LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, r i o Shelf JB-G-^l UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. ''THE IRON FOUNDER" SUPPLEMENT. A Complete Illustrated Exposition of THE ART OF CASTING IN IRON COSrPRISlKG THE erection and management of cupolas, reverberator!' furnaces, blowers, dams, ladles, etc.; mixing cast iron; founding of chilled car-wheels; malle- able iron castings; foundry equipments and appliances; gear moulding machines; moulding machines; burning, chilling, softening; annealing; pouring and feed- ing; FOUNDRY MATERIALS; ADVANCED MOULDING; MEASUREMENT OF CASTINGS; WROUGHT IRON, STEEL, ETC. ALSO, THE FOUNDING OF STATUES; THE ART OF TAKING CASTS; PATTERN MODELLING; USEFUL FORMULAS AND TABLES. simpson Holland, Practical Moulder and Maitayer of Foundries; Author of •' The Iron Founder,' 1 '' etc. XUustrateO imtfj obtr ertuo %uu&reB ISngrnbings. FIRST EDITIO FIRST THOUSAND NEW YORK: JOHN WILEY & SONS, 53 East Tenth Street. 1893. / i3° 8W Cop3'right, 1893, BY SIMPSON BOLLAND. d^ H G ^ ROBERT DRUMMOND, PRINTER, NEW YORK. INTRODUCTION. This book is intended by the author to complete the work begun in " The Iron Founder," for which reason it is called a " Supplement" to the former. Whilst "The Iron Founder" — as stated in the preface to said book — may in all respects be considered a moulder's book, for the reason that the subjects treated are directly in line with the manipulations called forth in the actual daily practice of the moulder, the "Supplement" embraces every other sub- ject concomitant with such practice, all of which it is essential that every moulder should possess some knowl- edge of, even if he does not aspire to the dignity of an expert in the whole art of moulding. The author realizes the difficulty of presenting these somewhat dry and matter-of-fact subjects in a manner calculated to command the attention of such as are not directly interested in foundry affairs, and his daily ex- perience in the foundry has convinced him that very few of the rank and file, even amongst moulders them selves, care to peruse the apparently tiresome pages of a book devoted exclusively to matters with which they are brought into daily contact. It has been his aim, therefore, to treat the various subjects in a manner somewhat dif- ferent to the methods usually adopted for the ordinary text-book, and by this means excite a healthy desire, if possible, for a more extended knowledge of what is herein IV 1NTR0D UCTION. attempted to be explained. At the same time care has been taken to avoid the introduction of anything that would in any sense detract from its worth as an element- ary treatise on such phases of the moulder's art as are duly shown forth in the table of contents. The all-important subject of " Mixing Cast Iron " is dis- cussed in these pages from a somewhat different stand- point to that usually taken. Foundry equipment and appliances receive special notice in detail, including a table of dimensions for ladles, and the latest application of machinery for moulding' as well as other purposes in the foundry. Melting in Cupolas and Reverberatory Furnaces occupies a prominent place in the book; and the original table of instructions for the management of cupolas will no doubt be appreciated by all who, for lack of time or a disinclination to ponder these subjects, are not in posses- sion of such data. The founding of "Chilled Car-wheels" is fully ex- plained and suitably illustrated, as also is the production of " Malleable-iron Castings," etc. The measurement of castings necessarily introduces some arithmetic, but knowing the antipathy usually mani- fested by those who unfortunately know little of these matters, the author has shorn it of all mystification, and, by a few practical illustrations, endeavored to make it sufficiently plain to be understood by any one who will make the effort, no matter how deficient his previous education may have been. Of late years the modeler and sculptor have been grad- ually establishing themselves as a part of our foundry system, and not a few of our modern structures are being supplied, internally and externally, with some elegant examples of art work in cast iron, which have been pro- duced at foundries heretofore engaged only on the ruder castings for construction. This lias brought us into close INTRODUCTION. V contact with a branch of the art hitherto considered ex- clusive, and entirely beyond the ordinary moulder's ability to produce; but the author knows, from personal experi- ence, that all such exclusiveness is fast disappearing, and, owing to the numerous inquiries he has received from many quarters asking for information upon these subjects, has deemed it wise to insert in these pages an account of the methods generally pursued in the art of " Statue Founding," as well as " Pattern Modelling," — in clay and wax, and "Taking Casts," — all of which are kindred sub- jects, a want of the knowledge of which has a depreciative effect on the moulders of the present day. Simpson Bolland. New York, November, 1893.. CONTENTS. PACK Evolution of the Iron Founder's Art 1 Blast-blowers. A description of the several kinds of Blowing- engines used in the past, as well as some of those in use at the present day 13 Mixing Cast Iron 22 Foundry Cupolas. The Art of Melting Iron in them, with Table of full instructions for their erection and management 34 Reverberatory or Air Furnaces. Their use for the purpose of melting Cast Iron fully explained. 55 Casting One Hundred Tons of Cast Iron, showing the construc- tion and use of the necessary equipment for pouring heavy castings : Dams, Receivers, Air-furnaces, Ladles, with Table of Capacity of, Runners, etc 67 Costings. How to obtain their Measurement and reckon their Weights; also, t lie Nature and Qualities of the Materials used in producing them. Percentage in the Foundry. Important Facts. Formulae. Tables, etc 81 Foundry Appliances, including Block and Plate Methods of Moulding ; Gear Moulding by Machinery, and a description of some Modern Mouldiug-machines 126 Chains. Beams. Slings. Hooks. Ropes, etc., for lifting aud han- dling all classes of work in the Foundry 15g Pouring, Flowing-off , and Feeding Castings 170 Studs, Chanlets, and Anchors. How to Use aud how to Avoid using them 198 High-class Moulding Explained by a description of different ways of moulding a Four-way Veulilatiug-shaft 216 Sectional Moulding for Heavy Green-sand Work, including Draw-backs, Critical Green-sand Cores, etc., or some things beyond the Capacity of the Moulding-machine 233 vii viil CONTENTS. PAGE Hydraulic Cylinder-moulding under difficulties; or. Big Castings iu Little Foundries 250 The Fowudiug of Statues in Iron aud Brouze. Explaining the C 'ire perdue and other processes; with a review of the Art as practised by the ancieuts aud up to the present time 261 The Art of Taking Casts. Explaining the substances used : Plaster-of-Paris, Bees-wax, Dough, Bread-crumbs, Glue, etc. To take a Cast iu Metal from any small Animal, Insect, or Vegetable. To take a Cast in Plaster from a Person's Face. To take Casts from Medals. To take Casts in Isinglass, Elastic Moulds, etc 283 Pattern-modelling in Clay , 289 To Mould a Spiral Post 292 The " Berlin " Fine Cast-iron Work 295 Malleable Iron Castings. The processes of their manufacture explained, iucluding Annealing, Practical and Theoretical.. 296 Chilled Car-wheels. Full instructions for Pattern, Mouldiug Flasks, Cores, Chills, Metal-mixing, Casting, Annealing, Testing, with an explanation of the Theory of Chilling Castings 307 Fire-clays and Firebricks 321 Gauister 323 Graphite or Plumbago 324 Fuel 325 Annealing 328 How to Repair Broken or Cracked Castings. The Foundry Methods of "Burning "all classes of work fully explained aud illustrated 329 Beams of Cast Irou. Some of their properties described. Useful information relating thereto. 344 Wrought or Malleable Irou. A brief description of its manu- facture from the Pig Iron. Refiuiug, Puddling, Shingling, etc 346 Steel. How the different kinds are produced: Blister Steel, Shear Steel, Cast Steel, including Siemens-Martin, Besse- mer, etc 850 Enamel for Heavy Castings, Pipes, etc 353 Black Varnish for Ironwork 354 Varnish for Pipes aud Ironwork 354 Varnishes for Patterns 354 Cemeut for Cast Irou 855 Mineral Wool. The phenomena of its production explained. . . . 855 CONTENTS. IX PAGE To distinguish Wrought and Cast Iron from Steel 856 Turning 356 New Tinniug Process 856 Kustitieus Metal for Tiuuing 857 Tin Plate, Crystallized 357 To Tiu Iron Pots and other Domestic Articles 358 To Tin Cast-iron Studs and Chaplets 358 Case-hardening Cast Iron 358 To Chill Cast Iron very hard 859 To Soften Cast Iron 359 To Scale, Clean, and Pickle Cast Iron 359 To Remove Rust from Cast Iron 360 To Scour Cast Iron, Ziuc, or Brass 860 To Solder Gray Cast Iron 360 To deposit Copper upon Cast Iron 361 To Brouze Iron Castings 361 Brassing Cast Iron 361 Green Bronze on Iron Castings 362 Bronze for Cast Iron, without the use of Metal or Alloy 362 To Galvanize Gray-iron Castings 362 To Galvanize Cast Iron through 363 Japanning Castings, . 363 To Enamel Cast Iron aud Hollow Ware 364 Useful Interest Rules 365 Interest Table 366 Weights aud Measures 367 Areas of Circles and Sides of Squares of Equal Area 372 Wages Table 373 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT EVOLUTION OF THE IRON-FOUNDER'S ART. The term "founding" is applied by many persons to all processes connected with the manufacture of articles in metal, whether the finished product has been forged from the malleable metal or cast in moulds. This generalization is entirely misleading, and it has made all the more difficult the work 'of placing the origin of iron-founding as an art. Iron-founding, in its proper sense, is the art of preparing moulds from plastic materials of such a nature as will suc- cessfully resist the intense heat of the molten iron,— as loam or sand,— in which may be formed the object to be produced in iron, the process being completed when the iron has been melted, run into the mould, and permitted to solidify. Of the antiquity of working in brass and iron, as well as the more precious metals, there is abundant evidence, in- cluding mentions of the subject in the earliest books of the Bible. That the iron of the Hebrew records was not cast iron is made to appear with much significance in Isaiah xlviii. 4 (supposed to be about 700 B.C.) : " Because I know thou art obstinate, and thy neck is an iron sinew/' — the latter word being a plain indication of the quality of toughness common to iron in a malleable condition. Further evidence in support of this hypothesis is found in 2 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Psalms cvii. 16: "For He hath broken the gates of brass and cut the bars of iron asunder." A marked distinction is here observed in the methods of spoliation : if the iron had not been malleable, there would have been no necessity for the cutting. Some knowledge of smelting iron must have been known to the ancients; otherwise neither Tubal- Cain nor his Hebrew successors could have accomplished the forged -iron work with which they are credited. An ancient method of smelting, still employed by the natives of India, is very simple and effective, probably the same as that used by the Israelites during their term of bondage in Egypt. On the whole, it is probable that, while malleable iron was in common use among the ancients, they were practically unacquainted with cast iron and its uses; and it is more than probable that the mention of iron sculpture by the Greek writers referred to objects which had been beaten out by hammering, and not cast in moulds, as was the case, undoubtedly, in their bronze work, the antiquity of the art of casting in bronze and the pre- cious metals being well established. The processes employed were probably similar to the cire-perdue process.* Much stress is laid on the statement of Pausanias (a.d. 120) that Theodoras the Samian was the first to discover the art of casting in iron and making statues of it, about 440 B.C. ; if he was, the secret must have died with him, there being no evidence of the art at that time extending beyond his island home in the Mediterranean. We must confess that the state of the mechanic arts then existing do not harmonize with probability in Pausanias's statement ; bscause to mould statues in cast iron would have demanded a knowledge of materials and a degree of skill very superior * Cire perdue (literally, lost wax). —A French term applied to the process of bronze casting, wherein the article to be cast is first mod- elled in wax ; the wax model being then inclosed in plastic clay, upon heating which the wax melts and runs out, leaving the mould. EVOLUTION OF THE IRON-FOUNDERS ART. 3 to and much more exacting than that to which statue- founders had hitherto been accustomed in the cire-perdue processes no doubt then prevalent. But further on he says, " To make statues of iron is most difficult and labori- ous;" from which we are almost tempted to believe that the noble islander did accomplish something of the kind, after all, and left the world no wiser as to the methods he pursued. As time advanced, a growing demand for implements of war, as well as for the more peaceful implements of agri- culture and other domestic arts, created the necessity for improved systems of producing malleable iron for such purposes. But about the early part of the sixteenth cen- tury larger furnaces for the manufacture of cast or pig iron were introduced in some parts of Europe, such iron being subsequently converted into malleable or wrought iron in' the forge-hearth. A patent was granted in England about the year 1544 for a new process of making cast iron, but works written much later than this date make no mention of castings being made from this metal : which seems strange, when it is certain that castings had been made from the earliest ages from other metals and their alloys. About 1740, we are informed, iron cannon were successfully cast in the South of England by workmen who were afterwards taken across the Channel to teach the Frenchmen this new art. At this time there were very few furnaces that would pro- duce more than one ton of pig iron per day; consequently, where the foundry operations were of more than ordinary magnitude, a number of these miniature blast furnaces might have been seen at work together. Reaumur, the great French metallurgist, published in 1722 an interesting account of the methods then practised by him. The remelting of the pig iron had previously been conducted in crucibles, but he conceived the idea of 4 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. facilitating foundry operations by melting his metal in direct contact with the fuel, using for this purpose what may be taken as the forerunner of the cupola at present in use. A shaft was provided which fitted the top of the crucible, into which the iron and fuel were charged at the top in alternate layers; the blast, produced by two large blacksmith's bellows, was forced in at the lower end of the shaft, and maintained at a vigorous rate until the requisite quantity of iron was melted, after which the shaft was removed, the debris cleared away, and the crucible, con- taining the molten iron, was emptied into the moulds. From this we may date the beginning of modern foundiy methods. It was not till after Reaumur's death, in 1757, that these primitive cupolas came into anything like general use, though the itinerant founders of his day evidently were not slow to discover their practicability as portable furnaces. He thus ingeniously describes these tinker-founders : " There are founders who do nothing every day but to melt cast-iron and no other metal. Their number is not large, and I do not know whether there are more than one or two in Paris. These founders travel through the country, and make their appearance gradually in different provinces. They make cast-iron weights, plates for different purposes, cast new and patch old hollow-ware. These founders buy the pig iron they want from peddlers, who gather cast-iron scrap in the villages in the vicinity of Paris. This scrap is exchanged for apples; a man with scales in one hand, leading a horse laden with poor fruit, does the business, exchanging apples for iron, weight for weight." The "Philosophical Transactions" of the Royal Society of London for 1747, reviewing the art of making cast iron with pit-coal, and casting articles therefrom, — something which had been taking place, secretly, at the foundry of Abraham Darby, Colebrookclale, England, from 1713, — EVOLUTION OF THE IRON-FOUNDERS ART. 5 speaks of it as a curiosity. This enterprising gentleman hailed from Bristol, having leased the iron-works at Cole- brookdale in the year 1707, when it consisted of a single small furnace and foundry. Before locating at Colebrook- dale Mr. Darby had engaged as an apprentice a young Welsh shepherd named John Thomas, who accompanied his master and worked in the foundry. The lad observing the ineffectual attempts of a Dutch moulder, thought he saw the reasons for the man's failure, and was allowed to try his hand, the result being that with the assistance of his master an iron pot was successfully cast. A secret agreement was entered into between the two to keep the secret, which was loyally kept on the part of the boy, who was ever the friend of his master's family when, in after- life, they were sorely tried. The great secret of the whole process consisted in effectually leading away the gases generated in the core when the molten iron entered the mould, which, if left confined, must inevitably burst the core and £hus spoil the cast. Simple as this may seem at this day, the knowledge of making such casts in iron was so limited at that time that they were enabled to keep their secret for almost a century afterwards. Abraham Darby died 1717, when his new enterprise was in a flourishing condition, and was succeeded by his son, who was named after him ; and it was through the indefatigable exertions of the latter that coke instead of charcoal was finally used in smelting, about the year 17G0. Iron-founding received an impetus at this period of its history such as it had never before experienced. The steam-engine of Watt, coming into use at this time, devel- oped the iron manufactures at a wonderful rate, as by its means blast power was increased, and all rude contrivances, as blacksmith's bellows, and rotary machines driven by horses or oxen, which had been employed for creating blast 6 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. in furnaces, were gradually abandoned in favor of the blowing engines driven by steam. Castings in iron for the early engines of Watt and Boul- ton were made at Colebrookdale, as were also those for the first cast-iron bridge, which was erected over the Severn, close to the works, by the third Abraham Darby, and opened for traffic in 1779. To meet the growing demands of this newly awakened industry the Darby firm had soon to open other works at Ketley and Horsehay, and branches of the same firm were established at Liverpool and Bristol; also, agencies for the disposal of machinery, manufactured by this firm for mining purposes, were opened at Truro and Newcastle. The renown of this pioneer foundry has spread throughout the world; their reputation as manu- facturers of modern machinery is only equalled by their perhaps greater renown as producers of the highest-class art work of every description in cast iron and bronze. The days of long ago are still forcibly indicated by relics which are. still treasured with the greatest care, although the works generally are for the greater part modern in arrange- ment and equipment. An old furnace may be seen on supporting beams, dated " 1658," and three others have " Abraham Darby 1777 " inscribed on them. One old foundry has a plate over the door with " 1774" on it, and they still retain possession of the old cylinder, 4 inches diameter and about 36 inches stroke, which originally be- longed to Trevethick's first locomotive. We can conceive of the difficulties attending the early efforts of our forefathers in the manipulation of such cast- ings as were needed by the pioneer engineers, whose de- mand for fine iron castings would steadily increase as the practicability of steam-power became manifest. About the year 1769 steam was universally, recognized as the chief motive power, and was gradually applied to all de- scriptions of machinery. No doubt failure often resulted EVOLUTION OF THE IBOX-FOUNDER'S ART. 7 when trials were first made on castings of the nature re- quired. All this new work had to be done by moulders, who, necessarily without knowledge of the nature of mate- rials, must grope their way with absolutely nothing but hard and inexorable experience to guide them. Under such adverse circumstances there was no other way to success but hard endeavor; if a casting was bad, it was necessary to try again, and again if need be, hoping to discover the cause of failure and avoid next time the errors of preceding trials arising from ignorance of first prin- ciples. It is a lamentable fact that, although a century has since passed, the rank and file of moulders are to-day working on the same indefinite lines. The change from castings of a very ordinary type to the superior kinds required for steam- and blowing-engines, as well as machinery of all descriptions, which at this time was being rapidly changed from wood to iron, must have been almost bewildering, as nearly all parts of the engine, including crank, connecting-rod, and beam, were then made in cast iron, of elaborate design and intricate in the extreme. Good moulders must certainly have been every- where in great demand, especially such as were able to make castings that must of necessity be made in loam and dry sand. Examples of high-class moulding were set in those early days, which, with very few exceptions, have abided with us, unaltered, to this day. About this time the old devices for manufacturing woollen and cotton goods were supplanted by Arkwright's " throstle " and Crompton's spinning-mule, which in time were built up almost exclusively of cast iron. Wooden bridges began to disappear in all directions, and cast-iron structures were erected in their stead. The great Henry Cort, of Gosport, England, invented a method of rolling iron instead of hammering (1783), and from this event a demand for still another class of heavy castings was in- 8 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. angurated; while later on, a 1 out 1807, paddles were intro- duced for the propulsion of ships, which called for superior castings suitable for marine engines. Subsequently, about 1836, the screw-propeller usurped to some extent the unwieldy paddle, and with the advent of this remarkable device arose the finest example of moulding yet seen. That the iron-founders of the past were invariably equal to the occasion is eminently proved by-the casting of the screw-propeller, which to this day is moulded after plans discovered by our predecessors during the early days of steamboating. The advent of hydraulic machinery caused a demand for castings of such magnitude as to make the erection of special plants for the production of this class of work an absolute necessity. Improvements in agricul- tural and textile industries also demanded the erection of massive foundries, Up to thirty years ago very few of the improved methods of moulding now practised had been introduced in the foundries; nor had any one competent foundryman or engineer attempted to supplant the cumbrous and un- gainly equipments of the past by the very elegant and efficacious appliances now found in mammoth model foun- dries. The ponderous and slow wooden cranes have, by a gradual process of evolution, merged into machines of wonderful efficacy, and are now almost automatically con- trolled. The overhead trolley for conveying molten iron direct from the cupola to every part of ths foundry is an improvement on the old system of hand-carrying, necessi- tated by the magnitude of some foundries in which the distance from the cupola to the furthermost parts of the shop is great; and, where such devices cannot be applied conveniently, we see well-kept tracks with switches in every available direction, on which handy trucks, specially constructed for this purpose, are used for conveying, with ease and despatch, every material used in foundry EVOLUTION OF THE IRON- FOUNDER'S ART. 9 operations. For the time honored wheelbarrows has been substituted the conveyer, which hauls everything to its destination entirely clear of the foundry floor. Where once all the iron and fuel were carried by hand to the cupola scaffold, we have now, in some places at least, elegant provision of either electric, steam, or hydraulic appliances for performing this work. The old rule-of- tliumb methods of charging the cupola have at last given place to the more sensible and economical system of weigh- ing all material in correct proportion. Attention has been given to many minor things also. We have seen even the riddle superseded first by the common upright screen and then by the swinging and sliding machine riddles, and now the revolving screen is to be seen in many foundries. Cleansing-mills, provided with an exhauster to carry off the dust, have superseded the primitive method of scrub- bing sand off the castings with stone and wire brush. Loam mills of infinite variety and degrees of effectiveness are to be seen, where once the click of the chopper was to be heard. Some of the modes devised for clamping to- gether the flasks, seen now almost everywhere, are in- genious in the extreme, and it is pleasing to observe how common at this time is Nasmyth's great invention, the geared ladle. Once it was thought that hay and straw rope must always be twisted in the primitive fashion; but this also has yielded to the spirit of invention, and the rope-spinning machine is throwing off bands, well spun and true. Machines too numerous to mention have been invented during the past thirty years, which, without the aid of a costly pattern, will make either spur, bevel, mitre, mortise, or worm wheels. The extraordinary progress of the cast-iron -pipe industry, with reference to equipment, has been such as to make that branch of moulding almost independent of skilled labor. The same may be said of many other classes of work where large quantities of 10 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. duplicate castings are in demand, snch work being now produced in the several moulding-machines with a facility and dispatch impossible by the old methods of ramming by hand. The invention of plaster-blocks paved the way for the improved systems of plate-moulding which immediately succeeded them, introducing the interchangeable modes of flask-pairing and the earlier kinds of stripping-plates, the latter principle constituting the chief element of success in the modern moulding-machine. One of the greatest aids to modern founding is the system of tests, chemical and physical, to which in some firms the pig iron is subjected before it is charged into ihe cupola. When eminent chemists inform us that what- ever quality of iron the iron-founder demands can be furnished by the furnace manager, it would seem that it only remains for the foundryman to acquire such chemical knowledge as will enable him to know the exact measure of every element needed to produce the desired quality of iron, and thus, by chemical analysis, determine all his mix- tures. Keep's tests are no doubt the most comprehensive of any of the physical tests for this purpose which have yet appeared, as they embrace every element necessary for discovering the nature and quality of cast iron. At present we seem to be on the eve of great changes ; and it is somewhat difficult and hazardous to predict the channels which future progress in iron-founding will take. Owing to the system of dividing labor, now becoming so prevalent, it is simply impossible for the ordinary work- man to master the details of founding: this, coupled with general lack of education, leaves him, in a measure, in- competent to manage even ordinary establishments intelli- gently; but how utterly incompetent are such men for becoming heads of the magnificently equipped foundries now being constructed! To operate such establishments EVOLUTION OF THE IRON-FOUNDERS ART. 11 it has been thought advisable by some to change the order somewhat, and engage the services of an educated engineer, so that the efforts of the foreman moulder shall be directed in paths which run in harmony with known physical laws. When so much has been accomplished by the uneducated founder in the past, what are we entitled to expect in the future from this added intelligence? Time will show. The age is pregnant with ideas. The full blaze of scientific knowledge is lighting up dark and hitherto mysterious nooks in which nature has hidden many precious secrets. To suppose that the useful and noble art of iron-founding will not share in the riches thus lavishly obtained would be to rank it as among the least progressive of the me- chanic arts: whereas recent advances show that it is no longer wedded to ancient ideas and methods, but is eager to embrace any and all sound improvement. The consideration of the possibilities in foundry practice forces itself upon the attention of practical men who now thoroughly understand these possibilities. Indifference is giving way to active research and investigation, with reference to the supply of suitable material and equipment. Schools of technology will yet be brought to see the im- portance of giving the foundry more substantial recogni- tion. One of the best modern moulding-machines owes its origin to experiments, conducted by its inventor, in the foundry of the Stevens Institute, — a fact which might be profitably borne in mind by the faculties of other technical schools, which, as a rule, are wofully deficient in means for teaching the art of founding. The introduction of some late inventions for melting iron indicates the march of progress in this particular very forcibly. Every effort is now put forth to prevent the immense waste of heat which occurs in ordinary cupola melting, by a disposition of the tuyeres such as will burn 12 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. the ascending combustible gases without heating the fuel to incandescence, in which instance the developed heat preheats the iron and fuel before it reaches the melting zone. What may we not expect in the prevention of heat- waste when we find that electricity has at last been suc- cessfully applied for melting cast iron ? It is claimed for the " Taussig" electric system of melting cast iron in ex- hausted chambers that oxidation and creation of air bub- bles are avoided, and that the cost for driving the dynamos is 50 per cent less than would ordinarily be required for melting by the best practice. The advent of the chemist in the foundry marks a new era in iron-founding, and is perhaps the surest indication of a desire for thorough advancement, as by his aid the indecision and doubt hitherto existing must ultimately cease. Mixing of different brands of cast iron, as well as the alloying of cast iron with other metals, to obtain a higher degree of homogeneity, or any other special quality in the resultant casting, will, under such qualified direc- tion, be more easy of accomplishment. Given superior direction, we may confidently anticipate the time when, by the united efforts of the scholar and the trained artisan, the art of iron-founding, in neither equip- ment nor skill, shall be second to any of the iron indus- tries. BLAST. BLOWERS. 13 BLAST. BLOWERS. A DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL KINDS OF BLOWING- ENGINES USED IN THE PAST, AS WELL AS SOME OF THOSE IN USE AT THE PRESENT DAY. Blowing-machines, as applied in the foundry, are all such as are made to produce a current of air to assist the combustion within the cupola, etc. There is no doubt of the common bellows of to-day being about as old a contrivance for this purpose as can be found anywhere. The Catalan forges of some parts of Europe furnish an interesting example of a blowing-machine called a 'Tromp.' One great objection to its use is that it can only be em- ployed where it is convenient to provide a fall of some yards of water. The reservoir above has a plug in the bottom, which fits a conical-shaped hole connecting wi-th a wooden pipe extending down to the wind-chest below. The water, by means of sloping holes provided at the top of the pipe, carries air down with it. The wind-chest, shown in article " Melting Cast Iron in Cupolas," is pro- vided with holes, one for the water to pass away, and the other, connecting with the nozzle-pipe, permits the air to escape in that direction. The water as it falls strikes a platform set there to receive it, the effect of which is to separate the air from the water. The height of drop deter- mines the strength of the blast. Another form of blower that has found favor in times past is two wooden boxes with open sides, and made to slip one over the other. The blast is produced by moving the upper enclosing box up and down over the other, and 14 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. BLAST. BLOWERS. 