Class L Book. OLi Copyright}!^. COPYRIGHT DEPOSED FOREST INTERIOR. SEQUOIA NATIONAL PARK, CALIFORNIA. ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING A TEXTBOOK FOR SCHOOLS BY Ira Samuel Griffith, A. B *-. ILLUSTRATIONS BY Edwin Victor Lawrence The Manual Arts Press Peoria, Illinois X LIBRARY of CONGRESS Tv/0 Copies Received NOV \2 1908 ^ Copyngnt entry _, CLAsk O- KXc, No, \ Copyright Ira Samuel Griffith 1908 ^-33^90 PREFACE. An experience, somewhat extended, in teaching aca- demic branches of learning as well as woodworking, has convinced the author that the most effective teaching of woodworking can be accomplished only when its content is made a subject of as diligent study as is that of the other and older branches. Such a study necessitates the possession, by the student, of a text-book. The selection of a suitable text is made difficult be- cause of the fact that tool processes are usually treated in connection either with models or exercises. It is hardly to be expected that any one set of models or of exercises, tho they may be of very great value, will fill the needs of varying local school conditions. The production of a text- book which shall deal with tool processes in a general way without reference to any particular set of models or exercises is the author's aim. It is believed that such a text will prove suitable wherever the essentials of wood- working shall be taught, whether in grammar, high school or college, and whatever the system of instruction. A few words as to the manner of using the text seem advisable. It is not expected that the book will be stud- ied chapter by chapter, consecutively, as are the elemen- tary texts in mathmatics or science. Rather, it is to be studied topically. To illustrate : A class is to make a mod- el, project, exercise, or whatever we may choose to call it, 2 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. which will require a knowledge of certain tools and the manner of using them. At a period previous to their in- tended use the numbers of the sections of the text relating to these tools and their uses, or the page numbers, should be given the student. Previous to the period in which these tools are tO' be used he should be required to study the sections so marked. The recitation upon the assigned text should take place at the beginning of the period fol- lowing that of the assignment, and may be conducted in a manner quite similar to that of academic branches. This should prepare the way and make intelligible the "demonstration" which may be given in connection with the recitation or at its close. If as thoro a knowledge of the matter studied is in- sisted upon in the recitation as is insisted upon in the academic classroom, there need be but little excuse for ignorance on the part of the pupil when he begins his work or at any subsequent time. Acknowledgement is due the Department of Forestry, Washington, D. C, for the use of material contained in the chapter on Woods and for the prints from which many of the half-tones relating to forestry, were pro- duced. INTRODUCTION. Care of Tools and Bench. It is important that a beginner should become im- pressed with the importance of keeping his tools in the best condition. Good results can be obtained only when tools are kept sharp and clean, and used only for the pur- poses for which they are made. Tools properly shari> ened and properly used permit one to work easily as well as accurately. When it becomes necessary for the work- er to use undue strength because of the dullness of his tools, ''troubles" begin to accumulate and the ''pleasure of doing" is soon changed to despair. Orderliness and carefulness, with knowledge and patience are sure to bring good results ; just as a lack of them will bring failure. The bench top must not be marked with pencil or scratched unnecessarily. Chisel boards are to protect the top from any accidental cuts and should always be used for that purpose. Bench tops that are scraped and shel- laced or oiled every other year ought to remain in as good condition as when new except for the few accidental marks too deep to remove, which the thoughtless boy may have inflicted. Good workers take pride in keeping their benches in o^ood order. Tools that are not in immediate use should 4 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. be placed in their racks that they may not be injured or cause injury to the worker. At the close of the period the bright parts of tools that have come in contact with perspiring hands should be wiped off with oily waste kept for that purpose. All tools should then be put away in their proper places and the top of the bench brushed clean. The beginner should also understand that, important as are the results he may be able to produce in wood, more serious results are being produced in himself in the habits he is forming. Carefulness, neatness, accuracy, ability to economize in time and material, ability to ''think" and ''to do" because of the thinking, honesty, or- derliness — these are some of the more important results that are oftentimes overlooked. CONTENTS. Introduction. Care of tools and bench 3 PART I. Tools and Elementary Processes. Chapter I. — Laying-out Tools ; Their Uses 9 I. The rule; 2. The try-square; 3. The framing square ; 4. The bevel ; 5. The marking gage ; 6. The pencil gage ; 7. Splitting gage ; 8. The mortise gage ; 9. The Dividers; 10. Pencil and knife. Chapter II. — Saws . . ' 20 II. Saws; 12. The crosscut saw; 13. The rip-saw; 14. The back-saw; 15. The turning saw; 16. The compass saw; 17. Saw filing. Chapter III. — Planes 28 18. Planes; 19. Setting the blade ; 20. Adjustment of the iron; 21. The jack-plane; 22. The smooth-plane; 23. The jointer; 24. The block-plane; 25. The wood- en plane; 26. Planing first surface true; 27. Face side, face edge; 28. Planing first edge square with face side ; 29. Finishing the second edge ; 30. Finish- ing the second side ; 31. Planing the first end square ; 32. Finishing the second end; 33. End planing with the shooting board ; 34. Rules for planing to dimen- sions ; 35 Planing a chamfer. 6 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. Chapter IV. — Boring Tools 46 36. Brace or bitstock ; 37. Center bit ; 38. The auger bit; 39. The drill bit; The gimlet bit; 40. Counter- sink bit; 41. The screwdriver bit; 42. The brad-awl; 43. Positions while boring; 44. Thru boring; 45. Boring to depth. Chapter V. — Chisels and Chiseling 53 46. Chisels; 47. Horizontal paring across the grain; 48. Vertical paring; 49. Oblique and curved line par- ing; 50 Paring chamfers; 51. The firmer gouge; 52. Grinding beveled edge tools; 53. Whetting beveled edge tools ; 54. Oilstones ; 55. Sharpening the chis- el ; 56. Sharpening plane-irons ; 57. To tell whether a tool is sharp or not. Chapter VI. — Form Work ; Modeling 65 58. Making a cylinder; 59. The spokeshave; 60. Making curved edges; 61. Modeling. Chapter VII. — i. Laying Out Duplicate Parts ; 2. Scrap- ing and Sandpapering; 3. Fastening Parts 70 62. Laying out duplicate parts ; 63. Scraping ; 64. Sandpapering ; 65. Hammers ; 66. Nails ; 67. Nail- ing; 68. Nailset; 69. Withdrawing nails; 70. The screwdriver; 71. Screws; 72. Fastening with screws; 73. Glue; 74. Clamps; 75. Gluing. PART 11. Simple Joinery. Chapter VIII. — Type Forms 84 76. Joinery; 77. General directions for joinery; 78. Dado; 79. Directions for dado; 80. Cross-lap joint; CONTENTS. 7 81. Directions for cross-lap joint, iirst method; 82. Directions for cross-lap joint, second method; 83. Glue joint; 84. Directions for glue joint; 85. Dow- eling; 86. Directions for doweling; 87. Keyed ten- on-and-mortise ; 88. Directions for key; 89. Direc- tions for tenon; 90. Directions for mortise; 91. Directions for mortise in the tenon; 92. Blind mor- tise-and-tenon ; 93. Directions for tenon ; 94. Direc- tions for laying out mortise; 95. Directions for cut- ting mortise, iirst method; 96. Directions for cut- ting mortise, second method; 97. Miter joint; 98. Directions for miter joint; 99. Dovetail joint; 100. Directions for dovetail joint. Chapter IX. — Elementary Cabinet Work 105 101. Combination plane; 102. Drawer construction; 103. Directions for rabbeted corner; 104. Direc- tions for dovetail corner; 105. Directions for draw- er; 106. Paneling; 107. Cutting grooves; 108. Haunched mortise-and-tenon ; 109. Rabbeting; 110. Fitting a door; 111. Hinging a door; 112. Locks.. PART III. Wood and Wood Finishing. Chapter X. — Wood 116 113. Structure; 114. Growth; 115. Respiration and transpiration; 116. Moisture; 117. Shrinkage; 118. Weight; 119. Other properties; 120. Grain. Chapter XL — Lumbering and Milling 126 121. Lumbering; 122. Milling; 123. Quarter saw- ing; 124. Waste; 125. Lumber transportation; 126. Seasoning; 127. Lumber terms and measurements 8 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. Chapter XII. — Common Woods 138 128. Classification. Coniferous woods. 129. Cedar; 130. Cypress; 131. Pine; 132. Spruce. Broad-leaved woods; 133. Ash; 134. Basswood; 135. Birch; 136. Butternut; 137. Cherry; 138. Chestnut; 139. Elm; 140. Gum; 141. Hickory; 142. Maple; 143. Oak; 144. Sycamore; 145. Tulip wood; 146. Walnut, Chapter XIII. — Wood Finishing 150 147. Wood finishes; 148. Brushes; 149. General directions for using brush; 150. Fillers; 151. Fill- ing with paste filler; 152. Stains; 153. Waxing; 154. Varnishes; 155. Shellac; 156. Shellac finishes; 157. Oil or copal varnishes; 158. Flowing copal var- nish; 159. Typical finishes for coarse-grained woods; 160. Patching; 161. Painting. Appendix I. — Additional Joints 164 Appendix II. — Wood Finishing Recipes 171 1. Wax; 2. Water stains; 3. Oil stains; 4. Spirit stains. Appendix III. — Working Drawings 173 1. Instruments; 2. Conventions; 3. Projection and relation of views; 4. Letters and figures; 5. Con- structions ; 6. Order of procedure. CHAPTER I. Laying-Out Tools — Their Uses. 1. The Rule. — The foot rule is used as a unit of meas- urement in woodwork. The rule ordinarily used is called a two-foot rule because of its length. Such rules are hinged so as to fold once or twice and are usually made of Fig. 1. boxwood or maple. The divisions along the outer edges, the edges opposite the center hinge, are inches, halves, fourths, eighths, and on one side sixteenths also. Fig. i. The rule should not be laid flat on the surface to be meas- ured but should be stood on edge so that the knife point can be made to touch the divi- sions on the rule and the wood at the same time. Fig. 2. Whenever there are several measurements to be made along a straight line, the rule should not be raised until Fig. 2. 10 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. Ccnleis all are made, for with each placing of the rule errors are likely to occur. The rule is used to find the middle of an edge or sur- face by placing it across the piece so that the distances from the edges of the piece to cor- responding inch, or fractional marks shall be the same, Fig. 3, the middle of the piece being at a point midway between the marks selected. 2. The Try-square. — The try-square may be made entirely of iron or steel or it may have a head of w^ood called the beam and a blade of steel. The blade is grad- uated into inches and fractions of an inch. As all try- squares are liable to be Fig. 3. injured by rough usage, care should be taken not to let them drop on the bench or floor, nor should they ever be used for prying or pounding. Fig. 4. The try-square is used for three purposes : First, to act as a guide for the pencil or knife point in laying out lines across the grain at right angles to an edge or surface; second, to test an edge or end to see whether it is square to an adjoining surface or edge; third, to test a piece of work to see whether it is of the same width or thickness thruout its entire length. Fig. 5 shows the various positions assumed in lining across a piece. The beam should be held firmly against either the face side or the face edge. LAYING-OUT TOOLS. 