' Cathcrins -forte ita ^^g^^gS^^ A B,C^f}?eu' the (ittnatioa -of the Mountlj£. f.ghiklm: N.O jfortshow ani hyyvhom they wcr rrniJ^ the Vijto . rv wtUjhcwjrou . 'Jhc i\ferijnbon c^ lani mwmh ^caniraBtAmto thhorjcr --r^m-i Mount %irlcs fo ortc Digitized by tine Internet Archive in 2011 witin funding from Tine Library of Congress http://www.arcliive.org/details/ridersbermudaguiOOride Rider's BERMUDA A Guide -Book for Travelers RIDER'S GUIDES Ready: Rider's NEW YORK CITY Rider's BERMUDA Rider's WASHINGTON In Preparation: Rider's NEW ENGLAND Rider's CALIFORNIA Rider's FLORIDA Rider's WEST INDIES Rider's BERMUDA A GUIDE BOOK for TRAVELERS with 4 maps Compiled under the general editorship of FREMONT RIDER BY DR. FREDERIC TABER COOPER NEW YORK HENRY HOLT AND COMPANY 1922 Cop3'right. 1922 by The Rider Press, Inc. The contents of this vohime are fully pro- tected by copyrig-ht, both in the United States and in foreign countries, and infringements thereof will be vigorously prosecuted. ;2J? f Qf^l rcokrJ> m -5 iS22 r-\ ©CI.Ae6t977 PREFACE No excuse seems necessary for attempting the preparation of an adequate guide-ibook for what is undoubtedly one of the most delightful of all the 'little corners of the world. Soon after the issuance of "Rider's New York City/' the first volume in a new series of guide-books bearing the editor's name, a '^Bermuda" volume was projected. The war, and the consequent interruption of tourist and steamship traffic, soon made necessary a postponement of plan, and it was not till last year that actual field work on the present volume was begun. Some of the problems met with in the preparation of the "New York" volume did not have to be solved in the case of Bermuda. New York is in a constant state of flux : Bermuda "changes little and slowly. And, as the literature of Bermuda is surprisingly extensive, research would at first glance have seemed to he chiefly a matter of selection. Following the precedent of the New York volume, however, every endeavor has been made to secure information or verification of every item at first hand, and this has meant an amount of work in the field which only those who have compiled guide-books can appreciate. The actual labor of compilation has in the present case been largely in the hands of Dr. F>ederic Taber Cooper, to whose p^ainstaking enthusiasm and critical sense the "New York" voilume owed so much, and to him, the editor feels, should be given credit for whatever excellence the present volume may possess. An expression of indebtedness is also due Mrs. Doris Webb Webster, who read proof and prepared the index; and to Mr. T. A. Chard, of Rand McNally & Co., whose interest helped greatly in the production of what we modestly believe is the best map of Benmnda yet published. To be a guidenbook of genuine and practical use to the traveler it is of course necessary, as was remarked in the pref- ace to the "New York" volume, to discriminate, and this means not merely to select the good from the bad, but to en- deavor to give each proper values. With every effort to make just appraisal, error of judgment and differences of opinion are of course natural. It need hardly be said, however, that no remuneration of any sort, direct or indirect, has secured favorable notice in this guide-book. As in the Baedeker series, which has been frankly taken as a model, the better class, or especially noteworthy, has been indicated by an asterisk [*]. vi RIDER'S BERMUDA ■ The Editor is still sure "that only one who has attempted to compile a guide-book out of whole cloth, as it were, com- pleteh- appreciates the complexity of the task and the infinite opportunity for error which it affords. He realizes, therefore, the imperfections and hiatuses of this work more clearly prob- ably than will its severest critics; and he will most cordially welcome corrections and suggestions from any source for its improvement in succeeding editions." Happily the compilation of a guide-book to Bermuda is a labor of love, in the hteral if not the_ acquired sense. Few spots on earth have ibeen more blessed by nature and it is not without reason that for three centuries they have been known as islands of contentment. Twelve years ago, on his first acquaintance with the islands, the Editor bought one of them ; and though he has not yet secured a complete title to it— such things move very slow'ly in Bermuda — he has hopes of some day himself having a little corner there to retreat to and invite his soul. The Editor. Apfil, 1922. TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction I. General Description of Bermuda . . . xi II. The Geology of Bermuda .... xiv III. The Discovery and History oif Bermuda . xix IV. The Natural History of Bermuda . . . xxxiv a. In General, xxxiv; b. Birds of Bei"muda. xxxv; c. The Corals of Bermuda, xxxviii; d. The Plants and Trees of Bermuda, xxxix. V. The S3^tem of Government .... xlii VI. Bermudian, Industry and Agriculture . . XLVi VII. Miscellaneous Information for the Prospective Visitor to Bermuda xlviti a. Climate, xlviii; b. Currency sj'stem. Expenses, etc., 1; c. Some General Notes on the Life and Customfj of Bermuda, Hi. Preliminary Information I. Arrival in Bermuda ..... 3 II, Hotels and Boarding Houses .... 4 a General Information, 4; b. Hotels and Boarding Houses in Hamilton, 5 ; c. In Pembroke, 6 ; d. In Paget, 7; e. In Warwick, 7; f. In Flatts Village and Neighborhood, 7; g. In St. George's and Neighbor- hood, 7; h. In Somerset, 8; i. Furnished Rooms, 8. III. Baths, Barber Shops, etc 8 IV. Restaurants and Tea Rooms .... 9 a. Hotel Restaurants 9; b. Tea Rooms, 9; c. Road Houses, 9; d. Ice Cream and Soda Water. 10. V. Inter-Island Travel . . . . . 10 a. Public Omnibuses, 10; b. Carriages, Livery Stables, 1 1 ; c. Bicycles, 12; d. The Forbidden Auto- mo'bile, 13; e. Ferry Boat Lines, 14; f. Aerial Tours of the Bermudas, 15. VI. Steamship Lines and Offices .... 15 a. Present Day Sei-\'ice, Rates, etc., 16; b. Miscel- laneous Information for Pas-engers, 17: c. Tourist and Express Agencies. viii RIDER'S BERMUDA VII. Post and Telegraph Offices, Telephones, Ex- fa. Telegraph and Cable Government Radio Serv- VIII. press Companies a. Postal Facilities, i8: Offices and Service, 20; ( ice, 20. Theatres and Other Places of Entertainment a. Hamilton. 21; b. Outside of Hamilton, 22. IX. Sports, Games, etc. X. Clubs . . . ■ . XI. Shops and Stores . XII. Churches; Religious Services XIII. Libraries and Reading Rooms XIV. Newspapers and Periodicals . XV. Physicians, Dentists, Hospitals XVI. Banks ..... XVII. Planning a Bermuda Stay . a. Distribution of Time, 36. XVIII. BibliiOjgraphy . . . . Entering Bermuda Hamilton and Vicinity {Pembroke Parish) I. Within the City a. History, Topography, etc., 49; b. Front Street, 51; c. Qtteen Street, 53; d. Reid Street, 58; e. Church Street, 61; f. Victoria Street and North- ^A^ard, 3. II. Excursions in Pembroke .... a. The Pitt's Bay Road to Spanish Point, 65; b. 'Admiralty House, 67; c. The Serpentine Road to Fairyland, 69; d. From Cedar Avenue to the North Shore, 70; e. Government House, yz; f. Agar's Island, 74. The Central Parishes {Paget East, Devonshire, Smith's and Hamilton) I. North Shore Road from Hamilton to Flatts Village II. The Middle Road from Hamilton to Flatts Village ....... 18 20 22 28 29 31 33 33 34 35 35 38 43 49 65 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix III. The North Shore Road from Flatts Village Crossways to the Blue Hole . . . . 8i a. Side Excursion to Coney Island, 84 IV. Harrington Sound from Flatts Village Cross- ways to Bailey's Bay ..... 85 V. Walsingham ...... 91 VI. The South Road from Hamilton to Tucker's Town . . . . . . . .92 Bermuda Eastward (St. George's, St. Daznd's and the Islands in Castle: Harbour) I. From the Causeway to St. George's . . lOO II. The Town of St. George's . . . . loi III. St. David's Island in a. Smith's Island 113; b. Paget's Island, 113. IV. The Islands in Castle Harbour . . .114 a. Castle Island, 115; b. Southampton Island, 116; c. Cooper's Island, 117; d. Gumett Rock, 118, Bermuda Westward (Paget West, Warwick, Somerset and Ireland Island) I. The Middle Road, from Hamilton to Gibb's Hill 119 II. The North Shore Road from Hamilton to ■ Riddle's Bay 123 III. The South Shore Road . . . .124 IV. The Middle Road from Gibb's Hill to Somer- set Ferry ....... 127^ V. From Somerset-Watford Bridge to Ireland Island Dockyard 132 VI. The Islands in the Great Sound . . . 136 The Outer Reefs I, The Sea-Gardens i39 II. North Rock . . . . . . .141 X RIDER'S BERMUDA LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS MAPS IN COLOR Facing Page Plate I. The City of Hamilton 50 '* II. The Town of St. George's ..... 102 " III. The Bermuda Islands . . . . . .130 MAP IN THE TEXT Facing Page Atlantic Ocean showing the position of the Bermudas . . 49 INTRODUCTION I. General Description of Bermuda Bermuda, or the Bermudas or Somers Islands, one of the 'oldest British Colonies in the Western Hemisphere, ante- dating Plymouth by eleven years, and politically the "Eldest Daughter of the oldest Parliament in the world," lies in 32° 14' 45" N. lat. and 64° 49' 55" W. long, calculated from Gibb's Hill Light House. It is situated in the West Atlantic, in about the same meridian as Halifax in N'ova Scotia and St. Thomas, in the West Indies, being nearly equidistant (700 mi.) from both ; and corresponds in latitude nearly with Madeira and Charleston, S. C. From New York the dis- tance is given as 666 nautical mi., from the "Bar" in New York Harbor to St. David's Light. The nearest point on the Atlantic coast is Cape Hatteras, 568 mi. The group O'f islands constituting Bermuda are the ex- posed portions of the crest of a submarine mountain, one of an isolated chain of three similar cone-sihaped summits, prob- ably of volcanic origin, rising some 15,000 ft. from the bed of the Atlantic, and connected b}-' a ridge of about half their height. Bermuda, the most northerly, and the only one emerging from the water, has often been compared in size and form to Mt. Blanc. About 10 mi. S. W. is the second peak, the Challenger Bank, whose nearest approach to the surface is 26 fathoms; and 9 mi. further, the Argus Bank, 40 fathoms deep (named respectively from the Challenger expedition of 1877, and the Argus expedition, which first located and meas- ured them). The summit of the cone forming the foundation of Ber- muda is an irregular ellipse, the circumference being formed by a chain of reefs and sunken rocks, and measuring about 25 mi. E. and W., by 13 mi. N. and S. The greater part of the enclosed area is now submerged, due, it is believed, to a subsidence in a comparatively recent geologic period, and lies at an average depth of from 2 to 6 fathoms below the surface, forming the famous Sea Gardens (p. I39)- But in pre-historic times it constituted a Greater Bermuda, ex- tending over the whole crest of the cone — of which the only visible remnants are the famous North Rocks (p. 141 )» lying almost 10 miles N. of Flatts Village (PI. III-^Ms)- -The Bermuda of modern times, however, occupies only a fraction of this area, and consists of a long, narrow chain of islands, xii RIDER'S BERMUDA lying along the lower rim of the ellipse, and variously ex- timated at from loo to 365 separate islands (or one for every day in the year). Less than a score of these islands, how- ever, are inhabited; and of the eight important islands, all but one, St. David's, are connected by bridges and highways into a homogeneous whole. Physical Contour. Bermuda has been variously compared to a crescent, a fishhook and a shepherd's crook. A more accurate comparison is to a long, thin arm, extending west- ward, with abnormally elongated fingers curving upward. In the broad thick portion of the upper arm lies Castle Har- bour, lone of three partly enclosed bodies of water, with St. George's Island and the old capital on the N. Just beyond, where the elbow broadens out, lies the second body of water, Harrington Sound; while, at the W. end within the fingers' curve lies the Great Sound, extending eastward between fingers and thumb, to form Crow's Lane or Hamilton Har- bour, with the present capital on the N. sihore. The com- bined surface area of al] the islands is estimated at 12,378 acres, or about 1954 sq. mi. Bermuda owes much of its picturesquesness to its surface irregularites. Not only is its coast line broken by hundreds of bay and promontories,- but its whole surface is a succes- sion of mounds or hills, more or less covered by cedar trees ; and while the average height of the land is from 25 to 50 ft. above sea level, there are a number of hills ranging from 180 ft. to 245 ft.