15 may be hinged for an easier motion. The lower box is provided with a valve opening inwards, and has a nozzle attached. A very simple form of bellows is made by the Chinese, which resembles the blowing-engine very much in its ac- tion. It is composed of a long square box, provided with a piston which fits all its sides, and a nozzle at the closed end. When the piston is pulled from the nozzle it opens valves to admit the air, but as soon as the movement is reversed the valves close and the air escapes at the nozzle. Fan-blowers seem to have been in use about 1729, or perhaps before, as one Teral is supposed to have in- vented one about that time. Smeaton erected blowing- engines at the Carron Ironworks in 1760; and it would seem that most all the first of the modern blowing- machines were composed of cylinders having pistons, all varying more or less in the application of the power to drive them and obtain a steady current of air. A blast- machine common in times past was two cylinders con- nected, one of which was provided with a discharge-pipe. The first downward stroke of piston number one drives the air into cylinder number two through a valve in the foot-box, which rises with the pressure; simultaneously with the movement downwards of piston number one, piston number two ascends as far as it may be forced, when it immediately returns, shutting the valve and forc- ing the air through the discharge-pipe, Avhile piston num- ber one ascends, filling the cylinder with air, which is again driven into cylinder number two and ejected as in the first instance, etc. The cylinder and piston type of blowing-engines prevail in nearly all the blast furnace systems. At first they were made to force the blast with every alternate motion of the piston, and when a number of these were attached to the same crank-shaft run by a water-wheel they succeeded in 16 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Fig. 2. — The Sturtevant Steel Pressure-blower Blast-wheel, BLAST. BLOWERS. 17 producing a steadier pressure than was possible with only one cylinder. The water-wheel has now been superseded by steam at most places, some preferring to have steam and blast cyl- inder in line on one bed horizontally, with both pistons on the same rod, and others favoring the same principle ap- plied vertically. The very large engines, however, are invariably operated by a steam and blast cylinder on op- posite ends of the same bed, vertically, with a beam to connect their pistons. Fan-blast machines are now employed in many found- ries. The common form of fan consists of three or more spokes of a rimless wheel, tipped with vanes, and made to rotate in a cylindrical chest. There are openings on both sides round the spindle for the admission of air, which, sucked in by the centrifugal action of the fan as it quickly rotates, flows towards the vanes, and is driven through an exit pipe attached to another part of the cylinder. There are numerous varieties of these engines, which latter have become subjects for the exercise of the in- genuity of modern inventors in this line. The compound blowing-fan of Schiele's consists of two fans combined on the same shaft so as to act successively on the same air. By the first the air is driven into a chamber between the fans at a pressure of 6 ounces; the second receives the air at this pressure, and by further compression delivers the same into the furnace at a press- ure of 12 ounces per square inch. The Sturtevant pressure-blower, Fig. 1, has sjioked wheels, Figs. 2 and 3, having conical annular disks, mounted on an axis, Fig. 3, driven by two belts, to prevent any ten- dency to wobbling. The air enters between the spokes round the axis, and is driven forcibly by the curved floats, which span the space between the annular disks, being 18 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Fig. 3.— The Sturtevant Steel Pressure-blower Journal-bearing. BLAST. BLOWERS. 19 discharged into a peripheral receiving-chamber, whence it reaches the eduction-pipe. The Mackenzie pressure-blower, Fig. 4, is in common use in this country as well as in Europe. The blades are attached to fan boxes which revolve on a fixed centre shaft. Motion is imparted to them by means of a cylinder, to Section of Mackenzie Blower. which are attached the driving-pulleys. Half rolls in the cylinder act as guides for the blades, allowing them to work smoothly in and out as the cylinder revolves. At each revolution the entire space back of the cylinder, be- tween two blades, is filled and emptied three times. Other rotary blowers are on the principle of the rotary pump or rotary engine, having two portions which revolve in apposition. Root's pressure-blower, Fig. 5, is similar in principle to the foregoing; it acts by regular displacement of the 'air 20 TEE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. BLAST. BLOWERS. 21 at each revolution. A pair of horizontal shafts, geared together at both ends, traverse a case of the form of two semi-cylinders, Fig. 6, separated by a rectangle equal in depth to the diameter of the semi-cylinders, and in width to the distance between the centres of the shafts. These shafts carry a pair of solid arms, each having a section somewhat resembling a figure of eight, the action of which as they revolve takes the air in by an aperture at Fig. 6. the bottom of the machine, and expels it with consider- able pressure, if required, at the top. The 'Steam Jet' is another form of blower now fre- quently adopted, but may with more correctness be de- scribed as a substitute for the blower. ' Herbertz's Steam Jet Cupola ' works by means of at- mospheric air breathed or sucked into the furnace by a jet of steam placed in the upper part of the shaft. This cupola requires no motive force, and the vacuum produced in the shaft by the suction allows every stage of the smelt- ing process to be observed by the means of valves and tubes placed at different heights, thereby furnishing a convenient means of controlling the work. 22 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. MIXING CAST IRON. It is the business of the iron-founder to produce castings which will best meet all of the numerous demands — fine- ness combined with hardness, fineness combined with soft- ness, strength to resist pressures and strains, etc. He must also be able, by a judicious selection of different brands of iron, to produce mixtures which will meet the almost impossible demands created by faults in construc- tion, as well as the countless conditions which, owing to the nature of the case, are imperative, and can only be met successfully by correct mixtures. Now, is it not true that these emergencies are met, in a great majority of cases, by the merest chance, and not un- til after great loss has been sustained from repeated ex- perimenting is success achieved ? And, be it remembered, such success is at best only partial, for owing to the lack of correct data the whole experience must inevitably be re- peated whenever the emergency again presents itself. I would ask, What guide has the founder ever had ordi- narily, other than the bare statement that No. 1 iron is all such as shows large crystals, smooth and bright, soft al- most to sponginess in some cases, and that all such irons are to be chosen for use in the production of light castings; whilst No. 2 is to be recognized as being lighter in color, and to have smaller crystals than No. 1, eminently adapted for general work, machinery castings, etc. ; and again, that No. 3 is all such iron as shows a greater density than No. 2, with a slight mottle indicated, and that this latter is to be used for the heaviest work? MIXING CAST IRON. 23 This, strange as it may seem, is about all that the average founder knows about cast iron. Is it any wonder that so many blunders are made ? It is no uncommon thing to hear of some founder who has met with a difficulty, caused by a too free use of No. 1 iron, trying to overcome the same by making still further additions to his mixture of the same brand, — this because of the generally accepted idea that No. 1 iron is the panacea for all evils of whatever nature. Such a person, wise in his own conceit, would ridicule the idea of overcoming his difficulty by means directly op- posite to those he was pursuing; nevertheless, such a course would in all probability be the only one to take if success is to be assured. Not unfrequently, when I have failed to obtain a degree of softness which was satisfactory by the use of No. 1 irons, I have had no difficulty whatever when No. 2 of a different brand has been substituted, and it has been no uncommon thing in my experience to discover that the scrap-pile con- tained the most valuable stock in hand: in fact, I know of one foundry in particular where strictly assorted scrap is used almost exclusively, with very excellent results; but that is because of the superior knowledge of the foreman, who has devoted himself to the study of such matters. It will not be out of place just here to relate an experi ence of my own which bears directly upon this subject. Some years ago I was called upon to take charge of a foundry where they had been experiencing considerable trouble with their iron. Castings innumerable were being rejected owing to their extreme hardness, and it had be- come imperative that steps be taken to check by some means the enormous losses they were sustaining. Close at hand was found a stack of No. 3 pig iron which had long been voted useless; this was Hanked by an un- sightly mass of promiscuous scrap, which under the circum- 24 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. stances it was considered impossible to use. In addition to all this, I was shown another pile of scrap, remote from the foundry, which represented the accumulations of years, and footed up to the respectable sum of about 400 tons. It was not long before I discovered what had caused this extraordinary waste, one chief cause being that the mix- tures were arranged by one of the officials in the office, whose only claim to distinction in that line of business arose from the fact that he had. in some remote period of his life, held a minor position at a smelting-furnace. His method was to take portions of the several brands, either alone or in varying mixture, and make a crucible test of a very limited kind, and from such tests a formula was made out for the guidance of the foreman, with the result as above stated. To overcome these evils recourse was had to very strin- gent measures: the services of the quondam mixer were dispensed with at once, and those of a metallurgical chem- ist engaged, by the aid of whom I was enabled in six months to use up every pound of this so-called obnoxious iron, to the great satisfaction of my employer, from whom I received the highest encomiums. I would here observe that there was no " Scotch " or No. 1 irons used to effect this result. After a careful analysis had been made of all the irons on hand, and their natures distinctly noted, suitable mixtures for the various kinds of work were made, and all upon a strictly chemical basis, with astonishingly successful results. The medium through which all this was accomplished was a brand of iron (on hand) which was exceedingly high in silicon, and it was the wonderful results produced by its agency on this occasion which changed all my cherished ideas in regard to mixing of metals on the old lines. My firm conviction now is that the mixing of irons can- not be intelligently carried on unless chemical analysis MIXINO CAST IRON. 2o forms the basis of procedure; and before attempting to give any absolute data for the guidance of others in the mixing of irons by this method, I would ask the reader to look to me, not as a master in these matters, but as a student who has just touched on the edge of a new truth and desires that others equally interested may share in the discovery. Mr. Turner, demonstrator of chemistry, Mason College, says: " (1) Pure cast iron — i.e., iron and carbon only — even if obtainable, would not be the most suitable material for use in the foundry; (2) that cast iron containing excessive amounts of other constituents is equally unsuitable for foundry purposes; (3) that the ill effects of one constituent can at best be only imperfectly neutralized by the addi- tion of another constituent; (4) that there is a suitable proportion for each constituent present in cast iron. This proportion depends upon the character of the product which is desired, and upon the proportion of other elements pres- ent; (5) that variations in the proportion of silicon afford a trustworthy and inexpensive means of producing a cast- iron of any required mechanical character which is possible with the material employed." In support of the fifth clause, relating to silicon, we quote from William Kent, in American Machinist, Feb- ruary 20th, 1890, where he says that " Mr. Charles Wood claims for himself, assisted by Mr. Stead, the discovery that silicon had the power of reducing the combined car- bon into uncombined carbon, or, in other words, to convert white iron into gray iron." Experiments made at numer- ous foundries in France had completely established the fact, and confirmed the statements made by Mr. AVood. The custom of purchasing irons by their fracture, Mr. Wood said, in order to obtain sound castings, was a great mistake and must be abandoned. He admitted that hither- to it had been the only practical system known, and that founders in order to make soft castings had always gone to 26 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Scotch No. 1 or like rich brands to mix with other qualities in order to produce this result; but he had shown that the commonest iron, such as mottled and white, could be re- duced to any degree of softness by a proper mixture of sil- icon iron ; and an iron-founder by following this rule, and studying analysis of the irons at his command, could now produce in his cupola the exact quality of iron most suit- able to his castings, instead of as hitherto depending upon special and expensive brands, which were often very un- certain in producing what was required, although the frac- ture might be all that was desired, whilst the only explana- tion was to be found in analysis. Such evidence, coupled with personal observation and constant practice, forces us to the conclusion that a new era is dawning upon us in so far as relates to this subject, and already do we notice astonishing results from the adop- tion of the method of chemical analysis in the production of cast-iron car- wheels. We quote from the same authority, who says: "Some years ago it was thought that only 'Hanging Rock' or 'Salisbury' cold-blast charcoal irons were good enough for car-wheels, and these irons brought very much higher prices than other irons. The chemists at length discovered that the peculiar characteristic was that they were lower in silicon than hot-blast and coke irons, and reasoned therefrom: (1) that if other irons could be found having identical analysis, they would be equally good in quality; (2) that if the silicon in coke and other hot-blast irons could be reduced to the same percent- age that existed in these cold-blast irons, either by partial blowing in a converter or by diluting the iron in the cupola with irons or steel that contained little or no silicon (such as steel-rail ends), the same results would be found. Prac- tical experiments demonstrated the truth of these theories; and now there is probably more iron used in making car- wheels than the whole product of the 'Hanging Rock ' and MIXING CAST IRON. 21 the 'Salisbury ' districts, these irons no longer bringing the fancy prices, relatively to other irons, that they once did : irons formerly considered not good enough are now in demand for the purpose, and the cost of the iron used in a car-wheel is greatly reduced. " The time is probably not far distant when pig iron for foundry purposes will be bought and sold on analysis, just as iron for Bessemer and other steel now is; and the results will be stronger and cheaper castings, more certainty in quality of product, lower prices for fancy brands of iron sold on their old reputations, and higher prices for scrap, white iron, silver gray, and other varieties hitherto under- valued." I shall now attempt to give an account of some of the chemical substances found in irons of different kinds, and how to combine them to obtain certain results. With the view of becoming better acquainted with the nature of ' pig iron,' let us determine what influence car- bon, manganese, sulphur, phosphorus, and silicon have upon it. It must be understood that the strength of cast iron de- pends on (1) the amount of weakening impurities pres- ent; (2) the proportion existing between the combined and the graphitic carbon. According to their influence on the properties of cast- iron, the elements mentioned may be classified into two groups: (1) Softeners — graphitic carbon and silicon. (2) Hardeners — combined carbon, manganese, sulphur, and phosphorus. 28 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. GRAPHITIC CARBON. Carbon existing as graphite in cast iron makes it soft and tough, and increases its fluidity. When molten iron solidifies, the liberation of the carbon occurs at the instant of crystallization. Silicon added to iron produces graphite. The amount of graphite in gray irons varies from about 1.5 to 3.5 per cent. In Scotch irons the graphitic carbon should not be below 3.0 per cent. COMBINED CARBON. Combined carbon in proper proportion to graphitic car- bon increases the strength of cast iron. Cast iron which contains too much combined carbon be- comes harder and more brittle in proportion, and shrinks more in cooling than does graphitic carbon. Sudden cooling of the metal prevents the liberation of carbon as graphite, and retains it in the state of combi- nation with the iron. Repeated remelting increases the combined carbon, and when silicon is taken from iron the combined carbon is also increased. For soft castings the mixture should not contain over 0.2 per cent of combined carbon, but for strong castings 0.4 to 0.8 per cent is admissible, and in some cases even more. So-called " Scotch" irons or "softeners" should contain ;i maximum of graphitic and a minimum of combined carbon. The best brands of these irons sometimes contain less than 0.1 per cent of combined carbon. MIXING CAST IRON. 29 MANGANESE. Manganese tends to the formation of combined carbon, reduces the tensile strength, makes the iron hard and brittle, causes more waste by reason of the formation of additional slag, and acts in a contrary direction to silicon. Manganese in foundry irons varies from mere traces to over 2.0 per cent. For the reasons as herein stated, manganese can only be tolerated in very strong castings, and even then should not exceed in the mixture over 0.5 per cent. SULPHUR. Sulphur contributes to retain the carbon in the combined state, and probably also promotes the formation of com- bined carbon, and consequently hardens the castings. In foundry irons this element should not exceed 0.1 per cent. PHOSPHORUS. Phosphorus causes hardness and brittleness by lowering the separation of graphite, but increases fluidity. Phosphorus in foundry irons varies from 0.2 to 1.0 pel cent, and sometimes even more; but for best results in foundry mixtures, it should not exceed 0.5 per cent, or, preferably, 0.3 per cent. The injurious effects of phosphorus become more ap- parent in proportion as the percentage of combined carbon increases. High phosphorus is desirable only in cases where great fluidity, regardless of strength, is the chief desideratum. 30 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. SILICON". Silicon increases fluidity, and reduces hardness and shrinkage of castings by its influence on the combined carbon, changing it into graphitic; but after the bulk of the carbon has become graphitic, through an addition of silicon, any further addition of silicon hardens the casting. In the foundry the problem is to have the right propor- tions of combined and graphitic carbon in the resultant castings, and the fundamental laws in foundry practice are, that in white pig iron an addition of silicon precipi- tates the combined carbon in the form of graphitic carbon, and causes gray iron to be produced, and that in gray pig iron the expulsion of silicon converts the graphitic carbon into combined carbon and produces white iron. The variations, within certain limits, in the proportions of silicon, afford a reliable means of producing castings of any mechanical character which is possible with the ma- terials employed; but the percentage of silicon required depends greatly upon the condition in which the carbon exists in the iron to begin with, viz., in an iron when the bulk of the carbon is already graphitic, more silicon may weaken the casting and make it brittle. Thus by a judicious use of silicon the proportioning of the carbon may be accomplished accordiug to the wish of the founder. The amount of silicon producing the maximum of strength is about 1.8 to 2.0 per cent when a white base is used. The strongest castings are obtained from irons which, when melted alone, will produce sound castings with the least amount of graphite, and each addition of silicon to such iron will decrease strength. When strength is desired, it should also be borne in mind MIXING CAST IRON. 31 that the phosphorus, sulphur, and manganese must be kept low, or within certain limits. Gray foundry irons contain from 1.0 to 5.0 per cent, ferro silicons from 5.0 to 14.0 per cent, and castings will vary from 1.5 to 3.0 per cent of silicon. In figuring for the silicon contained in scrap-iron the following will be found a safe estimate: 1.5 per cent for .scrap from castings which show a gray fracture; 1.0 per cent for such as show a mottled fracture; 0.5 per cent for turnings (cast) when clean; 0.0 per cent when rusty, and the same for burnt iron. The percentage of silicon to be figured for in white pig iron is about 0.5. In the paper written by W. J. Keep, Detroit, Mich., en- titled " Silicon in Cast Iron," the whole subject is treated in a masterly manner, and all who carefully peruse its pages must inevitably agree with that illustrious investi- gator in the conclusions he draws with regard to the won- derful element which he so ably discusses. In the last clause of his paper he says: " We have seen, however, that a white iron which will invariably give porous and brittle castings can be made solid and strong by the addition of silicon ; that a further addition of silicon will turn the iron gray, and that as the grayness increases the iron will grow weaker; that excessive silicon will again lighten the grain, and cause a hard and brittle as well as a very weak iron ; that the only softening and shrinkage-lessening influence of silicon is exerted during the time when graphite is being produced, and that silicon of itself is not a softener or a lessener of shrinkage, but through its influence on carbon, and only during a certain stage, it does produce these effects." From the foregoing it must be inferred that if founders are to keep pace with this age of discovery they must be willing to leave the old beaten tracks of indecision and 3 fc 2 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. doubt, and seize upon the more tangible methods which science reveals to us every day. The suggestions herein contained should, I think, go far owards making what has hitherto seemed a mystery appear as a problem easy of solution : for instance, a cast- ing is required that shall meet certain conditions; a careful study of the foregoing will enable the founder to know what proportion of the several elements may with safety be allowed to enter into the mixture, and knowing from previous analysis what the stock consists of, he can at once decide which course to pursue, and all this with a positive- ness which is simplicity itself. The reader will also see how effectually this method will eradicate the old foundry nomenclature, as, instead of the present distinguishing terms as applied to cast iron in stock, we should know them according to analysis, as brands high, medium, or low in one or more of their con- stituent elements. Of course a thorough knowledge of this proposed inno- vation will mark a new era in the prices of cast iron, as before stated, because the demands for so-called No. 1 irons will not necessarily be as urgent as is now the case; and I am surprised that employers have not before now grasped the situation, for it is no exaggeration to say that if the services of the metallurgical chemist were more gen- erally insisted upon, and the proposed method adopted in its entirety, an immense saving would be effected, as lower grades of iron could be used with absolute certainty. It must not be supposed that the founder can, under any circumstances, omit the care and supervision always requi- site where the best practice is to be obtained. AVhile scrap, so-called, ceases under the proposed change to be a drug, and becomes in some instances a prime ne- cessity, every precaution must be taken to insure its suc- cessful reduction in the cupol; ; all such as is very dirty MIXING CAST IRON. 83 should be thoroughly cleaned, and when there is a large quantity of very fine scrap it is preferable to charge it all together, at the last of the heat, mixed with as much high silicon iron as will insure its conversion into a desirable mixture. When it is remembered that scrap, especially such as has been frequently remelted, contains a larger amount of com- bined carbon than the original pig from which it was made, there will be no difficulty in understanding that such scrap, judiciously used, will neutralize any tendency to sponginess which may be inherent in the pig. such mixtures to be proportioned according to the degree of fineness desired in the resultant casting. Too little care is exercised in the choice of a man to attend the cupola; and if employers could be made to see how much they lose every year through sheer incompe- tency in the management of that important department, we should soon see a different class of men employed. An ignorant man cannot be expected to take any interest in mixtures, economy, and the numberless other important factors which are indispensable where the best results are looked for. A carefully kejDt record of every day's melting is abso- lutely necessary, — for, hoAvever precise the mixtures may be made, there will always be neutralizing influences, more or less, at work to make such a course indispensable, — the several adverse results can be noted, and the reasons for such inquired into. Physical tests must also be taken ; for it must be borne in mind that in this business nothing is absolute, so many things, unavoidable sometimes (conflicting, nevertheless), such as different degrees of heat, rapid meltiug or the op- posite, and countless other contingencies exist; and these make it imperative that test-bars be made each melt, with the view of ascertaining the exact amount of shrinkage, 34 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. tendency to sink or draw, tendency to chill, degree of hardness, strength, etc., all of which make useful data for future reference. FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. THE ART OF MELTING IRON IN THEM, WITH TABLE OF FULL EXPLANATIONS FOR THEIR ERECTION AND MANAGEMENT. The cupola is now one of the most important factors in foundry economy. Its management commands the atten- tion of the founder to a far greater extent to-day than it has ever done in the past. No matter what pains may be taken to insure a good and safe mould, every attempt in that direction will be neutralized if the molten iron supplied for filling it is not in every sense up to that standard of excellence which a right use of the materials employed warrants us to expect. The truth of the above has been so often demonstrated, that any further allusion to the fact would be superfluous here. The science of melting in cupolas seems to have made very slow progress, until it was seen by some of the advanced thinkers on the subject that there was " money in it"; then the services of the engineer and scientist were enlisted in the cause, and specialists in the manufacture of cupolas and blowers were to be found everywhere. A result of this change in the order of things is that, instead of working, as has hitherto been the case, by the "rule of thumb," we are now enabled to measure, with a degree of accuracy almost marvellous, the air, fuel, capacity FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 35 of cupola, and pressure of blast, etc., required to melt a given quantity of iron in a specified time. True, we do not always accomplish this with the degree of accuracy above spoken of, but in nearly every case of failure the cause may be traced to the non-fulfilment of the known condi- tions. It must be remembered that the intelligence of the melter has not grown with the steady improvements now being established in nearly all of our leading establish- ments; consequently it requires the constant attention of foreman or manager to insure a correct manipulation of improved cupolas and their adjuncts. The thoughtful founder has profited to an appreciable extent by reason of the claims for recognition made by the manufacturers of cupolas and blowers, for in order to sub- stantiate such claims they have flooded the market with catalogues and pamphlets, which contain an elucidation of the science of melting such as cannot be found anywhere else. This literature, made purposely plain, has been read extensively, with very good results : a better feeling has been established between the workman and the scholar, and there is now no doubt in the mind of the practical founder that the day of mystery is past, for very much if not all ')f the mystery has been scattered by those very scholars whom he has always been taught to despise. The good resulting from this improved education in matters relating to the melting of iron in cupolas is nowhere seen to better advantage than in the erection and management of what may be called the common cupola, which, notwithstanding the immense number of patent ones sold, still finds a place in every land, and I suppose always will. It must strike the interested observer that, after all, there is not very much difference in the construc- tion of cupolas. Most of the so-called ' improved ' have 36 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. made their debut within the last thirty-rive years, and very many of them have, after a short trial, been changed back to the old style, with considerable profit to those interested. Others are simply ' tolerated ' because they are neither better nor worse than the old style; and not a few of the really meritorious cupolas are producing minimized results from the simple cause that there is not sufficient intel- ligence expended on their management. In a number of cases, when the formulas furnished by the patentees for guidance in the management of their cupolas are followed to the letter, very excellent results ensue, both time and money being saved by adopting them; but as these formu- las are carefully prepared by experts, and are in the main reliable, we need not inquire into their respective merits, but proceed at once to an exposition of the construction and management of the common cupola, for, on account of the extra cost of erection, joined to the strict management required for the successful working of most patent cupolas, there will, I presume, always be a demand for the former. The blast-furnace, in some form or other, has always had a place in the metallurgical arts, and dates back to the earlier dynasties of the ancient empire of Egypt; true, they were very simple contrivances, but that which was accomplished is made to appear all the more wonderful in view of their simplicity. The Catalan furnace is a type of some of these old-time smelting processes, and, primitive as they were, could be found in use in some parts of Europe a few years back ; these were simply a hole in the ground, with walled sides, into which a copper tuyere pipe penetrated. When the charcoal and ore had been properly placed within this hole the blast was forced through the tuyere pipe by some of the antiquated methods then in vogue, until the molten iron was produced. At Fi^. 