-r r 
 
 EXTRACTS 
 
 PROCEEDINGS IN THE INSTITUTE 
 
 Normal School Teachers 
 
 Oshkosh, Wis., December 17-21, 1900. 
 
 CONDUCTOR 
 
 L. D, HARVEY, State Superintendent. 
 
 Madison, Wis., March, 1901. 
 
EXTRACTS 
 
 PROCEEDINGS IN THE INSTITUTE 
 
 Normal School Teachers 
 
 Oshkosh, Wis., December 17-21, 1900. 
 
 CONDUCTOR 
 
 L. D. HARVEY, State Superintendent. 
 
 Madison, Wis., March, 1901. 
 
u> 
 
 53. 
 
 THE LIBRARY OF 
 CONGRESS, 
 
 Two Copies Received 
 
 JUL. 12 1901 
 
 Copyright entry 
 
 CLASS ClyXXe. N». 
 
 COPY B. 
 
 Copyright by L. D. Harvey. 
 
 All rights reserved. 
 
FUNDAMENTAL PROPOSITIONS. 
 
 The following four propositions are fundamental for the teacher and 
 lor the pupil in the determination of what is to be done for and in the 
 recitation: 
 
 I. The teailier must have in mind a definite purpose or purposes to 
 be realized, in the next recitation. 
 
 II. The teacher must have in mind the things which must be known 
 or done in order that the purposes may be realized. 
 
 III. The teacher mvist determine what of the things falling under 
 proposition II. the pupil now knows or can do. 
 
 IV. The teacher must determine what of the things enumerated un- 
 der proposition II. the pupil still has to learn or to do, and the order 
 in which they should be known or done. 
 
 Is the statement that the foregoing propositions are fundamental a 
 correct one? 
 
 This question will now be answered. 
 
 The teacher has always to determine with any given class for any 
 given recitation: 
 
 1st. What is to be done by the pupils? What by himself? 
 
 2d. How shall what he has to do in testing, teaching, drilling and 
 .assigning work for preparation be done? 
 
 In short — 
 
 1. What is to be done at any given time? 
 
 2. How is it to be done? 
 
 The teacher's work is testing, teaching, drilling and assigning new 
 •work lor pupils. 
 
 The pupil's work before the recitation is, preparation of work as- 
 signed; in the recitation is (a) showing the quality and extent of his 
 preparation through expression in one form or another; (b) supple- 
 menting inadequate preparation by further work under the direction 
 and inspiration of the teacher through teaching and drilling; (c) prep- 
 aration for the next lesson. 
 
 A fundamental is an essential. 
 
 It is essential that the what shall be determined for and in every reci- 
 tation, with every class of pupils, in every subject. 
 
 Today's recitation determines v/hat has been done by the pupils in 
 preparation, what more is to be done for and by them during the recita- 
 tion, including the determination of what they are to do for tomorrow's 
 recitation. 
 
 The what precedes the how. 
 ' The what must be determined with reference to its value for the pupil 
 at a given time, under conditions then existing. The proper determi- 
 nation of the what in any given case demands correct answers to the 
 ^following three questions: 
 
1st. What in the given subject is the pupil to learn, and what is he ta 
 do In the application of what is learned as a necessary part of his 
 training? 
 
 2nd. What is he prepared for? 
 
 3rd. What of that which he is prepared for and which he is to learn 
 or to do, does he need next? 
 
 That the teacher shall be aMe to answer, and that he shall answer 
 these questions correctly, is a fundamental condition of any good 
 teaching. If this statement is correct, then the fundamental character 
 of the lour propositions is demonstrated, because the answers to these 
 questions are determined by the application of those propositions. 
 
 I take it no one will question the fundamental character of the first 
 proposition, viz.: The teacher must have in mind a definite purpose 
 or purposes to be realized in the next recitation. 
 
 The demands made upon the teacher by that proposition can not be- 
 met except through the answer to the first question above. That is: 
 "What in the given subject has he to learn and what is he to do in the 
 application of what is learned, as a necessary part of his training?" 
 
 Neither can it be answered without a consideration of propositions 
 II. and III., as applied to his preceding work. 
 
 The second question above, viz.: "What is the pupil prepared for?" 
 can be determined in no other way than through the requirements of 
 the second and third of the four propositions. That is to say, unless 
 the teacher knows what are the elements that go to make up this 
 knowledge which the pupil is to master, and unless he has determined 
 what the pupil now knows, he can never answer that second question^ 
 "What is the pupil prepared for?"' There is no other way to get at it. 
 No matter whether you have ever heard of these propositions or not,, 
 you are doing it if you determine what the pupil is prepared for. 
 
 The third question above, viz.: "What of that which he is prepared; 
 for and which he is to learn or to do does he need next?" is determined 
 through the application of the fourth proposition. 
 
 These four propositions are fundamental because there is no other- 
 possible way by which the three questions above enumerated can be 
 correctly answered. Omit what is demanded by any one of the four 
 propositions and at once uncertainty, doubt, and confusion arise. A 
 teacher may never have heard of these propositions and may work 
 wisely in the determination of what is to be done for and in a recita- 
 tion; but to the extent to which he has worked wisely, he has un- 
 consciously been applying these propositions; to the extent that he has 
 consciously applied these propositions, he is conscious that these de- 
 terminations have been worked out in a logical manner, and his con- 
 clusions at every step tested. 
 
 Let us examine a little more fully the reasons upon which the first 
 proposition is based. 
 
 If the teacher is to assign a lesson for preparation by the pupils,, 
 there must be in his mind a definite purpose or purposes to be realized 
 by the pupils in their preparation and shown in the recitation. Unless 
 there be such a definite purpose in the mind of the teacher, he has no 
 means of knowing whether the work assigned bears a proper relation 
 to the work which has gone before and the work which is to come after; 
 neither does he know whether the work assigned is adapted to the 
 present needs and mental condition of the members of the class; neither 
 does he know whether the work assigned is too much or too little to 
 fully employ the time at the pupil's command for this specific piece of 
 work. If the teacher has no definite purpose in mind in the assign- 
 
ment of his lesson, then the assignment will, of necessity, be vague and 
 indeiinite, and the pupil will have nothing before him definitely indi- 
 cating what he is to learn or to do. The result will be that the next 
 recitation will be largely a failure, primarily because of the teacher's 
 lack of definite purpose. 
 
 In determining the aim in each day's lesson, the teacher must keep 
 In mind the question already stated, "What in the given subject is the 
 pupil to learn and what is he to do in the application of what is learned, 
 as a necessary part of his training?" This inust be thought out in ad- 
 vance; must be clear to the mind of the teacher. Unless it is clear to 
 the teacher, there can be no definiteness of purpose for any given 
 recitation that will be properly related to the work of the preceding 
 recitations and the work which is to follow. 
 
 The purposes from day to day must always be formed in the light of 
 the subject matter and what part it is to play in the training of the 
 child. They must also take into consideration the answer to the second 
 question above stated: "What is he prepared for?" Otherwise, the 
 lesson is assigned without any consideration of the pupil's ability to 
 make the preparation demanded. 
 
 One of the most common errors on the part of teachers is to thus 
 assign work without any definiteness of aim. So many pages; so many 
 problems, so many experiments, are assigned for the next day's work. 
 Too often this is done without any thought as to whether the work of 
 today has been mastered by the pupils or not, and that even, when the 
 successful preparation of tomorrow's work depends upon the mastery of 
 today's work. In a little time the pupil is hopelessly lost, discouraged, 
 and unable to make any intellectual growth in this given line of work. 
 I appeal to the experience of those present if this is not a matter of com- 
 mon occurrence in almost every grade of school; if it is not even a 
 matter of somewhat frequent occurrence in the Normal schools, and 
 often in still higher schools. Each teacher can test for himself his at- 
 titude upon this matter by formulating clearly and concisely the pur- 
 'poses he has in mind for any given recitation. The very fact that it is 
 not an easy thing to do will convince him that it has not already been 
 done, and that too often he is simply considering the amount of ma- 
 terial rather than the amount of mental activity required to master it 
 and whether the pupil is prepared to exert the required mental activity. 
 
 I wish to call attention to the fact that, not only is definiteness of 
 purpose essential to the proper assignment of a lesson, but that, when- 
 ever in any given recitation the teacher finds it necessary to do some 
 teaching, thei'e must again be the same definiteness of purpose as in 
 the preceding case; that, in his testing of pupils, there must be a definite 
 aim toward which every question or requirement should be directed; 
 that in drill work the same necessity exists for definiteness of purpose, 
 determined primarily by the needs of the pupils as shown in the reci- 
 tation. 
 
 A recitation may frequently disclose a condition as to lack of knowl- 
 edge or lack of power or of skill which may make it necessary then and 
 there to formulate a new purpose not anticipated, which must be ac- 
 complished under the teacher's direction during that particular recita- 
 tion. There should be no variation from the purpose which decided 
 the assignment of the lesson on the day previous, unless it appears that 
 some lack on the part of the pupil, not anticipated by the teacher, ren- 
 ders it necessary to formulate new lines of work and master those be- 
 fore the work originally assigned can be mastered. 
 
 Considering the second proposition — "The teacher must have in mind 
 
6 
 
 the things which must be known or done in order that the purpose may 
 be realized," let us note that the purposes which a teacher may have in 
 mind may be concerned with two aspects of learning; one, the ac- 
 quisition of knowledge; the other, the acquisition of skill through do- 
 ing. Is it essential that, with a given purpose in mind, and tha,t pur- 
 pose being the mastery of certain definite facts and their relations, or 
 the determination of relations from given facts, thus exercising the rea- 
 son and paving the way for the formation of judgments, that the- 
 teacher shall know definitely what preliminary knowledge is essential 
 to the pupil for the accomplishment of the task in hand, and what are' 
 the essential elements which go to make up the new body of knowledge 
 which the pupil is to master? 
 
 Let me ask the same question with reference to a task which demands 
 something to be done, it may be in the way of graphic presentation. 
 Is it essential that the teacher shall know what elements of knowledge: 
 and skill must be possessed by any individual in order that he may be 
 prepared to enter upon the work in hand; and, further, is it essentia! 
 that the teacher shall make an analysis to determine the elements of 
 knowledge and skill required for the performance of a definite task? 
 
 It would seem that to ask these questions is to answer them. No 
 one can successfully deny that it is a necessity for the teacher to know 
 what essential, related body of knowledge must be mastered to reach- 
 any given end; what essential, related body of knowledge and core- 
 lated forms of activity are essential to the intelligent doing of any 
 given piece of work demanding skill. Without this knowledge, the- 
 teacher abdicates his position as a leader, as a teacher. An essen- 
 tial element may be left out by the pupil and, because it is left out,, 
 he is powerless to perform the task assigned him. The teacher may 
 blame the pupil; may tell him that he Las not studied; may undertake 
 to explain; but, except by happy accident, he fails to hit upon the point 
 of weakness and to bring up before the pupil facts for his mastery 
 that essential element which was lacking. In all such cases there is 
 a waste of time and energy on the part of both teacher and pupil, 
 a loss of interest by the pupil and on the teacher's part, a lack of ap- 
 preciation of wl^at is essential for the proper discharge of his duties. 
 
 It is frequently assumed that every teacher meets the requirements 
 indicated in the second proposition. Is this a fair assumption? 
 
 The teacher may test that question for himself or herself by under- 
 taking to formulate definitely what must be known or done in order to 
 achieve the mastery of any givep piece of work. Submit this formula- 
 tion to your own critical examination. Submit it to others for their 
 judgment and criticism and I feel confident that the result will be some- 
 thing of a surprise to those who have never undertaken to do it 
 
 Is tnere still a further reason for this work? 
 
 It has been said that a part of the teacher's work in the recitatiou 
 is to test the pupil's preparation. Shall the tests be confined within 
 the range of what it is essential for the pupil to know, in order that the 
 purpose for which the lesson was assigned may be accomplished? If so,, 
 how can they be kept within that range unless the teacher has definitely 
 in mind what is demanded by the second proposition? 
 
 Much of the purposeless and illogical questioning in the class room 
 grows out of the fact tnat the teacher does not have in mind what are 
 the essentials for the pupil in the mastery of the lesson. Without this 
 knowledge on the teacher's part, the questioning is purposeless, often 
 unnecessary, and always confusing. With it, the question is clearer, 
 more definite, and in its proper place. One great reason why so many 
 
teachers are poor questioners is because there is this lack of definite- 
 ness in their minds as to what is necessary knowledge for the pupil, 
 and therefore as to what it is proper for the teacher to question him 
 upoh. 
 
 Taking up the third proposition, is it possible for a teacher to assign 
 a lesson with proper reference to the needs and conditions of the pupil 
 unless he has met the requirements there stated, viz.: to "deter- 
 mine what of the things the pupil must know or do he now knows or 
 can do"? 
 
 If it be assumed that everything in the work assigned is unknown;^ 
 and it snould develop that most of it is old to the pupil, then too little 
 work has been assigned. If it be assumed that most of it is known, or 
 that the pupil is already able to do most of what he is asked to do, and 
 it should develop that neither assumption is correct, then too much 
 work is assigned. In either case the result cannot fail to be bad for 
 the pupil. 
 
 Lack of application of this proposition is the cause of more failures 
 in recitation than any other one failure on the teacher's part. Every 
 teacher will bear me out in the statement that the pupil frequently 
 fails to do what the teacher wants him to do because he, the pupil, as- 
 sumes that he can already do it and, therefore, needs no further prep- 
 aration or practice; fails to know what the teacher expected him to 
 know because he assumes tnat ne already does know, when his knowl- 
 edge is vague, inaccurate, and incomplete. 
 
 It is not only essential for the teacher to know what the pupil is to 
 prepare upon and what preparation he should make, but it is far more 
 essential that the pupil shall know exactly wherein his knowledge is 
 to be strengthened because it is now indefinite and incomplete; wherein 
 his skill is to be developed because it is now inadequate. 
 
 To illustrate: — Certain definitions are assigned to be mastered. They 
 may not be entirely new to the pupil. He has gone over the ground 
 before. He assumes that he knows them, and so comes to the recita- 
 tion with tne same vagueness and inaccuracy that he had before. Had 
 the requirements of the third proposition been met by the teacher be- 
 fore the assignment of the lesson, it would have made clear to the pupil 
 just where he was lacking in accuracy and completeness, and would 
 have put before him a definite piece of work to be mastered for the next 
 recitation 
 
 I have again and again heard this: "Be prepared to pronounce cor- 
 rectly every word in the reading lesson." Do you suppose the pupils 
 were prepared? Not at all. There were perhaps half a dozen new words 
 in the lesson, but because those new words were not indicated, the 
 pupil assumed that because he could pronounce most of them, he could 
 pronounce the rest. When asked why he was not prepared, he an- 
 swered, "I thought I knew it." 
 
 One or the essentials for a student is that he shall early learn how to 
 study wisely. There is no way of mastering the art of study except 
 through study. And there is no better way, I believe, of teaching this 
 art, than by presenting to the pupil definitely and clearly just what he 
 is to do and in the order in which it is to be done. The third proposi- 
 tion, if applied, will secure exactly this result. 
 
 It is to be understood, of course, that a teacher who is dealing with 
 the same class from day to day on a continuous and related line of 
 work, will know at any given time quite clearly what, of the things, 
 which must be known or done, the pupil now knows or can now do.. 
 It is equally clear that in preparing for the assignment of a lesson it 
 
is unnecessary to go over ground which he has already traversed in 
 preceding recitations and to test pupils when he already knows that 
 they can meet the tests. It is equally true that, in almost every reci- 
 tation, in the preparation for the assignment of the next lesson, some 
 additional tests as to the status of the pupil's knowledge of the new 
 matter should be made. 
 
 The application of the third proposition determines for the teacher 
 what of the things determined by applying the second proposition the 
 pupil has yet to know or to do, and the fourth prpoposition simply 
 demands that the order in which these things are to be known or done, 
 if the order is essential, shall be made clear. 
 
 I have thus shown what seems to me to be the fundamental nature 
 of these four propositions and the necessity for applying them in the 
 assignment of work for any given recitation. 
 
 It will be evident that with any unit of knowledge the first and seo 
 end propositions may be applied and worked out fully throughout the 
 entire unit. 
 
 The third proposition cannot he applied strictly except in the p-r-ts- 
 ence of the class and from day to day. 
 
 The same is true of the fourth. 
 
 But whenever a given unit has been worked out a little thought will 
 show, that as the work progresses from day to day Avith this particular 
 unit, each of the propositions becomes applicable again so far as the 
 day's work is concerned. The aim for each day will be a portion of 
 the larger and more complete aims for the whole unit. 
 
 The application of the second proposition for each day's work on 
 the unit will consist in a determination of what poz'tion of the formula- 
 tion of the entire unit is essential for the day's work. 
 
 The application of the third proposition will be concerned with, 
 testing on what the second proposition showed to be essential. 
 
 The application of the fourth proposition is clear. 
 
 A little consideration will make clear how far these propositions are 
 applicable in each of the three phases of the teacher's work in the 
 recitation, — teaching, testing and drilling. The moment he begins to 
 test, that moment the necessity for what is called for in the second 
 proposition is evident. Otherwise his testing is purposeless, as has 
 been shown. The moment that testing has shown him that it is neces- 
 sary to teach during that recitation period, that moment the applica- 
 tion of the first, second and fourth propositions becomes a necessity for 
 him. The moment his testing has developed that drill work is neces- 
 sary, that moment he has applied the first proposition, for, in deter- 
 mining the necessity for it, he must, if it has been determined wisely, 
 do so in the light of a definite purpose. That purpose is made clear by 
 the application of the second proposition; while every stage of the drill 
 work is also an application of the third proposition. 
 
 It will be observed that these propositions have to do with the "what" 
 of the recitation. The "how" is not a consideration at the present 
 time. I am firmly of the opinion that if due care and attention be 
 given to the "what," very many questions as to "how" will become un- 
 important or answer themselves. The very analysis required of the 
 teacher in this determination of the "what" will give him such an in- 
 sight into the nature of learning and of teaching as to materially 
 strengthen his method of the "how." 
 
 I have sometimes heard the fear expressed that if teachers are re- 
 quired to deal in the manner indicated with the subject matter of each, 
 recitation and, especially, if they are required to put in definite form 
 
9 
 
 ■on paper the requirements of the several propositions, it will become 
 a piece of formalism and result in more harm than good. I wish to 
 state here, once for all, that the writing out of the lesson plan is no 
 essential part of the plan itself. It is merely a device, but a most val- 
 uable one, to compel teachers to do the work necessary to be done, and 
 to put it into such form as will make it possible for them to criticise 
 their own work and to submit it for the criticism of others in the in- 
 terests of better preparation. 
 
 This definite formulation and putting into permanent form of what 
 is demanded by these propositions, if continued sufficiently long, will 
 develop skill through close attention and clear analysis. The purpose 
 of this work is to develop a habit of mind, so that the teacher will un- 
 consciously do the thing which ought to be done. The freedom which 
 some people fear will be abridged by this process is the freedom of 
 lawlessness, of carelessness, of indifference, of ignorance and of irre- 
 sponsibility. The freedom that is desired is the freedom that comes 
 through the reign of law, and in this case it is pedagogical freedom 
 through the reign of pedagogic law. 
 
 Skill in any art is not acquired by accident. Skill in the art of all 
 arts, that of training the human mind, can only be acquired by 
 ■careful study, continued experiment and pains-taking examination of 
 methods and results. 
 
 In beginning the mastery of any art it is essential to see what is to 
 be done. It is essential that the first efforts toward doing the required 
 thing shall be made with the greatest care. This means laborious, 
 painful work, and often then, meagre results. But continued, persist- 
 ent, intelligent practice finally develops the skill which gives that 
 which IS so much prized, — freedom of action. Tne skill is the result- 
 ant of mental and perhaps physical habits. 
 
 It is the purpose of this work to develop a habit of thought and when 
 that has been developed, the necessity for the written formulations no 
 longer exists. It will be well, however, for the teacher even then to 
 •occasionariy give himself the practice and the test of writing out what 
 is called for in these propositions. The same reason for this exists as 
 in the case of the skillful pianist who delights thousands at the evening 
 recital and spends hours the next day in practicing the scales. 
 
 If I am right in assuming, and it is an assumption proved, that all 
 good teaching must take cognizance of what is required in these propo- 
 sitions, then the demand that they shall be applied is not a fad, nor a 
 piece of formalism or of mechanical organization of matter. Whatever 
 merit these propositions have lies in the fact that they compel the do- 
 ing of the things which must be done, in such a way that the doer is 
 conscious of what he is undertaking, and also in such a way that the 
 person responsible for having it done will know that it is done. 
 
10 
 
 FUNDAMENTAL QUESTIONS. 
 
