheat, for instance, was used in the making of bread, instead of rye and barley. In the latter part of the eighteenth century, it was found that the average pay of the English farm laborer was o°the^°'^ seventy-six per cent better than that of the working same class in France. The invention of ma- classes. chinery for use in various industries, and its substitution for hand labor, was long very unfavorable to the prosperity of artisans ; while the reclamation of waste lands in many rural districts deprived the poor country folk of their rights of free pasture, and enriched the landlord at the expense of the peasant. But the fact re- mains that the condition of the English laborer, whether artisan or tiller of the soil, was far better in every way in 1820 than it had been a century before. CHAPTER LIII. / GEORGE THE FOURTH. THE downfall of Napoleon restored peace to Europe. A congress of the great powers met at Vienna, and proceeded to divide up Napoleon's conquests, to replace the princes whom he had deposed, and to re-establish the boundaries which he had disturbed. The broth- The con- ers of Napoleon no longer reigned in the king- gress of doms over which he had placed them, and each power recovered the dominions which Napoleon had seized. England was permitted to keep Malta, Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope, Mauritius, and several West India islands, which she had won by her naval victories. But the period which succeeded the close of the war was one of exhaus- tion, distress, and agitation in England. The huge cost of the long struggle had carried the English public debt up to the enormous figure of ^800,000, oco ($4,000,000,000). The taxation to pay the war expenses weighed heavily upon the masses of the people. Wheat and Burden- other bread-stuffs had risen to ruinous prices ; some taxa- and this evil was intensilied by the selfish action of the great land-owners, who caused a law to be passed forbidding the introduction into England of foreign bread- stuffs (18 1 5). Five years after the battle of Waterloo, the aged and 341 342 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. insane king, George the Third, died, after an unprece- dented reign of sixty years (1820). He was succeeded by his eldest son, the regent, who ascended the throne as George the Fourth. Tne reign of this selfish, dissolute, and heartless king lasted for ten years (1820-1830). The period covered by his rule was one of external peace ; but it was disturbed by constant internal agitation, and Internal agi- some disordcrs. The dread which had been in- tation. spired in England by the excesses of the French Revolution had to a large degiee subsided. On many sides there rose a cry for reforms in the laws. The dis- tress of the lower classes, caused partly by the high price of food, partly by the rapid substitution of new machinery for hand labor, and partly by the increase of the laboring population, resulted here and there in serious riots, which had to be suppressed by military force. Bold political leaders, like Sir Francis Burdett, and able economists, like Jeremy Bentham, clamored for such changes in the laws as would give the people a better chance to live in comfort, and a larger share in the government of the country. Two events of serious import happened in the first year of George the Fourth's reign. George had long been married to a German princess, Caroline of Bruns- wick, whom he heartily detested. She had borne him a daughter, the Princess Charlotte, who had died in young womanhood. George now brought his queen to trial be- fore the House of Lords, on a charge of un- Trial of , 5 o Queen Car- f aitMulncss. Thc masscs of the people took ° '^^' the queen's side. The attempt of the king to convict Caroline failed, and Parliament granted her a large annuity. When the king was crowned, Caroline GEORGE THE FOURTH. 343 attempted to force her way into Westminster Abbey, where tlie coronation was taking place. Failing in this, she died in a few days of grief and chagrin. These occurrences made the king extremely unpopular, and he never after succeeded in winning the respect or affection of his sub- jects. In the same year a plot was discovered to murdtr the leading members of the cabinet. A band of desper- ate men, led by an ex-army officer, Arthur Thistle wood, determined to kill the ministers while they v/ere din:ng with Lord Harrowby. The conspirators met in a loft in Cato Street, whence their plot is known as street con- the " Cato-Street Conspiracy." The police made ^P^^^^^y- a descent upon them on the eve of their setting out to accomplish their purpose. Five of the conspirators, m- cluding Thistlewood, were hung, and five others were transported for life. To the cry for reform which became every year more gen- eral and more persistent, the Tory cabinet always turned a deaf ear. They ruled in an arbitrar}^ spirit, rejected every proposal to change the constitution or laws, and re- fused to relieve the people of their burdens and disabili- ties. Two reforms, especially, were demanded by a con- stantly growing public opinion. These were the abolition of the laws which had deprived and^eco^ the Roman Catholics of their political and social ^^^^^ ^^• ^ forms. rights for many generations, and the repeal or lessening of the duties levied upon bread-stuffs and other articles brought into England from abroad. The ques- tion of " Catholic emancipation " had long been agitated. Early in the century William Pitt himself, Tory as he was, had tried to do the Catholics justice. But both George the Third and George the Fourth, the House of Lords, 344 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. most of the Tory leaders, and the great body of the aris- tocratic and landed classes, had stoutly opposed the repeal of the unjust penal laws from first to last. The Irish Roman Catholics had suffered most griev- ously of all from the oppression of these laws. Nearly five sixths of the population of Ireland were The Irish ^ ^ Roman Romau Catholics. Yet they were debarred from all offices, from the right to vote or to sit in Parliament, from the possession of arms for purposes of defence, and from the guardianship or education of Protestant children. Even these disabilities do not de- , scribe all the tyrannies to which the law still subjected the Irish Catholics. At last the cause of Catholic eman- cipation found a friend and advocate in George Canning, the ablest member of the Tory cabinet; and so strong was his influence in its favor, that he succeeded in car- Georgecan- O^i'"*? ^ bill of rclicf to the Catholics through "^'^s- the House of Commons (1825). But the bill was rejected by the House of Lords. On the death of the Earl of Liverpool, after a premiership of fifteen years, Canning became prime minister ; but he died in a few months (1827), and thus the cause of emancipation lost its most powerful adherent. Canning was succeeded by Lord Goderich, whose tenure of office was also short-lived, and then a powerful Tory cabinet was formed, with the Duke of Wellington at its head (1828). Meanwhile Ireland had become profoundly agitated on the subject of Catholic emancipation. A '* Catholic As- sociation " was formed throughout the island, and the Agitation in Insh fouud a powerful and eloquent leader of Ireland. ^j^^-j. ^^^^^ j^ Dauicl O'Conncll. The Duke of Wellington, although a strong Tory, was yet a wise GEORGE THE FOURTH. 345 and judicious statesman. • He perceived that if he did not yield to the overwhehning force of public opinion in favor of the relief of Catholics, a bloody civil war would probably ensue. At the risk of breaking up his party, the duke at last proposed a bill which admitted Roman Catholics to Parliament, and did away with all political distinctions between Catholics and Protestants. Catholic The bill was passed, and became a law ; and emancipa- thus many of the old iniquitous laws which had so long oppressed the Catholics were swept away. The Catholic Association of Ireland had achieved its end, and peaceably dissolved ; and O'Conncll took his seat in the House of Commons (1829). Some progress was also made in commercial reform during the reign of George the Fourth. Both Canning and his friend, Thomas Huskisson (who was also in the ministry), labored to lighten the oppression of heavy taxa- tion and of high duties. An old law forbade commercial the bringing of almost all foreign goods into ^^^form. England in any but English ships. This raised the price of freights, and consequently of the goods themselves. A measure was carried through Parliament by Huskisson which made the duty on all goods equal, whether car- ried by English or by foreign ships (1823). The high du- ties on foreign silk and on foreign wool were also materi- ally reduced. The result of these measures was to greatly stimulate English trade, and, to some extent at least, to lessen the hardships of the laboring classes. But a spirit of reckless speculation became rife, and was followed by a severe financial crash (1825). Although England remained at peace with the powers during George's reign, and for many years after, she did 34^ YOUNG people's ENGLAND. not cease to lake an interest in the affairs of foreign na- Foreign poi- tions. A large portion of the English people ^^^- sympathized with the struggle of the Greeks to free themselves from Turkish rule, and the poet Byron went to Greece to fight for their liberty. The English government also recognized the independence of the Spanish countries in South America, and sent soldiers to protect Portugal from the aggressions of the French. Later, the English actively interfered in behalf of the Greeks. England, Russia, and France sent a combined fleet into the Eastern Mediterranean, and after a furious naval battle destroyed the fleet which the viceroy of Egypt had brought to the sultan's aid. In the following year a treaty was concluded, by which the independence of Greece was secured (1828). George the Fourth died at the age of sixty-eight, and was succeeded by his brother, William, Duke of Clar- Death of eucc, the third son of George the Third (1830). George IV. William the Fourth was a rather dull, plain, elderly man, who had long been an officer in the navy, and was liked by the people because of his fondness for the sea. In one respect he greatly differed from his brother, the late king. He was willing to do whatever a majority of his subjects demanded, and to yield to the reforms upon which their hearts were set. Within two months after William came to the throne, the second French revolution broke out. After a conflict of three days, Charles the Tenth, the last Bourbon king, w^as driven from his throne, and Louis Philippe, Duke of French rev- Orlcaus, was made king of the French. This oiution. eveiit ^vas regarded with much sympathy by the English, and had some nifluence m hastening the adop- i GEORGE THE FOURTH. 