7 will be seen a longitudinal vertical section of the Catalan furnace, which, as will be observed, lias no FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 37 chimneys. On the left of the figure is seen the lower part of the tromp or blowing engine; the blast is produced by means of a fall of water of about twenty-five feet through a tube into the cistern below, to whose upper part the blast- pipe is connected, the water escaping through a pipe below. This apparatus is on the outside of the building, and is said to afford a continuous blast of great regularity. Now if we continue the walls of this primitive contriv- ance, what do we obtain in reality other than the cupola of Catalan Furnace Fig. 7. to-day, exact in every particular so far as the principles involved for melting iron are concerned ? Fig. 8 shows sections and elevation of what was con- sidered a good type of cupola fifty years ago, and of which type there are large numbers still working in England and in parts of the European continent, as well as still a few in some of the remote parts of this country. There is really no essential difference betwixt the cupola shown at Fig. 8 and that seen at Fig. 9, except that, instead of the bottom resting on a solid foundation, as at Fig. 8, the one at Fig. 9 is supported by four columns A, which allows for 38 THE IRON-JKJUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Section of Fig Fig. 8. ^-''Cniler tivtmnil Main Blast Pipe- FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 39 the dropping out of the whole contents of the cupola at once, swing-doors B being provided for that purpose, whilst in the former case the cupola, when done working, must be raked out with hooks through large apertures A pro- vided for the purpose. Another feature which commands attention is the sub- stitution of a wind-box round the cupola, connecting with a system of pipes above, for the underground arrangement shown at B, B, Fig. 8; this allows for the multiplication of tuyeres or any other changes which experience may sug- gest, being made with very little trouble or expense. A careful examination of Fig. 9, aided by the table which accompanies this article, will enable any one to build a cupola after the pattern shown, which pattern is, to all intents and purposes, what we may call a common cupola, in contradistinction to all such as are protected by letters patent. Let us now consider in detail the various requirements for the erection and management of such a cupola. LOCATION OF CUPOLA. What shall be its capacity, and where shall it be located ? are very important points to be considered. With regard to the latter query, due care should always be exercised to choose a location which will be equidistant from all its parts, for, whether the iron is carried in shanks, run on trucks, or changed from crane to crane in ladles, this disposition will give an equal and rapid distribution. A very good axiom is that of Mr. Kirk's, who, in his very excellent work " Founding of Metals," says: "It is easier to wheel pig iron to a cupola than it is to carry molten iron away from it." 40 THE UlUX- FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Fig. 9. Amtrrlc-nXa^init J FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 41 CAPACITY OF CUPOLA. The accompanying table will be of service in deter- mining the capacity of cupola needed for the production of a given quantity of iron in a specified time. First, ascertain the amount of iron which is likely to be needed at each cast, and the length of time which can be devoted profitably to its disposal; and supposing that two hours is all that can be spared for that purpose, and that ten tons is the amount which must be melted, find in the column " Melting Capacity per hour in Pounds" the nearest figure to five tons per hour, which is found to be 10,760 pounds per hour, opposite to which, in the column " Diameter of Cupola's Inside Lining," will be found 48 inches: this will be the size of cupola required to furnish ten tons of molten iron in two hours. Or suppose that the heats were likely to average six tons, with an occasional increase up to ten, then it might not be thought wise to incur the extra expense consequent on working a 48-inch cupola; in which case, by following the directions given, it will be found that a 40-inch cupola would answer the purpose for 6 tons, but would require an additional hour's time for melting whenever the 10-ton heat came along. Let it be understood that the quotations in the table are not supposed to be all that can be melted in the hour by some of the very excellently equipped cupolas now in the market, but are simply the amounts which a common cupola under ordinary circumstances may be expected to melt in the time specified. HEIGHT OF CUPOLA. What is meant by height of cupola is the distance from the base to the bottom side of the charging hole. 42 THE I ICON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. % fa « ° CD P fa o 'A ^ ,- w fa S p 'A & fe E£ A X < a & fa H h ° « O fa !5 * fcH a O H w to < « P < O CO K P O X o . 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OJ X X OJ OJ X 0» OJ OJ X X CO OJ i CJ Hi CO eo ■* ■* ■^ to •pa-lBa^isap Bjod -no qoBa joj pajutb -aj jajaoiBtp saqbui 9 saja^nx jo aaqtuuK 6 CO OJ to 01 CO CO CO co to •saqoui m 'q^anaj ni tjaaj OOI '3aipaao -xa jon aaqAi adid -ISBianrem jo ja^auf Bia OJ „ -> tj< n- •spanoj ui 'uoji jo saSjBqo ^nipaaaong CO 3 O 00 >o 00 - 5» CO 10 OJ -f co_ oj' OD to — c-. «~ o_ Oj' CO •spanoj ai 'janj jo saajBqo aaipeaaons 03 XI m 05 CO to 00 0) CO OJ OJ -f ^r •spuuod ai 'aoai jo a^jBqo 'jsaijj 60 i- OS t-h c O S OS p OJ OJ c c oj 0-. .0 l- OJ OJ •spunOfi ui 'paq no paamb -a.i jang jo ^nnotuv CO O OS O O 10 c -J to lO i- ■T CO 00 OS •saqoui at 'saaaA"m jo apis .iepnn 01 paq pnBS iuojj 'qidaQ B O - c ■ciaag ui 'joop SuiSJBqo jo rao^oq 0% a^Bjd niowoq tuojj Bjodno jo iq3|8H 1) fa O OJ •saqonj ui 'Snniu jo apisni BJodno jo aa^auiBia - 3 £ 00 5J CO OJ CO CO to go CO f FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 43 1 10 1 8 in © St OS OO TO © © TO -p © to © t-" © x_ IN io 1 o" o 35 in OS in o CO TO~ to o to i- co © CO TO co" I- © X © OS 1- o 00 -p" 00 c IN in ©~ -. o ■S OS o X **i. -p" o © OS c CO IQ OS o - -.' i-" 0J © oo © X of © Of ©" in o © to o n X to' © X X -r" o in © -r — . CO © TO 00 © L- of © - t7 © to CI © to © CI g ©_ CO IN o X OS — X ©' N © o X TO © TO TO © 01 to in CO © CO in t- TO CO Z" -*• lO id* OS os OS to co to o; IN (N IN O) o* 0J CJ 0J OJ m CO m TO in TO in CO ■n TO m CO 00 -p in m in to CO CO r» t- t- 00 00 00 00 00 oo © OS OS © © os © •* CO t? 00 © N TO -p to ■*■ 0? © -> -> 0! 8 IO N TO TO I- ro co © ■cf in -p c? M TO TO -p ■* ■* Tf> in m in IO in m CO CO CO to © CO *- t- J- 00 o © © o» 0J o> <* -p -r t* -p -p -r -p -p CO CO CO to co to © CI X 5; *? X CM X X TO 0* X to' oi X X IO sir X 3 IN X "*» i- IN X i- CO X © So .■ CO CO X 00 CO X -«. -x CO X © TO X X TO X 00 TO X CO CO X to CO X x. CO X X TO X CO X CO to to to to to 00 00 CO 00 00 00 Xj 00 -Ji' -■ © o -> IN IN 01 -p © in 00 X in © 00 to 00 o © IN IN -> TO t- TO TP in -t» m .- cs © © TO IN © n> CO IX CO 0? oo o< TO Tf to to to X X 00 8 8 © 0» 0) 01 (N 01 (N o» Oi :> -p -1 -p o* 3$ -p o> 0) © ot TP S3 to o CO 0? x © tc t" to 00 © -p" -p to TO io' IN io" © to 00 OS -p to CO i- 00 co* in 0> i-' 0J TO CO o oo" 00 X TO DO © CO 1- 00* -p of IN in of OS of 00 ©" to IQ CO ©' TO 01 © © I- CO 00 © sn. IQ 1 CO os m 00 TO to © tO IN 0/ i- -r CO to © X 00 ■CP 00 o — . 00 N TO OS © © 00 © c c OJ X CO 0/ 00 © 01 © TO o to o 00 1 TO s to to" | to" © © X to © 1* eS © Si -> io" o OS in" o © I- in © r. to o o CO ©" © in co" © oo CO © © X CO © 55 CO © OS 1-" o OS oo" © to -p 00 © TO i- 00* OS* 1 o © © c — o» © TO o © CO m © o ©_ © © TO 00 © OS © © of © o of o OS of © X IN oj" © TO of © CO of © m in of o CO of TO of o 0J X of — OS of 8 co" o O © © O © o © © © © O © o — © © o o © © © © 03 TO TO TO TO -p -r ■* « - IO IQ m m IO CO co CO CO CO tc CO © o T 0) T 3 to 00 © o; o s CD O X o s 0> © 3 to © X © © g -p eg CO © X 0> X s 44 THE IRON- FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Height in cupolas is important, as all low cupolas lose a considerable amount of combustible gas, which escapes unburnt; whereas when a sufficient height is allowed a large quantity of this gas mixes with the oxygen above and iguites, thus giving off heat available for combustion. Should it be required to know what height to make a 50- inch cupola, find 50 inches in the column " Diameter of Cupolas," opposite to which, in the column " Height of Cupola" from base to bottom side of charging hole, will be found 14 feet, so that a 50-inch cupola should have a height of 14 feet. The height of any other cupola from 24 inches to 84 inches diameter may be found in the same manner. DEPTH OF BOTTOM OF CUPOLA. Depth of bottom is the distance from the sand bed, after it has been formed at the bottom of the cupola, up to the under side of the tuyeres. It will be seen in the table (pp. • 42, 43), that all the amounts for fuel are based upon a bottom of 10 inches deep, and any departure from this depth must be met by a corresponding change in the quantity of fuel used on the bed ; more in proportion as the depth is increased, and less when it is made shallower. AMOUNT OF FUEL REQUIRED ON THE BED. The column, " Amount of Fuel required on Bed, in Pounds," will, I hope, be found serviceable; it is based on the supposition that the cupola is a straight one all through, and, as before stated, that the bottom is 10 inches deep. If the bottom be more, as in those of the Colliau type, then additional fuel Avill be needed. FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 45 The amounts being given in pounds, answers for both coal and coke, for, should coal be used, it would reach about 15 inches above the tuyeres; the same weight of coke would bring it up to about 22 inches above the tuyeres, which is a reliable amount to stock with. FIRST CHAEGE OF IRON. The amounts given in this column of the table are safe figures to work upon in every instance, yet it will always be in order, after proving the ability of the bed to carry the load quoted, to make a slow and gradual increase of the load until it is fully demonstrated just how much bur- den the bed will carry; for, as before stated, these figures represent the safe load under ordinary conditions, as to fuel and blast, in a common cupola, and not what may be accomplished when the most elegant practice is essayed. SUCCEEDING CHARGES OF FUEL AND IRON". By consulting the columns relating to succeeding charges of fuel and iron, it will be seen that the highest proportions are not favored, for the simple reason that suc- cessful melting with any greater proportion of iron to fuel is not the rule, but, rather, the exception. Whenever we see that iron has been melted in prime condition in the proportion of 12 pounds of iron to one of fuel, we may reasonably expect that the talent, material, and cupola have all been up to the highest degree of excel- lence. DIAMETER OF MAIN" BLAST-PIPE. The table gives the diameters of main blast-pipes for all cupolas from 24 to 84 inches diameter. 46 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. No part of the foundry economy has been more ne- glected than this; go where you will, there seems to have been blundering in this particular: especially is this the case in some old firms which have made additions to their moulding capacity from time to time, necessitating the erection of other cupolas, which have been connected to r he old conducting pipe, no matter whether it was ade- quate to the task of furnishing sufficient blast or not. This is not wise, as the loss by friction in pipes that are too small causes a greater demand on the engine and blower, which, being pushed to their extreme limit, in order if possible to maintain a full head of blast, causes a loss from undue wear and tear, which would in a very short time pay the expense of a new and larger set of pipes. But this is not all : the increased capacity of the pipes in such a case is absolutely necessary, in order to supply the exact quantity of air for perfect combustion, without which we must look in vain for a regular supply of soft fluid iron. This latter want alone ought to be, if properly understood, a sufficient incentive to make us look well after the main blast-pipe. The sizes given opposite each cupola are of sufficient area for all lengths up to 100 feet. TUYEKES FOE CUPOLA. It will be seen that two columns are devoted to the number and sizes of tuyeres requisite for the successful working of each cupola; one gives the number of pipes 6 inches diameter, and the other gives the number and di- mensions of rectangular tuyeres which are their equivalent in area. From these two columns any other arrangement or dis- position of tuyeres may be made, which shall answer in their totality to the areas given in the table. FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 47 By referring to the column, " Number of Tuyeres 6 inches diameter," etc., it will be found that the 60-inch cupola would require a little over 13^ such tuyeres to fur- nish a sufficient volume of blast to insure successful melt- Svction through A. Fig. 10. American Alachii ing, and opposite to this, in the column for Flat Tuyeres, will be found that 8 flat tuyeres 16^ inches by 3 inches would be their equivalent; and by the same method it z's seen that the 24-inch cupola would need one and a half 48 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. round tuyeres 6 inches diameter, or two flat ones 10^ inches by 2 inches. When cupolas exceed 60 inches in diameter, the increase should begin somewhere above the tuyeres, after the man- ner shown at Fig. 10, which represents the lower portion of a cupola 84 inches diameter above the tuyeres and GO inches diameter below. This method is absolutely neces- sary in all common cupolas above 60 inches, because it is not possible to force the blast to the middle of the stock, effec- tively, at any greater diameter. On no consideration must tbe tuyere area be reduced; this is to all intents and purposes an 84-inch cupola, and must, as is seen in the table, have tuyere area equal to 31 pipes 6 inches diameter, or 16 flat tuyeres 16 inches by 3^ inches. If it is found that the given number of flat tuyeres ex- ceed in circumference that of the diminished part of the cupola, they can be shortened, allowing the decreased length to be added to the depth, or they may be built in on end, as seen in Fig. 10; by so doing we arrive at a modi- fied form of the famous Blakeney cupola. Various methods have been adopted to overcome the difficulty of reaching the middle of the furnace with a sufficient volume of blast to insure perfect combustion amongst others, in particular, we notice the Mackenzie c pola, which, they claim, differs from all others in having . continuous tuyere that allows the blast to enter the fuel at all poiuts. This construction, they further claim, brings the blast to the centre of the furnace with the least pos- sible resistance and the smallest amount of power. The method of introducing the blast into the Makenzie cupola is illustrated at Fig. 11. Another highly important point in this connection is to arrange the tuyeres in such a manner as will concentrate the fire at the melting-point into the smallest possible FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 49 compass, so that the metal in fusion will have less space to traverse while exposed to the oxidizing influence of the blast. To accomplish this, recourse has been had to the plac- ing of additional rows of tuyeres in some instances — the ' Stewart rapid cupola ' having three rows, and notably Fig. II. Fig. 12. the 'Colliau cupola furnace,' which has two rows of tuyeres. The patentees of the Colliau claim that their records show the most economy in- fuel and iron, the greatest rapidity in fusion, and the largest amount of iron melted in a given time and size, as well as the greatest quantity of iron melted in a cupola without clogging. 50 THE IRON FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. It will be seen by consulting Fig. 12, which is a represen- tation of a Colliau cupola, that it is in all respects, except the tuyeres, a common cupola; therefore, whatever its superiority over other common ones may be, all the credit is due to the iugenious disposition of the tuyeres. BLAST-PKESSURE. Accurate experiments made by experts in this branch of science prove beyond doubt that about 30,000 cubic feet of air are consumed in melting a ton of iron, which, if reduced to a solid, would weigh about 2400 pounds, or more than both iron and fuel. In reference to this im- portant subject an authority says: "When the proper quantity of air is supplied, the oombustion of the fuel is perfect, and carbonic-acid gas is the result. When the supply of air is insufficient, the combustion is imperfect, and carbonic oxide-gas is the result. The amount of heat evolved in these two cases is as fifteen to four and a half (15 : 4A), showing a loss of over two thirds of the heat by imperfect combustion. Though the difference between perfect and imperfect combustion is so astonishing, it is seldom taken into account by foundrymen, and most of them are unconsciously submitting to a great loss, which can be easily remedied." It is not always true that we obtain the most rapid melt- ing when we are forcing into the cupola the largest quantity of air. Some time is required, says the authority previously quoted, to elevate the temperature of the air supplied to the point that it will enter into combustion. If more air than this is supplied, it rapidly absorbs heat, reduces the tempei*ature, and retards combustion, and the fire in the cupola may be extinguished with too much blast, as the flame of the lamp is blown out with the breath. When all these conditions are well understood by the FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 51 student in cupola practice, he will then realize how im- portant it is that the requisite amount of pressure, and no more, be maintained during the whole process of melting. In the table will be found a column, Blast Pressure Required, in Ounces, which gives the amount of pressure required for each-sized cupola. BLOWERS AND ENGINES. The blowers chosen as standards for this table are the Root and Sturtevant; should any other be used, it is im- portant that their capacity be measured, so that any differ- ence may be noted, and due allowance made. Should it be required to know what size of Root blower would be most suitable for supplying blast to a 42-inch cupola, it will be found to be a No. 3, opposite to which number is 6 horse-power, being the power of engine needed for a No. 3 Root blower; and by the same method, if for the same-sized cupola a Sturtevant blower was de- sired, the number of blower will be a No. 5, but the engine is 5j horse-power. Be sure that the engine is of sufficient power to insure a full or maximum blast, and if possible have it free from any other machinery. TOTAL MELTING CAPACITY OF CUPOLAS. The figures given in the column, Total Melting Capacity of Cupolas, in Pounds, are not meant as absolute (to do that would be impossible; the melting capacity of any cupola is influenced, for good or bail, by the amount of intelligence which is brought to bear upon its manage- ment); they are approximate under ordinary circumstances, and will be of assistance in selecting a suitable cupola for the work in hand. 52 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. SLAG IN CUPOLAS. A certain amount of slag is necessary to protect the molten iron which has fallen to the bottom from the action of the blast: if it was not there, the iron would suffer from decarbonization, and would consequently be less fluid. AVhen slag from any cause forms in too great abundance, it should be led away by inserting a hole a little below the tuyeres, through which it will find its way as the iron rises in the bottom. In the event of clean iron and fuel, slag seldom forms to any appreciable extent in small heats; this renders any preparation for its withdrawal unnecessary, but when the cupola is to be taxed to its utmost capacity it is then in- cumbent on the melter to flux the charges all through the heat, carrying the slag away in the manner directed. The best flux for this purpose is the chips from a white marble yard; this is a much purer limestone than any other of the carbonates, and requires less melting. About 6 pounds to the ton of iron will give good results when all is clean, as it suffices to keep the cupola open during a long heat without flooding at the tap-hole, at the same time it softens the cinder, and makes it much easier to chip out afterwards. When fuel is bad, or iron is dirty, or both together, it becomes imperative that the slag be kept running all the time, otherwise the cupola will clog up gradually, and become useless before half its work is completed. FUEL FOR CUPOLAS. Without doubt, the best fuel for melting iron is coke, simply because it requires less blast, makes hotter iron, and melts faster than coal. When coal must be used, care FOUNDRY CUPOLAS. 53 should be exercised in its selection. All anthracites which are bright, black, hard, and free from slate will melt iron admirably. The size of the coal used affects the melting to an appreciable extent, and for the best results small cupolas should be charged with the size called ' egg,' a still larger grade for medium-sized cupolas, and what is called ' lump ' will answer for all large cupolas when care is taken to pack it carefully on the charges. LINING AND REPAIRING CUPOLAS. For many years I have demonstrated the fact that the best man to line or build up a cupola is an intelligent cupola-man, who will see to it that every brick is rubbed well down on its fellow; also, that it fits the shell as close as it is possible to make it. For best results the mortar should be as near as possible of the same nature as the bricks. When requested to do so, the dealers can always supply the right article. Any attempt to make this mortar from the clays and sands in ordinary use should be scouted, as the bricks soon become loose if inferior clay is used in their setting, and this brings about an early collapse of the whole structure. Too little attention is usually paid to the nature of the materials supplied the melter for repairs; hence a new- lined cupola, which ought to last from one to two years, is used up in half the time, and sometimes less. If the best silicious sand and the most refractory fire-clay was used for this purpose, there would be a great saving effected in the course of a year. A good melter will note the form of the inside of his cupola when it has been newly lined, and endeavor by careful mending every morning to maintain tho original shape. If he finds it is wearing fast at the melting part, he will not endeavor to preventthat by pressing into the 54 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. cavity Lirge quantities of wet clay, for he knows that by so doing it is more than likely that the whole patch would fall away as scon as the great heat to which it is subjected comes upon it. If it is found that the bricks are wearing fast at that part, the right course to pursue is to rub well on a thin coat of daubing each day, until it is thought advisable to chip out a course or two at the bad spot, and make good with new bricks. CHAEGIISTG THE CUPOLA. As the table serves the purpose of explaining, approxi- mately, the amounts of fuel and iron to be charged on the various-sized cupolas, it only remains to be said that, in order to obtain the best results at the cupola, choice must be made of the most intelligent of the unskilled help in the foundry from which to train a skilful melter. Let him be taught the importance of strict observation, taking care to duly mark every change in the operations of melting, and make note of the results; and whilst it will always be his pleasure to do as his foreman instructs, he must cultivate a spirit of self-reliance, which every day's experience will serve to strengthen and solidify. The pleasure of having a melter who can be trusted to do as lie is instructed, and who can also be depended upon for the intelligent performance of all the details connected with the successful management of cupolas, is known to no one better than the writer of these pages. REVERB ERATORY OR AIR FURNACES. 55 REVERBERATORY OR AIR FURNACES. TKEIR USE FOR THE PURPOSE OF MELTING CAST IRON FULLY EXPLAINED. Reverberatory, or, as they are more frequently called, ' wind or air furnaces,' to distinguish them from those worked with compressed air or blast, are not as commonly used for general purposes now as they were formerly, for manifest reasons, some of which it would perhaps be well to inquire into. In the first place it is claimed that they are too expensive in their working, requiring, as they do, more than twice the amount of fuel that is needed in the cupola for the produc- tion of good hot iron ; but an extensive practice has con- vinced me that even such considerations would have been overlooked on particular occasions if there had been a good reverberatory furnace in the shop. Too frequently castings are needed which, if common justice were done to all parties concerned, ought to have been cast from the reverberatory furnace; and in the some- times oft-repeated effort to produce iron of the desired homogeneousness in the cupola the cost of production in the end has been very far in excess of what it would have been had the proper furnace for the job been on hand. Another of the prime causes for this discontinuance is the great lack of knowledge manifested in their construction and management, owing to which, failures have attended the efforts of quite a number of founders who have endeav- ored to establish their use, and they have been forced to abandon the enterprise and fall back disappointed to the cupola again. 56 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. This should not be the case, nor need there be any such giving np: the business can be learned, like any other, by hard application and industry; and no better incentive to this could be adduced than to inform all such as have failed in learning the art, that throughout the whole of Europe the reverberatory is as common as the cupola furnace is here. Do not understand me as urging their general adoplion in place of the cupola: in view of the latter's great utility such a proposition would be preposterous in the extreme. But I do maintain that if they were built and held in readi- ness for emergencies, which are constantly occurring, it would reveal a greater wisdom on the part of our leading founders. It cannot be denied that the reverberatory furnace will yield a purer metal than is possible for the cupola to do, simply because it is melted separate from the fuel, and consequently cannot absorb its impurities; whilst, on the other hand, the iron in the cupola is charged in direct con- tact with the fuel, with the consequent result of being more or less impregnated with its impurities. This fact is incon- trovertible, and speaks volumes in favor of the reverberatory, when absolutely clean iron is the desideratum. Iron melted in the reverberatory furnace loses a portion of its oxygen during the process. This tends to harden by converting graphitic into combined carbon; hence the eminent adaptability of these furnaces for the production of iron suitable for guns, hydraulic cylinders, rams, heavy rolls, etc., as any degree of homogeneousness can be obtained by polling the molten iron in the reservoir after it has all melted, and at the same time allowing the full force of the flame to play upon its surface until the iron, by dipping test, shows the desired texture. One great advantage claimed by the workers in malleable iron is, that iron melted in the reverberatory furnace an- REVERBERATORY OR AIR FURNACES. 67 neals at a heat very much lower than would be required for iron melted in the cupola; this will in some measure compensate for the extra cost of melting in the former. For the reduction of unwieldy masses of scrap-iron this class of furnace is indispensable, as any amount of this apparent drug can be reduced into good fluid iron with the greatest ease. For the benefit of all such as are ignorant of the princi- ples which govern the art of melting in these furnaces, it is needful to say that in all cases where it is desired to melt metals out of contact with the solid fuel, special combustion chambers or fireplaces must be provided, the metal being melted by the body of flame and heated gas acting upon its surface as it lays on the bed of the furnace. To accomplish this effectively, the flame must be made to reverberate from the low vaulted roof of the furnace downwards, and the form of the roof associated with the velocity of the flame will determine what part or parts of the bed will receive the full force of the heat current. This fact gives rise to numerous opinions as to the cor- rect form to be given the inside of a reverberatory furnace for obtaining the maximum of efficiency, some favoring the method of placing the charge behind the bridge wall; others again maintain that the chimney end is the best for charging, because it is generally alloAved to be the hottest ; but however much they may vary in construction, the prin- ciples which govern, as noted above, are about the same. The furnace represented by the illustrations accompany- ing this article is a very good one for general work, and very suitable for reducing or melting heavy lumps which would otherwise have to be cut up into smaller pieces before it would be practicable to melt them in the cupola. The chief points in the representations have their dimen- sions figured; this will aid in arriving at a correct estimate of the proportions of the furnace shown. Its outside di- 58 TEE IRON- FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. mensions, exclusive of plates, are 30 feet 6 inches long and 7 feet wide. The whole structure is incased in wrought- iron plates joined together, as shown in plan, Fig. 13, and again by broken lines at Fig. 16. The corners are held together with angle-irons, and the principal anchors are those shown at Fig. 1G, and marked from 1 to 8, respectively. These 'chief anchor-bolts reach from one side to the other, passing through the structure at such places as are best calculated to bind the whole firmly together, and at the same time are clear of all working parts of the furnace, as will be observed by referring to Fig. 14. where the position of each bolt is shown at figures corresponding to those marked on the side elevation, Fig. 16. The amount of strain which this furnace is called upon to bear, owing to the intense heat and pressure to which it is subjected periodically, makes it imperative that not only the walls, but the foundation also, should be as substan- tially built as possible. The foundation A, Fig. 14, can be built up solid of com- mon material, up to the Hue of fire-brick, and in such form as will allow the fire-bricks when set thereon to incline from the chimney to the reservoir in a downward direction, as shown at Fig. 14; and it will be seen that all those from B to C must be kept six inches below what it is intended shall be bottom of the furnace after the sand bed has been formed upon it. The bridge wall D, Fig. 14, must in this case be not less than 2 feet 3 inches from the face of the grate-bars, and, like the sides, roof, and fireplace, must be built with the most refractory kind of fire-bricks. The fireplace must in all cases be built the full width of the furnace, to commence with: should it be thought desir- able to contract its dimensions subsequently, the task will be an easy one. The roof throughout its entire length is an arched one, REVERBERATORY OR AIR FURNACES. 69 60 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. and, as before stated, must be of fire-brick; whatever fill- ing is done above the fire-brick arches can be of commoner material. The chimney for such a furnace would need to be from 30 to 40 feet in height, surmounted with a damper, so arranged as to be easily controlled from the bottom; this i3 an important feature, as the draught is regulated altogether by the damper. It is hardly necessary to say that a chim- ney of this sort must be built with an inside course of fire- bricks, and no matter what form the outlet from the furnace may be, it is best to build the chimney square. The methods adopted for binding these chimneys are various, but as they are well understood by all masons ac- customed to this class of work, it will not be necessary to describe them here. As to their dimensions, it is a com- mon rule to have the inside area equal that of the air-space in the grate, but these things can only be determined by actual experience and practice. I have seen good melting done in reverberatory furnaces whose chimneys in some instances were much smaller than the rule allows; and again in other instances, when the chimney's area has been in excess of the air-space in the grate, the melting has been all that could be desired. I therefore conclude that it would be the wisest in all cases to have the area of the chimney somewhat in excess of the fireplace, as in any case the damper will regulate the draught with certainty when the height is sufficient. A very excellent mode of building chimneys is to have them as a separate structure, resting on a sole-plate sup- ported by four columns; this gives opportunity for making a connection with the furnace or furnaces from any direc- tion which may be chosen. There are two kinds of charging-doors shown : the one at A, Fig. 16, is on the side, and covers a hole 5 feet by 4 feet, through which the iron, heavy and light, is conveyed when REVERBERATORY OR AIR FURNACES. 61 62 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. the charging is all done from the side aperture; the other is seen on the top of the furnace at A, Fig. 15, and covers a hole as wide as the furnace, G feet in length. In all cases when the iron to be charged is heavy the latter method is the most convenient. As seen, the doors are lined with fire-bricks. The manner of building a furnace here shown admits of easy access to any part for repairs, for as all the connections are made with bolts (not rivets) one or more of the plates can be detached at the j>lace where it is needed for making alterations or repairs. Fuel is the all-important factor for producing hot iron in reverberatory furnaces, as it is also in cupolas; and although numerous tests have been made with coke, hard coal, an- thracite, and charcoal, none seem to work so well as the soft bituminous coal of the non-caking kind : it is the only fuel upon which the utmost confidence can be placed. The importance of a good draught in these furnaces will suggest itself to the least observant, but it must be remem- bered that this draught will draw cold as well as hot air through the stock if there arc openings left at any point for its ingress. This bad feature is to be avoided by all pos- sible means and this can only be done by incessant watching of the fire, always endeavoring to keep a full grate of live coal, and when clinkering must be done, let it be done quickly and well, and avoid making holes in the fire, through which cold air can rush into the furnace. The inrush of cold air is to be strictly guarded against from whatever cause; for, independent of the dangerous tendency towards chilling the furnace, there is a possibility of the chemical nature of the iron being changed by its admission. When the draught is strong enough to force the flame with a velocity sufficient to melt the iron quickly and hot, it need not be urged any more. BEVERBERATORY OR AIR FURNACES. 