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W A S II I N G T N. 
 
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THE 
 
 PKESIDENTS 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES: 
 
 FROM 
 
 WASHINGTON TO FILLMORE. 
 
 COMPRISING , ':]irri\>^ 
 
 THEIR PERSONAL AND POLITICAL HISTORYl'TO^V^' 
 
 BY JOHN FROST, L.L. D. 
 
 BOSTON: 
 
 PHILLIPS, SAMPSONAND COMPANY. 
 
 1852, 
 
• \ 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1852, 
 
 BY PHILLIPS & SAMPSON, 
 
 in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for 
 the District of Massachusetts. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 There can be no more interesting subjects for study than 
 the lives of those "who have been chosen by the free suf- 
 frage of a great nation to administer the government. From 
 their career, we may discover what qualities and what 
 practices most certainly lead to honor and renown, and 
 gain a knowledge of the character and progress of the 
 people, by seeing who have been their favorites. These 
 things are for the world to acquire. Americans may find 
 many other matters to interest them in these biographies. 
 The lover of his country and her institutions has a deep 
 concern in becoming acquainted with every portion of their 
 history, which cannot be attained, without studying the 
 lives of those men who founded, improved, defended, and 
 sustained the government. 
 
 The Presidents of the United States form a bright 
 galaxy, of which few countries can produce a parallel. 
 Warriors and statesmen, equal to every emergency, have 
 
 1* (5) 
 
6 FREFACE. 
 
 been raised to the great chair of state with that unerring 
 sagacity which is characteristic of a free and enlightened 
 nation. The good and wise Washington — the bold and 
 patriotic John Adams — the democratic Jefferson — the 
 learned Madison — the laborious Monroe — the eloquent 
 John Quincy Adams — the determined Jackson — the politic 
 Van Buren — the earnest Harrison — the able Tyler — the 
 industrious Polk — the duty-loving Taylor — and the honest 
 Fillmore, are characters fitted to adorn the history of the 
 great American republic, and to attract the study of future 
 generations. 
 
 We have not thought a full history of the various admi- 
 nistrations within the scope of our work. Our object has 
 been to give a clear view of the whole career of each Presi- 
 dent. The discussion of measures does not form a part of 
 genuine biography, and can only serve to render a book 
 like the present obnoxious to many readers. 
 
 Since the time of Jackson, we believe, it has become a 
 custom, to publish full biographies of all candidates for the 
 Presidency as soon as they are nominated. Of course, 
 these "lives and services," are subjected to the severest 
 criticism of antagonistic politicians, and the truth is thus 
 elicited. In this country, good men have nothing to 
 fear from discussion. Slanders will be set afoot, but when 
 
PREFACE. 7 
 
 disproved, they will die. It is a fact — perhaps, a lamentable 
 fact — that no man can stand as a candidate for the Presi- 
 dency, without being exposed to the worst shafts of party 
 malignity. His best acts will be misrepresented — and those 
 which, though unwise, were only the consequences of mis- 
 taken judgment, be distorted, so as to appear the fruits of 
 a wicked heart. But Justice has a brow like the sky ; the 
 clouds will be swept away, and she will smile upon the pure 
 and true. In ancient Rome, men followed the hero in his 
 triumph with revilings, to check his pride. In our country, 
 men assail the character of candidates for high office to find 
 the true gold of honesty and capacity. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 George Washington, . . . . . .13 
 
 John Adams, 57 
 
 Thomas Jefferson, 77 
 
 James Madison, 101 
 
 James Monroe, 145 
 
 John Quincy Adams, 163 
 
 Andrew Jackson, - . . . . .215 
 
 Martin Van Buren, .... . 289 
 
 "William Henry Harrison, . ... 307 
 
 John Tyler, .... ... 345 
 
 James Knox Polk, 367 
 
 Zachary Taylor, 403 
 
 Millard Fillmore, 439 
 
 (9) 
 
LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 In entering on the delineation of the life and character 
 of the immortal Washington, we feel as if we were rising 
 above the common plain of humanity. He stands upon an 
 eminence, wrapped in purity, serenity, and sublimity — a 
 man, yet above the rest of mankind. Whether we contem- 
 plate him as a boy, forming rules for the guidance of his 
 conduct, and employed in the difficult service of surveying 
 the savage wilderness — as a provincial colonel, saving his 
 troops from the consequences of a British general's foliy — 
 as commander-in-chief of the army of independence, snatch- 
 ing his country from the dark pit of despair, defeating dis- 
 ciplined forces a with ftandful of half-starved troops, un- 
 daunted by the saddest reverses, striking the enemy when 
 they deemed him crushed — retaining the confidence of the 
 mass in spite of cabals, intrigues, and calumny — as presi- 
 dent, when he might have been king, carrying into success- 
 ful experiment a new and glorious system of government — 
 and nobler still, as a true patriot and republican, retiring 
 
 2 (13) 
 
14 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 to the shades of private life, -when the staff of power might 
 have remained in his hands until his death — he excites in 
 an equal degree, our wonder and admiration. 
 
 George Washington was descended from an old English 
 family, the name of Washington being traceable as far back 
 as the thirteenth century. Most of the members belonged to 
 the better class of agriculturalists. About 1657, two brothers, 
 John and Lawrence Washington, emigrated to Virginia, 
 and settled at Bridge's creek, on the Potomac river, in the 
 county of Westmoreland. The brothers bought lands and 
 became successful planters. Not long after, John Washington 
 was employed in a military command against the Indians ; 
 and he rose to the rank of colonel. He married Anne Pope, 
 by whom he had two sons, Lawrence and John, and a 
 daughter. The elder son, Lawrence, married Mildred 
 Warner, of Gloucester county, by whom he had three children, 
 John, Augustine, and Mildred. Augustine, the second son, 
 was twice married. By his first wife he had four children, 
 of whom two died in infancy. By his second wife, Mary 
 Ball, he had six children, George, Betty, Samuel, John Au- 
 gustine, Charles, and Mildred.* George Washington, the 
 illustrious father of his country, was born on the 22d of 
 February, 1732. 
 
 Each of the sons of Augustine Washington inherited from 
 him a separate plantation. To the eldest, Lawrence, he 
 bequeathed an estate near Hunting Park, afterwards called 
 Mount Vernon. The second son had for his part an estate 
 in Westmoreland. To George were left the lands and man- 
 sion in Stafford county, on the Rappahannock river, where 
 his father had died. All the children were left in a condi- 
 tion of independence. Mrs. Washington, a woman of strong 
 
 * Sparks. 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 15 
 
 sense, prudence, and industry, had control of all the estates 
 until their owners came of age. She performed the difficult 
 task allotted to her, with entire success — and the world 
 should give her the same tribute of respect and veneration 
 which has been awarded to the mothers of all truly great 
 men. 
 
 The province of Virginia offered but scanty means of 
 education. Enough knowledge for a practical business life 
 was the most that could be obtained. Reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, and the mathematics, were alone within the 
 reach of Washington. It is said that he was a diligent 
 student ; but that his passion for active sports and military 
 exercises v^as displayed at a very early age. He delighted 
 in running, jumping, wrestling, tossing bars, and other feats 
 of strength and agility. Another tradition is preserved 
 which is quite as probable, and is important, as illustrating 
 the growth of two of his greatest qualities. It is said that 
 while at school his reputation for truth and judgment was 
 80 well established, that his fellow pupils were accustomed 
 to make him the arbiter of their disputes, and never failed 
 to be satisfied with his decision. 
 
 Besides performing what was required of him in the 
 usual routine of study, the young Washington compiled a 
 system of maxims and regulations, and arranged them under 
 the head of Rules for Behaviour in Company and Conver- 
 sation. His temper was ardent and. his passions powerful. 
 The great object of his little code was to teach himself per- 
 fect self-control, which, according to the passionate Burns, 
 is "wisdom's root." In the conquest of himself, Washing- 
 ton perfectly succeeded, and throughout his career he 
 retained the command of his propensities. 
 
 George left school in the autumn preceding his sixte^th 
 
16 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 birth-day. The last two years had been devoted to the 
 study of geometry, trigonometry, and surveying. During 
 the last summer he was at school, he surveyed the fields and 
 plantations around the school-house, and, with great skill 
 and precision, entered the measurements and calculations 
 in his books. He seems to have possessed a natural bent 
 for the exact sciences. 
 
 While George was at school, his eldest brother, Law- 
 rence, seeing his military inclination, procured a midship- 
 man's warrant for him. George prepared with a buoyant 
 spirit, to enter the British navy ; but the earnest persuasion 
 of his mother induced him to abandon the project and con- 
 tinue at school. How much depended upon his decision in 
 this matter ! He went to reside with his brother Lawrence, 
 at Mount Vernon. There he became acquainted Avith the 
 Fairfax family, from whom he obtained his first regular 
 employment as a surveyor. 
 
 The eccentric Lord Fairfax had purchased immense tracts 
 of wild lands in the rich valley of the Alleghany mountains. 
 These were to be measured and divided into lots. The ser- 
 vice was difficult and dangerous. The country swarmed 
 with Indians, with whom peace was always a disagreeable 
 truce, and the hardships of a wilderness were to be endured. 
 Washington, accompanied by George Fairfax, surmounted all 
 obstacles, and performed the service required with skill and 
 accuracy. His reputation as a surveyor was established. 
 The knowledge of the wilderness and its inhabitants which 
 he acquired was of great use to him in subsequent surveying 
 and military expeditions. Receiving a commission as 
 public surveyor, he was engaged almost uninterruptedly 
 in the business of that office, during the following three 
 years. 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 17 
 
 At the age of nineteen he entered upon the military ser- 
 vice. The frontiers were then threatened by the French 
 and Indians, and as a precautionary measure it was resolved 
 to put the militia in a condition for defence. The province 
 was divided into districts, in each of which was placed an 
 adjutant-general, with the rank of major, whose duty it was 
 to muster, and maintain discipline among the militia. Wash- 
 ington received charge of one of these districts. He now 
 studied tactics, and entered upon this congenial service with 
 zeal and alacrity. But the ill-health of his brother Law- 
 rence, called him away to Barbadoes, and it was four months 
 before he returned to Virginia. Lawrence died in Bermuda, 
 of consumption. George was left executor, and his time 
 and thoughts were occupied for several months with the 
 complicated business devolving to his hands. Yet the du- 
 ties of his office were not neglected. Governor Dinwiddle 
 now divided Virginia into four grand military departments, 
 and Washington, much to his gratification, received the 
 command in the northern department. This was a post of 
 great responsibility, and the fact that it was conferred upon 
 so young a man proves that the governor had confidence in 
 his talents and energy. (1752.) 
 
 But new scenes of service more important in the eyes of 
 his countrymen were about to open before Washington. 
 Governor Dinwiddle received information that the French 
 had left Canada, in force, and were about to erect forts on the 
 Ohio, while the Indians were assuming a hostile front. He im- 
 mediately resolved to send a commissioner to confer with the 
 commander of the French forces, to inquire by "./hat right he 
 presumed to invade the dominions of the King of England, 
 and what were his designs. Major Washington was thought 
 to be best qualified for this delicate and dangerous commis- 
 
 2* 
 
18 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 sion, and upon him the governor fixed. The major -was then 
 twenty-one years old. 
 
 Having received written instructions, with credentials 
 and a passport, Washington departed from Williamsburg on 
 the 31st of October, 1753. He was accompanied by Indian 
 and French interpreters. At Will's creek he found Mr. 
 Gist, a person long accustomed to the wilderness, who was 
 persuaded] to join the party as a guide. Four other men 
 were added as attendants. The party then penetrated into 
 the forests, and soon left the civilized region far behind. 
 The severity of the season, the Alleghanies covered with 
 snow, and the valleys flooded by the swelling waters, were 
 obstacles only to be surmounted slowly and with great 
 exertion. 
 
 At length, the company reached the Forks of the Ohio, 
 where the Alleghany and Monongahela rivers unite. Wash- 
 ington perceived the military advantages of this place, and 
 it was by his advice that a fortification was afterwards be- 
 gun there. About twenty miles below the Fork, he held a 
 conference with Half-king and other Delaware chiefs, ex- 
 plained the objects of the mission, and communicated the 
 wishes of the governor. After some delay, four Indians 
 were procured as an escort, and the party set forward for 
 the station of the French commandant. At Venango, the 
 French Captain Joncaire, used various stratagems to detain 
 the Indians. But Washington outwitted him. At the fort 
 on French creek, fifteen miles south of Lake Erie, St. Pierre, 
 the superior officer was found. Washington performed his 
 mission. The answer of St. Pierre was uncomplying and 
 determined. He had been ordered to take post on the Ohio, 
 and he intended to do his duty. With an answer to this 
 eflfect, Washington, after ascertaining the strength of the post, 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 19 
 
 set out upon his return. The hardships and dangers of this 
 journey homeward were much greater and more trying than 
 than those of the outward expedition. The fortitude of 
 "Washington was severely tested. During part of the travel 
 upon land, through the snow, he was accompanied by Mr. 
 Gist, alone. On several occasions, their lives were en- 
 dangered by exposure and fatigue. They arrived at Wil- 
 liamsburg on the 26th of January, having been absent eleven 
 weeks.* 
 
 Governor Dinwiddle now resolved to repel French en- 
 croachments, by force, if necessary. Two hundred men 
 Avere collected and placed under the command of the gallant 
 young Washington, who was ordered to proceed to the Fork 
 of the Ohio and there erect a fort. When the military 
 force was reorganized for the exigencies of the moment, 
 Colonel Fry was appointed commander-in-chief, and Wash- 
 ington was second in command, with the rank of lieutenant- 
 colonel. Captain Trent was sent forward with one company, 
 to commence the fort at the Fork ; but Contracoeur, with a 
 large force of French and Indians, came down the Alle- 
 ghany and compelled the working party to capitulate. The 
 French then completed the fortification and called it Fort 
 Duquesne. 
 
 As soon as news of this disaster reached Washington at 
 Alexandria, he sent expresses to the different governors 
 calling for reinforcements, and then set forward boldly, with 
 the intention of erecting a fort on the Monongahela, at the 
 mouth of Redstone creek. But he soon received information 
 that the French were advancing against him with superior 
 numbers, and he therefore hastened to a place " called the 
 Great Meadows, and threw up some defences. Mr. Gist 
 
 * Sparks. 
 
20 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 brought intelligence that a small party of French were within 
 five miles of the Great Meadows, and Washington resolved to 
 attempt their capture. He put himself at the head of forty 
 men, marched all night to reach an Indian village, and then 
 concerted measures with the Delaware chief, Tanacharison. 
 The French were surprised, Jumonville, the commander, 
 and ten of his men, killed, and twenty-two made prisoners. 
 Washington then returned to Great Meadows, (March 28th, 
 1754.) 
 
 Colonel Fry died, while on his way to join the little army. 
 Colonel Innes was appointed to succeed him, while Washing- 
 ton received command of all the Virginia troops who were 
 called to the field. Forseeing that the French would 
 attempt to revenge the capture of Jumonville's party, Wash- 
 ington erected palisades at the encampment in the Great 
 Meadows, and called the rude works Fort Necessity. 
 
 His force numbered four hundred men. The friendly 
 Delawares acted as spies and scouts. But now some diffi- 
 culty occurred between Captain Mackay, who held a royal 
 commission, and the Virginia Colonel. Mackay maintained 
 his independent command. To put an end to the battle, 
 Washington left the captain and his company at the fort, 
 and marched over a rough and most arduous road to G'ist's 
 plantation. The news arrived that the French were ad- 
 vancing in great force. Mackay came to the aid of Wash- 
 ington, but a council decided that a retreat was necessary. 
 The whole body fell back to the Great Meadows, where 
 Washington determined to make a stand. The men were 
 diligently employed in strengthening the defences with all 
 the means at command. 
 
 On the morning of the 3d of July, the French approached 
 within six hundred yards of the fort, and began an inffectual 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 21 
 
 fire, which was given and returned until eight o'clock in the 
 evening, when a parley was demanded by De Villers, the 
 French commander. The result was the capitulation of the 
 garrison on honorable terms ; they being allowed to return 
 unmolested to the English settlements, and to retain their 
 arms and baggage. Washington agreed to restore the pri- 
 soners of Jumonville's party, and not to build any more 
 establishments beyond the mountains for the space of a year. 
 The Indians, notwithstanding the terms of the capitulation, 
 attacked the English soon after they commenced their re- 
 treat. They were kept at bay, though they succeeded in 
 pilfering the baggage. The exact number of men engaged 
 in the action cannot be ascertained; but the French were 
 twice as numerous, at least, as the English. Washington's 
 loss was twelve killed, and forty-three wounded. The con- 
 duct of the commander and his troops was highly approved 
 by the governor, the council, and the public. 
 
 In spite of Washington's agreement not to erect another 
 establishment beyond the mountains, Governor Dinwiddle 
 resolved that another fort should be built, and that an ex- 
 pedition should be set On foot against Fort Duquesne. Wash- 
 ington remonstrated, and showed that both troops and sup- 
 plies were wanting, and that the season would place almost 
 insurmountable difficulties in the way of such enterprize. 
 The assembly refused to grant the necessary funds, until 
 the year was too far advanced to attempt hostile operations. 
 A new organization of the army was now made, by which 
 Washington was reduced to the rank of captain, and many 
 who had been his subordinates, placed above him. This 
 his high spirit could not bear ; he resigned his commission 
 and retired from the army. 
 
 In March, 1755, General Braddock, with two regiments 
 
22 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 of regular troops, from Great Britain, landed in Virginia. 
 It was expected that the campaign would be decisive. One 
 of the general's first acts was to invite Colonel Washington 
 to act as his aid, retaining his former rank. The troops 
 were concentrated at Will's creek. There Braddock was 
 thrown into paroxysms of ill humor by the delays of the 
 province of Pennsylvania in furnishing him with the means 
 of transportation. The zeal and activity of Dr. Franklin 
 at length remedied the want. The forces were set in mo- 
 tion. But the difficulties of the road were great, and their 
 progress was slow. Washington advised the general to 
 divide his army and hurry forward with one division against 
 Fort Duquesne, before the garrison could be reinforced. 
 This advice was adopted ; but Braddock refused the services 
 of the scouts and spies, whom the colonel, accustomed to 
 wilderness warfare, recommended. 
 
 General Braddock led the advanced division of twelve 
 hundred men, lightly equipped. Colonel Dunbar, with six 
 hundred men remained in the rear. Sickness detained 
 Washington nearly two weeks. But he at length recovered, 
 and, pushing forward, he overtook the general, fifteen miles 
 from Fort Duquesne, the evening before the battle of Mo- 
 nongahela.* It is not within the scope of this biography to 
 give a detailed account of this memorable disaster of the 
 9th of July, 1755. Upon crossing the Monongahela, about 
 ten miles from Fort Duquesne, Braddock fell into an ambus- 
 cade of about nine hundred French and Indians, commanded 
 by Captain Beaujeu and Dumas. Instead of adopting tactics 
 suited to Indian warfare, the general compelled his troops 
 to remain together : and they were shot down by hundreds. 
 At length, Braddock fell, mortally wounded, it is said by 
 
 * Sparks. 
 
aEORGE WASHINGTON. 23 
 
 one of his own men, who believed the safety of the remainder 
 of the army would be secured by the death of the obstinate 
 commander.* Washington was the only officer who remained 
 unhurt, and even he had two horses shot under him, and 
 received four bullets in his coat. With great coolness and 
 prudence, he rallied the Virginians, and protected the retreat 
 of the terror-stricken regulars. The enemy pursued but a 
 short distance and then retreated to collect the spoils. The 
 killed and wounded on the side of the English amounted to 
 seven hundred and seventy-seven men, of whom sixty-three 
 were officers. The loss of the enemy was trifling. Brad- 
 dock died upon the fourth day after the defeat, and was 
 buried in the road. Up to that time, Washington and Dun- 
 bar had preserved some degree of order in the army ; but 
 then, the troops were seized with a panic, and discipline was 
 set at defiance until the straggling companies reached Fort 
 Cumberland. Here Washington remained a few days to 
 regain some strength, and then, being no longer connected 
 with the service, he retired to Mount Vernon. While 
 the country staggered under a dreadful blow, and censure 
 was heaped upon Braddock, the fame of the Virginia colonel 
 was rendered brighter. From all sides came praises of his 
 intrepidity, foresight, and prudence. The Rev. Samuel 
 Davies only echoed the general voice, when he expressed the 
 opinion that Washington was reserved for some great and 
 patriotic service. 
 
 The colonel was not allowed to rest. When the army 
 was newly organized, he was appointed commander-in-chief. 
 This responsible office he accepted upon the conditions that 
 he should have a voice in choosing his own officers, and that 
 there should be a thorough reform in the military regula- 
 * Perkins — Annals of the West. 
 
24 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 tions. His energy and circumspection were now more vi- 
 gorously exercised. Every thing within the scope of his 
 command, he took care to be perfectly acquainted with. 
 His head-quarters were at Winchester. Suddenly, the In- 
 dians commenced their depredations upon the frontier. 
 Washington ordered out a strong force, but such was the 
 insubordination of officers and men, and the defective cha- 
 racter of the militia organization, that but little could be 
 effected for the relief of the frontier. The situation of 
 Washington was trying to his sensibilities. The inhabitants 
 were crying for aid, and it was not in his power to give it. 
 He exerted himself to obtain a system of discipline for his 
 forces, and at length, had the gratification of seeing a bill 
 passed by the assembly, which gave him authority to punish 
 mutiny and disobedience. It was too late in the season for 
 a campaign. Washington busied himself in strengthening 
 the frontier posts and collecting supplies, and soon had a 
 much more efficient force at command than ever before. 
 
 A difficulty occurring with Captain Dagworthy, who held 
 a royal commission and refused obedience to any provincial 
 officer, compelled the commander to appeal to General Shir- 
 ley, general-in-chief of all the English forces in America. 
 In February, 1756, he started for Boston, and travelled the 
 whole distance, five hundred miles, on horseback. General 
 Shirley received Washington politely, and accorded him 
 his full demands. Dagworthy was ordered to act under the 
 Virginia colonel, who now returned to mature a plan for the 
 campaign. 
 
 All ideas of offensive movements were vain. The means 
 of transportation and even the artillery were wanting. The 
 protection of the frontier was the most that seemed feasible. 
 The assembly determined to increase the army to fifteen 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 25 
 
 hundred men. But while the business of recruiting was 
 going on, the tomahawk and scalping-knife were drenched 
 with blood. Washington was unable to relieve the distresses 
 of the people. Yet he was accused of negligence and want 
 of military talent. Somewhat irritated, he intimated that 
 he wished to retire from his responsible station, But the 
 soothing letter of influential friends, and the general ap- 
 proval of the people, induced him to abandon the idea. The 
 duties of the campaign were arduous, though opportunities 
 of acquiring glory were presented. The incursions of the 
 savages were unceasing and terrible. During the summer 
 and autumn, many skirmishes occurred. Old forts were 
 repaired and new ones built. Washington made the tour 
 of the whole frontier, for the purpose of inspecting and sup- 
 plying the garrison, and was consequently exposed to the 
 attacks of the Indians. Constant trouble, concerning the 
 reinforcements and supplies, which were delayed, rendered 
 the commander^s station any thing but agreeable. Few 
 military men could have had the patience to bear the vexa- 
 tions endured by Washington. On several occasions, he 
 recommended offensive expeditions, which promised success, 
 but was never permitted to gratify his noble ambition, in 
 the prosecution of them. In the latter part of 1757, fatigue 
 and exposure had so undermined his strength, that his phy- 
 sician advised him to retire from the army. He went to 
 Mount Vernon, where he fell ill of a fever, and was reduced 
 very low. It was four months before he was able to resume 
 his command. (March 1st, 1758.) 
 
 The accession of the energetic William Pitt to the head 
 of the administration in England led to a more vigorous 
 prosecution of the war in America. It was determined to 
 set on foot an expedition against Fort Duquesne, and Ge- 
 
 3 
 
26 LIVES OF THE PKESIDENTS. 
 
 neral Forbes was appointed to take the command. The 
 colonies furnished the supplies with alacrity, and harmony 
 was again secured between the British and the provincial 
 officers by placing them upon the same footing. Two regi- 
 ments were raised in Virginia, "Washington still holding the 
 chief command. Colonel Byrd was to head the second regi- 
 ment. General Forbes was detained at Philadelphia and 
 Colonel Bouquet was ordered to take post in the central 
 parts of Pennsylvania, where the provincials were to join 
 him. Washington was very active in enlisting men and 
 collecting supplies. In July, he led the Virginia regiments 
 to Fort Cumberland. He was eager to advance against 
 Fort Duquesne at an early day and by Braddock's route. 
 But General Forbes resolved, in spite of Washington's for- 
 cible arguments, to cut a new road. It was November, there- 
 fore, before the main body of the army reached Loyal Hanna. 
 Washington requested and received the command of the ad- 
 vanced division of one thousand men, upon whom the chief 
 labor and duty devolved. No material event, besides the 
 defeat of Major Grant's reconnoitering party occurred, until 
 the 25th of November, when General Forbes took possession 
 of the ruins of Fort Duquesne, the French having aban- 
 doned and set fire to it, the day before, and gone down the 
 river in boats. The fort was repaired, and named Fort Pitt. 
 A portion of the Virginians were left for a garrison, and 
 the rest of the party returned. 
 
 Washington now determined to retire from the army. 
 There was no prospect of his rising much higher in the mi- 
 litary line, and the province was in a great measure relieved 
 from Indian depredations. In December, he resigned his 
 commission. On this occasion, the officers who had served 
 under him sent him an address, expressive of their high es- 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 27 
 
 timation of liirn as a commander, and as a man — a testimo- 
 nial most gratifying to his feelings. Throughout his ser- 
 vice of five years, he had displayed integrity, energy, and 
 judgment, and this was now generally acknowledged. The 
 events of this period of service were of a nature to give 
 Washington confidence in his own resources, and he certainly 
 acquired a fund of experience, which was of the greatest use 
 to him in his subsequent high positions. 
 
 The susceptibility of Washington in matters of afi'ection 
 for the female sex had been evinced on several occasions. 
 He is said to have had a "flame," whom he designated as 
 a "Lowland beauty," when he was only seventeen. In the 
 course of the year 1758, he paid his addresses to Mrs. Martha 
 Custis, widow of John Parke Custis, and distinguished alike 
 for beauty, accomplishments, and wealth. He was married 
 to this lady on the 6th of January, 1759. The union was 
 destined to be long and felicituous. To the son and daughter 
 of ]\Irs. Washington, the new husband acted the part of a 
 faithful and afi'ectionate father. The vast additions made 
 to his estates furnished new employment for Washington's 
 active mind ; and then he was elected, without efibrt or 
 solicitation on his part, to represent Frederick county in the 
 Virginia House of Burgesses — so that the public was not 
 long without his services. 
 
 Upon his first attendance at the house, Mr. Robinson 
 moved that the thanks of that body be tendered to Colonel 
 Washington for the important services he had render to his 
 country, and enforced his motion in a glowing speech. 
 Washington arose to express his acknowledgements for the 
 honor, but such was his confusion that he could not give ut- 
 terance to a single syllable. The speaker came to his relief — 
 "Sit down," said he, with a conciliating smile, "your mo- 
 
28 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 desty equals your valor ; and that surpasses the power of 
 any language that I possess." 
 
 From this time until the revolution, a period of fifteen 
 years^ Washington Avas constantly a member of the House 
 of Burgesses, first representing Frederick county, and then 
 Fairfax, his residence of Mount Vernon being in the latter. 
 He was punctual in his attendance, and though he never 
 made a set speech, was remarkable for astonishing accuracy 
 of judgment, and was ever influential. The great Patrick 
 Henry had a lofty estimation of his ability,* and repeatedly 
 spoke of him with admiration. At the same time Washing- 
 ton maintained the character of a country gentleman, and 
 Mount Vernon was the centre of a highly cultivated circle 
 of friends. 
 
 When the oppressive measures of the British Parliament 
 excited the spirit of resistance in the people of the provinces, 
 Washington was not indifferent. He was of opinion that 
 the British ministry was pursuing a regular plan at the ex- 
 pense of law and justice, and thought that such a plan 
 should be resisted. He presided at a meeting held in Fairfax 
 county, at which resolutions were adopted, expressive of the 
 the sense of the inhabitants, and in denunciation of the vio- 
 lations of the rights of British subjects. He was a member 
 of the Williamsburg Convention, which adopted some bold 
 resolutions, and appointed seven deputies, of whom he was 
 one, to the general Congress, to meet in Philadelphia, on 
 the 5th of September, 1774. 
 
 An anecdote is told by Mr. Wirt, which shows in what 
 
 estimation Washington was held by the members of the first 
 
 Congress. Soon after Patrick Henry retm-ned home, being 
 
 asked, "whom he thought the greatest man in Congress," 
 
 * Wirt's Life of Patrick Henry. 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 29 
 
 he replied, " If you speak of eloquence, Mr. Rutledge, of 
 South Carolina, is by far the greatest orator ; but if you 
 speak of solid information and sound judgment, Colonel 
 Washington is unquestionably the greatest man on that 
 floor." 
 
 On returning home, Washington, at the request of some 
 of the volunteer companies, acted as field officer, and re- 
 viewed and instructed them. He was elected a delegate to 
 the Virginia Convention of March, 1775, in which Patrick 
 Henry sounded the trumpet of the revolution, and was 
 chosen to a seat in the second Congress, which met in Phi- 
 ladelphia on the 10th of May, 1775. It was a great object 
 of this Congress to gain a complete knowledge of the mili- 
 tary resources of the colonies, and committees were ap- 
 pointed for that purpose. Of all these important commit- 
 tees, Washington was chairman. The first blood was shed 
 at Lexington, and it became necessary to immediately or- 
 ganize the army, and elect a commander-in-chief. It was 
 thought by some that the latter would prove a difficult task. 
 But when John Adams, of Massachusetts, suggested the 
 name of Washington, general satisfaction was expressed ; 
 and on the 15th of June, he was unanimously chosen to that 
 responsible station. The appointment was communicated 
 to him the next morning, by the President. He arose in 
 his place and signified his acceptance in a reply which con- 
 tained expressions of the self-distrust of modest merit. He 
 declared that he would accept of no compensation beyond 
 the expenses of his office. Four days afterwards he received 
 his commission, and Congress unanimously resolved to 
 maintain, assist, and adhere to him, with their lives and 
 fortunes, in the same cause. 
 
 A rough, undisciplined, and unprovided army had col- 
 
 8* 
 
80 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 lected in the neighborhood of Boston. "Washington's pre- 
 sence "was immediately necessary. But in spite of his haste, 
 he did not arrive at Cambridge, until the 2d of July, about 
 two weeks after the battle of Bunker's Hill. He was every 
 where received with respect and enthusiasm. He bent the 
 whole force of his mind to overcome the great difficulties 
 with which he was obliged to struggle, in consequence of 
 the want of ammunition, clothing, and magazines, the defi- 
 ciency of arms and discipline, and the evils of short enlist- 
 ments. The history of this campaign before Boston is a 
 history of successive exertions to surmount almost insuper- 
 able obstacles, by one who was solicitous, in the extreme, to 
 perform some great and useful achievement, in order to 
 prove himself worthy of his high station. 
 
 In one of his letters to Congress, at this period, he says, 
 " I cannot help acknowledging that I have many disagreeable 
 sensations on account of my situation ; for to have the eyes 
 of the whole continent fixed upon me, with anxious expec- 
 tation of hearing of some great event, and to be restrained 
 in every military operation, for want of the necessary means 
 to carry it on, is not very pleasing, especially as the means 
 used to conceal my weakness from the enemy, conceal it also 
 from our friends, and add to their wonder." This was 
 written in February, after a council of war had expressed 
 an opinion, chiefly on account of the want of ammunition for 
 the artillery, against the execution of a bold plan which he 
 had formed of crossing the ice, and attacking General Howe, 
 in Boston. He then took possession of the heights of Dor- 
 chester, in the persuasion that a general action would ensue, 
 as the position enabled him to annoy the ships in the harbor 
 and the soldiers in the town. The British general, in conse- 
 quence, was reduced to the alternative of either dislodgiftg 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 81 
 
 the Americans or evacuating the place, and endeavored to 
 accomplish the former ; but the troops which were embarked 
 for the purpose, were scattered by a furious storm, and dis- 
 abled from immediately prosecuting the enterprise. Before 
 they could be again in readiness for the attack, the Ameri- 
 can works were made so strong, that an attempt upon them 
 was thought unadvisable ; and the evacuation could no longer 
 be delayed. It took place on the 17th of March, and gave 
 great joy to the United Colonies. Congress passed a vote 
 of thanks to the general and his army, " for their wise and 
 spirited conduct in the siege and acquisition of Boston," and 
 directed a medal of gold to be struck in commemoration of 
 the event. As soon as the British fleet had put to sea, the 
 American army proceeded, by divisions, to New York, where 
 it arrived on the 14th of April. Every effort was made by 
 "Washington to fortify the city, before the appearance of the 
 enemy. In the beginning of July, the British troops were 
 landed on Staten Island, and some efforts were made by Lord 
 Howe, who commanded the fleet, to open negotiations for 
 the restoration of peace ; but they failed, in consequence of 
 the refusal of the American commander to receive any com- 
 munication not addressed to him in such a way as to ac- 
 knowledge his public character. The English commander 
 had directed his letters to " George Washington, Esquire," 
 and then to " George Washington, &c., &c., &c.," but de- 
 clined an unequivocal recognition of his station. The dis- 
 astrous affair of Long Island soon afterwards occurred, on 
 the 27th of August, in which Washington was obliged to 
 behold the carnage of his troops without being able to assist 
 them. It constrained him to withdraw his forces entirely 
 from the island, which he accomplished on the night of the 
 28th with such secrecy, that all the troops and military 
 
82 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 stores, -witli the greater part of the provisions, and all the 
 artillery, except such heavy pieces as could not be drawn 
 through the roads, rendered almost impassable by rains, 
 ■were carried over in safety. From the commencement of 
 the action, on the morning of the 27th, until the American 
 forces had passed the East river, on the morning of the 29th, 
 his exertions and fatigues were unremitted. Throughout 
 that time, he was almost constantly on horseback, and never 
 closed his eyes. The manner in which this operation was 
 performed, greatly enhanced his military reputation ; and it 
 may justly be ranked among those skilful manoeuvers which 
 distinguish a master in the art of war. No ordinary talents, 
 certainly, are requisite to withdraw, without loss, a defeated, 
 dispirited, and undisciplined army from the view of an expe- 
 riened and able enemy, and to transport them in safety across 
 a large river, while watched by a numerous and vigilant fleet. 
 In consequence of the operations of the British general, it 
 soon became indispensable to evacuate New York. This was 
 done on the 15th of September, with an inconsiderable loss 
 of men. The strongest point of the position which Wash- 
 ington then took, was at Kingsbridge ; but it was soon after- 
 wards deemed necessary to withdraw altogether from York 
 island, and the army moved towards White Plains. General 
 Howe followed, and the battle of White Plains ensued, in 
 which a portion of the American forces, occupying a hill on 
 the right of the army, under the command of General ^Ic- 
 Dougal, were driven from their station after an animated 
 engagement. Washington then changed his position for 
 another, and Howe, considering this too strong to be at- 
 tempted with prudence, retired down the North river, for 
 the purpose of investing Fort Washington, on York island. 
 It was taken, and its garrison made prisoners of war ; on 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 83 
 
 wliich the American general retreated into New Jersey. His 
 situation was now gloomy in the extreme. All his efforts to 
 raise the militia had been ineffectual ; and no confidence 
 could be entertained of receiving reinforcements from any 
 quarter. But that unyielding firmness, which constituted 
 one of the most valuable and prominent traits of his cha- 
 racter, enabled him to bear up against every difficulty. 
 
 "Undismayed," says Marshall, "by the dangers which 
 surrounded him, he did not, for an instant, relax his exer- 
 tions, nor omit any thing which could obstruct the progress 
 of the enemy, or improve his own condition. He did not 
 appear to despair of the public safety, but struggled against 
 adverse fortune, with the hope of yet vanquishing the diffi- 
 culties which surrounded him, and constantly showed him- 
 self to his harassed and enfeebled army, with a serene and 
 unembarrassed countenance, betraying no fear in himself, 
 and invigorating and inspiring with confidence the bosoms 
 of others. To this unconquerable firmness, to this perfect 
 self-possession, under the most desperate circumstances, is 
 America, in a great degree, indebted for her independence." 
 
 In his retreat through New Jersey, "Washington was fol- 
 lowed by the British army, flushed with victory, highly dis- 
 ciplined, and perfectly equipped, whilst his own troops were 
 dispirited, destitute, and daily decreasing by the expiration 
 of their terms of service. In December, the British general 
 made an attempt to get possession of a number of boats for 
 the transportation of his forces over the Delaware ; but, 
 having failed, he went into quarters. Washington, having, 
 about the same time, been joined by some effective rein- 
 forcements, meditated a blow on the enemy while distributed 
 in their cantonments, which might retrieve, in a measure, 
 the disastrous posture of American affairs, relieve Philadel- 
 
34 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 pliia from immediate danger, and rouse the drooping spirits 
 of his countrymen. He accordingly formed the plan of at- 
 tacking all the British posts on the Delaware at the same 
 instant ; but only that part of it succeeded which was con- 
 ducted by him in person. It is unnecessary to give the 
 particulars of the successes at Trenton and Princeton. Be- 
 sides the immediate advantages accruing from them in sav- 
 ing Philadelphia, and recovering New Jersey, the moral 
 effects which they produced in reanimating the spirit of the 
 people, were incalculable. Confidence in the commander-in- 
 chief became universal. Immediately afterwards, congress 
 declared, that, in the then state of things, the very existence 
 of civil liberty depended on the right execution of military 
 powers, to a vigorous direction of which, distant, numerous 
 and deliberative bodies were unequal, and authorized Gene- 
 ral Washington to raise sixteen additional regiments, con- 
 ferring upon him, at the same time, for six months, dictato- 
 rial power, for the conduct of the war. 
 
 In the beginning of 1777, "Washington caused all his sol- 
 diers to be inoculated, as the small-pox had proved more 
 fatal in his camp than the sword of the enemy. During this 
 winter, while the two armies were in their respective quar- 
 ters, he used every exertion to raise a powerful force for the 
 coming campaign ; but his efforts were not attended with 
 corresponding success. Not allowing himself to be dispirited, 
 he endeavored to make the most of the means in his hands, 
 which, however, so far from enabling him to carry into effect 
 the offensive operations he had meditated, were unequal 
 even to defensive war. 
 
 In July, General Howe embarked his forces ; and, it 
 having been ascertained that the destination of the fleet was 
 against Philadelphia, Washington moved southward to the 
 
GEOKGE WASHINGTON. 35 
 
 Delaware. On the 25th of August, the British disembarked 
 at the ferry of Elk river, and on the 10th of September, the 
 battle of Brandywine was fought, in which the Americans 
 were defeated. It opened the way to Philadelphia for the 
 enemy; and, on the twenty-sixth they entered the city, 
 though not before Washington had made an effort to engage 
 them again on the sixteenth, which was frustrated by a vio- 
 lent rain, that rendered the fire-arms of the Americans unfit 
 for use, and obliged them to retreat, without any thing more 
 than a skirmish between the advanced parties. "From the 
 25th of August," says Marshall, "when the British army 
 landed at the head of Elk, until the 26th of September, 
 when it entered Philadelphia, the campaign had been active, 
 and the duties of the American general uncommonly arduous. 
 The best English writers bestow high encomiums on Sir 
 William Howe for his military skill and masterly movements 
 during this period. At Brandywine, especially, Washing- 
 ton is supposed to have been ' outgeneralled, more outge- 
 neralled than in any action of the war.' If all the opera- 
 tions of this trying period be examined, and the means in 
 possession of both be considered, the American chief will 
 appear in no respect inferior to his adversary. With an 
 army decidedly inferior, not only in numbers, but in every 
 military requisite, except courage, in an open country, he 
 employed his enemy nearly thirty days in advancing about 
 sixty miles. In this time, he fought one general action, 
 and, though defeated, was able to reassemble the same un- 
 disciplined, unclothed, and almost unfed, army, and the fifth 
 day afterwards, again to offer battle. When the armies 
 were separated by a storm, which involved him in the most 
 distressing circumstances, he extricated himself from them, 
 and still maintained a respectable and imposing countenance. 
 
36 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 The only advantage which he is supposed to have given was 
 at the battle of Brandywine ; and that was produced by the 
 contrariety and uncertainty of the intelligence received. In 
 a new army, where military talent has not been well tried, 
 the general is peculiarly exposed to the chance of employing 
 not the best instruments. In a country, too, which is covered 
 with wood, precise information of the numbers composing 
 different columns is to be gained with diflficulty." 
 
 After the occupation of Philadelphia, the British general 
 having divided his force, so as to give Washington a fair 
 opportunity to engage him with advantage, he determined 
 to avail himself of it by surprising the camp which had been 
 formed at Germantown, and attacking both wings, in front 
 and rear, at the same time. He made all his arrangements 
 with his wonted caution and address ; and, on the 4th of 
 October, the enterprise was carried into effect, and, for a 
 time, seemed certain of a successful issue ; but the darkness 
 of the morning, produced by a fog of uncommon density, 
 introducing confusion into the American troops, Washington 
 was compelled to relinquish his hopes, and to direct his at- 
 tention to secure the retreat of his men. This he did with- 
 out loss. 
 
 Decided approbation was expressed by Congress, both of 
 the plan of this enterprise, and of the courage with which it 
 was executed ; and their thanks were voted to the general 
 and the army. Having taken all possible measures to cut 
 off the enemy from supplies, Washington took post at White- 
 marsh where an attempt to surprise him was made by Ge- 
 neral Howe ; but it was disconcerted, intelligence having 
 reached him of the intended stroke. He then distributed 
 his soldiers in winter-quarters at Valley Forge, where their 
 Bufferings were excessive, in consequence of the intense 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 37 
 
 severity of the season, and their want of most of the neces- 
 saries for comfort, and even for existence. Every effort 
 was made by him to improve their condition, and augment 
 their numbers ; and, for these ends, he exercised, though 
 with caution, the dictatorial powers intrusted to him by Con- 
 gress. His incessant labors and unyielding patriotism could 
 not, however, save him from the imputations which want of 
 success, even though occasioned by insuperable obstacles, 
 always engenders ; and a combination was formed to de- 
 prive him of his command, and substitute in his place the 
 victor of Saratoga, General Gates. But to weaken his hold 
 upon the confidence and affection of the great body of the 
 people and the army, was found impossible; and even the 
 troops who had conquered under Gates received the idea of 
 the change with indignation. The machinations of his ene- 
 mies were frustrated without any effort on his part, and only 
 did injury to themselves. They made no undue impression 
 on his steady mind, nor did they change one of his measures. 
 His sensibilities were for his country, and not for himself. 
 
 In June, 1778, the British evacuated Philadelphia, which 
 was rendered a dangerous position for them by the part it 
 was now evident that France was about to take in the war, 
 and the naval force which had been prepared by that power 
 before she declared herself. They retreated upon New 
 York, through New Jersey, followed by Washington, who, 
 in opposition to the opinion of a council of general officers, 
 aind taking his measures on his own responsibility, brought 
 them to an action on the twenty-fourth of the month, at 
 Monmouth, which, though not a decided victory, was yet 
 favorable to the American arms,and productive of great satis- 
 faction to Congress and the country. He passed the night 
 in his cloak, in the midst of his soldiers, intending to renew 
 
 4 
 
38 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 the engagement on the following morning ; hut, hefore the 
 return of day, the enemy had marched off in silence, and 
 effected their retreat to New York. Marshall has given an 
 extract from a letter of Lafayette to him respecting this 
 battle, in which he says, " Never was General Washington 
 greater in war than in this action : his presence stopped the 
 retreat, his dispositions fixed the victory. His fine appear- 
 ance on horseback, his calm courage, roused by the anima- 
 tion produced by the vexation of the morning, (le depit de 
 la matinee^ gave him the air best calculated to excite 
 enthusiasm." 
 
 In the year of 1779, Congress had formed the plan of an 
 invasion of Canada, which was deemed altogether inexpe- 
 dient by Washington ; and, in consequence, he requested a 
 personal interview. This was acceded to ; and, on his ar- 
 rival in Philadelphia, a committee was appointed to confer 
 with him on that particular subject, and on the general 
 state of the army and the country. The result of their con- 
 ferences was, that the expedition against Canada Avas aban- 
 doned'; and every arrangement recommended by the com- 
 mander-in-chief received the attention to which all his opi- 
 nions were entitled. From this period to the siege of York- 
 town, no incident calling for particular mention occurred in 
 Washington's career. He remained in the neighborhood of 
 New York, watching the enemy, and taking every measure 
 for the welfare of the country, Avithout being able to perform 
 any striking exploit. He had to contend with difficulties 
 the mastering of which required higher qualities than are 
 necessary to gain a brilliant victory. His soldiers could 
 scarcely be kept from perishing with cold and hunger, or 
 from dispersing and living on plunder. They were daily 
 leaving the service; some regiments mutinied; others re- 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 39 
 
 volted and marched home ; and he could obtain no compli- 
 ance with his urgent requisitions for recruits. Nothing could 
 be looser and more precarious than the thread bj which the 
 the army was kept together ; and, in any other hands than 
 his, it must inevitably have been broken. But, in spite of 
 every obstacle and disaster, he prevented the enemy from 
 accomplishing any thing material, and adopted such prepa- 
 ratory steps as might enable him to turn to advantage any 
 fortunate incident which might occur. 
 
 In 1781, he planned, in conjunction with Count de Ro- 
 chambeau, a grand enterprise against New York ; but cir- 
 cumstances concurred to induce an alteration in his views, 
 and to direct them to operations in the south. He conti- 
 nued, however, arrangements for the attempt on the city, in 
 order to deceive Sir Henry Clinton as to his real intentions, 
 which he did with considerable address. In August, he com- 
 menced his movement ; and, having taken measures for the 
 transportation of his army down the Chesapeake, he pro- 
 ceeded to Virginia with De Rochambeau and the Chevalier 
 de Chatelleux. On the 14th of September, he reached Wil- 
 liamsburg, and had an interview with Count de Grasse, the 
 admiral of the French fleet, which was lying in the bay at 
 the time, for the purpose of adjusting a plan of cooperation 
 with regard to the investment of the British, at Yorktown, 
 to which they had retired. The siege commenced on the 28th 
 of September; and, on the 19th of October, after severe 
 fighting, Lord Cornwallis was reduced to the necessity of 
 surrendering the posts of Yorktown and Gloucester Point, 
 with their garrisons, and the ships in the harbor, with their 
 seamen, to the land and naval forces of America and France. 
 
 The capture of Cornwallis was generally considered the 
 finishing stroke of the war ; but it produced no disposition 
 
40 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 in the American commander-in-chief to relax in those exer- 
 tions which might yet be necessary to secure the great ob- 
 ject of the contest. He hastened to Philadelphia to confer 
 with Congress respecting the military establishment of the 
 succeeding year. He addressed a circular to all the state 
 sovereignties, pressing the importance of supplies. He pro- 
 mised and made all possible exertions towards expelling the 
 British from New York and Charleston. He felt alarm, 
 and proclaimed increased danger, lest the debates in the 
 British parliament concerning peace should beget supine- 
 ness in America. During the winter-quarters, when the 
 military situation of affairs in general would have allowed 
 of his absence from camp, he remained there, in order to 
 watch and allay the discontents of the American troops, 
 who supposed themselves ill-treated by Congress and the 
 States. 
 
 After the treaty of peace was signed, those discontents, 
 which he knew at least to be plausible, gave him much 
 trouble and disquietude. He added to his reputation by the 
 manner in which he noticed and counteracted the famous 
 " Newburgh Letters," and suppressed the mutiny of the Phi- 
 ladelphia line. While, however, he vindicated discipline, 
 and enforced subordination to the civil authorities, he deeply 
 sympathized with the suffering troops, and used every lawful 
 means to procure redress for their grievances. 
 
 On the 25th of November, 1783, peace and independence 
 being achieved, the British forces evacuated New York, and 
 Washington made his public entry into that city, attended 
 by a splendid volunteer retinue. On the 4th of December, 
 he took his solemn farewell of the principal oflBcers of the 
 American army, assembled in a hotel at New York. On the 
 19th of that month, at Annapolis, where congress was then 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 41 
 
 in session, he resigned, in form, to that body, the commission 
 ■which he had so long and gloriously borne, and returned to 
 private life, which he so much loved. After peace "was pro- 
 claimed. Congress unanimously passed a resolution for the 
 erection of an equestrian statue of their general, at the place 
 which should be established for the seat of government. The 
 legislature of Virginia also decreed to him " a statue of 
 the finest marble and best workmanship," with an appropri- 
 ate inscription. It was placed in the capitol of Virginia. 
 Washington took great interest in the navigation of the Vir- 
 ginia rivers : he exerted himself to procure joint legislative 
 acts of Virginia and Maryland for the improvement of the 
 Potomac. He negotiated with the latter on the part of the 
 former state ; and the legislature of Maryland, anxious to 
 bear some testimony to his worth, unanimously passed a bill 
 authorizing the treasurer to subscribe, " for the benefit of 
 General Washington," the same number of shares in each 
 of the navigation companies to be formed as were to be taken 
 for the state. Washington was embarrassed by this gene- 
 rous and honorable proceeding. In a fine letter of acknow- 
 ledgement, he declined the large donation for himself, l^ut 
 asked it for some objects of a public nature. The shares 
 were then reserved for the use of a seminary of learning es- 
 tablished in the vicinity of James and Potomac rivers. In 
 1787, the legislature of Virginia unanimously elected him 
 one of their delegates to the convention to be held at Phila- 
 delphia for the revisal of the federal system. He finally 
 consented to serve, making a painful sacrifice of his plans 
 and expectations of uninterrupted retirement, in order to 
 assist in " averting the contemptible figure which the Ame- 
 rican communities were about to make in the annals of man- 
 kind, with their separate, independent, jealous state sove- 
 
 4* 
 
42 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 reignties," The convention, when assembled at Philadelphia, 
 unanimously chose him for their president ; and no member 
 in that august body more decidedly approved the constitu- 
 tion which they gave to the country. All America, as soon 
 as it was adopted, looked to him as the first President under 
 it, with an eye of affectionate confidence and desire which 
 could not be resisted. His reluctance to quit his retreat 
 was extreme. The expression of his feeling on this head, 
 in his private letters, is a striking mixture of genuine diffi- 
 dence, personal disappointment and elevated patriotism. 
 Neither the animosity of parties, nor the preponderance of 
 the enemies of the new system in some of the states, could 
 deprive him of a single vote for the station of President.. 
 From Mount Vernon to New York, where Congress was in 
 session, the journey of Washington had the character of a 
 triumph. 
 
 He took the oath of office on the 30th of April, 1789. 
 In his inaugural speech, he expressed his deep sense 
 of the magnitude of the trust reposed in him, and invoked 
 the aid of that Almighty Being, whose supremacy he 
 had always acknowledged. In conformity with the rule to 
 which he had hitherto adhered, he gave notice to Congress, 
 that he would accept no further compensation than would 
 be necessary to defray the ordinary expences of his 
 station. 
 
 The President had scarcely entered upon the duties of 
 his office, before he was seized with a severe malady, which 
 confined him to his bed for six weeks. He had hardly re- 
 gained strength to go abroad, when he heard of the death 
 of his mother, at the advanced age of eighty-two. This 
 affliction had been expected. Yet Washington deeply felt 
 the loss of a beloved parent. He had taken a final farewell 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 43 
 
 of her just before his visit to New York to be inaugurated, 
 being then convinced that she was rapidly sinking. She 
 bore to the grave, the esteem and veneration of the country 
 to whom she had given so noble a son. 
 
 Congress created three departments, the heads of which 
 were to form the cabinet of the President. "Washington 
 appointed Thomas JeflFerson, Secretary of State — Alexander 
 Hamilton, Secretary of the Treasury — and Henry Knox, 
 Secretary of War. All three were men of great talents 
 and extensive acquirements. Edmund Randolph Avas selected 
 to fill the office of Attorney General, and John Jay was 
 appointed Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Thus the 
 ship of state was set afloat with the best of pilots and an 
 able crew. Alexander Hamilton exercised the greatest in- 
 fluence upon the administration. Its chief measures — the 
 funding system, the assumption of the state debts, the bank, 
 and the tax on domestic spirits, all of which excited the 
 opposition of a large party, with Jefferson at its head, ori- 
 ginated from the Secretary of the Treasury. But it was 
 Washington's approval and personal influence that secured 
 them an adoption and a due degree of respect. The spirit 
 tax was openly and violently resisted in Pennsylvania, and 
 a strong military force alone, put down the opposition. Yet, 
 throughout the country, the affection of the people for 
 Washington remained unchanged. In firmly performing 
 his official duty he had given additional reason for this 
 attachment. 
 
 Hamilton and Jeff"erson differed concerning every measure 
 of the administration. Jefferson discharged the duties of 
 his office to the entire satisfaction of the President, but his 
 support of the government was not that of a cordial will. 
 Washington recommended mutual forbearance of the party 
 
44 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 leaders, but their political courses continued to diverge, and 
 they finally became personal enemies. 
 
 The heat of parties, and the apprehensions of statesmen 
 concerning the stability of the Union, induced Washington 
 to sacrifice his private inclination for the public welfare, and 
 to accept a second term of ofiice, upon which he entered 
 March 4th, 1793. The Indian war, upon the north-western 
 frontier, which had hitherto proved disastrous, and the low- 
 ering aspect of the foreign relations of the Union, furnished 
 full occupation to the administration. France had become 
 a republic, and now declared war against England. A large 
 portion of the American people deeply sympathized yfiih 
 the French, and wished the government to form an alliance 
 with the new republic. But Washington considered a neu- 
 tral policy as the safest ; and though he sympathized with 
 men struggling for freedom, as earnestly as any, he saw with 
 horror the atrocities of the monsters at the head of the 
 French government, and did not deem them worthy of sup- 
 port. At all events, in his eyes, neutrality was the pros- 
 perous path for the Union. Genet, the French minister, 
 receiving no countenance from the government, appealed to 
 the people, and fitted out vessels in American ports, in de- 
 fiance of the President. But the Republican party, as the 
 party which leaned to a French alliance was called, could 
 not support the minister in such extreme measures. The 
 heart of the country was with Washington, and he was ena- 
 bled to maintain the neutrality of the infant republic. 
 
 Party strife was hot during the whole of the second term 
 of Washington. Even his private character was assailed. 
 Though the able Hamilton retired from the cabinet, his 
 policy continued to be that of the President, and this the 
 supporters of Jefferson continually and^ bitterly attacked. 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 45 
 
 Age, the love of agricultural pursuits, and considerations 
 of what was due to republican institutions, induced Wash- 
 ington to determine to surrender the chief magistracy at 
 the end of the second term. In September, 1793, he issued 
 a Farewell Address to the people of the United States, which 
 has ever been considered by his countrymen a wise and pa- 
 triotic paper, always reliable for their political guidance. 
 He remained at the seat of government until the inaugura- 
 tion of his successor, Mr. Adams, and then retired to Mount 
 Vernon, and devoted himself to agriculture and the manage- 
 ment of his estates. 
 
 In 1798, when, in consequence of the difficulties with 
 France, the United States armed by sea and land, Wash- 
 ington was once more called into public service, receiving 
 the appointment of lieutenant-general of the army. He ac- 
 cepted the post upon condition that he should be allowed to 
 choose the officers immediately under him, and his judgment 
 was at once displayed in the selection of Alexander Hamil- 
 ton and Charles Cotesworth Pinckney for his major-generals. 
 Happily, the difficulties were settled before armies could be 
 set in motion. But Washington retained his commission 
 until his death. 
 
 On Thursday, the 12th of December, 1799, he was seized 
 with an inflammation in the throat, which terminated his life 
 on Saturday, the 14th of the same month, in the 68th year 
 of his age. The mourning of his countrymen was that of 
 children for a father, as well as that of republicans for a 
 good and great captain. In Congress and throughout the 
 States, lofty eulogiums were pronounced by orators and 
 statesmen, and the badge of woe was worn by all. 
 
 Painters and sculptors have preserved the personal ap- 
 pearance of Washington. He was tall and strongly built — 
 
46 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 his frame being capable of enduring great fatigue. His 
 countenance "wore a mingled expression of mildness and 
 dignity. " The moulding of his limbs, his step and bearing, 
 were as peculiar, and as easily recognized, as those of Na- 
 poleon. His tread was measured and heavy, carrying in 
 its sound dignity and command. He was born a monarch, 
 in the highest and best sense of the term. The noble soul 
 within looked out from a body as noble as itself; and no 
 man who ever stood in the presence of either thought or 
 felt himself a great man. It need hardly be said, that the 
 idea of personal familiarity with Washington never entered 
 into the thought of any of the many, of all ranks, conditions, 
 and endowments, who at different times approached him. 
 The awe of his presence fell alike on all men. 
 
 " There was, indeed, a person, (whether worthy of the name 
 of man is doubtful, certainly not of an American,) who once, 
 for a wager, made the adventurous attempt of a familiar 
 approach to him. As General Washington was walking up 
 Chestnut street, in Philadelphia, having shortly before left 
 his lodgings, this individual, in the view of his companions 
 on the other side of the street, who had witnessed the bet, 
 and were curious to see the issue, came up to the general, 
 and slapping him familiarly on the back, exclaimed, with a 
 jocose air, " Well, my old fellow, how do you find yourself 
 this morning ?" Washington stopped ; turned round ; looked 
 him full in the face ; and with freezing solemnity said, " Sir, 
 what have I ever said, or done, which induces you to treat 
 me in this manner?" The man shrank into nothing, and 
 was extinguished. 
 
 " Another anecdote is told of his vindication of his dignity. 
 When Washington had his quarters near Newburgh, he was 
 frequently occupied in writing those immortal letters to 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 47 
 
 Congress, in which it is hard to saj whether the patriot, the 
 general, the statesman, or the father of the American army, 
 shines the most illustriously, and which, of themselves, 
 would be enough to confer immortality upon their author ; 
 and he gave a general order that at such times he was not 
 to be distm-bed, or spoken to, unless under the most urgent 
 necessity. A militia officer, of no particular rank or stand- 
 ing, came, one day, into the ante-room, and asked to see 
 the commander-in-chief. Colonel Trumbull, the aid-de- 
 camp who was on duty, informed him that the general was 
 not to be seen ; but politely requested the officer to entrust 
 his business with him. The officer, never having seen 
 Wasington, little knowing with whom he had to deal, and 
 very proud of the opportunity of having a personal inter- 
 view, treated this intimation with hauteur, and demanded to 
 see General Washington himself, with whom, he said, he had 
 important business. Colonel Trumbull stated the positive 
 orders that had been given, and said that if he went to the 
 general's private room the consequences must be upon the 
 officer alone. " Oh, certainly," said he, smiling, "I'll bear 
 the consequences." The aid slowly and reluctantly ap- 
 proached the chamber, and gently knocked. "Who's 
 there ?" thundered a deep voice within, in those tones which 
 aone heard without dread. Colonel Trumbull stated the 
 3ase, and said that though repeatedly warned of the orders, 
 ihe officer insisted on seeing him. " Does he ?" and at the 
 ;ame time the warlike tread was heard, the door suddenly 
 )pened, and Washington came forth. "I thought," said 
 rrumbull, when relating to me the anecdote, "I thought, 
 le would have walked over him." " Well, sir, what is your 
 }usiness with me?" The officer, with widely altered tone 
 md manner, stammered out some petty question relating to 
 
48 LIVES OF THE PKESIDENTS. 
 
 the etiquette of camp duty in which he had differed -with a 
 fellow officer, and which he wished to have decided by the 
 commander-in-chief. Washington had never taken his eyes 
 off of him : and when he was done, replied, " Ask that 
 question of your orderly Serjeant," and turned into his 
 chamber. Turnbull said he never in his life saw a human 
 creature so completely thunderstruck. He never appeared 
 again at head-quarters. 
 
 "Yet, it must not be understood from these instances, that 
 there was the least want of courtesy in his general manner ; 
 the reverse is true : he was truly and uniformly polite ; but 
 it was a grave politeness, infinitely removed from that 
 heartless artificial polish which is acquired by frivolous 
 minds, from long converse with the world.* 
 
 "As a military man, he was brave enterprising and cautious. 
 That malignity which has sought to strip him of all the 
 higher qualities as a general, has conceded to him personal 
 courage, and a firmness of resolution which neither dangers 
 or difficulties could shake. But candor will allow him other 
 great and valuable endowments. If his military course does 
 not abound with splendid achievements, it is a series of ju- 
 dicious measures, adapted to circumstances, which probably 
 saved his country. Placed, without having studied the 
 theory, or been taught in the school of experience the prac- 
 tice of war, at the head of an undisciplined, ill-organized 
 multitude, which was unused, to the restraints and unac- 
 quainted with the duties of a camp, without the aid of officers 
 possessing those lights which the commander-in-chief was 
 yet to acquire, it would have been a miracle, indeed, had his 
 conduct been absolutely faultless. But, possessing an ener- 
 getic and distinguishing mind, on which the lessons of expe- 
 * A. J. Stansbury. 
 
GEORGE WASHINGTON. 49 
 
 rience were never lost, his errors, if he committed any, were 
 quickly repaired ; and those measures which the state of 
 things rendered most advisable were seldom, if ever, ne- 
 glected. Inferior to his adversary in the numbers, in the 
 equipment, and in the discipline of his troops, it is evidence 
 of real merit, that no great and decisive advantages were 
 ever obtained over him, and the opportunity to strike an im- 
 portant blow never passed away unused. He had been 
 termed the American Fabius ; but those who compare his 
 actions with his means, will perceive at least as much of 
 Marcellus as of Fabius in his character. He could not have 
 been more enterprizing without endangering the cause he 
 defended, nor have put more to hazard without incurring 
 justly the imputation of rashness. Not relying upon those 
 chances which sometimes give a favorable issue to attempts 
 apparently desperate, his conduct was regulated by calcu- 
 lations made upon the capacities of his army, and the real 
 situation of his country. 
 
 "No truth can be uttered with more confidence than that 
 the ends of Washington were always upright, and his means 
 always pure. He exhibits the rare example of a politician to 
 whom wiles were absolutely unknown, and whose professions 
 to foreign governments, and to his own countrymen, were al- 
 ways sincere. In him was fully exemplified the real distinc- 
 tion which forever exists between wisdom and cunning, and the 
 importance as well as the truth of the maxim that " honesty is 
 the best policy." If Washington possessed ambition, that pas- 
 sion was, in his bosom, so regulated by principles, or con- 
 trolled by circumstances, that it was neither vicious nor tur- 
 bulent. Intrigue was never employed as the means of its 
 gratification; nor was personal aggrandizement its object. 
 
 " The various high and important stations to which he was 
 5 
 
50 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 called by the public voice, were unsought by himself; and, in 
 consenting to fill them, he seems rather to have yielded to a 
 general conviction, that the interests of his country would be 
 thereby promoted, than to his particular inclination. Nei- 
 ther the extraordinary partiality of the American people, the 
 extravagant praises which were bestowed upon him, nor the 
 inveterate opposition and malignant calumnies which he ex- 
 perienced, had any visible influence upon his conduct. The 
 cause is to be looked for in the texture of his mind. In 
 him, that innate and unassuming modesty which adulation 
 would have offended, which the voluntary plaudit of millions 
 could not betray into indiscretion, and which never obtruded 
 upon others his claims to superior consideration, was happily 
 blended with a high and correct sense of personal dignity, 
 and with a just consciousness of that respect which is due to 
 station. Without exertion, he could maintain the happy 
 medium between that arrogance which wounds, and that fa- 
 cility which allows the office to be degraded by the person 
 who fills it. 
 
 It is impossible to contemplate the great events which 
 have occurred in the United States, under the auspices of 
 Washington, without ascribing them, in some measure, to 
 him. If we ask the causes of the prosperous issue of a war, 
 against the successful termination of which there were many 
 probabilities ; of the good which was produced, and the ill 
 which was avoided, during an administration fated to contend 
 with the strongest prejudices that a combination of circum- 
 stances and of passions could produce ; of the constant favor 
 of the great mass of his fellow citizens, and of the confidence 
 which, to the last moment of his life, was reposed in him — the 
 answer, so far as these causes may be found in his character, 
 will furnish a lesson well meriting the attention of those who 
 
GEORGE "WASHINGTON. 51 
 
 are candidates for political fame. Endowed by nature with 
 a sound judgment, and an accurate, discriminating mind, 
 he feared not that laborious attention which made him per- 
 fectly master of those subjects, in all their relations, on which 
 he was to decide ; and this essential quality was guided by 
 an unvarying sense of moral right, which would tolerate the 
 employment only of those means that would bear the most 
 rigid examination ; by a fairness of intention which neither 
 sought nor required disguise ; and a purity of virtue which 
 was not only untainted, but unsuspected.* 
 
 Numerous monuments have been erected in honor of the 
 Father of his country, and it is probable that the National 
 Monument at the capital will be one of the wonders of the 
 world. But his truest and noblest memorial will be the 
 glorious empire which he founded, and the free institutions 
 which he launched for its benefit. 
 
 * Marshall. 
 
/. / 
 
J. ADAMS. 
 
Jol]^ ftS^h)^. 
 
 Among those whose eloquence forwarded the revolution, 
 and whose exertions kept alive that indomitable spirit of 
 patriotism, so necessary to bringing the war to a glorious 
 termination, John Adams deserves a high and foremost 
 place. According to the testimony of his rival, Jefferson, 
 he was the colossus of the Continental Congress, and the 
 adoption of the Declaration of Independence was the result 
 of his determination, boldness, and eloquence. To him was 
 accorded the great honor of succeeding Washington in the 
 Presidency of the United States. 
 
 John Adams was born on the 19th of October, (old style) 
 1735, in the town of Braintree, Massachusetts. His ances- 
 tors were among the founders of the province in which he 
 was born. He received an elementary education in his na- 
 tive town, and entered Harvard College, in 1751. On 
 graduating, four years afterwards, he went to Worcester, to 
 teach school and study law. James Putnam was his law 
 preceptor ; but he was proposed for admission at the Suffolk 
 county bar, in 1758, by Jeremy Gridley, the attorney-ge- 
 neral of the province. Commencing the practice of his pro- 
 fession in his native town, Mr. Adams soon became known 
 and esteemed. In 1766, he removed to Boston, by the ad- 
 
 (57) 
 
58 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 vice of Mr. Gridley, and having a fair field, quickly took a 
 high rank as counsel and advocate. 
 
 At an early age, Mr. Adams evinced a fondness for ge- 
 neral politics, and while at college he speculated upon the 
 probability of the colonies being the seeds of a great empire. 
 His feelings were strongly and ardently American. Civil 
 and religious liberty he adored, and he was among the first 
 to denounce the oppressive policy which the mother country 
 pursued towards the provinces. In 1764, he married Abigal 
 Smith, daughter of Rev. William Smith, of Weymouth, a 
 lady of strong intelligence and great personal advantages. 
 In the next year, Mr. Adams pubhshed an Essay on the Canon 
 and Feudal Law ; the aim of which was to show the conspi- 
 racy between church and state for the purpose of oppressing 
 the people. This paper displayed as much power of mind as 
 learning, and both were remarkable in so young a lawyer. 
 
 In 1770, the confidence of his fellow citizens in his ta- 
 lents was evinced by his election to a seat in the legislature 
 of Massachusetts. The Boston Massacre happened the same 
 year. The people were indignant and exasperated. It was 
 feared that Captain Preston and other prominent persons 
 would be sacrificed to appease the popular fury. John 
 Adams and Josiah Quincy boldly volunteered to defend the 
 captain when he was put upon trial, and secured him the 
 acquittal which was his due. The patriotism of these ad- 
 vocates was too well known for them to lose the favor of the 
 people by their noble action. While a member of the legis- 
 lature, Mr. Adams not only opposed the measures of Go- 
 vernor Hutchinson, but wrote against the British ministry 
 for the newspapers. In 1774, he was elected a member of 
 the Massachusetts Council, but was negatived by Governor 
 Gage. 
 
JOHN ADAMS. 59 
 
 Sewall, the attorney-general, ■vvrote a number of essays 
 in defence of the ministry, which were published during the 
 years 1774-75. It was expected that they would be influ- 
 ential with the people. But the patriotic leaders were pre- 
 pared to counteract them. Mr. Adams wrote several replies 
 under the name, "Nov Anglus." These papers were cha- 
 racterized by power of logic, and clearness and simplicity 
 of style. These added to his reputation, and in 1774, he 
 was appointed a delegate from Massachusetts to the Conti- 
 nental Congress. In that body, his decided course and 
 earnest eloquence procured him considerable influence. 
 
 In jthe second Congress which met in May, 1775, he 
 aa;ain took his seat. He advocated the boldest measures 
 with great force and brilliancy. Congress contained many 
 pure and lofty characters ; and to be a leader in such a 
 body was not a common distinction. Where such orators 
 as Henry, Rutledge, and Lee, and such statesmen as Wash- 
 ington, Mason, Sherman, Franklin, and Jeflerson, were to 
 be found, what must he have been who was called the " co- 
 lossus ?" Truly, John Adams was, in will and mind, a great 
 man. It was at his suggestion, that Washington was ap- 
 pointed commander-in-chief of the army of independence, 
 and throughout the revolution, he was his constant friend. 
 
 On the 7th of June, 1776, Richard Henry Lee made the 
 famous motion, that the colonies be declared free and inde- 
 pendent states. This gave rise to an animated discussion. 
 John Adams took the lead upon the side of independence, 
 and made some fervent and powerful appeals to the Con- 
 gress to take the decisive step. 
 
 The Declaration was adopted. The committee appointed 
 to draw up the document consisted of Thomas Jefi'erson, 
 Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, Roger Sherman, and 
 
60 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Robert L. Livingston. It was approved and signed by all 
 the members, on the 4th of July. During the year, Mr. 
 Adams was appointed upon a committee with Benjamin 
 Franklin, and Edward Rutledge, to treat with Lord Howe, 
 for the pacification of the colonies. As was expected, the 
 committee effected nothing towards the object. The offers 
 of the British government could not be accepted. 
 
 In the latter part of 1777, Congress appointed Mr. Adams 
 commissioner to the court of France, in the place of Silas 
 Deane. When he arrived in France, he found that a treaty 
 of amity and commerce, as well as an alliance, offensive 
 and defensive, had already been consummated ; and. after 
 the minister plenipotentiary. Doctor Franklin, arrived, he 
 returned to the United States. • 
 
 In the summer of 1779, Mr. Adams was chosen to a seat 
 in the Massachusetts convention for forming a new consti- 
 tution. As a member of the committee for drafting the 
 fundamental charter, he formed a plan, the most important 
 features of which were adopted. While he attended to the 
 business of the convention, another important office was 
 prepared for him. Congress resolved to send a minister 
 plenipotentiary for negotiating a peace with Great Britain, 
 and Mr. Adams received the appointment. In November, 
 1779, he sailed for Europe. Abroad, Mr. Adams main- 
 tained the character of a stern and bold republican. While 
 other ambassadors and commissioners flattered the French 
 court, and took all favors as great condescentions, he took 
 another course. He knew that it was to the interest of 
 France to divide the British empire, and he did not hesitate 
 to make demands as well as to ask favors. His great ob- 
 jects were to effect a loan in Holland, and to induce that 
 country to recognise the independence of the colonies. He 
 
JOHN ADAMS. 61 
 
 was successful to the full extent of his wishes. In 1782, he 
 negotiated a very favorable treaty, and obtained a loan of 
 eight million guilders. 
 
 In 1781, he was associated with Dr. Franklin, John Jay, 
 John Laurens, and Thomas Jefferson, in a commission for 
 concluding treaties with various European powers. With 
 Franklin, Jay, and Laurens, he negotiated the definite treaty 
 of peace between Great Britain and the United States, 
 which was signed on the 3rd of September, 1783. Mr. 
 Adams remained in Europe, serving his country in various 
 capacities until 1788- In 1785, he was appointed minister 
 to Great Britain, where he was coldly received by the go- 
 vernment, and was unable to effect a commercial treaty. 
 But by assisting to form advantageous treaties with Prussia 
 and Morocco, and by writing elaborately and eloquently in 
 defence of the forms of government established in the United 
 States, he won a title to the gratitude of his countrymen. 
 
 When permission was given Mr. Adams to return from 
 Europe, congress adopted the following resolution : — " Re- 
 solved, That Congress entertains a high sense of the services 
 which Mr. Adams has rendered to the United States, in the 
 execution of the various important trusts which they have 
 from time to time, committed to him, and that the thanks 
 of Congress be presented to him for the patriotism, perse- 
 verance, integrity and diligence with which he has ably and 
 faithfully served his country." This expression of approval 
 of his labors at home and abroad must have been a deep 
 gratification to the zealous patriot. 
 
 When Washington was elected to the Preidency, Mr. 
 Adams was elevated to the office of Vice President. He 
 presided in the Senate with dignity and judgment, during 
 the whole of Washington's administration, cordially ap- 
 
 6 
 
62 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 proved of the President's policy, and lent his personal in- 
 fluence to the support of the administration. The Senate, 
 at the expiration of Mr. Adamss' second term of office, 
 adopted a farewell address, containing the strongest ex- 
 pressions of respect and attachment for him. In 1790, 
 while holding the office of Vice President, Mr. Adams added 
 to the number of his valuable political papers by the publi- 
 cation of his celebrated "Discourses on Davila," a sequel 
 to his "Defence of the American Constitution." 
 
 On the retirement of Washington, Mr. Adams was elected 
 to fill the Presidential chair. The contest was close and 
 spirited, Thomas Jefferson being supported by the republi- 
 cans, or democrats, Thomas Pinckney by a portion of the 
 federal party, and Mr. Adams, by the friends of the policy 
 of the last administration generally. Mr. Jefferson was 
 elected Vice President. In March, 1797, the newly chosen 
 President and Vice President entered upon the duties of 
 their respective offices. The two houses of Congress having 
 enjoined the successors of Washington to follow his great 
 example, — Mr. Adams, in his inaugural address, thus spoke 
 of what he knew to be his own qualifications and principles : 
 
 "If a preference, upon principle, of a free republican 
 government, formed upon long and serious reflection, after a 
 diligent and impartial inquiry after truth ; if an attachment 
 to the constitution of the United States, and a conscientious 
 determination to support it, until it shall be altered by the 
 judgments and wishes of the people, expressed in the mode 
 prescribed in it ; if a respectful attention to the constitutions 
 of the individual states, and a constant caution and delicacy 
 towards the state governments ; if an equal and important 
 regard to the rights, interest, honor, and happiness, of all 
 the states in the Union, without preference or regard to a 
 
JOHN ADAMS. 63 
 
 northern or soutliern, an eastern or "western position, their 
 various political opinions on unessential points, or their per- 
 sonal attachments ; if a love of virtuous men of all parties 
 and denominations ; if a love of science and letters, and a 
 vyish to patronize every rational effort to encourage schools, 
 colleges, universities, academies, and every institution for 
 propagating knowledge, virtue, and religion, among all 
 classes of the people, not only for their benign influence on 
 the happiness of life in all its stages and classes, and of so- 
 ciety in all its forms, but as the only means of preserving 
 our constitution from its natural enemies, the spirit of sophis- 
 try, the spirit of party, the spirit of intrigue, the profligacy 
 of corruption, and the pestilence of foreign influence, which 
 is the angel of destruction to elective governments ; if a love 
 of equal laws, of justice, and of humanity in the interior 
 administration ; if an inclination to improve agricultm'e, 
 commerce, and manufactures for necessity, convenience, and 
 defence ; if a spirit of equity and humanity towards the 
 aboriginal nations of America, and a disposition to melio- 
 rate their condition by inclining them to be more friendly 
 to us, and our citizens to be more friendly to them ; if an 
 inflexible determination to maintain peace and inviolable 
 faith with all nations, and that system of neutrality and 
 impartiality among all the belligerent powers of Europe 
 which has been adopted by this, government, and so solemnly 
 sanctioned by both houses of Congress, and applauded by 
 the legislatures of the states and the public opinion, until it 
 shall be otherwise ordained by Congress ; if a personal 
 esteem for the French nation, formed in a residence of 
 seven years, chiefly among them, and a sincere desire to 
 preserve the friendship which has been so much for the 
 honor and interest of both nations ; if, while the con- 
 
64 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 scious honor and integrity of the people of America, and the 
 internal sentiment of their own power and energies must be 
 preserved, an earnest endeavor to promote every just cause, 
 and remove every colorable pretence of complaint ; if an in- 
 tention to pursue by amicable negotiation a reparation for 
 the injuries that have been committed on the commerce of 
 our fellow-citizens by whatever nation ; and if success cannot 
 be obtained, to lay the facts before the legislature, that they 
 may consider what further measures the honor and interest 
 of the government and its constituents demand ; if a resolu- 
 tion to do justice, as far as may depend upon me, at all times 
 and to all nations, and maintain peace, friendship, and be- 
 nevolence with all the world ; if an unshaken confidence in 
 the honor, spirit, and resources of the American people, on 
 "which I have so often hazarded my all, and never been de- 
 ceived ; if elevated ideas of the high destinies of this country 
 and my own duties towards it, founded on a knowledge of 
 the moral principles and intellectual improvements of the 
 people, deeply engraven on my mind in early life, and not 
 obscured, but exalted by experience and age ; and, with 
 humble reverence, I feel it to be my duty to add, if a vene- 
 ration for the religion of a people who profess and call them- 
 selves Christians, and a fixed resolution to consider a decent 
 respect for Christianity among the best recommendations for 
 the public service, can enable me, in any degree to comply 
 with your wishes, it shall be my strenuous endeavor, that 
 this sagacious injunction of the two houses shall not be with- 
 out efi'ect." 
 