— Gibb's Hill— and 260 ft— at Town Hill (PI. Ill — Ms) on Harrington Sound, the highest point on the Island. These mounds and hills form certain well defined ridges, with picturesque _ valleys between them. One of these ridges ascends from Spanish Point, Pembroke, and continues E. along the North Shore to Flatts Village, where it slopes again to the level of Harrington Sound. Around the Sound the ground rises with irregular abruptness, reaching greatest height in the above-mentioned Town Hill, on W. shore, and showing some especially wild and rugged aspects in a long stretch of precipitous cliffs, rising for a sheer 100 ft. on the N. shore. A second and longer ridge runs W. from the beach at Tucker's Town, following the curve of the South Shore, clear to Wreck Hill, in Somerset, and terminating at Daniel's Head. The rising ground on both sides of Hamilton Harbour fo'rms a valley in Pembroke, which the intervening Prospect Hill separates from the valley of Devonshire; and still another in Paget, from which a spur continues W. through Warwick, ending at Riddle's Bay in the Great Sound. Owing to its position on a mountain crest, and to the porous nature of its surface rock, Bermuda has no rivers, streams or even natural springs. The only sound of running water heard in the Islands is the intermittent dripping from GENERAL DESCRIPTION- xjii stalactites deep down in Bermuda Caves, where accumulated rain water slowly filters through the porous limestone above. There are a number of so-called lakes and ponds, chiefly along the S. portion of the main island; but these, like the lakes at the bottom of practically all the Caves, are brackish pools, lying approximately at sea level, and largely fed by the sea, through subterranean fissures. Political Divisions. Bermuda is divided both for admin- istrative and ecclesiastical purposes into nine Parishes, which date back almost to the establishment of the Colony. When Richard Norwood, the Colony's first Surveyor, made his survey and allotted the shares to the original "Adventurers" or subscribers of the Somers Islands Company in 1616, he first set aside "St. George's Island, St. David's Island, Long Bird Island, Smith's Island, Cooper's Island, Coney Island, Nonsuch Island, part of the Main (i. e. Tucker's Town to Castle Point), and sundry small islands, to be the General Land and employed for public uses, as for the maintainance of the Governor, Ministers, Commanders of the Forts, soldiers and such like." These islands, comprising the whole eastern group of the Bermuda archipelago, now constitute St. George's Parish. The rest of Bermuda, comprising the Main Island, Som- erset, Watford, B'oaz and Ireland Islands, together with the islands in the Great Sound, Norwood divided into eight "Tribes," naming them, according to instructions, after the eight most distinguished charter members of the Company. In geographic order from E. to W. they are as follows: Hamilton Tribe, originally called Bedford's after Lucy, Countess of Bedford (d. 1627), who transferred her interests to James, Second Marquis of Hamilton. Smith's Tribe, named after Sir Thomas Smith (1558-1625), at one time Governor of the East India Co.. and Treasurer until 1620, of the Virginia Co. He financed voyages for the discovery of the northwest passage, and his name was given by William Baffin to Smith's Sound. Devonshire Tribe, originally called Cavendish, after William Caven- dish, later created First Earl of Devonshire (d. 1625). Pembroke Tribe named from William Herbert, Third Earl of Pembroke (1580-1630). He is identified with the "Onlie begetter" men- tioned in the dedication of Shakespeare's Sonnets; and is one of "the incomparable pair of brethren" to whom the first folio of Shakespeare is dedicated. He was a member of the King^s Council for the Virginia Co., and the Rappahannock River was originally called Pembroke River in his honor. Paget Tribe was named after William, Fourth Lard Paget (1572- 1629). Warwick Tribe, was originally called Mansell's, after Sir Robert Mansell, or Mansfield, who sold out his interest to Robert Rich, Second Earl of Warwick (1587-1658). The latter was for many years Goverror of the Company. xiv RIDER'S BERMUDA Southampton Tribe, named after Henry Wriothsley, Third Earl of Southampton (1573-1624). He was an incorporator of the Northwest Passage Co., and a member of the Virginia Co., and his name is com- memorated by Southampton Hundred, Hampton River and Hampton Roads in Virginia. Sandys Tribe, named from Sir Edwin Sandys (1561-1629), 2d son of Archbishop of Sandys of York, knighted in 1603. II. The Geology of Bermuda Geologists have long agreed that the Bermuda Islands rest upon the flattened and eroded summit of a vast submarine volcano, similar in character to that of Pico in the Azores, or the Peak of Teneriffe. The problem was complicated by the fact that so far as the visible structure is concerned, nothing of volcanic origin has been discovered, the rock being all lime- stone, together with red clays resulting from its decomposi- tion ; and nearly all these rocks, both above sea level and below it to a considerable depth, are a true aeolian limestone formed by the consolidation of wind-drifted shell-sand. The evidence of volcanic origin, however, is threefold: i. Physical forma- tion ; 2. Magnetic variations ; 3. Deep borings. Physical Formation. As revealed by deep-sea soundings, the Great Bermuda Volcano rises in an irregular cone to a height of about 15,000 ft., the surrounding ocean bed lying at a depth of about 2500 fathoms. Its submerged slopes on all sides are very steep, the N. side being , steeper than that of any known large volcano upon drv land, falling off 1250 fathoms in six miles. The two smaller connected peaks, or side cones, known respectively as the Challenger Bank and the Argus Bank, are in general formation similar to the great Bermuda cone, but not so steep, the most abrupt slope on one side of the Argus Bank being only 7620 ft. in ten miles. These two submerged cones h'ave from 20 to 40 fathoms of water over them ; but in one place the Argus Bank rises to within 8 fathoms of the surface. Magnetic Variations. During the expedition of 1877 the officers of the Challenger detected certain remarkable magnetic variations in different parts of the Islands, which could hardly be explained from any other cause than the presence, of iron- bearing volcanic rock not far beneath the surface : "The observations made by the Expedition showed that the variations differed in various parts of the Island as much as 6°, ranging from 4° W. to 10° W., the smallest amount being found at a small islet just under the lighthouse on Gibb's Hill (PI. Ill — C6) ^ and the greatest on the west side of Clarence Cove (PI. Ill — H3). Such variations do' not exist at sea, a few miles from the Islands." — "Voyage of H. M. S. Challenger." Deep Borings. A few years ago when digging founda- tions for an extension of Mt. St. Agnes, Pembroke, some bits GEOLOGY OF BERMUDA xv of stone were unearthed, resembling volcanic tufa ; but this evidence was inconclusive as they might have come from external sources. Geologists agreed that the question must await the evidence of deep borings, as for an Artesian well — and such a boring was made early in the year 1914. The location was on the slope of a hill nearly a mile W. of Gibb's Lighthouse, at an elevation of 135 ft. above sea level, and the depth attained by the boring was 1400 ft. The pulverized rock, chips, etc., removed at successive intervals, were sub- mitted for examination to the U. S. Geological Survey; and according to the subsequent report, the successive strata pene- trated, were as follows: "The first 360 feet are in the limestone of the ustial character known in Bermuda. Below this for 200 feet, soft yellowish to brown, often clay-like rocks are met, whose nature indicates that they are more or less decomposed volcanic tufa. Below them blackish, to gray compact volcanic rock is found, of andesitic and basaltic appearance. The study of a section made from a chip indicate that this is lava, and though considerably altered, an augite-andesite. This rock con- tinues without change for the further 800 feet penetrated." Date of Formation. Although necessarily very uncertain, the geological period of the Bermuda volcano is believed to correspond with the last great eruption along the nearest North American mainland, toward the close of the Triassic period, which witnessed the immense outburst that occurred along the eastern coast, from North Carolina to Nova Scotia, resulting in the Palisades of the Hudson, and Mt. Tom, Mt. Holyoke, the Meriden Hills, etc., along the Connecticut valley. "After the volcano became extinct there followed a vast period of time, during which the action, of the sea undermined and leveled down the materials of the volcanic cones, filling up the crater more or_ less completely, at the same time, ini case any deep central pits remained. This period of erosion may have lasted through all the Jurassic, Cre- taceous and Eocene periods, with more or less oscillation of level. It is probable that during those periods, more or less extensive reefs of coral and deposits of shell-sand were formed, for during the Jurassic period reefs and coral existed as far north as Middle Europe, and the climate in the latitude of Bermuda in, the Cretacean and Eocene periods must have been much warmer than at present. The final result of erosion of the larger volcanic cones must have been to form submerged banks or shoals at a suitable depth for the abundant growth of corals, mollusks, etc." — A. E. I'errill. Pliocene Bermuda. At a subsequent period probably to- ward the close of the Miocene, the Bermuda reefs and shoals were gradually upraised, until practically the whole of Greater Bermuda, constituting the area now comprised within the outermost reefs, became dry land. This area was probably something over 230 sq. mi., or more than 11 times that of present-day Bermuda, which is estimated at 19 1/3 sq. mi. xvi RIDER'S BERMUDA From the evidence furnished by the later subsidence oL" the land, it is believed that the highest elevation attained at any period by the sand-dunes, was somewhat over 450 ft. This was probably the result of a slow and continued emergence of the land, while the sand-dunes were forming, rather than the drifting of wind-blown sand to such a height, though the latter was not impossible. The method of formation, how- ever, is less significant than the vast lapse of time required for the growth and multiplication of the little shells and minute organisms in sufficient quantities to pile up the great dunes from which the high hills of Bermuda were built. Furthermore, an enormous bulk must have been lost by solu- tion in the process of forming the red soil of Bermuda, which covers the greater part of the Islands with a layer varying from 2 in. to a foot in thickness, and which represents but an insignificant per cent of the material lost. The great lapse of time required for the building up of Greater Bermuda makes it probable that it had attained most of its growth in the Pliocene or Fre-Glacial period, and had then acquired a large flora and fauna of its own, including perhaps the Bermuda cedar and palmetto, with other species that are now extinct. With a warmer and moister climate than at present, a far more luxurious vegetation must have existed, as the great size and vast numbers of fossil land- snails testify. There is aibundant evidence that Greater Bermuda under- went a gradual subsidence, amounting to not less than 100 to 120 ft., during the decline of the Glacial period, and probably coinciding with the Champlain or Laurentian period of eastern North America. The most obvious proof of such subsidence, patent to every visitor, is the presence in nearly all the caves, of stalagmites rising from the cave floor through many feet of salt water. As no stalagmite could be formed under such conditions it is evident that the floor level of these caves must have been safely above high water mark. The most striking instance is furnished by the so-called "island" in Prosperous Cave, in the Joyce's Dock group (PI. Ill — P3), a soilid stalagmitic mass rising through 30 ft. of water. A second line of evidence is furnished by the thick beds of peat in many parts of the Islands, and notably in Pembroke Marsh and Devonshire Swamp. Borings have shown that the peat in Pembroke Marsh is about 40 ft. deep, its bottom extending many feet below sea-level, thus proving that the land has subsided considerably, since peat does not form in salt ponds. Still more striking proof was afiforded by the" excavations made in the Camber in preparing the bed for the great float- GEOLOGY OF BERMUDA xvii ing dock at Ireland Island (PI. Ill — Gi) (p. 133) • Twenty- five feet below the surface a 5-ft. bed of calcareous mud was encountered, underlain 'by 20 ft. of coral sand mixed with shells, and below that, 45 ft. below low-water mark, a bed of peat, containing stumps of cedar in a vertical position, this peat bed lying upon the ordinary hard limestone. In i860 sulbmarine iblastings in Hamilton Harbour revealed a sunken cavern at a depth of 6 fatliom.s, containing stalactites and red earth. "During this long period of subsidence, there was an immense amount of erosion by the sea, and much of the lonver parts of the previous dry land of the interior was finally covered by the sea, gradu- ally bringing about the present condition of things. NeAv sand-drift rock was also forming during all this period. During this period also, many species of plants and animals were introduced from North America and the West Indies, by winds, drift-wood, birds, etc., thus forming a new fauna and flora, combined with some remnants of those that had survived the glacial storms. There are many geological phenomena most easily ex- plained by the hypothesis that after the period of subsidence these islands underwent a slight re-elevation of between 6 and 10 ft., at a period probably corresponding to that in which New England and eastern Canada underwent a much greater re-elevation. As already pointed out, nearly all the rocks of the Ber- mudas, both above sea-level and to a considerable depth below it. are made up of wind-drifted shell-sand, with a small per- centage of material derived from corals, corallines, fora- minifera, bryozoa, etc., "which, when consolidated often form a hard and compact limestone. Such stone is believed by some geologists to represent an older formation, underlying the whole Island, and they have accordingly given it the name of "base-rock." Prof. Alexander Agassiz, however, has con- tended that these harder limestones are simply the ordinary aeolian formations, indurated by the combined action of air and sea-water, and that they m.ay belong to any period. Prof; Verrill finds a measure of truth in both these views, but points out that while superficial induration is common enough, it does not convert thick strata of limestone above sea-level into the uniform and compact m.arble-Hke limestone such as constitutes much of the so-called "base-rock" of the south shores. Much of this, he claims, is of comparatively^ late origin, and merely unusually compact examples of ordinary aeolian rock. He draws, however, a most interesting distinction between these later formations and what he believes to be a much older rock, dating from the Pliocene period, to which 'he gives the new name of "Walsingham Formation," because xviii RIDER'S BERMUDA its