^o^ ^ , ^ ' "A O^ -^ <, jL * , ■ •-^ ^ \^ '>^ " ^^ % %4^ c> & "'■p <. v^ ^ s M ^' v'?^ -' ,^^' "•'^^ ,^^'' 'V; %S^ •V^"^ ^■ .^^ C^ <^r "^ '^- ' O , V -* .0 « * ^^. ,vx^ AGIUCULTUR.U,, GIvjLOGlCVL, A.\D DKSCIUI'TIVE SKETCHES or LOWER iXORTII CAROLINA, AND THE SIMILAR ADJACENT LANDS. B T EDMUND RUFFIN, OF VIRGINIA. \ RALEIGH: PRINTED AT THE INSTITUTION FOR THE DEAF & DUMB & THE BLIND. 1861. 5^' ^\ ^% "^ RALEIGH, November 8, 1860. To His Exccllmaj JoiiN W. Ellis, Governor of North Carolina : Sir ; — The proposition of Mr. Edmund Ruifin, the distinguished Agriculturalist and Authoi', to fuinish a communication upon the iigi'iculture of the eastern counties of this State, will, I hope, be accepted by your Excellency. It will please me especially, if this communication can be pub- lished ia such a form, that it may be regarded as u report for the Agricultural and Geological Siu'vey now in progress. The field of investigation in North Carolina is extremely wide, in consequence of a diversity of interest, climate and soil. Aid, therefore, from any quarter is important, especially when proffered by a gentleman of Mr. Ruffin's abilities. The principles of agriculture are the same everywhere in all countiies, — but their application often require special modifica- tions. It is so in this State. The use of our native fertilizers for example, in the vaiious kinds of marls, call lor special rules of application. These are to be found out only by close obser- vation and much experience. An immense saving in money depends upon their proper application, as to time, from composition and the cojidition of the soil to which they are to be applied. Tha subject has been, and is still, receiving all the attention I am able to bestow upon it. We have no tear that we shall receive too much light upon the subject. Agriculture is slow in its advances, and hence, every communication which is calcu- lated to give it an impulse, deserves the patronage of the State. I am, Sir, Your Obedient Serv^ant, E. EmiONS, State Geologist. COITTEN'TS. List of Erral*, ........ vjii Prefiice, ........ jx Part I. — Agricultural Geology ; or Remarhs on the drift-formed and the Denuded regions of the Atlantic slope, - - - - 13 General features of the Atlantic slope of the Southern States, - 13 Rscaivel gaolo^ical dootrinss a? to early graat changes of the earth, by both igne:)us and aqueous agencies. - - - - 17 Denuded and drift-formed sections of the region under notice. These ferms defined — and the natural features described, - - - 20 The ancient and great north-western flood, and its effects, in the operations of denu- dation and drift-formation. Theseoparations traced and evidences adduced, 28 Differences of soils of the two great sections, and the causes thereof. Practi- cal application of the doctrines to the improvement of soils, - - 40 Part II. — AgrictUural Features of Lower North Carolina, and the adjoin- ing territory, ........ ^\ §1. General Remarks. The public but slightly informed of the region in qnestion, and especially with lower North Carolina in general, - 51 52. Peculiar characters of the low-lands, in surface and qualities of soil, 54 §3. Peculiar characters of the rivers, and the many fit for navigation, - 56 §4. General want of drainage, and of proper views on the subject, - - 57 §5. The, true principle of drainage for this region, and the geological facts on which the principle is founded, - - - - - 59 §5. The underlying sand-bed, and its opposite operations in regard to draining, 62 §7. The usual and general plan of draining, and its radical defects, - 68 §3. Evidences or illustrations of the existing injuries from superfluous water, and of the proper means for relief, - - - - 71 §9. The upper beds always permeable, if drained, - - - 73 §10. Examples of the effects of the true principles of drainage, in both artificial and natural operations, - - - - - 74 §11. Draining vertically by bore-holes, - - ... ^g §12. The presence of quick-sand, both as an impediment or an aid to effectual draining, *"*---- 76 §13. Tests by which to judge, in advance of the expediency, or the success, of desired draining operations — and •llustrations of effects, - - 78 §14. Some of t'ae farming practices of the low-lands— Defect3 and proposed im- provements—Rotations of crops— Pea-fallow— narrow and broad-bed tillage, 83 VI CONTENTS. PosTCRiPT. — Linds on the Chowan and Roanoke, - • - 97 Addendum. — A new flan for ploughincj flat land in aid of drainage, - 101 Part III. — Observations on the features and changes of the Ocean sand-reef, and the enclosed navigahle waters of North Carolina, - - 113 §1. General remark.s on the sand-reef, its inlets and their changes, and their operations on the enclosed waters, - - - - - 113 §3. The deep harbor of Beaufort inaccessible from the back country. New facilities for reaching it in progress, or proposed, - - - 117 §3. The proposed canal through the reef at Nagshead. Former closing of the reef, particularly at Currituck Inlet, and the risult on the interior waters, 119 §4. The sand-reef considered as land or soil — and the several kinds. The islands of the Sounds, - - - - - - -122 §5. Grazing and rearing of live-stock. The wild horses — their qualities and habits — and the " horse-pennings." . - - . . 130 §6. Supposed geological position of the sand-reef, and the Sounds. Ancient sand-hills serving to form barren soils on the main land, - - 133 §7. Artificial outlet for the navigation of the sounds through the Dismal Swamp canal. Improvement to hea'th by raising the water level of Da^p C.'eeA, 137 §8. The Albemarle and Chesapeake Ship Canal in progress of construction, and its great importance to agricultural and commercial interests, - - 140 §9. Novel and ri' 'ic' read ail. 16, foi.' 'loA^er' read hrger. 2i, fjr ' even' rea i over. 7, fjr 'such' fdid fi.to'i. 22, for 'There' read Tiese. 16, for 'loDse' read lose. 25, for 'impDssible' read im- 2 45 45 4J 5J 52 5} passable. 57 " 21, for 'banks and' read 6)-aJic/ie.s of. .07 " 23, for *or' read of. CO " 2, for 'such' read in-ic\. 62 " 10, for'drnuth' readi-oitjiL 62 " 31, f.)' 'im.Jortani, it" read imr>ortant. It. 63 " 9, for ']ow-laads,but,' read low-land'i. But. »i6 " 13, for 'low' read close. 18, for 'ever' read eye/i. 3), for ' rivers 's' read river's, '■i, for 'draining' r. drawing. 3, for 'summer ; while' read W^iile. 17, for 'But Core' read But, 6-i " 75 " 77 " 79 " 83 " summsr. 116 " as Core 119 " 124 " 126 129 130 132 134 134 137 138 \3i 141 143 5, for 'creek' read creeks. " 26, for 'preceding' recerfin.g'. " 36, for 'course' read coarse. " 24, for rotted' read unrolled. " 6, for 'getting' r. gathering. " 35, for 'seldom' r. co aid not " 24, for 'effects' read effect. " 33 &34,f. 'extreme' extensive. " 14, for 'from' read /or. " 10, for 'sickness' r. sickliness. " 16, after 'the' insert previous. " 35 & 36, for 'loose' read lose. " 2, for'Frofitable'r Pro6a&/€. 144 " 2G, after 'beam' ins. being. 147 " 14, for 'captan'read cjpstan. 1 8 " 27, for 'loose' read lose. 151 " IJ. for 'loose' read lose. 153 " 24, far 'knot' read kind. 165 " 13, after 'are' insert not. 161 " IJ, ?lter 'siipp.ias' insert ctoiin^ qu )tation (") for the preced- inr passage. 16.) ioAfest line, for 'tempature' read tein;)'irature. 171 " 35, for 'This' read Tkus. 172 " 17, for 'on' read or. ]78 *' 19, for 'mantle' read man/e^ 181 '• 15, for 'ieval' read level 182 " 8, after 'both of ' omit cated in Part 11, of these Reports,) of mo.st of the other and firnj, Jaad, which in common parlance is designated as dry, but of which, but little in this low-land region i« ever really dry, except during summer and autumn droughts, when their dryness is, indeed, often in full proportion tO: their excess of wetness during winter and spring. 3rd. — The proper use of marl, from the very extensive, rich','^u>i i;i uMny cases very accessible beds which underlie so much of this, great region — or, otherwise, of lime brought to places where marl is not a.v,ailable. On this head, but little will be said in the following ar,tiQl8s, because the writer has heretofore published so much on the subject of improvement of soils by calcareous manures, all of which is applicable- to lower North Caro- lina as to lower Virginia, for which his reasouiy-g and instructions were first designed. The several articles which will here appear, under one general title, and as a series, were at first written as separate reports,, on dilferent subjects. — Each one is sufficiently distinct in subject and ti;^atnient to be read alonct Still the series will be required for consideration of the general subject of the natural features and agricultural resources- of lowcj North Carolina. E. R^ Virginia, Oct., 1860. SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, & C. AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY j OR REMARKS ON THE DRIFT- F0R3IED AND THE DENUDED REGIONS OF THE ATLANTIC SLOPE. Theoughout the Atlantic scope of the United States, from Geor- gia to New York, inclusive, at greater or less distance from the sea shore, a continuous elevation of granite rock forms the long western boundary line and higher border of the lower lands. — The same rock, rising to Tarious higher elevations, and in vari- ous conditions of texture, or of progressing disintegration, is seen often at the surface, or at intervals, for many miles more west- ward. The eastern border of the granite, though mostly hid- den by the overlying earth, is exposed to view in all the beds of the rivers, (and in many of the smaller streams,) and serves to constitute the very distinct and high barrier of stone which ^lalies the eastern or lower falls of all the rivers which flow into or toward the Atlantic ocean. Between these most eastern falls and the ocean, the rivers have but slight rates of descent, and therefore are of moderate velocity, and of smooth and placid surface. The flow of the ocean tides, (unless where ob- structed by obvious causes,) generally extend through the whole or a large portion of the sjtace between the ocean and the east- ^xn falls of the rivers, (or the first visible granite). Hence the great ai'ea, lying between these boundaries, is generally distin- gi^ftbed as the " tide water" region, and that term will be thus Ul^d here,, for designation, and in conformity with established 14 AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY. usage. But the term is not accurate, or descriptive even for all of eastern Virginia ; and still less for tlie like territory much farther jSTorth and South, In the Hudson river of New York, the tide flows through and westward of the eastern granite — and in south eastern Virginia, and all further southward, the flow of tide does not nearly approach the granite falls. The most northern rivers of this last description, are those discharged into Albemarle Sound, in North Carolina, from which the entrance of ocean or tide-water is excluded by the long sand bank, or reef, along all that coast, which serves as a barrier. Farther south- ward, in South Carolina and Georgia, the greater length of the rivers east of the falls, and the greater rate of their descent, pre- vent the tides rising to the falls, or approaching within many miles of them. "With this explanation and admission of inaccu- racy, must be understood the ordinary term of the " tide-water region," as including all the space between the ocean and the most eastern falls of the river. The granite range or falls, the line of which marks the west- ern boundary of this great area, is nearer to the sea-shore at the north, and diverges therefrom, more and more towards the south. My personal observations of this region have been made princi- pally in Virginia, and with less opportunity for examination, in Maryland, North Carolina and South Carolina. Similar char- acteristics as to the more northern and southern States, are in- ferred merely from general report of their topography, and other features. Many years ago, when my personal observations on this sub- ject had been altogether confined within even smaller limits than their later and still very narrow extent, I was forcibly imjDressed by what seem^ed to be peculiar and remarkable characteristics of this region, in the configuration of the surface, and the qualities of the soils — and in the supposed great uniformity of general character, (notwithstanding many variations in particulars,) throughout the whole extent, so far as known. The supposed pe- culiar qualities were studied, so far as my very deficient means permitted, for the purpose of learning thence how to improve and enrich the soil of this great and generally poor region. A young and busily occupied farmer, as I was, almost confined to my farm SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. 15 audits labors, and 'vitlioiit any pvevious knowledge cif the scien- ces necessary for sucli invcs*^igations, it necessarily followed that the results of my enquiries were but small, compared to what might have been obtained by one properly prepared — who, to a competent knowledge of practical agriculture, could have brought to bear on such investigations, the important lights of Botany, Chemistry, Mineralogy and Geology, It is unfortunate for the improvement of agriculture that, almost without exception, the men who have successfully cultivated these scientific pursuits, are as little acquainted with agriculture, as nearly all practical farm- ers are with the sciences just named, the knowledge of which would so greatly aid the study and improvement of practical agriculture. Until some investigator shall bring both the kinds of knowledge required for snch subjects, great deficiencies in all must be expected, and be overlooked and excused. Such allow- ances, so much needed for all mere scientific investigators and teachers of Agriculture, I trust may not be denied to me, when attempting, as I shall do, to derive something from the lights of science, to aid agricultural researches, and for practical appli- cation. The peculiarities of the tide-water regions, which might strike any cursory observer, are these : 1. — Hilly or irregular as many parts are, the general surfaee of the highest lands, present the numerous points in a very regu- lar plane, gradually declini)ig in elevation from the higher surfa- ces at and above the falls, towards the sea shore. In and to vari- ous depths below this supposed inclined plane, have been grooved or excavated, the numerous valleys and ravines. ^ 2. — The soils are mostly light ; but whether light, and of loose or open texture, or close and stitf, are, to a very great extent, com- posed of silicious sand — coarser in the open, and very fine in the stifl:' soils. 3. — There is no fixed or extensive rock, or beds of stone, unless of recent formation — but few pebbles, and none over the lower and larger exteiit of surface. 4. — With all variations of texture and of exposure of soils, there is much uniforiTiity of character — and especially in the natural poverty of the lands generally. l(i .4(;UICULTURAL GEOLOdY. To these more oljvious general characteristics!, (the few exceip'- tioiis to which will be passed by for the present,) I have former- ly added some others, as deductions from reasoning or experience. Among these were the following : 5, — The naturally poor lands of this region, are incapable of being considerably and durably enriched by putrescent or organic manures alone. 6. — Such soils are greatly deficient in lime, and much more so than soils generallj^ in the higher country. 7. — The proper application of lime, in every case, will be great- ly beneficial and improving to the soil, and also will serve to make the subsequent use of putrescent manures of much more durable effect. 8. — Gypsum, as manure, was of no effect on these poor lands, before their being well and sufficiently limed ; and generally was* efficacious, on leguminous crops afterwards, probably in every ca-e of full previous and needed effect of the lime, on both soil and sub-soil. These hitter positions, with others, were maintained in my " Essay on Calcareous Manures," and therefore will not be discus- sed again here, but assumed as established and understood. Ill all these respects, and as to every natural and artificial qua- lity named, the lands lying higher than, or westward of, the falls, (termed in Virginia, the Piedmont region,) are different, and, in some of the points, of entirely opposite character. They have no such uniformity of surface, or of constitution of soil- They were much richer naturally, and are generally capable of being much and profitably improved by putrescent manures. Lime, as ma- nure, has rarel}^ had there any appreciable effect, while gypsum is generally beneficial as manure. As in the other case (of the tide-water lands,) it is designed here to state general rules and facts, and not to stop to note and explain (or to attempt to ex- plain all) exceptional soils and cases, whether really or apparent- ly oidy in contradiction. Whether the interesting facts of cases s J oj)posed. can be accounted for satisfactorily, may well be doubt- ed. But it is certain that the manner of the geological formation of the soils and sub-soils ot these two neighboring regions was entirely different : and in tracingthese differences of origin, much' SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &.C. 17 light may be thrown on the existing differences of physical struc- ture, and chemical constitution of the soils of the different regions; and possibly such imperfect lights may guide future and better prepared inquirers to more useful results. I will now endeavor to trace the former great operations of nature, in producing changes, and bringing about the very different existing conditions of these different regions, and thence attempt to deduce their dif- ferent agricultural capabilities. The investigations of Geologists, extended more or less through all the well-known portions of the globe, have served to discover and establish certain great fundamental truths, as to the changes which the earth has undergone since its creation, or its oldest as- certained condition. These doctrines are now of universal accep- tation. Therefore, in taking them as bases on which to found my observations and reasoning, it will only be necessary for me to refer to these recognized truths, and assume them as unques- tionable premises — and not to argue for their correctness, or to enter into their details. But, speaking as a mere agriculturist, having but little pretensions to science, and addressing hearers of my own class, and not generally better instructed, it will be pro- per and excusable to be somewhat more explanatory than would otherwise be necessary. When assuming as premises the admit- ted truths of Greology, I merely use the lights of others, now common to all learners. But in making deductions from these borrowed premises, and especially in applying them to the circum- stances and character of the region in question, the observations and the reasoning will be my own, and consequently, the errors and the responsibility. From the more recent and universally admitted doctrines of Ge- ology, we learn that the oldest (or first existing) known material of the globe is granite, which, in its original place, or position, is the lowest rock from the present surface of the earth, and is sup- posed to constitute the interior part, and the far greater bulk of the whole globe. The first great agent of change, or of forma- tion of the entire globe, was fire or intense heat ; and the early condition of all the parts was that of fusion, or fluidity produced by intense heat. Of this agency and this origin, the interior and 3 18 AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY. older rocks, and the granite in general, oft'er abundant evidences In after ages, when the outer part of the globe had cooled down to solidity, and water had been deposited in full quantity, aque- ous agencies succeeded to the previous igneous, and thereafter most of the changes in the upper beds, or what is termed the "crust" of the globe, were thus produced. Kext followed upon the outer and exposed portions of the globe, the various results of the action of water, when in motion, and also when more or less tranquil, and whether as rain or ice, and in seas and lakes, rivers and rivulets, or in violent and transient torrents and inundations. These agencies were sufficient to pro duce all the eflects ascribed to them, great and marvelous as they are. The highest pinnacles of mountains, (previously raised by igneous or volcanic action,) were gradually disintegrated and washed down, and the ruins thereof, suspended ii], or rolled by moving waters, were deposited in, and lilled the lowest depths of the ocean, as well as others on the lands — and thus in a sufficient time, of unknown and inconceivable duration, the whole surface and outside material of the globe were changed mainly by aque- ous abrasion, removal, transportation, and the mingling and final re-deposition of the parts. The whole of the successive and connected deposits of such earthy matters, by one of these great operations, though sub-divided into ditFerent varieties, or beds, are considered as one "formation," and possess peculiar chaiac- teristics, distinguishing it from all other formations. All of the many successive formations, and indeed of the several sub-divi- sions of each, except a few of the oldest, or the primitive rocks (of igneous origin,) have fossil remains of animals and vegetables proving conclusively that species entirely different occupied the surface of the earth and its waters, during the deposition of each, such great formation. Also, between the several difierent, but next /idjaceut sub-divisions ot each formation, ihere are such gen- eral/changes and substitutions (though not universal,) of animal life, as to show that the conditions necessary to sustain life were greatly varied, with every such minor change of the earth's sur- face. Thus many races and kinds of living beings have success- ively been created, occupied the earth and its waters, and then. SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. 