 Mr. Adams continued in office the same cabinet which 
 had been left by President Washington, viz.: Timothy Pick- 
 ering, Secretary of State ; Oliver Wolcott, Secretary of the 
 Treasury ; James M'Henry, Secretary of War ; and Charles 
 
JOHN ADAMS. 65 
 
 Lee, Attorney General. Tlie Navy Department was not 
 created until 1798, when Benjamin Stoddart, of Maryland, 
 was appointed Secretary of the Navy. 
 
 The difficulties with France pressed upon the new admi- 
 nistration, and the calling of a special session of Congress, 
 was its first important measure. The state of affairs por- 
 tended war. Mr. C. C. Pinckney, the American minister, 
 had been expelled from France, and the government of that 
 country had issued new orders for depredations upon Ame- 
 rican commerce. There was a decided federal majority in 
 both houses of Congress, and the President was, therefore, 
 enabled to carry through all the measures deemed necessary 
 for the national defence. Several taxes were imposed to 
 meet extra expenses, however, which were very unpopular. 
 
 President Adams neglected no means of conciliation. He 
 appointed Messrs. C. C. Pinckney, Elbridge Gerry, and 
 John Marshall, special envoys to the French republic, with 
 ample powers. But the French government would not con- 
 fer with them officially ; and Messrs. Pinckney and Mar- 
 shall, satisfied that no treaty could be consummated, re- 
 quested to be allowed to return. Soon after they were 
 ordered to leave France. Mr. Gerry was invited to remain, 
 and he did so. 
 
 The people of the United States were indignant at the 
 conduct of the French government. Money had been de- 
 manded as the price of peace. But the people responded 
 to the sentiment of Mr. Pinckney — "Millions for defence, 
 but not a cent for tribute." Mr. Gerry was censured for 
 not having withdrawn with his colleagues, though his inten- 
 tions were honorable. As soon as he found there was no 
 hope of effecting a treaty, he returned to the United States. 
 
 When Congress met, measures for national defence were 
 
 6* 
 
66 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 adopted. In June, 1798, an act was passed, suspending 
 commercial intercourse with France and her colonies. At 
 this period, the administration was very popular. The de- 
 mocratic party could not muster strongly in opposition to 
 the President's measures. Still its members were active 
 and determined. Although there was no declaration of war 
 on the part of either country, hostilities commenced upon 
 the sea, and Commodore Truxtun gained two brilliant vic- 
 tories over French vessels of superior force. War was not 
 the aim of the French government. As soon as the deter- 
 mined spirit of the United States displayed itself, the hos- 
 tile rulers fell back, and a treaty of friendship, peace, and 
 commerce was proposed. 
 
 During the autumn of 1798, Congress adopted two acts 
 which became very unpopular. These were the alien and 
 sedition laws. The alien law empowered the President to 
 order aliens, whom he found conspiring against the govern- 
 ment, to depart from its territories. The sedition law pu- 
 nished libels upon the goverment and its oflBcers. The first 
 was said to be liable to an abusive interpretation, and the 
 second, to restrict the liberty of speech and of the press. 
 The opposition to these laws was very strong in various 
 parts of the country. 
 
 As the French government evinced a desire to enter into 
 negotiations with the United States, the President appointed 
 Mr. Murray, Oliver Ellsworth, and Patrick Henry, envoys. 
 Mr. Henry declined the appointment. In his letter of de- 
 clination, he said : " Nothing short of absolute necessity 
 could induce me to withhold my feeble aid from an admini- 
 stration whose abilities, patriotism and virtue, deserve the 
 gratitude and reverence of all their fellow citizens." William 
 R, Davie was appointed as a substitute. The President did 
 
JOHN ADAMS. 67 
 
 not consult his cabinet upon this occasion. Mr. Pickering, 
 Secretary of State, and Mr. M'Henry, Secretary of War, 
 remonstrated against the course pursued. They, with Ha- 
 milton and other leading federalists, thought the first de- 
 cided offer to treat should come from France. However, 
 the envoys were favorably received, and the basis of a treaty 
 was soon settled. But the treaty itself was not entirely 
 ratified until after Mr. Jefferson's accession to the Presidency. 
 
 The democratic party had greatly gained in strength in 
 consequence of the enactment of the alien and sedition laws, 
 and other administration measures. When the time came 
 for nominating candidates for the Presidency and Vice 
 Presidency, the federalists brought forward the names of 
 President Adams and General Charles Cotesworth Pinckney. 
 The democrats nominated Thomas Jefferson and Colonel 
 Aaron Burr. The dismissal of Messrs. Pickering and M'- 
 Henry from the cabinet caused a division among the federal- 
 ists. General Hamilton wrote a letter, censuring the cha- 
 racter of the President, which was calculated to increase the 
 strength of the opponenets of the administration. When the 
 vote in the electoral college was ascertained, it was found 
 as follows : — Jefferson, seventy-three ; Burr, seventy-three ; 
 Adams, sixty-five ; Pinckney, sixty-four ; John Jay, one. 
 The votes for Jefferson and Burr being equal, it remained 
 for the house of representatives to decide who should be 
 President; and who Vice President. After thirty-six bal- 
 lotings, Mr. Jefferson was chosen to fill the first office, and 
 Colonel Burr for the second. 
 
 During the summer of 1800, the seat of government had 
 been removed from Philadelphia to the new federal city of 
 Washington, and at the lately erected capitol, President 
 Adams met the sixth Congress, on the 22d of November, 
 
68 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 1800, when he delivered his last annual speech to the national 
 legislature. 
 
 After Mr. Jefferson's inauguration, Mr. Adams retired 
 to his estate, in Quincy, Massachusetts. The remainder of 
 his life "was passed in literary and scientific pursuits, though 
 he occasionally addressed the public through political papers. 
 He always maintained a friendly correspondence with Mr. 
 Jefferson, and approved of the chief measures of that states- 
 man's administration. He also supported Mr. Madison, 
 during the war with Great Britain, beginning in 1812. In 
 1816, the republican party in Massachusetts, placed his name 
 at the head of their electoral ticket, a great compliment 
 from the opponents of his presidential career. In 1820, he 
 was solicited to act as President of the Massachusetts state 
 convention for framing a constitution ; but he declined. 
 The convention, however, adopted a resolution, acknowledg- 
 ing the great services he had rendered to his country and 
 mankind. 
 
 The loss of his amiable and talented wife, who died in 
 1818, was a deep afiiiction to Mr. Adams. For many years 
 she had shared his trials, misfortunes, and joys ; and she 
 evinced a patriotic as well as a loving spirit. But the old 
 patriot lived to see his son, John Quincy Adams, elevated to 
 the Presidency — truly a great qualification. He died at the 
 good old age of ninety-one, on the 4th of July, 1826, the 
 fiftieth anniversary of that independence which he had strug- 
 gled to achieve. Thomas Jefferson expired on the same day. 
 
 Mr. Adams had the soul of an apostle of a great revolu- 
 tion. He was a bold, determined, and indefatigable supporter 
 of what his heart and mind told him was right. He inquired, 
 decided, resolved, and acted, without the slightest fear of 
 consequences, and was therefore the very spirit of indepen- 
 
JOHN ADAMS. 69 
 
 dence. It has been said that he was careless of the views 
 and feelings of others, and there is probably much truth in 
 the assertion. But a feeling of self-sufficiency is generally 
 the result of a knowledge of the power of ourself, and it has 
 been a characteristic of most of those earnest and indomi- 
 table men who have effected important changes in the world. 
 John Adams could not have fulfilled his mission, if he had 
 not possessed a thorough self-reliance. 
 
 " Mr. Adams was a finished gentleman in his manners, 
 with an aristocratic bearing which, together with his known 
 leaning towards sentiments of a similar cast, obtained for 
 him among his political enemies the soubriquet of Duke of 
 Braintree. There seemed to be testiness about him when 
 contradicted, and some want of condescension towards men 
 of low estate and vulgar manners. It did not amount to 
 Horace's Odi ignohile vulgus, et arceo, but it had a pretty 
 strong tincture of it, and exposed him to much misconception 
 and misrepresentation. For the bulk of mankind, especially 
 of those who from their position in society contemplate 
 public characters only at a distance, and are seldom brought 
 into personal contact with them, are very apt to form their 
 impressions more from manner than any other criterion. 
 Manner strikes them at once, and with great effect, and if 
 a man's manner to his inferiors is shy or haughty, he may 
 calculate on their hatred, and if he holds an elective office, 
 he will certainly lose their votes, be his public merits what 
 they may."* 
 
 Mr. Adams was of middle stature, and rather fleshy. 
 
 His countenance beamed with intelligence and determination. 
 
 His bearing was firm and dignified. When speaking, his 
 
 manner was slow and deliberate ; till he became excited, and 
 
 * A. J. Stansbury. 
 
70 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 then the words came forth with rapidity and energy. He 
 was a man of the purest morals and a practical Christian. 
 
 No man was ever more misrepresented or mismiderstood. 
 In the heat of party spirit, the name of John Adams was 
 coupled with that of traitor. Traitor indeed ! The man who 
 applied the epithet could never have felt a tithe of that 
 broad devotion to his country which made John Adams, the 
 civic leader of the war of independence. His earnestness 
 in the noble cause was the whole secret of his greatness. 
 When will partisans learn the nobility of tolerance ? 
 
 Mr. Webster in his eulogy, thus speaks of the latter days 
 of Mr. Adams's life. " He has lived, for five and twenty 
 years, with every enjoyment that could make old age happy. 
 Not inattentive to the occurrences of the times political cares 
 have yet not materially, or for any long time, disturbed his 
 repose. In 1820 he acted as elector of President and Vice 
 President, and in the same year we saw him, then at the 
 age of eighty-five, a member of the convention of this 
 commonwealth, called to revise the constitution. Forty 
 years before, he had been one of those who formed that 
 constitution ; and he had now the pleasure of witnessing 
 that there was little which the people desired to change. 
 Possessing all his faculties to the end of his long life, with 
 an unabated love of reading and contemplation, in the centre 
 of interesting circles of friendship and affection, he was 
 blessed, in his retirement, with whatever of repose and fe- 
 licity, the condition of man allows. He had, also, other 
 enjoyments. He saw around him that prosperity and gene- 
 ral happiness, which had been the object of his public cares 
 and labors. No man ever beheld more clearly, and for a 
 longer time, the great and beneficial effects of the services 
 rendered by himself to his country. That liberty, of which he 
 
JOHN ADAMS. 71 
 
 was SO able an advocate and supporter, he saw, we trust, 
 firmly and securely established. The population of the 
 country thickened around him faster, and extended wider, 
 than his own sanguine predictions had anticipated ; and the 
 wealth, respectability, and power of the nation sprang up to 
 a magnitude, which it is quite impossible he could have ex- 
 pected to witness, in his day. He lived, also, to behold 
 those principles of civil freedom, which had been developed, 
 established, and practically applied in America, attract at- 
 tention, command respect, and awaken imitation, in other 
 regions of the globe : and well might, and well did he, ex- 
 claim, ' Where will the consequences of the American Revo- 
 lution end !' 
 
 " If any thing yet remain to fill this cup of happiness, let 
 it be added, that he lived to see a great and intelligent 
 people bestow the highest honor in their gift, where he had 
 bestowed his own kindest parental affections, and lodged his 
 fondest hopes. Thus honored in life, thus happy at death, 
 he saw the jubilee, and he died ; and with the last prayers 
 which trembled on his lips, was supplication for his country, 
 'independence for ever.' " 
 
JljoifK)^^ ]effei*30^, 
 
 Great men generally have the warmest friends and the 
 bitterest enemies. A decided preference for a certain set 
 of principles and a bold and persevering pursuit of a well- 
 known path, naturally causes this state of feeling. The 
 principles may be unsound : the path may be wrong. It is 
 the sincere, brave, and determined action which is the es- 
 sence of greatness. The prominence which such action 
 gives a man makes him the idol of those who agree with 
 him, and the mark for the shaft of those who dissent. Even 
 at the present day, the character and political course of 
 Thomas Jefferson are subjects of violent discussion. One 
 set of men regard him as one of the wisest and most virtuous 
 statesmen who have ever lived, and another persists in the 
 assertion that he was both insincere and wrong-headed. 
 But it must be agreed that he was a great man. He wrote 
 and talked greatly ; many great men looked up to him ; 
 and he left a broad wake upon the ocean of American politics. 
 
 Thomas Jefferson was born at a place called Shadwell, in 
 Albemarle county, Virginia, on the 2d of April, (old style,) 
 1743. Peter Jefferson, his father, was a man of some dis- 
 tinction in the colony. He died in 1757, leaving a widow 
 and eight children — Thomas being the eldest. The children 
 
 7* (77) 
 
78 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 -were left In good circumstances. Thomas received the 
 lands which he called Monticello, on which he afterwards 
 resided, when not engaged in public duties. At the age of 
 five, he was sent to an elementary school ; and four years 
 afterwards, he commenced the study of Latin, Greek, and 
 Trench. In the spring of 1760, he entered William and 
 Mary College, where he prosecuted his studies for two years. 
 He there acquired the friendship of the professor of mathe- 
 matics. Dr. William Small, who introduced him to George 
 Wythe, under whose instruction, he commenced the study 
 of the law. 
 
 In 1764, when just twenty-one years old, Mr. Jefferson 
 was admitted to the bar of the general court. At the prac- 
 tice of the law he continued until the revolution closed the 
 courts of justice. Several written arguments upon intricate 
 law questions have been preserved, which prove that Mr. 
 Jefferson would have attained the front rank in his profes- 
 sion. But he possessed no talent for oratory, and never 
 made a conspicuous figure in debate. 
 
 While he was a student at law, in Williamsburg, Mr. Jef- 
 ferson heard the famous speech of Patrick Henry, in the 
 Virginia house of delegates, against the stamp act ; animated 
 by the spirit of that great orator, he from that time stood 
 forth as a champion for his country. In 1769, he was 
 chosen by the people of his county to represent them in the 
 legislature of the province. In that capacity, which he 
 maintained up to the period of the revolution, Mr. Jefferson 
 made an unsuccessful attempt to procure the emancipation 
 of slaves in Virginia. Thus his first important movement 
 was in behalf of human liberty. In January, 1772, he mar- 
 ried Mrs. Martha Skelton, a young widow, possessed of 
 considerable property. 
 
THOMAS JEFFERSON. 79 
 
 On the 12tli of March, 1773, Mr. Jefferson was appointed 
 a member of the first committee of correspondence esta- 
 blished by the colonial legislatures, and in the next year he 
 published his powerful pamphlet, called, " Summary View 
 of the Rights of British America," which was republished 
 in England, under the auspices of Edmund Burke. In 1776, 
 Jefferson was chosen to a seat in the Continental Congress. 
 In that body, though very young, he was much esteemed 
 and respected. Being appointed chairman of the committee 
 to prepare the Declaration of Independence, he drew up 
 that famous instrument, which, with a few amendments, was 
 adopted by Congress. The Declaration remains as his 
 noblest monument. 
 
 Mr. Jefferson left Congress to take a seat in the Virginia 
 legislature. While in the latter body, he acted as one of a com- 
 mission for revising the laws of the commonwealth. Among 
 the laws proposed by him and adopted, were those prohibit- 
 ing the future importation of slaves ; abolishing the law of 
 primogeniture ; and providing for the equal partition of in- 
 heritances ; for establishing religious freedom ; and for a 
 system of general education. All these measures display 
 the humanity and enlightenment of their author. 
 
 The benevolence of Mr. Jefferson was exercised in 1779, 
 when he alleviated the condition of the British prisoners, 
 who had been captured at Saratoga and sent to Charlottes- 
 ville, Virginia, to await the action of the British government. 
 When the time came for their leaving Virginia, the oflScers 
 addressed many letters of thanks to him for his kindness 
 and hospitality. On the 1st of June, in the same year, Mr. 
 Jefferson was elected by the legislature to succeed Patrick 
 Henry, as Governor of Virginia. He held that ofiice two 
 years, and then retired to private life. Soon afterwards, he 
 
80 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 was nearly captured by a party of British cavalry, sent to 
 surprise the members of the assembly, at Charlottesville. 
 When pursued, Mr. Jefferson escaped, on his horse, through 
 the woods at Carter's Mountain. The same year, he was 
 elected to the legislature. 
 
 M. De Marbois, the secretary of legation from France to 
 the United States, wishitig to obtain a general view of the 
 geography, productions, statistics, government, history, and 
 laws, applied to Mr. Jefferson, who, in answer, wrote his 
 famous "Notes on Virginia," which work was soon after 
 published both in French and English. The veracity and 
 accuracy of its matter, and the simple beauty of its style 
 excited general admiration. The work was written in 1781. 
 
 In 1782, Mr. Jefferson was appointed by Congress to 
 join the able American negotiators then in Europe, but in- 
 telligence having been received that the preliminaries of a 
 treaty of peace had been signed, his services were dispensed 
 with. He was elected a delegate to Congress in 1783, and 
 in the next year, he wrote notes on the establishment of a 
 coinage for the United States. To him we are indebted for 
 the dollar as a unit, and our present system of coins and 
 decimals. 
 
 In May, 1784, Congress joined Mr. Jefferson with Messrs. 
 Adams and Franklin, as ministers plenipotentiary to nego- 
 tiate treaties of commerce with foreign nations, and in the 
 next year, he succeeded Dr. Franklin as minister at the 
 French court. The society of Paris suited the taste of 
 Mr. Jefferson. He was courted by the witty, learned, and 
 scientific, and his sociable disposition, winning manners, 
 and brilliant conversation, found full appreciation. He re- 
 mained in Paris until the latter part of 1789, when he ob- 
 tained leave of absence, and returned to the United States. 
 
THOMAS JEFFERSON. 81 
 
 On his "way to Monticello, he received from President "Wash- 
 ington, the offer of a seat in the cabinet, as secretary of state, 
 which he accepted though he was inclined to return to 
 France. 
 
 While in the cabinet, under Washington, Mr. Jefferson 
 made many able reports, and skilfully conducted the corres- 
 pondence with foreign governments. But his partiality for 
 France, and disapproval of the chief measures proposed by 
 Hamilton, caused constant bickering and contention. A 
 strong opposition to the government was formed, under the 
 wing of Mr. Jefferson. Party spirit ran high, and even the 
 private character of Washington was assailed by the rejTub- 
 lica"^" of the period. It has been asserted that Mr. Jeffer- 
 son was much too intimate with the authors of these vitupe- 
 rations, but no conclusive evidence of his countenancing any 
 such disgraceful proceedings has been adduced. On the 31st 
 of December, 1793, Mr. Jefferson resigned his seat in the 
 cabinet, and retired to Monticello. 
 
 In 1796, the republican party supported Mr. Jefferson for 
 the Presidency ; but Mr. Adams received the highest number 
 of votes. Mr. Jefferson then became Vice President. 
 During the time he held this office, he composed a manual 
 for the senate, which has since been the guide of Congress 
 and most other political bodies in the states, for the transaction 
 of business. 
 
 In 1800, Mr. Jefferson was again nominated for ths 
 Presidency. This time he received a higher number of 
 electoral votes than Mr. Adams. But Colonel Burr received 
 the same number, and therefore the election devolved upon 
 house of representatives. Upon the thirty-sixth ballot, Mr. 
 Jefferson received a majority, and therefore became Presi- 
 dent. Colonel Burr, of course, became Vice President. 
 
82 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Both entered upon the duties of their respective offices on 
 the 4th of March, 1801. 
 
 The inaugural address of Mr. Jefferson Tvas a lucid and 
 forcible production, explaining his ideas of good government, 
 and conciliating all parties. The new organization of the 
 cabinet was commenced by the appointment of James Ma-^ 
 dison to be Secretary of State ; Henry Dearborn, Secretary 
 of "War ; Levi Lincoln, Attorney General. Not long after, Al- 
 bert Gallatin was appointed Secretary of the Treasury, and 
 Robert Smith, Secretary of the Navy. From the declarations 
 contained in the inaugural address, the federalists in office 
 inferred that they would be allowed to remain at their posts. 
 But President Jefferson soon indicated his determination to 
 reward his friends and remove his foes. This policy caused 
 a considerable outcry at first, but the first result was, that 
 a great many federalists, eager for office, joined the ranks 
 of the republican party. 
 
 On the 14th of May, 1801, the President wrote to Na- 
 thaniel Macon, of North Carolina, a member of Congress, 
 giving information in regard to some of his projects, as fol- 
 lows : ^' Levees are to be done away with. The first com- 
 munication to the next Congress will be, like all subsequent 
 ones, by message, to which no answer will be expected. The 
 diplomatic establishments in Europe will be reduced to three 
 ministers. I'he army is undergoing a chaste reformation. 
 The navy will be reduced to the legal estabhshment by the 
 last of this month. Agencies in every department will be 
 revised. We shall push you to the utmost in economising. 
 A very early recommendation had been given to ,the post- 
 master general, to employ no printer, foreigner, or revolu- 
 tionary tory, in any of his offices. This department is still 
 untouched." 
 
THOMAS JEFFEKSON. 83 
 
 Majorities in both houses of the seventh Congress enabled 
 the President to carry through many measures not otherwise 
 practicable. Many acts obnoxious to the majority of the 
 people were repealed ; a uniform system of naturalization 
 was established, reducing the necessary residence of aliens 
 to five years was adopted at the suggestion of the President. 
 The foreign relations of the United States were manao;ed 
 with consummate skill. Difficulties occurred with SjDain con- 
 cerning the southern boundary. That monarchy ceded 
 Louisiana to France, the government of which refused to 
 allow the people of the United States to use New Orleans 
 as a place of deposit. War was anticipated. The opposition 
 in Congress proposed hostile measures. But the President 
 resolved to pursue a pacific policy. On the 10th of Janu- 
 ary, 1803, he appointed James Monroe, minister plenipo- 
 tentiary to France to act with the regular minister, Mr. 
 Robert F. Livington, for the purchase of Louisiana. The com- 
 mission was entirely successful. Napoleon, the first consul, 
 sold the important territory for fifteen millions of dollars. 
 This great acquisition was a deep gratification to the friends 
 of the President. Mr. Jefierson was of the opinion that an 
 amendment to the constitution would be necessary to legal- 
 ize the territory to the United States ; but as Congress and 
 the people appeared satisfied no amendment was made. The 
 repeal of the bankrupt law, an amendment to the constitu- 
 tion, changing the mode of electing the President and Vice 
 President, and the sending out of the north-western explor- 
 ing expedition, under Lewis and Clarke, were the chief mea- 
 sures consummated during the remainder of Mr. Jefierson's 
 first presidential term. 
 
 At the election in 1804, Mr. Jefierson and George Clinton 
 were the candidates for the republican party, and Charles 
 
84 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Cotesworth Pinckney and Rufus King were brougtt forward 
 bj the federalists. The result was the triumph of Messrs. 
 Jefferson and Clinton, by a vote of one hundred and sixty- 
 two to fourteen. 
 
 In his second inaugural address, delivered March 4th, 
 1805, Mr. Jefferson exulted in the success which had attend- 
 ed his reform measures. But the gun-boat system which he 
 had recommended instead of a navy, had entirely failed when 
 put into practice and upon this his political foes seized to 
 found their attacks upon his new administration. Difficul- 
 ties with Spain, France, and Great Britain, concerning 
 boundaries and depredations upon commerce, furnished them 
 with more material, and for a long period, their orators 
 were active and violent in assailing the policy of the govern- 
 ment. In conformity with the recommendation of the Pre- 
 sident, Congress passed an act prohibiting the importation 
 of slaves after the 1st of January, 1808. Messrs. Monroe 
 and Pinckney negotiated a treaty with the British govern- 
 ment, which they considered highly favorable to the United 
 States. But the President rejected it, and even refused to 
 send it to the senate. This course excited much clamor 
 among the federalists, and alienated a few republicans ; but 
 the sanction of the majority was given to it. The refusal 
 to accept this treaty was a primary cause of the embargo 
 and other restrictive measures, and tended to produce that 
 bitter hostile feeling which led to the war of 1812. How- 
 ever, the British government had from the time of the Revo- 
 lution, pursued a policy calculated to irritate the people of 
 the United States. The gross outrage upon the frigate 
 Chesapeake, the continued impressment of the American 
 seamen, and the seizure of American vessels, were hostile 
 movements not quietly to be borne. The embargo act, 
 
THOMAS JEFFERSON. 85 
 
 which was passed by Congress, on the 22d of December, 
 1807, was the first movement of the United States towards 
 retaliation. But it weighed heavily upon the American 
 commercial community, and therefore excited violent denun- 
 ciation. The ranks of the federalists were much strength- 
 ened. But a majority in and out of Congress, sustained 
 the measures of the President. 
 
 The election for successors to Messrs. Jefferson and 
 Clinton terminated in the complete triumph of the republi- 
 can party. James Madison was elected to the presidential 
 chair, and George Clinton was re-elected to the vice presi- 
 dency. On the 8th of November, Mr, Jefferson sent to 
 both houses his last annual message. The foreign affairs 
 of the country were in a critical state, and at home, the 
 embargo pressed heavily upon the trading community. But 
 when Mr. Jefferson resigned the reins of government, he 
 was assured that his successor would carry out his doctrine^ 
 and policy. 
 
 After waiting to witness Mr. Madison's inauguration, 
 Mr. Jefferson retired to his favorite Monticello, (March 5th, 
 1809.) Here he lived a life of literary, scientific, and agri- 
 cultural delight, surrounded by affectionate friends, and oc- 
 casionally visited by the learned from abroad. The princi- 
 pal object in which he took an interest, in his latter days, 
 was the establishment of a system of education in Virginia. 
 The University of Virginia was founded through his instru- 
 mentality in 1818, he acted as rector from the time of its 
 foundation until his death. In his old age his pecuniary 
 circumstances became embarrassed. Congress purchased 
 his library for thirty thousand dollars. Still he remained 
 deeply in debt. In 1825, he applied to the legislature for 
 
 permission to dispose of Monticello by lottery to prevent its 
 
 8 
 
86 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 being sacrificed to his creditors. The requeste was granted. 
 But before Mr. Jefierson could take advantage of this, death 
 overtook him. After a short illness, he died on the 4th of 
 July, 1826, the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of 
 Independence, at the age of eighty-three years. In accord- 
 ance with his own request, a granite obelisk was erected over 
 his remains, bearing the inscription : 
 
 HERE WAS BURIED, 
 
 THOMAS JEFFERSON, 
 
 AUTHOR OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE, 
 
 OF THE STATUTES OF VIRGINIA FOR RELIGIOUS FREEDOM, 
 
 AND THE FATHER OF THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA. 
 
 This inscription shows the pure and noble character of the 
 fame which Thomas Jefi"erson desired. We have mentioned 
 that his illustrious compatriot, John Adams, expired upon 
 the same day. The partisan opinions of these great cham- 
 pions of the Revolution were forgotten when their deaths 
 were knelled over the land. Their mighty and glorious 
 work was alone remembered, and the most eloquent vied in 
 strewing flowers upon the tombs of the noble dead, while 
 the people came to keep them fresh with their mourning 
 tears. 
 
 Mr. Jefferson maintained an extensive correspondence 
 through life, and from it a good idea of his character and 
 opinions may be obtained. 
 
 " With manners eminently winning, sprightly, graceful, 
 gay, he had a readiness and a fund of conversational talent 
 rarely equalled. There was a charm about it which was 
 scarcely possible to resist. He possessed, in an eminent 
 degree, that instinctive perception of what is proper to be 
 
THOMAS JEFFERSON. 87 
 
 said, and what will please the hearer, which is embodied in 
 the expressive word tact. As a skilful and quick-sighted 
 pilot perceives, at a glance, the rock to be avoided, the 
 current to be availed of, and the precise moment at which 
 to change the direction of his bark, and is able, by an im- 
 perceptible pressure on the helm, to evade each new danger, 
 and pass unharmed through the narrowest strait, and in the 
 most threatening rapids, Jefferson could, in an instant, and 
 with a wonderful ease and grace, turn the course' of conver- 
 sation, even with the most wary and inveterate enemy, so 
 as to avoid irritation, touch his weak points, and all but 
 make a captive of him, against his own fixed purpose. In 
 this, the most useful of talents to a politician, he was all 
 French ; there was none of the straight-forward, blundering 
 honesty of John Bull about him. He knew exactly what to 
 say, and how to say it ; and he said it. 
 
 " Mr. Jefferson's voice was peculiar, very pleasant, sel- 
 dom raised to a loud tone, and his words came ' trippingly 
 off his tongue.' His step was light and elastic, and vevy 
 rapid for a man of his gaunt form and elongated proportions. 
 He affected republican simplicity of dress, though he was 
 always neat and gentlemanly. His carriage presented the 
 very curious and unusual contrast of a rapid, graceful 
 movement with a long, awkward, bony frame. His shoulders 
 were unusually square, his neck long and scrawny, the skin 
 of his face adust, as if scorched, and of a brick-du.'jt red ; 
 his hair foxy, and brushy at the temples. Once seen, he 
 never could be forgotten. 
 
 " He received company as if their visit was a gratification 
 to him, and strangers always left him with the most grate- 
 ful recollections of the man. Affecting popularity, he lost 
 no opportunity of "making an impression, especially on the 
 
88 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 common people. In this he was like Jackson : and the suc- 
 cess of both was astonishing. Jefferson, it is true, was, in 
 knowledge and mental cultivation, immeasurably the supe- 
 rior; but the means pursued by both were the same, and it 
 was the same class in society whose indomitable attach- 
 ment made both so mighty at the polls. His mingling so 
 much with this portion of the community, especially with 
 mechanics, had, however, a double object ; it was not merely, 
 though mainly, for the sake of popularity ; it was in part, 
 for knowledge's sake. Few men possessed a more inquir- 
 ing mind, or a greater mass of various information. And 
 he sought, in all who approached him, the means of increas- 
 ing it. He would talk with a sea captain about navigation, 
 and would by a few words adroitly spoken, set him off upon 
 his hobby and learn, meanwhile some new fact or facts 
 "which had fallen under the mariner's observation in his. 
 voyages. He would talk with an astronomer about astro- 
 nomy, and draw from him, in a short conversation, what it 
 might have taken long to dig out of books. He was not 
 profound, probably, in any department of human science, 
 though he had a smattering of all. He used often, while 
 President, to walk down to the navy yard, early in a sum- 
 mer's morning, and sitting him down upon an anchor or 
 a spar, enter in a familiar conversation with the surprised 
 and delighted ship-wrights, who would take the utmost pains 
 to satisfy his inquiries. ' There !' would cry one of his 
 political opponents, as he passed by and noticed the group, 
 ' see the demagogue ! There's Long Tom, sinking the 
 dignity of his station, to get votes, and court the mob.' 
 
 But this was unfair ; he was a philosopher investigating 
 mind, gratifying its leading propensity in the acquisition of 
 knowledge. A man of such a cast would naturally be cap 
 
THOMAS JEFFERSON. 89 
 
 tivatcd by whatever ^tas ingenious and new. Had he been 
 less ambitious, a berth in the patent office would have placed 
 him in his element. You could in no way more certainly 
 fix his attention than by exhibiting, and explaining, a new 
 machine ; especially if connected with a scientific purpose.* 
 
 The following anecdotes of Mr. Jefferson, are told by Mr. 
 Stansbury, in his "Reminiscences of the Presidents," pub- 
 lished in Arthur's Philadelphia Home Gazette. 
 
 " I heard John Randolph (who hated Jefferson,) once de- 
 scribe, in his own biting, caustic manner, the delight ex- 
 pressed by him in a new model for the mould-board of 
 a plough. It was called ' the mould-hom^d of least resist- 
 ance ;' and the inventor had gone into a very profound ma- 
 thematical demonstration, to prove that it deserved its name. 
 Jefferson listened and was convinced ; and deeming it a 
 great discovery, recommended it, with zeal, to all his agri- 
 cultural friends. The Virginia planters, accordingly, (who 
 thought every thing of their great man as a natural philo- 
 sopher,) agreed, many of them, to take this new ' mould- 
 board of least resistance.' It was accordingly cast, and for- 
 warded to their farms ; when lo ! on trial, no ordinary team 
 could draw it through the soil. 
 
 "He sometimes figured as an inventor, himself, and on 
 that subject let me relate to you an anecdote which vividly 
 portrays the character of his mind. You know that he had 
 perched his country seat on a mountain height, commanding 
 a magnificent prospect, but exposed to the sweep of wintry 
 winds, and not very convenient of access. Not far from 
 Monticello, and within the bounds of his estate, was a soli- 
 tary and lofty hill, so situated as to be exposed to the blast 
 of two currents of wind, coming up through valleys on dif- 
 
 * A. J. Stansbui-y. 
 ft* 
 
90 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 ferent sides of it. Mr. Jefferson thought this would be an 
 admirable position for a wind-mill ; and having recently in- 
 vented a model for a saw-mill to be moved by vertical sails, 
 he sent for an engineer and submitted it to his judgment. 
 The man of professional science examined his plan, and lis- 
 tened with profound attention and deference to Mr. Jeffer- 
 son's explanations of it, and to his eloquent illustration of 
 the advantages it would secure ; having heard him through, 
 and being asked by the philosopher ' what he thought of it?' 
 he replied with great sincerity, that it was a most ingenious 
 idea, and was decidedly the best plan for a saw-mill he had 
 ever seen. Jefferson was delighted ; and forthwith entered 
 into a written agreement for the erection of such a mill on 
 the neighboring height. The work went bravely on ; the 
 inventor very frequently mounting his horse, and riding 
 over to see how it proceeded. When the frame was up, and 
 the building approaching its completion, the engineer rode 
 .over to Monticello to obtain a supply of money, and to get 
 some directions about the saws. Jefferson kept him to din- 
 ner ; and when the cloth was removed and wine sat upon 
 the table, he turned to his guest, and with an air of much 
 satisfaction, exclaimed, 
 
 " 'And so, Mr. , you like my mill.' 
 
 '" I do, sir, indeed, very much ; it is certainly one of the 
 greatest improvements in the construction of saw-mills I ever 
 witnessed.' 
 
 " ' You think the sails are so hung that it cannot fail to 
 work ?' 
 
 " ' Certainly ; it must work, it cannot help it.' 
 
 " ' And there's always a wind upon that hill ; if it docs 
 not come up one valley, it is sure to come up the other ; and 
 the hill is so high and steep that there is nothing to inter- 
 
THOMAS JEFFERSON. 91 
 
 rupt the full sweep of the wind, come which way it will. 
 You think then, on the whole, that the thing cannot fail of 
 complete success ?' 
 
 " ' I should think so, sir, but for one thing.' 
 
 "'Ah! What's that?' 
 
 " ' I have been wondering in my own mind, how you are 
 to get up your saiv-logs.' 
 
 " Jefferson threw up his hands and eyes : ' I never thought 
 of that !' The mill was abandoned of course." 
 
 " Jefferson's favorite exercise was riding ; he was a judge 
 of a horse, and rode a very good one. One day, dm-ing his 
 presidential term, he was riding some where in the neigh- 
 borhood of Washington, when there came up a cross road, 
 a well-known jockey and dealer in horse-flesh, whose name 
 I have forgotten, but whom we will call Jones. He did not 
 know the President, but his professional eye was caught, in 
 a moment, by the noble steed he rode. Coming up with an 
 impudent boldness characteristic of the man, he accosted 
 the rider, and forthwith began talking in the slang of his 
 trade, about the horse, his points, his age, and his value, 
 and expressed a readiness to ' swap' horses. Mr. Jefferson 
 gave him brief replies, and civilly declined all offers of ex- 
 change. The fellow offered boot, and pressed and increased 
 his bids, as the closer he looked at the stranger's steed, the 
 better he liked him. All his offers were refused with a cool- 
 ness that nettled him. He became rude, but his vulgarity 
 made as little impression as his money, for Jefferson had the 
 most perfect command of his temper, and no man could put 
 him in a passion. The jockey wanted him to show the ani- 
 mal's gait, and urged him to trot with him for a wager. At 
 length, seeing that the stranger was no customer, and ut- 
 terly impracticable, he raised his whip and ^ruck Mr. Jef- 
 
92 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 ferson's horse across the flank, setting him off in a sudden 
 gallop, which would have brought a less accomplished rider to 
 the ground, at the same time putting spurs to his own beast, 
 hoping for a race. Jefferson kept his seat, reined in his 
 restive steed, and put an equally effective rein upon his own 
 temper. The jockey wondered ; but impudently turned it 
 off with a laugh, and still keeping by the side of his new 
 acquaintance, commenced talking politics, and being a 
 staunch federalist, commenced to launch out against ' Long 
 Tom,' and the policy of his administration. Jefferson took 
 his part in the conversation, and urged some things in reply. 
 
 "Meanwhile they had ridden into the city, and were 
 making their way along Pennsylvania avenue, and at length 
 came opposite the gate of the presidential mansion. Here 
 Mr. Jefferson reined up, and courteously invited the man to 
 enter. The jockey raised his eye-brows, and asked — 
 
 " ' Why, do you live here V 
 
 " ' Yes,' was the simple reply. 
 
 " ' Why, stranger, what the deuce might be your name ?' 
 
 " ' My name is Thomas Jefferson.' 
 
 " Even the jockey's brass turned pale — when, putting 
 spurs to his nag, he exclaimed — 
 
 " 'And my name is Richard Jones, and I'm off I' 
 
 " Saying which, he dashed up the avenue at double 
 quick time, while the President looked after him with a 
 smile, and then rode into the gate. 
 
 " He was fond of the society of scientific men, and had 
 an enlarged and just appreciation of the desirableness and 
 importance of introducing as many of them as practicable 
 into a country young in every thing but industry, enterprise, 
 and the love of freedom. It was at his solicitation that that 
 paragon of le»rning, and proud, eccentric genius, Hasler, 
 
THOMAS JEFFEKSON. 93 
 
 came to the United States. His attainments in mathemati- 
 cal science, and, indeed, his wonderful acquisitions in every 
 department of human knowledge, rendered him an invaluable 
 acquisition to the country. To the same som-ce, I believe, 
 we owe the presence with us of the late lamented and ami- 
 able Nicollet, The one laid the foundations for our admi- 
 rable coast survey, while the other prosecuted in the same 
 spirit of scientific exactness, an exploration of the interior 
 around our great lakes, and the head waters of the Missis- 
 sippi and Missouri. Nicolet was the preceptor and the ex- 
 emplar of Fremont, who has pushed a similar system of 
 enterprising investigation quite across the entire continent, 
 and who seems destined, if his life shall be spared, to render 
 other like services to the country and the world." 
 
 Mr. Biddle in his eulogy on Mr. JeflFerson has ventured 
 to draw a comparison between that illustrious man and Na- 
 poleon as follows : " In the bearings of his personal character 
 Jefferson can safely be compared with the contemporary 
 rulers of nations, not excepting him — the greatest of them 
 all ; nor need our patriotism shrink from the singular con- 
 trast between two men, chiefs for nearly an equal period of 
 their respective countries, and models of their different spe- 
 cies, — ^Napoleon, the emperor of a great nation — and Jeffer- 
 son, the chief magistrate of a free people. 
 
 " Of that extraordinary being it is fit to speak with the 
 gentleness due to misfortune. Two centuries have scarce 
 sufiiced to retrieve the fame of Cromwell from that least 
 expiable of crimes — his success over a feeble and profligate 
 race, more fortunate in their historian than their history : 
 and the memory of Napoleon must long atone equally for 
 his elevation and reverses. There are already those who 
 disparage his genius, as if this were not to humble the na- 
 
94 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 tions who stood dismayed before it. Great talents, varied 
 acquirements, many high qualities, enlightened views of legis- 
 lation and domestic policy, it were bigotry to deny to Napo- 
 leon. The very tide of his conquests over less civilized na- 
 tions, deposited in receding some benefits even to the van- 
 quished — and all that glory can contribute to public happi- 
 ness, was profusely lavished on his country. But in the 
 midst of this gaudy infatuation there was that which disen- 
 chanted the spell — that which struck Its damp chill into the 
 heart of any man who, undazzled by the vulgar decorations 
 of power, looked only at the blessings it might confer, and 
 who Aveighed, instead of counting, these victories. Such are 
 the delusions which military ambition sheds in turn on its 
 possessor and on the world, that its triumphs begin with the 
 thoughtless applause of its future victims, and end in the 
 maddening intoxication of Its own prosperity. We may not 
 wonder then if, when those who should first have resisted 
 his power were foremost In admiration and servility — when 
 the whole continent of Europe was one submissive depend- 
 ence on his will — when among the crowds of native and 
 stranger suppliants who worshipped before this Idol there 
 was only one manly and independent voice to rebuke his 
 excesses in a tone worthy of a free peojilc — that of the rep- 
 resentative of Jefierson, we may not wonder if all the bril- 
 liant qualities which distinguished the youth of Napoleon 
 were at least concentered into a spirit of Intense selfishness, 
 and that the whole purpose to which his splendid genius was 
 perverted was the poor love of swaying the destinies of other 
 men — not to benefit, not to bless — but simply to command, 
 to engross every thing, and to be every thing. It was for 
 this that he troubled the earth with his insane conquests, — • 
 for this that the whole freedom of the human mind — the 
 
THOMAS JEFFERSON. 95 
 
 elastic vigor of the intellect — all the natural play of the 
 human feelings — all free agency, were crushed between this 
 fierce and immitigable dominion, which, degrading the human 
 race into mere objects and instruments of slaughter, would 
 soon have left nothing to science but to contrive the means 
 of mutual destruction, and nothing to letters except to flatter 
 the common destroyer. Contrast this feverish restlessness 
 which is called ambition — this expanded love of violence 
 which makes heroes — contrast these, as they shone in the 
 turbulent existence of Napoleon, with the peaceful disinte- 
 rested career of Jefferson : and in all the relations of their 
 power — its nature, its employment, and its result — we may 
 assign the superiority to the civil magistrate. 
 
 " Napoleon owed his elevation to military violence — Jeffer- 
 son to the voluntary suffrage of his country. The one ruled 
 sternly over reluctant subjects — the other was but the fore- 
 most among his equals who respected in his person the image 
 of their own authority. Napoleon sought to enlarge his in- 
 fluence at home by enfeebling all the civil institutions, and 
 abroad by invading the possessions of his neighbors — Jeffer- 
 son preferred to abridge his power by strict constructions, 
 and his counsels were uniformly dissuasive against foreign 
 wars. Yet the personal influence of Jefferson was far more 
 enviable, for he enjoyed the unlimited confidence of his 
 country — while Napoleon had no authority not conceded by 
 fear ; and the extortions of force are evil substitutes for that 
 most fascinating of all sway — the ascendancy over equals. 
 During the undisputed possession of that power. Napoleon 
 seemed tinconscious of its noblest attribute, that capacity to 
 make man freer or happier ; and no one great or lofty pur- 
 pose of benefitting mankind, no generous sympathy for his 
 race, ever disturbed that sepulchral selfishness, or appeased 
 
96 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 that scorn of humanity, which his successes almost justified. 
 But the life of Jefferson was a perpetual devotion, not to 
 his own purposes, but to the pure and noble cause of public 
 freedom. From the first dawning of his youth, his undi- 
 vided heart was given to the establishment of free princi- 
 ples — free institutions — freedom in all its varieties of un- 
 trammelled thought and independent action. His whole 
 life was consecrated to the improvement and happiness of 
 his fellow men ; and his intense enthusiasm for knowledge 
 and freedom was sustained to his dying hour. Their career 
 was as strangely different in its close as in its character. 
 The power of Napoleon was won by the sword — maintained 
 by the sword — ^lost by the sword. That colossal empire 
 which he had exhausted fortune in rearing broke before the 
 first shock of adversity. The most magnificently gorgeous 
 of all the pageants of our times — when the august ceremo- 
 nies of religion blessed and crowned that soldier-emperor, 
 when the allegiance of the great captains who stood by his 
 side, the applauses of assembled France in the presence of 
 assenting Europe, the splendid pomp of war softened by the 
 smiles of beauty, and all the decorations of all the arts, 
 blended their enchantments as that imperial train swept up 
 the aisles of Notre Dame — faded into the silent cabin of that 
 lone island in a distant sea. The hundred thousands of 
 soldiers who obeyed his voice — the will which made the des- 
 tiny of men — the name whose humblest possessor might be 
 a king — all shrunk into the feeble band who followed the 
 captivity of their master. Of all his foreign triumphs not 
 one remained, and in his first military conquest — his own 
 country, which he had adorned with the monuments of his 
 fame, there is now no place even for the tomb of this deso- 
 late exile. — But the glory of Jefferson became even purer 
 
THOMAS JEFFERSON. 97 
 
 as the progress of years mellowed into veneration the love 
 of his countrymen. He died in the midst of the free people 
 whom he had lived to serve ; and his only ceremonial, wor- 
 thy equally of him and of them, was the simple sublimity 
 of his funeral triumph. His power he retained as long as 
 he desired it, and then voluntarily restored the trust, with a 
 permanent addition — derived from Napoleon himself — far 
 exceeding the widest limits of the French empire — that vic- 
 tory of piace which outweighs all the conquests of Napoleon, 
 as one line of the declaration of independence is worth all 
 his glory. 
 
 " But he also is now gone. The genius, the various learn- 
 ing, the private virtues, the public honors, which illustrated 
 and endeared his name, are gathered into the tomb, leaving 
 to him only the fame, and to us only the remembrance of 
 them. Be that memory cherished without regret or sorrow. 
 Our affection could hope nothing better for him than this 
 long career of glorious and happy usefulness, closed before 
 the infirmities of age had impaired its lustre ; and the grief 
 that such a man is dead, may be well assauged by the proud 
 consolation that such a man has lived." 
 
 Mr. Everett, in his Eulogy on Adams and Jefferson, makes 
 the following remarks upon the coincidence of their dying 
 upon the same day, and that day the fiftieth anniversary 
 of the American Independence. 
 
 " I knew these great men, not as opponents, but as friends 
 to each other ; not in the keen prosecution of a political 
 controversy, but in the cultivation of a friendly correspond- 
 ence. As they respected and honored each other, I respect 
 and honor both. Time too has removed the foundation of 
 their dissensions. The principles on which they contended 
 are settled, some in favor of one and some in favor of the 
 
98 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS.", 
 
 other: the great foreign interests, that lent ardor to the 
 struggle have happily lost their hold of the American people : 
 and the politics of the country now turn on questions not 
 agitated in their days. Meantime, I know not whether, if 
 we had it in our power to choose between the recollection 
 of these revered men, as they were, and what they would 
 have been without their great struggle, we could wish them 
 to have been other than they were, even in this respect. 
 Twenty years of friendship succeeding ten of rivalf"^ appear 
 to me a more amiable and certainly a more instructive spec- 
 tacle, even than a life of unbroken concert. As a friend to 
 both their respected memories, I would not willingly spare 
 the attestation, which they were pleased to render to each 
 other's characters. We are taught, in the valedictory lessons 
 of our Washington, that ' the spirit of party is the worst 
 enemy of a popular government ;' shall we not rejoice that 
 we are taught, in the lives of our Adams and our Jefferson, 
 that the most embittered contentions, which as yet have 
 divided us, furnish no ground for lasting disunion. In their 
 lives did I say ? Oh, not in their lives alone, biit in that 
 mysterious and lovely imion which has called them together 
 to the grave. 
 
 ' They strove in suoh great rivalry 
 Of means, as noblest ends allow ; 
 And blood was warm, and zeal was high, 
 But soon their strife was o'er ; and now 
 Their hatred and their love are lost, 
 Their envy buried in the dust.' 
 
 " The declining period of their lives presents their own 
 characters, in the most delightful aspect, and furnishes the 
 happiest illustration of the perfection of our political system. 
 We now behold a new spectacle of moral sublimity ; the 
 
THOMAS JEFFERSON. 99 
 
 peaceful old age of the retired chiefs of the republic ; an 
 evening of learned, useful, and honored leisure following 
 upon a youth of hazard, a manhood of service, a whole life 
 of alternate trial and success. We behold them indeed ac- 
 tive and untiring, even to the last. At the advanced age 
 of eighty-five years, our venerable fellow citizen and neigh- 
 bor, is still competent to take a part in the councils for re- 
 vising the state constitution, to whose original formation 
 forty years before he so essentially contributed ; and Mr. 
 Jefferson, at the same protracted term of life was able to 
 project and carry on to their completion, the extensive 
 establishments of the University of Virginia. 
 
 " But it is the great and closing scene, which appears, by 
 higher allotment, to crown their long and exalted career, 
 with a consummation almost miraculous. Having done so 
 much and so happily for themselves, so much and so bene- 
 ficially for their country ; at that last moment, when man 
 can no more do any thing for his country or for himself, it 
 pleased a kind providence to take their existence into his 
 hands, and to do that for both of them, which, to the end 
 of time, will cause them to be deemed, not more happy in 
 the renown of their lives than in the opportunity of their 
 death.* 
 
 " I could give neither force nor interest to the account 
 of these sublime and touching scenes, by any thing beyond 
 the simple recital of the facts, already familiar to the public. 
 The veil of eternity was first lifted up from before the eyes 
 of Mr. Jefferson. For several- weeks his strength had been 
 gradually failing, though his mind's vigor remained unim- 
 paired. As he drew nearer to the last, and no expectation 
 remained that his term could be much protracted, he ex- 
 * Tacit. J. Agricol. Yit. c. xiv 
 
100 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 pressed no other -wish, than that he might live to breathe 
 the air of the fiftieth anniversary of independence. This he 
 "vvas graciously permitted to do. But it was evident, on the 
 morning of the fourth, that Providence intended that this 
 day, consecrated by his deed, should now be solemnized by 
 his death. On some momentary revival of his wasting 
 strength, the friends around would have soothed him with 
 the hope of continuing ; but he answered their kind encou- 
 ragements only by saying, he did not fear to die. Once, 
 as he drew nearer to his close, he lifted up his languid head 
 and murmured with a smile, ' It is the fourth of July ;' 
 while his repeated exclamation, on the last great day, was, 
 Nunc dimittis, Domine, ' Lord, now lettest thou thy servant 
 depart in peace.' He departed in peace, a little before one 
 o'clock of this memorable day ; unconscious that his co-pa- 
 triot, who fifty years before had shared its efforts and perils, 
 was now the partner of its glory. 
 
 " Mr. Adams's mind had also wandered back, over the 
 long line of great things, with which his life was filled, and 
 found rest on the thought of independence. When the dis- 
 charges of artillery proclaimed the triumphant anniversary, 
 he pronounced it, ' a great and a good day.' The thrilling 
 word of independence, which, fifty years before, in the ar- 
 dor of his manly strength he had sounded out to the nations, 
 at the head of his country's councils, was now among the 
 last that dwelt on his quivering lips ; and when, toward the 
 hour of noon, he felt his noble heart growing cold within 
 him, the last emotion which warmed it was, ' Jefferson still 
 survives.' But he survives not ; he is gone : Ye are gone 
 together ! 
 
 " Take them, Great God, together to thy Best ! 
 
 " Friends, fellow citizens, free, prosperous, happy Ame- 
 
THOMAS JEFFERSON. 101 
 
 ricans ! The men wlio did so mucli to make you so, are no 
 more. The men who gave nothing to pleasure in youth, 
 nothing to repose in old age, but all to that country, whose 
 beloved name filled their hearts as it does ours, with joy, 
 can now do no more for us ; nor we for them. But their 
 memory remains, we will cherish it : their bright example 
 remains, we will strive to imitate it ; the print of their wise 
 counsels and noble acts remain, we will gratefully enjoy it. 
 
 " They have gone to the companions of their cares, of 
 their dangers, and their toils. It is well with them. The 
 treasures of America are now in Heaven. How long the 
 list of our good, and wise, and brave, assembled there ; how 
 few remain with us. There is our Washington ; and those 
 who followed him in their country's confidence, are now met 
 together with him, and all that illustrious company. 
 
 " The faithful marble may preserve their image ; the 
 engraven brass may proclaim their worth ; but the humblest 
 sod of independent America, with nothing but the dew- 
 drops of the morning to gild it, is a prouder mausoleum 
 than kings or conquerors can boast. The country is their 
 monument. Its independence is their epitaph. But not to 
 their country is their praise limited. The whole earth is 
 the monument of illustrious men. Wherever an agonizing 
 people shall perish, in a generous convulsion, for want of a 
 valiant arm and a fearless heart, they will cry, in the last 
 accents of despair. Oh, for a Washington, an Adams, a Jef- 
 ferson. Wherever a regenerated nation, starting up in its 
 might, shall burst the links of steel that enchain it, the 
 praise of our venerated Fathers shall be the prelude to their 
 triumphal song. 
 
 " The contemporary and successive generations of men 
 will disappear. In the long lapse of ages, the Tribes of 
 
 9* 
 
102 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 America, like those of Greece and Rome, may pass awaj. 
 The fabric of American freedom, like all things human, 
 however firm and fair, may crumble into dust. But the 
 cause in which these our Fathers shone is immortal. They 
 did that, to which no age, no people of reasoning men, can 
 be indifferent. Their eulogy will be uttered in other lan- 
 guages, when those we speak, like us who speak them, shall 
 be all forgotten. And when the great account of humanity 
 shall be closed at the throne of God, in the bright list of 
 his children, who best adorned and served it, shall be found 
 the names of our Adams and of our Jefferson." 
 
f 
 
 M A D I S O N , 
 
J^hje^ IVJ^Si^o^. 
 
 "Peace hath its victories," says Milton; aye, and its 
 conquerors, too, who often win the freshest and most import- 
 ant laurels. There are men who overthrow systematic 
 abuses with the invisible hand of logic ; who conquer the 
 hearts of a nation by a speech, and who not only throw 
 down false idols without a palpable blow, but erect the true 
 object of workmanship in their stead. The achievements 
 of such men are more glorious than those of generals, and 
 their works are frequently the most complete. The brutal 
 steel may slay the body, but cannot persuade the heart or 
 convince the understanding, without both of which, victories 
 are not half-way won. He who gains possession of the heart 
 and mind of another, holds two fertile fields, which may give 
 birth to a thousand noble deeds. 
 
 The majority of the Presidents of the United States have 
 won their way to that lofty station by their exploits as citi- 
 zens and legislators. While the people have duly rewarded 
 those noble patriots who have fought and bled at the head 
 of their armies and in deferfCe of their soil, they have been 
 wise enough to consider that even greater services may be 
 rendered them in civil capacities. Among those civilians who 
 have by legislative service won their way to that throne 
 
 (107) 
 
108 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 ■wHch no revolution can threaten, James Madison holds a 
 conspicuous place. To him was given the great title of the 
 " Father of the Constitution," he having had the chief hand 
 in framing that beneficial charter, and in procuring its adop- 
 tion by the people. of the States. As a political writer, a 
 legislator and a statesman, posterity has given him a lofty 
 meed of praise, which none have disputed to be his due. 
 
 " James Madison was born on the 16th of March 1751, at 
 the seat of his maternal grandmother, on the Rappahannock 
 river, in King George county, Virginia. His father's home 
 was at Montpelier, in Orange county, in the same state, 
 where Mr. Madison himself afterwards resided. After the 
 usual preparatory studies, first at a school kept by a Scot- 
 tish teacher, of the name of Robertson, in King and Queen 
 county, and then with a private tutor in his own family, he 
 was sent, in 1769, to the college at Princeton, in New Jer- 
 sey, where he took the degree of A.B. in 1772. He con- 
 tinued, however, at Princeton, until the following spring, 
 pursuing a course, of reading under the direction of Dr. 
 Witherspoon, the president of the college, for whom he always 
 entertained a high respect, and whose striking remarks he 
 was fond of repeating. His devotion to his mental improve- 
 ment, while at Princeton, was carried to such an extent, 
 that, as he stated to his friend. Governor Barbour, for months 
 together he had allowed himself only three out of the twenty- 
 four hours for sleep, and that, when necessity compelled 
 him to relax, he limited his hours of repose to the least 
 number consistent with his health. This, in fact, had never 
 been strong, and was so impaired by the excessive study just 
 mentioned, as to continue feeble for a number of years 
 afterwards. 
 
 " On his return to Virginia, Mr. Madison commenced a 
 
JAMES MADISON. 109 
 
 course of reading to prepare himself for the bar, hut was 
 soon in a great measure diverted from it hy the interest 
 which he took in the agitating political questions of the pe- 
 riod. He particularly distinguished himself by his efforts 
 in behalf of the clergy of the Baptist persuasion, who were 
 then persecuted by the established church, and occasionally 
 even thrown into prison for preaching in defiance of prohi- 
 bitory laws. In the spring of 1776, he was chosen a mem- 
 ber of the convention which formed the first constitution of 
 Virginia. He was, in the same year, a member of the state 
 legislature, but lost his election in the following year ; partly 
 too, perhaps, on account of his silence, from a diffidence in 
 himself and a respect for the older and more experienced 
 members of the legislature, at its previous session, — a silence 
 which led many of his constituents to doubt altogether his 
 capacity to speak in public. The legislature, however, 
 when it met, named him a member of the executive council, 
 in which ofiice he remained until appointed a delegate to 
 the Continental Congress, He took his seat in that body, in 
 March, 1780, and acted a prominent part in its proceedings 
 during the three years that he held it. 
 
 Among the services which, at this period, he rendered to 
 his country, we may mention that he prepared the instruc- 
 tions given to Mr. Jay, then the American minister in 
 Spain, in October, 1780, maintaining the right of the United 
 States to the navigation of the Mississippi river ; and also 
 the address to the states at the end of the war, urging 
 upon them to adopt some plan, to enable the Confederacy to 
 meet its pecuniary engagements to the army and its other 
 creditors. 
 
 In 1784, 1785, and 1786, he was again a member of the 
 Virginia legislature ; and his efforts at this time were all 
 
 10 
 
110 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 exerted in favor of a wise and liberal policy. He drew up 
 the memorial and remonstrance against the project of a com- 
 pulsory support of religion, which was perhaps made with a 
 view to a permanent establishment. Finding the people of 
 Kentucky fixed in their determination to separate from 
 Virginia, he lent his aid to enable them to accomplish their 
 purpose. He opposed the introduction of paper money; 
 supported the laws introduced into the code prepared by 
 Jefferson, Wythe, and Pendleton ; and was in favor of the 
 recovery of the debts due to British creditors. 
 
 In January, 1786, Mr. Madison obtained the passage of 
 a resolution by the Legislature inviting the meeting at An- 
 napolis, which led the way to the convention that formed the 
 constitution to the United States : and he was one of the 
 three commissioners appointed at the meeting. Mr. Madi- 
 son was one of the five delegates who represented Virginia 
 in that convention. 
 
 "In the convention, Mr. Madison generally coincided 
 with General Washington in their .views in favor of a strong 
 national government. A paper in the handwriting of Ge- 
 neral Washington, and found among the documents left by 
 him, contains a summary of Mr. Madison's opinions on the 
 subject of a form of constitution to be proposed. It is the 
 substance of a letter received by Washington from Mr. 
 Madison, a short time previous to the assembling of the con- 
 vention at Philadelphia, and has since been published in the 
 North American Review, volume xxxv., as follows:"* 
 
 " Mr. Madison thinks an individual independence of the 
 states utterly irreconcilable with their aggregate sovereignty, 
 and that a consolidation of the whole into one simple repub- 
 lic would be as inexpedient as it is unattainable. He there- 
 * Stateman's Manual. 
 
JAMES MADISON. Ill 
 
 fore proposes a middle ground, •which may at once support 
 a due supremacy of the national authority, and not exclude 
 the local authorities whenever they can he suhordinately 
 useful. 
 
 "As the ground work, he proposes that a change be made 
 in the principle of representation, and thinks there would 
 be no great difficulty in effecting it. 
 
 "Next, that, in addition to the present federal powers, the 
 national government should be armed with positive and com- 
 plete authority in all cases which require uniformity ; such 
 as regulation of trade, including the right of taxing both 
 exports and imports, the fixing the terms and forms of natu- 
 ralization, &c. 
 
 " Over and above this positive power, a negative in all 
 cases whatever on the legislative acts of the states, as here- 
 tofore exercised by the kingly prerogative, appears to him 
 absolutely necessary, and to be the least possible encroach- 
 ment on the state jurisdictions. Without this defensive 
 power he conceives that every positive law which can be 
 given on paper, will be evaded. 
 
 " This control over the laws would prevent the internal 
 vicissitudes of state policy, and the aggressions of interested 
 majorities. 
 
 " The natural supremacy ought also to be extended, he 
 thinks, to the judiciary departments ; the oaths of the judges 
 should at least include a fidelity to the general as well as 
 local constitution ; and that an appeal should be to some 
 national tribunal in all cases to which foreigners or inhabi- 
 tants of other states may be parties. The admiralty juris- 
 dictions to fall entirely within the purview of the national 
 government. 
 
 " The national supremacy in the executive departments 
 
112 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 is liable to some difificultj, unless the officers administering 
 them could be made appointable by the supreme government. 
 The militia ought entirely to be placed, in some form or 
 other, under the authority which is intrusted with the 
 general protection and defence. 
 
 " A government composed of such extensive powers should 
 be well organized and balanced. 
 
 " The legislative department might be divided into two 
 branches, one of them chosen every — years, by the people 
 at large, or by the legislatures ; the other to consist of fewer 
 members, and to hold their places for a longer term, and to 
 go out in such rotatation as always to leave in office a large 
 majority of old members. 
 
 " Perhaps the negative on the laws might be most conve- 
 niently exercised by this branch. 
 
 "As a further check, a council of revision, including the 
 great ministerial officers, might be superadded. 
 
 " A national executive must also be provided. He has 
 scarcely ventured as yet to form his own opinion, either of 
 the manner in which it ought to be constituted, or of the 
 authorities with which it ought to be clothed. 
 
 " An article should be inserted, especially guaranteeing 
 the tranquillity of the states against internal as well as 
 external dangers. 
 
 "In like manner, the right of coercion should be expressly 
 declared. With the resources of commerce in hand, the na- 
 tional administration might always find means of exerting it 
 either by sea or land ; but the difficulty and awkwardness 
 of operating by force on the collective will of a stat€, render 
 it particularly desirable the necessity of it might be pre- 
 cluded. Perhaps the negative on the laws might create 
 such a mutual dependence between the general and particular 
 
JAMBS MADISON. 113 
 
 authorities as to answer ; or perhaps some defined objects 
 of taxation might be submitted along with commerce, to the 
 general authority. 
 
 " To give a new system its proper validity and energy, a 
 ratification must be obtained from the people, and not merely 
 from the ordinary authority of the legislature. This will 
 be more essential, as inroads on the existing constitutions 
 of the states will be unavoidable." 
 
 Mr. Madison has entitled himself to the gratitude of pos- 
 terity by the record which he daily made of the proceedings 
 of its members, the only one extant which is either complete 
 or authentic. It was pui'chased by Congress, after his death, 
 for the sum of thirty thousand dollars, and has since been 
 published. 
 
 After the constitution was formed, he united with Mr. 
 Hamilton and Mr. Jay, in the the publication, in the news- 
 papers, of the well-known series of essays, in defence of its 
 provisions, under the title of "The Federalist," which at- 
 tracted in an extraordinary degree the public attention, and 
 by the ability and force of argument with which they were 
 written, contributed materially to augment the number of 
 its advocates. And when the Federal Constitution was 
 submitted to the several states for their adoption, he was 
 mainly instrumental, in the convention of Virginia, in pro- 
 curing a decision by that body in' its favor, in despite of the 
 zealous and eloquent opposition of Patrick Henry. 
 
 From 1789, when the new constitution went into opera- 
 tion, down to the year of 1797, Mr. Madison occupied a 
 seat in Congress, where he resisted the financial measures 
 proposed by Hamilton, then Secretary of the Treasury, and 
 and the policy generally of Washington's administration. 
 His opposition, was, however, conducted in such a spirit as 
 
 10* 
 
114 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 to have apparently for a long time no influence on the 
 friendship which subsisted between the President and him- 
 self; and it never produced positive alienation. 
 
 In 1798, though not a member of the Virginia legislature, 
 he prepared the celebrated resolutions which were adopted 
 by that body denouncing the acts of Congress for removing 
 dangerous and suspicious aliens, and for punishing libels on 
 the government, commonly known by the name of the Alien 
 and Sedition Laws, as infractions of the Constitution, and 
 inviting the concurrence of the other states. He was elected 
 to the legislature in the following year, when he was the 
 author of a new set of resolutions of similar import with the 
 former, and accompanied them by a report in their vindica- 
 tion, which contributed powerfully to the triumph that 
 speedily ensued of the democratic over the federal party. 
 
 When Mr. Jefferson became President of the United 
 States, in 1801, he selected Mr. Madison to be his Secre- 
 tary of State, a position which the latter continued to occupy 
 so long as Mr. Jefferson remained in office. In 1809, Mr. 
 Madison succeeded Mr. Jefferson in the presidential chair, 
 having obtained one hundred and twenty-two votes out of 
 one hundred and seventy-six. 
 
 In his inaugural address, he frankly stated the gloomy 
 circumstances under which he entered upon his high office. 
 But expressed confidence in the strength and resources of 
 the United States, and in the goodness and power of the 
 Deity. War with Great Britain was anticipated. The in- 
 sults and injuries which that haughty power had given to 
 the United States could not be much longer borne, con- 
 sistently with honor. Still a large portion of the people 
 were anxious for the preservation of peace. And the new 
 President found himself in a trying position. In his inau- 
 
JAMES MADISON. 115 
 
 gural address,'lie thus indicates his sentiments and inten- 
 tions. " To cherish jieace and friendly intercourse with all 
 nations having corresponding dispositions ; to maintain sin- 
 cere neutrality towards belligerent nations ; to prefer in all 
 cases amicable discussion and reasonable accommodation of 
 differences to a decision of them by an appeal to arms ; to 
 exclude foreign intrigues and foreign partialities, so degrad- 
 ing to all countries, and so baneful to free ones ; to foster a 
 spirit of independence, too just to invade the rights of others, 
 too proud to surrender our own, too liberal to indulge un- 
 worthy prejudices ourselves, and too elevated not to look 
 down upon them in others ; to hold the union of the states 
 as the basis of their peace and happiness ; to support the 
 constitution, which is the cement of the Union, as well in 
 its limitations as in its authorities; to respect the rights 
 and authorities reserved to the states and the people, as 
 equally incorporated with, and essential to the success of 
 the general system ; to avoid the slightest interference with 
 the rights of conscience or the functions of religion, so 
 wisely exempted from civil jurisdiction ; to preserve in their 
 full energy, the other salutary provisions in behalf of pri- 
 vate and personal rights, and of the freedom of the press ; 
 to observe economy in public expenditures ; to liberate the 
 public resources by an honorable discharge of the public 
 debts ; to keep within the requisite limits a standing mili- 
 tary force, always remembering that an armed and trained 
 militia is the firmest buhvark of republics — that without 
 Gtanding armies their liberty can never be in danger, nor 
 with large ones safe ; to promote, by authorized means, im- 
 provements friendly to agriculture, to manufactures, and to 
 external as well as internal commerce ; to favor, in like 
 manner, the advancement of science and the diffusion of in- 
 
116 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 formation as the best aliment of true liberty ; to carry on 
 the benevolent plans Avhicli have been so meritoriously ap- 
 plied to the conversion of our aboriginal neighbors from the 
 degradation and wretchedness of savage life, to a participa- 
 tion of the improvements of which the human mind and 
 manners are susceptible in a civilized state ; as far as sen- 
 timents and intentions such as these can aid the fulfilment 
 of my duty, they will be a resovn-ce which cannot fail me." 
 
 Mr. Madison selected for his cabinet, Robert Smith, of 
 Maryland, as Secretary of State ; William Eustis, of Massa- 
 chusetts, as Secretary of War ; Paul Hamilton, of South 
 Carolina, as Secretary of the Navy. Mr. Gallatin, as Sec- 
 retary of the Treasury ; and Mr. Cesar A. Rodney, Attor- 
 ney General, under Mr. Jefferson, were continued in their 
 offices. The republicans had a majority in Congress to sup- 
 port the President. 
 
 Eflforts were made to settle all differences between the 
 United States and Great Britain in a just and friendly 
 manner. But through pride or misunderstanding, they 
 proved abortive. The non-intercourse, affecting both France 
 and Great Britain, was continued by a new and more 
 stringent act, passed in May, 1810. The British govern- 
 ment continued its "orders in council," and Napoleon de- 
 clared the obnoxious Berlin and Milan decrees, " the fun- 
 damental laws of his empire." The trade and revenue of 
 the United States were greatly diminished in consequence 
 of these hostile measures. 
 
 In the twelfth Congress, which held its first session in 
 1810-11, the supporters of the administration were in the 
 majority. Messrs. Clay, Calhoun, Crawford, Lowndes, 
 Cheves, and other active and eloquent statesmen were 
 found in the republican ranks. Under the influence of 
 
JAMES MADISON. 117 
 
 these ardent men, the policy of the administration was 
 changed. Measures were adopted for organizing the army 
 and navy, and war was contemplated as a very probable re- 
 sult of the difficulties then existing. President Madison 
 was not earnestly desirous for the decisive measures ; but 
 he was persuaded to acquiesce by the more ardent portion 
 of his friends. Mr. Clay, particularly, was of the opinion 
 that the country should be prepared for war, and his influence 
 among the republicans was extensive. 
 
 When war was resolved upon by the republican party, 
 President Madison's cabinet consisted of the following per- 
 sons : James Monroe, Secretary of State ; Albert Gallatin, 
 Secretary of the Treasury ; William Eustis, Secretary of 
 War ; Paul Hamilton, Secretary of the Navy ; and William 
 Pinckney, Attorney General. Messrs. Smith and Rodney 
 had resigned their posts in 1811. Of this cabinet, Mr. 
 Monroe, alone, possessed any amount of military knowledge. 
 The President knew nothing of the art of war. Under 
 such auspices, how could the country be prepared to con- 
 tend with the giant power of Great Britain. 
 
 The declaration of war against Great Britain, was passed 
 by Congress, in June, 1812. The federalists generally op- 
 posed it, and in the Eastern States, particularly, the mea- 
 sure excited a spirit of disaffection to the Union, which, 
 if it had been properly treated by the British government, 
 might have proved fatal. But the republicans rallied strongly 
 to the support of the President, and several of the old fede- 
 ralist leaders signified their approval of his course. The 
 message of the President to Congress upon the subject of 
 the declaration of war, is an admirably written justification 
 of the country and himself. It ran as follows : 
 
 " Without going back beyond the renewal in 1803, of the 
 
118 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 war in which Great Britain is engaged, and omitting unre- 
 paired wrongs of inferior magnitude, the conduct of the go- 
 yernment presents a series of acts hostile to the United States 
 as an independent and neutral nation. 
 
 " British cruisers have been in the continued practice of 
 violating the American flag on the great highway of nations, 
 and of seizing and carrying off persons sailing under it ; not 
 in the exercise of a belligerent right founded on the law of 
 nations against an enemy, but of a municipal prerogative over 
 British subjects. British jurisdiction is thus extended to 
 neutral vessels in a situation where no laws can operate but 
 the law of nations and the laws of the country to which the 
 vessels belong ; and a self-redress is assumed, which, if Bri- 
 tish subjects were wrongfully detained and alone concerned, is 
 that substitution of force, for a resort to the responsible 
 sovereign, which falls within the definition of war. Could 
 the seizure of British subjects, in such cases, be regarded as 
 within the exercise of a belligerent right, the acknowledged 
 laws of war, which forbid an article of captured property to 
 be adjudged without a regular investigation before a compe- 
 tent tribunal, would imperiously demand the fairest trial 
 where the sacred rights of persons were at an issue. In place 
 of such a trial, these rights are subjected to the will of every 
 petty commander. 
 
 " The practice, hence, is so far from affecting British 
 subjects alone, that, under the pretext of searching for these, 
 thousands of American citizens, under the safeguard of pub- 
 lic law, and of their national flag, have been torn from their 
 country, and from every thing dear to them ; have been 
 dragged on board ships of war of a foreigu nation, and ex- 
 posed under the severities of their discipline, to be exiled to 
 the most distant and deadly climes, to risk their lives in the 
 
JAMES MADISON. 119 
 
 battles of their oppressors, and to be the melancholy instru- 
 ments of taking away those of their own brethren. 
 
 " Against this crying enormity, which Great Britain would 
 be so prompt to avenge if committed against herself the Uni- 
 ted States have in vain exhausted remonstrances and expos- 
 tulations. And that no proof might be wanting of their con- 
 ciliatory disposition, and no pretext left for a continuance 
 of the practice, the British government was formally assured 
 of the readiness of the United States to enter into arrange- 
 ments, such as could not be rejected, if the recovery of Bri- 
 tish subjects were the real and the sole o^ect. The commu- 
 nication passed without effect. 
 
 " British cruisers have also been in the practice of violat- 
 ing the rights and the peace of our coasts. They hover over 
 and harass our entering and departing commerce. To the 
 most insulting pretensions they have added the most lawless 
 proceedings in our very harbors ; and have wantonly spilt 
 American blood, within the sanctuary of our territorial juris- 
 diction. The principles and rules enforced by that nation, 
 when a neutral nation, against armed vessels of belligerents 
 hovering near her coasts, and disturbing her commerce, are 
 well known. When called on, nevertheless, by the United 
 States to punish the greater offences committed by her own 
 vessels, her government has bestowed on their commanders 
 additional marks of honor and confidence. 
 
 " Under pretended blockades, without the presence of an 
 adequate force, and sometimes without the practicability of, 
 applying one, our commerce has been plundered in every 
 sea ; the great staples of our country have been cut off from 
 their legitimate markets ; and a destructive blow aimed at 
 our agricultural and maritime interests. In aggravation of 
 these predatory measures, they have been considered as in 
 
120 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 force from the dates of their notification ; a retrospective 
 effect being thus added, as has been done in other important 
 cases, to the unlawfulness of the course pursued. And to 
 render the outrage the more signal, these mock blockades 
 have been reiterated and enforced in the face of official com- 
 munications from the British government, declaring, as the 
 true definition of a legal blockade, ' that particular ports 
 must be actually invested, and previous warning given to 
 vessels bound to them, not to enter.' 
 
 "Not content with these occasional expedients for laying 
 waste our neutral trade, the cabinet of Great Britain resorted, 
 at length, to the sweeping system of blockades, under the 
 name of orders in council, which has been moulded and ma- 
 naged, as might best suit its political views, its commercial 
 jealousies, or the avidity of British cruisers. 
 
 " To our remonstrances against the complicated and trans- 
 cendent injustice of this innovation, the first reply was, that 
 the orders were reluctantly adopted by Great Britain as a 
 necessary retaliation on the decrees of her enemy, proclaim- 
 ing a general blockade of the British isles, at a time when 
 the naval force of that enemy dared not issue from his own 
 ports. She was reminded, without effect, that her own prior 
 blockades, unsup'ported by an adequate naval force actually 
 applied and continued, were a bar to this plea ; that executed 
 edicts against millions of om- property could not be retalia- 
 tion on edicts, confessedly impossible to be executed ; and 
 that retaliation, to be just, should fall on the party setting 
 the guilty example, not on an innocent party, which was not 
 even chargeable with an acquiescence in it. 
 
 " When deprived of this flimsy veil for a prohibition of 
 our trade with her enemy, by the repeal of his prohibition of 
 our trade with Great Britain, her cabinet, intead of a corres- 
 
JAMES MADISON. 121 
 
 ponding repeal, or a practical discontinuance of its orders, 
 formally avowed a determination to persist in them against 
 the United States, until the markets of her enemy should bo 
 laid open to British products ; thus asserting an obligation 
 on a neutral power, to require one belligerent to encourage, 
 by its internal regulations, the trade of another belligerent ; 
 contradicting her own practice towards all nations, in peace 
 as well as in war ; and betraying the insincerity of those 
 professions which inculcated a belief, that, having resorted 
 to her orders with regret, she was anxious to find an occasion 
 for putting an end to them. 
 