 TO WHAT EXTENT, WHEBE, AND FOE WHAT PURPOSES SHOULD THE FOKEGOINGS- 
 FUNDAMENTALS BE APPLIED IN NORMAL SCHOOL WORK ? 
 
 If what I have stated thus far is correct this question answers itself.- 
 If in the Normal school anything is learned or done for and in the reci- 
 tation by the students and because of the teacher, then if that which is 
 so learned or done is what ought to be learned or done, and if it is so 
 learned or done when it should be, and in the order it should be. then 
 these fundamentals must be applied at every step in determining what 
 shall be so learned or done and the order of the learning or doing. 
 
 If in the Normal school many things are learned or done which it 
 is unnecessary to learn or do, or if not learned or done at the proper 
 time or in the proper order, then it is because these fundamentals are- 
 ignored or not skillfully applied. 
 
 If teachers are trained in applying these fundamentals until they 
 have become skillful in so doing, then by their application of them 
 they become able to determine whether they are teaching or requiring 
 students to learn many things which are unnecessary, or out of place 
 when taught or learned, and so able to secure the necessary results in 
 less time, with less work by both teacher and student. They also pre- 
 sent better ideals of correct teaching to the student, and in so much, 
 as what he is required to learn or do is essential and better organized 
 and related, he is better trained and therefore is better prepared to 
 train others. I know that my own experience as a teacher in the Nor- 
 mal school and as an institute conductor, in consciously applying these 
 fundamentals has resulted in the elimination of much which I had 
 been requiring, in the better organization and arrangement of what. 
 was required as a result of their application, with greater clearness of 
 thought and comprehension of subject matter by the students, and a 
 considerable saving of time for them and for myself. It has also re- 
 sulted in all I have been claiming in the way of better ideals, stand- 
 ards, and training. I know further, that as I have observed the con- 
 scious and skillful application of these fundamentals by others, either 
 in the school or in the institute, similar results have followed from, 
 their efforts in this direction. I know further, tnat as I have observed 
 unskillful work by teachers and institute conductors, resulting in con- 
 fusion of thought, in lack of definiteness in effort or results, in waste 
 of time and loss of interest, it has resulted much more frequently from 
 a lack of skilled effort in applying these fundamentals in the daily de- 
 termination of what the students were to learn or to do, than from a 
 lack of skill in the method of the "how." 
 
 A teacher may show skill in the way he does a piece of work because 
 his method of the "how" may be good and still the work may be a com- 
 plete waste of time because it is not worth doing, or is done at a time- 
 
11 
 
 ■when it bears no proper relation to other things done, and so has lit- 
 tle lasting value. One of the most just criticisms upon our modern 
 teaching is that so much is taught that is not worth the teaching, and 
 so much time is wasted upon things which the pupil already knows 
 or can do, and so much more time is wasted in trying to have pupils 
 master what they are not prepared at the time to master. 
 
 I believe that the application of these fundamentals will remove the 
 cause for these criticisms. I think I appreciate as clearly as any one 
 that there are other things of importance in teaching besides these 
 four propositions. I make no claims for them which imply an ignor- 
 ing of the other important facts in skillful teaching, but I believe that 
 for the Normal school teacher, as well as for every other teacher who 
 would master the art of teaching, it is essential for success that he 
 shall master first the fundamentals of his art, and if these are funda- 
 mentals then we can not too strongly insist that they shall be under- 
 stood and applied. 
 
 While as I have said, this is true of the Normal teacher as of every 
 other teacher, it must be said, further, that it is of more importance 
 to his success than to any other teacher, because he is not only teach- 
 ing subjects, but he is teaching and training his students to teach 
 others, which is an added demand. He is not simply teaching others 
 to teach the subjects he is teaching them, to others like themselves, 
 but he is teaching them to teach other subjects to others unliTce them- 
 selves in attainments, capacity, and interests. A student who becomes 
 a teacner unconsciously absorbs much of the method of his teacher and 
 either consciously or unconsciously attempts to apply it in his teach- 
 ing. He too often fails to recognize that his teacher's method was 
 adapted to the needs of students altogether different in maturity and 
 power from his pupils. 
 
 The Normal school teacher must of necessity do such work as will 
 give his students a grip on the fundamentals in teaching in such a way 
 that they can apply them to the needs of their pupils instead of becom- 
 ing thoughtless imitators. 
 
 We can not attempt to deal with every phase of the art of teaching 
 during this week, and in determining what phases should be considered 
 I have thought it wise to focus attention closely at the very outset upon 
 the fundamentals. To paraphrase a profound truth uttered centuries 
 ago, — 
 
 Seek ye first the fundamentals in the art of teaching, and all other 
 things shall be added. 
 
 TO WHAT EXTENT DO THESE FUNDAMENTALS FURNISH A UNIFYING BASIS FOB 
 THE PROFESSIONAL WORK IN THE NORMAL SCHOOLS? 
 
 If they are fundamental, the recognition of their character, and their 
 application by all teachers in the Normal schools will put the entire 
 ■work of ths schools upon a common basis. No sounder basis for pro- 
 fessional work can oe found than this, because it is fundamental. 
 
 It affords an opportunity for students to see in every recitation, un- 
 der every teacher one common basis of work, one common standing 
 ground. They see how these propositions are applied by different 
 teachers to different subjects in different classes, until it becomes a 
 matter of course to them. They see that here at least the work in th@ 
 strictly professional classes is re-inforced by every other teacher, no 
 matter what he is teaching. The strictly professional work is then 
 
12 
 
 seen to have some force outside of the particular class in which it is 
 done. As it is now, much of the work that is so carefully and labor- 
 iously done in the strictly professional classes is never heard of or 
 thought of outside these classes. In a professional school where the 
 sole purpose is to train teachers there can be no justification of such a 
 condition. Every teacher should do something more than teach well 
 if he is to teach in a professional school where the purpose is to train 
 teachers. If he do nothing more, he should do notMng in the profes- 
 sional school. His place is in another kind of school. 
 
 What more shall he do? I take it that this is what should be done 
 by every teacher who is teaching what may be called the non-profes- 
 sional subjects. He should show in his own work a recognition on 
 his part of normal processes in teaching, based upon normal processes 
 in thinking. Not only should he show that in his work, but he should 
 take occasion to make his pupils see that that is what he is doing, so 
 that they shall become conscious of the fact that what was taught in 
 the pedagogy class, or the psychology class, or in the practice teaching, 
 is practiced by the teacher, so far as the fundamentals go, in every de- 
 partment of the Normal school. So that when a student comes from 
 a professional class to a class in any other subject, he shall find some- 
 thing there to deepen the impression made of the work in that profes- 
 sional class, to re-inforce that impression, to help the supervisor of 
 practice and the critic teacher when they undertake to get these pupils 
 to do work on sound pedagogic bases. If that is left out, it seems to 
 me we are leaving out an important phase of the work which should 
 be done in every Normal school by every teacher. 
 
 And I want to say further, that I believe the best professional work 
 that it is possible to do in a Normal school is the work done in the aca- 
 demic classes under these conditions, because there theory and practice 
 go hand in hand. Theory is tested by practice at that moment, and 
 practice is judged by theory. Put the theory in the northeast corner, 
 in room 40, for the first ten weeks, and it hardly ever gets out of that 
 room tne other thirty weeks, and I appeal to the people who are re- 
 sponsible for the practice teaching if this is not true, if they do not 
 feel that there should be more re-inforcement for the work they are do- 
 ing in every department of the school. 
 
 Now, if what I have been saying this morning in my discussion as 
 to whether these four propositions are fundamental, is true, then it 
 seems to me that these fundamentals ought to be recognized and prac- 
 ticed by every teacher in the Normal school. As I said before, the 
 work, so far as these fundamentals are concerned, should be upon a 
 common basis. Take plans that are prepared for the practice work 
 not upon some fundamental basis (and excellent plans may be pre- 
 pared) and tell me where the student ever finds, as he goes from room 
 to room and from teacher to teacher, anything in the plans of the 
 teachers under whom he is working today that has any relation or any 
 likeness to the plan which he made out last night to submit to the prac- 
 tice teacher. Answer me this, — whether it is not true that the stu- 
 dents, as they go out from the strictly professional classes to other 
 classes fail to find such a re-infnrcement of the professional work as is 
 desirable, unless some common fundamental basis for work in all 
 classes has been adopted and is used. The teacher may have been do- 
 ing good teaching, but does this question come to the mind of the stu- 
 dent? — "I wonder what have been the mental processes of my teacher 
 as he planned this recitation. I wonder whether they have any rela- 
 tion to my mental processes in planning for my practice class under 
 
13 
 
 the direction of the supervisor of practice." I believe that when these 
 student teachers come to face this proposition — "What am I to do for 
 this class tomorrow?" if it is made clear in the field of science, of liter- 
 ature, of English, in the languages, in mathematics, — in every depart- 
 ment of the Normal school work, — that there are certain fundamentals, 
 just as applicable in one case as in another, the close application of 
 them, involving critical analysis of the work of the teachers, will insure 
 better results in the student's work. 
 
 I believe that if this is done so that the student will see that in arith- 
 metic, in grammar, in literature, in geometry, in music, in drawing, in 
 German and in Latin, there is a common basis in the preparation of 
 what is to be taught and what is to be assigned, and if he sees it 
 worked out in this subject by this teacher today, and by another teacher 
 in another subject tomorrow, etc., from day to day and week to week 
 there comes a re-inforcement from every side that helps him in his 
 work of planning for his practice class and in the carrying out of that 
 plan. 
 
 Now, if that is true, there is at least one common basis that we may 
 work upon, and there may be others. As I said before, we do not ex- 
 pect to solve all the problems this week. 
 
 I have already indicated that one of the purposes of the Normal 
 school is to train pupils to study. I want to go over that again briefly. 
 
 If your experience is like mine (covering thirteen years of Normal 
 school work) you have discovered that one of the greatest needs of 
 your pupils is a knowledge of good methods of study. They have to 
 be trained to study to get the best results, and if we acquire an art by 
 the practice of it, and if for economical and effective practice we need 
 to know the necessary steps and their order, then it seems to me that 
 this kind of work with the pupils puts in place of vagueness and in^ 
 definiteness (which must exist without it), definiteness, accuracy and 
 clear thinking upon the part of the pupils, and that you can thus get 
 the training which is needed to develop in them a mastery of the art of 
 study. 
 
 We have volumes written on the training of the apperceptive. It is 
 an important topic. We all know what it means. But I want to call 
 your attention to this fact, that it is a great deal more important to 
 get a pupil to apperceive than it is to talk to him about what appercep- 
 tion is. I have read a great many books on apperception, but I have 
 never yet read one which gave me the slightest suggestion as to how 
 I could go to work to determine definitely whether the pupils had the 
 necessary apperceptive mass to do the work; and, secondly, if they did 
 not have it, how I was to go to work to see that they did have it. 
 
 Proposition II demands that you shall determine for yourself in every 
 case what is the apperceptive material absolutely necessary for the 
 reaching of a given end. 
 
 I want to call your attention to a second fact, — that the third prop- 
 osition, that is: "What of the things which must be known or done 
 does the pupil now know or can he now do?" applied successfully de- 
 termines definitely and accurately what the apperceptive mass of the 
 pupil now is and what further apperceptive material he has yet to ac- 
 quire. So then these propositions become, if applied, a basis for uni- 
 fied, definite work in this field of apperception. 
 
 Tell me, if you will, any better way, any other way, by which it is 
 possible to determine what is necessary in the preparation of the pupil 
 for the mastery of his lesson. 
 
14 
 
 On practice teaching I have already said something, but I want to 
 say a little more. 
 
 If m the planning of the work, which I take it is required in all Nor- 
 mal schools, the student in the practice class shall be trained thus to 
 organize what he has to teach, with his particular class in a particular 
 subject under given conditions, then you have as a basis for the plan- 
 ning something that is absolutely fundamental. There are other ways 
 of planning, but note this — if you have a '^asis th?'^ ^s fundamental and 
 therefore necessary, and if in addition v.^ requiring the work of the 
 practice teachers, the planning for the recitation in every department 
 of the Normal school by every teacher is put upon this basis, then 
 every recitation becomes a definite aid to that pupil who is undertak- 
 ing to plan and organize his work definitely for his practice teaching. 
 If, in the recitations conducted by the regular teachers in what we 
 call the academic subjects in the Normal school, the teacher puts before 
 his students the plan of work which he has been pursuing and which 
 he purposes to pursue through the coming week; shows them what 
 were his mental processes, what the order of procedure in his mind in 
 the organization of his work for that rfecitation, is it not clear that 
 there would be a re-inforcement of the work which the supervisor of 
 practice is requiring ol the pupils? If that be done in another and 
 another and another class, will there not come out of it for these stu- 
 dents before they leave the Normal school that which I have said was 
 the purpose of the work, — a habit of thought that will give them a 
 fundamental basis upon which to build in a logical and related manner? 
 
 The teachers outside of the professional classes are apt to have no 
 Interest in what the professional teachers are doing. They say, "I do 
 not teach that. That is not my business. My business is something 
 else." I take it that this is a misconception of the Normal school 
 i.acher's business. If he were teaching in a college or in a high school 
 or university that might be true. But here he is teaching as a member 
 of a Normal school faculty, whose united purpose is to train teachers. 
 If in addition to teaching his special subject he can so bring in these 
 fundamentals and give his students practice in applying them and an 
 opportunity to criticize the teacher's modes of applying them, these 
 students secure a mastery of these fundamentals which I do not believe 
 can be gotten in any other way. I have seen the results of this kind 
 of work. I have seen students in the first year of the Normal school 
 under this regime arranging more systematic, more logical lesson plans 
 than I have seen students in the middle of the senior year doing, where 
 this plan was not followed. This was because they had been having 
 this work in every department of the school and there came to be such 
 a re-lnforcement from every point that the habit of thought came to 
 be developed which resulted in correct practice. 
 
 As I said at the outset, what we want first is the development of a 
 habit of thought so that we shall- unconsciously do this work. Mark 
 this: While we may be unconsciously doing these things, and many 
 teachers are and every teacher should be, that is not enough in a Nor- 
 mal school. They must be brought into the consciousness of these stu- 
 dents somewhere else than in room B in the northeast corner of the 
 building and at sOme other time than in the first, second or third quar- 
 ter; until they come to see that what is being done by the teacher is 
 or is not in accordance with what is fundamentally correct; until they 
 come to have skill in the preparation of their own work and in the ap- 
 plication of these fundamentals. 
 
15 
 
 HOW CAN THE ACQUISITION OF THESE FUNDAMENTALS BE SECURED? 
 
 If what I have been saying is correct, if it be true that every teache.' 
 •of an academic subject has a duty to perform from a professional stand- 
 point (and if it is not true we ought to know it, and if it is true we 
 ought to accept it), then the next question is, "What shall we do in 
 order that this duty may be performed?" 
 
 The first thing to be done is to have every teacher in the Normal 
 school, from the president to the kindergartner, plan his work in the 
 recitation upon these fundamentals. At the outset, each teacher should 
 take some one subject, not everything at once, and begin formulating 
 what is demanded in propositions I, II, and III. In III, what he may 
 assume from his knowledge of the class, and then in his class the test- 
 ing to find if his assumptions were correct, and from that testing reach 
 the conclusions called for in proposition IV. 
 
 The principal of a high school said to me the other day: "I would 
 like to know whether it is necessary to have my teachers write out un- 
 der these propositions everything that is asked for from day to day, 
 and whether it is necessary to do it with every subject they are teach- 
 ing, or whether all that is necessary is to have it in their minds, and 
 if that is all that is necessary, how shall I find out whether it is in their 
 minds?" I thought that was a very pertinent question. Now, keep in 
 mind what I said to you. The writing is no essential part of the plan. 
 It is simply a process of training, — merely a device for training. Let 
 the teacher take just one subject and work out his plans on that until 
 lie has acquired some skill in doing it; until he can do it easily. It 
 will not be easy at first. Then let him take another subject where the 
 material is different, — requiring a different body of thought, — different 
 organization. Let him work on that until he has acquired skill in or- 
 ganizing his lesson plan. When that is acquired, it is not necessary to 
 write out plans in detail daily. 
 
 Now, you may say to me, as others have said — "I have always done 
 that." Some others have said — "I thought I had done it, but I find out 
 that I have not." Some others said that they had done it, and I found 
 on observing their work in the recitation that they had not. 
 
 I have examined hundreds of plans written by the best teachers in 
 the State of Wisconsin outside of the Normal schools, — one hundred 
 and eighty this spring and one hundred and twenty last spring, per- 
 sons in attendance at the institute conductors' schools, and I have 
 talked with high school principals, city superintendents, teachers in 
 Normal schools and elsewhere. I know what they said this work did 
 for them and their experience confirms my experience, observation, and 
 judgment as to the value of this plan of work. When the Normal 
 school teacher has acquired some skill in planning work for his recita- 
 tions in accordance with these fundamentals, I would have him plan a 
 week's work in advance in a subject, and then at some time during the 
 week, take such a portion of a recitation period as might be necessary 
 to put before his class his week's plan, and to explain his mode of pro- 
 cedure in making it. He should invite the criticism of the class upon 
 the plan as presented, and should answer inquiries as to points not 
 understood. 
 
 Some of the best wprk I have seen done In the Normal schools was 
 the criticism of the teacher's plan by the pupils in his class. They 
 criticised good-naturedly and in a pleasant way and each was helping 
 the other. 
 
16 
 
 I would put every practice teacher upon this basis in planning his; 
 work so far as determining what is to be done. Then the work which he 
 is planning today interests him in the plan of the teacher of arithmetic, 
 of geography, of history, or of literature, as he goes from roora to room 
 and meets those teachers. He is looking to his academic teachers ta 
 get some help in his professional work. And if these teachers are do- 
 ing this work skillfully, he is not looking in vain. He does not get 
 merely an imitative process of work adapted to mature minds, which 
 he attempts to impose upon the immature second and third grade 
 pupils. 
 
 In further answer to the question as to how to make these funda- 
 mentals a basis for unifying the professional work, I would say this 
 work must be supervised. The plans prepared by the teachers in the 
 Normal school should be submitted to some one or more persons skill- 
 ful in determining whether they have been properly made. I know 
 from experience that one who has had practice and has skill in this 
 will be able to render very effective assistance to others. 
 
 Unless the work is carefully supervised, especially at the outset, you 
 will get what some fear, — mere formalism ; you fail to get a definite 
 statement of aim; a proper formulation of what is essential, what must 
 be known; you fail to get a proper test to determine what has yet to be 
 known or aone. But with suggestions and careful and kindly criticism 
 and guidance, skill is developed and the value of the work is realized. 
 
 Before beginning practice teaching, students should receive training 
 in making lesson plans. This training should be begun before the reg- 
 ular work in observation is undertaken, so that students in observing 
 work in the model school may have an intelligent view of the plan ar- 
 ranged by the teacher whose work is being observed. The earlier in 
 the course students come to understand this mode of preparing plans 
 for work the better, for then they will be better able to understand the 
 plans of the teachers of academic subjects. 
 
 Let me recur to the first question, namely: — 
 
 "To what extent do these fundamentals form a unifying basis for the 
 professional work in the Normal school?" 
 
 They furnish a unifying basis so far as the determination of what 
 is to be taught in any given subject by any teacher is concerned, and 
 no further. That is all I claim. As I said to you at the outset, the 
 "what" comes before the "how." This is fundamentally essential, and 
 if we can make the fundamental a unifying basis, it seems to me we 
 have started right. Some time later on we may be able to take up the 
 large question of the "how," and find some unifying basis there upon 
 which we can work. What would be the result? I have already indi- 
 cated what I think would be the result. I believe we should get a bet- 
 ter professional spirit in the school. There would be such a re-inforce- 
 ment of the professional work now done as we have never yet seen, — ■ 
 a re-inforcement that would come from every teacher of academic sub- 
 jects and would bring them in closer touch with the professional side 
 of their work. These are the results that I wish to see. I think that 
 we should see the students developing a power which they do not 
 always now have, — a power to organize on a fundamental basis that 
 which they are to do with their pupils. 
 
 I want to say to you that all over Wisconsin, in the high schools and 
 elsewhere, there are scores of teachers doing this kind of work; there 
 arc boards looking for teachers and superintendents looking for 
 teachers who can do this kind of work. I can name a dozen cities in 
 this state where the work is upon just this basis. I can name a dozen 
 
17 
 
 -counties in this state where the county superintendents are undertak- 
 ing to have this work done and are getting it done by the teachers in 
 the district schools. I have had sent to me scores of the plans which 
 these district school teachers have made. For two years we have put 
 the entire institute work of the state upon this basis so far as the de- 
 termination of the "what" is concerned. If we can go on with this 
 work in the Normal schools, the result will be a better unification of 
 the work in our educational system from one end of the state to the 
 
 WHAT SHOrLD BE DEMANDED OF THE PUPIL IN THE RECITATION? 
 