63 By referring to Fig. 14 it will be seen just how much of the bottom needs to be made up with sand ; it starts on the bed at B, and continues down and around the reservoir to C. If this bottom be well made with a preparation composed of eight parts fire-sand, and one each of clay and ground coke, it should last for ten heats, providing it receives from one to two hours' good firing before the first charge is piled in. The breast seen at A, Fig. 13, E, Fig. 14, and B, Fig. 15, can be made after the manner suitable for a large cupola, but as the hole must be stopped until the tap is made, pains Fig. 15. must be taken to fill the cavity all through its length with fire-sand mixed with a small portion of coal-dust; this can be easily withdrawn, as it will not cake together when it becomes hot. Before tapping be sure and close the damper. For charging purposes it is advisable to allow plenty of room at the doorways : especially is this the case when all must be charged through the side. The first layer of pigs must be set lengthwise with the furnace, a little apart, the following layers in opposite direction, but leaving spaces between each pig for the free passage of the flame ; in fact, 64 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. open charging is to be observed, no matter of what nature the pig or scrap may be. When the pieces to be melted are of more than ordinary magnitude, it is then in order to have an open top through which to lower them down with the crane; the cover for such an opening is shown in end section at A, Fig. 15, being simply a segment of the circle corresponding to the arch of the roof at that point, with internal flanges for carrying a course of fire-bricks built in on end ; the rings C and D are for lifting the cover on and off with the crane. The object shown as resting on the bottom represents a U. S. 13-inch mortar, weighing about 17,000 pounds. Preparation is made to sustain this weight clear of the bed, by setting fire-bricks on the bottom, to finish level with the bed when it is formed, on which to rest other blocks for carrying the load; by this means the flame can play all around the piece, and a speedy reduction of the mass en- sues, if all is working right. It will be noticed that considerable space behind remains unoccupied, all of which can be utilized if more iron than is contained in the mortar be needed; for, as before stated, this is the hottest part of the furnace. All the iron required should be charged at the first, as it is not advisable to attempt the reduction of any additional stock immediately after the heat is down. Such attempts are attended with disaster oftener than otherwise, because the furnace cools off considerably by the admission of cold iron and cold air, making it next to impossible to melt the second charge before the iron first melted becomes cold and useless. The hole shown at B, Fig. 13, and at H, Fig. 14, is the puddling-hole, and, as will be noticed, is directly over the reservoir. It is through this hole that the dipping is done for testing purposes; the skimming is effected through this hole also. It is very important that the molten iron be kept REVERBERATORT OR AIR FURNACES. 65 66 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. clean, as any accumulation of dirt or scum upon its surface acts like a shield, and interferes with the direct action of the flame upon its surface ; this, of course, is as good as so much heat lost. Another very important operation which is readily accom- plished by means of the puddling-hole is the boiling of the metal, a process which becomes absolutely necessary when opposite grades of iron are to be mixed together, out of which it is desired to obtain a thorough blending of the American Machinist Fig. 17. whole: this is done by thrusting down into the molten iron one or more green saplings. This, of course, creates a vio- lent ebullition throughout the mass, and usually effects the desired result; but this, as well as the other operations, must be done with the utmost dispatch, otherwise cold air will rush into the furnace in sufficient quantity to neutral- ize every good effect which should accrue from these several important agencies. CASTINGS OF ONE HUNDRED TONS. 67 Another hole is seen at 7, Fig. 14, which enables the melter to take an occasional glimpse into the interior of the furnace, and being directly in range with the bed, he can ma- terially accelerate the process of melting by separating such pieces as are welding together, as also by breaking up the more refractory ones: this hastens melting by increasing the surface upon which the flame can more effectually play. The old saying that ' a stitch in time saves nine ' applies with more than ordinary force to the management of these furnaces. A careful examination after each heat will reveal small and apparently insignificant faults. If these are at once remedied, these furnaces will not only last longer in good condition, but, as a natural consequence of their supe- rior efficiency, will also melt hotter and better iron. Fig. 17 shows end view of furnace, opposite end to the chimney. CASTING ONE HUNDKED TONS OF CAST IRON. SHOWING THE CONSTRUCTION AND USE OF THE NECES- SARY EQUIPMENT FOR POURING HEAVY CASTINGS; EAMS, RECEIVERS, AIR-FURNACES, LADLES, WITH TABLE OF CAPACITY OF ; RUNNERS, ETC. Castings weighing 100 tons and over are not made every day ; consequently there are very few foundries that may be considered as permanently equipped for such a task. Strange as it may appear, whenever a casting of such magnitude is needed it is almost invariably made where the facilities for producing work of that description arc far below the average. One reason for this is that, on account of their ex- traordinary bulk, such pieces are difficult to handle and 68 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. ship; it becomes, therefore, very prudent to cast them as near as possible to the place for which they are intended. I have in my mind a casting that weighed 185 tons: it was required for a steel-works, and was made in a foundry close by, with no facilities whatever for casting a piece of such massive proportions. Special cupolas of large capac- ity were erected for the production of the molten iron, and taken down again when the casting was completed. But there are other difficulties in the way of the founder who may have been requested to produce this class of work, foremost of which is the fact that the ability of his workmen is not up to the standard of excellence that will warrant him in undertaking such jobs indiscriminately. He knows that to successfully melt and care for so large a quantity of molten iron something more than theoretic knowledge is required: there must be judgment, founded upon a wide experience in such matters, to insure success in all the various details connected with the process ; and he well knows that failure in any one of these details in- volves the loss of all. If a casting requiring 100 tons of iron was ordered at a foundry where the facilities for melting were adequate to the task, and where they were provided with cranes, suit- ably located and of the requisite power for handling the whole amount in four ladles holding 25 tons each, the matter is then simple enough; but foundries with such ample facilities are few in number, and we must therefore continue to devise schemes that will accomplish the de- sired end without the aid of such extraordinary helps. One chief help in accomplishing such a job in an or- dinary foundry, and which might with profit be more generally adopted, is the dam, temporarily or permanently constructed, for the purpose of collecting therein a larger quantity of molten iron than could possibly be handled in ladles. CASTINGS OF ONE HUNDRED TONS. 69 The reservoir of the reverberatory furnace can be util- ized as a dam also, by enlarging its dimensions for special occasions, and always insures a supply of good hot iron proportionate to its capacity. This cannot be as confidently said of the dam erected on the foundry floor, because the condition of the iron in the latter will depend upon the length of time taken to melt the whole quantity, as well as its temperature when tapped or poured therein. A thorough knowledge of the use of the dam will enable a very small foundry, with limited crane accommodations, to turn out some comparatively heavy work in a manner truly astonishing to those unaccustomed to their use. In order to show the entire details connected with a cast of 100 tons, and to make plain the method by which this may with safety be accomplished in an ordinarily heavy workshop, I have made at Fig. 18 a rude sketch of that portion of the foundry which is occupied by the mould to be poured, as well as the arrangement of the means for pouring. The mould, as will be seen, is round ; and as the object of this writing is to explain the method of pouring only, none of the necessary appendages for building such a mould are shown, as they would have interfered too much with the direct view of the whole system to be explained. Behind the wall, at A, is supposed to be a reverberatory furnace capable of holding 20 tons; and again behind the side wall, at B, are two cupolas, each of which melts 8 tons per hour: this would yield 48 tons in three hours, and is the amount required to fill the dam shown at C. It is unnecessary to say that the iron must be allowed to collect in the cupolas before they are tapped into the dam, and that the greatest effort be made to melt the hottest iron possible. The above is supplemented by the two crane ladles D and E, each holding 1G tons. For the 70 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. CASTINGS OF ONE HUNDRED TONS. 71 reasons previously explained, the bare shells only are shown. This brings the total up to 100 tons of molten iron, which, if rightly managed, may be run into the mould with a dispatch that, to the uninitiated, appears marvellous. The ladle E, as well as furnace and dam, connect directly with the main runner F, but the ladle D is sup- posed to supply a supplementary gate, which leads to the lowest portions of the mould, with the view of well cover- ing such parts before the iron begins to drop down from the upper gates. Very much of the trouble attending this method of pouring arises from the inadequate runner space pro- vided. It is very important that all runners for this pur- pose should be capacious, and no effort should be spared to effect that object; the fewer the points which must be watched during the operation of pouring, the easier and safer will it be to conduct such operations. The main runner, shown at F, Fig. 18, is supposed to be about 14 feet inside diameter, and if made 18 inches wide by 2 feet deep would hold about 20 tons; the margin of safety in such a runner as this is very large, and that is what it should be for a casting of such magnitude. I have shown at Fig. 19 the correct form of runner best suited for work that is to be bored, and which must for obvious reasons be dropped from the top. It will be seen that a steep grade towards the inside is given at the bottom; this gives instant motion to the molten iron towards the runners, covering them at once, and thus pre- venting any possibility of their ' drawing air.' Runners, spouts, and pouring basins for these occasions should be prepared in dry sand or loam, if absolute safety and clean work is aimed for. Figs. 20, 21 and 22 are plan and elevations of the requisite parts for constructing a box in which to form the basins, as seen at G and H, 72 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Fig. 18. The end farthest from the ladle can be made open, as shown at Fig. 22; by so doing it becomes easy to make a connection with any other system of running which circumstances may necessitate. The dam seen at C, Fig. 18, is supposed to be 8 feet 3 inches diameter and 4 feet deep, inside measurement, and will hold 48 tons, as before stated. It is provided with a shutter and lever for controlling the flow of iron, as seen; but in order that a better understanding of how to con- Fig. 19. Fig. 20. Fig. 21. Fig. 22. struct such a dam may be arrived at, I have shown the same in plan and sectional elevation at Fig. 23. For ordinary occasions, smaller dams can be more tem- porarily constructed and made up with old sand, if extra care be taken to prevent the bottom from being cut with the first iron; but for larger jobs, and especially for such a one as we now have under consideration, a strong casing of boiler-plates bolted together, as seen at A, must be pro- vided, inside of which the dam must be formed by build- ing loose bricks below until the course which forms the bottom is reached, when it is advisable to set these closer CASTINGS OF ONE HUNDRED TONS. 73 together on a bed of loam : this will prevent any tendency to leakage. The shutter shown at B, Fig. 23, may by some be thought too elaborate for such a purpose, but if they will Fig. 23. call to miud the numerous errors which have been made for waut of a reliable shutter, they will hesitate before venturing an adverse criticism. As seen, the shutter is a circular cast plate with strength- ening ribs across; these ribs also serve to hold the fire- bricks, which must be built between them. The lugs shown at C connect with the lever used for raising and 74 TI1E IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. lowering the shutter. The details of this arrangement are shown in plan and elevation at Fig. 24; the line at A representing the top of the dam, B the fixing (secured to the tank) which supports the lever C, and D the lugs which correspond to those seen at C, Fig. 23. It is intended that the shutter shall be set in position with the 6-inch plug D, set behind when the wall is built and if proper provision is made it can be taken out (tc facilitate drying) after the wall has been loamed over. When the shutter has been built around in the manner described, there remains little to be done in the way of fitting; after it has been bricked and loamed on the inside, let it be thoroughly dried and set back in its original position. The round side being clean, there is very little friction; consequently it answers readily to the pressure of the lever, and enables the assistant to regulate the stream at will. By an arrangement such as described above the hole may be made very large with safety: this, of course, leaves nothing to chance, as any degree of speed in pouring may be obtained by simply raising or lowering the shutter. It is needless to say that all such dams as these must be thoroughly dried, and as near red-hot as possible when the first tap is made into them. As soon as the tap has been made, it is well to cover the surface of the iron with char- coal, the pieces of which are from 2 to 3 inches diameter, then fill the interstices with a finer sort, taking care that no open spots are left. As an extra precaution, cover the whole dam over the top with sheet-iron plates; by this means the iron can be kept in a good fluid condition for a very long time, providing it was hot from the start. It will be noticed that the top of the runner is 2 feet above the floor: this, of course, means that the bottom of the dam must be as much above that level as will allow a CASTINGS OF ONE HUNDRED TONS. 75 gradual and easy descent in the direction of the runner; also, if the great advantage of having the cupolas tapped directly into the dam be desired, their bottoms must be slightly higher than the top of the dam, as seen at Fig. 18. The crane ladles which would be required for this occa- sion are somewhat larger than those commonly used, and 76 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. for this reason it is well to notice some of the chief points which go towards making a good ladle. Figs. 25, 26 and 27 are plans and elevation of a 16-ton ladle, which, when lined with brick and covered with a thin daubing of loam, must measure 54 inches diameter and 56 inches deep. The gearing is preferably arranged so that the operator may stand on the side whilst he turns the ladle. Two very bad features in many geared ladles are corrected in the one shown; usually the bearing at A, Fig. 25, is too Fig. 25. short, in consequence of which both bearing and shaft are destroyed in quick time: this one is 12 inches long. The other common error is to make the worm-wheel B too small in diameter: this makes it very hard to work, besides causing greater wear and tear on the rest of the machine; the worm-wheel for this ladle is 3 feet 6 inches diameter. By all means let all the parts of a geared ladle be machined in the best way: it is a mistake to think that anything else will do. The shell is made of f-inch boiler-plate, with a bottom CASTINGS OF OWE HUNDRED TOWS. 77 \ inch thick, and the dimensions of the principal parts are as follows: Lifting eye (C), 9 inches by 4 inches, made from 3-inch round steel; beam (D), 10 inches deep in the middle, 2| inches thick; slings (EF), 2|- inches diameter; middle band (G), 8 inches by 3 inches; shafts on band (ff), 4 inches diameter; upper and lower bands (IJ), 6 inches by 1£ inches; bottom bands (K), G inches by \\ inches; these Jatter cross each other underneath, as shown by broken lines in Fig. 25, and extend upwards to the middle band, resting thereon by a toe provided for the purpose, being further secured thereto by bolts, as seen at L, Fig. 26. This form of lifting eye works more advantageously than any other: it is always in position for use, and the oval shape favors rapid handling, and is not as liable to fract- ure as round eyes arc. Be sure that £-inch holes are drilled on the bottom for the escape of steam : this saves the bottom from raising when there is moisture lurking there. The style of lip shown at Mis to be recommended, on account of the favorable stream which is formed by it when pouring. It is well known that if the pouring is to be rapid from the start, most ladles at the beginning deliver the iron in a wide sheet, making it necessary to construct very wide basins: this form of lip controls the steam by preventing the spreading spoken of, and makes the operation of pouring much more pleasant. It may be well to state just here that this style of ladle is the best for all sizes of crane ladles: all the difference to be made is to suit the strength to the capacity. I have a decided objection to all crane ladles that are not geared, for they are not only dangerous tools to work with, but they invariably require about 100 per cent more help to manage them. It is wise to put a brick lining into all ladles down to 8 78 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. tons, below which capacity the bottom can be safely made by laying, first, about one inch of fine cinders, over which let two inches of soft silica sand be spread very evenly, and then rammed down hard. Such a bottom as this will never fail if the holes are kept open and the sand be thoroughly dried before using; an ev 4S " 8 " 43 " 44 " 6 " 39 " 40 " 4 " 34 " 35 " 3 " 31 " 32 " 2 " 27 " 2^ " U" 244 " 25 " 1 " 22 " 22 " 1" 20 " 20 " 17 " 17 " i" 131 " 131 " 300 pounds. ... 1 1* " 111 " 250 " 10J " 11 " 200 " 10 " 101 " 150 " 9 " 91 *' 100 " 8 8; " 7 " 71 " 50 " .... 6.V " 6V " 35 " 5.V " (5 25 " 5 " 51 " It will be natural to suppose that the ladles D and E, Fig. 18, have to be filled by means other than those we CASTINGS OF ONE HUNDRED TONS. 79 have spoken of; such means may be one or perhaps two cupolas, in addition to the ones mentioned. The correct time to start the several furnaces is an im- portant matter, and should be figured out as closely as possible. This can always be done with a measurable de- Fig. 26. gree of certainty if the reverberatory furnace has been used previously, but should the latter be a new furnace, great care and judgment must be exercised to ascertain about how long it will take the 20 tons to melt. This done, the cupolas must be started at just such times as will bring about as even a finish as possible. And now, supposing that the dam is full, the two ladles filled and in position, and all the iron melted in the re- 80 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. verberatory furnace, place a reliable man at the lever, who will be ready to obey orders, and have all the tools ready for opening the tap-hole at the reverberatory, should it prove refractory,— which will certainly not be the case if the instructions previously given for making up the tap- hole bave been strictly followed out. Let ladle D commence first to fill the bottom, and con- tinue to pour until all is out. Immediately after the first ladle is started, open darn and furnace simultaneously, until the runner is about half full, when the dam may be checked, and allow the reverberatory to run clear out; but should it be found that the stream from the furnace is in- sufficient to keep up the requisite amount of head press- Fig. 27. ure, the dam can be kept open sufficient to effect this object, gradually increasing the speed at the dam as the stream slackens at the furnace, until when all the iron is out of the latter the dam may be emptied, and ladle D allowed to finish the cast. The important object gained by distributing the iron as above described is, that the furnace, dam, and one of the ladles are sure of being cleaned out, thus leaving but one stream to attend to; the mould can then be filled to a nicety, without leaving too much iron in the runner. Any surplus in the ladle can be used for other moulds which may have been purposely made for the occasion. As it is barely possible to maintain the legitimate head pressure up to the last without leaving considerable iron in the runner, and as the runner in this case is unavoida- bly bulky, provision must be made for letting off the same into pig beds, formed in the immediate vicinity of the CASTINGS. 81 mould, as seen at /, Fig. 18. This at once converts what would otherwise have been an ugly piece of scrap to deal with, into very desirable pig iron, which may be broken into smaller pieces whilst hot. CASTINGS. HOW TO OBTAIN" THEIR MEASUREMENT AND RECKON THEIR WEIGHTS; ALSO, THE NATURE AND QUALITIES OF THE MATERIALS USED IN PRODUCING THEM, PERCENTAGE IN THE FOUNDRY, IMPORTANT FACTS, FORMULAS, TABLES, ETC. Every moulder should be able to reckon the weight of the casting he makes; how many of us lack that ability need not be discussed here. Some one says, "There is no royal road to learning." This is true indeed, and he who would obtain the ability to measure and weigh the work committed to his charge must at least master as much arithmetic and mensuration as will enable him to profitably utilize the rules laid down for his guidance in these matters. To such as are ignorant altogether of these subjects the following short treatise on decimal fractions and kindred subjects will be of infinite service; for unless we know the meaning of the principal mathematical characters, the relation of vulgar to decimal fractions, with some knowledge of how to work these rules, all information of importance is denied us ; as almost all formulas are expressed by these signs, and their solution can only be determined by correct rules. Tt is not expected that even the most intelligent amongst 82 THE IKON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. us will be prepared for the immediate solution of every arithmetical problem that presents itself during an active life in the foundry. No matter how thorough our educa- tion may have been at the first, rules and formulas will slip from the memory, and every day's experience gives additional evidence of the truth of the old adage, that "the key that rests, rusts." To the latter the following reminders will no doubt be found acceptable at times, and save an endless amount of annoyance. The character or sign = (called equality) denotes that the respective quantities between which it is placed are equal; as, 1 ton = 2000 lbs. = 32,000 oz. The sign + (called plus, or more) signifies that the numbers between which it is placed are to be added together; as, 9 + 6 (read 9 plus G) = 15. The sign — (called minus, or less) denotes that the quantity which it precedes is to be subtracted; as, 15 — 6 (read 15 minus 6) = 9. The sign X denotes that the numbers between which it is placed are to be multiplied together; as, 5 X 3 (read 5 multiplied by 3) = 15. The sign -f- signifies division; 15-^-3 (15 divided by 3) = 5. Numbers placed like a vulgar fraction also denote division, the upper number being the dividend and the lower the divisor; as, - 1 -/- = 5. The signs : :: : (called proportionals) denote propor- tionality; as, 2 : 5 :: 6:15; signifying that the number 2 bears the same proportion to 5 as 6 does to 15, or in other words, as 2 is to 5 so is 6 to 15. The sign (called the bar or vinculum) signifies that the numbers, etc., over which it is placed are to be taken together; as, 8 — 2 + 4 = 10, or 6 X 3 + 5 = 23. The sign . (called decimal point) signifies, when placed before a number, that that number has some power of 10 for its denominator. .1 is T \, .17 is T Vo, etc. CASTINGS. 83 DECIMAL FRACTIONS. In decimal fractions the whole number is supposed to be divided into ten equal parts, and every one of these ten parts is supposed to be subdivided into other ten equal parts, etc. The whole numbers being thus divided (by imagination) into 10, 100, 1000, 10000, etc., equal parts, become the de- nominators to the decimal fractions; thus, -fa, jfa, if oo> To oo o> cto- Now these denominators are never set down, only the numerators, and they are either distinguished or separated from the ivliole number by a point, called the decimal point. Thus 5.4 is 5 T 4 ff , and 0.7 is T ^, 35.05 is 35^^, or 5 and decimal t 4 q, seven tenths, and 35 and decimal five one hundredths. Before proceeding further in notation, it will be con- venient for the learner to consider the following table, which shows the very foundation of decimal fractions: Whole Numbers. Decimal Numbers. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 g w H H H H g d -3 w H H a g s CD B CO o 5 fD B CO B_ CO c c c E B B: o° a co fD CO O l-t> H CO p CO -i fD CO CO CO fD 5* DO » B 2r O B CO o" CO o E" CD CO B t? l-t> o CO o c C H co i-i p~ CO o P B a CO p B Cu (X CO co o P D g" CO p to o 5" 84 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. The mixed number at the head of this table would read seven million six hundred and fifty-four thousand three hundred and twenty-one; and decimal, two hundred and thirty-four thousand five hundred and sixty-seven million ths. By this table it is evident that as in whole members every degree from the units place increases towards the left hand by a ^ewfold proportion, so in decimal parts every degree is decreased towards the right hand by the same proportion, viz., by tens. Therefore these decimal parts, or fractions, are really more homogeneal or agreeing with whole numbers than vulgar fractions, for all plain numbers are in effect but decimal parts one to another. That is, suppose any series of equal numbers, as 444, etc. The first 4 towards the left is ten times the value of the 4 in the middle, and that 4 in the middle is ten times the value of the last 4 to the right of it, and but the tenth part of that 4 on the left. Therefore all of them may be taken either as whole numbers or part of a whole number: if whole numbers, then they must be set down without any decimal, or sepa- rating point between them; thus, 444. But if a whole number and one part, or fraction, place a point betwixt them thus, 44.4, which signifies 44 whole numbers and 4 tenths of a unit. Again, if two places of parts be re- quired, separate them with a decimal point; thus, 4.44, viz., 4 units and 44 hundredths of a unit, or one. From hence (duly compared with the table) it will be easy to conceive that decimal parts take their denomination from the place of their last figure ; that is, .5 = fa .56 = ^\, and .056 = T -| § 7 parts of a unit. Cijriiers annexed to decimal parts do not alter their value; as, .50 and .500 or .5000, etc., are each but 5 tenths r.f o unit fnr f>JL. — A. and JJJL — _5_ or 5 o_o_o_ = 5^ or a unii, ioi -^ — ^ t) , <*nu y 000 — io» UJ loooo — t^ # CASTINGS. 85 But ciphers prefixed to decimal parts decrease their value by removing them further from the decimal point; thus, 5 = 5 tenths, .05 = 5 hundredths, .005 = 5 thousandths, and .0005 = 5 ten thousandths; consequently, the true value of all decimal fractions, or parts, are known by their distance from the units place, which being rightly under- stood, the rest will be easy. ADDITION AND SUBTEACTION OF DECIMALS. In setting down the proposed numbers to be added or sub- tracted great care must be taken to place every figure directly underneath those of the same value, whether they be mixed numbers or pure decimal parts, and to perform that due regard must be had to the decimal points which ought always to stand in a direct line under each other and to the right hand of them carefully place the decimal parts, ac- cording to their respective values or distance from unity. Rule. — Add or subtract as if they were all whole num- bers, and from their sum or difference cut off as many decimal parts as are the most in any of the given numbers. ADDITION. Examples. — Let it be required to find the sum of the following numbers : 34.5 65.3 128.7 95.0 7.9 Answer 419.2 When the decimal parts proposed to be added (or sub- tracted), do not have the same number of places, you may, S6 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. for convenience of operation, fill the void places by annex- ing ciphers. Without ciphers. With cipher? 45.07 45.0700 50.758 50.7580 123.0057 123.0057 74.702 74.7020 24.8 24.8000 .ns. 318.3357 Ans. 318.3357 EXAMPLES IN SUBTRACTION. From 437.5 Take 89.657 Remains.. 347.843 From.... 345.7578 Take 157. Remains.. 188.7578 Without With ciphers. ciphers. 75.0534 562. 562.0000 57.875 93.5784 93.5784 17.1784 468.4216 468.4216 345.7578 0.547893 1.000000 157.0000 0.439758 0.997543 188.7578 0.108135 0.002457 MULTIPLICATION OF DECIMALS. Whether the numbers to be multiplied are pure decimals or mixed, multiply them as if they were all whole numbers, and for the true value of their product observe this Rule. — Cut off — that is, separate by the decimal point — as many places of decimal parts in the product as there are decimal parts in the multiplier and multiplicand counted together. CASTINGS 87 EXAMPLES. (1) Multiply 3.024 by 2.23. (2) Multiply 32.12 by 24.3. 3.024 32.12 2.23 2.43 9072 9636 6048 12848 6048 ans. 6424 6.74352, 780.516, ans, The reason why such a number of decimal parts must be cut off in the product may be easily deduced from these examples. In example 1, it is evident that 3, the ivliole number in the multiplicand, being multiplied with 2, the wliole num- ber in the multiplier, can produce but 6 (viz., 3x2 = 6); so that of necessity all the other figures in the product must be decimal parts, according as the rule directs. Or, the rule is evident from the multiplication of ivliole num- bers only. Thus, suppose 3000 were to be multiplied with 200, their product will be 600.000; that is, there will be as many cip7iers in the product as there are in both multiplier and multiplicand ; now, if instead of those ciphers in the multiplier and multiplicand we suppose the like number of decimal parts, then it follows that there ought to be the same number of decimal parts in the product as there were ciphers in both factors. Again, the rule may be otherwise made evident from vulgar fractions; thus, let 32.12 be multiplied with 24.3 and their product will be 780.516, as in example 2, above. Now 32.12 = 32 3 W, and 24.3 = 24fV, which being brought into improper fractions, will become 32 T W = &-$$., and 24 T 3 ^ = 3LA3. ThPTl 3JLLS. V 2_4_3 — "J.S0516 K n f 780516 — "TSO 5 1 6 10 . -Llltill 100 A- 10 " T000~> DUI "1000 ' 8U T000"> viz., 780.516, as before. Any of these three ways sufficiently prove the truth of the above said rule, etc. 88 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. It sometimes happens that in multiplying decimal parts with decimal parts, there will not be as many figures in the product as there ought to be places of decimal parts, by the rule. In that case you must supply their defect by prefixing ciphers to the product, as in these examples: .2305 .0347 .2435 .0236 11825 2082 7095 1041 9460 694 4730 .05758775 .00081892 When any proposed number of decimals is to be multi- plied with 10, 100, 1000, 10000, etc., it is only removing the decimal point in the multiplicand so many places to the right hand as there are ciphers in the multiplier. Thus, .578 X 10 = 5.78. And .578 X 100 = 57.8. Again .578 X 1000 = 578. DIVISION OF DECIMALS. Division is accounted the most difficult part of decimal arithmetic. In order, therefore, to make it plain, it will be best to examine the chief principles of the rule. Division is the rule by which one number may be speed- ily subtracted from another as many times as it is con- tained therein; that is, it speedily discovers how often one number is contained in another, and to perform that there are two numbers required to be given. One of them is that number which is proposed to be divided, and is called the dividend; the other is that number by which the said divi- dend is to be divided, and is called the divisor. By com- paring these two, viz., the dividend and the divisor together, there arises a third number called the quotient, CASTINGS. 