34/ tion of the great political reform, which, within two years, gave a far more representative character to the House of Commons than it had ever had before. The House of Commons had long been superior in power to either the crown or the House of Lords. No cabinet had in recent times been able to keep office in the face of an adverse vote of the Commons. _ ^^ The House In that House resided the sole authority to origi- of com- , ... . , , , mons. nate money bills, to raise the revenue, and to say how it should be spent. It held the purse-strings of the nation, and this gave it irresistible power. But the House of Commons did not very completely represent the people. Many of its members were chosen by small boroughs, which were controlled by noblemen, land-owners, or other wealthy men, who dictated to the boroughs which candidates they should choose. On the other Rotten bor- hand, many large and growing towns, with nu- °"shs. merous populations, either had no representatives in the House at all, or only as many members as the small and insignificant boroughs. A large town like Birmingham, for instance, would have no more members than a little village with less than a hundred voters. The need of so changing the electoral system as to make the representation of the people more real, fair, and equal, had in course of time become very pressing. William Pitt had made an earnest attempt, but in vain, to carry such a reform into effect. The cause had then slept for many years. During the reign of George the Fourth, how- ever, a fresh asfitation in its favor had grown up, ^ fc> r? Agitation and the Whigs had adopted Parliamentary re- for eiecto- form as a party cry. At last the nation itself ""^ ""^ °'^™* had become converted to it, and the time had arrived, 348 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. in the very first year of William's reign, when the consid- eration of it could no longer be postponed. A new elec- tion gave the Whigs, for the first time in a quarter of a century, a majority in the House of Commons (1830). The Duke of Wellington, the Tory prime minister, refused to assent to the passage of a reform bill. He was defeated Earl Grey's ^^^ ^hc Housc, and was succccded by Earl Grey cabinet. ^^^(^ ^ Whig Cabinet. In this cabinet were seve- ral very able men. Brougham was lord chancellor, Al- thorp chancellor of the exchequer, Palmerston foreign minister, and Lord John Russell paymaster of the forces. Early in the following year, the first reform bill was laid before the new House of Commons by Lord John Russell. It proposed to take away their members from sixty " rotten boroughs" (as the small boroughs controlled by the nobility and great land-owners were called) ; to reduce the number of members representing forty-seven other boroughs from two to one ; to give London eight more members than it before had ; and to transfer the The reform niembcrs taken from the boroughs to certain feiii- large towns, which had hitherto been wholly unrepresented in Parliament. The bill, besides, added sixty-four members to the quota previously allowed to the counties. This bill, after a long and bitter debate, passed its second reading in the House of Commons by one majority. But shortly after, a vote really hostile to it was carried by a majority of eight. L^pon this. Earl Grey dissolved Parliament, and a new election was or- Triumph of dcrcd. Thc agitation which ensued throughout the Whigs, ^j-^g country was intense. The people were now fully aroused to the necessity of the reform, and were determined that it should be achieved. The elections re- TUMULT IN THE HOUSE OF LORDS. — Page 34S. GEORGE THE FOURTH. 349 suited in a large majority in its favor; and no sooner did the new House meet than a fresh reform bill was promptly introduced. Once more the struggle over the bill was protracted and acrimonious. Its opponents used every resource and artifice to prevent its passage. But when the House finally voted, the bill was carried by a majority of one hun- dred and six. It went up to the House of Lords, where it was thrown out by a majority of forty-one. The indigna- tion aroused by this action of the Lords threatened to result in a revolution. Riots took place in different parts of the country. The house of the Duke of Welling- ton in London was assailed by an angry mob. Lords were attacked in the streets, and bishops were collision burned in effi^v- The Whig: cabinet persisted between o-' ^ ^ Lords and in its purpose, and introduced a third bill, which commons, passed the House of Commons by a larger majority than before. Again a hostile amendment was carried in the Lords. The excitement in the country rose to a yet more perilous height; and Earl Grey and his colleagues re signed office. But the time had come when the House of Lords must choose between accepting the reform, being flooded with a large number of new peers, and provoking civil war. The Tories failed to form a cabinet, and Earl Grey returned to power. The Lords at last sullenly yielded, and ^ , . PassagJ of accepted the bill ; the king signed it, and it took the reform its place among the laws of the land (June, 1832), The general result of this great measure, which has immortalized the names of its authors, was to give far greater political power to the middle classes, to lessen in a corresponding degree that of the aristocracy, and to 350 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. make the House of Commons reflect far more correctly the will of the English people. It gave many large towns a voice in the House for the first time, and took a long step towards abolishing the unfair system of " rotten bor- oughs." It paved the way, moreover, for a number of Results of further reforms, by which, in the course of time, reform. nearly the entire body of the English people were admitted to the right to vote for members of Parliament ; as well as for many other measures for benefiting and ele- vating the subjects of the English crown. CHAPTER LIV. VICTORIA. WILLIAM the Fourth lived five years after the final passage of the Reform Bill. During that period a number of good laws were passed, and the condition of the people was improved in several ways. The Irish had long justly complained of the abuses which had grown up in the Irish church, which was Episcopalian, and had been established over Ireland as the national Reforms church. Some of these abuses were now miti- under wn- gated. The stipends of the higher clergy were reduced, and their number was diminished. The monop- oly of the East India Company in the trade of India was taken away from it, and England's great Asiatic depend- ency was thrown open to all merchants. Slavery in the English colonies was finally abolished. The poor-law was changed so that paupers were no longer sent back to the parishes where they were born for support ; work- houses were erected in many parts of the king- RsHefoftiie dom ; the governments of the cities and towns ^°°^- were reformed, so as to lessen the influence of local mag- nates, and give the people a more direct share in the man- agement of their local affairs ; a general registration of births, marriages, and deaths was established ; the taxes on newspapers were reduced to a penny ; and the incomes 352 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. of the higher dignitaries of the national church were placed upon a more fair and equal footing. There were several changes of the cabinet during Wil- liam's later years. Earl Grey, the veteran Whig chief un- der whose leadership the Reform Bill had been achieved, oabinet retired from the cabinet, and was succeeded as ciianges. prime minister by Viscount Melbourne (1834). In a few months the Melbourne cabinet was suddenly dis- missed by the king, who called Sir Robert Peel to the head of affairs. Sir Robert Peel was the ablest and wis- est of the Tory leaders, excepting the Duke of Wellington. But although he was favored by the king, the House of Commons was opposed to him. He was soon defeated by a vote of the House, and the king was forced to reluc- tantly call the Vrhigs back to power. Lord ^^lelbourne again became prime minister. Lord Melbourne's second cabinet extended for several years into the succeeding reign. Lord Melbourne and his colleagues were, how- ever, on the eve of resisfnins:, when the kins^ William the Fourth, suddenly fell ill and died, after a reign of seven years (1837). William the Fourth was succeeded by his niece, Victoria, the only child of the Dlike of Kent, who was the fourth son of Geor2;e the Third. At the tim.e of her ac- Accession ^ _ ^ of victo- cession Victoria was eighteen years old. She had been brought up in much retirement and simplicity; but she soon showed excellent sense, and an intelligent comprehension of her regal duties. The English felt a deep sympathy for their girl-queen, and her bearing in her new and grave position speedily inspired the love and confidence of her subjects. Hitherto the English sovereign had also reigned over the little kingdom VICTORIA. 353 of Hanover, in Germany. But there was a law in Han- over which excluded females from the throne. The crown of Hanover, therefore, passed to the queen's ' ^ '■ The crown uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, who was the of Hano- next male heir. The English were greatly re- joiced at this, because the connection with Hanover had more than once entangled England in European troubles, and might have done so again. The leading events of the early years of Victoria's reign were the suppression of a revolt in Canada; the adoption of the penny postage, by which letters could be sent to any part of the three kingdoms for a penny (two cents) ; the marriage of the queen to the wise and public-spirited Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (1840) ; the suppres- sion of the revolt of the Eo^yptians as^ainst the Marriage rule of the sultan by English arms ; a successful of the war with the Chinese ; the war with Afghanistan, '*^®®"' during which the British envoy and sixteen thousand other English people were massacred, their murder being promptly avenged by a British occupation of the Afghan territory ; the resignation of the Melbourne cabinet, and the accession of the Tories to office, with Sir Robert Peel as prime minister (1841) ; the imposition of a tax of a penny a pound sterling on incomes ; and a revision of the tariff on foreign imports. This period also witnessed the agitation of the '' Anti-Corn-Law League," which devoted itself to the abolition of the laws which placed high du- ties upon the importation into England of foreign bread- stuffs. For a long time the laboring classes both of Great Brit- ain and of Ireland had suffered terribly by reason of the high price of food. There was great distress alike in 354 YOUNG PEOPLES ENGLAND. the farming districts and in the manufacturing towns ; and this distress was attributed to the " corn laws," Distress of , . i i i • the labor- which kept up the price of corn by the duties ing classes, ^j^^^^ levied ou its importation. A terrible mis- fortune which befell the Irish peasantry hastened the tri- umph of the anti-corn-law league. Potatoes were the staple food of the Irish poor. One season a disease The Anti- Corn-Law broke out which entirely destroyed the potato eague. ^I'op, and the Irish were thus deprived of their main reliance for keeping body and soul together (1845). Famine threatened the entire laboring population. The agitation of the league, carried on with persistent vigor by Cobden, Bright, and other eloquent and earnest leaders, be- came too formidable to resist. Sir Robert Peel, though the Tory chief, resolved that the corn laws should be abol- ished. Some of his colleagues would not agree to this, and resigned. But Peel, aided by the Whigs, carried his point. By his proposal, a law was passed which imposed a fixed duty on bread-stuffs for three years, after which the duty on bread-stuffs should cease to exist altogether (1846). Thus the anti-corn-law league triumphed. The mo- nopoly of the English land-owners in corn was done away with, and the extreme distress of the working Triumph . , f of the people was almost at once relieved. But Sir eague. Robert Peel had served his country at the ex- pense of his own ambition. The discontented Tories joined with the Whigs in driving him from power. In the same year that the corn laws were reformed, his cabi- net resigned, and the Whigs came into office with Lord John Russell as prime minister (1846). The Irish had meanwhile engaged in a vigorous agitation, under the lead VICTORIA. 