 I shall have to apologize here, I think, for not having prepared as 
 definitely and as clearly as I would like to have done, the answers to 
 these questions. It has simply been a physical impossibility to get 
 time to do it. So 1 may be somewhat rambling in what I have to say, 
 but perhaps it will serve to open the discussion. 
 
 There are tv/o or three points that I have jotted down. 
 
 First, the concentration of attention upon the subject m hand. That 
 should be demanded of the pupil in the recitation. That is a funda- 
 mental condition for getting anything out of the recitation or under- 
 standing what is treated in the recitation, for the correction of false 
 or erroneous impressions in the recitation, and for the reaching of 
 deunite and correct conclusions in the recitation. Now, this is one of 
 the things which cause very little trouble in the Normal school, but the 
 students who are training to become teachers find it a very serious 
 problem when they begin teaching, and one reason why I have put 
 this topic upon the program is that it seems to me that something 
 definite ought to be done in the training of those students, to the end 
 that they shall have power in concentrating the attention of pupils 
 under them. One may say: "If your pupils are interested, they will 
 concentrate their attention;" but what often grows out of that is that 
 the recitation is maae the place to interest students, not in the subject 
 matter necessarily, not to accomplish a definite thing, but just to be 
 interesting. Anything that is interesting will concentrate attention. 
 A story or a dozen stories will interest; an organ and a monkey will 
 interest; any number of things will interest, and you and I have seen 
 recitations where there was no other apparent purpose than to enter- 
 tain, nothing definite done toward a given end because of this effort 
 to interest and so command attention. 
 
 It seems to me that what ought to be in the teacher's mind in this 
 effort to command attention is definiteness of purpose in what he ex- 
 pects to get out of the recitation first, and then a definite plan of work 
 in his own mind toward the realization of that purpose and a reason- 
 ably close adherence to that plan. Now, if that purpose is clear in his 
 mind, if he has set something for his pupils to do in which he be- 
 lieves, and has made clear to his pupils what they are to do, then he 
 has the conditions for attention; the effort to arouse interest should 
 always be within the field of the purpose, not outside of it. To lug 
 in inconsequential, immaterial and irrelevant things just to arouse in- 
 terest is utterly inexcusable. The teacher needs to develop the power 
 shaping that work as to demand something of them. 
 of interesting his pupils in the work to be done, and that means so 
 
 And this leads to the second point which I have here. "There should 
 be demanded of the pupils a high order of mental activity throughout 
 the entire recitation." You and I have seen recitations in which the 
 major part of the class were exercising no mental activity. They were 
 
18 
 
 simply in a passive, quiescent state, — not a wave of trouble passea 
 over their peaceful brows. They were thinking nothing about what 
 was going on. They cared nothing about what was going on. Now 
 while that is not ordinarily true of the students in the Normal 
 school, is it not true in the schools which they go out to teach 
 often times? If your youthful experiences were like mine, and I sus- 
 pect that we had about the same experiences, you will recall that 
 many a time in the recitation you sat there in a passive state, oblivious 
 of what was going on. Your thoughts were wool gathering. There 
 might have been a line of mental activity, but it was not directed to 
 the end sought. 
 
 If that is one of the difficulties in the recitation which your student? 
 are going to meet, then it becomes an essential, it seems to me, to call 
 their attention to it, not only in the professional class, but in every 
 other class. 
 
 Suppose you have a set of pupils who go to school simply because they 
 have to go to school, and Vi^hose highest ambition is to get out of the 
 recitation with the least possible trouble. What will you do there? 
 How are you to organize your work so as to command the attention and 
 give the largest opportunity for work by the greatest number? The 
 teacher who makes the demand upon the pupil must say something 
 more than "pay attention." "I want you to think now." There comes 
 the question "How shall I secure and hold the attention of the class to 
 the worK in hand?" That is one of the questions which it seems to me 
 can be very well discussed incidentally by every teacher in the Normal 
 school, and that the discussion will be helpful I know. 
 
 Third — "The student shall give evidence of careful preparation of 
 work, such preparation to be shown through expression." This is only 
 another way of stating that you are going to ask the pupil to recite. 
 But how can the pupil give evidence of preparation through expression, 
 if at every moment he is interrupted by the teacher and his line of 
 thought broken up, and he gets to thinking about something else? It 
 seems to me that if I am going to demand of him that he shall show 
 the quality of his preparation through expression in one form or an- 
 other; it may be written, by a drawing upon the blackboard, or it may 
 be oral, I must give him an opportunity to meet that demand. I must 
 let him understand in advance that that is expected of him and nothing 
 short of that, and that he will have his chance when he comes to the 
 recitation. 
 
 I want to modify that a little. I do not expect that the pupil, when 
 he stands up to recite, will do any one of those things perfectly. But 
 that is what he is to aim at. That is not what we are going to get. But. 
 we are going to come nearer to getting it if we demand it and insist 
 upon it and make it possible for him to do it, than we shall if we do 
 not demand it, do not insist upon it, and make it impossible for him to 
 do it. 
 
 There are places where the expression should be accurate. You as- 
 sign a student a clause in the Constitution to be learned and recited. 
 Will any recitation serve which is not accurate? If it is a statement of 
 a mathematical problem, it must be accurate or nothing. If inaccurate 
 it is good for nothing. If it is possible to have an accurate statement 
 made and learned, and if that has been assigned as a part of the prepa- 
 ration, then an accurate and complete statement should be demanded, 
 should it not? And it ought to be insisted upon, not simply for these 
 students themselves in their preparation, while that would be ample 
 reason, but for a larger reason than that, — for the establishment of 
 ideals and standards of what they are to do in making demands upon. 
 
• 19 
 
 their pupils. The statement will not be accurate perhaps when the 
 preparation involves judgment on the part of the pupil; it may not be 
 complete; it may not be definite because of the newness of the subject. 
 It is the business of the recitation to make it definite and to make it 
 complete. But so far as the pupil is concerned, he has a right to make 
 Ms statement, such as it is, without interruption, without being 
 switched off the track again and again. Let him make his statement 
 and then see whether that statement is correct and complete, see 
 wherein he has failed, and subsequently, if possible ( and it ought gen- 
 erally to be possible) get a fall, complete and accurate statement from 
 him. 
 
 "Whatever definite work the pupil has been asked to prepare, that 
 he should be held responsible for." 
 
 If preparation has not been made as requested, the pupil should be- 
 required to give his reasons for his failure: 
 
 I know some students m a higher institution than a Normal school 
 who sometimes "flunk," as they call it. And I have sometimes asked 
 them, "Did the teacher ask you the question as to why you had not 
 prepared, whether you had any good reason why you had not prepared 
 the lesson?" "Oh, no, he never asks such questions, but I was busy." 
 "I was out last night." "I was reading an interesting book." Let that 
 go on and what is the attitude of the student? Why, it is that he is 
 not expected to be responsible in the recitation for the work assigned; 
 that he may or may not do it as he pleases. That may be entirely 
 proper in that kind of an institution. It may be entirely proper to say 
 to those people: "Do just as you please. The responsibility rests 
 upon you. The results of it will come back upon you." 
 
 But I take it that in the Normal school and on down, there is a re- 
 sponsibility a little larger than that upon the teacher. The students 
 are younger and they need to have their ideals a little better in hand. 
 They need to have standards made a little more clear and pretty firmly 
 established. I submit to you that that is one of the great lessons in life 
 to teach. When these people go out from the school, no matter what 
 they do, when they come into the activities of society in any form 
 whatever, they find the necessity of doing what ought to be done: 
 that their position in the business world, or in the professional world, 
 depends upon the reputation they have for doing the thing they ought 
 to do and when it ought to be done. And the same thing is true as 
 to the necessity of making accurate statements, definite statements. I 
 am a great sufferer in my lack of ability to make a definite statement. 
 I have realized it more fully the last two weeks than ever before in 
 my life, and I will tell you how, confidentially,— by the questions that 
 have come back to me from you people as to what was meant and what 
 was required and what was asked for. Why, I never realized as clearly 
 before how bad my training had been, how utterly I had failed in try- 
 ing to make a thing clear. I want you to bear with me for that. 
 
 But take the lesson home to your students, and say to them that here 
 is a man who has to confess with shame that his early training does 
 not make it possible for him to put a statement so that people can un- 
 derstand it, and emphasize to them the fact tha,t the best training they 
 can get in the school is the training which will develop the power of 
 making people understand. 
 
 I want to press one thing further, that this power of expressing 
 definitely and clearly what is in the mind means the training also to de- 
 velop power to understand what another means. 
 
 Now as to this matter of holding the pupil accountable for his failure. 
 
20 
 
 He may have a very excellent reason, and if lie presents it, do not blame 
 him. Simply accept it without question and try to make conditions 
 possible so that his misfortune will not work an injury to him. Do 
 not let the pupil feel that if it has been impossible for him to prepare 
 his lessons because of conditions which he could not control, that he is 
 to be blarhed. It is unfortunate, but do not blame him. But if, on the 
 other hand, his failure has been due to the fact that he did not use 
 the opportunities which he had, make it clear to him that that is a 
 serious failure and that it ought not to be repeated, much less become a 
 habit. 
 
 We Fhould demand of the pupil that he should know exactly what 
 he is to prepare for the next recitation. It is the pupil's business to 
 know what is demanded for tomorrow. It is the teacher's business to 
 present it so that he can know what is to be prepared for tomorrow. 
 
 These are some of the demands. I do not mean that they are all, but 
 they are some of the important demands which it seems to me should 
 be made upon the pupil. 
 
 There is one other, and that was suggested this morning, I think, 
 in a question, that there arises in the recitation a condition which 
 necessitates going a little beyond the purpose, a little outside of- it. 
 This gives an excellent opportunity for thinking. The demand should 
 be that the pupil shall do some thinking here, and if these other condi- 
 tions of attention and opportunity are furnished, that thinking will 
 follow. 
 
 WHAT SHOULD BE DEMANDED OF THE TEACHER? 
 
 First, I should say that the teacher should recognize that the recita- 
 tion is to be made oy the pupil and not by the teacher. If Prof. Rock- 
 wood is right in his statement, and he ought to know, there has possi- 
 bly been some failure to recognize this; and if Professor Parker is right 
 in the reports which he brings me v/eekly as the results of his observa- 
 tions in the high schools of the state it is one of the most common er- 
 rors, pernaps one of the most serious errors that he observes. The 
 teacher does the reciting. The teacher puts the answer in the form of 
 a question or indicates by his inflection what the answer is to be. The 
 pupil T/ould get it right fifty per cent, of the time, if he were blind. 
 Half of the time he would hit it without a bit of thinking. There is a 
 large amount of that going on. There seems to be more of it than we 
 are conscious of in our Normal schools. I know how easy it is to get 
 into a habit of this kind. I know how delightful it is for the teacher 
 who is master of his subject, to make it clear to his pupils by doing the 
 reciting. He wants to show them how clear it is to him, and how much 
 he knows of it. 
 
 What is the result of that? The studert very soon finds that he is 
 not expected to do much. He at first puts an hour or two hours of 
 preparation upon his recitation, and then finds he does not have a 
 chance to talk at all. He cannot present what he has done. He can- 
 not show that he has put thought and time upon it. Very soon he says, 
 "What is the use? The teacher will give us all that in the recitation 
 anyhow." There are times when that is what the teacher ought to do. 
 Unquestionably there are times when that is the proper thing, but I sub- 
 mit that there ought to be times when the pupil should say something; 
 Tvhen he should have the floor. 
 
 Now, my suggestions to you are: First, when next you go into your 
 tschoolrooms just have a look at yourselves. See whether you are doing 
 
21 
 
 most of the reciting or not. See whether you are giving the pupils a 
 chance to do what they ought to do, and whether you are demanding 
 of tliem that they shall do what tliey ought to do. 
 
 Second, and perhaps this is a restatement, the teacher should respect 
 the rights of the pupil to show what he has done in preparation for the 
 recitation; it should be put as a demand upon him, and if it be a de- 
 mand, then he has a right to show what he has done, and the teacher 
 can do no less in fairness than respect that right. 
 
 Third, in questioning to test, the teacher should confine himself to 
 work assigned or lo work previously done. I want to limit that. I 
 do not want you to thing for a moment that I would not ask a ques- 
 tion to test the pupil's knowledge of what lies beyond. But when I am 
 dealing with the subject matter of the recitation, with the questioning 
 to test, the questioning should be upon what the pupil has been asked 
 to prepare. And you will see now how important it is that the second 
 proposition wliich we discussed this morning shall have been worked 
 out in the teacher's mind, "What thing's must he know or do to reach 
 this end?" That guides and directs the teacher in his questioning. 
 One of tne best exercises I ever had in the art of questioning was 
 many years ago when before the recitation I formulated upon paper 
 the questions I proposed to ask during the recitation, arranging them 
 in logical order when a logical relation existed. I frequently discov- 
 ered in the recitation that the answer obtained to the first question 
 necessitated leaving all the others unasked until I had again questioned 
 the pupil and brought him to the point where my second question was 
 the proper one; or perhaps it disclosed the fact that a new line of 
 questioning was necessary. That was the most excellent training I 
 ever had in the art cf questioning, because, though I did not use a 
 single question after the first, the practice which I had in framing that 
 set of questions in logical order enaljled me the better in the presence 
 of a new set of conditions and an unexpected answer, to frame the ques- 
 tion which ought to be asked next and which had to be asked next; and 
 again and again as I did that and looked at my questions, I made the 
 discovery that I was asking for something which I had no right to ask 
 for, something which did not lie in the content of that lesson and 
 which was not related to it, and so that question was stricken out. 
 And that kind of training is what it seems to me we need, to get our- 
 selves into a critical attitude toward our own questioning. As I have 
 listened to questions in the high schools of the state, I believe I am 
 entirely within the mark when I say that three fourths of the questions 
 for testing are utterly useless. They are worse than useless. They are 
 confusing. If they have any effect at all, they lead the pupil away from 
 the thing that he ought to be going toward. 
 
 And so tKis questioning to test should be kept sharply within proper 
 lines, the lines which circumscribe the amount of work to be prepared. 
 This, then, demands upon tlie part of the teacher careful preliminary 
 preparation. Some teachers have mastered the art of questioning, and 
 the question comes just as it ought to come, at the right time. The 
 more one has studied over this matter, the more logically one's mind 
 work 3 and the better his form of question. But all the time he must 
 keep in mind: What is the range within which the questions shall 
 be put? 
 
 The questions should be clear, pointed and in logical order. The 
 question designed to test the pupil should not be leading, irrelevant, or 
 immaterial. 
 
 Now we sometimes put in a leading question when we are question- 
 
22 
 
 ing to test, that is, when we think we are. The moment we do that we 
 have changed from testing to teaching or suggesting, and here the lead- 
 ing question may have its place. It may be that we have discovered a 
 weak place and that there is a necessity for teaching a little. But the 
 teacher ought to practice in the discrimination of the two classes of 
 questions; he ought to be able to so analyze his work that he will 
 know for what purpose the question is being asked and whether or not 
 it is the proper question to ask. 
 
 A leading question may be proper for certain purposes. An imma- 
 terial question has no place in the recitation. An irrelevant question 
 has no place in the recitation. 
 
 Questioning to test precedes questioning to teach. Often times we 
 find this order reversed, and the teachers do not know that they are so 
 reversing it. I know a man who has taught in this state for thirty 
 years and I have heard him in his recitations put question after ques- 
 tion and the only answer was "Yes" or "No." Had these questions been 
 recast in the form of statements, they would have made a complete 
 recitation. And that man thought he was questioning his students to 
 test their preparation. Was he? Most assuredly not. The students 
 very quickly discovered that, and they used to pride them^selves upon 
 the skill with which they could tell by some inflection or some expres- 
 sion of the face whether the answer was to be "Yes" or "No." "We 
 never have to do anything for his recitation. If we cut anything, t:3 
 cut thac." And that is just what happens when that kind of work is 
 done. 
 
 HOW MAY THESE DEMANDS BE EiNTFOECED? 
 
 I Know of no way of enforcing tne demands made upon the teacher 
 except by the teacher's seeing clearly what should be demanded and 
 then seeing clearly what he must do to meet the demands. Proposi- 
 tions II and III apply there. It is a matter to be settled by each teacher 
 for himself. We unconsciously get into certain habits in our modes of 
 teaching and conducting our recitations, so that when our attention is 
 called to them we are surprised. 
 
 So, I wouid suggest, that it is the business of every teacher to keep 
 a strict watch and guard upon himself in these respects, to see whether 
 he is doing what ought to be done, what his own intelligence tells him 
 ought to be done. Ascertain what has been observed to be a failure by 
 those qualified to judge, and then address himself to the correction of 
 those shortcomings. 
 
 HOW MAY THESE DEMANDS MADE UPON THE PUPILS BE ENFOPvCED? 
 
 They may be enforced simply by the teacher's understanding clearly 
 what the demands are, making them definite, and making the pupils 
 understand them, and then persistently insisting that those demands 
 shall be met. That is the only way that I can suggest. 
 
 MODES OF TESTING CHARACTERISTICS OF A PROPER TEST. 
 
 Testing is simply one of the phases of a recitation and the question is 
 -one mode of testing. The putting of a certain thing to be done which" 
 requires the pupil to show his capacity or power, is another way. There 
 are a variety of these ways, but the proper test is the one which is made 
 with reference to what is expected to be known and what must be 
 
known and in view of the logical order in which what is to be known 
 shall be stated, if there oe a logical order. 
 
 Now, what constitutes a proper test? With some grades of pupils the 
 oral test is the proper one, with some grades sometimes the oral and 
 sometimes the written. I am a believer in the doctrine that it would 
 be well if we made more of the oral test in our classes than we do 
 make of it. That demands something more than a written test. That 
 will strike you as a strange proposition, but the fact is that the writing 
 which the pupil does is often a test rather of his ability to find things 
 In the encyclopedia and dictionaries and get them together and put them 
 on paper, than it is a test of his knowledge of the subject matter; and 
 in anj^ event, when the pupil can sit down leisurely and take his time 
 to arrange what he knows, think it over and recast it, he is likely to 
 do better work in the end than though he presents it orally; but if he 
 has so prepared himself that he is able to make an oral presentation as 
 clearly and in as orderly a manner as though he had written it at his 
 leisure, that is certainly a higher order of attainment. I do not mean 
 to discourage the written test. It has a very high value for certain 
 definite purposes, for exactness, conciseness, and orderly arrangement, 
 but we shall never teach people to talk by having them write eternally. 
 They must do some talking. They should understand that in the school 
 the preparation to talk needs to be made with the greatest care, and 
 that means to talk it again and again until they feel they can do it. In 
 the students' preparation for the recitation, how many of you have made 
 the discovery that ninety-nine out of one- hundred of j^our pupils never 
 have tested themselves as to whether they have mastered the lesson so 
 that they can present it. Try it and see. What will they do? They 
 ■vvill read the lesson or study it, and they will say "I understand that." 
 The pupil v,rho looks through his geometry proposition says, "That is 
 all clear. I know that." And he gets up tomorrow and finds it a dif- 
 ferent proposition to state it so that other people will see it. 
 
 Now, if we shall get the pupils to feel that the recitation is not pre- 
 pared until they have prepared themselves by practice and experiment 
 to talk it and to talk it well, we have done a great thing, and we have 
 prepared those pupils to meet this demand for a test in an oral presen-* 
 tation of what they have to say. And remember that in all their ac- 
 tivities outside of the school room afterwards, ninety-nine per cent, of 
 the uemands made upon them are for prompt, accurate oral expression. 
 So I should demand more of that in the school room; 
 
 PURPOSES OF DRILL EXERCISES, "THE NECESSITY FOR, AND HOW DETERMINED. 
 
 I have already indicated this morning that which should guide the 
 purposes of the drill exercise. Perhaps you may say that the sole pur- 
 pose of a drill exercise is to develop skill. I think that that will cover 
 it. We give exercises to quicken the perceptive powers. We give drill 
 exercises to train the reasoning, for quick, sharp, prompt, decision. We 
 give drill exercises to secure skill in the movements of the hand, in 
 writing, drawing, constructive work of whatever kind. There must 
 always be a definite purpose, and skill and readiness is the end in view. 
 