19 perished — eacli of such races having been incapable of existing in the very different conditions of either the next preced- ing, or the next succeeding period, of the earth's many great changes. Thus, in succession, and in uniform order of time and position, throughout the known workl, have been produced, as secondary and hiter acts of construction and creation by the All-wise and All-benevolent God, all of the many successive formations, and their several sub-divisions of strata, and the different races and numerous species of animals that successively inhabited each. — • In some parts of the world, certain rocks, or strata, or in some cases even whole formations, are wanting. But of such beds or rocks as are present in any one locality, the order of succession in which they occur, is always the same as of the similar beds and rocks found in any other part of the world. "While these sundry formations were successively in progress, by aqueous action and sedimentary deposition of transported ma- terials, the igneous action was still powerful, and unceasing in operation, though irregular and long remitting in numerous lo- calities—and the effects were of the greatest magnitude and im- portance. During all the successive periods of aqueous forma- tions, internal heat and volcanic forces operated to upheave and lift, to greater elevations, the solid rocks of the overlying forma- tions, (the former soft and loose sedimentary deposits, solidified to stone by time and pressure) — in some cases leaving the upheav- ed strata nearly horizontal, and in others, and more generally, raising them greatly on one side, and depressing them on the other. In this manner, the mountain ranges of greatest extent and height were upheaved, from beneath the former ocean, and the previously lower beds, or formations, raised and protruded through the former upper and horizontal strata of sedimentary deposition. And the separated edges of the ruptured strata were thus lifted, so as to be greatly inclined, or in some cases, the stra- ta placed nearly or quite perpendicular to their original horizon- tal position. Such effects, however separated by time, and wheth- er of slow and gradual, or in part of rapid production, have been extended through vast spaces, and at different times, have 20 AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY. distinctly marked and changed every known part of the surface of the globe, except in the very recent deposits In most cases the lower strata have been raised and thrust upward in their solid form, and remain unchanged, except in their new position and inclination. In other cases, the granite, ±rom beneath all the later formed and stratified rocks, has been forced through them, (by volcanic action) in a softened or molten and fluid state, raised above what were previously the highest and newest deposits, and so is left on the surface of the latest sedimentary strata. Thus, by the great and extended effects of internal igneous and volcanic agencies, the before nearly horizontal stratified rocks and beds were all broken through and raised, and inclined, so that the broken and raised edges of all the strata were brought somewhere to the new surface of the earth, and so are exposed to view and examination. Such is the usual present condition of all regions composed of any of the older formations, or indeed of any other than of the latest, and very recent, not yet much altered in position, since their being originally deposited as sediment. Tlie greatest and most numeious of these effects are of antiquity far beyond, not only the traditions, but even the existence of man- kind. But, even if the remaining present appearances did not fully prove and explain the greatest and oldest of these volcanic changes, and upheavals of portions of the earth, there have been enough of such operations and effects, both of upheaval and of sub- sidence, for examples and proofs, which have occurred within the time of reliable history, and even within very recent times. Every locality of primitive, or of the early formations, exhibits either manifest effer-ts of ancient igneous action, or of subsequent upheav- als, which have thrown all the stratified rocks into more or less in- clined or other changed and irregular positions. From these general and received geological doctiines, I will pro- ceed to remark upon the actual and observed Geological features of the country next adjoining to, and both vv^estward and east- ward of the granite falls of the rivers flowing into the Atlantic ocean. Though the eastern falls of the rivers have been lieretofore sup- posed to make the line of separation between two very different SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &.C. 21 agiicultural regions, (the differences of which liave been adverted to above, and some of whicli are generally recognized by even slight observers — ) and though this belief is not far wrong, still it is not entirely con-ect, The true line of division, as I now believe, between these regions of very different agricultural characters, is one of irregular and varying course, lying w'estward from, and something like parallel to, and not far distant from the other line so distinctly marked by the eastern falls of the Atlantic rivers. — This supposed line of division has not been fixed by actual observa- tion at more than a few precise points. It may, however, be easily determined by observation, at any part of its course. And when ascertained throughout, this line, separating, (as now inferred) sur- faces and regions of different agricultural characters, will be found to be identical with the line separating the higher and denuded re- gion, from the adjacent and lower region covered by the deposited sediment or drift of materials washed and transported from the higher levels. These terms and agencies as here applied, will pre- sently be explained, and reasons stated for the supposed operations. And iQ advance of more full explanation and description, (and even of knowing the actual locality of the dividing line in question,) for convenience of reference and distinction, I will call the upper or north-western, the denuded region, and the adjoining lower or south-eastern, the drift region.* The precise line of separa- *This application of the term "drift," is without scientific authority, and therefore would be pronounced illegitimate and improper. It is admitted, (as I believe,) that no geologist who has viewed or written upon this tide-water region, has deemed it of drift formation — and Professor Emmons, the present Geological Surveyor of North Carolina has expressly stated, (in his first Report,) that " there is not a boulder or a drift bed in North Carolina. The masses that have been moved in this and other Southern States, have been by means of rivers and oceanic waves — those means which exist now, and are in operation under our eyes." — (p. 101). The first designation for, and the manner of, the formation of the tide-water region, received and understood by geologists, was that of "alluvial." The formation has also been ascribed to earth being thrown up by the waves and action of the ocean, and the land being thus formed by materials moved from the former bottom of the ocean. Vfhilc, indeed, both these modes of formation were, and are still, in operation for jiarticular and very narrow spaces, and with very different results, it is manifestly incorrect, and even absitrd, to assume either or both of these operations as the producing causes of much the greater part of the tide-water region. The upper beds of the great region in qu-sJ,ion, have also been referred to by geologists as "sedimentary beds," and tertiary bads." These terms are far from being exact, or even loosely descriptive. The nuder-lying marl beds (of entirely different ori- 22 AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY. ration between the " denuded" and the " drift" regions, may be fixed by any careful observer, for any locality, by noting the incli- nation, &c., of tiie strata of earth, where exposed in deep excava- tions, or high and steep river bluffs. A well marked point of sepa- ration is where the Ricliinond and Danville railway crosses the Ap- pomatox river. Eastward, and below that point, the strata are ho- rizontfd, or nearly so, and present the nsual evidences of the mate- rials having been transported and deposited by aqueous action. — On the -westward, the strata are variously contorted and greatly inclined, sho ing changes produced by igneous action. The unde- termined line separating these regions, from within Maryland to North Carolina, varies from 5 to more than 25 miles above the line of the falls — and seems generally to diverge more and more from the falls, as proceeding southward. The western limits of this ''denuded" region are still more uncertain; and therefore I will not include in my remarks, or the api)lication of ray reasoning, the range of the southwest mountains, or their eastern slopes. — With such entire absence of designated western boundaries, so much of the great " denuded" region as will be here under consid- eration, lies wholly in, and includes much the largest portion of the space between the falls of the rivers and the Blue Ridge moun- tains, which space, in Yirginia, is known as the Piedmont region. The drift region includes the whole of the (so-called) tide-water district, and also the next adjacent (and undetermined) narrow strip of the Piedmont district. The whole portion nnder consideration of what is here termed the denuded region, with some partial exceptions of later origin, is of igneous formation or alteration, as exhibited at and near the present surface. Granite, either in boulders, and water-borne from hiMier surfaces, or in places where upheaved from below, by igne- ous force, is the prevailing rock, and is to be seen in various stages gin,) belong to the tertiary formation, and from them have been taken that name to be applied to the much more recent beds lying above. These recent beds are certainly of " sedimentary" formation ; but so are much the greater number of all the different beds, and even of the more ancient rocks, (all of aqueous origin) to the greatest depths known. My application of the term "drift," if illegitimate, or without scientific sanc- tion, will at least, (as here used and defined) bo clear and precise. If the thing meant ia understood, the name for it is of little importano*. SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. 23 of disintegration. The strata of all kinds of visible rocks — or of earthy strata, obviously formed by the decomposition of rocks — are greatly inclined — and in some cases, as contorted and irregular as if they had been ])ressed ujnvard when the material was so heated as to be in a semi-fluid state. There is every appearance of all the visible stratified rocks having been so pressed upward, and tilted so that all were brought obliquely to the sm-face, and their edges there exposed to all tlie disintegrating, ti-anspoi'ting and commingling agencies of the atmosphere and its changes of temperature, and of "water, w'hether of rains or of floods. Here, as else wh ye, such agen- cies and influences, operating on such materials and subjects, have served to reduce solid rocks more or less to pebbles, guivel, sand and clay — and thus, by mixture of these materials wdtli 'ime, magnesia, potash, phosphates, etc., (derived in small quantities from sundry compound igneous rocks,) and with organic nmtter, have been pro- duced all the various existing surface soils. Throughout all the tide-water region, (i.e. below the fails of the rivers,) at intervals of greater or less extent, and at gi-eater or less depths below the present surface of the earth, there are to be found beds ot what is improperly termed " marl," which were manifestly formed, during long successions of ages on the bottou) of the then ocean, partly by continued earthy sediment, and partly by the gradual deposition of the shells of the numerous shell-fish, which lived and died there, and which were of species and of races which are now either generally or wholly extinct. No transient flood or current, however violent, can be supposed to have removed these shells from a distant ocean bottom to their present positions, which are generally elevated far above the level of the surtace of the ocean, and very much more above its bottom. Many of these shells are manifestly in the places wdiere the inhabiting animals died. — Some, in their present uniform position, even indicate the habits of the former living animals, agreeing w'ith others of the saine genus, (though of different species) now in existence. From tliese and other satistactor}^ evidences, which are not required to ht adduced here, it is certain that these shells, where mostly whole, are now in what were their native beds. And hence it follows, that the much higher present elevation of these remains, and their entire beds, must have been produced by upheavtil from their former lower po- 24 AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY. sition. The beds of shells, which afford this ample proof, are now unbroken by the upheaving force, and are little inclined, or remain nearly horizontal, as seen at any one locality^ and for so mnch space as can be included in one view. But still there is a slight and irre- gular dip of the original beds toward the Enst and South; and in addition, there is a declining of the plane of the present surface of the marl strata, caused by the early denuding agency which will be explained, and which occurred before this new denuded surface of the marl was again covered by other drift earth, transported from the higher country. There is rarely seen exposed an}^ different stratum below the lowest marine shells. When such inferior beds have been reached, in excavating marl, they have not been careful- ly noticed, because no importance was attached to thoir difference of origin. The eocene marl, (or oldest tertiary) on the Pamunkey river, where rising highest in level, (not far below the falls) permits the underlying bed to be seen, it consisted df rounded (or wa- ter-worn,) hard silicious pebbles, imbedded in gravel and sand, and showing no appearance of marine remains, or origin. It seem- ed to my cursury and then careless observation, to be what I would now deem a formation by ancient drift, older, of course, than this oldest of the tertiary marls, and of materials transported from a far distant and much more elevated locality. In the recent excavation for a new street in Richmond, (on Coun- cil Chamber Hill, nearly as high as the site of the Capitol,) the miocene tertiary was exposed, in numerous and perfect casts or im- pressions of shells — though nothing of the shells, nor even any of their calcareous matter remains. This uncommon elevation shows that the original sea-bottom has been raised more than 150 feet per- pendicular above the present ocean surface, to the present elevation. If any observer, having the opportunity, would notice the digging of a well through this miocene bed in Richmond, the lowest depth of the bed could be ascertained, and also what is the character, and tlie geological origin of the underlying bed. The marl beds, (or their now existing remains,) rarely extend quite as far westward as the present falls of the rivers. Near Pe- tersburg and the Appomattox, onlj- , is marl found extending some two miles above the lower falls. Tiierefore, as the position of the marine remains must fix the former extent of the ocean-bottom, we SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. 26 must infer that the former shore of the ocean was nearly identical with the line of the present falls of the rivers. When the granite of the falls, and of the higher country was upheaved, the widely extended movement also raised the neighboring ocean bottom, and laid it bare, throwing back the new shore far eastward of the line of the former shore. This then new land, the raised bottom of the ocean, and largely composed of marine relics, was but slightly al- tered from its previous slope or level, and then became the general new and dry surface, extending from the line of the falls to the then removed sea-shore. This new sea shore was somewhere midway between the falls, and the present ocean beach, which is still farther removed, by the subsequent deposition of drift materials.* * Borings for designed Artesian wells have been made (though all were interrupted before completion,) at three different localities, Norfolk, Edonton, and Fortress Monroe, of the low lands, and near the present deep waters. Of the boring at Norfolk, I haro learned nothing more than that shell marl, (or a bed containing fossil sea-shells,) was first reached at the depth of about 40 feet. In this connection it may be mentioned that no well in Northampton county, (on the Atlantic, and eastward of the Chesapeeke,) has touched the marl formation — and some of these wells were dug forty feet deep. The boring at Edenton was executed by the direction, and at the expense of Messrs. J. B. Skinner and J. C. Johnson— the former of whom furnished the following notes to Profea- Bor Mitchell, who first published them : ORDER AND THICKNESS OF STRATA WNDER EDENTON, ON ALBEMARLE SOUND. Separate Strata, Total Sand, from surface to depth of 8 feet 8 Sand of different kind, 5i m Clay 6i 19 Vegetable matter. [Qu. Peat' or Marsh grass ?] 3 22 Sand, 4i 26i Blue Clay, 2i 29 Vegetable Matter, 4 33 Quick-sand, 9 42 Gravel, Oi 42i Clay, ^ 47 Sand and Marino Shells, n' -s tS m" 64i Shell rock, Sand and Marine Shells, 2 21 c3 O "3 XI 78i Clay and Shells, Sand and Shells, 68i 3 . o 1 o a o c2 146 147i Clay and Shells, Sand and Marine Substances, 35 3 J a O o -*• OS CO I-( 182i 185i Quick-sand. 2i 188 Clay, 2 190 "Left off in the clay, the depth of which is unknown. The shells brought up from 1 4 2ti AGKICULTUKAL GEOLOGi". All soils M'ere originally formed by tlie disintegration or decom- position of tlie different rocks. In the condition of things above supposed, each rock, or bed, of the Geological formation, thus ex- posed in succession, in the liigher country, would be acted on by atmospherical influences and their changes, &c., according to tlie fitness of the several rocks to be so acted on, each, or its exposed surface, would be gradually converted to earth or soil. And if there were no transporting agencies, to^emo^e and mingle these separate earths, or soils, each one would continue to be of the same chemical constitution with its parent rocks, until new causes came into operation, to produce mixtures and changes. In such cases, of isolated earths, the sandstones would, b}'- disintegration only, be- feet reBcmble exactly, those found elsewhere at the surface/' [i.e. in out-croppingsof marl, and of the miocene era, as presumed.] The boring at Fortress Monroe (Old Point Comfort,) was noted more carefully in a re- cord of the operations, which I was permitted to sec in the Engineer's office, and to ab- stract from it the following notes. Also, specimens of all the various beds, (and of each day's boring,) hove been carefully preserved there, nailed up in boxes, which there was not time or opportunity for me to examine throughout. A few of the upper specimens of the shelly earth, showed it to be sandy and poor shell-marl, of the miocene age. It is intended that the boring operations, suspended at the depth of 312 feet, shall be again rosumod, and continued as deep as may be necessary to obtain water. STRATA PASSED THROUGH BY THE From Surface, Marsh soil, Then, fine dark sand, clean. Angular and light colored sand, containing coarser sand and rounded pebbles, andmud, 1NA, AC. ij I time indicated by the geological facts observed, the ocean extended as far westward as the line of the present granite falls, and was of sufficient depth for the production, and successive Hving and dying of the shell-tish, whose remaining shells and fragments constituted the beds of the now remaining marl. Subsequently this area of tertiary formation, on its western side, was, by volcanic force, up- heaved high above the surface of the ocean, and less and less so to- ward the east, if the eastern side (of former ocean bottom,) was not actually depressed. (Near the present sea-coast the marl lies much lower than the level of the ocean ; at Norfolk, as much as 40 feet). Next, of this new raised surface of marl, where highest or otherwise most exposed, the ujiper portion was w^ashed oft by the violent cur- rent of the flood from the north-west ; and the removed material of shells was again deposited either at short distances, and in new layers of marl, composed of the rubl)ish and small fragments of shells-^or, otherwase, much of the more reduced and lighter calca- careous matter w^as floated far into the ocean, and lost. Next, by the first abating of the violence of the flood, its currents ceased to denude the lower and flatter surface of the now tide-water region, and then the flood began to leave thereon the earth torn from the higher country. To trace the operation of the great flood, and the depositing its burden of drift stony and earthy matter, we have only to consider the enormous volume and power of the water, the general direc- tion, and also the many variations of the currents, and then look to the existing condition of the drift region or the results, and also or the explanation of many (at first) embarrassing diflficulties in particular facts and matters of observation. Whatever w^as the cause or source, and also the duiation of so mighty a flood, the violence of the current must have varied much at different times, and under changing conditions, so as to produce various effects, both in removing and depositing the materials of drift. At first, and when the current was most rapid, and its vo- lume greatest, nearly its whole operation was denuding, or remov- ing earth and stone, and below as well as above the present falls. As the first, and greatest violence of the flood moderated, it began 32 AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGT. and continued to drop the transported matters on all the more east- ern surface — and also to extend that surface more and more into and above the ocean, and making more and more of what is now the low-land, bordering on the present ocean beach. There was not only the general and gradual lessening of the volume and violence of the flood, serving generally to change the manner and kinds of its deposited earth, but also many changes of the direction and force of particular currents, producing at particular places succes- sive and many changes of their power and eflects. Thus, at one place, the covering water was at some times a violent and denud- ing current, and at other times comparatively tranquil, or eddying. And such fluctuations might return and be re-produced along the same course, as obstructions of hills, or high shoals, in the upper country served to direct and divert the currents, or as the subse- quent removal (by washing away) of such obstacles, allowed the current to take a new direction and shorter course, and with re- newed violence, to the ocean, and its former channel to be filled by comparatively tranquil water, and raised by its deposited sediment. The channel or passage-way of each of these particular and tem- porary currents, in the now drift region, would, for the time be deepened, by washing away the still soft and loose deposit of the then very recent soft sediment. In these deepened channels of the more rapid currents, the heaviest drift materials only could be left — either large or small pebbles, gravel or coarse sand, according to the then burden and action of the current — while in the more tranquil water, close on each side, the finer suspended earth only would be let fall, and there raise the bottom by the accumulation, even while the strong current alongside might be still deepening . its channel, and bearing off" the removed earth. Then, as the di- rection and positions of particular currents would be changed, the channels previously cut out, and then covered by more tranquil water, would be filled with the finer and lighter suspended earth — and the new currents would cut new and deep channels through the previously formed shoals, sweeping the fine drift much farther* or even into the ocean, and dropping into the new deep channels the drifted stones, or other materials too heavy to be carried far- \ f SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. 