11 The face side of a piece is the broad surface which is first made true. The face edge is the first edge which is made square to the face side and straight. These two surfaces are usually marked in some way so that they may be distinguished from the other surfaces. Their use is fully explained in Chapter III. Fig. 5. If the beam projects beyond the end of the wood, it should be reversed. The knife should be inclined for- ward and away from the blade of the try-square slightly. A light, firm line should be made the first time across the piece. In testing edges or ends for squareness, the beam should be held, as in lining, firmly either against the face 12 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. side or the face edgfe. Fig. 6. Care should be taken to test the extreme ends of the piece. Also test at a suffi- cient number of points to show fully the condition of the Fig. 6. edge. Sliding the try-square along the edge is not ob- jectionable if the blade be held lightly on the surface. Under no circumstances should the try-square be used to scrape the wood. In testing a piece to see whether it is of the same width or thickness thruout its entire length, place the blade across the surface to be tested, holding the beam lightly against the face side or face edge, slide the try-square along the piece with the eye fixed upon the graduations at the outer edge. Fig. 7. Fig. 7. LAYING-OUT TOOLS. 13 3. The Framing Square. — Large squares of one piece of steel, called framing squares, are used by carpen- ters for large and rough work. The long arm is called Fig. 8. the blade and the short one the tonsfue. Fig. 8. In ad- dition to the divisions into inches and fractions of an inch, there is on the blade a board measure table and on the tongue a brace or rafter measure table. This square will be found con- venient when "cutting up" stock, also for testing corners of large pieces of furniture and for setting the bevel to various angles. TKu m U 3<^r «= •»-<. Fig. 9. 4. The Bevel. — The bevel differs from the try-square in having a movable blade. Fig. 9. This blade may be set at any desired angle from o to 180 degrees. The manner of using the bevel is similar to that of the try-square. 14 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. When adjusting, the blade should be just loose enough to move upon the application of slight pressure. There are various ways of setting the bevel to the re- quired angle. Should the triangle used in mechanical drawing be available, angles of 30 degrees, 45 degrees and 60 degrees are easily obtained by adjusting the bevel to the sides of the required angle. To set the bevel to 45 degrees by means of the fram- ing square, hold the beam against one of the arms. Fig. 10, and move the blade so that it shall pass through cor- responding points on both blade and tongue. Fig. 1 1 illus- trates a method in which no other tools are needed. A line is squared across ^^s. ^^^'3 3> — - ^ ^ Fig. 11. Fig. 10. a board having a straight edge. Equal distances are measured from the point at which the line cuts the edge, the blade then being made to pass through these points while the beam is held tightly against the edge. For angles of 30 degrees and 60 degrees, square a knife line at right angles to an edge. Fig. 12. Measure from the edge, along this line, or from this line along the edge any given distance. Take twice this distance upon the blade of the bevel and adjust so that a right triangle is formed in which the length of the longest side shall be twice that of the shortest. LAYING-OUT TOOLS. 15 5. The Marking Gage.— The gage is used for laying out lines along the grain of the wood. It consists of a beam, Fig. 13, head, thumb screw, and marking point or spur. The spur should be sharpened to a knife point with a file so that it may make a fine smooth line. It should project far enough below the beam so that the beam may be roll- ed forward in such a way as to bring the spur into the board at a slight angle, when ] roperly marking. It should extend not less than an eighth of an inch and in most cases three- sixteenths of an inch. The graduations on the beam are seldom reliable. It is safer to set the gage wath the rule by measuring the distance from the spur to the gage block. This is done Fig. 12. Fig. 13. by holding the gage bottom side up in the left hand. With the right place the end of the rule against the head. Fig. 13. After the screw has been tightened, apply the rule again to make sure of the correctness of the setting. 16 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. To gage the line, take the tool in the right hand, three fingers grasping the beam, first encircling the head for narrow work, and the thumb back, or nearly back, of the spur. Fig. 14. The head should be kept against one or the other of the face sides. Be- gin at the end of the piece which is towards you, hold the block firmly against the piece, roll the beam forward until the spur barely touches the Fig. 14. Fig. 15. Fig. 15 illus- surface and make a very light line, trates the manner of raising the spur from the wood by raisinof the wrist durinjj the backward stroke. It will be found convenient to hold the piece against the bench stop This steadies the piece and permits the worker to see how deep the spur is cutting and whether the head is against the face properly. Avoid deep lines. They are inaccur- ate even if straight and always cause trouble in the mak- ing unless the grain of the wood is perfectly straight. 6. The Pencil Gage. — There are occasions when a pencil-gage marks with sufficient accuracy and is more suitable because its point does not cut the wood, such as in gaging for a bevel. A hole bored thru the beam near one end, just large enough to receive a pencil snugly, will suffice. Fig. 16. Fig. 17 illustrates a method frequently used by carpen- ters. The fingers act as a gage head. LAYING-OUT TOOLS. 17 A. slitting gage is one in which 7. Slitting Gage. the spur is sharp and strong, and will cut thru soft lumber as thick as one-quarter of an inch. The boards are cut from each side and considerable pressure is re- ^^litTinq G^-g* Fig. 16. AnMe NorTise Gd-qe- Fig. 17. Fig. 18. quired. Sometimes a handle like that of the plane is fastened to the beam near the knife or spur. Fig. i8. 8. The Mortise Gauge.— Fig. i8 also shows a mortise gage used in advanced work. It has twu spurs, one of them adjusted by means of the screw at the end of the beam at any desired distance from the stationary one, so that the two sides of a mortise or tenon can be marked at once. 9. The Dividers. — Dividers, Fig. 19, are used (i) in describing circles, (2) in dividing a given space into a given number of parts, and (3) in marking one member which is to be fitted to another irregular member. Fig. 18 ESSEXTIALS OF WOODWORKING. Tnvmbnut 20 shows the manner of setting the dividers. The thumb- screw should be released so that the legs may be moved without much effort. When the approximate setting has been secured, use the thumb- nut for adjusting to more accurate measurement. In describing circles, the divid- ers should be held as in Fig. 21 and swung to the right or left as is convenient. They should be leaned forward slightly and an effort made Fig. 20. Fig. 21. to secure a sharp, light line. For most work the two legs may be sharpened to points. Sometimes one is sharpened like a knife point. 10. Pencil and Knife.— Pencil lines may be used in getting out stock from rough material and in laying out work on rough surfaces where a knife line would not be visible. Pencil lines should be carefully made, how- ever. The pencil may be used also in marking bevels. LAYING-OUT TOOLS. 19 curves and in other places where the knife or gage mark would be injurious. Otherwise, the knife and gage should be used. Pencil lines are easiest removed from wood by means of the eraser. In laying out rough stock, if the first edge is sufficiently straight, it is thumb- width. Fig. 23. / Fig. 22. usual to gage for This is done by holding the pencil at the end of the rule and using the thumb of the left hand as the gage head, drawing the whole towards you with the rule acting as gage-beam. Fig. 22. A straight-edge, a board with a straight edge, is often used in marking out. Mark off the length of the piece of wood required. Mark off the breadth at the end of tjhe board, also mark it near what is to be the other end of the piece. Place the straight-edge on these two marks and draw the line. Fig. 23. The try-square should be used to mark across the grain. CHAPTER 11. Saws. 11. Saws. — Saws which are used in cutting across the grain are called crosscut ; those which are used in cutting parallel to the grain are called ripsaws. Fig. 24. Upon the blade of a saw, near the handle, will be found a num- /Yee/ ThinTT ber. This represents the number of points to the inch. Points should not be confused with teeth, for there is al- ways one more point per inch than there are teeth. To prevent the sides of a cut or kerf from binding the saw, the teeth are bent alternately from side to side, that the opening may be wider than the blade is thick. The saw teeth are then said to have ''set." To do good work, a saw should have no more set than is necessary to allow a free movement. Fig. 25. Damp, spongy lumber will require considerable set, while well seasoned lumber ne- cessitates but little. The rake, or ])itch of the teeth of a saw is the degree SAWS. 21 E^^ (^£^ '3S e.r"«>~t^cd ) ^^fcl^^i^Z HL; "x-^ 15^ of slant which the cutting edges possess with reference to an imaginary hne passing thru the points of the teeth. Fig. 25. The amount of pitch given will depend upon the use to which the saw is to be put, whether for ripping or cross cut- ting, and somewhat upon the hardness or softness of the wood to be cut. Figf. 26 shows the saw in ^2 proper position. It should be held in the right hand with the left hand grasp- ing the board, the thumb of the left hand acting as a guide in the beginning. The thumb should be held firmly on the board and the blade of the saw should be pressed lightly against it. The cutting edge of the saw should be held at an angle of about forty-five degrees to the board and should be started on a backward stroke. The first few strokes should be short ones, increasing gradually in length. If the tool is sharp, but little pressure will ever be recpiired and, in starting, the tool must be held up so that its weight shall come upon the wood gradually. Fig. 26. Saws can be guided 21 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. better if the index finger of the right hand is allowed to extend along the side of the handle. Test occasionally, sighting down the saw blade to see that the sides of the saw are at right angles to the surface of the board. A try-square may be used by the beginner, as shown in Fig. 26. If the saw does not follow the direction of the line, the blade should be slightly twisted, as the sawing pro- ceeds, in the direction it ought to take. This must be carefully done so as not to cause the blade to bind and kink. In sawins; a 'board which has been fastened in the vise, the most convenient position is obtained by sawing at right angles to the surface. Un- less the saw has con- siderable set, difficulty will be experienced in changing the direction of the cut- ting should this be necessary. This may be overcome by lowering the handle so that the cutting edge shall make the same angle with the board as when the board rests on trestles. When making a long cut, should the kerf bind, a wedge may be inserted as shown in Fig. 26. All saws will w^ork easier and will be found less likely to rust if their sides are rubbed occasionally with an oily rag or a piece of tallow. 12. The Crosscut Saw.— Fig. 25 shows the teeth of a crosscut saw. This saw is filed so that the cutting SAWS. 23 Ai -^ 15^ Fig. 28. edges are on the sides of the teeth. Every tooth is sharp- ened to a point, one on the right side, the next on the left, giving two parallel lines of sharp points with a V-shaped groove between. The pitch given the teeth of a crosscut saw will vary with the hardness or softness of the wood which is to be cut. For all-around use the amount of slant is about one-third of the whole tooth. Fig. 2y. 13. The Rip-saw.— The teeth of the rip-saw are chisel shaped. Fig. 28, and are / made by filing straight across the blade. The front or cutting edges are filed so that they are squar ^ or at right angles to an imaginary line passing through the points of the teeth. 