 " Abandoning still more all respect for the neutral rights 
 of the United States, and for its own inconsistency, the Bri- 
 tish government now demands, as pre-requisite to a repeal 
 of its orders, as they relate to the United States, that a for- 
 mality should be observed in the repeal of the French de- 
 crees, nowise necessary to their termination, nor exempli- 
 fied by British usage ; and that the French repeal, besides 
 including that portion of the decrees which operate within a 
 territorial jurisdiction, as well as that which operates on the 
 hiofh seas against the commerce of the United States, should 
 not be a single special repeal, in relation to the United 
 States ; but should be extended to whatever other neutral 
 nations unconnected with them, may be affected by those 
 decrees. And as an additional insult, they are called on 
 for a formal disavowal of conditions and pretentions ad- 
 vanced by the French government, for which the United 
 States are so far from having made themselves responsible, 
 that, in official explanations, which have been published to the 
 world, and in a correspondence of the American minister at 
 London, with the Bi-itish minister for foreign affairs, such a 
 responsibility was explicitly and empatically disclaimed. 
 
 11 
 
122 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 "It lias become, indeed, sufficiently certain, that the com- 
 merce of the United States is to be sacrificed, not as inter- 
 fering with the belligerent right of Great Britain, not as 
 supplying the wants of her enemies, which she herself sup- 
 plies, but as interfering with the monopoly which she covets 
 for her own commerce and navigation. She carries on a 
 war against the lawful commerce of a friend, that she may 
 the better carry on a commerce polluted by the forgeries 
 and perjuries which are, for the most part, the only pass- 
 ports, by which it can succeed. 
 
 " Anxious to make every experiment short of the last re- 
 sort of injured nations, the United States have withheld from 
 Great Britain, under successive modifications, the benefits 
 of a free intercourse with their market, the loss of which 
 could not but outweigh the profits accruing from her restric- 
 tions of our commerce with other nations. And to entitle 
 these experiments to the more favorable consideration, they 
 were so framed as to enable her to place her adversary under 
 the exclusive operation of them. To these appeals her go- 
 vernment has been equally inflexible, as if to make sacrifices 
 of every sort, rather than yield to the claims of justice, or 
 renounce the errors of a false pride. Nay, so far were the 
 attempts carried, to overcome the attachment of the British 
 cabinet to its unjust edicts, that it received every encourage- 
 ment within the competency of the executive branch of our 
 government, to expect, that a repeal of them would be fol- 
 lowed by a war between the United States and France, unless 
 the French edicts should also be repealed. Even this com- 
 munication, although silencing for ever the plea of a dispo- 
 sition in the United States to acquiesce in those edicts, 
 originally the sole plea for them, received no attention. 
 
 " If no other proof existed of a predetermination of the 
 
JAMES MADISON. 128 
 
 British government against a repeal of its orders, it might 
 be found in the correspondence of the minister plenipoten- 
 tiary of the United States at London, and the British sec- 
 retary for foreign affairs, in 1810, on the question whether 
 the blockade of May, 1806, was considered as in force or as 
 not in force. It has been ascertained that the French go- 
 yernment, which urged this blockade as the ground of its 
 Berlin decree, was willing, in the event of its removal, to 
 repeal that decree ; which, being followed by alternate re- 
 peals of the other offensive edicts, might abolish the whole 
 system on both sides. This inviting opportunity for accom- 
 plishing an object so important to the United States, and 
 professed so often to be the desire of both the belligerents, 
 was made known to the British government. As that go- 
 vernment admits, that an actual application of an adequate 
 force is necessary to the existence of a legal blockade ; and 
 it was notorious, that if such a force had ever been applied, 
 its long discontinuance had annulled the blockade in question 
 there could be no sufficient objection on the part of Great 
 Britain, to a formal revocation of it ; and no imaginable ob- 
 jection, to a declaration of the fact, that the blockade did 
 not exist. The declaration would have been consistent with 
 her avowed principles of blockade, and would have enabled 
 the United States to demand from France, the pledged repeal 
 of her decrees ; either with success, in which case the way 
 would have been opened for a general repeal of the bel- 
 ligerent edicts ; or without success, in which case the United 
 States would have been justified in turning their measures 
 exclusively against France. The British government would, 
 liowever, neither rescind the blockade, nor declare its non- 
 existence ; nor permit its non-existence to .be inferred and 
 affirmed by the American plenipotentiary. On the contrary, 
 
124 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 by representing the blockade to be comprehended in the 
 orders in council, the United States were compelled so to 
 regard it in their subsequent proceedings. 
 
 " There was a period when a favorable change in the po- 
 licy of the British cabinet, was justly considered as esta- 
 blished. The minister plenipotentiary of his Britanic ma- 
 jesty here proposed an adjustment of the differences more 
 immediately endangering the harmony of the two countries. 
 The proposition was accepted with a promptitude and cor- 
 diality corresponding with the invariable professions of this 
 government. A foundation appeared to be laid for a sincere 
 and lasting reconciliation. The prospect, however, quickly 
 vanquished ; the whole proceeding was disavowed by the 
 British government, without any explanations, which could 
 at that time repress the belief, th^ the disavowal proceeded 
 from a spirit of hostility to the commercial rights and pros- 
 perity of the United States. And it has since come into 
 proof, that at the very moment, when the public minister 
 was holding the language of friendship and inspiring confi- 
 dence in the sincerity of the negotiation with which he was 
 charged, a secret agent of his government was employed in 
 intrigues, having for their object a subversion of om* govern- 
 ment, and a dismemberment of our happy nation. 
 
 " In reviewing the conduct of Great Britian towards the 
 United States, our attention is necessarily drawn to the war- 
 fare just renewed by the savages on one of our extensive 
 frontiers ; a warfare which is known to spare neither age 
 nor sex, and to be distinguished by features peculiarly 
 shocking to humanity. It is difficult to account for the ac- 
 tivity and combination which have for some time been de- 
 veloping themselves among the tribes in the constant inter; 
 course with British traders and garrisons, without connect- 
 
JAMES MADISON. 125 
 
 ing tlieir hostility with that influence ; and without recollect- 
 ing the authenticated examples of such interpositions hereto- 
 fore furnished bj the ofiicers and agents of that government. 
 
 " Such is the spectacle of injuries and indignities which 
 have been heaped on our country ; and such the crisis which 
 its unexampled forbearance and conciliatory efforts have 
 not been able to avert. It might at least have been expected 
 that an enlightened nation, if less urged by moral obliga- 
 tions, or invited by friendly dispositions on the part of the 
 United States, would have found, in its true interest alone, 
 a sufficient motive to respect their rights and their tranquility 
 on the high seas ; that an enlarged policy would have favored 
 that free and general circulation of commerce, in which the 
 British nation is at all times interested, and which in times 
 of war, is the best alleviation of its calamities to herself as 
 well as the other belligerents ; and more especially that the 
 British cabinet would not, for the sake of the precarious and 
 surreptitious intercoui-se with hostile markets, have perse- 
 vered in a course of measui'es which necessarily put at ha- 
 zard the valuable market of a great and growing country, 
 disposed to cultivate the mutual advantages of an active 
 commerce. 
 
 " Our councils have prevailed. Our moderation and con- 
 ciliation have had no other effect than to encourage perse- 
 verance, and to enlarge pretensions. We behold oui" sea- 
 faring citizens still the daily victims of lawless violence com- 
 mitted on the great common and highway of nations, even 
 within sight of the country which owes them protection. 
 We behold our vessels freighted with the products of our 
 soil and industry, or-returning with the honest proceeds of 
 them, wrested from their lawful destination, confiscated by 
 prize courts, no longer the organs of public law, but the in- 
 
 11* 
 
12Q LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 struments of arbitrary edicts ; and their unfortunate crews 
 dispersed and lost, or forced or inveigled, in British ports, 
 into British fleets : whilst arguments are employed in support 
 of these aggressions, which have no foundation but in a prin- 
 ciple supporting equally a claim to regulate our external 
 commerce in all cases whatsoever. 
 
 "We behold, in fine, on the side of Great Britain, a state 
 of war against the United States ; and on the side of the 
 United States, a state of peace towards Great Britain. 
 
 " Whether the United States shall continue passive under 
 these progressive usurpations, and these accumulating wrongs; 
 or, opposing force to force in defence of their natural rights, 
 shall commit a just cause into the hands of the Almighty 
 Disposer of events, avoiding all connexions which might en- 
 tangle in the contests or views of other powers, and preserv- 
 ing a readiness to concur in an honorable re-establishment 
 of peace and friendship, is a solemn question, which the con- 
 stitution wisely confides to the legislative department of the 
 government. In recommending it to their early deliberations, 
 I am happy in the assurance of that decision will be worthy 
 the enlightened and patriotic councils of a virtuous, a free, 
 and a powerful nation. 
 
 " Having presented this view of the relations of the United 
 States with Great Britain, and of the solemn alternative 
 growing out of them, I proceed to remark, that the commu- 
 nications last made to Congress on the subject of our rela- 
 tions with France, will have shown that since the revocation 
 of her decrees, as they violated the neutral rights of the 
 United States, her government has authorized illegal cap- 
 tures, by its privateers and public ships, and that other out- 
 rages have been practised on our vessels and our citizens. 
 It will have been seen also, that no indemnity had been pro- 
 
JAMES MADISON. 127 
 
 vided, or satisfacforilj pledged, for the extensive spoliations 
 committed under the violent and retrospective orders of the 
 French government against the property of our citizens 
 seized within the jurisdiction of France. I abstain at this 
 time from recommending to the consideration of Congress 
 definite measures with respect to that nation, in the expecta- 
 tion that the result of the undisclosed discussions between 
 our minister plenipotentiary at Paris, and the French go- 
 vernment, will speedily enable Congress to decide, with 
 greater advantage, on the course due to the rights, the 
 interest, and the honor of our country." 
 
 This message was referred, in the house of representatives, 
 to the committee on foreign relations. After a serious 
 consideration of its contents, they reported a bill, declaring 
 war between the united kingdoms of Great Britain and 
 Ireland and their dependencies, and the United States of 
 America, and their territories, accompanied by a manifesto 
 of the causes that impelled to war. 
 
 A full history of this three years' war does not come 
 within the scope of this biography. We have to do with 
 President Madison. It is generally conceded that he erred 
 in his first measures — in the choice of war ministers — in the 
 appointment of commanding generals. Perhaps, all the 
 weakness and inefficiency displayed in the conduct of the 
 first campaign, may be traced to the bad selection of a war- 
 minister. Upon land, the force of the United States suf- 
 fered defeat and disaster. The navy maintained the honor, 
 and established the maritime reputation of the country. 
 Hull, Decatur, Lawrence, and other gallant spirits inflicted 
 upon the enemy at sea, what they gave to the Americana 
 on land. 
 
 At the presidential election of 1812, Mr. Madison was 
 
128 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 again a candidate. Elbridge Gerxy was on the same ticket 
 as a candidate for the Vice Presidency. These gentlemen 
 ■were opposed by De Witt Clinton and Jared IngersoU. 
 The electoral vote stood as follows : 
 
 For Madison, one hundred and twenty-eight ; Gerry, one 
 hundred and thirty-one ; Clinton, eighty-nine ; IngersoU, 
 eighty-six. The friends of the administration retained a 
 majority in Congress, though the opposition daily increased 
 in strength. On the 4th of March, Mr. Madison entered upon 
 his second inaugural term. Previous to this, some changes 
 had been made in the cabinet. William Jones of Pennsyl- 
 vania, had been appointed Secretary of the Navy in place 
 of Paul Hamilton, and General John Armstong had been 
 appointed Secretary of War, in the place of Doctor Eustis, 
 resigned. 
 
 On the 8th of March, 1813, the Russian minister com- 
 municated to the American government an offer from the Em- 
 peror Alexander of his mediation between the United States 
 and Great Britain ; and on the 11th, the President accepted 
 the offer. A few days afterwards, the President appointed 
 Messrs. Albert Gallatin, John Quincy Adams, and James A. 
 Bayard, commissioners or envoys to treat for peace. The 
 British government rejected the offer of Russian mediation 
 but signified its willingness to treat directly with the United 
 States. Ghent was the place fixed for the meeting of the 
 commissioners. In the meantime, the war went on. Upon 
 the lakes and the ocean, the Americans were astonishingly 
 successful, while upon land, though they met with some dis- 
 asters, their affairs began to brighten. 
 
 Henry Clay and Jonathan Kussel were added to the ne- 
 gotiating envoys in January, 1814 ; and the commissioners 
 were arranged by the President in the following order : 
 
JAMES MADISON. 129 
 
 John Quincy Adams, James A. Bayard, Henry Clay, Jona- 
 than Russel, and Albert Gallatin. 
 
 During the year 1814, the war was prosecuted with vigor 
 and zeal on both sides. The fall of Napoleon left Great 
 Britain at liberty to direct her whole strength against the 
 United States, and a large number of the veterans of Wel- 
 lington's campaigns, were sent over to Canada. But Brown, 
 Scott, Gaines, Jackson, and Ripley, were now at the head 
 of the American forces, and great vigor was exerted in all 
 parts of the administration. Confidence in the army was 
 revived, and the triumphs at Niagara, Plattsburg, Baltimore, 
 Fort Erie, and New Orleans, conclusively showed the supe- 
 riority of the Americans upon their own soil. Harrison, by 
 the victory of the Thames, had relieved the north-western 
 frontier from the depredations and atrocities of the united 
 British and Indians. On the sea, the " star-spangled ban- 
 ner" was covered with the glory of triumph. 
 
 Several changes took place in the cabinet in 1814 and 
 1815. George W. Campbell, of Tennessee, was appointed 
 to supply the place of Mr. Gallatin, as Secretary of the 
 Treasury, and in October, he resigned, and was succeeded 
 by Alexander J. Dallas. In September, 1814, General 
 Armstrong resigned the post of Secretary of War. Mr. 
 Monroe acted as the head of that department until the 1st 
 of August, 1815, when William H. Crawford was appointed, 
 and Mr. Monroe returned to the duties of the state depart- 
 ment. Changes were also made in the subordinate offices. 
 
 While Congress was passing acts for the vigorous prose- 
 cution of the war, the unexpected and welcome intelligence 
 of peace was received at Washington, early in February, 
 1815, A treaty of peace between the United States and 
 Great Britain was concluded by the commissioners at Ghent, 
 
130 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 on tlie 24th of Dectember, 1814, about a fortnight before 
 the British "were repulsed at New Orleans, by General Jack- 
 son. The treaty was ratified by the President and senate, 
 and was the occasion of sincere and universal rejoicings. 
 Early in 1815, Messrs. Adams, Gallatin, and Clay, nego- 
 tiated at London, a satisfactory commercial treaty, which 
 completely restored friendly relations between the United 
 States and Great Britain. 
 
 The rest of President Madison's administration was 
 peaceable and beneficial to all the interests of the country. 
 The want of a uniform national currency had been felt dur- 
 ing the war, and a national bank, with a capital of thirty- 
 five millions, was now established with the consent of the 
 republican party. The encouragement of American manu- 
 factures, by the regulation of the tariff, and the extinction 
 of the national debt, were the objects of the other important 
 measures adopted during this administration. On the 4th 
 of March, 1817, Mr. Madison surrendered the Presidency 
 to his friend, Mr. Monroe, and retired to his seat of Mont- 
 pelier, in Virginia. 
 
 " In 1829, he consented to become a member of the con- 
 vention which met at Richmond for the purpose of revising 
 the constitution of his state, and contributed largely in seve- 
 ral instances to effect a compromise between contending 
 opinions and interests. With the exception only of the two 
 months which he was at this period absent from home, and 
 his occasional visits to Charlottesville, in fulfilment of his 
 duties as a visitor, and subsequently as rector, of the Uni- 
 versity of Virginia, it is stated that he never left his county 
 after he quitted Washington. Although he lived tp the age 
 of eighty-five, he had a very delicate constitution, and never 
 enjoyed good health. He died on the 28th of June 1836. — 
 
JAMES MADISON. 131 
 
 In his domestic relations he was amiable and kind ; and in 
 his intercourse with his friends, his conversational powers 
 rendered him an instructive and entertaining companion. 
 
 As a writer he has had few equals among American 
 statesmen, and the style of his public documents and his 
 correspondence have been much admired. He was an able 
 debater, having acquired self-confidence by slow degrees. 
 He restored the custom of levees at the presidential mansion, 
 which was a gratification to his friends and strangers. 
 
 In personal appearance, Mr. Madison was small of stature 
 and rather protuberant in front. His countenance wore an 
 expression of mingled mildness, dignity, and intelligence. 
 He was slow and deliberate in speech. At the close of his 
 last presidential term he seemed care-worn and older than 
 he was in fact. He was bald on the top of his head, wore 
 his hair powdered, and usually dressed in black. His learning 
 was ever calculated to convey an idea of his modest merit. 
 Mr. A. J. Stansbury, the author of " Reminiscences of Pub- 
 lic Men," who was well acquainted with Mr. Madison and 
 his lady gives us the following description of them : 
 
 "I saw Mr. Madison, for the first time, at Richmond, 
 where he attended as a member of a state convention, as- 
 sembled in 1829, for the revision of the constitution of 
 Virginia. You may imagine the intense curiosity with 
 which I gazed on an individual so illustrious. Among a crowd 
 of gentlemen who entered the hall of the old house of bur- 
 gesses, in the capital, where the convention was about to 
 open, I saw one, of lower stature than any of his compeers, 
 slender and delicate in form — dressed in a suit of black, 
 not new, and now dusty from travel, with a hat distinguished 
 by the width of its brim, and its total estrangement from the 
 fashionable block of the day j in aspect grave, yet mild ; in 
 
132 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 air and carriage perfectly simple and unassuming ; of light, 
 elastic step, and possessing, altogether, what may be called 
 a winning address. I observed that he was approached by 
 every one with an instinctive respect, (though not with that 
 expression of awe which was inspired by Washington,) and 
 I soon learned from every mouth, that it was ex-President 
 Madison. Many members of the convention then saw him, 
 like myself for the first time. He looked to me like a gen- 
 tleman farmer, emerging from retirement, to give his vote 
 at some important election, and then pui'posing to return 
 home. 
 
 " He met his friends with courtesy, but with an unmoved 
 calmness of manner, differing, as it seemed to me, from that 
 warmth and cordiality which usually marks the intercourse 
 of Virginians, and Southern people generally. Indeed, 
 were I asked to point out Mr. Madison's distinguishing 
 trait, I speak of his constitutional organization, I should 
 say it was this very quality of dignified calmness. His tone 
 of mind seemed pleasant, even cheerful, but totally undis- 
 turbed — ever self-possessed, self-balanced. Wherever I met 
 him, afterward, this original impression remained unaltered. 
 He was, in all situations, gentlemanly, modest, retiring, 
 and for so distinguished a character, more silent than I had 
 expected. He never assumed the lead in conversation, and 
 appeared always more disposed to listen than to speak. No- 
 thing can be conceived more remote from all assumption and 
 display. Diu-ing the whole duration of the convention, (and 
 it sat for sixteen weeks,) although of all present, he was 
 best entitled to speak on subjects such as those which occu- 
 pied that body, he spoke but twice. When he did speak, 
 however, the effect of such retiring merit was at once ob- 
 vious. While other members of the body, even the most 
 
JAMES MADISON. 133 
 
 distinguished among the elite of Virginia, were listened to 
 with respectful attention, but without any special outward 
 demonstration of interest, no sooner was Mr. Madison upon 
 his feet, than there was in one moment a simultaneous rush, 
 from every part of the hall ; the ordinary decorum of the 
 body seemed forgotten ; regardless of all obstacles, every 
 man made a straight line to the spot, and he was at once, 
 so completely hemmed in by the crowd that pressed around 
 to hear, that his small figure could scarce be seen. There 
 was, indeed, one reason for this movement besides the 
 homage which his character commanded. 
 
 " His voice, never very strong, was then very slender, even 
 feeble, (he was in his seventy-eighth year,) though his enun- 
 ciation was perfectly distinct, and the universal eagerness 
 not to lose a syllable that fell from him may have quickened 
 the efforts to be as near him as possible. My professional 
 occupation opened an avenue to me, since it was my duty 
 to take down the speech ; but such was the interest I felt, 
 in common with all around me, to hear the speech, that it 
 was with difficulty I could prevent my attention from being 
 drawn from my task, leaving me a listener merely. I have 
 still the MS. notes of that speech, (the last he ever delivered) 
 with corrections of it in his own hand, which I keep with a 
 religious feeling of veneration. Connected with it is a 
 little anecdote, characteristic in the highest degree of the 
 meekness of wisdom which so eminently distinguished the 
 author of ' The Federalist.' When I had finished writing 
 out the speech, I left it with him for his revision. Next day, 
 as there was a great call for it, and the report had not been 
 returned for publication, I sent my son, with a respectful 
 note, requesting the MS. My son was a lad of about six- 
 teen, (whom I had taken with me to act as an amanuensis,) 
 
 12 
 
134 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 and on delivering my note he was received with the utmost 
 politeness, and requested to come up in Mr. Madison's cham- 
 ber, and wait while he ran his eye over the paper ; as com- 
 pany had till that moment prevented his attending to it. 
 He did so : and Mr. Madison, pen in hand, sat down to cor- 
 rect the report. The lad stood near him, so that his eye 
 fell on the paper. Coming to a certain sentence in the 
 speech, Mr. Madison struck out a word, and substituted 
 another : but hesitated, and not feeling quite satisfied with 
 the second word, drew his pen through it also. My son was 
 young, ignorant of the world, and unconscious of the sole- 
 cism of which he was about to be guilty, when, in all his 
 simplicity, he suggested a word. Yes, he ventured, boy that 
 he was, to suggest to James Madison an improvement in 
 his own speech ! Probably no other individual then living 
 would have taken such a liberty ! But the sage, instead of 
 regarding the intrusion with a frown, raised his eye to the 
 boy's face with pleased surprise, and said, ' thank you, sir — 
 it is the very word !' and immediately inserted it. I saw him 
 the next day, and he mentioned the circumstance, with a 
 compliment on the young critic. 
 
 " I Avas forcibly struck, while discharging my daily duty 
 in the convention, at the deportment of Mr. Madison. Punc- 
 tual and unfailing in his attendance, he always occupied the 
 same seat, and I do not think that in the hall there was another 
 individual who paid as uniform and unremitted attention to 
 the proceedings of the body. Whoever occupied the floor, 
 he was sure of at least one attentive listener. John Marshall 
 himself, did not listen with more steadiness and condescen- 
 sion to the argument of a young member of the bar, (and 
 who that was ever a young member there, and did not feel 
 with deepest gratitude that admirable trait in the character 
 
JAMES MADISON. 135 
 
 of the great jurist ?) than did Mr. Madison to the speeches, 
 of every grade, from men of every calibre, on subjects of 
 which none was so complete a master as himself. Perhaps 
 the habit might have been formed when he was himself a 
 reporter in the convention which formed the constitution. 
 A reporter is a listener by profession ; he is attentive par 
 force ; and, happily, in this case as in every other of invo- 
 luntary and long-continued labor, the back, by a merciful 
 Providence, becomes fitted to the burden. 
 
 " At Richmond I first saw Mrs. Madison, and the instant 
 my eye fell on her I felt that I was looking on a Queen. 
 A queen she was ; one of nature's queens : — she looked the 
 character ; her person, carriage, manners, language, would 
 have been in place in any, the most polished, Court of Eu- 
 rope. To her, Virgil's immortal words applied with a force 
 that struck every beholder : ^ Incedit Regina.' Her per- 
 son was large and dignified, yet moved Avith easy grace ; 
 her face a full oval, with raised features, double chin, fine 
 eyes, and a mouth dressed in the most winning smiles. It 
 was a face that seemed to bid you welcome, and to ask, 
 *what can I do for you?' Having once seen her, I felt no 
 more surprised at having heard of her from a boy ; — I could 
 credit what had frequently been told me that her husband 
 owed much of the success of his administration (so far as its 
 popularity was concerned,) to the influence of his wife. Her 
 power over him was great, and all who sought preferment, 
 promotion, favors of any kind, addressed themselves, natu- 
 rally, to her, as the readiest and surest channel of access to 
 the President, A corrupt woman might have enriched her- 
 self to almost any extent, by the use of such a power. 
 Madison himself was cold and shy, and a timid suitor would 
 often have met, not with repulse, but with a polite refusal ; 
 
136 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 but to Mrs. Madison anybody, every body could approach ; 
 and if their request was reasonable and such as a lady might 
 urge without derogation from her own sense of propriety, they 
 might count upon at least her good offices. I had a personal 
 opportunity of witnessing both the adroitness, and the prev- 
 alence, of her intercession. A gentleman was at Richmond 
 with a subscription for an edition of the American Encyclo- 
 poedia. The presence of so numerous an assemblage of in- 
 telligent men presented a favorable opportunity for prosecu- 
 ting such an enterprise. The work was expensive, and its 
 publishers would not feel warranted to enter into such an un- 
 dertaking without securing, beforehand, a respectable amount 
 of patronage. The gentleman was very anxious, and his 
 first application must, of course, be made to Mr. Madison, 
 that name alone would be worth to him more than a hundred 
 others. With such a name at the head of his list he could 
 present it to any man ; without it, he would be met with its 
 absence as an objection. He applied, and was refused. Mr. 
 Madison admitted the value of the work, complimented the 
 applicant on his enterprise in undertaking its publication, 
 wished him every success, but pleading his own restricted 
 circumstances, which would not justify him in incurring the 
 expense. The poor man came to me in great dejection. A 
 refusal from such a source took the wind out of his sails ; 
 it would justify all in refusing who sought an excuse to do 
 so. ' What shall I do ?' said he, in much perplexity. ' Have 
 you ever read the book of Judges ?' said I. ' The book of 
 Judges ! Why yes, I have read it ; but what has that to do 
 with my subscription list ?' ' More, perhaps than you think. 
 Do you remember how the Philistines found out Samson's 
 riddle ? Do you recollect what he told them ? "If you had 
 not ploughed with my heifer, you would never have found out 
 
JAMES MADISON. 137 
 
 my riddle." Go you, and try the same plan.' 'You are 
 right ; you're right ! I'll do it.' Next day he came into 
 my room huzzaing — ' I ploughed with the heifer ;' and see, 
 here's the sign manual.' I asked him to tell me how she 
 did it. ' Why,' replied he, ' she brought me to the old gen- 
 tleman, and told him of how much importance it was to me 
 to get his name.' ' Yes my dear,' said he, ' I am aware of 
 that ; but you know, as well as I, that our circumstances are 
 not such as to warrant me in incurring so heavy an expense. 
 I should be glad to aid this gentleman, and glad to possess 
 the work, but I cannot afford it.' 'I know that, my dear,' 
 said his lady, ' or I am sure you would give this gentleman 
 your name to help his list. But are not you a trustee of 
 the University of Virginia ? and couldn't you take his book 
 for the college ?' ' True, true, my love ; I never thought 
 of that,' and he put down his name.' This is a sample of the 
 admirable tact with which she could carry her point. 
 
 " There were excellent points in her character. She was 
 ever a friend to the friendless. Whenever, in the drawing- 
 room, a modest individual seemed thrown in the back ground 
 her quick eye instantly perceived it ; and she would always 
 contrive, without any parade of condescension, but in the 
 most easy and affectionate manner, by a kind word, a kind 
 look, a question, or some other of those nameless, intangible, 
 but influential courtesies of which she was so perfect a mis- 
 tress, to attract attention and encouragement toward the ob- 
 ject of her kindness. Nor was this trait in her disposition 
 confined to mere courtesy of manner ; she was ever ready 
 to confer substantial kindness on those who needed it. Mr. 
 Catlin, the adventurous delineator of Indian life and manners, 
 (a man as distinguished for his modest simplicity of mind as 
 for the charm of his pencil,) once related to me this anecdote. 
 
 12* 
 
138 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 While quite a young man, and soon after his marriage, he 
 was in Virginia, in the vicinity of Mr. Madison's home, en- 
 deavoring to earn his support by painting portraits ; he was 
 a stranger, and in narrow circumstances, having taken cheap 
 board at a private house in the country. Here his young 
 wife was taken sick with the intermittent fever so common 
 in a southern climate, and confined for several weeks to her 
 bed. It was a desolate situation ; the necessary comforts of 
 a sick chamber were hard to be procured, especially by a 
 young couple, little known and in narrow circumstances. — 
 But his wife had not been sick many days, before a lady, of 
 verypreposessing appearance, entered her chamber, and with 
 a graceful apology for the intrusion, introduced herself, and 
 begged to know how she could render any assistance ; — and 
 then laying aside her bonnet and shawl, she sat her down by 
 the bedside, cheered the invalid by her conversation (which 
 ever flowed like a gentle and abundant river,) mixed and ad- 
 ministered her medicines, and from that hour continued to 
 nurse her like a sister, till she was quite recovered. It was 
 Mrs. Madison. 
 
 " Another beautiful trait in her character was her fondness 
 for the young. No one could have seen her in company with 
 young ladies, and failed to be struck with this peculiarity. 
 It became the more remarkable as she advanced in years. — 
 At an age when to the most of those who reach it the liveli- 
 ness and chatter of young people is a burden, she had still 
 the same fondness for their company ; nor was there a kinder 
 chaperone to be found in introducing and encouraging a 
 bashful young girl just 'come out.' She concihated their 
 confidence at once, and in a large and mixed company, you 
 would always find a bevy of youthful faces around her, all 
 whose pleasures seemed to be her own. 
 
JAMES MADISON. 139 
 
 "In almost every picture of Mrs. Madison, whether minia- 
 ture or portrait, she is drawn with a turban ; and very pro- 
 perly ; for it was, I believe, her constant head dress. How- 
 ever the fashions might change, and however, in other re- 
 spects, she conformed to them, she still retained this pecu- 
 liarity. It became her well, nor could she, probably, have 
 laid it aside for anything that would have set off her features 
 to better advantage. So much was the eye accustomed to 
 see it that it became in fact, a part of her figure. It was, 
 to her, much what old Frederick's three cornered hat was to 
 him ; and one would as soon expect to find Mrs. Madison 
 without her turban, as the Prussian army would to see their 
 king without his hat. She rouged, too, very freely ; nor 
 did she lay aside her turban, her rouge, her courtly manners, 
 cheerful spirits, or her fondness for company, to the day of 
 her death." 
 
M U X H O E. 
 
|^h)e3 ^o^i*oe. 
 
 Those who are in the habit of regarding quickness of 
 thought and brilliancy of expression as essentials of great- 
 ness have spoken slightly of James Monroe. They have 
 wound up their memoirs of him with some grave remarks 
 upon the freaks of the popular will and the fortune of some 
 politicians. But he who enjoyed the esteem of the great 
 men of his day, who was employed by Presidents of various 
 shades of opinion, in many important stations — who rivalled 
 Madison — whose administration was so successful as to have 
 the unanimous and hearty approbation of the nation could 
 not have been a common man — could not have been merely 
 fortunate. Firmness, integrity, patriotism, foresight, and 
 great capacity for labor — the genuine attribute of the best 
 rulers, were to be found in James Monroe. Diplomatic and 
 administrative talents, he certainly displayed. If he lacked 
 imagination and oratorical powers, so did Washington, and 
 many of the best statesmen, whose names have been handed 
 down to us by History, have been more eloquent in deeds than 
 in words. As a hero, leaving college to lead the van at Tren- 
 ton — as a patriot, pledging his private estate to furnish the 
 means for defending New Orleans, as a diplomatist negotiat- 
 ing for the purchase of Louisiana, and as President, carrying 
 
 13 (145) 
 
146 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 into effect these measure most agreeable to the popular will, 
 James Monroe is truly worthy of the highest esteem. 
 
 The successor of Madison was born on the 2d of April, 1759, 
 in the county of Westmoreland, Virginia. The family of 
 Monroe is one of the most ancient and honorable in Virginia. 
 James was the son of Spence Monroe and Elizabeth Jones. 
 After preparing himself by a com'se of elementary study, 
 he entered William and Mary College. But the war of 
 independence began ; and the country had great need of 
 the hearts and arms of all her sons. James Monroe was 
 but eighteen years old when the declaration of independence 
 was issued. Yet he resolved to quit the college and join 
 the army under Washington. The British general was pre- 
 paring an overwhelming force for an attack upon New York. 
 The horizon of America was growing gloomy. The timid 
 were shrinking from the side of the great patriot general. 
 Monroe joined Washington at New York. During the dark 
 period of seventy-six, he shared with the patriots in their 
 perils and privations. He participated in the disastrous 
 battles of Harlem heights and White Plains. In the battle 
 of Trenton, while leading the vanguard in a brave and suc- 
 cessful assault upon the enemy's artillery, he received a 
 wound, the scar of which he carried to his grave. 
 
 After he recovered from his wound, Mr. Monroe was 
 promoted to a captaincy, in the regular service. But, during 
 the campaign of 1777 and 1778, he acted as aid to Lord 
 Stirling, receding from the line of promotion. However, 
 he won fresh laurels by his brave bearing at Brandywine, 
 Germantown, and Monmouth. Desiring to regain his posi- 
 tion in the line, he endeavored to raise a regiment in Vir- 
 ginia, under the recommendation of General Washington 
 and the authority of the legislature. But the state was ex- 
 
JAMES MONROE. 147 
 
 hausted, and men could not be induced to enlist. Failing to 
 attain his aim, Mr. Monroe then devoted himself to the study 
 of the law, under Mr. Jeflferson, then governor of Virginia.* 
 But he afterwards served as a volunteer, aiding to resist the 
 British invasion of the state. 
 
 In 1782, Mr. Monroe was elected to a seat in the Vir- 
 ginia legislature, by the county of King George. He was 
 then twenty-four years old ; but such was his activity and 
 legislative tact, that in 1783, he was elected by the legisla- 
 ture, a delegate to the Continental Congress. Two years' 
 experience in that body convinced him that its powers were 
 insufficient for the purposes of good government, and he 
 therefore sought to extend them. In 1785, he made a mo- 
 tion that Congress should be invested with the power to regu- 
 late trade. This motion was referred to a committee, of 
 which he was chairman. Other proposals to amend the 
 Articles of Confederation were made, and finally, the con- 
 vention for framing a constitution was the result. In the 
 meantime, Mr. Monroe served with eight other highly re- 
 spectable men of the period, in a federal court, which was 
 to decide a long pending controversy between New York 
 and Massachusetts. But the states settled the matter by 
 mutual agreement, and Mr. Monroe resigned his commission. 
 While in New York, attending the Continental Congress, 
 Mr. Monroe married the beautiful and accomplished daughter 
 of Mr. L. Kortright. In the latter part of 1782, his term 
 of service expired, and being ineligible for a second term, 
 he retired to Fredericksbm-g to engage in the practice of 
 the law. 
 
 But the times and the Virginians would not allow talent 
 to remain in the walks of public life. In 1787, Mr. Monroe 
 * Stateman'a Manual. 
 
148 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 was elected to the Legislature, and in the following year, he 
 was chosen a delegate to the state convention, assembled to 
 decide upon the federal constitution. In that body were 
 some of the noblest minds in the country. The great orator 
 Patrick Henry, was there to pour forth his thunder in oppo- 
 sition to the constitution, while Madison, Pendleton and 
 Edmund Randolph, appeared as its able advocates. Mr. 
 Monroe, though convinced of the necessity of a radical change 
 in the general government, was not prepared to accept the 
 proposed constitution, without certain very important amend- 
 ments. With Patrick Henry, George Mason and other great 
 men, he thought the power committed to the hands of the 
 executive would overwhelm the liberties of the people and 
 the rights of the states. The democratic and state right 
 doctrines held by Mr. Monroe at this time were consistently 
 maintained throughout his political career. The convention 
 finally adopted the constitution as it was, by a vote of eighty- 
 nine to seventy-nine, Mr. Monroe being in the negative. 
 
 The majority of anti-federalists were elected by Virginia 
 to the first Congress. On the death of William Grayson, 
 one of the senators, Mr. Monroe was elected to supply his 
 place. He took his seat in the senate of the United States 
 in 1790. During the four years that he held that station, 
 he opposed the administration of Washington, and arose to 
 high esteem among the republicans. In May, 1794, Presi- 
 dent Washington appointed Mr. Monroe minister to the 
 French republic, in compliance with the wishes of the Jef- 
 ferson party. He was cordially received in France, but his 
 course while there was not conformable to the policy of 
 Washington, who therefore recalled him in 1796. On his 
 return, Mr. Monroe published a vindication of his course 
 of action, and censured the administration. He was then 
 
JAMES MONROE. 149 
 
 elected to the Virginia legislature, and in 1799 was chosen 
 by that body, governor of the state, which office he held for 
 the limited term of three years. 
 
 In 1803, President Jefferson, anxious for the purchase 
 of Louisiana, appointed Mr. Monroe envoy extraordinary to 
 France, to act jointly with Mr. Livingston, the resident 
 minister. A fortnight after his arrival in France, Mr. Mon- 
 roe succeeded in attaining the wished for object. Mr. Li- 
 vingston, had begun to despair of success ; but the envoy 
 extraordinary, having a better understanding with the French 
 government, easily conducted the negotiation to the desired 
 end. This achievement did great honor to Mr. Monroe's 
 diplomatic talents. Shortly after the purchase of Louisiana, 
 Mr. Monroe succeeded Rufus King at the court of St. James. 
 At this time, the relations between the United States and 
 Great Britain were anything but friendly. In 1807, Messrs. 
 Monroe and Pinckney succeeded in negotiating a treaty, 
 which they considered advantageous to the United States. 
 But President Jefferson refused to send it to the Senate, he 
 thought it clogged .with inadmissible conditions. Mr. Can- 
 ning, the British minister of foreign affairs, refused to nego- 
 tiate further, and therefore the mission of Monroe and Pinck- 
 ney was at an end. Mr. Monroe was somewhat dissatisfied 
 with President Jefferson in consequence of the unceremonious 
 treatment of the result of the laborious negotiation ; but the 
 matter was explained in friendly correspondence. 
 
 It was thought by a portion of the republican party that 
 Mr. Monroe should succeed Mr. Jefferson in the Presidency. 
 But the majority preferred Mr. Madison. In 1811, Mr. 
 Monroe was again elected governor of Virginia, which sta- 
 tion, he resigned, however, to take the department of State, 
 under President Madison. After the capture of Washington 
 
 13* 
 
150 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 City, and the resignation of General Armstrong, Mr. Monroe 
 •was appointed to the war department, in which capacity he 
 displayed an energy, boldness, and patriotism, which indica- 
 ted the latent power of a great minister. He proposed to 
 increase the army to one hundred thousand men, and to 
 raise troops by draught from the whole number of able-bodied 
 men. This measure was calculated to make him unpopular ; 
 he knew it ; but in the choice between what he considered right 
 and popularity, he was prepared to sacrifice the latter. For- 
 tunately the return of peace rendered the addition to the 
 army unnecessary. Towards the end of the year 1814, his 
 attention was called to the defence of New Orleans. To 
 raise the necessary funds, he was compelled to pledge his 
 private credit, as subsidiary to that of the government, which 
 was at a low ebb.* By this patriotic act, Mr. Monroe was 
 enabled to furnish the necessary supplies. The triumph of 
 the American arms at New Orleans followed and the war 
 closed. 
 
 Mr. Monroe now returned to the department of state, and 
 aided Mr. Madison in carrying out those measures which 
 the foreign and domestic relations of the government de- 
 manded. In 1816, he received the nomination of the re- 
 publican party, for the Presidency. He was elected without 
 difiiculty. Daniel J). Tompkins, of New York, was elected 
 to the Vice Presidency at the same time. Messrs. Monroe 
 and Tompkins entered upon the duties of their offices on 
 the 4th of March, 1817. 
 
 President Monroe determined to pursue the same policy 
 
 in regard to appointments, as had been followed by Jeflfer- 
 
 Bon and Madison, Republicans alone were to be considered 
 
 fit for office, under a republican administration. John 
 
 * Stateman's Manual. 
 
JAMES MONROE. 15X 
 
 Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, was appointed Secretary 
 of State ; William H. Crawford, of Georgia, Secretary of 
 the Treasury ; John C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, Secre- 
 tary of War ; and William Wirt, of Virginia, Attorney 
 General. Benjamin M. Crowninshield was continued in 
 office as Secretary of the Navy. 
 
 The policy of Mr. Monroe's administration was liberal 
 and satisfactory to all parties. In many of its features, it 
 resembled that of Washington and Hamilton. The perfect- 
 ing of a national bank, of the gradual discharge of the public 
 debt, of the system of fortifying the coast and increasing 
 the navy, and of encouraging by adequate protection the 
 manufactures and inventions of the country, were the chief 
 aims of this policy, Mr. Monroe yielded his own opinions 
 to those of the majority of the nation, and acquiesced in at 
 system of internal improvements, but not until near the 
 close of his administration. The treaty wliich added Flo- 
 rida to the United States was consummated under the di- 
 rection of the President. In 1817, he made a tour through 
 a large portion of the northern and middle states, inspect- 
 ing the various public works, and gaining much accurate in- 
 formation in regard to the state of these sections of the 
 Union. He was received with every demonstration of re- 
 spect and affection on the part of the people. 
 
 In 1820, Mr. Monroe was re-elected to the Presidency, 
 receiving every vote of the electoral college except one. In 
 the previous year he made a tour through the southern and 
 western states, where he was received with the same cor- 
 diality as had been displayed during his excursion to the 
 north. Mr. Tompkins was re-elected to the Vice Presidency 
 by a very large majority. The administration was the most 
 popular the country had yet known. The great question 
 
152 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 before the Congress at the session of 1820-21, was upon 
 the admission of Missouri into the Union. A large portion 
 of the members were opposed to the admission of any more 
 states, by whose constitution slavery was recognised, and 
 Missouri came within this category. After a very violent 
 discussion, the question was settled by a compromise, pro- 
 posed by Henry Clay, of Kentucky. Missouri was to be 
 admitted ; but slavery was to be for ever prohibited in the 
 rest of the territory west of the Mississippi, lying north of 
 thirty-six degrees and thirty-six minutes, north latitude. 
 
 Many important acts were adopted by Congress, during 
 the second presidential term of Mr. Monroe. But we have 
 indicated the general policy of the administration, and the 
 views of the President, and it is beyond our purpose to re- 
 view congressional measures. All the candidates proposed 
 to succeed Mr. Monroe were members of the republican 
 party. They were William H. Crawford, Secretary of the 
 Treasury ; John Quincy Adams, Secretary of State ; John 
 C. Calhoun, Secretary of War ; Henry Clay, and General 
 Andrew Jackson. The vote in the electoral college stood 
 as follows : — For Jackson, ninety-nine ; Adams, eighty-four ; 
 Crawford, forty-one ; Clay, thirty-seven. There was, con- 
 sequently, no choice of a President by the people. John C. 
 Calhoun was elected Vice President, receiving one hundred 
 and eighty-two votes, to seventy-eight for all others. The 
 election from the three highest candidates devolved upon 
 the house of representatives. That body, voting by states, 
 elected John Quincy Adams, in February, 1825. It was 
 supposed that this choice was agreeable to the views of Mr. 
 Monroe, though the disappointed candidates were his friends. 
 
 At the close of this vigorous and prosperous administra- 
 tion, on the 3d of March, 1825, Mr. Monroe retired to his 
 
JAMES MONROE. 153 
 
 residence in Loudon county, Virginia, where he "was shortly 
 afterwards appointed a county magistrate, and curator of 
 the University of Virginia. 
 
 In 1829, he was elected a member of the convention 
 called to revise the constitution of the state, a body of which 
 he was unanimously chosen president. A writer, in a late 
 number of the " Southern Literary Messenger," who at- 
 tended this convention, thus speaks of the part played by 
 Mr. Monroe. 
 
 " The want of the habit of public speaking was very con- 
 spicuous in several of the older members of the Convention, 
 and in none more than in Mr. Monroe. It was well known 
 that he was never a very eloquent speaker ; but in former 
 days his speeches were said to be remarkable for plain com- 
 mon sense, expressed in clear and intelligible language. He 
 had lost all this, no doubt from long disuse, before he came 
 to the convention. His ideas appeared to be confused, his 
 delivery awkward, his manner perplexed, and his whole de- 
 meanor that of a man overwhelmed by the magnitude of his 
 subject. To have judged from his speeches on the floor, one 
 might very well have supposed that he had no clear percep- 
 tions upon any subject, and that he had not mastered the 
 particular one upon which he was engaged for the time being. 
 
 "Yet those who know the history of Mr. Monroe, are well 
 aware that such was not the character of his > mind. He was 
 eminently a man of action ; he saw his way clearly in every 
 difficulty, political or diplomatic, and though he might not 
 be able to point it out to others, he never lost it himself. In 
 this respect he resembled the English statesman, Castlereagh, 
 who, if the account of Lord Brougham is to be credited, was 
 the least luminous of all speakers that ever addressed the 
 House of Commons. He formed a perfect contrast to his 
 
154 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 great rival and enemy, Canning, who was the most polished 
 of speakers, the most attic of wits, the most entertaining of 
 raconteurs. Yet when the time of action came, the master- 
 spirit developed itself at once in Castlereagh. He managed 
 the helm with the boldness of a pilot who delighted in the 
 excitement of tempest and danger, while his more eloquent 
 adversary, if left to himself in the hour of peril, would soon 
 have run the vessel on a shoal, or have caused her to founder 
 at sea. 
 
 " Though no orator, Mr. Monroe was, nevertheless, lis- 
 tened to with great respect in the convention. And he was 
 entitled to be thus listened to. He had filled the highest 
 offices, had been twice elected President of the United States, 
 and had conducted one of the most successful administrations 
 the country had ever known. In spite of his embarrassed 
 manner, and awkward delivery, these facts denoted him to 
 be no ordinary man, and his fame had already been placed 
 beyond the reach of accident." 
 
 Before the adjournment of the convention, Mr. Monroe 
 was compelled by indisposition, to retire. In the succeed- 
 ing summer, he took up his abode with his son-in-law, Mr. 
 Gouvernor, in New York. Here he died on the 4th of July, 
 1831, at the age of seventy-two years. He was the third 
 ex-president who died upon the anniversary of the nation's 
 independence. Mrs. Monroe died a short time before her 
 husband. 
 
 The following delineation of the character of Mr. Monroe, 
 is given by Mr. A. J. Stansbury, in his interesting " Remi- 
 niscences of Public Men :" 
 
 "James Monroe was a gentleman; courteous, frank, dig- 
 nified, accessible : his manner, however, had more of the 
 soldier in it than the ci\dlian ; he difiered strongly in this 
 
JAMES MONROE. - 155 
 
 respect from each of the Presidents who had preceded him. 
 Washington was a soldier, it is true, but he had the carriage 
 and bearing of a monarch in the field, and when transferred 
 to the cabinet was still in his place. Adams was an En- 
 glish, or rather a New England gentleman, and had the air 
 of a scholar, accustomed to rank and deference. Jeflferson 
 was a polished French philosopher, courtier, and man of the 
 world. Monroe was none of these, but had the look and 
 open manner of one who had long been in camp, had read 
 men more than books, and who silently reflected on all he 
 saw. Though frank in manner, he could keep his own 
 counsel, had his own will, and while he respectfully listened 
 to all the opinions of his cabinet, and the arguments by 
 which they were supported, made up his own mind, and 
 after a night's reflection came prepared to declare and to 
 abide by it. The composed state of the country, quietly 
 recuperating as it was, after the tumult and efibrt of the 
 second war with Great Britain, did not call out the latent 
 energies of the man ; but when any thing did occur to rouse 
 them, he always showed a spirit and vigor of mind that 
 sometimes took men by surprise. 
 
 " I recollect an instance of this that is highly character- 
 istic of the man. lie had issued an order of some kind, I 
 forget its particular nature, to Commodore Porter, while on 
 a distant station, which that ardent and somewhat inde- 
 pendent officer took the liberty, for reasons deemed by him 
 sufficient, to disregard. When the despatch came, bearing 
 this intelligence, the Secretary of the Navy himself waited 
 on the President to communicate it. Monroe's face turned 
 crimson ; his eyes flashed fire ; and starting up and pacing 
 the room, he exclaimed, ' the fellow ! does he dispute my 
 orders ? He shall fight me ! I'll call him out the moment 
 
156 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 he gets home.' There spoke out the man. It was not the 
 President of the United States which spoke, but it was 
 James Monroe. Taking Porter's conduct as a personal 
 affront, his very first idea was to call him to the field, and 
 make him abide the issue at the pistol's mouth. A curious 
 interview thej would have had of it, had not the prudence of 
 the chief magistrate checked the fiery ardor of the soldier. 
 Monroe's public conduct was eminent for prudence, and 
 always marked by good sense ; these sketches, and a careful 
 estimate of what was due to his position. 
 
 " Monroe was hospitable, cheerful among his friends, and 
 a pleasant table companion. He had, however, no powers 
 of anecdote ; in fact he had but one story, which he often 
 told, and which nobody enjoyed more than himself. He 
 had a black servant who waited upon him, and who was a 
 genuine specimen of the Virginia negro. On one occasion 
 it had been necessary for his master to rise very early in 
 order to set out on a journey, and fearful lest he should 
 over-sleep himself, he ordered Tone to spread his pallet by 
 the side of his bed, and call him at the first dawn of day. 
 A little before daylight Mr. Monroe's anxiety awoke him 
 without foreign aid, while poor Tone's nose gave unmistakable 
 evidence that he was still enjoying that deep, untroubled re- 
 pose, which God has given to be the solace of the slave. 
 Arousing him with his foot, his master called out : 
 
 " ' Tone, you dog, are you asleep yet ? did I not tell you 
 to call me early ? get up, you lazy devil, and look out, and 
 let me know what sort of a morning it is.' 
 
 " Tone bundled up, and blundering through the chamber 
 opened a door, paused, and shutting it again, came to his 
 master's bedside and reported, 
 
 " Bery dark morning, master, and smell oh cheese.'' 
 
JAMES MONROE. 157 
 
 " Poor sleepy Tone had opened the door into a pantry, in- 
 stead of that which led out of doors. 
 
 " President Monroe had a great personal respect for General 
 Brown, whose bravery on the frontier had done so much for 
 the national renown, and whose painful wound, still unhealed, 
 rendered him an object of much and deserved sympathy from 
 his countrymen. The general's position, as commander-in- 
 chief brought him into frequent contact with the President, 
 and as brave military men they had much common ground. 
 Brown too, possessed a sound penetrating judgment, and 
 much tact in the knowledge of mankind. Monroe availed 
 himself often of his advice, and it seemed to me that the in- 
 fluence thus obtained over the mind of the President was at 
 least equal to that of any of his cabinet. Calhoun, then 
 Secretary of War, was fast rising into distinction, and his 
 eagle eye was fixed on the presidential chair. The delicate 
 operation of reducing the army was in progress, and Brown's 
 co-operation was important both to him and his superior. 
 No man thought more highly of Monroe than he. 
 
 " The presidential mansion felt deeply the absence of Mrs. 
 Madison. She had given it its charm, her smile was its light, 
 her countenance 'the Cynosure of neighboring eyes,' Mrs. 
 Monroe was entirely a diiFerent woman. In miserable health, 
 averse by nature, still more averse from religious principle, 
 from all worldly pomp and display, she lived retired, and 
 never appeared in the drawing room. I never saw her ; but 
 all who knew her, praised her, and those who were most 
 intimate with her loved her best." 
 
 14 
 
' 
 
 
 J. Q. A It A .M s. 
 
 k^- 
 
loim Qqi^clj 8t9^h)^. 
 
 A LONG career of public usefulness, great capacity, ex- 
 tensive information, and a spirit of lofty patriotism and in- 
 dependence, entitle John Quincy Adams to the lasting 
 remembrance of his countrymen. That his father had filled 
 the presidential chair was a singular distinction ; but it was 
 vather a drawback than an aid to him in his upward course. 
 
 <i people of the United States have ever been watchful 
 xoes to hereditary oflSce-holding, and even the rare talents 
 of the younger Adams could not induce them to give a cor- 
 dial sanction to his elevation to the high seat which his fa- 
 ther had occupied. When that honor was accorded to him, 
 it was nothing more than the just reward of his individual 
 merit. 
 
 John Quincy Adams was born in Boston, on the 11th of 
 of July, 1767. His father, John Adams, was engaged in 
 the practice of the law, and rapidly rising in reputation. 
 The name of John Quincy was derived from a great grand- 
 father, who had been a man of note in the province of Massa- 
 chusetts, about the commencement of the eighteenth century. 
 The boyhood of the younger Adams was the period of the 
 revolution, in the principles of which he was baptized. John 
 Adams and his worthy wife were earnest promoters of the 
 
 (163) 
 
164 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 great struggle. Both were truly patriotic. During his first 
 years, Mrs. Adams herself taught her son the elements of 
 English. John Quincy seems to have been very quick of 
 comprehension. When onlv nine years of age, he wrote to 
 his father the following letter : 
 
 Braintree, June 2dj 1777. 
 Dear Sir : 
 
 I love to receive letters very well ; much better than I 
 love to write them. I make but a poor figure at composi- 
 tion. My head is much too fickle. My thoughts are running 
 after bird's eggs, play, and trifles, till I get vexed with my- 
 self. Mamma has a troublesome task to keep me a study- 
 ing. I own I am ashamed of myself. I have just entered 
 the third volume of Kollin's History, but designed to have 
 got half tlirough it by this time. I am determined this 
 week to be more diligent. Mr. Thaxter is absent at Court. 
 I have set myself a stint this week, to read the third volume 
 half out. If I can but keep my resolution, I may again at 
 the end of the week give a better account of myself. I wish, 
 sir, you would give me in writing, some instructions with 
 regard to the use of my time, and advise me how to propor- 
 tion my studies and play, and I will keep them by me, and 
 endeavor to follow them. 
 
 With the present determination of growing better, I am, 
 dear sir, your son, John Quincy Adams. 
 
 P. S. Sir — If you will be so good as to favor me with a 
 blank book, I will transcribe the most remarkable passages 
 I meet with in my reading, which will serve to fix them upon 
 my mind."* 
 
 * Seward. 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 165 
 
 In 1778, Jolm Adams was appointed to fill the place of 
 Silas Deane, as minister to the court of Louis Sixteenth, 
 and he resolved to take his son, then eleven years old, with 
 him, and to give him the advantages of an education at the 
 European schools. They remained in Paris about a year 
 and a half, during which time John Quincy attended a public 
 school, and, in his leisure hours, derived instruction from 
 the conversation of his father, Dr. Franklih, and other dis- 
 tinguished persons, by whom he was much loved and ad- 
 mired. His rapid progress in knowledge was observed 
 with great delight by his illustrious father. It was a pre- 
 cious object to John Adams that his son should be a good 
 and useful, if not a great, man, and the attention which he 
 bestowed upon his training, was as constant as public duties 
 would permit. Father and son returned to America. But 
 in the fall of 1779, John Adams was appointed minister to 
 the court of St. James, and he again crossed the Atlantic, 
 taking John Quincy with him. They remained at Paris 
 until August, 1780. John Quincy was sent to an academy, 
 where he was a diligent student. 
 
 The minister then repaired to Holland, to negotiate. 
 While in that country, the younger Adams was placed at 
 school, first at Amsterdam, and afterwards at the Univer- 
 sity of Leyden. We have good assurance that these oppor- 
 tunities for acquiring knowledge were not neglected by John 
 Quincy ; for in July, 1781, when Francis Dana was ap- 
 pointed minister to Russia, the younger Adams, though but 
 fourteen years old, received the post of private secretary of 
 the mission. He remained in this situation fourteen months, 
 giving perfect satisfaction. 
 
 He returned from St. Petersburg to Holland, alone, — a 
 good evidence of his self-confidence and knowledge. On 
 
166 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 arriving in Holland, he resumed his studies at the Hague. 
 But he was present at Paris, on the 30th of November, 1783, 
 •when peace was concluded between Great Britain on the 
 one part, and France and the United States on the other, 
 when the independence for which his father had struggled 
 was recognised. He soon afterwards accompanied his father 
 to London, where, in the course of 1784, Mrs. Adams 
 joined them. While at the British metropolis, John Quincy 
 Adams studied English literature, and had frequent oppor- 
 tunities of listening to the great orators. Fox, Pitt, Burke, 
 and Sheridan. Becoming apprehensive that his academic 
 studies were being too much neglected, he obtained leave to 
 return home in 1785. At the age of eighteen, he entered 
 Cambridge University, where he graduated in 1788, with 
 high honors. 
 
 After leaving the University, young Adams went to New- 
 buryport and commenced the study of the law, under the 
 learned Theophilus Parsons. Having completed the usual 
 term of preparation, he was admitted to practise, at Boston. 
 For three or four years he was nearly briefless, and had fre- 
 quent cause for despondency. But circumstances arose, of 
 which he skilfully took advantage to get into public esteem. 
 The French Revolution was differently regarded by the fede- 
 ral and republican parties which upreared their heads at the 
 commencement of Washington's administration. French 
 political ideas, tending to overthrow all the decent restraints 
 of society were received and advocated by the republicans, 
 while the federalists went to the monarchical extreme. John 
 Quincy Adams held singular views ; and in 1791, he pub- 
 lished in the Boston Centinel, a series of articles, signed 
 Publicola, in which he discussed, with great ability and 
 force of style, the wild notions of the French political writers. 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 167 
 
 These articles attracted much attention both at home and 
 abroad. They were republished in England, and admired 
 by Fox and Windham. They were generally attributed to 
 the elder Adams. In 1793, John Quincy Adams published 
 another series of articles, in the Boston Centinel, under the 
 signature of " Marcellus," advocating the policy of neutrality 
 for the United States, during the European wars. These 
 papers attracted general attention and had the desired effect 
 upon the public mind. Washington read them with deep 
 satisfaction, and inquired for their author. The policy recom- 
 mended was in opposition to popular notions, and it is believed 
 had not been before publicly advocated in the United States. 
 That it was adopted by sage statesmen and made the perma- 
 nent guide of the government, was a brilliant testimony to 
 the wisdom of the young Adams. The next public appear- 
 ance of the young Boston lawyer was in a series of essays, 
 under the signature of " Columbus," reviewing the violent 
 course of Genet, the minister from the French republic to the 
 United States. 
 
 These important writings of the younger Adams brought 
 him prominently before the public and won for him the high 
 esteem of statesmen. Mr. Jefferson, then Secretary of State, 
 considered them full of the brightest promise. He recom- 
 mended young Adams to the favor of President Washington, 
 as one fitted for diplomatic service. The President approved 
 the judgment of Jefferson, and in May, 1794, appointed Mr. 
 Adams minister of the United States at the Hague. This 
 was as gratifying as it was unexpected. John Quincy Adams 
 was then only twenty-seven years old. Seldom has so 
 weighty a trust been placed in such youthful hands. 
 
 Mr. Adams arrived at the Hague, in the summer of 1794. 
 The affairs of Holland were in confusion, in consequence pf 
 
168 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 the French invasion. No prospect of effecting any thing 
 beneficial to the United States appeared, and a few months 
 after his arrival, Mr. Adams thought of retui'ning home. 
 President Washington, hearing of his intention, wrote to the 
 Vice President, John Adams, expressing the hope that the 
 young minister would remain at his post, and prophesying 
 that he would one day he at the head of the diplomatic corps. 
 This high approval induced John Quincy Adams to yield 
 his inclinations. He remained abroad at the Hague, until 
 near the close of Washington's administration, attentively 
 studying European affairs, and watching for every oppor- 
 tunity of advancing the interests of his country. 
 
 During his residence at the Hague, Mr. Adams had occa- 
 sion to visit London, to exchange ratifications of a treaty 
 formed with Great Britain concerning commerce. While 
 there, he formed an acquaintance with Miss Louisa Catha- 
 rine Johnson, daughter of Joshua Johnson, Esq., consular 
 agent of the United States, at London. This acquaintance 
 deepened into an affection, and the parties were married on 
 the 26th of July, 1797. The union was long and happy. 
 
 In 1796, the elder Adams was elevated to the Presidency. 
 The course to be pursued towards his son perplexed the dis- 
 interested old patriot. He consulted Washington, and was 
 advised by that great man not to withhold merited promotion 
 from John Quincy Adams upon any consideration. Wash- 
 ington expressed the opinion that the young minister was 
 the most valuable public character abroad. President Adams 
 then appointed his son minister to the court of Berlin, upon 
 the duties of which office he entered in the fall of 1797. 
 
 In 1798, Mr. Adams was commissioned to form a commer- 
 cial treaty with Sweden. While in Berlin, he made the ac- 
 quaintance of many eminent German scholars and poets, 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 169 
 
 and displayed much sympathy with their pursuits. To per- 
 fect his knowledge of the German language, Mr. Adams 
 made a metrical translation of Wieland's " Oberon," into 
 the English language. The publication of this work, how- 
 ever, was forestalled by the translation made by William 
 Sotheby. 
 
 In the summer of 1800, Mr. Adams made a tour through 
 Silesia, with which he was delighted. His impressions dur- 
 ing the excursion were communicated in a series of letters 
 to a younger brother in Philadelphia. These, without their 
 author's knowledge, were published in the United States and 
 in Europe. The information contained in them was consi- 
 dered very valuable. 
 
 Mr. Adams was successful, after a protracted and skilful 
 negotiation, in forming a treaty of amity and commerce with 
 Prussia. The penetration and vigilance of the young mini- 
 ster were fully tried in the contest with wily and veteran diplo- 
 matists, and he came off with increased reputation. On the 
 4th of March, 1801, John Adams was succeeded, as Presi- 
 dent of the United States, by Mr. Jefferson. One of the last 
 acts of the elder Adams was the recall of his son from Ber- 
 lin, that Mr. Jefferson might not be perplexed with the 
 matter. 
 
 John Quincy Adams returned to the United States in 1801, 
 He was no partisan, having been absent from the country 
 when parties were formed. His talents and acquirements 
 were well known, and he was not allowed to remain long in 
 inactivity. In 1802, he was elected to the senate of Massa- 
 chusetts from the Boston district. In that body he acted 
 with that independent and fearless spirit which was ever his 
 great characteristic. Though he took unpopular sides he did 
 not lose favor. In 1803, he was elected to the senate of the 
 
 15 
 
170 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 United States, in which body he took his seat when but 
 thirty-six years old. 
 
 As a senator, John Quincy Adams soon displayed qualities 
 noble in themselves, but calculated to render him unpopular 
 with the federal party, by whose suffrage he had been elected. 
 The British orders in council, and Napoleon's Berlin and 
 Milan decrees threatened to sweep the commerce of the 
 United States from the seas. Outrage after outrage was 
 committed upon American vessels. President Jefferson at 
 length resolved upon the retaliatory measure known as the 
 " Embargo." (December, 1807.) The federal party stoutly 
 opposed this Embargo, and it was expected that its senators 
 and representatives who had been chosen by that party, 
 should urge its repeal. Mr. Adams thought President Jef- 
 ferson's policy just and expedient, and gave it his sup- 
 port. This course subjected him to severe and bitter cen- 
 sure, and he was charged with acting from every motive but 
 the true one — a desire to promote the honor and welfare of 
 the Union. The legislature of Massachusetts disapproved 
 of the course pursued by Mr. Adams, and elected another 
 person to supply his place at the expiration of his term. 
 Mr. Adams did not wish to represent a body of which he had 
 lost the confidence, and he therefore resigned his seat in the 
 senate, March, 1808. 
 
 The reputation of Mr. Adams for literary acquirements, 
 equaled his fame as a statesman. In 1804, he was urged 
 to be a candidate for the presidency of Cambridge Univer- 
 sity ; but he declined the honor. During the folloAving 
 year, he was appointed Professor of Rhetoric and Belles 
 Lettres, in the same institution. This office he accepted on 
 condition that its duties should not interfere with his con- 
 gressional services. On the 12th of June, 1806, Mr. Adams 
 
JOHN QUINCT ADAMS. 171 
 
 delivered his inaugural address, on entering the professor- 
 ship. His lectures on rhetoric and eloquence were popular, 
 and attracted great crowds. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1809, Mr. Madison began his 
 eventful administration. Having a proper appreciation of 
 the talents and experience of Mr. Adams, he gave him the 
 important post of minister to Russia. In the following 
 summer, Mr. Adams sailed for St. Petersburg. He was 
 received with many marks of favor, and admitted to per- 
 sonal intimacy with the Emperor Alexander. During his 
 residence in Russia, the death of Judge Gushing caused a 
 vacancy on the bench of the supreme court of the United 
 States. President Madison nominated Mr. Adams to this 
 high oflBce, and the nomination was confirmed by the senate. 
 But Mr. Adams declined its acceptance. 
 
 While sojourning at St. Petersburg, Mr. Adams wrote a 
 series of letters to his son, then at school in Massachusetts, 
 on the value of the Bible and the benefit resulting from its 
 daily perusal. These letters, which were honorable to the head 
 and heart of their author, ha,ve been published since his de- 
 cease. Mr. Adams, hke his father, had faith in the Unita- 
 rian doctrines ; but was a practical Christian, and never let 
 himself be swayed by sectarian feeling. 
 
 The influence obtained by the American minister, at the 
 court of St. Petersburg, was turned to the best account. 
 The Emperor Alexander was induced to m^ke an offer of 
 his mediation between the United States and Great Britain. 
 President Madison signified his acceptance of this offer, and 
 appointed Messrs. Adams, Bayard, and Gallatin, to conduct 
 the negotiation. To these commissioners were afterwards 
 added Messrs. Clay and Russel. Great Britain refused to 
 treat under the mediation of Russia, but proposed to nego- 
 
172 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 tiate independently with the United States. In the famous 
 negotiations at Ghent, in 1814, Mr. Adams took a leading 
 part, and contributed much to bringing about a good under- 
 standing between the hostile countries, as well as to the vin- 
 dication of the rights of his nation. The conduct of the 
 American commissioners was eulogized by the Marquis of 
 of Wellesley, and it gave great satisfaction in the United 
 States. 
 
 After the conclusion of their labors at Ghent, Messrs. 
 Adams, Gallatin, and Clay, were directed to proceed to 
 London, and, if possible, to negotiate a commercial treaty. 
 This was accomplished without much difficulty, and in the 
 meantime, Mr. Adams was appointed minister to the court 
 of St. James — the most important diplomatic situation at 
 the command of the American government. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1817, Mr. Monroe succeeded Mr. 
 Madison in the office of President of the United States. As 
 Secretary of State, he had possessed the best opportunities 
 for observing the diplomatic talents and great political 
 knowledge manifested by Mr. Adams in Europe, and he 
 noAV selected that gentleman to take charge of the depart- 
 ment of state. Mr. Adams was known to be an independent 
 as well as an able man. Against him there was no party 
 rancor. The appointment gave great satisfaction to the 
 friends of the President and the people generally. 
 
 Mr. Adams arrived at New York on the 6th of June, 
 1817. A few days afterwards a public dinner was given him 
 by a large number of distinguished citizens, with Governor 
 De Witt Clinton at their head. Another public dinner 
 was given him upon his arrival in Boston, at which his vene- 
 rable father, ex-president Adams, was present as a guest. 
 
 Entering upon the duties of the office of Secretary of 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 173 
 
 State, in Sep^-* ■ '' .., 1817, Mr. Adams acquitted himself 
 to the satisfaction of the President and the country, during 
 the eight years of Mr. Monroe's administration. The fo- 
 reign affairs of the country were never more skilfully handled. 
 Peace and neutrality were preserved through all difl&culties, 
 while the honor of the nation was never allowed to be sullied. 
 
 At the close of the administration of Mr. Monroe, the 
 federal party was extinct. All the candidates for the suc- 
 cession were members of the republican party. The East 
 brought forward the man who by his superior statesmanship 
 had become its "favorite son" — John Quincy Adams. The 
 West upheld two names — General Andrew Jackson, who 
 possessed a splendid military reputation — and Henry Clay, 
 one of the first orators and most active statesmen of the day. 
 The South selected William H. Crawford, a statesman of 
 commanding talent, as its candidate. Of these personages, 
 Mr. Adams least sought the presidential office. He allowed 
 his name to stand before the people, at the urgent request 
 of a large body of admiring friends. 
 
 " The qualifications on which his supporters depended, 
 and to which they called the attention of the American 
 people, as reasons for elevating him to the head of the ge- 
 neral government, may be summarily enumerated, as fol- 
 lows : — 1. The purity of his private character — the simpli- 
 city of his personal habits — his unbending integrity and up- 
 rightness, even beyond suspicion. 2. His commanding 
 talents, and his acquirements both as a scholar and a states- 
 man. 3. His love of country — his truly American feelings, 
 in all that concerned the welfare and the honor of the United 
 States. 4. His long experience in public affau's, especially 
 his familiarity with our foreign relations, and his perfect 
 knowledge of the institutions, the internal condition and 
 
 15* 
 
■ 174 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 policy of European nations. 5. His advocacy of protection 
 to domestic manufactures, and of a judicious system of 
 internal improvements."* 
 
 The campaign of 1824, was very exciting. The greatest 
 zeal and energy was displayed by the friends of the several 
 candidates. Of two hundred and sixty-one electoral votes, 
 General Jackson received ninety-nine ; Mr. Adams, eighty- 
 foui' ; Mr. Crawford, forty-one ; and Mr. Clay, thirty-seven. 
 There being no choice by the people, the election devolved 
 on the house of representatives. On ^he 10th of February, 
 1825, that body proceeded to vote by states, according to 
 the constitution, and the result was ascertained to be as fol- 
 lows : — For John Quincy Adams, of Massachusetts, thirteen 
 votes ; for Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee, seven votes ; for 
 William H. Crawford, of Georgia, four votes. John Quincy 
 Adams, therefore, was declared duly elected President of 
 the United States, for four years, commencing on the 4th 
 of March, 1825. 
 
 The choice of Mr. Adams by the house of representatives 
 excited a great deal of clamor among the friends of General 
 Jackson. This was unreasonable. General Jackson had 
 received fifteen more electoral votes than Mr. Adams, but the 
 latter was superior in the popular vote. However, much 
 bitter feeling was excited, and it was ever charged that a 
 bargain had been made between Messrs. Clay and Adams, 
 by the terms of which, the latter was to be chosen Pre- 
 sident upon condition that the former should be appointed 
 Secretary of State. This charge has been completely refuted. 
 It could not have been made except in partisan heat. John 
 C. Calhoun, of South Carolina, was elected Vice President, 
 by a large majority in the electoral college. 
 * Seward, 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 175 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1825, John Quincy Adams was 
 inaugurated as President of the United States. The cere- 
 monies were brilliant and imposing. Seldom before had 
 such a scene been witnessed at Washington. The inaugural 
 address of Mr. Adams was a statesman-like and polished 
 composition, doing full justice to his political and rhetorical 
 attainments. He thus spoke of the policy of the preceding 
 administration, which he entirely sanctioned; 
 
 " The great features of its policy, and in general concur- 
 rence with the will of the legislature, have been — To cher- 
 ish peace while preparing for defensive war — to yield exact 
 -justice to other nations, and maintain the rights of our own — 
 to cherish the principles of freedom and equal rights, where- 
 ever they were proclaimed — to discharge, with all possible 
 promptitude, the national debt — to reduce within the nar- 
 rowest limits of eflSciency tlie military force — to improve the 
 organization and discipline of the army — to provide and sus- 
 tain a school of military science — to extend equal protection 
 to all the great interests of the nation — to promote the civi- 
 lization of the Indian tribes ; and — to proceed to the great 
 system of internal improvements, within the limits of the 
 constitutional power of the Union. Under the pledge of 
 these promises, made by that eminent citizen at the time of 
 his first induction to this office, in his career of eight years 
 the internal taxes have been repealed ; sixty millions of the 
 public debt have been discharged ; provision has been made 
 for the comfort and relief of the aged and indigent among 
 the surviving warriors of the Revolution ; the regular armed 
 force has been reduced, and its constitution revised and per- 
 fected ; the accountability for the expenditure of public mo- 
 nies has been more effective ; the Floridas have been peace- 
 ably acquired, and our boundary has been extended to the 
 
"176 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Pacific Ocean ; tlie independence of the southern nations of 
 this hemisphere has been recognized, and recommended by 
 example and by counsel to the potentates of Europe ; pro- 
 gress has been made in the defence of the country, by forti- 
 fications and the increase of the navy — towards the efi"ectual 
 suppression of the African trafiic in slaves — in alluring the 
 aboriginal hunters of our land to the cultivation of the soil 
 and of the mind — in exploring the interior regions of the 
 Union, and in preparing, by scientific researches and surveys 
 for the further application of our national resources to the 
 internal improvement of our country." 
 
 In entering upon the discharge of his duties as President, 
 Mr. Adams formed his cabinet by nominating Henry Clay, 
 of Kentucky, Secretary of State ; Richard Rush, of Penn- 
 sylvania, Secretary of the Treasury ; James Barbour, of 
 Virginia, Secretary of War ; Samuel L. Southard, Secretary 
 of the Navy ; and William Wirt, Attorney General. These 
 were all men of well-known capacity and integrity. A poAver- 
 ful opposition was organized, but Mr. Adams, throughout 
 his presidential term, discharged liis duties with the utmost 
 fearlessness, as well as with consummate ability, and the 
 clamors of violent partisans were treated with contempt. 
 
 In the year of the inauguration of Mr. Adams, the vete- 
 ran General Lafayette visited the United States, made the 
 tour of the country, and was every where received with en- 
 thusiasm and expressions of gratitude for revolutionary ser- 
 vices. On the 7th of September, 1825, he took leave of 
 the general government. On this occasion. President Adams 
 bade him farewell in an address, not more remarkable for 
 dignified eloquence than for generous emotion. 
 
 In the same month, the President visited his aged father, 
 at Quincy, Massachusetts. It was his last interview with 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 177 
 
 the old patriot. On the 4th of July,- 1826, John Adams 
 and his compatriot, Thomas Jefferson, left the earth together, 
 amid the rejoicings of "Independence Day." 
 
 The aims of President Adams were to conciliate all par- 
 ties and to benefit the whole country, and his administration 
 was certainly wise and energetic. Internal improvements 
 and domestic manufactures were objects of constant solici- 
 tude. The first tended to strengthen the Union, the second 
 to render it truly independent. The Secretary of State 
 was active and skilful. During the four years of Mr. Adams's 
 administration, more treaties were negotiated at Washington 
 than during the entire thirty-six years through which the 
 preceding administrations had extended. 
 
 Throughout the administration of Mr, Adams, the opposition 
 was strong, bitter, and unscrupulous. Most of the measures 
 of the government were approved. But there was a deter- 
 mination manifest to seek out every occasion to denounce 
 the President and his cabinet. In Congress, the opposition 
 had a majority. In the fall of 1828, the presidential elec- 
 tion occurred. Mr. Adams and General Jackson were the 
 opposing candidates. The contest was highly exciting. But 
 the result was anticipated. General Jackson obtained a 
 large majority in the electoral college. As Mr. Adams had 
 taken his lofty seat with diflidence, he retired from it with 
 dignity and without regret. He was satisfied that he had 
 done his duty. 
 
 After witnessing the inauguration of General Jackson, on 
 the 4th of March, 1829, Mr. Adams retired to the old fa- 
 mily seat at Quincy, Massachusetts. One of his first acts 
 there, was the erection of a monument to the memory of his 
 parents. The inscription contained a glowing eulogy upon 
 their virtue and patriotism, and was honorable to the feel- 
 
178 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 ings of the noble son. Scientific and literary pursuits, as 
 well as the conversation of friends, now occupied the atten- 
 tion of the ex-president. But the public voice demanded 
 new service. In 1830, the people of the Plymouth district 
 nominated him for their representative in Congress, and, 
 contrary to general expectation, he accepted the nomination. 
 It was his constant creed, that whatever service the country 
 demanded of a citizen, that he was bound to render, and no 
 false idea of dignity could deter him from acting accordingly. 
 In due time the election was held, and Mr. Adams was re- 
 turned to Congress, by a nearly unanimous vote. From that 
 time forward, for seventeen years, and to the hour of his 
 death, he occupied the post of representative in Congress 
 from the Plymouth district, with unswerving fidelity and 
 honor. His course was ever bold, decided, and independent. 
 He was a ready and powerful debater, and won the title of 
 "the old man eloquent." No subject came before Congress 
 upon which he could not shed light, while his devotion to 
 principle and to the rights of man was untiring, and, on par- 
 ticular occasions, heroic. Mr. Adams first took his seat in 
 the house of representatives in December, 1831. The marks 
 of respect and affection received by him from distinguished 
 representatives were many and gratifying. Those who had 
 refused even justice to the President were willing to render 
 the man his due. As a member of committees, Mr. Adams 
 was diligent and attentive, while it was a matter of general 
 note, that he was usually the first representative to enter 
 the house and the last to leave it. He acted in general, 
 with the whigs, as the opponents of Jackson and Van Buren. 
 were called, but when he thought that party wrong, he did 
 not hesitate to oppose it, and support the administration. 
 Courageous independence was his noblest trait as a states- 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 179 
 
 man. Whatever opinions may be entertained in regard to 
 the wisdom of Mr. Adam's opposition to the Texas inde- 
 pendence and annexation scheme, and of his advocacy of the 
 the right of petition touching the institution of slavery, all 
 must admire the firmness, the perseverance, the almost sub- 
 lime determination he displayed in maintaining his doctrines, 
 amid tempests of abuse and denunciation, as well as threats 
 of expulsion and assassination. 
 