355 of the eloquent O'Connell, for a repeal of the union be- tween Great Britain and Ireland ; but with O'Connell's death (1847), this agitation for the time subsided. The English government, however, made one concession to the Irish. A Catholic college at Maynooth was endowed with national funds. It was during Sir Robert Peel's ministr}^, too, that Jews were allowed, for the first time, to hold municipal offices in England. A danger to the peace of the country arose when Lord John Russell had been two years in power. The Reform Bill and the events which had followed it, the dis- The char- content of Ireland, the impulse given to politi- *^®*®- cal thought and discussion, and a third French revolution which now upset King Louis Philippe and established a French republic, had encouraged the rapid growth of a powerful society in England called the "Chartists." This name was derived from the fact that the society demanded the adoption of a "people's charter." The "charter" was intended to be nothing more or less than a new reform bill, which should give the people larger rights than they already had. It proposed that universal suffrage should be established ; that Parliament should be elected every year ; that voting should be by secret ballot ; that the holding of a certain amount of property should not be required as a qualification for sitting in Parliament; that members of . Parliament should be paid salaries; and that the electoral districts should be made equal. The Char- tists succeeded in electing several of their adherents to the House of Commons. Encouraged by this, they planned a great demonstration in London. The Decline of government took alarm, forbade the Chartists to chartism. march in procession, and made military preparations to 356 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. suppress disorder; and the monster meeting proved a failure. This virtually put an end to the Chartist move- ment (1848). For some years after the decline of chartism and of Irish agitation, England pursued her career undisturbed by foreign wars or internal commotions. The first great "World's Fair," organized by Prhice Albert, the queen's consort, was held in the "Crystal Palace" in Hyde Park, London, and displayed the national and manufactured The World's p^oducts of many civilized countries (185 1). Fair. This event seemed to foreshadow a long era of mutual peace and good will among the nations ; but the bright promise was of brief duration. Within three years, three of the great powers of Europe were plunged in a terrible war. A quarrel between Russia and Turkey, fol- lowed by a Russian invasion of the sultan's dominions, resulted in an alliance between Turkey, England, and France against the czar. Russia had long coveted the possession of Constantinople, and deeply sympathized with the Christian races still under Turkish rule. Eng- land, on the other hand, feared that if the Russians held Constantinople, her Indian empire would be endangered. In France, Louis Napoleon had overthrown the republic of which he was president, had revived the empire, and had assumed the imperial crown. England's purpose in entering upon a war as the ally of Turkey, was to prevent the Russians from taking Constan- The crim- tiuoplc. The objcct of Napoleon in joining the ean war. alliancc was to strengthen his power at home by dazzling his subjects with a brilliant military career. No sooner had war been declared than the allies entered upon vigorous operations (1854). The chief seat of hos- IN 'lllE CKIMEAN WAR. — Pagk 356. VICTORIA. 357 tilities was on the peninsula of the Crimea, on the north coast of the Black Sea, upon which stood the strong Rus- sian fortress of Sebastopol. The struggle is therefore known as "the Crimean War." The allies won the first victory at Alma, and then laid siege to Sebastopol from its southern side. The battles of Balaklava and Inker- man n followed, and also resulted in favor of the combined English and French forces. The siege lasted throughout thiC winter, durinsf which the besiecrins: armies suffered many hardships and miseries. Active operations were re- sumed in the spring, and continued through the summer ; and at last an obstinate and heroic attack on Tj,i^jj^p.^ ^f the fortress, in September, made the allies *^® aiiies. the masters of Sebastopol (1855). Russia was beaten and exhausted. Early in the following year peace was made by the treaty of Paris. By this treaty, Russia was forbid- den to sail men-of-war on the Black Sea, and was com- pelled to cede the province of Bessarabia to Roumania, which was then a princijDality subject to the sultan. During the progress of the Crimean War, a change took place in the cabinet. Lord John Russell, after remaining in office six years, had been defeated by a vote of the House of Commons, and had been succeeded by the Earl of Derby and a Tory cabinet (1852). But the existence of the Tory cabinet was short-lived, and in the same year it was replaced by the Whigs, under the premiership of the Earl of Aberdeen. It was under Aberdeen that the war broke out. But the conduct of the war was not satisfactory to the House of Commons or to the people, and ^ '■ ' Lord Palm- after a premiership of two and a half years, erston as Aberdeen resigned, and was succeeded by Lord p'"®™^®''- Palmerston (1855). Lord Palmerston continued prime 358 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. minister three years. He had formerly been a Tory, but was now a moderate \\'hig. The two great parties had now received new names. In the reign of William the Fourth, the Tories had come to be known as " Con- servatives," and the Whigs as "Liberals." The parties were, however, called by both names, and so they are still. Lord Palmerston was well-fitted for the post of prime minister. He had genial and popular manners, a good deal of dry English humor, a thorough knowledge of state affairs, great tact as a party leader, and a rare capac- paimerston-s ^^Y ^^v managing men. Although a Whig, or character. a Liberal," lie was opposed to making extensive reforms ; and so, during the time that he was the chief of the Liberals, no important changes were attempted in the constitution of the realm. By this time two statesmen had come into prominence, who were destined later to rise far above any others, to lead the two parties, and to contend with each other through many years for fame and power. These were William Ewart Gladstone and Benjamin Dis- raeli. Both were masters of parliamentary elo- and Glad- qucncc and debate, both had marked personal stone. traits, and both were first-rate party leaders. Both, moreover, had held the office of chancellor of the exchequer, the second place in importance in the cabinet. Next to Lord Palmerston, Gladstone was the leading spirit among the Liberals ; and next to the Earl of Derby. Disraeli was the chief figure among the Tories. CHAPTER LV. LATER YEARS OF VICTORIA'S REIGN. WITHIN a year after the close of the Crimean War, England was plunged into a conflict with China, and was called upon to suppress a terrible mutiny in her Indian empire. China had refused to admit The Indian opium, the most valuable product of India, into ^^^t^^^y- Chinese ports ; so the English determined to compel her to do so by force of arms. The English forces triumphed in China and returned home. Almost imme- diately the news of an outbreak among the native troops of India reached the English shores. It was said that the native soldiers (called " Sepoys ") had refused to use greased cartridges, since the grease was the fat of pigs, which thejr religion forbade them to taste. Other causes of the outbreak were given, though what was the prevail- ing cause still remains a question. A Sepoy cavalry regi- ment refused to obey orders on parade. The insurrection soon spread through central India ; and it was only after horrible massacres and cruelties had been committed that the mutiny was finally suppressed (1858). The vengeance taken by the English on the defeated natives was barbarous and brutal. Many of the Sepoys were blown from the cannon's mouth. The result of the mutiny was that the English government deprived the 359 360 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. East India Company of its powers, and assumed the Change in dircct rulc of India itself. The queen was the govern- (declared the sovereijin of India, and a cabinet ment of ® ' India. officer, with the title of " Secretary of State for India," was created to manage the affairs of the Oriental empire. Twenty years later (1879), Queen Victo- ria was proclaimed Empress of India. Lord Palmerston, after three years of power, was defeated, and was suc- cabinet cccded by the Earl of Derby and the Tories, cha ges. ^^i^Q j^g^y cabinet attempted to carry a reform bill, but was speedily out-voted, and retired from office (1859). Lord Palmerston again became prime minister, ■with Lord John Russell and Mr. Gladstone as the leading members of his cabinet ; and Palmerston now remained in office until his death. The most notable events which occurred during Palm- erston's second term were the war between France and Austria, which resulted in the creation of the kingdom of Italy (1859), and the American civil war (1861-1865). The English took no direct part in the former struggle, though their sympathies were stron^lv in favor of Ital- TheAustro- J t- o . French Ian frccdom. At the outset of the American war, a large proportion of the English people favored the cause of the South. This was especially the case with the aristocratic and governing classes. The cabinet neglected to prevent the escape of privateers from English ports. The " Alabama" and other privateers were suffered to go forth and prey upon American commerce, contrary to international law ; and some years after the The Geneva closc of the civil war, England was forced to pay arbitration. ^^ ^}-,g United Statcs nearly ;^4,ooo,ooo, as dam- ages for the depredations committed by the "Alabama " LATER YEARS OF VICTORIA'S REIGN. 36 1 and similar privateers. This was clone in consequence of the arbitration held at Geneva (1872). England suffered in several ways from the American war. The closing of the southern ports created a cotton famine in the English manufacturing districts, and a sea- son of terrible hardship among the operatives ensued. On several occasions, moreover, England came very near being involved in a war with the United States. But in each instance the danger passed away, and the differences between the two English-speaking fn?^h^ nations were patched up. Prince Albert, the American , ^ ^ ^ ' civil war. good and wise husband of the queen, whose sympathies were from the first with the American Union, had died at the outset of the war (December, 1861); but his counsels had a large influence on tiie conduct of the government after he had passed away. Lord Palmerston died at the ripe age of eighty-one (1865), and was suc- ceeded in the premiership by Lord John Russell, who had now become Earl Russell. Mr. Gladstone returned to his old place as chancellor of the exchequer and leader of the House of Commons. But this cabinet was defeated in less than a year on the question of electoral reform ; and for the third time within twenty years the Liberals gave way to a Conservative or Tory cabinet, with Lord Derby and Disraeli at its head (1866). A fresh agitation for electoral reform now sprang up throughout England. A generation had elapsed since the first great reform of 1832. The intelligence of the masses had increased, and much yet remained ■^ Agitation to be done to make the House of Commons a for eiecto- true reflection of the popular will. Although ^^ ""^ °''^' the Tories were the party usually opposed to large 362 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. changes, the Derby cabinet boldly took up the ques- tion of a new reform. This resolution was doubtless urged upon Lord Derby and his colleagues by many symptoms that the nation demanded it. Mr. Disraeli ac- cordingly brought a reform bill into the House of Com- mons. After many changes, the bill was passed and be- Househoid came a law. It practically gave the suffrage to suffrage. ^n Englishmen and Scotchmen who occupied houses as owners, tenants, or lodgers in the boroughs ; that is, in the cities, towns, and villages. It also reduced the qualification for the county franchise. Besides this bill, another measure became a law v/hich distributed the parliamentary districts more equally and fairly (1867). Eighteen years later (1885) another reform bill was passed under Mr. Gladstone's leadership, which extended house- hold suffras^e to the Endish counties, and to the The third *=' ° .... reform Irish counlics and boroughs. A fresh bill dis- tributing the seats was also passed, which created large numbers of single-member districts, and propor- tioned the membership of the House of Commons more nearly according to population. We have now reached a period in the history of Eng- land which is within the memory of persons not yet mid- dle-aged. The leading events of the later years of Victo- ria's reign (1867-1885) may be briefly stated. In the same year that the Disraeli household suffrage law was passed, England engaged in a war with Abyssinia. Cer- tain Englishmen had been kept in captivity by Theodore, the Abyssinian king. An expedition under Sir Robert Napier penetrated to Magdala, Theodore's capital, de- stroyed it, and released the prisoners (1867). In the next year, the Eari of Derby retired from the premiership, LATER YEARS OF VICTORIA'S REIGN. 