14. The Back-saw. — The '>ack-saw, or tenon-saw as it is often called, has a thin blade strengthened by a heavy steel back piece. It is used upon work requiring delicate, accurate cutting, Fig. 29. Fig. 30 shows the shape of the teeth, which differ slightly from those of the cross-cut. These teeth are suitable for both cross-cutting and fine ripping. But little set is given the teeth of the hack-saw. Fig. 29. Fig. 30. In using this saw, Fig. 31, hold the work firmly against 24 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. the stop of the benchhook with the left hand, guiding the saw with the forefinger or thumb placed against the blade just above the teeth. Begin on the backward stroke, holding the handle end of the saw highest. Begin at the farthest corner, us- ing short, easy strokes. Gradu- ally lower the handle to a hori- zontal position, meanwhile in- creasin'^ the number of teeth used, but continuing the slow, regular strokes. In accurate cutting, Fig. 32, where no par- ing or block-planing is to be done, the saw teeth should cut just by the line, with the kerf in the waste, but with no wood between the line and the kerf. To allow for paring or block-planing, saw about one-sixteeiith of an inch in the waste. Fig. 33. When ripping, place the piece in the vise and begin sawing as indicated in Fig. 34. Place the saw so that just the whole of its thickness is in what is to be- come waste wood. Begin sawing as was done in crosscutting. Grad- ually lower the handle, while saw- ing, until most is being cut from the side nearest you. Fig 35. Reverse the wood several times, working down one side then the other until the Fig. 2)i. Fig. 34. SAWS. 25 cross lines are reached. Fig. 36 illustrates the result of good and bad sawing. . (coo 3 s Fig. 35. Fig. 36. 15. The Turning-saw. — The turning or bow-saw is used for cutting along curved lines. Fig. 37 illustrates the manner of holding this saw. The sides of the blade must be held at right angles to the surface of the wood. Either or both handles may be turned, thus turning the blade with reference to the frame. Avoid turning the Fig. 37. blade, however, as much as possible and see that the blade is not twisted by turning one handle more than the other. This saw may be used for cutting enclosed curves by boring a hole, releasing one end of the blade and inserting it thru this hole then replacing it in the saw frame. 26 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. Fig. 38. As the cut of the turning saw is not very smooth, it is advisable to leave about one-sixteenth of an inch between the kerf and the line, to be removed later with the spoke- shave. 16. The Compass Saw. — The compass saw, Fig. 38, is better suited for inside curve sawing. Its use re- quires a steady hand, else the thin blade will buckle and break. 17. Saw Filing. — Learning to sharpen a saw is a diffi- cult thing — so difficult that it is not considered within the province of a book on elementary woodworking to treat of it. One who uses saws, ought, however, to know the steps which are taken to put a saw in order. The teeth are first set. Fig. 39 shows a common form of saw-set in position. Be- ginning at one end of the saw, every other ^f>i^7^^' tooth is bent ^^^- ^^■ outward by means of this instrument. The saw is then reversed and the remaining teeth are similarly treated. As these saw-sets are adjustable, the teeth may be bent much or little as the work to be done demands. Second, the teeth are jointed. A flat file is run length- wise over them the full length of the saw so that none of the teeth may project more than others. Fig. 40 shows a flat file in position for jointing. This block keeps the surface of the file at right angles to the blade of the saw. SAWS. 27 Third, the saws are filed, a three-cornered file being used for this purpose. The kind of saw determines the Fig. 40. , Fig. 41. angle or angles at which the file is held with reference to the saw blade. Fig. 41 illustrates the position when filing the crosscut and Fig. 42 the rip-saw. Fig. 43. Fourth, the teeth are side jointed by laying the saw flat upon the bench and rubbing an oil-stone over each side lightly, once. Fig. 43. This is to even the sides of the teeth that the kerf may be smoothly cut. CHAPTER III. Planes. 18. Planes. — A standard plane of the present time is shown in Fig. 44. The bottom of this plane is- of iron. Fig. 45 shows a plane with the same adjustments in which the bottom is of wood. Planes are made in dif- ferent sizes. As certain lengths are more suit- able for certain kinds of work they have been given distinguishing names such as jack-plane, smooth- plane, fore-plane, jointer. Fig, 44 shows the jack-plane. Fig. 45. The two irons of the plane, the plane-iron or plane-bit, and the cap-iron are fastened together by means of a stout screw. Fig. 46. This cap-iron serves a double purpose. First : It stiff- ens the plane iron ; second, it serves to bend and break the shaving and thereby prevent a splitting action in front PLANES. 29 of the cutting edge. This action would surely occur were the grain in the least unfavorable and the cap-iron not used. Fig. 47. 19. Setting the Blade. — The cap-iron should extend to within one-sixteenth of an inch of the cutting edge of I P»6>ae-Iroa. 9 )_A.t«r<:« I AdJusTrpenT. £C6.|D-Iroa loFroQ 5crewr. »3Pl6»ne-Iroo ^crew. il Handle. AC&>\>. \% Kr7ob. 5 Cssible. The pressure of the left hand should be so applied that the stone shall cut straight across the blade. Examine the tool often, being careful to replace it each time as nearly as possible at the same angle. Fig. 1 02 shows the flat bevel which is to be obtained, also the rounded effect caused by frequent changing of the angle at which the tool is held. Grindstones are usually turned towards the tool because in doing so they will cut faster. Water is caused to flow on the stone for two reasons : Fig. 102. 60 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. To keep the edge of the tool from being burned or soften- ed by the heat which friction would generate, and to wash off the particles of steel and stone, thus keeping the cut- ting surface clean that it may cut the more freely. 53. Whetting Beveled Edge Tools. — The grind- stone does not sharpen tools; that is the work of the oil- stone. No tool, after it has been ground, is ready for use until it has been whetted. 54. Oilstones. — Oilstones in common use are of two kinds ; those which are of very fine grained natural stone and those which are manufactured by pressing a powder- ed, metal cutting substance into rectangular forms. In selecting an oil-stone it should be remembered that the finer the grain, the keener the edge it will produce but the longer time it takes to produce it. Manufactured stones are frequently made ''two in one," that is, coarse and medium or medium and fine are put together in such a way that one side gives a rapid cut- ting and the other a slower but smoother cutting surface. The advantage of such a stone is easily understood. Oil is used on stones to cleanse the pores of the stone of the little particles of steel cut from the tool. Were it not for the oil's mixing with and removing these particles, the surface of the stone would soon become smooth and friction so reduced that the cutting power would be great- ly interfered with. While but a part of the stone need be used at one plac- ing of the tool, effort should be made to utilize as much of the surface as possible that the surface may be kept lev- el as long as possible. Stones that have worn uneven may CHISELS AND CHISELING. 61 have their surfaces leveled by rubbing them on a piece of sandpaper or emery paper placed on a flat surface. 55. Sharpening the Chisel. — Hold the tool as shown in Fig. 103. Suppose the grinding produced a bevel of about twenty-five degrees, in whetting, effort should be made to hold the blade so as to produce an angle slightly Fig. 103. greater than this. The amount shown in Fig. 107 a and b is exaggerated. The aim at all times should be to keep this second angle as near like the first as is possible and still get a straight bevel to the cutting edge. To get the tool into proper position, lay it flat on the stone with the beveled edge resting in the oil which has previously been placed on the stone. The oil should be drawn to the place where the whetting is to be done, the back edge of the bevel being used to push and draw it to place. Gradually raise the handle of the tool until the oil is expelled from under the cutting edge; it is then in position. Use just enough oil to keep the surface well moistened where the whetting is being done. Rub the chisel back and forth, keeping it at the same angle all the time. A rocking motion and frequent change 62 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. of angle will result in a rounded end instead of a straight bevel. Some workmen prefer to give the blade a circular instead of the forward and backward movement. To remove the feather or wire edge wdiich frequently results from over- whetting or from grinding, proceed as follows : Hold the tool with the flat side down, just a little above the stone, with the handle just a very little higher than the cutting edge. In one stroke push the cut- ting edge forward and dow^n on the stone, at the same time lowering the rear end to a level with the cutting edge. The effect of this movment is to turn the wire edge under and cut it off. If the first attempt does not remove it, whet the bevel just enough to turn the edge back on the flat side and try again. The presence of a feather edge is detected by rubbing the fingers along the flat side ever the cut- ting edg^.. If a still keener edge is desired it may be obtained by the use of a strop, a piece of leather fast- ened to a flat surface. Hold the tool as show^n in Fig. 104 and draw it toward you several times. Then hold it with the flat side down and draw it back once or twice. The angles of the bevels of a gouge are similar to those of a chisel. In sharpening, hold the tool at right angles to the edge of the stone, instead of parallel as with the chisel. Move it lengthwise of the stone, at the same time Fig. 104. CHISELS AND CHISELING. 63 rotating the handle so as to give the blade a circular mo- tion as from A to B, Fig. 105. The feather edge which is formed on the inside is re- FiG. 105 Fig. 106. moved by a few strokes of a stone called a slip. Hold the slip firmly against the face so as not to form a bevel. Fig. 106. Slips are of various sizes ; one that fits the cur- vature of the gouge should be selected. 56. Sharpening Plane-Irons.— Plane-irons are sharp- ened straight across like the chisel, with the exception of the jack plane, as previously noted. Their corners, how- ever, are very slightly rounded off to prevent their leaving marks on the wood. Where one plane is made to serve the purpose of smooth, jack and fore-plane, it should be ground straight across. In whetting, increase the pres- sure on the edges alternately so as to turn up a heavier feather edge there than in the middle, thus rounding the whole end very slightly. This feather edge may be re- removed in the usual manner. 57. To Tell Whether a Tool is Sharp or Not.— Examine the cutting edge, holding the tool toward the light. If the tool is dull, the cutting edge will appear as 64 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 2L white line, the broader the line the blunter the edge. Fig. 107 A. If the tool is sharp, no white line can be seen. Fig. 107 B. Fig. 107. Fig. 108. A better way — the method a mechanic would use — is to test the edge by drawing the thumb along it lightly. Fig. 108. If the tool is sharp one can feel the edge *'tak- ing hold." If dull, the thumb will slide along the edge as it would along the back of a knife blade. Good judgment is necessary in this test or a cut on the thumb may be the result. No pressure is required, just a touch along the edge at various points. What actually takes place is this : The cutting edge, if sharp, cuts the outer layer, the callous part of the ball of the thumb, just a little. The sense of feehng is so keen that the resulting friction, slight as it is, is transferred to the brain of the worker long before any injury need be done the thumb. If the tool is dull, no cut, hence no friction can result. Do not use the finger, as it is not calloused as is the thumb. CHAPTER VL Form Work, Modeling. 58. Making a Cylinder.