33 tlier by the slackening force of the water. While the great flood, yet covered deeply the whole land, both of the now denuded and tlie drift regions, of course the general operation of the water would be to drop the heaviest of the transported earth first, and the lightest, last — as large stones, smaller pebbles, gravel, coarse and fine sand, clay and lime, in succession. But this general manner of operation would be altered on almost every locality, by the changes of direction of the minor currents, and their cutting new channels in the previously deposited drift, and filling old channels. Thus, it would necessarily happen, (as may be seen in mimerous exposures,) that an inferior stratum of fine and light drift material was sometimes overlaid by another of much heavier parts — as sand, or gravel, and even large pebbles lying over a bed of clay, or clayey sand. So far, the great flood, however abated in depth and power, has been considered as still covering the whole area of the now drift region. But later, as the water still diminished, its flow would be contracted to the last made channels of the latest partial currents — and the broader hitervals between these channels would be gradu- ally left bare, and Ije no longer subject to changes, either in losses by secondary denudation, or of gains by accession of drift. These high interval lands are now the highest ridge or table land of the drift region — of which the plane of their general outline and high- est surface, is remarkably even, and nearly horizontal — but gradu- ally and regularly dipping from the height above the falls of the rivers to the sea shore. The water, now confined to the channels of the last formed currents, within these passages still had great force, which was in part exerted in continuing to deepen the then channels. But the borders of these passage-ways would necessari- ly be higher, and the covering water, shallow and more trancjuil ; and on such places, the stiller water would begin to deposit its finer and richer suspended earth, while, where deep and swift, in the middle of the current, it would be still cutting its channel deeper, (into the previously deposited drift,) and bearing off the loosened earth to- wards the ocean. The water, continuing to decrease in volume, would next be drawn within narrow^er limits of breadth, and thus. 34 AGKICULTUliAL GEOLOGY. leave bare the outer and higher margins, after having previously covered these also with a deposit of tlie lighter and richer eaith. — This process would continue to be repeated, until the flood entirely subsided. Tlien the latest and deepest cut channels, for the latest currents, would be left bare, and to serve as broad bottoms through which the present rivers flow, in meandering beds. Instead of pursuing and describing the sv.pposed progress of these changes, I w^ill refer to existing facts of the drift region, open to present observation, and will concisely indicate the conformity of these facts with the supposed causes, as above presented. 1. — All the rivers, and also the estuaries and bays, which empty through the tide-water region, from New York to Georgia, have their general courses directing between south and w^est, and most- ly nearer to the middle between these points than "to either extreme. Such, or as nearly as could be, must have been the directions of the various se})arate currents of tlie great flood, which marked and excavated the bottoms through which these rivers and estuaries flow. 2. — The number and close vicinity of many of these rivers, and also the depths and widths of their channels or beds, have no rela- tion or proportion to the amount of water now requiring channels for their discharge. This last fact, if considered without reference to the cause here supposed, would be a geogi'aphical puzzle. It would be incomprehensible, for example, why four great channels should have been provided, and so near together, for the lower wa- ters of the Potomac, Rappahannock, York and James rivers. Still more incomprehensible would it be, why the five hirge rivers (or rather estuaries) w^hich empty into the north side of Albemarle Sound, should exist, and in so small a space, and their head-springs so near together, nearly all rising in the Dismal Sw^amp, when all their very scant supplies of w^ater would have ample room for pas- sage through the smallest of these sundry channels. Of these ri- vers, the Chowan only receives, from the small head tributaries (the Mehemn, Nottow^ay and Blac^kw^ater,) a moderate supply of water from the land, but not enough to need for passage-way, one-twentieth part of the broad Chowan, five miles wide near its moiitii. Yet SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, A.C. 35 tlio next rivor ('oiiiini>- from the north-west, the groat Roanoke, dis- charges much more water than all the other live rivers, and yet its lower channel is more contracted than the least and shortest of the other rivers. Here, more marked than in other cases, it is seen that the passage-ways of the rivers bear no proportion to the volumes of" water they now convey ; and, therefore, the existing rivers could not have been the agents which cut out their valleys and passage- ways. 8. — Another puzzle would be to discover, what has cut out and shaped the several successive ]:)road and Hat terraces which, on one or both sides, border all our rivers in the drift region, and wdiich are termed " first," " second" and " third low-grounds," when there are so many as three fiats below the highest or table land. — One or more of such terraces are seen on rivers whose highest wa- ters <*au never approach the lowest surface of such land. Moreo- ver, the breadths of these highest fiats are entirely disproportioned to the sizes of their respective rivers, and the amounts of water they convey even at the highest floods. But, narrow as is the Pamunkey, (for example,) and slight the rise of its highest inundations, the size of the ancient current, which cut out this bottom, might, at first, well have required all the very wide space between the first cutting down of the now table land, (thereby shaping the third terrace, or highest " low-ground,") and next, for the lowered and contracted current, the deeper and narrower depression of the second terrace, (usually there from three to five miles broad,) through which broad bottom the present narrow river mtnmders, among smaller spaces of " first low-ground," which latter only is subject to be covered by the highest freshes of the river. 4. — The strata of the drift region are nearly horizontal eveiy- wliere, and usually the divisions between the different strata, as of sand and clay, do not run into each other, by gradual change or in- termixture, but alter sudderdy, and at a well defined line of separ- ation. Each stratum, separately, may exhibit in itself, and in the manner of its deposition, the operation of specific gravity ; that is, in sand and gravel beds especially, the coarser and heavier parts are seen at and near the bottom of the stratum, and the grains are 36 AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY. smaller and lighter as lying nearer to the top. But there is no snch rule as to di lie vent contiguous strata ; and the bed of heavier par- ticles is as often above as below one of much lighter material. For example : near Richmond, along the Mechanicsville road, there is ex- posed to view a high-l3^ing stratum of rounded pebbles, many of large size, compactly imbedded in gravelly sand, resting upon a stratum of clay, and in immediate contact with the clay. At the Tan river landing, at Taul)orough, North Cai'olina, there is a deep gully, perpendicular to the course of the river, which exposes well to view an extensive cross-section of the bank. There a stratum of sand overlies another of clay, the lighter earth, which would be impossible, if both these earths had been suspended together in the same overflowing water, or deposited under the same circumstan- ces. Like examples may be seen in almost every considerable ex- cavation and exposure of difierent strata. And all such facts go to prove that each separate stratvmi, in one locality, was deposited under nearly uniform conditions of the flood, and therefore accord- ing to speciHc gravity. But the changes, from one to another of the strata were caused by changes of the conditions of the flood, and perhaps also by different supplies of drift materials, successive- ly broken down and transported. 5. — Large stones, generally of granite, say fi-(an 100 to 2,000 pounds of weight, tire seen rarely, and only along the mai'gins of rivers, or on their terraces, between the falls and twenty miles be- low. Other rounded or rolled stones, extremely hard, and usually of smoothly worn surfaces, extend still lower down the country, and especially along the rivers. These latter stones lie; mostly in distinct beds, compactly and closely imbedded in gravel and coarse sand ; but in otlier cases, they are thinly scattered. These stones, where washed out l)y the river banks in quantity, have supplied the best nuiterials ior paving the streets of the towns. Rolled pebbles are rarely found, and only of small sizes, lower down the countr}^ ; and at fifty miles below the lalls, scarcely any small pebbles can be seen, and none at one hundred miles, and even gravel is there very rare. Within twenty miles below Augusta, on the Savannah, peb- bles are entirely absent. All these fiicts obviously would be results of SKETCHES OF LOAVER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. 37 tho various operations of the supposed great flood, in tearing up and ])eariiig oti' tJie rocks of the liigiier c(nnitry, rolling and rounding and ifduciug the harder, and grinding to powdei' the softer — and leaving the heaviest remains where the velocity of the current be- gan to slacken, and the lighter in succession, in the farther modera- ted progress of the burdened waters. 0. — While the flood, at its greatest height and power was rolling along and depositing larger or smaller stones and pebbles, the silici- ous sand, derived from the same stony beds and materials, or other- wise washed out and separated from the previous earthy beds, would be borne along in much greater quantity, and successivelv deposited, in the order of the specific gravity of its particles, or as j)ermitted by the abating violence of the flood, when ovei- the n:iost level bottom and nearly reaching to the sea. The gravel and coarse sand would stop first, and in least quantity. Tlie finer sand would be suspended by the water longer, carried farther, and afterwards be deposited, more uniformly, and in greatest quantity, and as one of the earliest deposits there, on the then bottom, near to, or even beyond the previous margin of the ocean — and forming the lower bed of newly deposited earth, spread out by the flood into the ocean, and removing Mill larther eastward its former sliore-line. Thus would be formed the existing lower aa/ul-bcJ, which is general, but very irre-- gular in thickness, and of coarse particles, on the higher parts of the drift region, and the sand becoming finer, and the deposit more thick and imiform, as extending farther from its sources, and dropped by more ti-anquil water, on the lowest and most level bottom. This great, and ncnv underlying bed of pure sand, sloping very gradvuil- ly downw^ard towards the ocean (in the direction of the course of the former flood.) and subsequently covered more or less deeply by the later and usually more clayey deposits, is the great or univer- sal water-bearing under-bed — and which, both when dry at top, or entirely filled and surcharged with water, (derived from a higher level of the sand-bed, in the higher countiy,) has most important relations to the natural wetness and the means for artificial drain-- age of the country. The existence and the remarkable features of this great under-lying sand-bed, are all manifest results of the sup- 38 AGRICULTUEAL GEOLOGY. posed manner of geological formation, by tlio action of a great flood from the north-west — and no satisfactory explanation can be aftbrd- ed in any other hypothesis, or reasoning.* 7. — Besides, in regard to the ronnded stones, which have been carried to varions distances below the falls, the kinds of earth de- posited, and the shape of the present surface of the land, are both much more varitnl in the country next below the falls, than much nearer to the sea. In the Ibrmer, there is no obvious depression of level of the table land. Far back from the tide-water rivers, the interval ridges, or table lands, between them, are generally level, and the depressions and beds of streams are shallow. But within a few miles of the larger rivers, the table land is cut down by nu- merous deep and narrow ravines, obviously formed by the passage of the smaller but yet powerful former currents, though now serv- ing only to convey rivulets. Tlie soils of the higher part of the drift region, next below the falls, are various. The level surface of the high table land, is generally of very fine particles, mostly silici- ous, but of closer texture, and stiller than any other neighboring soil, or than most of true clay soils elsewhere. This fine and stiff sandy soil, was the last deposited at that place, by the then shallow and retreating, aiid nearly tranquil water of the flood, while the deeper and divided currents were still rushing furiously, and deep- -ening the broad bottoms in which the present risers flow. When the last covering waters left the table land, they, in passing off, cut down, through the previously deposited (and yet soft) drift, the most considerable of the deep and narrow ravines just described. But some, and these the steepest ravines, have been opened, or ex- tended, through high ground, in eastern localities within very re- cent times, and under the eyes of pei'sons now living, without the aid of more water than was supplied temporarily by rains. To this cause (and mostly in long passed times) may be ascribed the excavation of all the narrow and deep, and very steep-sided ravines which traverse the highest borders of our tide-water rivers, and « The great importance of understanding the position and operation of this broadly extended under-bed of sand, in aid of drainage, will be again referred to, and more ful- ly treated, in subsequent articles of these Sketches. SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, cVC. '39 empty therein — while the much more extensive and brotider Vcilleys with gently sloping hill-sides were still earlier seooped ont by the later currents ot the great flood, and the sides were subsequently sloped and smoothed over by later opcratious ol' natural causes. But in either case, every valley or ravine was cut down through the previously d<^posited drift, and jnust have exposed, on each side, a section of all the various strata before deposited, iiom the surface of tht' table-land and later deposited drift, to the oldest at the bot- tom of the ravines. The sloping sides of such valleys inust ne- cessarily have soils composed of these several strata intermixed by rains and winds, and subsequently by tillage. Such mixed soils, though far fmm rich, are usually richer than the surface of the table land, with its one general soil of fine and close silicious- sand. The entire mass of earth, of various strata, excavated by the flood — not only from these narrow ravines, and small valleys, but from the broad valley's cut out by the greater currents, and in which the rivers now flow — intermixed, and transported by the later currents, served as materials to be deposited on the succes- sive terraces, or elsewhere to fill depressions. This mixture of various materials, with other and richer matters from the upper country, served to make the good soils of the lower countiy,, which are called "low-grounds," and usually and improperly de- signated as -'alluvial.'' If the valleys had been cut through beds- of marl, as generall}- was the case below the falls, then enough of the admixture would certainly have made material for rich soil. But if no such sup'.>ly of calcareous material was intermixed m the valley of a river, the flat lands, bordcj'ing thereon, would pro bably be comparatively poor. 8. — As proceeding towards the ocean, the present si.rface of the drift region declines in elevation niore and more, and becomes- more and more level. These conditions are the necessary results- of the out-spreading of the flood, and of the finer sand and the clay being carried farthest. There was no longer en i ugh height of the deposit, above the level of the ocean, to permit the cutting down of any but shallow valleys and ra\ines. The soil of the higher ground is almost uniformly sandy and poor. The shallow 40 AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY. depressions are more external, and level, and hy accessions of vegetable matter, becan;e ric;b s\\'ain[) sol! — a iorniation of soil i iter than tbe drift. Where nearest to the ocean, and to the neighboring" estuai'ies and sonnds, the surface o^ the land is l)nt a few feet above ordinary high tide — and large spaces, even of firm irroiind, are too low for safe cultivation. If the differences of agricultural character between the soils of the tide-water region and of most of the Piedmoiit lands, (as sta ted in an early part of these remarks,) result from their difl'erent geol 'gical conditions, as being respectively drift-formed and de- nuded soils, then it ^vill be important to ascertain precisely the line of separation of these great areas. If sundry points in this line were ascertained and made known, by resident observers, it would be eas}', by drawing a line on the map through nil these pdnts, to designate the common boundary of both the denuded and drift regions. In the latter, the wdiole of the tide-water dis- trict is included. If the primitive rocks and soil, in place, are to be found eastward of the falls, they are overlapped and concealed by the drift formation. Only one obvious instance of this has been observed bj' me, at the Halifax feny, on the south side of the lloanoRe, and about seven miles below the falls. There, in the steep river bank, the di'ift, in horizontal layers, is seen over- lying the denuded, stony and greatly inclined strata, and the ex- act line of separation between the two is distinctl}' marked. The drift formation may be always known, where sections of earth are exposed to view, by the strata of different eart' s, as sand, clay, gravel or rounded pebbles, being nearly or apparent!}- quite hori- zontal, and usually separated from each other by precise lines of demarkation. And in each bed of earthy material, there are man- ifest evid;nices of the earth having been suspended in (or rolled by) and then deposited from water. The rocks of the igneous I'egions either exhibit no stratification, or otherwise strata contort- ed, or it s^-raight, the lines of separation are greatly inclined. In exposed sections, the earth often shows its origin from disintegra- ted rock, of which the process is not yet completed. Where the fragments of rocks whether in oi- lying above the earth, are angu- lar, and none rounded, that will show that they have not been SKETCHES OF LOWER' \ORTH CAROLIX.A, &.C. 41 water-borne, or rolled — £i3 is ahvayT tho cr.v- (Irift-rogioii. Still, within the do . ■ raiiiiy places, wliicliwei'c formerly bai:iu-aliaped »:• ; lower tlir.a the former general surface, and V7h' '■) filled with drift, and so remain, though with f raised to the level of the sniTOunding denuded i interesting qncotion wdiether these spots exhibit th' ;. ... tural peculiarities as do the lands of the great lower d- ' There must, ho- •. ever, from the nature of the cas?. •• ence : In these limited spaces' of do"'""~~^"'~'^. '"~' vering by drift, the transpcii:ed matcil \o adjacent high land, and could not have been. mnel. trition and suspension — whereas, the drift that cove: 3r land had been coniplstely changsd, chGmleaHy as we._ le- chanical texture, by its long transportation, attrition or siisDen- sion in water. The differences bctv;: .: C2 coils cf '/^ -e diSer;-.::: : in physical and also the more chvious : /_ sii eh^- ."?, striking as they arc, are less important thisn d-iferr cal constltuticu, which no eheraist ha'] '•^'- ^ -■-■■■-'■ analysis of the diflerent soils^ or has c . on the obscurit}' ot the subject. Though I cnder. . -:e the attention of scientific men to those difficultie.:; '~:iy yer.rs ago, I am no more able now than then, from any such scurco of information, to supply the still noedod explanations. As stated concisely before, on the whole of the .' ' -• ;-.p p-. gian, lime, or carbonate of lime, as manure, has 1:: ' ro act beneficially and pi'ofitably — and in the far greater : cf cases, (and on all the high ridge, or table or other natuia/.y poor land,) this manure has produced beneficial effects more speedy and remarkable than have been obtained on any other known lands, in any pait of the known world. And on nearly through- out this same tide-water region, and on all these lands where lime and marl have been found most operative, if gypsum is applied before marling or liming the same land, it has no profitable, if any even perceptible effect. Yet on the same land, gypsum, before of no effect, if applied after good marling or liming, has been of- 6 42 AGRICULTURAL GEOLOGY. ten found eflectivo — and I suppose, would Le generally effec- tive. In the denuded region, (within that portion of the Piedmont region, in Virginia, embraced in these remarks,) lime is said to be generally of no efiect — and in but few of the many experi- ments of its application is it reported as producing any benefit, either early, or in any after times. Such total failures have been mostly on red soils. The few cases of evident benefit were on gray soils. Gypsum is said to be m-: re or less operative on most of the lands in the denuded region. If then, as seems probable, the soils of drift formation are espe cially deficient in lime, and will be especially improved by its ap- plication, the fact may serve to indicate where lime may be tried, above the falls, with a prospect of success — and on what other soils and localities there might be expected failure. Besides the snre mode of determining the npper limits of the drift, by noting the appearance of the stratification. I believe that there may be found another test, in the presence, and thrifty growth of the lablolly pine, {pinus ta=da). One of the most striking of the general differences of the country below the falls, and that above, (but not precisely to that line of division), is the very general growth (and exclusive second growth,) of pine trees in the former, and the general absence of pine in the latter region — and the almost entire absence of pine on the most fertile natural soils. These general facts, led me long ago to infer (erroneously) that tlie free growth of pine was, in itself, a sure indication of unusual deficiency of lime in the soil. And this I still deem correct, in the main, and as to the particular species of pine, (j). tceda) which formed the exclu- sive and luxuriant second growth of nearly all the lands below the falls, within my then range of observation. I had not then Ivai'u- ed that different species of pines, probably indicating different kinds of soils, exclusively occupied different localities, of the same region and climate. Much of the worn land in the upper (or Piedmont) countries,is occupied as exclusively by second-growth ])ine,(t]iough not so speedily,) as the lands below the falls. And in both the up per and lower country, these trees of second gi-owth are alike des- ignated as "old-field pines;" and the difference of their appearance and growth are supposed by most persons to be the effects of differ- SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C, 43 ence of soil on the same species of tree. But tliese growths, of the lower and upi)er localities are generally of different species. The almost universal second growth of the lov.