363 to which Benjamin Disraeli succeeded. But in a few months the Tories were defeated in the elec- The first tions, and Mr. Gladstone, at the head of a Lib- Gladstone eral cabinet, with John Bright, Lords Granville and Hartington, Mr. Lowe, and Mr. Childers as col- leagues, came into power. This cabinet remained in office five and a half years (1868-1874). It was a cabinet de- voted to active reforms. One of its first achievements was to disestablish the Irish church. That church was Protestant, while the over- whelming majority of the Irish were Catholics. The privi- leges and exactions of the Irish church had be- come an intolerable grievance; and its abolition usbmentof as a state institution swept away a just cause *^^^^jf^ of Irish discontent. The Gladstone cabinet also passed a land act for Ireland, which in some degree re- lieved the Irish farm tenants from the cruel oppressions under which they had suffered for centuries (1870). In the same year, a great measure dealing with primary edu- cation became a law. This measure provided that school- boards should be established wherever there was no provi- sion for schools; that education should become cheaper and more universal, and that the expenses should be in the main paid by local taxes, called " rates," otter re- levied for the purpose. During the next year, *'°^°^^- purchase in the army, by which military commissions had been bought and sold, was abolished by a royal decree ; the English civil service was thrown open to general competi- tion ; the religious tests which had restricted the right to enter the universities were abrogated ; trades-unions were protected in their legitimate purposes by the law ; and some improvements were made in the system of local government (187 1). 364 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. Two great European wars had meanwhile taken place. Prussia had overcome Austria in a brief and bitter con- flict, and had become the dominant power in Germany (1866). Four years later Prussia had matched her prowess European "^^ith Francc, had totally defeated the French wars. army, taken the Emperor Napoleon prisoner, laid successful siege to Paris, and obtained the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine and a large money indemnity from the defeated nation (1870). England had nothing to do directly with these conflicts. But Russia took advantage of the complications arising from the later war, to demand that that part of the treaty of Paris which forbade her to sail her war ships on the Black Sea'"should be abolished. To this England was constrained to assent ; and the chief advantage won in the Crimean War was thus lost. During the last two years of the first Gladstone cabinet, the secret ballot was adopted as the method of voting; the arbitration of the " Alabama claims" was held at Geneva ; and an attempt was made to establish university education for the Irish at the cost of the state. On the latter measure the Liberal cabinet was defeated ; but it remained in office some months longer. Then Par- liament was dissolved, and in the ensuing elections a large Conservative majority was returned to the House of Commons. Mr. Disraeli once more became prime minis- ter, and held that office for six vears (187 4-1880). Disraeli ' . V / t / prime min- The most important event of this period was the war between Russia and Turkey (1877-78). Eng- land was deeply interested in this struggle. She dreaded a Russian triumph, which would establish the czar's power in Constantinople. It was contrary to all the tra- ditions of English policy that this should happen. After LATER YEARS OF VICTORIA'S REIGN. 365 an obstinate contest, the Russian troops at last reached the walls of the sultan's capital. It was then that the English fleet sailed through the Straits of the Darda- nelles, and floated opposite Constantinople, ready to de- fend the city from a Russian attack. The Russian army, although flushed with victory, retired, and the war soon came to an end. A European congress met at The treaty Berlin to settle the terms of peace. Disraeli, °^ Berlin, the prime minister, who had now become Earl of Bea- consfield, attended the congress as England's represen- tative. The result of the congress was the treaty of Berlin, by which the Turkish rule in Europe was given a further lease of life, and Russian ambition was for a sea- son checked (1878). England became involved in petty wars with the Af- ghans, the Zulus, and the Boers of South Africa, during the Beaconsfield administration. In conjunction with France, England also interfered actively in the affairs of Egypt. After a time France withdrew from this England m arrangement. Then the English fleet bombarded ^^yp*- Alexandria ; English tioops defeated and captured Arabi Pasha, who had revolted from the Egyptian sovereign ; English garrisons occupied Alexandria and Cairo; and English agents assumed control of Egyptian affairs. Later a revolt arose in the Soudan against the Egyptian rule. England attempted to put down this revolt. The heroic Gordon was sent to Khartoum, the capital of the Soudan. But the English campaign in the Soudan was a failure. Khartoum was taken, and Gordon was slain by the rebels ; and the English forces were at last withdrawn from that region altogether (1885). A general election had (1880) resulted in the return ^66 YOUNG people's ENGLAND. of the Liberals, under Gladstone, to power. A Lib- eral majority of one hundred sat in the new The second •' Gladstone Housc of Commons. The second Gladstone cabinet remained in ofhce five years. It was finally defeated and driven from power (1885) '■> ^^-^ ^ Tory cabinet, with the Marquis of Salisbury as prime min- ister, replaced it. In the course of the Liberal administra- tion, a more extensive land act for Ireland became a law. Irish land ^Y ^his act, the tenants of land were secured ^°*- fair rents, freedom of sale, and protection from eviction. The last year of Gladstone's tenure of ofiice was notable for the passing of the third great reform bill and redistribution bill, which have already been described. This history has now been brought down to the forty- ninth year of the reign of Queen Victoria. The England of this period is great, powerful, progressive, and enlight- Finai ened. She holds sway over many thriving col- words. onies and dependencies, scattered throughout the globe. She is still mistress of the seas, and the chief commercial nation of the world. She approaches nearer and nearer every year towards complete democratic self- government. In literature, the arts, the sciences, in in- dustry and enterprise, in intellectual force, and searching inquiry, the English of to-day are unsurpassed by any other race. The gradual steps, the sturdy national traits, by which the English have built up so mighty and so flour- ishing an empire, and have had so powerful an influence on the destinies and progress of mankind, may be dis- covered in the oft-told but always astonishing history of their national career. CHRONOLOGICAL ANNALS OF ENGLISH HISTORY. THE ENGLISH KINGDOMS. 449 — 1016. 449 English land in Britain. 457 Kent conquered by English. 477 Landing of South Saxons. 495 Landing of West Saxons. 520 British victory at Mount Badon. 547 Ida founds Kingdom of Bernicia. 552 West Saxons take Old Sarum. 565 iEthelberht, King of Kent, died 616. 568 driven back by West Saxons. 571 West Saxons march into Mid- Britain. 577 conquer at Deorham. 593 .ffithelfrith creates Kingdom of Northumbria, died 617. 597 West Saxons defeated at Fethanlea. A ugustine co7iverts Kent. 603 Battle of Daegsastan. 607 Battle of Chester. 617 Eadwine, King of Northumbria, died 633. 626 overlord of Britain. 627 becomes Christian. 633 slain at Hatfield. 635 Oswald, King of Northumbria, died 642. defeats Welsh at Hevenfeld. 636 A idiiH settles at Holy Islajtd. 639 Conversion of Wessex. 642 Oswald slain at Maserfeld. 655 Oswi, King of Northumbria, died 670. victory at Winvvoed. 657 Wulfere King in Mercia. 658 West Saxons conquer as far as the Parret. 664 Council of Whitby. Ccednion at Whitby. 668 Theodore made Archbishop of Can- terbury. 670 Egfrith, King of Northumbria, died 685. 676 Wulfere drives West Saxons over Thames. 681 Wilfrid converts South Saxons. 682 Centwine of Wessex conquers Mid- Somerset. 685 Egfrith defeated and slain at Nech- tansmere. 688 Ini, King of West Saxons, died 726. 705 Northumbrian conquest of Strath- clyde. 714 Ini defeats Ceolred of Mercia at Wodnesborough. 716 iEthelbald, King of Mercia, died 755. 733 Mercian conquest of Wessex. 752 Wessex recovers freedom ir. battle of Burford. 755 Deaths of Bceda and Boniface. 756 Eadberht of Northumbria takes Al- cluyd. 758 OfTa, King of Mercia, died 794. 773 subdues Kentish men at Otford. 777 defeats West Saxons at Bensing- ton. 784 places Brightric on throne of Wessex. 786 creates Archbishopric at Lich- field. 787 First laiidin? of Danes in England. 794 Cenwulf, King of Mercia, died 8ig. supnresses Archbishopric of Lich- field. 800 Ecgberht becomes king in Wessex, died 836. 808 Charhs the Great restores Eardwulf in Northumbria. 813 Ecgberht subdues the West Welsh to the Tamar. 822 Civil War in Mercia. 823 Ecgberht defeats Mercians at Elian- dune. 367 368 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 823 Ecgberht overlord of England south of Thames. 824 Revolt of East Anglia against Mercia. 825 Defeat of iNIercians by East Anglians. 827 Mercia and Northumbria submit to Ecgberht. Ecgberht overlord of all English king- doms. 828 invades Wales. 835 defeats Danes at Hengestesdun. 835 .(Ethelwulf, King of VVessex, diedSsS. 849 jElfred born. 851 Danes defeated at Aclea. 853 .Elfred sent to Rome. 855 .EtheUvulf goes to Rome. 858 /Ethelbald, Kin^^ of Wessex, died 860. 800 iEthelberht, King of VVessex, died 866. 355 iEthelred, King of Wessex, died 871. 867 Danes conquer Northumbria. 868 Peace of Nottingham with Danes. 870 Danes conquer and settle in East Anglia. 871 Danes invade Wessex. iElfred, King of Wessex, died 901. 874 Danes conquer Mercia. 876 Danes settle in Nortliumbria. 877 ^Elfred defeats Danes at Exeter. 878 Danes overrun Wessex. ^Elfred victor at Ediugton. Peace of Wedinore. 883 ^Elfred sends envoys to Rome and India. 885 takes and refortifies London. 893 Danes re-appear in Thames and Kent. 894 -Elfred drives Hastings from Wessex. 8j5 Hastings invades Mercia. 896 ^^ilfred drives Danes from Essex. 897 Hastings quits England. /Elfred creates a fleet. 901 Eadward the Elder, died 925. 912 Northmen settle in Normandy. 913-918 /Ethelllaed conquers Danish Mer- cia. 921 Eadward subdues East Anglia and Essex. 924 owned as overlord by Northum- bria, Scots, and Strathclyde. 925 iEthelstan, died 940. 926 drives Welsh from Exeter. 934 invades Scotland. 937 Victory of Brunanburh. 940 Eadmund, died 947. 943 Diinstan made Abbot of Glastonbury. 945 Cumberland graiited to Malcolm, King of Scots. 947 Eadred, died 955. 954 makes Northumbria an Earl- dom. 955 Eadwig, died 957. 950 Banishment of Dunstan. 957 Revolt of Mercia under Eadgar. 958 Eadgar, died 975. 961 Dunstan Archbishop of Canterbury. 975 Eadward the Martyr, aied 979. 979 /Ethelred the Unready, died 1016. 980 Mercia and Northumbria part from Wessex. 987-1040 Fulc the Black, Count of Anjou. 994 Invasion of Swegen. 1002 Massacre of Danes. 1003 Swegen harries Wessex. 1012 Murder of Archbishop ^Ifeah. 1013 All England submits to Swegen. 1014 Flight of .^tlnelred to Normandy ior6 Eadmund Ironside, King, and ^ies. ENGLAND UNDER FOREIGN KINGS. 1017 — 1304. 1017 Cnut, King, died 1035. 1020 Godvvine made Earl of Wessex. 1027 Cnut goes to Rome. Birth of William of Normandy. 1035 Harold and Harthacnut divide Eng- land. 1037 Harold, King, died 1040. 1040 Harthacnut, King, diid 1042. 1042 Eadward the Confessor, died 1065. 1044 -loSo (}eoffry Martel, Count of Anjou. 1045 Lxnfraiic at Bee. 1047 Victory of William at Val-es-dunes. 1051 I'.Tii^hment of Godwine. 1052 William of Normandy visits England. Return and death of (jodwine. 1053 Hirokl mad- Earl of West Saxons. 1054 WiUiam's victory at Mortemer. 1054- 1055 1058 1060 1063 1066 io58 1070 1075 io8r io8s 1086 ■1060 Norman conquest of southern Italy. Harold's first campaign in Wales. William's victory at the Dive. Normans invade Sicily. Harold conquers Wales. Harold, King. conquers at Stamford Bridge. defeated at Senlac, or Hastings. William of Normandy, King, died 10S7. -1071 Norman conquest of England. Reorganization of the Church. Rising of Roger Fitz-Osbern. William invades W^es. Failure of Danish invasion. Completion of Domesday Book. CHRONOLOGICAL ANNALS. 