— The cylinder is evolved from the square prism by increasing the number of sides until a prism is formed with so many sides that its surface can be easily transformed into a cylinder by means of sand- paper. ( I.) Begin by making a square prism which shall have the same dimensions for its width and thickness as is desired for the diameter of the cylinder. (2) Change this square prism to a regular octagonal or eight-sided prism by planing off the four arrises. The gage lines which indicate the amount to be taken off of each arris are made by holding the gage block against each of the surfaces and gaging from each (^il' arris each way, two lines on each surface. These lines must be made lightly. The distance at which to set ■^^J/ the spur of the gage from the head is Fig. 109. equal to one-half the diagonal of the square end of the prism. Fig. 109. Since the ends are less likely to be accurate than any other part, it is advis able to get this distance as follows : Lay off two lines on the working face a distance apart equal to the width of the prism. These lines with the two arrises form a 66 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. square the diagonal of which can be measured and one- half of it computed. Carpenters in working on large timbers lay the steel- square diagonally across so that there are twenty-four divi- sions from arris to arris. They then mark off the timber at seven and seven- teen inches. Fig. no. These numbers, while not mathematically correct, are near enough for practical purposes. In planing the arrises off, the piece mry be held in the vise or placed against the bench-stop. Fig. in. Care must be taken not to plane over the lines, for not only is the one side enlarged, but the adjacent side is lessened, thus exaggerating the error. (3) Judging with the eye the amount to take off, plane the eight arrises until there are sixteen equal sides. Again plane the arrises, making the piece thirty-two sided. On a small piece this ^^^- ^^^- will be sufficient; if the piece is large, the process may be continued until the piece is Fig. 110. FORM WORK. 67 practically a cylinder. (4) To finish a small cylinder wrap a piece of sandpaper around it, rub lengthwise until the surface of the wood is smooth and the piece feels like a cylinder when revolved in the hand. 59. The Spokeshave. — Fig. 112. The spokeshave is used principally to smooth curved surfaces. It may be drawn toward or pushed away from the worker, which- ever is more convenient. By means of screws, the blade may be adjusted to take light or heavy shavings. The spokeshave is practically a short plane with handles at the sides, and in using it the aim should be, as with the plane, to secure silky shavings of as great length as the nature of the work will allow. 60, Making Curved Edges. — To make curved edges on a board, finger-gage on each side lines which shall in- dicate the amount of curva- ture. Fig. 113. If the curve is to be a grad- ual one reaching from one of these lines over the middle of the edge to the other two lines should also be finger-gaged on the edge. Finger-gage from each side using a distance equal to one-fourth the whole thickness of the piece. Fig. 113. 68 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. With the spokeshave, Fig. 114, carefully cut off the two arrises to the pencil lines so as to form two bevels. This gives three surfaces to the edge of the board. Esti- mating the amount with the eye, cut off the two arrises formed by these three surfaces until five equal surfaces Fig. 114. Fig. 115. are formed in their place. This process may be repeated until the surface of the edge is practically a curved sur- tace. With a piece of sandpaper held as shown in Fig. 115, rub until the surface is smooth and evenly curved. 61. Modeling. — This term is used to apply to the method of making objects of such irregular form that the judgment of the worker must be depended upon to give the correct result without the aid of gage and knife marks. The forming of a canoe paddle or a hammer handle are good illustrations. Generally a little forethought will show a way in which the piece of work may be partly laid out with knife, square and rule. To illustrate, take the hammer handle, Fig. 116. The steps would be as follows: First, plane a face side and a face edge, and square the two ends so that the piece shall have the length desired for the finished handle. Second, draw a center line on the face side, par- allel to the face edge and lay off on either side of this the FORM WORK. 69 two straight lines which shall indicate the amount of taper; also sketch in the lines of curvature. Plane the two edges to the tapering lines and square wnth the face side. Then cut to the curved lines, keeping this surface also square with the face side. In a similar manner, lay off on the face edge a center line par- allel to the face side, mark the taper and lines of curvature, and work these surfaces as in the second step. Third, the piece may be laid off still fur- ther by drawing on the larger end the form of the ellipse which that end is to assume. With spokeshave, judging the curves of the middle with the eye, work out the de- sired form. The steel scraper is to be used for finishing after the piece has been made as smooth as is possible with the spokeshave. Fig. 116. CHAPTER VII. I. Laying Out Duplicate Parts. 2. Scraping and Sandpapering. 3. Fastening Parts. 62, Laying out Duplicate Parts.— Frequently a piece of work will require the making of two or more like parts. To lay out these parts, that is, to mark out the location of intended gains, mortises, shoulders of tenons, etc., so that all shall be alike, the following method is used: (i) On the face edge of one of the pieces measure off with the rule and mark with knife the points at which the lines for the joints are to be squared across. If knife marks would show on the finished surface as scratches, use a sh'irp pencil instead. (2) Lay the pieces on the bench top with the face edges up; even the ends with the try-square. Fig. 117. Square lines across the edges of all of them at the points pre- viously marked on one of them. The pieces may then be separated and lines corresponding to the lines just made on the face edges, be carried across the face sides of each piece separately, the try-square beam being held against the face edge in so doing, of course. In all duplicate work the aim of the worker should be Fig. 117. LAYING our. ' 71 to make as much use as possible of the tool he has in hand before laying it down and taking another. To illus- trate, if there should be a number of like parts each re- quiring two different settings of the gage, he should mark all of the parts at the first setting, then all at the second setting rather than to change the gage for each piece so that each piece might be completely marked before another is begun. 63. Scraping. — In smoothing hard wood surfaces, a scraper will be found helpful. If the grain should hap- pen to be crossed or curled, a scraper will become a necessity. The plane-iron may be made ever so sharp and the cap-iron set ever so close to the cutting edge, still the surface of some woods will tear. Sandpaper must not be depended upon to smooth a torn surface. Cabinet scrapers for plane and convex surface work are rectangular pieces of saw steel. Fig. ii8 shows a swan- neck scraper suitable for smoothing concave surfaces. Beginners frequently mistake surfaces which have been planed at a mill for smooth surfaces. They are not ; and, unless the ''hills and hollows" which extend across the surface of every mill-planed piece of lumber are re- moved before the finish of stain or filler is applied, the result will be very unsatisfactory. These "hills and hollows" are present even in the smoothest of mill-plane surfaces. The reason is easily understood. When a board is mill-planed, it is run through a machine which has a flat bed over which the board is moved and above which revolve two knives. 12 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. Fig. 119. Unless the grain of wood is very badly cross- ed or curled, it will be found very much easier, and time fl--j)€hver^'Rcller. P -"Ro Her. B-6vjlTer \\ e<^cL. Er -T? o 1 1 e r C-Teeid l^oller. V^hoMi\. Fig. 119. -^^ YT^ G-V/ork T^Ule. W,Kr?ive^. ^ will be saved if the mill marks are removed with a smooth-plane before the scraper is applied. Scrapers may be pushed or pulled. Fig. 120. When properly sharpened thin silky shavings will be cut off. The cutting edge of a scraper is a bur which is formed Fig. 120. Fig. 121. at an arris and turned at very nearly a right angle to the surface of the scraper. When a scraper becomes dull ( i ) each edge is draw- filed, Fig. 121, so as to make it square and straight, with the corners slightly rounded. Sometimes the edges are rounded slightly from end to end to prevent digging. LAYING OUT. 73 Frequently the scraper has its edges and surfaces ground square on an oilstone after the drawfihng that the arrises may be formed into smoother burs. (2) After filing, the scraper is laid flat on the bench and the arrises forced over as in Fig. 122. The tool used is called a burnisher; any smooth piece of steel would do. (3) Next, turn these arrises back over the side of the scraper. Fig. 123. Great pressure is not necessary to form the burs properly. Fig. 122. Fig. 123. 64. Sandpapering, — To knov^ when to use and when not to use sandpaper is as much the sign of a good work- man as to know how to use the tools. Sandpaper should never be used until all tool work has been done as well, and carried as far as is possible. Sandpaper is, as its name implies, sand paper. In sand- ing a surface, this fine sand becomes imbedded in the wood and should an edged tool be used thereon it will be dulled. Slovenly work should never be done in expecta- tion of using sandpaper to fix it up. This practice is dis- honest. Sandpaper should not be expected to do the work of edged tools or disappointment will follow. The sandpaper sheet, for use, is usually divided into four parts, one of these parts being of good size for large work. 74 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. For flat surfaces these pieces are placed on a sand- paper block. This block is but a piece of wood squared up to a length equal to that of the piece of paper and to such a width that the edges of the paper will extend far enough up the edges of the block to allow the fingers to grasp them firmly. Fig. 124. Do not waste the paper by wrapping it around in such a way as to throw part of it on top of the block. The block should be held flat up- on the surface when sanding near an arris, otherwise the arris will be round- ed. The arrises should be kept sharp unless on a table leg, arm of a chair or something similar, in which the sharp Fig. 124. arrises would be likely to injure the hand or become splintered through usage. In such cases .the sandpaper may be run along the arrises once or twice, just enough to remove the sharpness. Sometimes the plane is set shallow and drawn over the arris after the surfaces have been squared, to remove the sharpness. On curved surfaces, the sandpaper is held free in the hand, no block being used. Fig. 115 illustrates the man- ner of sanding the convex curve of the coat hanger. The sandpaper should be rubbed along the grain and the rub- bing should proceed only long enough to smooth the piece and to bring out the grain clearly. On the back of a piece of sandpaper will be found a number. This number indicates the relative coarseness of the sand sprinkled upon the glue covered paper. 00, o, I , I J^ and 2 are the numbers commonly used ; 00 being finest and 2 relatively coarse. On table tops and sur- faces which are not very smooth to begin with, the coarse LAYING OUT. /5 sandpaper is first used, this is followed by the next in coarseness and so on until the finest is used. Never attempt to sandpaper surfaces or parts which are to be put together later on to form joints, the edge tools alone must be depended upon to secure proper smoothing. 65, Hammers. — Fig. 125 shows the two kinds of ham- mers most commonly used by workers in wood. The plain faced hammer has a flat face and is somewhat easier to learn to s'^^^ use than the bell- '^^^m. faced hammer, Hkioale ^j which has a slightly rounded face. The advan- tage of the bell- faced hammer lies in one's ability to better set a nail slightly below the surface without the assistance of the nailset. This is a very great advantage on outside or on rough carpenter work. This setting of the nail with the hammer leaves a slight depression, however, in the wood, and is there- fore not suited for inside finishing. The handle of the hammer is purposely made quite long and should be grasped quite near the end. 66. Nails. — Nails originally were forged by hand and were therefore very expensive. Later strips were cut from sheets of metal and heads were hammered upon these by means of the blacksmith's hammer, the vise be- ing used to hold the strips meanwhile. These were called cut nails. Early in the nineteenth century a machine was 76 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. T^ i^ "W W YT invented which cut the nails from the sheet metal and headed them. Steel wire nails have about supplanted the cut nails for most purposes. They are made by a machine which cuts the wire from a large reel, points and heads the pieces thus cut off. Wire nails, like cut nails, are roughly classed by wood- workers as common, finishing and casing nails. Thin nails with small heads are called brads. Wire nails are bought and sold by weight, the size of wire according to the standard wire gage and the length in inches being taken into consideration in specifying the size and fixing the price per pound. In former practice, the size of nails was specified ac- cording to the number of pounds that one thousand of any variety would weigh. Thus the term six- penny and eig"htpenny referred to varieties which would weigh six and eight pounds per thous- and, respectively, penny being B A A B c a corruption of pound. In pres- • ent practice, certain sizes are still roughly specified as three, four, six, eight, ten, twenty and thirty penny. Common wire nails are thick and have large flat heads. They are used in rough work where strength is desired. Fig. 126 A. Finishing nails. Fig. 126 B, are used for fine work such as inside woodwork, cabinet work, etc. Casing nails, Fig. 126 C, are somewhat thicker and stronger than finishing nails ; they have small heads. 