89 which shows how often the divisor is contained in the dividend, or into what number of equal parts the dividend is then divided. The quotient figure is always of the same value or degree, with that figure of the dividend under which the units place of its product stand. As for instance, let 294 be divided by 4, thus: So o c 294 28 This is not 7, but 70, because the units place of 4x7 stands under the tens place of the dividend. 14 ( 12 \ ( 7 I 3 This is only 3. 2, remainder. Hence 73| is the quotient. Now if to the remainder 2 there is annexed a cipher (thus, 2.0), and then divided on, it must needs follow that the units place of the product arising from the divisor into the quotient will stand under the annexed cipher ; consequently, the quotient figure will be of the same value or degree with the place of that cipher. But that is the next below the units place, therefore the quotient figure is of the next degree, or place below unity; that is, in the first place of decimal parts, thus, 4)2.0( .5; so that 4)294.0(73.5, the true quotient required. This being well understood, division of decimals may in all the various cases be easily performed. Definition. — If that number which divides another be multiplied with another number which is quoted, their product will be the number divided. This definition alone, if compared with the rule for mul- tiplication, will afford a general rule for discovering the true value of the quotient figure in division of decimals. 90 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. GENERAL RULE. The place of decimal parts in the divisor and quotient being counted together, must always be equal in number with those of the dividend. From this general rule ariseth four cases. Case 1. — When the places of parts in the divisor and dividend are equal, the quotient will be whole numbers, as in these EXAMPLES 8.45) 295.75 (35, ans. 0.0078) .4368 (56, ans. 2535 390 4225 468 4225 468 Case 2. — When the places of parts in the dividend ex- ceed those in the divisor, cut off the excess for decimal parts in the quotient, as in these EXAMPLES. 24.3) 780.516 ( 729 32.12 .534) .30438 ( 2670 436) .57 34246.056.(78.546 3052 515 486 3726 3488 291 243 2380 3738 3738 2180 486 486 2005 1744 2616 2616 CASTINGS. 91 Case 3. — When there are not so many places of decimals in the dividend as are in the divisor, annex ciphers to the dividend to make them equal. Then the quotient will be whole numbers as in case 1. Examples. — Let it be required to divide 192.1 by 7.684 and 441 by .7875. 7.684)192.100(25, ans. .7875)441.0000(560, ans. 153 68 393 75 38 420 47 250 38 420 47 250 Case 4. — If, after division is finished, there are not so many figures in the quotient as there ought to be places of decimals by the general rule, supply their defect by prefix- ing ciphers to it. Examples. — Let it be required to divide 7.25406 by 957. 957)7.25406(758, or with ciphers prefixed, as per rule, 6 699 .00758, the true quotient. 5550 4785 7656 7656 Divide .0007475 by .575. .575).0007475(13 or .0013, the true quotient required. 575 1725 1725 Note. — When decimal numbers are to be divided by 10, 100, 1000, 10000, etc., that is, when the divisor is a unit with ciphers, division is performed by removing or placing 92 THE IEON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. the decimal point in the dividend so many places towards the left hand as there are ciphers in the divisor; thus, 10)5784(578.4, 100)5784(57.84, 1000)5784(5.784, 10000) 5784(. 5784, etc. It will be seen that these operations are the direct con verse to those at the end of multiplication. TO REDUCE VULGAR FRACTIONS TO THEIR EQUIVALENT DECIMALS, AND THE CONTRARY. Any vulgar fraction being given, it may be reduced or changed into decimal parts equivalent to it ; thus : Rule. — Annex ciphers to the numerator and then divide it by the denominator; the quotient will be the decimal parts equivalent to the given fraction, or at least so near it as may be thought necessary to approach. Examples. — It is required to change or reduce f-inch into the decimal of an inch. OPERATION. 4)3.00(.75, ans. The decimal parts required, that is, 2 8 f = T Vo = -75 inch. 20 20 Again, \ — .5, thus 2)1.0(.5; and \ — .25, thus 4)1.00(.25. Suppose it were required to change 4- into decimals : 7)4.0000000000(.5714285714 + = f Note. — When the last figure of the divisor (that is, the denominator of the proposed fraction) happens to be one of these figures, viz., 1, 3, 7, or 9, as in this example, then the decimal parts can never be precisely equal to the given fraction, yet by continuing the division on you may bring them to be very near the truth. For all practical purposes in the foundry, three places CASTINGS. 93 of decimals are sufficiently near, the operation being con- siderably shortened by leaving out the rest. When a decimal does not terminate as in the example above, the sign plus (-(-) is annexed, which indicates that the division could be continued. TO KEDUCE A DECIMAL TO A COMMON FRACTION. Rule. — Erase the decimal point and write under the numerator its decimal denominator and reduce the fraction to its lowest term. Example. — Reduce .125 inch to its equivalent common fraction. Operation. — .125 = T WV = tVo — tV = is inch, ans. TO REDUCE A SIMPLE OR COMPOUND NUMBER TO A DECI- MAL OF A HIGHER DENOMINATION. Rule for Simple Number. — Divide by the number of parts in the next higher denominations, continuing the operation as far as required. Example. — Reduce 1 foot to the decimal of a yard. 3 1.000 .333 + yard, ans. Rule for Compound Numbers. — Reduce them all to the lowest denomination, and proceed as for one denomination. Example. — Reduce 15 feet 9f inches to the decimal of v- yard. OPERATION. feet. inches. qrs. 15 9 3 12 in. = 1 foot. 189 4 qrs. = 1 inch. 4 759.00 12 189.7500 3 15.8125 5.2708 + yard, ans. 94 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. TO FIND THE VALUE OF A DECIMAL IN WHOLE NUMBERS OF LOWER DENOMINATIONS. Rule. — Multiply the decimal by that number which will reduce it to the next lower denomination, and point off as in multiplication of decimals. Then multiply the decimal part of the product, and point off as before. So continue till the decimal is reduced to the denomination required. The several whole numbers of the successive products will be the answer. Examples. — 1. What is the volume of .140 cubic feet in inches ? OPERATION. .140 1728 cubic inches = 1 cubic foot. 1120 280 980 140 241.920 cubic inches, ans. 2. What is the value of .00129 of a foot, and also the ;ilue of .015625 of an inch ? OPERATION. OPERATION. .00129 .015625 12 inches = 1 foot. 64 .01548 inches, ans. 62500 93750 Answer. 1.000000 = ^ of an in. By the same rule .75 of a foot = 9 inches, .25 of a ton = 500 lbs., .5 of an inch = £ inch, .0625 of an inch = T \ inch, etc. CASTINGS. 95 The following table of equivalents (found by the fore- going rules) will be found very useful : VULGAR FRACTIONS OF 1, OR UNITY, AND THEIR DECIMAL EQUIVALENTS. ■fe = .015625 ^ = .03125 T V = .0625 £ =.125 T 5 ¥ = .3125 f = .375 iV = .4375 * =.5 H = -6875 | = .75 If = .8125 £ = .875 T \ = .1875 * = .25 T V = .5625 | = .625 tf = .9375 1 = 1.0000 EXPLANATION OF THE RULES IN MENSURATION USED FOR FINDING THE WEIGHTS OF CASTINGS OF ALL SHAPES AND DIMENSIONS. Before we can rightly apply the foregoing rules in arith- metic to the determining of the weights of castings, we must first ascertain the number of cubic inches contained in the object. Then by referring to the table of weights and strength of material (found near the end of this chap- ter, we find, in the first column, the weight of one cubic inch of whatever metal we are going to cast with. This is used as a multiplier, and gives us the exact weight in pounds avoirdupois of the total number of cubic inches contained in the casting. To obtain correctly the number of cubic inches of cast- ings more or less irregular in shape, it is necessary that the operator should have some little knowledge of mensuration; but as most of the books devoted to that subject are written for the high schools and colleges, in language hard to un- derstand by the unlearned, the information they contain seldom reaches the ordinary moulder; in fact, boys fresh from school who enter our foundries are not always suffi- ciently advanced in their studies to know very much of this 96 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. subject. It not unfrequently happens that older boys Avith a knowledge of the rules in mensuration firmly fixed in their minds fail in making a practical application of their schooling when in the foundry. In order to make this subject plain to such as are igno- rant of the rules in mensuration, I propose to give as many (full) examples as will enable the student to calculate the exact Aveight of every description of casting, and as a means of impressing the subject more firmly on his mind, every example will be accompanied by a full explanation of the rules which govern each particular case. The following definitions, properly understood, will ma- terially help the understanding, and make the study of these subjects much more easy and pleasant. Mensuration. — Mensuration is the process of determin- ing the areas of surfaces and the solidity or volume of solids. A plane figure is an enclosed plane surface ; if bounded by straight lines only, it is called a rectilineal figure or polygon. The perimeter of a figure is its boundary or contour. Three-sided polygons are called triangles, those of four sides quadrilaterals, those of five sides pentagons, etc. Triangles. — An equilateral triangle is one whose sides are all equal, as CAD, Fig. 28. Note. — The line AB drawn from the angle A, perpen- dicular to the base CD, is the altitude of the triangle CAD. An isosceles triangle is one which has two of its sides equal, as EFG, Fig. 29. A scalene triangle is one which has its three sides un- equal, as HIT, Fig. 30. A right-angled triangle is one which has a right angle, us ELM, Fig. 31. To Find the Area of a Triangle. — Multiply the base by half the altitude and the product will be the area. CASTINGS. 97 Now, supposing we have a casting answering to the form of an equilateral triangle, Fig. 28; the base CD measuring 36 inches, the altitude AB 24 inches, and the thickness 3 inches, what weight will such a casting be in cast iron ? We proceed thus: OPERATION. Base 36 Half of altitude 12 Total area in superficial square inches 432 Thickness in inches 3 Total cubic inches 12 9 6 "Weight of a cubic inch, cast iron . .263 3888 7776 2592 Total weight in pounds. . 3 4 0.8 4 8, ans., nearly 341 lbs. If we desire to ascertain the weight of such a casting in gold, we simply find the weight of a cubic inch of gold, in the table, viz., .696 for a multiplier, and proceed thus: 1296 X .696 = 902.016, or slightly over 902 pounds for gold. Castings having the form of an isosceles triangle, Fig. 29, are to be figured as in the preceding example. All such as take the form of a scalene triangle, Fig. 30, must be proceeded with after this manner : Let a perpen- dicular be drawn from i" to the base, and proceed to form a rectangle about the figure, as shown by the broken lines. You now have two rectangles, one on each side of the per- pendicular from /, and, as triangle is equivalent to one half of a rectangle having an equal base and an equal al- THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Fig. 28. Fiq. 30 Fig. 31. - i—— '. Pig. 33. Fig. 34. Fig. 35. Fig. 36. ~ 1 Fig. 37. Fig. 38. Fig. 39. Fig. 40. ~ Fig. 41. Fig. 42. Fig. 43. Fig. 44. Fig. 45. CASTINGS. 99 titude with the triangle, it is evident that one half each of the rectangles added together will give the area of such a triangle. This once properly understood makes the mensuration of angles very simple. Of course, when the superficial area of all such figures is procured, it only remains to multiply by the number of inches thick, and then by the weight of a cubic inch, as before directed, to obtain the exact weight in pounds. This brings us to the right-angled triangle, Fig. 31, which, as seen by the broken lines, is but the half of the rectangle whose base is KL and sides LM\ therefore, if the weight of a casting is required that has the form of a right-angled triangle, multiply the base KL by the altitude LM, and divide the product by 2 for the area, then proceed as in the preceding cases for total cubic inches and weight. It will be clearly understood from the above that the area of all quadrilateral figures whose opposite sides are parallel, such as the square, rhombus, rhomboid, and rec- tangle, is found by multiplying the base with the altitude. Regular- polygons are named after the number of sides contained in the figure, those with 3 sides being triangle ; 4, square ; 5, pentagon ; 6, hexagon; 7, heptagon; 8, oc- tagon; 9, nonagon ; 10, decagon ; 11, undecagon, and 12, duodecagon. The rule for finding the area of a regular polygon is the same for any number of sides, so that one illustration will be sufficient to show how all such castings may be measured and their respective weights found. KULE TO FIND THE AREA OF POLYGONS. Multiply the sum of the sides or perimeter of the poly- gon by the perpendicular, demitted from its centre to one of its sides, aud half the product will be the area. 100 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Example. — Required the weight of a casting, in iron, having the form of a regular hexagon ABCDEF, Fig. 32, whose side AB is 20^ inches, and perpendicular PO is 17£ inches, thickness 1 inch. OPERATION. Length of side AB 2 0.5 Number of sides 6 Sum of sides 1 2 3.0 Length of perpendicular 1 7.7 5 6150 8610 8610 1230 | 2 1 8 3.2 5 0, product. Half of product— area 1 9 1.6 2 5 Weight of a cubic inch, cast iron .2 6 3 3 2 7 4 8 7 5 6549750 2183240 Total weight in lbs 2 8 7.0 9 6 3 7 5, ans. If such a casting were wanted 1 inch thick in lead, then the area, 1091.625 inches, must be multiplied by .410, the weight of a cubic inch of that metal, as found in the first column of the table before mentioned. THE CIECLE. Before attempting to determine the weights of castings that are circular in shape, it will be necessary to explain CASTINGS. 101 some of the very important principles connected with this interesting figure. These thoroughly understood will make a solution of the problems much easier. In the first place, there is no figure that affords a greater variety of useful properties than the circle, nor is there any that contains so large an area within the same perimeter or outer boundary. TO FIND THE CIRCUMFERENCE AND DIAMETER OF A CIRCLE. The circumference of a circle is found by multiplying the diameter by 3.1416. The diameter of a circle is found by multiplying the circumference by .31831, or dividing by 3.1416. Examples. — If the diameter of a circle be 12 feet, what is the circumference ? OPERATION. Decimal multiplier 3.1 4 1 6 Diameter 12 Circumference required 3 7.6 9 9 2 feet, ans. If the circumference of a circle be 45 feet, what is the diameter ? OPERATION. Decimal multiplier 3 18 3 1 Circumference 4 5 159155 12 7 3 2 4 Diameter required ..... 1 4.3 2 3 9 5 feet, ans. 102 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. TO FIND THE AREA OF A CIECLE. Rule. — Multiply the square of the diameter by .7854 and the product will be the area. Note. — The square of any number is that number multi- plied by itself, as 12 X 12 = 144, etc. Example. — What is the area of a circle whose diameter is 106? OPERATION. Diameter 106 106 636 1060 Square of diameter 11236 Decimal multiplier 7 8 5 4 44944 6180 89888 78652 Total area 8 8 2 4.7 5 4 4, ans A right application of the rules for circumference, diam- eter, and areas of circles will enable us to arrive at the correct weight of any cylindrical castings, such as pipes, columns, wheel-rims, cylinders, etc., as well as circular plates and solids. Again, a combination of all the rules is practically all that is needed for ascertaining the weight of all flat-bot- tomed tanks, backs, boilers, pans, etc., either round or square, as well as solids of similar form. Let us proceed to find the weight of an 18-inch round CASTINGS. 103 column 1£ inches thick and 10 feet long. In order to obtain the correct weight it is necessary that we take the centre or middle of the thickness for our line of diameter or circu inference ; so it is customary to add the thickness of the casting to the inner diameter and by this means obtain the correct working diameter, but this is when we speak of castings such as cylinders, pipes, etc., the size of which are based on the inside diameter and not on the outside, as is the case in columns, wheel-rims, etc. In the latter case it becomes necessary to subtract the thickness from the outside diameter, which, when done, makes the operation of finding the weight of an 18-inch column equivalent to finding the weight of a 15-inch pipe of the same thickness. TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF CYLINDERS, PIPES, WHEEL- RIMS, ROUND COLUMNS, ETC. Rule 1. — For castings the size of which is based on the inside measurement. To the inner diameter add the thickness of metal, mul- tiply by 3.1416 for circumference and the product by the thickness. This gives the number of superficial inches contained in the end section of the casting, which, when multiplied by the length, gives the total cubic inches con- tained in the whole, the weight of which is obtained by multiplying by the weight of a cubic inch of the metal to be used (found in the first column of table). Rule 2. — For castings, the size of which are based on the outside measurement. From the outer diameter subtract the thickness of metal and continue the operation as directed in Rule 1. Example. — What is the weight (in cast iron) of a column 18 inches in diameter, 1£ inches thick, and 10 feet long ? 104 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. OPEP. ATION. Diameter of column in inches 18 Subtract thickness 1.5 = 1^ in. Working diameter 1 6.5 Decimal multiplier for circumference. . 3.14 16 990 165 660 165 495 Circumference 5 1.8 3 6 4 Thickness 1.5 = 1 \ in. 25918200 5 1.83 6 40 Superficial inches in end section ... 7 7.7 5 4 6 One foot in length 12 Cubic inches in 1 foot long 9 3 3.0 5 5 2 .26= weight cu. in. 5598331200 1866110400 Weight of 1 foot long 24 2.5 9435200 10 Total weight in pounds ... 2 4 2 5.9 4 3 5 2 0, ans. Note. — The decimal multiplier is here changed from .263 lb. to .26 lb. This shortens the sum considerably without much loss practically. Thus making the total weight of a column 18 inches diameter, 1 I inches thick, and 10 feet long, to be 2426 pounds, nearly. CASTINGS. 105 It will be seen that I first get the weight of one foot in length, which is found to be 242| pounds, and then mul- tiply by length of the column. This is a very good plan, as it furnishes very useful data for future reference. What is the weight of a cast-iron ring or cylinder 86 inches inside diameter, 2 inches thick, and 12 inches deep ? OPERATION. Inside diameter of ring 8 6 Thickness added 2 Working diameter 8 8 Decimal multiplier for circumference 3.1 4 1 6 5 2 8 88 3 5 2 88 2 64 Circumference 2 7 6.4 6 8 Thickness 2 Superficial inches in end section 5 5 2.9 2 1 6 Twelve inches long 12 Cubic inches in 12 inches long 6 6 3 5.0 5 9 2 Weight of a cubic inch .2 6 398103552 132701184 Total weight 1 7 2 5.1 1 5 3 9 2, ans. Thus making the weight of this casting 1726 pounds, nearly. We come now to the consideration of circular plates and circular solids; to ascertain the weight of which, the rule for finding the area of a circle is to be practically applied. TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF CIRCULAR PLATES AND CIR- CULAR SOLIDS, CAPACITY OF LADLES, ETC. Rule. — Multiply the square of the diameter by .7854 for the superficial area, in square inches, and the product by 106 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. the thickness for the total cubic inches. This product multiplied by the weight of a cubic inch will give the weight in pounds avoirdupois. Example.— Find the weight of a circular plate, in cast iron, the diameter of which is 90 inches and thickness 24 inches. OPERATION. Diameter 9 90 Square of diameter 8100 Decimal multiplier for area 7 8 5 4 3 2 400 40 5 00 6 4 800 5 6 700 Total area in square inches 6 3 6 1.7 4 Total area in square inches 636 1. 7400 Weight of a cubic inch .2 6 381704400 127234800 Weight at 1 inch thick 1 6 5 4.0 5 2 4 Thickness ._. 2J5 = 2| in. 8270 2 62000 33 08104800 Total weight at 2£ in. thick.4 13 5. 131000 0, ans. Showing the weight to be a trifle over 4135 pounds. It will be noticed that instead of multiplying by the whole thickness, I first ascertain the weight at one inch thick. This, as before observed, serves as data by which to ascertain the weight at 90 inches diameter of solids at any depth whatever; thus: What is the weight of circular solid 90 inches diameter and 24 inches deep ? CASTINGS. 107 OPERATION. Weight of plate 90 in. diameter, 1 in. thick, as found above 1 6 5 4.0 5 -f Depth in inches 2 4 6 6 16 2 3 3 8 10 Weight in pounds 3 9 6 9 7.2 Showing that a circular solid 90 inches diameter and 2. inches deep weighs a little over 3969? pounds. It will be seen how, by this rule, it becomes an easy matter to measure the capacity of any ladle when the diameter and depth are known. TO COMPUTE THE CAPACITY OF LADLES. Examples. — Required the capacity of a ladle, the diam- eter of inside of lining averaging 2 feet and depth 2 feet. OPERATION. Diameter inside lining, in inches 2 4 24 9 6 48 Square of diameter 5 76 .7854 2 304 28 80 4 6 08 40 3 2 Area in square inches 45 2 3 904 Depth in inches 2 4 18095616 9 047808 Total cubic in. of space 1 8 5 7.3 6 9 Weight of a cubic inch .2 6 6 5 1 44 2 140 217147380 Total capacity 2 8 2 2.9 1 5 9 4 0, ans. 108 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Showing the total capacity of the ladle to be nearly 2823 pounds. What was said with regard to the application of the rules relating to circumference and area for obtaining the weight of flat-bottomed tanks and pans will be here illus- trated. TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF FLAT-BOTTOMED TANKS, PANS, ETC. Example. — What is the weight of a flat-bottomed pan, similar to Fig. 33, 86 inches diameter and 30 inches deep inside measurement, the bottom to be 2^ inches and the side 2 inches thick. We have already found the weight of the bottom, or plate 90 inches diameter, 2h inches thick to be 4135.1 -f pounds and the ring 86 inches inside diameter, 1 foot long was 1725.1 pounds. The latter multiplied by 2£, the in- side depth, gives 4312.75 pounds, which sum added to 4135.1, the weight of the bottom, makes the total weight of such a pan 8448 pounds, nearly; thus: Weight of 1 foot on length of side..l 7 2 5.1 2.5 = 30 in. or 2| ft. 8 6 2 5 5 34502 Total weight of side or ring. 4 3 1 2.7 5 Weight of bottom 4 1 3 5.1 Total weight of pan 8 4 4 7.8 5, ans. TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF A CIECULAE EING INCLUDED BETWEEN THE CIECUMFEEENCE OF TWO CONCENTKIC CIECLES, AB AND CD, FIG. 34. Rule. — Multiply the sum of the Uvo diameters by their difference and this product by .7854 for the area. Then CASTINGS. 109 multiply the area by the thickness and again by the weight of a cuoic inch; the product will be the weight of the ring in pounds. Example. — Required the weight of a circular ring with outside diameter 72 inches and inside diameter 58 inches, and 2f inches thick. OPERATION. 72 58 Sum of the two diameters 130 Difference of the two diameters 14 5 20 130 1820 Decimal multiplier for area 7 8 5 4 72 80 9 100 145 60 12740 Area in superficial square inches.. .142 9. 4280 Thickness 2.7 5 = 2£ in. 71471400 100059960 28588560 3 9 3 0.9 2 7 Weight of a cubic inch .2 6 23585562 78 6 1854 Total weight 1 2 2.0 4 1 2, ans. 110 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. "Which gives the total weight of the ring about 1022 pounds. Note. — The rule for the above example may not be very clear to those unaccustomed to mathematical terms. For the benefit of such I would say that " the sum of the two diameters " means that the diameters 72 and 58 are to be added together. As seen, this gives a total of 130. " Their difference " means that the lesser, or 58, is to be substracted from 72, the greater, and the remainder or "difference," 14, used as a multiplier. TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF KETTLES OR PANS WITH SPHERICAL OR ROUND BOTTOMS, ETC. In order to make this subject as plain as possible it will be necessary to explain how the area of a sphere is found. The surface of a sphere is equal to the convex surface of the circumscribing cylinder. This simply means that the surface of a sphere is equal to the outer surface of a cylinder whose diameter and height are both equal to the diameter of the sphere; hence the rule to find the surface of the sphere is, to mult i 'ply the circumference by the diameter. Consequently, when we would determine the weight of a pan that, like Fig. 35, is an exact half sphere, we have only to multiply the circumference at the mouth, AB, by the depth, at CD, which in this case is just one half the diameter. Rule. — To the inner diameter at AB add the thickness, then multiply by 3.1416 to obtain the circumference, and multiply this product by the height at BC, and again by the thickness for the total cubic inches, which, if multi- plied by the weight of a cubic inch, will give the weight in pounds. Example. — Eequired the weight of a spherical pan which is an exact half-sphere (like Fig. 35). The inside diameter at AB to be 72 inches and the thickness 2 inches. CASTINGS. Ill OPERATION. Inside diameter 7 2 Thickness added 2 74 Multiplier for circumference 3.1416 444 74 296 74 222 2 3 2.4 7 8 4 Full depth at DO 3 8 18598272 6974352 8 8 3 4.1 7 9 2 Thickness 2 Total cubic inches 1 7 6 6 8.3 5 8 4 Weight of a cubic inch .2 6 1060101504 353367168 Weight in pounds 4 5 9 3.7 7 3 1 8 4, ans. Jr nearly 4594 pounds. Any added depth to the body of such a pan would simply increase the multiplier for depth; for instance, if 22 inches were added, as indicated by the broken lines at AB, the full depth would be then increased to 5 feet, and 60 inches would be the multiplier, instead of 38, as in the example. TO FIND THE WEIGHT OF BALLS. Multiply the cube of the diameter by .5236 and the product will be the solidity, or cubic indies contained in 112 TEE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. the figure, which, if multiplied by the tueight of a cubic inch, will give the weight in pounds. The cube of 12 inches diameter would be 12 inches multiplied by 12 inches, the product of which is 144 square inches; these again multiplied by 12 inches produce 1728 cubic inches, which is the number of cubic inches con- tained in a cubic foot. Note. — Fig. 36 will help to a full understanding of the cube. Example. — Required the weight of a cast-iron ball 12 inches diameter. OPERATION. Ball's diameter 12 12 144 12 Cube of ball's diameter 1728 Multiplier for solidity 5236 10368 5184 3456 8640 Cubic inches in ball 9 4.7 8 8 Weight of a cubic inch .2 6 54286848 180956 16 Weight of a ball in cast iron 2 3 5.2 4 3 8 So that the weight of a cast-iron ball 12 inches diameter is nearly 235£ lbs. Should a lead ball of the same diameter be required, find the weight of a cubic inch of lead in the table, and use that for a multiplier in the place of .26, as for cast iron ; as follows : CASTINGS. 113 OPERATION. Cubic inches in ball 9 4.7 8 Weight of a cubic inch, lead .4 1 90478 361912 Weight in pounds, lead 3 7 0.9 5 9 8, an? Showing that a lead ball 12 inches diameter weighs 37 1 pounds, nearly. The weight of cast-iron balls may be determined by multiplying the cube of the ball's diameter by .137, as follows: 12 12 144 12 Cube 1728 Multiplier, cast iron only 13 7 12096 5184 1728 Weight 2 3 6.7 3 6, an- Or very nearly as before. PERCENTAGE IN THE FOUNDRY. Without some knowledge of the rules of percentage it is hardly possible for any founder to mix cast iron with the view of obtaining a certain amount of any or all of the elements therein contained. Supposing we wish to ascertain how much silicon enters into any mixture, we must by chemical analysis find out just how much of that element is contained in each of the 114 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. brands of iron that constitute the mixture, and according to the percentage found in the brands used so will the total percentage of silicon be. That this may be made as easy of accomplishment as possible, I have chosen for the purpose of illustration a few of the rules in percentage which bear directly upon this and kindred subjects. Let us suppose that in a charge of 6000 pounds we have four different kinds of iron, as follows : Sloss 3000, contains by chemical analysis 3.35$ silicon Scrap 2000, " " " 1.5 Macungie. 750, " " " 1.82 Crozier . . . 250, " " " 1.14 " Total, 6000 Required the total percentage of silicon contained in the whole charge. I put it this way so that some of the questions may be used as examples, and serve the double purpose of ex- plaining the rules and solving the problem before us. Percentage is a method of computing by means of a fraction whose denominator is 100. The term per cent is an abbreviation of the Latin per centum, which signifies by the hundred. The rate per cent is the number of hundredths. Thus, 8 per cent is eight hundredths, and may be expressed T $ v , or .08, or 8f 6 . Per cent is simply the proportion of a hundred, and is not any of the denominations of Federal money; 10 per cent is not 10 cents, nor 10 dollars, but ^ u a ; 10 per cent of $50 = $5; 10 per cent of 85 tons is Si tons. Case 1. — To find the percentage of any number or quantity, the rate per cent being given. Rule. — Multiply the given number by the rate per cent and divide by 100, viz., point off two decimals. CASTINGS. 115 Examples. — (1) What is 8^ of 640 pounds ? Operation.— MO X 8 = 5120 -f- 100 = 51.20 lbs. Sf of 640 = T jfo of 640 = VoV = 51.20, ans. (2) What is 50$ of 3.35 ? (3) What is 33^ of 1.5 ? 3.3 5 1.5 50 33£ 10 0)16 7.5 0(1.6 7 5, ans. 5 100 45 45 675 6 00 10 0)5 0.0(.5. 500 750 700 500 500 (4) What is 12^ of 1.82 ? (5) What is 4^ of 1.14? 1.8 2 1.14 12i 4£ 91 2184 10 0)2 2.7 5 0(.2 2 7 5,ans. 200 275 200 750 700 500 500 19 456 5, 10 0)4.7 5 0(.4 7 400 ans 750 700 500 500 116 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Case 2. — To find what rate per cent one number is of another. Rule. — Annex two ciphers to the percentage, and divide by the number on which the percentage is reckoned. Example. — (6) What per cent of 40 tons is 8 tons ? 800 + 40 = 20. 8 = -£o of 40 ; T \ of 100 = 20. (7) What per cent of 6000 lbs. is 3000 lbs. ? (Sloss.) 6 000)3 00.0 0(.5 0,ans. 30000 (8) What per cent of 6000 lbs. is 2000 lbs. ? (Scrap.) 6 00 0)2 «>0 0.0 (.3 3 £, ans. 1 8 20000 18000 2 00 (9) What per cent of 6000 lbs. is 750 lbs. ? (Macungie.) 6 0)7 5 0.0 0(.l 2 f = 1 2 #, ans. 6000 15000 12000 3000 (10) What per cent of 6000 lbs. is 250 lbs. ? (Crozier.) 6 0)2 5 0.0 0(.O 4 fans. 24000 1000 Case 3. — To find a number when the value of a certain per cent is known. Rule. — Annex two ciphers to the percentage and divide by the rate per cent. CASTINGS. 117 Example. — (11) 42 is 25 per cent of how many pounds of iron ? 2 5)4 2 0(1 G 8 lbs., ans. Or, 4200-7-25 = 16 8, ans. 25 170 150 200 200 Case 4. — To find what number is a certain per cent more or less than a given number. Rule. — When the given number is more than required number, annex two ciphers to the given number and divide by 100, plus the rate per cent. "When the given number is less than the required num- ber, annex two ciphers to the given number and divide by 100 less the rate per cent. (12) What amount of gold at a premium of 25 per cent can I buy for $720 in currency? 100 + 25 = 12 5)7 2 0(5 7 6. Ans. $5 7 6. 625 950 875 750 750 (13) Purchased pig iron and sold it for $1680, thereby losing 20 per cent. What did the pig iron cost ? 10 = 20 = 80)1 6 8 0(2 1 0. Ans. $2 1 0. 160 80 80 118 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. A careful examination of these rules and examples will show that by their aid we have solved the problem asked at the outset, for, as shown in Case 2, Examples 7, 8, 9, and 10, 50 per cent of the charge is sloss, 33 1 per cent scrap, 12\ per cent macungie, and 4£ per cent crozier. Now, sloss contains 3.35 per cent of silicon, and as we are using .50 per cent of this iron in the charge, we must know what that percentage amounts to. By referring to Case 1 we find the rule for ascertaining this: 50 per cent of 3.35 is seen to be 1.675$, as per Example 2, Case 1. Scrap contains 1.5 per cent silicon, 33£ per cent of which is .5 per cent, as per Example 3, Case 1. Macungie contains 1.82 per cent silicon, 124, per cent of which is .2275$, as per Example 4, Case 1. Crozier contains 1.14 per cent silicon, 4£ per cent of which is .0475$, as per Example 5, Case 1. These items collected in the form of a convenient table show that the whole mixture contains 2.45 per cent, or nearly 2£ per cent, of silicon, as follows: CHARGE OF 6000 POUNDS. Sloss 3000 = 50# of charge, contains 3.35jS of silicon, 50# of which is 1.6750 Scrap 2000 = 3:^# " " 1.50;S " 33# " " .5 Macungie... 750 = 12J# " " 1.8,'je " 13±# " " .2275 Crozier 250= 4|g " " \.