369 1087 1093 1094 1096 1097 logS 1 100 IIOI 1106 iicg- iicg mi 1113 iiM 1 1 18 1120 1122 1 124 1127 1 1 28 1134 1135 1 1 37 1138 1^39 1141 William the Red, died iioo. A nsehn A rchbishop. Revolt of Wales against the Norman Marchers. Revolt of Robert de Mowbray. Normandy left in pledge to William. William invades Wales. Anselni leaves England. War with France. Henry the First, died 1135. Henry's Charter. William of Normandy invades Eng- land. Settlement of question of investi- tures. Enrli-h Conquest of Normandy. -1 129 Fulc of Jerusalem, Count of Anjou. War with France. War with Anjou. Peace of Gisors. Marriage of Matilda with Henry V. Revolt of Norman baronage. Wreck of White Ship. Henry's campaign in Wales. France and Anjou support William Clito. Matilda married to Geoffry of Anjou. Death of the Clito in Flanders. Revolt of Wales. Stephen of Blois, died 1154. Normandv repulses the Angevins. Revolt of "Earl Robert. Battle of the Standard. Seizure of the Bishops Battle of I^incoln. 1 147 Matilda withdraws to Normandy. 1 148 Henry of Anjou in England. Archbishop Theobald driven into exile. 1151 Henry becomes Duke of Normandy. 1152 Henry marries Eleanor of Guienne. 1 153 Henry in England. Treaty of Wal- lingford. 1154 Henry the Second, died iiSg. 1160 Expedition against Toulouse. The Great Scutage. 1162 Thomas made Archbishop of Can- terbury. 1 164 Constitutions of Clarendon. Flight of Archbishop Thomas. 1166 Assize of Clarendon. Ii6g Strongbow's invasion of Ireland. 1 170 Death of Archbishop Tiiomas. Inquest of Sheriffs. I174 Rebellion of Henry's sons. 1 176 Assize of Northampton. 1178 Reorgar.ization of Curia Regis. Ii3i Assize of Arms. 1189 Revolt of Richard. Richard the First, died ugg. 1190-1194 Richard's Crusade. 1194-1196 War with Philip Augustus. 1195-1246 Llewellyn-ap-Jorwerthin North Wales. 1197 Richard builds Chateau Gaillard. 1199 John, died 12 16. 1200 recovers Anjou and Maine. Lr^yamon writes the Brut. 1203 Murder of Arthur. 1204 French conquest of Anjou and Nor- mandy. THE GREAT CHARTER. 1304 — 1395. 1205 Barons refuse to fight for recovery of Normandy. 1208 Innocent III. puts England under Interdict. 121 1 John reduces Llewellyn-ap-Jorwerth to submission. 1212 John divides Irish Pale into coun- ties. 1213 John becomes the Pope's vassal. 1214 Battle of Bouvines. Birth of Roger Bacon. 1215 The Great Charter. 12 1 6 Lewis of France called in by the Barons. Henry the Third, died 1273. Confirmation of the Charter. 1217 Lewis returns to France. Hubert de Burgh, Justiciary. Charter ajrain confirmed. 1221 1223 1225 1228 1229 1230 1231 1232 1237 1238 1241 1242 1246 1248 Friars land i)t England. Charter again confirmed at Oxford. Irish confirmation of Charter. Revolt of Faukes de Breaute. Stephen Langton's death. Papal exaction^. Failure of Henry's campaign in Poi- tou. Conspiracy against the Italian clergy.' Fall of Hubert de Burgh. Charter again confirmed. Earl Simon of Leicester marries Henry's sister. Defeat of Henry at Taillebourg. Barons refuse subsidies. -1283 Llewellyn-ap-Gryffyth, Prince in North Wales. Irish refusal of subsidies. Earl Simon in Gascony. 370 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 1253 Earl Simon returns to England. 1259 Provisions of Oxford. 1261 Earl Simon leaves England. 1264 Mise of Amiens. Battle of Lewes. 1265 Commons summoned to Parliament. Battle of Evesham. 1267 Roger Bacon writes his " Optts Alajns.''^ 1268 Llewellyn-ap-Gryffyth owned as Prince of Wales. 1270 Edward goes on Crusade. 1274 Edward the First, died 1307. 1277 Edward reduces i>lewellyn-ap-Gryf- fyth to submission. 1279 Statute of Mortmain. 1282 Conquest of Wales. 1284 Statute of Merchants. 1285 Statute of Winchester. 1290 Statute " Quia Emptores." Expulsion of the Jews. Marriage Treaty of Brigham. 1291 Parliament at Norham settles Scotch succession. 1293 Edward claims appeals from Scot- land. 1294 Seizure of Guienne by Philip of France. 1295 French fleet attacks Dover. Final organization of the English Parliament. THE WARS WITH SCOTLAND AND FRANCE. 1396 — 1485. 1296 Edward conquers Scotland. 1297 Victory of Wallace at Stirling. Outlawry of the Clergy. Barons refuse to serve in Flanders. 1298 Edward forced to renounce illegal taxation. Edward conquers Scots at Falkirk. Peace with France. 1301 Barons demand nomination of Min- isters by Parliament. 1302 Barons exact fresh confirmations of the Charters. 1304 Final submission of Scotland. 1305 Parliament of Perth. 1306 Rising of Robert Bruce. 1307 Parliament of Carlisle. First Statute of Provisors. Edward the Second, died 1327. 1308 (javeston exiled. 1310 The Fords Ordainers draw up Arti- cles of Reform. 1312 Death of Gaveston. 1314 Battle of Bannockburn. 1316 Battle of Athenry. 1318 Edward accepts the Ordinances. 1322 Death of Earl of Leicester. Ordi- nances annulled. 1323 Truce with the Scots. 1324 French attack Aquitaine. 1325 The Queen and Prince Edward in France. 1326 Queen lands in England. 1327 Deposition of Edward IL Edward the Third, died 1377. 1328 Treaty of Northampton recognizes independence of Scotland. 1329 Death of Robert Bruce. 1330 Death of Roc;er Mortimer. 1332 Edward Balliol invades Scotland. 1333 Battle of Halidon Hill. Balliol does homage to Edward. 1334 Balliol driven from Scotland. 1335-1336 Edward invades Scotland. 1336 1* ranee again declares war. 1337-1338 War with France and Scotland. 1339 Edward claims crown of France. Edward attacks France from Bra- bant. 1340 Battle of Sluys. 1343 War in Brittany and Guienne. 1346 Battles of Cressy and Neville's Cross. 1347 Capture of Calais. Truce with France. 1349 First appearance of the Black Death. 1351-1353 Statutes of Laborers. 1353 Urst Statute of Prsmunire. 1354 Renewal of French war. 1356 Battle of Poitiers. 1360 Treaty of Bretigny. 1367 The Black Prince victorious at Na- jara. Statute of Kilkenny. 1368 Renewal of French war. IVyclifs treatise ''De Doininio.'''' 1370 .Storms of Limoges. 1372 Victory of Spanish fleet off Rochelle. 1374 Revolt of Aquitaine. 1376 The Good Parliament. 1377 Its work undone by the Duke of Lancaster. Wyclif before the Bishops of Lon- don. Richard the Second, died 1399. 1378 Gregory XL denounces WycUf's heresy. 1380 LojigJand^s '^ Piers the Plonghtnan. " 1381 Wyclif's declaration against Tran- substantiation. CHRONOLOGICAL ANNALS. 371 1381 The Peasant Revolt. 1424 1382 Condemnation of Wyclif at Black- 1429 friars. 1430 Suppression of the Poor Preachers. 1431 1384 Death of Wyclif. 1435 1387 Barons force Richard to dismiss the 1444 Earl of Suffolk. 1447 1389 Truce with France. 1450 1394 Richard in Ireland. 1396 Richard marries Isabella of France. Truce with, prolonged. 1451 1397 Murder of the Duke of Gloucester. 1454 1393 Richard's plans of tyranny. 1455 1399 Deposition of Richard. 1456 Henry the Fourth, died 1413. 1459 1400 Revolt of Owen Glendower in 1460 Wales. 1401 Statute of Heretics. 1402 Battle of Homildon Hill. 1461 1403 Revolt of the Percies. 1404 I'rench descents on England. 1405 Revolt of Archbishop Scrope. 1407 French attack Gascony. 1464 141 1 English force sent to aid Duke of 1470 Burgundy in France. 1413 Henry the Fifth, died 1422 1471 1414 Lollard Conspiracy. 1475 1415 Battle of Agincourt. 1476 1417 Henry invades Normandy. 1483 1419 Alliance with Duke of Burgundy. 1420 Treaty of Troyes. 1422 Henry the Sixth, died 1471. 1485 Battle of Verneuil. Siege of Orleans. County Suffrage restricted. Death of Joan of Arc. Congress of Arras. Marriage of Margaret of Anjou. Death of Duke of Gloucester. Impeachment and death of Duke of Suffolk. Cade's Insurrection. Loss of Normandy and Guienne. Duke of York nan'ied Protector. First batth of St. Albans. End of York's Protectorate. Failure of Yorkist revolt. Battle of Northampton. York acknowledged as successor. Battle of Wakefield. Second battle of St. Albans. Battle of Mortimer'f. Cross. Edward the Fourth, di.;d 1483. BattL of Towton. Edward marrijs Lady Grey. Warwick driven to France. Flight of Edw-ard to Burgundy. Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury. Edward invades France. Caxton settles in England. Murder of Edward the Fifth. Richard the Third, di -d 14S5. Buckingham's insurrection. Battle of Bosvvorth. THE TUDOR S. 1485 — 1603. 1485 1487 1489 1491 1496 1497 1499 1501 1502 1505 1509 1512 1513 1516 1517 1519 Henry the Seventh, died 1509. Conspiracy of Lambert Simncl. Treaty with Ferdinand and Isabella. Henry invades France. Cornish Rebellion. Perkin Warbeck captured. Sebastian Cabot lands in America. Colet and Erasmus at Oxford. Arthur Tudor marries Catharine of Aragon. Margaret Tudor marries James the Fourth. Colet Dean of St. PanPs. Henry the Eighth, died 1547. Erasmus writes the ^'Praise of Folly.'" War with France. Colet fo7inds St. PaiWs School. Battles of the Spurs and of Flodden. Wolsey becomes chief Minister. More'^s ^^ Utopia.'''' Luther denounces Indulgences. Field of Cloth of Gold. 1520 Luther burns the Pope's Bull. 1521 Quarrel of Luther with Henry the Eighth. 1522 Renewal of French War. 1523 Wolsey quarrels with the Commons. 1524 E.xaction of Benevolenc.s defeated. 1525 Peace with France. Tyndal trans- lates the Bible. 1527 Henry resolves on a Divorce. Per- secution of Protestants. 1529 Fall of Wolsey. Ministry of Nor- folk and More. 1531 King acknowledged as " Supreme Head of the Church of Eng- land." 1532 Statute of Appeals. Anne Boleyn crowned. 1534 Acts of Supremacy and Succession. 1535 Cromwell Vicar-General. Death of More. Overthrow of the Geraldines in Ire- land. 1536 English Bible issued. 3/2 YOUXG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 1536 Dissolution of lesser Monasteries. 1537 Pilgrimage of Grace. 1538 Execution of Lord Exeter and Lady Salisbury. 1539 Law of Six Articles. Suppression of greater Abbeys. 1542 Completion of the Tudor Conquest of Ireland. 1543 Fall of Cromwell. 1547 Execution of Earl of Surrey. Edward the Sixth, died 1553. Battle of Pinkie Cleugh. 1548 English Book of Common Prayer. 1549 Western Rebellion. End of Somer- set's Protectorate. 1551 Death of Somerset. 1552 Suppression of Chantries. 1553 Mary, died 1559. Chancellor discovers Archangel. 1554 Mary marries Philip of Spain. England absolved by Cardinal Pole. 1555 Persecution of Protestants begins. 1556 Burning of Archbishop Cranmer. 1557 War with France. 1558 Loss of Calais. 1559 Elizabeth, died 1603. restores Royal Supremacy and English Prayer-book. 1560 War in Scotland. 1551 JNIary Stuart lands in Scotland. 1562 Rebellion of Shane O'Neill in Ulster. Elizabeth supports French Hugue- nots. First Penal Statute against Catho- / lies, and first Poor Law. / Hawkins begins Slave-trade with Africa. 1563 English driven out of Havre. Thirty-nine Articles imposed on clergy. 15C5 Mary manies Darnley. 1560 Darnley murders Rizzio. Royal Exchange built. 1557 Bothwell murders Darnley. Defeat and death of Shane O'Neill. 15O3 Mary flies to England. 1559 Revolt of the northern Earls. 1571 Bull of Deposition issued. 1572 Conspiracy and death of Norfolk. Rising of the Low Countries against Alva. Cartwright's "Admonition to the Parliament." 1575 Wentworth sent to the Tower. 1576 Fi7-st ptihlic Theatre in Black/ri- ars. 1577 Landing of the Seminary Priests. Drake sets sail for the Pacific. 1578 Lyiys " Euphues.''' 1579 Spetiser publishes " SJiepJiercT s Cal- eiidar.'''' 1580 Campian and Parsons in England. Revolt of the Desmonds. Massacre of Smerwick. 1583 Plots to assassinate Elizabeth. New powers given to Ecclesiastical Commission. 1584 Murder of Prince of Orange. Armada gathers in the Tagus. Colonization of Virginia. 1585 English army sent to Netherlands. Drake on the Spanish Coast. 1586 Battle of Zutphen. Babington's Plot. SJiakespeare in London. 1587 Death of Mary Stuart. Drake burns Spanish fleet at Cadiz. Marlowe'' s " Tainburlaitie.'''' 1588 Defeat of the Armada. Marti7i l\Iar prelate Tracts. 1589 Drake plunders Corunna. 1590 Publication 0/ the ^''Faerie Queene.^* 1593 SJiakespeare^ s^' Venus and Adonis." 1594 Hooker's " Ecclesiastical Polity." 1596 Jouso7i''s " Every Alan ifi his Hu- vior.'''' Descent upon Cadiz. 1597 Ruin of the Second Armada. Bacon'' s " Essays.''"' 1598 Revolt of Hugh O'Neill. 1599 E.xpedition of Earl of Essex in Ire- land. 1601 Execution of Essex. 1603 Mountjoy completes the Conquest of Ireland. Death of Elizabeth. THE STUARTS. 1603 — 1688. 1603 James the First, died 1625. Millenary Petition. 1604 Parliament claims to deal with both Church and State. Hampton Court Conference. 1605 Gunpowder Plot. Bacon'' s '^'Advancement of Learn- in^.'''' 1610 Parliament's Petition of Grievances. Plantation of Ulster. l5i3 Marriage of the Elector Palatine. 1614 First quarrels with the Parliament. 1615 Trial of the Earl of Somerset. Disgrace of Chief Justice Coke. Sale of Peerages. Proposals for the Spanish Marriage. CHRONOLOGICAL ANNALS. 373 1616 Death of Shakespeare. 1617 Bacon Lord Keeper. Expedition and death of Raleigh. The Declaration of Sports. 