-er country being the lob- lilly piueipinus tm'la) and of the upper country, as in tlie counties of Amelia and Cumberland, ifcc, in Virginia, and Orange, in Korth Carolina, a^s exclusively of tlie short-leaf pine, {pinus variaUlis) which is the best and ordinary timber pine, of original forest growth of moat of the tide-vrater region of Virginia. The latter has very- short leaves, growing generally two, but often three from one sheath, and very small cones. The former has much longer leaves, grow- ing three from a sl'.eath, except in some rare cases, on luxuriant young trees, on which some leaves grow four from a sheath. This latter tree is a more southern plant, and is not seen generally north of Fred- erlcksl)urg, nor at all much farther north. As these two species, where equally favored by dim.. te, severally and exclusively occupy the abandoned fields of diflferent localities, it would be interestiniy to observe whether the common pine of the low country, {p. trnda) when found occupying land above the falls, does not indicate the presence of drift-formed soil and under-beds — and whether the chatige to second growth exclusively of the short-leaf pine, {p. va- riahilis) does not indicate a portion of the denuded or primitive for- mation. The lands of the Piedmont region, (including all the surface here treated as part of the denuded region,) in their natural state of fer- tility, as found when first settled by the white race, and subjected to tillage, (or before the lands were subsequently again denuded, superficially and partially, by washing rain-water, acting on the til- led and carelessly ploughed slopes, and were further worn out by ex- hausting tillage — ) were, in general, far more fertile than the great body of the lower drift-formed lands. And further — after most of the lands of both regions had been reduced to their former lowest state 01 exhaustion, by long continued tillage, and the washiuo- off of all hilly surfaces, the lands of the lower country, in general, were still much the poorest. Again — since the recent course of improve- ment and resuscitation has been begun, and was extensively in suc- cessful progress in both regions, and wherever no marl or lime has heen used, the lands of the denuded region have been found the most ca- pable of being enriched by putrescent manures alone, and restored to 44 AGHICULTUKAL GEOLOGY. a p: "^ '■ ■? ; '' ' :. Yet, between a reg-ion ^vlilcli had formerly Ij: : . '"^ ei'-'^i, ?rA another over which that re- comparative conditions as to i^v.:L'y uu^L: ..3 ^;;v>cc-eJ. ij Lo lovcrsed — and that the i'jrmerly denuded lands would have remained the most impoverished, and the lands covered with the transported earth, would have been en- riched by the spoils of the higher ]andg. Such, undoubtedly Avould have been the results, if the upper region had been merely stripped of its richer surface soil, or, in addition, of no great depth of sub- soil — and the removed earth, in mixture, had been equally distribu- ted over all the surface of the lower lands, and whether these had first been also denuded, or nut. But this was very nir from being the case, as appears from the existing geological indications and evidences, l^ot only was the soil of the upper lands swept off, but the inferior earth, and stone, to great depths, were torn up and re- moved from the denuded region. Alter losing the richer surface soil, it mattered little, for the fertility of all below, whether a great- er depth of 2 or 10, or 100 feet, was also removed. Whatever re- mained as the new surface, after the denuding process had ceased, and at v/hatever depth below the original surface, was composed of the same rocks, of igneous origin, which had served to form the original upper or surface layer — and which, by the subsequent dis- integration^ &c., had served a] materials for the first formed earth and soil. l^Tow nearly all these igneous rocks contain some lime, magnesia, or potash ; and these, and also other of the ingredients, by their intermixture, are well fitted to constitute soils capable of acquiring and retaining fertility. And in sufficient lapse of time, and underNature's care aixl operations only, these rocks would be- come earth and soil, and such soils would have capacity, (from their constitution,) to reach a high grade of fertility. Precisely such results do we find of these so'!^, after their being again denu- ded and exhausted by tillage, and afterwards manured and well nursed under good culture. The impoverished soil, and even the farmer subsoil, washed bare and Icf^ at the surface naked and bar- ren, are improved by putrescent manures, aided, acmost. -Aily by a rttle gypsuai, to an extent impossible to be be ;.pproachol, by like means only, 01:; iho great body of the exhanstei land~> of -.'ir; rift region. In most of the upper countrys i^and most remarkably on SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, ftC. 45 the south-west mountain lands,) the sub-soil, if washed bare, is still improvable, and to profit, by putrescent manures and atmospheric influences. The like naked subsoil, or washed slopes of the lower or drift region, whether of red clay or sandy, is incapable of being thus enriched, without the previous application of calcareous ma- nure, in lime, marl or wood ashes. Now let us consider whether the addition of the transported drift to the lower lands, was likely to furnish good soils, such as materi- als were left for in tlie new surface of the denuded region. If all of the materials removed froni the higher lands had been deposited, in mixture, on the lower, and no matter of what depth, the result, in time, would have been to produce as good or better soil than much longer time would serve to produce of the new sur- face of the upper and denuded region. But it is obviously impos- sible for the various ingredients of the drift to have thus remained in mixture, and to be so deposited. The lower stones, pebbles, gravel, and other next heavier parts, (not yet rubbed down to fine earth by the moving power,) and moved in largest masses by the flood down its steepest course, would stop first and nearest below the falls, and in something like mixture with each other, and with the accompanying earth. These heavier stony parts by their subse- quent disintegration would constitute soils the nearest in quality to those of the denuded region whence these materials were brought, with but little change. The like inference may be drawn as to the isolated patches of drift which fill former depressions in the since generaHy denuded region. The flood, having dropped these hea- vier parts of its burden, would next, (having less violence of current, because then passing even a less inclined surface,) drop the coarser sand in the stronger currents, and finer sand in the less rapid waters. This sand was spread over the whole of the gently inclin- ed planes of the first surface, and far past the previous shore line of the ocean. At later times, and in broad spaces of more tranquil water, the finest sand, with a very little clay intermixed, was depo- sited, in other and higher beds ; and in the still rapid water, this fine eartii was carried much nearer to the n-esent ocean, and thence spreac '■;«'■ bvoao. -paces of XLk .resent sanace of low land. This main-; '.licious mixture is comnL/Lily kii)wn as clay, or clayey soil. There is very little of true clay soil in all the drift region. The pure 46 AGEICULTURAL GEOLOGY. clay, and all other of the lighter parts of the transported earth, in- cluding most of the lime and organic matter, and parts of original fertile soil, were mostly floated off into the ocean, and so lost to the land over which it had passed. Even the pebbles of limestone, soap- stone (containing magnesia,) the slates and other clay-stcties, all be- ing of the softer rocks, were rnbbed down, by their long rolling and attrition, to the hnest particles, which remained snspended as long, and were floated as far. and were as generally lost, as the most fer- tile parts of the previously existing soil. Under such circumstan- ces, of removal and suspension of the materials, and the manner and places of theii- flnal deposition of the drifted earth — or any condi- tions to be supposed, if in accordance with the operating cause, in a great and violent descending flood — how was it possible that any earths could be deposited generally over, or even ni.der, the latest formed surface, which would be fit materials to l)ecome subsequent- ly fertile soils, or improvable sub-soils ? Or was it possible that the actual materials for soils and sub-soils so deposited, could, on the general average, be equal in fertilizing ingredients, to either the average of the whole ti-ansportod earth, or to the igneous rocks still remaining as the new surface of the upper denuded i-egion, and serving to produce new soils by their subsequent disintegration and mixture ? On the contrary, evei-ything in the supposed pi-oo.ess of the removal and transportation of the drift materials, was conducive to the production of the actual low degree of fertility f)rmerly and naturally existing on the far larger portion, including all the table lands and high surfaces, of the now tide water region. But there were, on the narrow mai'gins of the high lands border- ing on the rivers, and still more in tlieir lower and broader ten-aces, and in sundry other low depressions of surface, many exceptions to the general rule of the depositions of sterile earth over the drift region. Many bodies of such lands were formerly of great natural fertility, and have continued to be of very superior agricultural va- lue. Ti.ese exceptional rich soils may be easily accounted for. — First: all the more fertile and lighter particles of the original soil, or of fertilizing materials, were not carried to and lost in the ocean. — Some would be retained by eddies, and deposited during the more tranquil conditions of the water. Secondly and mainiy : After the flood had subsided so as to leave bare the highest broad intervals of SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. 47 table land, and tlie water, reduc-.d as nujcli in violence as in vo- lume, was divided into as many sei)arate currents as overspread the courses of the present ijreatr'ivei's, these curi'ents, while still cutting down and h)wering their deepest channels, were at the same time de- positiui!; tlieir suspende I earth wlierever the water was shallow, ob- strucred,and nt' course more tranquil. These conditions were necessa- rily offered (ivei-;\ll the outer spaces,oi' shallow margins of tlie then se- parat d currents. The nctiiui of the upper waters, in tearing up and bearing otl'eurtli, and gi-inding down rocks, tlunigh abated, had not ceased, and the tui'hi I watei-, still brought down vast quantities of earth, into the lower cui'rents. The lighter, finer, and richer of these materials would be directed lo the shallow and slower-moving waters, and there be depositcl, and produce rich soils. The earliest soil so deposited, would be when the separated currents still co^er- ed the now higliest river banks or b(»rders, and which are generally rich f ii' more or less distance, rarely more than half a mile, from the river or from its lower gruunds. These high surfaces, to slight ob- servation, seem as ele\ated, and as belonging to, the nearest and al- ways p9 cultivated and even highest surface of the whole region, the drain- affe is much worse and still more insufficient. V. — The true principle of drainage for this region and the geological facts oil which the principle is founded. The great error of the method of drainage, general in all this region, is that the drains or ditches are designed, and only operate, to draw the superfluous and, therefore, injurious rain-water from and over the surface. The principle I would propose to substitute, is to draw oft' (and keep drawn oft") the water which is in excess some feet below and up to the surface, and by thus removing the before constant saturation or glut of the lower earth, to permit the excess of failing rain to sink into the lower earth, and thence pass oft* below, instead of being kept on and near the surface, as now and heretofore, until it either can ftow oft' on the surface to ditches, or is evaporated. Both the existing error and the evil eftects and also the benefit of the proposed substituted plan are dependent on the geological structure of the land, and especially of its inferior beds. But, in advance of all description and reasoning as to the causes of the supposed existing phenomena and of tracing the eftects in re- ference to draining, I will simply assume the truth of the great and all-important fact on which my plan and reasoning are founded. — This fact is, that the whole of this low and flat countr)'', at some few feet below the surface, (within the extreme limits of from 2 to 8 feet, and more generally from 3 to 5 feet,) has underlying it abed of pure sand, which, at least in all wet seasons, is glutted with wa- ter from its bottom to its top. This fact is unquestionable, and may be tested easily by every proprietor. But I have to infer, from the geological structure of the region and on reasoning, which would require too much space to state here, the further fact, that this underlying bed of water-glutted sand is nearly horizontal, but, like the overlying earth and its surface, has a gentle and general dip or declination toward the seacoast, or in a south-easterly di- rection.* * The geologiofcl viewi were presented in Part I, of tbftJie eerios, at pRg« SiT, aii«i »,fhJT. %^ AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. As to the general presence of the sand bed, it is proved by every well that is dug, and not only here, but in such higher localities of the tide-water region. In the higher country, and at higher le- vels of surface, the sand-bed lies deeper and also, there, generally, its upper part is dry, (or without water,) though, by digging deep- er, the lower sand, there also, is always found filled (but not sur- charged) with water. A like bed of sand underlies most, or all of the bottom or low land, along the rivers in the higher tide-water counties in Virginia ; and, as I infer from but limited personal ob- servations, such sand, with much more regularity of position and operation, underlies the whole superficial layers of the great low- land region here under consideration. But in these low-lands, the sand-bed is naturally always glutted with water, wliich water is a source supplying moisture to the overlying earth, and also, by being already as full of water as it can be, the glutted sand-bed is an ef- fectual barrier to the descent of more rain-water from the surface of the land. This sand-bed is, therefore, the great cause of the ex- isting wetness of the upper beds, and surface soil, and the reason why the usual surface draining is so imperfect in operation. And the same feature offers the manner and means for effectual drain- age. Of course, very few particular facts, and in narrow spaces, have been learned from my own peisonal observations in this low coun- try. But I had previously discovered the underlying and also wa- ter-glutted sand-bed, (concealed from all previous knowledge, as a general fact,) below the broad bottom lands of my own fai'rn on the Pamunkey river, (in Hanover county, Virginia,) and liad long stud- ied its effects ; and in reference to it, had devised, and conducted successfully, extensive draining labors. At first, I had supposed this remarkable and then newly discovered feature to be peculiar to the particular locality of my own farm ; but in the progress of my draining operations, and the necessary study of the whole sub- ject, and the true principles of drainage, I came to infer, that the same feature, of an underlying sand-bed, belongs to the whole of the lands of our great tide-water region, and that this sand-bed, where dip}>ing lowest, and glutted with M^ater, was the great cause SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. 61 of the evil of excessive w^etness of the low-lying soils above. I felt so confident of the correctness of my deductions, that it induced me at the first time of leisure, to visit the region in question, to seek and to find the facts to confinn and to sustain my theoretical views. And before my first visit to this countr}', I ofiered to a friend, resi- ding therein, advice for the proper drainage of his farm (by seeking for and tapping the glutted sand-bed,) which he acted upon to some extent, and found therein the precise effects and all the benefit that could have been expected from his limited first operations on this new principle. To obtain numerous evidences of the very general existence and position of the sand bed, it was not required for me to dig or bore into the under-lying beds, or even to see the surface of every local- ity. Every farm house is supplied with water by one or more wells, and these numerous and long used wells, go far to supply all the facts required. Whether the sand-bed exists, and near enough to the surface to affect its natural drainage, may be learned usually from inquiries about the wells, their depths, and the cause of the varying quantities of their supply of water. From even but a few such examples, and applying thereto my general views deri- ved from practice and experience of draining in far-distant localities, I was confirmed in the general opinions previously formed, in ad- vance of all personal observation. The conclusions thus reached, and for which I will proceed to argue for the conviction of others, may be thus stated ; that nearly all the higher and firm, as well as the lower lands, lying between the Chesapeake and Albemarle Sound, are rendered and kept too wet, not (as universally alleged,) because the soils or their under beds are of too close texture to per- mit the superfluous rain-water to sink, and so be discharged by per- colation ; but because the underlying sand-bed is already sur- charged with water, and by its supplying moisture upward, renders moist earth incapable of drinking up more water from above. In the upper and middle ranges of the tide-water counties of Virginia, the reaching the sand-bed, and its being dry when reach- ed, are essential conditions to the construction of a good ice-house Q2 AQRICULTUEAL FEATUEES. — the dry sand bottom serving immediately to absorb, and convey away, by downward filtration, all the water ibrmed by the melting of the ice. This is the operation of the principle of drainage of the higher beds, by the agency of a dry (or drained) upper layer of the sand-bed below. It is also essential to the utility of every well, that it should be sunk through the upper and dry layer (if there be such) of the sand-bed, and into the water-glutted lower part, for the purpose of its furnishing a permanent supply of water. And if, as generally in the flat low country, the sand-bed is full of water to its top, (unless after long drouths,) and is so surcharged that the water is pressed upward, then, in wells there dug, not only would water be obtained as soon as the sand-bed was reached, but the water would rise still higher, and even near to the surface of the land in very wet seasons. Thus, every well in this low coun- try may afford evidence of the existence, height, and character of the sand-bed at its top, and also the height to which water wnll rise therefrom, and how near the surface of the land the upper bed must be injuriously affected by the water-glut below, and whether permanently, or but for the times of wettest seasons. Hence, it follows, that little as has heretofore been noticed, or thought of, in regard to these important facts, and the more impor- tant deductions from them, and few as are the residents who have thought at all on these particular points, it is only ne- cessary for fanners and thinking men to reflect upon, and apply the facts they already know, to be assured of the true principle and method of drainage for their land, which will now be more fully explained and argued. VI. — The underlying sand-hed andits opposite operations in regard to draining. Whether the underlying sand is of one continuous bed connected throughout, or broken, or separated, is not important, it is enough that it is general, and nowhere known to be wanting. Neither is its general thickness known, nor is its bottom but rarely accessi- ble or known. But it is certain that this sand-bed lies upon some lower bed, impenetrable to water from above, and which bed, in SKETCHES or LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &.€. ()3 many known cases, is marl. But whatever may be the lower bed or its texture, the sand-bed itself, however open and loose in tex- ture, if already glutted with water, is incapable of receiving more. Therefore, there is no layer of earth so imptmetrable by water, as any earth, and even sand, already full of water ; and, in less de- gree, all dampness or moisture of the underlying bed of earth is so much impediment to the reception of rain-water from above. The following rough figure will serve to exhibit a i)rotile or section of the supposed strata of the low-lands, but to render the differences of level apparent to the eye, it is necessary greatly to increase the thickness of the strata, and the rate of their dip, in the tigure, ex- ceedino: the natural and actual conditions. SOUTH-EAST. NORTH-WEST. a SAND BED. .„«..i-«.««-— "°- 2 3 Suppose this figure to represent the surface soil, (« h^ and also the inferior beds, all dipping very gradually, (and very much less than in the figure,) from northwest to southwest, or in the direc- tion from the falls of the rivers toward the ocean. The finely dot- ted line, c d, indicates the horizontal level. The upper bed, (1) next below the surface soil, let us first suppose here to be clayey, or of close texture, and not readily permeable by water. The next below is the sand-bed, which is wholly glutted with water, or part- ly dry (at top,) according to its level, or dip, or the variable supply of water, and its manner of discbarge. The next bed, (3,) is of 64 AGRICULTUEAL FEATURES. marl, or other impermeable earth, or otherwise, from its constant wetness, incapable of receiving more water from above. Now, of all the excess of rain-water that falls on the whole surface of the title-water region, (as every where else,) part flows off over the surface of the land, and of that which remains, part is sooner or later evaporated, and part sinks as low as it can be admitted into, or ab- sorbed by the lower earth. Tlie greater discharge of rain-water by its flowing off" will be on hilly surfaces, and soils of close and com- pact texture. The greater discharge by downward percolation, or filtration, will be on the most sandy or porous earth, (if dry before and to enough depth,) and the more so if on level surfaces. What- ever water is not taken off" by these two modes, can be removed only by evaporation, and until so removed, the remaining excess of water must saturate the soil, if not cover it in part, in stagnant pools, and, for the time, destroy its productive power, and prevent all proper tillage labors. Every transient occurrence of such wet conditions, even if each one be transient, is enough to render even rich arable land of very little value. Of the rain-water that falls on the higher lands (at and beyond a.) and that sinks into the earth below, and which is too much to be held absorbed by the next beds, (1,) the excess must sink still lower, and go to supply or to surcharge the sand-bed (2,) below. And all the water in that bed, whether filling it wholly, or only its lower portion, would be slowly but continually pressing laterally in the direction of the dip, (towards e,) to seek (and find, ultimately,) a long delayed discharge in the lower channels of river*. Although the beds of earth may be nearly horizontal, the slightest degree of their general dipping must induce the operation stated. Thus, the supply of water to glut the sand-bed is not only increased by rain- water fallen immediately above, and over porous upper beds, (at 1,) but also another and continuous supply is pressing on laterally, de- rived from higher levels of the sand-bed (2,) and from rains that fell many miles distant, on the higher country. And therefore, while the upper layer of the sand-bed in the higher country, (or tempor- arily in the lower country,) may be left dry, (as represented above the level of the dotted line at c) at the lower level of the same sand- SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. 