characteristics are especially promineiit 'n the whole tract bordering on Harrington Sound. The distinctive mark of these older Bermudian strata is that the}^ contain several species of extinct land-snails, the largest and most abundant being the PoecUozonites Nelsoni. "The most prominent and characteristic of the rdcks are the com- pact and hard aeolian limestones which have become so highly infiltrated with calcite that the original sand-drift structure has become obscured or lost. ... In some cases they include layers or pockets of imper- fectly consolidated or loose shell-sand. Between these layers of lime- stone are successive layers of 'red cjay' — a decomposition product, representing ancient soils, and often containing extinct land-snails. The red clay may be more or less indurated by infiltration of calcite, or stalactitic materials, with which and the shells it sometimes forms a breccia-like reddish mass. The fossil land-snails occur in the lime- stone, whether it be consolidated or friable, but are most abundant in those portions connected with the layers of red clay, especially in and just above the latter." — A. E. Verrill. This Walsingham limestone is found at all levels, from below the low-tide mark to a 70-ft. elevation or more. Most of the large caverns and sinks, such as those in the Walsing- ham vicinity, seem to be of this formation. It outcrops in many other places on the south side of Castle Harbour, and along the neck of land from Tucker's Town to Castle. Point. (PI. Ill— R6). Shark's Hole and Devil's Hole both seem to be excavated in this formation, and there is an especially interesting exposure of it in an old quarry near Payn'er's Vafe (p. 98), formery worked for Government purposes. Here the red clay above the harder limestone contains be ides the usual extinct land-snails, many large marine spiral shells {Livona pica), which must have been carried over the hills from the beaches by large land hermit crabs, who used them for shelter. Proto-Bermuda. What the general configuration of Greater Bermuda must have been when the exposed surface fi.liled the area oif the ellipse now outlined by the outer reefs, is recorded in the existing shoals and channels, with a clear- ness easily read by the geologist. According to A'gassiz the whole existing group forming the familiar fish-hook from Ireland Island to St. David's Head, must in earlier times have been considerably wider. The present Main Island must have extended south beyond the line of the reefs, completely bar- ring the access oir the sea, to the large sinks which later, through erosion and subsidence formed Castle Harbour and St. George's Harbour. The Island of St. George's probably extended far enough eastward to form the western edge of the present Ship Canal valley (the main steamshin ent-ance to Bermuda). On the south west the Main Island extended to Hogfish Cut valley; while Somerset and Ireland Island are HISTORY OF BERMUDA xix believed to have been connected by a ridge with Spanish Point (PI. III-^G3), thus cutting- off the Great Sound and Hamilton Harbour from the outer lagoons on the north. Hamilton Harbour and Port iRoyal Bay were probably both disconnected sinks, cut off by low saddles from Great Sound sink. In the area north of present-day Bermuda, where the shoals and Sea Gardens extend for nine miles.' c'ear to the North Rock, Agassiz finds indications of five great Sounds, larger than any now existing. One lay at the northwest, bounded bv hills, of which the remnants are the Ledge Flats, W. of the Hogfish Cut, and N. of Chaddock, Little and Long Bars^ which pass to the E. of Chub Head as far as Chub Cut, cjonnecting with Elies Flat. The other four were situated as follows: "One bounded on the southwest by the hills of Elies Flat, on the northwest by ihe hills of the ledge fiat extending north from Chub Cut, on the north by the line) of flats running east in the direction of' Three Hill Shoals, till they strike the eastern face of the sound formed by the Bra(C|kish Pond Flats, the ea tern boundary reaching toward Spanish Point, and separated from the shoals north of it by the Ship Channel valley. "The second sound is enclosed by the Brackish Pond Flats on the west, by the Bailey Bay Flats on the north and east, and by the Main Island on the south. "The third is the Murray Anchorage Sound, limited on the W. by the Bailey Bay Flats, on the X. and E. by the Three Hill Shoals and the fiats west of Mills Breaker. The third sound opened by a narrow, deep valley (the Ship Channel) towards the sea, and connected by a wide passage with the fourth sound bounded by the ledge flats of the northwest part of the Bermudas — flats which extend from north of Western Blue Cut to Eastern Ledge Flats — and on the southern edge by the line of the Three Hill Shoals and by the western extension of the Bailey's Bay flats." — Alexander Agassiz. This proto-Bermudian land must have borne in its suc- cession of valleys and sand hills, and its many deeply indented coves and bays, a fairly close resemblance to the Bermudian landscape of today. It Avas reduced to its present condition by the same natural forces that we can still see at work on the existing islands of the group. III. The Discovery and History of Bermuda The discovery of Bermuda is attributed to a Spanish navi- gator, Juan de Bermudez. whose visit to the Islands in 15 15 in a vessel natned La Garza (The Heron), is described bv Gonzales Oviedo in his Hisforia de las Indias : "In the veere 151 5 . . . I sayled about the Island Bermuda, otherwise called Garza, being the furthest of all the i?-lands that are found at this day in the world and arriving there at the depth of eight yards of water andj distant from the land as far as the shot of a piece of ordinance, I determined to ■^end some of the ship to land, so as to make search of such tilings as were there, as also to leave in the island certaine hogs for increase. But the time not serving my purpose by reason of contrarie winde. I could bring my ship no nearer the island, being 12 leagues in length, and 6 in breadth, and about 30 in circuit." — Oviedo, Richard Eden's Translation. XX RIDER'S BERMUDA Thereafter the Islands were known either as Bermuda, from the finder, or La Garza, from his ship. If, however, the honor of discovery rightly belongs to this Bermudez, he must have known of the Islands from an earlier voyage; for in one of the rarest of books, the Legatio Babylonica, by Peter Martyr, printed in 1511, there is a map of the Atlantic Ocean, upon which "La ibermuda" appears plainly inscribed, thus antedating by several years the voyage described by Oviedo. Whatever interest the news of the discovery may have awakened, Spain seems to have taken no step to confirm her sovereignty over the Islands; yet in 1527 King Philip II made a grant of them to one T. Ferdinando (or Hernando) Camelo. who was not a Spaniard, but a Portuguese from the Island of St. Michael, one of the Azores, who, "knowing the wish the King had to people the Island of Bermuda, offered to estaiblish a settlement therein of a good number of persons within four years" (Herrera). That the Bermudas already had an evil reputation is implied by the concession made in the grant, that because of the difficulty of securing Spanish or Portuguese settlers, the proposed colony need not he limited to them. There is no record that anything ever came of this scheme. But in Bermuda there is a firm local belief that Camelo landed on the Islands in 1543 to take possession, and that it was he who inscribed the curious monogram, with a cross and date, still to be seen on Spanish Rock (p. 98), on the south coast of Smith's Parish. In 1593 the crew of a French buccaneer, including one Englishman, Henry May, were shipwrecked on the reefs north- west of Bermuda Dec. 17, about midnight. When at last, with great difficulty, they made land upon a raft, they nearly perished with thirst before water was found. Food, how^ever, w^as abundant, for the Islands were overrun with wild hogs, thus proving that May and his companions were not the first who had landed there. It took them five months to build a small bark of some 18 tons, "for the most part with tronnels and very few^ nails" ; and instead of pitch they made a mortar of lime mixed with the oil of tortoises, with which thev filled the seams. They finally set sail for Newfoundland May 11. 1594, reaching Cape Breton on the 20th. Henry May reached England in Aug., w^here he published an account of his adven- tures, and made known for the first time, that Bermuda was not one bod}' of land, hut a group of many islands. In 1609 there occurred another and more momentous ship- wreck, since it led to the colonization of Bermuda bv Great Britain. In the spring of that year the Virginia Company oF London sent out its third expedition to the American colony HIiSTORY OF BERMUDA xxi in a fleet of nine vessels, containing upward of 500 colonists, including some women and children. Admiral Sir Ueorge Somers, Capt. Christopher Newport and Sir Thomas Gates, the new Deputy-^General for Virginia, were appointed leaders for the expedition, and all three went in the flagship, the Sea Venture. Sailing from Plymouth June 2, the vessels kept together until July 25, when a furious storm broke, scattering the fleet. The next morning the Sea Venture found herself alone and leaking badly. For three days and nights they labored hopelessly at the pumps, with the water steadily gain- ing. As the old chronicle records, "the Governor and Admiral took their turns, and gentlemen who had never done an hour's hard work in their lives, now, their minds helping their bodies, toiled with the best." When all hope of being saved was abandoned, they filled their glasses and drank to each other "A last leave before meeting in a better world," and at that instant, on July 28th, 1609, Sir George Somers cried out "Land !"' Shortly afterward the vessel struck and was held tight-wedged between two rocks on what is still called Sea Venture Flatts, off the E. end of St. George's. To their great relief, the castaways found the reputed Isle of the Devils, "the richest, healthfulest and pleasantest" they ever saw. Wild hogs were still abundant; and the supply ot turtles, birds and fish seemed inexhaustible. Although manv of the little company would gladlv have settled down in this land of abundance, the leaders could not forget their obliga- tions to the London Company and the expectant colony in Virginia. Accordingly they proceeded to build two vessels of cedar, one of some 80 tons, which was named the Deliverance ; the other a pinnace of 30 tons, named the Patience, which, according to tradition, was built at th- spot still known as Buildings Bay. In these two ships the entire company once more sailed for Virginia, having then been in Bermuda between 9 and 10 months. During these months there were several deaths, one mar- riage and two births, a boy named Bermudez, and a girl named Bermuda. The latter who died shortly afterward, was a child, bv first marriage, of John Rolfe, who later, in Virginia, is supposed to have married Powhattan's daughter, Pocahontas, "merely for the good and honor of the Plantation." Reaching Jamestown on May 23, Somers and his party •were hailed with joy and amazement, having long been given up as dead. They found the settlement in an almost destitute condition, with but 60 half starved survivors out of the 500 who constituted the colonv of Jamestown onlv six months xxii RIDER'S BERMUDA earlier. Mindful of the abundant food in Bermuda, Admiral Somers volunteered to return there and found a permanent colony; from which regular, supplies could be sent to Virginia. The strain, however, of these successive voyages proved too great for his advanced years, and he died in Nov., 1610, not far from the spot where his monument now stands in the Somers Gardens. His heart was removed and buried at St. George's ; his body was taken by his nephew, Capt. Matthew Somers, back to England, and buried in Dorset. All the colonists returned home at the same time, with the exception of three men who volunteered to remain behind, and whom Washington Irving has immortalised under the title, "The Three Kings of Bermuda, and Their Lost Ambergris." Widespread interest in the Islands was aroused b}^ the reports brought to England by the returning colonists, and especially by the published. accounts by two of Lord Somers' companions, Sil. Jourdain and W. Strachey, from whom it has long been claimed that Shakespeare derived his material for "The Tempest." The theory is that Shakespeare read Jourdain's book, and talked it over with Strachey, whom he might well have know^n in 16 10, since they were close neighbors in London. Malone, one of the earliest Shake- spearian commentators, was convinced that the Bermudas were the scene of Shake:peares' play, and his belief has been shared by many others, including the poet, Moore, and more recently Rudyard Kipling, who insists tliat he knows the very beach wjiere one of the scenes takes place. The narratives of Strachey and Jourdain, with their glow- ing account of the richness of the Islands in hogs and fish and tobacco, as well as the abundance of whales in the neigh- boring waters, and more especially the finding of the rare and costly substance known as ambergris, had the effect of keenly interesting the Virginia proprietors. Their original charter gave the Virginia Company jurisdiction only over the islands within 100 miles of the mainland, which of course excluded the Bermudas. Accordingly, they requested, and in 1612 procured, an additional grant, to include all islands within 300 leagues. As soon as their title to the Bermudas was secured by this amplification of the charter, 120 of the Virginia "Adventurers" formed a sub-Compan}-, who called the Islands "Virginiola," to show their close connection with the affairs of the Virginia plantation. This name, however, was short-lived, for a friend of Sir Dudley Carleton, writing on Feb. 12, 1612, says : "The Bermudas have changed their name twice within this month, being first