1^ ^ LAYING OUT. 77 Fig. 127. 67. Nailing, — Especial care is necessary in starting cut nails. Fig. 127 shows two views of a cut nail. From -fr f? these it will be seen that the sides of the nail form a wedge in one of the views while in the other they are parallel. The nail should be so started that the wedging action shall take place along, not across the grain. In nailing through one piece into the edge of another, assume a position so that you can look along the piece into the edge of which you are nailing. Fig. 128. If the nail is to be driven plumb, it must be sighted from two directions several times in the begin- ning of the nailing. Having driv- en the points of the nails slightly below the surface of the first piece, adjust the two pieces properly, force the points into the second piece, and, holding the parts firmly with the left hand, drive the nails into place. 68. Nailset. — Excej t in rough work, the nail should not be driven entirely in with the hammer or the wood will be marred. A nailset held as in Fig. 129 should be used to set the head of the nail slightly below the surface of the wood — about one thirty-second of an inch. A finger placed against the side of the nailset and allowed to rest on the Fig. 128. 78 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. piece of wood aids greatly in guiding the set, which otherwise might jump off the nail head when the blow is struck and indent the wood. 69. Withdrawing Nails. -Should it be necessary to withdraw a nail, place a block of wood under the head of ^the hammer. Fig. 130, to prevent marring the surface of the wood. If the nail is a long one, the size of ' th( block Fig. 129. used should be increased as the nail comes out, that the nail may not be bent. 70. The Screwdriver.— Patent ratchet and spiral screwdrivers have come into quite common use among workers in wood. The old style. Fig. 131, however, is much better Fig. 130. suited to elementar}^ work than any of these special forms. Fig. 131. 71. Screws.— Screws, like nails, are made entirely by machinery. They are packed in pasteboard boxes and sold by the gross. The size of a screw is designated by the length in inches and the size of the wire from which it is made; thus, i inch No. 10 flat-head bright screw. LAYING OUT. 79 The gage of wire for nails and the gage of wire for screws should not be confused. Fig. 132 is a full-sized illustration of the gage used for determining the size of 7^ Fig. 132. wire for nails. The numbers apply to the openings at the edge, not to the circular parts. The notch at No. i will just slip over No. i wire. Fig. 135 is a full-sized illustration of a wire gage for screws. The gage is slip- ped over the screw just below the head. Flathead screws are used for ordinary work. Roundhead screws are used because they are more ornamental. Fig. 133. Either kind may be made of steel or brass. Steel screws are of- ten blued by treating them with heat or an acid. 72. Fastening with Screws. — Where two pieces of hard wood are to be fastened with screws, a hole just I'iG. 133. 80 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. large enough to take in the shank of the screw must be bored in the upper part. In the loAver part, a hole should be bored just large enough to take in the core of the screw snugl]. Fig. 134. For flathead screws, the hole should be countersunk so that Fig. 134 the head may be flush or sunk slightly below the surface of the wood. In soft woods, the boring of a hole in the lower piece may be omitted. 73. Glue.— Nails are but seldom used in cabinet work to fasten pirts together; glue be- ing used instead. Glue is man- ufactured from the refuse parts of animals. Strippings of hide, bone, horn, hoofs, etc., are boil- ed to a jelly; chemicals are ad- ded to give it the light color. It is usually placed on the mar- ket in the form of dry chips. Glue pots are made double, the glue being placed in one part and this placed in a larger one which contains water. The glue is heated by the hot water and steam of the outer kettle. Fig. 136. To prepare glue, dissolve the dry chips in water Fig. 135 It is LAYING OUT. 81 well to soak them over night unless quite thin. If the glue chips are thin they may be barely covered with water and the pot set in the outer kettle of boiling water. Some kinds of glue require less water. The glue should be stirred occasionally. It should be used while hot and should be made thin enough to flow easily when applied with a brush. If the wood is cold it will chill the elue. Best results are obtained by warming the wood in an oven. Prepared liquid glues, to be applied without heating, are common. As these glues thicken with age, due to evaporation, they must be thinned occasionally. In cold weather they chill and must be warmed in hot water to bring them to a proper consistency. 74. Clamps. — Clamps are used in the making of a glue joint to expel the glue from the surfaces of contact, forcing it up into the pores of the wood or, if too' much has been applied, out on the sides of the joint. For hold- ing small parts, the wooden hand- screw is used, Fig. 137. To ad- just this clamp, hold the handle of n- ~-^ the shoulder spindle firmly in the =~7^r^=^^ left hand and the handle of the t:f| end spindle in the right hand; re- K^^^ volve them about an axis midway between and parallel to the spindles until the approximate 82 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. Opening of the jaw is obtained, Fig. 138. Place the clamp on the parts and screw the shoulder spindle up tight, ad- justing the end spindle when neces- sary so that when it is tightened the jaws of the clamp shall be par- allel. Fig. 139. In taking off this m [QcorrecT^ Fig. 138. Fig. 139. clamp, the end spindle is the one which must be released. Fig. 140 illus- trates three kinds of bar clamps such as are used for clamping wide frames and boards. Fig. 141 illus- trates a simple form of clamp which can be made by the student him- self. Two wedges Fig. UO. to each clamp, driven in with the hammer, supply the LAYING OUT. 83 necessary pressure. Whenever finished surfaces are to be clamped, blocks of wood must be placed between them and the clamp jaws to prevent their being marred. 75. Gluing. — Where the end grain is to form part of a glue joint, it is necessary to apply a glue size first. This is done by filling the open ' -^4^ grain of the end with a prelimi- nary coating of thin, hot glue. ^ Rubbed glue joints require no clamps. U- ::£. s Fig. 141. The edges are jointed perfectly straight, glue is applied to each and they are then rubbed together with as great pressure as is possible to expel the glue. When this is properly done the pieces will hold together and may be set away to dry. Fig. 142. Fig. 142.' PART 11. SIMPLE JOINERY. Chapter VIII. Type Forms. 76. Joinery. — This term in its broader meaning refers to the art of framing the finishing work of a house, such as doors and windows; and to the construction of per- manent fittings, such as mantels, cupboards, hnen presses, etc. Joinery as used herein refers merely to the putting together of two or more parts, called the members. 77. General Directions for Joinery: — Take into con- sideration the direction of the grain in planning the rela- tive positions of the members. Make due allowance where shrinkage is likely to be considerable. As far as possible, plan to have the members join face to face. Face sides are more likely to be true than are the other two surfaces and therefore the joints are more likely to fit properly. Make all measurements from a common starting point, as far as practicable. Remember to keep the head of the gage, and the beam of the trysquare against one or the other of the faces, unless there should be special reasons for doing otherwise. In practice it is sometimes advisable to locate the sides of a joint by superposition rather than by measurement. TYPE FORMS. 85 Fig. 143. Laying out by superposition consists in placing one mem- ber upon another and marking upon the second member the width, thickness or length of the first. Fig. 143. Usually, it is found possible to locate and square with knife and trysquare a line to represent one of the sides of the joint. The /first member is then held so that one of its arrises rests upon this line, and a point is made with knife at; the other arris. The superimposed piece is then removed and a line made with knife and try-square — not thru the mark of the knife point but inside, just touching it. Where several members or parts are to be laid out, cut and fitted, it is of the utmost importance that the work be done systematically. System and power to visualize — that is, to see things in their proper relation to one another in the finished piece — make it possible for men to lay out and cut the members to the most intricate frames of build- ings before a single part has been put together. Lay out duplicate parts and duplicate joints as suggested in Chapter VII, Section 62. Where several joints of a similar size and kind are to be fitted, mark the different parts to each joint with the same number or letter as soon as fitted that no other member may be fitted to either of these. Fig. 144. Fig. 144. 86 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. On small pieces, such as the stool, it is possible to aid in visualizing by setting up the posts in the positions they are to occupy relative to one another, marking roughly, as with a penciled circle, the approximate location of the mortises, auger holes, etc. The members may then be laid on the bench and accurately marked without danger of misplacing the openings. While the knife is used almost exclusively in laying out joints, there are a few instances in which a pencil, if well sharpened and used with slight pressure is preferable. To illustrate, suppose it is desired to locate the ends of the mortises in the posts. Fig. 144. To knife entirely across the surfaces of the four pieces and around the sides of each as would be necessary to locate the ends of the mor- tises, would injure the surfaces. Instead, pencil these lines and gage between the pencil lines. Those parts of the pencil lines enclosed by the gage lines — the ends of the mortises^ — may then be knifed, if desired, to assist in plac- ing the chisel for the final cut. In sawing joints in hard wood, the saw should be made to cut accurately to the line, Chapter II, Section 14. When working soft wood, beginners are often permitted Fig. 145. F'g. 146. to leave a small margin — about one thirty-second of an inch — ^between the knife and the saw kerf. This mar- gin is afterwards pared away with the chisel. 78. Dado,— A dado. Fig. 145, is made by cutting a rect- angular groove entirely across one member into which the TYPE FORMS. 87 end of another member fits. Dadoes are cut across the grain of the wood ; when similar openings are cut parallel to the grain, they are called simply, grooves. Dadoes are used in the making of shelving, window and door frames, etc. 79. Directions for Dado. — ( i ) Locate by means of the rule one side of the dado and mark its position with the point of the knife. (2) At this point, square a sharp line across the piece with knife and trysquare. (3) By superposition, locate and mark the second side. (4) Square these lines across the edges of the piece a distance equal to the approximate depth of the dado. (5) Set the gage for the required depth and gage between the knife lines on the two edges. (6) Saw just far enough inside the knife lines that the sides of the dado may be finished to the lines with the chisel. Chapter II, Section 14. Saw down just to the gage lines, watching both edges that the kerfs be not made too deep. (7) Chisel out the waste until the bottom of the dado is smooth and true. Chapter V, Section 47. Test the bottom as shown in Fig. 146. Two brads are driven into a block having a straight edge until they project a distance equal to the proposed depth of the dado. (8) Pare the sides of the dado to the knife lines. Chapter V, Section 48. These sides might be finished in another way, by setting a wide chisel in the knife line and tapping it gently with a mallet. If care is taken the suc- cessive settings of the chisel need not show. Where the dado is to be cut on a piece narrow enough that the saw may be made to follow the line accurately, it is considered better practice to saw accurately to the line. Chapter II, Section 14. 