65 bed, and at the same time, it will be necessarily surcharged with water, which, not finding sutHcicut discharge in its gradual and sfow descent along the dip of the bed, presses with all the weight of its higher-lying water in every direction, and not only down- ward and laterally, but also upward. This is evident even to the eye. For if the water received partly on a higher and distant surface, (near to and also far north westward of//,) serves to keep the water in the sand-bed no higher (at any one time) than the horizontal line at c, it will still till the whole depth of the sand- bed as descending farther eastward. As the sand-bed dips, the water confined therein (by the higher bed being but slightly per- meable,) would be pressed by the weight of the higherand remote water, (rising to c,) and. bj- a well known law of hydrostatics, would rise as high as the line c, if having an upward vent. And precisely such a vent is aflbrded by a well, sunk at w, in which the water reached in the sand-bed (2) will rise to the level of d c, or as high as may there be the then height of the supply of water near c. Thus, in nearly every well in this low- land region, the water usually rises above the sand-bed which yielded the water ; and after great falls of rain, or long-continued wetness of the earth, the water supplied b}- percolation only, and mainly from a distance, rises much higher than usual, and in some cases, to within one or two feet of the surface of the land. So far, for more clear explanation, it has been supposed that the higher bed, (1,) was more or less impervious, and so served to confine in the lower sand-bed its water, and greatly to resist and impede its escape by upward discharge. But if, as is more gen- eral, the higher bed (1) is of texture permeable to water, that dif- ference does not materially vary the circumstances as to the need and manner of draining. A pervious upper bed will absorb more freely and speedily all the water that hydrostatic pressure would force upward, so as to leave much less visible results of such pres- sure in particular places, as in wells and deep ditches. But in either case there would be the same general evil to the upper earth and surface soil, of moisture derived from below ; and the same remedy required, of discharging the injurious supply of wa- ter, by tapping its reservoir below. 9 G6 AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. To whatever height the water (proceeding from the saiid-hcd) can rise in the unobstructed passage afforded hy a well, (or an auger hole, bored for trial,) to the same height must there exist the force to raise the water, though more slowly, by filtration, but by the same hydrostatic pressure in all the neighboring ground. The bed of earth lying over the glutted sand may be so close (in its moist condition) as to be impervious to the descent of rain- water, from the surfoce, which w^ould act only by the pressure of gravity. But scarcely any earth is close enough to prevent the absorption of water, pressed iipwainl by the much strouger force acting on the water confined below. Therefore, even when the sand-bed may be as low as six or eight feet beloAV the surface, and a bed of unusually low texture between, the confined water may be so strongly pressed upward as to reach within two feet of the surface. In such cases, injurious moisture will rise still high- er, by capillary attraction, and more evidently over sandy than a close sub-soil or uBder-bed. It is owing to this condition of things that many spaces, without showing any standing or flowing or even the slightest oozing water, either at the surface or in shal- low ditches, are always damp and cold, produce only aquatic grasses or weeds, and exhibit every indication of wetness, except the actual and usual presence of water. But after every rain, and even light rains, water wnll stand in puddles on sueL places, if level, even though the soil and si5jl>soil are sandy and ©pen. For moist sand is soon filled by water to repletion, and wet sand will hold water on its surface like a dish. Thus, I infer that the whole of this low laniT is underlaid by a sand-bed, glutted with water to its top, and which santT-bed is ge- nerally so near the surface soil as to affect it injuriously l>y water from below. But even if this confined water lay too low to aftect the surface earth directly, it would do it indirectly, by preventing the rain-water from sinking, and its excess being discharged by downward percolation. If the sand-bed below were dry, or al- ways free from water for its upper twelve inches only, (as near c,) that upper layer of dry sand would serve as natural under- draining for all the upper earth. Such is the condition of things under the excellent and dry low grounds of Brandon, op. James SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &.€. 07 river ; and such is inferred to be the case with all the similar low lands, which, though level and of stiff soil, require but little drain- ing hibors, and can dispense with all under-draining. The upper layer of the universal sand-bed, being there dry, is always ready to receive and to discharge below all water sinking from above. Thus these fine lands are under-drained by nature. And the only reason why that general under drainage is not perfect in opera- tion, and ample for all wants of the land, is that this dry sand is many feet (10 to 14) below the surface of the laud, and the inter- vening beds are of clayey and compact texture. Even these im- pediments would not prevent the surface being generally and per- fectly dry, if without any artificial drainage. But the natural draining process is too slow, and therefore the aid of some surface ditches are there needed to pass off more quickly the temporary rain-iloods. But when, instead of the upper sand being dry, and so serving to drain the upper beds, the whole sand-bed is full of water, and that water is pressed upward, then all the upper beds are kept more or less wet or moist, and are thereby rendered unable to re- ceive any more rain Avater'from above by filtration or percolation. The stillest and closest clay, when dry, is full of minute fissures ; if no moistcr than usual at some feet below a dry surface, such clay will absorb water from above, and slowly pass any excess, by percolation, to an absorbent or receiving bed below. But earth made wet or moist by water forced upw^ard from below, whether it be close clay or loose and coarse sand, can receive no more from above, and all excess of rain water left there in pools must remain until evaporated. We may best estimate the enormity of this evil, of the wet earth below preventing the rain-water from sinking, by the con- dition of the level woodland still remaining in a state of nature and without any aid from ditches. On such land, in wet sea- sons and usually in every w^inter and spring, the excess of rain- water remains and covers most of the surface, and in many cases for weeks or mouths together. This is universally ascrib- ed by the proprietors and neighbors to the soil or its under-earth b3ing too stiff and close to permit the descent of water ; and 68 AGKICULTURAL FEATURES. this is held even where the upper Led is open and light enough for any purpose. In"ow let us proceed to examine the actual remedy, or the drainnge plan in general use, and its eftects, and next the difterent principle of drainage and method which I pro- pose. VII. — The vsi/al and general jdoii oj draining and its radical de- fects. The actual plan or system of draining which is in general and approved use in this region is very uniform in the general prin- ciple and features, and also very simple. It consists in digging numerous ditches, mostly shallow and smal), merely for the pur- pose of collecting therein and conveying from the field so much of the excess of rain-water a? will flow over the surface. These ditches are at various distances, according to the greater or less excess of wetness of the land, and they are of various degrees of imperfect eftect, according to their number and depth. But on no farril is this mode of ditcLing effectual for drainage, and on a few onjly has it ever approached that desired end, where the ditches were much deeper than usual and great labor has been bestowed, though on an erroneous system. The numerous swamps, so-called, or spaces, either broad or narrow, a little more depressed or level than the adjacent ground serve to afford ground for outlets in deep and large ditches act- ing as main water-carriers through these swamps to some one of the numerous rivers or deep creeks with which the whole coun- try is intersected. Some of these deep and main discharging ditches may severally receive the waters from two or three dif- ferent farms and properties, and extend for miles before reaching the final outlet. Still, by combined effort for the common bene- fit, these longest ditches may be made cheaply enough for their object, and may be made deep enough to suit for any system of drainage. Supposing that a proper outlet has been secured through which to discharge the water into the river, then each farmer next pro- ceeds to dig the receiving smaller ditches to collect the excels of rain-water from the field. In most cases the farms arc so level that SKETCHES OP LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. 69 the ditches may be laid off in almost any direction, and usually they are made to coincide witli the cardinal points of the compass, or otherwise made parallel with, or perpendicular to some road or other straight and long outline of the field. As the most labori- ous, and also the most perfect draining on this plan, and on the stif- fest soil, is seen in Perquimans county, the operations there will be held especially in view in the following description : In beginning a large drainage operation, or in renewing and sub- stituting a former irregular and imperfect laying off, the main ditch of the field or farm is first dug to discharge into some common main water-carrier, or other deep outlet. But so uniform is the general level and shape of surface, that the required main ditcli can usually be made straight, and to agree, in the preferred man- ner, with the other smaller ditches, and with the direction of the ploughing. Into the "main" and deepest ditch, (usually 3 to 4 feet deep,) and at right angles to it, and 1,000 feet apart, the paral- lel "leading" ditches enter, which are 2 to 3 feet deep. Then crossing the last, and parallel to the main ditch, and 150 feet apart, (on some farms, only 125 feet) are dug narrow "tap ditches," 18 or 20 inches deep, and which empty, at both ends, into the "leading ditches." The land is tilled in 5 feet beds, laid off parallel with the smallest or tap ditches. Still, all these ditches, with the narrow beds and their alleys, (or water-furrows,) are deemed insufiicient to carry off the excess of rain-water, without the further aid of " hoe- furrows," which are opened first by a plough, and afterwards clean- ed out by hand-hoes for every ploughing of the field, because every ploughing (or horse-tillage) fills them. These " hoe-furrows" are made across the narrow beds, at irregular distances of from 18 to 25 yards, and empty into the tap ditches. A " hoe-furrow" is made to pass through every slightest cross depression, and wherever else deemed most necessary. Thus the alleys of the five feet beds first receive the surplus and overflowing rain-water ; and so much there- of as can flow off over a level, or nearly level surface, passes out of the open ends of the alleys (from both ends) into the leading ditch- es, or across the beds along the hoe-furrows into the tap-ditches, and thence to the leading ditches. From the latter the water passes into the broader and deeper main ditch, and from it to the common outlet of the farm. The hoc-furrows (or grips) arc a little deeper 70 AGRICULTUKAL FEATURES. than the alleys of the 5 feet beds. T'lie alleys may be G or 7 in- ches behiw the ciMwiis of the beds. This plan is, on some farms varied by the leading ditches, running jiarallel to the main ditches; bat the number of ditches arid furrov/s;, and the si)aces between, are not varied. The ol)ject of this plan, and the only possible operation of it, is to draw otf the excess of rain-water mainly over the surface ; and even with all these numerous ditches and furrows, on perfectly level land no water can flow off until it has saturated the soil, or stands above it in numerals little shallow- pools: and if the field is under tillage, and has been deeply [ihmglied, all the ploughed layer will suck \\\> as much rain-water as it can retain, l)ef()re any surplus will begin to flow ofi" over the surface, or, by lateral and hoi-izontal percolation, to ooze out from the soft soil iulo the lower furrows and ditches. — Such draining at best only begins to remove the injurious excess of water from the soil, after it has efl:ected all the damage it can do for the time. It is true that every hour of the continuance of the water would greatly increase the first damage of the saturated soil, and that continuance the numerous drains serve to cut short and re- duce, in time and evil cfiect, (Some of I he main ditches in Perquimans are of much greater depth, and of unnccessar\' width at the bottom, (which should al- ways be narrow, no matter how wide at top and how deep a ditch may be.) Mr. J. T. Granberry's main ditch is 1 to 8 feet dee]) ; and though without its being so designed, this ditch reached the sand-bed and tapped its glut of water. This great depth had been sought only for the different purpose of having a sufficient vent for the great cpiautity of surface water to be discharged from the field. This system cuts up every field, by spade-dug ditches, into separ- ate spaces of little more than three and a half acres each. Then bridges arc required at suitable crossing places over every main and leading ditch, and also over every ta[)-ditch when they are crossed b}' a farm road or a tenq)orary track for hau ling in a crop. xVs many other rough wooden structures are required to give passage to wa- ter and to exclude hogs M'herever a fence crosses the tap or other ditches. The labor necessary to dig and keep open all these ditches SKETCIIIvS OF LOWKK XOinil t'AROLIXA, &('. 71 witli iill the other aco'.npanlm.nits ;iiirutit, to adopt, instead, the modern Enghsh system of deej) and covci-ecl under-draining — whieii system,after all,ishutt]ie drainage i>l"s\irface water, derived from i-ains, by downward lilti-ation, and as soon as may be etfeeted after the rain has fallen on the surface in ex- cess. This plan of di-aining by nnmerons ditches sepai'ating and sur- rounding small rectangular spaces, was first used on the low (em- banked marsh) rice-lands of South Cai olina, where it was not incon- venient for tillage, inasniuch as no plr)nghingor other team labor was practicable on the soft and nn'ry soil. Thence the same system was transferred to much of the hiirh and firm land under cotton culture, but which needed some attention to drainnge. Such ditch- ing waspmcticed as late as 1843, on much land in CharlisstO'n district which scarcely needed a ditch (dug by tlie spade) any where. But there, while these frequent ditches were deemed indispensable by many planters, they were also deemed so great an impediment to the plough that that in^ploment was excluded therefrom, and these fields were cultivate I by hand-labor entirely. In Ponjuimans fall use is made of the plough despite of the many obstructing ditches. And it has not been very long since cross-ploughing also was in use anwng these many ditches — the corn rows being laid ofi' and ploughed across as well as lengthwise of the long and' narrow rec- tangles. Of course the culture then must have been flssitor without beds and intervening alleys, preserved throughout the year's til- lage^ as since and now. VIII. — Evidences or Ulmtrai Ions of the existing injimcs from swjxr- Jluons water, and of the iwoj)cr means for reli(f. The plan or principle on which I would propose to drain thelands of this low country is very difYerent from what has heretofore been unusually aimed at, and, but partially effected. Instead of remov- ing the excess of water by passing it off over the surface through numerous shallow and open tap-ditches, I would, by a few deep and mostly covered drains, tap the glutted sand-bed below, and thu3 72 AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. as mucli as practicable, lessen or entirely abate the previous upward pressure and direction of the confined water, and thereby relieving the upper bed of earth of its present supply of moisture from below, make it dry and permeable, and so permit, for the future, the excess of rain-water to sink into the drained upper bed, and be thus drawn ofi'by percolation to the still lower sand-bed, (then empty enough at top to receive such temporary additions,) and thence the water to pass along the dip of the sand-bed, and far beneath the surface of the land, to the nearest deep stream or other place of dis- charge. It is admitted that, except as to my own limited operations and experience, on a single farm, (Marlbourne), there is almost no such practical proof of the effects here anticipated in regard to this great low-land region, of which so little is well known to me. But recent, few and limited as have been my means for examination and investi- gation in this region, there can be no doubt of the general existence of the one important natural feature on which my plan and reasoning rests, viz : the under-lying and glutted sand-bed, having a general, very slight, continuous dip. If this is the general and natural con- dition of the land, and if it is a sufficient cause for its present wet- ness, then it follows that the true principle of drainage, which sound theory would direct, is to draw the water from the hottom^ and not from the top, as is the only function of shallow ditches. It may be, in some few localities, that the ghitted sand-bed lies too low to be reached by ditches without too great labor and expense. But even such objections to the practical operations will not invalidate the correctness of the theor3\ And such good objections to practice probably exist in but few cases of limited localities. It is manifest, to the least consideration, that the usual and uni- versally approved plan and procedure cannot drain this land. As to the moisture infiltrating from the glut below, or driven upward by hydrostatic pressure, or drawn still higher and diffused as mere dampness by capil'ary attraction, it is obvious that this moisture cannot be lessened by any number of ditches in the upper earth. As to the excess of rain water, when remaining separate on the sur- face, some of it will flow off in shallow ditches. But none will so pass off trom a level surface until the excess of water stands in small pools. Nor can any of the surplus water escape by filtrating later- SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &.C. 7S ally throui^h the soil until tlio soil or upper earth has drunk up more rain-water than it can retain. These conditions ofextretnelj wet earth, (and the more if of recently and deeply ploughed land,) must exist before the present system of drainage can even begin to act, and must still remain in force after the ditches have ceased to draw from the land that portion of the water which cannot be held absorbed. All the still remaining water, (and enough for the time to convert tilled soil to mire,) will be removed only by evaporation, as none can sink into the earth below in its present and usual wet state caused by the glut of water in the sand-bed, and the moisture always rising therefrom. The best farmers seeing the imperfect operation of this plan of draining, have sought the desired improvement in digging all their ditches deeper than usual. But, uidess such deepening reached and tapped the sand-bed, the deeper ditches could not gather any water from below, and could convey no more from the surface of the land than would be done by shallower^ ditches in somewhat longer time. IX. — The upper beds always permeahle if drained. But even if it be conceded to my argument that the sand-bed could be tapped, and the previous upper layer of its water be drawn off and kept permanently lowered, it would still be denied by most of the farmers that the rain-water can then sink through the earth. — This denial would be founded on the supposed impervious texture of the intervening bed of earth. This belief of the under earth be- ing impermeable to water is not only general in Perquimans, (and with much color of truth there,) where the upper earth is extremely close and stiff, and in some places eight feet or more in thickness, but also in Princess Ann and Norfolk counties, where the soil and imder earth are abundantly porous, and not generally more than four feet thick. Further, the immense quantity of rain-water which remains long, and covers much of the surfiice on the forest land in its natural con- dition, and which water passes ofi' where ditches have been dug, makes it seem incredible that even half of all this water could sink 10 74 AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. through the earth below. It is also a prevailing belief that there is more rain in this region than general. I presume that no more rain falls from the clouds, but as very little of the excess of rain-water sinks into the earth, (because of its wetness below,) there is far more of the surplus rain-water to be removed and discharged by ditches than in other localities. In some of the nearly as level but higher lands of parts of Southampton and Surry, in A^irginia, scarcely a ditch is required, and there is no evil of rain water remaining on the surface. There, in furnishing a pervious soil and sub-soil and dry underbeds, nature has effectually under-drained such lands, and in so doing has enabled most of the surplus rain water to disap- pear by downward filtration. The great quantity of rain water in low-lands which passes off in the ditches is owing to the small ab- sorbing power of the always wet lower earth, and, in less degree, of the upper also. X. — Examples of the effects of the true principle of drainage, in loth artificial and natural operations. Thougli there has been very little practice in this region on the plan of tapping and drawing off the confined water of the inferior sand-bed, and almost none by design, there still have been some such operations, and with marked beneficial results. Mr. J. T. Granberry, in Perquimans, and Mr. E. II. Herbert, in Princess Arm, tapped the water of the sand-bed when they anticipated noth- ing of the important effect, and merely designed to make unusual- ly large and deep ditches, Mr. W. Sayre, then of Norfolk count}^, acting on my general views and advice, given to him before I had seen his land, or even any part of the region in question, sought for and found the wet sand bed at four or five feet deep, and to which no ditch on his farm or near to it, had before penetrated. He deep- ened the greater length of his general outside ditch to the sand, and found great increased draining benefit therefrom in the single year which he afterwards continued to own and reside on the farm. One of the effects could scarcely be mistaken. In the summer after the first opening of this deep encircling ditch to the sand-bed, the well, half a mile distant from the ditch, ceased to supply water, and con- tinued thus nearly dry until in the following winter. This well, (or SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. IS another very close by,) had always before, and as far back as known, yielded water abundantly, and through the dry est seasons. The subsequent and long failure must liave been caused by the cutting off, by the deep outside ditch, the supply to the well of water from tlie sand-bed. It is difficult to appreciate such slow and gradual effects, or to know always to wliat particular causes to ascribe them. Such effects from this