 The question comes for us as teachers: Is this thing of sufficient im- 
 portance so that the drill necessary to develop skill will be worth the 
 time and energy put upon it. Is not that a fair question? Have you 
 not seen drill exercises that were carried on to an extent that made it 
 doubtful in your minds whether the time and energy put upon the 
 drill was met by the proper return? I think I have. And so the 
 
24 
 
 teacher must keep in mind. Is this skill an essential in the training of 
 the individual? In his training for teaching, is there any necessity for 
 drill which does not exist in his training as a student, not as a teacher? 
 I^ so, what shall those things be? And if we examine closely and criti- 
 cally we shall find that tne result of such an examination would elimi- 
 nate quite a number of those drill exercises. It is the business of the 
 teacher in the Normal school to make that clear. "Will you tell me 
 where the best place is to discuss that question? Is it for the teacher 
 of pedagogy to discuss it, or the teacher of arithmetic in the arithmetic 
 class, to say — "Tell me what I am doing this for." Prepare yourselves 
 in aavance for this, and sometimes when you have made this prepara- 
 tion you will conclude that it will not be best to try. Now, suppose you 
 make it clear that this particular drill is given in this place for this 
 particular purpose pedagogically. Will not that make an impression 
 upon these students who are going out to teach that will help them the 
 better to determine what are the conditions under which a drill is 
 necessary in their classes? Will not that be of far more value than a 
 theoretical discussion of the subject in a class in pedagogy which has 
 long since been forgotten? in whatever class the drill becomes a 
 necessity. Do you not see that at every point in the Normal school 
 there should be discussed and exemplified the pedagogic purpose of a 
 drill exercise when that drill exercise is given? If the teachers in the- 
 Normal school can get together and agree upon the conditions which 
 control the selection of these drill exercises, then there is united ac- 
 tion and reinforcement at every point, and the pupil does not go out 
 imitating the drill exercises he has seen his teacher give until he has 
 settled this question: That was right for me there; but is it right for 
 these pupils here? 
 
 Now, what are the essentials of a good drill exercise? When I have 
 settled the question as to what the drill exercise is for and what par- 
 ticular kind of skill is to be developed, and when I have worked out, as 
 I said this morning, every step in that exercise necessary for the de- 
 velopment of the required skill (and until I have done that I have no 
 business as a Normal school teacher to conduct a drill exercise), having 
 previously determined what had to be done to develop this skill, and 
 then when I have determined how my drill exercise shall be adjusted 
 to meet these demands, I have settled the essentials of a good drill exer- 
 cise. That, it seems to me, is the kind of an analysis which the 
 Normal school teacher needs to make in order to determine the char- 
 acter or his drill exercise, having determined that drill is necessary. 
 
 Just one suggestion as to the mode of conducting the drill exercise. 
 I am not going into the question of the "how," but simply to state one 
 guiding principle, that is to say: Give the drill exercise to the people 
 who need it and not to the people who do not need it. It is barely pos- 
 sible that you have seen a class being drilled and the best pupils in the 
 class, who did not need the drill at all, were the only ones who answered, 
 and there was no mental activity on the part of those not answering ex- 
 cept to hear what the others said and perhaps to repeat it, parrot like. 
 If you have people in the class who ao not need the drill, sent them to 
 their seats. Do not bother them. 
 
 The drill exercise should be of the kind to demand the highest pos- 
 sible mental activity upon the part of the people who need it. I do not 
 want to modify this statement in any way, because drill, to be ef- 
 fective, must be quick, sharp, short, and decisive. 
 
ilo 
 
 TEACHING IN THE RECITATION — ITS RELATION TO TESTING AND DRILLING, 
 ASSIGNMENT OF THE NEXT LESSON. 
 
 I do not think I need to say anything further upon this topic. I 
 only care to reinforce what I said this morning, that the things which 
 are to be demanded of the pupil are conditioned upon the kind of an as- 
 signment made; that, if the assignment has been vague and indefinite, 
 it cannot be expected that the demands will be met by the pupil. The 
 demand comes upon the teacher to make preparation for such an as- 
 signment as will make the demands upon the pupil proper and make 
 it proper for; him to enforce those demands. When in the recitation 
 it appears that a pupil has done his best and still does not understand 
 portions of the lesson or does not see the relation of part to part, there 
 actual teaching has to be done. What that teaching shall be is de- 
 termined by the purpose of the teacher, by what has to be known or 
 done to accomplish this purpose, and by the testing to disclose what 
 the pupil still needs. When the teaching has been done a further test 
 may disclose the fact that drill is necessary to fix the knowledge or 
 to give skill in using it. 
 
 I have just a few moments left for the consideration of 
 the next topic* I do not need very much time because the proper dis- 
 cussion of this topic would suppose that we had reached a determina- 
 tion as to the essentials of psychology. I am just a little at sea, I con- 
 fess in that matter. I am a good deal of a believer in the idea that 
 there are some essentials in psychology for the Normal school teacher 
 and that you can name them and that you can number them and that 
 you ought to do it. I am not a believer in the idea that because one 
 knows an immense amount of psychology that, therefore, he is a better 
 teacher. Some of the worst teachers I have Known are the people who 
 teach psychology. It is not simply because one knows psychology that 
 he is a good teacher. Some of the best teachers I have ever seen had 
 read very little of psychology and knew very little about it. Somehow 
 the mind has a way of working inspite of the school teacher. The 
 pupil oftentimes learns in spite of his teacher. How many of us have 
 had that experience as pupils? Before psychology was thought of or 
 worked out, people did learn something. People did know something. 
 People did exercise their will, and I suspect that'the children of today 
 are going to do the same thing. And then it occurs to me that the prob- 
 lem comes for the Normal school teacher in about this shape: Is 
 there anything in this field of psychology which has been developed 
 through a careful study of the mind, its nature and processes, that 
 this teacher can seize upon and because of his knowledge of it, be 
 better able to cause the pupil to know, to do, and to be what he should 
 know, do, and be in the schoolroom and in life? 
 
 I am of the opinion that there are some things in psychology that are 
 essential and that the teacher may never have heard of psychology and 
 still be using these essentials. But that is no warrant for saying that, 
 therefore, a teacher need know nothing about psychology, because 
 those people are as lare as angels' visits and hens' teeth. It is only 
 occasionally that you see them. There are pupils whose minds work 
 in a logical manner naturally, and who somehow instinctively do the 
 right thing at the right time. But our whole system of Normal school 
 training, in this and in other countries, is built upon the assumption 
 that it is best to aid tne less fortunate mortal who has not this power, 
 
26 
 
 this genius. It is to enable him to do what he is undertaking to do 
 more systematically, better, and more economically. Therefore, I be- 
 lieve that every teacher will be benefited, other things being equal, by 
 a knowledge of psychology, and when I say "other things being equal,'" 
 I mean that he shall use such portions of his psychology as are 
 usable. 
 
 You nave gone OA^er this field and discussed the second question as 
 fully as the first this morning. I have been very much interested in 
 your discussion. It has aisclosed how wide apart we are and how near 
 together we are. 
 
 It seems to me that our business in the Normal school is three-fold, to 
 train our students — to know, to do, and to be. If that be true, then 
 psychology ought to aid us to have our pupils know better that which 
 they ought to know; to do better, more surely, more economically, and 
 at the proper time, what ought to be done; and to be more fully and 
 completely what they ought to be. 
 
 If there be anything in our psychology that enables us to bring to 
 the consciousness of the pupils and to the guiding and directing of 
 their activities, elements v/hich will result in greater power and ability 
 on the part of those pupils to know or to do what they ought to know 
 or to do, that is an essential in psychology and the teacher ought to 
 know it and to use it to that end. 
 
 If there be anything in our psychology which will, when mastered by 
 the teacher, enable him the better to guide, direct and stimulate the 
 will power of the pupils, to so train them that they shall the better 
 control and guide themselves in school and out of it, that is an essential 
 In psychology which every teacher should recognize and apply in his 
 work. In the Normal school it is important for us to apply those 
 principles of psychology concisely, definitely and persistently, to the 
 end that we shall get the result which we are seeking. 
 
 I have stated briefly in these three propositions practically what you 
 have been going over this morning, simply to give another phase or as- 
 pect of the question. It seems to me there are two or three things to 
 be considered in order to reach these ends. The first thing is the 
 processes of knowing. People have knoion before they knew there was 
 such a thing as psychology. 
 
 It is the teacher's business to determine, and it is for the pupil's best 
 interest that he shall' determine, what the pupil has to know, and what 
 he does not know, and hence, what is yet to be known, and then through 
 proper guidance, direction, and stimulus of the pupil, to lead him to the 
 point of mastery of what is to be known. 
 
 Observation of the work of many teachers leads me to the conclusion 
 that this matter is largely neglected. We read or lecture to our pupils, 
 as though we did not realize that they get nothing from words oral or 
 written, beyond a stimulus which serves to bring up in their minds 
 the ideas for which these words are symbols. If the ideas are not there, 
 the words are meaningless. It is true that a pupil may as a result of 
 reading or listening, have some ideas which were not previously in his 
 mind in the same form, but this is because new relations between old 
 ideas have been established, thus creating new, and perhaps enlarged 
 ideas. 
 
 If it be important, then, that the teacher shall know in advance what 
 must be known by the pupil, in order to master a given piece of knowl- 
 edge; if it be important that he shall determine from day to day what 
 of this the pupil already knows, for the purpose of making clear to 
 him what he has yet to master, then is it not important that we shall 
 
27 
 
 focus our attention upon these essentials in the Normal school; that 
 we shall discuss them in our faculty meetings; that we shall examine 
 critically our own work in this respect; shall report to others and dis- 
 cuss with them what we and they are doing in this direction? 
 
 The second proposition is, that one of the important lines of work in 
 the Normal school, is to train pupils to do something. One of the first 
 essentials in the training to do is training to develop the power of at- 
 tention, and if the teacher's psychology does not focus strongly upon 
 that, if he does not recognize the psychological principles governing at- 
 tention and does not apply them, he has failed materially to do the 
 thing which ought to oe done. 
 
 More than that, attention lies at the foundation of interest, or in- 
 terest at the foundation or attention — whichever you please. Both are 
 true. That being a fundamental thu^g in making progress, that being 
 fundamental in getting a well regulated self-activity to a given end, 
 it seems to me that it is worth while for us to discuss in our faculty 
 meetings the question: What can we do to train the power of atten- 
 tion in these pupils so that we may better hold to the work in hand un- 
 til that work is mastered? 
 
 The main thing in education is the formation of habits. I believe 
 that one of the essentials for the teacher in a Normal school is that he 
 shall understand definitely and clearly and thoroughly the psychology 
 of habit forming; that it shall be just as much a part of his< work to 
 train his pupils in habit-forming, as it is a part of his business to teach 
 him arithmetic, geography or history. It is the thing which Tyill stick 
 to him through life. It will shape his future career. It will determine 
 his success. The teacher in the Normal school is the one whose busi- 
 ness it is to see that habits are formed- and formed correctly, and to 
 train the students under his tuition so that they shall go out to train 
 others in the formation of correct habits. 
 
 The third proposition relates to tne training of the will. If, there be 
 any such thing as training the will power, if that is vital in the future 
 welfare of the child, then it^eems to me that the teacher In the Normal 
 school should thoroughly understand the psychology of the will, and not 
 only understand it, not only be able to discuss it, (I do not care if he 
 cannot settle all the mooted questions), but he must bring to bear upon 
 his pupil who has no will-power or control over himself some stimulus 
 that gradually will develop and unfold that will-power until that in- 
 dividual Becomes self-centered, self-controlled. Then he is doing the 
 highest work that any teacher can do. The Normal school teacher who 
 leaves that to accident, or to inspiration or to whatever may happen to 
 bring it out, is a teacher who has neglected the greatest opportunity 
 offered in his work. I believe a study of psychology will enable him to 
 do this better, provided he shall keep this in mind: "I am studying 
 this to get something from it that will aid me in my practice with my 
 pupils." We sometimes lose sight of that. We get interested in our 
 investigation and in following out a line of thought and do not think 
 of that. ^ 
 
 I have not time to discuss how these things can be brought about. I 
 T>elieve in the psychology of attention, the psychology of habit-forming, 
 the psychology of will-training, and in the application of that psychol- 
 ogy in the school. I believe these are the absolute essentials of psychol- 
 ogy in Normal schools. There are other things that are valuable. 
 When I use the word "essentials," I mean the things we must have if we 
 are to do our work well. It does not mean that there are not other 
 things which will aid us in doing our work well. 
 
— 28— ^ ; 
 
 We need to have an apperceptive mass of psychologic truth to get out 
 of literature, or whatever it may be, the psychology that there is in it- 
 It was not what Professor McGregor got out of McDonald, but what Mo 
 Donald got out of McGregor. If it is not in the reader it cannot be got- 
 ten out. Your psychology will arrange it, organize it and bring it t-) 
 the front. I would like to have a study of psychology that shall pave 
 the way for the extensive application of just the things we need. 
 
 EXPOSITION OP THE LESSON PLAN, AS .APPLIED TO THE. 
 TREATMENT OF A TOPIC. 
 
 ' COURSE OF STUDY IN GRAMMAR. 
 
 UNIT I. 
 
 Aims — 
 
 a. To have pupils recognize and define a sentence and its i:arts, sub- 
 ject and predicate. 
 
 h. To have pupils recognize and define nouns, pronouns and verbs. 
 
 UNIT II. 
 Aivis — 
 
 a. To have pupils learn that the meaning of a noun may be m-odified 
 by an adjective. 
 
 h. To have pupils learn that adjectives may be either simple or many- 
 worded. 
 
 UNIT III. 
 Aims — 
 
 a. To have pupils learn to recognize and define adverbs. 
 
 ft. To have pupils learn that adverbs may be simple or many- 
 worded. 
 
 UNIT IV. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn to recognize and define transitive, intransitive 
 and copulative verbs. 
 
 UNIT V. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn to recognize and define prepositions. 
 
 UNIT VI. 
 Aims — 
 
 a. To have pupils learn to recognize and define conjunctions. 
 
 h. To have pupils learn to classify sentences according to form. 
 
 c. To have pupils learn to distinguish between phrases and clauses.. ■ 
 
 UNIT VII. 
 Aim, — 
 
 To have pupils learn that nouns, pronouns and verbs change their 
 forms to express difference in number. 
 
 UNIT VIIL 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn that pronouns and nouns change in form to show 
 their relation to other words. 
 
— 29 — 
 
 UNIT IX. 
 Aims — 
 
 a. To have pupils learn that pronouns and verbs are inflected to ex- 
 press difference in person. 
 
 b. To have pupils learn the declension of the personal pronouns. 
 
 UNIT X. 
 Aims — 
 
 a. To have pupils learn that verbs are inflected to show difference in 
 time. 
 
 b. To have pupils learn the meaning and formation of the tenses of 
 the indicative mode. 
 
 c. To have pupils discuss the meaning of other verb phrases of differ- 
 ent modes and tenses. 
 
 UNIT XL 
 Aims — 
 
 a. To have pupils learn that verbs are inflected to express difference 
 in the manner in which the action may be regarded. 
 
 b. To have pupils learn to classify sentences according to meaning. 
 
 c. To have pupils learn that the form of the verb may show whether 
 the subject performs the action or whether the subject receives the ac- 
 tion which the predicate expresses. 
 
 UNIT XII. 
 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn that adjectives and a few adverbs are inflected 
 to shov/ a difference of degree. 
 
 UNIT XIII. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils summarize what they have learned in regard to the 
 inflection of nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. 
 
 UNIT XIV. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils recognize and define interrogative pronouns and in- 
 terrogative adjectives. 
 
 ( UNIT XV. 
 Aim, — " 
 
 To have pupils learn to recognize and define demonstrative pronouns 
 and demonstrative adjectives. 
 
 UNIT XVI. 
 AiTn — • 
 
 To have pupils learn to recognize and define indefinite pronouns and 
 indefinite adjectives. 
 
 UNIT XVII. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils recognize and define relative pronouns and relative 
 adjectives. 
 
 UNIT XVIII. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn some of the essential qualities of participles. 
 
— 30 
 
 UNIT XIX. 
 Aims — 
 
 a. To have pupils learn some of the essential qualities of iniinitives. 
 
 &. To have pupils learn to distinguish clearly between infinitives and 
 participles. 
 
 UNIT XX. 
 Aims — 
 
 a. To have pupils name the parts of speech that may bg used as con- 
 nectives. 
 
 h. To have pupils classify phrases and clauses. 
 ■ c. To have pupils name the different kinds of modifiers of the subject. 
 
 d. To have pupils name the different modifiers of the predicate. 
 
 e. To have pupils name the different kinds of complements of the 
 predicate. 
 
 UNIT XXI. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils classify and define sentences. 
 
 UNIT XXII. 
 Aim — - 
 
 To have pupils summarize what they have learned about nouns. 
 
 UNIT XXIII. 
 Aim-~ 
 
 To nave pupils summarize what they have learned about pronouns. 
 
 UNIT XXIV. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils summarize what they have learned about adjectives. 
 
 UNIT XXV. 
 
 Aim, — 
 
 To have pupils summarize what they have learned about adverbs. 
 
 UNIT XXVI. 
 Aim, — 
 
 To have pupils summarize what they have learned about preposi- 
 tions. 
 
 UNIT XXVII. 
 
 Aim — ' 
 
 To have pupils summarize what they have learned about conjunctions. 
 
 UNIT XXVIII. 
 Aim — 
 
 lo have pupils summarize what they have learned about verbs. 
 
 UNIT XXIX. 
 
 Aim, — 
 
 To lead the student to summarize laws of syntax governing number 
 foMns of pronouns, verbs and nouns. 
 
 UNIT XXX. 
 
 Aim- 
 To lead the student to summarize laws of syntax governing case- 
 forms of nouns and pronouns. 
 
— 31 — 
 
 UNIT XXXI. 
 
 Aim — 
 
 To lead the student to summarize laws of syntax relative to the choice 
 of adjectives and adverbs. 
 
 UNIT XXXII. 
 Aim — , 
 
 To lead the student to summarize laws and suggestions relative to 
 the inflection of adjectives. 
 
 UNIT XXXIII. 
 Aim — 
 
 To lead the student to summarize laws of syntax relative tc tense 
 forms of verbs. 
 
 ILLUSTRATIVE DAY PLANS TO TEACH THE UNIT 
 "CONJUNCTIONS." 
 
 summary of what pupils know or havk done by the time the unit 
 "conjunctions" is reached. 
 I. Definitions. 
 
 1. A sentence is the expression of a thought in words. 
 
 2. Every sentence consists of two parts, a subject and a predicate. 
 
 3. The subject names that about which something is said. 
 
 4: The predicate asserts or declares something of the subject. 
 
 5. A noun is a word that names something. 
 
 6. A pronoun is a word that stands for a noun. 
 
 7. A verb asserts or declares something about a person or a thing. 
 
 8. A word which modifies the meaning of a noun or pronoun is called 
 an adjective. 
 
 9. A group of words used as a simple adjective is called a many- 
 worded adjective. 
 
 10. The adjectives "the," "a" and "an" are called articles. 
 
 11. An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an 
 adjective or an adverb. 
 
 12. A many-worded adverb is a group of words used as a simple ad- 
 verb. 
 
 13. Verbs are divided into two classes, complete and incomplete. 
 
 14. Verbs are complete if with the subject they give a complete mean- 
 ing. 
 
 15. Verbs are incomplete if they need a noun, pronoun or adjective 
 to complete their meaning. 
 
 16. Incomplete verbs are either transitive or copulative. 
 
 17. A transitive verb is one in which the action is said to "pass over" 
 from the subject to the object. 
 
 18. A copulative verb is one that simply joins together a subject and 
 a noun, pronoun or adjective. 
 
 19. The complement of a transitive verb is called its object. 
 
 20. The complement of a copulative verb may be a predicate noun, 
 predicate pronoun or predicate adjective. 
 
 21. A preposition is a word used with a noun or pronoun so as to 
 form a many-worded adverb or adjective. 
 
 22. A noun or pronoun used with a preposition is called the object of 
 the preposition. 
 
 23. A preposition with its object is called a prepositional phrase. 
 
— 32 — 
 
 24. Prepositional phrases may"be divided into adverbial and adjec- 
 tive prepositional phrases. 
 
 II. They have analyzed every sentence accompanying units 1, 2, 3, 4 
 and 5. 
 
 MONDAY. 
 
 I. Aim. 
 
 a. To have pupils learn to recognize and define conjunctions, and to 
 classify sentences according to form. 
 &. To assign the lesson for Tuesday. 
 
 II. What must be known or done. 
 
 a. They must read the following sentences and observe that each sen- 
 tence is made up of two sentences: 
 
 1. I went to school and Mary stayed at home. 2. Charles was right 
 and James was wrong. 8. John may go or James may go. 4. The boy 
 takes exercise, therefore he is strong. 5. I must seem angry or they 
 will not obey me. 6. Everything went against them, still they fought 
 on. 7. My friend went home today, otherwise you could have met him. 
 8. The crops failed because the weather was unfavorable. 9. I shall 
 come when I am leady. 10. Little Mary cried because her doll was 
 broken. 11. The night was bright, for the moon was shining. 12. Ere 
 he could speak, his soul had departed. 13. Egypt is fertile because the 
 Nile overflows its banks so regularly. 
 