1618 Beginning of Thirty Years' War. 1620 Invasion of tlie Palatinate. Bacoii's '''' Nozniiii OrgannniV Landing of the Pilgrim Fathers in New England. Impeachment of Bacon, 1621 James tears out the Protestation of the Commons. 1623 Tourney of Charles to Madrid. 1624 Resolve of War against Spain. 1625 Charles the First, died 1649. First Parliament dissolved. Failure of expedition against Cadiz. 1626 Buckingham impeached. Second Parliament dissolved. 1627 Levy of Benevolences and Forced Loan. Failure of Expedition to Rochelle. 1628 The Petition of Right. Murder of Buckingham. Laud Bishop of London. 1629 Dissolution of Third Parliament. Charter granted to Massachusetts. Wentworth Lord President of the North. 1630 Puritan Emigration to New England. 1631 Wentworth Lord Deputy in Ireland. 1633 Laud Archbishop of Canterbury. Milton'' s '■'■Allegro'''' and " Perise- roso^ Prynne's " Histriomastix." 1634 Milton'' s " Coiiius.'''' 1630 Juxon Lord Treasurer. Book of Canons and Common Prayer issued for Scotland. 1637 Hampden refuses to pay Ship-money. Revolt of Edinburgh. Trial of Hampden. 1638 Milton'' s " Ljycidas.''^ The Scotch Covenant. 1639 Leslie at Dunse Law. Pacification of Berwick. 1640 The Short Parliament. The Bishops' War. Great Council of Peers at York. Long Parliament meets, Nov. 1641 Execution of Strafford, May. Charles visits Scotland. Tlie Irish Massacre, Oct. The Grand Remonstrance, A^ov. 1642 Impeachmpnt of Five Members, _/««. Charles before Hull, April. Royalists withdraw from Parliament. Charles raises Standard at Notting- ham. Ansr. Battle of Edeehill, Oct. 3^. H abbes writes the " De Cive.''^ I 1643 Assembly of Divines assembles at Westminster. Rising of the Cornishmen, May. Death of Hampden, y«;/t'. Battle of Roundway Down, July. Siege of Gloucester, Aug. Taking of the Covenant, Sept. 23. 1644 Fight at Cropredy Bridge, /««£?. Battle of Marston Moor, July. Surrender of Parliamentary Army in Cornwall, Sept. Battle of Tippermuir, Sept. Battle of Newbury, Oct. 1645 Self-renouncing Ordinance, April. New Model raised. Battle of Nasebv,y'««^ 14. Battle of Philiphaugh, Sept. 1646 Charles surrenders to the Scots, May. 1647 Scots surrender Charles to the Houses, Feb. Army elects Adjutators, April. The King seized at Holmby House, June. " Humble Representation " of the Army, June. Expulsion of the Eleven Members. Army occupies London, Aug. Flight of the King, Nov. Secret Treaty of Charles with the Scots, Dec. 1648 Outbreak of the Royalist Revolt, Feb. Revolt of the Fleet, and of Kent, May. Fairfax and Cromwell in Essex and Wales, June-Jidy. Battle of Preston, A7ig. 18. Surrender of Colchester, Azig. 27. Pride's Purge, Dec. Royal Society begins at Oxford. 1649 Execution of Charles \.,Jan. 30. Scotland proclaims Charles II. England proclaims itself a Common- wealth Cromwell storms Drogheda, Aug. 1650 Cromwell enters Scotland, May. Battle of Dunbar, Sept 3. 1651 Battle of Worcester, Sept. 3. Union with Scotland and Ireland. Hobbes^s " Lezuathan."' 1652 Outbreak of Dutch War, May. Victon' of Van Tromp, Nov. 1653 Victory of Blake, Feb. Cromwell diives out the Parliament, April iq. Constituent Convertion (Barebones Parliament\ July Convention dissolves, Dec. 1654 The Instrument of Government. Oliver Cromwell, Lord Protec- tor, died iftqS. Peace concluded with Holland. 374 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 1654 First Protectorate Parliament, Sef>t. 1655 Dissolution of the Parliament, y^jw. The Major- Generals. Settlement of Scotland and Ireland. Settlement of the Church. 1656 P)lake in the Mediterranean. War witli Spain and Conquest of Ja- maica. Second Protectorate Parliament, Sept. 1657 Blake's victory at Santa Cruz. Cromwell refuses title of King. Act of Government. 1658 Parliament dissolved, Feb. Battle of the Dunes. Capture of Dunkirk. Death of Cromwell, Sept. t,. Richard Cromwell, Lord Protec- tor, died 1 7 12. 1659 Third Protectorate Parliament. Parliament dissolved. Long Parliament recalled. Long Parliament again driven out. 1660 Monk enters London. Tlie " Convention " Parliament. Charles the Second, lands at Do- ver May, died 1685. Union of Scotland and Ireland un- done. i65i Cavalier Parliament b;gins. Act of Unifcjrmity re-enacted. 1662 Puritan clergy driven out. Royal Society at London. 1663 Dispensing 15111 (ails. 1664 Conventicle Act. Dutch War begins. 1665 Five-Mile Act. Plague and Fire of London. Newt oil's Theory of Fluxions. 1667 The Dutch in the Medway. Dismissal of Clarendon. Peace of Breda. Lewis attacks Flanders. Milfoil's " Paradise Lost.''^ i538 The Triple Alliance. Peace of Ai.x-Ia-Chapelle. i659 Ashley shrinks back from toleration to Catliolics. 1570 Treaty of Dover. Biiiiyaii's " Filgr lilt's Progress'''' written. 1671 Milton's ^''Paradise Regained'"' and '' Samson Agonistes." Newton's Theory 0/ Light. Closing of the Exchequer. 1672 Declaration of Indulgence. War begins with Holland. Ashley made Chancellor. Declaration of Indulgence with- drawn. 1673 The Test Act. 1673 Shaftesbury dismissed. Shaftesbury takes the lead of the Country Party. 1674 Bill of Protestant Securities fails. Charles makes peace with Holland. Danby Lord Treasurer. 1675 Treaty of mutual aid between Charles and Lewis. 1676 Shaftesbury sent to the Tower. 1677 Bill for Security of the Church fails. Address of the Commons for War with France. Prince of Orange marries Mary. 1678 Peace of Nimegnen. Gates invents the Popish Plot. Fall of Danby. New Ministry, with Shaftesbury at its head. Temple's plan for a new Council. 1679 New Parliament meete. Habeas Corpus Act passed. Exclusion Bill introduced. Parliament dissolved. Shaftesbury dismissed. 1680 Committee for agitation formed. Monmouth pretends to the throne. Petitioners and Abhorrers. Exclusion Bill thrown out by the Lords. Trial of Lord Stafford. 1681 Parliament at Oxford. Limitation Bill rejected. Monmouth and Shaftesbury arrested. 1682 Conspiracy and flight of Shaftesbury. Rye-house Plot. 1683 Death of Shaftesbury. Lord Russell and Algernon Sidney executed. 1684 Town charters quashed. Army increased. 1685 James the Second, died 1701 Insurrection of Argyle and Mon- mouth. Battle of Sedgemoor,/?/. Capitulation and Treaty of Limerick. 1692 Massacre of Giencoe. Battle of La Hogue, May 19. 1693 Sunderland's plan of a Ministry. 1694 Bank of England set up. Death of Mary. 1696 Currency restored. 1697 Peace of Ryswick. 1698 First Partition Treaty. 1700 Second Partition Treaty. 170 1 Duke of Anjou becomes King of Spain. Death of James the Second. Act of Settlement passed. 1702 Anne, died 1714. 1704 Battle of Blenheim, An^'. 13. Harley and St John take office. 1705 Victories of Peterborough in Spain. 1706 Battle of Ramillies, 3/a_y 23. 1707 Act of Union with Scotland. 1708 Battle of Oudenarde. Dismissal of Harley and St. John. 1709 Battle of Malplaquet. 1710 Trial of .Sacheverel. Tory Ministry of Harley and St. John. 1712 Dismissal of Marlborough. 1713 Treaty of Utrecht. 1714 George the First, died 1727. Ministry of Townshend and Walpole. 1715 Jacobite Revolt under Lord Mar. 1716 Ministry of Lord Stanhope. The Septennial Bill. 1717 The Triple Alliance. 1718 The Quadruple Alliance. 1720 Failure of the Peerage Bill. The South Sea Company. 1721 Ministry of Sir Robert Walpole. 1722 E.\ile of Bishop Atterbury. 1727 War with Austria and Spain. George the Second, died 1760. 1729 Treaty of Seville. 1730 Free exportation of American rice allowed. 1731 Treaty of Vienna. 1733 Walpole's Excise Bill. War of the Polish Succession. Family Compact between France and Spain. 1737 Death of Queen Caroline. 1738 T/ie JMethodlsts appear in London. 1739 War declared witli Spain. 1740 War of the Austrian Succession. 1742 Resignation of Walpole. 1743 Ministry of Henry Pelham. Battle of Dettingen,///;/^ 27. 1745 Battle of Fontenoy, May 3 1 Charles Edward lands in Scotland.. Battle of Preslonpans, Sept 21. Charles Edward reaches Derby, Dec. 4. 1746 Battle of Falkirk, /««. 23. Battle of Culloden, April 16. 1748 Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle. 1751 Clive's surprise of Arcot. 1754 Death of Henry Pelham. Ministry of Duke of Newcastle. 1755 The Seven Years' War. Defeat of General Braddock. 1756 Loss of Port Mahon. Retreat of Admiral Byng. 1757 Convention of Closter-.Seven. Ministry of WiUiam Pitt. Battle of Plassey,y««^23. 1758 Capture of Louisburg and Cape Bre- ton. Capture of Fort Duquesne. 1759 Battle of Minden, Aug. i. Battle of Quiberon Bay, Nov. 20. Capture of Fort Niagara and Ti- conderoga. Wolfe's Victory on Heights of Abra- ham. 376 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 1760 George the Third, died 1S20. Battle of Wandewash. 1761 Ministry of Lord Bute. Britidley''s Ca7ial over the Irwell. i']Q2 Peacj of Paris. 1763 Wedgwood establishes Potteries. 1 764 Hargreaves iiivents Spiujiiug-Jenfiy. lyb^ Stamp Act passed. Ministry of Lord Rockingham. Meeting and Protest of American Congress. JP'att invents Steam- Engine. 1766 Repeal of the Stamp Act. Ministiyof Lord Chatham. 1763 Minist:y of the Duke of Grafton. Wilkes expelled from House of Com- mons. Arkivright iiivents Spinning-Ma- chine. 1769 Wilkes three times elected for Mid- dlesex. House of Commons seats Colonel Luttrell. Occupation of Boston by British troops. Letters ojfjimins. 1770 IMinistry of Lord North. Chatham proposes Parliamentary Reform. 1771 Last attempt to prevent Parliamen- tary reporting. Beginning of tJie great English Jonrnals. 1773 Hastings appointed Governor-Gen- eral. Boston tea-ships. 1774 Military occupation of Boston. Port closed. Massachusetts Charter altered. Congress assembles at Philadelphia. 1775 Rejection of Chatham's plan of con- ciliation. Skirmish at Lexington. Americans, under Washington, be- siege Boston. Battle of Bunker's Hill. Southern Colonies expel their Gov- ernors. 1776 Crompton invents the Mide. Arnold invades Canada. Evacuation of Boston. Declaration of hidependence,^/^/}' 4. Battles of Brooklyn and Trenton. Adam Smith'' s ''■'Wealth of Xa- tions.'' 1777 Battle of Brandywine. Surrender of Saratoga, Oct. 13. Chatliam proposes Federal Union. Wasliington at Valley ^orge. 1778 Alliance of France with United States. 1778 Death of Chatham, April 7. 1779 Alliance of Spain with United States. Siege of Gibraltar. Armed Neutrality of Northern Pow- ers. The Irish Volunteers. 1780 Cornwallis captures Charleston. Descent of Hyder Ali on the Car- natic. 1781 Defeat of Hyder at Porto Novo. Surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown. 1782 Ministry of Lord Rockingham. Victories of Rodney. Repeal of Poyning's Act. Pitt's Bill for Parliamentary Reform. Burke's Bill of Economical Reform. Shelburne INLnlstry. Repulse of Allies from Gibraltar. Treaties of Paris and Versailles. 1783 Coalition Ministrvof Fox and North. Fox's Lidla Bill. ' Ministrv of Pitt. 1784 Pitt's liidla Bill. Sinking Fund and Excise. 1785 Parllamentan' Reform Bill. Free-trade Bill between England and Ireland. 1786 Trial of Warren Hastings. 1787 Treatv of Commerce with France. 1788 The Regency Bill. 1789 Meeting of States-General at Ver- sailles. New French Constitution. Triple Alliance for defence of Tur- key. 1790 Quarrel over Nootka Sound. Pitt defends Poland. Burke'' s '^ Refections on tlie French Revohition.'''' 1791 Representative Government set up in Canada. Fox's Libel Act. Burke^s '' Appeal fro7n New to Old Whigs.''' 1792 Pitt hinders Holland from joining the Coalition. France opens the Scheldt. Pitt's efforts for peace. The United Irishmen. 1793 France declares War on England. Part of Whigs join Pitt. Englisli army lands in Flanders. 1794 English driven from Toulon. English driven from Holland. Suspension of Habeas Corpus Act. Victory of Lord \in\\e,fuiie 21. 1796 Battle'of Cape St. Vincent. Burke's "Letters on a Regicide Peace.''' 1797 England alone in the War with 1 France. CHRONOLOGICAL ANNALS. 377 1797 Battle of Camperdown. 1798 Irish revolt crushed at Vinegar Hill. Battle of the Nile. 1799 Pitt revives the Coalition against France. Conquest of Mysore. 1800 Surrender of Malta to English Fleet. Armed Neutrality of Northern Pow- ers. Act of Union with Ireland. 1801 George the Third rejects Pitt's plan of Catholic Emancipation. Administration of Mr. Addington. Surrender of French army in Egypt. Battle of Copenhagen. 1802 Peace of Amiens. Piiblicaiioii of '''Edinburgh Re- view.'''' 1803 Bonaparte declares War. Battle of Assaye. Second Ministry of Pitt. 1805 Battle of Trafalgar, Oct. 21. i8oi5 Death of Pitt, /^i«. 