 Upon all subjects, but slavery, Mr. Adams could com- 
 mand the respectful attention of the house. The confidence 
 placed in him in emergencies was unbounded. A case in 
 point is afforded in the difficulty occasioned by the double 
 delegation from New Jersey, which is thus given in the 
 famous " Reminiscences of John Quincy Adams," by an Old 
 Colony Man : 
 
 On the opening of the 26th Congress, in December, 1839, 
 in consequence of a two-fold delegation from New Jersey, 
 the house was unable, for some time, to complete its organiza- 
 tion, and presented to the country and the world the perilous 
 and discreditable aspect of the assembled representatives 
 of the people, unable to form themselves into a constitutional 
 body. On first assembling, the house has no officers, and 
 the clerk of the preceding Congress acts, by usage, as chair- 
 man of the body, till a speaker is chosen. On this occasion, 
 after reaching the state of New Jersey, the acting clerk de- 
 clined to proceed in calling the roll, and refused to entertain 
 any of the motions which were made for the purpose of ex- 
 tricatino- the house from its embarrassment. Many of the 
 ablest and most judicious members had addressed the house 
 in vain, and there was nothing but confusion and disorder in 
 prospect. 
 
 The fourth day opened, and still confusion was triumphant. 
 
180 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 But the hour of disenthralment was at hand, and a scene 
 was presented which set the mind back to those days when 
 Cromwell uttered the exclamation — " Sir Harry Vane ! avo 
 unto you, Sir Harry Vane !" — and in an instant dispersed 
 the famous Rump Parliament. 
 
 Mr. Adams, from the opening of this scene of confusion 
 and anarchy, had maintained a profound silence. He ap- 
 peared to be engaged most of the time in writing. To a 
 common observer, he seemed to be reckless of everything 
 around him — but nothing, not the slightest incident escaped 
 him. The fourth day of the struggle had now commenced ; 
 Mr. Hugh H. Garland, the clerk, was directed to call the 
 roll again. 
 
 He commenced with Maine, as was usual in those days, 
 and was proceeding towards Massachusetts. I turned, and 
 saw that Mr. Adams was ready to get the floor at the earliest 
 moment possible. His keen eye was riveted on the clerk ; 
 his hands clasped the front edge of his desk, where he alwaj'S 
 placed them to assist him in rising. He looked, in the 
 language of Otway, like the 
 
 — — " fowler eager for his prey." 
 
 "New Jersey!" ejaculated Mr. Hugh H. Garland, "and 
 the clerk has to repeat that " 
 
 Mr. Adams sprang to the floor ! 
 
 "I rise to interrupt the clerk," was his first ejaculation. 
 
 "Silence, silence," resounded through the hall; "hear 
 him, hear him. Hear what he has to say ; hear John 
 Quincy Adams !" was the unanimous ejaculation on all sides. 
 In an instant the most profound silence reigned throughout 
 the hall — you might have heard a leaf of paper drop in any 
 part of it — and evei'y eye was riveted on the venerable 
 
JOHN QUINCT ADAMS. 181 
 
 Nestor of Masstichusetts — the purest of statesmen, and the 
 noblest of men ! He paused for a moment ; and, having 
 given Mr. Garland a 
 
 " withering look ! " 
 
 he proceeded to address the multitude : 
 
 " It was not my intention," said he, "to take any part 
 in these extraordinary proceedings. I had hoped that this 
 house would succeed in organizing itself; that a speaker 
 and clerk would be elected, and that the ordinary business 
 of legislation would be progressed in. This is not the time, 
 or place, to discuss the merits of the conflicting claimants 
 for seats from New Jersey ; that subject belongs to the 
 house of representatives, which, by the constitution, is made 
 the ultimate arbiter of the qualifications of its members. 
 But what a spectacle we here present ! We degrade and 
 disgrace ourselves ; we degrade and disgrace our constituents 
 and the country. We do not, and cannot organize ; and 
 why? Because the clerk of this house, the mere clerk, 
 whom we create, whom we employ, and whose existence de- 
 pends upon our will, usurps the throne, and sets us, the re- 
 presentatives, the vicegerents of the whole American people, 
 at defiance, and holds us in contempt ! And what is ttis clerk 
 of youi'S ? Is he to control the destinies of sixteen millions 
 of freemen ? Is he to suspend, by his mere negative, the 
 functions of government, and put an end to this Congress ? 
 He refuses to call the roll ! It is in your power to compel 
 him to call it, if he will not do it voluntarily. [Here he 
 was interrupted by a member, who said that he was autho- 
 rized to say that compulsion could not reach the clerk, who 
 had avowed that he would resign, rather than call the state 
 of New Jersey.] Well, sir, then let him resign," continued 
 IG 
 
182 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Mr. Adams, " and we may possibly discover some way by 
 which we can get along, without the aid of his all-powerful 
 talent, learning, and genius. If we cannot organize in any 
 other way — if this clerk of yours ivill not consent to our 
 discharging the trusts confided to us by our constituents, 
 then let us imitate the example of the Virginia house of bur- 
 gesses, which, when the colonial Governor Dinwiddle ordered 
 it to disperse, refused to obey the imperious and insulting 
 mandate, and, like men " 
 
 The multitude could not contain or repress their enthu- 
 siasm any longer, but saluted the eloquent and indignant 
 speaker, and intercepted him with loud and deafening cheers, 
 which seemed to shake the capitol to its centre. The very 
 Genii of applause and enthusiasm seemed to float in the atmo- 
 sphere of the hall, and every heart expanded with an inde- 
 scribable feeling of pride and exultation. The turmoil, the 
 darkness, the very " chaos of anarchy," which had, for three 
 successive days, pervaded the American Congress, was dis- 
 pelled by the magic, the talismanic eloquence of a single 
 man ; and once more the wheels of government and of legis- 
 lation were put in motion. 
 
 Having, by this powerful appeal, brought the yet unor- 
 ganized assembly to a perception of its hazardous position, 
 he submitted a motion requiring the acting clerk to proceed 
 in calling the roll. This and similar motions had already 
 been made by other members. The difficulty was, that the 
 acting clerk declined to entertain them. Accordingly, Mr. 
 Adams was immediately interrupted by a burst of voices de- 
 manding, "How shall the question be put?" "Who will 
 put the question ?" The voice of Mr. Adams was heard above 
 the tumult, "I intend to put the question myself!" That 
 word brought order out of chaos. There was the master mind. 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 183 
 
 As soon as the multitude had recovered itself, and the ex- 
 citement of irrepressible enthusiasm had abated, Mr. Rich- 
 ard Barnwell Rhett, of South Carolina, leaped upon one of 
 the desks, waved his hand, and exclaimed : 
 
 " I move that the Honorable John Quincy Adams take 
 the chair of the speaker of this house, and officiate as pre- 
 siding officer, till the house be organized by the election of 
 its constitutional officers ! As many as are agreed to this will 
 say ay ; those " 
 
 He had not an opportunity to complete the sentence — 
 " those who are not agreed, will say wo," — for one universal, 
 deafening, thundering ay, responded to the nomination. 
 
 Hereupon, it was moved and ordered that Lewis Williams, 
 of North Carolina, and Richard Barnwell Rhett, conduct 
 John Quincy Adams to the chair. 
 
 Well did Mr. Wise, of Virginia, say, " Sir, I regard it as 
 the proudest hour of your life ; and if, when you shall be 
 gathered to your fathers, I were asked to select the words 
 which, in my judgment, are best calculated to give at once 
 the character of the man, I would inscribe upon your tomb 
 this sentence, ' I will put the question myself.' " 
 
 The labors of Mr. Adams in behalf of the right of peti- 
 tion were at length crowned with success. In 1845, the 
 obnoxious "gag rule," was rescinded, and Congress con- 
 sented to receive and treat respectfully all petitions on the 
 subject of slavery. 
 
 "If any thing were wanting to crown the fame of Mr. 
 Adams, in the last days of life, with imperishable honor, or 
 to add, if possible, new brilliancy to the beams of his setting 
 sun, it is found in his advocacy of the freedom of the Ami- 
 stad slaves. 
 
 " A ship-load of negroes had been stolen from Africa, 
 
184 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 4 
 
 contrary to the laws of nations, of humanity, and of God, 
 and surreptitiously smuggled, in the night, into the Island 
 of Cuba. This act was piracy, according to the law of 
 Spain, and of all governments in Christendom, and the per- 
 petrators thereof, had they been dectected, would have 
 been punished with death. Immediately after the landing 
 of these unfortunate Africans, about thirty-six of them were 
 purchased of the slave pirates, by two Spaniards, named 
 Don Jose Ruiz and Don Pedro Montes, who shipped them 
 for Guanaja, Cuba, in the schooner 'Amistad.' When 
 three days out from Havana, the Africans rose, killed the 
 captain and crew, and took possession of the vessel — sparing 
 the lives of their purchasers, Ruiz and Montes. This trans- 
 action was unquestionably justifiable on the part of the ne- 
 groes. They had been stolen from their native land — had 
 fallen into the hands of pirates and robbers, and reduced to 
 abject slavery. According to the first law of nature — the 
 law of self-defence — implanted in the bosom of every human 
 being by the Creator, they were justified in taking any 
 measures necessary to restore them to the enjoyment of that 
 freedom which was theirs by birthright. 
 
 " The negroes being unable to manage the schooner, com- 
 pelled Ruiz and Montes to navigate her, and directed them 
 to shape her course for Africa ; for it was their design to 
 return to their native land. But they were deceived by 
 the two Spaniards, who brought the schooner to the coast 
 of the United States, where she was taken possession of by 
 Lieutenant Gedney, of the United States surveying brig 
 Washington, a few miles off Montauk Point, and brought 
 into New London, Connecticut. The two Spaniards claimed 
 the Africans as their property ; and the Spanish minister 
 demanded of the President of the United States, that 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 185 
 
 tliey be delivered up to the proper authorltes, and taken 
 back to Havana, to be tried for piracy and murder. 
 The matter was brought before the District Court of 
 Connecticut. 
 
 " In the mean time President Van Buren ordered the 
 United States schooner Grampus, Lieutenant John S. Paine, 
 to repair to New Haven, to be in readiness to convey the 
 Africans to Havana, shouki such be the decision of the 
 court. But the court decided that the government of the 
 United .States had no authority to return tliem into slavery ; 
 and directed that they be conveyed in one of our public ships 
 to the shores of Africa, from whence they had been torn 
 away. From this decision the United States District 
 Attorney appealed to the Supreme Court of the United 
 States. 
 
 These transactions attracted the attention of the whole 
 people of the Union, and naturally excited the sympathy of 
 the masses, pro and con as they were favorable or unfavor- 
 able^ the institution of slavery. Who should defend in the 
 Supreme Court, these poor outcasts — ignorant, degraded, 
 wretched — who, fired with a noble energy, had burst the 
 shackles of slavery, and by a wave of fortune had been thrown 
 into the midst of a people professing freedom, yet keeping 
 their feet on the necks of millions of slaves ? The eyes of 
 all the friends of human rights turned instinctively to John 
 QuixcY Adams. Nor were their expectations disappointed. 
 "Without hesitation he espoused the cause of the Amistad 
 negroes. At the age of seventy-four, he appeared in the 
 supreme court of the United States to advocate their cause. 
 He entered upon this labor with the enthusiasm of a youth- 
 ful barrister, and displayed forensic talents, a critical know- 
 ledge of law, and of the inalienable rights of man, which 
 16* 
 
186 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 would have added to the renown of the most eminent jurists 
 of the day.* 
 
 " When he went to the supreme court, after an absence 
 of thirty years, and arose to defend a body of friendless 
 negroes, torn from their home and most unjustly held in 
 thrall — when he asked the judges to excuse him at once 
 both for the trembling faults of age and the inexperience of 
 youth, having labored so long elsewhere that he had for- 
 gotten the rules of court — when he summed up the conclu- 
 sion of the whole matter, and brought before those judicial 
 but yet moistening eyes, the great men he had once met 
 there — Chase, Gushing, Martin, Livingston, and Marshall 
 himself ; and while he remembered that they were ' gone, 
 gone, all gone,' remembered also the eternal Justice that is 
 never gone — the sight was sublime. It was not an old pa- 
 trician of Rome, who had been Consul, Dictator, coming 
 out of his retirement at the Senate's call, to stand in the 
 Forum to levy new armies, marshal them to victory afresh, 
 and gain thereby new laurels for his brow ; but it 4Pks a 
 plain citizen of America, who had held an ofSce far greater 
 than that of Consul, King, or Dictator, his hand reddened 
 by no man's blood, expecting no honors, but coming in the 
 name of justice, to plead for the slave, for the poor barba- 
 rian negro of Africa, for Cinque and Grabbo, for their deeds 
 comparing them to Harmodius and Aristogeiton, whose 
 classic memory made each bosom thrill. That was worth 
 all his honors — it was worth while to live fourscore years 
 for that."t 
 
 " This effort of Mr. Adams was crowned with complete 
 success. The supreme court decided that the Africans were 
 entitled to their freedom, and ordered them to be liberated. 
 * Seward, f Theodore Parker. 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 187. 
 
 In due time they were enabled, by the assistance of the 
 charitable, to sail for Africa, and take with them many of 
 the implements of civilized life. They arrived in safety at 
 Sierre Leone, and were allowed once more to mingle with 
 their friends. 
 
 " In availing the country of the benefit of the ' Smithso- 
 nian Bequest,' and in founding the 'Smithsonian Institute' 
 at Washington, Mr. Adams took an active part. He re- 
 peatedly called the attention of Congress to the subject, 
 until he succeeded in causing a bill to be passed providing 
 for the establishment of the Institute. He was appointed 
 one of the Regents of the Institute, which office he held 
 until his death. 
 
 " In the summer of 1843, Mr. Adams visited Lebanon 
 Springs, New York, for the benefit of his health, which had 
 become somewhat impaired, and also the health of a cherished 
 member of his family. He designed to devote only-four or 
 five days to this journey ; but he was so highly pleased with 
 the small portion of the state of New York he saw at Leba- 
 non Springs, that he was induced to proceed further. He 
 visited Saratoga, Lake George, Lower Canada, Montreal 
 and Quebec. Returning, he ascended the St. Lawrence and 
 the Lakes as far as Niagara Falls and Bufialo, and by the 
 way of Rochester, Auburn, Utica and Albany, sought his 
 home in Quincy with health greatly improved. 
 
 " Although Mr. Adams had many bitter enemies — made 
 so by his fearless independence, and' the stern integrity 
 with which he discharged the public duties entrusted to 
 him — yet in the hearts of the people he ever occupied the 
 highest position. They not only respected and admired the 
 politician, the statesman, but they venerated the man ! they 
 loved him for his purity, his philanthropy, his disinterested 
 
188 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 patriotism, his devotion to freedom and human rights. All 
 this was manifested during his tour through New York. It 
 was marked in its whole extent by demonstration of the 
 highest attention and respect from the people of all parties. 
 Public greetings, processions, celebrations, met him and ac- 
 companied him at every step of his journey. Never since 
 the visit of Lafayette, had such an anxious desire to honor 
 a great and good man been manifested by the entire mass of 
 the people. His progress was one continued triumphal pro- 
 cession. ' I may say,' exclaimed Mr. Adams, near the 
 close of his tour, ' without being charged with pride or vanity 
 I have come not alone, for the whole people of the state of 
 New York have been my companions !' 
 
 " At Buffalo he was received with every possible demon- 
 stration of respect. The national ensign was streaming from 
 an hundred masts, and the wharves, and the decks and rig- 
 ging of vessels, were crowded by thousands anxious to catch 
 a glimpse of the renowned statesman and patriot, who was 
 greeted by repeated cheers. The Honorable Millard Fillmore 
 addressed him with great eloquence. The following is the 
 conclusion of his speech : 
 
 " You see around you, sir, no political partisans seeking 
 to promote some sinister purpose ; but you see here assem- 
 bled the people of our infant city, without distinction of 
 party, sex, age, or condition — all, all anxiously vieing with 
 each other to show their respect and esteem for your public 
 services and private worth. Here are gathered, in this vast 
 multitude of what must appear to you strange faces, thou- 
 sands whose hearts have vibrated to the chord of sympathy 
 which your speeches have touched. Here is reflecting age, 
 and ardent youth, and lisping childhood, to all of whom 
 your venerated name is as dear as household words — all 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 189 
 
 anxious to feast their eyes by a sight of that extraordinary 
 and venerable man, of whom they have heard, and read of, 
 that ' old man eloquent,' on whose lips wisdom has distilled 
 her choicest nectar. Here, sir, you see them all, and read 
 in their eager and joy-gladdened countenances, and brightly 
 beaming eyes, a welcome — a thrice-told, heart-felt, soul- 
 stirring welcome to ' the man whom they delight to honor.' 
 
 " Mr. Adams responded to this speech in a strain of most 
 interesting remarks. He commenced as follows : 
 
 "I must request your indulgence for a moment's pause 
 to take breath. If you inquire why I ask this indulgence, 
 it is because I am so overpowered by the eloquence of my 
 friend, the chairman of the committee of ways and means, 
 (Avhom I have so long been accustomed to refer to in that 
 capacity, that, with your permission, I will continue so to 
 denominate him now^) that I have no words left to answer 
 him. For so liberal has he been in bestowing that eloquence 
 upon me which he himself possesses in so eminent a degree, 
 that while he was ascribing to me talents so far above my 
 own consciousness in that regard, I was all the time implor- 
 ing the god of eloquence to give me, at least at this moment, 
 a few words to justify him before you in making that splendid 
 panegyric which he has been pleased to bestow upon me ; 
 and that the flattering picture which he has presented to 
 you, may not immediately be defaced before your eyes by 
 what you should hear from me. * * * * 
 
 " In concluding his remarks, he said : ' Of your attach- 
 ment to moral principles I have this day had another and 
 pleasing proof in the dinner of which I have partaken in the 
 steamer, in which, by your kindness, I have been conveyed 
 to this place. It was a sumptuous dinner, but at whfch 
 temperance was the presiding power. I congratulate you 
 
190 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 on the evidence there exhibited of your attachment to moral 
 principle, in your co-operation in that great movement which 
 is promoting the happiness and elevation of man in every 
 quarter of the globe. 
 
 " And here you will permit me to allude to an incident 
 which has occurred in my recent visit to Canada, in which I 
 perceived the co-operations of the people of that Province in 
 the same great moral reformation. While at Quebec, I 
 visited the Falls of Montmorenci, a cataract which, but for 
 yours, would be among the greatest wonders of nature. In 
 going to it, I passed through the parish of Beauport, and 
 there, by the side of the way, I saw a column with an inscrip- 
 tion upon its pedestal, which I had the curiosity to stop and 
 read. It was erected by the people of Beauport in gratitude 
 to the Virgin, for her goodness in promoting the cause of 
 temperance in that parish. Perhaps I do not suflSciently 
 sympathize with the people of Beauport in attributing to the 
 Virgin so direct an influence upon this moral reform ; but 
 in the spirit with which they erected that monument I do 
 most cordially sympathize with them. For, under whatever 
 influence the cause may be promoted, the cause itself can 
 never fail to make its votaries wiser and better men. I can- 
 not make a speech. My heart is too full, and my voice too 
 feeble. Farewell ! And Avith that farewell, may the blessings 
 of heaven be upon you throughout your lives !" 
 
 Mr. Adams was greatly delighted with his visit to Niagara 
 Falls, and with his whole tour. 
 
 During the same year he delivered numerous lectures 
 before literary associations, and yet attended to his Congres- 
 sional duties. Labors which would task the strength of 
 youth, he performed with comparative ease and comfort. 
 
 " His great longevity and his general good health must 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 191 
 
 be attributed, in no small degree, to bis abstemious and tem- 
 perate babits, early rising, and active exercise. He took 
 pleasure in atbletic amusements, and was exceedingly fond 
 of "walking. During bis summer residence in Quincy, be bas 
 been known to walk to bis son's residence in Boston, (seven 
 miles,) before breakfast. ' Wbile President of tbe United 
 States, be was probably tbe first man up in Wasbington, 
 ligbted bis own fire, and was bard at work in bis library, 
 wbile sleep yet beld in its obliviousness tbe great mass of his 
 fellow-citizens.' He was an expert swimmer, and was in tbe 
 constant babit of batbing, wbenever circumstances would 
 permit. Not unfrequently tbe first beams of tbe rising sun, 
 as tbey fell upon tbe beautiful Potomac, would find Mr. 
 Adams buffeting its waves witb all tbe sportiveness and dex- 
 terity of boyhood, wbile a single attendant watched upon 
 the shore. Wbile in tbe Presidency, be sometimes made a 
 journey from Wasbington to Quincy on horseback, as a 
 simple citizen, accompanied only by a servant."* 
 
 More than fourscore years bad wasted their strength 
 upon the frame of Mr. Adams, and he was still found in 
 the hall of representatives. There, at his post, tbe hand 
 of death Avas laid upon his venerable head. On tbe 20tb of 
 November, 1846, be experienced tbe first blow of the dis- 
 ease, which terminated bis existence. On tbe morning of 
 that day, at Boston, be was stricken with paralysis. This 
 affliction confined him for several weeks, when he gained 
 sufficient strength to proceed to Washington. After this 
 stroke, be did not mingle as freely in debate as formerly. 
 On tbe 21st of February, 1848, while voting for a resolu- 
 tion returning thanks to several generals, who bad distin- 
 guished themselves in the Mexican war, Mr. Adams was 
 
 • Seward. 
 
192 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 again struck with paralysis. The members crowded around 
 him. The house adjourned amid the excitement. Mr. 
 Adams was laid, in a state of insensibility, upon a sofa in 
 the speaker's room. The senate adjourned as soon as in- 
 formed of the accident. On all sides the deepest regret and 
 sorrow was manifested. The elements of life and death 
 continued in uncertain balance until the evening of the 23d, 
 when the spirit fled to God. The last words of the vene- 
 rable statesman were — " This is the end of earth — I am 
 content." 
 
 The »ation was thrown into mourning upon the announce- 
 ment of the death of John Quincy Adams. President Polk 
 issued a proclamation announcing the bereavement, and 
 directing the suspension of all public business upon the 
 day of the funeral — the 26th of February. The body was 
 laid, with imposing ceremony, in the Congressional burial- 
 ground, where it remained until the next week, Avhen a 
 committee of one from each state and territory in the union, 
 appointed by the house of representatives, conveyed it to 
 the family burying ground, at Quincy. Funeral processions 
 along the route gave indications of the national sorrow. 
 The body was laid in a plain tomb, prepared by the direc- 
 tion of the deceased statesman. Upon it was inscribed — 
 John Quincy Adams — and nothing more — and nothing 
 more was necessary. 
 
 Numerous eulogiums have been pronounced upon the 
 character of John Quincy Adams. Among the most elo- 
 quent was that delivered by Governor William H. Seward, 
 before the New York legislature. From it we make the 
 following extract : 
 
 " The model by which he formed his character was Cicero. 
 Not the living Cicero, sometimes inconsistent ; often irreso- 
 
JOHN QUINCT ADAMS. 193 
 
 lute ; too often seeming to act a studied part ; and always 
 covetous of applause. But Cicero, as he aimed to be, and 
 as he appears revealed in those immortal emanations of his 
 genius which have been the delight and guide of intellect 
 and virtue in every succeeding age. Like the Roman, Adams 
 was an orator, but he did not fall into the errors of the 
 Koman, in practically valuing eloquence more than the 
 beneficence to which it should be devoted. Like him he 
 was a statesman and magistrate worthy to be called " The 
 second founder of the Republic," — like him a teacher of 
 didactic philosophy, of morals, and even of his own peculiar 
 art ; and like him he made all liberal learning tributary to 
 that noble art, while poetry was the inseparable companion 
 of his genius in its hours of relaxation from the labors of 
 the forum and of the capitol. 
 
 "Like him he loved only the society of good men, and by 
 his generous praise of such, illustrated the Roman's beautiful 
 aphorism, that no one can be envious of good deeds, who 
 has confidence in his own virtue. Like Cicero he kept him- 
 self unstained by social or domestic vices ; preserved sere- 
 nity and cheerfulness ; cherished habitual reverence for the 
 Deity, and dwelt continually, not on the mystic theology of 
 the schools, but on the hopes of a better life. He had lived 
 in what will be regarded as the virtuous age of his country, 
 while Cicero was surrounded by an overwhelming degene- 
 racy. He had the light of Christianity for his guide ; and 
 its sublime motives as incitements to virtue ; while Cicero 
 had only the confused instructions of the Grecian schools, 
 and saw nothing certainly attainable but present applause 
 and future fame. In moral courage, therefore, he excelled 
 his model and rivalled Cato. But Cato was a visionary, 
 who insisted upon his right to act always without reference 
 
 17 
 
194 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 to the condition of mankind, as he should have acted in 
 Plato's imaginary Republic. Adams stood in this respect 
 midway between the impracticable stoic and the too flexible 
 academician. He had no o.ccasion to say, as the Grecian 
 orator did, that if he had sometimes acted contrary to him- 
 self, he had never acted contrary to the Republic ; he might 
 justly have said, as the noble Roman did, ' I have rendered 
 to my country all the great services which she was willing 
 to receive at my hands, and I have never harbored a thought 
 concerning her that was not divine.' 
 
 " More fortunate than Cicero, who fell a victim of civil 
 wars which he could not avert, Adams was permitted to linger 
 on the earth, until the generations of that future age, for 
 for whom he had lived and to whom he had appealed from 
 the condemnation of contemporaries, came up before the 
 curtain which had shut out his sight, and pronounced over 
 him, as he was sinking into the grave, their judgment of 
 approval and benediction. 
 
 " The distinguished characteristics of his life were benefi- 
 cent LABOR and PERSONAL CONTENTMENT. He never sought 
 Avealth, but devoted himself to the service of mankind. Yet, 
 by the practice of frugality and method, he secured the 
 enjoyment of dealing forth continually no stinted charities, 
 and died in affluence. He never solicited place or prefer- 
 ment, and had no partisan combinations or even connections ; 
 yet he received honors which eluded the grasp of those who 
 formed parties, rewarded friends, and proscribed enemies ; 
 and he filled a longer period of varied and distinguished 
 service than ever fell to the lot of any other citizen. In 
 every stage of this progress he was content. He was con- 
 tent to be President, minister, representative, or citizen. 
 
 "Stricken in the midst of this service, in the very act of 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 195 
 
 rising to debate, he fell into the arms of the conscript fathers 
 of the Republic. A long lethargy supervened and oppressed 
 his senses. Nature rallied the wasting powers, on the verge 
 of the grave, for a very brief period. But it was long enough 
 for him. The rekindled eye showed that the re-collected 
 mind was clear, calm, and vigorous. His weeping family, 
 and his sorrowing compeers were there. He surveyed the 
 scene and knew at. once its fatal import. He had left no 
 duty unperformed ; he had no wish unsatisfied ; no ambition 
 unattained ; no regret, no sorrow, no fear, no remorse. He 
 could not shake off the dews of death that gathered on his 
 brow. He could not pierce the thick shades that rose up 
 before him. But he knew that eternity lay close to the 
 shores of time. He knew that his Redeemer lived. Elo- 
 quence, even in that hour, inspired him with his ancient 
 sublimity of utterance. ' This,' said the dying man, ' this 
 IS THE END OF EARTH.' He paused for a moment, and then 
 added, 'I AM content.' Angels might well draw aside 
 the curtains of the skies to look down on such a scene — a 
 scene that approximated even to that scene of unapproach- 
 able sublimity, not to be recalled without reverence, when, 
 in mortal agony. One who spake as man never spake, said, 
 'It is FINISHED !' 
 
 " Only two years after the birth of John Quincy Adams, 
 there appeared, on an island in the Mediterranean sea, a 
 human spirit newly born, endowed with equal genius, with- 
 out the regulating qualities of justice and benevolence which 
 Adams possessed in an eminent degree. A like career 
 opened to both — born like Adams, a subject of a king — the 
 child of more genial skies, like him, became in early life a 
 patriot and a citizen of a new and great republic. Like 
 Adams he lent his service to the state in precocious youth, 
 
196 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 and in its hour of need, and won its confidence. But un- 
 like Adams lie could not wait the dull delays of slow and 
 laborious, but sure advancement. He sought power by the 
 hasty road that leads through fields of carnage, and he be- 
 came, like Adams, a supreme magistrate, a Consul. But 
 there were other Consuls. He was not content. He thrust 
 them aside, and was Consul alone. Consular power was too 
 short. He fought new battles, and was Consul for life. 
 But power, confessedly derived from the people, must be 
 exercised in obedience to their will, and must be resigned to 
 them again, at least in death. He was not content. He 
 desolated Europe afresh, subverted the republic, imprisoned 
 the patriarch who presided over Rome's comprehensive See, 
 and obliged him to pour on his head the sacred oil that made 
 the persons of kings divine, and their right to reign inde- 
 feasible. He was an Emperor. But he saw around him a 
 mother, brothers and sisters, not ennobled ; whose humble 
 state reminded him, and the world, that he was born a ple- 
 beian ; and he had no heir to wait impatient for the impe- 
 rial crown. He scourged the earth again, and again for- 
 tune smiled on him even in his wild extravagance. He be- 
 stowed kingdoms and principalities upon his kindred — put 
 away the devoted wife of his youthful days, and another, a 
 diiughter of Hapsburgh's imperial house, joyfully accepted 
 his proud alliance. Offspring gladdened his anxious sight ; 
 a diadem was placed on its infant brow, and it received the 
 homage of princes, even in its cradle. Now he was indeed 
 a monarch — a legitimate monarch — a monarch by divine 
 appointment — the first of an endless succession of monarchs. 
 But there were other monarchs who held sway in the earth. 
 He was not content. He would reign with his kindred alone. 
 He gathered new and greater armies — from his own land — 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 197 
 
 from subjugated lands. He called forth the young and 
 brave — one from every household — from the Pyrenees to 
 Zuyder Zee — from Jura to the Ocean. He marshaled them 
 into long and majestic columns, and went forth to seize that 
 universal dominion, which seemed almost within his grasp. 
 But ambition had tempted fortune too far. 
 
 "The nations of the earth resisted, repelled, pursued, 
 surrounded him. The pageant was ended. The crown fell 
 from his presumptuous head. The wife who had wedded 
 him in his pride, forsook him when the hour of fear came 
 upon him. His child was ravished from his sight. His 
 kinsmen were degraded to their first estate, and he was no 
 longer Emperor, nor Consul, nor General, nor even a citi- 
 zen, but an exile and a prisoner, on a lonely island, in the 
 midst of the wild Atlantic. Discontent attended him there. 
 The wayward man fretted out a few long years of his yet 
 unbroken manhood, looking oflf at the earliest dawn and in 
 evening's latest twilight, towards that distant world that 
 had only just eluded his grasp. His heart corroded. Death 
 came, not unlocked for, though it came even then unwel- 
 come. He was stretched on his bed within the fort which 
 constituted his prison. A few fast and faithful friends 
 stood around, with the guards who rejoiced that the hour of 
 relief from long and wearisome watching was at hand. As 
 his strength wasted away, delirium stirred up the brain 
 from its long and inglorious inactivity. The pageant of 
 ambition returned. He was again a Lieutenant, a General, 
 a Consul, an Emperor of France. He filled again the 
 throne of Charlemagne. His kindred pressed around him 
 again, re-invested with the pageant of royalty. The daughter 
 of the long line of kings again stood proudly by his side, 
 and the sunny face of his child shone out from beneath the 
 
 17* 
 
198 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 diadem that encii'cled its flowing locks. The marshals of 
 the Empire awaited his command. Thedegions of the old 
 guard were in the field, their scarred faces rejm^enated, and 
 their ranks, thinned in many battles, replenished. Russia, 
 Prussia, Austria. Denmark, and England, gathered their 
 mighty hosts to give him battle. Once more he mounted 
 his impatient charger, and rushed forth to conquest. He 
 waved his sword aloft, and cried " Tete d'Armee." The 
 feverish vision broke — the mockery was ended. The silver 
 cord was loosed, and the warrior fell back upon his bed a 
 lifeless corpse. This was the end of earth. The Corsican 
 was not content. 
 
 " Statesmen and Citizens ! the contrast suggests its 
 own impressive moral." 
 
 This is a magnificent eulogium. In it, we may see John 
 Quincy Adams from the loftiest point of view. But in the 
 following description and anecdotes, from the " Reminis- 
 cences" of the venerable Stansbury, we may see the man as 
 he appeared among his friends and foes, lofty and noble, but 
 with frailties : 
 
 " It was my privilege to be present at the inauguration of 
 Mr. Adams. I witnessed the ceremony then for the first 
 time, though I have seen it since that seven times repeated. 
 The ceremony itself is of the simplest kind ; deriving its 
 solemnity from the nature and the source of the authority 
 conferred, together with the momentous consequences inse- 
 parable from its assumption. A greater contrast, in all 
 other respects, can scarcely be conceived than that between 
 a coronation in Europe and the inauguration of an American 
 President ; and, doubtless, to diplomatic eyes, that have 
 witnessed the pompous accompaniments of the one, the 
 Other may appear a petty aflair. Not so to the lover of free 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 199 
 
 representative government ; in his sight the spectacle is one 
 of the most august that can be conceived, pregnant with 
 every source of interest, and suggestive of a thousand trains 
 of solemn thought. In the case of Mr. Adams, the cere- 
 mony took place in the representatives' hall, though ever 
 since that time it has been performed on the eastern portico 
 of the capitol, or on a platform in front of it. The original 
 intention of the great rotunda, which occupies the central 
 portion of that vast building, was that the Presidents of the 
 republic should on that spot be inducted into office ; but, in 
 practice, this was found impossible, and that for several 
 reasons. In the first place the dimensions of the saloon 
 would not contain a tenth part of the assembly always ga- 
 thered on such occasions. The rotunda is not a hundred 
 feet in diameter, while the auditory collected often exceeds 
 twenty thousand people. Then, in the second place, the 
 dome which covers that apartment, though very lofty and 
 crowned with a large lantern above, occasions such an echo 
 that the mere stamping of your foot on the stone floor pro- 
 duces a reverberation like thunder, which lasts for many 
 seconds. When I took my little boy into this magnificent 
 chamber for the first time, while his childish eye was lifted 
 in wonder to the vaulted dome, broken into pannel-work 
 and terminating in a rich gilded border surrounding the 
 base of the lantern at the top, I made the experiment of 
 stamping on the floor ; he instantly cried out in terror, and 
 made his way to the door, and no persuasions could induce 
 him to enter it again. 'I feared of the ceiling,' was the 
 invariable reason by which he justified his refusal. 
 
 " The mention of the rotunda and its beautiful ceiling, 
 reminds me of an act of presumptuous folly of which I was 
 once guilty, but of Avhich, on reflection, I am ashamed. I 
 
200 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 had read, when a boy, about the ' whispering gallery,' in St. 
 Paul's, London, and the account made a wonderful impres- 
 sion on my youthful curiosity. It is said that the faintest 
 whisper, breathed on one side of a gallery which surrounds 
 the upper part of the dome of that noble structure, is dis- 
 tinctly audible on the other ; the exact distance of which I 
 have forgotten. Thinking of this, one day, as I stood con- 
 templating the dome of our rotunda, the idea struck me that 
 very possibly the same phenomenon might be produced in 
 here as in the dome of St. Paul's. The diameter of the 
 circle, however, was so much greater that this was at least 
 doubtful. I determined, however, on making the experi- 
 ment. It happened that the walls of the building were just 
 then being painted, (for such is the porous nature of the sand- 
 stone, of which the whole Capitol is built, that it requires 
 at the cost of some five thousand dollars or more a coat of 
 paint every few years,) and the ladder of one of the painters 
 was standing with its foot on the stone floor of the room, 
 and its top leaning against a broad stone cornice which sur- 
 rounds the apartment just where the arch of the dome begins 
 to spring. A workman was then at the top. I mounted the 
 ladder ; and, on reaching the cornice, found it to be about 
 two feet broad, perhaps a little more, not level but shelving 
 slightly inward toward the centre. There was nothing to 
 hold by. The wall above was of smooth stone, and the hard 
 stone floor was some thirty feet below. I resolved, however, 
 to venture ; and, explaining to the astonished workman what 
 I wanted to ascertain, asked him to place his ear against the 
 wall, and when I was directly opposite to him on the other 
 side, to try whether he could hear what I should whisper. 
 I found that the only way to get safely round was not to look 
 down ; accordingly I kept my eye looking straight forward, 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 201 
 
 and "vvitli a bold and rapid step I went on, slightly toucliing 
 the wall with my left hand. — Happily I reached the other 
 side in safety, and putting my mouth against the wall, uttered, 
 in a very low whisper, the words — 
 
 " ' Do you hear me ?' 
 
 " Instantly I heard the voice of the man in reply — 
 
 " ' Yes, sir, I hear you plainly.' 
 
 *' The span across is about ninety-four or ninety-five feet. 
 A whisper, spoken with the face turned from the wall is, I 
 need not say, totally inaudible ; but spoken against the wall, 
 it is distinctly reverberated to the opposite focus, and is there 
 easily and plainly heard. I completed the circle getting 
 safely back to the ladder, and so proud did I feel of the fool- 
 hardy feat I had performed, that I walked, with more con- 
 fidence and increased rapidity, completely round a second 
 time. By the indulgence of a merciful Providence, this 
 tempting of his care produced, to me, not the slightest injury 
 or inconvenience ; but the close of my adventure had nearly 
 lost the life of an honest man. The ladder was long, and 
 the motion of a person ascending or descending caused it to 
 vibrate in no very pleasing manner. About half way down 
 was a board resting, at one end, on the ladder, and at the 
 other on a narrow ledge surrounding a sunken panel in the 
 wall. On this board, thus stretched across, was seated a 
 painter engaged in the process of laying color on the pa- 
 nelled wall. The vibration of the ladder slightly drew the 
 board outwards from the wall ; and, before this efiect was 
 perceived by either of us, it had nearly drawn it quite ofi" the 
 ledge. Just then, fortunately, I had reached the bottom, and 
 the action ceased. This alone prevented my unwarrantable 
 gratification of curiosity from ending in manslaughter. When 
 I found in what danger my fellow man had been placed, by 
 
202 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 the indulgence of a mad freak, my heart smote me, and I 
 inly vowed never again to be guilty of such a tempting of 
 Providence. 
 
 " But, to return from this digression. The rotunda being 
 found unfit for the purpose, the hall of representatives was 
 resorted to, as the next largest apartment in the building ; 
 but this, on trial, was found to deprive so many who were 
 eagerly desirous of witnessing the sight, that, on the next 
 occasion, which was the inauguration of President Jackson, 
 recourse was had to the eastern portico, and the ceremony 
 being performed and the inaugural address being delivered 
 between the central columns, the audience occupied the steps, 
 the wide stone platforms on each side of them, and then the 
 wide open space stretching from the foot of the steps to the 
 iron fence opposite, inclosing the public grounds ; affording , 
 ample room for the immense concourse attending; though 
 on that memorable occasion, the crowd overflowed into the 
 grounds beyond. 
 
 " Mr. Adams, as I have said, took his oath of office in the hall 
 of the house of representatives. He appeared solemnly and 
 deeply moved by the occasion. His education, in the land of 
 the Pilgrims, could not fail to impress on his heart and mind 
 the solemn nature of that too-often slighted thing, an oath. 
 The weighty nature of the trust he was about to assume ; the 
 solemn appeal to a present God, the King of the Universe, 
 now his unseen Witness, hereafter to be his righteous Judge — 
 seemed to fill, as it ought, every faculty of his soul. As he 
 repeated the words, at the dictation of the chief justice, there 
 was a slight tremor in the loud, sharp tone of his voice, which 
 bore honorable testimony that he felt and fully appreciated 
 what he was doing, and it sent a corresponding thrill of so- 
 lemnity through the auditory. Among these were some of 
 
 13 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 203 
 
 his deadliest enemies ; several of vrhom commenced the war 
 upon his administration before he had done either good or 
 evil, and one of whom boldly avowed that if, in his adminis- 
 tration of the Presidency, he should be as pure as the Angel 
 Gabriel, it must and should be put down. There were others, 
 however, just as ardently in his favor — I will not say as 
 ardently as his friends, for it is confessedly true that Mr. 
 Adams had not the faculty of conciliating warm personal 
 attachments. His election was rejoiced in, rather as an act 
 of justice to the North, as the triumph of a certain set of 
 principles and of a particular line of policy, than as the per- 
 sonal victory of the man. 
 
 " Mr. Adams's temperament was peculiar, his manner and 
 address cold, if not repulsive, and his mode of shaking hands, 
 especially, so much so, that it attained an unenviable celebrity 
 as 'the pump-handle shake.' He had been much abroad, 
 had seen mankind,' and appeared not to trust them. He 
 flattered no man, and was not to be cajoled by flattery from 
 others. An old diplomatist himself, he was proof against 
 all the soft reproaches of the diplomatists of other govern- 
 ments. They could make nothing of him. He listened to 
 their polite speeches, smiled, and coldly bowed, but then 
 went to business. His keen and piercing eye Was kept 
 steadily ad rem. I have often compared him to a slumbering 
 volcano, covered deep in snow. Beneath the coldest manners, 
 he possessed a depth and a power of passion as great as I 
 ever witnessed in any human being. It seemed as if his soul 
 glowed with an intensity precisely proportioned to the icy 
 exterior which he presented to a stranger. This, it is true, 
 was not so fully developed during his Presidency as afterwards, 
 when he came into the house of representatives. There his 
 passions were called out into open play, and they often rose 
 
204 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 into a perfect storm. Nor was that tempest the mere explo- 
 sion of a fiery temperament, which bm'sts into a momentary 
 flame 'and straight is cold again.' In him the fires burnt 
 on, and, though the outward brightness might seem to sub- 
 side, uncover the furnace, and you would find them there 
 intense as ever, and ready for a fresh conflagration. When 
 attacked, or reflected on, he kept it in memory ; and the first 
 moment the occasion presented, never failed to repay, and 
 with a fearful accumulation of interest. He was one of the 
 last men a prudent man would assail in a deliberative body. 
 He was a most able debater. Skilled in dialectics, a prac- 
 tised, ready, and forcible speaker, with a piercing voice, an 
 iron memory, and such an array of facts on every subject 
 he handled, as rendered him one of the most formidable ad- 
 versaries any man could provoke. Staunch to his purpose, 
 not to be bafiied, not to be wearied, he pressed his point 
 with a pertinacity and persevering vigor, both of intellect 
 and passion, that was rarely withstood. 
 
 " One thing which powerfully helped him in the duties of 
 his office was his habits of indefatigable application. So far 
 as it was practicable, he read over all the papers connected 
 with every question submitted to him. He trusted to no 
 man's representations Avhere he could see with his own eyes. 
 I have seen, in his business room, in the presidential mansion, 
 a table at least twenty feet long and ten feet wide, covered 
 thickly Avith papers, in bundles to the depth of a foot, all of 
 which he would at least look at, and the more important of 
 which he would read through. To get time for this, he rose 
 before the sun, and sat up late at night. He had two excel- 
 lent preparations for business, one was his constant habit of 
 bathing in the Potomac by dawn of day ; the other, and f;ir 
 better one, was, to read a chapter of the Bible before he 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 205 
 
 touched a paper. Gentlemen have told me that they often 
 tried to anticipate the President in his morning bath, but 
 never could succeed ; come as early as they would, the old 
 man was in the river, his bald-head ducking and diving like 
 a sea fowl, and all of his motions indicating the lively enjoy- 
 ment he experienced from a play in his favorite element. 
 He was an excellent swimmer, and as much at home in the 
 water as a duck. 
 
 "And, as he opened the employments of each day by 
 reading his Bible, so he closed them with the repetition of 
 that well-known prayer of children, whidft had been taught 
 him in his infancy, by his mother : 
 
 ' Now I lay me down to sleep 
 I pray the Lord my soul to keep ; 
 If I should die before I wake 
 I pray the Lord my soul to take.' 
 
 " In this simple and touching observance, I presume he 
 stands alone among all Presidents, kings or other rulers of 
 the earth. To me it seems a beautiful and affecting sight 
 to behold a man so eminent in every department of human 
 attainment, occupying, too, one of the greatest and most 
 arduous positions in human society, bowing his venerable 
 locks and repeating at three score and ten the simple prayer 
 of his childhood. The infidel, the statesman, the party poli- 
 tician, the votary of pleasure, might smile at the thought ; 
 it would be better to imitate than to smile. Simple as the 
 little prayer may be, it goes to the deepest want of our common 
 humanity. 
 
 " Mr. Adams, like his illustrious relative of revolutionary 
 memory, was of low stature : he was not as heavily built as 
 his father, and possessed a firmer frame, and more enduring 
 
 J8 
 
206 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 constitution. His complexion was pale, his eye bright and 
 piercing, and surmounted by a brow which, though on its 
 outward part unusually elevated, was drawn down toward the 
 nose, and when he was excited it gave his looks a terrible 
 severity. One of his eyes, however, was affected with a 
 disease in the lachrymatory gland, which caused it constantly 
 to run, as with tears ; and this was connected with a de- 
 fluction from the brain, which troubled him all his life, and 
 was sometimes so copious as to occasion serious embarrass- 
 ment in public speaking. His sight, notwithstanding, was 
 80 unusually gooil that he never used spectacles to the day 
 of his death. There was, also, a stiffness about the joint 
 of the middle finger of his right hand, which prevented his 
 holding his pen as other men do, and compelled him to use 
 a sort of thimble to aid him in retaining it in its place. He 
 wrote very much as the Chinese do, and it occasioned him 
 much labor ; yet he was always writing, and left behind him 
 a vast number of volumes in MS. He wrote slowly, with a 
 square, heavy hand, but as legible as print. It is said that 
 men's handwriting is an index of their character ; and if art 
 did not interfere to control nature, it would doubtless be true. 
 It is, indeed, true to a great extent, notwithstanding. (I knew 
 once a very passionate man who stuttered vehemently ; and 
 his letters were wrote by jerks, and spattered all over, so as 
 to be scarce legible.) In Mr. Adams's case the remark holds 
 good ; for his writing has an air of clearness, firmness, bold- 
 ness, exactitude, and laborious diligence, which well corres- 
 ponds with the nature and habits of the man. Owing to his 
 early training in foreign courts, and his long familiarity with 
 public men, his mind was stored with an overflowing copious- 
 ness of anecdote, which rendered his conversation a perpetual 
 feast of entertainment and instruction. He seemed familiar 
 
JOHN QITINCT ADAMS. 207 
 
 with the character and history of every prominent man in 
 Europe, and his anecdotes of their private manners and per- 
 sonal habits were piquant and graphic in the highest degree. 
 " He relished a good dinner, and when the cloth was re- 
 moved it was a treat to be near him. He loved old wine, 
 and would drink more of it, without injury, than most men 
 of his years. It never produced any ' innovation' in his 
 brain, its sole apparent effect being to banish his natural 
 coldness of manner, and produce a cheerful excitement that 
 made him the best of company. Mr. Adams was no poet, 
 but he wrote respectable verse, and with much facility. His 
 genius tended to satire, and to him were ascribed some lines 
 upon Jefferson, replete with a contemptuous bitterness wor- 
 thy of Churchill. Their bitterness gave them currency, 
 and for a time they were in every body's mouth. ' Horned 
 frogs,' ' mountains of salt,' ' prairie dogs,' and ' dusky Sally' 
 figured in them with great effect. His poem, entitled ' Der- 
 mot McMorough,' (and which he had printed for gratuituous 
 distribution among his friends,) was supposed to be a satire 
 on General Jackson ; though Mr. Adams himself always 
 denied the charge. It was a puzzle to his friends, and the 
 subject of some merriment among his adversaries. I do not 
 think it added much to his reputation. He was greatly tor- 
 mented, during the latter part of his life, by the solicitations 
 of young ladies to ' write something in their albums ;' and 
 his good nature and patience under the affliction was, to 
 those who knew the irritable character of the man, a matter 
 of some surprise. But Mr. Adams was irritable only when 
 attacked, or contradicted ; to ladies he was ever polite and 
 obliging, and especially to the young he was very kind. He 
 retained much of the simplicity of his early New England 
 habits, amidst all the show which surrounded him. You 
 
208 LIVES or THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 might see him on a cold winter's morning, in his plain 
 Boston wrapper, a half-worn hat upon his head, a pair of 
 stout shoes, his hands enveloped in large thick pointed 
 mittens, of white wool, knit for him at his home. 
 
 " It was said of Lord Chesterfield that he could deny a 
 favor with such an inimitable show of candor and kindness 
 as to send the applicant away better pleased with him than 
 with many another great man who would grant the request. 
 I believe this remark was never applied to Mr. Adams. I 
 once heard Colonel Trumbull, the painter, describe an in- 
 terview with the President, which, it was evident, had made 
 him Adams's enemy for the rest of his days. Trumbull 
 was every way a distinguished man. He had been in the 
 military family of Washington, with whom he was a favorite. 
 He was eminent as a painter, and that in the highest walk 
 of the art. He had conceived the idea of embodying the 
 most striking scenes of the revolution, in a series of histo- 
 rical pictures, which should, at the same time, with their 
 actions, preserve and perpetuate the personal likenesses of 
 the actors ; and the success of the design is evinced in the 
 fouj- great paintings which occupy the panels in the wall 
 of the rotunda of the capitol. To prepare himself for so 
 laborious and diflScult a work he took many portraits from 
 the living actors in the stirring scene, while they were in 
 the midst of the struggle, or when they had retired to pri- 
 vate life. But some of them had left this country at the 
 peace, and returned to their own. Of these he collected 
 such likenesses as he could obtain here ; but, to complete 
 his design, it became necessary to visit Europe, and there 
 catch the features of many of the prominent men who had 
 been his fellow soldiers during the war, before they faded 
 in death, and were lost for ever. His private fortune, how- 
 
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS. 209 
 
 ever, would ill bear the expense of such a tour, and with a 
 view to diminish it, he applied to President Adams for a free 
 passage in a frigate that was then soon to sail for England. 
 He thought that as the pictures he designed to paint were 
 of a national character, and would probably become public 
 property, he was entitled, on this ground, as well as that of 
 his revolutionary services, and the relation, especially, which 
 he had borne to General Washington, to solicit such a favor. 
 He obtained the desired interview, and modestly made his 
 request. One line from under the President's hand would 
 secure the object. The President heard him without uttering 
 a word. At the close, his brows descended with that omi- 
 nous frown which boded no good to the application : he sat 
 in deep thought, as if revolving in his mind his power to 
 give the order, and the expediency of granting it. It was 
 amusing: to see Trumbull caricature the severe look, con- 
 tracted brows, and stern mouth of Mr. Adams at that mo- 
 ment. A glance was enough for the indignant artist, and 
 without another word passing on either side, he took his hat 
 and withdrew. 
 
 " Nothing is more fatal to a statesman, especially in a 
 government like ours, than official manners of this descrip- 
 tion. They inflict, on proud and sensitive natures, wounds 
 which are incurable. It was the misfortune of De Witt 
 Clinton to have the same defect : and the defect of both 
 was enjoyed with a malignant relish that mere political 
 opposition never could have inspired." 
 
 18* 
 
< 
 
 i 
 
8lK)S^eto ]^cl{30^. 
 
 The name of Andrew Jackson is deeply engraven upon 
 the history of the United States. He held many of the 
 most responsible stations. He was a leader in times of 
 danger and diflSculty, and served his country in the council 
 and the field. His course was always decided and deter- 
 mined, and whether men approved or not, they were com- 
 pelled to respect. 
 
 The parents of Andrew Jackson were Irish. His father, 
 Andrew, the youngest son of his family, emigrated to Ame- 
 rica about the year 1765, bringing with him two sons, Hugh 
 and Robert, both very young. 
 
 Landing at Charleston, in South Carolina, he shortly 
 afterwards purchased a tract of land, in what was then 
 called the Waxsaw settlement, about forty-five miles above 
 Camden ; at which place the subject of this history was 
 born, on the 15th of March, 1767. Shortly after his birth, 
 his father died, leaving three sons to be provided for by 
 their mother. She appears to have been an exemplary 
 woman, and to have executed the arduous duties which had 
 devolved upon her, with great faithfulness and success. To the 
 lessons she inculcated on the youthful minds of her sons, was, 
 no doubt, owing, in a great measure, that fixed opposition to 
 
 (215) 
 
216 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 British tyranny and oppression, which afterwards so much 
 distinguished them. Often would she spend the winter's 
 night, in recounting to them the sufferings of their grand 
 father, at the siege of Carrickfergus, and the oppressions 
 exercised by the nobility of Ireland, over the laboring poor ; 
 impressing it upon them, as their first duty, to expend their 
 lives, if it should become necessary, in defending and sup- 
 porting the natural rights of man. 
 
 Inheriting but a small patrimony from their father, it 
 was impossible that all the sons could receive an expensive 
 education. The two eldest were therefore only taught the 
 rudiments of their mother tongue, at a common country 
 school. But Andrew, being intended by his mother for the 
 ministry, was sent to a flourishing academy in the Waxsaw 
 meeting house, superintended by Mr. Humphries. Here he was 
 instructed in the dead languages, and continued until the 
 revolutionary war, extending its ravages into that section of 
 South Carolina, where he then was, rendered it necessary that 
 every one should betake himself to the American standard, 
 seek protection with the enemy, or flee his country. It was 
 not an alternative that admitted of much deliberation. The 
 natural ardor of his temper, deriving encouragement from 
 recommendations of his mother, whose feelings were not less 
 alive on the occasion than his own, quickly determined him 
 in the course to be pursued ; and at the tender age of four- 
 teen, with his brother Robert, he hastened to the American 
 camp, and engaged in the service of his country. His oldest 
 brother, who had previously joined the army, had lost his 
 life at the battle of Stono, by the excessive heat of the weather 
 and the fatigues of the day. 
 
 Both Andrew and Robert, were, at this period, pretty 
 well acquainted with the manual exercise, and had some 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 217 
 
 idea of the different evolutions of the field, having been 
 indulged by their mother in attending the drill, and general 
 musters. 
 
 " The Americans being unequal, as well by the inferiority 
 of their numbers, as their discipline, to engage the British 
 army in battle, retired before it, into the interior of North 
 Carolina ; but when they learned that Lord Cornwallis had 
 crossed the Yadkin, they returned in small detachments to 
 their native state. On their arrival, they found Lord Raw- 
 don in possession of Camden, and the whole country around 
 in a state of desolation. The British commander being 
 advised of the return of the settlers of Waxsaw ; Major 
 Coffin was immediately despatched thither, with a corps of 
 light dragoons, a company of infantry, and a considerable 
 number of tories, for their capture and destruction. Hear- 
 ing of their approach, the settlers, without delay, appointed 
 the Waxsaw meeting house as a place of rendezvous, that 
 they might the better collect their scattered strength, and 
 concert some system of operations. About forty of them 
 had accordingly assembled at this point, when the enemy 
 approached, keeping the tories, who were dressed in the 
 common garb of the country, in front, whereby this little 
 band of patriots was completely deceived, taking them for 
 Captain Nisbet's company, in expectation of which they had 
 been waiting. Eleven of them were taken prisoners ; the 
 rest with difficulty fled, scattering and betaking themselves 
 to the woods for concealment. Of those who thus escaped, 
 though closely pursued, were Andrew Jackson and his bro- 
 ther, who, entering a secret bend in a creek, that was close 
 at hand, obtained a momentary respite from danger, and 
 avoided, for the night, the pursuit of the enemy. The next 
 day, however, having gone to a neighboring house, for the 
 
 19 
 
218 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 purpose of procuring something to eat, they were broken in 
 upon, and made prisoners, by Coffin's dragoons, and a party 
 of tories who accompanied them. They had approached 
 the house by a route through the woods, and thereby eluded 
 the vigilance of a sentinel who had been posted on the road. 
 
 " Being placed under guard, Andrew was ordered, in a 
 very imperious tone, by a British officer, to clean his boots, 
 which had become muddied in crossing a creek. This ol^der 
 he, with the courage of Caesar among the pirates, refused 
 to obey ; alleging that he looked for such treatment as a 
 prisoner of war had a right to expect. Incensed at his re- 
 fusal, the officer aimed a blow at his head, with a drawn 
 sword, which would, very probably, have terminated his ex- 
 istence, had he not parried its effects by throwing up his 
 left hand, on which he received a severe wound. His bro- 
 ther, at the same time, for a similar offence, received a deep 
 cut on the head, which afterwards occasioned his death. 
 They were now taken to jail, where, separated and -confined, 
 they were treated with marked severity, until a few days 
 after the battle at Camden, when, in consequence of a par- 
 tial exchange, effected by the intercessions and exertions 
 of their mother and Captain Walker, of the militia, they 
 were both released. Captain Walker had, in a charge on 
 the rear of the British army, succeeded in capturing thir- 
 teen prisoners, whom he gave in exchange for seven Ame- 
 ricans, of which number were these two young mcsi. 
 
 " Robert, during his confinement in prison, had suffered 
 greatly ; the wound on his head, all this time, having never 
 been dressed, was followed by an inflammation of the brain, 
 which, in a few days after his liberation, brought him to the 
 grave. To add to the afflictions of Andrew, his mother, 
 worn down by grief, and her incessant exertions to provide 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 219 
 
 clothing and other comforts for the suffering prisoners, who 
 had been taken from her neighborhood, expired, in a few 
 weeks after her son, near the lines of the enemy, in the 
 vicinity of Charleston. Andrew, the last and only surviv- 
 ing child, confined to a bed of sickness, occasioned by the 
 sufferings he had been compelled to undergo, whilst a prisoner, 
 and by getting wet, on his return from captivity, was thus 
 left in the wide world, without a human being with whom he 
 could claim a near relationship. The small-pox beginning, 
 at the same time, to make its appearance upon him, had well 
 nigh terminated his sorrows and his existence. 
 
 " Having at length recovered from his complicated afflic- 
 tions, he entered upon the enjoyment of his estate, which, 
 although small, would have been sufficient, under prudent 
 management, to have completed his education, on the liberal 
 scale which his mother had designed. Unfortunately, how- 
 ever, he, like too many young men, sacrificing future pros- 
 pects to present gratification, expended it with rather too 
 profuse a hand. Coming, at length, to forsee that he should 
 be finally obliged to rely on his own exertions, for support 
 and success in life, he again betook himself to his studies, 
 with increased industry. He re-commenced under Mr. M'- 
 Culloch, in what was then called the New Acquisition, near 
 Hill's iron works. Here he revised the languages, devoting 
 a portion of his time to a desultory course of studies. 
 
 " His education being now completed, so far as his wasted 
 patrimony, and the opportunities then afforded in that sec- 
 tion of the country, would permit ; at the age of eighteen, 
 he turned his attention to acquiring a profession, and pre- 
 paring himself to enter on the busy scenes of life. The pulpit, 
 for which he had been designed by his mother, was now aban- 
 doned for the bar ; and, in the winter of 1784, he repaired 
 
220 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 to Salisbury, in North Carolina, and commenced the study 
 of law, under Spruce M'Cay, Esq. (afterwards one of the 
 judges of that state,) and continued it under Colonel John 
 Stokes. Having remained at Salisbury until the winter of 
 1786, he obtained a license from the judges to practise, and 
 continued in the state until the spring of 1788. 
 
 " The observations he was enabled, during this time, to 
 make, satisfied him that this state presented few inducements 
 to a young attorfiey ; and recollecting that he stood a solitary 
 individual in life, without relations to aid him in the onset, 
 when innumerable difficulties arise and retard success, he de- 
 termined to seek a new country. But for this, he might 
 have again returned to his native state ; but the death of 
 every relation he had, had wiped away all those recollections 
 and circumstances which link the mind to the place of its 
 nativity. The western parts of the state of Tennessee were, 
 about this time, often spoken of, as presenting flattering pros- 
 pects to adventurers. He immediately determined to accom- 
 pany Judge M'Nairy thither, who was appointed and going 
 out to hold the first supreme court that had ever sat in the 
 state. Having reached the Holston, they ascertained it 
 would be impossible to arrive at the time appointed for the 
 session of the court ; and therefore determined to remain in 
 that country till fall. They re-commenced their journey in 
 October, and, passing through the wilderness, reached Nash- 
 ville in the same month. It had not been Jackson's inten- 
 tion, certainly, to make Tennessee the place of his future 
 residence ; his visit was merely experimental, and his stay 
 remained to be determined, by the advantages that might 
 be disclosed ; but finding, soon after his arrival, that a con- 
 siderable opening was ofiered for the success of a young at- 
 torney, he determined to remain. His industry and atteu- 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 221 
 
 tion soon brought him forward, and introduced him to a 
 profitable practice. Shortly afterwards, he was appointed 
 attorney general for the district, in which capacity he con- 
 tinued to act for several years. 
 
 " Indian depredations being then frequent on the Cumber- 
 land, every man became a soldier. Unassisted by the go- 
 vernment, the settlers were forced to rely for security on 
 their own bravery and exertions. Although young, no per- 
 son was more distinguished than Andrew Ja(3kson, in defend- 
 ing the country against these predatory incursions of the 
 savages, who continually harassed the frontiers, and not 
 unfrequently approached the heart of the settlements, which 
 were thin, but not widely extended. He aided alike in 
 garrisoning the forts, and in pursuing and chastising the 
 enemy. 
 
 " In the year 1796, having, by his patriotism, firmness, 
 and talents, secured to himself a distinguished standing with 
 all classes, he was chosen one of the members of the conven- 
 tion, for establishing a constitution for the state. His good 
 conduct and zeal for the public interest, on this occasion, 
 brought him more conspicuously to view ; and, without pro- 
 posing or soliciting, he was, in the same year, elected a mem- 
 ber of the house of representatives, in congress, for the state 
 of Tennessee. The following year, his reputation continuing 
 to increase, and every bosom feeling a wish to raise him to 
 still higher honors, he was chosen a member of the senate of 
 the United States. 
 
 " The state of Tennessee, on its admission into the Union, 
 comprising but one military division, and General Conway, 
 who commanded it, as major-general, dying about this time, 
 Jackson, without being consulted on the subject, and without 
 the least intimation of what was in agitation, was chosen, by 
 
 19* 
 
222 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 the field officers, to succeed him ; which appointment he con- 
 tinued to hoki, until May, 1815, when he was constituted a 
 major-general in the United States service. 
 
 " Growing tired of political life, for the intrigues of which 
 he found himself unqualified, and having for two years voted 
 in the minority in Congress, he resigned his seat in the senate, 
 in 1799. To this measure he was strongly urged, by a wish 
 to make way for General Smith, who, he conjectured, would, 
 in that capacity, be able to render more important services 
 to the government than himself. His country, unwilling 
 that his talents should remain inactive and unemployed, 
 again demanded his services. Immediately after his resig- 
 nation, he was appointed one of the judges of the supreme 
 court of the state. Sensibly alive to the difficulties of this 
 station, and impressed with the great injiu'ies he might do 
 to suitors, by erroneous decisions, he advanced to the office 
 with reluctance, and in a short time resigned it ; leaving it 
 open to those, who, he believed, were better qualified than 
 himself, to discharge its intricate and important duties. 
 
 " Determined now to spend his life in tranquillity and re- 
 tirement, he settled himself on an elegant farm, ten miles 
 from Nashville, on the Cumberland river ; where, for seve- 
 ral years, he enjoyed all the comforts of domestic and social 
 intercourse. Abstracted from the busy scenes of public 
 life, surrounded by friends whom he loved, and who enter- 
 tained for him the highest veneration and respect, and 
 blessed with an aflfectionate and amiable consort, nothing 
 seemed wanting to the completion of that happiness he so 
 anxiously desired whilst in office. But a period approached, 
 when all these endearments were again to be abandoned, 
 for the duties of more active life."* 
 
 * Eaton. 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 223 
 
 In June, 1812, war was declared by the United States 
 against Great Britain. Congress authorized the President 
 to accept the services of fifty thousand volunteers. General 
 Jackson promptly addressed the citizens of his division, and 
 two thousand five hundred flocked to his standard. In No- 
 vember he received orders to descend the Mississippi, for 
 the defence of the lower country, which was threatened by 
 the Indians, aided by a few British soldiers. Descending 
 the Mississippi, through the severities of the season. General 
 Jackson halted, and encamped his troops near Natchez. 
 On the 5th of January, 1813, the secretary of war issued 
 an order directing him to dismiss those under his command, 
 and to transfer all public property to General Wilkinson. 
 The clouds of war had blown over that quarter, and it was 
 deemed unnecessary to retain the men in service. But 
 surely it was unfeeling thus to discharge them afar from 
 their homes and almost destitute. General Jackson deter- 
 mined to disobey the order, and to march his army back to 
 the country where it was raised, and that, too, at the ex- 
 pense of the United States. Wilkinson and others attempted 
 to dissuade the general from his purpose, but he was iron 
 in will. The quarter-master was obliged to provide the 
 means of transportation for the sick, and after some toil 
 and hardship, the troops were safely conducted to their 
 homes. The President of the United States approved the 
 course pursued by General Jackson, and directed the ex- 
 penses to be paid. In this, his first important military pro- 
 ceeding, the general displayed an independent, determined, 
 and humane spirit. 
 
 Soon after this expedition, the artful and eloquent Te- 
 cumthe visited the Indians of the south, and incited them 
 to join the great confederacy of the north. Horrible atro- 
 
224 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 cities were committed along the frontiers of Tennessee 
 and Georgia. The tomahawk and scalping-knife were gorged 
 with blood. The. agent of the general government sought 
 redress from the Indians, and some of the principal chiefs 
 caused the murderers to be put to death. This gave rise to 
 a civil war among the Indians, but by far the largest por- 
 tion of the red men resolved upon a bloody war against the 
 whites. Those who were friendly to the whites were forced 
 to take refuge in the frontier forts. The garrison of Fort 
 Mimms was surprised and massacred, by a band of Creeks, 
 led by the famous Weatherford. Other outrages were ex- 
 pected to follow, and the settlers fled from the frontier. 
 
 The governor of Tennessee now issued an order to Gene- 
 ral Jackson, who was then suffering from a wound received 
 in a private rencontre, to rendezvous at Fayetteville, in the 
 shortest possible time, two thousand volunteers, while Colo- 
 nel Coffee was to raise a large body of mounted men. A 
 vigorous campaign was resolved upon. The commanding 
 general issued a stirring address to the volunteers, and on 
 the 7th of October, arrived in camp. Colonel Coffee was at 
 Huntsville, covering that portion of the country with his 
 mounted volunteers. 
 
 Receiving promises that ample supplies should be forwarded 
 as soon as possible. General Jackson advanced to Thomp- 
 son's creek, and there encamped. Here he was beset with 
 difficulties. The supplies were not forthcoming, and in 
 spite of the immense exertions of the general, the troops 
 had the prospect of extreme want before them. However, 
 General Jackson, receiving information that the Indians, 
 in great force, were posted on the Coosa, at Ten Islands, 
 distributed his small stock of provisions, and marched 
 against the enemy. After a difficult march, it was ascer- 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 225 
 
 tained that the Creeks had posted themselves at Tallushat- 
 chee. There, General Coffee, with nine hundred men, at- 
 tacked them on the 2d of November, 1813, and after a 
 bloody action, entirely defeated them. The loss of the In- 
 dians was very severe, while Coffee lost but few of his men. 
 The detachment then rejoined the main body under General 
 Jackson. 
 
 A permanent depot was established at the Ten Islands. 
 Receiving intelligence that the Indians were concentrating 
 their forces on the Talapoosa, at Fort Talladega, General Jack- 
 son resolved at once to proceed against them. General White 
 was ordered to protect the camp at Ten Islands, during the 
 absence of the main body. At midnight, on the 7th of De- 
 cember, General Jackson, with twelve hundred infantry and 
 eight hundred cavalry, commenced his march. 
 
 In this expedition, Jackson used the utmost circumspec- 
 tion to prevent surprise ; marching his army, as was his con- 
 stant custom, in three columns, so that, by a speedy manoeuvre 
 they might be thrown into such a situation, as to be capable 
 of resisting an attack from any quarter. Having judiciously 
 encamped his men on an eligible piece of ground, he sent 
 forward two of the friendly Indians, and a white man, who 
 had, for many years, been detained a captive in the nation, 
 and was now acting as interpreter, to reconnoitre the position 
 of the enemy. At eleven o'clock at night, they returned, 
 with information, that the savages were posted within a quar- 
 ter of a mile of the fort, and appeared to be in great force ; 
 but they had not been able to approach near enough to as- 
 certain either their numbers, or precise situation. Within 
 an hour after this, a runner arrived from Turkey town, with 
 a letter from General White, stating, that after having taken 
 up the line of march, to unite at Fort Strother, he had received 
 
226 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 orders from General Cocke, to change his course, and pro- 
 ceed to the mouth of Chatuga creek. This unexpected and 
 disagreeable intelligence filled Jackson Avith astonishment and 
 apprehensions ; and dreading, lest the enemy, by taking a 
 different route, should attack his encampment in his absence, 
 he determined to lose no time, in bringing him to battle. 
 Orders were accordingly given to the adjutant-general to 
 prepare the line, and by four o'clock in the morning, the army 
 •was again in motion. The infantry proceeded in three co- 
 lumns ; the cavalry in the same order, in the rear, with 
 flankers on each wing. The advance, consisting of a com- 
 pany of artillerists, with muskets, two companies of riflemen, 
 and one of spies, marched about four hundred yards in front, 
 under the command of Colonel Carroll, the inspector-gene- 
 ral ; with orders, after commencing the action, to fall back 
 on the centre, so as to draw the enemy after them. At seven 
 o'clock, having arrived within a mile of the position they 
 occupied, the columns were displayed in order of battle. 
 
 " About eight o'clock, the advance having arrived within 
 eighty yards of the enemy, who were concealed in a thick 
 shrubbery, that covered the margin of a small rivulet, received 
 a heavy fire, which they instantly returned with much spirit. 
 Agreeably to their instructions, they fell back towards the 
 centre, but not before they had dislodged the enemy from 
 this position. The Indians now screaming and yelling hi- 
 deously, rushed forward in the direction of General Roberts's 
 brigade ; a few companies of which, alarmed by their num- 
 bers and yells, fled at the first fire. Jackson, to fill the 
 chasm which was thus created, directed the regiment com- 
 manded by Colonel Bradley, to be moved up, which, from 
 some unaccountable cause, had failed to advance, in a line 
 with the others, and now occupied a position in rear of the 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 227 
 
 centre : Bradley, however, to whom this order was given by 
 one of the staff, could not be prevailed on to execute it in 
 time, alleging, he was determined to remain on the eminence 
 which he then possessed, until the enemy should approach 
 and attack him. Owing to this failure, in the volunteer regi- 
 ment, it became necessary to dismount the reserve, which, 
 with great firmness, met the approach of the enemy, who 
 were rapidly moving in this direction. The retreating militia, 
 seeing their places supplied, rallied, and, recovering their 
 former position in the line, aided in checking the advance of 
 the savages. The action now became general along the line, 
 and in fifteen minutes the Indians were seen flying in every 
 direction. On the left, they were met and repulsed by the 
 mounted riflemen ; but on the right, owing to the halt of 
 Bradley's regiment, which was intended to occupy the ex- 
 treme right, — and to the circumstance of Colonel Allcorn, 
 who commanded one of the wings of the cavalry, having taken 
 too large a circuit, a considerable space was left between the 
 infantry and the cavalry, through which numbers escaped. 
 The fight was maintained with great spirit and effect on both 
 sides, as well before, as after the retreat commenced ; nor 
 did the savages escape the pursuit and slaughter, until they 
 reached the mountains, at the distance of three miles. 
 
 " In this battle, the force of the enemy was one thousand 
 and eighty, of whom two hundred and ninety-nine were left 
 dead on the ground ; and it is believed that many were killed 
 in the flight, who were not found when the estimate was made. 
 Probably few escaped unhurt. Their loss on this occasion, 
 as stated since by themselves, was not less than six hundred : 
 that of the Americans was fifteen killed, and eighty wounded, 
 several of whom afterwards died. Jackson, after collecting 
 his dead and wounded, advanced his army beyond the fort, 
 
228 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 and encamped for the night. The friendly Indians, -VN^ho 
 had been shut up for several days in Talladega, thus fortu- 
 nately liberated from the most dreadful apprehensions, and 
 severest privations, having for some time been entirely with- 
 out water, received the army with all the demonstrations of 
 gratitude, that savages could give. Their manifestations of 
 joy for their deliverance, presented an interesting and affect- 
 ing spectacle. Their fears had been already excited, for it 
 was the very day when they were to have been assaulted, 
 and when every soul within the fort must have perished. All 
 the provisions they could spare, from their scanty stock, they 
 sold to the general, who, purchasing with his own money, 
 distributed them amongst the soldiers, who were almost 
 destitute. 
 
 " It was with great regret, that Jackson now found he was 
 without the means of availing himself fully of ^he advantages 
 of his victory ; but the condition of his posts in the rear, and 
 the want of provisions, (having left Fort Strother, at the Ten 
 Islands, with little more than one day's rations,) compelled 
 him to hasten back ; thus giving the enemy time to recover 
 from their consternation, and to re-assemble their forces."* 
 
 On reaching Fort Strother, Jackson found that no pro- 
 vision had yet been forwarded. The troops were almost 
 destitute. Discontent began to show its head, and after a 
 few days, the troops openly announced their intention to 
 return home. Jackson determined, at all hazards, to oppose 
 their design. On the morning when the discontents were 
 to depart, he drew up those volunteers who were faithful to 
 him, and, with daring determination, commanded the militia 
 to return to their quarters. He was obeyed. The next 
 day, however, the volunteers themselves revolted, and the 
 
 * Eaton.. 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 229 
 
 singular scene was presented, of the militia, under the com- 
 mand of General Jackson, compelling them to follow the 
 example of the day before, and retire to their quarters. 
 The conduct of General Jackson throughout the affair was 
 marked by wonderful firmness and decision. The cavalry, 
 being without forage, was allowed to return home, upon 
 condition that when supplied and recruited, the whole force 
 would come back to the camp. By addresses and great 
 personal exertions. General Jackson strove to cheer the 
 spirits of his men, but their distresses and grievances were 
 not to be quietly born. Besides, most of the troops were 
 bold independents, unused to military subordination. Camp 
 life was irksome to them and they wanted to be free. On 
 several occasions, they evinced a determined spirit of mu- 
 tiny ; but the iron resolution of their general reduced them 
 to obedience. But for his firmness, the campaign would 
 have been abandoned. His life was fearlessly exposed in 
 the discharge of his duty. As it was, however, many of 
 the troops, after much perseverance, obtained permission to 
 return to their homes. New regiments arrived in camp. 
 But among these discontent was early manifested. 
 
 In January, 1814, General Jackson, having received in- 
 telligence that the Indians were concentrating at Emuckfau, 
 marched against them at the head of less than a thousand 
 men. At dawn of day, on the 22d, when near their camp, 
 the army was attacked with great fury. The action raged 
 for about half an hour, when the Indians were totally 
 routed, and pursued for two miles. But a strong force re- 
 mained in the fortified camp. General Coffee was sent to 
 ascertain the strength of the position, and he returned with 
 the information that it was much too superior for him to at- 
 tack. Soon afterwards, the Indians advanced and assailed the 
 
 20 
 
230 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 camp of the Tennesseeans. A long and fierce struggle en- 
 sued. No quarter Tvas given and none was requested. The 
 red men were routed, and they suffered terribly during the 
 pursuit. Hundreds of them fell during the day's fighting. 
 The loss of the whites was also severe. 
 
 The next day, General Jackson, having, as he believed, 
 efi'ected the object of the expedition, and being greatly in 
 want of provisions, began a return march. At night his 
 army was encamped on the south side of Enotichopco creek. 
 The Indians, it was evident, had followed the army during 
 the day, and arrangements were therefore made to repel a 
 night attack. The enemy held ofi" until the next morning, 
 and then commenced an attack as the troops were crossing 
 the creek. At first a body of the troops gave way. But 
 they were quickly rallied by the exertions of Generals Jack- 
 son and Coffee, and after a short struggle, the Indians were 
 compelled to retreat. Many of the latter were destroyed in 
 the pursuit. Altogether, more than two hundred were 
 killed. General Jackson had twenty men killed, and seventy- 
 five wounded. On the 26th, the victorious army reached 
 the vicinity of Fort Strother. Throughout this perilous 
 expedition, the conduct of both officers and troops was 
 highly honorable and efficient. The general now dismissed 
 them to their homes with high commendation. 
 