 &. They must pick out in each sentence the word that joins the sen- 
 tences together. 
 
 c. They must know that these words are conjunctions. 
 
 d. They must observe that in sentences 1 to 7 the conjunctions join 
 the sentences together very loosely. 
 
 e. They must know that sentences 1 to 7 are compound, and the con- 
 junctions are coordinating. 
 
 f. They must know that a sentence containing but one subject and 
 one predicate is a simple sentence. 
 
 g. They must analyze sentences 8 to 13 and observe that the conjunc- 
 tions join the sentences in such a way that the one introduced by the 
 conjunction modifies some word in the other sentence. 
 
 h. They must know that the conjunctions in these sentences are sub- 
 ordinating conjunctions, and the sentences introduced by them are 
 called subordinate clauses. 
 
 i. They must know that sentences 8 to 13 are complex sentences. 
 
 j. They must read sentences 1 to 13 and in eacn case: 
 
 (1) Name the sentences of which each sentence is composed. 
 
 (2) State whether the sentences are compound or complex. 
 
 (3) Name the conjunctions and state whether they are coordinat- 
 
 ing or subordinating. 
 
 (4) State the use of each subordinate clause and analyze each 
 
 clause. 
 
 (5) Analyze each member of each compound sentence. 
 
 III. What pupils know or can do. 
 
 a, 6, d, g under II (to be determined in class). 
 
 IV. What remains to be known or done. 
 a. All of c, e, f,h,i. 
 
 &. ;■ as preparation for the next day's lesson. ' 
 
33 
 
 TUESDAY. 
 
 I. Aim. 
 
 c. To test piipils on the lesson assigned Monday. 
 
 h. To have pupils learn other uses of subordinate clauses. 
 
 c. To have pupils learn that parts of sentences are often omitted. 
 
 d. To assign the new lesson. 
 
 II. What must be known or done. 
 
 a. The subject matter under j of Monday's plan. 
 
 6. They must analyze the following sentences and observe that sub- 
 ordinate clauses may be used as adjectives, adverbs and nouns: 
 
 14. The house was robbed while the owner was absent. 15. I know 
 when you must go. 16. I saw the place where the picnic was held. 
 17, The teacher knows why you are tardy. 18. The scar on the bean 
 shows where it was attached to the pod. 19. How he does it is a mys- 
 tery to me. 20. I did not say that he did it. 21. I discovered where 
 the people are going. 
 
 c. They must know that subordinate clauses are divided into adver- 
 bial, adjective and noun clauises, and that noun clauses are often called 
 substantive clauses. 
 
 d. They must under the direction of the teacher supply the omissions 
 in the following sentences, and then separate each sentence into its 
 component sentences, and point out the conjunctions and classify them: 
 
 22. I will do the work or die in the attempt. 23. John as well as I 
 will go. 24. He is poor but honest. 25. Not only tne teacher, but the 
 whole school is looking at you. 26. The girl neither played nor sang. 
 27. Both city and country feel the need of rain. 28. He does his duty 
 whether pleasant or not. 29. My hair is gray, but not with years. 
 
 e. They must observe that conjunctions may consist of one or more 
 words. 
 
 f. They must know that contracted sentences are often called simple 
 sentences having — 
 
 (1) A compound subject; or 
 
 (2) A compound predicate; or 
 
 (3) A compound object; or 
 
 (4) A compound complement; or 
 
 (5) A compound adjective or adverb modifier. 
 
 g. They must state the exact meaning of each of the following sen- 
 tences : 
 
 (1) John and I will go. 
 
 (2) John as well as I will go. 
 
 (3) Either John or Henry will go. 
 
 (4) Neither John nor Henry will go. 
 
 (5) The girl did not play and she did not sing. 
 
 (6) The girl neither played nor sang. 
 
 (7) The city and country feel the need of rain. 
 
 (8) Both city and country feel the need of rain. 
 
 III. What pupils know or can do. 
 
 a, 6, d and e under II (to be determined in class). 
 
 IV. What remains to be known or done. " 
 a. c and f in class. 
 
 6. g for the next day. 
 
34 
 
 WEDNESDAT. 
 
 I. Aim. 
 
 a. To test pupils on the assigned lesson. 
 
 6. To have pupils summarize what they have learned about conjuno* 
 tions. 
 
 c. To assign the next day's lesson. 
 
 II. What must be known or done. , 
 o. g under II of previous day's plan. 
 
 6. Under the direction of the teacher they must make the followins 
 summary of definitions: 
 
 (1) Conjunctions join sentences together. 
 
 (2) Conjunctions are divided into coordinating and subordinating. 
 
 (3) A clause is a sentence used as an adjective, adverb or noun. 
 
 (4) Subordinating conjunctions introduce clauses used as adverbs, 
 
 adjectives or nouns. 
 <5) Clauses are classified into adverbial, adjective and noun or sub- 
 stantive clauses. 
 
 (6) In contracted sentences conjunctions often join parts of sen- 
 
 tences and even single words. 
 
 (7) Sentences are divided into simple, complex and compound. 
 ;(8) A sentence having but one subject and one predicate is a sim- 
 ple sentence. 
 
 (9) A complex sentence is a sentence that contains a subordinate 
 clause. 
 (10) A compound sentence is a sentence made up of two or more 
 simple or complex sentences joined together by coordinating 
 conjunctions. 
 
 c. Pupils should read carefully the definitions contained in the text- 
 iDook under the direction of the teacher, and determine their exact 
 meaning. 
 
 d. Pupils should commit the text-book definitions to memory for the 
 next day. 
 
 III. What pupils know or can do. 
 
 o. a under II (to be determined in class). 
 
 6. & and c under II (to be determined in class). 
 
 IV. What remains to be known or done, 
 d as a preparation for next day. 
 
 THUKSDAT. 
 
 I. Aim. 
 
 a. To test and drill pupils on text-book definitions. 
 &. To assign the next day's work, 
 
 II. What must be known or done. 
 
 a. The definitions contained in the text-book. 
 
 &, They must analyze as many of the following sentences as possible 
 m class, according to the following outline: 
 (1) Classify each sentence. 
 
 (.2) Name the conjunctions, state what they connect, and classify 
 them. 
 
— 35 — 
 
 (3) State use of each subordinate clause. 
 
 (4) Analyze each menaber of a compound sentence and eacli sub- 
 
 ordinate clause. 
 
 (5) State the exact meaning of each sentence. 
 
 30. He worked during his vacation in order that he might earn 
 money. 31. He will receive recognition, for he does his duty well. 
 32, He is a painter, also a sculptor. 33, The general saw that the bat- 
 tle was lost and avoided further bloodshed by surrendering. 34. After 
 the Americans had won the battle of Monmouth they gained new cour- 
 age. 35. It is against the law, else I should do it. 36. Washington's 
 men won the battle of Trenton before the Hessians were fairly awake. 
 37. Unless all signs fail, we shall have rain before night. 38, He died 
 where he fought. 39. Besides being an orator, he is a fine conversa- 
 tionalist. 40. They loved him, likewise respected him, 41. The house 
 where Washington rested can still be seen. 42. The country whence 
 the messenger came was full of strife and discord. 43. The boy dis- 
 obeyed and was punished, 44. His watch was either lost or stolen. 
 45. As long as the world exists, Shakespeare's writings will be read 
 with interest. 46 A man deserves respect as long as he is honest and 
 industrious, 47, Though he worked hard, he remained poor. 48. These 
 apples are for you and me. 49. She danced and skipped and ran. 
 50. He and Joe and Henry will go. 51. Robert Lee was not only a brave 
 soldier, but also a fine scholar. 52. Though often disappointed, he still 
 persevered. 53, Since you will not try you cannot win. 54. Mary and 
 I are sisters, 55, Mary read well, for she enjoyed it. 56, He will 
 :^neither read nor write. 57. She was at once a great actress and a beau- 
 tiful singer. 58. The autumn leaves are falling, but the days are warm 
 ■and pleasant, 59, Since you desire it, I shall look into the matter. 
 60, Either Frank must go with me or I shall stay at home. 61, You 
 must take care lest you fall. 62. They visited Chicago, New York and 
 Boston. 63, She told you and me, 64. He told the truth, but they did 
 not believe him. 65, He was a poor man, yet he gave alms to the beg- 
 gar. 66, No man was tolerated unless he was honest, 67, When they 
 learned of its rich mines, the English went into the Transvaal. 69. A 
 republic can be formed provided the people are intelligent, 69. The 
 battle was fought "btiore the general arrived. 
 
 c. For the next day they should continue the analysis of sentences 
 according to the outline — say, to number 56. 
 
 d. They must review definitions, 
 
 III, What pupils know or can do, 
 
 a and b under II (to be determined in class), 
 
 IV. What remains to be known or done, 
 c and d for the next day. . 
 
 FRIDAY. 
 
 ;I. Aim. 
 
 a. To test pupils on the analysis of sentences assigned. 
 
 &. To test pupils on definitions assigned. 
 
 c. To assign the new lesson. 
 II. What must be known or done. 
 
 a. They must know the definitions. 
 
 6. They must be ready to do what v/as assigned in regard to sentences 
 41 to 56. 
 
— 36 — 
 
 c. They must analyze for Monday sentences 57 to 69. 
 
 d. They must run through all the sentences and pick out the conjunc- 
 tions, and state the class to which each belongs, and state the use of 
 each subordinate clause. 
 
 III. What pupils knov/ or can do. 
 
 a and b (to be determined in class j. 
 
 IV. What remains to De known or done, 
 c and d for the next day. 
 
 * MONDAY. - 
 
 I. Aim. 
 
 a. To test pupils on work assigned Friday. 
 &. To assign the new lesson. 
 
 II. What must be known or done. 
 
 a. They must analyze sentences 57 to 69, as per assignment. 
 
 6. They must run through all the sentences from 1 to 69 and select 
 the conjunctions and state class to which each belongs, and state use 
 of subordinate clauses, as per assignment. 
 
 c. They must for Tuesday select from their readers five simple sen- 
 tences, five complex sentences and five compound sentences, and be- 
 ready to analyze each. 
 
 III. What pupils know or can do. 
 
 a and b (to be determined in class, 
 
 IV. What remains to be known or done, 
 c for the next day. 
 
 TL'ESDAY. * 
 
 I. Aim. 
 
 a. To test pupils on work assigned Monday. 
 
 b. To assign the new lesson, 
 
 II. What must be known or done. 
 
 a. They must be ready to do what was called for under c of II of 
 previous day's plan. 
 
 b. They must answer the following questions orally in class Tuesday, 
 and in writing Wednesday: 
 
 (1) Classify sentences, define each class, and illustrate. 
 
 (2) Classify and define conjunctions. 
 
 (3) Define subordinate clause, adverbial clause, adjective clause, 
 
 and substantive clause, and illustrate each in a sentence. 
 
 c. They must analyze the following sentences, and be ready to state- 
 the exact meaning of each: 
 
 (1) "Across its antique portico 
 
 Tall poplar trees their shadows throw; 
 And from its station in the hall 
 An ancient timepiece says to all, — 
 
 Forever — never ! 
 
 Never — forever!" i 
 
— 37 — 
 
 <2) Half-way up the stairs it stands, 
 
 And roints ana beckons with its hands 
 
 From its case of massive oak. 
 (3) By day its voice is low and light; 
 
 But in the silent dead of night, 
 
 It echoes along the vacant hall, ' 
 
 Along the ceiling, along the floor. 
 ,4) The princess of his tales was a person of wonderful beauty, 
 for she came from the old illustrated edition of Grimm. 
 
 (5) Then one joking wave caught up the ship at the bow, and an- 
 
 other at the stern, while the rest of the water slunk away 
 from under her. 
 
 (6) If our young men miscarry in their first enterprise, they lose 
 
 all heart. 
 
 (7) Man has not one chance, out a hundred chances. 
 
 (8) No man can come near me but through my act. 
 
 (9) I like the silent church before the service begins. 
 
 (10) Man is his cwn star; and the soul of an honest and perfect 
 man commands all light, all influence, ail fate. 
 
 III. V/hat pupils know or can do. 
 
 a and & under II (to be determined in class). 
 
 IV. V/hat remains to be known or done, 
 c as a preparation for the next day. 
 
 WEDNESDAY. 
 
 Aim. 
 
 a. Written test as per assignment. 
 
 b. Oral analysis of sentences, and exact interpretation of thought. 
 
 SOME ADVANTAGES OF THE LESSON PLAN. 
 
 1. It compels close attention to the aim in each day's lesson. 
 
 2. It compels close analysis of the aim which results m a close analy- 
 sis of the subject matter. 
 
 3. It Qiscloses possible shortcomings in regard to the subject matter 
 on the part of the teacher. 
 
 4. It compels teachers to recognize the most important principle of 
 teaching. From the known to the related unknown. 
 
 5. Attention to proposition III discloses whether the pupil really has 
 the necessary old knowledge or apperceptive material to properly study 
 the new. 
 
 6. It necessitates organizing the subject matter for teaching. The 
 arrangement may be logical or pedagogical or a combination of the 
 two. 
 
 7. It compels the teacher to determine before the recitation just what 
 he intends to do, what the pupils are to do, and what the assignment is 
 to be. 
 
 8. The teacher may not be able, the chances are he will not be able, 
 to carry out each day's work as he planned it. But his preparation will 
 put him in a position to meet any emergency that may arise. 
 
 9. It illustrates in a specific way how the inductive-deductive method 
 may apply in teaching grammar. It illustrates also that the inductive- 
 deductive method cannot be used exclusively. 
 
— 38 — 
 
 10. It illustrates how the text-hook is to be used in grammar. 
 
 11. It illustrates how pupils can be led to make a summary of several 
 days' work. 
 
 12. It illustrates what is meant by exercising the pupils' self-activity 
 in learning. 
 
 13. It illustrates how teaching can be made thorough and practical, 
 inasmuch as it shows how knowledge may be transformed into power 
 and skill. 
 
 14. It illustrates what .'s meant by making learning easy and attrac- 
 tive. 
 
 15. It illustrates how each day the pupils accomplish something 
 definite, and how at the end of a unit or subject they may carry away 
 the essentials in a permanent form. 
 
 16. It illustrates how close analysis of subject matter and attention 
 to propositions III and IV suggest method of procedure. 
 
 APPLICATION OF THE "FOUR FUNDAMENTAL PROPOSITIONS" 
 IN THE TEACHING OF GRAMMAR. 
 
 InU'oduction. 
 
 The following units were selected to be reviewed by classes in the 
 Professional Review class in Grammar in the Milwaukee Normal 
 school. These units were developed one at a time and were organized 
 in lesson or class-plans based upon the four fundamental propositions. 
 The teacher at times formulated a class-plan corresponding to a whole 
 unit. Again the teacher organized individual daily class-plans corre- 
 sponding to each new step in advance in the teaching of a whole or 
 large unit. The students in turn each organized lesson-plans corre- 
 sponding to each succeeding step in the teaching of and developing of 
 a large or unit-whole. The pupils observed the teacher's class-plans- 
 closely — discussed the class-plans under following heads-. 
 
 1. Preparation for the next day's work. 
 
 a. Of subject matter to be taught. 
 
 b. Of the pupil's mind in order that he may do assigned work ef- 
 
 f-ectively and rapidly. 
 
 2. Presentation of the day's lesson in the class-room. 
 
 3. Review and application of the data learned, or generalizations ar- 
 
 rived at, to new particulars. 
 The students in the review class finally formulated what seemed to 
 them to be the results of the application of the four fundamental prop- 
 ositions to the teaching of Grammar. 
 
 UNIT I. 
 
 Ai77lS — 
 
 a. To have pupils recognize and define a sentence and its parts. 
 
 b. To have pupils recognize and define nouns, pronouns and verbs. 
 
 UNIT II. 
 Aims — 
 
 a. To have pupils learn that the meaning of a noun may be modified' 
 by an adjective. 
 
 b. To have pupils learn that adjectives may be simple or many- 
 worded. 
 
— 39 — 
 
 UNIT III. 
 Aims — 
 
 a. To have pupils learn to recognize and define adverbs. 
 
 I). To have pupils learn that adverbs may be simple or many-worded. 
 
 UNIT IV. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn to recognize and define transitive, intransi- 
 tive and copulative verbs. 
 
 UNIT V. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn to recognize and define prepositions. 
 
 UNIT VI. 
 Aims — 
 
 a. To have pupils learn to recognize and define conjunctions. 
 1). To have pupils learn to classify sentences according to form. 
 
 c. To have pupils learn to distinguish between clauses with respect 
 to their office. 
 
 d. To have pupils learn to distinguish between clauses and phrases. 
 
 UNIT VII. 
 Aim — - 
 
 To have pupils learn that nouns, pronouns and verbs change their 
 form to express a difference in number. 
 
 UNIT VIII.' 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn that pronouns and nouns change in form to 
 show their relation to other words. 
 
 UNIT IX. 
 Aims — 
 
 a. To have pupils learn that pronouns and verbs are inflected to 
 express difference in person. 
 
 &. To have pupils learn the declension of the personal pronoun. 
 
 UNIT X. 
 Aims — 
 
 a. To have pupils learn that verbs are inflected to show difference in 
 time. 
 
 6. To have pupils learn the meaning and formation of tenses of the 
 indicative mode. 
 
 c. To have pupils discuss the meaning of other verb-phrases of dif- 
 ferent modes and tenses. 
 
 UNIT XL 
 Aims — 
 
 a. To have pupils learn that verbs are inflected to express a difference 
 in the manner in which the action may be regarded. 
 
 1). To have pupils learn that the form of a verb may show whether 
 the subject performs the action or whether the subject receives the ac- 
 tion which the predicate expresses. 
 
 UNIT XII. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn that adjectives and a few adverbs are inflected 
 to show a difference in degree. 
 
40 — 
 
 UNIT XIII. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils summarize what they have learned in regard to the 
 inflection of nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. 
 
 UNIT XIV. 
 Aiin — 
 
 To have pupils recognize and define interrogative pronouns and in- 
 terrogative adjectives. 
 
 UNIT XV. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn to recognize and define demonsti'ative pronouns 
 and demonstrative adjectives. 
 
 UNIT XVI. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn to recognize and define indefinite pronouns and 
 indefinite adjectives. 
 
 UNIT XVII. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn to recognize and define relative pronouns and 
 relative adjectives. 
 
 UNIT XVIII. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn some of the essential qualities of participles. 
 
 UNIT XIX. 
 Aim,s — 
 
 a. To have pupils learn some of the qualities of infinitives. 
 
 b. To have pupils learn to distinguish clearly between infinitives 
 and participles. 
 
 UNIT XX. 
 
 Aims — 
 
 a. To have pupils name the parts of speech that may be used as 
 connectives. 
 
 b. To have pupils classify clauses and phrases. 
 
 c. To have pupils name the different kinds of modifiers of the subject. 
 
 d. To have pupils name the different modifiers of the predicate. 
 
 e. To have pupils name the different kinds of complements of the 
 predicate. 
 
 UNIT XXI. 
 
 Aim- 
 To have pupils summarize what they have learned about nouns. 
 
 UNIT XXII. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils summarize what they have learned about pronouns. 
 
 UNIT XXIII. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils summarize what they have learned about adjectives. 
 
 UNIT XXIV. 
 Aim, — 
 
 To have pupils summarize what they have learned about adverbs. 
 
— 41 
 
 UNIT XXV. 
 Aivi — 
 
 To have pupils summarize what they have learned about prepositions. 
 
 UNIT XXVI. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils summarize what they have learned about conjunctions. 
 
 UNIT XXVII. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils summarize what they have learned about verbs. 
 
 UNIT XXVIII. 
 Aivi — 
 
 To have pupils classify and define sentences. 
 
 UNIT XXIX. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn to summarize and apply the laws of correct 
 syntax relative to comparison of adjectives and adverbs. 
 
 UNll* XXX. 
 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn to summarize and apply the laws of correct 
 syntax relative to case forms of nouns and pronouns. 
 
 UNIT XXXI. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn to summarize and apply the laws of correct 
 syntax relative to tense forms of verbs. 
 
 UNIT XXXII. 
 Aim — 
 
 To have pupils learn to summarize and apply the laws of correct 
 syntax relative to comparison of adjectives and adverbs. 
 
 UNIT XXXIII. 
 Aim- — ■ 
 
 To have pupils learn to summarize and apply laws of correct snytax 
 syntax relative to comparison of adjectives and adverbs. 
 