23. Ministry of Lord Grenville. Death of Fox. 1807 Orders in Council. Abolition of Slave-trade. Ministry of Duke of Portland. Seizure of Danish fleet. 1808 ^meiica passes Non-Intercourse Act. Battle of Vimeira and Convention of Cintra. l8og Battle of Corunna,/^z;/. 16. Wellesley diives Soult from Oporto. Battle of Talavera,/«/j/ 27. Expedition against Walcheren. Ministry of Spencer Perceval. Revival of Parliamentary Reform. 1810 Battle of Busaco. Lines of Torres Vedras. 181 1 Prince of Wales becomes Regent. Battle of Fuentes de Onore, Miy 5. Wellington repulsed from Badajoz and Almeida. Luddite Riots. 1812 Assassination of Spencer Perceval. Ministry of Lord Liverpool. Storm of Ciudad Rodrigo and Bada- joz. America declares War against Eng- land. Battle of Salamanca, /?//)' 22. Wellington retreats from Burgos. Victories of American Frigates. 1813 Battle of Vittoria, ///;«' 21. Battles of the Pyrenees. Wellington enters France, Oct. Americans attack Canada. 1814 Battle of Orthez. Battle of Toulouse, April 10. 1814 Battle of Chippewa, /?^/j'. Raid upon Washington. British repulsed at Plattsburgh and New Orleans. 1815 Battle of Quatre Bras,y?<7«^ 16. Battle of Waterloo, //<«^ 18. Treaty of Vienna. 1819 Manchester Massacre. 1820 Cato Street Conspiracy. George the Fourth, died 1S30. Bill for tlie Queen's Divorce. 1822 Canning Foreign Minister. 1823 INIr. Huskisson jonis the Ministry. 1826 Expedition lo Portugal. Recognition of South American States. 1827 Ministry of Mr. Canning. Ministry of Lord Goderich. Battle of Navarino. 1828 Ministry of the Duke of WelHngton. 1829 Cathe)lic Emancipation Bill 1830 William the Fourth, died 1S37. Ministry of Lord (Irey. Opening 0/ Liverpool a7id ISIanches- ter Railroad. 1 831 Reform Agitation. 1832 Parliamentary Reform Bill passed. J2i7ie 7. 1833 Suppression of Colonial Slavery. East India trade thrown open. 1834 Ministry of Lord Melbourne. New Poor Law. Svstem of National Education begun. Ministry of Sir Robert Peel. 1835 Ministry of Lord Melbourne re- placed. Municipal Coiporation Act. 1836 General Registration Act. Civil Marriage Act. 1837 Victoria. 1839 Committee of Privy Council for Ed- ucation instituted. Demands for a PeojiL's Charter. Formation of Anti-Corn- Law League. Revolt in Canada. War with China. Occupation of Cabul. 1840 Quadrujih Alliance with France, Por- tugal, and Spain. Bombardment of Acre. 1841 Ministry of Sir Robert Peel. Income Tax revived. Peace with Cliina. Massacre of English army in Af- ghanistan. 1842 Victories of Pollock in Afghanistan. 1845 Battles of Moodkee and Ferozeshah. 1846 Battle of Sobraon. Annexation of Scinde. Rei^eal of the Corn-Laws. 1847 Ministry of Lord John Russell. 378 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. 1848 Suppression of the Chartists and Irish rebels. Victory of Goojerat. Annexation of the Punjaub. 1852 Ministry of Lord Derby. 1853 Ministry of Lord Aberdeen. 1854 Alhance with France against Russia. Siege of Sebastopol. Battle of Inkermann, Nov. 5. 1855 Ministry of Lord Palmerston. Capture of Sebattopol. 1856 Peace of Paris with Russia. 1857 Sepoy Mutiny in Bengal. 1858 Sovereignty of India transferred to the Crown. Volunteer movement. Second Ministry of Lord Derby. 1859 Second Ministry of Lord Palmerston. 1865 Ministry of Lord Russell. 1866 Third Ministry of Lord Derby. 1867 Parliamentary Reform Bill. Ministry of Mr. Disraeli. 1868 Ministry of Mr. Gladstone. Abolition of compulsory Church Rates. 1869 Disestablishment of the Episcopal Church in Ireland. 1870 Irish Land Bill. Education Bill. 1871 Abolition of Religious Tests in Uni- versities. Army Bill. Ballot Bill. 1874 Second Ministry of Mr. Disraeli. 1877 The Russo-Turkish War. 1878 Treaty of Berlin. 1879 War with Afghanistan. 1880 Second Ministry of Mr. Gladstone. 1881 Irish Land Act. 1882 Bombardment of Alexandria. 1884 War in the Soudan. 1885 Ministry of the l.Iarquis of Salisbury, Third Parliamentary Refonii Bill. General Election. 1886 Third Ministry of Mr. Gladstone. Home Rule bill introduced. SOVEREIGNS OF ENGLAND. BEFORE THE NORMAN CONQUEST. Beginning of Reigu. SAXONS. ^Egbert . 827 Ethelwolf . 836 Ethelbald 857 Ethelbert 860 Ethelred I . 866 "^ Alfred 871 Edward the Elder .... 901 Ethelstan 925 Edmund 1 941 Edred 946 Edwy 955 Edgar 959 Edward IT. . . Ethelred II. . . Edmund Iionside Beg'nnb/g of Re.gu. • • 975 ■ • 979 . - 1016 DANES. Swend 1014 Canute 1017 Harold 1 1035 Hardicanute 1040 SAXONS. Edward III. (the Confessor), 1042 Harold II. 1066 AFTER THE NORMANS. William 1 1066 William II 1087 Henry I iioo Stephen 1 135 PLANTAGENETS. ^ Henry II 1154 Richard 1 1189 "John IT99 Henry III 1216 '^Edward 1 1272 ^Edward II '^y^l Edward III 1327 ■ Richard II 1377 HOUSE OF LANCASTER. Henry IV 1399 Henry V 1413 Henry VI 1422 HOUSE OF YORK, Edward IV 1461 Edward V. ...... 1483 Richard HI 1483 CONQUEST. HOUSE OF TUDOR. Henry VII Henry VIII Edward VI Maiy I Elizabeth HOUSE OF .stua: James I Charles I 14^5 1509 1547 1553 1558 1603 .64 Oliver Cromwell, Prctsctor, 1653 Richard Cromwell, rrotecto;', 1658 HOUSE OF STUART (continued). Charles II 1660 James II . 16S5 William III. and M?a-y II. . 16S9 Anne . 1702 HOUSE OF BRUNSWICK. George 1 17 14 George II 1727 George III 1760 George IV 1S20 William IV 1830 Victoria 1837 379 FIRST LORDS OF THE TREASURY AND PRIME MINISTERS OF ENGLAND. Appointed. Robert Walpole Oct. lo, James Stanhope April lo, Earl of Sunderland Mar. 16, Sir Robert Walpole April 20, Earl of Wilmington Feb. 11, Henry Pelham July 26, Duke of Newcastle April 21, Earl of Bute May 29, George Grenville April 16, Marquis of Rockingham July 12, Duke of Grafton Aug, 2, Lord North Jan. 28, Marquis of Rockingham Mar. 30, Earl of Shelburne July 3, Duke of Portland April 5, William Pitt Dec. 27, Henry Addington Mar. 7, William Pitt May 12, Lord Grenville Jan. 8, Duke of Portland Mar. 13, Spencer Perceval June 23, Earl of Liverpool June 8, George Canning April 11, Viscount Goderich Aug. 10, Duke of Wellington Jar.. 11, Earl Grey Nov. 12, Viscount Melbourne July 14, Sir Robert Peel Dec. 10, Viscount Melbourne April 18, Sir Robert Peel Sept. i. Lord John Russell July 3, Earl of Derby Feb. 27, Earl of Aberdeen Dec. 28, Viscount Palmerston Feb. 8, Earl of Derby Feb. 26, Viscount Palmerston lune 18, Earl Russell Nov. 6, Earl of Derby July 6, Benjamin Disraeli . Feb. 27, William Evvart Gladstone Dec. 9, Benjamin r)isRAELi (Earl of Beaconsfield) . . Feb. 21, William Evvart Gladstone April 28, Marquis of Salisbury June 23, William Ewart Gladstone Jan. — y 380 INDEX. Aberdeen, earl of, 357. Abyssinia, 362. Addington, Henry, 320. Addison, Joseph, 333. Afghanistan, 353, 365. Agincourt, battle of, 160. Agricola, 7. Aix-la-Chapelle, treaty of, 299. Akenside, Mark, 334. Alabama, the, 360. Albert, prince, 353. Albuera, battle of, 324. Aldermen, 34. Alfred the great, 21. Alma, battle of, 357. Althorp, lord, 348. American civil war, 360; colonies, 701 309; revolution, 310. Amiens, treaty of, 320. Angles, the, 9. Anglo-Saxon language, 24. Anjou, Margaret of, 165. Anne, queen, 267, 2S3, 284-290. Anselm, 73. Anson, lord, 301. Anti-Corn Law League, 353. Arabi Pasha, 365. Arbitration, the Geneva, 361, 364. Arbuthnot, John, 334. Arc, Joan of, 163. Architecture, 269, 336. Argyll, duke of, 293. Arkwright, Richard, 337. Armada, the Livincible, 218. Army purchase, 363. Arragon, Katherine of, 184, 186. Arthur, prince, 102. Arts, progress of the, 225, 268, 335. Assizes, 92. Atterbury, Francis, 334. Augustine, saint, 16. Austen, Jane, 334. Austerlitz, battle of, 321. Authors, early, 142. B. Babington, conspiracy of, 213. Bacon, lord, 217, 232. Bacon, Roger, 119. Balaklava, battle of, 357. Balliol, John, 124, 127. Ballot, the, 364. Banks, Sir Joseph, 337. Bannockburn, battle of, 130, Barons, revolt of the, 105. Barry, 335. Beaconsfield, earl of, 358, 361. Beaton, cardinal, 199. Beaufort, cardinal, 164. Beaumont, PVancis, 269. Becket, Thomas k, 85. Bedford, John, duke of, 162. Bench, the king's, 80. Bentham, Jeremy, 338, 342. Berlin, treaty of, 365. Bible, translations of, 146, 192. Bill of Rights, 274. Bishops, trial of the, 265. Blake, admiral, 251. Blenheim, battle of, 287. Bloody circuit, the, 264. Boadicea, 6. Board of Control, 325. Boleyn, Anne, 188. Bonaparte, Joseph, 323. Bonaparte, Napoleon, 319, 330. Bonner, bishop, 203. Boroughs, rotten, 347. 381 382 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. Bosworth, battle of, 174. Bothwell, earl of, 212. Boyne, battle of the, 278. Braddock, general, 302. Bretigny, treaty of, 139, Bright, John, 354, 363. Britain, ancient, i. Britons, the, i. Brittany, invasion of, 135. Brougham, lord, 334, 348. Bruce, Robert, 124, 127, 134. Buckingham, duke of, 231, 236. Bunker Hill, battle of, 310. Bunyan, John, 255. Burdett, Sir Francis, 342. Burgoyne, general, 310. Burke^ Edmund, 311. 3i5> 357« Burleigh, lord, 217, 220. Burnet, bishop, 269. Burney, Frances, 334. Burns, Robert, 334. Bute, earl of, 307. Butler, Samuel, 269, Byron, lord, 334, 346. Cabinet, the, 283, 291, 313. Cabot, John, 183, 223. Cabot, Sebastian, 183, 223. Cade, Jack, 168. Cadwalla, 14. Cjesar, Julius, i. Calais, seige of, 136. Caledonians, the, 7. Campbell, Thomas, 334. Canada, 301, 330. Canning, George, 344. Canute, 41. Caractacus, 6. Caricatures, 335. Caroline of Brunswick, 342. Carteret, lord, 297. Cartwright, Dr., 337. Castles, Norman, 63. Catholics, the, 197, 202,215, 229, 257, 264 278, 290, 325, 343. Cato Street Conspiracy, 343- Cavaliers, the, 236. Caxton, William, 177. Cecil, Sir Robert, 217, 231. (Jhalmers, Thomas, 334. Chantrey, Francis, 336. Charities, 338. Charles I., 234-247. Charles II., 249, 254-262. Charter of Henrv I., 77 85; of Edward II., 106, 109. Chartists, the, 355. Chatham, earl of, 297, 301, 307. Chaucer, Geoffrey, 142. Childers, H. E., 363. Christ Church College, 190. Christianity in Britain, 8, 15, 16. Christ's Hospital, 225. Church, the English, 29, 33, 68, 73, 90, 104, 114, 146, 159, 189, 197, 204, 208, 229, 235, 238, 245, 255, 263, 275. Churls, 32. Civil Service, the, 363. Civil War, the English, 244. Clarence, duke of, 169. Clarendon, council of, 87. ' Clarendon, lord, 269. Claudius, 6. Clergy, the, 144. Cleves, Anne of, 194. Clive, Robert, 304, 324. Coaches, first used, 225. Cobden, Richard, 354. Coleridge, Samuel T., 334. Colonies, 223, 309. Columbus, 183, 223. Common people, condition of, 226, 271, -!4o. Commons, House of, 142, 273, 347, 361. Commonwealth, the, 248. Concord, battle of, 3 10. Conquest, the Norman, 57, 60. Constantine, 8. Constitution, settlement of the, 273. Copley, John Singleton, 335. Coram, 338. Cornwallis, lord, 311. Corunna, battle of, 324. Cotton thread, invented, 225. Councils, local, 115. Courts, law, 80, 87, 91. Cowper, William, 334. Crabbe, George, 334. Cranmer, archbishop, 192. Crecy, battle of. 136. Crefeld, battle of, 303. Croker, John Wilson, 334. Crompton, Samuel, 337. Cromwell, Oliver, 244, 248, 252. Cromwell, Richard, 252. Cromwell, Thomas, 191. Crusades, the, 74. Culloden, battle of, 300. Cumberland, duke of, 299. Cutlery, 226. D. of Henry II., 28 ; the Great, Dalton, John, 336. Danes, the, 18, 38, 59. Darnley, lord, 212. Davy, Sir Humphrey, 336. INDEX. 383 Death, the Black, 137. Debt, the national, 315, 341. Declaration of Indulgence, 265 ; of Rights, 274; of Independence, 310. DeFoe, Daniel, 334. DeQuincey, Thomas, 334. Derby, earl of, 357, 360. Derwentwater, earl of, 293. Discovery, eras of, 183, 224. Dispensing power, 264. Disraeli, "Benjamin (earl oi Beaconsfield), 358, 361. Dissenters, the, 255, 259, 265, 275. Divine right, 232. Doomsday book, 67. Drake, Sir Francis, 216. Drayton, Michael, 224. Dress, ancient, 35. Druids, the, 3, 4. Dryden, John, 269. Dudley, Lord Guildford, 201, Dunstan, saint, 28. Dutch, war with the, 255. E. Earls, 32. East India Company, 304, 351, 360. Edgar the Peaceable, 30. Edgehill, battle of, 244. Edgeworth, Maria, 334. Edmund, 28. Edmund Ironside, 41. Edmund, saint, 21. Edred, 29. Education, 143, 363. Edward the Elder, 26. Edward, son of Edgar, 31. Edward the Confesssor, 48. Edward I., 1 19-129. Edward II., 129-131. Edward III., 133-140. Edward the Black Prince, 136. Edward IV., 167-171. Edward V., 172. Edward VI., 196-201. Edwin, 13. Effingham, Lord Howard of, 218. Ej;bert, 15, 18. E-ypt, 319, 363. El 'anor, queen, 120. Eliot, Sir John, 238. Elizabeth, queen, 2o'S-22i. Emancipation, Catholic, 343. Engineering, 336. Enghsh character, 61; under the Nor- mans, 64: language, 96; literature, 224, 269; navy, 251, 303, 318. Erasmus, 224. Essex, earl of, 220. Ethelbert, 16. Ethelred, 20, 38. Ethelstan, 19, 27. Ethelwolf, 19. Eugene, prince, 287. Evelyn, John, 269. Excise, the, 297. Fair, the world's, 356. Fairfax, Sir Thomas, 245. Fawkes, Guy, conspiracy of, 230, Feudal System, the, 32, 63, 176. Fielding, Henry, 334. Fire, the great, 256. Fitzgerald, lord Edward, 327. Five members, the, 243. Flaxman, John, 336. Fletcher, John, 269. Food, ancient, 35. Foundling Hospital, 338. Fox, Charles James, 311, 315, 321, 328. Fox, Henry, 307. France, wars with, 70, 91, 102, 135, 171 236, 280, 285, 318, 320. Franco-Austrian War, the, 360. Franco-German War, the, 364. Frederick, Elector Palatine, 231. French revolutions, 316, 346, 355. Frobisher, Martin, 216. Gainsborough, Thomas, 335. Gardening, 338. Gardiner, bishop, 202. Gaunt, John of, 140, 154, 156. Gay, John, 334. Geneva Arbitration, the, 361, 364. George I., 290-296. George II., 296-306. George III., 306-342. George IV., 316, 329, 342-346. Ghent, treaty of, 330. Gibbon, Edward, 334. Gibraltar, capture of, 287. Gillray, James, 336. Gladstone, William E., 358, 360, 366. Glencoe, massacre of, 282. Glendower, Owen, 157. Gloucester, duke of, 162, 164. Goderich, lord, 344. Godfrey, Sir Edmondsbury, 259. Godolphin, lord, 287. Godwin, earl, 43, 49. Godwin, William, 334. Goldsmith, Oliver, 334. 