mode of drainage may be slowly increasing for years before reaching their maximum of beneficial opera- tion. But on this principle there are many other and great drainage operations which luiture has executed, and which show the benefi- cial results that are liere promised. Every river or smaller deep water channel in this low-land is, in efi'ect, a deep drain cut into the glutted sand-bed, and which cut or tapping lias been operating to draw off tlie neigliboring confined water, and to prevent its upward pressure so far as circumstances permitted. Along the sides of every river and deep branch, the bordering lands, for half a mile or more in breadth, are much drier than any other adjacent lands of equal elevation and like surfiice. This is the case in Durant's Keck, where the land is very level and also lower than is usual for the firmest soil. This is the long peninsula of good land lying between Perqui- mans and Little river, and extending to Albemarle Sound. The depressed shore of a river does not serve the better to drain bordering land because the river is a mile or more in width. A cov- ered drain, having but a four-inch pipe or passage for water, if serving to reduce and convey away all the excess of under water, and to prevent its previous upward pressure, and so leave the upper layer of the sand-bed dry, would, for draining effect, serve all the purposes of the widest river of no greater draining depth. If the natu- ral depression fortherivers's passage serves to drain by lateral perco- lation half a mile width of the bordering land, a deep artificial drain sunk a foot or two into the sand-bed, and whether open or covered may be expected to do as much. And if so, deep parallel drains a mile apart perhaps might drain the intermediate land. And such drains, even if 10 feet deep and covered, would still be made and kept at less cost than the never-ceasing trouble of the numerous sliallow and open ditches in Perquimans. But in most other places, as Prin- 76 Af=;iaeiLTUKAL features. cess Anne and Norfolk counties, the glutted sand-bed is not nsnally more than four feet below the surface, and drains sunk into the sand and if four or even eight of them to the mile of width or cross- distance, would not be Ycry costly, and could scarcely fail of their object. XI. — Drainage vertically h/j borchnlcs. Wliere the water is closely confined in the sand-bed by tlie com- pact texture of the wet overlying earth, and the upward pressui'cof tlie confined water is considerable, (because of the quantity, or height, or weight of the water at the higher sources,) a portion f of the water may be drawn higher than the top of the sand-bed by the use of the auger. As in most of the wells the water rises to more or less height above the top of the sand, so it would rise as high in holes bored by an inch auger. And if tlie main or discharging ditches were sunk but a few inches lower, then the water could be thus drawn up in holes bored in such ditch, the water rising througb the boring would continue to flow off alono' the bottom of the ditch. In such cases, the holes, if found operative, should be bored every thirty to fifty 3'ards in anew ditch, as some will not act at all. Each such bore, when acting to bring up a continued stream is an artificial " boiling f^pring." And if tliere is sufficient quantity and force of the water thus rising, there is no more icason why the artificial boil ing spring shall be obstructed and its flow stopped, than a natural one. XII. — Tlie inrscuce of quich-sand loth as an imjicdimait or an aid to effcctval drainivg. It was by such borings (commenced for a very different object') that I first discovered tlie general existence and the properties of the water- glutted sand-bed on my own farm, and by them drew up and passed oft' water in considerable quantity before my main ditch had been sunk within two feet of the sand-bed. But if it is practica- ble and 6afe to go deeper with the spade, this vertical draining, in open ditches, should be but a teniporary'expedient, as it was in my own case. If the water will rise, say two feet in such bore-holes, to the then bottom of an open ditch, it will operate partially to reduce SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, iC. 77 the glut of water below, and prevent so mucli of its upward pres- sure. But the reduction will not be of any water that cannot force its passage so high. The greatest value of the tact of thus draining up water by boring, is the sure indication it affords of the still great- er success of a future deeper digging of the ditch. If water thus rises to the height of two feet, it will rise with much more force and longer continuance if the ditch is sunk deeper and the water has so much less height to rise. If by still later and deeper digging the ditch is sunk into the sand, then there will no longer be vertical or boiling springs, but, instead, water oozing or flowing in laterally from the upper sand and along the whole line of such digging. Of course, and the more if the sand is very fine, such continuous opening is 1 etter than any number of auger-holes, even if the bores should always continue open and discharging. The inability to execute, at once, so extensive and costly an operation, compelled me to deepen my main ditch at different times and in several successive years. But there is another reason for such gradual deepening, which will probably be found to operate in all diggings into the sand-bed in this low country. It is most likely that this water-glutted bed is everywhere a "quicksand" almost semi-fluid, and which, as soon as dug into, will flow in from the sides and fill with sand the deeper excavation. And if the dio-. ging is persisted in it will cause caving or falling in of the solid and dry upper margins of the ditch, so that any eflfectual or permanent deepening at that time will be impracticable. If quick-sand is the greatest impediment to continued and successful deepening of the digging, its presence is also the surestproof of the necessity for the work and the best surety for its final and complete success. Quick- sand, -is nothing but a very pure and loose sand of which all tlie in- terstices are glutted with water. There is no coherence of the dif- ferent particles of such sand, and the water contained therein is nearly as much in bulk as the solid matter of the sand itself, and when drained and passing ofl" the water is continually renewed by lateral supply from more or less remote and higher sources. Hence quick-sand is semi-fluid, and flows in almost as freely as water, fills every lower cavity of an open ditch, and is like to enter every cre- vice of the filling material of a covered drain, and finally to choke the narrow conduit. Nothing can be worse than quick-sand to op- 78- AGKICULTURAL FEATURES. pose the immediate and complete excavation of a ditcli, wliether to be covered or left open. But delay and time afford the remedy. — When quick-sand is reached, the digging should at first go no deep- er than its surface, or no deeper into the sand than may be without causing damage. Then the before confined water, which rendered the sand "quick" or semi-fluid, will find a discharge into the ditch. The previous upper pressure will be removed. Later the water will subside, leaving. free the upper sand, thus drained into the ditch, and as low as the level of the dischai-ge. In a year after the first oper-' ation, the then bottom of the ditch wull no longer be of quick-sand, as at first, but will have become firm, and may then be deepened some six or eight inches more, before reaching what is still quick- sand below. Thus so much deeper and fuller discharge is given to the water, and so much more of the quantity removed, that thereby another layer of tlie then highest quick-sand is gradually converted to dryer and firm sand, and which may also be subsequently taken out safely by the spade. In this manner, and easily, and with best effects, I have, in three successive years, gained two feet of depth below the original surface of a bad quick sand, in which at first I could not keep open the shallowest permanent passage. If all the glutted sand bed of the low country (as inferred) is also of quick- sand, in like manner it may at first be barely tapped by ditching, and afterwards, and gradually, be dug into deeper, until all the the injurious excess of under- water has been reduced and re- moved. XIII. — Tests by which to judge, in advance, of the expediency or success of desired draining operations, and illustrations of ef- fects. Such is my view of the cause of the general wetness of this low land region, and such the proposed remedy. If the principle is sound, and the deductions true, it is enough for my argument, and also for very extensive applications of the theory in practice. But it is not for me, slightly informed of particular facts and localities as I am by personal observation, to ofler particular directions for practical operations, or to state the natural and various conditions of different localities, which may either invite or discourage SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. 79 and forbid efforts to drain by means of reaclnng the deep-seated sources of the injurious waters. In many or most h)calities of this great low-hmd I'egion the proposed means may be used botli cheaply and profitably. In others, owing to the greater depth of digging ne- cessary, the 0[)eration, though equahy sure of success, miglit be of more cost than profit. Every judicious farmer acquainted with the local details can best determine as to tlie api)licability of my gene- ral plan to his own farm and vicinity. But there are certain indi- cations and jjreliminar}' tests of the need for and probable success of such undertakings, which each farmer shoukl consult in advance. These will now be mentioned. The shallow wells on every farm will have shown whether a sand bed has been reached, wliether its being tapped brought up water, and at what height above the sand, if any, the water stands per- manently, and how much higher after winter or the wettest season. These facts would serve to show how high the water may be drawn up by borings, and how much below that height it may be sunk 1)3' deep ditching. Thus, any depth of ditching below the highest temporary rising of the watei', in wells or bcre-hole^, would do so7ne good in draining off or reducing the glut below, and its upward pressure, though such benefit might be but f>r the wettest seasons. But the deeper the digging the greater would be the reduction of the hurt- ful excess of water. iVnd the remedy would not be com[>lete, un- til the main ditches were sunk into the sand bed, so as to take off from I he adjacent ground, all the former upward pressure of the under water and also render the upper layer of the sand-bed dry, and therefore capable of freely imbibing the new supplies of rain- water infiitrated from above. Next, as to the assumed permeability to water of the upper bed ot earth. It has been admitted that the upper beds, even if of the most sandy and loose texture, if full of water below, are injpermea- ble to more water standing on the surface. But if such wet earth be deprived of all superfluous moisture, (as by any proper draining,) then, what was impervious before niay become as pervious as desi- rable. Every one has observed such change in clay, when dug into, and the sides and bottoai of the excavation left exposed to a drying atmosphere. Of course, such extent of drying, and the consequent great opening of fissures, is not to be looked for under the covering So AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. eartli. But in long droughts, earth not aft'ected by uiidor-water, will become as dry as dust for four feet or more below the surface. This isoften seen in the digging of graves in summer; while in that dry condition there must be formed innumerable small pores and fissures, caused by contraction, in the most compact earth, through which water would freely sink, and in great quantity, and as low as the earth had thus dried, and fissures been formed. And these fissures could not be again entirely closed ,by wetness and expan- sion of the earth, so as to exclude all precolation of water. It is not for me to assert that there will be enough of these fissures, and reaching to sufficient depth, to serve to carry down by percolation all the excess of rain-water, even when gradually falling on the earth. But there can be no question that water will be so absorbed and conveyed away in great quantit}^, in a soil with under- beds thus drained, when the same earth, before being drained, would have been incapable of absorbing any water below the quickly sa- turated surface soil. For the good effect and success of tlic plan of draining the eartli from below, it is not necessary that all or even a large proportion of the water in the sand-bed shall be so drained off. It may be that the bed is twenty leet thick. However thick the bed, its being full of water and surcharged, (proved by the water pressing upward,) shows that the supply of water from the high- er parts of tne country is greater than the sand bed has openings for its lateral discharge. Thus, suppose the whole natural dis- charge of the sand-bed, into rivers and other outlets, and by eva- poration, to be in volume, as 19, and the supply of water from rains, and from the more elevated distant part of the bed, to be as 20, then it is seen that the excess of supply of 1 part can only be re- moved by being forced upward through the earth. This is the water that operates injuriously, directly, by causing wetness to the under earth, and indirectly, by preventing the excess of rain-wa- ter from being discharged by sinking. Ttien, if by tapping the sand-bed, this twentieth part of the water only is removed, the whole upward pressure, with the surcharge is prevented. But further, if by deeper draining the still full (but not overgorg- ed) sand-bed has its water drawn off and lowered only one foot of SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, kt. 81 its 20 or more of supposed depth, that upper foot of sand, thus made dry, will serve as underdraining (or absorbent) material for all the upper earth, and may receive and continually pass off all the surplus rain-water that may thereafter fall on the surface. Such is the fortunate natural condition of the best low ground farms on the lower James river, before adverted to — best, not so much for their great natural fertiliy, and good constitution, valuable as these are, as because they are thus under-drained by nature. Tlie upper layer of the sand-bed under these lands, is always dry for some feet down. This dry layer, though some 12 feet or more below earth of clayey texture, is the true cause of the usual dry condition of those soils. And although the wells reach water in abundance a*; a few feet lower in the sand, that water has no upward pressure, and can- not damao;e the hio-her beds of earth and soil. In these cases the natural means for the lateral discharge of water from the sand-bed, (in its high level,) are greater than needed for the quantity suppli- ed. Therefore, the higher layer of the sand-bed is kept free from water, and always ready to receive, and convey still lower, any new and temporary supply from the upper beds and soil. If, on the contrar}', the average supply of water had ever so little exceed- ed the means for average discharge ; this upper layer of sand would have been always over-gorged with water, and the surface would suifer with wetness, as do the low-lands on the Pamunkey river, and all this great low-land region here under consideration. Though wet earth is perfectly impervious to the entrance and passage by percolation of more water from the surface (pressing downward, and by its own weight only,) I doubt whether any earth in the tide-water region is impervious. If previously drained, at least, none such has occurred in my extensive draining labors and experience. Much soil is made more impervious by having been ploughed or tilled when wet. This operation approaches, in effect, to what is called '' puddling," or kneading wet clay, or loam, which is done for the purpose of closing all the pores, and making the earth impervious to water. Such, in the greatest perfection, is the working of clay for pottery, and in less degree, for making tiles qnd bricks. Hence it is that deep and proper ploughing, intro- 11 82 AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. duced on land before often ploiiglied wet, and always sli allow, lias "well known draining effect, because the "puddled" and impervious pan is broken up, and the rain-water then permitted to sink thi-ough the natural fissures of the lower earth. NOTE. It was after the whole of this article had been written that I saw (May, 1857,) in the eitj of Charleston, South Carolina, the best exemplification, and practical proof, of the ■oundness of the views expressed above. Under the eity, and also, (as inferred from a superficial and hasty glance,) under all the higher ground of the whole neighboring coun- try, there lies the bed of sand as described above. The top of the sand is generally within three feet of the surface of the higher and firm ground on which the city is built. As deep in this sand as to the level of twenty inches above low tide mark, excavations were then in progress, in which were to be constructed large culverts, designed to carry •way, with the drained water, the filth of the city. These deep culverts were in and across the higher parts of the site of Charleston, and extending on a level from the tide- water of one river to the other. The greatest depth was fourteen feet — and more than ten feet in some places in the sand-bed, and rarely less than seven. The sand was wet to its top; and a little below, it was quick, and becoming more and more fluid, and yield- ing more and more water as opened, to the bottom of the excavation. Water was usual- ly reached at the depth of three feet below the surface of the street. In the street fire- wells, the water usually stood still higher. I saw one, just before it was drawn off, and laid dry by the new and deeper digging for the culvert, in which the water stood within 18 inches of the surface of the ground. No digging for agricultural draining could have been aflforded of one-fourth this depth into the quick-sand — nor could any works for agricultural objects and profits, only, have been completed speedily, and at such great •xpense of labor and other appliances. Therefornrl -pini-p the previouB entire SKKTCUES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, ii9. 91 product, and so have the corn-crops, except in the first year only of the reduced extent of cultivation. Yet the advantages of manur- ing by the pea-crop in my locality and climate are rery inferior to those of this region of North Carolina. While the many firm swamps remained generally under forest, these lands afforded excellent "range" for live stock, or a great quantity of food, especially for cattle and hogs. But this benefit, (if it was one,) has ahiiost ceased in the best cultivated parts of the counties on the sound. Such is Durant's Neck, the narrow and level and very low peninsula which stretches for twelve miles be- tween Perquimans and Little River to Albemarle sound. This land, being but a few miles wide anywhere, and bounded nearly around by these deep waters, is in consequence better drained, na- turally, than the interior lands, and is very productive. Nearly all this " neck" is enclosed, and an unusually large proportion of the whole is under tillage, and there is scarcely any unenclosed forest or waste land for ranging live stock, and none that affords any gra- zing profit. I know no place where it would be so profitable to dispense with fences, as is done by mutual agreement, by the pro- prietors of three several neighborhoods in Prince George county, Virginia, each including from 4,000 to S,000 acres, and making from 10 to 1-5 farms and separate properties. If the cultivators of Durant's Neck would do the like they would only have to make one short and straight fence to enclose all their fine farais, and save all the cost of their present useless fences. Yet every farm and field is now separately fenced in, and some of the proprietors have no materials for fencing, and buy, and transport from a distance, all their rails. This locality, more strongly than any other, shows the absurdity of our fence law, and also the strength and long vitality of old habits and opinions, when the former good reasons for them have long ceased to exist. If the live stock were reduced in num- bers to one-fourth, and these were well kept, by being herded with- in the farms, one cow would yield as much profit as four do now. And when the grazing stocks were so lessened in number there would be much surplus grass left to manure the pasture or other land. While threo-fourths of all the present fencing might be dis- 92 A«KICULTUKAL FEATUEES. pensed with, the other fourth would serve to make a sufficient pas- ture enclosure for every farm. For nothing in geometry is more clearly demonstrable than the proposition that it will require great- ly less length of enclosure to fence in the cattle of any well clear- ed and settled section of country, than to fence in all the fields and crops to protect them from the cattle if left at large. One-lburth of the present fencing in Durant's Neck would suftice not only to make on every farm a proper pasture enclosure, but also the gener- al and joint barrier fence against all other people's stock. Most of the farmers in Prince George, who have joined in these arrange- ments, if not situated on the border, have no fence except the pens in which to confine the animals at night. But this extreme course is not true economy. In Princess Anne, there still remains so much uncleared ands wamp land, that the leaving cattle to range at large is deemed very profit- able to the owners, and perhaps, in general, it is there more an off- set to the expenses offences, under our fence law, than in any other county of lower Virginia. The open swamps bear reeds in great quantity, which aftbrd abundant and excellent food for cattle through winter and summer. There are herds of cattle that have become wild, and are made use of when wanted for beef, only by being hunted and shot. These wild cattle would be very profita- ble to their owners, as they require neither food nor attention, ex- cept that they are as much at the disposal of every other person who may be inclined to shoot and steal them. It becomes a slight observer of a newly seen agricultural district of novel and peculiar character, to be diffident of his own opinions thereon, and more especially, when they are in opposition to those of the judicious and experienced resident farmers. One of such subjects I will mention, though without any view of urging the superior value of my opinions and practice, in this respect on my friends in this region, who unanimously and strongly protested against them, at least for their lands. Their experience of facts, in contradiction, certainly deserves more to be respected than my the- oretical views as to this region, even though they have been SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, AC. 9S sustained by the results of my own practice and experience else- where. As stated before, the tillage generally, and on the best managed farms, is in narrow beds (five feet,) for corn, and the same size is preserved for wheat. The beds are reversed for every crop, both of corn and wheat. I will not here repeat my objections to this narrow bed tillage, nor my reason for preferring (where any are ne- cessary) beds of twenty-five or more feet in width. These views have been stated and argued at length in different former publica- tions. (The latest