 U. The application of the "four fundamental propositions" in prepara- 
 tion of class work from day to day, necessitates the organization 
 of lesson-class-plans, the parts of which are arranged under the 
 four headings, viz.: 
 1 — Aim or aims. 
 2.— What must be known or done by the student to realize these 
 
 aims. 
 3. — Of proposition 2 what does the student already know, or what 
 
 can he do? 
 4. — What under proposition (2) the pupil still has to learn or do. 
 The lesson plans necessitate the selection and organization of the 
 subject matter of grammar. The selection and organization of the 
 ■subject matter of grammar (for purposes of teaching the same) de- 
 pend upon three other things— (1) the content of grammar; (2) the 
 
— 42 — 
 
 purposes or values of the study; (3) similarities or differences be- 
 tween data. 
 
 The selection and organization of similar data involves often a unit 
 or topic-whole. This whole may be so large that it is not adapted 
 to individual or daily work, i. e., it is necessary then that the teacher 
 should organize the large unit or topic-whole into smaller units, and 
 again organize these smaller units into class-plans each corresponding: 
 in turn to one or more days' work, according as each class-plan de- 
 veloped will need one or more da^ss to realize number 1 of the four 
 fundamental propositions. 
 
 II. The following is an outline of a unit-whole based upon the four 
 fundamental propositions; 
 1. — Aim — To lead the pupil to recognize and define copulative, 
 
 transitive and intransitive verbs. 
 2. — What must be known or done to realize above aim. 
 
 (a) The pupil must observe in a series of sentences supplied by the 
 teacher that some verbs require other words to complete the assertion 
 about the subject. 
 
 (b) He must be told that such verbs are called incomplete verbs. 
 
 (c) He must select incomplete verbs in this series of sentences. 
 
 (d) He must observe again in this series of sentences that some verbs 
 do not require other words to complete the assertion about the subjects 
 
 (e) He must be told that such verbs are called complete verbs. 
 
 (f) He must select complete verbs in this series of sentences. 
 
 (g) He must be led to observe that some incomplete verbs are com- 
 pleted by words which seem to qualify the subject, as, e. g., "She seems 
 indifferent." 
 
 (h) He must be told that such verbs are called copulative verbs. 
 
 (i) He must select copulative verbs in this series of sentences, which 
 verbs are completed by v/ords qualifying the subject. 
 
 (j) He must be led to observe that some verbs are completed by 
 ■words which seem to nam.e as well as qualify the subject. 
 
 (k) He must be told that such verbs are also called copulative verbs. 
 He must select such copulative verbs as are completed by words nam- 
 ing the subject. 
 
 (1) He must be led to observe again that some verbs are completed 
 by words which seem to stand for the name of the subject, as "It is I," 
 I standing, for instance, for the name-word Mary or Grace. 
 
 (m) He must be told that such verbs are also called copulative verbs. 
 
 (n) He must select copulative verbs which are completed by words 
 which stand for tne name of the subject. 
 
 (o) He must be led to define "copulative verb." 
 
 (p) He must recall that a word which qualifies the subject is called 
 an adjective. He must then be told that a word qualifying the subject 
 and completing the verb is called a predicate adjective. 
 
 (q) He must select predicate adjectives of copulative verbs in this 
 .series of sentences. 
 
 (r) He must recall that a name word is a noun. He must be told 
 that words completing verbs which seem to name the subject as well 
 as qualify the subject are called predicate nouns. 
 
 (s) He must select predicate nouns in this series of sentences. 
 
 (t) He must recall that a word standing for a noun is a pronoun. 
 He must be told that such words completing verbs which stand for 
 name-words are called predicate pronouns. 
 
 (u) He must be led to select predicate pronouns in this series of 
 sentences. 
 
— 43 — 
 
 (v) He must be led to define a predicate adjective, predicate noun, 
 predicate pronoun. 
 
 (w) He must turn to his grammar to. fix and perfect the definition of 
 a copulative verb, predicate noun, predicate pronoun, predicate adjec- 
 tive. 
 
 (x) He must analyze a series of sentences 'taken from the grammar 
 in which he selects copulative verbs w^ith their completing words. 
 
 (y) He must be led to observe that some verbs are completed "by 
 words which do not qualify, name, or stand for the name of the sub- 
 ject. 
 
 (z) He must observe that the completing word of such verbs receive 
 the act asserted by the verb. 
 
 (a') He must be told that such verbs are transitive verbs. 
 
 (b') He must select transitive verbs and their completing words in a 
 series of sentences. 
 
 (c') He must be told that the completing word of a transitive verb is 
 called the object of the verb. 
 
 (e') He must be led to define transitive verb and direct object of 
 transitive verb. 
 
 (f) He must turn to his grammar to fix and perfect the definition 
 of transitive verb and direct object of a transitive verb. 
 
 (g') He must be tolu that another name for a complete verb is an 
 intransitive verb. 
 
 (h') He must be led to select intransitive verbs in a series of sen- 
 tences presented by the teacher. 
 
 (d') He must formulate a definition for an intransitive verb. 
 
 (j') He must turn to his grammar to fix and perfect this definition. 
 
 (k') He must be led to analyze a series of sentences, discriminating 
 between transitive and intransitive and copulative verbs, and their 
 completing words, if they have such words. 
 
 (1') He must be led to make a summary of verbs with reference to 
 whether they are complete or incomplete and with reference to their 
 completing words. 
 
 What facts of grammar must have been taught the pupil before he is 
 taught to recognize and define copulative, transitive, and intransitive 
 verbs. 
 
 He must know the following: 
 
 1. — That a sentence is an expression of thought in words. 
 
 2. — That every sentence has two pai'ts, a subject and a predicate. 
 
 3. — The definition of the subject of a sentence — simple, and many- 
 worded. 
 
 4. — The definition of the predicate of a sentence — simple, and many- 
 worded. 
 
 5. — The definition of a noun. 
 
 6. — The definition of a pronoun. 
 
 7.- — The definition of an adjective. 
 
 8.- — The definition of a verb. 
 
 9. — The pupil must be able to distinguish between an adjective and an 
 adverb. 
 
 III. The lesson plan developing this unit-whole involves so much 
 that is new to the student that it necessitates the organization by the 
 teacher of lesson plans corresponding to only one of two advanced 
 steps of the whole unit. With this in view the following aims or series 
 of aims are given for the development of this large unit-whole for the 
 organization of smaller finits corresponding to daily lesson class-plans. 
 
_44 — 
 
 Aims — 1. To teach the pupil to recognize a complete and incomplete 
 verb. 
 
 2nd Set of Aims. — (a) To review with the pupil the work of the pre- 
 ceding day with reference to complete and incomplete verbs, (b) To 
 teach the pupil to recognize and define one division of the incomplete 
 verb, the copulative verb, (c) To prepare the pupil for the next day's 
 lesson. 
 
 3rd Set of Aims. — (a) Review of the preceding day's lesson with ref- 
 erence to copulative verbs, (b) To teach the pupil to recognize and 
 define a transitive verb, (c) To prepare the pupil for the next day's 
 lesson. 
 
 4th Set of Aims. — (a) To test or review the preceding d-ay's work 
 with reference to transitive verbs, (b) To teach the pupil to recog- 
 nize and define the intransitive verb, (c) To prepare the pupil for the 
 next day's lesson. 
 
 5th Set of Aims. — (a) To lead the pupil to fix and formulate the defini- 
 tions of the following: copulative verb, transitive verb, intransitive 
 verb, predicate noun, predicate pronoun, predicate adjective, direct ob- 
 ject of a transitive verb, (b) To prepare the pupil for the next day's 
 lesson. 
 
 6th Set of Aims. — To review the preceding day's work, (b) To lead 
 the pupil to apply his knowledge of copulative and transitive verbs by 
 leading nim to discriminate between the copulative and intransitive 
 verb in a series of sentences selected from the text-book, (c) To pre- 
 prepare the pupil for the next day's lesson. 
 
 7th Set of Aims. — (a) To review the preceding day's work, (b) To 
 lead the pupil to apply his knowledge of transitive and intransitive 
 verbs by leading him to discriminate between transitive and intransi- 
 tive verbs in a series of sentences selected from the text-book, (c) To 
 prepare the pupil for the next day's recitation. 
 
 8th Set of Aims.— (a) To review the preceding day's work, (b) To 
 lead the pupil to discriminate between copulative, transitive, and in- 
 " transitive verbs in a series of sentences selected from the text, (c) To 
 prepare the pupil for the next day's lesson. 
 
 Note. — Some teachers would here teach the laws relative to the case 
 forms of pronouns used as completing predicates and of pronouns used 
 ' as direct objects of transtive verbs. If so, the following series of aims 
 develop. - 
 
 9th Set of Aims. — To lead the pupil to observe and formulate the fol- 
 lowing laws: (a) That a direct object of a transitive verb is in the 
 objective case, (b) That a pronoun used as a completing word of a 
 copulative verb is in the same case as the subject of that verb, (c) To 
 prepare tne pupil for the next day's lesson. 
 
 10th Set of Aims. — (.a) To review the preceding day's work; that is, 
 to lead the pupil to apply the preceding laws in a series of sentences 
 prepared by the teacher, (b) To prepare the pupil for the next day's 
 lesson. 
 
 11th Set of Aims. — (a) To review the preceding day's work; that is, 
 to lead the pupil to discover that these two laws are obeyed in thought, 
 — embodied in literary form, (b) To prepare the pupil for the next 
 day's lesson. 
 
 12th Set of Aims. — (a) To lead the pupil to detect and hence to 
 avoid errors with reference to case forms of completing words used 
 
— 45 — 
 
 with copulative and transitive verbs, (b) To prepare the pupil for the 
 next day's lesson. 
 
 loth Set of Aims. — To lead the pupil to apply above laws to his owu 
 oral and written work. 
 
 If the preceding aims are developed with reference to case forms of 
 completing words, other data must be known by the pupil before at- 
 tempting to teach him laws governing case forms of completing words, 
 namely, the following: (1) The pupil must know the definition of the 
 term case. He must know what is meant by the terms nominative and 
 objective case. He must be able to inflect the following personal pro- 
 nouns in the singular and plural, /, he, she, the relative pronoun who 
 and its compound forms, like lohosoever. 
 
 IV. Illustrations of class or lesson-plans based upon the four funda- 
 mental propositions, which lesson-plans are for the purpose of realiz- 
 ing the first three sets of aims outlined above when teaching the unit 
 or topic whole; compulative, transitive and intransitive verbs. 
 
 Class-Plan 1. 
 
 Aim 1. — To teach the pupil to recognize and define complete and in- 
 complete verbs. 
 
 2. What must be known or done by the pupil to realize these aims. 
 
 (a) That a sentence is an expression of thought in words. 
 
 (b) That every sentence has at least two parts, subject and predicate. 
 
 (c) That the subject is that about which something is asserted. 
 
 (d) That the predicate is that which asserts something about the sub- 
 ject. 
 
 (e) That the subject may be many-worded. 
 
 (f) That the predicate may be many-worded. 
 
 (g) That a verb is usually the predicate, or is that which asserts 
 something about tne subject. 
 
 (h) The pupilmust be able to analyze a series of sentences presented 
 by the teacher and observe thai, some verbs do not need a word to com- 
 plete the assertion about the subject. 
 
 (i) He must observe this again and again. 
 
 (j) He must be told that such verbs are called complete verbs. 
 
 (k) He must select the cOj^^plete verbs in this series of sentences. 
 
 (1) He must oe led to define a complete verb. 
 
 (m) He must observe in this series of sentences that some verbs do 
 require other worda to complete the assertion about the subject. 
 
 (n) He must observe this again and again. 
 
 (o) He must be told that such verbs are called incomplete verbs. 
 
 (p) He must select incomplete verbs in this series of sentences. 
 
 (q) He must be led to define an incomplete verb. 
 
 (r) He must be led to discriminate between all the complete and in- 
 complete verbs in this series of sentences, by the teacher. 
 
 (s) He must turn to his grammar to fix and perfect the definitions of 
 a complete and an incomplete verb. 
 
 (t) He must be told to analyze a series of sentences selected by the 
 teacher taken from the grammar, to select and name the complete and 
 incomplete verbs. This last is in preparation for the next day's lesson. 
 
 (3) Of all under proposition (2) what does the pupil already know 
 or what can he do? 
 
 He knows all of a, b, c, d, e, f, g. 
 
 (4) What reinains to be known or done? 
 
 All under proposition (2) not found under proposition (3), namely, 
 from h to s. 
 
— 46 — 
 
 Class-Plans 2. 
 
 Aim. — (a) To review the preceding day's lesson, to test the student's 
 preparation of a part oi the advance lesson. 
 
 (b) To teach the pupil to recognize and define copulative verbs and 
 their completing words. 
 
 (c) To prepare the pupil for the next day's lesson. 
 
 2. — What must be known or done to realize these aims? 
 (a J He must define again a complete and incomplete verb. 
 
 (b) He must analyze rapidly the series of sentences indicated the 
 day before by the teacher, selecting the complete and incomplete verbs, 
 that is, noting the subject and predicate, and stating whether the verb 
 is the complete predicate or whether the verb requires another word 
 or words to complete the assertion about the subject. 
 
 (c) He must observe in a given series of sentences that incomplete 
 verbs are completed by words which seem to qualify the subject, as in 
 the sentence: "Sue looks pale." 
 
 (d) He must observe this again and again. 
 
 (e) He must be told that such verbs so completed are called copula- 
 tive verbs. 
 
 (f) He must be led to select copulative verbs so completed in a series 
 of sentences. 
 
 (g) He must be led to observe that some verbs are completed by 
 words which seem to name as well as qualify the subject as, "He is a 
 king." 
 
 (h) He must be led to observe this again and again. 
 
 (i) He must be told that such verbs so completed are also called 
 copulative verbs. 
 
 (j) He must be led to select copulative verbs so completed in this 
 series of sentences. 
 
 (k) He must be led to observe that some verbs are completed by 
 words which seem to stand for the name of the subject as, "I am she." 
 
 (1) He must be led to observe this again and again. 
 
 (m) He must be told that such verbs so completed are also called 
 copulative verbs. 
 
 (n) He must be led to select copulative verbs so completed in this 
 series of sentences. 
 
 (o) He must be led to define a copulative verb. 
 
 (p) He must turn to his grammar to fix and perfect his definition 
 of a copulative verb. 
 
 (q) He must recall that a word completing a copulative verb which, 
 seems to qualify the subject is an adjective. He must be told to call 
 such completing words of a copulative verb predicate adjectives. 
 
 (r) He must select predicate adjectives in this series of sentences. 
 
 (sj He must be led to define a predicate adjective. 
 
 (t) He must recall that words which complete the verb, which name 
 the subject as well as qualify it are nouns, and he must be told that 
 such completing words of copulative verbs are called predicate nouns. 
 
 (u) He must be led to select predicate nouns in a series of sentences. 
 
 (v) He must be led to define the predicate noun. 
 
 (w) He mus^ recall that words used in place of nouns are pronouns, 
 and must be told that pronouns needed to complete copulative verbs 
 are called predicate pronouns. 
 
 (x) He must select predicate pronouns in this series of sentences. 
 
 (y) He must be led to define a predicate pronoun. 
 
— 47 — 
 
 (z) He must turn v,o his grammar to fix and perfect his definitions 
 of a predicate noun, predicate pronoun, predicate adjective. 
 
 (a') In preparation of the next day's work he must be given a series 
 of sentences in which he is to select the complete and incomplete verbs, 
 the incomplete verbs which are copulative, their completing words. 
 
 3. — Of all the points unuer proposition 2 what does the pupil now 
 know or what can he do? a, b, perhaps s, g, k, q, t, w. 
 
 4. — What remains to be known or done? 
 
 All under proposition 2 not indicated under proposition 3. 
 
 Class-Plan 3. 
 
 Aim. — (a) To review and test the pupil's knowledge of a copulative 
 verb and its completing words. 
 
 (b) To teach the pupil to recognize and define a transitive verb. 
 
 (c) To prepare the pupil for the next day's recitation. 
 
 2. — What must be known or done by the pupil to realize these aims. 
 
 (a) The pupil must define again a copulative verb, a predicate ad- 
 jective, a predicate noun and a predicate pronoun. 
 
 (b) The pupil must analyze rapidly the sense of sentences assigned 
 the day before, select the complete and incomplete verbs, select the copu- 
 lative verbs and name their completing words. 
 
 (c) The pupil must select the incomplete verb in a series of sentences 
 supplied by the teacher and observe that some verbs are not completed 
 by words which name, qualify or stand for the name of the subject. 
 
 (d) He must observe that they are completed by words standing for 
 objects which receive the act asserted by the verb. 
 
 (e) He must observe this again and again. 
 
 (f) He must be told that such verbs are called transitive verbs. 
 
 (g) He must select all the transitive verbs in this series of sentences, 
 (h) He must be led to define a transitive verb. 
 
 (i) He must be told that the completing word of a transitive verb is 
 called the direct object of a transitive verb. 
 
 (j) He must select all of the objects of the transitive verbs in this 
 series of sentences. 
 
 (k) He must be led to define the direct object of a transitive verb. 
 
 (1) He must turn to his grammar to fix and perfect his classifica- 
 tion of a transitive verb, of a direct object of a transitive verb. 
 
 (n) In preparation for the next day's work he must be told to ana- 
 lyze a series of sentences given in the grammar and to select the transi- 
 tive incomplete verbs and their. completing words in this series of sen- 
 tences. 
 
 3. — Of all included under proposition 2 what does the pupil now know 
 or what can he do? a, b, perhaps c, d. 
 
 4. — What remains to be known or done? 
 
 All not included under proposition 3. 
 
 Note. — If a lesson or class-plan is not completed in one day, the same 
 lesson is continued until finished before the teacher attempts to realize 
 a new series or set of aims in the development of this large unit- 
 whole— "Copulative, Transitive and Intransitive verbs." 
 
 a. Further lesson plans should be made by the teacher until all of 
 the aims noted under III. are realized— these aims were formulated 
 for the purpose of teaching new data, testing students' preparation of 
 assigned work, drilling upon data taught, application of data learned, 
 or the apiflication of generalization arrived at to new particulars. 
 
— 48 — 
 
 V. Above selections an*d grouping of material and organization of 
 the same in lesson plans involves what plans or lines of work on the- 
 part of the teacher? 
 
 1. — The teacher must know the subject of grammar as a whole and see 
 its natural and logical division into units. See units I to XXXIX given 
 in introduction. 
 
 2. — The teacher must see the relation between these units if any ex- 
 ists. 
 
 3. — The teacher must determine the naming of the "unit-heads." 
 
 4. — The teacher must determine their relative importance. 
 
 5. — The teacher must determine their order. 
 
 6.— The teacher must organize lesson-plans corresponding to a unit 
 or a division of a unit, if the unit is so large as to require a series of 
 lesson plans. 
 
 7. — The teacher must determine what topics a, b, c, etc., under prop- 
 osition "2" of the lesson-plan the pupil now knows or can do. 
 
 8. — The teacher must determine how he may rapidly and effectively 
 bring to the consciousness of the pupils the data already known, which 
 may be brought into such living and vital relation with the new as to 
 aid the class to comprehend the new or unknown. 
 
 9. — The teacher must determine his mode of precedure before he at- 
 tempts to teach the class the topics under proposition "4" of the lesson 
 plan. 
 
 10. — The teacher must prepare a series of sentences, which sentences 
 are so selected and. grouped that the pupil may observe again and again 
 some grammatical fact; for example, that some verbs require other 
 words to complete the assertion about the subject and may finally ar- 
 rive at generalizations; for example, verbs which require other words 
 to complete the assertion about the subject are called incomplete verbs, 
 
 11. — The teacher must be ready to refer the pupil to certain pages of 
 the text-book for reference and study. The pupil will need to compare 
 the definitions and rules which he has formailated with like generaliza- 
 tions in the text-book, will need to study series of sentences presented in 
 the text for the purpose of applying the generalizations arrived at to 
 new particulars, will need the guidance of the text-book in the forma- 
 tion of summaries of units; such as all the offices of nouns in sentences, 
 classes of pronouns, etc. 
 
 12.— The teacher must think out logical summaries of units in order 
 that he may teach his class to form similar summaries. 
 
 VI. The handling of the class-plan based upon the four fundamental 
 propositions in the classroom, or with the class. 
 
 This will be considered under three heads: 
 
 1. Preparation. 
 
 2. Presentation. 
 
 3. Application and drill. 
 
 1. Preparation. 
 
 (a) The teacher organizes the subject-matter to be taught, and the 
 order in which it iz to be taught. 
 
 (b) The teacher announces the aim or purpose of the lesson. 
 