88 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 80. Cross-Lap Joint. — Usually, stock for the two members of the cross-lap joint can be best planed to width and thickness in one piece. Place two sets of face marks on the piece, so that there shall be one set of marks on each member after they are separated. Two methods of making Fig. 147. +u- • • ■. • t-i this jomt are given, i he first is safer for beginners ; the second, because the mem- bers cannot be tried until the joints are completed, is an excellent test of one's ability. Fig. 147. 81. Directions for Cross-Lap Joint. — First Method: ( I ) Square the two ends, measure from each of these the desired length of each member, square knife lines around, saw apart,finishing the ends square to the lines. (2) Measure from one end of each member the required dis- tance to the nearer edge of the joint. Since the corres- ponding faces of the two members must be on the same side of the piece when the parts are put together, it will be necessary to lay off the groove of one member on the face and of the other member on the side opposite the face. If the joints are to be in the middle of each member but one measurement need be made. Chapter VII, Section 62. (3) Square sharp knife lines across at these points. (4) By superposition, locate and knife the second edge of each joint. (5) If the joints are to be in the middle of each member, before proceeding further, test to see that the lines have been laid out properly. If the members are placed side by side and the ends evened as in laying out in (2) above, the lines will of necessity correspond. Turn TYPE FORMS. 89 one of the members end for end and even the two ends; the Hnes ought still to correspond. If they do not, points marked midway between the corresponding lines will give the correct position for the new lines, Fig. 148. (6) Extend the knife lines just made across the two adjoin- FiG. 148. ing surfaces of each mem- ber. (7) Set the g*age for the required depth and gage between the knife lines on these surfaces. Tho the groove on one member is laid out on the side opposite the face, do not make the mistake of holding the head of the gage against other than the face. (8) Saw accurately, Chapter II, Section 14, tO' the knife lines and tO' a depth indicated by the gage lines. (9) Chisel out the waste stock. Chapter V, Section 47. (10) Test as shown in Fig. 149. A well made cross-lap joint is one in which the members can be put together with the pressure of the hands and which will Fig. 149. Fig. 150. not fall apart of their own weight. Fig. 150 shows the results of "forcing a fit." 82. Directions for Cross-Lap ioint.— Second Meth- od. The two members are to be planed to width and thick- ness in one piece but are not to be separated until the 90 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. grooves have been laid out and cut. The grooves must be laid out by measurement only, since superposition is im- possible. The positions of the grooves relative to the faces are, as in the first method, one on the face and one on the side opposite. The gaging for both is done from the faces. 83. Glue Joint. — Frequently it becomes necessary to glue together a number of boards to make one wide enough to meet the requiremnts of the work in hand. A table top is a good illustration. A properly glued butt joint ought to be stronger than the natural wood. When the wood is of sufficient thickness, the joint may be reinforced by means of dowels. The jointer should be used for planing the edges. It is extremely difficult to pre- pare edges for glue joints with the shorter planes. The jack plane should be used to rough off the edges and pre- pare them for the jointer. 84, Directions for Glue Joint. — (i) If the boards are in the rough, plane one surface of each true and out of wind. (2) Pencil the face marks upon these surfaces and indicate in some way the direction of the surface grain as well. Later, it will be necessary to plane both pieces at once in surfacing over the joints, and unless the parts are fitted with proper regard to the grain, it will be impossible to plane one without rough- FiG 1 SI in^ Up the Other. Then too, the faces should be so selected that the warpage of one shall counteract the warpage of the other. Fig. 151 shows the manner of placing the pieces. Observe the rings of growth Chapter 12. (3) Joint one edge of each piece straight and square. The final plane strokes must be taken the full TYPE FORMS. 91 length of the board and the plane-iron must be set very shallow. Since the shrinkage is more at the ends than in the middle, sometimes the middles of long boards are Fig. 152. Fig. 153. planed just a shaving or two lower than the ends. (4) Place one of the boards in the vise, jointed edge up, and place the other board in position on it. Four tests are com- monly used : First, placing the eye on a level with the joint and looking toward the light, Fig. 152; second, tapping the under board lightly to see if the top board "rocks" ; third, sliding the top board lengthwise slowly to "feel" for suction; fourth, holding a straightedge as shown in Fig. 153 to see that the faces lie in the same plane. (5) Glue the edges, Fig. 154. Work rapidly but carefully. (6) Place the parts in the clamps and set away to dry; ten hours is usually long enough. Keep the faces as , even as possible in applying the clamps. (7) When the glue has hardened the clamps may be removed, the sur- plus glue scraped off and the parts treated as one piece in squaring it up. S^i-'^ 92 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING, 85, Doweling, — Dowels are small wooden pins used in joining parts together. Dowels can be bought ready made in a variety of sizes. If desired short dowels may be made as follows : ( i ) Select straight-grained strong wood — beech, birch or oak; waste wood can usually be found that will do. (2) Split, not saw, these pieces roughly to square prisms. The blocks from which they are to be split should not be over eight or ten inches long to work well. (3) Plane off the irregularities, roughly rounding the pieces to size. (4) Point the ends slightly and drive the pieces thru a dowel plate. Fig. 155. The pegs should be driven thru the larger hole first. The holes of the dowel plate are larger in diameter on one side of the plate than on the other to give clearance to the peg as it is driven thru. The cutting edge of the hole is at the smaller diameter ; place that side of the plate up. Never use a hammer as it would split the top of the peg and would ruin the cutting edge of the dowel plate should it strike it. Use a. mallet, and when the peg is nearly thru finish by striking a second peg placed upon the head of the first. 86, Directions for Doweling. — (i) Place the boards to be doweled side by side in the vise, the face sides out, and even the jointed edges. (2) Square lines across the two edges with knife and trysquare at points where it is desired to locate dowels. (3) Set the gage for about half the thickness of the finished board and gage from the Fig. 155. TYPE FORMS. 93 face side across the knife lines. (4) At the resulting cross- es bore holes of the same diameter as that of the dowel. These holes should be bored to a uniform depth. Count the turns of the brace. One inch is a good depth for or- dinary work. (5) Countersink the holes slightly, just enough to remove the sharp arrises. This removes any bur and allows a little space into which the surplus glue may run. (6) Cut the sharp arrises off the dowel, just enough to allow it to be started into the hole. (7) With a stick slightly smaller than the hole, place glue upon the sides of the hole, and drive the dowel in. A small V-' shaped groove previously cut ^^^- ^^^- along the side of the dowel will allow the surplus glue to escape and thus prevent any danger of splitting the board. (8) Clean off the sur- plus glue, unless the members can be placed together be- fore it has had time to set. (9) Saw off the dowels to a length slightly less than the depth of the holes in the sec- ond piece. (10) Trim off the sharp arrises. Fig. 156. (11) Glue the holes and the edge of the second board. (12) Put the two members in the clamps and set away until the glue has had time to harden. 87, Keyed Tenon-and-Mortise,— Fig. 157 shows the tenon, the mortise in the second member into which the tenon fits, the mortise in the tenon and its key or wedge. 88. Directions for Key:— Keys are made in quite a variety of shapes. Some of the simple forms are shown in Fig. 158. Where two or more keys of the same size are to be made, it is customary to plane all in one piece. 94 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. (i) Plane a face side, a face edge, gage and plane to thickness. If there is more than one key, saw each to length. (2) Shape the remaining edge as desired. The Fig. 157. lines AB and CD, Fig. 158, indicate the points at which measurements are to be made to determine the length of mortise in the tenon which is to receive the key. These lines should be laid off at a distance apart equal to the thickness of the tenon. 89, Directions for Tenon, — (i) Measure from the end of the piece the length of the tenon, and mark with a knife point. Where tenons are to be cut on both ends of a piece, measurement is frequently made from the middle of the piece each way to lo- cate the shoulders. Should there be any variation in the length of the piece from what it should be. this difference will then be equally divided at the ends. This is done when it is more important to have the distance between the shoulders of a definite length than that the tenons be of correct length. Fig. 158. TYPE FORMS. 95 (2) Square knife lines entirely around the piece at the knife point mark. (3) Set the gage equal to the distance required from the face edge to the nearest edge of the ten- on and mark on both sides, as far as the shoulder marks, and on the end. (4) Repeat, setting the gage from the face edge to the farther edge of the tenon. If the two mem- bers are of the same width and the tenon and mortise are to be equally distant from the face edge, both tenon and mortise should be gaged with the same settings. Fre- quently, the gage settings are obtained from the rule in- directly. The rule is laid across the piece and the width Fig. 159. Fig. 160. or thickness of mortise or tenon marked with the point of a knife blade. Fig. 159. The spur of the gage is then set in one of these points, the block being pushed firmly against the face; the thumb-screw is then fastened, Fig. 160. The second setting is obtained in a similar manner from the same edge or side. All the pieces are marked for the first width before resetting. (5) After having laid out the mortise in the tenon, rip to the gage lines and cross-cut to the shoulder lines, paring if necessary. (6) Slightly bevel the ends of the tenon. 90, Directions for Mortise, — (i) From one end of the piece measure and mark with the knife point the re- 96 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. spective distances to the two edges of the mortise. (2) Square lines across the face edge and the two broad sur- faces at these points. (3) Set the gage equal to the re- quired distance from the face edge to the nearer edge of the mortise and mark between the lines. (4) Set the gage equal to the required distance from the face edge to the farther edge of the mortise and mark between the lines. Make both gage lines on face side and side opposite as well. (5) Cut the mortises. First, bore a series of holes thru the mortise, using a bit somewhat smaller than the width of the mortise. Bore these holes so that they connect one with another. (6) Place the piece on a chiseling board and, taking thin cuts about half way thru, work ^^^ from the middle of the mortise out to within one thirty-second of an inch of the knife and gage lines. (7) Reverse and chisel from the other side, finishing Fig. 161. -^ . ^^^^^ chisel the first side out to the lines. Test the sides of the mortise with a straight edge — the blade of the chisel makes a good one — to see that they are cut straight. Fig. 161. 