and fullest articles on tilhige in broad beds, and also on drainage in general, are in " Essays and Notes on Agricul- ture," 1855.) I will only say here, that all the reasons for prepar- ing wide beds for low and flat lands generally, apply with greater force to the lands of this region, and especially in Perquimans, be- cause they are of more regular level, and with fewer alternations of slight depressions and elevations, than any other low-lands within my knowledge. The best farmers here, with whom I have argued this question, object on various grounds to my broa should be ploughed outward ; or any way will serve. The plough then resumes its previous place and course, and continues to go around, and to turn the slices inward. The ploughman, in running every furrow should let the plough cut straight and fully up to and turn at the dotted lines. This will keep the work right at the angles, in which places it would other- wise be sure to get out of order. But with this care, and with cutting all the furrows as straight and as equal as every plough- man should do, the ploughing will go on as correctly as in any other mode — and with less loss of labor, and with more thorough execution. More thorough, because there will be no unbroken strips left, and only covered, as in all ridge or bed-ploughing — and no unnecessary and barren water-furrows made, where of no use, as in the closing of " lands" in all flush-ploughing. Further — as the ploughman approaches within a few yards of the next 14 106 AGRICULTURAL FEATURES marked line, and still more when nearer, he lias in that a test and gauge of his previous work, and a sure guide for the next suc- ceeding. Wherever his last cut furrows obviously Var}-^ from be- ing parallel to, or of equal distance from, the surrounding and nearest mark, he has but to make the width of his subsequently cut slices to suit and remedy the defects. The differences of tex- ture or condition of the soil, or of the cover of vegetable matter, will cause the plough to gain more in width in some places than in others, if no care is used to prevent. But with the guidance of the parallel lines marking the widths, and the cross-lines indi- cating the proper points for the angles of the furrows, it will be easy for the ploughman, (or for any number of ploughs following each other on the same cut,) to make even and equal work, and to close at the outside lines, with but little loss of labor in broken furrows. It is obvious that the outside boundaries, whether made by ditches, fences, or growing crops on adjacent fields, can be ploughed more nearly to, in this mode, than in any other what- ever. The ploughs, and the depth of ploughing, may be any of descrip- tion suitable to the soil. But, for the convenience of reference to effects, I will suppose the operation and conditions to be like my own. In that, the ploughs for breaking up, whether in win- ter, to prepare rough or grass land for corn, or in summer, to pre- pare clover, (or weed) land for wheat, are drawn by four mules, and usually in easy ground, cut and turn slices 7 to 8 inches deep and 12 to 14 inches wide. First, let us consider the operation of the ploughing, in refer- ence to its great and usually sole object, that of thoroughly break- ing, loosening, subverting, and giving tilth to the soil, for suffi- cient depth, and also burying and covering the vegetable matter which stood on the previous surface. The land is supposed (like mine) to have been left (at the pre- vious tillage,) in straight and well shaped broad and high beds — say 25 or 27 1-2 feet wide, and about sixteen inches of differ- ence of perpendicular height between the centre or crown of the bed, and the bottom of the alley. The new ploughing will SKETCHES OP LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. 107 iivjcessai'ily cross the former ploughing, and the beds and alleys, in every variety of direction. In part, the farrows will run in precisely the same direction with the beds and alleys — in part, they will cross at right angles — and elsewhere, they will cross diagonally, at angles of diiierent s'ze. Before trial, I feared great difhculties, and especially in ploughing across the beds at right- angles. But, in practice, the difficulties were much less than ex- pected—and, on the whole, less than belong to any other and usual mode of ploughing. When ploughing directly across the beds, it is true that the new furrow is of very unequal depths — perhaps 10 inches at the middle of the bed, and barely 1 to 2 inches when crossing the bottom of the deep and narrow alley. But these very different depths, if something more laborious to the team, are more suitable to the requirements of the soil in the extremes of thickness, made artificially by the former bedding The deep- er ploughing under the crown of the bed is still the more benefi- cial, because that place had been broken but imperfectly, or not at all, by the previous ploughing, W'hich raised the bed, and lapped the soil without breaking it below^, at the crowns of the beds. In the alleys, where the new ploughing barely scraped, the sub-soil had generally been previously reached, in deepening the alleys ; and no greater depth of ploughing was needed, inasmuch as the beds are to remain as they were before. When the new plough- ing is immediately across the old beds (or at right angles) the beds necessarily there retain precisely their former position, and, im- mediately after the new ploughing, appear even higher than be- fore. In the alleys there w^as so little cutting, and so little of other earth thrown in, that there will be but little earth to clean out, to leave these beds in better shape, as well as in better tilth, than after any former ploughing. The advantages of more easily and thoroughly breaking the ground, and the disadvantages of throwing more of the ploughed soil into the alleys, both increase as the direction is changed to be diagonal — and from diagonal to coinciding with the direction of the alleys. There could be nothing of this disadvantage (worth consideration) of throwing more earth into the alleys, if every fur- 108 AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. row was of equal depth, whether in the highest or lowest places — or at tiie crowns of the beds and in the alleys. In that case, wherever any part of a furrow was opened, it would be filled by the next cut furrow-slice, of precisely equal size. But in practice the furrow-slices are not of equal thickness whether cut at the crown, or at the side of the bed, and in the alley, ( — and they ought not to be equal — ) and therefore the new flush ploughing does operate slightly to change for the worse the previous relative positions of the beds. But this change and damage, is less than is usually made by the careless ploughing of beds, in the same direction, and whether with the design of raising and preserving the same beds, or cleaving and reversing them. After the flush ploughing described, and in every direction, the former alleys are plainly to be distinguished. And, at a proper time and condition of the land, the running of a two horse plough up and down in eachalle}', will sweep out cleanly all the loosened earth that would absorb rain-water, and obstruct its discharge, and leave each bed and alley in the best designed shape and condition for surface drainage. But this opening of the alleys cannot be well done im- mediately after the ph.nghing of each cut, nor until rain shall have fallen, and dried off, ?o that the loose and turfy earth has been somewhat consolidated. In the interval between the plough- ing and the subsequent opening of the former alleys, the only evil and danger of the plan may occur, in the fall of so much rain that it will be long before the then water-glutted alleys will be fit for the plough ; and when, consequently, great damage will be caused by this long water-soaking of the earth in the alleys. Every care should be used to prevent this evil. This manner of iiloughing should be used certainly for eveiy winter ploughing, (to prepare for corn,) and it may be for any other time when the farmer is sure of being able to com]tlete any one cut, before being stopped in any part of it by hardness of the soil caused by drouglit. On this account, it may be too hazardrtus to resort to this kind of ploughing, in summer, when " fallow- ing," or ploughing grass land to prepare for wheat. Except for this danger of being stopped by drought, summer would be the SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. 109 best time for the operation, as there would be then no danger of damage to the land from the occurrence of saturating and injurious rains, while the alleys were still partially choked by loose earth. So much in regard to the effects of this mode of ploughing on tilth, and as affecting the preservation of the former bedding. Next I will describe the much more important effects and the main object, in aid of surface-drainage. While the ploughing will be as cheap, and more effectual, as ploughing merely, it will at the same time, and with no more expense, greatly aid the other and proper labors for the most effectual surface drainage. In general terms, the effect of every such ploughing is to re- move the entire surface soil, to the depth ploughed, from the out- side towards the centre, as much as the width of the furrow slices. The amount of earth thus removed is enormous. It is dug and removed by the cheapest possible implement and process — and even this labor costs nothing for draining, in as much as it is re- quired for and compensated as necessary tillage. As each furrow- slice removed is replaced by another, there will be but very little (and unappreciable) effect in altering the general level of each cut. But the effect will be considerable at the outside furrow^, even at the first operation : and still more and more at every subsequent ploughing, so long as it may be expedient to con- tinue the same manner of ploughing, for furthering the same ob- ject. If the furrows were cut equal, with perfect accuracy, the results might be exhibited to the eye and understanding with geometrical exactness and force. And this can still be done, with due allov/ances for the imperfection of practical operations compared to theory. But to some extent, practice in this case may even surpass tse theory stated. For, while the latter supposes equal dimensions of furrow- slices throughout each cut, in practice, it will be quite easy to cut the few outside slices of greater than the general depth, and go the more to lower the outside margin. There is another thing which will be hsre mentioned, which should be understood hereafter in every named operation. — 110 AGRICULTURAL FEATURES. When a boundary line of a cut is a ditch, (of the usual steep and irregular sides,) the team cannot safely walk so close to the edge as to plough and turn away all the margin earth. There must be from three feet to one foot left everywhere uncut (according to the depth or irregularity of the side of the ditch) which earth will require to be dug and pulled back by hand-hoes, which thus performs what the plow cannot do at first. This hoe work be* ing always understood, and always required in aid of any man- ner of ploughing, (and much less in this than any other,) need not again be referred to. And the cutting to the edge of the ditch will be supposed to be effected by the plough, though al- ways (for the earlier work) requiring to be finished by hand- hoes. Then the effect of the first ploughing on this plan, by a four- horse plough, will be to remove the whole surface soil, for eight inches deep, a furrow's width (say twelve inches) in the direc- tions from the outside to the centre. And the outside furrow- slice, or earth of the dimensions stated, will be removed entire- ly and permanently from its former position, — and its equiv- alent quantity distributed over the interior or central space of the cut. This operation will lower the margin of the boundary ditches or grips, eight inches deep, and for a width of twelve inches. — When the like ploughing has been done on the adjoining cut, (E) and to the other side of the grip a, a, the furrow slices would thus be removed from both sides of the old grip, and nearly as deep. A furrow then run along its course, and back in the same track, would deepen the grip, partly fill and slope the borders, and thus, while the grip would be made deeper and better for drainage, it would be less an impediment to tillage, and less liable to be entirely filled by earth by being ploughed across. — "When the like ploughing is subsequently repeated, another furrow slice is removed from the outsides of the cuts, and so much a more gentle slope is given to the grip. Then, and thereafter, the plough will be sufiicient to clean the loose earth out of the grips. If more depth is desired, it can be given in closing the ordinary SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. Ill ploughing. And even if made of double the former depth, so wide and so gentle will be the slope of the margins, that the grip will present no serious obstacle to the crossing of ploughs, in any direc- tion, of carts, or even of the passage, at work, of reaping ma- chines. The same operation of lowering and sloping off the margins o^ the deeper rain ditches would be proceeding in the like manner, and would only require longer time to approach or perhaps reach the same good results. Even the deepest stream ditches would be much improved, in their surface drainage operation ; and their obstruction to tillage and to other team labors be greatly diminished. PA.RT 111. SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &< OBSERVATIONS ON THE FEATURES AND CHANGES OF THE OCEAN SAND-REEF, AND THE EN- CLOSED NAVIGABLE WATERS OF NORTH CAROLINA, I. — General remarAs on the Sand-reef, its inlets and their changes and their operatiojis on the enclosed waters. The broad spaces of navigable waters enclosed within the bound- aries of North Carolina, are as peculiar and remarkable in charac- ter as the various kinds of low-land margins which surround them — and parts of which enclosing land scarcely permit those waters to connect with, and to dischai'ge into the close adjacent ocean. — All the great waters, known under the names of difierent "sounds," and all the large estuaries and deep and nearly still waters of the sundry broad rivers discharging therein, may be considered as to- gether forming one great lake of very irregular shape and out-lines. Pamlico Sound, from the great estuary of the Neuse river to Roanoke Island, is more than 60 miles long in a straight course, and 75 along the curve of the middle, and perhaps 35 miles at its greatest width, and about 25 of general average width, Albemarle Sound is about 50 miles long, and 10 or 12 of average, and 15 of greatest width. These two greatest Sounds and areas are connect- IS 114 SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. etl by the iiaiTOwer passages of Croatan and Roanoke Sounds, which severally separate Roanoke Island from the main land (of great swamp,) and the ocean sand-reef. Another connected sound is Curritnck, extending from Albemarle Sound northward, between the main land and the ocean reef, and generally from 4 to G and in part 10 miles wide, along all the more northern coast of NorthCaro- lina. A still more northern extension, under the name of Back bay, generally much more narrow and shallow, stretches into Virginia, and comes to an end not many miles south of the Chesapeake Bay and Cape Henry. South of Pamlico the much narrower and shal- low passage called Core Sound connects the former with the har- bor of Beaufort, where there is a deep and broad passage into the ocean. South of this, and as far as the South Carolina line, the sand-reef continues, oidy interrupted, as a bai rier to the ocean, by the entrance of the Cape Fear river, and a few other and much smaller " inlets," or deep breaches through the sand-reef. — BoQ:ue Sound and its south-western continuations, fi'om Beaufort harbor to South Carolina, make a continuous and regular body of enclosed water, iron] 1 to 4 miles wide, and one hundred and twenty miles or more in length, and generally navigable for vessels of light draft. The larger of these sounds are shallow, and afford good naviga- tion only to vessels drawing not more than eight feet of water. For vessels of no greater draft, the navigation of Albemarle and Pamli- co is excellent, and is rendered safe from storms by the pi'otection afforded by the reef, which makes the whole of the enclosed ex- panse of water one great and secure harbor. The upper or most inland parts of the sounds are deeper than where nearer to their out- lets or to the ocean, and the many rivers which empty therein are mostly deeper, and generally much deeper than the deepest waters of the sounds — and most of these rivers aftbixl deep and good navi- gation to near their highest sources in the Dismal or other great swamps. Taking the whole space within the outlines of Pamlico, Albemarle and Currituck sounds, and their connecting waters, and of all the deep, f^till and unobstructed waters of the many rivers dis- charging therein, there is not one of the Atlantic States, which has REA[AKK8 OX TTIE SAND-REEF. 115 sucli great extent of good and smootli navigable water — and safe from storms also, by its typographical features, and entirely secured from any invasion, or eft'ective blockade, by a liostile naval force. — But these remarkable and otherwise valuable characteristics are rendered almost nugatory by another remarkable feature of this region. There is now no access to the ocean, through the sand- reef, so good and deep as the narrow Ocracoke inlet, which now only permits vessels of six feet draft to pass over the bar across the inlet, after tedious delays and much danger, and which passage opens upon an unsheltered and most dangerous sea coast. The whole ocean shore of North Carolina is a terror to navigators, and is noted for the niunber of shipwrecks, and especially near Cape Hatteras. This closed condition of the sand-reef did not always exist ; and indeed, one of the most remarkable operations which produced the present state of things, occurred within very recent time. The clianges of position and depth of the diflerent "inlets," or passages for the ocean and sound waters acro'ss the reef-barrier, present one of the most remarkable conditions of this whole remarkable re- gion. The first colony settled by the English in America was on Roan- oke Island, lying between Albemarle and Pandico sounds — and to which settlement the name of Virginia was first applied. To reach this then first discovered island and its surrounding waters. Sir Wal- ter Raleigh's vessels entered by a then open and broad and deep pas- sage through the reef, (afterwards known as Roanoke inlet,) the permanancy of which no one could then have doubted ; and the security and convenience of which entrance invited the planting of the English colony on this then accessible and magnificent ocean harbor. Now, that passage, and also other and later-formed navi- gable and deep inlets, have been completely closed, and even obli- terated. During great storms, the ocean often breaks across the sand-reef, and sometimes thus cuts new passages, which, for much the greater number, are sooner or later again closed by drifted sand. There are unquestionable evidences visible, in what are called " bulk-heads," lie* SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. (or points of sand stretching to and terminating abruptly, and with steep ends, in the water of the sounds) showing that many different inlets, formerly at different times, have been forced open by the ocean through the reef, and which were subsequently again closed by sand brought by the waves or winds. The newest of such inlets and the only one now navigable for sea-vessels, except Ocracoke (and north of the Beaufort harbor,) is near Cape Hatteras. This has been gradually becoming deeper as Ocracoke inlet has latterly been becoming more shallow. But while Ocracoke within a few years has become shallower by two feet, Hatteras inlet is not yet deep enough to offer a passage preferable to the diminished depth of Ocracoke. The accumulation of water brought by all the riv- ers into the sound, (or all that is not evaporated,) must have a dis- charge somewhere into the ocean — and any passage not actually needed for that discharge is liable to be filled up by sand, for want of sufficient force of the current of water to wash away the en- croaching sand. But Core sound, long and shallow, and com- paratively narrow as it is, offers a sufficient passage for escape to all these waters to the deep inlet of Beaufort harbor, and which is not affected by sand driven by waves or \^ inds, it seems proba- ble that the same natiu'al causes, continuing to operate, may here- after close all the more northern and now navigable inlets across the reef. Formerly, and to within a recent time, the old Currituck inlet was deep enough for vessels elra wing more than ten feet. Mr. B. T. Sim- mons, a respectable gentleman residing in Currituck county, in- formed me that he had sailed through this inlet in 1821, when it afforded througlKnit from ten to twelve feet depth of channel. It afterwards was more and more filled by sand, drifted by both wind and waves ; and finally, in 1S2S, it was entirely closed by a single vio- lent gale. The site of the former water-way, once more than a half mile wide, is said to be now diked across, the full breadth of the sand reef ; and either very near or on the place, there has been raised by the wind a range of high sand hills. The more southern and much larger portion of Currituck sound is mostly very shallow, and the channels veiy narrow and intricate, BEAUFORT HAKBOR, &C. 117 and also too shallow for sea vessels. Thus, after the closing of the old Currituck inlet, the navigation of this great body of water was no longer used, e.\cej)t for small boats. A subsecjnently opened branch, connected with the Dismal Swamp Canal, has offered the only water-way to market that is now in use. The shallow watei's of the lower or southern portion of this sound contain numerous and extensive islands, mostly of rich yet firm marsh, covered by a lux- uriant growth of water grasses. The cattle grazing on these marshes have acquired habits suited to their aquatic position — and wade and partly swim from one island to another, when separated by water of moi'e than half a mile in width. Some tew of the is- lands are of high huid. One of these. Crow island, has forty acres of high ground, (the highest about eight feet above the water,) which was formerly the site of an Indian village, and the ground is covered and fertilized by the shells ol oysters, clams, and some of sea shell-fish, left by the earliest inhabitants. The late resident proprietor, CaptainHatfield, here built a good mansion, and the nat- ural situation makes it a beautiful and ronuintic place. Besides the surrounding broad water, and the neighboring green marsh is- lands, the prospect is further improved by the distant high sand hills on the ocean reef, which in tlieir shape, though not in color, appear like the approaching traveller's first view of very distant mountains. 