384 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. Gordon, general, 365. Gower, John, 142. Grafton, duke of, 308. Graham of Claverhouse, 281. Grand remonstrance, the, 242. Granville, earl, 363. Grattan, Henry, 326. Gray, Thomas, 334. Greene, Robert, 224. Greenwich observator\', 270. Grenville, George, 307: lord, 321. Grey, earl, 348 ; Lady Jane, 200-203. Guilds, trade, 98. H. Habeas Corpus, 259, 318 Hadrian, 8. Hall, Robert, 334. Hampden, John, 240. Hampton Court, 187. Handel, 339. Hanover, 353. Hardicanute, 47. Hargreaves, 337. Harley, earl oJE Oxford, 28S, 293. Harold, 49. Harold Harefoot, 46. Hartington, marquis of, 363. Harvey, William, 269. Hasting, 23. Hastings, battle of, 56. Hastings, John, 124. Hastings, Warren, 324. Hawkins, Sir John, 216. Hazlitt, William, 334. Hengist, 10. Henrietta Maria, queen, 234. Henry I., 77-81. Henry II., 84-95. Henrv III., 112-119. Henr'v IV., 153-158. Henr^' V., 158-161. Henrv VI., 162-168. Henr'v VII., 173-183. Henry VIII., 183-196. Heptarchy, the, 13. Herrick, Robert, 269. Herschel, William, 336. Hervey, lord, 334. Hindostan, 224, 304. Hogarth, William, 335. Horsa, 10. Horse-racing, 271. Household suffrage, 362. Howard, John, 338. Howard, Katherine, 195. Hudson Bay Company, 271. Hume, David, 334. Hunt, Leigh, 334. Huskisson, Thomas, 345. I. Independence, declaration of, 310. India, 304, 324, 359. Indulgence, declaration of, 265. Industries, 270. Invention, 336. Ireland, 93, 104, 152, 215, 221, 238, 242, 248, 277, 289, 325, 354, 363, 366. Ironsides, Cromwell's, 244. Irving, Edward, 334. Isabella, queen, 130. Jackson, general, 330. Jacobite rebellion, the first, 293 ; the sec- ond, 299. Jamaica, 251. James I., 214, 228-233. James II., 257, 262-267,277, 284. Jeffreys, judge, 263. Jena, battle of, 322. Jenner, Edward, 336. Jews, the, 100, 129, 251, 355. Joan of Arc, 163. John, 102-111. John of Gaunt, 140, 154, 156. John, King of France, 138. Johnson, Samuel, 334. Jones, Inigo, 269. Jutes, the, 9. K. Katherine of Arragon, : Katherine of France, 173. Kay, John, 337. Keats, John, 334. Kent, duke of, 352. Killiekrankie, battle of, 281. Kneller, Sir Godfrey, 268. Knights of the shire, 115. Knox, John, 211. 84. L. Lafayette, 311. Lamb, Charles, 334. Lancaster, house of, 155. Lanfranc, 68. INDEX. 38s Langton, Stephen, 104, 106, 112. Language, the EngUsh, 96. Latimer, bishop, 203, 205. Laud, archbishop, 238, 242. Lawrence, Sir Thomas, 335. League, anti-corn law, 353. Leicester, earl of, 217, 221. Lely, Sir Peter, 268. Lexington, battle of, 310. Libraries, circulating, 335. Lighthouses, 270. Lille, taking of, 287. Limerick, fall of, 278. Literature, English, 142, 224, 269, 333. Lithography, .336. Liverpool, earl of, 329, 344. Llewellyn, 122. Local councils, 115. Locke, John, 333. Lollards, the, 151, 156, 190. London, government of, 98. Londonderry, siege of, 278. Lords, House of, 142, 248, 273, 347, 349. Louis XIV., of France, 257, 277. Louis XVI IL, of France, 331. Lowe, Robert, 363. Luther, Martin, 191. M. Magazines, 334. Malplaquet, battle of, 287. Mandeville, Sir John, 142. IVTar, earl of, 293. Margaret of Anjou, 165. Maria Theresa, empress, 299. Marlborough, duke of, 267, 285, 287. Marlowe, Christopher, 224. Marston Moor, battle of, 245. Mary L, 202-206. Mary IL, 266, 273-282. Mary, queen of Scots, 198, 200, 211. Matthews, 334. Maud, empress, 81, 84. Maynooth college, 355. Melbourne, lord, 352. Mill, James, 334. Milton, John, 269. Minorca, taking of, 287. Monk, George, 253. Monmouth, duke of, 263. Montfort, Simon de, 115. Montrose, marquis of, 249. Moore, Thomas, 334. More, Hannah, 334. More, Sir Thomas, 192, 224. Mortimer, Roger de, 131. Moscow, retreat from, 331. Music, 339. Mutiny, the Indian, 359. N. Napier, Sir Robert, 362. Napoleon I., 319, 330, 341. Napoleon III., 356, 364. Naseby, battle of, 245. Navy, the English, 251, 303, 318. Nelson, lord, 318, 321. Nero, 6. Newcastle, duke of, 297, 301, 307. New Orleans, battle of, 330. Newspapers, 225, 334, 351. Newton, Sir Isaac, 269. Nile, battle of the, 319. Non-intercourse act, 330. Non-jurors, 276. Norman, conquest, 57 ; government, 62 ; castles, 63. Normandy, French conquest of, 103 ; Ro- bert of, 75 ; William of, 40, 50, 54, 66-70. North, lord, 308, 311. O. Gates, Titus, 258. Occupations, 270. O'Connell, Daniel, 344, 355. Offa, 14. Oldcastle, Sir John, 159. O'Neil, Hugh, 221. Opera, 339. Orders in council, 329. Orleans, siege of, 163. Oudenarde, battle of, 287. Pale, the English, 94. Paley, William, 334. Palmerston, lord, 348, 357, 360. Paris, treaties of, 303, 357. Parliament, 34, 114, 117, 128, 141, 178, X90, 229, 236, 240, 245, 249, 252, 25s, 268, 273, 289, 294. Parr, Katherine, 195. Paullinus, 16. Peel, Sir Robert, 352. Pelham, Henry, 297. Penal laws, 278, 290, 325. Penda, 14. Peninsula war, the, 324. Pepys, Samuel, 269. Perceval, Spencer, 328. Percy, Thomas, 334. Peter the Hermit, 75. Petition of Right, 237. 386 YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. Philip II. of Spain, 203, 210, 216. Philip of Anjou, 287. Philippa, queen, 137. Pins tirst used, 225. Pitt, William (earl of Chatham), 297, 301, 307- Pitt, William, the younger, 314, 320, 327, 343- Plague, the great, 256. Plantagenets, the, 84. Plassey, battle of, 304. Plays, sacred, 97. Poets, Elizabethan, 224, Poitiers, battle of, 138. Pole, cardinal, 204. Pope, Alexander, 333. Popish plot, the, 258. Population, 271. Portland, duke of, 321, 328. Prayer-book, the, 210. Prerogative, the royal, 234. Presb\-terians, the, 245. Pride's purge, 246. Printing, 177, 337. Prior, Matthew, 333. Protestant succession, the, 275. Puritans, the, 210, 229, 231, 235, 242, 245, 255- Pym, John, 241. Q. Quebec, capture of, 302. R. Races, fusion of, 96. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 216, 225, 232. Ramillies, battle of, 287. Reaction, royalist, 248. Rebellion, the first Jacobite, 293 : the sec- ond Jacobite, 299. Reforms, 315, 345, 347, 35i. 361, 366. Remonstrance, the grand, 242. Representation, 98. Reviews, 335. Revivals, 337. Revolution, the great, 267, 273 ; the Amer- ican, 310; the French, 316, 346, 355. Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 335. Ricardo, David, 334. Richard I., 100-102. Richard II., 148-154. Richard III., 172-174. Richardson, Samuel, 334. Ridhy, bishop, 203, 205. Right, petition of, 237. Rights, bill of, 274; declaration of, 274. Robert of Normandy, 75. Robertson, William, 334. Rochambeau, count, 311. Rockingham, marquis of, 307, 312, Rogers, Samuel, 334. Roniilly, Sir Samuel, 338. Rooke, Sir George, 287. Roundheads, the, 236. Roses, wars of the, 162-170. Royal Academy, the, 336. Royal Society, the, 269. Rugby school, founded, 226. Runnymede, meeting zf, 107. Russell, lord John, 348, 354, 357, 360. Russell, lord William, 262. Russia, war with, 356. Rye House plot, 261. Ryswick, peace of, 280. s. Sachaverell, Dr., 2S8. St. Albans, battle of, 166. St. James's palace, 225. St. John, Henry (viscount Bolingbroke), 288, 293, 333. St. Paul's cathedral, 225, 256. Salamanca, battle of, 324. Salisbury, marquis of, 366. Saratoga, battle of, 310. Saxons, the, 9, 12. Schools, early, 96. Science, progress of, 269. Scotland, 44, 91, 123, 134, 198, 211, 240, 246, 281, 2S9, 300. Scots, the, 8, 134, 157, 184, 198. Scots, Maiy, queen of, 200, 211. Scott, Sir Walter, 334. Scutage,_92. Sea bathing, 339. Sebastopol, taking of, 357, .Sedgemoor, battle of, 263, Sepoys, 359. Serfdom, decrease of, 144. Seven years' war, the, 299, Severus, 8. ' Seymour, Jane, 194. Shakespeare, WiUiam, 224. Sharpe, William, 336. Shelburne, earl of, 312. Shelley, Perey B., 334. Sheridan, Richard Brinsley, 334. Sheriffs, 34. Ship building, 270, Ship money, 239. Shire, knights of the, 115. Shires, 34. Sidney, Sir Philip, 217. Slavery, 328, 351. Smith Adam, 334. INDEX. 387 Smith, Sydney, 334. Smollett, 'J'obias, 334. Somerset, duke of, 193, 195. Sophia, the electress, 283, 290. Soudan, the, 365. South, 334. Southey, 334. Spain, wars with, 216, 296, 323. Spanish succession, the, 286. Spenser, Edmund, 224. Sports, English, 36, 99, 271, 339. Stamp act, the, 309. Star chamber, the, 181, 238, 241. Steele, Sir Richard, 333. Stephen, S2-84. Sterne, Laurence, 334. Stockings, silk, 225. Strafford, earl of, 238, 241. Strange, Sir Robert, 336. Strongbow, 94. Stuart, Charles Edward, 299. Stuart, Henry, 300. Stuart, James Edward, 290, 293. Stuart, house of, 228. Succession, the Protestant, 275; act of, 283. Suffrage, household, 362. Sumptuary laws, 143. Sunday schools, 338. Superstitions, 36. Surrey, earl of, 224. Swend, 39. Swift, Jonathan, 333. Sydney, Algernon, 262. Talavera, battle of, 324. Taxation by consent, 128. Tea duty, t'..e, 309. Telescopes introduced, 225. Tewkesbury, battle of, 170. Thanes, 32. Theatres, 226, 271. Theobald, archbishop, 85. Thistlewood, Arthur, 343. Thomson, James, 334. Throgmorton, plot of, 213. Tobacco, introduced, 225. Toleration, act of, 275. Tone, Wolfe, 327. Tories, the, 259, 264, 282, 288, 290, 292, 307, 312, 328, 349, 352, 354, 357, 360. lostig, 49. Towns, growth of, 34, 64, 97. Trade guilds, 98 ; unions, 363. Trafalgar, battle of, 321. 'i'rial by jury, 92. Troyes, treaty of, i6i. Tudor, house of, 180. Turner, J. M. W. 335. Tyndale, William, 192, 224. Tyler, Wat, 148. u. Union, act of, with Scotland, 289; with Ireland, 327. United States, second war with, 329. Utrecht, treaty of, 288. V. Vasco da Gama, 183, 223. Victoria, queen, 352-366. Villeins, 33. Vinegar Hill, battle of, 326. Vittoria, battle of, 324. Volunteers, the Irish, 325. Vortigern, 9. w. Wales, 104, 121, 123. Wallace, William, 125. Walpole, Horace, 334. Walpole, Sir Robert, 293, 295. Walsingham, Sir Francis, 217. Walter, John, 337. War, the civil, 244 ; of the Spanish suc- cession, 286; the seven years', 299; the Napoleonic, 323 ; the peninsula, 324; the Crimean, 356; the Chinese, 359; the Franco-Austrian, 360; the American, 360; the Austro-Prussian, 364 ; the Franco-Prussian, 364 ; the Russo-Turkish, 364. Warbeck, Perkin, 181. Warrants, general, 308. Warwick, Richard, earl of, 169. Warwick, John Dudley, earl of, 200. Washington, George, 302, 311. Water colors, 336. Watering places, 271. Waterloo, battle of, 331. Watt, James, 337. Wedgewood, Josiah, 336. Wellington, duke of, 323, 331, 344, 348, 352- Welsh, the, 51, 121, 157. Wesley, Charles, 337. Wesley, John, 337. West, Benjamin, 335. West Indies, the, 251. Westmacott, 336. sss YOUNG PEOPLE S ENGLAND. Westminster Abbev, 52, 113, 129; school, 226. Whigs, the, 259, 282, 288, 290, 292, 307, 312, 348, 352, 354, 357. Whitefield, 337. Whitehall, 187, 225. Wilberforce, William, 328. Wilkes, John, 30S. Wilkie, David, 335. William I., 40, 50, 54, 66-70 William II., 70-76. William III., 266, 273-284. Wilson, John, 334. Witches, trial of, 37. Witenagemote, the, 34, 79, 98. Wolte, general, 302. Wolsey, cardinal, 184. Woodville, Elizabeth, 169. Worcester, battle of, 249. Wordsworth, 334. Work houses, 351. World's fair, 356. Wren, Sir Christopher, 269. Wyatt, revolt of, 203. Wycliffe, John, 144. York, Elizabeth of, 165. York, Richard of, 173. Yorktown, battle of, 511, Young, Edward, 334. WHAT INTERESTS IS REMEMBERED." YOUNG FOLKS' HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. BY THOMAS WENTWORTH HIGGINSON. PRICK SJ.20 NET. An intensely interesting narrative of the discovery, settle- ment, and growth of our country. 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