christened Virginiola. but now lately resolved to be called the Slimmer Islands, aal well in respect of the continued temperate air, as in remembrance of Sir George Sommer'^. who died there." HISTORY OF BERMUDA xxiii Popular interest in the Bermudas was all the keener because of the amazing contrast offered by the exaggerated accounts of a new Eldorado, as compared with the evil repute the Islands had so long borne. The Earl of Southampton, the last presiding official of the Virginia I'ompany, in a despatch to King James announcing the arrival of the first colony at the Islands, stated "that the Spaniards, dismayed at the frequency of hurricanes, durst not adventure there, but call it Daemoniorum Insulam, and that the English merchants had sent home some am^ber and seed pearls, which the devils of Bermuda love not better to retain than the angels ot Castile to recover." c William Crashaw, the eloquent divine, and father of the poet, wrote in 1613: "Who did not think till within these four years, but that these Islands had been rather a habitation of devils than fit for a man to dwell in? Who did not hate the name when he was on land, and shun the place when he was on seas? But behold the misprision and conceit of the world! For time and large experience have now told us it is one of the sweetest paradises that be upoil the earth." In 1612 one Richard More, a ship's carpenter, was sent out by the Virginia Company as first Governor, sailing on April 28. in the Plough, with 60 settlers, and arriving in Ber- muda July II. They landed on the south side of Smith's Island, and there established the seat of government, W'hich, however, was soon after transferred to the site of the present town of St. George's. Consequentlv this is the oldest English settlement now surviving in the Western Hemisphere, ante- dating that of Plymouth, Mass., by eight years. Upon More's arrival in Bermuda he found the three men. Carter, Chard and Waters, who had remained alone upon the Islands alive and w^ell. These men had discovered and con- cealed a large quantity of am^bergris, and conspired to transport it secretly to England. The Governor discovered the plot, seized the ambergris in the name of the Company; and Chard, the ringleader, was condemned to be hanged, and was reprieved only when on the gallows. Ambergris, a secretion of the sperm whale, 'highly prized as a basis of perfumery, and formerly also used in pharmacy and in cooking, was worth several pounds sterling per ounce in the London market. It was found lodged along the shores and reefs, sometimes in lumps weighing from 50 to 200 lbs. ^That the Company anticipated dishonesty is shown by the following instructions to one of the early governors: "As touchinge the findinge of Ambergreece upon shore which is driven up by every storme where the wind bloweth, we would have you remember .that by such as you appointe "to that business . . . you may be decieaved of the best and fayrest except you be very carefull in your choice of honest men." Governor More laid out St. George's in accordance w^ith instructions given by the Company, substantially as we see it xxiv RIDER'S BERMUDA tocla_v, with every street-end opening into a central market place, so that a few pieces of ordinance might command them all. He erected the first church fcuilt on the Islands, of cedar timber ; and when that was blown down, he built a second, of palmetto leaf, choosing a more sheltered spot, still occupied today by St. Peter's. In June, 1613. on the arrival ot another ship bringing potatoes, he made the first planting of what has been a staple product of Bermuda ever since. More's chief activities, however, were devoted to the erec- tion of eight forts to protect the Islands against possible invasion. These forts guarded the entrance to St. George's Harbour on the east, and Castle Harliour on the south, and were named in order St. Catherine's, Warwick, Gates, Paget's, Smith's, Pembroke and Charles' Forts, and King's Castle, on Castle Island. There is only one occasion recorded when any of these forts did active service. In June, 1613, two strange vessels, believed to be Spanish, were seen cautiously picking their way toward the entrance to Castle Harbour, when two shots, fired from King's Castle, caused them to depart quickly. This was fortunate since those two shots exhausted the avail- able supply of ammunition and powder. In 1613 the Virginia Company sold out their rights to the Bermuda Islands, to the sub-Company, whfch now assumed the name of "The Governor and Company -^of the City of London for the Plantation of the Somer Islands." The amount paid was £2000. Some two years later, 011 June 29, 1615. King James granted a cliarter of incorporation to this sub-company under its new name, the charter members of which include the names of "Henry Earl of Southampton, Lucy Countess of Bedford, William Earl of Pembroke, William Lord Paget, William Lord Cavandish, Sir Robert Rich, Sir Thomas Smith, Sir Robert Maunsell. Sir Edwin Sandys, etc." — names that for the most part survive to-day in the names of the Bermuda Parishes. This charter authorized a General Assembly, with full power to make laws,, provided they were in accordance with those of England. Tlie Governor's term was fixed at three years. In 1615 the Company sent out a surveyor named Bartlett with instructions to divide the Islands into Tribes (Parishes), and the Tribes into Shares. Governor More, however, finding that no shares had been allotted to him or to the colonists, refused to allow the survey, and Bartlett returned to England with his errand unfulfilled. More, dissatisfied with his treat- ment by the Company, and his appointed time now having expired, also returned to England, leaving the local Govern- ment in charge of a Council of Six, who were to succeed each other in monthly rotation until further instructions from the Company. HISTORY OF BERMUDA xxv The first Governor sent out under the new charter was Capt. Daniel Tucker, an early settler in Virginia, to whom the Company ga^e minute instructions regarding the government to be established in the Colony. The officers of the colony were to be: the Governor, Sheriff and Secretary. There were to be four Ministers, two Captains of the chief forts, and the tirsi of the Overseers oi the Public Land. The Governor and Council were to sit as Judges at General Sessions twice each year. The Governor was also required to hold a General Assembly every second year, at which he presided, with his Council, and had a veto. If the Council were unanimous they might also negative action. The first Assembly was held in 1620, and the second in 1622. The Bermuda Assembly as then constituted lasted for approximately 120 years, and the union of the Goivernor and Council in the Session was regarded as so imiportant that when the innovation of making an Upper and a Lower House was proposed in 1627 by one Christopher Parker, he was prosecuted for sedition. Governor Tucker reached Bermuda in May, 1616. Mean- while, iRichard Norwood, Bermuda's first surveyor, sent in place of the rejected Bartlett, had completed the division of the Islands into eight Tribes, plus certain public lands which included the town of St. George's; but the division into 25- acre shares still remained to be done. About this time a plague of rats, imported in some ship, overran the Islands, destroying cultivation and reducing the people almost to starvation. Nor- wood, having by this time completed about one-half the work of subdivision, "starting from St. George's and working w-est through Hamilton. Smith's, Devonshire and Pembroke, was ordered by Governor Tucker to make a new start from the west end, for the alleged purpose of completing the survey of Somerset Island (so far spared by the rats) in time to plant the corn. The result of working alternately from opposite ends was a surplus of some 300 acres between Southampton and Sandys Tribes, which Governor Tucker appropriated to his own use — a proceeding which did not pass unchallenged as is plainly intimated in Norwood's own report: "They ordered that bavins: finished Pembroke Tribe, I should next goe in hand with Sommerseitt. I shewed ye Inconveniences of it, but being expressly so ordered by ye Governor and Counsell. I did forth- with subdivide Sommersett Is/land, and yt being finished returned to my former course. . . . This I thought good to expres=, because some have thought it was laid here for other ends and causes." In 1662 Norwood made a second survey, and prepared a careful map showing the shares and their ownership", which constitutes what LeFroy has called "the Domesday Book of the Islands." and which forms to this day the basis for real estate titles in Bermuda. Speaking of the conservative ten- dencies of the Bermudians and their reluctance to remove old landmarks, William Howard Taft says in general : xxvi RIDER'S BERMUDA "There is no people I know in this hemisphere who have shown the samei love of the past, the same adherance to the old-time traditions, as the members of this Lilliputian domain. . . . The history of no other self-g-overning- colony can be so clearly traced as Bermuda, and in the case of none other is the intimate family history of its early days made so familiar. ... Of course the reciords are somewhat fragmentary, but they are sufhciently full to bring one close to the life of this Island community, and to enable us to note their customs, their ambitions, their quarrels, their religion, their failings, their vices, their methods of government and their curious administration of justice." Governor Tucker proved to be a stern master. He adopted vigorous measures to compel the colonists to work for the Company, and enforced discipline with an iron hand. The 6rst General Assize was held in St. George's June 15, 1616, and the first prisoner brought before the Court was a French- man, oddly named Jolm Wood, who was found guilty of making ''many distasteful and mutinous speaches against the Governor," and was accordingly condemned to he hanged. So harsh was Tucker's rule that many desperate attemps to escape from the Islands are recorded. Five oE the colonists, none of them sailors, on the pretext of building a fishing boat for the Governor's use, were allowed materials for their task; and upon completing it borrowed a compass from their preacher, and secretly set forth in this three-ton boat across the Atlantic. After 42 days they reached Ireland, where their exploit was considered so marvellous that the Earl of Thomond received and entertained them, and hung up the boat as a monument of their voyage. During Tucker's rule further progress was made in laying out the town of St. George's, and in planting tobacco, and setting out various other plants and fruit trees imported from the West Indies, including the fig, pineapple, sugar-cane, plan- tain and paw-paw. Governor Tucker also introduced the first slaves into Bermuda, an Indian and a negro. But the growing discontent of the people with Governor Tucker's rule, and especially with the fine cedar mansion he had built himself on the "overplus," decided him to return to England and personally secure his title to house and land. Although he later returned, dying in Bermuda in 1632, his sway as Governor was over, and Capt. Nathanial Butler was appointed in his stead, arriving in the Islands Oct. 20 1619. An interesting chapter in earlv Bermuda historv has only recently become known through the "Manchester Papers," or family documents of the Duke of Manchester, containing letters written by Lewis Hughes, a Presbyterian minister to Sir Nathanial Rich, a director of the Bermuda Company, and also a Presbyterian. Hughes took advantage of the temporary absence of Governor Tucker to establish "a church Govern- HISTOiRY O'F BERMUDA xxvii ment by Ministers and Elders, and to choose four Elders for the town publicly by the lifting of hands, and calling upon God." Hughes alleged that Tucker approved ; but Tucker claimed that he acquiesced only through fear lest if Hughes departed the colonists would be left without any religious service. It is certain that Presbyterianism was established in fact, if not by law, during the residence of this Minister who had full support of the Rich family. Butler's term of Governorship is known in considerable detail, since he left a minute account of the Colony's history which has been edited by Lefroy. His first Acts included the completion of St. Peter's church, and the repair and rebuilding of the forts and bastions begun by Governor More. During his first year of office, Aug. i, 1620, the first General Assembly met at St. George's, and 32 bills were passed, of which only 15 received the approval of the Proprietors in England. Among the latter was a measure for the protection of native Bermuda birds. Another early law was one regulating the observance of the Sabbath. For the first offence a Sabbath breaker was subject to two days' imprisonment ■ and a fine of 10 pounds of tobacco ; fo^r the second oflFence, 14 days' im- prisonment and 20 pounds fine. At this period tobacco was the principal local industry, and a pound of tobacco repre- sented the unit of value. By a proclamation dated April 9. 