 Early in February, a much greater force of Tennesseans 
 was brought into the field under the orders of General 
 Jackson. But the difficulties caused by the want of sup- 
 plies, and the want of discipline among the hardy, independ- 
 ent sons of the west continued unabated. By constant 
 exertion. General Jackson obtained a sufficient quantity of 
 provision to enable him to march into the enemy's country 
 in March, 1814. On the 27th, he reached the village of To- 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 231 
 
 hopeka, where twelve hundred Indians were strongly posted. 
 The bloodiest struggle of the whole war ensued. The In- 
 dians were driven within their fort, which was then set ou 
 fire, as they refused to surrender. Still they fought with 
 determined courage. The carnage was horrible. Few of 
 the warriors escaped. About three hundred women and 
 children were made prisoners. This was the last important 
 stand made by the Indians. All hope of success deserted 
 them. They became a miserable band of fugitives, who 
 were hunted and destroyed like wild beasts. 
 
 General Jackson now assumed a new character — that of 
 a negotiator and peacemaker. He encamped at a place 
 known as the Hickory Ground, where numbers of Indians 
 daily arrived, and offered to submit on any terms. General 
 Jackson assurred them of peace and safety, if they would 
 retire to the north of Fort William. But resolving to put 
 their friendly professions at once to the test, he directed 
 them to bring Weatherford, one of the first chiefs of the 
 nation, to him. 
 
 " Learning from the chiefs, on their return, what had 
 been required of them by Jackson, "Weatherford was pre- 
 vailed upon, as being perhaps the safer course, to go and 
 make a voluntary surrender of himself. Having reached 
 the camp without being known, and obtained admission to 
 the general's quarter's, he told him he was Weatherford, 
 the chief who had commanded at Fort Mimms, and, desiring 
 peace for himself and people, had come to ask it. Some- 
 what surprised, that one who so richly merited punishment, 
 should so sternly demand the protection which had been 
 extended to others, he replied to him, that he was astonished 
 he should venture to appear in his presence ; that he was 
 not ignorant of his having been at Fort Mimms, nor of hia 
 
232 LIVES OF THE PKESIDENTS. 
 
 conduct there, for wliich he well deserved to die. ' I had 
 directed,' continued he, 'that you should be brought to 
 me confined ; had you appeared in this way, I should have 
 known how to have treated you.' Weatherford replied, 'I 
 am in your power — do with me as you pleasS. I am a 
 soldier. I have done the white people all the harm I could ; 
 I have fought them, and fought them bravely ; if I had an 
 army, I would yet fight, and contend to the last : but I 
 have none ; my people are all gone. I can now do no more 
 than weep over the misfortunes of my nation. ' Pleased at 
 the firmness of the man, Jackson informed him, that he did 
 not solicit him to lay down his arms, and become peaceable. 
 * The terms on which your nation can be saved, and peace 
 restored, has already been disclosed ; in this way, and none 
 other, can you obtain safety.' If, however, he wished still 
 to continue the war, and felt himself prepared to meet the 
 consequences, although he was then completely in his power, 
 no advantage should be taken of that circumstance ; that 
 he was at liberty to retire, and unite himself with the war 
 party, if he pleased ; but if taken, his life should pay the 
 forfeit of his crimes ; if this were not desired, he might 
 remain where he was, and should be protected. 
 
 " Weatherford answered, that he desired peace, that his 
 nation might, in some measure, be relieved from their suf- 
 feaings ; that, independent of other misfortunes, growing 
 out of a state of war, their cattle and grain were all wasted 
 and destroyed, and their women and children destitute of 
 provisions. 'But,' continued he, 'I may be well ad- 
 dressed in such language now. There was a time when I 
 had a choice, and could have answered you : I have none 
 now, — even hope has ended. Once I could animate my 
 warriors to battle; but I cannot animate the dead. My 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 233 
 
 warriors can no longer hear my voice : their bones are at 
 Talladega, Tallushatchee, Emuckfaw, and Tohopeka. I have 
 not surrendered myself thoughtlessly. Whilst there were 
 chances of success, I never left my post, nor supplicated 
 peace. But my people are gone, I now ask it for my nation, 
 and for myself. On the miseries and misfortunes brought 
 upon my country, I look back with deepest sorrow, and wish 
 to avert still greater calamities. If I had been left to con- 
 tend with the Georgia army, I would have raised my corn 
 on one bank of the river, and fought them on the other ; but 
 your people have destroyed my nation. You are a brave man : 
 I rely upon your generosity. You will exact no terms of a 
 conquered people, but such as they should accede to ; what- 
 ever they may be, it would now he madness and folly to op- 
 pose. If they are opposed, you shall find me amongst the 
 strongest enforcers of obedience. Those who would still hold 
 out, can be influenced only by a mean spirit of revenge ; and 
 to this they must not, and shall not sacrifice the last remnant 
 of their country. You have told us where we might go, and 
 be safe. This is a good talk, and my nation ought to listen 
 to it. They shall listen to it.' 
 
 " The earnestness and bold independence of his conduct 
 left no doubt of the sincerity of his professions. The peace 
 party became reconciled to him, and agreed to bury all pre- 
 vious animosities. In a few days afterwards, having obtained 
 permission, he set out from camp, accompanied by a small 
 party, to search through the forest, for his followers and 
 friends, and persuade them to give up a contest, in which 
 hope seemed to be at an end, and, by timely submission, to 
 save their nation from still further disasters."* 
 
 A large number of the Creeks had retired southward to 
 
 * Eaton. 
 
 20* 
 
234 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 the Gulf of Mexico, where they could be protected by the 
 British and Spaniard's. A line of posts was established 
 along the frontiers of Georgia and Tennessee to cover the 
 country, and overawe the Indians. General Pinckney took 
 command of what troops were to remain in the service. 
 General Jackson and his brave Tennesseans returned home, 
 amid the plaudits of their countrymen. 
 
 "It was now eight months since General Jackson had 
 left home, to arrest the progress of the Indian Avar ; during 
 most of which time, he had been in a situation of bodily 
 infirmity that would have directed a prudent man to his bed, 
 instead of the field. During this period, he had never seen 
 his family, or been absent from the army longer than to 
 visit Deposit, and arrange with his contractors some certain 
 plans to guard against a future failure of supplies. His 
 health was still delicate, and rendered retirement essential 
 to its restoration ; but his uniformly successful and good 
 conduct, had brought him too conspicuously before the pub- 
 lic, for any other sentiment to be indulged, than that he should 
 be placed, with an important command, in the service of the 
 United States. 
 
 " The resignation of General Hampton, enabled the go- 
 vernment, in a short time, to afi'ord him the evidences of re- 
 spect it entertained for his services and character. A notice 
 of his appointment as brigadier and brevet major-general, 
 was forwarded on the 22d of May, from the war department. 
 General Harrison having, about this time, from some cause, 
 become disgusted with the conduct of the government towards 
 him, had refused to be longer considered one of her military 
 actors ; to supply which vacancy, a commission of major-ge- 
 neral was immediately forwarded to Jackson. 
 
 " The contest with the Indians being ^ ended ; the first 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 235 
 
 and principal object of the government was, to enter into 
 some definite arrangement, wliich should deprive of suc- 
 cess, any effort that might hereafter be made, by other 
 powers, to enlist these savages in their wars. None was 
 so well calculated to answer this end, as that of restricting 
 their limits, so as to cut off their communication with British 
 and Spanish agents, in East Florida. 
 
 " The citizens of Tennessee, learning that commissioners 
 were appointed for the accomplishment of this purpose ; and 
 believing themselves as much, or more interested than others, 
 in having such a disposition made, as should give complete 
 security to their borders, petitioned the government that one 
 might be selected from their state. The efforts they had 
 made to effect what had been done ; and the interests they 
 had involved, were considerations that the President did 
 not scruple to admit. He accordingly associated General 
 Jackson in the mission, and again required his services for 
 the establishment of a peace, on such terms as should pro- 
 mise to be permanent. The circumstance of Colonel Haw- 
 kins being appointed, was an additional reason, why any 
 solicitude had been felt, or any petition forwarded. He 
 may have been deceived, and may have founded his opinions 
 upon data presumed to be correct ; but his continual decla- 
 rations, that the Creek Indians intended a rigid adherence 
 to their treaties, at the very moment they were planning 
 their murderous schemes against the frontiers, led the western 
 people to fear, that his agency had lasted too long, to hope 
 that he would steadily pursue that course, which the safety 
 and interest of the country required. 
 
 " On the 10th of July, the general, with a small retinue, 
 reached the Alabama ; and on the 10th of August succeeded 
 in procuring the execution of a treaty, in which the Indians 
 
236 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 pledged themselves, no more to listen to foreign emissaries, — 
 to hold no communication with British or Spanish garrisons ; 
 guaranteed to the United States, the right of erecting mili- 
 tary posts in their country, and a free navigation of all their 
 waters. They stipulated further, that they would suifer no 
 agent or trader to pass among them, or hold any kind of 
 commerce or intercourse with their nation, unless specially 
 deriving his authority from the President of the United 
 States. 
 
 " General Jackson having understood, that that comfort 
 and aid, which had been already so liberally extended, was 
 still afforded by the Spanish governor to the hostile Indians, 
 who had fled from the ravages of the Creek war, cherished 
 the belief that his conduct was such as deservedly to ex- 
 clude him from that protection which, under other circum- 
 stances, he would be entitled, from the professed neutrality 
 of Spain. At all events, if the improper acts of the Spanish 
 agents would not authorize the American government openly 
 to redress herself for the unprovoked injuries she had received, 
 they were such, he believed, as would justify any course that 
 had for its object the putting them down, and arresting 
 their continuance. In this point of view he had already 
 considered it, when, on his way to the Alabama, he received 
 certain information, that about three hundred English troops 
 had landed ; were fortifying at the mouth of the Apalachi- 
 cola ; and were endeavoring to excite the Indians to war. 
 No time was lost, in giving the government notice of what 
 was passing, and the course deemed by hira most advisable 
 to be pursued. The advantages to be secured by the pos- 
 session of Pensacola, he had frequently urged. Whether it 
 was that the government beheld things in a different point 
 of view, or, being at peace with Spain, was willing to en- 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 237 
 
 counter partial inconveniences, rather than add her to the 
 number of our enemies, no order to that effect was yet given. 
 In detailing to the secretary of war what had been commu- 
 nicated to him, he remarks : ' If the hostile Creeks have 
 taken refuge in Florida, and are there fed, clothed, and pro- 
 tected ; if the British have landed a large force, with muni- 
 tions of war, and are fortifying and stirring up the savages ; 
 will you only say to me, raise a few hundred militia, which 
 can be quickly done, and with such regular force as can be 
 conveniently collected, make a descent upon Pensacola, and 
 reduce it ? If so, I promise you, the war in the south shall 
 have a speedy termination, and English influence be for ever 
 destroyed with the savages in this quarter.' "* 
 
 To this communication, the general received no answer 
 until after the battle of New Orleans. Upon his own re- 
 sponsibility, he addressed a letter to the Spanish governor, 
 at Pensacola, requesting that the ringleaders of the Creek 
 confederacy, from whom new hostilities were expected, should 
 be delivered to United States officers. The governor refused, 
 and replied to General Jackson's letter in a very lofty tone. 
 
 But events were about to occur of a nature to test the 
 energy and talents of Jackson. Every day's reports con- 
 firmed the impression that the British were preparing a 
 formidable armament, for a descent upon New Orleans. 
 General Jackson urged the governors of Tennessee, Mis- 
 sissippi, and Louisiana to be vigilant and to hold all their 
 militia in readiness for marching at the shortest notice. 
 The Tennessee troops were the first to advance and to reach 
 Mobile. With a body of these and a few regulars. General 
 Jackson started for New Orleans. He had scarcely started, 
 before Fort Boyer, near Mobile, was attacked by a British 
 
 * Eaton.. 
 
238 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 force, commanded by Colonel Nichols. However, the 
 little garrison displayed Spartan bravery, and repulsed the 
 assailants, who then returned to Pensacola. This attack 
 General Jackson considered as a feint, but determined to 
 proceed to Pensacola, and upon his own responsibility, break 
 up the hostile band of British, Spaniards, and Indians there 
 assembled. This was an extraordinary resolution, but the 
 circumstances certainly justified its formation. The security 
 of the frontier and the lives and property of American sub- 
 jects which General Jackson was expected to defend, de- 
 manded that the rendezvous of the enemy should be destroyed. 
 Far from deserving censure for this project, the general 
 merited commendation. He incurred all the risk. There 
 was no danger of his involving his country in a war with 
 Spain. The government might disavow his act, and punish 
 him for its commission. 
 
 When Colonel Child's brigade arrived at Fort Stephens, 
 General Jackson's whole force amounted to three thousand 
 men. On the 2d of November, the line of march was taken up, 
 and on the 6th, the army reached the vicinity of Pensacola. 
 
 The British and Spaniards had obtained intelligence of 
 its approach and intentions ; and every thing was in readi- 
 ness to dispute its passage. The forts were garrisoned, and 
 prepared for resistance ; batteries were formed in the prin- 
 cipal streets ; and the British vessels were moored within 
 the bay, and so disposed as to command the main entrance 
 to the town. Before any final step was taken. General 
 Jackson concluded to make a further application to the go- 
 vernor, and learn what course he would make it necessary 
 for him to pursue. To take possession, and dislodge the 
 British, was indispensable : to do it under such circum- 
 stances, as should impress the minds of the Spaniards with a 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 239 
 
 conviction, that the invasion of their territory was a mea- 
 sure adopted from necessity, and not from choice, or a dis- 
 position to infringe, or violate, their neutral rights, was be- 
 lieved to be essential. It was rendered the more so, on the 
 part of Jackson, because a measure of his own, and not 
 sanctioned or directed by his government. Previously, 
 therefore, to any act of open war, he determined to try the 
 effect of negotiation, that he might ascertain, certainly and 
 correctly, how far the governor felt disposed to preserve a 
 good understanding between the governments. 
 
 But all attempts at a peaceable settlement were unavailing, 
 and on the 7th, Jackson put his army in motion, and after 
 a short conflict, compelled the governor to surrender all 
 the works into the hands of the United States forces. Soon 
 after the fort at Barancas was blown up, and the British 
 vessels left Pensacola bay. Having accomplished the de- 
 struction of a dangerous rendezvous. General Jackson resolved 
 to return to Mobile, which place, he thought the British 
 would again threaten. A detachment was in pursuit of those 
 hostile Creeks who had fled from Pensacola. Reaching Mo- 
 bile, the general prepared it to resist an attack. In the latter 
 part of November, General Winchester arrived. Leaving 
 the command of Mobile to this officer. General Jackson 
 hastened to New Orleans, which he made his head-quarters. 
 
 General Jackson was now on a new theatre, and soon to 
 be brought in collision with an enemy, different from any 
 he had yet encountered : the time had arrived, to call forth 
 all the energies he possessed. His military career, from its 
 commencement, had been obstructed by innumerable difficul- 
 ties, but far greater were now rising to his view. His body 
 worn down by sickness and exhaustion, with a mind con- 
 stantly alive to the apprehension, that, with the means 
 
240 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 given him, it would not be in Ms power to satisfy his own 
 wishes, and the expectations of his country, were circum- 
 stances well calculated to depress him. He was as yet with- 
 out sufficient strength or preparation, to attempt successful 
 opposition against the numerous and well-trained troops, 
 which were expected shortly at some unprepared point, to 
 enter, and lay waste the lower country. What was to be 
 hoped, from the clemency and generous conduct of such a 
 foe, their march to the city of Washington already announced ; 
 while the imagination painted in lively colors the repetition, 
 here, of scenes of desolation, even surpassing what had there 
 been witnessed. 
 
 " Louisiana, he well knew, was ill supplied with arms, and 
 contained a mixed population, of different tongues, who per- 
 haps felt not a sufficient attachment for the soil or govern- 
 ment, to be induced to defend them to the last extremity. 
 No troops, arms, or ammunition, had yet descended from the 
 states of Kentucky and Tennessee. His only reliance for 
 defence, if assailed, was on the few regulars he had, the 
 volunteers of General Coffee, and such troops as the state 
 itself could raise. What might be the final result of things, 
 under prospects gloomy as the present, should an enemy 
 shortly appear, was no difficult conjecture. His principal 
 fears, at present, were, that Mobile might fall, the left bank 
 of the Mississippi be gained, all communication with the 
 western states cut off, and New Orleans be thus unavoidably 
 reduced. Although continually agitated by such forebod- 
 ings, he breathed his fears to none. Closely locking all 
 apprehensions in his own breast, he appeared constantly 
 serene, and as constantly endeavored to impress a general 
 belief, that the country could and would be successfully de- 
 fended. The manifestations of such tranquillity, and ap- 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 241 
 
 parent certainty of success, under circumstances so un- 
 propitious, excited strong hopes, dispelled every thing like 
 fear, and impressed all with additional confidence in their 
 security." 
 
 General Jackson was fully aware that spies and traitors 
 swarmed in Louisiana. He urged Governor Claiborne to be 
 vigilant and determined in discouraging the spirit of discontent 
 and treachery. He addressed the people of the state and 
 urged them to make a bold stand in defence of their soil and 
 freedom. One of the general's addresses concluded in these 
 energetic words : — " Our country must and shall be defended. 
 We will enjoy our liberty or die in the last ditch." The 
 states of Kentucky and Tennessee were actively engaged in 
 preparing their forces to advance to the defence of Louisiana. 
 The Kentuckians were commanded by Major-General Thomas, 
 and the Tennesseeans, by Major-General Carroll. General 
 Jackson pushed forward extensive preparations for guarding 
 the passes to New Orleans. 
 
 " The legislature of Louisiana had been for some weeks in 
 session ; and, through the governor's communication, had 
 been informed of the situation and strength of the country, 
 and of the necessity of calling all its resources into action ; 
 but, balancing in their decisions, and uncertain of the best 
 course to be pursued, to assure protection, they as yet had 
 resolved upon nothing promising certainty and safety, or 
 calculated to infuse tranquillity and confidence in the public 
 mind. The arrival of Jackson, however, produced a new 
 aspect in affairs. His activity and zeal in preparation, and 
 his reputation as a brave and skilful commander, turned 
 all eyes towards him, and inspired even the desponding with 
 a confidence they had not before felt. 
 
 " The volunteer corps of the city were reviewed, and a 
 
 21 
 
242 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 visit, in person, made to the different forts, to ascertain 
 their situation, and the reliance that might be had on them, 
 to repel the enemy's advance. Through the lakes, their 
 larger vessels could not pass; should an approach be at- 
 tempted, through this route, in their barges, it might be 
 met and opposed by the gun-boats, which already guarded 
 this passage ; but if, unequal to the contest, they should be 
 captured, it would, at any rate, give timely information of 
 a descent, which might be resisted on the landing, before 
 an opportunity could be had of executing fully their designs. 
 Up the Mississippi, however, was looked upon as the most 
 probable pass, through which might be made an attempt to 
 reach the city ; and here were progressing suitable prepa- 
 rations for defence. 
 
 " We have already noticed that Colonel Hayne had been 
 despatched from Mobile, with directions to view the Missis- 
 sippi near its mouth, and report if any advantageous posi- 
 tion could be found for the erection of batteries ; and whe- 
 ther the re-establishment of the old fort at the Balize could 
 command the river, in a way to prevent its being ascended. 
 That it could not be relied on for this purpose, the opinions 
 of military men had already declared. General Jackson 
 was always disposed to respect the decisions of those, who, 
 from their character and standing, were entitled to confi- 
 dence : yet in matters of great importance, it formed no 
 part of his creed to attach his faith to the statements of any, 
 where the object being within his reach, it was in his power 
 to satisfy himself. Trusting implicitly in Colonel Hayne, 
 as a military man, who, from proper observations, could 
 infer correct conclusions, he had been despatched to examine 
 how far it was practicable to obstruct and secure this chan- 
 nel. His report was confirmatory of the previous informa- 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 243 
 
 tion received, that it was incapable, from its situation, of 
 effecting any such object. 
 
 Fort St. Philips was now resorted to, as the lowest 
 point on the river, were the erection of works could be at 
 all serviceable. The general had returned to New Orleans, 
 on the 9th, from a visit to this place, which he had ordered 
 to be repaired and strengthened. The commanding oflScer 
 was directed to remove every combustible material Avithout 
 the fort; to have two additional platforms immediately 
 raised ; and the embrasures so enlarged, that the ordnance 
 might have the greatest possible sweep upon their circles, 
 and be brought to bear on any object within their range, 
 that might approach either up or down the river. At a 
 small distance below, the Mississippi, changing its course, 
 left a neck of land in the bend, covered with timber, and 
 which obstructed the view. From this point, down to where 
 old Fort Bourbon stood, on the west side, the growth along 
 the bank was ordered to be cut away, that the shot from 
 St. Philips, ranging across this point of land, might reach 
 an approaching vessel, before she should be unmasked from 
 behind it. On the site of Bourbon, was to be thrown up a 
 strong work, defended by five twenty-four-pounders, which, 
 with the fort above, would expose an enemy to a cross fire, 
 for half a mile. A mile above St. Philips was to be established 
 a Avork, which, in conjunction with the others, would command 
 the river for two miles. At Terre au Boeuf, and at the 
 English turn, twelve miles below the city were also to be taken 
 measures for defence ; where it was expected by Jackson, 
 with his flying artillery and fire ships, he would be able, cer- 
 tainly, to arrest the enemy's advance. This system of de- 
 fence, properly established, he believed would give security 
 from any attack in this direction. Fort St. Philips, with 
 
244 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 the assistant batteries, above and below, would so concentrate 
 their fires, that an enemy could never pass, without suffering 
 greatly, and perhaps being so shattered, that they would fall 
 an easy prey, to those still higher up the river. The essen- 
 tial difficulty was to have them commenced, and speedily 
 finished. 
 
 Upon lakes Borgne and Ponchartrain, an equally strong 
 confidence was had, that all would be safe from invasion. 
 Commodore Patterson, who commanded the naval forces, 
 had executed every order with promptness and activity. 
 Agreeably to instructions received from the commanding 
 general, to extend to all the passes on the lakes every pro- 
 tection in his power, he had already sent out the gun-boats, 
 under Lieutenant Jones. From their vigilance and capa- 
 bility to defend, great advantages were calculated to arise ; 
 added to which, the Rigolets, the communication between 
 the two lakes, was defended by Petit Coquille fort, a strong 
 work, under the command of Captain NcAvman, which, when 
 acting in conjunction with the gun-boats, it was supposed 
 would be competent to repel any assault that might here be 
 waged. The prospects of defence had been improved, by 
 detachments sent out to fell timber across every small bayou 
 and creek, leading out of the lakes, and through which a 
 passage for boats and barges could be afforded ; and to in- 
 crease the obstruction, by sinking large frames in their beds, 
 and filling them Avith earth. Guards and videttes were out, 
 to watch every thing that passed, and give the earliest in- 
 formation. Certain information was at hand, of an English 
 fleet being now off Cat and Ship island, within a short dis- 
 tance of the American lines, where their strength and num- 
 bers were daily increasing Lieutenant Jones, in command 
 of the gun-boats, on Lake Borgne, was directed to recon- 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 245 
 
 noitre, and ascertain their disposition and force ; and, in the 
 event they should attempt, through this route, to eflfect a 
 disembarkation, to retire to the Rigolets, and there, with 
 his flotilla, make an obstinate resistance, and contend to the 
 last. He remained ofi" Ship island, until the 12th of Decem- 
 ber ; when, understanding the enemy's forces were much 
 increased, he thought it most advisable to change his anchor- 
 age, and retire to a position near Malheureux island. 
 
 On the 13th, Jones discovered the enemy moving off in 
 barges, and directing his way towards Pass Christian. A 
 strong wind having blown for some days to the east, from 
 the lake to the gulf, had so reduced the depth of water, 
 that the best and deepest channels were insufficient to float 
 his little squadron. The oars were resorted to, but without 
 rendering the least assistance : it was immoveable. Recourse 
 was now had to throwing every thing overboard that could 
 be spared, to lighten and bring them oif ; all, however, was 
 inefiectual, — nothing could afl"ord relief. At this moment 
 of extreme peril and danger, the tide coming suddenly in, 
 relieved from present embarrassment, and lifting them from 
 the shoal, they bore away from the attack meditated ; di- 
 rected their course for the Rigolets ; and came to anchor at 
 one o'clock the next morning, on the west passage of Mal- 
 heureux isles ; where, at day, they discovered the pursuit 
 had been abandoned. 
 
 At the Bay of St. Louis was a small depot of public 
 stores, which had, that morning, been directed, by Lieute- 
 nant Jones, to be brought ofi". Mr. Johnson, on board the 
 Sea Horse, had proceeded in the execution of this order. 
 The enemy, on the retreat of Jones, despatched three barges 
 to capture him ; but unable to efiect it they were driven 
 back.. An additional force now proceeded against him; 
 
 21* 
 
246 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 ■when a smart action commenced, and the assailants "were 
 again compelled to retire with some loss. Johnson, satisfied 
 that it was out of his power successfully to defend himself, 
 and considering it hopeless to attempt uniting, in face of so 
 large a force, with the gun-boats off Malheureux, determined 
 to blow up his vessel, burn the stores, and effect his retreat 
 by land. A prodigious explosion, and flames bursting on 
 his view, assured Jones of the probable step that had been 
 taken. Early on the morning of the 14th, the enemy's barges, 
 lying about nine miles to the east, suddenly weighed their 
 anchors ; and, getting under way, proceeded westwardly to 
 the pass, where our gun-boats still lay. The same difficulty 
 they had experienced yesterday was now encountered. Per- 
 ceiving the approach of the enemy's flotilla, an attempt was 
 made to retreat ; but in vain. The wind was entirely lulled, 
 and a perfect calm prevailed ; while a strong current, setting 
 to the gulf, rendered every effort to retire unavailing. No 
 alternative was at hand ; but a single course was left ; — to 
 meet and fight them. Forty-three boats, mounting as many 
 cannon, with twelve hundred chosen men, well armed, con- 
 stituted the strength of the assailants. Advancing in ex- 
 tended line, they were presently in reach : and, at half after 
 eleven o'clock, commencing a fire, the action soon became 
 general. Owing to a strong current, setting out to the east, 
 two of the boats, numbefs 156 and 163, were unable to keep 
 their anchorage, and floated about one hundred yards in ad- 
 vance of the line. 
 
 The enemy, coming up with the two gun-boats in ad- 
 vance of the line, and relying on their numbers and sup- 
 posed superior skill, determined to board. For this pur- 
 pose, several large barges bore down on number 156, com- 
 manded by Lieutenant Jones, but failed in the attempt ; 
 
* ANDREW JACKSON. 247 
 
 they were repulsed with an immense destruction, both in 
 their officers and crcAV, and two of their boats sunk ; one of 
 them, with one hundred and eighty men, went down, im- 
 mediately under the stern of number 156. Again rallying, 
 with a stronger force than before, another desperate assault 
 was made, to board, and carried at the point of the sword, 
 which was again repelled, with considerable loss. The con- 
 test was now bravely waged, and spiritedly resisted. Lieu- 
 tenant Jones, unable to keep on the deck, from a severe 
 wound he had received, retired, leaving the command with 
 George Parker, who no less valiantly defended his flag, until, 
 severely wounded, he was forced to leave his post. No 
 longer able to maintain the conflict, and overpowered by 
 superior numbers, they yielded the victory, after a contest 
 of forty minutes, in which every thing was done that gallantry 
 could do, and nothing unperformed that duty required. 
 
 The great disparity of force between the combatants, 
 added to the advantages the enemy derived from the peculiar 
 construction of their boats, which gave them an opportunity 
 to take any position that circumstances and safety directed, 
 while the others lay wholly unmanageable, presents a curious 
 and strange result ; that, while the American loss was but 
 six killed, and thirty-five wounded, that of their assailants 
 was not less than three hundred. 
 
 " Resistance on the lakes being at an end, no doubt was 
 entertained, but that the moment for action would be, as 
 early as the enemy could make his preparations to proceed. 
 At what point, at what time, and with a force how greatly 
 superior to his own, were matters wholly resting in uncer- 
 tainty, and could not be known,**until they actually trans- 
 pired. All the means of opposition were to be seized on, 
 without delay. 
 
248 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Early on the 15th, expresses •vrere sent off, up the coast, 
 in quest of General Coffee ; to endeavor to procui'e infor- 
 mation of the Kentucky and Tennessee divisions, which it 
 was hoped were not far distant, and to urge their speedy 
 approach. In his communication to Coffee, the general ob- 
 serves, " You must not sleep, until you arrive within strik- 
 ing distance. Your accustomed activity is looked for. In- 
 numerable defiles present themselves, where your riflemen 
 will be all important. An opportunity is at hand, to reap 
 for yourself and brigade the approbation of your country." 
 Having marched eighty miles the last day. Coffee encamped, 
 on the night of the 19th, within fifteen miles of New Orleans, 
 making, in two days, a distance of one hundred and fifty 
 miles. Continuing his advance, early next morning, he 
 halted within four miles of the city, to examine the state and 
 condition of his arms ; and to learn, in the event the enemy 
 had landed, the relative position of the two armies. 
 
 The advance of Colonel Hinds, from Woodville, with the 
 Mississippi dragoons, was not less prompt and expeditious ; 
 an active and brave officer, he was, on this, as on all other 
 occasions, at his post, ready to act as was required. Having 
 received his orders, he hastened forward, and effected, in 
 four days, a march of two hundred and thirty miles. 
 
 On the 16th, Colonel Hynes, aid-de-camp to General 
 Carroll, reached head-quarters, with information from the 
 general, that he would be down, as early as possible ; but 
 that the situation of the weather, and high winds greatly re- 
 tarded his progress. The steamboat was immediately put 
 in requisition, and ordered up the river, to aid him in reach- 
 ing his destination, without loss of time. He was advised 
 of the necessity of hastening rapidly forward ; that the lakes 
 were in possession of the enemy, and their arrival daily 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 249 
 
 looked for : " But," continued Jackson, " I am resolved, fee- 
 ble as mj force is to assail him, on his first landing, and 
 perish, sooner than he shall reach the city." 
 
 Independent of a large force, descending with General 
 Carroll, his coming was looked to with additional pleasure, 
 from the circumstance of his having with him, a boat, laden 
 with arms, which, destined for the defence of the country, 
 he had overtaken on the passage. His falling in with them 
 was fortunate ; for, had their arrival depended on those to 
 whom they had been incautiously given, they might have 
 come too late, and after all danger had subsided ; as was 
 indeed the case with others, forwarded from Pittsburg, 
 which, through the unpardonable conduct of those who had 
 been entrusted with their mstoagement and transportation, 
 did not reach New Orleans, until after all difficulties had 
 ended. Great inconvenience was sustained, during the 
 siege, for want of arms, to place in the hands of the militia. 
 Great as it was, it would have been increased, even to an 
 alarming extent, but for the accidental circumstance of this 
 boat falling into the hands of the Tennessee division, which 
 impelled it on, and thereby produced incalculable advantage. 
 
 While these preparations were progressing, to concen- 
 trate the forces within his reach, the general was turning 
 his attention to ward off any blow that might be aimed, be- 
 fore his expected reinforcements should arrive. Every 
 point, capable of being successfully assailed, was receiving 
 such additional strength and security as could be given. 
 Patroles and videttes were ranged through the country, that 
 the earliest information might be had of any intended move- 
 ment. The militia of the state was called out en masse : and, 
 through the interference of the legislature, an embargo de- 
 clared, to afford an opportunity of procuring additional re- 
 
250 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 cruits for the navy. General Villery, because an inhabitant 
 of the country, and best understanding the several points 
 on the lakes, susceptible of, and requiring defence, was or- 
 dered, with the Louisiana militia, to search out, and give 
 protection to the different passes, where a landing might 
 be effected. 
 
 Jackson's arrangements were well conceived, and rapidly 
 progressing ; but they were still insufficient ; and his own 
 forebodings assured him, that, to obtain security, something 
 stronger than had been yet resorted to, required to be adopted. 
 That there was an enemy in the midst of his camp, more to 
 be feared than those who were menancing from abroad, was 
 indeed highly probable ; while an appehension indulged, that 
 there were many foreigners, who, feeling no attachment for 
 the country, and having nothing to defend, would not scru- 
 ple to avail themselves of every opportunity, to give intelli- 
 gence of the strength, situation, and arrangement of his 
 camp, excited his fears, and induced a wish to apply the 
 earliest possible corrective — that the country, without it, 
 could not be saved ; he brought to the view of the legislature 
 the propriety and necessity of suspending the writ of habeas 
 corpus. They proceeded slowly to the investigation, and 
 were deliberating, with great caution, upon their right and 
 power to adopt such a measure ; when the general, sensible 
 that procrastination was dangerous, and might defeat the 
 objects intended to be answered, suspended their councils, 
 by declaring the city and environs of New Orleans under 
 martial law. 
 
 With the exception of the Kentucky troops, which were 
 yet absent, all the forces expected had arrived. General 
 Carroll had reached Coffee's encampment four miles above 
 the city, on the 21st, and had immediately reported to the 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 251 
 
 commanding general. The officers were busily engaged in 
 drilling, manoeuvering, and organizing the troops, and in 
 having every thing ready for action, the moment it should 
 become necessary. No doubt was entertained, but the Bri- 
 tish would be able to effect a landing at some point ; the 
 principal thing to be guarded against was not to prevent it ; 
 for, since the loss of the gun-boats, any attempt of this kind 
 could only be regarded as hopeless ; but, by preserving a 
 constant vigilance, and thereby having the earliest intelli- 
 gence of their approach, they might be met at the very thresh- 
 hold, and opposed. Small gun-boats were constantly plying 
 on the lakes, to watch, and give information of every move- 
 ment. Some of these had come in, late on the evening of 
 the 22d, and reported that all was quiet, and that no unfa- 
 vorable appearance portended in that direction. With such 
 vigilance, constantly exercised, it is truly astonishing that 
 the enemy should have effected an invasion, and succeeded 
 in disembarking so large a force, without the slightest inti- 
 mation being had, until they were accidently discovered 
 emerging from the swamp and woods, about seven miles below 
 the town : why it so happened, traitors may conjecture, al- 
 though the truth is yet unknown. The general impression 
 is, that it was through information given by a small party 
 of Spanish fisherman, that so secret a disembarkation was 
 effected. Several of them had settled at the mouth of this 
 bayou, and supported themselves by fish they caught, and 
 vended in the market at New Orleans. Obstructions, had 
 been ordered to be made on every inlet, and the Louisiana 
 militia had been detached for that purpose. This place had 
 not received the attention its importance merited : nor was 
 it until the 22d, that General Villery, charged with the execu- 
 tion of this order, had placed here a small handful of men. 
 
252 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Towards day, the enemy, silently proceeding up the bayou, 
 landed, and succeeded in capturing the whole of this party, 
 but two, who, fleeing to the swamp, endeavored to reach the 
 city ; but, owing to the thick undergrowth, and briars, which 
 rendered it almost impervious, they did not arrive, until after 
 the enemy had reached the banks of the Mississippi, and been 
 discovered. 
 
 The approach of the enemy, flushed with the hope of easy 
 victory, was announced to Jackson, a little after one o'clock 
 in the afternoon. There were too many reasons, assuring 
 him of the necessity of acting speedily, to hesitate a moment, 
 on the course proper to be pursued. Could he assail them, 
 and obtain even a partial advantage, it might be beneficial — 
 it might arrest disaflection — ^buoy up the despondent — de- 
 termine the wavering, and bring within his reach resources 
 for to-morrow, which might wholly fail, should fear once 
 take possession of the public mind. He resolved, at all events, 
 to march, and, that night, give them battle. Generals CoiFee 
 and Carroll were ordered to proceed immediately from their 
 encampment, and join him, with all haste. Although four 
 miles above, they arrived in the city, in less than two hours 
 after the order had been issued. These forces, with the 7th 
 and 44th regiments, the Louisiana troops, and Colonel Hinds's 
 dragoons, constituted the strength of his army, which could 
 be carried into action against an enemy, whose numbers, at 
 this time, could only be conjectured. It was thought ad- 
 visable to leave Carroll and his division behind ; for notwith- 
 standing there was no correct information of the force landed 
 through Villery's canal, yet Jackson feared that this was 
 only a feint, intended to divert his attention, while, in all 
 probability, a much stronger and more numerous division, 
 having already gained some point, higher on the lake, might, 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 253 
 
 by advancing in his absence, gain his rear, and succeed in 
 their views. Uncertain of their movements, it was essential 
 he should be prepared for the worst, and, by different dispo- 
 sitions of his troops, be ready to resist, in whatever quarter 
 he might be assailed. Carroll, therefore, at the head of his 
 division, and Governor Claiborne, with the state militia, were 
 directed to take post on the Gentilly road, leading from Chef 
 Menteur to New Orleans, and to defend it to the last extrem- 
 ity. Colonel Hayne, with two companies of riflemen, and 
 the Mississippi dragoons, was sent forward, to reconnoitre 
 their camp, learn their position and their numbers, and, in 
 the event they should be found advancing, to harrass and 
 oppose them at every step, until the main body should arrive. 
 The general arrived in view of the enemy, a little before 
 dark. Having previously ascertained, from Colonel Hayne, 
 their position, and that their strength was about two thousand 
 men, he immediately concerted the mode of attack, and has- 
 tened to execute it. Commodore Patterson, commandino- 
 the naval forces, with Captain Henley, on board the Caro- 
 line, had been directed to drop down, anchor in front of 
 their line, and open upon them from the guns of the schooner ; 
 which being the ■ signal for attack, was to be waged simul- 
 taneously on all sides. The fires from their camp disclosed 
 their position, and showed their encampment, formed with 
 the left resting on the river, and extending at right angles 
 into the open field. General Coffee, with his brigade. Colonel 
 Hinds's dragoons, and Captain Seal's company of riflemen, 
 was ordered to oblique to the left, and, by a circuitous route, 
 avoid their piquets, and endeavor to turn their right wing ; 
 having succeeded in this, to form his line, and press the 
 enemy towards the river, where they would be exposed more 
 completely to the fire of the Caroline. The rest of the troops, 
 
 22 
 
254 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 consisting of the regulars, Plauche's city volunteers, Daquln's 
 colored troops, the artillery under Lieutenant Spotts, sup- 
 ported by a company of marines, commanded by Colonel 
 M'Kee, advanced along the bank of the Mississippi, and 
 "were commanded by Jackson in person. 
 
 " General Coifee had advanced beyond their piquets, next 
 the swamp, and nearly reached the point to which he was 
 ordered, when a broadside from the Caroline announced the 
 battle begun. Patterson had proceeded slowly, giving time, 
 as he believed, for the execution of those arrangements con- 
 templated on the shore. So sanguine had the British been 
 in the belief that they would be kindly received, and little 
 opposition attempted, that the Caroline floated by the sen- 
 tinels, and anchored before their camp, without any kind of 
 molestation. On passing the front piquet, she was hailed, 
 in a low tone of voice, but returning no answer, no further 
 question was made. This, added to some other attendant 
 circumstances, confirmed the opinion that they believed her 
 a vessel laden with provisions, which had been sent out 
 from New Orleans, and was intended for them. Havins 
 reached what, from their fires, appeared to be the centre of 
 their encampment, her anchors were cast, and her character 
 and business disclosed from her guns. So unexpected an 
 attack produced a momentary confusion ; but, recovering, 
 they answered her by a discharge of musketry, and flight 
 of congreve rockets, which passed without injury, while her 
 grape and canister were pouring destructively on them. To 
 take away the certainty of aim afi'orded by their camp fires, 
 these were immediately extinguished, and they retired two 
 or three hundred yards into the open field, if not out of 
 reach of the cannon, at least to a distance, where, by the 
 darkness of the night, they would be protected. 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 255 
 
 Coffee had dismounted his men, and turned his horses 
 loose, at a large ditch, next the swamp, in the rear of Lo- 
 rond's plantation, and gained, as he believed, the centre of 
 the enemy's line, when the signal of the Caroline reached 
 him. He directly wheeled his columns in, and, extending 
 his lines parallel with the river, moved toward their camp. 
 He had scarcely advanced more than a hundred yards, 
 when he received a heavy fire, from a line formed in his 
 front ; this, to him, was an unexpected circumstance, as he 
 supposed the enemy lying principally at a distance, and that 
 the only opposition he should meet, until he approached to- 
 wards the levee, would be from their advanced guards. The 
 circumstance of his coming up with them so soon, was owing 
 to the severe attack of the schooner, which had compelled 
 them to abandon their camp, and form without the reach 
 of her guns. 
 
 The moon shone, but shed her light too feebly to dis- 
 cover objects at a distance. The only chance, therefore, 
 of producing certain injury, with this kind of force, which 
 consisted chiefly of riflemen, was not to venture at random, 
 but only to discharge their pieces when there should be a 
 certainty of felling their object. This order being given, 
 the line pressed on, and, having gained a position near 
 enough to distinguish, a general fire was given ; it was too 
 severe and destructive to be withstood ; the enemy gave 
 way, and retreated, — rallied, — formed, — were charged, and 
 again retreated. These gallant men, led by their brave 
 commander, urged fearlessly on, and drove them from every 
 position they attempted to maintain. Their general was 
 under no necessity to encourage and allure them to deeds 
 of valor : his own example was sufficient to excite them. 
 Always in the midst, he displayed a coolness and disregard 
 
25.6 LIVES OF THE PKESIDENTS. 
 
 of danger, calling to his troops, that they had often said 
 they could fight — now was the time to prove it. 
 
 The enemy, driven hack hy the resolute firmness and 
 ardor of their assailants, had now reached a grove of orange 
 trees, with a ditch running past it, protected hy a fence on 
 the margin. It was a favorable position, promising security, 
 and was occupied with a confidence that they could not be 
 forced to yield it. Cofiee's dauntless yeomanry, strength- 
 ened in their hopes of success, moved on, nor discovered the 
 advantages against them, until a fire from the whole British 
 line showed their defence. A momentary check was given ; 
 but, gathering fresh ardor, they charged across the ditch, 
 gave a deadly and destructive fire, and forced them to re- 
 tire. Their retreat continued, until, gaining a similar posi- 
 tion, they made another stand, and were again driven from 
 it, with considerable loss. 
 
 Thus the battle raged, on the left wing, until the British 
 reached the bank of the river ; here a determined stand was 
 made, and further encroachments resisted : for half an hour, 
 the conflict was extremely violent on both sides. The Ame- 
 rican troops could not be driven from their purpose, nor the 
 British made to yield their ground ; but at length, having 
 suffered greatly, the latter were under the necessity of tak- 
 ing refuge behind the levee, which afforded a breast-work, 
 and protected them from the fatal fire of the riflemen. 
 Coffee, unacquainted with their position, for the darkness 
 had greatly increased, already contemplated again to charge 
 them ; but Major Moulton, who had discovered their situa- 
 tion, assured him it was too hazardous ; that they could be 
 driven no further, and would, from the point they occupied, 
 resist with the bayonet, and repel, with considerable loss, 
 any attempt to dislodge them. A further apprehension, 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 257 
 
 lest, by moving still nearer to the river, he might greatly 
 expose himself to the fire of the Caroline, which was yet 
 spiritedly maintaining the conflict, induced Coffee to retire 
 until he could hear from the commanding general, and 
 receive his further orders. 
 
 During this time, the right wing, under Jackson, was 
 no less prompt and active. A detachment of artillery, un- 
 der Lieutenant Spotts, supported by sixty marines, formed 
 the advance, and had moved down the road, next the levee. 
 On their left was the 7th regiment of infantry, led by 
 Major Piere. The 44th, commanded by Major Baker, was 
 formed on the extreme left ; while Plauche's and Daquin's 
 battalions of city guards, were directed to be posted in the 
 centre, between the 7th and 44th. 
 
 Instead of marching in column from the first position, 
 the troops were wheeled into an extended line, and moved 
 off in this order, except the 7th regiment, next the pers^-n 
 of the general. Avhich advanced agreeably to the instructions 
 that had been given. Having suiOficient ground to form on 
 at first, no inconvenience was at the moment sustained : 
 but this advantage presently failing, the centre was com- 
 pressed, and forced into the rear. The river, from where 
 they were, gradually inclined to the left, and diminished 
 the space originally possessed : farther in, stood Lorond's 
 house, surrounded by a grove of clustered orange trees : 
 this pressing the left, and the river the right wing to the 
 centre, formed a curve, which threw the principal part of 
 Plauche's and Daquin's battalions without the line. This 
 might have been remedied, but for the briskness of the ad- 
 vance, and the darkness of the night. A heavy fire from 
 behind a fence, immediately before them, had brought the 
 enemy to view. Acting in obedience to their orders, not to 
 
 22* 
 
258 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 waste their ammunition at random, our troops had pressed 
 forward against the opposition in their front, and thereby 
 threw those battalions in the rear. 
 
 A fog rising from the river, which, added to. the smoke 
 from the guns, was covering the plain, — gradually diminish- 
 ing the little light shed by the moon, and greatly increasing 
 the darkness of the night : no clue was left, to tell how or 
 where the enemy were situated. There was no alternative 
 but to move on, in the direction of their fire, which sub- 
 jected the assailants to material disadvantages. The British, 
 driven from their first position, had retired back, and occu- 
 pied another, behind a deep ditch, that ran out of the Mis- 
 sissippi towards the swamp, on the top of which was a high 
 fence. Here, strengthened by increased numbers, they 
 again opposed the approach of our troops. Having waited, 
 until they had come suflSciently near to be discovered, they 
 discharged, from their fastnesses, a fire upon the advancing 
 army. Instantly our battery was formed, and poured de- 
 structively upon them ; while the infantry, coming up, aided 
 in the conflict, which was for some time spiritedly maintained. 
 At this moment, a brisk sally was made upon our advance, 
 when the marines, unequal to the assault, were already giv- 
 ing Avay. The adjutant-general, and Colonels Piatt and 
 Chotard, with a part of the 7th, hastening to their support, 
 drove the enemy and saved the artillery from capture. Ge- 
 neral Jackson, perceiving the advantages they derived from 
 their position, ordered their line to be charged. It was 
 obeyed with cheerfulness, and executed with promptness. 
 Pressing on, our troops gained the ditch, and, pouring 
 across it a well-aimed fire, compelled them to retreat, and 
 abandon their entrenchment. The plain, on which they 
 were contending, was cut to pieces, by races from the river, 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 25S| 
 
 to convey the water. They were therefore, very soon ena- 
 bled to take another situation, equally favorable with the 
 one whence they had been just driven, where they formed 
 for battle, and, for some time, gallantly maintained them- 
 selves ; but were at length forced to yield it, and retreat. 
 
 The enemy, discovering the firm and obstinate resistance 
 made by the right wing of the American army, and per- 
 haps presuming its principal strength was posted on the 
 road, formed the intention of attacking violently the left. 
 Obliquing for this purpose, an attempt was made to turn it. 
 At this moment, Daquin's and the battalion of city guards 
 were marched up, and, being formed on the left of the 44th, 
 met and repulsed them. 
 
 The enemy had beeen thrice assailed and beaten, and 
 been made to yield their ground for nearly a mile. They 
 had now retired, and, if found, were to be again sought for 
 through the dark. The general determined to halt, and 
 ascertain Cofiee's position and success, previously to waging 
 the battle further, for as yet no communication had passed 
 between them. He entertained no doubt, from the brisk 
 firing in that direction, but that he had been warmly engaged ; 
 but this had now nearly subsided ; the Caroline, too, had al- 
 most ceased her operations ; it being only occasionally, that 
 the noise of her guns disclosed the little opportunity she 
 possessed of acting efficiently. 
 
 The express despatched to General Jackson, from the left 
 wing, having reached him, he determined to prosecute the 
 successes he had gained no further. The darkness of the 
 night, — the confusion into which his own division had been 
 thrown, and a similar one on the part of Cofi'ee, all pointed 
 to the necessity of retiring from the field, and abandoning 
 the contest. General Coffee was accordingly directed to with- 
 
260 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 draw, and take a position at Lorond's plantation, where the 
 line had been first formed : and thither the troops on the 
 right were also ordered to be marched. 
 
 From the experiment just made, Jackson believed it would 
 be in his power, on renewing the attack, to capture the 
 enemy : he concluded, therefore, to call down General Car- 
 roll with his division, and assail him again at the dawn of 
 day. Directing Governor Claiborne to remain at his post, 
 with the Louisiana militia, for the defence of the Gentilly 
 road, he despatched an order to Carroll, in the event there 
 had been no appearance of a force during the night, in the 
 direction of Chef Menteur, to hasten and join him with his 
 command ; which order was executed by one o'clock in the 
 morning. Previously, however, to his arrival, a diflTerent con- 
 clusion was taken. Although very decided advantages had 
 been obtained, yet they had been procured under circum- 
 stances that might be wholly lost, in a contest waged in open 
 day, between forces so disproportioned, and by undisciplined 
 troops against veteran soldiers. Jackson well knew it was 
 incumbent upon him, to act a part entirely defensive : should 
 the attempt to gain and destroy the city succeed, numerous 
 difficulties would arise, Avhich might be avoided, so long as he 
 could hold the enemy in check, and halt him in his designs. 
 Prompted by these considerations, — that it was important 
 to pursue a course calculated to assure safety ; and believing 
 it attainable in no way so efiectually, as in occupying some 
 point, and by the strength he might give it, make up for the 
 inferiority of his numbers ; he determined to forbear all fur- 
 ther efibrts, until he should discover more certainly the views 
 of the enemy, and until the Kentucky troops should reach 
 him, which had not yet arrived. Pursuing this idea, at four 
 o'clock, having ordered Colonel Hinds to occupy the ground 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 261 
 
 he was then leaving, and to observe the enemy closelj; he 
 fell back, and formed his line behind a deep ditch, that ran 
 at right angles from the river. 
 
 To present a check, and keep up a show of resistance, 
 detachments of light troops were occasionally kept in front of 
 the line, assailing and harassing the enemy's advanced posts, 
 whenever an opportunity was offered of acting to advantage. 
 Every moment that could be gained, and every delay that 
 could be extended to the enemy's attempts, to reach the 
 the city, was of the utmost importance. The works were 
 rapidly progressing, and hourly increasing in strength. The 
 militia of the state were every day arriving, and every day 
 the prospect of successful opposition was brightening. 
 
 The enemy still remained at his first encampment. To 
 be in readiness to repel an assault when attempted, the 
 most active exertions were made on the 24th and 25th. The 
 canal, covering the front of our line, was deepened and 
 widened, and a strong mud wall formed of the earth, that 
 had been originally thrown out. To prevent any approach 
 until his system of defence should be in a state of forward- 
 ness, Jackson ordered the levee to be cut, about one hun- 
 dred yards below. The river being very high, a broad 
 stream of water passed rapidly through the plain, of the 
 depth of thirty or forty inches, which prevented any ap- 
 proach of troops on foot. Embrasures were formed, and 
 two pieces of artillery, under the command of Lieutenant 
 Spotts, early on the morning of the 24th, were placed in a 
 position to rake the road leading up the levee. 
 
 General Morgan, who, at the English turn, commanded 
 the fort on the east bank of the river, was instructed to pro- 
 ceed as near the enemy's camp as prudence and safety would 
 permit, and by destroying the levees, to let in the waters of 
 
262 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 the Mississippi between them. The execution of this order, 
 and a similar one, previously made, below the line of de- 
 fence, had entirely insulated the enemy, and prevented his 
 march against either place. On the 26th, however, the 
 commanding general, fearing for the situation of Morgan, 
 who, from the British occupying the intermediate ground, 
 was entirely detached from his camp, directed him to aban- 
 don his encampment, carry off what cannon might be wanted, 
 and throw the remainder into the river, where they could 
 be again recovered, when the waters receded ; to retire to 
 the other side of the river, and, after leaving an adequate 
 force, for the protection of Fort Leon, to take a position 
 on the right bank, nearly opposite to his line, and have it 
 fortified. 
 
 As yet the enemy knew nothing of the position of Jackson. 
 What was his situation — what was intended — whether offen- 
 sive or defensive operations would be pursued, were circum- 
 stances on which they possessed no correct knowledge ; still, 
 their exertions, to have all things prepared, to urge their 
 designs, whenever the moment for action should arrive, were 
 unremitting. They had been constantly engaged, since their 
 landing, in procuring from their shipping, every thing ne- 
 cessary to ulterior operations. A complete command on the 
 lakes, and possession of a point on the margin, presented an 
 uninterrupted egress, and afforded the opportunity of con- 
 veying what was wanted, in perfect safety to their camp. 
 The height of the Mississippi, and the discharge of water, 
 through the openings made in the levee, had given an in- 
 creased depth to the canal, from which they had first de- 
 barked — enabled them to advance their boats much further, 
 in the direction of their encampment, and to bring up, with 
 greater convenience, their artillery, bombs, and munitions. 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 263 
 
 Thus engaged, during the first three days after their arrival ; 
 early on the morning of the 27th, a battery was discovered 
 on the bank of the river, which had been thrown up during 
 the preceding night, and on which were mounted several 
 pieces of heavy ordnance ; from it a destructive fire was 
 opened on the Caroline schooner, lying under the opposite 
 shore. 
 
 A well grounded apprehension, of her commander, that 
 she could be no longer defended, — the flames bursting 
 out in different parts, and fast increasing, induced a fear, 
 lest the magazine should soon be reached, and every thing 
 destroyed. One of his crew being killed, and six wounded, 
 and there being not the glimmering of hope that she could 
 be preserved, orders were given to abandon her. The crew 
 reached the shore, and in a short time afterwards she blew 
 up. Although thus unexpectedly deprived of so material 
 a dependence, for successful defence, an opportunity was 
 soon presented, of using her brave crew to advantage. 
 Gathering confidence, from what had been just effected, the 
 enemy left their encampment, and moved in the direction 
 of our line. Their numbers had been increased, and Major- 
 General Sir Edward Packenham now commanded in person. 
 Early on the 28th, his columns commenced their advance 
 to storm the works. At the distance of half a mile, their 
 heavy artillery opened, and quantities of bombs, balls, and 
 congreve rockets, were discharged. At the moment that 
 the British, in different columns, were moving up, in all the 
 pomp and parade of battle, the batteries opened, and halted 
 theii" advance. In addition to the two mounted on the 
 works, on the 24th, three other heavy pieces of cannon, 
 obtained from the navy department, had been formed along 
 the line ; these opening on the enemy, checked their pro- 
 
264 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 gress, and disclosed to them the hazard of the project they 
 •were on. 
 
 From the river the greatest injury was done. Lieutenant 
 Thompson, who commanded the Louisiana sloop, which lay 
 nearly opposite the line of defence, no sooner discovered 
 the columns approaching, than warping her around, he 
 brought her starboard guns to bear, and forced them to re- 
 treat ; but from their heavy artillery, the enemy maintained 
 the conflict with great spirit, constantly discharging their 
 bombs and rockets, for seven hours, when, unable to make a 
 breach, or silence the sloop, they abandoned a contest, where 
 few advantages seemed to be presented. The loss was se- 
 vere. While this advance was made, a column of the enemy 
 was threatening an attack on our extreme left ; to frustrate 
 the attempt. Coffee was ordered, with his riflemen, to hasten 
 through the woods, and check their approach. The enemy, 
 although greatly superior to him in numbers, no sooner dis- 
 covered his movement, than they retired, and abandoned 
 the attack they had previously meditated. 
 
 The British were encamped two miles below the Ameri- 
 can army, on a perfect plain, and in full view. Although 
 foiled in their attempt to carry our works by the force of 
 their batteries, on the 28th, they yet resolved upon another 
 attack, and one which they believed would be more success- 
 ful. The interim between the 28th of December and 1st 
 of January was spent in preparing to execute their designs. 
 Their boats had been despatched to the shipping, and an 
 additional supply of heavy cannon landed through Bayou 
 Bienvenu, whence they had first debarked. 
 
 During the night of the 31st, they were busily engaged. 
 An impenetrable fog, next morning, which was not dispelled 
 until nine o'clock, by concealing their purpose, aided them 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 265 
 
 in the plans they "were projecting, and gave time for the com- 
 pletion of their works. This having disappeared, several 
 heavy batteries, at the distance of six hundred yards, mounting 
 eighteen and twenty-four pound carronades, were presented 
 to view. No sooner was it sufficiently clear to distinguish 
 objects at a distance, than these were opened, and a tremen- 
 dous burst of artillery commenced, accompanied with con- 
 greve rockets, that filled the air in all directions. Oui* troops 
 protected by a defence, which, from their constant labors and 
 exertions, they believed to be impregnable, unmoved and un- 
 disturbed, maintained their ground, and, by their skilful 
 management, in the end, succeeded in dismounting and 
 silencing the guns of the enemy. 
 
 On the 4th of January, 1815, the long-expected reinforce- 
 ment from Kentucky, amounting to twenty-tAvo hundred 
 and fifty men, under the command of Major-General Thomas, 
 arrived at head-quarters ; but so ill provided with arms, as 
 to be incapable of rendering any considerable service. The 
 alacrity with which the citizens of this state had proceeded 
 to the frontiers, and aided in the north-western campaigns, 
 added to disasters which ill-timed polioy or misfortune 
 had produced, had created such a drain, that arms were 
 not to be procured. No alternative was presented, but to 
 place them at his entrenchment in the rear ; and by the 
 show that they might make, add to his appearance and 
 numbers, without at all increasing his strength. Informa- 
 tion was now received that Major-General Lambert had 
 joined the British commander-in-chief, with a considerable 
 reinforcement. It had been heretofore announced in the 
 American camp, that additional forces were expected, and 
 Bomething decisive might be looked for, as soon as they 
 should arrive. This circumstance, in connection with ethers, 
 
 23 • 
 
266 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 no less favoring the idea, led to the conclusion that a few more 
 days would, in all probability, bring on the struggle, which 
 would decide the fate of the city. 
 
 For eight days had the two armies lain upon the same 
 field, and in view of each other, without any thing decisive 
 being on either side effected. Twice, since their landing, 
 had the British columns essayed to effect by storm the exe- 
 cution of their plans, and twice had failed — been compelled 
 to relinquish the attempt, and retire from the contest. 
 
 The 8th of January at length arrived. The day dawned ; 
 and the signals, intended to produce concert in the enemy's 
 movements, were descried. On the left, near the swamp, 
 a sky-rocket was perceived rising in the air ; and presently 
 another ascended from the right, near the river. They 
 announced to each other, that all was prepared and ready, 
 to proceed and carry by storm, a defence which had twice 
 foiled their utmost efforts. Instantly the charge was made, 
 and with such rapidity, that our soldiers, at the out-posts, 
 with difficulty fled in. 
 
 The British batteries, which had been demolished on the 
 1st of the month, had been re-established during the pre- 
 ceding night ; and heavy pieces of cannon mounted, to aid 
 in their intended operation. These now opened, and showers 
 of bombs and balls were poured upon our line ; while the 
 air was lighted with their congreve rockets. The two divi- 
 sions, commanded by Sir Edward Packenham in person, 
 and supported by Generals Keane and Gibbs, pressed for- 
 ward ; the right against the centre of General Carroll's com- 
 mand, — the left against our redoubt on the levee / thick 
 fog, that obscured the morning, enabled them to approach 
 within a short distance of our intrenchment, before they 
 were discovered. They were now perceived advancing, with 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 267 
 
 firm, quick, and steady pace, in column, with a front of sixty 
 or seventy deep. Our troops who for some time had been 
 in readiness, and waiting their appearance, gave three cheers, 
 and instantly the whole line was lighted with the blaze of 
 their fire. A burst of artillery and small arms, pouring with 
 destructive aim among them, mowed, down their front, and 
 arrested their advance. In the musketry, there was not a 
 moment's intermission ; as one party discharged their pieces, 
 another succeeded ; alternately loading and appearing, no 
 pause could be perceived, — it was one continued volley. The 
 columns already perceived their dangerous and exposed sit- 
 uation. Notwithstanding the severity of our fire, which few 
 troops, could for a moment have withstood, some of those 
 brave men pressed on, and succeeded in gaining the ditch, 
 in front of our works, where they remained during the action, 
 and were afterwards made prisoners. The horror before 
 them was too great to be withstood ; and already were the 
 British troops seen wavering in their determination, and re- 
 ceding from the conflict. At this moment, Sir Edward 
 Packenham, hastening to the front, endeavored to encourage 
 and inspire them with renewed zeal. His example was of 
 short continuance : he soon fell, mortally wounded, in the 
 arms of his aid-de-camp, not far from our line. Generals 
 Gibbs and Keane also fell, and were borne from the field, 
 dangerously wounded. At this moment, General Lambert, 
 who was advancing at a small distance in the rear, with the 
 reserve, met the columns precipitately retreating, and in 
 great confusion. His efibrts to stop them were unavailing, — 
 they continued retreating, until they reached a ditch, at the 
 distance of four hundred yards, where a momentary safety 
 being found, they were rallied, and halted. 
 
 The field before them', over which they had advanced, was 
 
268 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Strewed with the dead and dying. Danger hovered still 
 around; yet, urged and encouraged by their officers, who 
 feared their own disgrace involved in the failure, they again 
 moved to the charge They were already near enough to 
 deploy, and were endeavoring to do so ; but the same con- 
 stant and unremitted resistance, that caused their first retreat, 
 continued yet unabated. The batteries had never ceased 
 their firing ; their constant discharges of grape and canister, 
 and the fatal aim of the musketry, mowed down the front 
 of the columns, as fast as they could be formed. Satisfied 
 nothing could be done, and that certain destruction awaited 
 all further attempts, they forsook the contest and the field 
 in disorder, leaving it almost entirely covered with the dead 
 and wounded. It was in vain their officers endeavored to 
 animate them to further resistance, and equally vain to at- 
 tempt coercion. The panic produced from the dreadful re- 
 pulse they had experienced ; the plain, on which they had 
 acted, being covered with innumerable bodies of their country 
 men ; while, with their most zealous exertions, they had been 
 unable to obtain the slightest advantage, were circumstances 
 well calculated to make even the most submissive soldier 
 oppose the authority that would have controlled him. 
 
 The light companies of fusileers ; the 43d and 93d regi- 
 ments, and one hundred men from the West India regiment, 
 led on by Colonel Rennie, were ordered to proceed, under 
 cover of some chimneys, standing in the field, until having 
 cleared them, to oblique to the river, and advance, protected 
 by the levee, against our redoubt on the right. This work 
 having been but lately commenced, was in an unfinished 
 state. It was not until the 4th, that General Jackson, much 
 against his own opinion, had yielded to the suggestions 
 of others, and permitted its projection ; and, considering 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 269 
 
 the plan on which it had been sketched, had not yet received 
 that strength necessary to its safe defence. The detachment, 
 ordered against this place, formed the left of General Keane's 
 command. Rennie executed his orders with great bravery, 
 and, urging forward, arrived at the ditch. His advance was 
 greatly annoyed by Commodore Patterson's battery on the 
 left bank, and the cannon mounted on the redoubt ; but, 
 reaching our works, and passing the ditch, Rennie, sword 
 in hand, leaped on the wall, and, calling to his troops, bade 
 them follow ; he had scarcely spoken, when he fell, by the 
 fatal aim of our riflemen. Pressed by the impetuosity of 
 superior numbers, who were mounting the wall, and entering 
 at the embrasures, our troops had retired to the line, in rear 
 of the redoubt. A momentary pause ensued, but only to be 
 interrupted, with increased horrors. Captain Beal, with the 
 city riflemen, cool and self-possessed, perceiving the enemy 
 in his front, opened upon them, and at every discharge 
 brought the object to the ground. To advance, or main- 
 tain the point gained, was equally impracticable for the 
 enemy : to retreat or surrender was the only alternative ; 
 for they already perceived the division on the right thrown 
 into confusion, and hastily leaving the field. 
 
 General Jackson, being informed of the success of the 
 enemy on the right, and of their being in possession of the 
 redoubt, pressed forward a reinforcement, to regain it. Pre- 
 viously to its arrival, they had abandoned the attempt, and 
 were retiring. They were severely galled by such of our 
 guns as could be brought to bear. The levee afibrded them 
 considerable protection ; yet, by Commodore Patterson's re- 
 doubt, on the right bank, they sufi*ered greatly. Enfiladed 
 by this, on their advance, they had been greatly annoyed, 
 and now, in their retreat, were no less severely assailed. 
 
 23* 
 
270 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Numbers found a grave In the ditch, before our line ; and of 
 those who gained the redoubt, no one, it is believed, es- 
 caped ; — they were shot down, as fast as thej entered. The 
 route, along which they had advanced and retired, was strewed 
 with bodies. Affrighted at the carnage, they moved from the 
 scene, hastily and in confusion. Our batteries were still con- 
 tinuing the slaughter, and cutting them down at every step : 
 safety seemed only to be attainable, when they should have 
 retired without the range of our shot ; which, to troops 
 galled as severely as they were, was too remote a relief. 
 Pressed by this consideration, they fled to the ditch, whither 
 the right division had retreated ; and there remained, until 
 night permitted them to retire. 
 
 The efforts of the enemy to carry the line of defence on 
 the left, were seconded by an attack on the right bank, 
 with eight hundred chosen troops, under the command of 
 Colonel Thornton. Owing to the difficulty of passing the 
 boats from the canal to the river, and the strong current 
 of the Mississippi, all the troops destined for this service 
 were not crossed, nor the opposite shore reached for some 
 hours after the expected moment of attack. By the time 
 he had effected a landing, the day had dawned, and the 
 flashes of the gun announced the battle begun. Supported 
 by the three gun-boats, he hastened forward, with his com- 
 mand, in the direction of Morgan's entrenchment. 
 
 Colonel Thornton having reached an orange grove, about 
 seven hundred yards distant, halted ; and, examining Mor- 
 gan's dine, found it to " consist of a formidable redoubt on 
 the river," with its weakest and most vulnerable point to- 
 wards the swamp. He directly advanced to the attack. In 
 two divisions, against the extreme right and centre of the 
 line; and, having deployed, charged the entrenchment, 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 271 
 
 defended by about fifteen hundred men. A severe discharge, 
 from the field pieces mounted along our works, caused the 
 right division to oblique, which, uniting with the left, pressed 
 forward to the point occupied by the Kentucky troops. Per- 
 ceiving themselves thus exposed, and having not yet re- 
 covered from the emotions produced by their first retreat, 
 they began to give way, and very soon entirely abandoned 
 their position. The Louisiana militia gave a few fires, and 
 followed the example. Through the exertions of the officers, 
 a momentary halt was effected ; but a burst of congreve 
 rockets, falling thickly, and firing the sugar-cane, and other 
 combustibles around, again excited their fears, and they 
 moved hastily away ; nor could they be rallied, until, at the 
 distance of two miles, having reached a saw-mill race, they 
 were formed, and placed in an attitude of defence. 
 
 Commodore Patterson, perceiving the right flank about 
 to be turned, had ceased his destructive fire against the re- 
 treating columns on the other shore, and turned his guns 
 to enfilade the enemy next the swamp ; but, at the moment 
 when he expected to witness a firm resistance, and was in a 
 situation to co-operate, he beheld those, without whose aid 
 all his efforts were unavailing, suddenly thrown into confu- 
 sion, and forsaking their posts. Discovering he could no 
 longer maintain his ground, he spiked his guns, destroyed 
 his ammunition, and retired from a post, where he had 
 rendered the most important services. 
 
 The events of this day afford abundant evidence of the 
 liberality of the American soldiers, and show a striking dif- 
 ference in the troops of the two nations. The gallantry of 
 the British soldiers, and no people could have displayed 
 greater, had brought many of them even to our ramparts, 
 where, shot down by our soldiers, they were lying badly" 
 
272 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 wounded. When the firing had ceased, and the columns 
 had retired, the troops, with generous benevolence, advanced 
 over their lines, to assist and bring in the wounded, which, 
 lay under and near the walls, when, strange to tell, the 
 enemy, from the ditch they occupied, opened a fire upon 
 them, and, though at a considerable distance, succeeded in 
 wounding several. 
 
 A communication, shortly after, from Major-General 
 Lambert, on whom, in consequence of the fall of Generals 
 Packenham, Gibbs, and Keane, the command had devolved, 
 acknowledges to have witnessed the kindness of our troops 
 to his wounded. He solicits of General Jackson permission 
 to send an unarmed party, to bury the dead, lying before 
 his lines, and to bring off such of the wounded as were dan- 
 gerous. Jackson consented that all lying at a greater dis- 
 tance than three hundred yards, should be relieved and the 
 dead buried : those nearer were, by his own men, to be de- 
 livered over, to be interred by their own countrymen. 
 This precaution was taken, that the enemy might not have 
 an opportunity to inspect, or know any thing of his situation. 
 
 General Lambert, desirous of administering to the relief 
 of the wounded, and to be relieved from his apprehensions 
 of attack, proposed, about noon, that hostilities should cease, 
 until the same hour the next day. General Jackson, greatly 
 in hopes of being able to secure an important advantage, 
 by his apparent willingness to accede to the proposal, drew 
 up an armistice, and forwarded it to General Lambert, with 
 directions to be immediately returned, if approved. It con- 
 tained a stipulation, that hostilities, on the left bank of the 
 river, should be discontinued from its ratification, but not 
 on the right ; and, in the interim, no reinforcements were 
 to be sent across, by either party. This was a bold stroke 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 273 
 
 at stratagem ; and, although it succeeded, even to the ex- 
 tent desired, was yet attended with considerable hazard. 
 Although the armistice contJiined a request that it should 
 be immediately signed and returned, it was neglected to be 
 acted upon, until the next day ; and Thornton and his com- 
 mand, in the interim, under cover of the night, re-crossed, 
 and the ground they occupied left to be peaceably possessed 
 by the original holders. The opportunity thus afforded, of 
 regaining a position, on which, in a great degree, depended 
 the safety of those on the opposite shore, was accepted with 
 an avidity its importance merited, and immediate measures 
 taken to increase its strength, and prepare it against any 
 future attack that might be made. This delay of the British 
 commander was evidently designed, that, pending the nego- 
 tiation, and before it were concluded, an opportunity might 
 be had, either of throwing over reinforcements, or removing 
 Colonel Thornton and his troops from a situation believed 
 to be extremely perilous. Early next morning, General 
 Lambert returned his acceptance of what had been proposed, 
 with an apology for having failed to reply sooner ; he ex- 
 cused the omission, by pleading a press of business, which 
 had occasioned the communication to be overlooked and 
 neglec.ted. Jackson was at no loss to attribute the delay to 
 the correct motive : the apology, however, was as perfectly 
 satisfactory to him, as any thing that could have been of- 
 fered : beyond the objects intended to be effected, he felt 
 unconcerned, and having secured this, rested perfectly satis- 
 fied. It cannot, however, appear otherwise than extraordi- 
 nary, that this neglect should have been ascribed by the 
 British general to accident, or a press of business, when it 
 must have been no doubt of greater importance, at that mo- 
 ment, than any thing he could possibly have had before him. 
 
274 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 The conflict was ended, and each army occupied its for- 
 mer position. In appearance the enemy were visibly altered ; 
 menace was sunk into dejection, and offensive measures 
 yielded for those which promised safety. The attitude so 
 long preserved, was now abandoned ; and they were seen 
 throwing up partial defences, to guard against expected at- 
 tack. It had been already announced, upon good authority, 
 that a considerable force had succeeded in passing the Ba- 
 lize — made prisoners of a detachment there, and was pro- 
 ceeding up the Mississippi, to co-operate with the land forces. 
 It was intended to aid in the battle of the 8th ; but, failing 
 to arrive the attack had been made without it. That 
 the enemy, chagrined and mortified at the failure of an 
 effort, into which the idea of disappointment had never 
 entered, might again renew the attack, on the arrival 
 of this force, was a probable event, and every preparation 
 was now ordered to be made to be again in readiness to 
 repel it. 
 
 Of this formidable advance, no certain intelligence was 
 received, until the night of the 11th, when a heavy can- 
 nonading, supposed to be on Fort St. Philip, was distinctly 
 heard. Jackson entertained no fears for the result. The ad- 
 vantages of defence, wliich his precaution and vigilance had 
 early extended to this passage, added to his entire confi- 
 dence in the skill and bravery of the officer, to whom it had 
 been entrusted, led him to believe there was nothing to be 
 apprehended ; and that every thing which duty and bravery 
 could achieve, would be done. 
 
 Major Overton, who commanded at this place, his officers 
 and soldiers, distinguished themselves by their activity and 
 vigilance. To arrest the enemy's passage up the river, and 
 from uniting with the forces below the city, was of great 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 275 
 
 importance ; and to succeed in preventing it, as much as 
 could be expected. This was accomplished. 
 
 The failure of the squadron to ascend the river, perhaps 
 determined General Lambert, in the course he immediately 
 adopted. His situation before our line was truly unpleasant. 
 Our batteries, after the 8th, were continually throwing 
 balls and bombs into his camp ; and whenever a party of 
 troops appeared in the field, they were greatly annoyed. 
 Thus harassed, — perceiving that all assistance through this 
 channel had failed ; and constantly in apprehension lest an 
 attack should be made upon him, he resolved on availing 
 himself of the first favorable opportunity to depart and for- 
 sake a contest, where every efifort had met disappointment, 
 and where an immense number of troops had found their 
 graves. The precaution taken by the enemy, and the ground 
 over which they were retreating, prevented pursuit, in suflS- 
 cient numbers to secure any valuable result. The system 
 of operations which Jackson had prescribed for himself, he 
 believed was such as policy sanctioned, nor to be abandoned 
 but for the advantages evidently certain, and which admitted 
 not of question. To have pursued, on a route protected and 
 defended by canals, redoubts, and entrenchments, would, at 
 least, have been adventuring upon an uncertain issue, where 
 success was extremely problematical. 
 
 Thus, at last, in total disappointment, terminated an inva- 
 sion, from which much had been expected. Twenty-six days 
 ago, flushed with the hope of certain victory, had this army 
 erected its standard on the banks of the Mississippi. At 
 that moment, they would have treated with contempt an as- 
 sertion that in ten days they would not enter the city of New 
 Orleans. How changed the portrait, from the expected 
 reality! On the 20th, General Jackson, with his remaining 
 
276 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 forces, commenced his marcli to New Orleans. The general 
 glow excited, at beholding his entrance into the city, at the 
 head of his victorious army, was manifested by all those 
 feelings which patriotism and sympathy inspire. The win- 
 dows and streets were crowded to view the man, who, by his 
 vigilance, decision, and energy, had preserved the country 
 from the fate to which it had been devoted. 
 
 In March, several statements appeared in a New Orleans 
 paper, which General Jackson thought were calculated to 
 introduce discontent and insubordination among the troops. 
 These statements were rumors of peace. They were true, 
 but the general was not sure of that, or that they were not 
 devices of the enemy, to procure a relaxation of his military 
 system. There were other assertions made which were no- 
 toriously false and pernicious. As the editor refused to 
 retract, he was arrested. Judge Hall, wishing to vidicate 
 the supremacy of the civil authority, issued a writ of habeas 
 corpus — General Jackson, instead of surrendering the edi- 
 tor, arrested the judge also, and sent him into the interior, 
 "with these instructions : "I have thought proper to send 
 you beyond the limits of my encampment, to prevent a re- 
 petition of the improper conduct with which you have been 
 charged. You will remain without the line of my sentinels, 
 until the ratification of peace is regularly announced, or 
 until the British have left the southern coast." The justi- 
 fication of this extraordinary proceeding is to be found in 
 the circumstances of General Jackson's position. Surrounded 
 as he was by persons of doubtful fidelity to the country, and 
 uncertain in regard to the movements of the enemy, it was 
 necessary that the stringency of the martial law he had 
 proclaimed should be maintained. The legislature and 
 many officials had manifested a disposition to yield the 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. ' 277 
 
 country to the enemy, without a struggle. To preserve 
 Louisiana for the United States, it was necessary that their 
 authority should be set at naught. 
 
 On the 13th of March, 1815, the news of peace was re- 
 ceived from the general government. Judge Hall now re- 
 turned to New Orleans, and summoning General Jackson 
 to appear before him, became the judge in his own cause, 
 and, refusing to hear the defence offered by the general, 
 fined him a thousand dollars. The people of New Orleans 
 were indignant, and made up the fine by voluntary subscrip- 
 tion. But General Jackson paid it himself and refused to 
 be remunerated. The general now returned to Nashville, 
 Tennessee. His rapid and brilliant military career now 
 came to a stand, though he held command of the southern 
 division of the army. The legislatures of many of the states 
 passed resolutions of approbation of his achievements, and 
 the Congress of the United States, besides commendatory 
 resolutions, directed a gold medal to be presented to him, 
 commemorative of the battle of New Orleans. 
 
 The Seminole Indians of Florida, showing their hostility, 
 by committing hostilities on the frontiers, caused the general 
 government to order General Gaines to protect the inhabi- 
 tants of the south-western section of the Union. That 
 officer erected three forts, and strove to establish peace with 
 the Indians, but did not succeed. Early in 1818, the Se- 
 minoles fell in with a party of forty men, under Lieutenant 
 Scott, at the mouth of Flint river, and massacred them all 
 but six, who escaped by swimming. 
 