\A% " 4& " " .0475 6000 1.00 Total silicon, 2.4500 EXPLANATION OF THE TABLE OF WEIGHTS, STRENGTH, MELTING - POINTS, SPECIFIC GRAVITY, ETC., OF METALS, INCLUDING THE CHIEF CHARACTERISTICS OF USEFUL MINERALS AND WOODS. A vast amount of useful information may be obtained from this table if it be properly understood. The first in the table contains a long list of metals, minerals, and woods which are in constant use, and as quite a large number of these are in great demand in the CASTINGS. 119 Substances. V O 3 3 CO ^3 o 5 « o o fa o 3 3 u . o 5 OJL 1 — ' T B §1 iO-H §2 °o CM — S o £c/.E- 9 CD 3 3 oo •— _ 3 tuO -OJO * 3 □ OO Mi c jS 5 §f CO *M C CO 1) 3 be i.9 c „ 1.3 c - •c p Iff- l » 2^3 B-O J o-C 3 ■E - b Z 4=1 1,1" (-■'.£ Metals. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Deg. Lbs. .260 .2(53 .264 .281 .283 096 378 440 450 455 486 490 1210 65 1 540 555 455 437 440 525 535 710 712 160 480 535 132 155 105 165 120 128 96 80 62.5 75 60 60 55 50 50 50 40 34 40 30 .075.29 37.5 40.5' 40.8 3.12' 3.33 3.40 "2.45 2 61 2 67 '3,477 3 981 2.501 2.587 1,250 2,550 ..420 741 1,897 20,000 25 000 30,000 60 (00 Steel 110.1 00 20.000 54.6 47.5 38" 36 6 43.6 - 3.'8i "oids" 3.63 "2.99" 2.40 2.85 40 000 .317 .321 .263 .248 .263 .282 20 000 00,000 4.000 2.500 15,000 28.000 80,000 1,8(0 25,000 Tin, block Zinc, rolled Brass popper 3 j YellQW .410 .411 .092 .272 .309 59.3 4.94 3.48 G17 700 b-HaZTi 10 } Bronze -J gjMf 1- ' 10 [ MINERALS. 70,000 36,000 225 42.5 3.54 2.78 1,000 500 Coke Woods. 12,000 23,000 Box 18,000 1 1 ,500 Oak. 17,000 16,000 10,(00 Birch 15,000 10,000 8,000 17,000 62.5 120 TEE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. ■sei^ ■-ov OB ., be— x)M 31 5 J Substances. gsfs IB «J _e = Eo-ifl* 50 "" - 1 Streng Torsion, 1. u a) > 5 — ._ x.n > g be 1 03 id QQ 16? 'I 'to v 1/ = 3) h L3 H K n CO Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. L s. Lbs. Metals. 500 100.000 400 15 7.200 6H0 700 1 .'0.000 125.0(10 5 K) 700 9 25 50 7.2.17 7.3H8 Iron, wrought 900 50.000 750 10.1 20.000 7.788 Steel 1.500 125.0(10 35.000 1.200 16.6 15.0U0 7 833 19.258 500 10.474 100.000 15.500 350 750 60 4.3 1.4 200 40.31(1 2.500 8.788 330 50 S SS0 7.201 30 30 500 6 861 200 164.800 200 7.101 HrHgarMfYdtow 4.6 4.000 7.820 165.000 7.000 1.000 20 1 15.000 Lead cast 20 11 352 30 30 11 388 2 560 B— popper, 10 J 135.000 400 7 680 Bronze ^ , . , PP t er ' 10 {- 500 5 8.000 8 560 " " c 1 Tin, 1 S Minerals. 2.500 2 112 Glass 2.487 25 40 10.000 6.000 980 100 2 654 2 651 1 020 2 050 1 536 1 280 1.000 Woods. 160 150 130 100 i.-o 120 10.000 10.000 6.000 10 000 8 000 150 120 125 100 140 110 1 . 200 .060 Box. . .960 Ceilar .880 Oak. . . .880 Beech .800 120 8 oon 180 .800 Birch 130 100 5.000 8.003 .800 65 .640 .554 Walnut, black 150 120 8.000 6.000 130 .640 480 .001205 1.000 CASTINGS. 121 foundry, a knowledge of their several natures and qualities will always be serviceable. The second column gives the weight of a cubic inch of all the metals included in the list, and serves as a multiplier when the contents of a casting have been reduced to cubic inches: for instance, a plate 12 inches square, 1 inch thick, = 144 cubic inches; if the weight is required in cast iron, find cast iron in the first column, opposite to which the weight of a cubic inch is found to be .263; then 144 x .263 = 37.872, or over 37 \ pounds. If such a casting were required in lead, the weight of a cubic inch is stated .41; then 144 X 41 = 5904, or a little over 59 pounds. Aluminum being only .092 lb. per cubic inch, would show 144 X .092 = 13.248, or nearly 131- pound s. The third column shows the weight of a cubic foot in pounds, and may be made very serviceable at times. Sup- pose it were required to know the weight (in cast iron) of a piece 3 feet square and 4 feet high : then 3x3 = 9, and 9 X 4 = 36, the number of cubic feet contained. By the table a cubic foot of cast iron weighs 450 lbs. : then 450 X 36 = 16200, or 200 lbs. over 8 tons. A cubic foot of dry sand (as shown) weighs 120 lbs., therefore the same bulk would only weigh 4320 lbs. : thus 120 X 36 = 4320 lbs., or 320 lbs. over 2 tons. The fourth column gives the weight of a superficial square foot 1 inch thick; fifth, the weight of a bar one inch square and one foot long; and the sixth being the weight of a bar 1 inch diameter, 1 foot in length: all of which is very useful data to have at hand when wanted. MELTING-POINTS. This column gives the melting-points of the simple metals mentioned, but the melting-points of alloys are invariably below those of the simple metals composing them. For 122 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. instance, 1 tin and 1 lead melts at 370°; 2 tin and 1 lead melts at 340°; 3 tin and 3 lead and 1 bismuth at 310°; 1 tin, 1 lead, and 1 bismuth at 310°. A still lower melting- point is obtained when 5 zinc, 3 lead, 3 bismuth, and 3 mercury is used, the latter alloy being said to melt at 122°. TENSILE STRENGTH. The tensile strength of any material is 'the cohesive power, or resistance to separation, by which it resists an attempt to pull it apart in the direction of its fibres or particles. The table gives results of tests of the various substances under ordinary circumstances, but much higher rates have been obtained when special effort has been made with the view of ascertaining the very best results possible. As stated in the table, the weights given are the number of pounds required to pull a bar one inch square asunder, or its equivalent. Instead of weights being used for this pur- pose, however, testing-machines are constructed, which determine the strength of materials with strains of differ- ent kinds — tensile, transverse, torsional, crushing, etc. The bars made for this purpose are usually made to a uniform measure of one inch square of sectional area and one foot in length. To ascertain the tensile strength of this bar it is gripped tight at each end and the strain applied until it breaks or tears asunder; an index indi- cates the amount of strain existing at the moment of rupture. The ultimate extension of cast iron is about the 500th part of its length. TRANSVERSE STRENGTH. The breaking-weights given in this table represent the number of pounds weight required to break a bar one inch CASTINGS. 123 square and one foot in length, the weight suspended on one end. This means that the weight or pressure is applied one foot distant from the point where the opposite end is held fast. The relative stiffness of materials to resist a transverse strain is as follows : Wrought iron. 1.3 Oak 095 Elm 073 Cast iron 1. Ash 089 Beech 073 White piue... .1 Yellow pine. .087 The following table shows how great a diversity of strength may be given to the same sectional area of east iron by simply changing the form of the casting. It will be noticed that the lowest result is 565 and the highest 2052 pounds. Note. — A careful study of this will yield good results. TRANSVERSE STRENGTH OF CAST-IRON BARS, REDUCED TO THE UNIFORM MEASURE OF ONE INCH SQUARE OF SECTIONAL AREA, AND ONE FOOT IN LENGTH. FIXED AT ONE END, WEIGHT SUSPENDED FROM THE OTHER. Breaking- Form of Bar. weight in Pounds. Square (see Fig. 37) 873 Square, diagonal vertical, Fig. 38 568 Column, solid, Fig. 39 573 Hollow column, greater diameter twice that of the lesser, Fig. 40 794 Rectangular rim, 2 in. deep X i in. thick \ t 1456 " 3 " XI " Fig. 41 ] 2392 "4 " Xi " J ( 2652 Equilateral triangle, an edge up, Fig. 42 560 " " an edge down, Fig. 43. 958 Beam 2 in. deep X 2 in. wide X .268 thick, Fig. 44 2068 " Fig. 45 565 124 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. CRUSHING STRENGTH. What is meant by crushing strength, is the power in- herent in the material to resist a compressive or pushing stress, which force would tend to shorten it. While the effect of tensile stress is always to produce rupture or separation of particles in the direction of the line of strain, that of crushing or compressive stress may be to cause the material to fly into fragments, to separate into two or more wedge-shaped pieces and fly apart, to bulge, buckle, or bend, or perhaps to flatten out and utterly resist rupture or separation of particles. TORSIONAL STRENGTH. Torsional strength means the ability of the material to resist a twisting or wrenching of its parts by the exertion of a lateral force tending to turn one end, or part of it, along a longitudinal axis, whilst the other is held fast or turned in an opposite direction. The figures given in the column under "torsion" rep- resent the relative stiffness of the several substances mentioned. Hollow cylinders or shafts have greater torsional strength than solid ones containing the same volume of material. Solid square shafts have about one-fifth less torsional strength than solid cylinders of equal area. The torsional strength of cast steel is about double that of cast iron. RESILIENCE OR TOUGHNESS. The term resilience is used to specify the amount of work done when the strain just reaches the corresponding elastic limit. The table shows the ultimate resilience of metals as tested in the Stevens Institute of Technology, Hoboken, CASTINGS. 125 N. J., and gives at a glance the comparative ability of metals to resist forces such as bending, etc. The resilience of phosphor-bronze is far in excess of the ordinary bronze. SPECIFIC GBAVITY. Specific gravity of any body is the proportion which the weight of a certain bulk of that body bears to the same bulk of another body which is taken as standard. The standard for substances, solid and liquid, is distilled water at the temperature of 62° Fahr., a cubic foot of which weighs 1000 ounces avoirdupois, or 62.5 pounds. The specific gravity of solid bodies is best measured by the hydrostatic balance, which gives the weight of a volume of water equal in bulk to the solid, by which it is only necessary to divide the weight of the solid in air to obtain the specific gravity. A cubic foot of water weighs 1000 ounces. If the same bulk of another substance, as for instance cast iron, is found to weigh 7.200 ounces, its proportional weight or specific gravity is 7.2. The weight of a cubic foot is obtained from the figures representing specific gravity or density by moving the decimal point three figures from the right, which gives the weight in ounces; and these again divided by 16 give the pounds avoirdupois in a cubic foot; thus 7200 ■— 16 = 450 pounds. Gold is 19 and silver 10 times heavier than water, conse- quently the numbers 19.000 and 10.000 represent the spe- cific gravity of gold and silver. The heaviest known substance is iridium, used for the pointing of gold pens; its specific gravity is 23.000. Car- bonic-acid gas, or choke-damp, is 300 times lighter than water, common air 800, street gas about 2000, and pure hydrogen, the lightest of all substances, 12,000 times. 126 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. INCLUDING BLOCK AND PLATE METHODS OF MOULDING; GEAE-MOULDING BY MACHINERY, AND A DESCRIP- TION OF SOME MODERN MOULDING-MACHINES. The object of this article is to bring before the mind of the foundryman, in as brief a manner as possible, the pres- ent condition of the foundry with regard to the various appliances now in use for the production of castings. Im- perfect as it may be, it will, in some measure at least, give at a glance some idea of the evolution which has been grad- ually taking place around us in the past, and may serve to incite the minds of some to still further efforts in the direction of improved foundry appliances. The several moulding-machines, as we see them to-day, have not sprung into existence all at once. The process of their development has been a gradual one; and not until inventors were able to grasp some, if not all, of the chief requirements for producing a well-finished and trustworthy mould did any real success attend their efforts, even in the inferior class of work to which the limited capacity of their machines has hitherto confined them. Before entering upon the subject of moulding-machines proper, it will be of interest to take a retrospect of the foundry appliances generally, past and present; by which means we shall be better able to judge, not only just how much advancement we have made, but also to trace almost from their inception the growth of the present mechanical appliances for moulding. The difference between past methods in moulding as com- pared with the present i& almost as great as that of smelt- FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 127 ing the ore, which latter can only be appreciably under- stood when we compare our methods at present with some of those still in use in semi-civilized countries. Fig. 46 represents a blast-furnace of the Kols, a tribe of iron-smelt- ers of Lower Bengal and Orissa. The men are nomads, going from place to place as the abundance of ore and wood may Fig. 46. prompt them. The charcoal in the furnace being well ignited, ore is fed in alternately with charcoal, the fuel resting on the inclined tray so as to be readily raked in. As the metal sinks to the bottom, slag runs off at an aperture above the basin, which is occupied by a viscid mass of iron. The blowers are two boxes with skin covers, which are al- ternately depressed, by the feet and raised by the spring poles. Each skin cover has a hole in the middle, which is stopped by the heel as the weight of the person is thrown upon it, and is left open by the withdrawal of the foot as the cover is raised. Variously modified iu detail and in- 128 THE IRON- FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. creased in size, these simple furnaces are to be found in several parts of Europe at the present time. Compare the above with some of the remarkable systems of hot-blast smelting now in vogue, as described in late works on metallurgy, and the change seems truly startling; yet the principle is the same in both cases almost, the main difference being in the kind of blowing-engine used and the magnitude of the operations. CEANES. In nothing does the spirit of improvement manifest itself more than in the choice of cranes for foundry purposes: where once the slow and ponderous wood cranes stood, are now to be seen in some places elegant structures of steel or iron, whose every movement is controlled with a degree of accuracy unthought of by our predecessors, and com- paratively unknown to many around us at this time. With the advent of electricity as a motive power, backed by a growing desire on the part of founders to apply this won- drous force to existing structures (something very easy of accomplishment), our foundries are assuming a method which, to those accustomed only to the old regime, seems almost unreal. When large bodies are being lifted they seem to shoot upwards as if propelled by magic, and lighter ones, such as parts of moulds, etc., are closed together with a degree of precision unattainable by the clumsy structures which these more effective engines have displaced. No noise, no rushing through the shop for a spare crank to supply the place of the one just broken by as many hands as could crowd around it, no anxiety of foreman or men, all proceeding with a naturalness born only of perfection, and all this owing to the fact that it has just dawned upon the minds of founders that the foundry can be made more productive if sufficient attention is only given to its needs and requirements. FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 129 The business of cranes has fortunately been taken out of the hands of the amateur crane-builders that infest almost every firm which boasts of owning a foundry, and this to such an extent as to effectually bar out every attempt on their part to ever again inflict one of their monstrosities on a patient and uncomplaining shopful of moulders. If it were only for the latter great benefit, we have reason to bless the day when the specialist in the manufacture of cranes was able to give us the perfection we have attempted to describe for less money than one of the old abortions would cost the unsuspecting victim of the once famous, but now almost defunct, 'handy man about shop.' It is a good sign to notice the almost universal adoption of these lately invented appliances for reaching every nook and corner of the foundry with some adequate means for lifting objects hitherto lifted by hand at great risk to all concerned. The pneumatic and steam hydraulic cranes, etc., suitable for such purposes are now to be obtained at a comparatively trifling cost. From the number of such ap- pliances now in use, there is every indication that the con- venience and general welfare of the employe is receiving attention to which he has been hitherto unaccustomed. Another labor-saving device for facilitating the rapid handling of large quantities of molten iron is becoming very popular in many of our large architectural, car, and stove shops, consisting of an overhead trolley system direct from the cupola to all parts of the shop, one man being able to pilot 1000 pounds of iron direct to the floor, and. serve each hand-ladle as fast as presented, the latter opera- tion being made very simple and clean by a hook on the band of the supply ladle, on which the moulder can rest his ladle whilst it is being filled, a suitable eye on the band of the hand ladle being provided for that purpose. 130 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. TESTING-MACHINES. The rapidly increasing popularity of the testing-machine in the foundry is the sure indication of a desire on the part of founders for a more correct and satisfactory means of knowing just what iron they are using; the rule-of-thumb, as exemplified by the antiquated method of testing by fracture alone, is being fast relegated to the rear, its place being taken by the more positive means of the testing-ma- chine and crucible. Iratrican Machinist Fig. 47. The machine shown in Fig. 47 is designed for testing the tensile strength of metals; the rod A, to be tested, is made to one square inch of section, and is held between clamps attached, respectively, to levers B and G. The lever B is acted on by a worm-wheel C, and worm operated by a hand- wheel F, bringing the tensile strain upon the scale-beam levers G, H, and /; to the long arm of the latter weights D are applied until the bar A is ruptured, or the required testing strain is reached. E is a counterbalance weight for the levers G, H, I. FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 131 How these machines are applied for obtaining a trans- verse test will be seen at once by consulting Fig. 48, which is self-explanatory. Fig. 48. TRACKS AND TRUCKS. Where the means for transmitting moulds, cores, cast- ings, and all other materials are lacking overhead, espe- cially in large foundries which have assumed their present magnitude, section after section, by the process of building ' something temporarily' for the present, as their business increased from time to time, there is now a very good sub- stitute in a system of well-kept tracks with switches in every available direction. Specialists in this line now manufacture trucks that will turn in a 12-foot radius with ease, with loads of three tons or more, thus taking up little, if any, more room than would be required for turntables, the latter objectionable feature being by this means effectu- ally dispensed with. The transmission of cores from the oven to their respective places, sand from the bins outside, 132 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. and molten iron from the cupola to every part of such a shop may with such an arrangement be accomplished with marvellous facility, and with an outlay for labor that is in- finitesimal compared with lugging everything by hand. Fig. 49 shows how admirably the track system is adapted to a number of shops collected together, as above described. As will be seen, connections for both supply and delivery are well provided for; the tracks were so arranged that a steam-crane lifted the iron from the cupolas onto the trucks with the least delay imaginable, and every part of these straggling places brought into intimate relation with the cupola by said means. CONVEYERS. May we not hope that before long the laborious and by no means desirable mode of wheeling in barrows all the material used by the sand and loam mixer, etc., will be supplanted by one or other of the much -to-be-ad mired sys- tems of conveying which are becoming so common almost everywhere, except in the foundry ? These means are pre- eminently adapted for foundry purposes, inasmuch as every- thing could then be hauled to its destination clear of the foundry floor altogether. Mines, mills, and quarries are duly supplied with fast or slow speed elevators and con- veyers with a perfect discharge; grain is handled in such a manner as to leave no trailings behind, and different grades handled by the same conveyer (something very suggestive of its adaptability to foundry use); clay at the brick-yards, coal at the wharves and elsewhere, tanneries, tile and stone yards, have these splendid appliances in full swing; but, as usual, the foundry is last in the raoe. ELEVATORS TO CUPOLA SCAFFOLD. Looking at the very excellent arrangements for elevating material to the charging platform at some of our foundries, FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 133 134 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. one is forced to the conclusion that improvements began first at the outside, and only very slowly found their way into the foundry proper. However, it is a satisfaction to know that the interior has at last been reached, and every part is now receiving its due share of attention in all well- regulated shops. The advent of the ordinary elevator made it possible to banish forever that slavish and expensive mode of carrying by hand all the iron and fuel to the scaf- fold; but it is evident that very many cling tenaciously to these time-honored notions, otherwise we should see some scheme invented, even in the meanest places, by which material could be handled more sensibly as well as profit- ably. The common freight elevator may be very readily adapted to almost any foundry, and this contrivance owing to the lively competition of makers, can be furnished at a remark- ably low cost. The author has had an every-day experience of 75 tons of melted iron per day at a foundry where both iron and fuel, great as was the quantity, was lifted from the foundry floor to one end of the scaffold in iron cages hold- ing about five tons of iron, and deposited on a truck which, by means of a suitable track, was conveyed to each of the three cupolas in use, respectively. The crane used for this purpose was an ordinary jib with a reversing engine behind ; and whilst it may appear a somewhat rude method com- pared with the best practice of the day, it was very effec- tive. CUPOLA SCALES. It is a great saving of time, as well as an aid to correct- ness, to provide a scale with several beams and poises, so that a truck may be at once filled with the several quanti- ties of different irons which go to make up a charge. This allows the proportional quantities to be collected on the truck instead of obliging them to be carried separately to the FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 135 cupola. The iron truck at Fig. 50 is shown on a section of railway upon the scale-platform; the beams are concealed, but are supposed to be provided with indicators, which pass through the top of the beam-box. There is no doubt that this method originated at the car-wheel foundries, where the cupola scaffold is in many instances connected with the yard direct by a line of railway on a constructed in- cline. It is even easier to adopt this scheme where the Fig. 50. truck can be run from the scale to the elevator platform on the level, and. not a few of our wide-awake firms have adopted the scheme. AND EIDDLES. The sand riddle shown at Fig. 51 is undoubtedly the re- sult of an evolutionary process easily traceable through all its several stages or periods: at first the tiresome and back- breaking standing with riddle in hand to receive shovelful after shovelful of sand from an associate, to be either freed from scraps or more effectually mixed and tempered; then the stick with a nail inserted at each end, one of which was to thrust into the floor to prevent slipping, the other to 136 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. protrude through one of the meshes at the front of the riddle, thus relieving the operator of nearly one half the load as he jerked his riddle back and forth ; and again the mortar-mixer's screen brought into the foundry, — perhaps surreptitiously from some new building in course of erec- tion near by. Finally, the machine as intimated, which is supposed to give a combination of all the motions incident to ordinary riddling, saving at least half the labor, and the time also. Whilst this figure serves to show a very popular power riddle now in use at many foundries, it by no means covers Fig. 51. the field of invention for this end. A very good one by J. Evans & Co., Manchester, Eng.. hooks the tray into slings which depend from any convenient support above by means of straps bolted on the frame. The tray is formed of a piece of T 5 F " plate iron, bent round to form three sides of a rectangle, the fourth side being left open. A series of half-inch bars pass across the frame, the action of the up- permost bars being to assist in breaking up the large lumps of sand. The sieves, which are interchangeable, are laid over the lower bars. The oscillating motion is imparted to FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 137 the frame from a belt-pulley, which drives a three-toothed cam pinion : these teeth thrusting alternately the pins in the slotted piece attached to the bar which actuates the frame, communicate a rapid jarring to - and - fro motion thereto. The fine sand falls through the sieve into a bin below, and the unbroken lumps pass on and fall out at the open end. A revolving screen, lately introduced in some of our leading shops, is no doubt the most effective machine yet seen for mixing heavy piles of sand, and promises to super- sede all other contrivances yet invented for that purpose. CLEANSING MILL. The simple tumbling-barrel was the first attempt made to supersede the old method of cleaning small castings with old Cles and pieces of sandstone or emery. How well some of us can remember the army of little boys and old men employed for this purpose at all such firms as manufac- tured large quantities of small work. This simple machine, like all others since introduced, cleans and polishes cast- ings by attrition, and consists of a cylindric or barrel- shaped vessel, composed of perforated slabs bolted to the two ends, having a side door for the introduction of the work, and mounted on an axis so as to be revolved by a wheel or pulley. Very many improved ones are now in use, but all aim at the one object of cleansing by the intro- duction, along with the castings, of slag or cinder, which, as it breaks up by constant abrasion with the castings, cleans the latter from all adhering sand, which escapes through the perforations, leaving the castings clean within the barrel. Some are now provided with an exhaust ap- paratus for conveying away the dust, — a very desirable acquisition, it must be said,— are friction-geared, and pro- vided with hand-wheels for stopping and starting. Others 138 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. again are revolved on chilled truck-wheels, the heads hav- ing guides turned thereon for the purpose, thus doing away with axis on the head altogether. A great saving of time is effected when two barrels are employed, as in this case one may he kept running whilst the other is being loaded or unloaded. LOAM-MILL. Another of the evidences of a growth in the desire for best methods is the adoption of the mill for grinding loam, Fig. 52. where such a commodity is in constant demand. Old as this contrivance is, it is nevertheless a fact that in many foundries they are still pounding away on the chopping, bench, apparently ignorant of the existence of such a machine; others claim that hand-made loam is the best, but this cannot be any other than a wild statement, having no ground in fact. With such a mill as is shown at Fig. 52, loam may be ground to any consistency desired, accord- ing to the amount of clay and manure and the nature of the sand used. FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 139 The machines that are sometimes erected for this pur- pose are not suitable, being simply a copy of those used in cement and other factories ; one chief objection to most of them is the ou trigging required for carrying the gearing, which is usually on the top. The one shown at Fig. 52 is the best mill for the foundry, being provided with a chute through which the loam or clay-wash may escape when it has been sufficiently ground, and its usefulness may be still further enhanced by a system of hoppers overhead for the introduction of the sand, clay, etc. MOULDEES' CLAMPS. Even the ordinary light-work moulders' clamp receives some attention during this age of improvement : amongst many other excellent contrivances may be classed the ones seen at Figs. 53 and 54, the latter, although ingenious and Fig. 53. Fig. 54. sure, might be objected to on account of the protruding handle, but its other acceptable features will, in many in- stances, compensate for that. The dilapidated condition of the top edges of wooden flasks, caused by that outlandish mode of pinching now so prevalent, as well as the many 140 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. failures from jarring of iron copes whilst driving wedges, ought to impel every founder to invent something more elegant and satisfactory than are the crude devices invari- ably practised. In nothing does the spirit of improvement seem so backward as is the case in this particular, almost everywhere. GEARED LADLES. There is every evidence of shiftlessness and culpable neglect when, as is sometimes the case, we see a dozen men struggling to pour a casting from a six-ton ladle provided with no other means for such an operation than the old crutch-bars at each end. When Nasmyth, the great Eng- lish mechanic, added to the pivot of a crane ladle a tangent- screw and worm-wheel by which it might be gradually tilted by one man standing conveniently near by, he made every moulder in the universe his debtor; and no founder should hesitate, on the ground of expense or for any other reason, in providing such safe means as this valuable inven- tion secures. The difference between the two devices is a striking one, and compensates in a large measure for the very meagre conveniences supplied by our too-easy ances- tors. What the writer believes to be the chief characteris- tics of a good geared ladle will be found on page 79. HAY AND STRAW ROPES. We noticed how anxious were the founders of almost every country to possess one of the hay-twisters shown at Fig. 55, when they were first placed on the market; but this may not have been occasioned by a desire to be abreast of -the times so much as that their superiority over the old patriarchal ways, from a monetary point of view, was so manifest as to check all opposition to their general adop- FO UNDR 7 APPLIANCES. 