 (c) The teacher determines the questions which are to reach back 
 and gathered up data presented in former lessons which will serve as a 
 transition for the new lesson. 
 
 (d) The teacher announces the matter of the new lesson to the class. 
 
 (e) If the child is to study the next day's lesson, which study is to 
 
— i9 — 
 
 precede actual recitation in the classroom the teacher makes such re- 
 marks explanatory of the topics under "proposition 4," if such need 
 explanation, and gives such definite directions as are necessary for the 
 child's accurate understanding of his mode of procedure in preparing 
 the next day's lesson. 
 
 2. Presentation. 
 
 The recitation is conducted for the purpose of the pupil's gaining a 
 ti'uer view and a deeper insight of the subject matter which he has 
 studied, or with the purpose of presenting the new inductively, in which 
 case the subject matter has not been previously assigned to the pupil 
 for study. 
 
 (a) In this latter case, presentation to the class of a series of sen- 
 tences to be used in teaching the new. 
 
 (b) Presentation -or teaching of the new: 
 
 The teacher by means of a series of questions and directions leads 
 the class to observe again and again concrete illustrations of some 
 grammatical fact or phenomenon. The pupil compares these illustra- 
 tions or concrete examples of the same phenomenon, states the similar- 
 ity existing between these individual illustrations or concrete examples 
 and arrive at a definite conclusion or generalization, which generaliza- 
 tion may be a definition, or a rule of correct syntax. For example: 
 He observes that some verbs are followed by words which complete the 
 assertion made about the subject; he observes this again and again in a 
 like series of sentences; he states in his own words this observation 
 which he has repeatedly made; he is told to call such a completing 
 word a completing predicate and is then led to define the term "com- 
 pleting predicate." 
 
 3. Practice, Drill, Application. 
 
 Comparing pupil'a generalization with text-book generalization, 
 further application of generalization to many new particulars — repeti- 
 tion of the generalization, that is the definition or rule; when a whole 
 "unit" has been taught, the making of a summary of the whole; repeti- 
 tion of the facts of this summary in an orderly series; original illustra- 
 tions by the class of the different data of the summary; application of 
 rules learned to pupils' oral and written work; constant search in liter- 
 ature for further illustrations. 
 
 VII. Class work based upon the four fundamental propositions is 
 truly pedagogical. 
 
 1. The first important function and duty of the teacher is to prepare 
 the students' mind for the assimilation of new knowledge, and to pre- 
 sent the subject matter of instruction in the order and manner which 
 best conduces to this assimilation. The class-plan based upon the four 
 fundamental propositions does this. Why? 
 
 (a) It presents the subject matter in logical order. 
 
 (b) Points out definitely what is to be done. 
 
 (c) Indicates the order in which this is to be done. 
 
 (d) Brings to the consciousness of the pupil preceding known data 
 and experiences similar to or relating to today's subject-matter of in- 
 struction. 
 
 (e) These known data reach out and bring into vital relation with 
 themselves the new elements of knowledge to be learned. 
 
 (f) The statement of the aim puts the pupil into the proper frame 
 of mind for work in so far as it may excite expectation, .arouse the 
 pupil's activity in working at a task. 
 
— 50 — 
 
 2. The class-plan based upon the four fundamental propositions 
 makes the subject matter of instruction clear. 
 
 (a) It presents matter not in the mass, but in small logically con- 
 nected sections to each of which in succession the pupil gives his in- 
 dividual attention, thus ensuring clearness of each step. 
 
 (b) After attention has been given to each successive step of the les- 
 son-whole, these steps are brought into a close relation with each 
 other; — the pupil thus gains clear individual notions and avoids the 
 apprehension of a confused mass of disconnected details. This close 
 connection of the individual steps of the lesson-plan is brought about 
 by means of requiring the pupil to makQ a clean well-cut summary of 
 the whole lesson. 
 
 3. The class-plan based upon the four fundamental propositions is- 
 capable of presenting the subject matter of instruction in a connected 
 series. 
 
 (a) The class-plan rightly organized calls for summaries of unit- 
 wholes as a final means of review. Each lesson-plan of a "unit" corre- 
 sponds to one or more onward steps of a series of related steps. 
 
 A naturally related series helps form intimate and lasting associa- 
 tions. 
 
 (c) The class-plan does not preclude devices to fix the series in mind. 
 
 (d) The class-plan calls for persistent application of generalizations 
 to new particulars. If knowledge is to have a rich content, the gener- 
 alization must be again and again re-enforced by application to new par- 
 ticulars. This application of a generalization to a new particular co- 
 ordinates, groups knowledge. 
 
 4. The lesson-plan based upon the four fundamental propositions re- 
 quires the taking of thought about the best sub-division of the matter 
 to be taught. The pupil in time sees the "unit-whole," an order in 
 grouping. 
 
 5. The lesson-plan based upon the four fundamental propositions ad- 
 mits of the use of the monologue or dialogue in the class, of analysis 
 or of synthesis with regard to the subject matter, of the method of in- 
 duction and of deduction with regard to the learner. 
 
 6. The lesson-plan based upon the four fundamental propositions re- 
 quires the teacher to see that what knowledge the pupil has on hand is 
 put to use, in so far as the pupil is led to relate the known to the un- 
 known and is constantly required to apply generalizations made (rules, 
 definitions, classifications) to new particulars. 
 
 7. The lesson-plan based upon the four fundamental propositions calls 
 for careful determination of each day's advance lesson and of careful 
 preparation. 
 
 (a) The right order and manner of the subject matter to be taught. 
 
 (b) Of the student's mind for rapid and effective assimilation of new 
 data. 
 
 8. The lesson-plan based upon the four fundamental propositions re- 
 quires the teacher to think of the best means at hand to aid the pupil to 
 assimilate new knowledge, since the teacher must constantly conceive 
 of means to realize aim or "proposition 1." 
 
 The average Grammar usually introduces an individual generaliza- 
 tion which is illustrated by a single sentence and then applied to a 
 few disjointed and often meaningless sentences. The teacher's attempt 
 to see how he may best realize the aim or aims set forth in "proposi- 
 tion 1" leads him to see that the pupil must arrive inductively at a 
 generalization and apply this generalization again and again to new 
 particulaTs. 
 
— 51 — 
 
 VIII. The handling of a class-plan with a class who are composed ot 
 students in the Professional Review Class in Grammar. 
 
 1. The teacher presents a large unit, the outline of which is based 
 upon the class-plan. The unit is large for tvro reasons: (a) The pupil 
 has a breadth of knowledge concerning Grammar before entering the 
 professional review class, (b) The large unit saves time in so far as- 
 topics are reviewed. 
 
 2. The teacher at least once during the half quarter takes a large 
 unit which has been developed with the class, divides this unit into a 
 series of logically related smaller units, organizes a series of class- 
 plans corresponding to each of the smaller units. These individual 
 class-plans, corresponding to the units of the large class-plan, make up 
 an orderly series developing the whole unit. The class-plan embraces 
 the four heads. 
 
 1. Aim or aims of me day's work. 
 
 2. What must be known or done to realize these aims. 
 
 3. "What is already known or can be done by the pupil. 
 
 4. What remains to be done or known. 
 
 3. Each student in the professional class is expected to develop, as a 
 piece of original and special work done by himself, a similar series of 
 related class-plans which are parts of a series developing a large unit, 
 or larger class-plan whole. He carefully prepares each of the units of 
 the series in an orderly outline — this outline is based upon the four 
 fundamental propositions noted above. This individual work of each 
 student is criticised by the teacher ana compared with class-plan work 
 presented to the class by the teacher. The student then reviews and 
 corrects his work and puts it in the best shape possible. After some 
 two or three weeks have bfeen devoted to the consideration of class-plans 
 outlined by the teacher, the class are expected to formulate the results 
 of the teaching of grammar based upon the four fundamental proposi- 
 tions, which results they infer or derive from their own experience in 
 the classroom. These results are read aloud in class by individual 
 students, compared, and different students are required to state how 
 each one of these results seems to him to have been accomplished. At 
 times the teacher definitely discusses with the class the aims in view in 
 the development of a class-plan, the order and arrangement of the sub- 
 ject matter of instruction, and the means used for drill and application. 
 
 The teacher reviews with the class the subject matter of grammar. 
 This subject matter was organized and grouped by the teacher in some 
 thirty units. As many of tnese units are reviewed with the class as 
 time permits. These units represent large wholes which then need sub- 
 division into smaller units, making up a related series of this larger 
 whole. The teacher uses these lesson-plans for two reasons: (a) to re- 
 view with the pupil the essentials of English Grammar; (b) to Illus- 
 trate to the pupil the organization of the subject matter of Grammar 
 based upon the four fundamental propositions. Thus the academic 
 work and professional work are combined. There is a necessity for the 
 combination of the academic work and professional for two reasons: 
 (1) The average student in the professional class evinces a lack of un- 
 aerstanding of Grammar. (2) It seems a- foolish waste of time to first 
 present the subject matter of instruction by one method to the class, 
 and then later to organize this subject matter of instruction based upon 
 the four fundamental propositions in a different manner and order 
 than that originally presented by the teacher. The review or the aca- 
 demic work is presented to the class inductively, that is, the teacher 
 prepares a series of sentences to be used in connection with each unit 
 
— 52 — 
 
 of instruction. The pupil observes the phenomena or facts through the 
 medium of these correct illustrations; he observes like illustrations; he 
 is led to consciously compare them and to determine their points of 
 similarity. Through this observation, coraparison and abstraction of 
 a similarity, he arrives Anally at a generalization. This generalization 
 may be a definition, it may be a rule of syntax. This generalization 
 made by the student is then compared with the text-book generalization, 
 is fixed and formulated. The student then applies the generalization 
 to many nevi^ concrete illustrations of the same phenomena. Thes6 con- 
 cr.ete illustrations are taken from the text-book in Grammar. The 
 student is expected to make a summary of each day's new lesson 
 presented, and a final summary of the series of successive units which 
 go to make up a larger unit or whole. The student is thus illustrating 
 also the deductive method in the study of Grammar in so far as he is 
 required to apply tue generalization at which he has arrived to many a 
 new particular. 
 
 The student is required in time to discuss with a teacher the class- 
 plan based upon the four fundamental propositions under the following 
 heads: 1 — Preparation for class-work, (a) the preparation or organi- 
 zation of the subject matter of instruction; (b) the preparation of the 
 child's mind for the rapid and effective assimilation of this new data. 
 2 — The presentation of the same in the classroom, (a) the method of 
 presentation through induction; (b) the tharacter, number and kind 
 of the sentences or concrete illustrations to be prepared by the teacher; 
 (c) the logical order of the presentation of the new. (3) — Drill and. 
 application. Necessity of drill to fulfill the aim as stated under the 
 four fundamental propositions. Means to vary mode of drilling, such 
 as the summary of each day's work, the summary of larger units, and 
 application of the principle derived to new particulars. 
 
 VIII. The follovk^ing results of the application of the four funda- 
 mental propositions to the teaching of grammar were formulated and 
 stated by the students of a Professional Review Class in Grammar. The 
 conclusions at which they arrived were not instigated by the teacher 
 except in so far as she in her review work with her class presented 
 to them the units of subject matter in Grammar organized in lesson- 
 plan based upon these propositions. 
 
 Results formulated by the class. 
 
 1. The teacher is required to determine the aims in view in each 
 succeeding lesson. 
 
 2. The "class-plan" determines the method of what? 
 
 3. The teacher is led to make a careful analysis of subject matter 
 selected to be taught in ord^r to determine whether the selection is 
 adapted for the realization of v,he aims stated under "proposition 1." 
 
 4. The class-plan calls for a careful organization as well as selec- 
 tion of subject matter to be taught. 
 
 5. The matter of organizing the "what" aids the child's memory 
 of data. Why? 
 
 (a) Because one step is taught thoroughly at a time. 
 
 (b) Because facts are taught in a related series. 
 
 (c) Because of the careful presentation of the ne^V in a logical 
 
 order and manner. 
 
 6. The class-plan paA-es the way for the child's effective and rapid 
 assimilation of new data. Why? 
 
 (a) The new d .ta are p.esented in an orderly and logical man- 
 ner. 
 
— 53 — 
 
 (b) The child's mind is prepared for this effective and rapid 
 assimilation of new data, since the teacher brings to the 
 consciousness of the pupil the "known" which has a close 
 and vital relation to the "unknown." 
 
 7. The class-plan causes a teacher to discover whether the child 
 really has the necessary known data to properly understand the new 
 or related unknown. The third fundamental proposition calls for the 
 recognition of this by the teacher. 
 
 8. The class-plan necessitates the organization, that is, the selection 
 and arrangement or classification of subject matter for teaching. 
 
 9. The class-plan prevents waste of time. How? 
 
 (a) Teacher determines beforehana what the child is to do, the 
 
 order in which this is to be done, and makes a definite 
 and exact assignment of each day's succeeding work. 
 
 (b) The statement of the aim will cause the child to work with 
 
 the thought of finally arriving at the data necessary for 
 the realization of this aim. 
 
 (c) The class-plan necessitates the teacher's bringing to the con- 
 
 sciousness of the child that apperceptive mass which has a 
 vital and close relation to the new. 
 
 10. The class-plan requires so careful a preparation on the part ot 
 the teacher that it makes the teacher free; in other words the teacher 
 is better prepared to meet the emergencies which may arise in the 
 classroom. 
 
 11. The class-plan makes the teaching of Grammar practical, in so 
 far as the child is to apply every generalization reached or arrived at 
 to new and varying particulars. 
 
 12. The class-plan prevents the child's memorizing facts by page. 
 How? Teacher does not assign the advance lesson by page, but by 
 topic in a related series of steps developing this topic. 
 
 13. The summaries of unit-wholes made admit of excellent training 
 in language power. How? (a) The child learns to separate essential 
 data from non-essential, (b) The child is required to make a condensed 
 oral summary of the whole, (c) The child is required to talk definitely 
 to a point. 
 
 14. Through the medium of a class-plan the child learns the relation 
 existing between the parts of the whole. Again the child learns the 
 whole through a related series. 
 
 15. The class-plan forces the teacher to utilize the child's previous 
 knowledge and experience, thus stimulating interest and attention. 
 
 16. The child's mind is aided in rapid and effective assimilation of 
 new data: (a) because of the statement of the aim, (b) because of 
 the orderly presentation of subject matter in a related series, (c) be- 
 cause the new or "unknown" is made clear through the medium of its 
 close and vital relation to the "known." 
 
 17. ine child has a well defined plan, a method of study, for each 
 day's work, in other words he knows what to do, and the order in 
 which to do it. 
 
 18. The class-plan has an ethical value for the child (a) in so far 
 as he is aided and guided in the performance of a definite task for 
 the fulfillment of a definite aim or purpose, (b) in so far as the child 
 cannot plead that he did not understand the assigned lesspn or duty. 
 
 19. The class-plan illustrates the inductive and deductive process of 
 learning. 
 
 20. The teacher puts to use the capital the child has on hand. 
 
 21. The class-plan arouses the self-activity of the pupil. Why? 
 
22. 
 Why? 
 
 — 54: — 
 
 (a) Statement of aim may stimulate interest and attention. 
 
 (b) Statement of aim may indicate to some pupil the steps to bvi 
 taken to arrive at this aim. 
 
 (c) The careful assignment of the next day's lesson invites 
 activity of the pupil. 
 
 The class-plan may be a means of valuable mental discipline. 
 
 (a) The "method of the what" often points out the "method of 
 
 the how." 
 
 (b) The child is led to compare, observe, abstract and gen- 
 
 eralize. 
 
 23. The class-plan illustrates the proper use of the text-book in 
 the following respects: (a) The child is to compare his definitions, 
 x'ules, or generalizations arrived at with those given in the text-book; 
 (b) the child is to acquire from the text-book new and further illus- 
 trative sentences, which sentences are to be used for the application 
 of the child's generalizations to new particulars; (c) the average text- 
 book of Grammar presents fine summaries of whole units. These units 
 may be used as a means of review; (d) the average text-book in 
 Grammar presents the conclusions of trained thinkers, and is often 
 a fine reference book concerning technical and disputed points. 
 
 24. The class-plan illustrates how the child ear-^i day may be led 
 to accomplish something definite, a step m advance, and how at the 
 end or close of the study of the unit, he is able to carry away essentials 
 in definite and permanent form. Why? The child is required always 
 to make a summary of each day's advance work, as well as a summary 
 of the unit-whole. 
 
 25. The class-plan compels the child's close attention to the aim oi 
 each day's lesson, since the subject matter of instruction is based en- 
 tirely upon the aim or aims to be accomplished. 
 
 26. Class-plan discloses possible shortcomings with respect to the 
 subject matter as presented in the average text-book. How? The 
 teacher in formulating what is to be known or done to realize aims 
 or propositions must inevitably analyze the subject matter as presented 
 in the average text, must criticise the presentation of the same, and 
 must determine whether the subject needs further elucidation and 
 illustration than that presented by the text. Again many " text-boo., 
 calls for the rote-memorizing of underived generals and the applica- 
 tion of imperfectly understood generals to new particulars. 
 
 27. The class-plan compels a teacher to recognize and use an im- 
 portant principle of teaching; namely, "proceeding from the known 
 to the related unknown." 
 
— 55 
 
 USB OP THE FUNDAMENTAL PROPOSITIONS 1, 2, 3, AND 4 IN 
 THE TEACHING OF HISTORY. 
 
 I. The application of the four fundamental propositions in the prep- 
 aration from day to day of class work necessitates a lesson-plan — the 
 parts of this lesson-plan arranged under four headings, viz.: 1 — Aim 
 or aims to be realized in the next recitation. 2 — What must be known 
 or done to realize these aims. 3 — What of the things enumerated 
 under proposition 2 the pupil now knows or ca ndo. 4 — What of the 
 things enumerated under proposition 2 the pupil still has to learn or do. 
 
 II. These lesson-plans necessitate the selection and organization of 
 subject-matter. 
 
 There are difficulties attending the grouping of subject-matter of 
 history. Why? 
 
 (a) Because of the multitude of events or data, 
 ^b) Because of the chronological grouping of data as presented 
 in many text-books rather than the "institutional 
 metnod" of grouping, 1. e., the author groups the data 
 presented in tue order of time in which they occurred. He 
 follows the method which builds up associations in 
 "chronological units" while the "institutional method" 
 marks the progress of any one idea or institution. 
 
 In tlie first formal study of history through the medium of the text- 
 book the teacher should, with his class, follow the text-book arrange- 
 ment of tiie chronological method of organizing historic data, since 
 the organization of an historical topic by the "institutional method" 
 of grouping implies a knowledge of later phases of the subject, which 
 phases occur perhaps a century or more later than earlier phases 
 of the same subject, this later data being properly understood only 
 in connection v/ith a study of many other events which iiappened 
 contemporaneously with them. 
 
 The class-plan, then, based upon the four fundamental propositions 
 must follov/ the chronological method of classifying events, if the 
 class is studying the historical data for the first time through the 
 medium of a text-book. 
 
 After this is done and the proper time for a careful review arrives, 
 this review should be conducted following the "idea" or "institutional 
 method" of grouping. 
 
 This would necessitate the formation of a second series of class- 
 plans in which the data formerly organized by means of "chronological 
 units" are again outlined following the "institutional or idea method." 
 The latter work is absolutely necessary for no one really knows history 
 who has not been led to associate historic facts and reassociate them 
 until he sees the development of an "institutional unit." 
 
 Teachers in history in Normal schools should train students to 
 organize properly history topics for teaching purposes. The students 
 in the Professional Review classes in history, then, should study the 
 adaptation of the four fundamental propositions to the teaching of 
 history, when historic data are presented following the chronological 
 or text-book method of grouping, and again, when historic data are 
 presented following the "institutional method" of grouping. 
 
 The students in the Professional Review classes in our Normal 
 schools have studied history for several years and are supposed to 
 
 LofC. 
 
— 56 — 
 
 have gained a chronological view of the leading historic data of their 
 nation's nistory. Honce the teacher of the Professional Review class 
 should organize in these class-plans (based upon the four funda- 
 mental propositions) subject-matter which is so grouped that it il- 
 lustrates the "institutional method." Again the teacher should or- 
 ganize class-plans in which the subject-matter presented to be taught 
 should illustrate the chronological method of grouping. 
 
 The former of these two series of class-plans is necessary in the Pro- 
 fessional Review class for the following reasons: 
 
 1. It serves as a means of reviewing "academic" history. 
 
 2. It illustrates to the student the organization of data which go to 
 make up a whole "institution" or idea. 
 
 3. It gives tue student a certain faculty and power — in that final 
 organization of data — at which the trained student of history arrives. 
 No one can really teach history who cannot make this final and best 
 organi station of historic data, who cannot trace the relation of cause 
 and effect, the gradual development of an idea or institution through 
 years of time, what "has become" as well as "what was." 
 