 As soon as the news of this outrage reached General Jack- 
 son, he raised two thousand five hundred men, and marched 
 for the Mickasucky villages, which he reached on the 1st of 
 April. The villages were deserted. General Jackson burned 
 
 24 
 
278 ' LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 them, and then hastened to St. Marks, a Spanish post, on 
 the Apalachee Bay, in Florida. Two persons, who were 
 traders with the Indians, namely, Arbuthnot, a Scotchman, 
 and Ambrister, a British lieutenant of marines, were made 
 prisoners near St. Marks, by General Jackson, and confined. 
 Both were accused of exciting the Indians to hostility, and 
 being tried and found guilty by a court-martial were sen- 
 tenced to death. One was shot and the other hung by order 
 of General Jackson. 
 
 About the middle of May, General Jackson took posses- 
 sion of Pensacola and Fort Barancas, notwithstanding the 
 remonstrance of the governor, and captured and hung two 
 Indian chiefs, under circumstances which he deemed justi- 
 fiable. On the 2d of June, 1818, the general informed the 
 secretary of war, that the Seminole war might be considered 
 as closed. He now retired to Nashville, and shortly after 
 resigned his commission in the army. 
 
 In January, 1819, General Jackson visited Washington, 
 while his conduct in the Seminole war was under discussion 
 in Congress. His course was approved by a large majority 
 of the members, and by the President and a majority of the 
 cabinet, though the Spanish posts in Florida were restored. 
 The resolutions of censure were rejected. The general now 
 visited various cities and towns, and was received with many 
 marks of respect and admiration. 
 
 " In June, 1821, the President appointed him governor of 
 Florida, which ofl5ce he accepted, and in August he took pos- 
 session of the territory, according to the treaty of cession. 
 The Spanish governor, Callava, having refused to give up 
 certain public documents, deemed of importance, he was taken 
 into custody, by order of Governor Jackson, and committed 
 to prison. The papers being found, under a search-warrant 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 279 
 
 issued by Jackson, Callava, was immediately set at liberty. 
 Jackson remained but a few months in Florida ; for, disliking 
 the situation, and disapproving of the extent of power vested 
 in him as governor, he resigned the office and again retired 
 to Tennessee. President Monroe offered him the appoint- 
 ment of minister to Mexico, which he declined in 1823. 
 
 " In July, 1822, General Jackson was nominated by the 
 legislature of Tennessee as a candidate for the Presidency of 
 the United States. This nomination was repeated by assem- 
 blages of the people in several other states. In the autumn 
 of 1823, he was elected by the legislatui-e a senator from 
 Tennessee, and took his seat in the senate of the United 
 States in December, 1823. He voted for the protective 
 tariff of 1824. The popularity of General Jackson with the 
 people of the United States, was shown at the presidential 
 election of 1824, when he received a greater number of elec- 
 toral votes than either of his competitors, namely, ninety- 
 nine. But Mr. Adams was chosen in the house of represen- 
 tatives. After the election of Mr. Adams to the Presidency, 
 the opposition to his administration was soon concentrated 
 upon General Jackson as a candidate to succeed him. In 
 October, 1825, he was again nominated by the legislature of 
 Tennessee for President, on which occasion he resigned his 
 seat in the senate of the United States. During the canvass 
 witich resulted in his election to the Presidency in 1828, by 
 a majority of more than two to one, of the electoral votes, 
 over Mr. Adams, he remained in private life."* 
 
 Before departing for Washington, in 1829, to take the 
 reins of government, the general was severely afflicted by the 
 death of his wife, a lady of rare accomplishments. His in- 
 auguration took place on the 4th of March, 1829. Wash-' 
 * Statesman's Manual. 
 
280 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 ington was thronged with the general's triumphant and enthu- 
 siastic friends. The address was considered equal in point 
 of style to those of several of his illustrious predecessors, 
 while it was distinguished for its profession of republican 
 principles. John C. Calhoun had been re-elected Vice 
 President. 
 
 The members of Mr. Adams's cabinet having resigned, 
 President Jackson nominated the following gentlemen for 
 heads of the respective departments, who were promptly 
 confirmed by the senate : Martin Van Buren, of New York, 
 Secretary of State ; Samuel D. Ingham, of Pennsylvania, 
 Secretary of the Treasury ; John H, Eaton, of Tennessee, 
 Secretary of War ; John Branch, of North Carolina, Secre- 
 tary of the Navy ; John McPherson Berrien, of Georgia, At- 
 torney-General. It being determined to introduced the Post- 
 master-General into the cabinet, the incumbent of that oflfice, 
 John McLean, was appointed a justice of the Supreme 
 Court, and William T. Barry, of Kentucky, received the 
 appointment of Postmaster-General. 
 
 The great features of President Jackson's administra- 
 tion — were the great number of removals from office, under 
 the avowed doctrine that the President should reward his 
 friends and punish his enemies ; the veto of the charter of 
 the national bank, and the removal of the deposites — the 
 firm opposition to the schemes of the nullifiers, under the 
 lead of John C. Calhoun and Robert Y. Hayne — and the 
 bold, decided tone held in the difficulties with France. Those 
 are still matters for discussion, and a cool, impartial inves- 
 tigation of their justice and expediency has yet to be made. 
 We conceive that such an investigation would occupy too 
 much space for our volume, and, perhaps, be foreign to our 
 purpose. 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 281 
 
 At a very early period of tlie administration, a coolness 
 between the Vice President, Mr. Calhoun, and the Secretary 
 of State, Mr. Van Buren, was manifested. This grew out 
 of their rival pretentions to the succession to the Presidency. 
 Finally, Mr. Calhoun was completely estranged from the 
 administration, and his influence went to strength'en the 
 opposition. Mr. Van Buren's political fortunes were thereby 
 much advanced, and when President Jackson was persuaded 
 to accept a nomination for another term of office, Mr. Van 
 Buren was nominated by the same party for the Vice Presi- 
 dency. Late in the summer of 1831, the cabinet of Presi- 
 dent Jackson was completely re-organized, as follows : Ed- 
 ward Livingston, of Louisiana, Secretary of State ; Louis 
 M'Lane, Secretary of the Treasury ; Lewis Cass, of Ohio, 
 Secretary of War; Levi Woodbury, of New Hampshire, 
 Secretary of the Navy ; Roger B. Taney, of Maryland, 
 Attorney-General. This cabinet was not only superior to 
 that which preceded it, in point of administrative talents, 
 but might fairly compare with most of those of previous ad- 
 ministrations. Foreign and domestic affairs were managed 
 by it with consummate ability. 
 
 In the fall of 1832, parties girded up their loins and 
 lifted their banners for another presidential contest. The 
 anti-masonic convention, which met in September, nomi- 
 nated William Wirt, of Maryland, for President, and Amos 
 Ellmaker, of Pennsylvania, for Vice President. The great 
 majority of the opposition supported Henry Clay, of Ken- 
 tucky, for President, and John Sergeant, of Pennsylvania, 
 was placed on the same ticket, as a candidate for the Vice 
 Presidency. Mr. Calhoun and his South Carolina friends 
 supported John Floyd and Henry Lee. In the electoral 
 college, the votes for President stood as follows : Andrew 
 24* 
 
282 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Jackson, two hundred and nineteen ; Henry Clay, forty- 
 nine ; John Floyd, eleven ; William Wirt, seven. For Vice 
 President — Martin Van Buren, one hundred and eighty- 
 nine ; John Sergeant, forty-nine ; William Wilkins, thirty ; 
 Henry Lee, eleven ; Amos Ellmaker, seven. 
 
 It was anticipated that the second term of President Jack- 
 son would pass away peaceably. But the removal of the de- 
 posites, and the determined hostility evinced by the admin- 
 istration, caused the bank directors to adopt measures of re- 
 trenchment, which gave rise to much commercial distress, 
 and ultimately strengthened the opposition in Congress. In 
 June, 1834, Mr. M'Lane, who had sucQeeded Mr. Livingston, 
 having resigned, John Forsyth, of Georgia, was appointed 
 Secretary of State ; Mahlon Dickerson, of New Jersey, Sec- 
 retary of the Navy, in place of Levi Woodbury, appointed 
 Secretary of the Treasury. Mr. Taney had been nominated 
 to the post of Secretary of the Treasury to effect the removal 
 of the deposits. The senate, however, refused to confirm 
 the nomination. The election in the fall of 1836, resulted 
 in the election of Martin Van Buren to the Presidency and 
 Colonel Richard M. Johnson to the Vice Presidency, the latter 
 being chosen by the senate. These gentlemen were warm 
 supporters of the administration of General Jackson. 
 
 General Jackson now issued a farewell address to his 
 countrymen, embodying his political principles, and after 
 witnessing the inauguration of his successor, retired to the 
 Hermitage, in Tennessee, his favorite residence, where he 
 passed the remainder of his days. He was a member of 
 the presbyterian church, and religious faith appears to have 
 cheered the latter period of his life. He retained his men- 
 tal faculties unimpaired, up to the hour of his decease, which 
 occurred on the 8th of June, 1845. His countrymen 
 
ANDREW JACKSON. 283 
 
 throughout the United States, joined in tokens of respect to 
 his memory. He left no relatives, and his estate was be- 
 queathed to members of the Donnelson family, the relations 
 of Mrs. Jackson.* 
 
 " Jackson's face and figure were so remarkable that no- 
 thing could be an easier task to an artist than to get a like- 
 ness of him. His face confirmed every dictum of the physi- 
 ognomist. It was long and narrow, and prominent below. 
 A mouth and chin more expressive of stern decision can 
 scarce be imagined ; the nose high and long, and a little 
 drooping, indicating the strength of character (Bonaparte 
 would hardly employ a man in any important trust who had 
 not a large nose,) with a mixture of shrewdness. This quality 
 was also strongly marked in the large folds of skin about the 
 eyes, (often called crow' s feet ;) his cheeks were hollow, the 
 eye itself was the eye of an eagle — cold, grey, piercing in the 
 highest degree, and when contracted by rage, darting like 
 fire ; the brow was fretful, serious, and lowering. His figure 
 ■was tall and commanding, but thin and sinewy ; his hair 
 of iron gray, was stiff and unyielding, very abundant, and 
 stood erect upon his head. He looked well when standing, 
 still better when on horseback, and his appearance was much 
 improved by a splendid uniform. When sitting, he usually 
 crossed one knee over the other. His hands were long and 
 bony ; toward the close of life he had a little stoop in the 
 back, when seated, "f 
 
 The chief feature in General Jackson's character was the 
 inflexibility of his will. When he resolved, there was no 
 possibility of swerving or bending his resolution. His pas- 
 sions were powerful — so that his friendship was to be courted 
 and his hatred to be feared. His mind was naturally strong 
 * Statesman's Manual. f A. J. Stansbury. 
 
 13 
 
284 
 
 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 and keen, and particularly fitted for originating S,nd govern- 
 ing military movements. Military men of reputation have 
 borne testimony to the talents displayed by him at the battle 
 of New Orleans, and in the Creek war, and his services 
 certainly entitle him to the gratitude of every patriotic citi- 
 zen. In regard to the wisdom of his statesmanship, widely 
 different opinions are entertained. Perhaps, however, it 
 will be agreed, that though he was occasionally arbitrary, 
 he, in general, managed the foreign and domestic relations 
 of the country with honesty, energy, determination, and 
 a considerable share of judgment. 
 
^^Hi^ il^K) 3^^"^}' 
 
 The Presidents of the United States, from Washington 
 to Jackson, were the children of the revolution. They had 
 heard the trump of liberty and witnessed the struggles of 
 the infant Hercules for freedom and independence. So linked 
 with glorious memories, they could not but be patriotic, and 
 whether they acted wisely or weakly, the people never 
 doubted that their hearts were devoted to their country, and 
 its welfare. But now, a new generation was to attempt to 
 occupy the seat of the mighty men of the past. Younger 
 hands were to be tried at the helm ; and grave fears and ap- 
 prehensions arose that they would be unequal to the task of 
 government. Martin Van Bur en was the first of the new 
 echool. 
 
 The ancestors of Mr. Van Buren were among the early 
 emigrants from Holland to New York. The father of the 
 President, Abraham Van Buren, was a resident of the old 
 town of Kinderhook, Columbia county, on the east bank of 
 the Hudson, a farmer of moderate circumstances, and an 
 intelligent and upright man. He married a Miss Hoes, a 
 distant relative, distinguished for amiability, intelligence and 
 exemplary piety. Martin Van Buren, the eldest son of these 
 parents, was born at Kinderhook, December 5th, 1782. 
 25 . (289) 
 
290 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 After acquiring the rudiments of an English education, 
 Martin became a student in a Kinderhook academy. Here 
 he made rapid progress in English literature and gained some 
 knowledge of Latin. He is said to have displayed extraor- 
 dinary quickness of observation upon character and events, 
 and to have possessed a strong passion for composition and ex- 
 tempore speaking. In 1796, at the age of fourteen, Martin 
 commenced the study of the law in the office Francis Sylvester, 
 Esq., of Kinderhoek. At that time, young men, who had 
 not enjoyed the advantages of a collegiate education, were 
 compelled to pass seven years in preparatory studies, before 
 they could be admitted to practise. But the management 
 of cases before justices of the peace frequently devolved on 
 the students, and on these occasions, Martin Van Buren 
 displayed extraordinary penetration and readiness of speech. 
 While pursuing his legal studies he was very attentive to 
 political events and the relative positions of parties, and on 
 all occasions evinced an attachment for the republican or 
 Jefferson party. The last year of Mr. Van Buren's prepa- 
 ratory study was passed in the city of New York, in the office 
 of Mr. William P. Van Ness, and under his direction. 
 
 Mr. Van Ness was a distinguished member of the bar and 
 a leader of the democratic party. He was intimate with 
 Colonel Burr, and introduced Mr. Van Buren to the notice 
 of that able politician. The younger lawyer thus enjoyed 
 every advantage for studying law and politics, and he was 
 quick and skilful in availing himself of his opportunities. In 
 November, 1803, in the^^^rty-first^year of his age, Mr. Van 
 Buren was admitted as an attorney at law, to the bar of the 
 supreme court in the state of New York, and immediately re- 
 turned to his native village to practise his profession, in 
 partnership, with his half-brother, the Honorable James I. 
 
MARTIN VAN BUREN. 291 
 
 Van Allen. The bar of Columbia county, at that time em- 
 braced some of the finest talent of any in New York, and Mr. 
 Van Buren had to contend with it, on his upward way. Parties 
 were in a very excited state at that period. The republicans 
 were struggling hard to gain the ascendancy throughout the 
 country. Although they had a clear majority in the state 
 of New York, they succumbed to the federalists in many 
 counties. In Columbia, the reins were in the hands of the 
 wealthy land-holders, who were generally federalists and op- 
 posed to the extension of popular rights. Mr. Van Buren's 
 early display of energy and ability attracted their attention, 
 and no ordinary pains were taken to detach him from the 
 republicans. His partner and many of his nearest relations 
 and friends were members of the federal party, and as they 
 considered that his political preferences would interfere with 
 his prosperity, they strove to win him to their views. But 
 Mr. Van Buren remained firm in the faith which his father 
 had held in the revolution, and which he had on the onset 
 espoused. Thus connected with the democratic party, he 
 naturally became the vindicator not only of their political 
 faith, but of their legal rights. The conflicts in which 
 he engaged, rapidly invigorated and enlarged his natural 
 powers. 
 
 In 1807, Mr. Van Buren was admitted as a counsellor in the 
 supreme court, where he was brought into more immediate 
 collision with the most distinguished members of the legal 
 professions. In 1808, he was appointed surrogate of Columbia 
 county, soon after which he removed to the city of Hudson, 
 where he resided during seven years, and maintained a high 
 rank in his profession. His practice became extensive and 
 lucrative. His career as a lawyer occupies a period of twenty- 
 five years, and was closed in 1828. Throughout, Mr. Van 
 
292 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Buren held an enviable reputation, for skill, learning, and 
 integrity.* 
 
 Mr. Van Buren was married in 1806, to Miss Hannah 
 Hoes, to whom, he had, at an early age evinced an ardent 
 attachment. This amiable lady died of consumption, in 
 1818, leaving her husband four sons. Mr. Van Buren has 
 since remained a widower. So much for the private and 
 professional life of the subject of this memoir. 
 
 Mr. Van Buren began his career as a. politician at the 
 age of eighteen years, being then deputed by the republi- 
 cans of his native town to attend a convention of delegates 
 to nominate a candidate for the legislature. His talents 
 were exercised on that occasion in preparing an address to 
 the electors of the district in which he resided. Mr. Jeffer- 
 son's administration received his constant support. In the 
 state elections, Mr. Van Buren sacrificed personal friend- 
 ship to give his earnest and unwavering support to the 
 regularly nominated candidates of his party, caring nothing 
 for men, but every thing for measures. 
 
 In 1812, Mr. Van Buren was, for the first time, a candi- 
 date for an elective ofiice, having been nominated a senator 
 from the counties then comprising the middle district of the 
 state. Edward L. Livingston, a man of wealthy connections, 
 and high in the favor of the federal party, was his opponent. 
 The struggle was close and violent. Mr, Van Buren ob- 
 tained a majority of about two hundred votes, in an aggre- 
 gate of twenty thousand, and was thus at the age of thirty, 
 placed in the highest branch of the legislature. From the 
 commencement of his legislative career, Mr. Van Buren 
 gave to all the war measures of Mr. Madison's administra- 
 tion a strenuous and efficient support. 
 ^ Statesmap^s Manual. 
 
MARTIN VAN BUREN. 293 
 
 In 1815, Mr. Van Buren was appointed attorney-general 
 of the state of New York, and also a regent of the univer- 
 sity. In the spring of the next year, he was re-elected to 
 the state senate for the term of four years. As a senator, 
 he advocated with zeal and ability the great project of in- 
 ternal improvements contemplated by De Witt Clinton. 
 During the war, Governor Tompkins and Mr. Van Buren 
 were considered the leaders of the democratic party in the 
 state of New York. 
 
 In 1818, Mr. Van Buren, having determined to oppose 
 the administration of De Witt Clinton, commenced the or- 
 ganization of that portion of the democratic party who were 
 dissatisfied with Clinton's election. This body is said to 
 have swayed the destinies of New York for about twenty- 
 five years. The "Albany Regency," of which Mr. Van 
 Buren was regarded as the head, was a constant butt for 
 vituperation among the friends of Clinton. The difficulties 
 in the democratic party, between the respective friends of 
 Mr. Van Buren and Governor Clinton, soon caused an open 
 rupture, the great body of the democrats siding with Mr. 
 Van Buren. The council of appointment, being devoted to 
 the views of the governor, in July, 1819, removed Mr. Van 
 Buren frona the office of attorney-general. This made the 
 opposition more violent. However, Clinton was re-elected 
 governor, in spite of the most strenuous efforts of his oppo- 
 nents. An attempt at reconciliation was made — the office 
 of attorney-general being again offered to Mr. Van Buren, 
 but he declined it. 
 
 In February, 1821, he was elected by the legislature of New 
 York, a member of the United States senate, in place of 
 Nathan Sandford, a democrat, whose term expired in March, 
 1821. In August of the same year, he took a seat in the 
 
 25* 
 
294 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 convention to revise the constitution of the state of New 
 York. In this convention, Mr. Van Buren proposed and 
 advocated such amendments as he thought would secure just 
 privileges to citizens of all grades and colors, while they 
 would not prevent the adoption of the constitution hj the 
 people. His course was satisfactory to men of all parties, 
 and highly honorable to his talents as a statesman. 
 
 Mr. Van Buren took his seat in the senate of the United 
 States, in December, 1821, and soon became distinguished 
 as an active and influential legislator. He advocated with 
 zeal and force of reason, the abolition of imprisonment for 
 debt on actions in the United States' courts, amendments 
 to the judiciary system, a bankrupt law — to include corpo- 
 rations as well as persons, and the investment of the public 
 lands in the states in which they were situated, on some just 
 and equitable terms. When Mr. Crawford became a can- 
 didate for the succession to President Monroe, Mr. Van 
 Buren labored to efiect his election, but Avas unsuccessful. 
 He opposed the administration of Mr. Adams, and lent all 
 his influence to strengthen the party which sought to raise 
 General Jackson to the Presidency. 
 
 In February, 1827, Mr. Van Buren was re-elected to the 
 United States senate, by the legislature of his native state. 
 But circumstances soon caused his resignation. Governor 
 Clinton died in February, 1828, and Mr. Van Buren was 
 chosen to succeed him in the gubernatorial office. Entering 
 upon his duties on the 1st of January, 1828, Mr. Van Bu- 
 ren first devoted himself to financial matters. The famous 
 safety-fund system, combining the monied interest of the 
 state, which he proposed to the legislature, was adopted ; but 
 the experience of a few years proved that it could not equal 
 public expectation. 
 
MARTIN VAN BUREN. 295 
 
 In forming his first cabinet, President Jackson offered the 
 post of Secretary of State to Mr. Van Buren. The general 
 said he made the offer as a tribute to acknowledged talents 
 and public services, and in accordance Avith the wishes of 
 the republican party throughout the Union. On the 12th 
 of March, 1829, Mr. Van Buren resigned the office of 
 Governor of the state of New York, and soon afterwards 
 entered upon the duties of his new position in the general 
 government. 
 
 Mr. Van Buren's management of foreign relations did 
 not give general satisfaction. In particular, his instructions 
 to Mr. M'Lane, minister to England, concerning the open- 
 ing of the West Indian ports to American vessels, were 
 severely censured. Though the treaty upon this subject 
 was ultimately beneficial to the United States. Yet the 
 principle contended for by Great Britain jjrevailed, and it 
 was contended that the honor of the country had been sac- 
 rificed. On the 7th of April, 1831, Mr. Van Buren re- 
 signed the office of Secretary of State, assigning as a reason, 
 that circumstances beyond his control had presented him 
 before the public as a candidate for the succession to the 
 Presidency, and that the injurious effects necessarily result- 
 ing from a cabinet minister's holding that relation to the 
 country, had left him only the alternative of retirino- from 
 the administration, or of submitting to a self-disfranchise- 
 ment, hardly reconcileable with propriety and self-respect. 
 Soon after. General Jackson's cabinet was entirely changed. 
 
 Mr. Van Buren was now appointed by the President, 
 minister to the Court of St. James. On his arrival in Lon- 
 don, in September, 1831, he was received with distinguished 
 favor. But his diplomatic career was destined to be very 
 short. Soon after the meeting of Congress, in December, 
 
296 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 the President submitted the nomination of Mr. Van Buren 
 to the senate. He was rejected bj that body, it -was said, 
 in consequence of their disapproval of .the instructions he 
 had, wliile Secretary of State, given to Mr. M'Lano, in refe- 
 rence to the West India trade. The democratic party con- 
 demned this rejection as an act of political persecution. 
 The President assumed the entire responsibility of the in- 
 structions condemned by the senate, declared they were "the 
 result of his own deliberate investigation and reflection, and 
 still appeared to him to be entirely proper and consonant 
 to his public duty." 
 
 On the 22d of May, 1832, Mr. Van Buren was nomi- 
 nated as a candidate for the Vice Presidency, upon the 
 same ticket with General Jackson. The result was a tri- 
 umphant election of both to the respective offices to which 
 they were nominated. Mr. Van Buren received one hun- 
 dred and eighty-nine electoral votes, to ninety-seven for all 
 other candidates for the Vice Presidency. He returned 
 from England to enjoy his triumph over his political oppo- 
 nents. On the 4th of March, 1833, he was inaugurated 
 Vice President. He presided over the senate for four years, 
 giving general satisfaction.* 
 
 On the 20th of May, 1835, the democratic convention 
 met at Baltimore, to nominate candidates for the two highest 
 offices in the gifts of the people. The result had been anti- 
 cipated. Mr. Van Buren was unanimously nominated as 
 the candidate of the party for President, and Colonel Richard 
 M. Johnson, of Kentucky, received the nomination for Vice 
 President. The result of the vote by the electoral college 
 was one hundred and seventy for Mr. Van Buren, including 
 Michigan, (3) informal, and one hundred and twenty-four 
 
 * Statesman's Manual. 
 
MARTIN VAN EUREN. 297 
 
 for all other candidates. Colonel Johnson did not receive 
 a majority of the electoral vote. But he was elected by 
 the senate, according to the provisions of the constitution. 
 
 Mr. Van Bm-en was inaugurated as President of the United 
 States, on the 4th of March 1837. From the assurance of 
 the inaugural address, the people expected that the policy 
 of the government would remain unchanged 
 
 The new President selected for his cabinet, John Forsyth, 
 of Georgia, for Secretary of State ; Levi Woodbury, of New 
 Hampshire, Secretary of the Treasury ; Joel E. Poinsett, of 
 South Carolina, Secretary of War ; Mahlon Dickerson of 
 New Jersey, Secretary of the Navy ; Amos Kendall, of Ken- 
 tucky, Postmaster-General; and Benjamin F. Butler, of New 
 York, Attorney-General. All of these gentlemen, except 
 Mr. Poinsett, had been appointed by General Jackson to the 
 respective offices named, and they were continued by Mr. 
 Van Buren. 
 
 The new administration commenced its career in cloudy 
 times. Early in May, the commercial pressure was made 
 palpable, by all the banks in New York suspending specie 
 payments. The banks of Boston, Providence, Hartford, 
 Albany, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and in many other 
 towns followed the same course. On the 16th of May, the 
 legislature of New York passed an act authorizing the sus- 
 pension of specie payments by the banks of that state for 
 one year. During the preceding two months, unparalleled 
 embarrassments were experienced among the mercantile 
 classes, and in the large cities business was at a stand. Pe- 
 titions poured in, to the President, praying him to rescind the 
 specie circular issued by General Jackson in 1836, which re- 
 quired all payments for the public lands to be made in gold 
 and silver, to defer commencing suits on unpaid bonds, and 
 
298 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 to call an extra session of Congress. The President for some 
 time, declined to act on the petitions ; but the exigency in 
 which the financial affairs of the government were placed, 
 finally induced him to convene Congress upon the first Monday 
 in September. 
 
 The extra session lasted forty-three days. The democrats 
 were in a majority in both houses ; but a small portion of 
 the party did not coincide with the President' in his views 
 of financial afiaii's, and the representatives of this portion, 
 voting with the whigs, defeated the independent treasury 
 scheme, the favorite financial measure of the administration. 
 This measure was proposed at the extra session, and then 
 again at the first regular session, and each time rejected. 
 
 In June, 1838, Mahlon Dickerson resigned the oflBce of 
 Secretary of the Navy, and James K. Paulding, of New 
 York, was appointed in his place. It was now evident that 
 the popularity of the administration was oh the decline. At 
 the state election the opposition gained several triumphs. New 
 York fell into their hands. The great body of the business 
 community was arrayed against the government. In the 
 meantime, the Seminole War, in Florida, which had con- 
 tinued during General Jackson's administration was drawing 
 considerable sums from the treasury and causing the death 
 of many valuable lives. 
 
 To add to the sources of discontent, a dijfficulty occurred 
 with Great Britain concerning the north-eastern boundary of 
 the United States, which threatened war. In the summer of 
 1839, President Van Buren visited the state of New York 
 for the first time since his election.* He was received with 
 every mark of respect, by the inhabitants of the various places 
 through which he passed upon his route. 
 
 * Statesman's Manual. 
 
MARTIN VAN BUREN. 299 
 
 The opposition was unquestionably in a majority in the 
 country. It assumed the name of the whig party, and held 
 a national convention at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, on the 
 4th of December, 1839, for the purpose of nominating can- 
 didates for the Presidency and Vice Presidency of the United 
 States. Henry Clay, of Kentucky, was the favorite of a 
 plurality of the delegates to the convention, but General Wil- 
 liam Henry Harrison, of Ohio, was finally adopted as the 
 stronger candidate. John Tyler, of Virginia, was unanimously 
 nominated for the Vice Presidency. These candidates re- 
 ceived the support of the entire opposition. The democratic 
 convention met on the 5th of May, 1840, and unanimously 
 nominated Mr. Van Buren for re-election. No candidate 
 for the Vice Presidency was put forward ; it was resolved 
 to leave each state to make its own nomination. Richard 
 M. Johnson was understood to be the favorite. The result 
 of the election was the success of the whig candidates, Har- 
 rison and Tyler, by a large majority. The electoral votes 
 stood as follows : — Harrison, two hundred and thirty-four ; 
 Van Buren, sixty ; for Vice President, Tyler, two hundred 
 and thirty-four ; R. M. Johnson, forty-eight, L. W. Tazewell, 
 eleven ; and James K. Polk, one. 
 
 Some changes had taken place in President Van Buren'a 
 cabinet, in addition to those already mentioned. In 1838, 
 Benjamin F. Butler resigned, as Attorney-General, and 
 Felix Grundy, of Tennessee, was appointed to fill his place. 
 In 1839, Mr. Grundy resigned, and Henry D. Gilpin, of 
 Pennsylvania, received the appointment to the ofiice. Amos 
 Kendall having resigned the office of Postmaster-General, 
 John M. Niles, of Connecticut, was appointed in his place 
 on the 25th of May, 1840. 
 
 Of the character of Mr. Van Buren's administration it is 
 
300 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 difficult at this period to make an impartial judgment. His 
 friends contend that he completed the great work commenced 
 by General Jackson, namely, the separation of bank and 
 state, and thereby benefited the real interests of the country. 
 His opponents maintain that his policy was destructive to 
 the business of the nation. 
 
 After the 4th of March, 1841, Mr. Van Buren retired to 
 Kinderhook, where his fine estate of "Lindenwald" was 
 situated. There he resided, surrounded by an admiring 
 circle of friends, and conscious of possessing the confidence 
 of a large political party. At the democratic convention 
 of 1844, strenuous efibrts were made to nominate Mr. Van 
 Buren for another presidential term. But the rules of the 
 convention required that the candidate should receive the 
 vote of two-thirds of the delegates ; and Mr. Van Buren, 
 in consequence of his being adverse to the annexation of 
 Texas, which was then agitated, could not obtain such a 
 vote. James K. Polk of Tennessee, received the nomination 
 for President. Mr. Van Buren gave him a cordial support, 
 and his triumph may be attributed to the influence of the 
 ex-President, in New York. 
 
 In 1848, Mr. Van Buren received the nomination for the 
 Presidency, from the "free soil democrats," through a con- 
 vention held at Buffalo, New York. General Cass was the 
 regular candidate of the democratic party, but his nomina- 
 tion was said to have been unfairly made, and, besides, a 
 large number of democrats in the north were opposed to the 
 extension of slavery, and in favor of the abolition of the slave 
 trade in the district of Columbia, in which views, the body 
 of the party would not acquiesce. Mr. Van Buren coincided 
 with the " free soil democrats," and therefore accepted their 
 nomination. This party did not succeed in procuring the 
 
MARTIN VAN BUREN. 301 
 
 electoral vote of any state, but it mustered over three hun- 
 dred thousand votes at the polls. General Taylor was the 
 choice of the people. During the canvass, John Van Buren, 
 the active and eloquent son of the ex-President, advocated 
 from the rostrum, the claims of the Buffalo nominees. Since 
 that period the ex-President has resided at Lindenwald, 
 enjoying the conversation of his friends, and surrounded by 
 all the comforts which wealth can purchase and a cheerful 
 disposition delight in. 
 
 In personal appearance, Mr. Van Buren is of about the 
 middle size ; his form is erect, rather inclined to corpulence, 
 and said to be very hardy. His hair and eyes are light, 
 his features lively and expressive ; his eyes are quick and 
 indicate penetration and readiness of apprehension ; hia 
 forehead is broad and high, indicating intellectual power. 
 His friend and biographer, Professor Holland, thus speaks 
 of his private character. 
 
 " The private character of Mr. Van Buren is above all 
 censure or suspicion. In the relations of father and son, 
 of husband, brother, and friend, he has always displayed 
 those excellencies of character and feeling which adorn 
 human nature. Extending our view to the larger circle of 
 his personal friends, rarely has any man won a stronger 
 hold upon the confidence and affection of those with whom 
 he has been connected. The purity of his motives, his in- 
 tegrity of his character, and the steadiness of his attach- 
 ments, have always attained for him the warm affection of 
 many, even among the ranks of his political opponents. 
 
 " The ease and frankness of his manners, the felicitous 
 powers of conversation, and the general amiableness of his 
 feeling, render him the ornament of the social circle. Uniting 
 in his character, firmness and forbearance ; habitual self- 
 
 26 
 
302 ''lives of the presidents. 
 
 respect and a delicate regard for the feelings of others ; 
 neither the perplexities of legal practice, nor the cares of 
 public life, nor the annoyances of party strife, have ever 
 beon able to disturb the serenity of his temper, or to derange 
 for a moment the equanimity of his deportment. He has 
 with equal propriety mingled in the free intercourse of 
 private life, and sustained the dignity of official station." 
 
HARRISON. 
 
William Henry Harrison, the ninth President of the 
 United States, was born at Berkeley, Charles City county, 
 Virginia, February 9, 1773. His ancestors settled in Vir- 
 ginia, about 1640, and the family name was always among 
 the most prominent in her history. His father, Benjamin 
 Harrison, was a conspicuous patriot of the revolution. When 
 a very young man, he honorably represented his native dis- 
 trict in the house of burgesses for many years, and on the 
 14th of November, 1764, was one of those of its distinguished 
 members chosen to prepare an address to the king, a me- 
 morial to the lords, and a remonstrance to the house of 
 commons, in opposition to the stamp act. He was a dele- 
 gate from Virginia to the first Continental Congress, which 
 assembled at Philadelphia, September 1st, 1774, when he 
 had the gratification of seeing his brother-in-law, Peyton 
 Randolph, placed in the presidential chair. At the Congress 
 of the following year, 1775, after the death of Mr. Randolph, 
 it was the wish of nearly all the southern members that Mr. 
 Harrison should succeed him in the Presidency ; but the 
 patriotic John Hancock, of Massachusetts, had likewise been 
 nominated. Mr. Harrison, to avoid any sectional jealousy 
 or unkindness of feeling between the northern and southern 
 delegates at so momentous a crisis, with a noble self-denial 
 
 (307) 
 
308 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 and generosity, relinquished his own claims, and insisted on 
 the election of Mr. Hancock, who accordingly had the honor 
 of being unanimously chosen to that high oflBce. Mr. Har- 
 rison still, however, continued one of the most active and 
 influential members of the Continental Congress. On the 
 10th of June, 1776, as chairman of the committee of the 
 whole house, he introduced the resolution which declared 
 the independence of the colonies ; and on the ever memo- 
 rable 4th of July, 1776, he reported the more formal Decla- 
 ration of Independence, to which celebrated document his 
 signature is attached. The legislature of Virginia returned 
 Mr. Harrison four times as a delegate to Congress. On the 
 expiration of his last term of congressional service, he was 
 immediately elected to the house of burgesses from his own 
 county, and was at once chosen speaker of that body — an 
 office he held uninterruptedly until the year 1782, when he 
 was elected Governor of Virginia, and became one of the 
 most popular officers that ever filled the executive chair. 
 This eminent patriot died in the year 1791. 
 
 William Henry Harrison was left under the guardianship 
 of Robert Morris, the distinguished financier. He entered 
 Hampden Sidney College, and having graduated, he turned 
 his attention to the study of medicine. But he was destined 
 for another profession — the service of his country in the 
 field. Before he had completed his medical studies, the 
 barbarities of the Indians upon the western frontier so ex- 
 cited his feelings that he resolved to give up his profession 
 and join the army. Mr. Morris, his guardian, strove to 
 dissuade him from his purpose, but his resolution was not 
 to be shaken, and on communicating with General Washing- 
 ton, that great man cordially approved of his determination.* 
 * Statesman's Manual. 
 
WILLIAM HENKY HARRISON. 309 
 
 Receiving from President Washington, the commission 
 of ensign in a regiment of artillery, Hai-rison, then nineteen 
 years of age, joined his corps at Fort Washington, on the 
 Ohio, in 1791. He soon found an opportunity to distin- 
 guish himself. A reinforcement being ordered by General 
 .St. Clair, to proceed to Fort Hamilton, Harrison was ap- 
 pointed to command the escort. This duty was arduous, 
 as the country swarmed with foes, yet it was performed with 
 such skill and vigilance, as to gain for the young ensign 
 the approbation of his general. In 1792, Harrison was 
 promoted to a lieutenancy, and in the following year he 
 joined the new army under General Wayne, which was 
 destined to close the Indian war. 
 
 When, in October, 1793, General Wayne marched for- 
 ward to the Miami, he sent a detachment to take possession 
 of the ground on which General St. Clair had suffered a 
 defeat. Harrison volunteered for the service, and was ac- 
 cepted by the commander. The troops took possession of 
 the fatal field, collected the bones of those who had fallen 
 two years before, and interred them with military honors, 
 and erected Fort Recovery. 
 
 Lieutenant Harrison bore an important part in the famous 
 battle of the "Fallen Timbers," in which the Indians Avere 
 completely defeated, by the" skill of Wayne and the valor of 
 his troops. The general, in his oflficial account of the battle, 
 complimented young Harrison, as his " faithful and gallant 
 aid-de-camp, in having rendered him the most essential service 
 in communicating his orders in every direction, and for his 
 conduct and bravery in exciting the troops to press for vic- 
 tory." Not long after this campaign, Harrison was promotisd 
 to the rank of captain, and placed in command of Fort Wash- 
 ington. He was then but twenty-one years of age, yet great 
 
310 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 confidence was reposed in his skill and energy. While in 
 command at Fort Washington, Captain Harrison married the 
 daughter of John Cleaves Symmes, the founder of the Miami 
 settlements. 
 
 In April, 1798, when Winthrop Sargent, Secretary of the 
 north-western territory, was appointed governor of the south- 
 western country, Harrison received the appointment to fill 
 the vacated post. In the next year a territorial government 
 was organized, and it devolved on the legislature to elect a 
 dele'2;ate to Congress. The candidates were Messrs. Harrison 
 and St. Clair. Harrison was chosen by a majority of one vote. 
 
 The legislature, by joint resolution, prescribed the form 
 of a certificate of his election ; having received that certificate, 
 he resigned the office of Secretary of the territory — proceeded 
 forthwith to Philadelphia, and took his seat ; Congress being 
 then in session. Though he represented the territory but 
 one year, he obtained some important advantages for his con- 
 stituents. He introduced a resolution to subdivide the sur- 
 veys of the public lands, and to ofi'er them for sale in small 
 tracts — he succeeded in getting that measure through both 
 houses, in opposition to the interest of speculators who were, 
 and who wished to be, the retailers of the land to the poorer 
 classes of the community. His proposition became a law, 
 and was hailed as the most beneficent act that Congress had 
 ever done for the territoi-y. It put it in the power of every 
 industrious man, however poor, to become a free holder, and 
 lav a foundation for the future support, and comfort of his 
 family. At the same session, he obtained a liberal extension 
 of time for the pre-emptioners in the northern part of the 
 Miami purchase, which enabled them to secure their farms, 
 and eventually to become independent, and even wealthy.* 
 * Perkin'3 Annals of the West. 
 
WILLIAM HENRY HARBISON. 811 
 
 In 1800, a government was organized for Indiana territory, 
 and Harrison was appointed its governor, his commission 
 being dated 1801. In this important office, he soon displayed 
 a talent and activity, which resulted in great benefits to his 
 country. 
 
 On the 17th of September, 1802, Governor Harrison, at 
 Vincennes, entered into an agreement with various chiefs of 
 the Pottawatamie, Eel river, Piankeshaw,'VYea, Kaskaskia and 
 Kickapoo tribes, by which were settled the bounds of a tract 
 of land near that place, said to have been given by the In- 
 dians tcT its founder ; and certain chiefs were named who 
 were to conclude the matter at Fort Wayne. This was the 
 first step taken by Harrison in those negotiations which con- 
 tinued through so many years, and added so much to the 
 dominions of the confederation. He found the natives 
 jealous and out of temper, owing partly to American injustice, 
 but also in a great degree, it was thought, to the acts of the 
 British traders and agents. 
 
 The governor exfirted himself to check a system of specu- 
 lation in land, which had been going on for some time, and 
 which caused disaster and difficulty to many individuals, 
 who were duped by misrepresentation. On the 18th of Au- 
 gust, 1804, Governor Harrison purchased from the Dela- 
 wares, their claims to a large tract between the Wabash and 
 the Ohio ; from the Piankeshaws, their claims to the same, 
 and also to the lands granted to the Kaskaskias in 1803 : 
 from the Sacs and Foxes their title to most of the immense 
 district between the Mississippi, Illinois, Fox river, empty- 
 ing into the Illinois, and Wisconsin rivers ; comprehending, 
 it is said, more than fifty-one millions of acres. These im- 
 portant treaties were not negotiated without much difficulty, 
 caused, it is said, by the machinations of the great Sha- 
 
312 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Avanee chief, Tecumthe, or the Crouching Panther, and his 
 brother, called the Prophet. 
 
 " Upon the 21st of August, Governor Harrison at Vin- 
 cennes, received from the Miamies a region containing two 
 million acres within what is now Indiana ; and upon the 30th 
 of December, at the same place purchased of the Pianke- 
 shaws a tract eighty or ninety miles wide, extending from 
 the Wabash west to the cession by the Kaskaskias, in 1803. 
 At this time, although some murders by the red men had 
 taken place in the far west, the body of natives seemed bent 
 on peace. But mischief was gathering. Tecum the, his brother 
 the Prophet, and other leading men, had formed at Grenville 
 the germ of that union of tribes by which the whites Avere 
 to be restrained in their invasions. We are by no means 
 satisfied that the great Indian of latter days used any con- 
 cealment, or meditated any treachery toward the United 
 States, for many years after this time. The efforts of him- 
 self and his brother were directed to two points : first, the 
 reformation of the savages, whose habits unfitted them for 
 continuous and heroic effort ; and second, such a union as 
 would make the purchase of land by the United States im- 
 possible, and give to the aborigines a strength that might be 
 dreaded. Both these objects were avowed, and both Avere 
 pursued with wonderful energy, perseverance and success ; 
 in the whole country bordering upon the lakes, the power of 
 the Prophet Avas felt, and the work of reformation Avent on 
 rapidly."* 
 
 Still the movements of the Indian brothers led Hari'ison 
 to suspect their designs and to prepare for an emergency. 
 On the 5th of July, 1809, he wrote to the Secretary of War, 
 as folloAYS : 
 
 * Perkin's Annals of the West 
 
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 313 
 
 " The Sliawanese Prophet and about forty followers ar- 
 rived here about a week ago. He denies most strenuously 
 any participation in the late combinations to attack our set- 
 tlement, Avhich he says was entirely confined to the tribes 
 of the Mississippi and Illinois rivers ; and he claims the 
 merit of having prevailed upon them to relinquish their 
 intentions. 
 
 " I must confess that my suspicions of his guilt have been 
 rather strengthened than diminished at every interview I 
 have had with him since his arrival. He acknowledges that 
 he received an invitation to war against us, from the British, 
 last fall, and that he was apprised of the intentions of the 
 Sacs, Foxes, &c. early in the spring, and warmly solicited 
 to join in the league. But he could give no satisfactory 
 explanation of his neglecting to communicate to me circum- 
 stances so extremely interesting to us, and towards which, 
 I had, a few months before, directed his attention, and re- 
 ceived a solemn assurance of his cheerful compliance Avith 
 the injunctions I had impressed upon him. 
 
 " The result of all my inquiries on the subject, is, that 
 the late combination was produced by British intrigue and 
 influence, in anticipation of war between them and the United 
 States. It was, however, premature and ill judged, and the 
 event sufficiently manifests a great decline in their influence, 
 or in the talents and address, with which they have been 
 accustomed to manage their Indian relations. 
 
 " The warlike and well-armed tribes of the Pottawatamies, 
 Ottawas, Chippewas, Delawares, and Miamis, I believe 
 neither had, nor would join in the combination ; and although 
 the Kickapoos, whose warriors are better than those of any 
 other tribe, the remnant of the Wyandot excepted, are much 
 under the influence of the Prophet. I am persuaded that 
 27 
 
3l4 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 they were never made acquainted with his intentions, if 
 these Ayere really hostile to the United States. 
 
 " In this same letter, the governor, at the request of the 
 secretary, Dr. Eustis, gives his views of the defence of the 
 frontiers, in which portion of his epistle many valuable hints 
 are given in relation to the course proper to be pursued in 
 case of a war with England. 
 
 " In September, October, and December, the Governor of 
 Indiana succeeded in extinguishing the claims of the Dela- 
 wares, Pottawatamies, Miamies, Eel river Indians, Weas, 
 and Kickapoos, to certain lands upon the Wabash which 
 had not yet been purchased, and which Avere believed to 
 contain copper ore. The treaties with the Delawares, Pot- 
 tawatamies, Miamies, and Eel river Indians, were made at 
 Fort Wayne ; the others at Vincennes ; they were protested 
 against by Tecumthe in the following year. In 1809, the 
 western part of the Indiana Territory, long known as ' the 
 Illinois,' was made a separate territory, with the name of 
 the great Indian nation which had once lived there."* 
 
 During the year 1810, the hostile intentions of Tecumthe 
 and his followers were placed beyond all doubt. Tecumthe 
 denounced the treaty of Fort Wayne, in 1809, as illegal 
 and unjust, maintaining that no single tribe had a right to 
 sell so much land. That British countenance was given to 
 his plans was rendered clear, though it is believed that the 
 rulers of Great Britain did not sanction the deeds of their 
 agents. The great chief had formed the project of uniting 
 all the western tribes, and had succeeded in forming a for- 
 midable confederacy. By various acts his feelings and 
 intentions were made known to the whites. In August, 1810, 
 a council was held at Vincennes, in which the position of 
 * Per kin's Annals of the West. 
 
WILLIAM UENRY HARRISON. 315 
 
 affairs was clearly ascertained. Of this council, Mr. Drake, 
 in his life of Tecumthe, gives the following account : 
 
 "Governor Harrison had made arrangements for holding 
 the council on the portico of his own house, which had been 
 fitted up Avith seats for the occasion. Here, on the morning 
 of the 15th, he awaited the arrival of the chief, being at- 
 tended by the judges of the supreme court, some officers of 
 the army, a sergeant and twelve men, from Fort Knox, and 
 a large number of citizens. At the appropriated hour Te- 
 cumthe, supported by forty of his principal warriors, made 
 his appearance, the remainder of his followers being en- 
 camped in the village and its environs. When the chief had 
 approached within thirty or forty yards of the house, he sud- 
 denly stopped, as if awaiting some advance from the governor. 
 An interpreter was sent requesting him and his followers to 
 take seats on the portico. To this Tecumthe objected — he 
 did not think the place a suitable one for holding the con- 
 ference, but preferred that it should take place in a grove of 
 trees — to which he pointed — standing a short distance from 
 the house. The governor said that he had no objection to 
 the grove, except that there were no seats in it for their ac- 
 commodation. Tecumthe replied, that constituted no objec- 
 tion to the grove, the earth being the most suitable place for 
 the Indians, who loved to repose on the bosom of their mother. 
 The governor yielded the point, and the benches and chairs 
 having been removed to the spot the conference was begun, 
 the Indians being seated on the grass. 
 
 " Tecumthe opposed the meeting by stating, at length, 
 his objections to the treaty of Fort Wayne, made by Go- 
 vernor Harrison in the previous year ; and in the course of 
 his speech, boldly avowed the principle of his party to be, 
 that of resistance to every cession of land, unless made by 
 
316 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 all the tribes, who, lie contended, formed but one nation. 
 He admitted that he had threatened to kill the chiefs who 
 signed the treaty of Fort Wayne ; and that it was his fixed 
 determination not to permit the village chiefs, in future, to 
 manage their affairs, but to place the power with which they 
 had been hitherto invested, in the hands of the war chiefs. 
 The Americans, he said, had driven the Indians from the sea 
 coast, and would soon push them into the lakes ; and, while 
 he disclaimed any intention of making war upon the United 
 States, he declared it to be his unalterable resolution to take 
 a stand, and resolutely oppose the further intrusion of the 
 whites upon the Indian lands. He concluded, by making 
 a brief but impassioned recital of the various wrongs and 
 aggressions inflicted by the white men upon the Indians, 
 from the commencement of the revolutionary war down to 
 the period of that council ; all of which was calculated to 
 arouse and inflame the minds of such of his followers as were 
 present. 
 
 " To him the governor replied, and, having taken his seat, 
 the interpreter commenced explaining the speech to Te- 
 cumthe, who after listening to a portion of it, sprung to his 
 feet and began to speak with great vehemence of manner. 
 
 " The governor was surprised at his violent gestures, but, 
 as he did not understand him, thought he was making some 
 explanation, and suffered his attention to be drawn towards 
 Winnemac, a friendly Indian, lying on the grass before him, 
 who was renewing the priming of his pistol, which he had 
 kept concealed from the other Indians, but in full view of 
 the governor. His attention, however, was again directed 
 towards Tecumthe, by hearing General Gibson, who was 
 intimately acquainted the Shawanee language, say to Lieu- 
 tenant Jennings, 'those fellows intend mischief; you had 
 
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 317 
 
 better bring up the guard.' At that moment, the followers 
 of Tecumthe seized their tomahawks and war-clubs, and 
 sprung upon their feet, their eyes turned upon the governor. 
 As soon as he could disengage himself from the arm chair 
 in which he sat, he rose, drew a small sword which he had 
 by his side, and stood on the defensive. Captain G. E,. 
 Floyd, of the army, who stood near him, drew a dirk, and 
 the chief Winnemac cocked his pistol. The citizens were 
 more numerous than the Indians, but were unarmed ; some 
 then procured clubs and brick-bats, and also stood on the 
 defensive. The Rev. Mr. Winans, of the Methodist church, 
 ran to the governor's house, got a gun, and posted himself 
 at the door to defend the family. During this singular 
 scene, no one spoke, until the guard came running up, and 
 appearing to be in the act of firing, the governor ordered 
 them not to do so. He then demanded of the interpreter, 
 an explanation of what had happened, who replied that Te- 
 cumthe had interrupted him, declaring that all the governor 
 had said was false ; and that he and the Seventeen Fires 
 had cheated and imposed on the Indians. 
 
 " The governor then told Tecumthe that he was a bad 
 man, and that he would hold no further communication with 
 him ; that as he had come to Vincennes under the protec- 
 tion of a council-fire, he might return in safety, but that he 
 must immediately leave the village. Here the council 
 terminated. 
 
 " The now undoubted purposes of the brothers being of a 
 character necessarily leading to war, Governor Harrison 
 proceeded to strengthen himself for the contest by preparing 
 the militia, and posting the regular troops that were with 
 him, under Captains Posey and Cross at Vincennes.* 
 * Perkin's Annals of the West. 
 
 27* 
 
318 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 In June, 1811, the governor sent the Shawanese a mes- 
 sage, bidding them beware of hostilities. To this, Tecumthe 
 made a brief reply, promising to make the governor a visit. 
 He kept his promise in July, coming to Vincennes with 
 three hundred Indians. Nothing resulted from the meet- 
 ing. The great chief proceeded to the south, it was believed 
 to enlist the Creeks in his cause. 
 
 Having received his reinforcements, Governor Harrison 
 determined to move forward, and if necessary, to break up 
 the Prophet's rendezvous. 
 
 " On the 5th of October, he was on the Wabash, sixty or 
 sixty-five miles above Vincennes, at which point he built 
 ' Fort Harrison.' Here one of his sentinels was fired upon, 
 and news were received from the friendly Delawares which 
 made the hostile purposes of the Prophet plain. The go- 
 vernor determined to move directly upon Tippecanoe, still 
 ofiering peace, however. Upon the 31st of October he was 
 near the mouth of the Vermilion river, where he built a 
 block house, for the protection of his boats, and a place of 
 of deposit for his heavy baggage ; from that point he ad- 
 vanced without interruption into the vicinity of the Prophet's 
 town, where he was met by ambassadors ; he told them he 
 had no hostile intentions in case the Indians were true to 
 existing treaties, and made preparations to encamp. We 
 give his own account of the event which ensued : 
 
 " In a few moments the man who had been with me before 
 made his appearance. I informed him that my object for 
 the present was to procure a good piece of ground to encamp 
 on, where we could get wood and water ; he informed me 
 that there was a creek to the north-west which he thought 
 would suit our purpose. I immediately despatched two ofiicers 
 to examine it, and they reported that the situation was ex- 
 
WILLIAM HENKY HARRISON. 319 
 
 cellent. I then took leave of the chief, and a mutual promise 
 was again made for a suspension of hostilities until we could 
 have an interview on the following day. I found the ground 
 destined for the encampment not altogether such as I could 
 wish it — it was indeed admirably calculated for the encamp- 
 ment of regular troops, that were opposed to regulars, but it 
 afforded great facility to the approach of savages. It was a 
 piece of dry oak land, rising about ten feet above the level 
 of a marshy prairie in front (towards the Indian town) and 
 nearly twice that height above a similar prairie in the rear, 
 through which and near to this bank ran a small stream 
 clothed with willows and brushwood. Towards the left flank 
 this bench of high land widened considerably, but became 
 gradually narrower in the opposite direction, and at the 
 distance of one hundred and fifty yards from the right flank, 
 terminated in an abrupt point. The two columns of infantry 
 occupied the front and rear of this ground, at the distance of 
 about one hundred and fifty yards from each other on the 
 left, and something more than half that distance on the right 
 flank — these flanks were filled up, by the first two companies 
 of mounted riflemen, amounting to about one hundred and 
 twenty men, under the command of Major-General Wells, 
 of the Kentucky militia, who served as a major ; the other 
 by Spencer's company of mounted riflemen, which amounted 
 to eighty men. The front line was composed of one bat- 
 talion of United States infantry under the command of 
 Major Floyd, flanked on the right by two companies of militia, 
 and on the left by one company. The rear line was composed 
 of a battalion of United States troops under the command 
 of Captain Baen, acting as major, and four companies of 
 militia infantry under Lieutenant-Colonel Decker. The 
 regular troops of this line joined the mounted riflemen under 
 
320 LIV~ES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 General Wells, on the left flank, and Colonel Decker's bat- 
 talions formed an angle with Spencer's company on the left. 
 
 " Two troops of dragoons, amounting to in the aggregate 
 about sixty men, were encamped in the rear of the left flank, 
 and Captain Parke's troop, which was larger than the other 
 two, in the rear of the front line. Our order of encampment 
 varied little from that above described, excepting when some 
 peculiarity of the ground made it necessary. For a night 
 attack the order of encampment was the order of battle, and 
 each man slept immediately opposite to his post in the line. 
 In the formation of my troops I used a single rank, or Avhat 
 is called Indian file — because in Indian warfare, there is no 
 shock to resist, one rank is nearly as good as two, and in that 
 kind of warfare the extension is of the first importance. Raw 
 troops also manoeuvre with much more facility in single than 
 in double ranks. It was my constant custom to assemble 
 all my field officers at my tent every evening by signal, to 
 give the watchword and their instructions for the night — 
 those given for the night of the 6th were, that each corps 
 which formed a part of the exterior line of the encampment, 
 should hold its own ground until relieved. The dragoons 
 were directed to parade dismounted in case of a night attack, 
 with their pistols in their belts, and to act as a corps de reserve. 
 The camp was defended by two captains' guards, consisting 
 each of four non-commissioned officers and privates. The 
 whole under the command of a field officer of the day. The 
 troops were regularly called up an hour before day, and 
 made to continue under arms until it was quite light. 
 
 " On the morning of the 7th, I had risen at a quarter after 
 four o'clock, and the signal for calling out the men would 
 have been given in two minutes, when the attack com- 
 menced. It began on our left flank — but a single gun was 
 
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 321 
 
 fired by the sentinels or by the guard in that direction, which 
 made not the least resistance, but abandoned their officer 
 and fled into the camp, and the first notice which the troops 
 of that flank had of the danger, was from the yells of the 
 savages within a short distance of the line — but even under 
 these circumstances the men were not wanting to themselves 
 or the occasion. Such of them as were awake, or were 
 easily awakened, seized their arms and took their stations ; 
 others which were more tardy, had to contend with the 
 enemy in the doors of their tents. The storm first fell upon 
 Captain Barton's company of the 4th United States regi- 
 ment, and Captain Geigler's company of mounted riflemen, 
 which formed the left angle of the rear line. The fire upon 
 these was exceedingly severe, and they sufiered severely 
 before relief could be brought to them. Some few Indians 
 passed into the encampment near the angle, and one or two 
 penetrated to some distance before they were killed. I be- 
 lieve all the other companies were under arms and tolerably 
 formed before they were fired on. The morning was dark and 
 cloudy ; our fires afforded a partial light, which if it g^ve us 
 some opportunity of taking our positions, was still more ad- 
 vantageous to the enemy, aff"ording them the means of taking 
 a surer aim ; they were, therefore, extinguished as soon as 
 possible. Under all these discouraging circumstances, the 
 troops (nineteen-twentieths of whom had never been in action 
 before) behaved in a manner that can never be too much 
 applauded. They took their places without noise and with 
 less confusion than could have been expected from veterans 
 placed in a similar situation. As soon as I could mount 
 my horse, I rode to the angle that was attacked — I found 
 that Barton's company had suffered severely and the left of 
 Geigler^s entirely broken. I immediately ordered Cook's 
 
322 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 company and the late Captain Wentworth's, under Lieute- 
 nant Peters, to be brought up from the centre of the rear 
 line, where the ground was much more defensible, and formed 
 across the angle in support of Barton's and Geigler's. My 
 attention was then engaged by a heavy firing upon the left 
 of the front line, where were stationed the small company 
 of United States riflemen (then, however, armed with 
 muskets) and the companies of Baen, Snelling, and Prescott, 
 of the 4th regiment. I found Major Daviess forming the 
 dragoons in the rear of those companies, and understanding 
 that the heaviest part of the fire proceeded from some trees 
 about fifteen or twenty paces in front of those companies, I 
 directed the major to dislodge them with a part of his dra- 
 goons. Unfortunately the major's gallantry determined 
 him to execute the order with a smaller force than was suf- 
 ficient, which enabled the enemy to avoid him in front and 
 attack his flanks. The major was mortally wounded, and 
 his party driven back. The Indians were, however, imme- 
 diately and gallantly dislodged from their advantageous po- 
 sition,, by Captain Snelling at the head of his company. In 
 the course of a few minutes after the commencement of the 
 attack, the fire extended along the left flank, the whole of 
 the front, the right flank, and part of the rear line. Upon 
 Spencer's mounted riflemen, and the right of Warwick's 
 company, which was posted on the right of the rear line, it 
 was excessively severe : Captain Spencer, and his first and 
 second lieutenants Avere killed, and Captain Warwick was 
 mortally wounded — those companies, however, still bravely 
 maintained their posts, but Spencer had suffered so severely, 
 and having originally too much ground to occupy, I rein- 
 forced them with Robb's company of riflemen, which had 
 been driven, or by mistake ordered from their position on 
 
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 323 
 
 the left flank, toward the centre of the camp, and filled the 
 vacancy that had been occupied by Robb with Prescott's 
 company of the 4th United States regiment. My great 
 object was to keep the lines entire, to prevent the enemy 
 from breaking into the camp until daylight, which should 
 enable me to make a general and effectual charge. With 
 this view, I had reinforced every part of the line that had 
 suffered much ; and as soon as the approach of morning dis- 
 covered itself, I withdrew from the front line, Snelling'a 
 Posey's, (under Lieutenant Albright,) and Scott's, and from 
 the rear line, Wilson's companies, and drew them up upon 
 the left flank, and at the same time, I ordered Cook's and 
 Baen's companies, the former from the rear, and the latter 
 from the front line, to reinforce the right flank ; fore- 
 seeing that at these points the enemy would make their 
 last efforts. Major Wells, who commanded on the left flank, 
 not knowing my intentions precisely, had taken the com- 
 mand of these companies, had charged the enemy before I 
 had formed the body of dragoons with which I meant to sup- 
 port the infantry ; a small detachment of these were, however, 
 ready, and proved amply sufficient for the purpose. The 
 Indians were driven by the infantry, at the point of the bayo- 
 net, and the dragoons pursued and forced them into a marsh, 
 where they could not be followed. Captain Cook, and Lieu- 
 tenant Larebee had, agreeably to my order, marched their 
 companies to the right flank, had formed them under the fire 
 of the enemy, and being then joined by the riflemen of that 
 flank, had charged the Indians, killed a number, and put the 
 rest to a precipitate flight. A favorable opportunity was 
 here offered, to pursue the enemy with dragoons, but being 
 engaged at that time on the other flank, I did not observe 
 it, until it was too late. 
 
824 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 " I have thus, sir, given you the particulars of an action, 
 which was "certainly maintained with the greatest bravery 
 and perseverance, by both parties. The Indians, manifested 
 a ferocity uncommon, even with them — to their savage fury 
 our troops opposed that cool and deliberate valor, which is 
 characteristic of the Christian soldier. 
 
 " The Americans in this battle had not more than seven 
 hundred efficient men, — non-commissioned officers and pri- 
 vates ; the Indians are believed to have had eight hundred 
 to one thousand warriors. The loss of the American army 
 was thirty-seven killed on the field, twenty-five mortally 
 wounded, and one hundred and twenty-six wounded, that of 
 the Indians about forty killed on the spot, the number of 
 wounded being unknown. 
 
 " The battle of Tippecanoe was fought on the 7th of No- 
 vember, and upon the 4th of the following month, Harrison 
 writes that the frontiers never enjoyed more perfect repose ; 
 though it seems to be clear that the disposition to do mischief 
 was by no means extinguished among the savages."* 
 
 The victory of Tippecanoe gave Harrison a high reputa- 
 tion among his countrymen. In the west, ho was very 
 popular. Before the surrender of Hull, at Detroit, when a 
 large volunteers force was called into the field, Harrison 
 was appointed to command the Kentucky troops. Soon 
 after, in compliance with the general wish, he was elevated 
 to the responsible post of commander-in-chief over all the 
 forces of the west and north-west. (September 17th, 1812.) 
 
 "When General Harrison found himself placed at the 
 head of military affairs in the west, his main objects were, 
 first, to drive the Indians from the western side of the De- 
 troit river ; second, to take Maiden ; and third, having thus 
 
 * Perkin's Annals of the West. 
 
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 325 
 
 secured his communications, to recapture tlie Michigan ter- 
 ritory and its dependencies. To do all this hefore winter, 
 and thus be prepared to conquer Upper Canada, Harrison 
 proposed to take possession of the Rapids of the Maumee 
 and there to concentrate his forces and his stores ; in mov- 
 ing upon this point he divided his troops into three columns, 
 the right to march from Wooster through Upper Sandusky, 
 the centre from Urbana by Fort McArthur on the heads of 
 the Scioto, and the left from St. Mary's by the Au-Glaize 
 and Maumee, — all meeting, of course, at the Rapids. This 
 plan, however, failed : the troops of the left column under 
 Winchester, worn out and starved, were found on the verge 
 of mutiny, and the mounted men of the centre, under Gene- 
 ral Tupper were unable to do any thing, partly from their 
 own want of subordination, but still more from the shiftless- 
 ness of their commander ; this condition of the troops, and 
 the prevalence of disease among them, together with the in- 
 creasing difficulty of transportation after the autumnal rain 
 sets in, forced upon the commander the conviction that he 
 must wait until the winter had bridged the streams and mo- 
 rasses with ice, and even when that had taken place he was 
 doubtful as to the wisdom of an attempt to conquer without 
 vessels on Lake Erie.* 
 
 Several expeditions against the Indian towns were under- 
 taken, and they were successful to a certain extent. In 
 December, Colonel Campbell, with about six hundred men, 
 marched against the villages on the Mississinaway, a branch 
 of the Wabash. He defeated the Indians in a severe battle, 
 and destroyed several of their towns. 
 
 After the massacre at Frenchtown, General Harrison fell 
 back to the Rapids of the Maumee, and thence to the 
 
 * Perkin's Annals of the West. 
 
 28 
 
326 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Portage, where he waited until reinforcements increased his 
 army to seventeen hundred men, and then once more ad- 
 vanced to the Rapids, where the troops were ordered to con- 
 centrate. He projected a winter campaign against Maiden ; 
 but the delay of the reinforcements frustrated the plan, and 
 he was then compelled to fortify his camp to be prepared 
 for any hostile movement of the British and Indians. 
 
 The fortified camp was called Fort Meigs. On the 28th 
 of April, 1813, a large force of British and Indians, under 
 the command of Proctor and Tecumthe, appeared before 
 the works and began to erect their batteries. Harrison 
 ordered his men to throw up a bank of earth twelve feet 
 high, and upon a basis of twenty feet, behind which the 
 whole garrison withdrew, upon the 1st of May, when the 
 enemy were ready to open their fire. 
 
 " Upon this bank the ammunition of his majesty was 
 wasted in vain, and down to the 5th, nothing was effected 
 by either party. On that day. General Clay, with twelve 
 hundred additional troops, came down the Maumee in flat- 
 boats, and, in accordance with orders received from Har- 
 rison, detached eight hundred men, under Colonel Dudley, 
 to attack the batteries upon the left bank of the river, while, 
 with the remainder of his forces, he landed upon the southern 
 shore, and after some loss and delay, fought his way into 
 camp. Dudley, on his part, succeeded perfectly in captur- 
 ing the batteries, but instead of spiking the cannon, and 
 then instantly returning to the boats, he suffered his men 
 to waste their time, and skirmish with the Indians, until 
 Proctor was able to cut them off from their only chance of 
 retreat ; taken by surprise, and disorder, the greater part 
 of the detachment became an easy prey, only one hundred 
 and fifty of the eight hundred men escaping captivity or 
 
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 327 
 
 death. This sad result was partially, though but little, al- 
 leviated by the success of a sortie made from the fort by 
 Colonel Miller, in which he captured and made useless the 
 batteries, that had been erected south of the Maumee. The 
 result of the day's doings had been sad enough for the 
 Americans, but still the British general saw in it nothing to 
 encourage him ; his cannon had done nothing, and were in 
 fact no longer of value ; his Indian allies found it ' hard to 
 fight people who lived like groundhogs ;' news of the Ameri- 
 can successes below had been received ; and additional troops 
 were approaching from Ohio and Kentucky. Proctor, weigh- 
 ing all things, determined to retreat, and upon the 9th of 
 May, returned to Maiden."* 
 
 About the middle of July, however, the enemy once more 
 appeared before Fort Meigs, and remained in the vicinity a 
 week, using various stratagems to draw the American from 
 their works. Being unsuccessful, they then proceeded to 
 Fort Stephenson. But the gallant young Croghan, who 
 commanded at that post, gave them a severe repulse, and 
 baffled their most strenuous efforts. Proctor and Tecumthe, 
 having the fear of Harrison as a spur, then hurried away 
 towards Maiden. 
 
 The victory gained by Commodore Perry, upon Lake 
 Erie, was decisive of affairs in the north-west. Harrison, 
 having received all his expected reinforcements, embarked 
 in Perry's fleet, on the 27th of September, and set sail for 
 the shores of Canada. Proctor abandoned Maiden, intend- 
 ing to make his way to the heart of Canada by way of the 
 valley of the Thames. 
 
 " On the 29th, Harrison was at Sandwich, and McArthur 
 took possession of Detroit and the territory of Michigan. At 
 * Perkin's Annals of the West. 
 
328 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 this point Colonel Johnson's mounted rifle regiment, which 
 had gone up the west side of the river, rejoined the main army. 
 On the 2d of October, the Americans began their march in 
 pursuit of Proctor, whom they overtook upon the 5th. He 
 had posted his army with the left resting on the river, while 
 the right flank was defended by a marsh ; the ground between 
 the river and the marsh was divided lengthwise by a smaller 
 swamp, so as to make two distinct fields in which the troops 
 were to operate. The British were in two lines, occupying 
 the field between the river and the small swamp ; the Indians 
 extended from the small to the large morass, the ground 
 being suitable for their mode of warfare, and unfavorable for 
 cavalry. 
 
 We quote from Harrison's official despatch ; " The troops 
 at my disposal consisted of about one hundred and twenty 
 regulars of the 27th regiment, five brigades of Kentucky volun- 
 teer militia infantry, under his excellency Governor Shelby, 
 averaging less than five hundred men, and Colonel Johnson's 
 regiment of mounted infantry, making in the whole an ag- 
 gregate of something above three thousand men. No disposi- 
 tion of an army, opposed to an Indian force, can .be safe 
 unless it is secured on the flanks and in the rear. I had, 
 therefore, no difficulty in arranging the infantry conformably 
 to my general order of battle. General Trotter's brigade 
 of five hundred men, formed the front line, his right upon 
 the road and his left upon the swamp. General King's bri- 
 gade as a second line, one hundred and fifty yards in the 
 rear of Trotter's and Chile's brigade as a corps of reserve 
 in the rear of it. These three brigades formed the command 
 of Major-General Henry; the whole of General Desha's di- 
 vision, consisting of two brigades, were formed en potence 
 upon the left of Trotter. 
 
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 329" 
 
 " Whilst I was engaged in forming the infantry, I had 
 directed Colonel Johnson's regiment, which was still in front, 
 to be formed in two lines opposite to the enemy, and' upon 
 the advance of the infantry, to take ground to the left and 
 forming upon that flank to endeavor to turn the right of the 
 Indians. A moment's reflection, however, convinced me 
 that from the thickness of the woods and swampiness of the 
 ground, they would be unable to do any thing on horseback, 
 and there was no time to dismount them and place their 
 horses in security ; I, therefore, determined to refuse my left 
 to the Indians, and to break the British lines at once, by a 
 charge of the mounted infantry : the measure was not sanc- 
 tioned by any thing that I had seen or heard of, but I was 
 fully convinced that it would succeed. The American back- 
 woodsmen ride better in the woods than any other people. 
 A musket or rifle is no impediment to them, being accustomed 
 to carry them on horseback from their earliest youth. I was 
 persuaded too, that the enemy would be quite unprepared 
 for the shock, and that they could not resist it. Conformably 
 to this idea, I directed the regiment to be drawn up in close 
 column, with its right at the distance of fifty yards from the 
 road, (that it might be in some measure protected by the 
 trees from the artillery) its left upon the swamp, and to 
 charge at full speed as soon as the enemy delivered their fire. 
 The few regular troops of the 27th regiment under their 
 Colonel (Paull) occupied, in column of section of four, the 
 small space between the road and the river, for the purpose 
 of seizing the enemy's artillery, and some ten or twelve 
 friendly Indians were directed to move under the bank. The 
 crotchet formed by the front line, and General Desha's di- 
 vision was an important point. At that place, the venerable 
 governor of Kentucky was posted, who at the age of sixty- 
 
 28* 
 
'330 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 six preserves all the vigor of youtli, the ardent zeal which 
 distinguished him in the revolutionary war, and the undaunted 
 bravery which he manifested at King's Mountain. With 
 my aid-de-camp, the acting assistant adjutant-general, Cap- 
 tain Butler, my gallant friend. Commodore Perry, who did 
 me the honor to serve as my volunteer aid-de-camp, and 
 Brigadier General Cass, who having no command, tendered 
 me his assistance, I placed myself at the head of the front 
 line of infantry, to direct the movements of the cavalry, 
 and give them the necessary support. The army had moved 
 on in this order but a short distance, when the mounted men 
 received the fire of the British ' line, and were ordered to 
 charge ; the horses in the front of the column recoiled from 
 the fire ; another was given by the enemy, and our column 
 at length getting in motion, broke through the enemy with 
 irresistible force. In one minute the contest in front Avas 
 over ; the British ofiicers seeing no hopes of reducing their 
 disordered ranks to order, and our mounted men wheeling 
 upon them and pouring in a destructive fire, immediately 
 surrendered. It is certain that three only of our troops 
 were wounded in this charge. Upon the left, however, the 
 contest was more severe with the Indians. Colonel Johnson, 
 who commanded on that flank of his regiment, received a 
 most galling fire from them, which was returned with great 
 effect. 
 
 " The Indians still further to the right advanced and 
 fell in with our front line of infantry, near its junction with 
 Desha's division, and for a moment made an impression upon 
 it. His excellency, Governor Shelby, however, brought up 
 a regiment to its support, and the enemy receiving a severe 
 fire in front, and a part of Johnson's regiment having gained 
 their rear, retreated with precipitation. Their loss was very 
 
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 331 
 
 considerable in the action, and many were killed in their 
 retreat."* 
 
 The victory of the Thames excited much rejoicing through- 
 out the north-west. The President, Mr. Madison, spoke of 
 it as "highly honorable to Major-General Harrison," and 
 Congress adopted the following resolution : 
 
 '■^ Resolvedyhy the Senate and House of Representatives 
 of the United States of America iyi Congress assemhled. That 
 the thanks of Congress be, and they are hereby, presented to 
 Major-General William Henry Harrison, and Isaac Shelby, 
 late Governor of Kentucky, and through them to the officers 
 and men under their command, for their gallant and good 
 conduct in defeating the combined British and Indian forces 
 under Major-General Proctor, on the Thames, in Upper 
 Canada, on the 5th day of October, 1813, capturing the 
 British army, with their baggage, camp equipage, and artil- 
 lery ; and that the President of the United States be re- 
 quested to cause two gold medals to be struck, emblematical 
 of this triumph, and presented to General Harrison and 
 Isaac Shelby, late Governor of Kentucky." 
 
 General Harrison's military career was now cut short by 
 the undignified conduct of the Secretary of War, General 
 Armstrong, who gave instructions to inferior officers, with- 
 out consulting the commander-in-chief, and discovered a 
 strong prejudice against him. Harrison visited Washington, 
 receiving many demonstrations of respect and gratitude 
 upon the route, and tendered his resignation. President 
 Madison was then absent from the capital, and the war de- 
 partment accepted the general's resignation without con- 
 sulting him. It is said that Mr. Madison greatly regretted 
 that he had not received some intimation of Harrison's in- 
 
 » Perkin's Annals of the West. 
 
332 LIVES OF, THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 tentions before they were fulfilled. However, the President 
 gave him a fresh token of his confidence,, by appointing 
 him, in the summer of 1814, in conjunction with Governor 
 Shelby and General Cass, to treat with the Indians at 
 Greenville. During the following year, when the treaty 
 of Ghent provided for the pacification of several important 
 tribes, he was placed at the head of the commission. 
 
 In 1816, General Harrison was chosen to represent the 
 district of Ohio, in which he resided, in the house of repre- 
 sentatives of the United States, to fill a vacancy, and for 
 the two succeeding years. He had scarcely taken his seat 
 at Washington before his conduct while in command of the 
 north-western army was impugned. At the instance of the 
 general, a committee of investigation was appointed, of 
 which Colonel Johnson was chairman. The result was a 
 triumphant vindication of the patriotism, disinterestedness, 
 and ability of the slandered soldier. 
 
 While in Congress, General Harrison labored to accom- 
 plish two important objects ; a reform in the militia, and the 
 relief of the veterans of the revolution and the disabled in 
 the late war. The first he could not effect. But the second 
 was accomplished, and many a pensioner had reason to re- 
 gard General Harrison as a benefactor. He generally con- 
 curred in the views of the statesman, Henry Clay, but did 
 not agree with him in his wholesale censure of General 
 Jackson's conduct in the Seminole war. Harrison gave 
 Jackson credit for patriotic motives, and approved of many 
 of his acts.* 
 
 In 1819, General Harrison was elected to the senate of 
 Ohio. In 1824, he was chosen one of the presidential 
 electors of that state, on the ticket formed by the friends 
 
 * Statesman's Manual. 
 
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 333 
 
 of Mr. Clay, and gave his vote for that statesman as his 
 choice for President. In the same year, he was elected a 
 member of the senate of the United States. Soon after 
 taking liis seat in that body, he was appointed chairman of 
 the military committee in place of General Jackson, who 
 had resigned. He was a supporter of the administration 
 of John Quincy Adams, and in 1828, he was appointed by 
 that President, minister plenipotentiary to the republic of 
 Columbia. 
 
 Arriving at Bogota, in December, 1828, Harrison found 
 the country in a state of confusion. Though at first re- 
 ceived with many token of respect, his plain republican 
 manners ultimately caused him to be suspected of favoring 
 the liberal party, and subjected him to many annoyances. 
 However, he was speedily relieved. One of the very first 
 acts of General Jackson's administration was to recall him 
 from the mission. Before leaving Columbia, Harrison ad- 
 dressed to General Bolivar his famous appeal in favor of 
 constitutional liberty, a document which has so often been 
 quoted in North and South America. The pure principles 
 and fervid eloquence of this appeal have always been deemed 
 highly honorable to its author. 
 
 Upon his return to the United States, General Harrison 
 retired to his farm at North Bend, on the Ohio, a few miles 
 below Cincinnati. As a means of contributing to his sup- 
 port, he accepted the ofiice of clerk to the court of Hamilton 
 county, in which he resided. This station he held up to the 
 time of election to the Presidency, evincing an utter con- 
 tempt for the false notions of dignity prevalent among those 
 who had held high office under the general government. 
 