1625, King Charles I ordered that since the tobacco of \'irginia and Bermuda could be handled at satisfactory prices and profit only if under Government control, no tobacco should be imported into his Kingdom except that grown in Virginia or Bermuda, and the price paid for it should be fixed by law. Consequently the Company was able' for a time to realize a hand- some profit. But the colonists, know-ing that their tobacco was worth much more than the price they received, grew negligent in its cultivation and in its curing and packing, and in the early part of the iStli century the industry was largely abandoned. Throughout the greater part of the 17th century, from Butler's time onward, the interest in the history of Bermuda centers mainly in its internal constitutional development. There are few spectacular episodes, and little, if any, contact with the world at large. "The history of the Colony from 1620. when the first Assembly met, until •1684, or 1685, when the Company was ousted of its charter by quo warranto in the King's Bench in England, is made up of the struggles of the Company in London to make as much out of the colonists as possible; of the struggles of the colonists to remove the restrictions on trade with others than the Company, imposed upon them by the proprietaricLS ; and of the efforts of Governors sent out to the Islands to maintain order, enforce the rules of the Comipany, and defend their authority and exercise too often arbitrary power." — William Hozvard Taft. xxviii RIDER'S BERMUDA The power of the Assembly, as this same writer points out. was in the beginning only that ot a petitioning and advisory body, seeking action by the executive, in whom all authority was centered; and the development of the Assembly into what it is today is interesting because it furnishes "a typical illus- tration of the growth of popular power through the ass:rtion by the Anglo-Saxon of his self-convinced rights." These changes were not accomplished without many a sharp conflict of authority; and few Governors went out of office without some suits at law being brought against them for false im- prisonment and other abuse of power. In the days of the Bermuda Company some of the Governors used questionable authority to punish the slightest infraction of the rules of conduct laid down by them ; and they did not hesitate at times to imprison even ministers of the Gospel who ventured to dis- agree with them. Indeed, this was so frequent an occurrence that an Act of Assembly was passed providing that all min- isters imprisoned by the Governor "should be entitled to their pay in interim, unless justly proceeded against." But if there were bad Governors there were elements even worse among their subjects. Even as early as Governor Butler's term a resolution was passed protesting against: "the over-aged, diseased and impotent persons who are being sent over to us, and so are to rest and remain here as drones and horse-leaches, living upon the sweat and blood of other men. No greater canker can there be to a newly settled plantation than the stuffing it with idle and unprofitable persons, whose belliesi for the most part are extraordinarily craving and their mouths ravenous." The stormy years that closed the reign of Charles I, his execution, the period of the Commonwealth, and the re.tora- tion of Monarchy under Charles II, are reflected in the local history of the Islands. There were many clashes between the civil authority and the Church, and the colony for a long time was in open rebellion against the authority of the Common- wealth. This attitude, shared by other colonies in the Western Hemisphere, led to the passage, by the Long Parliament, of an Act dated Oct. 3, 1650, prohibiting trade and commerce between these colonies and the Mother Country. But it was not until Feb., 1652, that the news that a war vessel had been sent out against them, decided the Bermudians to give allegiance to the Commonwealth. Under the influence of Cromwell, church matters took on an increased importance in Bermuda as elsewhere ; and Sab- bath-breaking, intoxication and witchcraft were punished with puritanical rigor. The old records are full of convictions for such minor offences as the following : "William Pollard, gentle- man, for that he doth not forbear to use himself unreverently HXSTORY OF BERMUDA xxix in church"; certain church wardens "for not providing Com- munion wine" ; a married couple "for not living together ac- cording to the ordinance of Gk)d" ; and numerous others "for playing unlawful gaimes." The usual penalty for such offences was 30 lashes at the church door. "In 1662 we read that the colonists meant to observe the Sabbath indeed, for one. Wotton was found ftshing at the Flatts on a Sunday, and was ciondemned to 39 lashes at the church door, after service. This, however, was commuted into being placed in the stocks in Paget on 'a lecture day,' the lecture doubtless adding to the poor man's misery." — Governor WUlcocks. For witchcraft there were altogether 20 persecutions, and five of the accused were found guilty and were executed, the most famous case being that of a negro woman, Sally Bassett, who was burned at Paget. In 1679 the growing dissatisfaction of the Bermudians with the government by the London Company, came to a head, and a petition was forwarded to the King asking for annul- ment of the Company's charter. The petition set forth that although the Company owned less than 5 per cent of the land, they continued to levy unreasonable and excessive taxes ; and it urged that since the inhabitants now owned most of the Islands they should be allowed to govern themselves. Afted a lengthy hearing at Whitehall, an opinion was handed down by the Attorney General to the effect that while, under the charter the civil power was vested in the Company, with the right to defend themselves against invasions and insurrec- tions and to proclaim martial law, there was nothing in the charter "to exclude His Majesty from ordering or disposing of the Militia of that Island for the safety thereof, or from constituting a Governor or Lieutenant in order thereto." Ac- cordingly, after a long struggle, a judgment against the Ber- muda Company was entered in Nov., 1684. Colonel Coney, the last Governor appointed bv the Company, was reappointed by the Crown in 1685 ; but general dissatisfaction of his administration led to his being replaced by Sir Robert Robin- son April 12, 1687. For a while there was harmony between the Governor and the Assembly, and the affairs of the colony improved. But in 1691 Robinson was replaced by one Isaac Richier, who has been defined as "another celebrated freebooter, a pirate at sea and a brigand on land." "Richier appears to have been a fairly good rogue from the reoords available. He had, however, to deal with a strong man, Samuel Trott, collector of customs. > Richier, after apparently robbing every branch of the public revenues, was got rid of, but unfortunately escaped punish- ment." — Governor WUlcocks. Abqut this time a brisk trade in salt was established, the salt being conveyed in Bermudian vessels from the XXX RIDER'S BERMUDA Bahamas and Tortugas, and more especially from Turks Island, which was colonized for the purpose of collecting- the salt. Most of the trade was with New York, although shipments of salt were made to all parts of the Atlantic Coast. One of the old storehouses, where the salt awaited transshipment, is still standing on Coney Island. During the height of this trade the annual output averaged 130,000 bushels, and employed ap- proximately 80 vessels and 1000 men. The vessels were Ber- muda-built, of native cedar; for after the establishment of local self-government, ship building, which had been discour- aged by the London Company, became a flourishing industry. Toward the close of the i8th century even sloops-of-war were built for the government. Other industries that were successively tried during the i8th century, included a brisk but short-lived trade in oranges, and some experiments in producing sugar, which was soon abandoned as making serious inroads on the scanty supply of fuel. For a time, also, the Bermudians interested themselves in the fisheries of Newfoundland, but the venture proved unprofitable. In 1775, at the outbreak of the American Revolution, Ber- muda being forlbidden to trade with the disloyal colonies, suffered serious want, being cut ofif from the main supply of provisiions. This fact, together with the many ties of close family relationship between B'ermuda and the American col- onies, helps to explain the manifest sympathy with which a a large majority of the Bermudians regarded the struggle for Independence, culminating in valuable and timely aid. Two weeks after the Battle of Bunker Hill, when Washington took formal command of the American army, his first letter to the President of the Continental Congress, laid special stress upon the dearth of ammunition and powder : "We are so exceed- ingly destitute that our artillery will be of little use, without a supply both large and seasonable. What we have must be reserved for the small arms, and that well managed with the utmost frugality." A month later, however, in a letter to Governor Cooke of Rhode Island, Washington mentions, among other sources of powder, one proposition, "which has some weight with me, as well as the general officers to whom I have proposed it," and he goes on to say: "A Mr. Harris has lately come from Bermuda, where there is a very considerable magazine of powder in a remote part of the Island; and the inhabitants are. well disposed not only to O'ur cause) in general, but to assist in this enterprise in particular. We understand there are two armed vessels in your provinde, commanded by men of known activity and spirit; one of which, it is proposed to despatch on this errand, with such assistance as may be requisite. ... I am vei-y sensible that HISTORY OF BERMUDA xxxi at first view the project may appear hazardoiis; but we are in a situa- '■- which requires us to run all risks." tion The plan having been approved by the Governor and Committee of Rhode Island, Washington sent an appeal, dated Sept. 6, 1775, addressed "To the Inhabitants of the Island of Bermuda," beginning with a preamble which reads in part as follows : "In the great conflict, which agitates this continent, I cannot doubt but the assertors of freedomi and the rights' of the Constitution are pos- sessed of your most favorable regards and wishes for success. . . . You need not| be informed, that thei violence' and rapacity of a tyrranic ministry have forced the citizens ofi America, your brother colonist, into arms. We equally detest and lament the prevalence of those counsels, which have led to, the effusion of so much human blood, and left us no alternative but a civil war or a base submission. . . . "Under these circumstances, and with these sentiments, we have turned our eyes to you. Gentlemen, for relief. We are informed that there is a very large magazine in your island under a very feeble guard. We would not wish to involve you in an oiiposition, in Vv'hich, from your situation, we should be unable to support you . . . but if your favor and friendshiji to North America and its liberties have not been misrepresented, I persuade myself you may, consistently with your own safety, promote and further this sclienie, so as to g^ve, it the fairest prospect of success." The vessel despatched from Providence, R. I., tmder one Captain Whipple, in accordance with these plans, had scarcely sailed when the news was published that 100 barrels of powder had arrived from Bermuda on a vessel sent out from Philadel- phia under command of Captain Ord. According to family tradition, Judge St. George Tucker, the famous jurist, who. although a Bermudian by birth, had long identified himself with the colon}^ of Virginia, and was as eager for liberty as any of his associates, was the prime mover in the powder conspiracy. He had returned to Bermuda in June, 1775, and while there had abundant opportunity to arrange for the delivery of the powder to Captain Ord. Professor Verrill, however, who has made a careful study of the whole episode, says emphatically : "That the actual work of removing the jiowder was dene entirely by the Americans under Captain Ord, scarcely admits of a doubt. It is a matter of history thati the inhabitants of Bermuda were largely in full sympathy with the American colonists at that time; but owing to their small numbers and isolated position tliej^ were helpless. Open revolt would have been suicidal for them. The powder thus secured largely aided in the first great A'ictory gained by Washington, resulting in the evacuation of Boston by the British army. The obligation was repaid, as official records show, by the shipment of several ship loads of provisions to Bermuda by order of Congress, one, perhaps the first, sent on Nov. 22, 177S ; and others on June 5, 1776; May 18, 1779; 'i"(l Aug. 30, 1780. xxxii RIDER'S BERMUDA Despite the unbounded indignation of the then Governor, George James B'ruere, and his strenuous efforts to discover the identity of those concerned in the powder raid, it remained a mystery. Officialh', Bermuda was staunchly loyal to the Crown, and numerous commissions were granted to Bermudian vessels for cruising against the commerce of "the American colonies in rebellion," the first of these being the Hammond of lOO tons, commanded by Capt. Bridger Goodrich, to whom an armorial tablet was later placed in St. Peter's Church, St. George's. Governor Bruere died in 17801, and two years later Lieut. Gov. George Bruere was replaced, after a stormy and acrimo- nious rule, by Gov. William Browne, a native of Salem, Mass., who before the Revolution held 'high offices, being Colonel on the Essex Regiment, Judge of the Supreme Court Mandamus Counselor. So highly was he esteemed that the "Committee of Safety" offered him the Governorship of Massachusetts as an inducement to remain and join the Sons of Liberty. But he remained loyal to the Crown even at the cost of his great landed estate, comprising 14 valuable farms, all of which were confiscated. He sought refuge in Halifax, and from there reached England where he was appointed Governor of Bermuda in payment of his great sacrifices. Under his judicious man- agement the colony prospered. He put order into the financial affairs of the Islands, gave business a fresh impetus and estab- lished harmony between the various branches of the govern- ment. In 1788 he left for England sincerely regretted, and was succeeded by Henry Hamilton under whom the new capital of Hamilton was built. On Jan. i, 1815, the seat of government was removed from St. George's to Hamilton, and a year later the residence of the Admiral was changed from St. George's to Clarence Hill, on Spanish Point, in close vicinity to the new town. The next important event was the abolition of slavery in the Islands, which took place on