1 1. — The deep liarhnr of Bemifort inaccessible from the hach: coiintry. New facilities for reaclung it in progress, or pro- posed. Beaufort harbor is the only deep inlet through the whole reef. — This will safely pass ships drawing seventeen feet, and into a secure and excellent harbor. But this noble harbor is conneeted with the Pamlico and the more northern sounds, only by the long and shal- low strait called Core sound. This water affords barely four feet depth for navigation, over a bottom (as I was told) of loose and shifting sand, and that extending for so long a distance, that the deepening the channel, and keeping it open by dredging, would be 118 SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. of enormous cost, and probably even impossible to effect. Thus, the noble harbor of Beaufort has continued almost unused, and here- tofore useless to tlie great back country, because it was thus cut off from the deep navigable waters of the interior. There is now in progress of construction a railroad of about ninety miles in length, to connect Beaufort harbor with the back country, by join- ing the existing Wilmington railroad at Goklsborough. As this new branch of railway will pass through a very unproductive coun- try (east of Goldsborough) and lead to where (at present) there is neither a town, a market, nor ])urchasors, noi- capital to buy with, it may well be questioned whether the existing trade can be thus diverted from Wilmington. This is already a busy, growing and thriving town, and a mart of much trade and enterprise, having good navigation of twelve feet draft to the ocean, and to which, the approacli by railroad, (long in use,) fi'om the intersection of the two roads, (according to the map,) not longer than, if so long as the other new branch, which will indeed go to a port of deeper passage to the ocean, but which as a market, as yet, is nothing. Without pretending to any particular knowledge of the localities and cir- cumstances, Ifearthat this new road, will prove as uselessas will the Petersburg and Norfolk railway made alongsidethe great James river, and having to compete with it ibr freights. And this latter work of (mis- called) internal improvement, more than all of many others in Vir- ginia, will be a stupendous monument of folly, and waste of money to an enormous amount, for returns entirely inadequate to pay the expenses to be incurred — and for benefits ludicriously disproportion- ed to the cost of tlie work. The North Carolina road may lead to a poorer market than Norfolk, or to no mai'ket, at first ; but at least, as far as Newbern, it will not have a rival route alongside, of incomparably better facilities, and cheaper use. But judging mere- ly from the general topographical features, of the land and water, as learned from the map, and from verbal I'epoi'ts, it would seem that a much better improvement than a railroad from Newbern to Beaufort, would have been to dredge the shoals of the Neuse river, where required, below Newbern, and to cut a deep canal for a few miles only through the intervening very low peninsula, which se- CANAL THROUGH THE REEF AT NAGSHEAl). 119 parates the deep water of the lower Neuse from the deep water of the nearest river emptying into Beaufort harhor. It is true that long ago there was an abortive attempt to make this important and yet very short canal, by uniting the waters of the Harlow and Clubfoot creek. This canal was made, and still is barely passable b}^ small and light boats — but, for its greater object, has been an utter failure. Nevertheless, if the difficulties of deepening the Neuse shoals do not forbid the whole scheme being attempted, the execution of this sliort canal would be a very easy part of the whole improvement, for deep navigation. It is reported tliat the former digging of the canal failed because of the reaching of deep quick- sands. But even if the in-flow of quicksand had to be guarded against by the driving still deeper than its bottom a row of piles, in contact, along each side of the whole route of the canal, that labor, for but three to five miles, would be an expense not to be regarded, in reference to so impoi'tant an object. And after the outsides had been so piled, such dredging machines as are now operating on the Albemarle and Clujsapeake canal would easily ex- ecute and preserve a permanent passage, to any required depth, and even if it were through what had been a geneial quicksand bot- tom. III. — The proposed canal fhrongJt the reef at NagshcaJ. Former closing of the reej\ and imrtlcidarhj at Currituck inlet, and the results on the interior waters. Heretofore and latterly, (or since the closing of Currituck inlet,) the great trade and navigation of the sounds, and of the country bordering on all their deep rivers, have only had outlets to markets either through the shallow and dangerous passage of Ocracoke in- let, or the still more shallow and tedious and costly passage through the Djsmal Swamp canal to the waters of the Chesa- peake. To obtain a much shorter and bettei- outlet, for the trade of Albemarle sound, it has long been a favorite scheme, with many, to dig a canal through the sand-reef at Nagshead, fi'om the sound to the ocean, where a deep passage (the old Roanoke inlet,) once was open, in the trust that the flow of water, tluis to be produced, 120 SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, &C. would keep the new passage open. But, inasmuch as a natural chan- nel was here once open, far deeper and wider than any that can be made by the labor and skill of man, and which has become entirely closed, (as have been many smaller passages elsewhere,)it seems safe to infer that any artificial and small channel would remain open for but a short time. At this time, (May 1856,) the beginning of such a canal is now in progress atNagshead, under direction of the Federal Government, with an appropriation of $50,000 to be so expended. That sum will not go far towards completing the work. And when it is suspended, the winds alone will soon fill the exca- vation with drifting sand, even without the more powerful aid of the waves driven by violent storms.* The changes which have occurred to the w^aters of Albemarle sound and the neighboring waters, by the opening and closing of the inlets, offer for consideration many interesting facts. While Currituck inlet was open, half a mile wide and twelve feet deep, (within the memory of many now living,) the water of the sounds was salt. All kinds of the sea fish of the coast were abundent therein. The great extent of the still visible oyster banks show that the condition of salt-water must have continued previously forages. When the inlet at Currituck was finally and entirely closed in 1828, fresh water from the rivers became the only supply — and in about two years dme, the waters of both Albemarle and Currituck sounds, be- came, and have since remained, fresh generally — and are only sa- line, and that very slightly, (or " brackish,") after long continued dry weather, and with only the least or usual su^^ply of water from the rivers, unaided by the much greater supplies from rain-floods and freshes in the Roanoke, especially, and other rivers. During the time of gradual change from salt water to its being nearly or entirely fresh, the evil effects were of the same character •■■■" This filling of the canal, by the wind alone, became, in the progress of th"; work, so rapid, that the furth&r excavation was abandoned as hopeless, even before all of the money appropriated had been expended and wasted. I heard this in July. 1858, and also that the dred-ing machine was very nearly being lost, by being shut in by so much of the. newly drifted sand, that if there had been more delays, it would have cost more to re-open a passage for its removal than the machine was worth. CANAL THROUGH TllK KEEF AT NAGSIIEAD. 131 md much worse, than such as are usually exhibited on all our tide- water rivers, where the fresh water and salt tides meet, and have su- premacy alternately over the neighboring marshes. The oysters and other sea sliell-fish all died. The water-gi'asses were entirely changed in kinds, by the gradual or speedy dying out of all the species favored by salt-water. The mosquitoes were naore numer- ous than ever known in the same localities, before or since. Malarious diseases, also, were much more general, and more ma- lignant. The rise and fall of the ocean-tide on the coast of North Cattoli'- na, is very small. The accurate observations of the V. S. Coast- Survey, make the mean tide at Hatteras inlet, only two feet, and of spring tides, (showing extremes at full moon,) only 2. 2. Yet, when Currituck inlet was open, the tides, low as they are in the ocean, rose regularly through all Albemarle sound. Colonel W. Byrd, in his account of the running of the " Dividing Line,*' in 1728, stated that the tide then rose as far as seven or eight miles up the Chowan river. (Westover Manuscript, pp. 12^ and 13 of the printed work). But now, notwithstanding the existing inlets and entrances of ocean water into the sounds, there is no rise of tide in Albemarle sound. The actual changes of elevation of the water, (in common parlance called " high" or '"low tides,") have no peri- odicity, or regularity of return, and are caused mainly by the preva- lence of winds, from different quarters — and in less degree, and more rarely, by temporary floods in the great rivers, and their sub- sequent subsidence. From these causes, there are iiTegular and' considerable alternations of height and depression of the water — and sometimes, though rarely, as much as three feet or more be- tween the extremes of highest and lowest surfaces. But generally there is but little variation of height — yet enough to make a nar- row and clean sand-beach along the shores of the sounds and the broad estuaries of the rivers. Even in Pamlico sound, where the more free ingress ©f sean^ water keeps all the sound salt, the regular ocean tides do uot reach to, or affect the water on the more remote shores of the 122 SKETCHES OF LOWEIi NOIMH C'AKOLINA, AC. main land. Or the tidal movement and changes are no small, as to be scarcely appreciable. Near Mattamnskeet Lake, I heard some old residents who maintained the existence of regu- lar tides in the neighboring salt water of the sound. Yet another person, who had lived for thirty years near to the edge of the salt water, declared that there was no regular, or appreciable, changes of tide. Of course heavy winds from the east, which would cause "unusual height of water on the sea-coast, and a proportionable in- crease of height of the ocean tides driven into the inlets, will cause a considerable but temporary rise of the surface of all Pamlico, and also of the more distant sounds. The damming (by sand-drift) of the former inlets, by preventing the former free egress of the interior waters, must have served to raise the ordinary height of Albemarle sound higher than the level of the former tide at high flood — or say something more than two feet above tide-water. The marshes, about the junction of the Chowan and the Roanoke with the sound, and elsewhere, offer evi- dence of this permanently, yet recent increased height of the wa- ter, in their very low level, compared to the water, and to other tide marshes. The broad waters of the sounds, are usually smooth, and offer very striking and beautiful prospects. The mere statements of dis- tances made above would scarcely impress a reader with the extent of space offered to the eye. At Currituck Court House (on Curri- tuck sound,) and also at Stevenson's Point, the extremity of Du- rant's neck, in Perquimans county, land could be seen only direct- ly across the sounds. Looking both above and below, at both places, the sight stretched to a horizon of water only, as when fai" out on the ocean. And when sailing on the broader Pamlico sound, it was seldom that land was visible, except on the nearest side. IV. — The sand-reef considered as land or soil, and (he several kinds thereof. The i^land^ of the sounds. So far the sand-reef has been referred to merelv as the barrier THE SAND-ItEKF, &C. ] 23 tliat shuts out the ocean, and as in that connection with the interior waters. It will now bo considered more fully, as a peculiar kind and lormatioii of land, and in its other relations. The sand-reef, (commonly termed, by residents on the main-land the " banks" or tlie " beach,") stretches along the whole sea-coait of Nortli (Carolina for about three hundred miles, and with an ex- tension into Virginia. The few important breachesor inlets north of Beaufort harbor have been mentioned. There is not one of them navigable north of Ocracoke inlet, except the one newly opened, and still enlarging near Cape Hatteras. One other, Oregon inlet, has been passed through only by a small steamer of very shallow draft. The few still smaller breaches, scarcely need being describ- ed, as some such are opened for a time, and others closed, by al- most every heavy gale of wind, causing the highest and most vio- lent billows of the ocean to break across the reef. The long and mostly continuous sand-reef usually varies in width from a mile to as little as half a mile. In a few places, and for short distance* only, it widens to two and three miles, and more. The portion of the reef that extends from Ocra'^oke inlet to Beaufort harbor, until recently, was one continuous island, of some fifty miles in length, and of very regular general width, of less than three-quarters of a mile. New breaches are frequently made across the narrower and lower parts of the reef, by the ocean waves driven across by violent stomis — and which breaches are usually soon closed again. One such vi^as not long since opened through this before continuous island, and which is still increasing in depth, though not yet to more than two or three feet. It is ten miles south of Ocracoke inlet, and is known as Whalebone inlet. The small vil- lage of Portsmouth is near Ocracoke, on a wider part of this smaller island. The land there is one and a-half miles wide. Except this place, and a similar but smaller enlargement of the reef near Cape Lookout (where, about the light-house, there are a few inhabitants,) there are no human residents, and no cultivation. This is the case, without any exception, for thirty miles south of Whalebone inlet. The village of Portsmouth owes its existence to the fact of its ad- joining the nearest water of Pamlico sound, where vessels must an- 324 SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAEOLTNA, &C. chor and wait for fair winds aiid tides to cross the shallow and dan- gerous bar of Ocracoke inlet — and after passing outwiard, as usual but partly laden, to wait to receive the remainder of the cargo, carried across the bar by lighters. The occupations of the whole resident population of Portsmouth are connected with the vessels which have to wait here. Pilots, and sailors, or owners of vessels, make up the greater number of the heads of families and adult jyiales — and the remainder are the few, who as shopkeepers, &c.,are necessary to minister to the w^ants of the others. If Ocracoke inlet should be closed by sand, (which is noimprobable event,) the village of Portsmouth would disappear — or, (like Nagshead) remain only for its other use, as a summer retreat for transient visitors, sought for health and sea-bathing. Another such settlement or village, and supported in like manner, is at Ocracoke, north of the in- let. The whole reef consists of several distinct kinds and characters of earth or soil. 1st. — The ocean beach proper, or shore, or the space above low- water mark, and covered by every ordinary flood tide. This, as in all other cases along a low^ and sandy coast, is a very gradual slope, of beautifully smooth and firm sand. Here, (near Portsmouth,) sea- shells are brought up but rarely, and in small number; and these are soon driven by the violence of the waves upon the lower and broad sand-flat in the rear. For this reason, the beach, daily lashed by the waves, is of pure and homogeneous sand, rarely dotted by a shell, or a bunch of dead sea-grass, left by the preceding tide. As examined through a magnifying lens, (near Ocracoke inlet) the sand is almost entirely silicious, with scarcely any particles of shells in- termixed, and the grains various in size, and not so fine as I had supposed in advance.* * The scarcity of sliell-fi.«h, and in less degree, of the dead shells, on this beach, vtould \n4icate that the water, for a considerable distance out, is very shallow, and agitated to the bottom — botl of which conditions are unfavorable to the existence of all shell-fish that do not burrow and shelter themselves in the sand, or bottom. I saw no living shell- fish brought up from its proper place, to the beach, by force of the waves — nor even any shell, ao brought, that had not bced long empty. The only such animal seen was a small THE SAND-REEF, &C. 125 2d. — In the rear of the firm sea-shore, and lower than its liighest ridge, or crest line, (above oi-dinary liigh-tide mark,) lies what 1 will distinguish as the sand-fiat. This, opposite Portsmouth, is nearly a mile broad, and nearly gf nniform plane surface, and else- where is of various less widths, in proportion as it occupies less of the general surface, or is less in proportion to the other kinds of ground. The flat very gradually descends, (impei'ceptibly, when there is no water thereon, to indicate differences of level) from its junction with the liighest I'idgo of t;he shore, and becomes lower and lower, until nearly reaching the range of sand-hills — or, if these be wanting, either the higher marshy or firm land. On the sand- flat, eveiy floating matter, and every thing too heavy for the waves to drive forward, is cari'ied and left. Thus, the old sea shells and their fragments are all spread over this space ; and consequently, however slowly added to, tliey are numerous here. In every storm, the waves which rise highest on the shore, pass, in part, over the ridge or highest beach line; and the water thence flows and spreads, in a very shallow sheet, ovei' the whole of this lower flat. To ob- serve the effects of high waves, I rode to the beach, late on the rise of tide, when a strong wind, setting on shore, brought in high bil- lows, which broke n])on, and frequently passed over the highest ridge of the beach. When returning to the village, I passed across the sand-flat covei'ed for three quarters of a mile by water received thus from the ocean, and then varying from one to three inches in depth. On the preceding day I had walked across the same flat, and then found it perfectly free from water and quite dry. 3d. — Whenever this sand-flat is dry at its surface, the dry and loose sand, (the texture being very open and soft,) is either lifted or rolled by strong v;inds — and, if driven landward, when reaching higher ground, or the growth on the marsh, or any other obstruc- tions, the grains of sand there are stopped, and accumulate in low Donax, which burrows and conceals itself in the sand, a little beneath its surface, where the low beach was alternately covered and left bare by every advancing and retreating wave. These little animals, in variously tinted and wedge-shaped bivalve shells, are nu- merous , and though many are washed out of the sand by the passage of every wave, they so quickly again bury and conceal themselves that they would escape being seen by any but a close observer. 126 SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA, A,C. ridges or mounds — or, where circnmstances are favorable, begin to form ranges of sand-hills, which are of all heights not exceeding abont one hundred feet. The grains of fine sand, which form these high hills, are so easily moved an.d shifted by high winds, that every exposed portion of the surface may be said to l)e in movement — and gradually the entire hill is thus moved land- ward. And the grains of sand as driven by the prevailing high winds, from the sea. are mostly carried up the hill, until passing over the crest of the hill, they are sheltered on the opposite slope, and remain to be covered by other succeeding grains, and until again left bare, by the removal of the hill, and subject again to be blov/n onward. In this manner, on the bi'oader sea-islands of Virginia, the cultiva- ted ground, and even the habitations, have been gradually covered and lost under such slowly moving hills of loose sand. The broad sand-flat near Ocracoke, and the high sand mounds of latest forma- tion, are bare of all vegetation, and entirely barren. This would be so, from the salt impregnation, if nothing else. But, in the course of time, when the sand has attained a few feet of elevation above ordinary high tides, stunted shrubs begin to grow, and parti- ally bind and cover the before naked and loose sand. The lirst trees to spring are live-oaks. And these, while low, are kept so closely browzed by grazing animals, that they appear more like box bushes, kept artificially and closely trimmed in grotesque shapes, than anything like the natural and majestic growth of this tree, as seen in lower South Carolina. These moderate accumulations of sand, but where no high sand-hills have been raised, in longer time, make a wretchedly poor and very sandy soil, on which, where it is of sufficient height and extent, some woi-thless loblolly pines ( j?. tmda^) can grow, and where the iidiabitau^'s, (if any) may improve for, and cultivate some few garden vegetables. No grain, or other field culture is attempted south of Ocracoke inlet. 4th. — Another kind of land is marsh, subject either daily, or otherwise at much longer intervals, to be covered by the flood tides of the ocean. This marsh is wet, soft, and more or less miry on the surface — but, in general, is firm enough to bear well the grazing animals. The course salt-water grasses and weeds, which cover these marshes, serve to supply all the food, and for both winter and summeK, for the live-stock living on the reef. THE SAND-REEF, &C- 127 From the iiortlicrii cxti-emity, in V^ii-g-iniii, (where united willi the main-land at the head of Cnrrituck sonnd,) to Nagshead, op- poiirc'I^Roanokc ishmd, the ocean sand reef generally varies from half a mile to two miles in width. Its surface is in some parts of blowing sand, either low or jn siind-hills, and in others, of sw^amp, marsh. About five miles below Long island, (in Cnrrituck sound, and in Virginia.) on the reef begins the portion called the " Wash Woods," which extends farther south some six mi^es, and is border- ed, next to the ocean, by high sand-hills, and on the sound side by large marshes. In the central " woods" part some twenty families reside, who gain their living in part by agi'icnlture. They cultivate small patches of Indian corn and sweet potatoes. For the latter, the soil is peculiarly well adapted, ami they can be there raised in any quantities. Upon these products, and with fowling and fishing these inhabitants subsist. The large marshes are mostly owned by persons who reside on the maindand. The proprietors drive their cattle and sheep to these marshes, where they become fat enough for sale. Bullocks thus fattened will cfuiimand from twen- ty to thirty dollars a piece. Sheep are there kept for their wool. In the sound wdiicli separates this part of the ocean reef from the main-land, there is a chain of islands — Long Island Little Island, Ragged Island, Cedar Island and Knott's Island, of which last the north-end is in Virginia. The high or firm land of these islands is a rich loam, on a sub-soil of red clay and sand ; and still lower is a bed of white sand in which (on Long Island) the well-water is as good as any usually obtained in lower Virginia.* South of Knott's Island, (which is of considerable extent, is cul- tivated, andhas many inhabitants,) and the little Crow island, before described, which lies near the formei', there is no grain or field cul- ture on the reef, as far as to opposite Powell's Point, the southern extremity of Currituck county and the sound. There, the sand- reef is penetrated by Guinguy's creek, running nearly parallel with the ocean-beach and about a mile distant, and which makes a secure * For these factS; and others, in regard to these localities in Virginia. I am indebted lo the Ri'T. Edgar Burroughs, proprietor and resident of Long Island. 128 SKETCHES OF LOWER NORTH CAROLINA,