141 tion wherever large quantities of hay or straw ropes were used. However, we are willing to class this with the other evidences of a general desire for a more practical and rational adoption of any mechanical contrivance which will not only save labor, but, also add dignity to a much- abnsed trade. As seen, this machine makes the hay or straw rope, and Fig. 55. winds it up into a coil for transportation. Rollers draw the hay from the trough, and the twisting is effected by a planetary action of the rollers longitudinally ; it is then coiled on the reel. Since the introduction of the above-described machine there have appeared others of more or less merit, but with many it remains a matter for conjecture whether there has been any substantial improvement made. 142 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. GEAR-MOULDING BY MACHINERY. Owing to the various difficulties caused by irregular ramming, unequal expansion of patterns arising from the different degrees of dampness in the sand, as well as the lmost certain destruction of some parts of the mould dur- ing the withdrawal of the pattern, and which could at best be but approximately repaired, it is safe to say that very few gear-wheels of magnitude were ever made true before Jackson, of Manchester, England, invented his machine for forming part of the mould and spacing the teeth with mechanical accuracy in the sand, one tooth only being used for producing the whole number contained in the wheel, this one tooth being alternately raised and lowered by suitable machinery, which not only draws the pattern with absolute precision, but travels to the next tooth as precisely as could happen in the best gear-cutting machine. Everything points to the fact that the principle of Jack- son's machine was first suggested to him by the method of moulding gear-wheels which was then finding favor at most of the large millwright shops in his immediate neighbor- hood, and which will be found fully explained in " The Iron Founder," the scheme therein described for forming the cope and bottom bed, as well as the arms, being substan- tially the same as adopted by him; in fact, if the reader will carefully examine the whole subject he will see clearly that the wheel moulding machine is simply the application of a method for spacing the teeth, and insuring a better draw of the same. Since the introduction of the above machine many others have sprung into existence, notably the Scott, Bellington and Darbyshire, Whittaker's, Buckley and Taylor's, and Simpson's. With the exception of the latter, all these machines are actuated by change-wheels for effecting the FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 143 regular movement of the same; but the Simpson machine is worked independent of such means, thus obviating any inaccuracy consequent on the wear and tear of the several wheels employed. The pitching of the teeth is somewhat after the manner of the division-plate and index-pin of a geometric lathe, and on these machines a sheet-iron drum is secured to the top of the central column of the machine, aud perforated with a series of circles of holes, giving a large range of numbers suitable for different numbers of teeth. A peg is made to fit into these holes, passing through a hole in the vertical arm attached to the horizon- tal arm which carries the tooth-block, and so locks the machine accurately during the ramming of each separate tooth. The horizontal or carrier arm slides vertically on the central pillar, and when adjusted for height is kept in position by means of a collar upon which it rests. A slot in the arm permits of a movement upon the horizontal slide operated radially by a screw and hand-wheel ; through this slide passes a screw and a guide-rod for im- parting a vertical movement to the tooth-block. The tooth-block is elevated by a hand-wheul and mitre-wheel ; provision is made by a hand-wheel and slot for setting the blocks of bevel-wheels at any required degree of angle. Fig. 56 is a rough sketch of a moulding-machine for wheels when the spacing is actuated by change-wheels. It is seen that a pattern is used corresponding to a small portion of the gear to be moulded ; this pattern includes two teeth and the interdental space, when spur-gears are to be moulded, and is attached to the lower end of the ver- tical guide-bar, which slides in ways formed at the end of a horizontal support, which has a radial position relatively to a central spindle or arbor. By this means the pattern is carried around, and, being made to descend upon the bed previously formed, gives, after ramming, the proper impression for that portion of the gear-wheel which corre- 144 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. sponds to it. It is used to mould gears from nine inches up to six feet in diameter — either spur, bevel, mitre, mortise, or worm wheels, plain or shrouded; and it is also equally Fig. 56. applicable to moulding fly-wheels or pulleys, either plain or shrouded. OTHER LABOR-SAVING DEVICES— CASINGS. Casings in which to form the outer, and in some in- stances both outer and inner parts of crystallizing cones for chemical works, as well as sugar-pans and numbers of kettles, etc., were a natural outcome of the ever-increasing demand for such articles, and which could not have been met by the usual practice of moulding in bricks and loam. The same may be said with regard to the rapid growth of the pipe trade consequent on the general outcry for a pure and plentiful water-supply ; the creeping methods of moulding on the flat in green sand had to be abolished ulti- mately in favor of vertical moulding in iron casings, which FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 145 latter suggested the application of said methods to hy- draulic rams, and all castings that could by this means be made without external ramming in the pits. Vide " The Iron Founder," page 186. PIT RAMMING. When the loam-moulder, in ramming up large bodies of sand in pits, sought out weights and big logs to occupy spaces of more than ordinary dimensions, thus reducing the time consumed in ramming as well as making a harder body for the mould to press against, he was sowing the seeds which ultimately blossomed into the well-kept curbs which could be fastened together at any convenient distance from the mould, making the containing of the latter independent of whatever space might be outside. The climax was reached when he confined all of his mould in suitably con- trived casings, in which the mould was prepared from the outset. WORM-PINIONS, ON END. We can well remember when it was first suggested to mould a worm-pinion by drawing it out of the sand endwise, and by that means obviate the unsightly joint. "Pooh! pooh!" exclaimed the conservative moulders around; but just as soon as a suitable pattern, with the necessary ap pendages for supporting and guiding the same, was fur- nished, the feat was accomplished without trouble, to the very evident dissatisfaction of the doubters. Now we have some pretty long pieces of conveyer-screw formed in the sand by first forming a plain cylindrical mould, and after- wards forming the thread by screwing a short section of pattern through the mould. SCREW-PROPELLERS. It is very evident that there has been a steady improve- ment in the ways of moulding screw-propellers from the 146 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. first ; the writer remembers some very roundabout methods which at that time were considered perfection. Since then, however, large numbers of patents have been granted for improved methods of sweeping, flask-forming, and ram- ming, all evincing that there was a keen competitive spirit abroad. Following close on the heels of some late improve- ments by moulding in fixed flasks from one blade pattern only, comes still another patent for forming the blades separately by a sweep and an adjustable knife, which forms the blade independent of a pattern altogether. It is very encouraging to notice that most of these late inventions for propeller-making devices belong to practical moulders, some of whom are now working at the trade, clearly showing that we, as a class, are in the race for a legitimate share of the thinking. BLOCK AND PLATE MOULDING. A short review of the two methods — block and plate moulding — will serve to show that the spirit of invention was abroad in the foundries when some of the oldest of us were boys ; how much these early attempts have helped in bringing about the present elaborate systems will be appar- ent when a full knowledge of the modes then employed is obtained. Plaster-blocks were invented to make the moulding of thin delicate register work, as well as other long thin castings having more or less elegance of design, a more easy and safe operation, and consisted of taking plaster casts of each side of the pattern; then from both these impressions other plaster casts were taken in top and bottom match flasks, the latter then serving to ram thereon cope and nowel respectively, exclusive of the original pat- tern. Such moulds are in all cases an exact duplicate of the pattern, free from all the imperfections usually attend- ing the moulding of very light work by the common prac- tice. FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 147 The necessity for producing small work of all descrip- tions at a more rapid rate, and with greater accuracy, sug- gested the principle of what is called plate-moulding, which consists of flasks well fitted, and with planed edges to receive a plate betwixt, upon either side of which are the respective halves of the several castings connected by the running gates. The pinning of these flasks is so arranged that the cope may be set down face up, upon which the plate is then pinned, to be followed by the nowel, which is at once rammed. After turning all three over, the gate- pin is set into a socket over the main runner, the cope rammed and separated, when, after a slight jarring, the plate is lifted off, exposing all the moulds with gates ready cut, leaving nothing to be done except to set in whatever cores are needed and close the mould. Should the cope side of the plate offer any difficulty in effecting a clean lift, the noAvels and copes can be rammed alternately; by this means the plate is lifted away from the mould in both cases, thus insuring a clean separation. The very excellent idea of fitting flasks interchangeably originated with these two methods. MOULDING-MACHINES. The stripping-plate, which constitutes one of the chief elements of the modern moulding-machine, is not by any means a new invention: some of the first were made over thirty years ago by a large manufacturer of cotton machin- ery in Oldham, England, for the production at a cheaper rate of pulleys, wheels, and other small work too numerous to mention. Compared with the elaborate systems of stool-plates, etc., on some of the present machines, these early efforts were no doubt somewhat rude ; still, it is evi- dent that the principles upon which the present methods are based are one and the same with the past— the patterns projected through the plate and were withdrawn under- 148 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. neath by means of levers before the rammed flask was lifted off. Some were rolled over with the flask, and the pattern pulled through. The question is sometimes asked by parties opposed to machine-moulding, " Is the investment in machines and other appliances for a foundry justifiable?" And the reply readily comes that " you are justified in putting a plant into a foundry, and that every part of it should be as good as it can be made." They claim, and not without reason, that, with the exception of some minor devices, the foundry employs the old pod-auger methods; and, farther, that inasmuch as no man would hesitate to put new tools into his machine-shop that would save fifty per cent of what the labor costs, ought to hesitate when a similar inducement is offered in the foundiy. They furthermore assert that, owing to the superintendent being invariably a machinist and not a moulder, and while he is conscious that present methods are neither economical nor progressive — being unacquainted with the work— he defers to his foun- dry-man, who wants his foundry improved, but considers moulding an art and not a trade, for which machines can do the thinking. The latter assertion may be correct in some instances, but we know of places where the exact reverse is the case ; and even now there are many firms where machines are in active operation under the irn me- diate supervision of superintendents who are not moulders, and where the foreman moulder devotes his whole energy to make the machines a success, and this with astonishingly successful results. Another authority upon this subject says: " The all-ab- sorbing question, ' What is the economy in machine-mould- ing?' is very difficult to answer. The product of machines will vary in different foundries as much as the product of the moulder. What may be called a fair day's work is an unsettled question. A machine that will mould 175 flasks, FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 149 16 X 16 X 10 inches deep, with ttvo men to operate it, in one foundry, would, under precisely the same conditions, mould 250 in another. One manager ma} r surround his machine with conveniences for handling the work and thus increase his product, while another would compel his machine-men to work under disadvantages. The treasurer and practical shopman of a foundry were observing the operations of an automatic machine, with watch in hand. A complete half mould in 16-inch nowel, 5 inches deep, had just been made and turned on the floor for inspection in ten seconds after the sand was put into the flask, when the treasurer asked the question, ' How many moulds can be made in a day ?' Before any reply could be given the shopman said, ' That's not the question: the question is, How many moulds can we take care of ? ' A better answer could not have been given." The conditions are not at all favorable when all the sand is handled by shovels, and the moulds carried to and fro by hand. The authority above quoted, in speaking of this, says: "Two men on this machine make 200 moulds per day, and average during the working hours from twenty- seven to thirty-four moulds per hour. These men have made and carried away 158 nowels in one hour and thirty- five minutes, and have made 200 complete moulds ready for clamping in less than five hours. The flasks used in this case were 14 X 17 X 10 inches deep, and weighed 70 pounds; the sand in the flask when rammed weighed 156 pounds. "We must keep in mind that these two men must shovel into flasks over 31,000 pounds of sand and carry off the same amount in making 200 moulds; they must also handle twice 14,000 pounds of iron in flasks. 200 moulds under these conditions is too much for five hours' work, but this number is not too much for a day's work for two men. A greater product might be obtained from an additional man, or a conveyer for elevating sand to a hopper over the 150 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. machine. A system of handling the moulds after they are made would also add to the machine's capacity." Mr. Harris Tabor, in a paper read before the American Society of Mechanical Engineers at the San Francisco meeting, May, 1892, says: " Of all the mechanical arts, that of moulding has been the most difficult to .formulate and reduce to a system. Since the origin of metal-founding the moulder has been pleased to shroud his methods in certain mysteries which, to him at least, seem essential to perfect castings. There is much beyond the control of the moulder, in the art of metal-founding, which tends to make bad castings. His strongest influence upon the qual- ity of his work lies in the skill which cannot be verified by caliper, gauge, or rule. The moulder's art is in making the mould of its proper'density. Drawing a pattern from the sand after it has been rammed, and mending a broken mould, are mechanical operations easily taught: it is not so with ramming. If a touch of genius enters into the mould- ing it is shown in making the mould of such density that it will stand pouring without ' straining,' and be soft enough to prevent ' blowing ' and ' scabbing,' with a certainty that the sand will remain in place until the iron has solidified. This is the moulder's skill, which cannot be formulated and passed down to succeeding generations in books." It is very evident from the above that Mr. Tabor knew what difficulties he had to contend with when he undertook to make a moulding-machine that would automatically over- come them all. What course he pursued may be partially gathered from what he says in another part of the paper quoted: " In the spring of 1890, Mr. A. B. Moore, who was then a Stevens Institute senior, selected the rammer ma- chine as the subject of his thesis. We discussed the iack of data bearing upon the friction of sand, and decided jointly to make experiments. An ordinary platform-scale was used for weighing. A series of boxes 4x4 inches, 5x5 FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 151 inches, and 6x6 inches was decided on ; these boxes were supported by frames spanning the scale and resting on the ground, as seen at Fig. 5? ; each box was fitted with a loose bottom, which rested on the scale platform. The plunger used for ramming fitted its box loosely enough to avoid serious friction, and was connected to the weighted lever by a turned joint; the weight of the lever on the sand was found by weighing it in position. In all cases the scale was weighted to a pressure equal to 10 pounds per square Fig. 57. inch on the under face of the box. (This is about the density of the average mould surface.) We began with the 4-inch square box as follows: 2£ inches of loose sand was put in and compressed to 1{} inches to give a density equal to 10 pounds on the under side, and it required a pressure of 12£ pounds on the top of the sand to produce this result. With 5 inches of loose sand, 17.} pounds press- ure was required on top to give 10 pounds below; an ad- dition of 2£ inches in the depth of sand brought the ram- ming pressure up to 34 pounds, and the last 2£ inches — making 10 inches — required a pressure of 42 pounds to give 10 pounds on the scales. With the G-inch box only 111; pounds were needed to give 10 pounds below with 2£ 152 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. inches of sand ; with 10 inches, 26 pounds raised the scale- beam, or 1G pounds less than was required under precisely the same conditions with the 4-inch box. The walls of the boxes were of undressed plank to represent the average condition of wooden flasks." THE TABOR MOULDING-MACHINE. With the rammer system of this machine greater pressure may be given over portions of the mould which would other- Fig. 58. wise be too soft. When flasks are of such a size that bars are necessary, the rammers are arranged to straddle them, thus doing away with all tendency of the bars to spring; this method also avoids the necessity of tucking under the bars. When the flat platen is used for ramming, sand may be scooped away from the highest portions of the pattern until the best results are obtained. With these automatic FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 153 machines the rigid platen made of hard wood, is used for ramming, and cut boldly over the pattern; by this method it is claimed that no skill or judgment is necessary in putting sand into the flask, and the density of the mould over the iron may be made to suit any condition. The method of using flask-bars for ramming is to have them detached from the flask, and short enough to be forced down without coming in contact with its walls; the flask and sand-box are filled with sand, and the bars forced down by a flat platen; the bars are deeper where the greatest Fig. 59. ramming is required, and being made wedge-shaped, each bar spreads the sand until it meets the spreading influence of its neighbor. The heavy flasks are placed on trucks, which are topped with stripping-plates and contain mech- anism for drawing the patterns; the tracks are run under the machine for ramming, and withdrawn to take off the mould and replace the flask. For the lighter flasks which can be lifted by hand the machine shown at Figs. 58 and 59 is made; the figure shows the floor broken to give view of the machine below the floor-line. The piston takes steam on the under side only, its weight being sufficient to return it promptly after the mould is rammed. To the piston-rod is attached the principal part of the mechanism, 154 TUB IRON-FO UNDER STJl'PLEMENT. consisting of a table with lngs projecting upwards and supporting the pattern-frame upon which rest the patterns. The stripping-plate frame is directly over the pattern- frame and rests on it, to which the stripping-plate is at- tached, The stool-plate is suspended to the stripping- plate frame and moves with it; the side levers and tumbling- shaft are for tripping after the pattern is withdrawn. The pattern-frame has an annular passage, which connects with the cylinder and admits some steam to the pattern-plate at each movement, thus keeping the patterns in a dry condi- tion for smooth working. The stool-plate is really part of the stripping-plate frame placed below the pattern-frame, its object being to support stools, or internal parts of the stripping-plate used in holding up the green-sand cores, or heavy bodies of hanging sand while the pattern is being drawn: these stops can readily be changed to suit any pattern within the range of the machine. The ramming- head is carried by the wrought rods seen at either side of the machine. The steam-pipe enters the cylinder at the bottom, and from the throttle-valve to the cylinder serves also as an exhaust-pipe, the throttle-valve being a two-way cock by which steam is both admitted or exhausted from the cylinder. The half-flask is put on the stripping-plate, with the sand-box to hold the sand which is to be com- pressed, and both are filled with sand ; the ramming-head is then swung forward over the flask against the stops which define its position, and the throttle-valve opened. The upward motion of the piston and attached parts carries the flask and sand up to the ramming-head, where it is rammed instantly, and upon the lever being moved again steam is cut off, and at the same time exhausted, allowing the flask to descend ; the stops then engaging the free ends of side levers and arresting the downward motion of strip- ping-plate at a point about midway. The pattern continu- ing to descend is drawn from the mould, and when the FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 155 piston has returned to its lowest position the sand is struck off the flask, which is then taken from the machine. As the man removes it he presses the tripping-treadle with his foot to release the stripping plate frame, which then falls to its proper position with respect to the pattern, and the machine is ready for another mould. Water or com- pressed air may be used instead of steam if it is desirable, though it is believed that steam is preferable in most cases, because it is usually easily obtained without the use of special auxiliary machinery of any kind. THE YIELDING-PLATEN MOULDING-MACHINE. The Atlas Engine Works, of Indianapolis, Ind., are the makers of the above-named machine, a perspective view of which is given at Fig. 60. The top of this machine is Fig. 60. provided with a rubber bag filled with water or compressed air, and the bottom or cylinder is caused to raise by the admission of compressed air, thus forcing the flask con- taining the sand against the rubber bag, which, they claim, presses the sand in a manner that cannot be effected by any other known method. The makers say that .amongst their several devices developed for yielding-platen mould- WQ THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. in g-rnach fries the flexible diaphragm backed by the fluid forms a wonderfully simple and effective machine. The platen yields according to the form of the pattern, thus producing uniform density of sand and perfect castings. The double rotary feature adds fully fifty per cent to the productive capacity of their original single machine. Pro- vision is made for reasonable variance in depth of the cope and drag without adjustment of the machine. Both drag and cope patterns are on the machine at the same time. They are made alternately, and the moulds finished, cov- ered, and clamped on the floor, ready for pouring, without increasing the labor force more than one man over that employed on the single machine. The machine is turned on its centre with little effort, and, in spite of its rapid work, is not wearing on the operatives. There is nothing to get out of order, nothing to break by strain. Wooden patterns can be used and drawn by hand, though drawing iron patterns through stripping-plates is recommended. The writer has stood and watched these machines in oper- ation, and can bear testimony to the regularity as well as efficacy of their movements, which is in every respect equal to what is claimed for them, quality as well as quantity being alike phenomenal. TEETOR MOULDING-MACHINE. This machine provides means for holding the flask securely, and turning it over; also for jarring the pattern, and holding the same perfectly level, to allow a clean sep- aration of the mould therefrom. As will be seen at Figs. 61 and 62, the journals of the revolving moulding table are mounted on the top of the main standards. Amongst other things claimed for this machine are the following. That nearly all patterns may be operated successfully with- out stripping-plate; undercut patterns, or such as have curved, tapering projections, are operated, automatically, FOUNDRY APPLIANCES. 157 by a method of suspending such oblique parts to the main pattern by means of a slotted link, which accommodates itself to the requisite position for a clean draw. Flasks may be given such form as will suit the form of the pat- Fig. 61. tern, in which case the general form of the intervening pattern-plate can be suited to the form of the pattern; or two machines may be employed, with separate match-plates for cope and drag. A jarring mechanism is also providsf., being mounted on extreme end of axle, on outside of the hand-wheel seen, and consists of a wheel provided with a handle and having pivoted on its rim a double-acting anchor-shaped cam, 158 THE IKONFOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. adapted to beat sharply against the axle of the moulding- table, by being revolved rapidly, and engaging with a mul- tiple cam ring fixed on main hand-wheel. This jarring does not shake the pattern in the mould, but gives it a general tremor sufficient to loosen it from the sand. Within the Fig. 62. revolving moulding-table are secured four adjustable clamps, adapted to hold the pattern-plate in any position of elevation desired, to suit the comparative depth of cope and drag. The revolving moulding-table is also provided with a double set of double-acting adjustable and inde- pendent excentric bales, adapted to bind and hold the CHAINS, BEAMS, SLINGS, HOOKS, ROPES, ETC. 159 flask aud bottom board, while being turned over in revolv- ing the moulding-table. The patentee of the above machine suggests a method of mounting pattern match-plates without any measuring, as follows: Take one half of pattern, and drill holes at exact right angles with the joining surface set on the other half; bind well together, and drill through the other half, taking care that the hole is in exact line all through; after which secure all the half patterns intended for the pattern- plate in their respective positions thereon, and drill all holes through the same. The two halves of pattern can then be secured on each side of the intervening plate by close-fitting pins. CHAINS, BEAMS, SLINGS, HOOKS, ROPES, ETC., FOR LIFTING AND HANDLING ALL CLASSES OF WORK IN THE FOUNDRY. It is a well-established fact that the foundry is, ordi- narily, run on makeshift princ^les throughout, but espe- cially so with regard to the manner of handling material, whether it be the moulds or the finished castings. If this bad feature worked advantageously either in pro- ducing more or better work, or both, there might be a modicum of excuse for pursuing such a course; but it does not. On the contrary, we find that in almost every in- stance more time is needed to accomplish the work, which when done is very evidently far behind in quality. Then there is the increased danger consequent on the using of tools which are so badly adapted for the work in hand, which always engenders fear on the part of the 160 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. workman, thus in a measure disqualifying him for the work he has undertaken to perform. But the anomaly which stands out most prominently is that it invariably takes a longer time and costs more to establish these makeshift methods than would be the case if safe and correct devices were prepared. If the above be true, and 'true' it is, there must assur- edly be something wrong somewhere. Sound judgment, backed by a good practical knowledge of all the require- ments, should always suggest safe and reliable methods, even if they are more expensive at first cost. In my ex- perience I have seldom met with opposition, from employ- ers, to the best methods being adopted when the case has been properly put. We are reluctantly forced to confess that most if not all of the makeshift systems in vogue arise from the fact that the man in charge is not equal to the occasion; he does the best he can, no doubt, but that is not good enough. The subjects chosen for illustration in this article offer a wide field for thought and practice; and whilst it may be a settled fact that similar equipments for every foundry are not possible, owing to the different needs to suit spe- cial cases, yet it is safe to say that, in a general way, lift- ing-tackle, with some few modifications, is much the same everywhere. It is not, as a rule, necessary to have a multiplicity cf chains for handling the work in any foundry, and this may be proved very easily by a little observation. However plentiful the tackle may be, there is sure to be a favorite set or sets of chains, hooks, etc., and these are in constant demand, while the rest are usually neglected and left to rust away in some unused corner of the shop. This should at once suggest the propriety of limiting the supply to an adequate number of just such chains, etc., as are best adapted for general purposes. CHAINS, BEAMS, SLINGS, HOOKS, ROPES, ETC. 161 Still, a too strict adherence to the system of making everything subservient to one principle of handling is to be deprecated, for the simple reason that it will be found very desirable in special cases to make radical changes in order to obtain the maximum in both quantity and quality of work to be done. Experience proves that any departure from fixed methods, which will jDerhaps lessen first cost as well as facilitate production other ways, is to be com- mended, even if the tackle made for such special purposes be not required when the job is through. The substitution of hinges for the recognized methods of separating sometimes works wonders, and not only saves lifting-tackle and time, but enable some of our small found- ers to accomplish work which without their aid would have been far beyond their capacity. The same may be said in regard to other methods, such as lifting by the use of chains and resting copes on horses provided with bearings for the swivels to turn in. This method can with profit be changed in some shops by using the beam and slings, which latter-mentioned device is eminently adapted for a wide range of work when prop- erly managed. Fig. G3 will serve to show several methods of handling loam work, round or rectangular, by the use of a four- armed beam or cross, on which, to favor illustration, arc represented three different modes of carrying the moulds. The cross seen at A is supposed to be made of cast-iron, and is provided with a steel centre eye, which works loose in the cross. The cross is strengthened laterally by a flange extending from the centre to the limit of the notches for holding the slings, beam hooks, or chains which are set therein. The plain wrought-iron slings marked B, C, B, and E are useful for all ordinary lifting when the mould is sus- pended direct from the cross, as shown. They are also ex- 162 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. cellent adjuncts to the cross for binding purposes, because there is no particular harm done by leaving them rammed in the curbs, or pit, until the mould is cast. The plan of leaving chains, or any other tackle required for general use, in the pit is a reprehensible one, and should be avoided as much as possible. It will be seen that by using the cross these plain slings are equally applicable to square and round moulds when the lifting lugs are cast at the middle of the square plate, as seen at F, G, H, and I. By substituting chain-slings like the one shown at / and J, an ordinary beam, similar to the one shown at Fig. 64, may be used, and square or round moulds lifted with equal facility, the centre lugs F, G, H, and / being used for the round moulds, and those at K, L, M, and N provided for the square ones; the flexibility of the chain-sling allows of its being passed around the mould to the lifting lug with ease. CHAINS, BEAMS, SLINGS, HOOKS, ROPES, ETC. 163 When the method of single beam and chain slings is adopted, it is advisable to make all lugs on the plates after the manner shown at Fig. 65, and the sling end of the chain should be fashioned to fit the same easy; by this means the grip is always solid, no matter what angle the chain may take when the mould is lifted. In order to make such chains serve for both long and short moulds, beam-hooks like the one shown at 0, Fig. 63, can be forged, into which hooks or slings can be linked to bring the sling chain up to the desired length. One other method remains to be spoken of in this con- nection, which goes to prove what has been previously Fig. 64. Fig. 65. Fig. 66. Fig. 67. Fig. 68. stated in regard to adopting for every job the same mode of handling. At PP is shown the method of lifting loam moulds with the can-hooks exclusively, made with chain or long links, as shown. To make the can-hook principle as safe as possible, strict attention must be paid to the form of the lugs provided for lifting by. Figs. 66 and 67 will explain more readily than could be done in words how this may be accomplished. At Fig. 66 it will be seen that the lug is made at an angle ou the side next the hook; this allows the hook to take a firm grip well up to the root, where it is the strongest; and Fig. 67 shows a stop cast on each lug to prevent any possi- bility of the hook slipping off. It will be quickly perceived that, in order to allow of 164 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. these hooks being used for the purpose above mentioned, all plates and rings must be made square, no matter what the form of the mould may be. When it is intended that flasks shall be lifted on the same principle, all upper flanges must be formed after the manner shown at Fig. 66, or else provision can be made for Fig. C9 Fig. 71. Fig. 72. ring-bolts at such places as will best serve the purpose, and used as shown at Fig. 68. One of the most useful styles of chains which can be pro- vided for the foundry is the buckle chain, shown at Fig. 69. This may be made of any degree of strength, and consist of as many legs as occasion requires. It is safe to say that any foundry lacking such appliances as these will profit considerably by providing themselves with at least two pairs, light and heavy, of just such chains as are shown at Fig. 69. How much time they will save compared with using a plain chain, when a nice adjustment is needed, is CHAINS, BEAMS, SLINGS, HOOKS, ROPES, ETC. 165 well known to all who have had any experience in their use, and therefore requires no mention here. Three and four legged chains, shown at Figs. 70 and 71, are a great convenience for special occasions, and their usefulness