Sunday Aug. i, 1834, the proclamation being read in the Parish churches during morning service. The British Act of Parliament authorizing the freeing of slaves! throughout the colonies, made provision for an inter- val of apprenticeship; but such was the public confidence in the orderliness and high average character of the Bermuda negroes that it was voted to free them unconditionally without the usual interval. At this time there were upwards of 4200 slaves, for whom the Imperial Government granted as com- pensation to the owners an average of a little over £7 per slave. It s'hould be borne in mind that the problem faced in Bermuda was radically different from that of the southern states in HISTORY OF BERMUDA x America : instead of large plantations, agricultuire in Bermuda usually meant a small vegetable g-arden, easily worked by one or two hands. The majority of slaves were either house- hold servants or boatmen, to help row or sail their master's boat, and catch the fish, always an important staple of diet. Few families owned as many as lo slaves ; the average was between two and three. Sir William Reid (1791-1858). the "Good Governor," marks a new era in the internal affairs of the Islands. He 'found the colored population, recently freed from slavery, growing up without education or official aid. He established parochial schools throughout the colony, and procured from the Legislature annual grants for their support. At this time agri- culture was in a very backward state, the exports being- limited to arrowroot and onions, the latter being sent only to the West Indies. Governor Reid foresaw that Bermuda might be made a sort of market garden from which to supply the United States with early potatoes, tomatoes, lettuce and other vegetables. To this end he undertook to train the people in an improved system of cultivation, importing plows and other farming implements for their use. He founded the Public Library that survives to this day at Hamilton, and in many other practical ways developed the resources of the colony, and improved the conditions of the people. Under Sir Robert Laffan, Governor from 1877 until his death in 1882, Bermuda was l^rought into the Postal Union and the postal arrangements generally were assimilated with the English system. During the American Civil War, Bermuda enjoyed a brief era of unparalleled prosperity as one of the chief goals of the Confederate blockade-runners — for with cotton worth 2/ a pound the golden harvests to be reaped brought forth count- less adventurers willing to face the big gamble of such com- merce. The employes received fabulous wages ; captains, $5000 per round trip, averaging from one to four weeks ; pilots also $5000 ; and engineers, stokers and seamen in proportion. The Harbour of St. George had awakened and showed a scene of activity never equalled in the old days when it was the seat of government. From the tops of close crowded masts only two flags floated conspicuously, the Cross of St. George and the Confederate flag — since fear of rebel cruisers had in- duced Federal vessels to replace the Stars and Stripes with the British colours. On shore the wharf groaned under the vast piles of contraband cotton. Ever3rw"here trade was ac- tive; the beer and gin shops drove a thriving business; the xxxiv RIDER'S BERMUDA hotels were taxed to their capacity despite their exhorbitant charges. , "Such was the aspect of things in the once lethargic, staid old town of St. George's during the palmiest days of the blockade . . . since every project and every venture looked toward the southern coast, of course the inhabitants w-ere intensely 'Secesh.' More than one Ber- mudian ran the blockade to fight the battles of the South. The songs of 'Dixie' and the 'Bonny Blue Flag' were heard everywhere. Even the negroes caught the infection and sang how 'Jeff Davis is a gentle- man, Abe Lincoln is a fool.' Confederate papers were received! semi- weekly. Confederate flags were chalked upon the walls and gateways. Almost every house had some memento of the Confederacy." During the South African War, Bermuda served as one of the big detention camps for Boer prisoners of war, the British Government sending as many as 6000 prisoners to the colony who wer6 confined on several of the islands in the Great Sound (p. ). At the close of the war nearly all took the oath of allegiance, and were given free transport to South Africa. Bermuda has on five occasions been visited by members of the Royal family: in 1861 by Prince Alfred, Duke of Edinburgh, then a midshipman on the St. George; in 1880 by Prince Albert Victor of Wales, and Prince George, both mid- shipmen on the Bacchante; in 1883 by Princess Louise Mar- chioness of Lome, who made a lengthy stay in the springtime, for the benefit of her health ; in 1890 by Prince George (now King George V.), then in command of H. M. S. Thrush; and ilastly, in 1920, by the present Prince of Wales. IV. The Natural History of Bermuda a. In General Owing to its geographic isolation and comparatively recent origin (p. ), Bermuda is unique in the scope and relative proportions of its various classes of flora and fauna. Among vertebrates, for instance, there are practically no indigenous mammals, the only species mentioned by naturalists being the whale (formerly plentiful in the neighboring waters, but now seldom seen) ; an occasional stray bat, arriving in cargoes of lumber or blown across from the main land by persistent winds ; and several varieties of rats and mice. Reptiles and am- phibians are even more conspicuous by their absence, having been represented, when the Islands were first discovered, by one species of lizard, the Skink, on land, and by an abundance of turtles in the waters. Bermuda has no snakes, newts or frogs. Even toads are a recent introduction, imported for their u"sefulness in gardens, in keeping down the number of certain insect pests. BIRDS OF BERMUDA xxxv Insects also, aside from flies, imosquitoes and other an- noying and harmful species that always follow in the wake of civilization and agriculture, are not nearly so numerous as might be expected on islands in the semi-tropical zone. Butter- flies, most conspicuous and brilliant of all insects, are quite scarce, and few of them are either large or vivid. The Report of the Challenger is able to list a bare two dozen of species, some of them very rare. The same writer goes on to say generally of the other orders of insects: "The scarcity of Hemiptera is astonishing, for besides the Green- bug (Rhapliigaster) only a few Cicadas, found on the cedar trees, were observed under the stones I always found a few Land-snai\s, several species of Blatta, and very often a Gryllus. Flying beetles are rare. When returning at night from our excursions we observed no insects filling the air, as they do in) Europe, with the exception of some Sphyn- gidae ... In the mangrove swamps large dragonflies {Libelhila and Agrion) fly about, and a little Cicendela is perpetually flitting from one place to another and many other insects can be captured." To offset the dearth of these classes and orders, Bermuda has a generous variety of birds, both resident and migratory, of flowers, plants and trees, indigenous and specially intro- duced, and a rich abundance o>f aquatic life ; notably the corals, to which the Islands owe their very existence in their present form. b. Birds of Bermuda While there are less than a dozen species of birds which may properl}- be called resident, yet if we count the rare and accidental visitors as well as those which call regularly during the spring or fall migrations, the recorded number is not far from 200. Being almost equidistant from Nova Scotia, the United States and the West Indies, Bermaida affords a natural resting place for many species which find it directly in their path, and whose arrival may be expected punctually in October or April. But the great majoritv of recorded visitors must be attributed to sheer chance, having been blown off the mam- land through unfavorable winds. "That fresh species will from time to time be added to the present list is more than probable: in fact, it is possible that the whole avifauna of North America may eventually be recorded as Bermudian. When such diminutive flyers as the Ruby-throated Humming-bird and the Blue Yellowbacked Warbler can find their way across six hundred miles of water in safety where is the line to be drawn?" — Lieut. Savile G. Reid, R.N. It follows that the great majority of birds which science includes in Bermudian fauna have scant interest for the traveler at large, who has small likelihood of ever catching a glimpse of them. Accordingly, the present list is mainly con- fined to the few true residents and such seasonal visitors as xxxvi RIDER'S BERMUDA may probably be encountered in due time at their respective haunts. Cat Bird, Minus caroUncnsis. Resident and abundant; locally called "Blackbird." Its harsh, mewing cry is heard throughout the year, relieved in the spring by "a weak but commendable roundalay. After a shower of rain in May or June the marshes appear literally alive with) these sprightly birds, and a most agreeable concert takes place among the males, prolonged till dusk, should the weather con- tinue fine." (Sat'ile G. Reid). Eastern Blue Bird, Sialia sialis. "The flower of the limited flock of Bermuda residents. . . . The male bird in spring, when the sun's rays illumine his dazzling blue plumage, flashes like a ray of azure light and seems actually to blaze with intense color." (Reid). Although so much the smaller, this bird sometimes drives thei Red Bird from it- nest, even after the eggs are laid,, and appropriates it for its own. White-eyed Vireo, Vireo noveboracensis. One of the commonest resident birds, locally called "Chick-of-the-village," from its note. Its cry, however, is very variable, and one partictilar variation is "ginger- beer-quick," appropriately suggestive in a thirsty climate. European Sparrow, Passer domesticvis. Introduced from New York in 1874, to war upon harmful insects. Their quarrelsome habits soon caused serious, but luckily unfounded fears, that they might drive 6ut their more desirable kindred. Cardinal Red Bird, Cardinalis virginiamis. An abundant resident and formerly in great esteem ag a ciage-bird, until protected by stringent laws. "To see a fine old paterfamilias in all the glory of his rich ver- milioini garments, tail and crest in air is a great treat." (Reid). American Crow, Corviis ainericanns. One of the few birds men- tioned in Smith's "History" as being abundant in 1623. About _ the middle of the 19th century they were believed to have become extinct, but later became so numeraus, that a bounty of half-a-crown was set on their heads. Ground Dove. Chamaepclia passerina. Resident and abundant. There is a superstition current among Bermudian negroes that when this bird utters its sonoroais "coo-oop," surprisingly loud and far- reaching for so small a bird, it is scratching up the ground for some- body's grave. Virginian Partridge or Quail, Ortyx virginiamis. The game-bird of Bermuda. Probably originally imported comparatively recently, but died out about the middle of last century and was re-introduced in 1858. Florida Gallinule, or Moorhen, GaUinula chloropus. Re-ident and fairly abundant, breeding in the most inaccessible parts of the marshes. The following are the fairly regular seasonal visitors : Water Thrush. Seiurns noz-ehoracensis. One of the commonest autumnal visitors; Oct. -Nov. Frequents the mangrove swamps. Belted Kingfisher, Ceryle Alcyon. Regular visitor, Sept. to April. "They affect the same hunting grounds, especially those that remain for the winter; and day after day, as one drives past the creeks and sheltered bays, one sees the same solemn-looking individual on the accustomed rock or cedar-bough, one eye on the fish in the water below, and the other on the passers-by." Savile G. Reid. Pigeon Hawk, Faico columharius. Frequent visitor in autumn and winter months. American Golden Plover, Cliaradritis virgin icns. Regular visitor. Its arrival in August or September is "the beginning of the shooting season in Bermuda, and is eagerly looked for by the British oificer, who forgets all the heat and discomfort of the summer in the pleasure of once again handling his gun." Reid. BIRDS OF BERMUDA xxxvii American Snipe, Gallinago Wilsonn. Oct to Jan., also March to :\Iay. Occasionally large flights come in and really fair bags are made. " Semipalmated Sandpiper, Ereunetes pnsillus. Regular visitor in August. Yellowshank, Totanus fiavipes. "Most conspi-.-'.ijjs and noisy of the August arrivals." Disappears by end of September. Great Blue Heron, Ardea herodias. "Many arrive in autumn and. a few remain throughout the year." — ./. Mattlicw Jones. American Bittern, Botaiirus minor. Regular visitor in autumn and occasionally in March. Carolina Rail, PorsatM Carolina. Sept. -Nov., also March-ApriL A few linger throughout the winter. American Coot, Fitlica amcricana. Regular autumn visitor: rare in April. Dusky Duck, Anas obscura. Usually arrives in small numbers in autu7nn, remaining till end of Jan. Blue-winged Teal, Querquedula discors. A frequent visitor in Oct.-Nov. rare in April. Tropic Bird, Phaeton flavirostrls. A familiar and abundant sum- mer visitor, Feb. to Oct. The favorite nesting place is the overhang- ing cliffs on South Shore and Islands of Castle ^^-rbo^r. Dusky Shearwater, Puffintis ohscitrits. Formerly a frequent visitor, but is now believed to have ceased to resort here. It was interesting chiefly because erroneously identified with extinct "Cahow.'' Red-breasted Thrush or Robin, Turdus migratorius. Occasional visitor in Oct., also Feb. -March. Pine-creeping Warbler, Dendroeca piniis. Occurs in considerable numbers in Sept. and March. Boh-o-link or Rice Bird, Dolichonyx oryzivorous.' Seldom fails to arrive in Sept.