91, Directions for Mortise in the Tenon. — ( i ) Lay out the sides of the mortise for the key before the sides and shoulders of the tenons are cut. From the shoulder line of the tenon, measure toward the end a distance slightly less — about one thirty-second of an inch — than the thickness of the member thru which the tenon is to pass. This is to insure the key's wedging against the second member. (2) Square this line across the face edge and on to the side opposite the face side. (3) On TYPE FORMS. 97 ^M.^i^-^t'* the top surface measure from the line just squared around the piece a distance equal to the width the key is to have at this point when in place, Fig. 158, A B. (4) Square a pencil line across the surface at this point. (5) In a sim- ilar manner, measure and locate a line on the opposite side, C D, Fig. 158. (6) Set the gage and mark the side of the mortise nearer the face edge on face side and side oppos- ite. (7) Reset, and from the face edge gage the farther side of the mortise, marking both sides. (8) This mor- tise may be bored and chiseled like the one preceding. As one side of the mortise is to be cut sloping, a little more care will be needed. 92, Blind Mortise -and -Tenon, Probably no joint has a greater vari- ety of applications than .the blind mortise-and-tenon. Fig. 162. It is of equal importance to carpentry, join- ery and cabinet-making. The tenon shown has four shoulders ; it is often made with but three or two. 93, Directions for Tenon, — (i) Measure from the end of the piece the length of tenon, (see also direc- tions for tenon. Section 89) and mark with the point of a knife. (2) Square knife lines entirely around the four sides at this point to locate the shoulders. (3) Lay the rule across the face edge near the end of the piece and mark points with the end of the knife to indicate the thickness of the tenon, Fig. 159. (4) With the head of the gage against the face side, set the spur of the gage in one of these marks, then fasten the set screw, Fig. 160. Fig. 162. 98 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. Gage on the end and the two edges as far back as the knife lines. When there are several tenons remember to mark all of them before resetting. (5) Set the gage in the other mark, the head of the gage being placed against the face side; then gage as before. (6) In a similar manner, place the rule across the face side, mark points with the knife for the width of tenon, set the gage to these points, and gage on the face and side opposite as far as the shoulder lines and across the end. The head of the gage must be held against the face edge for both settings. (7) Rip to all of the gage lines first, then cross- cut to the shoulder lines, using back-saw. (8) The end of the tenon may be slightly beveled that it may be start- ed into the mortise without tearing off the arrises of the opening. 94. Directions for Laying out Mortise,— (i) From one end of the piece measure the required distance to the nearer and the farther ends of the mortise. Mark points with the knife. (2) Square lines across at these points. ( 3 ) Lay the rule across the face into which the mortise is to be cut and mark points with the knife for the sides of the mortise. (4) Set the gage as was done for the tenon, the spur being placed in the knife point mark and the head of the gage being pushed up against the face. Gage between the cross lines. (5) Reset from the same face for the other side of the mortise, and then gage. If a mortise or tenon is to be placed in the middle of a piece, find the middle of the piece, Fig. 3, Chapter I, Sec- I, and with the knife, place points to each side of the cen- ter mark at a distance equal to one half the thickness or width of the tenon or mortise. When several mortises or TYPE FORMS. 99 tenons of the same size are to be laid out and are to be equally distant from a face, the gage needs to be set but twice for all — once to mark the nearer edges and once for the farther edges of the tenon or mortise. Should there be several like members with like joints, the gage settings obtained from the first piece will suffice for all. The importance of working from face sides or face edges only, cannot be overestimated. To work from eith- er of the other two sides of a piece would make the joints subject to any variation in the widths or thicknesses of the pieces. To gage from the faces only, insures mortises and tenons of exact size no matter how much the pieces may vary in widths or thicknesses. 95, Directions for Cutting Mortise, — Two methods of cutting mortises are in common use, (a) boring and chiseling, and (b) chiseling alone. First method: (i) Fasten the piece in the vise in a horizontal position. (2) Bore a series of connecting holes to the required depth. Chapter IV, Section 45, with a bit slightly smaller than the width of the mortise. (3) The sides of the mortise are next pared to the gage and knife lines, beginning at the auger holes and working with thin slices toward the lines. This method requires care and patience in order to get the sides of the mortise cut square to the surface. It is es- pecially well adapted to large mortises from which much wood is to be removed. 96. Directions for Cutting Mortise, — Second Meth- od: ( I ) Clamp the piece which is to be mortised firmly to the bench top, using a hand clamp. Fig. 163 shows a little device called a mortise grip. Tighten the vise screw and tap the grip with the mallet until it holds the piece 100 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. solidly. (2) Select a chisel of a width equal to that de- sired for the mortise. Stand well back of the mortise at one end or the other so as to be able to sight the chisel plumb with reference to the sides of the mortise. (3) Begin the cutting in the center of the mortise. Make the Fig. 163. first cut with the bevel of the chisel toward you ; reverse the bevel and cut out the wedge-shaped piece, w, Fig. 164. (4) Continue cutting in this manner until the proper depth has been attained, making the opening no larger at the surface than is necessary. ( 5 ) Set the chisel in a vertical position, bevel towards you, begin at the cen- ter and, taking thin slices, cut toward the farther end. Drive the chisel the full depth of the mortise each time, then ])ull the handle towards you to break the chip from the sides of the mortise. Cut to within one-eighth of an inch of the end of the mortise. (6) Reverse the piece, or your position, and cut in a similar manner to within one- eighth of an inch of the second end. (7) With the bevel side of the chisel next the end of the mortise pry out the chips once or twice as the cutting proceeds. (8) Chisel TYPE FORMS. 101 the ends to the knife Hnes, carefully sighting the chisel for the two directions. Fig. 165 suggests the order. Fig. 165. 97. Miter Joint, — The miter joint is subject to vari- ous modifications. In the plain miter, Fig 166, the ends or edges abut. They are usually fastened with glue or nails or both. The most common form of the plain miter is that in which the slope is at an angle of forty-five de- grees to the edge or side. Fro. 166. Fig. 167. 98, Directions for Miter Joint,— (i) Lay off the slopes (see Chapter i, Section 4). (2) Cut and fit the parts. To fit and fasten four miter joints, such as are found in a picture frame, is no easy task. Special miter boxes are made for this purpose which make such work comparatively easy. (3) Fig. 167 shows the manner of applying the hand clamps to a simple miter joint. When 102 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. Fig. 168. a joint is to be nailed, drive the nail thru one piece until its point projects slightly. Place the second piece in the vise to hold it firmly. Hold the first piece so that its end projects somewhat over and beyond that of the second; the nailing will tend to bring it to its proper position, Fig. i68. If a nail is driven thru from the other direction, care must be taken to so place it that it will not strike the first, or a split join will result. 99. Dovetail Joint, — Dovetailed joints are so named from the shape of the pieces which make the joint. Fig. 169 shows a thru multiple dovetail commonly used in fastening the corners of tool boxes. In hand made dove- tails, the tenons are very narrow and the mortises wide, while in machine made dovetails,' tenons and mortises are of equal width. Mechanics lay out the tenons without measurement, depending upon the eye unaided to give the proper size and shape. Sometimes dove- tails are laid out to exact shape and size, the tenons being marked on both sides and ends. The mor- tises are marked with trysquare and bevel after Mortlelaned straight. It is not wise to take for granted the squareness or sraight- ness of a frame. A test or series of tests may first be made with square and straight-edge. A mechanic, '^liowevei', usually planes an edge until it fits the frame, testing by hold- ing- the door against the frame as near to its position as its size will allow. (3) ) Plane the bottom or top edge of the door until it fits the frame properly when the first planed edge is in position. (4) Meastu-c the width of the frame at its top and bottom, Fig. 189, and transfer these di- mensions to the top and bottom of the door, connecting them with a straight edge. When ap- proaching the line, in planing, I^c. 189. place the door against the frame often enough to see where the allowances must be made for irregularities in the frame. (5) The length of the frame may next be Fjg. 188. ELEMENTARY CABINET WORK. 113 measured on each side and these dimensions transferred to the door. Connect them with a straight edge and plane and fit as was directed in the third step. A door to work well must not be fitted perfectly tight ; it must have a Httle ''play," the amount depending upon the size of the door. The edge of the door which is to swing free is usually planed slightly lower at the back arris than at the front. An examination of the movement of an ordinary house door will show the reason for this. 111. Hinging a Door. — The hinges most commonly used in cabinet making and carpentry are the kind known as butts. Where the door stands in a vertical position, hinges in , w^hich the two parts are joined by a loose pin are generally used. By removing the pins the door may be removed without taking the screws out of the hinge. Such hinges are more easily applied than those with the fixed \m\. Fig. foo. ( i ) Place the door in position ; keep it tight against the top and the hinge side of the frame. (2) Measure from top and bottom of the door to locate the position for the top of the higher hinge and the bottom of the lower hinge. Usually, the lower hinge is placed somewhat farther froui the bottom than the higher hinge is from the top. (3) With the knife or chisel mark on both door and frame at the points just located, Fig. 190. (4) Take out the door, place the hinge as in Fig. 191, and mark along the ends with a knife. In a 114 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. similar manner mark the frame. Make certain that the openings on door and on frame are laid off so as to cor- respond before proceeding further. (6) Set the gage for the depth the hinge is to be sunk and gage both door and frame. (7) Set another gage for width of openings and gage both door and frame, keeping the head of the gage against the front of the door. (8) Chisel out these gains on door and frame. (9) If loose-pin butts are used, sepa- rate the parts and fasten them in place. Use a brad awl to make openings for the screws. To insure the hinges' pull- ing tight against the side of the gain make the holes just a little nearer the back side of the screw hole of the hinge. Put the door in place and insert the "Pjp 1Q1 . . pms. It is a good machanic who can make a door hang properly the first time it is put up. It is better, therefore, to insert but one or two screws in each part of a hinge until the door has been tried. (10) If the door hangs away from the frame on the hinge side, take it off; take off hinge on door or frame, or both if the crack is large; chisel the gain deeper at its front. By chiseling at the front only and feathering the cut towards the back, the gain needs to be cut but about one-half as deep as if the whole hinge were sunk. If the door should fail to shut because the hinge edge strikes the frame too soon, the screws of the offending hinge must be loosened and a piece of heavy paper or cardboard inserted along the entire edge of the gain. Fasten the screws and cut off the surplus paper with a ELEMENTARY CABINET WORK. 115 Fig. 192. knife. If plain butt hinges are used the operations are similar to those just described except that the whole hinge must be fastened to the door and the door held in place while fastening the hinges to the frame. 