 In 1835, the friends of General Harrison determined to 
 bring him forward as a candidate for the Presidency to sue- 
 
334 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 ceed General Jackson. Mr. Van Buren was the adminis- 
 tration candidate. The opposition could not unite in sup- 
 port of Harrison. If it had been otherwise, it is believed 
 that he might have been elected. Judge Hugh L. White, 
 of Tennessee ; Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts ; and 
 Willie P. Mangum, of North Carolina, were nominated and 
 voted for by portions of the party opposed to the succession 
 of Mr. Van Buren. The election occurred in 1836, and the 
 result showed the popularity of General Harrison. Without 
 any general concert among his friends, he received seventy- 
 three electoral votes, .and in many of the states which cast 
 their vote for Mr. Van Buren, received strong manifestations 
 of the people. 
 
 On the 4th of December, 1839, the national whig conven- 
 tion assembled at Harrisburg, the capital of Pennsylvania, 
 to nominate candidates for the Presidency and Vice Presi- 
 dency. Three well-known names were brought forward — 
 those of General Harrison, Henry Clay, and General Scott. 
 Twenty-two states were- represented in the convention, and 
 on an informal ballot per capita, it was found that Mr. Clay 
 had a decided plurality, but neither of the candidates had a 
 clear majority of the delegates. It was then determined to 
 vote by states, each state to have as many votes in the con- 
 vention as it had electoral votes. On the first ballot, one 
 hundred and three voted for Clay, ninety-four for Harrison, 
 and fifty-seven for Scott. The delegates then compared 
 their views to ascertain which of the candidates had the 
 best chance of success. Harrison's friends were successful. 
 After a session of three days, the convention took a final 
 ballot, when Harrison received one hundred and forty-eight 
 votes ; Clay, ninety ; and Scott, sixteen. General Har- 
 rison was therefore declared the nominee for the Presidency. 
 
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 335 
 
 John Tyler, of Virginia, was unanimously nominated for the 
 Vice Presidency. These gentlemen concentrated the whole 
 force of the opposition throughout the country. The con- 
 test was very spirited, but the result was the triumph of 
 Harrison and Tyler, by an overwhelming majority. Har- 
 rison received two hundred and thirty-four electoral votes ; 
 Mr. Van Buren only sixty. During the contest. General 
 Harrison attended several mass meetings, in Ohio, and ad- 
 dressed the people, with power and effect. His success 
 occasioned general rejoicing. Much was expected from his 
 well-known honesty and patriotism. 
 
 General Harrison left home for the capital, in February, 
 1841. Along his route, he was greeted by immense assem- 
 blages of the people, and treated with every mark of respect, 
 by his enthusiastic and triumphant friends. He was then 
 ^stxty^^fiv^ years of age, and his venerable appearance ex- 
 cited that attention from his opponents, which, perhaps, 
 the recollection of his public services, and of the fact that 
 he was the last President, upon whose youth Washington 
 had gazed, could not have secured. The inauguration drew 
 a vast number of strangers to Washington City, and the 
 attending pageants were of a splendid character. A grand 
 procession in the day, and several balls in the evening, 
 occupied the great throng of visitors. 
 
 The inaugural address of General Harrison was an able 
 and eloquent production. It gave a review of the powers 
 granted to the general government, and an estimate of the 
 abuses to which they were liable and had been applied. His 
 opinions were of the Jefferson stamp. He considered the 
 powers committed to the hands of the President as too sweep- 
 ing and dangerous, and declared his intention of exercising 
 them with moderation. In what other republic, has an ex- 
 
336 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 ecutive officer thus spoken ? In the republic of the ancient 
 world, the grasp of power was universal. The following 
 quotation from General Harrison's address will give an idea 
 of the character of his views. 
 
 " Upwards of half a century has elapsed since the adop- 
 tion of our present form of government. It would be an 
 object more highly desirable than the gratification of the 
 curiosity of speculative statesmen, if its precise situation could 
 be ascertained, a fair exhibit made of the operations of each 
 of its departments, of the powers which .they respectively 
 claim and exercise, of the collisions which have occurred be- 
 tween them, or between the whole government and those 
 of the states, or either of them. We could then compare 
 our actual condition, after fifty years' trial of our system, 
 with what it was in the commencement 6f its operations, and 
 ascertain whether the predictions of the patriots who op- 
 posed its adoption, or the confident hopes of its advocates, 
 have been realized. The great dread of the former seems 
 to have been, that the reserved powers of the state would 
 be absorbed by those of the federal governments, and a conso- 
 lidated power established, leaving to the states the shadow, 
 only, of that independent action for which they had so zea- 
 lously contended, and on the preservation of which they 
 relied as the last hope of liberty. Without denying that 
 the result to which they looked with so much apprehension 
 is in the way of being realized, it is obvious that they did 
 not clearly see the mode of its accomplishment. The gene- 
 ral government has seized upon none of the reserved rights 
 of the states. As far as any open warfare may have gone, 
 the state authorities have amply maintained their rights. 
 ^0 a casual observer, our system presents no appearance of 
 discord between the different members which compose it. 
 
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 337 
 
 Even the addition of many new ones has produced no jarring. 
 They move in their respective orbits in perfect harmony 
 with the central head, and with each other. But there is 
 still an under current at work, by which, if not seasonably 
 checked, the worst apprehensions of our anti-federal patriots 
 will be realized. And not only will the state authorities be 
 overshadowed by the great increase of power in the execu- 
 tive department of the general government, but the cha- 
 racter of that government, if not its designation, be essen- 
 tially and radically changed. This state of things has been, 
 in part, effected by causes inherent in the constitution, and 
 in part, by the never-failing tendency of political power to 
 to increase itself. 
 
 " By making the President the sole distributor of all the 
 patronage of the government, the framers of the constitu- 
 tion do not appear to have anticipated at how short a period 
 it would become a formidable instrument to control the free 
 operations of the state governments. Of trifling importance 
 at first, it had, early in Mr. Jefferson's administration, be- 
 come so powerful as to create great alarm in the mind of 
 that patriot, from the potent influence it might exert in 
 controlling the freedom of the elective franchise.- If such 
 could have then been the effects of its influence, how much 
 greater must be the danger at this time, quadrupled in 
 amount, as it certainly is, and more completely under the 
 control of the executive will, than their construction of their 
 limited powers allowed, or the forbearing characters of all 
 the early Presidents permitted them to make ? But it is 
 not by the extent of its patronage alone that the executive 
 department has become dangerous, but by the use which it 
 appears may be made of the appointing power, to bring 
 under its control the whole revenues of the country. The 
 29 
 
338 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 constitution has declared it to be the duty of the President 
 to see that the laws are executed, and it makes him the 
 commander-in-chief of the armies and navy of the United 
 States. If the opinion of the most approved writers upon 
 that species of mixed government, which, in modern Eu- 
 rope, is termed monarchy, In contradistinction to despotism, 
 is correct, there was wanting no other addition to the 
 powers of our chief magistrate to stamp a monarchical cha- 
 racter on our government, but the control of the public 
 finances. And to me it appears strange indeed, that any one 
 should doubt that the entire control which the President 
 possesses over the officers who have the custody of the public 
 money, by the power of removal, with or without cause, 
 does, for all mischievous purposes at least, virtually subject 
 the treasury also to his disposal." 
 
 President Harrison nominated the following gentlemen 
 to form his cabinet : Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, Se- 
 cretary of State ; Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, Secretary of the 
 Treasury ; John Bell, of Tennessee, Secretary of War ; 
 George C. Badger, of North Carolina, Secretary of the 
 Navy ; Francis Granger, of New York, Postmaster-General ; 
 John J. Crittenden, of Kentucky, Attorney-General. The 
 nominations were all confirmed by the senate. The cabinet 
 was one of great ability, and much was expected from its 
 administration. 
 
 On the 17th of March, President Harrison issued a pro- 
 clamation, calling an extra session of Congress, principally 
 on account of the revenue and finances of the country, to 
 begin on the last Monday in the ensuing May. But before 
 that meeting, the country was called upon to mourn the loss 
 of its chief magistrate. 
 
 On Saturday, March 27th, President Harrison, after 
 
WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON. 339 
 
 several days previous indisposition from the effects of a cold 
 was seized with a chill and other symptoms of fever. These 
 were followed by bilious pleurisy, which resisted all the art 
 of medicine, and terminated the President's eventful life on 
 the 4th of April, at the age of sixty-eight years. The last 
 words he was heard to speak were as follows : " Sir, I wish 
 you to understand the principles of the government. I wish 
 them carried out. I ask nothing more." He fancied he was 
 addressing his successor. 
 
 At the announcement of the death of the President, grief 
 was general throughout the country. Never since the time 
 of Washington has one man so concentrated upon himself 
 the love and confidence of the American people.* From 
 all sides came the sounds of woe. The nation put on mourn- 
 ing for the loss of its patriotic son and venerated ruler. On 
 the 7th of April, the funeral of President Harrison took 
 place at Washington. The civil and military procession was 
 large and imposing. The body was interred in the Congres- 
 sional burying ground, but afterwards removed to North Bend, 
 Ohio, at the request of the family of General Harrison. 
 Throughout the country funeral honors were awarded to the 
 memory of the illustrious dead. In courts, legislatures, 
 churches, and societies, the event was solemnly mentioned. 
 
 In person, General Harrison was tall and rather thin. 
 By habits of activity and temperance he enjoyed bodily health 
 and vigor even at an advanced age. He had a mild benevo- 
 lent expression of countenance, and his dark eye was remark- 
 able for its quickness and fire. His talents were of a very 
 high order, and his acquirements extensive. All his compo- 
 sitions display taste and judgment. As a general, he was 
 bold, active, prudent and fertile of resource. • 
 
 * National Intelligencer. 
 
TYLER. 
 
|ol)(| iDleh 
 
 Virginia has been called "the mother of Presidents." 
 Of the thirteen chief magistrates whom the people have 
 chosen, seven were born in Virginia, viz.: Washington, Jef- 
 ferson, Madison, Monroe, Harrison, Tyler, and Taylor. 
 May the Old Dominion have many more "such seeds within 
 her breast !" Her warriors, orators, and statesmen, have 
 proved to be of a growth unsurpassed in any country — the 
 flower of mankind. Their swords, pens, and tongues have 
 battled upon the side of freedom and independence, and 
 they have held the helm of state with firm and skilful hands. 
 If Virginia should continue to produce such men, her sister 
 states can well afford to allow her to lift them to the 
 presidential chair. 
 
 John Tyler, who succeeded General Harrison in the pre- 
 sidential office, was the sixth chief magistrate whose birth- 
 place was in the " Old Dominion." His ancestors were 
 among the early English settlers in that province. It is 
 understood that the family traces its lineage to Walter or 
 Wat Tyler, who, in the fourteenth century, headed an in- 
 surrection in England, in defence of the rights of the people. 
 John Tyler, the grandfather of the subject of this memoir, 
 was marshal of the colony, under the royal government, up 
 to his death, which occurred after the remonstrances against 
 
 (345J 
 
346 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 the stamp act. His patrimonial estate covered a large tract 
 of country in and about Williamsburg. His son, also named 
 John, entered into the discussion concerning the grievances 
 of the colonies, and became distinguished as an ardent pa- 
 triot. The Virginians successively raised him to the offices 
 of speaker of the house of delegates, governor of the state, 
 and judge of one of their highest courts. At the breaking 
 out of the war of 1812, he was appointed by President Ma- 
 dison, a judge of the federal court of admiralty. In Feb- 
 ruary, 1813, he died, full of years and honors, leaving three 
 sons, Wat, John, and William.* 
 
 John Tyler, the subject of this memoir, was born in Charles 
 City County, Virginia, on the 29th of March, 1790. After 
 receiving the usual elementary education, he entered Wil- 
 liam and Mary College, being then twelve years old. He 
 graduated- at the age of seventeen, and on that occasion 
 delivered an address on the subject of " female education," 
 which was pronounced by the faculty a most masterly per- 
 formance. The two years subsequent to his graduation, 
 Mr. Tyler spent in reading law, under the instruction of his 
 father and Edmund Randolph. 
 
 At nineteen years of age, young Tyler received a certifi- 
 cate that he was competent to practise his profession. His 
 success was singular. Ere three months had elapsed, there 
 was scarce a disputable case on the docket of the court 
 in which he was not retained. When but twenty years old, 
 he was offered a seat in the legislature. But he declined 
 the honor until the following year, when he was chosen 
 nearly unanimously, a member of the house of delegates. 
 (December, 1811.) 
 
 Mr. Tyler was attached to the party of Jefferson and 
 
 * Statesman's Manual. 
 
JOHN TYLER. 847 
 
 Madison. Upon the breaking out of the war, he supported 
 the policy of the administration, and advocated with an 
 eloquence that attracted general attention, the most ener- 
 getic measures. Messrs. Giles and Brent, the senators in 
 Congress from Virginia, at that time, were instructed by 
 the legislature to vote against the renewal of the charter of 
 the national bank. Mr. Brent disobeyed. Mr, Tyler then 
 introduced a resolution of censure into the house of dele- 
 gates, animadverting severely upon the course of the senator, 
 and laying it down as a principle, that any person accept- 
 ing the office of senator of the United States, from the state 
 of Virginia, tacitly bound himself to obey the instructions 
 of the legislature. This movement, in favor of the much 
 discussed "right of instruction," shows Mr. Tyler to have 
 entertained the broadest democratic opinions. He was 
 elected to the legislature for five successive years, on some 
 occasions, receiving nearly the unanimous vote of his native 
 county. 
 
 At the time the British forces were in the Chesapeake 
 Bay, Mr. Tyler raised a volunteer company, and strove to 
 effect a thorough organization of the militia in his neighbor- 
 hood. But he never had an opportunity of bringing his 
 troops into action, and his military career was therefore 
 nipped in the bud. His conduct, however, evinces his 
 patriotism and desire to serve his country. 
 
 During the legislative session of 1815-16, Mr. Tyler 
 was elected a member of the executive council, in which 
 capacity he served until November, 1816, when after a close 
 and exciting contest, he was elected to fill a vacancy in the 
 representation of the Richmond district in Congress. An- 
 drew Stevenson, a distinguished politician of the same 
 Bchool as Mr. Tyler, was the opposing candidate. The next 
 
848 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 month, Mr. Tyler, then twenty-six years old, took his seat 
 in the house of representatives of the United States. In 
 April, 1817, he was re-elected by an overwhelming majority 
 over his former rival, Mr. Stevenson. 
 
 In Congress Mr. Tyler maintained the state-right, strict- 
 construction doctrines of the dominant party in Virginia. 
 He opposed a system of internal improvements and a national 
 hank ; but agreed with Mr. Clay and others in censuring 
 the conduct of General Jackson in the Seminole War. His 
 speeches brought him into general esteem. In 1819, he was 
 re-elected to Congress, there being no opposing candidate. 
 He took an active part in the debate upon the Missouri ques- 
 tion, sanctioning the southern side, opposed a protective tariff, 
 and labored earnestly as a member of the committee of ways 
 and means. Constant toil and confinement almost prostrated 
 a constitution naturally weak. Mr. Tyler was compelled to 
 resign his seat before the expiration of the term, and retire 
 to his estate in Charles City county, to recruit his health. 
 At the same time he recommended his former rival, Andrew 
 Stevenson, to the favor of his constituents. 
 
 In the spring of 1823, after much urgent solicitation, Mr. 
 Tyler consented to become again a candidate for the legis- 
 lature. He was elected by a large majority, and in Decem- 
 ber, he took his seat. As a legislator for his native state, 
 lie soon displayed rare energy and talent. He took the lead 
 in proposing and carrying through a number of internal im- 
 provements of great importance, and strove to awaken the 
 Virginians to a sense of the necessity of action if they would 
 not fall behind the people of the other states in power and 
 prosperity. Many of the finest public works in the state 
 were the fruit of his toil. In the legislature, his reputation 
 as an orator and statesman was fully established. 
 
JOHN TYLER. 849 
 
 In December, 1825, Mr. Tyler was elected governor of 
 Virginia by a large majority. His administration was pros- 
 perous and beneficial. Internal improvements still engaged 
 his attention, and he did all in his power to heal sectional 
 divisions, and awaken the people to their true interests. In 
 July, 1826, he delivered an eloquent eulogy on the death of 
 Thomas Jefferson. During the next session of the legisla- 
 lature, Mr. Tyler was re-elected governor of Virginia. 
 
 But it was thought that the talents of Mr. Tyler would 
 be advantageously employed in the national field. A por- 
 tion of the democratic party were dissatisfied with the course 
 pursued by John Randolph in the senate of the United States. 
 His genius and principles were admitted to be of the loftiest 
 stamp, but his eccentric bearing and frequent onslaught upon 
 democrats, prevented him from receiving that respect and 
 deference that is usually the reward of dignified manners. 
 Governor Tyler was the only man who possessed sufficient 
 popularity to succeed against Mr. Randolph, and he was so- 
 licited to stand as a candidate. He consented, but reluc- 
 tantly and after much persuasion. Upon the first ballot in 
 the legislature, he received one hundred and fifteen votes, 
 and John Randolph one hundred and ten. This proof of 
 confidence was highly gratifying to the feelings of Mr. Tyler. 
 Their selection was generally sanctioned by the Virginians. 
 
 A few days after his election to the senate of the United 
 States, Mr. Tyler sent to the legislature his resignation of 
 the office of governor. The following is an extract from his 
 message on this occasion : 
 
 " The principles on which I have acted,without abandon- 
 ment, in any one instance, for the last sixteen years, in Con- 
 gress and in the legislative hall of this state, will be the 
 principles by which I will regulate my future political life. 
 
 30 
 
350 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Keeping them constantly in view, yielding them neither to 
 the force of circumstances nor to the suggestions of expe- 
 diency, and thereby seeking to promote the lasting interests 
 of my beloved country, if I do not acquire the individual 
 confidence of Virginia, I shall at least have preserved my 
 own consistency, and secured the peace of my mind through 
 the days of my increasing years, and in the hour of my final 
 dissolution." 
 
 Upon the occasion of his retirement from the chief magis- 
 tracy of the state, he was invited to a piiblic dinner, by a 
 large number of the members of the legislature, and of the 
 citizens of Richmond. In answer to the following toast — 
 " John Tyler our friend and guest — a republican too firm to 
 be driven from his principles — too upright to be swerved by 
 the laws of ambition or power" — Mr. Tyler, among other 
 remarks, said : 
 
 " I can be at no loss to ascribe this manifestation of public 
 respect to its proper source. It flows from the late senatorial 
 election, and the incidents connected with it. I place upon 
 it, therefore, the highest possible value. The recesses of 
 my heart have been attempted to be scanned with the view 
 of detecting some lurking wish at variance with my public 
 declarations. Had I desired a change, what was there to 
 have prevented me from openly seeking it ? Are not the 
 offices of the republic equally open to all citizens ? When 
 was an exclusive monopoly established ? or when was it 
 before that ' Rome contained but one man' ? Virginia, thank 
 Heaven, depends on no one of her citizens, however distin- 
 guished by talents, for her character or standing. She has 
 been compared to the mother of the Gracchi, and I trust 
 she may still be permitted to be proud of her sons. For one 
 who had been taught in early infancy that golden rule, that, 
 
JOHN TYLER. 351 
 
 next to his Creator, his first duty belonged to his country, 
 and his last to himself, how could I have stood acquitted, 
 had I jDermitted private considerations to have controlled the 
 obligations of public duty ? By accepting the appointment, 
 while I interfered with the pretensions of no other citizen, 
 I have acquitted myself of a sacred obligation." 
 
 After speaking at large upon the administration, and 
 what he had hoped would have been the policy of Mr. Adams, 
 he said : 
 
 " Candor requires me here publicly to say, that his first 
 splendid message to Congress long since withered all my 
 hopes. I saw in it an almost total disregard of the federa- 
 tive principle — a more latitudinous construction of the con- 
 stitution than has ever before been insisted on ; lying not 
 so much in the particular measures recommended — which, 
 though bad enough, had some excuse in precedent — as in 
 the broad and general principles there laid down as the 
 basis of governmental duty. From the moment of seeing 
 that message, all who have known any thing of me have 
 known that I stood distinctly opposed to this administration ; 
 not from a factious spirit, nor with a view to elevate a favo- 
 rite, or to advance myself, but on the great principles which 
 have regulated my past life. I honestly believe the preser- 
 vation of the federative principles of our government to be 
 inseparably connected with the perpetuation of liberty."* 
 
 As soon as Mr. Tyler took his seat in the senate, he 
 joined the ranks of the opposition. On all occasions he up- 
 held the doctrines so popular in Virginia, concerning the 
 powers of the general government, and the commercial po- 
 licy of the country. When General Jackson succeeded Mr. 
 Adams in the presidential chair, Mr. Tyler supported his 
 * Statesman's Manual. 
 
352 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 administration in general, but on certain occasions, pursued 
 an independent course. Where the President acted accord- 
 ing to the Jeffersonian views of the powers of the general 
 government, he was ably supported by Mr. Tyler, and 
 most of the southern members. They opposed the re-charter- 
 ing the national bank, a tariff for the chief purpose of pro- 
 tecting home industry, and a national system of internal 
 improvements. Mr. Tyler's speech against the tariff, was 
 long, earnest, eloquent, and forcible. He sympathized with 
 Mr. Calhoun and his friends upon the question of nullifica- 
 tion, and thereafter withdrew his support from General 
 Jackson's administration, on the ground that the President 
 had abandoned the principles of Jefferson. Mr. Tyler's is 
 the only vote recorded in opposition to the force bill. The 
 removal of the deposites excited his determined resistance. 
 He considered the act an outrage upon the laws. Though 
 anxious for the destruction of the national banking system, 
 he wished it to die by law. 
 
 Mr. Tyler was re-elected to the senate of the United 
 States for six years from the 4th of March, 1833. As a 
 member of the committee of finance, he labored with zeal 
 and ability. Having made a voluminous report upon the 
 condition and affairs of the United States Bank, he found 
 it furiously attacked by Mr. Benton, of Missouri. In reply, 
 Mr. Tyler made a speech worthy of his position and repu- 
 tation. He said, 
 
 " He has loudly talked of the committee having been 
 made an instrument of by the bank. For myself, I re- 
 nounce the ascription. I must tell the senator that I can 
 no more be made an instrument of by the bank, than by the 
 Btill greater and more formidable power, the administration. 
 I stand upon this floor to accomplish the purposes for which 
 
JOHN TYLER. 353 
 
 I am sent. In the consciousness of my ovm honesty, I 
 stand firm and erect. I worship alone at the shrine of truth 
 and honor. It is a precious thing in the eyes of some, to 
 bask in the sunshine of power. I rest only upon the sup- 
 port which has never failed me — the high and lofty feelings 
 of my constituents. I would not be an instrument even in 
 their hands, if it were possible for them to require it of me, 
 to gratify an unrighteous motive. 
 
 " The committee, in their investigations, have sought for 
 nothing but the truth. I am opposed — have always been 
 opposed — to the bank. In its creation I regard the consti- 
 tution as having been violated, and I desire to see it expire. 
 But the senate appointed me, with others, to inquire whether 
 it was guilty of certain charges, and I should regard myself 
 as the basest of mankind were I to charge it falsely. The 
 report is founded on unquestionable documentary evidence. 
 I shall hold myself ready to answer all the objections which 
 can be raised against it, and to prove, from the documents 
 themselves, that the report is made with the utmost fairness, 
 and the most scrupulous regard to truth." 
 
 In March, 1835, near the close of the session, Mr. Tyler 
 was elected president of the senate, pro tempore, by the 
 united votes of the whig and state-rights senators. In Feb- 
 ruary, 1836, the legislature of Virginia passed resolutions 
 instructing senators from that state to vote for a resolution 
 directing the resolution of March 28th, 1834, censuring the 
 conduct of General Jackson, to be expunged from the jour- 
 nal of the senate. Mr. Leigh, the colleague of Mr. Tyler, 
 refused to obey or resign his seat, and wrote a long and 
 able letter in defence of his course. He considered the 
 expunging resolution unconstitutional, and was of opinion 
 that the legislature had no right to instruct him to sanction 
 30* 
 
854 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 a violation of that constitution lie had sworn to support. 
 Mr. Tyler took a diflFerent course. He had advocated " the 
 right of instruction," while in the legislature, and he could 
 not now gainsay that right, with any regard for truth or 
 consistency. Yet he believed the expunging resolution to 
 be unconstitutional, and that he could not violate his oath, 
 as a senator of the United States. To resign appeared to 
 him to be the proper course, and accordingly, he sent in 
 his resignation, with a letter reviewing the political principles 
 which had guided his life. 
 
 On retiring to his estate and the practice of his profession, 
 Mr. Tyler carried with him the good wishes of the majority 
 in Virginia, and throughout the union. His course was 
 considered that of a true and firm Jeffersonian. A public 
 dinner was ^tendered Mr. Leigh and himself, and compli- 
 ments were showered upon them both. In 1830, Mr. Tyler 
 had removed from Charles City county to Gloucester, where 
 his family resided until 1835. He then returned to Wil- 
 liamsburg, and devoted himself to private pursuits. 
 
 In the same year, Mr. Tyler was nominated in Maryland 
 for the Vice Presidency, and was placed upon the same 
 ticket with General Harrison. He was not considered the 
 whig candidate for that office, however. The state-rights 
 party in the south generally supported him. At the elec- 
 tion in 1836, he received forty-seven electoral votes. In the 
 spring of 1838, Mr. Tyler was elected by the whigs of James 
 City county, a member of the house of delegates of Virginia, 
 and during the subsequent session of the legislature, he 
 acted with the whig party, under which name the different 
 sections of the opposition to Mr. Van Buren's administration 
 were amalgamated. 
 
 A nobler, but a more doubtfully acted, part was now to 
 
JOHJ^ TYLEK. 355 
 
 be performed by Mr. Tyler. In 1839, he was elected one 
 of tlie delegates from Virginia to the whig national conven- 
 tion, which met at Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, to nominate 
 candidates for President and Vice President of the United 
 vStates. In common with nearly all the southern delegates, 
 he preferred Henry Clay, of Kentucky. Being chosen one 
 of the vice presidents of the convention, Mr. Tyler exerted 
 himself to procure the nomination of Mr. Clay. But Gene- 
 lal Harrison obtained a majority of votes. To conciliate 
 the irritated friends of the Kentucky statesmen, the con- 
 vention then nominated Mr. Tyler for the Vice Presidency, 
 and he consented to stand as a candidate. The acceptance 
 of a nomination from a party with whom he did not entirely 
 agree in opinion was a questionable course of action. But 
 it is urged by Mr. Tyler's friends, that when he consented 
 to stand as the candidate for the whigs, he did not believe 
 that he would be required to give his influence to the esta- 
 blishment of a national bank, and that such a course could 
 not have been expected by any one who was acquainted with 
 his previous political career. Probably, the convention 
 acted with as little discretion in making the nomination a3 
 Mr. Tyler did in accepting it. No man should be nominated 
 for the Vice Presidency who cannot be trusted with the 
 Presidency. The speeches, letters, and declarations of Mr. 
 Tyler, during the canvass of 1840, were satisfactory to the 
 whigs, who interpreted them to assist their expectations. 
 The party was triumphant. Harrison and Tyler were elected 
 by an overwhelming majority, and both Houses of Congress 
 were of the whig complexion. 
 
 On the 4th of March, 1841, Mr. Tyler was inaugurated 
 Vice President of the United States, and one month after- 
 wards, by the death of General Harrison, he became Presi- 
 
356 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 dent. Mr. Tyler was at his residence in Virginia, when 
 the news of the death of the President was announced to 
 him. He immediately hurried to Washington, arriving on 
 the morning of the 6th of April. The members of the 
 cabinet waited on him, and he informed them that he wished 
 them to retain their posts. He then took the oath of office. 
 On the following day, he attended the funeral of President 
 Harrison. After the solemnities were concluded, he issued 
 an address to the people of the United States, as an informal 
 inaugural document, setting forth the principles which should 
 guide his administration. The retention of the cabinet and 
 the tone and sentiments of the inaugural address inspired 
 the whigs with confidence. 
 
 An extra session of congress had been convened by Pre- 
 sident Harrison. In this measure, Mr. Tyler concurred. 
 One of his first acts was to recommend a day of fast- 
 ing and prayer to the people of the United States, on ac- 
 count of their recent bereavement. The removals and 
 appointments made by the new chief magistrate were satis- 
 factory to the whigs. When Congress assembled upon the 
 31st of May, 1841, it was debated in the house, Vthether 
 Mr. Tyler should be addressed as President of the United 
 States, or as Vice President, acting as President, and de- 
 cided in favor of the first form. The message of the Presi- 
 dent was well received. The veto of the national bank was 
 the great feature of Mr. Tyler's administration. 
 
 On the 12th of June, the Secretary of the Treasury, Mr. 
 Ewing made a report, and with it sent a bill for the incorpo- 
 ration of " the fiscal bank of the United States." This plan 
 for a bank was free from all the objectionable features of the 
 former fiscal institutions, and was supposed to have the ap- 
 probation of the President. A bill similar in substance was 
 
JOHN TYLEK. 857 
 
 introduced in Congress, and finally passed on the 6tli of 
 August, and sent to the President for his decision. The 
 President retained the bill until the 16th of August, and then 
 returned it to the senate in which it originated, with his veto 
 message. This bewildered the whigs. Their leaders remon- 
 .strated with the President, and^ sought to repair the evil 
 effects which threatened the party with dissolution. They 
 had yet a hope. In his veto message he shadowed out the plan 
 of a bank which he said had long been endeared to him, that 
 of a fiscal agent devested of the discounting power and limited 
 to dealing in bills of national exchange. By the 3d of Sep- 
 tember, a bill, establishing -a bank of this character, passed 
 Congress and was presented to the President. On the 9th, 
 he returned it to the house of representatives, with his objec- 
 tions. The following day it was taken up in the house, but 
 Avas lost, two-thirds not voting for it. 
 
 The reasons which induced President Tyler to veto the 
 last bank bill were not of a nature to satisfy the whigs that 
 he had acted with any degree of sincerity. It is now certain 
 that the disclosure of an intention upon the part of a member 
 of the ruling party ijo circumvent the man whom they had 
 elected to office had much influence in determining his course. 
 A letter from John M. Botts, an eminent whig of Virginia, 
 which contained expressions of a resolution to "head" the 
 President was published in the administration organ, the 
 Madisonian. How could it be expected that Mr. Tyler should 
 favor the schemes of a party which treated him in such a 
 manner. Still, this disclosure would not justify the veto of 
 a great public measure. The President brought forward 
 constitutional objections to the bill to support his course. 
 
 The veto was received by the opposition with exultation. 
 They applauded Mr. Tyler's independence, though they did 
 
858 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 not give him any reason to hope that he would become the 
 head of the democratic party and a candidate for re-election. 
 On the other hand, the great body of the whigs throughout 
 the country were indignant, and denounced the President as 
 a recreant. On the 11th of September, all the members of 
 the cabinet, except Mr. Webster, feeling that all confidence 
 between the President and themselves was at an end, resigned. 
 Mr. Webster concluded to remain in the cabinet, believing 
 that he could harmonize with Mr. Tyler upon the subject of 
 foreign relations, and that differences upon the questions of 
 revenue ought not to disturb their relations. 
 
 On the 11th of September, the whig members of Congress 
 held a meeting, and appointed a committee of three senators 
 and five members of the house, to prepare an address to the 
 people of the United States, concerning the measures which 
 had been adopted and those which had failed at the extra 
 session, with such other matters as might exhibit the condi- 
 tion and prospects of the whig party. The address Avhich 
 was adopted proclaimed that all political alliance between 
 the whigs and Mr. Tyler was at an end and set forth the 
 reasons of the state of things. 
 
 Bui'ing the extra session, a protective tariff bill, a bill for 
 the appropriation of the proceeds of the sales of public lands, 
 and a uniform bankrupt law, passed Congress and received 
 the sanction of the President. Mr. Tyler had previously 
 been opposed to the protective tariff. That he now approved 
 one gave rise to considerable speculation in regard to his 
 real views. 
 
 It was expected the new cabinet would be formed out of 
 the democratic ranks. But the President ajipointed the fol- 
 lowing distinguished whigs and conservatives to office. Walter 
 Forward, of Pennsylvania, Secretary of the Treasury ; John 
 
JOHN TYLER. 359 
 
 McLean, of Ohio, Secretary of War ; Abel P. Upshur, of 
 Virginia, Secretary of the Navy ; Charles A. Wickliffe, of 
 Kentucky, Postmaster-General ; Hugh S. Legare, of South 
 Carolina, Attorney-General. These nominations were all 
 confirmed by the senate previous to the termination of the 
 extra session. Judge McLean declined to resign his seat on 
 the bench of the supreme court, and John C. Spencer was 
 then appointed to take charge of the war department. 
 
 In the next congressional session, the President found that 
 he could not count upon the support of either party. Mr. 
 Rives, in the senate, and four or five whigs in the house were 
 his only reliable friends. The hopes of forming a third party 
 were shown to be fruitless and vain. In 1842, an important 
 treaty was negotiated at Washington, by Secretary Webster, 
 and Lord Ashburton, a special minister from Great Britain, 
 settling the north-eastern boundary question, providing for 
 the final suppression of the African slave trade, and for the 
 surrender of fugitives from justice, in certain cases. By 
 this treaty, the greatest good feeling was restored between 
 the two nations. 
 
 The 28th Congress commenced its first session on the 
 4th of December, 1843, and adjourned on the 17th of June 
 1844. There was a large democratic majority in the house 
 of representatives. The whigs had a majority in the senate. 
 In consequence of the disagreement between the two houses 
 but few acts of general interest were passed this session. In 
 March, 1843, Mr. Forward resigned the post of Secretary 
 of the Treasury, and John C. Spencer was transferred from 
 the war department to that of the treasury. Caleb Gushing 
 had been previously nominated to the treasury department, 
 but had been rejected by the senate. Mr. Webster resio-ned 
 the office of Secretary of State, in May, 1843, and Hugh S. 
 
360 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Legare, Attorney General was appointed in his place. But 
 the latter gentleman soon after died at Boston. In July, 
 1843, the President re-organized his cabinet, as follows . 
 Abel P. Upshur, of Virginia, Secretary of State ; John C. 
 Spencer, of New York, Secretary of the Treasury ; James 
 M. Porter, of Pennsylvania, Secretary of War ; David Hen- 
 shaw, of Massachusetts, Secretary of the Navy ; Charles A. 
 Wickliffe, of Kentucky, Postmaster General ; John Nelson, 
 of Maryland, Attorney General. At the next session, the 
 senate rejected the nomination of Messrs. Porter and Hen- 
 shaw. The President then nominated William Wilkins, of 
 Pennsylvania, Secretary of War ; and Thomas W. Gilmer, 
 of Virginia, for Secretary of the Navy, and they were con- 
 firmed by the senate. But the cabinet was destined to 
 further shifts and changes. By the explosion of one of the 
 large guns of the steamship Princeton, on the Potomac, the 
 Secretary of State, Mr. Upshur, and the Secretary of the 
 Navy, Mr. Gilmer, lost their lives. In consequence of this 
 catastrophe, and of the difficulty of choosing successors to 
 the unfortunate ministers. Attorney General Nelson dis- 
 charged the duties of Secretary of State, and Commodore 
 Warrington officiated as Secretary of the Navy, ad interim. 
 Finally, the President appointed John C. Calhoun, of South 
 Carolina, Secretary of State, and John Y. Mason, of Vir- 
 ginia, Secretary of the- Navy; both of these nominations 
 were confirmed by the senate. In May, 1844, Mr. Spencer 
 resigned the office of Secretary of the Treasury, and George 
 M. Bibb, of Kentucky, was appointed in his place. 
 
 The negotiation of a valuable treaty with China, by Caleb 
 Cushing, Esq. in 1843, the commissioner to that country, 
 and the Texas annexation treaty, negotiated at Washington, 
 April 12th, 1844, by Secretary Calhoun, on the part of the 
 
JOHN TYLER. 361 
 
 United States, and Messrs. Van Zandt and Henderson, on 
 the part of Texas, were the most important events of the 
 remainder of Mr. Tyler's administration. The senate con- 
 firmed the treaty with China, but rejected the annexation 
 scheme. It was evident, however, that the Texas question 
 would enter into the next presidential election, and Mr* 
 Tyler's friends strove to make it the stepping stone for his 
 accession to a second term. 
 
 The national conventions of the great political parties 
 were held in Baltimore, in May, 1844. Henry Clay, of 
 Kentucky, and Theodore Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey, 
 were chosen by the whigs as their candidates for the two 
 highest offices in the nation. Mr. Clay was nominated by 
 the most enthusiastic acclamations. In the democratic con- 
 vention, Mr. Van Buren had a plurality of votes ; but he 
 was opposed to the annexation of Texas, and it had been 
 determined by the democratic party that the candidate must 
 favor the scheme. Two thirds of the votes were required 
 to make a nomination, and these, Mr. Van Buren could not 
 obtain. At length, after eight ballotings, James K. Polk, 
 of Tennessee, received the nomination. Silas Wright, of 
 New York, was nominated for the Vice Presidency, but he 
 declined, and George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania, was then 
 nominated in his stead. A convention of Mr. Tyler's friends 
 was held in Baltimore, about the same time, and he was 
 placed before the people as a candidate for re-election. But 
 in August, Mr. Tyler yielded to the persuasions of the de- 
 mocrats and threw his influence into the scale in favor of 
 Messrs. Polk and Dallas. Those gentlemen were elected 
 after a very exciting contest. 
 
 Joint resolutions, annexing Texas to the Union, passed 
 Congress on the 1st March, 1845, and were approved by 
 
 31 
 
362 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 President Tyler. The administration ended on the 3d of 
 March. Mr. Tyler's last act was what is called " the pocket 
 veto," which he exercised by retaining the river and harbor 
 appropriation bill over the time specified by the constitution. 
 Mr. Tyler generally surrounded himself with able advisers, 
 and his government was vigorous and decided. But he re- 
 tired from office without the regret of either party. Indeed, 
 he has ever since received the most bitter denunciations 
 fiom the whigs. He has been accused not only of a want 
 of judgment, but of a want of good faith. That he was a 
 determined man, the whigs will be forced to concede, when 
 they consider his resistance to an able cabinet and a 
 large party in power ; and before he became President his 
 intellectual excellencies were generally admitted. 
 
 In person, Mr. Tyler is rather tall and thin, with a light 
 complexion, blue eyes, high forehead and prominent nose. 
 Ilis manners are simple and affable, and his whole bearing 
 in private life is of a character to win him friends. In 
 1813, Mr. Tyler, when twenty-three years old, married 
 Miss Letitia Christian, of Kent county, Virginia. This 
 amiable and accomplished lady died at Washington, in Sep- 
 tember, 1842, leaving three sons and three daughters. On 
 the 26th of June, 1844, Mr. Tyler was again married, to 
 Miss Julia Gardiner, of New York, a daughter of Mr. David 
 Gardiner, who was killed by an explosion on board the 
 steamship Princeton. The lady was young, beautiful, and 
 wealthy. Since his retirement from the Presidency, Mr. 
 Tyler has resided at his seat near Williamsburg, Virginia, 
 in the enjoyment of the society of his friends. 
 
P L K. 
 
J^ii()e^ %j}oi fo% 
 
 The persons who were elevated to the presidential chair 
 in the early days of the republic were long before the people 
 and were long mentioned in connection with that high office 
 ere they were brought forward as regular candidates. Their 
 powers and acquirements were generally known, though dif- 
 ferently estimated. When they were presented as candidates, 
 nobody was surprised, and nobody was doubtful as to their 
 qualifications and the character of their policy. These persons 
 had either passed through a regular gradation of offices or 
 were known for some particular service done for the country, 
 either in the field or in the council. Latterly, however, 
 there has been evinced a different state of affairs. Parties, 
 more anxious for systems and measures than men have been 
 satisfied to place in nomination persons who, although with- 
 out great administrative genius or a very extensive experi- 
 ence in state affairs have fixed political principles, strong 
 practical sense and an honest determination. The history 
 of the world has satisfied the people, that though genius is 
 of much value, the pure and patriotic will should be ranked 
 above it, and — a still higher truth — that men are frail — in- 
 stitutions, certain and reliable. The nomination of James 
 K. Polk, of Tennessee, for the Presidency, surprised the 
 
 (367) 
 
368 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 great body of the democratic party. Even those who were 
 acquainted with his talents and acquirements had not looked 
 for such a consummation. His opponents delighted to in- 
 quire — " Who is James K. Polk ? " But the election proved 
 that the whole democratic party could rally to the support 
 of a man, who, to the best of his ability, would carry into 
 effect democratic measures. 
 
 The name Polk is a corruption of Pollock, originally Scotch, 
 and corrupted in Ireland. The founder of the Polk family 
 in America was Robert Polk, who emigrated from Ireland 
 to the eastern shore of Maryland, between 1735 and 1740. 
 Some of his descendants are still to be found in that state. 
 Other members of the family, including Thomas, Ezekiel and 
 Charles Polk, followed the current of emigration which swept 
 onward to the base of the Alleghanies, and located tempo- 
 rarily in the neighborhood of Carlisle, in Pennsylvania. 
 Thence, the three brothers, Thomas, Ezekiel and Charles, 
 removed to the south-western frontier of North Carolina, 
 about 1750, and settled in the county of Mecklenburg, then 
 a part of Anson county. Ezekiel subsequently changed his 
 residence to South Carolina. Thomas, who, as the eldest 
 was considered the head of the family, has the credit of the 
 principal agency in bringing about the famous Mecklenburg 
 Declaration of Independence, which preceded the one issued 
 at Philadelphia by more than a year. It is certain, that both 
 he and Ezekiel were staunch and resolute patriots in the 
 revolution. 
 
 James Knox Polk was born in Mecklenburg county, 
 North Carolina, on the 2d day of November, 1795, and was 
 the oldest of ten children. His father was Samuel Polk, 
 a son of Ezekiel Polk. His mother was Jane Knox, the 
 daughter of James Knox, after whom her eldest son was 
 
JAMES KNOX POLK. 869 
 
 named, a resident of Iredell county, North Carolina, and a 
 captain in the war of the Revolution. 
 
 Samuel Polk, the father, was a plain, unpretending 
 farmer, but of enterprising character ; from necessity and 
 inclination, frugal in his habits and style of living, yet kind 
 and generous in disposition. ' Thrown upon his own resources 
 in early life, he became the architect of his own fortunes.' 
 Immediately after the close of the Revolution, a strong tide 
 of emigration set in from Mecklenburg and the adjoining 
 counties, and flowing over the mountains, rolled down upon 
 the ranges of grassy hills, the undulating plains, the exten- 
 sive reaches of grazing land, and the fertile valleys of Ten- 
 nessee. Attracted by the glowing accounts, given by the 
 first settlers and adventurers, of the beautiful daughter of his 
 native state, Samuel Polk formed a determination to remove 
 thither with his family ; and if honesty of purpose, enterprise 
 and industry, could accomplish that end, to achieve a com- 
 petence for himself, and those who looked up to him for 
 support and protection. 
 
 From one cause or another the fulfilment of his desio-n 
 was postponed till the autumn of the year 1806, when, ac- 
 companied by his wife and children, he followed the path of 
 emigration to the rich valley of the Duck river, one of the 
 principal tributaries of the Tennessee. Here, in the midst 
 of the wilderness, in a tract of countty erected in the fol- 
 lowing year into the county of Maury, he established his 
 new home. His example was imitated by all the Polk family 
 in North Carolina, who, with the exception of one branch, 
 ' emigrated, and cast their lot in with the bold spirits that 
 sought a home in the great valley of the Mississippi.' 
 
 Having purchased a quantity of land, Samuel Polk em- 
 ployed himself in its cultivation ; following at intervals, the 
 
370 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 occupation of a surveyor. By dint of patient industry and 
 economy, and by his untiring and energetic perseverance, 
 lie acquired a fortune equal to his wishes and his wants. He 
 lived to behold the country around him become flourishing 
 and prosperous ; to see its dark forests pass away like some 
 vision of enchantment, and its broad plains and valleys 
 blooming with fruits and flowers, and teeming with the luxu- 
 riant produce of a fertile soil. Respected as one of the first 
 pioneers of Maury, and esteemed as a useful citizen and an 
 estimable man, he finally closed his life at Columbia, in 1827. 
 His wife, a most excellent and pious woman, afterwards 
 married a gentleman by the name of Eden, and is now living 
 at Columbia. Her son, James, passed his boyhood in the 
 humble position in life which his parents occupied. The 
 lessons that he learned in this school were never forgotten. 
 He was by no means a stranger to what, — unless, as in his 
 case, accompanied by a happy and contented heart, — is the 
 drudgery of daily toil. He assisted his father in the man- 
 agement of his farm, and was his almost constant companion 
 in his surveying excursions. They were frequently absent 
 for weeks together, treading the dense forests and traversing 
 the rough cane-breaks which then covered the face of the 
 country, and exposed to all the changes of the weather, and 
 the dangers and vicissitudes of a life in the woods. On these 
 occasions, it was the duty of James to take care of the pack- 
 horses and camp equipage, and to prepare the scanty and 
 frugal meals of the surveying party. When a lad, he was 
 strongly inclined to study, and often busied himself with the 
 mathematical calculations of his father. He was very fond 
 of reading, and was of a reflective turn of mind. 
 
 " In the infancy of the state of Tennessee, as is always 
 the case in new settlements, the opportunities of instruction 
 
JAMES KNOX POLK. 871 
 
 "were quite limited. The fatliei' of young Polk was not in 
 affluent circumstances, though able to give all his children 
 a good education. He regarded with favor the natural bent 
 of his son's mind toward study, and kept him pretty Con- 
 stantly at school. Though afflicted for many years by a 
 painful affection, from which he was only relieved by a sur- 
 gical operation, James had been completely successful in 
 mastering the English studies usually taught, when his health 
 began to give way. Fearing that his constitution had become 
 so much weakened as to unfit him altogether for a sedentary 
 life, his father, not without many an earnest remonstrance 
 from his son, placed him with a merchant, with the view of 
 fitting him for commercial pursuits. 
 
 "After remaining a few weeks with the merchant, James 
 obtained the permission of his father, by much entreaty and 
 persuasion, to return home ; and in the month of July, 1813, 
 he was placed under the tuition of the Rev. Dr. Henderson. 
 Subsequently he was sent to the Murfreesborough Academy, 
 then under the superintendence of Mr. Samuel P. Black, 
 one of the most celebrated classical teachers in Middle Ten- 
 nessee. Henceforward there were no obstacles in the way 
 of his obtaining the education he so ardently desired. In 
 less than two years and a half he prepared himself thoroughly 
 for an advanced class in college ; and in the autumn of 1815, 
 being then in his twentieth year, he entered the University 
 of North Carolina, at Chapel Hill, at the beginning of the 
 sophomore year. This venerable institution, at which so- 
 many of the most distinguished statesmen, and the most emi- 
 nent divines, in the southern part of the union, have been 
 educated, was then under the charge of the Rev. Dr. Joseph 
 Caldwell, 'justly styled the father of the University.' Co- 
 lonel William Polk, late of Raleigh, and the first cousin of 
 
372 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 the father of President Polk, was also one of the most in- 
 fluential and active of the trustees, and had been such from 
 about the time of the first establishment of the institution. 
 
 At the University, Mr. Polk was most exemplary in the 
 performance of all his duties, not only as a member of col- 
 lege, but also of the literary society to which he belonged. 
 He was punctual and prompt in every exercise, and never 
 absent from recitation or any of the religious services of the 
 institution. 
 
 Of the exact sciences he was fond, and he was also an 
 able linguist. At each semi-annual examination he bore away 
 the highest honors, and at the close of the junior year the 
 first distinction was awarded to him and Ex-Governor Wil- 
 liam D. Mosely, of Florida. He graduated in June, 1818, 
 with the highest distinction, which was assigned to him alone, 
 as the best scholar in both the mathematics and the classics, 
 and delivered the Latin Salutatory Oration. 
 
 Mr. Polk did not forget his Alma Mater amid the busy 
 scenes, the turmoil and confusion, of his active life ; nor 
 did she lose sight of one who reflected so much credit upon 
 her, in every station that he filled. He often revisited her 
 siirine, and attended the pleasant re-unions of the mother 
 and her sons ; and at the annual commencement, in June, 
 1847, the honorary degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred 
 upon him, together with John Y. Mason, late Secretary of 
 the Navy, of the class of 1816, and Willie P. Mangum, of 
 the Senate of the United States, and a member of the class 
 of 1815. 
 
 When Mr. Polk left the university, his health was con- 
 siderably impaired by constant and unremitting application 
 to his studies. But a few months of relaxation and respite 
 from study, were sufficient fully to restore him ; and the 
 
JAMES KNOX POLK. 373 
 
 choice of a profession was then to be considered and decided. 
 This was not at all difficult. His thoughts had long been 
 directed toward the law, and each succeeding year had 
 served to confirm and strengthen the desire which he had 
 half formed ere the time came for serious reflection. At the 
 beginning of the year 1819, he entered the office of Felix 
 Grundy, at Nashville. Mr. Grundy was then in the zenith 
 of his fame — at the head of the Tennessee bar — enjoying 
 the professional honors and rewards which continued to flow 
 liberally upon him — and with the laurels he had won on the 
 floor of the house of representatives <of the United States in 
 defence of the war measures of President Madison, blooming 
 freshly on his brow. In him Mr. Polk found a legal preceptor 
 whose rich stores of learning were freely opened to his benefit. 
 Beside being the favorite student of Mr. Grundy, it was 
 the good fortune of Mr. Polk, during his residence at Nash- 
 ville, to attract the attention and win the esteem of one who 
 bound his friends to him with hooks of adamant, and whose 
 favor could not be too highly prized ; of one whose influence 
 over him, powerful though it was, was at all times voluntarily 
 and cheerfully acknowledged ; of Andrew Jackson, the gallant 
 defender of New Orleans, already occupying a proud position 
 among the great men of the nation. Both preceptor and pupil 
 were ever welcome guests at the Hermitage ; both contributed 
 in after years, to the elevation of its occupant to the highest 
 station in the land, and, the one in the senate, and the other 
 in the house, sustained and defended his administration 
 against whomsoever assailed it, in storm and in sunshine, 
 from its commencement to its close. General Jackson was 
 always warmly attached to Mr. Polk ; he looked upon him 
 in the light of a protegee, and took a deep interest in his 
 
 political advancement. 
 
 32 
 
 -' Iff 
 
374 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Within two years from the time he entered the office of 
 I\Ir. Grundy, Mr. Polk made sufficient progress in his legal 
 studies to entitle him to an examination, and near the close 
 of 1820, he was regularly admitted to the bar. He now 
 returned to Maury county, and established himself in prac- 
 tice at Columbia, among the companions of his boyhood, 
 who had grown up with him to man's estate, — among those 
 who had known and esteemed him from his earliest years. 
 His advantages were great, in consequence of the connec- 
 tion of his family, by the ties of blood or friendship, with 
 most of the old inhabitants and their descendants. His 
 success, therefore, was equal to his fondest hopes. 
 
 Mr. Polk remained at the bar, it may be said, up to the 
 time of his election as Governor of Tennessee, but for seve- 
 ral years he devoted himself exclusively to the laborious 
 duties of his calling, constantly adding to his practice and 
 his reputation, and annually reaping a rich harvest of pro- 
 fessional emoluments. Though " there were giants in the 
 land," he stood in the front rank among his cotemporaries; 
 During some portion of this period he was associated with 
 other practitioners in business, and at other times he was 
 alone. Among his law partners were Anson V. Brown, 
 of Pulaski, for some years a representative in Congress from 
 the sixth district (Tennessee) and governor of the state from 
 1845 to 1847, and Gideon J. Pillow, a major-general in the 
 army during the war with Mexico. 
 
 The father of the late President belonged to the Jeffer- 
 sonian school of politics ; he supported its founder in the 
 great contest of 1800, and up to the close of his life was the 
 firm and consistent advocate of democratic principles. The 
 associations of Mr, Polk himself, in early life, and while he 
 •was reading law, naturally inclined him to adopt the same 
 
JAMES KNOX POLK. 875 
 
 opinions ; but the convictions of his matured judgment ac- 
 corded with and approved them. . 
 
 It is rarely the case, in this country, that the politician 
 and lawyers are not united in one and the same person ; and 
 Mr. Polk was not an exception to this general rule. As soon 
 as he became a voter he attached himself to the democratic 
 party, and after his admission to the bar, was an active par- 
 ticipant in the political contests of that day. His style and 
 manner as a public speaker were calculated to Avin the favor 
 of a popular assembly, and he was often sent for many miles 
 from his home to address the meetings of his party friends. 
 His reputation in this respect was extensive. 
 
 Possessing all the advantages of mind and disposition so 
 necessary to success in an aspirant for political honors ; rooted 
 in the affections of a large circle of admiring friends ; the 
 hope of the party to which he belonged, he entered public 
 life at an early age. His first employment in this character 
 was that of chief clerk to the house of representatives of the 
 Tennessee legislatm-e ; and in the summer of 1823, in accord- 
 ance not more with his own desire than with the wishes of 
 his friends, he took the stump against the former member of 
 that body from Maury. A most formidable opposition was 
 encountered, but after an animated canvass he secured his 
 election by a heavy majority. 
 
 He remained in the legislature for two successive years, 
 being regarded as one of the most talented and promising 
 members. Most of the measures of the then President, Mr. 
 Monroe, received his unqualified support and approbation, 
 and he was ardently desirous that the successor of the former 
 should be one who had no sympathy for the latitudinarian 
 doctrines with reference to the constitution which appeared 
 to be gaining ground. Animated by this motive, he approved 
 
376 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 of the nomination of Andrew Jackson for the Presidency, 
 made by the Tennessee legislature in August, 1822 ; and in 
 the autumn of the following year, he contributed by his in- 
 fluence and vote to the election of his distinguished friend to 
 the senate of the United States. 
 
 While a member of the general assembly, Mr. Polk 
 succeeded in procuring the passage of a law designed to pre- 
 vent duelling. Though residing in a section of the union 
 where this mxode of vindicating one's honor when assailed 
 has ever been sustained by the general sense of the commu- 
 nity, oftentimes in opposition to positive enactments, he was 
 never concerned in a duel, during his whole life, either as 
 principal or second. This was the more remarkable, be- 
 cause of the many stormy epochs in his political career. 
 His aversion to duelling did not proceed from constitutional 
 timidity ; he was utterly opposed to the practice, from prin- 
 ciple ; and though he made no unbecoming parade of his 
 sentiments, he did not care to conceal them. No one ever 
 invaded his personal rights without finding him prepared to 
 defend them. 
 
 Mr. Polk always doubted the power of the general go- 
 vernment to make improvements in the states ; and his 
 doubts ultimately became absolute denials of the right. lie 
 concurred, however, with Mr. Monroe, in the belief that 
 such improvements were desirable, and that it would be pro- 
 per to amend the constitution so as to confer the power, 
 although, in the absence of such an amendment, they might 
 be carried on with the consent of the states in which they 
 were located. When, therefore, the^resident so far yielded 
 to those of his friends who had long vainly attempted to 
 persuade him to lend his countenance to an extensive sys- 
 tem of internal improvements, as to give his consent to the 
 
JAMES KNOX POLK. 377 
 
 act of 1824, authorizing surveys to be made of the routes of 
 of such roads and canals as he might deem of national im- 
 portance, Mr. Polk looked upon the measure with favor. 
 The views of Mr. Polk on this question of internal improve- 
 ments subsequently underwent a change ; and when he saw 
 what great latitude had been taken under the constitution 
 as it was, and how much danger there was to be appre- 
 hended from the undue enlargement of the power of the 
 general government by the adoption of the proposed amend- 
 ment, he took decided ground against any change, and ex- 
 erted all his influence and authority to bring back the ship 
 of state to her ancient channel. 
 
 On the 1st day of January, 1824, Mr. Polk was mar- 
 ried to Sarah Childress, the daughter of Joel Childress, a 
 wealthy and enterprising merchant of Rutherford county, 
 Tennessee. 
 
 Mrs. Polk was well fitted to adorn any station. To the 
 charms of a fine person she united intellectual accomplish- 
 ments of a high order. Sweetness of disposition, graceful- 
 ness and ease of manner, and beauty of mind, were happily 
 blended in her character. Her unfailing courtesy, and lier 
 winning deportment, were remarked by every one who saw 
 her presiding at the White House. 
 
 In the spring of 1825, Mr. Polk oficred himself to the 
 electors of the sixth or Duck river district, in which he re- 
 sided, as their candidate for Congress. At this time the 
 subject of internal improvements was attracting unusual at- 
 tention in Tennessee, owing, probably, to the examinations 
 recently made by the board of engineers, under the act of 
 1824, of the country between the Potomac and the Ohio 
 rivers. Indeed, it was the only political question of im- 
 portance, — except the manner in which General Jackson, 
 
 32* 
 
378 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 whom Mr. Polk had ardently supported, had been defrauded, 
 as was alleged by his friends, of the Presidency, — that was 
 then agitated or discussed ; for, although there had been 
 several candidates voted for at the late presidential election, 
 they all claimed to belong to the same party. 
 
 " Although Mr. Polk, like many other young men be- 
 longing to the democratic party, was disposed, in 1825, to 
 adopt the impression that the authority to construct works 
 of internal improvement was comprehended in the money- 
 power conferred by the constitution, further reflection and 
 experience caused him to change his opinion. At the Au- 
 gust election, in 1825, he was chosen a member of Congress, 
 by a flattering vote. That he discharged his duties to the 
 entire satisfaction of those whom he represented, is evidenced 
 by the fact, that he was repeatedly returned by the same 
 constituency, for fourteen years in succession, from 1825 
 to 1839. In the latter year he voluntarily withdrew from 
 another contest, in which his success was not even ques- 
 tionable, in order to become a candidate for the office of 
 governor of his adopted state. 
 
 " Mr. Polk first took his seat in the house of representa- 
 tives, as a member of the sixteenth Congress, in December, 
 1825 : being, with one or two exceptions, the youngest 
 member of that body. The same habits of laborious appli- 
 cation which had previously characterized him, were now 
 displayed on the floor of the house and in the committee- 
 room. He was punctual and prompt in the performance 
 of every duty. 
 
 " Immediately after the organization of the two houses 
 of Congress, in December, 1825, the peculiar circumstances 
 attending the election of Mr. Adams, through the influence 
 and aid of Mr. Clay, were brought up in review. Amend- 
 
JAMES KNOX POLK. 379 
 
 ments to the constitution were proposed in the senate, by 
 Mr. Benton, of Missouri, providing for a direct vote bj the 
 people, in districts, for President, and dispensing with the 
 electoral colleges ; and by Mr. McDuffie, of South Carolina, 
 in the house, authorizing the electors to be chosen by dis- 
 tricts, and containing provisions which would prevent the 
 choice of President, in future, from devolving on the house 
 of representatives. Mr. Polk made his debut as a speaker 
 on this question, and advocated the amendment of the con- 
 stitution, in such a manner as to give the choice of Presi- 
 dent and Vice President directly to the people. As one of 
 the friends of General Jackson, he entered warmly into the 
 subject, and his speech was charjicterized by what was with 
 him an unusual degree of animation in addressing a delibe- 
 rative body. He afterwards earnestly opposed the Panama 
 mission, the object of which was to form an alliance, offensive 
 and defensive between the North and South American re- 
 publics, and spoke against a protective tariff and a system of 
 internal improvements. In reference to the Panama mission, 
 Mr. Polk introduced the following resolutions. 
 
 " Itesolved, That it is the constitutional right and duty of 
 the house of representatives, when called upon for appropri- 
 ations to defray the expenses of foreign missions, to deliberate 
 on the expediency or inexpediency of such missions, and to 
 determine and act thereon, as in their judgment may seem 
 most conducive to the public good. 
 
 " Resolved, That it is the sense of this House, that the 
 sending of ministers, on the part of the United States, to 
 take part in the deliberations of the Congress of South Ameri- 
 can nations, at Panama, would be a total departure from the 
 uniform course of policy pursued by this government, from 
 the adoption of the Federal Constitution to the present period ; 
 
380 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 and miglit, and in all probability would, have a tendency to 
 involve the nation in ' entangling alliances,' and endanger 
 the neutrality and relations of amity and peace, which at 
 present happily subsist between the United States and the 
 belligerent powers — old Spain and the southern republics of 
 this continent." 
 
 Mr. Polk defended his resolutions, and enforced his views 
 upon the question, in an argumentative speech. 
 
 During the whole period of General Jackson's admini- 
 stration, as long as he retained a seat on the floor, he was 
 one of its leading supporters, and at times, and on certain 
 question of paramount importance, its chief reliance. In 
 the hour of trial he was never found wanting, or from his 
 post. In December, 1827, two years after his entrance into 
 the house, Mr. Polk was placed on the important committee 
 of foreign affairs, and some time after was appointed, in ad- 
 dition, chairman of the select committee to which was re- 
 ferred that portion of the President's message calling the 
 attention of Congress to the probable accumulation of a 
 surplus in the treasury, after the anticipated extinguish- 
 ment of the national debt. As the head of this committee, 
 he made a lucid report, replete with Jeffersonian doctrines, 
 ably enforced, denying the constitutional powers of Congress 
 to collect from the people, for distribution, a surplus beyond 
 the wants of the government, and maintaining that the re- 
 venue should be reduced to the exigencies of the public service. 
 The session of 1830 will always be distinguished by the death- 
 blow which was then given to the system of internal improve- 
 ments by the general government. The Maysville road veto 
 was second in importance to none of the acts of General 
 Jackson's administration. When the bill was returned by the 
 President unsigned, a storm arose in the house, in the midst 
 
JAMES KNOX POLK. 381 
 
 of which the veto was attacked by a torrent of passionate 
 declamation, mixed with no small share of personal abuse. 
 To a member from Ohio, whose observations partook of the 
 latter character, Mr. Polk replied in an energetic improvi- 
 sation, vindicating the patriotic resolution of the Chief Ma- 
 gistrate. The friends of state-rights in the house rallied 
 upon the veto. The result was the bill was rejected. 
 
 In September, 1833, the President, determined upon the 
 bold measure of the removal of the deposits, which was ef- 
 fected in the following month. The act produced much ex- 
 citement throughout the country, and it was foreseen that a 
 great and doubtful conflict was about to ensue. At such a 
 crisis it became important to have at the head of the com- 
 mittee of v,-ays and means, a man of courage to meet, and 
 firmness to sustain, the formidable shock. Such a man was 
 found in Mr. Polk, and he proved himself equal to the oc- 
 casion. Congress met, and the conflict proved even fiercer 
 than had been anticipated. The cause of the bank was sup- 
 ported in the house by such men as Mr. ]\IcDuffee, Adams, 
 and Binney, not to mention a host of other names. Mr. 
 McDuflio, the distinguished leader of the opposition in this 
 eventful conflict, bore testimony, in his concluding remarks, 
 to the boldness and manliness with which Mr. Polk had" 
 assumed the only position which could be judiciously taken. 
 All the measures of the committee, including those of para- 
 mount importance, relating to the bank and the deposits, 
 were carried in spite of the most immitigable opposition. 
 
 Although the vote of Tehnessee, given at the presidential 
 election, in 1828, was almost unanimously in favor of Ge- 
 neral Jackson, indications of dissatisfaction were manifested 
 by some of the most prominent members of the democratic 
 party in that state, at an early period of his administration. 
 
382 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 As the time approached, for the selection of his successor, 
 the elements of discord and disaffection were more plainly 
 visible. His preference for Mr. Van Buren were well known, 
 as they were never disguised. But in Tennessee, a large 
 portion of the democratic party were in favor of Hugh L. 
 White, an estimable and talented citizen of that state, then 
 one of its senators in Congress. 
 
 Governor Carroll, Ex-Governor Blount, Felix Grundy, 
 James K. Polk, Cave Johnson, and other discerning men 
 in the democratic ranks, in Tennessee, saw, at a glance, that 
 the prospects of Judge White were utterly hopeless. Ten- 
 nessee had been honored with a President of her own choice, 
 for eight years in succession ; and there was nothing in the 
 public services, or in the character of Judge White, that pe- 
 culiarly entitled him to inherit this distinction, in opposition 
 to the candidates whose nomination was desired in other states. 
 Besides, the general sentiment of the democratic party in the 
 nation, as manifested in a thousand ways, and in the most 
 unequivocal manner, had indicated a decided preference for 
 Mr. Van Buren. Mr. Polk and his friends were disposed 
 to yield a ready acquiescence to what appeared to be the 
 controlling desire of their democratic friends out of Ten- 
 nessee. He was himself urgently solicited to join in some 
 public manifestation in behalf of Judge White ; but he firmly 
 and constantly refused to lend his name or his influence for 
 any such purpose. 
 
 In the house of representatives, the White interest was 
 represented by John Bell, one of the colleagues of Mr. Polk, 
 and between whom there had long existed a sort of rivalship. 
 Both claimed to be the sincere friends of General Jackson, 
 and both approved of the veto of the United States Bank, 
 and the removal of the deposits. But Mr. Bell was in favor 
 
JAMES KNOX POLK. 383 
 
 of the incorporation of another bank, while Mr. Polk, in 
 accordance with what had now become one of the cardinal 
 doctrines of the party to which he belonged, avowed his un- 
 compromising hostility to such an institution. In June, 
 1834, the speaker of the house, Andrew Stevenson, of Vir- 
 ginia, resigned his seat in Congress, in consequence of his 
 nomination as minister to Great Britain. Mr. Polk ,wa3 
 instantly selected by a majority of the democratic members, 
 as the administration candidate for the vacant position. 
 But the friends of Judge White refused to support him, and 
 voted for Mr. Bell, who, with the aid of the whig members, 
 was elected over Mr. Polk on the tenth ballot. 
 
 Shortly after the adjournment of Congress, Mr. Van Bu- 
 ren was regularly put in nomination as the democratic can- 
 • didate for President, by the unanimous voice of the national 
 convention assembled at Baltimore, in May, 1835. Mr. Polk 
 took no part in calling or recommending this convention. 
 It was entirely a new movement, and originated mainly in 
 a desire to organize the democratic party in a most efficient 
 manner, in anticipation of a powerful effort on the part of 
 the opponents of the administration to defeat their candi- 
 dates. After the nominations were made, and received 
 with an almost universal expression of approbation in every 
 state in the Union, Tennessee alone excepted, Mr. Polk an- 
 nounced his determination not to separate himself from the 
 democratic party of the nation. Messrs. Carroll, Blount, 
 Grundy, and Johnson, agreed with him in sentiment, and 
 active preparations were immediately made to carry the state 
 at the gubernatorial and congressional elections, in August, 
 1835. But the time proved too short to counteract the im- 
 pressions which had been formed, and to change the direction 
 of the popular current. The whigs united with the friends 
 
384 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 of Judge White, and succeeded in defeating Governor Car- 
 roll, who was nominated for re-election, and all the admi- 
 nistration candidates for Congress, save Mr. Polk and Mr. 
 Johnson. 
 
 Judge White ultimately received the support only of the 
 opponents of the administration and of the friends of the 
 United States Bank, except that in a very few instances he 
 obtained the votes of persons in the southern states, who 
 thought Mr. Van Buren would be unable to carry them, and 
 desired to prevent the election of General Harrison, the 
 whig candidate at the north. In the state of Tennessee, 
 Mr. Polk and his friends engaged with great activity in the 
 contest, in support of Mr. Van Buren ; but the White elec- 
 toral ticket, with the whig opposition united in its favor, 
 succeeded by about nine thousand majority. 
 
 Shortly after the August election, in 1835, Mr. Polk 
 visited Nashville, when on his way to Rutherford county. 
 While at the seat of government, the compliment of a public 
 dinner was tendered to him by the democrats of that city ; 
 but he was forced to decline the proffered invitation, on 
 account of the poor state of his health. 
 
 When the members of the twenty-fourth Congress assem- 
 bled at the capitol for their first regular session, in Decem- 
 ber, 1835, it was found that the friends of the administra- 
 tion were largely in the majority. Mr. Polk was selected 
 by general consent as their candidate for speaker, not 
 merely as an act of justice on account of the circumstances 
 under which he was defeated the previous year, but as a 
 tribute to the firmness and independences he had exhibited 
 during the canvass in Tennessee. Mr. Bell was once more 
 the opposing candidate, but he received only eighty-four 
 votes, while one hundred and thirty-two were given for Mr. 
 
JAMES KNOX POLK. 385 
 
 Polk. At tlie first, or extra session of the twenty-fifth 
 Congress, held in September, 1837, the same candidates 
 were pitted against each other — Mr. Bell being at that time 
 thoroughly identified with the opposition. Parties were 
 more equally divided in this Congress, but Mr. Polk was 
 again chosen over his opponent by thirteen majority. 
 
 As the speaker of the twenty-fourth and the twenty-fifth 
 Congress, Mr. Polk occupied the chair of the house during 
 five sessions. It was his fortune to fill this distinguished 
 position when party feelings were excited to an unusual 
 degree. During the first session, more appeals were taken 
 from his decisions, than were ever before known ; but he Avas 
 uniformly sustained by the house, and frequently by the most 
 prominent members of the opposition. He was courteous 
 and aflFable toward all who approached him, and in his manner, 
 as the presiding officer, dignity and urbanity were appro- 
 priately blended. At the close of the twenty-fourth Con- 
 gress, in March, 1837, a unanimous vote of thanks to the 
 speaker was passed by the house. 
 
 In adjourning the house, on the 4th of March, 1839, and 
 terminating for ever his connection with the body, of which 
 he had been so long a member, Mr. Polk delivered a fare- 
 well address of more than ordinary length, but characterized 
 by deep feeling. 
 
 Still higher honors awaited Mr. Polk. His long and ar- 
 duous service in the national representation, and more es- 
 pecially the circumstances attending the presidential canvass 
 of 1836, had familiarized the people of Tennessee with his 
 name and character. To the democrat party he was endeared 
 for his sacrifices in their behalf, by his devotion to their in- 
 terests, and his steadfast maintainance of their principles. 
 
 At the earnest request of his friends, Mr. Polk consented 
 33 
 
386 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 to become the candidate of the democrats of Tennessee, at 
 the August election, in 1839, for the office of governor. It 
 was very evident that none but the strongest man in the 
 party could enter into the canvass with any thing like a 
 fair prospect before him ; and it was exceedingly doubtful 
 whether he could be successful. Mr. Polk accepted the nomi- 
 nation which was tendered to him by the unanimous consent 
 of his democratic friends, in the fall of 1838, and at a bar- 
 becue in Murfreesborough publicly declared himself a candi- 
 date. He immediately took the stump, but was only able 
 to make a few speeches that fall, as it was necessary for him 
 to repair to Washington in time for the opening of the session 
 of Congress. At the close of the session, in the spring of 
 1839, he hastened home without delay, and his voice was 
 soon heard uttering its appeals, that aroused the energies 
 of the party. The canvass was warm and spirited. The 
 state had for years been in the hands of the opposition, and 
 they now rallied with enthusiasm and alacrity in support of 
 Governor Cannon, the incumbent of the office, who was a 
 candidate for re-election. 
 
 The exertions of Mr. Polk during this canvass deserved 
 the success with which they were rewarded. He was elected 
 over Governor Cannon by upwards of twenty-five hundred 
 majority, and on the 14th of October took the oath of office 
 at Nashville, and entered upon the discharge of his duties. 
 On this occasion, he delivered an address, which is consi- 
 dered to be one of the clearest and ablest documents that 
 ever came from his pen. 
 
 By the amended constitution of Tennessee, provision was 
 made for such works of internal improvements as the geo- 
 graphical position of the state rendered necessary ; and in 
 his first regular message, delivered to the two houses of the 
 
JAMES KNOX POLK. 387 
 
 general assembly, on the 22d of October, 1839, Governor 
 Polk advised the " vigorous prosecution of a judicious sys- 
 tem of internal improvements," and that " a board of public 
 works, to be composed of two or more competent and scien- 
 tific men, should be authorized, and their duties established 
 by law." In the same message, he recommended the revi- 
 sion of the laws prohibiting the practice of betting on elec- 
 tions, which, he says, " begets excitement and engenders 
 strife ; and it but too often happens, that those who have 
 stakes at hazard, become more interested to secure them, 
 than by a dispassionate exercise of the right of suffrage, to 
 secure the public good^" 
 
 Of irresponsible issues of paper money, or paper credits 
 intended for circulation as money, he was always jealous ; 
 and in his second regular annual message to the legislature, 
 in 1841, he advised " a revision of the laws prohibiting the 
 issuance of any exchange tickets or small paper bills, by 
 individuals and corporations other than banks," for the 
 reason, as stated by him, that " some of the internal im- 
 provement companies in which the state was a copartner," 
 had issued " small paper bills in the form of script or checks, 
 and put them into circulation as money, without any specie 
 basis upon which to rest, and without authority of law." 
 
 The administration of the state government by Mr. Polk 
 was satisfactory to the public, and his course as chief magis- 
 trate was well calculated to harmonize the party of which, 
 by the death of his old friend and preceptor, Mr. Grundy, 
 in 1840, he had become the acknowledged head. The term 
 of oiSce of Mr. Polk expired in October, 1841, but at the 
 August election of that year, he was again a candidate. His 
 prospects were dark — the Harrison electoral ticket had suc- 
 ceeded in the state by more than twelve thousand majority. 
 
388 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 To overcome this heavy vote was impossible ; but Mr. Polk 
 entered upon the canvass with his accustomed spirit and 
 ability. His competitor was James C. Jones, a most effective 
 speaker, and decidedly the most popular man at that time 
 in the whig party of the state. 
 
 Personal good feeling on the part of the opposing candi- 
 dates characterized this contest, as it had that of 1839. 
 Mr. Polk frankly and cordially met Mr Jones on the stump 
 and travelled in company with him. But the efforts of Mr. Polk 
 proved unavailing. The politics of the state were for the 
 time firmly fixed in opposition to his own. He was defeated, 
 but reduced the whig majority to about three thousand. In 
 1843, he was once more a candidate opposed to Governor 
 Jones, but the latter was re-elected by nearly four thousand 
 majority. 
 
 On leaving the executive chair of Tennessee, Mr. Polk 
 returned to private life. He possessed a competence — all 
 that he needed or desired — which enabled him to be liberal 
 in the bestowment of his charities, and to dispense a generous 
 hospitality to his numerous friends. 
 
 Mr. Polk was not without ambition ; but he preferred 
 henceforth for others to secure his advancement, if they de- 
 sired so to do, and contented himself with being in the main 
 a passive instrument in their hands. In 1841 and 1843, he 
 came forth as a candidate for governor, only in compliance 
 with the general desire of his party. The Avishes and ex- 
 pectation of his immediate friends were early fixed on the 
 presidential ofiice. At the session of the Tennessee legis- 
 lature, in 1839, he was nominated by that body for the 
 Vice Presidency, to be placed on the ticket with Mr. Van 
 Buren, and with the expectation, no doubt, that he might 
 F 2ceed that gentleman in the higher office. He was after- 
 
JAMES. KNOX POLK. 389 
 
 wards nominated in other states for the same position ; but 
 as Colonel Johnson seemed to be the choice of the great 
 body of the democratic party in the union, no efforts of im- 
 portance were made by the former, and at the election, in 
 1840, he received but one electoral vote, in the college of 
 Virginia. 
 
 From the time of the defeat of Mr. Van Buren, in 1840, 
 up to within a few weeks previous to the assembling of the 
 national democratic convention at Baltimore, in 1844, public 
 opinion in the democratic party seemed to be firmly fixed 
 upon him as their candidate for re-election to the station 
 he had once filled. But in the month of April, 1844, a 
 treaty was concluded, under the auspices of President Tyler, 
 between the representatives of the government of the United 
 States and of the republic of Texas, providing for the an- 
 nexation of the latter to the American Confederacy. This 
 measure, though long in contemplation, was fruitful in strife 
 and dissension. Hitherto it had been conceded on every 
 hand, that Mr. Van Buren and Mr. Clay ought to be, and 
 would be, the rival candidates for the Presidency, in 1844 ; 
 but now the political elements were thrown into complete 
 confusion. The opinions of every public man in the United 
 States were sought ; and among others, Mr. Polk was ad- 
 dressed. He replied, arguing in favor of annexation. 
 
 When the Texas question was presented in this manner 
 to the American people, public men, and the parties to 
 which they belonged, arrayed themselves on one side or the 
 other. The whig party at the north opposed the annexation. 
 The democratic party generally favored the annexation ; but 
 a small portion of the party at the north, and a few of its 
 members residing in the slave states opposed it. 
 