-Oct., generally in small flocks. Scarlet Tanager, Pyranga rubra. A not infrequent visitor in April-May. Night Hawk, Chordeiles virginianns. Sometimes very common in April, also in Sept. and Oct. Favorite haunt, the marsh below Gov- ernment House. Osprey, Pandion haliaetus. Often seen in April-May. Yellow-bellied Woodpecker, Sphyrapicus zarius. Not very com- mon; seen in Nov. -Dec, also in April. Many palmetto trees are bored by this bird. Long-eared Owl. Otns wilsonianns. Frequent but irregular visitor during winter months. Favorite haunt, vicinity of Gibb's Lighthouse. Snow Bunting, Plectrophanes nivalis. Fairly constant visitor Dec- lan. The rare and occasional visitors, owing their presence to the freaks of wind and weather, may of course be seen by some lucky chance at any point on the Islands. For instance, in one single week in Nov. 1917, observers in St. George's re- corded great numbers of Killdeer Plover, a flock of Canvas- back Ducks, several wild geese, and a small flock of little Egrets in full plumage. Naturalists, however, find certain marshes and mangrove swamps peculiarly fertile hunting grounds for the rarer species ; also the rocky cliffs of the south coast and Castle Harbour. Hungry Bay (PI. Ill — ]7), has proibably the largest record, including among its occasional visitors : Black-and-White Creeper, Minotilta I'aria; Bam Swallow, Hirundo horreorum; Baltimore Oriole, Icterus baltimore; Bee Martin, T'^^rannus xxxviii RIDER'S BERMUDA carolinensis ; Black-billed Cuckoo, Coccysus erytJirophthahnus ; Great White Egret, Ardea egretta; Brown Pelican. Pelicanus fuscns. Other favorite haunts are Pemibroke Marsh and Devon- shire Swamp, the latter especially being a favorite resort of the smaller birds, such as Thrushes, Creepers and Warblers, including : Olive-backed Thrush, Turdtis swainsoni; Brown Creeper, Certliia familiaris; Blue Yellow-backed Warbler, Panda aineriaana; Blue-ej^ed yellow Warbler, Dendroeca aestiva; Yellow-crowned Warbler, Den- droeca coronata; Golden-crowned Thrush, Seiurus aurocapilhts; Cedar Bird, Ampelis cedrorum; Indigo Bird, Cyanospiza cyanea. c. The Corals of Bermuda In the natural history of Bermuda the Corals claim a conspicuous place, not only because of the part they have played in the geology of the Islands, but because 9f the new chapter they afford on the process of natural selection under unique conditions. They constitute the most northerly group of any reef-building species at any time since remote geologic periods ; and probably mark the extreme northern limit at which their kind could thrive under existing climatic condi- tions. "The coral-fauna of the Bermudas must be regarded as a detached colony of the more hardy species which have migrated from, the West Indies through the agency of northward currents, by which their free- swimming larvae have been carried to these Islands. Therefore, the particular species established here have been determined both by the duration of free-larval stages and by their ability to endure the cooler waters of this area."- — -A. E. Verrill. According to data gathered by the Challenger Expedition, there are 25 distinct species of Bermuda corals, of which 22, are Anthfozoan, and 2 are Hydrozoan. The latter, which are species of Millepora, are very abundant, and contribute largely to the reef formation. "While some species, such as the great Brain Coral, appear to prefer to grow where the water is lighted up by the sunshine, other species, such as Millepora rainosa, and IsophyJlia dipsacea, seem to^ thrive best in the shade. One species, Agaricia fragilis,< occurs growing in colonies in great abundance in water from a foot to a fathom in depth, inside small caverns, and form very thin and fragile plate-like laminae, which when bleached are almost the loveliest of corals." — ''Voyage of the Challenger." The following list follows the classification adopted by Professor Verrill: 1. Maeandra lahyrintlnformis, Brain Coral. "The largest and most important of the Bermudian reef corals. It occurs abundantly on the inner reefs of Great Sound and Castle Harbour ... It is still more abundant on the outer reefs, but does not occur in Harrington Sound." 2. Maeandra cerebrum, Brain Coral. Not ^abundant. [Most frequently found on the extreme outer reefs, especially in Ancinity of the North Rocks. PLANTS OF BERMUDA xxxix 3. Favia fragiim. Small Star Coral. Common in shallow water, and on the reefs; also in tide-pools. 4. Orbicclla annularis. Star Coral. Found on outer reefs, but is not common. 5. Orbkella cavernosa, Great Star Coral. Rare in Bermuda, and probably occurs only on the outermost reefs. 6. PJesiastraea godei Verr, Small-eyed Star Coral. Has been found at North Rock, and on Bailey's; Bay reefs. Rare. 7. Madracis decactis Verr, Ten-rayed Star Coral. Outer and inner reefs; also Harrington Sound. It occurs as a fossil in the raised reefs. 8. Oculina zaricosa, Large Ivory Coral or Tree Coral. The largest and finest species of Oculina^ but comparatively rare. All the Oculina or Ivory Corals are fairly common, especially in Harrington Sound, some species growing at considerable depth. Fishermen occasionally hook up living branches from 20-25 fathoms. 9. Oculina diffusa. Bush Coral. The most abundant species of the Ivory corals. 10. Oculina pallens, Tree Coral. Harrington Sound and Bailey's Bay. 11. Oculina valenciennesi. Common in Bermuda, especially in Harrington Sound. 12. Oculina coronalis. 13. Mussa annectans. Rose Coral. Occurs in Hamilton Harbour and on the reefs. 14. Mussa (Isopliyllia) dipsacea,^ Rose Coral. Outer and inner reefs. Very abundant even in Harrington Sound. 15. Mussa multiflora. Outer reefs; serpuline atolls; also Hamilton Harbour, 16. Altissa fragilis. Outer and inner reefs, and on shallow fiats. 17. Agaricia fragilis. Hat Coral) or Shade Coral. The only species of Agaricia found in Bermuda. Very common in shallow water; can often be gathered by hand in Harrington Sound. 18. Siderajtraea radians. Abundant in Bermvida; is more hardy than most reef corals, and can thrivei in shallow water on the mud fiats where most other corals would be smothered. 19. Siderastraea siderea. Found in same localities as radians, but much less common. 20. Porites polymorpha. Abundant both in shallow water and on the reefs. 21. Porites astreoides. Abundant in shallow water and on reefs. Both of these species occur in Harrington Sound. 22. Millepora alcicornis. Finger Coral or Sea Ginger. Abundant both on the reefs and on rocks and ledges near shore. d. The Plants and Trees of Bermuda The origin of vegetable life on isolated islands such as Bermuda is one of the problems that still baffle the botanist. The chief agents in the distribution of plant life are the winds, the ocean currents and migratory birds, which may carry undigested seeds that germinate under favorable condi- tions. But the winds could not carry seed to such a distance as to reach Bermuda, and few seed could retain vitality through such a lengthy ocean drift; and it is plain that the seed of many so-called indigenous plants could not have been transported by birds. Accordingly, some botanists favor the xl RIDER'S BERMUDA theory that the comparatively few really indigenous plants and trees are remnants of vegetable life that have survived from remote geologic periods, when Bermuda may have formed a part of a vastly larger extent of land. The remarkable fertility of Bermuda, and the ease with which a great variety of foreign plants and trees ihave adapted themselves to local conditions, have resulted in transforming the original dull and monotonous vegetation into the vivid and exotic garden of to-day. Just what constituted the actual indigenous plants found by the pioneer settlers must be mainly a matter of guess work, since the early records make scant mention of trees and shrubs, and practically none of the smaller plants. Through analogy with the vegetation of the West India Islands, and the neighboring mainland coast, the following list of indigenous plants is given by Mr. H. B. Small in 'his "Botany of Bermuda": Juniper, Bermuda Cedar (Junip^rus Bermudlensis) Palmetto Palm {Sabal UmhracuU- fera) Mulberry (Mor'us Rubra) Sea Shore Grape (Cocaloba Uvifera) Olive {Olea Eiiropasa) Mangrove {Rhisopora Mangle) Buttercup (RamU'ticuhiis Parviflorus) Stinging Thistle (Argemone Mexi- can a) Stock (Mathiola Incana) Star of the Earth (Senebiera Coro- nopus) Pepper Grass (Lepidium Virgini- cuni) Scurvy Grass {Caxile Oequalis) Marsh Mallow (AltJm Officinalis) Burr Bush {Triumfetta Althceoides) St. Andrew's Cross (Ascyrum Hy- pericoides) Creeping Sore] {Oxalis Violacea) Bay Bean (Dolichas Raseits) Eugenia (Monticola) TButterwood (Conocarpus Prociini- bens) "Wild Passion Flower (Passi Flora Minima) Cactus — Turk's Head (Melocactiis Communis) Prickly Pear {Opuntia Vulgaris) Wild Fennel {Fcemcuhivi Vulgare) Rhacicallis (RacliicalHs Rupestris) Bog Rush_ (K. ^ Monocephala, Veb. k. Cruciformis) Bedstraw {Galium Hypocarpium) Passion Flower (Passiflora Ccerulea) Aster (botanical name undefined of this variety) Fleabane (Erigenon Canadense) Dogbush (Baccharis Heterophylla) Marigold (Borrichia Arbor escens) Scsevola (Plumieri) Centaury (Erythrcea Centaurinm) Night Shade (Solanum Aculeatissv^ mum) Cardinal Flower (Salvia Coccinea) Rosemary (Rosmarinus Officinalis) Pigeon Berry (Duranta Plumieri) Vervain (Stachytarpa Jamaiceusis) Capeweed (Lip'pia Nodiflora) Red Sagebrush (Lantaua Crocea) Common Sagebrush (L. Odorata) Snuff Plant (Buddleja Americana) Bindweed (Polygonum Convolvolus) Seaside Lavender (Suriana Mari- tima) Samphire (Salicornia Ambigua) Spurge (Euphorbia Buxifolia) Bayberry (Myrica Cerifera) Spanish Bayonet (Yucca Aloifolia) Aloe (Aloe Soccotrina) Iris, Bermuda (Sisyrinchinm Ber- mudianum) In addition to the above there are more than three score plants and weeds which are classified as semi-indigenous, hav- ing been introduced from time to time through seeds deposited by birds or accidentally mixed with other seeds in imported PLANTS OF BERMUDA xli packets. The.v range from the Red Poppy (Papaver dnbiiim), Virginia Creeper {Anipelopsis quinquefolia) and Hibiscus {H. mutabilis) to the Nettle (Urtica urens), Chickweed {Stellaria media). Red Clover (Trifolium pratense) and Poison Ivy (Rhus toxicodendron) . Aside, however, from the ubiquitous native juniper or so-called Bermuda cedar, the trees, plants and flowers which present-day visitors regard as typically Ber- mudian, are mainly species that have been deliberately intro- duced, or else are "escapes," i.e., sprung from self-sown seed of cultivated plants in private gardens, and gradually reverting to a wild state. Among the latter may be mentioned the ]\Iorning Glory, Scarlet Geranium, Nasturtium, Evening- Primrose, Passion Flower. Verbena, and several species of lily. Much longer is the list of trees and plants that have been specially introduced, since they include practically all the dis- tinctively tropical growth on the Islands, the palms, cacti and exotic fruit trees, and the brilliantly flowering hedge rows and shade trees arching above the driveways.^ All over the island palm trees of many species are to be seen, including the Royal Palm (Oreodo.va oleracea). Date Palm (Phoenix doctylifera) , Cocoanut Palm (Cocns mncifera), Screw Palm (Pendamus Diiiricatus) and Gru-gru Palm (Astrocarium aureum) ; also the native Palmetto, groves of w'hich are still to he seen, although far less plentiful than in the early days when the leaves were used for building cabins and thatching roofs. Bags or hampers made from this same palmetto leaf were used for shipping onions until about 1870. The fruits suc- cessfully raised in Bermuda include : the Orange, Lemon, Locjuat (introduced from Malta by Sir William Reid about 1850), the Pomegranate, Citron, Shaddock, Peaoh and Fig: also Avocado or Alligator Pear, first introduced at Mount Langton in 1825. Strawberries were first grown in Bermuda in 1872. The Oleander, to-day the most prominent of all Bermuda trees, was introduced about 1790 from Charleston, S. C, and in early years was considered a rare exotic, and called the South Sea Rose ; but now it is universally used for fencing purposes, and as a screen against the ocean wind. The hedges often attain a 'height of from 15 to 20 ft. They bloom throughout the year, but most abundantly during spring and summer. The blossoms are white and many different shades of pink and red. The Pride of India (Melia acedaraeJi), also valued for the beauty of its blossoms, ^was originally brought from Asia. The seeds, either natural or dved, are made into necklaces and other souvenirs. Among the other flowering and orna- xlii RIDER'S BERMUDA mental trees and shrubs should also be noted the Poinsettia, also called Christmas Bush, because it blooms at that season; the Pigeon B'erry, with drooping bunches of purple blossoms and of green and golden berries, the Acacia and the Royal Poinciana, >both of the Mimosa family, the former with blos- soms like a small white feathery ball, the latter with clusters of brilliant red flowers; besides which there are at least four species of Hibiscus, including the Scarlet Hibiscus, with vivid blossoms and dark green foliage, and the so-called "Change- able Rose," whose flowers are white when they first open changing through the day to a gradually deepening pink. Among the vines that grow in wild profusion are the Honeysuckle, the Nasturtium, the Convolvulus or Morning Glory and the wild Jasmine. The latter was introduced by Archdeacon Spen- cer about 1840, and has become so dense a climber, especially in the Walsingham neighborhood, as to make the rocks in many places impassable. Lastly, there are just a few trees which! with no lure of color to ofifer, have nevertheless numbered themselves among the memorable sights of Bermuda. These are : the giant Rubber Trees_. the most noted of which is at Par- la- Ville, Hamilton; the Fiddle Wood, introduced from the West Indies in 1828, the parent tree still flourishing at Payn- ter's Vale ; the Mangrove, seen to best advantage in the dense swamps at Hungry Bay; and the Calabash Tree at Walsing- ham. made famous the world over through the verse of Tom Moore (PI. Ill— P4). V. The System of Government Although since 1687 the Governor has been appointed by the