112. Locks, — Locks which are fastened upon the sur- face of a door are called rim locks. Those which are set into mortises cut in the edge of the door are called mor- tise locks. Locks are placed somewhat above the middle of the door for convenience as well as appearance. Three styles of cabinet locks such as are used on drawers and small boxes are shown in Fig. 192. The manner of applying^ a cabinet lock will be suggested by the lock itself. On surface locks, ( i ) the lock is held against the inside of the door or drawer and the position of the keyhole is marked. (2) This hole is bored. (3) The lock is screwed in place, and (4) the escutcheon fast- ened to the outer or front surface. If a face plate is used, the door is closed, the position marked, after which the door is opened and the plate is set. The face plate is mor- tised into the frame so that its outer surface shall be slightly lower than that of the wood. With a lock such as the box lock. Fig. 192, sufficient wood must be removed from the mortise so that the bolt may act properly before the plate is screwed fast. PART THREE. WOOD AND WOOD FINISHING. Chapter X. Wood. 113. Structure, — For convenience, tree structure is usually studied (i) in transverse or cross section, (2) radially, (3) tangentially. A transverse section is obtained by cutting a log at right angles to its length ; a radial sec- tion by cutting it along the radius; a tangential section by making a cut at right angles to a radius. Fig. 193. If we should cut transversely a young tree, a sprout, or branch of an oak or similar tree, we should find it composed V Vessel^ or porer^. T5.-TAageo1iA-l ^ecX\on C5 -Tr6~n.s Ye r6e " ■R..5 "Resell ^1 " " Fig. 193. B^rk Fig. 194. of three layers of tissue (i) pith or medulla, (2) wood, (3) bark. Fig. 194. These tissues, if magnified, would be found composed of little closed tubes or cells. Fig. 195. Examine the end of a log cut from a tree such as the ELEMENTARY CABINET WORK. 117 oak; we shall find that the center, which in the young tree was soft, has become hard and dry, and that upon it are marked a series of concentric rings — rings having a common center. These rings are known as annual rings because one is added each year. Usually, about three-quarters of the rings from the center outward will be found to have a different color from the remaining ones. These inner rings form what is called heartwood. The wood of the remaining rings will be found softer and to contain a larger proportion of sap. This part is called sapwood. Young trees are composed mainly of sapwood. Cortex Ba-sf As the tree grows older more of it is ^dvj:?wooob>b- -^ orti 5 e /■. Ten otT. Plate 2. 166 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. bt\s\j AorTv^e ^'Vcn.OVL I)ouL'le MorTi3espod lenon T'mRcd.KorT/se &Tcuon.. Wed o€ct^orri:>e Zkleiiorz Plate 3. 5 1 i |d Jo I n ft)x T6.i( Tenon. APPENDIX. 167 J)ov€-Td.i iMorhbc ScTenon Tu ok Ten on. Stretchier Jo iqT: Ledpe and M.ter Joint >4 Stretch e r Jo I nT? ^pUncnrcr. Plate 4. 168 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. DoveT(^il Dcixdo. Ld^f>f)ed * 5trd^\>\>c^ inch=i inch," it means for every inch of the object the drawing is but one-half an inch. APPENDIX. 175 The scale is to be used for measuring only.. There is quite a variety of scales. Whatever scale is used, the numbers placed upon the drawing must represent the size of the object and not of the drawing. In Fig. 3 is shown a mechanical drawing of a common wood spool. It will be seen that there are different kinds of lines. Each has its meaning, as follows : / 2 3 4 5 6 7 1. Light line — For penciling and cross-hatching. 2. Full line — For visible outlines of objects and limits of parts. 3. Heavy line — For border lines. 4. Dot line — For invisible outlines of objects and limits of invisible parts. Same width as 2. 5. Dash line — For projection lines. Same width as i. 6. Long dash line — For dimension lines. Same width as I. 7. Dot-and-dash line — For center lines and section lines. Same width as i. When there is not room for the figures that represent dimensions, the arrow heads may be turned in the direc- 176 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. tion of the measurement and placed outside. The figure, too, may be placed outside if necessary. Nothing but the letters, the figures and the barbs — not oeci ion. Fig. 5. Fig. 4. the shafts — of the arrow are drawn free-hand. Sometimes, it is desirable to have one dimension short- er than the scale selected would allow; this is done by ax ^=?r- FiG. 6. "^ means of a broken view : Fig. 4. The figured dimension prevents confusion. In Fig. 5, is shown a sectional drawing. Sectional APPENDIX. \77 drawings represent an object as it would appear if cut, with the part nearer the worker removed. Sections are indicated by "cross hatching," the lines being equally spaced and drawn at an angle of 45 degrees. Screws and nails are represented as in Fig. 6. A li f f TojD View A-b- ^2 9 S-/2 4c a: Leftside View Tf-oiit View^ RighLtoi^e VicW Fig. 7. 3. Projection and Relation of Views.— The names and the relative positions of three views are shown in Fig. 7. From these it will be seen ( i ) that the different views are arranged with reference to the front view, so that the part of a side view which is nearest the front view represents a part of the front of the object, (2) that the corresponding horizontal measurements of top and front views are alike, ( 3 ) that the corresponding vertical measurements of front and side views are alike, (4) that the corresponding vertical measurements of the top view and horizontal measurements of a side view are alike. 4. Letters and Figures. — Letters are usually made freehand, light ruled lines at the top and bottom acting 178 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. as guides. A simple style of letter and figure is shown in Fig. 8. They are placed in spaces that the proportion of the parts may the more readily be seen. They may be narrowed or widened by changing the width of the Fig. 8. spaces, and shortened or lengthened by changing the height of the space^. 5. Constructions. — The hexagon, or six-sided figure ; the octagon, or eight-sided figure; and the ellipse are so very frequently used in simple woodwork, that their con- struction is given here. Directions for hexagon. Fig. 9: Describe a circle of a Fig. 9. size equal to the required distance of hexagon from cor- ner to corner. Draw the diameter A-B. With the point A APPENDIX. 179 as a center, vising the radius of the circle, cut the circle at I and 2. With B as a center, and the same radius, cut the circle at 3 and 4. Connect A-i, A-2, 2-3, etc. Con- FiG. 10. necting every other point, as A-3, 2-B, etc., makes a six- pointed star. Directions for octagon, Fig. 10: Draw a square with a width equal to the desired width of the octagon from side to side. Draw the diagonals. With the points A, B, C, and D as centers and a radius equal to one-half the diag- onal, cut the sides of the square at i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. Connect these points as shown. Directions for ellipse. Fig. 11: An ellipse is a curve T.T T^. Fig. 11. such that the sum of the distances from any point on it to two fixed points called the focii shall always be the same. An easy way to construct such a curve is to place two 180 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. 4- -M "^"" d f APPENDIX. 181 »|09 C 00 r)IO ■*c- J r a' -fe- /f^ V^J 182 ESSENTIALS OF WOODWORKING. thumb tacks at the focii, attach the ends of a string to them. With a pencil moving freely in the string but hold- ing it taut draw the curve. By moving the tacks farther apart or closer together and by lengthening or shortening- the string, the size and shape of the curve may be changed as desired. 6. Order of Procedure. — Beginners should strive to know and to acquire good practice in drawing. Before beginning see that the pencil is properly sharpened. ( 1 ) Determine the size and spacings of the views so that the parts of the drawings may be properly placed. (2) With light full lines block out the different views. Blocking-out lines are made of indefinite length and the proper distances marked off on them after they are drawn. Holding the rule or scale upon the drawing ver- tically, mark off the vertical spaces. Draw light lines thru these points. Upon one of these horizontal lines lay off the horizontal spaces. Draw light vertical lines thru these points. Fig. 12. (3) Put on the dimensions. (4) Put on the lettering. (5) The drawing is ready for inking. In blocking- out, all lines are made full, light. In inking, the different kinds must be represented properly. Fig. 13. If it is not to be inked go over the lines that represent edges with the pencil a second time so that the outlines of the object will ''stand out." Books on the Manual Arts Beginning Woodwork. At Home and in School. By CLINTON SHELDON VAN DEUSEN ; illustrated by Edwin Victor Lawrence. A full and clear description in detail of the fundamental processes of elementary benchwork in wood. This description is given through directions for making a few simple, useful articles suitable either for school or home problems. Even without a teacher a bright boy, by following this book faithfully, may acquire considerable skill. It is a safe guide for farmers' boys as well as for city boys, and is especially well suited for use in rural and village schools in which the teacher has had but little experience in the use of woodworking tools. The book is illustrated by more than one hundred figures, including ten plates of working drawings. Each of these figures is an orig- inal drawing made expressly for this book. Price, $1.00. Problems in Woodworking, By m. w. Murray. A convenient collection of good problems ready to place in the hands of the pupils. It consists of forty plates bound in heavy paper covers with brass fasteners. Each plate is a working drawing, or problem in bench work that has been successfully worked out by boys in one of the grades from seven to nine inclusive. Many of the problems can be worked out in various ways according to the individual ability, inter- est and taste of the pupil. Price, 75 cents. Board covers, 20 cents extra. Problems in Furniture Making. By fred d. craw- SHAW. This book consists of 32 plates of working drawings suitable for use in grammar and high schools and 24 pages of text, including chapters on design, construction and fin- ishes, and notes on the problems. Price, in heavy paper covers, $1.00. Board covers, 20 cents extra. Problems in Mechanical Drawing. By charles a. BENNETT. With drawings made by Fred D. Crawshaw. This book consists of 80 plates and a few explanatory notes, and is bound in heavy paper covers with brass fasteners. Its purpose is to furnish teachers of classes be- ginning mechanical drawing with a large number of simple, practical problems. These have been selected with reference to the formation of good habits in technique, the in- terest of the pupils, and the subjects usually included in a grammar and first-year high school course. The book covers simple projection — straight lines and circles, prob- lems involving tangents, planes of projection, revolution of solids, developments, in- tersections, isometric projection, lettering and working drawings. Each problem given is unsolved and therefore in proper form to hand to the pupil for solution. Price, $1.00. Board covers, 20 cents extra. Books on the Manual Arts Classroom Practice in Design. By james parton HANEY. A concise, up-to-date, richly illustrated booklet on the teaching of applied design. Very suggestive. Price, 50 cents. The Wash Method of Handling Water Colour. By FRANK FORREST FREDERICK. "This little book is a helpful guide and affords a stimulus to the use of water-color as practiced by the earlier painters, whose beautiful work is unexcelled." Price, 50 cents. Manual Training Magazine. An illustrated, bi-monthly publication devoted to the interests of the Manual Arts in Education. Subscription price, $1.50 a year; single copies, 35 cents. In foreign countries, including Canada, $1.75 a year ; single copies, 40 cents. The Manual Arts Press Peoria, Illinois Muv 12 idoa