 In the midst of the commotion produced by the agitation 
 33* 
 
390 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 of the Texas question, the national democratic convention 
 assembled at Baltimore, on the 27t,h of May, 1844. Until 
 the publication of his Texas letter, Mr. Van Buren had been 
 by far the most prominent candidate ; but when the conven- 
 tion met, Lewis Cass, of Michigan ; Richard M. Johnson, 
 of Kentucky ; James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, and Levi 
 Woodbury, of New Hampshire, all of whom were in favor of 
 the immediate annexation of Texas, were supported for the 
 nomination by their respective friends, with greater or less 
 earnestness. Immediately after the organization of the 
 convention, a rule was adopted, in accordance with the pre- 
 cedents established by the conventions of 1832 and 1835, 
 requiring a vote of two-thirds to secure a nomination. Mr. 
 Van Buren received a majority of votes on the first ballot ; 
 seven additional ballotings were then had, but at no time did 
 he receive a vote of two thirds ; whereupon his name was 
 withdrawn by the New York delegation. The delegates op- 
 posed to the nomination, after the first ballot, concentrated 
 their strength mainly upon Mr. Cass ; but as the friends of 
 Mr. Van Buren numbered more than one-third of the con- 
 vention, and were irreconcilably hostile to the selection of 
 any of the other candidates originally proposed, it was appa- 
 rent that no nomination could be made without their consent. 
 The name of Mr. Polk had been freely spoken of in con- 
 nection with the Vice Presidency, and when the convention 
 found itself in this dilemma, a number of his friends among 
 the delegates voted for him on the eighth ballot as the pre- 
 sidential candidate. On the ninth ballot he received nearly- 
 all the votes of the members of the convention, and the vote 
 was subsequently made unanimous. The nomination for the 
 Vice Presidency was tendered with great unanimity to Silas 
 "Wright, of New York, a distinguished friend of Mr. Van Buren, 
 
 4 
 
JAMES KNOX POLK. 391 
 
 but it was declined ; and George M. Dallas, of Pennsylva- 
 nia, was then put in nomination. The closing proceedings 
 of the convention were marked by great good feeling and 
 enthusiasm. 
 
 The nomination of Mr. Polk was communicated to him by 
 a committee appointed by the convention. Unexpected as 
 was the honor thus conferred upon him, he did not decline' it. 
 In reply to the committee he returned a letter of acceptance, 
 in which he avowed his firm determination in the event of his 
 election, not to be again a candidate. 
 
 Prior to its adjournment, the Baltimore convention 
 adopted a series of resolution, setting forth the principles 
 that distinguished them as a party. By the acceptance of 
 their nomination, Mr. Polk signified his approbation of those 
 resolutions. 
 
 The candidates selected by the whig party, in opposition to 
 the democratic nominees, were Henry Clay, of Kentucky, for 
 President, and Theodore Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey, for 
 Vice President. Mr. Tyler, the then President, was also 
 put in nomination for the Presidency, by a convention of 
 his friends, but he subsequently withdrew his name and gave 
 his support to the democratic ticket. The nomination was 
 not only well received, but a spirit of enthusiasm was soon 
 a.roused in his favor. The election was conducted with great 
 spirit and animation. Mr. Van Buren and Mr. Cass, with 
 the other candidates before the national convention, and 
 their friends cordially supported the ticket. 
 
 In the electoral colleges, Mr. Polk received one hundred 
 and seventy votes, and Mr. Clay one hundred and five. The 
 majority of Mr. Polk over his distinguished competitor, on 
 the popular vote, was about forty thousand, exclusive of the 
 vote of South Carolina, whose electors are chosen by the 
 
392 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 state legislature. The total vote was a little less than two 
 million seven hundred thousand. 
 
 On the 28th of November — the result of the election being 
 then known — Mr. Polk visited Nashville, and was honored 
 with a public reception by his democratic friends, together 
 with a number of his opponents in the late contest, who 
 cheerfully united with them in paying due honors to the Pre- 
 sident elect of the people's choice. A brilliant civic and 
 military procession escorted him to the public square in front 
 of the court house, where he was addressed by the Honorable 
 A. 0. P. Nicholson, on behalf of the large assembly, that 
 had collected to welcome him to the seat of government. To 
 the address of Mr. Nicholson, congratulating him on his 
 success, and assuring him of the highest respect and admi- 
 ration entertained for his intellectual capacity and his private 
 virtues by the people of Tennessee, Mr. Polk replied in a 
 conciliatory and grateful spirit. 
 
 Mr. Polk left his home in Tennessee, on his way to Wash- 
 ington, toward the latter part of January, 1845. He was 
 accompanied on his journey by Mrs. Polk, and several per- 
 sonal friends. On the 31st instant, he had a long private 
 interview at the Hermitage, with his venerable friend, Andrew 
 Jackson. The leave-taking was aflFectionate and impressive, 
 for each felt conscious, that, in all probability it Avas a fare- 
 well for ever. 
 
 On the first of February, Mr. Polk and suite left Nashville, 
 and proceeded as rapidly as possible, considering the demon- 
 strations of respect with which he was every where received 
 on his route, to the seat of government of the nation. 
 
 The President elect and his party arrived at Washington 
 on the 13th of February, and was immediately waited upon 
 by a committee of the two houses of Congress, who informed 
 
JAMES KNOX POLK. 393 
 
 him that the returns from the electoral colleges had been 
 opened, and the ballots counted, on the previous day ; and 
 that he had been declared duly elected President of the 
 United States. He thereupon signified his acceptance of 
 the office to which he had been chosen by the people, and 
 desired the committee to convey to Congress his assurances, 
 that " in executing the responsible duties which would de- 
 volve upon him, it would be his anxious desire to maintain 
 the honor and promote the welfare of the country." 
 
 On the 4th day of March, 1845, Mr. Polk was inaugurated 
 President of the United States. An immense concourse of 
 people assembled at Washington — every quarter of the Union 
 being well represented — to witness the imposing ceremony. 
 At eleven o'clock in the forenoon, the procession moved 
 from the quarters of the President elect, at Coleman's 
 liotel — Mr. Polk and his predecessor, Mr. Tyler, riding 
 together in an open carriage. Arriving at the capitol, the 
 President elect and the Ex-President entered the senate 
 chamber. Here a procession was formed, when they pro- 
 ceeded to the platform on the east front of the capitol, from 
 which Mr. Polk delivered his inaugural address.* 
 
 This paper was long, clearly written^ and argumentative. 
 The policy of the incoming administration was defined, and 
 strongly enforced. The oath of ofiice was then administered 
 by Chief Justice Taney, and Mr. Polk returned to the pre- 
 sidential mansion. In the evening, the President and his 
 lady attended two balls given in honor of the inauguration. 
 
 President Polk's cabinet was made up from the most dis- 
 tingushed members of the democratic party, as follows : 
 James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, Secretary of State; 
 
 * We are indebted for the greater part of this sketch to the ably -written 
 " Life of James K. Polk," by John S. Jenkins, Esq. 
 
394 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Robert J. Walker, of Mississippi, Secretary of tlie Treasury ; 
 William L. Marcy, of New York, Secretary of War ; George 
 Bancroft, of Massachusetts, Secretary of the Navy ; Cave 
 Johnson, of Tennessee, Postmaster General ; and John Y. 
 Mason, of Virginia, Attorney General. With such a mi- 
 nistry, it was expected that the President would satisfy the 
 expectations of the democratic party. 
 
 The first important achievement of the new administra- 
 tion — that which influenced the remainder of his term — 
 was the consummation of the annexation of Texas to the 
 union. Shortly before the close of Mr. Tyler's term of 
 oflice, joint resolutions in favor of the annexation of Texas 
 had passed both houses of Congress, and in pursuance of 
 them. President Polk instructed the charge d'affairs of the 
 United States, in Texas, to make the necessary overtures. 
 The people of the infant republic accepted the proffered 
 terms, then held a convention, framed and adopted a state 
 constitution, and prepared themselves for admission into 
 the union. In his first annual message, President Polk 
 called the attention of Congress to the importance of pass- 
 ing at an early day, an act recognizing Texas as a sister of 
 the confederacy. 
 
 The "Army of Occupation," which had been ordered to 
 take post between the Neuces and del Norte (Rio Grande) 
 was under the command of brevet Brigadier-General Taylor, 
 the fleet in the gulf was under the orders of Commodore 
 Conner. Of the events which brought about the declaration 
 of war, and upon which so much discussion has been held, 
 we have not room here to speak. 
 
 The opposition in Congress denounced the war as unjust, 
 and as being unconstitutionally begun by the President. It 
 was said that the President had authorized such aggressive 
 
JAMES KNOX POLK. 395 
 
 measures as were calculated to provoke war, and that he 
 then called upon Congress to recognize the existence of 
 hostilities. 
 
 War was declared against Mexico. Even before the de- 
 claration passed Congress, General Taylor fought two bat- 
 tles, with a much superior Mexican force, commanded by 
 General Arista, and gained two glorious victories — those of 
 Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma. From that time the 
 contest was prosecuted by the United States forces, with as- 
 tonishing vigor and success. Generals Taylor and Scott, 
 with a gallant band of officers and troops won imperishable 
 laurels. Monterey, Buena Vista, Bracita, Sacramento, Doni- 
 phan's march, the capture of Vera Cruz and San Juan de Ulloa, 
 Sierra Gordo, Contreras, Churubusco, Molina del Bey, Cha- 
 pultepec, and Mexico will ever remain as brilliant testimonials 
 to the skill and indomitable courage of the American soldiery. 
 Stockton, Kearney, and Fremont made an almost bloodless 
 conquest of Alta California, which was afterwards ascertained 
 to be one of the richest countries in the world, and is now 
 the magnet of so many hearts. New Mexico was conquered 
 by Kearney without a battle. After the capture of her cap- 
 ital, Mexico was willing to negotiate for peace. On the 2d 
 of February, 1848, at Guadalupe Hidalgo, a treaty was con- 
 cluded by the United States commissioner, Mr. N. P. Trist, 
 and three Mexican commissioners. By this treaty, the Rio 
 Grande was established as the boundary between the United 
 States and Mexico, below El Paso ; the extensive provinces 
 of New Mexico and Upper California were ceded to the 
 United States, in consideration of the payment to the go- 
 vernment of Mexico, the sum of fifteen millions of dollars, 
 and the assumption by the former claims of her citizens. This 
 treaty with some modifications was ratified by both govern- 
 
S96 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 ments, the United Strtes forces evacuated Mexico, and peace 
 once more smiled upon the two republics. 
 
 The recommendations of President Polk, in his first annual 
 message, the restoration of the independent treasury system — 
 the revision of the tariff act of 1842, substituting ad valorem 
 for specific dates, and reducing it to a revenue standard — 
 the increase of the navy ; and the gradation of the price of 
 the public land, were approved and carried into effect by 
 Congress. A bill, appropriating nearly one million five hun- 
 dred thousand for the improvement of certain harbors and 
 rivers, was passed by Congress in the latter part of July 1846. 
 On the 3d of August, Mr. Polk returned it with a message, 
 stating his objection. From the President's previous course 
 in regard to internal improvements, this veto might have been 
 expected. But it excited much clamor. In the house, the 
 bill was reconsidered, but a two-thirds vote could not be 
 obtained. 
 
 But few changes took place in the cabinet during Mr. 
 Polk's administration. Mr. Bancroft was appointed minis- 
 ter to England, and John Y. Mason, the Attorney General, 
 was transferred to the post of the Secretary of the Navy. 
 Nathan Clifford, of Maine, was appointed Attorney General. 
 In the summer of 1847, President Polk made a tour through 
 the middle and eastern states, proceeding as far as Portland, 
 Maine. He was received with every demonstration of respect. 
 The opposition obtained a small majority in the house of re- 
 presentatives of the thirtieth Congress, and elected Robert 
 E. Winthrop, of Massachusetts, speaker. The first session 
 of this congress extended from the 1st of Decembei', 1847, 
 till the 14th of August 1848. The opposition maintained 
 that the government should pursue a defensive policy in the 
 war with Mexico, but to this the President was utterly op- 
 
JAMES KNOX POLK, 897 
 
 posed and lie stated his reasons at length in his message to 
 Congress. Much of the session was occupied in discussion 
 of the war measures. The bill providing a territorial govern- 
 ment for Oregon, and prohibiting the institution of slavery 
 therein, passed Congress not long before its adjournment, and 
 was approved by the President. 
 
 Mr. Polk heartily approved of the nominations for Presi- 
 dent and Vice President made by the democratic convention, 
 which met at Baltimore, in May, 1848. In a letter to the 
 convention, he declined to be considered a candidate. At 
 the election, the opponents of the administration were suc- 
 cessful. General Taylor and Millard Fillmore obtained a 
 majority over the democratic nominees, General Cass and 
 General Butler. 
 
 Congress assembled, for the last time during the admini- 
 stration of Mr. Polk, on the 4th of December, 1845. In 
 his message, the President took occasion to enlarge upon the 
 policy of the administration, and to its justice and expedi- 
 ency. In particular, he strove to justify the exercise of tlie 
 veto power. No acts of importance were passed during this 
 congressional session, which lasted until the 3rd of March, 
 1849. Mr. Polk remained in Washington, and took part in 
 the ceremonies attending the inauguration of General Tay- 
 lor ; and then returned to Tennessee by way of Richmond, 
 Charleston, and New Orleans. At the vainous points upon 
 his route, he was greeted with public receptions. 
 
 Mr. Polk had purchased the estate which formerly be- 
 longed to his preceptor, Felix Grundy, situated in the heart 
 of Nashville. There he determined to pass the remainder 
 of his life, surrounded by comforts and conveniences, and 
 in the enjoyment of an affectionate and admiring circle of 
 friends. But he was not permitted to linger among the de- 
 
 34 
 
398 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 lightful shades of domestic life. In June, 1849, the cholera, 
 like a desolating blast, swept over the valley of the Missis- 
 sippi, carrying oflf thousands, with the suddenness of the 
 plague of the old world. On his way from New Orleans 
 up the Mississippi, in March, 1849, Mr. Polk had suflFered 
 much from diarrhgea ; hut it was checked and he seemed to 
 be restored to perfect health. But he was not long at home, 
 before he was again beset with chronic diarrhaea, which ter- 
 minated its work in death, on the 15th of June, 1849, in 
 the fifty-fourth year of his age. Mr. Polk left no children. 
 His property was bequeathed to his widow, and to an 
 adopted son of his brother Marshall. 
 
 In person, Mr. Polk was about the average height, and 
 rather thin. He had a. full forehead, expressive blue eyes, 
 and in general a serious, earnest cast of countenance. He 
 was plain in his habits, and blameless in his private life. 
 As a statesman, he was decided in his views, and firm in 
 the maintainance of his opinions. As an orator, he was 
 ready and earnest, but seldom brilliant. As a writer, he was 
 clear and correct, but occasionally diffuse. He will be re- 
 membered, as having conducted one of the most eventful 
 administrations known to the history of the United States, 
 and as having exercised an important influence upon the 
 politics of the country. 
 
TAYLOR. 
 
Zqcl7J>^J} I^ijloh 
 
 Popularity, like a butterfly, frequently, rests upon those 
 who least care for catching it. There are certain qualities 
 which, as soon as displayed win the general love, and ever 
 call forth the public admiration. It is common to say that 
 audacity alone secures popular esteem, and that modest 
 merit lies unappreciated. But facts prove it to be othei-- 
 wise. The mass have clearei: vision than the few, and no 
 counterfeit coin can long be imposed upon them. They re- 
 cognize integrity, intelligence, and heroism, as soon as pre- 
 sented to their view, and immediately give these qualities 
 their due regard. Integrity, they value above all other 
 features of character. In their opinioi;i — 
 
 " An honest man's the noblest work of God." 
 
 They give their hearts to a man upon whose word and 
 action they know they can safely build. Intelligence they 
 look at last ; because they know that determined common 
 sense can never be very far out of the right path. It was 
 for integrity and determination that the people raised 
 Zachary Taylor to the highest office in their gift. 
 
 Zachary Taylor was born in Orange county, Virginia, 
 in the year 1784. His father, Colonel Richard Taylor, 
 
 (403) 
 
404 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 a zealous patriot of tlie revolution, soon after the birth of 
 Zachary, removed to the state of Kentucky, and settled 
 near Louisville. At the age of six years, Zachary was 
 placed under a private tutor, a Mr. Ayres, who was pecu- 
 liarly fitted for the task of " teaching the young idea how 
 to shoot." All accounts agree that young Taylor displayed 
 rare force of character, and evinced a passion for military 
 exercise and active sports. 
 
 As he ardently desired to enter the army, his father, in 
 1808, procured him the commission of lieutenant, in the 7th 
 regiment of the United States infantry. 
 
 Not long after, he joined the army at New Orleans, then 
 under the command of General Wilkinson. In 1810, he was 
 united in marriage to Miss Margaret Smith, of Maryland, 
 a lady in all respects worthy of his affections. In the fol- 
 lowing November, he was promoted to the rank of captain. 
 In 1811, he was placed in command of Fort Knox, on the 
 Wabash, in the vicinity of Vincennes. From this station he 
 was ordered to the east, a short time before the battle of Tip- 
 pecanoe. In 1812, he received orders to take command of 
 Fort Harrison, a post situated on the Wabash, seventy-five 
 miles above Vincennes and fifty miles beyond the frontier 
 settlements. This was an important trust for one of his age. 
 But certain events proved the sagacity of the appointment. 
 
 While in command of Fort Harrison, Captain Taylor 
 became the hero of one of the most desperate conflicts fought 
 during the war. This frontier post was nothing more than 
 a slight stockade, which had been thrown up by General 
 Harrison in 1811, while on his march to Tippecanoe. The 
 defences were of the most simple and primitive kind. The 
 whole was built of unseasoned timber ; and was formed on 
 three sides by single rows of pickets ; the fourth side con- 
 
ZACHARY TAYLOR. 405 
 
 sisting of a range of log huts, appropriated as barracks for 
 the soldiers, and terminated at either extreme by a block 
 house. When Captain Taylor assumed the command of this 
 rude fortification, it was exceedingly ill provided either for 
 comfort or defence, and was garrisoned by a single broken 
 company of infantry. 
 
 On the third of September, 1812, two men were murdered 
 by the Indians within a few hundred yards of the fort. Late 
 on the evening of the 4th, between thirty and forty Indians 
 arrived from Prophet's town, bearing a white flag. They were 
 principally chiefs, and belonged to the various tribes that 
 composed the Prophet's party. Captain Taylor was informed 
 that the principal chief would make him a speech the 
 next morning, and that the object of their visit was to get 
 something to eat. The plot was well conceived, and boldly 
 executed ; but it was instantly detected by the eagle eye of 
 the young commander, and he redoubled his exertions to put 
 the fort in a proper state of defence. 
 
 The premeditated attack, so craftily arranged, was made 
 as expected. About eleven o'clock, Captain Taylor was 
 awakened by the firing of one of his sentinels. He imme- 
 diately ordered his men to their posts, and the firing became ge- 
 neral on both sides. In the midst of the uproar, it was disco- 
 vered that the Indians had set fire to the lower block-house. 
 Without a moment's pause. Captain Taylor directed buckets 
 to be brought, and the fire to be extinguished. But it was 
 much easier to give the order than to have it executed. The 
 men appeared to be paralyzed and stupified. The alarm of 
 fire had thrown the garrison into the greatest confusion, in 
 the midst of which all orders were unheard or disregarded. 
 Unfortunately, there was a great quantity of whisky among 
 the contractor's stores deposited in the block-house, which 
 
406 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 liaving caught fire, caused tiie flames to spread with great 
 rapidity, and rage with irresistible fury. During this time 
 the Indians were not idle, but kept up an incessant and 
 rapid discharge of rifles against the picketing, accompanied 
 by a concert of the most infernal yells that ever issued from 
 the throat of man, beast, or devil. The fire soon ascended 
 to the roof of the block-house, and threatened to wrap the 
 whole fort in a sheet of flame. 
 
 The men gave themselves up for lost, and ceased to pay 
 any attention to the orders. Disorder was at its height, and 
 the scene became terrific. The fire raged, and surged, and 
 roared — the Indians howled and yelled — dogs barked — the 
 wounded groaned ; and high above all, arose the shriek of 
 woman in her terror, sending its keen and thrilling accents 
 through the mingled sounds of battle — the surrounding 
 forest, bathed in bloody light, returned a fiery glare, yet 
 more appalling from the intense darkness of the night ; and 
 all combined made up a time of awful terror, before which 
 the stoutest heart quailed and quaked. In the midst of 
 this pandemonium stood the youthful hero, like a living rock, 
 firm and collected, rapid and decisive, at a single glance 
 intuitively determining the order of defence, animating 
 his comrades to confidence and constancy, and by the irre- 
 sistible force of example, imparted a spirit of determined 
 and courageous perseverance even to the weaker sex. The 
 roof of the block-house was thrown ofi"; the other buildings 
 were kept wet, and by the greatest exertions the flames kept 
 under. The opening made in the line of the defences by 
 the burning of the block-house, was supplied by a temporary 
 breastwork; and after keeping up a constant fire until 
 about six o'clock in the morning, the Indians retired. 
 The loss of the garrison, in this aflair, was only one man 
 
ZACHART TAYLOR. 407 
 
 killed, and two wounded. That of the Indians was very 
 considerable. 
 
 Captain Taylor, for this affair, was promoted to the 
 rank of major by brevet. It was the first brevet conferred 
 during the war : and never was similar reward more justly 
 merited. Major Taylor continued actively engaged in va- 
 rious deparments of service in the west, constantly extend- 
 ing the sphere of his reputation and influence, until 1814, 
 when he was placed temporarily at the head of the troops 
 in Missouri, until the arrival of General Howard, the com- 
 manding officer ; and was busily employed on that frontier 
 till the month of August. 
 
 In October, Major Taylor was called to St. Louis by the 
 sudden death of General Howard ; and in November, accom- 
 panied Colonel Russel several hundred miles up the Missouri, 
 to relieve a small settlement much exposed to Indian depre- 
 dations. In December he was transferred to Vincennes, and 
 assumed the command of the troops in Indiana, where he 
 remained until the termination of the war. A short time 
 before the conclusion of peace, he had been promoted to a 
 majority in the 26th regiment of infantry, and ordered to 
 join the regiment at Plattsburg : but when the army was 
 disbanded, he was retained on the peace establishment with 
 only the rank of captain. Declining to come into this ar- 
 rangement, he resigned his commission, and retired to his 
 farm near Louisville. 
 
 In 1816, he was reinstated in the army with his original 
 rank, and placed in command of Fort Crawford, at the mouth 
 of Fox river, which empties in Green Bay. He continued 
 in the command of various posts in the west until the breaking 
 out of the Black Hawk war, in 1832, when he was again 
 called into active service. In 1832, he was promoted to the 
 
408 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 rank of colonel, and served under General Atkinson in his 
 various campaigns against the Indians. It is scarcely ne- 
 cessary to say, that in this service, he fully sustained his high 
 military reputation. He commanded the regulars in the 
 bloody and decisive battle of the Wisconsin, which resulted 
 in the capture of Black Hawk and the Prophet, and the 
 termination of the war. 
 
 In 1836, Colonel Taylor was ordered to Florida, at that 
 time the scene of a bloody war betAveen the United States 
 and the Seminole and other tribes of southern Indians. This 
 war, perhaps, was the most extraordinary in which the United 
 States was ever engaged. It had been protracted from year 
 to year at an immense expense of blood and treasure, unsig- 
 nalized by any decided advantage ; and when Colonel Tay- 
 lor was transferred to that theatre, there appeared no better 
 prospect of its termination than at its first commencement. 
 Our best and bravest officers had sunk under the hardships 
 of a service in which no glory was to be won, and which pre- 
 sented no inducement to skill or courage, but patriotism. In 
 this vexatious and exhausting service, Colonel Taylor soon 
 became distinguished for zeal, energy, activity, and indomi- 
 table hardihood. The uniform policy of the Indians had been 
 to avoid battle ; directing their operations against small de- 
 tachments and isolated individuals, thus destroying our forces 
 in detail, without incurring the hazard of a defeat. This 
 plan of carrying on the war. Colonel Taylor resolved to ter- 
 minate, and bring the Indians to a battle at all hazards. 
 
 Fortune aided him, and he was successful. On the 23rd 
 of December, 1837, he brought the Indians to a general 
 action at Okeechobee, .and after a contest of about three 
 hours routed them. The hostile forces suffered about 
 equally in killed and wounded — but the Indians did not re- 
 
ZACHART TAYLOR. 409 
 
 cover from the blow. Colonel Taylor's conduct in this battle 
 was duly appreciated by the government. The Secretary 
 of War, Mr. Poinsett, gave him the warmest commendation 
 in his report to Congress ; and he was immediately pro- 
 moted to the brevet rank of brigadier-general, with the chief 
 command in Florida. His head-quarters were in the neigh- 
 borhood of Tampa l^ay. From this point, he directed the 
 " war of movements," so difficult and discouraging to an 
 ardent officer, until 1840, when he was relieved by General 
 Armistead, who was now ordered to take the command in 
 Florida. 
 
 General Taylor was now ordered to the command of the 
 southern department of the army, including the states of 
 of Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia, with his 
 head-quarters at Fort Jessup, in Louisiana. His appoint- 
 ment to this command led to his being subsequently placed 
 at the head of the "Army of Occupation." 
 
 It is foreign from this work to discuss the causes of the 
 Avar with Mexico, in which General Taylor so remarkably 
 distinguished himself. His connection with it was simply 
 that of a military commander acting under authority, which 
 it was his duty to respect. 
 
 The army under General Taylor occupied a position at 
 Corpus Christi, west of the Nueces, as early as August, 
 1845, having been ordered to take a position between the 
 river Nueces and the Rio Grande, and to repel any invasion 
 of the Texan territory, which might be attempted by the 
 Mexican forces. The army occupied this position from 
 August, 1845, until the 11th of March, 1846, when it re- 
 moved westward, and on the 20th of that month reached 
 the Colorado, where some disposition to resist its progress 
 being evinced by a Mexican force, the army was formed into 
 
 35 
 
410 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 line of battle. A road was then opened down the beach 
 of the river ; and while it was in progress, the enemy was 
 notified by General Taylor, that when it was completed he 
 should cross the river and fire upon any one who appeared 
 in arms to oppose his march. The artillery was placed so 
 as to cover the ford, and the port-fires were lighted. Gene- 
 ral Mejia, aid to the Mexican commander, now arrived with 
 a letter to General Taylor, apprising him that if the Ame- 
 rican army should cross the Colorado, it would be consi- 
 dered a declaration of war, and would immediately be 
 followed by actual hostilities. 
 
 The crossing took place nevertheless ; and that too at a 
 point where an excellent opportunity was presented of suc- 
 cessfully resisting the advance of the Americans. On the 
 22d, the army advanced across the prairie in the direction 
 of Matamoras ; but General Taylor, hearing that the Mexi- 
 cans held Point Isabel, halted on the 24th, and leaving the 
 army under the command pf General Worth, advanced to 
 that place with the dragoons, occupied it, and received from 
 steamboats, which arrived opportunely at the same time, a 
 quantity of supplies for the army. 
 
 Passing by the spot where subsequently the battle of Re- 
 saca de la Palma was fought, and which General Taylor 
 did not fail to point out as a favorable position for a fight, 
 the army arrived upon the east bank of the Rio Grande, 
 opposite Matamoras, at noon of the 28th of March. Gene- 
 ral Worth and his staff were now ordered to cross the river 
 to Matamoras, bearing despatches from General Taylor 
 to the commanding ofiicer of the Mexicans and the civil 
 authorities. They were met by a Mexican party, bearing 
 a white flag, who landed on the eastern bank ; and an in- 
 terview with the authorities was requested by General Worth. 
 
ZACHARY TAYLOE. 411 
 
 After some delay he was invited to cross the river. On 
 reaching the right bank, he was met bj General Vega and 
 some officers. The reception of the despatches was declined. 
 An interview with the American consul at Matamoras was 
 demanded and refused, and General Worth returned. 
 
 General Taylor now commenced throwing up intrench- 
 ments, while the Mexicans were evincing decisive symptoms 
 of hostility. Several attempts of American soldiers to de- 
 sert were defeated by shooting the deserters. One was 
 killed by a sentinel at a distance of two hundred yards, after 
 swimming the river and commencing his ascent on the op- 
 posite bank. Some, however, succeeded, and were very 
 hospitably received in Matamoras. 
 
 Soon after, a proclamation issued by General Ampudia, 
 offering inducements to the troops of General Taylor to de- 
 sert, fell into the hands of the American commander. The 
 proclamation was ineffectual. 
 
 On the 5th of April, a small intrenchment was raised for 
 the reception of cannon expected from Point Isabel. The 
 main intrenchment, Fort Brown, meantime, was in progress, 
 under the direction of Captain Mansfield, of the engineers. 
 It had six bastion fronts, and was capable of accommodating 
 five regiments of infantry. 
 
 On the 10th of April, Colonel Cross, the deputy quarter- 
 master-general, was murdered by the Mexicans while taking 
 a ride near the American camp. His body was not discovered 
 till the 21st, and it is still somewhat doubtful by what 
 particular party of the enemy he met his fate. 
 
 On the 11th of April, General Ampudia arrived at Mata- 
 moras ; and on the 12th, he sent a flag with a communica- 
 tion to General Taylor, requiring him to break up his camp 
 and retire beyond the Nueces within twenty-four hours. 
 
412 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 General Taylor replied, stating his instructions, and his 
 determination to abide by them. The murder of Lieutenant 
 Porter, immediately after this, tended to exasperate the Ame- 
 ricans. Several communications passed between General 
 Taylor and the Mexican general, Arista, who had now 
 taken command of the army at Matamoras. 
 
 Point Isabel had been made the depot for military stores 
 for the Army of Occupation. The Mexicans had already 
 crossed the Rio Grande, and intercepted the communication 
 between this post and Fort Brown, and General Taylor was 
 engaged in making preparations for re-opening the commu- 
 nication between the two posts. Teams despatched from 
 Fort Isabel to Fort Brown had been compelled to return, 
 and Captain Walker, of the Texan Rangers, who went out 
 on the 28th to reconnoitre, was driven back to Fort Isabel, 
 with .the loss of some of his party. He reported having en- 
 countered a force of the enemy, which he estimated at fifteen 
 hundred. Notwithstanding this, he started on the 29th, 
 with a message from Major Munroe to General Taylor, and 
 after a series of "hair-breadth escapes" succeeded in 
 delivering it. 
 
 After receiving this message. General Taylor (May 1st, 
 1846) took up his line of march for Point Isabel, with the 
 main body of the army, leaving a regiment of infantry and 
 two companies of artillery at Fort Brown, under the com- 
 mand of Major Brown. The Mexicans, who had very pru- 
 dently refrained from attacking the army while General 
 Taylor was present, commenced, on the 3d of May, a furious 
 fire, on the small force left in Fort Brown, from a battery 
 of seven guns. The fire was instantly returned with spirit, 
 and the battery was silenced in twenty minutes after the 
 Americans commenced firing. Another attack was com- 
 
ZACHARY TAYLOR. 413 
 
 menced with shot and shells from another battery, killing a 
 sergeant, but eiFecting no other damage. 
 
 The firing at Fort Bl-own being heard by General Taylor, 
 he despatched Captains May and Walker to obtain intelli- 
 gence from the fort ; and by this means received intelligence 
 that Major Brown was in a condition to maintain his post. 
 
 On the morning of the 5th of May, Fort Brown was as- 
 sailed by a heavy force of the enemy on the rear, where the 
 INIexicans had placed a strong battery during the preceding 
 night. At the same time the battle was renewed from Mata- 
 moras, and the gallant fellows in the intrenchment were thus 
 exposed to a galling cross fire, with the prospect of a speedy 
 assault. Nothing daunted, however, they returned the fire 
 on both sides, maintaining the unequal contest with perfect 
 coolness, until the firing of the enemy ceased. On the even- 
 ing of this day. Major Brown, in obedience to orders which 
 he had received from General Taylor, fired his eighteen- 
 pounders at stated intervals, as a signal that he was sur- 
 rounded. On the forenoon of the 6th, Major Brown, the 
 gallant commander of the fort, was mortally wounded by a 
 shell from one of the Mexican batteries. He was succeeded 
 in the command by Captain Hawkins, who, at half past four 
 o'clock, was summoned to surrender the fort, and, of course, 
 refused. The firing was then renewed and continued for the 
 rest of the day. 
 
 At daylight of the 7th, the firing was renewed ; but soon 
 after suddenly ceased. It was again renewed and continued 
 for six hours. The firing at Palo Alto, where General Tay- 
 lor was engaged with the Mexicans, was then heard at Fort 
 Brown, with what mixed emotions the reader may conceive. 
 The Americans welcomed the sound with a tremendous 
 shout. The enemy recommenced the bombardment with 
 35* 
 
414 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 redoubled energy ; but the continuous and exulting shouts 
 of the Americans finally silenced the bombardment. At 
 sunset a Mexican deserter brought the news of the victory 
 of Palo Alto ; and the wearied garrison felt that their 
 labors and dangers were nearly closed. 
 
 But General Taylor expressed his determination to march 
 from Point Isabel to Fort Brown, and to fight any force of 
 the enemy that might oppose his progress. The following 
 letter, from an eye-witness of his operations, gives a clear 
 view of the battles of the 8th and 9th of May, and the 
 succeeding events. 
 
 By the last departure I wrote to you briefly of the opera- 
 tions of the army up to that time, of the bombardment of 
 the fort opposite Matamoras, and the movement of General 
 Taylor with the main body to this place, for the purpose of 
 strengthening its defences. Having efiected this, he marched, 
 without waiting for reinforcements, on the evening of tho 
 7th ; and on the 8th, at two o'clock, found the enemy in 
 position, in front of a chapparal, which lies opposite to the 
 timber of a stream called Palo Alto. 
 
 The train was closed up, the troops filled their canteens, 
 and General Taylor promptly formed his line of battery. 
 The first and only important movement attempted by the 
 enemy, was by a detachment of their cavalry to make a detour 
 around a clump of chapparal on our right, and attack the 
 train. Captain Walker, of the Texas Rangers, promptly 
 reported this, and the 5th infantry was detached to meet 
 it, which it did handsomely, receiving the lancers in square, 
 and driving them by a well-delivered volley. The cavalry 
 then pushed on again for the train, and found the 3rd in- 
 fantry advancing in column of divisions upon them. They 
 then retired, and as they repassed the 5tli, they received a 
 
ZACHARY TAYLOR. 415 
 
 fire from Lieutenant Ridgely's two pieces, -wliich had ar- 
 rived at the nick of time. Two field-pieces, which were 
 following the enemy's cavalry, were also driven back with 
 them. 
 
 Meanwhile the enemy's left was riddled by the eighteen- 
 pounders, which slowly advanced up the road — Duncan's 
 battery on the left, neglecting the enemy's guns, threw 
 their fire into the Mexican infantry, and swept whole ranks. 
 The 8th infantry on the left sufi"ered severely from the 
 enemy's fire. The grass was set on fire at the end of an 
 hour's cannonading, and obscured the enemy's position 
 completely, and an interval of three-quarters of an hour 
 occurred. During this period our right, now resting on 
 the eighteen-pounders, advanced along the wood, to the 
 point originally occupied by the Mexican left, and when the 
 smoke had cleared away sufiSciently to show the enemy, the 
 fire was resumed with increased rapidity and execution. 
 Duncan divided his battery on the left, giving a section to 
 Lieutenant Roland, to operate in front, and with the other 
 he advanced beyond the burning grass, (which was three 
 feet high, and the flames rolled ten feet in the strong breeze,) 
 and seized the prolongation of the enemy's right, enfilading 
 that flank completely. Night found the two armies in this 
 position. 
 
 On the 9th, the general packed the heavy train, collected 
 the enemy's wounded in hospital, buried their dead, arranged 
 our own wounded (among whom we have to regret the sudden 
 death of Major Ringgold, and probably Captain Page,) and 
 moved on in pursuit of the enemy on the Matamoras road. 
 They had taken post in the chapparal, the second time, oc- 
 cupying the bed of a stream called Resaca de la Palma, with 
 their artillery on the road at the crossing. The general 
 
416 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 brought up his troops by battalions, and posted tliem, with 
 brief orders to find the enemy with the bayonet, and placed 
 the artillery where they could act in the road. 
 
 The dragoons were held in reserve, and as soon as the 
 advance of our line had uncovered the Mexican batteries, 
 General Taylor told Captain May that Ms time had come : 
 "Here's the enemy's battery, sir, take it, nolens volens." 
 May dashed upon it with his squadron, and lost one-third of 
 it ; but he cleared the battery and captured its commander. 
 General Vega, in the act of raising a port-fire, to fire a piece 
 himself. May took his sword, and brought the general off. 
 The enemy remanned the guns, and lost them a second time 
 to the 5th infantry. 
 
 Captain Barbour, of the 2d infantry, with his single com- 
 pany, and a few from the 5th, who joined him in the chap- 
 paral, threw his back against a clump of bushes, and received 
 and gallantly repelled a charge of cavalry. Captain Duncan, 
 with his battery, did terrible execution. Lieutenant Ridgely 
 was also amongst the foremost. In truth, it was a series of 
 brilliant skirmishes, and heavy shocks, in which fifteen hun- 
 dred fighting men met six thousand hand to hand — over- 
 whelmed them with the precision of their volleys, and the 
 steady coolness of the bayonet, and drove them from the field 
 with the loss of their artillery, baggage, pack-mules, fixed 
 ammunition, and near two thousand stand of muskets. 
 
 Fort Brown, meantime, had been summoned, with true 
 Mexican duplicity, and told that Taylor was flying. The 
 Matamoras newspapers and official bulletins called him a cow- 
 ardly tailor. In answer to the summons, the officers plunged 
 their swords in the parapet, and replied " to the hilt." Up 
 to the evening of the 9th, fifteen hundred shells and three 
 thousand shot had been thrown, and the only loss was that 
 
ZACHARY TAYLOR. 417 
 
 of the brave commander, Major Brown, and one sergeant 
 and one private killed, and eleven wounded. 
 
 The general returns to the army to-night, and will cross 
 the river to-morrow or next day. The fort will be increased 
 in guns, and especially provided with mortars, which will 
 bring the town to terms at once. The navy will co-operate 
 at the mouth of the river, and steam-boats begin to carry 
 supplies by that route. 
 
 General Taylor has just given General Vega a letter to 
 General Gaines, and a letter of credit on his factor. The 
 officers here and in the main body vied with their com- 
 mander in delicate attentions to a brave and accomplished 
 enemy, who won their admiration on the field, and was taken 
 like a soldier, in full harness, and fighting gallantly to the 
 last. Our loss about thirty killed, and one hundred and 
 forty Avounded. 
 
 Mexican loss at Palo Alto, set down by themselves at four 
 hundred and fifty ; at Resaca de la Palma, two thousand 
 missing. Since the battle, our dragoons have been exchanged 
 grade for grade ; and the Mexican wounded sent over to 
 Matamoras. 
 
 On the morning after the battle of Resaca de la Palma, 
 General Taylor with his usual humanity, sent to Matamoras 
 for Mexican surgeons to attend their wounded, and for men 
 to bury their dead ; and the same day was occupied by the 
 Americans in burying their dead. 
 
 On the 11th of May, an exchange of prisoners took place ; 
 and General Taylor started for Point Isabel, for the pur- • 
 pose of communicating with Commodore Conner, command- 
 ing the American squadron in the Gulf of Mexico, and who 
 sailed to Brazos Santiago, in order to render aid to the 
 general. 
 
418 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 The IStli an 14th of May were spent by General Taylor 
 in organizing and despatching a force to capture Barita, a 
 town near the mouth of the Rio Grande, on the Mexican side, 
 where the enemy was said to be concentrating the remains 
 of his shattered and vanquished army. Commodore Conner 
 ordered a part of his fleet to co-operate, and the place was 
 quietly taken on the 15th, the inhabitants fleeing on the 
 approach of the Americans. 
 
 The next operation was the capture of Matamoras. 
 Every thing was ready for an attack on the town, on the 
 evening of the 16th. On the morning of the 18th, General 
 Taylor commenced crossing the river. No resistance was 
 offered by the Mexicans on the bank of the river, and it is 
 said many of them assisted in landing the boats. Arista re- 
 treated to Reynosa, where he encamped, waiting a rein- 
 forcement from Parades. 
 
 General Taylor although in possession of Matamoras, 
 found himself in no condition to advance further into the 
 enemy's country. He was deficient not only in troops, 
 but in supplies and the means of transportation. It became 
 necessary, therefore, for him to remain at this post through 
 the greater part of the summer, waiting for the necessary 
 means of prosecuting the invasion. 
 
 In the beginning of June, General Taylor's force did not 
 exceed nine thousand men, including seven hundred and 
 fifty stationed at Barita, and five hundred at Point Isabel. 
 Reinforcements were coming in slowly from the different 
 states of the union, and, although he was anticipating the 
 arrival of a sufficient force to warrant his advance towards 
 Monterey, where the enemy was concentrating his forces, 
 neither men nor steam-boats had yet arrived sufficient to en- 
 able him even to fix the time of his departure. By the mi- 
 
ZACHAET TAYLOR. 419 
 
 litary arrangements wMch followed the re-organization of the 
 government, General Arevalo was sent to Monterey, and 
 Bravo to Mexico, while Mejia was placed in the command 
 of the northern army, and Ampudia was ordered to San Luis 
 Potosi. Monterey, being considered the most probable scene 
 of General Taylor's operations, was strongly fortified and 
 furnished with provisions and munitions of war. Before the 
 end of June, General Taylor was strongly reinforced by the 
 arrival of numerous bodies of fresh volunteers from various 
 parts of the union ; but his means of transportation were still 
 deficient. 
 
 In the meantime Captain McCulloch, with the Texan 
 rangers, had seized and occupied the Mexican ports of Rey- 
 nosa, Camargo. and Mier, without resistance on the part of 
 the enemy. It was not until the 5th of August, nearly three 
 months after the battle of Resaca de la Palma, that General 
 Taylor was able to take up his line of March from Mata- 
 moras to Camargo. On arriving at that place, General 
 Worth was detached to San Juan, while Captain Wall oc- 
 cupied Reynosa, and General Twiggs had been left in com- 
 mand of Matamoras. Towards the end of August, General 
 Worth was ordered to advance to Seralvo, and there to 
 await further orders. From this port he sent advices to 
 General Taylor on the 5th of September, that Monterey had 
 just been reinforced by the arrival of three thousand men 
 under General Ampudia, thus increasing the garrison to four 
 thousand. This important information determined General 
 Taylor to advance immediately and attack Monterey. He 
 accordingly took up his march towards Seralvo on the 7th, 
 leaving General Patterson in command of all the forces sta- 
 tioned between Camargo and Matamoras. On his arrival 
 at Seralvo, instead of waiting for further reinforcements or 
 
420 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 fresh orders before attacking so formidable a fort with so 
 light a force, he pushed forward for Monterey with his main 
 body, consisting of but little more than six thousand men. 
 On the morning of the 19th of September, the army encamped 
 at the "Walnut Springs," within three miles of the city of 
 Monterey. Here they could survey the prospect before 
 them — Monterey seated in a beautiful valley, bosomed among 
 lofty and imposing mountains on the north, west and south, 
 and open to a plain on the east, fortified with thick stone 
 walls in the old Spanish fashion of another century, with all 
 the apparatus of ditches and bastions, and lowering upon 
 tliem with deep mouthed cannon. From their elevated po- 
 sition the Americans could see in part what they had already 
 learned from spies and deserters, that the flat-roofed stone 
 houses of the city itself, had been converted into fortifications. 
 Every street was barricaded, and every housetop was bris- 
 tling with musketry. On one side the Americans could see 
 the Bishop's palace, a strong post, well fortified ; on the other, 
 redoubts well manned ; and in the rear of all, a river. Such 
 was the city which was destined after three days of desperate 
 fighting, to surrender its garrison of ten thousand men, its 
 castles, redoubts, cannon, and munitions of war, to an Ame- 
 rican army of seven thousand men, inspirited by the guiding 
 genius of Taylor. 
 
 After reconnoitering the defences of the city. General Tay- 
 lor detached General Worth to gain a position on the Saltillo 
 road ; and the next day, the 21st of September, while Worth 
 advanced and gained a good situation, the commander-in- 
 chief pushed the attack vigorously against the centre and 
 left of the town. The firing on both sides was tremenduous. 
 The assailants displayed the greatest valor. By the evening, 
 General Taylor had obtained a foot-hold in the town. 
 
ZACHARY TAYLOR. 421 
 
 The 22d passed without any operations in the lower part of 
 the city. The Mexicans gradually withdrew from that por- 
 tion. On the same day, Worth attacked and carried the 
 Bishop's Palace and the adjacent batteries. On the 23d, both 
 divisions pressed to the attack, and the gallant Worth, over- 
 coming the greatest obstacles advanced far into the town. 
 The next morning, propositions were made for a capitulation, 
 which was at length arranged. Monterey and the material of 
 war, with certain small exceptions were placed in the hands of 
 the Americans. Ampudia and his force were allowed to retire. 
 The entire loss of the assailants was one hundred and twenty 
 men killed, and three hundred and sixty-eight men wounded. 
 The Mexican loss was supposed to be much greater. 
 
 The achievement was glorious, and the gallant commander 
 and his troops deserved the applause they received from 
 their countrymen. We doubt whether such a fortress was 
 ever before taken with such means as those at the command 
 of General Taylor. 
 
 After establishing his head-quarters at Monterey, General 
 Taylor detached Brigadier-General Worth with twelve hun- 
 dred men and eight pieces of artillery to Saltillo ; Brigadier- 
 General Wool and the column under his command, two thous- 
 and four hundred strong, with six pieces of artillery, were 
 ordered to occupy the town of Parras. Saltillo and Parras 
 were occupied by the Americans without any opposition, the 
 enemy having fallen back as far as San Luis Potosi. Santa 
 Anna had now been recalled to Mexico, and placed at the 
 head of affairs, and Parades deposed. Santa Anna was no- 
 minally commander-in-chief of the Mexican armies, really 
 dictator. He was raising a formidable army to resist the 
 further advance of General Taylor. Before December, he 
 had succeeded in raising twenty thousand men, and concen- 
 
 36 
 
422 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 trating them at San Luis Potosi, whicli he strongly fortified, 
 and filled with military stores. After awaiting the advance 
 of this formidable force for some time, General Taylor 
 determined to meet them on their own ground. 
 
 General Taylor was now superseded in the chief command 
 of the Army of Occupation, by Major-General Winfield 
 ScQtt, who was appointed commander-in-chief of all the land 
 forces in Mexico, and at the various posts on the Rio Grande. 
 The theatre of Scott's operations was diiEFerent from that of 
 Taylor's. His main object was the reduction of the city of 
 Vera Cruz, and the fort of San Juan de Ulloa, by a combined 
 land and sea force. Vera Cruz being the key of the main 
 road to the capital. General Scott thought that its reduction 
 would compel the Mexicans to sue for peace. To effect this 
 object it became necessary for him to draw from General 
 Taylor the main body of his regular forces. 
 
 Not only were nearly all the regulars withdrawn from him 
 but his noble coadjutor General Worth was detached and 
 ordered to march at the head of them from his post at Sal- 
 tillo towards Vera Cruz, while Taylor was advised to fall 
 back on Monterey and await the arrival of fresh recruits, 
 volunteers who were destined to take the place of the vete- 
 ran warriors of Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, and Monterey. 
 His address to these veterans was full of sensibility. 
 
 On reaching Monterey, his regular force was six hundred, 
 including May's dragoons. In February, he had received 
 reinforcements raising his army to nearly six thousand men. 
 Anticipating an attempt on the part of Santa Anna, to 
 possess himself of the line of posts between himself and 
 Matamoras, he determined to advance and fight a pitched 
 battle with him. Accordingly, on the 20th of February, we 
 find him encamped at Agua Nueva, eighteen miles south of 
 
ZACHARY TAYLOR. 423 
 
 Saltillo, and sending out videttes, who return with intelligence 
 that Santa Anna is within thirty miles of his position, rapidly 
 advancing with some twenty thousand men against his forlorn 
 hope of five thousand four hundred. 
 
 On receiving this intelligence, General Taylor determined 
 to choose his own battle ground, and accordingly fell back 
 to an admirable position in front of Buena Vista, seven miles 
 south of Saltillo. The following extracts, from the dispatch 
 of the commander himself, will give the best general view of 
 the battle. 
 
 The army broke up its camp, and marched at noon on the 
 21st, encamping at the new position a little in front of the 
 hacienda of Buena Vista. With a small force I proceeded 
 to Saltillo, to make some necessary arrangements for the 
 defence of the town, leaving Brigadier-General Wool in the 
 immediate command of the troops. Before these arrange- 
 ments were completed, on the morning of the 22d, I was 
 advised that the enemy was in sight, advancing. Upon 
 reaching the ground, it was found that his cavalry advance 
 was in our front, having marched from Encarnacion, as we 
 have since learned, at eleven o'clock on the day previous, 
 and driving in a mounted force left at Agua Nueva to cover 
 the removal of the public stores. Our troops were in posi- 
 tion, occupying a line of remarkable strength. The fea- 
 tures of the ground were such as nearly to paralyze the ar- 
 tillery and cavalry of the enemy, while his infantry could 
 not derive all the advantages of its numerical superiority. 
 In this position we prepared to receive him. 
 
 At eleven o'clock I received from General Santa Anna a 
 summons to surrender at discretion, which, with a copy of 
 my reply, I have already transmitted. The enemy still fore- 
 bore his attack, evidently waiting for the arrival of liis rear 
 
424 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 cokimns, whicli could be distinctly seen by our look-outs as 
 they approached the field. A demonstration made on his 
 left caused me to detach the 2d Kentucky regiment and a 
 section of artillery to our right, in which position they bivou- 
 acked for the night. In the mean time the Mexican light 
 troops had engaged ours on the extreme left (composed of 
 parts of the Kentucky and Arkansas cavalry dismounted, 
 and a rifle battalion from the Indiana brigade, under Major 
 Gorman, the whole commanded by Colonel Marshall,) and 
 kept up a sharp fire, climbing the mountain side, and appa- 
 rently endeavoring to gain our flank. Three piece of Cap- 
 tain Washington's battery had been detached to the left, and 
 were supported by the 2d Indiana regiment. An occasional 
 shell was thrown by the enemy into this part of our line, but 
 without effect. 
 
 The skirmishing of the light troops was kept up witli 
 trifling loss on our part until dark, when I became convinced 
 that no serious attack would be made before the morning, 
 and returned, with the Mississippi regiment and squadron 
 of 2d dragoons, to Saltillo. The troops bivouacked without 
 fires, and laid upon their arms. A body of cavalry, some 
 fifteen hundred strong, had been visible all day in rear of 
 the town, having entered the valley through a narrow pass 
 east of the city. This cavalry, commanded by General 
 Minon, had evidently been thrown in our rear to break up 
 and harass our retreat, and perhaps make some attempt 
 against the town, if practicable. Having made dispositions 
 for the protection of the rear, I proceeded on the morning 
 of the 23d to Buena Vista, ordering forward all the other 
 available troops. The action had commenced before my 
 arrival on the field. During the evening and night of the 
 22d, the enemy had thrown a body of light troops on the 
 
ZACHARY TAYLOK. 425 
 
 mountain side, with the purpose of outflanking our left ; and 
 it was here that the action of the 23d commenced at an 
 early hour. Our riflemen, under Colonel Marshall, who 
 had been reinforced by three companies under Major Trail, 
 2d Illinois volunteers, maintained their ground handsomely 
 against a greatly superior force, holding themselves under 
 cover, and using their weapons with deadly effect. About 
 eight o'clock a strong demonstration was made against the 
 centre of our position, a heavy column moving along the road. 
 This force was soon dispersed by a few rapid and well-directed 
 shots from Captain Washington's battery. In the mean time 
 the enemy was concentrating a large force of infantry and 
 cavalry under cover of the ridges, with the obvious intention 
 of forcing our left, which was posted on an extensive plateau. 
 The 2d Indiana and 2d Illinois regiments formed this part 
 of our line, the former covering three pieces of liglit artillery, 
 under the orders of Captain O'Brien — Brigadier-General 
 Lane being in the immediate command. Captain O'Brien 
 found it impossible to retain his position without support, but 
 was only able to withdraw two of his pieces, all the horses 
 and cannoneers of the third piece being killed or disabled. 
 Colonel Bissell's regiment, 2d Illinois, which had been 
 joined by a section of Captain Sherman's battery, had be- 
 come completely outflanked, and was compelled to fall back, 
 being entirely unsupported. The enemy was now pouring 
 masses of infantry and cavalry along the base of the mountain 
 on our left, and was gaining our rear in great force. 
 
 At this moment I arrived upon the field. The Mississippi 
 regiment had been directed to the left before reaching the 
 position, and immediately came into action against the 
 Mexican infantry which had turned our flank. Discovering 
 that the enemy was heavily pressing upon the Mississippi 
 
 36* 
 
426 1 IVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 regiment, the 3(1 Indiana regiment, under Colonel Lane, 
 was despatched to strengthen that part of our line, "which 
 formed a crotchet perpendicular to the first line of battle. 
 At the same time, Lieutenant Kilburn, with a piece of 
 Captain Bragg's batterj, was directed to support the infantry 
 there engaged. The action was for a long time warmly 
 sustained at that point— the enemy making several efforts 
 both with infantry and cavalry against our line, and being 
 always repulsed with heavy loss. I had placed all the 
 regular cavalry and Captain Pike's squadron of Arkansas 
 horse under the orders of Brevet Lieutenant-Colonel May, 
 with directions to hold in check the enemy's column, still 
 advancing to the rear along the base of the mountain, which 
 was done in conjunction with the Kentucky and Arkansas 
 cavalry, under Colonels Marshall and Yell. In the mean 
 time our left, which was strongly threatened by a superior 
 force, was farther strengthened by the detachment of Cap- 
 tain Bragg's, and a portion of Captain Sherman's batteries 
 to that quarter. The squadron of the 1st dragoons, under 
 Lieutenant Rucker, was now ordered up the deep ravine 
 which these corps were endeavoring to cross, in order to 
 charge and disperse them. The squadron proceeded to the 
 point indicated, but could not accomplish the object, being 
 exposed to a heavy fire from a battery established to cover 
 the retreat of those corps. 
 
 While the squadron was detached on this service, a large 
 body of the enemy was observed to concentrate on our ex- 
 treme left, apparently with the view of making a descent 
 upon the hacienda of Buena Vista, where our train and bag- 
 gage were deposited. Lieutenant-Colonel May was ordered 
 to the support of that point, with two pieces of Captain 
 Sherman's battery, under Lieutenant Reynolds. In the mean 
 
ZACIIARY TAYLOR. 427 
 
 time, the scattered forces near the hacienda, composed in 
 part of Majors Trail and Gorman's commands, had been 
 to some extent organized under the advice of Major Monroe, 
 chief of artillery, with the assistance of Major Morrison, 
 volunteer staff, and were posted to defend the position. .Before 
 our cavalry had reached the hacienda, that of the enemy had 
 made its attack ; having been handsomely met by the Ken- 
 tucky and Arkansas cavalry under Colonels Marshall and 
 Yell. 
 
 The position of that portion of the Mexican army which 
 had gained our rear Was now very critical, and it seemed 
 doubtful whether it could regain the main body. At this 
 moment I received from General Santa Anna a message by 
 a staff officer, desiring to know what I wanted ? I immedi- 
 ately despatched Brigadier-General Wool to the Mexican 
 general-in-chief, and sent orders to cease firing. Upon 
 reaching the Mexican lines General Wool could not cause the 
 enemy to cease their fire, and accordingly returned Avithout 
 having an interview. The extreme right of the enemy con- 
 tinued its retreat along the base of the mountain, and finally, 
 in spite of our efforts, effected a junction with the remainder 
 of the army. 
 
 During the day, the cavalry of General Minon had ascended 
 the elevated plain above Saltillo, and occupied the road from 
 the city to the field of battle, where they intercepted several 
 of our men. Approaching the town, they were fired upon 
 by Captain Webster from the redoubt occupied by his com- 
 pany. The enemy made one or two efforts to charge the ar- 
 tillery, but was finally driven back in a confused mass, and 
 did not again appear upon the plain. In the mean time, the 
 firing had ceased upon the principal field. The enemy 
 seemed to confine his efforts to the protection of his artillery. 
 
428 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 and I had left the phiteau for a moment, when I was recalled 
 thither by a very heavy musketry fire. On regaining that 
 position, I discovered that our infantry (Illinois and 2d Ken- 
 tucky) had engaged a greatly superior force of the enemy — 
 evidently his reserve — and that they had been overwhelmed 
 by numbers. The moment was most critical. Captain O'Brien 
 with two pieces, had sustained this heavy charge to the hasi, 
 and was finally obliged to leave his guns on the field — his' 
 infantry support being entirely routed. Captain Bragg, who 
 had just arrived from the left, was ordered at once into bat- 
 tery. Without any infantry to support him, and at the im- 
 minent risk of losing his guns, this officer came rapidly into 
 action, the Mexican line being but a few yards from the 
 muzzle of his pieces. The first discharge of canister caused' 
 the enemy to hesitate, the second and third drove him back 
 in disorder, and saved the day. The 2d Kentucky regiment, 
 which had advanced beyond supporting distance in this afiair, 
 was driven back and closely pressed by the enemy's cavalry. 
 Taking a ravine which led in the direction of Captain Wash- 
 ington's battery, their pursuers became exposed to his fire, 
 which soon checked and drove them back Avith loss. In the 
 mean time the rest of our artillery had taken position on the 
 plateau, covered by the Mississippi and 3d Indiana regiments, 
 the former of which had reached the ground in time to pour 
 a fire into the right flank of the enemy, and thus contribute 
 to his repulse. In this last conflict we had the misfortune 
 to sustain a very heavy loss. Colonel Hardin, 1st Illinois, 
 and Colonel McKee and Lieutenant-Colonel Clay, 2d Ken- 
 tucky regiment, fell at this time while gallantly leading their 
 commands. 
 
 No farther attempt was made by the enemy to force our 
 position, and the approach of night gave an opportunity to 
 
ZACHARY TAYLOR. 429 
 
 pay proper attention to the wounded, and also to refresh the 
 soldiers, who had been exhausted by incessant watchfulness 
 and combat. Though the night was severely cold, the troops 
 were compelled for the most part to bivouac without fires, 
 expecting that morning would renew the conflict. 
 
 On the evening of the 26th, a close reconnoissance was 
 made of the enemy's position, which was found to be occupied 
 only by a small body of cavalry, the infantry and artillery 
 having retreated in the direction of San Luis Potosi. On 
 the 27th, our troops resumed their former camp at Agua 
 Nueva, the enemy's rear-guard evacuating the place as we 
 approached, leaving a considerable number of wounded. 
 
 The American Torce engaged in the action of Buena Vista 
 is shown, by the accompanying field report, to have been 
 three hundred and thirty-four officers, and four thousand four 
 hundred and twenty-five men, exclusive of the small com- 
 mand left in and near Saltillo. Of this number, two sqadrons 
 of cavalry and three batteries of light artillery, making not 
 more than four hundred and fifth-three men, composed the 
 only force of regular troops. The strength of the Mexican 
 army is stated by General Santa Anna, in his summons, to 
 be twenty thousand ; and that estimate is confirmed by all 
 the information since obtained. Our loss is two hundred 
 and sixty-seven killed, four hundred and fifty-six wounded, 
 and twenty-three missing. The Mexican loss in killed and 
 wounded may be fairly estimated at one thousand five hun- 
 dred, and will probably reach two thousand. At least five 
 hundred of their killed were left upon the field of battle. 
 We have no means of ascertaining the number of deserters 
 and dispersed men from their ranks, but it is known to 
 be very great. The rest of this despatch is devoted to 
 complimenting particular officers. 
 
430 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 The battle of Buena Vista will stand as an evidence of 
 the great military qualities of the American general. The 
 field was skilfully chosen, and all the efforts of a vastly 
 superior enemy was met with a wise and determined resist- 
 ance. General Taylor performed no further remarkable 
 service during the war. Upon his return to the United 
 States, he was received with every demonstration of gratitude 
 and admiration. Although he retired to his plantation on 
 the Mississippi, his countrymen were determined that there 
 he should not be permitted to rest. Before the general had 
 left Mexico, he had been nominated for the Presidency in 
 various sections of the union, and a disposition was nov^ 
 manifested to bring him forward as the candidate of the 
 national whig party. The general had meddled little with 
 politics. He declared himself " a whig, but not an ultra 
 Avhig." Violent partizans found no favor with him. His 
 opinions were those of the Jefferson stamp, while he ex- 
 pressed his ardent admiration for the policy of Washington. 
 He objected to the frequent exercise of the veto power by 
 the President — believing such a course detrimental to liberty, 
 and antagonistic to the design of the framers of the consti- 
 tution. It was understood that his views in regard to the 
 revenue and internal improvements agreed with those of the 
 leading whig statesmen. 
 
 In June, 1848, the national convention of the whigs met 
 in Philadelphia. Upon the third ballot, General Taylor 
 received a majority of votes, and was, therefore, declared 
 the nominee for President. Millard Fillmore, of New York, 
 was placed upon the same ticket as a candidate for the Vice 
 Presidency. General Taylor accepted the nomination with 
 a diffidence that evinced how little he had sought for it. 
 The canvass was an exciting one. General Lewis Cass, of 
 
ZACHART TAYLOR. 431 
 
 Michigan, and General William O. Eutler, of Kentucky, 
 were the candidates of the democratic party ; while Martin 
 Van Bm-en, of New York, and Charles Francis Adams, of 
 Massachusetts, were the candidates of a new organization, 
 called "the free soil party," which was opposed to the ex- 
 tension of slavery. The result of the election thus appeared 
 in the electoral college : For Zachary Taylor, one hundred 
 and eighty-fiYe ; for Lewis Cass, one hundred and sixty ; 
 for Millard Fillmore, one hundred and eighty-five ; for Wil- 
 liam 0. Butler, one hundred and sixty. Messrs. Taylor and 
 Fillmore were thus elected. 
 
 The progress of the President elect from his residence in 
 Louisiana to Washington, in February, 1849, was a con- 
 tinued triumph. In all the towns through which he passed, 
 he was greeted with gorgeous processions and the most en- 
 thusiastic acclamations. The old warrior was rewarded for 
 all his hard service upon the frontier, in the swamps of 
 Florida, and in the hot fields of Mexico. On the 4th of 
 March, the ceremony of inauguration was performed, amid 
 a vast assemblage of citizens, from all parts of the union. 
 General Taylor's address was brief, but eloquent, and all 
 that the occasion demanded. He expressed his intention 
 of making honesty, capacity, and fidelity, the qualifications 
 for ofiice, and of guiding his administration by the bright 
 example of Washington. 
 
 The following eminent whigs were chosen to form the 
 cabinet : John M. Clayton, of Delaware, Secretary of State ; 
 William M. Meredith, of Pennsylvania, Secretary of the 
 Treasury ; Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, Secretary of the Inte- 
 rior ; George W. Crawford, of Georgia, Secretary of War ; 
 William B. Preston, of Virginia, Secretary of the Navy; 
 Reverdy Johnson, of Maryland, Attorney General ; Jacob 
 
432 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 Collamer, of Vermont, Postmaster General. The office of 
 Secretary of the Home Department, or of the Interior, had 
 been created at the previous session of Congress. It was 
 designed to relieve the state and treasury department of a 
 portion of their onerous duties. 
 
 Of the events of General Taylor's administration, we may 
 speak, but not judge. They have passed too recently to 
 allow the cool settlement of an opinion of them. In Congress, 
 the opposition had a decided majority. Howell Cobb, de- 
 mocrat, was elected speaker of the house, at the second 
 session of Congress, after General Taylor's inauguration, 
 but not until after a struggle of six weeks' duration, pro- 
 duced by the question of slavery in the territories causing 
 a division in the democratic ranks. Great excitement per- 
 vaded the country. California had applied for admission 
 into the union, but this was opposed by southern members 
 of Congress. Texas laid claim to a portion bf the territory 
 of New Mexico, and threatened to take forcible possession. 
 It was proposed to give Utah and New Mexico territorial 
 governments, but the question of the prohibition of slavery 
 interfered. The President was understood to be in favor 
 of the admission of California independent of other mea- 
 sures, and of leaving the question of slavery or no slavery in 
 the territories to the people concerned. But Messrs. Foote, 
 Bell, and Clay, in the senate, proposed a series of compro- 
 mise measures, which they contended would settle the diffi- 
 culty. A select committee of thirteen senators, of which 
 Henry Clay was chairman, reported these measures com- 
 bined in what was called an "omnibus bill." This bill 
 caused a lengthy and exciting discussion in Congress, the 
 best talent of the country being called into the arena of 
 debate. 
 
ZACHARY TAYLOR. 433 
 
 Preparation being made in southern ports to set on foot 
 an expedition to revolutionize the Island of Cuba, in the 
 summer of 1850, President Taylor issued a proclamation, 
 expressing his determination to uphold and vindicate the 
 neutral laws of the United States. The expedition, under 
 General Narciso Lopez, however, sailed, and troops were 
 landed at Cardenas. After a day's fighting, which proved 
 that the invaders had few friends on the island, they re- 
 embarked and returned to the United States. The course 
 of the president, in regard to this expedition, was generally 
 approved. 
 
 The discussion upon the compromise measure was at its 
 height. The storms of sectional hostility threatened the 
 union, when suddenly the pilot was stricken down while at 
 the helm. On the 4th of July, 1850, President Taylor at- 
 tended the ceremony" of laying the corner stone of the na- 
 tional monument to Washington. It is believed that the 
 exposure to a heat of unusual intensity caused a malady, 
 which about half-past ten o'clock, on the night of the 9th 
 of July, terminated his eventful and honorable life. His 
 last words indicated his character : " I am not afraid to die. 
 I am ready ; I have endeavored to do my duty," said the 
 dying patriot. 
 
 The mournful announcement of the death of the chief 
 magistrate caused universal sorrow. Those who had opposed 
 the policy of his administration were now forward in doing 
 honor to the great and good qualities of the deceased. 
 Throughout the land the sounds of woe and lamentation were 
 to be heard. Both houses of Congress had adjourned when 
 it was reported that the President was not expected to live 
 above a few hours. When they assembled the next day, and 
 the tidings was officially communicated to them, impressive 
 
 37 
 
434 LIVES OP THE PKESIDENTS. 
 
 eulogies were delivered by members from various states. In 
 tbe senate, Mr. Webster and other distinguished orators 
 eulogized the deceased. 
 
 In the house, among several eloquent eulogies, those of 
 Robert C. Winthrop, of Massachusetts, and of Humphrey 
 Marshall, of Kentucky, were particularly noted as giving 
 the true idea of the character of General Taylor, and -of the 
 affliction of the nation at his loss. " Great, without pride ;" 
 said Mr. Marshall, " cautious, without fear ; brave, without 
 rashness ; stern, without harshness ; modest, without bash- 
 fulness; apt, without flippancy; intelligent, without the 
 pedantry of learning ; sagacious, without cunning ; benevo 
 lent, without ostentation ; sincere and honest as the sun, 
 the * noble old Roman' has at last laid down his earthly har- 
 ness — ^his task is done. He has fallen as falls the summer- 
 tree in the bloom of its honors, ere the blight of autumn has 
 seared a leaf that adorns it." A committee from both 
 houses was appointed to make the necessary arrangements 
 for the funeral. The obsequities were solemnized with great 
 magnificence, and were worthy of a nation's sorrow. The 
 funeral procession was long and splendid. An eloquent 
 sermon was delivered by the Rev. Smith Pyne, and the ser- 
 vice of the Episcopal Church was performed. All the pro- 
 ceedings were impressive and worthy of their illustrious 
 subject. 
 
 On the 17th of July, the senate adopted a resolution 
 proposed by Mr. Webster, to erect a neat monument to the 
 memory of General Taylor. The house concurred in this 
 measure. 
 
 President Taylor left a widow and two daughters — both 
 married. His fortune was never extensive, but he left 
 sufficient property to render his widow independent. 
 
I?: 
 
 
 r I L \. M R !•: 
 
^Iii^^$ rilliit)o^e. 
 
 The life of Millard Fillmore is full of bright lessons. No 
 more forcible illustration of the power of energy and intel- 
 lect over obstructing cirrumstances — " low birth and iron 
 fortune" — can be found. To every young American it 
 speaks, teaching resolution and perseverance. 
 
 His father, Nathaniel Fillmore, is the son of one of like 
 name, who served in the French war, and was a true whig 
 of the revolution, proving his devotion to his country's cause 
 by gallantly fighting as lieutenant under General Stark, in 
 the battle of Bennington. He was born at Bennington, 
 Vermont, in 1771, and early in life removed to what is now 
 called Summec Hill, Cayuga county, New York, where Mil- 
 lard was born, January 7th, 1800. He was a farmer, and 
 soon after lost all of his property by a bad title to one of the 
 military lots he had purchased. About the year 1802, he 
 removed to the town of Sempronius, now Niles, and lived 
 there till 1819, when he removed to Erie county, where he 
 still lives, cultivating a small farm with his own hands. He 
 was a strong and uniform supporter of Jefierson, Madison, 
 and Tompkins, and is now a thorough whig. 
 
 The narrow means of his father, deprived Millard of any 
 advantages of education beyond what were afforded by the 
 
 (439) 
 
440 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 imperfect and ill-taught schools of the connty. Books were 
 scarce and dear, and at the age of fifteen, young Fillmore 
 had read but little except his common school books and the 
 Bible. At that period he -was sent to the then wilds of Liv- 
 ingston county, to learn the clothier trade. He remained 
 there about four months, and was then placed with another 
 perso-n, to pursue the same business and wool carding, in the 
 town where his father lived. A small village library, which 
 was formed there soon after, gave him the first means of 
 acquiring general knowledge through books. He improved 
 the opportunity thus ofiered. The thirst for knowledge soon 
 became insatiate, anji every leisure moment was spent in 
 reading. Four years were passed in this way, working at 
 his trade, and storing his mind with the contents of books 
 of history, biography, and travels. At the age of nineteen 
 he fortunately made the acquaintance with Walter Wood, 
 Esq., who advised him to quit his trade and study law. In 
 reply to the objection of a lack of education, means, and 
 friends, to aid him in a course of professional study. Judge 
 Wood kindly ofiered to give him a place in his ofiice, to ad- 
 vance money to defray his expenses, and wait until success 
 in business should furnish the means of re-payment. The 
 off"er was accepted. The apprentice bought his tim-e ; en- 
 tered the office of Judge Wood, and for more than two years 
 applied himself closely to business and study. He read law 
 and general literature, and studied and practised surveying. 
 Fearing he should incur too large a debt to his benefactor, 
 he taught school for three months in the year, and acquired 
 the means of partially supporting himself. In the fall of 
 1821, he removed to the county of Erie, and the next spring 
 entered a law office in Bufialo. There he sustained himself 
 by teaching school, and continued his legal studies until the 
 
MILLARD FILLMORE. 441 
 
 spring of 1823, when he was admitted to the Common Pleas, 
 and commenced practice in the village of Aurora, where he 
 remained until 1830, when he again removed to Buffalo, and 
 has continued to reside there ever since. 
 
 His first entry into public life was in January, 1829, when 
 he took his seat as a member of the legislature, from Erie 
 county, to which oflSce he was re-elected the two following 
 years. His talents, integrity, and assiduous devotion to 
 public business, soon won him the confidence of the house. 
 The most important measure that came up during his service 
 in the legislature, was the bill to abolish imprisonment for 
 debt. In behalf of that philanthropic measure, Mr. Fillmore 
 took an active part, urging its justice and expediency, and 
 as a member of the committee on the subject, aiding to per- 
 fect its details. That portion of the bill relating to justices' 
 courts was drafted by him, the remainder being the work 
 of the Hon. John C. Spencer. 
 
 ^He was elected to Congress in 1832, and took his seat in 
 the stormy session of 1833-34, immediately after the remo- 
 val of the deposits. In those days, the business of the house 
 and debates were led by old and experienced members — new 
 ones, unless they enjoyed a widespread reputation, rarely took 
 an active part. Little chance was afforded him of display- 
 ing his abilities, but the school was one admirably qualified 
 to develop and cultivate his powers. He discharged his duty 
 with scrupulous fidelity, never omitting any efibrt to advance 
 the interest of his constituents. At the close of his term of 
 service, he resumed the practice of his profession, until, 
 yielding to the public voice, he was re-elected to Congress, 
 in 1836. In that Congress, Mr. Fillmore took a more ac- 
 tive part than he had during his first term, and at the 
 next contest he was re-elected by an increased majority. 
 
442 LIVES OF THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 On the assembling of the next Congress, to which Mr. 
 Fillmore was re-elected by the largest majority ever given 
 in his district, he was placed at the head of the committee 
 on ways and means. The chairman of this important com- 
 mittee is virtually the leader of the house. The duties of 
 that responsible station, always arduous, were at this period 
 peculiarily so. A new administration, with an entire new 
 domestic policy had come into power. To replenish the 
 treasury, to provide means that would enable the government 
 to meet the demands against it, to pay off the debt, to revive 
 trade and industry — these onerous tasks devolved upon the 
 committee of ways and means. With an energy and devo- 
 tion to the public weal, truly admirable, Mr. Fillmore applied 
 himself to the work, and, sustained by a majority, succeeded 
 in accomplishing his aims. He was an ardent and perse- 
 vering advocate of the protective tariff policy, and his views 
 generally coincided with those of the whig champion, Henry 
 Clay. After his long and severe labors in the committee 
 room — labors sufficiently arduous to break down any but an 
 iron constitution — he was required to give his unremitting 
 attention to the house, to make any explanation that might 
 be asked, and be ready with a complete refutation of every 
 cavil or objection that the minority might devise. For the 
 proper performance of these duties, few men are more 
 properly qualified than Mr. Fillmore. 
 
 In 1844, Mr. Fillmore was selected as the whig candidate 
 for governor of New York. The able and popular Silas 
 Wright was his opponent. Wright was elected. Confident, 
 however, that Mr. Fillmore could command a great vote in 
 New York, the whigs nominated him for the responsible office 
 of Comptroller, in 184T, and succeeded in electing him by an 
 unprecedented majority. 
 
MILLAKD FILLMORE. 448 
 
 In June, 1848, the national wliig convention to nominate 
 candidates for the Presidency and Vice Presidency was held 
 in Philadelphia. General Zachary Taylor was nominated 
 for the first office, and Millard Fillmore for the second. 
 The canvass was most exciting. The result was a triumph 
 for General Taylor and Mr. Fillmore. 
 
 Entering on the duties of his office on the 4th of March, 
 1849, Mr. Fillmore presided over the senate of the United 
 States, with a dignity and ability worthy of an experienced 
 parliamentarian, until the death of General Taylor, on the 
 9th of July 1850, when, according to the provision of the 
 constitution, he became President of the United States. 
 
 Immediately after the accession of Mr. Fillmore, all the 
 members of the cabinet of General Taylor tendered their 
 resignations. It was understood that they differed with the 
 new President upon important public measures. A new cabi- 
 net was not organized without unusual difficulty. At length 
 the ministry was completed as follows : Daniel Webster, of 
 Massachusetts, Secretary of State ; Thomas Corwin, of Ohio, 
 Secretary of the Treasury; Alexander H. H. Stuart, of 
 Virginia, Secretary of the Interior ; Charles C. Conrad, of 
 Louisiana, Secretary of War; William H. Graham, of North 
 Carolina, Secretary of the Navy; John J. Crittenden, of 
 Kentucky, Attorney General; Nathan K. Hall, of New 
 York, Postmaster General. 
 
 As the opposition had a majority in both houses of Con- 
 gress, it was not expected that the administration could carry 
 through any of the measures which the whigs maintained to 
 be just and wise. The passage of the compromise measures, 
 settling, as supposed, the question of slavery, had the effect 
 to lull the public mind into its usual calm and steady move- 
 ments. Another expedition with the object of securing the 
 
444 LIVES OP THE PRESIDENTS. 
 
 independence of the Island of Cuba, called forth a proclama- 
 tion from President Fillmore, declaring that all violations of 
 the neutral laws of the United States should be punished and 
 that all those who embarked in such expeditions should place 
 themselves beyond the protection of the laws of the country. 
 The armament, under General Lopez, sailed, however, and 
 landing in Cuba, the troops fought several battles. But they 
 were finally defeated and dispersed. General Lopez was 
 garotted — Colonel Crittenden and fifty-two men were shot, 
 and more than a hundred were sent to Spain, where they 
 were reprimanded and liberated. 
 
 It is agreed that Mr. Fillmore has filled his high station 
 with honor. His opponents have admitted his patriotism, 
 integrity, and energy. He can look back upon his career, 
 with feelings of pride and self-approval — like those of a 
 person, who has, almost unaided, climbed to the peak of a 
 lofty and rugged mountain. He is a true representative of ■ 
 
 the American character — with all its simplicity, industry, 
 and aspirations. Since he has held the office of President, 
 one of his daughters might have been found teaching a 
 public school in New York. About such a President, there 
 can be no tinsel, nor monarchical reserve. He is worthy to 
 be the servant of a people who look to institutions, not to 
 men, for happiness and prosperity. 
 
 In person, Mr. Fillmore is rather above the middle 
 height, and strongly built. Though still young, compared 
 with the statesmen who surround him, his hair is gray, and 
 his general appearance venerable. The expression of his 
 countenance is cheerful, benevolent, and intelligent. His 
 bearing is dignified and courteous. 
 
 THE END. 
 
 LRcMr78 
 
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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
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