Crown, Bermuda is not in a strict sense a Crown Colony, like the British West Indies, but a miniature replica of the British Government itself. It has an Upper and Lower House: namely the Legislative Council, analogous to the House of Lords, and the Assembly, corresponding to the House of Com- mons. There is also an Executive Council, similar ^n func- tions to the British Cabinet, which advises with the Governor and heilps to outline his policies. The Legislative Council. The Legislative and Executive Councils were for a long period composed of the same mem- bers appointed by the Crown; but by Letters Patent, dated Jan. 19, 1888, the constitution of both Councils has been changed. In its old form the Legislative Council dates back to 161 6, thus being four years older than the Assernbly. which first met Aug. i, 1620. Under the amended constitution, the Legislative Council now consists of nine members appointed by (SYSTEM OF GOVERNiMENT xtiii the Crown, and comprising: the Chief Justice, who is still, as formerly. President of the Council; the Colonial Secretary; the Receiver General ; and six others. The Governor does not sit with the Legislative Council ; but after opening the session of Parliament, he withdraws from all legislative deliberation. The House of Assembly. This Lov\rer House, 'constituting the oldest representative institution in any British Colony, is elected every seven years, and consists of 36 members, four from each Parish. Messages pass between the Governor and the Assembly, and all the routine of Parliamentary practice is closely adhered to. The Assembly has always contended for popular rights, and has steadily asserted its full privileges. "One fact, which stands ont prominently, in the history of these Islands, is the sturdy spirit of independence of the people as repre- sented bi'^ the House of Assembly. Even in th_-ir darkest hours, they never surrendered what they considered their rights, nor yielded to injustice. To-day that same spirit prevails. Times have changed, manners and customs have changed and although happily today the relations between the Representative of the King and the Local Legis- lature are generally of the happiest, yet occasionally comes to the surface that spirit which seems to say: 'The laws of the Medes, Per- sians and Bermudians shall not be altered.' " — Governor Willcocks, Ter- centenary Speech. Qualifications for Members and Electors. The qualification for a member of the Assembly is the possession of freehold property rated at £240. Under this rating there are only a little over 600 persons qualified as candidates, of whom less than 20 per cent are colored. The Electors must be twenty-one years of age or upwards, possessing freehold property rated at not less than £60. A husband is entitled to be registered in respect of his wife's real estate. There are approximately 1300 qualified voters in Bermuda, of whom only a third are colored. Of the separate Parishes Pembroke has the largest share — nearly 400; and Smith's the smallest — between 50 and 60. The proportion of representatives is exceptionally large; there being actually one member for about every 36 electors, or one for every 600 of the entire population. "We must realize, in calling that of Bermuda a popular Govern- ment, that it is a Government of latided holders and not of manhood electors; that this fact has had a marked effect upon certain conditions that now exist in the Island; and that it is retained is one of the strongest indications of the deeply conservative^ character of the Bermud community. . . . The result of these restrictions on the franchise and character of the representatives is that there are now in the Legislative Assembly but two colored men." — IViUiam Howard Taft. The House sits generally three days a week, from Sept. until May, with an adjournment while the Supreme Court is in session. Local laws are passed by the two Houses, and submitted to the Governor for signature ; but in Bermuda much X41V RIDER'S BERMUDA extra parliamentary labcr results from the practice of quali- fying most of the Acts by a duration clause. The Executive Council. LJnuer the revised constitution, the Executive Council is now composed of six members, ap- pointed by tne Imperial Government for life, and with the Governor as President, sits as a privy council for executive duties. Its memoers include: the Senior Military Officer, the Attorney General, the Colonial Secretar}^, the Receiver Gen- eral, and two unofficial members, who by established practice were appointed from members of the upper or lower House, until 1921, when the first outside appointment was made. The Judiciary. Civil and criminal law are administered by a Chief Justice appointed by the Crown, and the two as- sistant Justices appointed by the Governor. These three con- stitute the Judges of the Supreme Court, at Hamilton, which holds a Criminal Session and a Civil Session twice yearly, known respectively as the regular Criminal or Civil Session for Easter Term, and Michaelmas Term. The Criminal Sessions commence on the 3rd Monday in May and Oct., continuing until the business of the Court has been disposed of. The Civil Sessions commence on the 26. Monday after close of the Criminal Sessions. The Suprem.e Court has in recent years been given a Chancery jurisdiction. The three Supreme Judges also sit as Judges of the Court of Bank- ruptcy; whilp the Chief Justice is also Judge of the Court of Admiralty. Justices of the Peace. The members of the Legislative Council, the Speaker of the House of Assembly, and the Mayors of Hamilton and St. George's are ex-officio Justices of the Peace. Other Justices are appointed by the Commis- sion of the Peace : three each for St. George's, Pembroke, Paget and Hamilton Parishes, and one each for the other Parishes, Justices of the Peace have jurisdiction over certain minor civil cases ; and appeal may be taken to the Court of Genc-al Assize. The following are the principal Departments of the Civil Government : Revenue Department. This Department is under the control of the Receiver General, who is appointed by the Imperial Government, and conducts the duties connected with the public revenue. He is also the Controller of Customs and Navigation Laws. The total revenue of the Colony amounts to approximately £60,000 annuall}-, and is derived mainly from specific duties imposed on spirits, beer, wine and tobacco, and from an ad valorum. duty of 10 per cent on other imports. The SYSTEM OF GOVER'MMENT xlv incidence of revenue amonnts to about £2 annually on each inhabitant. There are no excise or export duties. Department of Public Health. The General Board of Health, appointed under the Act oE 1894, consists of the Colonial Secretary (Chairman), the Mayors of Hamilton and St. George's, the Senior Medical Officer of the Royal Army Aledical Corps, the Fleet Surgeon and two others. In addition to its other duties this Board has jurisdiction over the Quar- antine Health Officers and Quarantine Station at Nonsuch Island. Water Supply. Since there is no public water system in Bermuda, there is no separate Department of Water-works, the water supplies being under the supervision of the Health Department. Owing to the porosity of the coral rock under- l}ing the whole of Bermuda, there is no fresh water in the Islands, the sea water finding its level throughout the Islands, and even rising slightly above this level through capillary attraction. In earlier times the colony was forced to depend partly upon wells, both for household needs and for watering aattle and supplying water to ships. Such wells were sunk only to high-water level; and since the surface rain water, which collected in them, lay on the surface of the heavier salt water, mixing only slightly with it, it was fairly drinkable. It tended, however, to become more and more brackish in times of drought, sometimes produced fever and digestive troubles, both in man and cattle; and, while many of the old wells still exist, their use has been largely discontinued. In recent years a number ai artesian wells have been bored in Hamilton and vicinity, and make an important addition to the water supply, since they furnish water of good quality. But under the new sanitary regulations no well water can be used for drinking, cooking or manufacturing soda or mineral wateers, unless duly certified to by the Medical Officer of Health. The main water supply throughout Bermuda is obtained by the storage of rain in tanks. The roofs of the houses, like the walls, are built of the soft native stone, easily cut by hand- saws into slabs almost as thin as slate. These roofs are periodically whitewashed, usually twice a year, to correct the porosity, and keep the surface white and clean. Every dwelling is now required by law to be provided with one or more tanks for the storage of the rain water; and these tanks must also be thoroughly cleaned once a year or oftener. In several parts of the Island wide expanses of ground-level surfaces have been cleared, leaving a gentle slope of bare, whitewashed surface of limestone, for the purpose of collecting the rainfall on a large scale. The water thus stored, if occasionally stirred and aerated to prevent stagnation, remains pure and sweet for a long time. Visitors renting a house for the season are advised to satisfy themselves that the water tanks have been recently cleaned, and that xlvi RIDER'S BERMUDA they are properly covered. In 1920, wlien the Furuess S. S. Company employed an expert to visit Bermuda tO' study local sanitation and the prevalence of flies, m;osquitoes and other insect pests, the report disclosed that whereas in Hamilton and vicinity the tanks were in fairly good order, elsewhere on the Islands a large proportion of these tanks had defective covers. Department of Public Works. The Board of Public Works, apipointed under the Act of 1898, includes : the Colonial Secretary and nine others, one Lor each Parish. The office of the Colonial Surve3-or also comes within the jurisdiction of this Department. Registrar General's Department. In addition to the Registrar General this Department comprises six District Registrars, one each for Pembroke, St. George's and Sandys, while the remaining Parishes are paired as follows : Warwick and Southampton, Paget and Devonshire, Smith's and Hamilton. Board of Agriculture. This Board, appointed under the Act of 1875, comprises, the Governor (Chairman) and 12 others. In addition to its other Functions, this Board has entire supervision and management of the Public Gardens, established under the Act of 1896; and since 1899 the reports of the Superintendent of Public Gardens on the agricultural experi- ments conducted there, form an important part of the annual reports by the Board. Board of Education. This Board is appointed b}^ the Governor under the Schools Act of 1907, and consists of the Chief Justice (Chairman), and nine other members, one for each Parish. The Board furnishes an annual report for the information of the Legislature, containing a large amount of practical matter as to the working out of the local scheme of popular education. Within the first 21 days of Jan. and .Titly parents must make returns for the previous half year of how the children have been provided for in the matter of education. School age means over 7 and under 13 years of age. The school rate is 10/ for every child, and is payable on June 30 and Dec. 30. The Bible is a daily dlass book in every school: but no child can be excluded from school on account of his religious denomination. VI. Bermudian Industry and Agriculture Owing to its lack of natural resources the foreign com- merce of Bermuda has throughout the greater part of her history been heavily handicapped. N-^vcrtheless, she was for a long period extensively engaged in West India trade (not- ably in salt from Turks Island), and carried on large trans- actions with the British provinces and the United States in vessels built of native cedar. In early colonial days, when BERMUDIAN INDUSTRY xlvii sperm whales were plentiful in Bermudian waters, the ex- traction of sperm oil was for a time a profitable industry. Promising experiments were at one time made in raising sugar-cane, but were abandoned because the process of refin- ing the sugar threatened the scanty supply of fire-wood. Later trading ventures were undertaken for participation in cod- fishing off the Newfoundland banks, but these proved un- profitable. Prior to the advent of Governor Reid (1839-46), the possibilities of agriculture as a factor in export trade had 'been neglected. It was he who first drew attention to the potential value of Bermuda's geographic position as a winter market-garden for the United States, and encouraged the planting of vegetables for northern markets during the months when such staples as potatoes, onions and tomatoes could not be raised in those latitudes. The prompt results achieved by Governor IReid's introduction of modern implements and modern methods, were so satisfactory that Bermuda's agri- cultural produce rapidly grew to large dimensions. A detailed report of exports of the staple productions of Bermuda, cov- ering 39 years, shows that in 1871 the total value of the annual crop had risen to £46,906; in 1882 to £106,137 ; and in 1890 touched a maximum of £120,374; since then it has ^fluctuated (between £60,000 and £90,000. Throughout this period onions have remained the leading staple, the maximum value reached in any one year being £84,548 (1897), and the lowest £20,275 (1875). Potatoes are second, with a maximum value of £36,560 (1882), almost equalled in 1909 by £35436; and a maximum of £10,958 (1871), tomatoes stood third down to the early 90's, with a maximum in 1871 of £13,718, declining steadily to £6600 in 1881, and to £814 in 1891, after which date this staple became negligible, dwindling to an export of only 19 boxes in 1904, valued at £3. Arrowroot, one of the oldest established Bermuda industries, fluctuates, roughly speaking, between £1500 and £2500 in good years, and between £300 to £1000 in bad years. The lily