 4. It presents to the pupil an illustration of the adaptation of the 
 four fundamental propositions to the outlining of subject-matter of in- 
 struction, which subject-matter is presented through a series of class- 
 plans, each plan outlining an onward step or steps in the development 
 of an "institution." The other or latter of these series of class-plans 
 is necessary as the future teacher should follow the arrangement of 
 data as presented in the text-book and should present historic events 
 grouped in chronological units. As the former of these series is the 
 more difficult, the teacher in the Professional Review class in history 
 should illustrate this the more frequently. The following is a skeleton 
 oultine of important historical data grouped according to the "institu- 
 tional method." This outline embraces the subject-matter presented 
 in Channing's Students' History of the United States from about the 
 year 1790 to the outbreak of the Civil War. ft 
 
 A. Struggle between Nationality and Democracy — 'Doctrine of Na- 
 tional Sovereignty vs. State Sovereignty. 
 
 I. Over Domestic Questions, a. Assumption Bill. b. Funding Bill. 
 c. Excise Tax on Whiskey, d. United States Bank. 
 
 II. Over Foreign Questions or Relations. 
 
 1. With France, a. Question of Aiding France, b. Citizen Genet, c. 
 Alien and Sedition Laws. d. Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. 
 
 2. With England, a. Impressment of Our Seamen, b. British 
 Orders in Council, c. Our Embargo Act. d. Our Non-Intercourse Act. 
 6. Opposition to Declaration of War with England, f. Hartford Con- 
 vention. 
 
 B. Approach of Nationality and Democracy. 
 
 1. Louisiana Purchase. 2. What Political Parties Seemed for the 
 Time to Advocate Each Other's Viev/s as Sectional Interests Seemed 
 to be Threatened. 3. Era of Good Feeling. 4. Desire for National Ex- 
 pansion, i. e., Opening of the West, Internal Improvements. 5. Pride in 
 National Life Between 1835-1840. 
 
 D. Nationality and Tariff. 
 
 1. How Free and Slave Labor Made Industries Sectional in Character 
 and Extent. 2. Forces Which Developed Manufactures in Free States. 
 3. Opposition of Slavery Section to Protection of These Industrfes. 4. 
 Nullification of South Carolina. 5. Compromise Upon the Issue. 
 
 C. Nationality and Slavery. 
 
 1. Slavery Conflict in 1820. a. Origin of the Conflict, b. The Mis- 
 souri Struggle and Compromise of 1820. c. Threats of Secession. 
 
— 57 — 
 
 E. Growth of Sectionalization, or of Sectional Interests, Feeling and 
 Legislation with kespect to Extension of Slavery. 
 
 1. Movement for Texas by Southerners. 2. Real Motive of Mexican 
 War. 3. Acquisition of Mexican Cession. 4. Gold in California. 5. 
 How 3 and 4 aided in Sectionalization. 6. Compromise of 1850 as a 
 Result of 3 and 4. 7. Kansas-Nebraska Bill and Civil War in Kansas. 
 
 P. Continued Growth of Sectionalization with Respect to the Slavery 
 Issue. 
 
 1. Abolition Movement. 2. Uncle Tom's Cabin. 3. Dred Scott De- 
 cision. 4. Lincoln-Douglas Debates. 5. Charleston Convention. 6. Se- 
 cession. 7. The Slave Holding Section's Appeal to Arms. 8. Feeling of 
 Nationality in the North. 9. Beginning of the Civil War. 10. Contrast 
 of North and South in 1860 with Respect to Differences in Their Social 
 and Industrial Life. 
 
 III. Illustration of a lesson-plan based upon the four fundamental 
 propositions. This lesson-plan develops the unit marked above as c, 
 or "Nationality and Slavery," 
 
 1. Aims. 
 
 (a) To lead the pupil to see that the question of slavery is a sec- 
 tional question and is a question or problem which arises again and 
 again. o 
 
 (c) How the Missouri struggle affected sectional ill-feeling and re- 
 newed the question of the sovereignty of the central government. 
 
 2. What must be known or done in order to realize these aims. 
 
 a. The student must review the history of former disputed questions 
 which arose concerning slavery, from the time of framing the Con- 
 stitution unil 1820. 
 
 (b) The student must group and state former illustrations rela- 
 tive to questioning the constitutionality of acts of central government. 
 
 (c) The student must know the relative number of free and slave 
 states just previous to 1820, and be able to color the slave and free 
 area upon an outline map. 
 
 (d) The student must know why each section, slave or free, was 
 anxious to retain an equal or greater balance of power through the num- 
 ber of their representatives and senators. 
 
 (e) The student must know of Missouri's desire to be admitted to 
 the union, and of the various bills and resolutions proposed relative 
 to her admission and to the question of slavery within her boundaries 
 and within the Louisiana Purchase from which Missouri is carved. 
 
 (f) The student must know that the question arose of Congress' con- 
 stitutional riight to forbid slavery in territories. 
 
 (g) The student must know of the attempt to admit Maine and of 
 the relation of its admission to that of Missouri. 
 
 (h) The student must know the final provisions embodied in the 
 Missouri Compromise. 
 
 (i) The student must know the terms of the "obnoxious clause" 
 in Missouri's constitution, of the dispute concerning this clause and 
 how the dispute was settled. 
 
 (j) The student must know the effect of above bill and its dis- 
 cussion upon sectional ill-feeling and how it illustrated sectional feeling 
 and interests. 
 
 (k) The student must study his text-book, and if possible, do 
 collateral reading. 
 
 (1) The student mus^t give a summary of each of the above topics 
 a, b, c, etc. . 
 
— 58 — 
 
 (m) The student must be able to give a brief, clean-cul summary 
 of the ■whole unit. 
 
 3. What is known. 
 
 (a) Perhaps something of c, d, e, f, g, h, 1, j. 
 
 'All under 2 not found to be known under 3, i. e., probably c, d, e, 
 t, g, h, i, j, k, 1, m. 
 
 Note — The extent of what is known is determined by what the 
 teacher has already taught a and b were taught under preceding 
 lesson-plans before the Missouri Compromise is reached. The extent 
 of what is known is also determined by questions asked by the 
 teacher upon the topics c, d, e, etc. The amount of this knowledge 
 already known depends upon former experiences of individual pupils, 
 the reading they have done, work in history in other grades, conver- 
 sations heard in the home, etc. 
 
 IV. This preceding lesson-plan is a small unit in the series indicated 
 trader topic "Struggle Between Nationality and Democracy," "The Doc- 
 trine of National Sovereignty vs. State Sovereignty." It is small 
 since It indicates but one onward step in the struggle concerning the 
 powers of the central government and in the strife between sectional 
 interests. Other historical units are so large and re^oresent so many 
 steps in the development of an institution or idea that the teacher 
 must use judgment with respect to the subdivision of this larger unit 
 into a series of smaller ones to be presented in logical order corre- 
 sponding to a series of lesson-plans, for example, a series of lesson- 
 plans, and not one lesson-plan should be made, if the unit "Nationality 
 and Tariff' be presented to a class. These lesson-plans should realize 
 one or more, at a time, of the series of aims stated below. 
 
 Aim (1) To lead the class to contrast the slave and free sections 
 with respect to their industries in about the year 1790. 
 
 Aim (2) To lead the class to review and summarize the forces which 
 made the industries of the slave and free sections sectional in character. 
 
 Aim (3) To teach the influence of the invention of the cotton-gin up- 
 on cotton growing in the South and upon the rise of cotton manu- 
 factories in the North. 
 
 Aim (4) To teach the influence upon our commerce of attacks on 
 our neutral trade by France and England. 
 
 Aim (5) To teach the influence of our retaliatory measures (our 
 Embargo and Non-intercoursce Acts) upon the. rise of manufactures 
 in New England, upon our ship-owning and commercial interests. 
 
 Aim (6) To teach the further influence of the war of 1812 upon our 
 industrial interests. 
 
 Aim (7) To trace the growing desire to protect our new manu- 
 facturing interests. 
 
 Aim (8) To trace the growth of sectional feeling for and against a 
 protective tariff due to the preceding development of sectional in- 
 dustries. ' 
 
 Aim (10) To teach and ooLpare the views and debates of Hayne, 
 Webster and Calhoun concerning national sovereignty and state sov- 
 ereignty, these debates being precipitated by the Foote Resolution and 
 the tariff issue. 
 
 Aim. (11) To teach the nullification of the tariff act of 1832 by South 
 Carolina, coercion of South Carolina by President Jackson. 
 
 Aim (12) To teach how the tariff issue was compromised and settled 
 for the time being. 
 
 Aim (13) To review and summarize all relative to the unit "Nation- 
 
 #,144-,.. n-.,^ Tlor-iff " 
 
— no- 
 Aim (14) To review and summarize preceding compromises made 
 "between opposing parties and sections upon vital issues. 
 
 Aim (15) To review and summarize all preceding attempts to ques- 
 tion and criticise acts of the central government. 
 
 This paper is so long that the writer will not attempt to give illus- 
 trations of class-plans based upon the four fundamental propositions In 
 which the subject-matter to be taught is grouped following the chrono- 
 logical order or the arrangement of matter as presented by the text- 
 book, but will refer teachers for fine illustrations of lesson-plans so 
 organized to the suggestive lesson-plans in history outlined by C. E. 
 Patzer for use in the Teachers' Institutes in Wisconsin in 1899. 
 
 V. Above selection and grouping of material and organization of the 
 same in lesson-plans involves what phases .or lines of work on the part 
 of the teacher? 
 
 1. The teacher must know the subject of American history as a 
 whole and see the natural and logical division into eras or epochs. 
 
 2. The teacher must see the relation between these epochs in order 
 that the student may not gain the impression that the history of any 
 country develops "in sections." 
 
 3. The teacher must determine the natural units of each epoch. 
 
 4. The teacher must see the relation between these units if any 
 -exists. 
 
 5. The teacher must then determine the naming of th.e "unit-heads." 
 
 6. The teacher must determine their relative importance. 
 
 7. The teacher must determine their order. 
 
 8. The teacher must organize the lesson-plans corresponding to a unit 
 or a division of a unit, if the unit is so large as to require a series 
 of lesson-plans showing progressive steps in the development of an in- 
 stitution. 
 
 9. The teacher must refer the student to the paragraphs in the text- 
 book referring to the different topics under proposition 4 of the lesson- 
 plan. 
 
 10. The teacher must determine what topics under 4 of the lesson- 
 plan need further elucidation than that afforded by the text and must 
 prepare are the notes and questions and select historical and illustrative 
 reading for the pupil. 
 
 11. The teacher must arrange these "questions for thought" and 
 reference readings in an order corresponding to sub-topics under pro- 
 position 4 of the lesson-plan. 
 
 12. The teacher must be ready to assign to ihdividual pupils refer- 
 ences to read, indicate the purpose of each reference, and to what 
 In the reference the stiident should pay attention. 
 
 13. The teacher must determine what of the sub-topics indicated 
 under proposition 2 of the lesson-plan the pupil now knows or can do. 
 
 14. The teacher must think out how he may rapidly and effectively 
 bring to the consciousness of the pupil the known data already possessed 
 by the student, which may be brought into such living and vital relation 
 with the new as to aid the pupil to comprehend the new or unknown. 
 
 15. The teacher must think out a clean-cut summary of each sub- 
 topic under proposition 4, and also a clean-cut summary of 4 as a whole 
 unit. 
 
 VI. The handling of the class-plan (based upon the four fundamental 
 propositions in the class-room). 
 
 1. The teacher's preparation of her class for the next day's work. 
 
 (a) Announcement of the aim or purpose of the next day's lesson. 
 
 (b) Presentation to the class of that part of the plan corresponding 
 to proposition 4. 
 
— 60-- 
 
 (c) Questions by the teacher which reach back and gather up the 
 data presented in former lessons which will serve as a transition tO' 
 and preparation for the new lesson. 
 
 (d) Further questioning determining what is known by the pupil 
 under 2. 
 
 (e) Remarks and notes by the teacher explanatory of topics indicated 
 under 4 if such neea explanation. 
 
 (f j The teacher indicates the exact paragraph in the text-book, pre- 
 sents a series of questions for critical thought, assigns reference 
 reading, indicates the purpose of this reading and what to look for in 
 these references, all of this designed for the purpose of further eluci- 
 dation of the subject than that given by the text, if further data is 
 needed. 
 
 (2) The next day's recitation conducted with the purpose of the 
 pupil's gaining a truer view and a deeper insight. 
 
 (a) Placing together before the eyes of the class the teacher's written 
 headings under 4 as a guide to the impression upon the mind of all 
 that is to be held. 
 
 (b) Recitation by the pupil of first sub-topic under 4. 
 
 (c) Dialogue between teacher and pupils correcting erroneous state- 
 ments, clearing up vague ideas, adding data omitted by pupil. 
 
 (d) Answering of critical questions prepared by teacher or pupils 
 relating to lirst sub-topic under 4. 
 
 (e) Dialogue to group the various portions of subject-matter now 
 belonging to this in light of latter work. 
 
 (f) A fuller and better recitation upon this first sub-topic in light 
 of latter work indicated. 
 
 (g) Proceed with each succeeding topic under 4 as with 8. 
 
 (h) Concentration questions now by the teacher or suggestion by 
 pupils indicating the important data in logical order of 4 as a whole. 
 
 Note. — Only so many sub-topics, a, b, c, etc., should be handled each 
 day as time allotted to class recitation will allow. 
 
 3. Practice, Drill and Application. 
 
 Connected recitation of all the individual topics under 4. Repetition 
 of condensed headings in connection. Recitations of smaller sections 
 in full and connected form again, if this seems necessary, all this 
 to show an understanding of the whole. Application of, and com- 
 parison, if possiole, of principle of conduct, of motives, of traits o'f 
 character, of the question of political prcblem involved, etc., to similar 
 affairs of local and national life today. Illustration of this last. 
 
 VII. Class Avork based on the "four fundamental propositions" is 
 truly pedagogical. 
 
 (1) The first important function and duty of the teacher is to 
 prepare the student's mind tor the assimilation of new knowledge 
 and to present the subject-matter of instruction in the order and 
 manner which best conduces to this assimilation. The class-plan based 
 upon the four fundamental propositions does this. Why? 
 
 (a) It presents the subject-m^atter of instruction in logical order. 
 
 (b) Points out definitely v/hat is to be done. 
 
 (c) Indicates the order in, which this is to be done. 
 
 (d) Brings to the consciousness of the pupil preceding known data 
 and experiences similar to or relating to today's subject-matter of 
 instruction. 
 
 (e) These known data reach out and bring into vital relation with 
 themselves the new elements of knov/ledge to be learned. 
 
— 61 — 
 
 (f) The statement of the aim puts the pupil into the proper frame 
 of mind for work in so far as it may excite expectation, stimulates 
 Interest and inquiry, arouses self-activity in working at a task. The 
 analysis of known data should he developed in the same order as pre- 
 sented in preceding lessons, then the mind is in the condition in which 
 it has reached its greatest capacity of taking on new knowledge; i. e., 
 avoid mixing up this preliminary recalling of former data with new- 
 data for assimilation. 
 
 (2) Class-plan based upon the four fundamental propositions makes 
 the subject-matter of instruction clear. 
 
 (a) It presents matter not in the mass, but to small logically con- 
 nected sections, to each of which, in succession, the pupil gives hisi 
 undivided attention, thus ensuring clearness of each step. 
 
 (b) Then after attention has been given to yach successive step 
 of the lesson-whole, these steps or units are brought into close relation 
 with each other. The student thus gains clear individual notions 
 and avoids the apprehension of a confused mass of disconnected details. 
 This close connection of individual steps of the lesson-plan is brought 
 about by means of requiring the student to make a clear, well-cut sum- 
 mary of the whole. The number of the individual units or steps of 
 the whole lesson-plan must be determiae^, of course, by the age and 
 mental strength of the pupil. 
 
 (3 J The class-plan based upon the fO'sar fundamental propositions 
 is capable of presenting the subject-matter of instruction in a connected 
 series. 
 
 (a) The average text-book of history presents a mass of unrelated 
 data. The class-plan, rightly organized, presents finally as a means of 
 review a related series as has beea fedicated. A naturally related 
 series helps form intimate and lastisfe associations. Each lesson-plan 
 of a related series corresponds to aa Gnward step, to an extension of 
 the subject-matter. The class-plan (iS^s not preclude devices to fix the 
 series in mind. 
 
 (b) The class-plan breaks up the accidental historical associations 
 based upon the time or space relation, which relation prevents thought 
 and true insight. There is need of a wide and persistent application 
 of general truths. If knowledge is to have a rich content, the general 
 truth must be again and again reinforced by application to new par- 
 ticulars. The application of a general truth to particulars co-ordinates, 
 groups knowledge. The lesson-plan in history permits of so grouping 
 that the lessons they teach appear in the consciousness of the learner. 
 
 (4) The lesson-plan based upon the four fundamental propositions 
 requires the taking of thought about the best subdivision of the matter 
 to be taught. The pupil in time sees the "method-whole" aa order in 
 grouping, an evolution of an institution; what "has become" as well 
 as what happened. 
 
 (-5) The lesson-plan based upon the four fundamental propositions 
 admits of the use of the dialogue, the monologue in the class, of 
 analysis or of synthesis with regard to the subject-matter learned. 
 
 (6) The lesson-plan requires the teacher to see that what knowledge 
 the child has on hand is put to use. 
 
 VIII. The writer asked students of a certain Professional Reyiew 
 Class in history to formulate and state the results as they had con- 
 ceived them, of the adaptation of the four fundamental propositions 
 to the teaching of history. The class had studied a series of class- 
 plans developing an "institutional unit" presented by the teacher, 
 had formulated for class revision and criticism a series of class-plans 
 developing a "chronological unit" of history, had discussed the class- 
 
— 62— . 
 
 plan under the following heads: (a) Preparation, (b) presentation^ 
 (c) drill and application. 
 The results they formulated are the following: 
 
 1. The class-plan is a basis for real topical work. 
 
 2. The class-plan prevents the pupil's memorizing of facts "by page."' 
 
 3. The student must select the central, essential points of each lesson,. 
 
 5. Sudents learn to separate the essential data from the non essential. 
 
 4. The summaries made by the students admit of excellent training 
 in language power. 
 
 6. Students learn the relations existing between the parts of a "whole" 
 learn wholes in a series, thus acquiring an historic vista and breadth of 
 view. 
 
 7. The teacher consciously selects the known as a basis to which 
 to relate the unknown, if the known exists. 
 
 8. The student's time is saved. Why? He knows what to do, the 
 order in which to do it. 
 
 (a) Result 8 is true again, since the student's mind is aided for 
 the rapid and effective assimilation of new data. The teacher con- 
 sciously brings to the mind of the pupil preceding known data and 
 experiences similar to or relating to today's subject-matter of in- 
 struction. 
 
 9. The text-book is not neglected, but its proper and thorough use is 
 indicated, i. e., the chronological order of the text-book is followed 
 and yet there is also a constant attempt to group and co-ordinate re- 
 lated events, not only in lesson-plans which group related data of an 
 "institution," but also with each day's advance lesson the teacher looks 
 back, gathers up and requires the student to review other similar 
 data: (See a and b, under proposition 2 of class-plan on Missouri Com- 
 promise and see aims 1, 13, 14, 15, in the series of aims relating tO' 
 unit "Nationality and Tariff.") 
 
 10. The student is led to make summaries of several days' or weeks' 
 work. 
 
 11. The student carries away essentials in definite form. 
 
 12. The class-plan necessitates the accomplishment, each day, of 
 something definite, a step in advance. 
 
 13. The class-plan compels close attention to the aims or purposes 
 and the determination of what to do to realize these aims. 
 
 14. That part of the class-plan corresponding to proposition 2 dis- 
 closes to teacher the possible short-comings of the text-book in re- 
 gard to the subject-matter: for example, the text-book, at times, does 
 not present a sufficient number of details for the child to picture the 
 historic scene or event; for instance, the first home and first clear- 
 ings of land in the new west. Again the text-book does not present a 
 sufiicient number of details for the average child to understand the 
 purpose and organization of some institution; for instance, the United 
 States bank. 
 
 15. The class-plan necessitates the organization of subject-matter. 
 
 16. The class-plan calls for such careful preparation on the part 
 of the teacher that he is made free, i. e., ready to meet such emergencies 
 as arise. 
 
 17. The class plan has an ethical value in so far as the child can- 
 not plead that he did not understand the assignment of the next day's 
 lesson. He is required to perform a definite duty in a definite manner. 
 
^imt-m. Hioi 
 
TcpaRY OF^ CONGRESS 
 
 lllliii 
 
 019 738 ^'^ Z