is materially augmented by having them made with a turnbuckle like those at Fig. 69. The contemptible practice of thrusting nails between the links for the pur- pose of adjustment is entirely obviated when these more sensible means are employed. The beam, previously spoken of in reference to its use for loam work, and seen at Fig. 64, can be made to answer very many useful ends, chief of which is the reversing of copes by the aid of slings. The form of sling shown at Fig. 72 is perhaps as useful as an}^, its main feature beiug that the. lower circle at A is forged to fit the groove of the swivel, the upper circle being necessarily large enough to slip over the guard of the same. Another use for the beam is explained at Fig. 64, which figure serves to introduce the turnbuckle A in another phase of its usefulness. This entire rig will be seen to consist of hooks, two of which, B and C, take the first hold, any inequality of weight being regulated by the notches in the beam, while the buckle A admits of almost instant adjustment at that point, making it a very easy matter to lift all irregularly formed moulds with the great- est nicety. This class of beam may easily be made of wrought iron, and because such beams are lighter and safer than cast iron ones, the propriety of making them of the former material will be apparent. The hole under the beam at D is a no- ticeable feature, and will be appreciated when any supple- mentary hitching must be done. It will be well to observe here that the hook shown at 0, Fig. 63, is really a part of this rig, and is very properly 166 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. called a beam hook, because ordinarily these hooks would be set in the notches, and hooks B and C slung thereon. The variety of uses to which the turnbuckle A can be put will be apparent to many who are now making shift to get along by methods which are simply ridiculous, by com- parison, on account of their inadaptation to the work for which they have been planned, and that have cost perhaps more than tools adequate to the work to be done would have cost. A good sling-chain may in many instances be made to do duty for the beam and slings by the use of a stout oak timber, as seen at A, Fig. 73, the timber to be strengthened at the ends by an iron shoe which allows of link-pins being driven in, as seen at B and C. This combination will recommend itself as a time-saver in scores of cases where Fig. 73. Fig. 74. Fig. 75. the object to be reversed is not too heavy to make such a means impracticable. Fig. 74 is a change-hook, and, as its name implies, is used where material must be passed from one crane to the other without resting the load ; its use is so common as to make any description here superfluous. It would be well to ob- serve, however, that inasmuch as men must necessarily be very near during /'he process of changing, the greatest care should be taken in selecting Jhe stock for, as ivell as the forging of, this hook. CHAINS, BEAMS, SLINGS, HOOKS, ROPES, ETC. 167 Sometimes the eyes A and B are close-welded to the body of the hook with the view of augmenting the strength, but it is much handier for use when they are left open, as shown; therefore, to combine utility with strength, let them be made more massive. Fig. 75 serves to illustrate how all common long chains should be made for the foundry. What is meant by common chains are all such as are composed of two strands of chain attached to a ring or link with hooks on the opposite ends; in other words, like the one shown at Fig. 69, minus the turn buckles. In all these there should be large links inserted at Fig. 76. Fig. 77. intervals, into which the hook could be inserted, as seen at A, Fig. 75. This increases the usefulness of the chain to a remarkable extent, as will be at once seen if the least thought is given to the subject. It would be well at this juncture to call the attention of all concerned to a practice which I am sorry to say pre- vails in many of the foundries, of making the shop chains out of the old crane chains. Now such practice is, to say the least, a very bad one; and there need be no wonder why at such places they should have so many broken chains, with an occasional broken leg or back to save the thing from becoming monotonous. When a chain is considered to be unfit for the crane it may be reasonably supposed that its usefulness is ended, and it should be at once consigned to the scrap-pile. When a lift is to be taken on a very loug box, with two pairs of ordinary chains somewhat short for the purpose, it 168 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. is common to see one pair set to lift each end of the box: this naturally spreads the rings in the hook after the man- ner shown at Fig. 76, and brings the strain front and back of the hook; the effect not infrequently of this mode is to rend the hook asunder. This may be obviated in most cases by altering the position of the chains, so that each pair will lift one side: by so doing the spread takes place in the ring, as seen at Fig. 77, and the hook is called upon to bear the whole weight direct without suffering any undue strain. But should it be absolutely necessary to take a lift which would in any way endanger the safety of the hook, let a Fig. 79. Fig. 80. Fig. 81. screw clamp be made like the one shown at Fig. 78, and applied as seen at A, Fig. 76. This will give stability to the hook, and allow of such lifts being taken with compara- tive safety. Ropu tackle is not as common in the foundries now as it used to be : this is not owing to any particular fault of such tackle, but because of the difficulty in procuring it in good shape. It is not every man who knows how to 'splice ' a rope, make an 'eye,' or take a ' blackwall hitch'; so, be- cause it is easier to order a chain with a measurable degree of certainty as to its fitness than it is to procure the rope equivalent of the same, the former has become the rule nowadays. CHAINS, BEAMS, SLINGS, HOOKS, ROPES, ETC. 169 Still, this in no sense robs the rope of its merits : they are always useful adjuncts to foundry practice when it is prac- ticable to obtain them. The single-spliced sling shown at Fig. 7 ( J can be made to serve many useful purposes, such as drawing patterns, lifting cores, wood flasks, or anything which requires an uneven hitch to be made rapidly. Fig. 80 shows how readily it can be hitched fast to a ring and used for numberless purposes, either end up; and Fig. 81 Fig. 82. Fig. 83. Fig. 84. Fig. 85. Fig. 86. shows how a pair of light can-hooks might be improvised at short notice. Fig. 82 illustrates the kind of eye to be used when rings, hooks, or slings are to be secured thereon for the purpose of carrying heavy loads. Figs. 83 and 84 represent how to temporarily join two slings or two eyes. Fig. 85 will serve to show how handily two or more single slings can be made useful in ways too numerous to mention, and Fig. 8G is a common hitch amongst riggers, its one excellent feature being that it can be made and unmade almost instantly. 170 THE IRON- FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING CASTINGS. There is no other department of the moulder's trade in which, anomalous as it may appear, the average mechanic shows so much density as in the subject of pouring or fill- ing the moulds with molten iron. This seems a startling announcement to make, in view of the great importance given to this subject by all who are intelligently conver- sant with the art of moulding; but the fact remains never- theless, and can be proved every day by careful observation in our foundries. What can be more ridiculous than to see the greatest care exercised in the construction of a mould, every precau- tion being used that not a particle of dirt remain, even in its remotest parts; and yet, strange to say, this same care- ful (?) moulder, after all the solicitude he has unmistakably manifested to make a clean mould, will spoil the catting, by leaving .ill consideration of runners until the last moment, when he seizes a rude piece of curved tin, and at once pro- ceeds to give an exhibition of carving sand, utterly oblivi- ous of the fact that he may make or mar the whole job at this particular time, and heedless of the warnings of such of his fellow-workmen as may have already discovered that dirty runners make dirty castings, no matter how clean the mould may be. In order to emphasize the above, I would here say that where the object aimed for is to produce clean castings, all such contemptible subterfuges as gate-cutters, improvised out of tin, copper, or sheet brass, should be at once and for- ever abolished; as well might we expect molten iron to run POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 171 uphill voluntarily, as imagine that clean iron can be de- livered to the mould through gates which have been dug into a wet joint without regard to either cleanliness or proportion. Whatever care is needed to secure a clean casting should be extended to the gates also. When the mould is made, every precaution is taken to insure a surface on which the metal can rest undisturbed; if the same precautions were taken for the runners and gates also, we should find a dif- ference immediately. All leaders and gates should, where practicable, be formed by patterns having the smoothest face possible; and wher- ever it is possible to reach them, their surfaces should re- ceive the same careful attention as the mould. The indiscriminate gouging out of so-called 'spray gates' is the cause of most of the anxiety experienced in architectural foundries from crouked castings and other- wise, and where a similar practice is tolerated amongst gen- eral jobbing work, clean castings are simply an impossibil- ity. In the former instance gates are cut at haphazard, regardless of proportion, and with such manifest ignorance of the requirements that the casting is lost, either from lack of volume in the runner, or the opposite extreme is obtained from gates of such magnitude as will draw the casting out of shape, or, as very often happens, break it altogether; in the latter case clean work is made utterly impossible, on account of the large proportion of dirt which forms in these rude and uncouth expedients. To correctly locate and determine the best methods of running is, to my mind, one of the chief elements in the art of moulding. If proper attention was given to this im- portant subject it would develop a line of thought and action to which most moulders have hitherto been strangers. Too frequently the exigencies surrounding a job make it almost impossible to adopt methods which would give per- 172 THE IRONFO UNDER SUPPLEMENT. feet results, and I am free to confess that cost sometimes interferes with the adoption of means which are absolute and certain ; still, that need not deter us from ascertaining, if possible, what are the right principles which, if faithfully observed, will assure success in this very important par- ticular. Honor demands that full discussion be given this sub- ject; a mere generalizing fails to exhibit its numerous dif- ficulties: and no one will deny that at this day serious defects in castings (carefully concealed) might be averted if more conscientiousness were displayed on the part of both employers and their aids. How many castings enter into the construction of buildings, and form parts of the very elaborate and ingenious mechanical contrivances in con- stant course of erection, which would never have had a place there if those in authority had been cognizant of the many flaws existing internally, most of which might have been avoided if correct methods of pouring had been fol- lowed ! Castings having external blemishes may be dealt with according to the judgment or conscience of the firm which make them; but internal blemishes, caused by inordinate quantities of dirt lodged in critical parts (a result in most instances of faulty pouring); gas-holes, equally danger- ous, which a judicious arrangement of gates might have prevented,- these, coupled with the countless errors arising from imperfect feeding to parts having dissimilar magni- tude?, ought, I think, to suggest the propriety of giving this subject a place second to none in foundry economics. Plainly stated, the science of filling moulds with molten iron consists of three grand principles, viz.: first, that the mould must he filled evenly, with molten iron of equal tem feral are throughout; second, that such iron be dis- tributed by means which shall cause the least amount of frit Hon on tic surface of the mould ; and, third, that the POURING, FIOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 173 molten iron be freed from all its impurities before it enters the mould. How this may be accomplished will, no doubt, be a mat- ter too tedious for some to examine into, but there are others who may be willing to study the subject earnestly; to such the following will be of interest. In order to a clear understanding of all the points con- nected with the very important matter under considera- tion, it will be necessary to take it in detail, beginning with 'open-sand' and common covered work, — which means all such castings as do not require finishing, only of such a nature as can be accomplished with the paint- brush, — extending the inquiry until we have covered the whole ground, including such castings as must of necessity be free from spot or blemish. Castings in 'open sand' (meaning all such as are cast without covering) are not nearly as numerous as they for- merly were, and this not because of any particular fault inherent to the system, but rather that there are so few men who are competent to make this class of work success- fully. Consequently, jobs are often covered, at an aug- mented cost, which might have been saved to the founder or his customer had the needed help for the production of such work been on hand. It is no exaggeration to say that the chief trouble with open-sand work is the pouring; when this is thoroughly understood, all other things being equal, very good work may be produced by these means. I have seen excellent furnace-fronts, weighing-machine tables, large flooring-plates, etc., cast in open sand ; and it comes very forcibly to my mind when on one occasion I cast the rim of a heavy fly-wheel with wrought-iron arms very successfully in the same way. As previously stated, the pouring is the trouble in a majority of cases. Supposing a plate be required 7 feet by 7 feet, or 7 feet diameter and f inch thick: the usual practice is to cut 174 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. guides at intervals round the edge correct to depth. Some one or more is set to watch these guides and check the further flow of metal when the supposed height is reached; but a very limited knowledge of such things is sufficient to convince us that this kind of practice is very unsure, for usually on these occasions more than one ladle would be used for pouring with, and the feeling of uncertainty which exists prevents unity of action; consequently the plate is Fig. 87. invariably imperfect, if not bad altogether, being either too thick or too thin, or perhaps thick and thin in parts. To obviate all this uncertainty, and consequent loss and di.-grace, let a good mould be prepared, having the edges made up very much in excess of the thickness required, after which proceed to construct a runner at one corner, convenient for quick handling of the ladle, as shown at Fig. 87. The runner shown is for the square plate, and is set to run along one of its sides. Spare no pains in form- ing it after the manner shown ; have width sufficient to POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 175 permit a stream 2 feet wide, with a gradual curving sur- face from the back downwards. As the iron rushes over the edge it is apt to carry it away if made up with green sand; to prevent this casualty, make the edge at this spot with a dry-sand core, as seen at A. For all plates answering to the dimensions given, one ladle will be sufficient for pouring with (hot fluid iron be- ing, of course, indispensable), in which the exact quantity of iron, neither more nor less, must be tapped. It will now be seen why the sides are to be made up high. Having the correct amount of iron in the ladle, it only remains to Fig. 88. pour it briskly down the incline of the runner, when the stream will strike the opposite corner with a force suffi- cient to drive it at right angles to the next corner, and so on; being urged by the constant supply behind, it whirls uninterruptedly around the periphery, and finally settles itself evenly all over, and all this without the least anxiety on the part of the operator, whose only business it is to empty the. contents of the ladle into the mould with the greatest possible dispatch, and leave it to settle of its own accord. Figs. 88 and 89 are plan and elevation of the same runne L76 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. when applied to a round plate. The core for protecting the edge is seen at A, Fig. 89. It will be observed that this runner is set tangential to the circle, the idea being to strike the edge, which must be made up high, as seen at B. This causes a rapid rotation of the molten mass, which ultimately settles or rests at an even surface all over, all anxiety as to correct thickness being removed, as before, by having the exact quantity of iron in the ladle. V>;'» .'.I//". •. American Machinist Fig. 89. When it is desired to make a casting in open sand, the lower side of which offers some difficulty on account of ribs, hubs, lugs, or brackets which must be cast thereon, ad- vantage may be taken of the method of running shown at Fig. 90. It will at once be seen that by placing one or more of these runners at such parts as will provide for a steady flow of iron into the mould the greatest nicety may be obtained, as any degree of pressure can be had by simply increasing or diminishing the height of the runner basin BB. These runners can be made very readily in dry sand, as shown at A, The almost universal condemnation of open-sand work arises from the fact that moulders are cognizant of their shortcomings in this particular, and endeavor to hide behind a general depreciation of possibilities; but it is, nevertheless, certain that, if the system is worked ior all it is worth, very POURING, FLOWINQ-OFF, AND FEEDING. 177 much of our work might be simplified, with a consequent reduction in cost of manufacture. We will now pass to a consideration of some of the evils Fig. 90. connected with the pouring of thin covered plates. Figs. 91, 92, 93, and 94 are intended to show the faults arising from the almost criminally bad methods usually resorted to for running flat work, whether for rough castings or for such as require planing. I have purposely placed the runners in Fig. 91 in about the same slipshod manner that ordinarily prevails at every foundry where special prominence is not given to the sub- ject of running; runners A, B, C, and D are sprays of the common type, and, as seen, are placed without any pre- tension to system or method. A careful analysis of this figure will help to solve some of the problems which are constantly puzzling the anxious moulder: observe that 178 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. runner A is set on the right-hand corner, with the end spray marked 1 connecting with the casting at the end, whilst all the others are removed towards the centre in varying distances. The shade-lines issuing from each gate ; and spreading out in opposite directions, serve to show u& the direction of the various streams as they enter the mould, whilst the difference in depth of shude s caused by the inter- Fig. 91. section of the lines, represents the commingling of the streams at the point of juncture. A little reflection will serve to show that, because sprays 2 and 3 are so far removed from each other, the spaces E, F, G, etc., are left to be filled after the molten iron has spent its heat and lost most of the force with which it first entered the mould, and the same may be said of all other parts of the plate where the shade-lines do not reach, even the spaces between the sprays showing at times con- clusive evidence of the lack of pressure and heat. POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 179 To expect that a casting poured in direct violation of all the laws which govern in this case should be straight, is simply preposterous; they never are, and yet some persist in their ignorant course, and wonder why they should always have so much trouble with their plates. Is it not plain that long before the corner served by gates A and B (with a good supply of hot iron from the commencement of pouring) could be set, the corners E and H (hardly filled with dull iron at the last) would have Fig. 92. become cold by comparison, and shrinkage begun?' In addition to which there are the accompanying 'cold shuts' incident to such practice, which of themselves are suffi- cient to cause crooked work, as a few vibrations are all that is necessary to cause an open fracture sometimes, thus proving that ' cold shut ' practically means fracture pure and simple, and should always be considered such. At Fig. 92 is shown a plate one half the width of Fig. 91, with the sprays cut closer and more equally along the entire length, excepting at A; this being purposely left 180 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. out to show how important it is that gates should be cut as seen at B. As indicated by the shade-lines, heat and force are about expended at CC, leaving the furthermost side to be filled with iron at a much lower temperature than where the gates are, thus producing unequal rates of cooling, with the consequent drawing out of shape. As will be noticed, the spaces between the sprays exist in this case as in the other; and one only needs to make very careful inspection of plates cast this way to detect in some instances very serious Fig. 93. flaws, which can be overcome only by a continuous gate extending the full length of the leader. The first of the three conditions stated at the outset is violated in both the above instances, because, as shown, these methods fail to " fill the mould with iron of equal temperature throughout," We will now consider just how near it is practicable to do so in this instance. Fig. 93 shows the same casting with 16 runners equally divided over the upper surface, and Fig. 94 is a plan view of the POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 181 cope and runner box, when it is intended to ponr such a casting with one ladle; a very practicable method, and one which I have successfully adopted on all occasions when it has been desired to prodiice a straight casting which had to be planed on both sides. By making the basin capacious, and forming the leaders as seen, such a runner can be filled almost instantly, with- out danger of carrying any of the dirt down into the mould. If Fig. 93 be carefully examined, it will be seen that, in- .i---.-^:.-.T.'.\ m ■•v.- ■Ill ' •'•!:: : : '.'J t'r iC ';(o ■"CSV;* fs; r.vr- £&& •■'' 7 I IV;. work is desired, is to have the leader extend past the end gate, as seen at E, Fig. 95 : this allows of the first rush of iron, with its accompanying dirt, finding a lodgment there, the casting being, of course, benefited just that much. The mode of preparation for this green-sand runner is clearly indicated by the figure, and Fig. 96 shows how to make a runner equal in efficiency when it is not desired 184 THE IRON-FOUNDER 8LPPLEMENT. to adopt such elaborate means. Cores A are made in sec- tions and set end to end on a prepared bed, and cores B, with holes for down-runners, are set thereon, thus forming a complete runner, which only requires ordinary care to make it a success every time. Fig. 97 shows an approved style of draw-runner which has undoubted advantages over the common straight ones, indicated by broken lines at AB. It will be seen that, in using a runner which connects with the mould at right angles, there is always more or less danger from drawing rt> !f •?*}*;.•:•**!•! j ••£ iinVl'iriV"";;"' A B < (' j -"• ^Sy';. ;>/•£%-:";•/?. '■;'.' '•\ & •'/:' '■'.' ii '■i'-ii''' Fig. 97. air, if any temporary stoppage should occur in the pouring prior to the mould being filled above A. By the method illustrated the first portion of iron fills the runner as high as B, thus precluding all possibility of danger from that source. Much of the danger from scabbing may be averted by placing dry-sand cores where the iron rushes past, as seen at C Sometimes it is found convenient to run a deep-sided mould directly opposite to one of its sides, in which case, owing to the great commotion caused by the rebound, it is advisable to protect the surface in the immediate neighbor- hood of the gates by having dry-sand cores, as shown at Fig. 98. POURING, FL0W1NG-0FF, AND FEEDING. 18a The subject of runners would be far from complete were the very useful ones shown at Fig. 99 to be omitted. These are of universal application amongst a miscellaneous class of jobbing work, and where the mould is not too deep may be relied on for producing clean work, because, being thin, they allow of the basin being filled before time is given for any dirt to pass downwards into the mould. They are best when made about 3^" x §", with a very slight taper, and much trouble in steadying may be saved by having Fig oo them spiked as shown at Fig. 99a, A and B being simply common nails driven in a short distance, and the remaining part filed to a point. The arrangement of drop-runners does not seem to receive that amount of patronage which I think it should do. When the bottom of the mould can be made to bear the dropping test, it must be plain to any one that this mode has merits which none of the rest possess, inasmuch as the distance from the basin to the mould is reduced to 186 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. a minimum, and consequently there is less area over which the metal must pass (and gather dirt) before it enters the mould. The crank shown at Fig. 100 is a good illustration of how particularly handy and effective this mode of running is: the basin AA is made large, and extends beyond the runners; this, as previously noticed, permits the iron to be poured with force sufficient to carry everything before it over and beyond the drop-gates; the increasing volume of iron serves to keep the dirt floating on the surface, whilst the mould is being fed with clean iron which drops into the molten mass below in the easiect and cleanest manner Fig. 101. possible. No other mode of running can compare with this whenever it is practicable to adopt it; and when green- sand moulds make it impracticable, why not make the mould in dry sand, and thus secure all the advantages of this very excellent system ? Steam-cylinders cast horizontally have always been a drug in the market on account of the clanger of losing the piece from dirt which inevitably collects under the body core; and rather than go to the expense of boring out extra stock, purposely allowed for the dii-t to collect in, firms are to-day making large numbers of small cylinders in dry sand, in order that they may be readily cast in a vertical position. POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 187 One way of overcoming this difficulty is shown at Fig. 101. Let a main runner A connect with a circular runner B, prepared in the core, and extending round the same as far as C; from this circular runner a gate must be formed (in the core also) connecting with the casting after the manner shown at D; also prepare a receiver or bottom head, so to speak, as shown at E, in both elevations. The first rush of iron down B will tend to carry the dirt past the gate D and round the core towards C, where, if the pressure is kept constant, it will be held; the mould (being inclined about 6 in. in 3 feet) will give an impetus that will carry the first iron with force down to the receiver E, where what- ever dirt may have washed downwards will be firmly im- prisoned. Fig. 102 illustrates a system of dams set before the castings when it is desired to produce clean work from a spray. When best results are looked for, all such gates should be connected with tbe patterns on a matchboard, so as to insure a good hard surface for the molten iron to pass over. Gates cut with tools are, as before stated, untrustworthy on account of the soft, broken surface yield- ing to the extreme heat to which they are subjected, and thus forming slag that invariably finds its way into the casting. The form of the leader in this instance is a noteworthy feature: the iron entering at A travels rapidly along the smooth, round surface of the leader, passing the gates, and out at C, carrying a large proportion of the dirt along with it; whatever portion remains is held on the upper surface of the leader whilst the casting is being fed from the bot- tom. The dams D, as seen, are formed with cores, and make "assurance doubly sure" by checking any inflow of dirt, should the pouring from any cause be lacking in force. There is no other casting that has helped the science of 188 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. running as much as the governor-ball. During the early part of my apprenticeship this job was held back for some particular man, who alone could be trusted with such an important job; and not unfrequently have I known the best men to fail time after time to produce a casting that was clean all over when turned. c y i' v" ':?'\'^*'' •-'■-"wy-".-" }C------x i .j ^^; \ ^ Mil -fi- M; \ .i American Machinist Fig. 102. The manner of running a ball which must be turned bright is shown at Fig. 103, where it is seen that the metal passes down A into the ball at B; the direction given the metal by this form of ingate causes the metal to revolve rapidly in the mould, and this causes the lighter substances which gather on the surface to collect towards the centre, as indicated by the arroAvs in the plan, to be ultimately ejected at the riser C. The principle involved to keep the ball clean must natu- POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 189 rally suggest the propriety of filling other moulds from such a ball whilst the dirt is beiug held a prisoner in the middle of the swiftly rotating mass; and just how this may be accomplished is shown at Fig. 104, where a number of cast- ings, directly connected with a central ball, may be fed with comparatively pure iron, with no possibility of dirt Fig. 103. other than may be gathered within their own limits. Un- less in large castings, there need be no riser on the ball when it is used for running purposes. Fig. 105 shows how the principle may be made general, and used for almost any class of work. Fig. 105 illustrates two methods of running pipes or col- 190 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. umns at the flanges, the gates AA being intended when it is desired to run down through the cope, and the one at B to be used when it is thought that the former plan would be too hard on the mould at that point. The regulation method of running square columns is American JhmhinUt Fig. 104. Fig. 105. shown at Fig. 107. All such columns will run from one end, under ordinary head pressure, 17 feet at one inch thick if the iron is in good condition; beyond this it is unwise to go, especially if the column should be less tban one inch. I speak now of how far metal will reach in such work; but as the method of running long columns all from one end conflicts with the first principle of filling moulds with iron of equal temperature, it is very evident that all long cast- POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 191 ings should be filled from both ends. The wisdom of the above always strikes us the more forcibly when we see any violation of these principles result in a cracked casting. Fig. 106. Keep all risers away from brackets, for should there be but a very slight commotion in the mould the bracket is sure to suffer if the disturbance finds a vent at that point. When the flask will admit of running round columns at K Fig. 107. the end, it is by all means the best plan to adopt; and the best kind of runner for this purpose is shown at Fig. 108, where main runners AA are seen to connect with a circular runner B cut round the bearing, and entering the casting 192 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. at one or more gates ample to run the column safely. Round columns will run 18 feet £ inch thick from one end, providing all other things are favorable; but the re- marks on square columns apply with equal force to round ones, and risks should not be taken. Sometimes it is found advisable to change the location of the runner; if this must be done, choose some flange or collar into which the gates can be directed, either on the side, as seen at C, or dropped down as at D. A marican ■ Siachi ni*t Fiq. 108. Fig. 108 shows how to run a large wheel through the hub core. The centre dry-sand core, with a hole large enough to fill the mould at a proper rate, rests on another dry-sand core in which the requisite gates have been prepared. To save making the bottom core, holes for gates may be made at A, indicated by broken lines; but this plan is somewhat risky if the noses against which the iron beats are not made in dry sand, as seen at B. It is plain that a wheel filled after this manner is prefer- able to any other, as it makes what is otherwise a critical job a very safe one, and insures a good casting every time, at least so far as the running is concerned. Fig. 110 is a plan and elevation of a spiral drum, or at least as much of it as will serve the purpose of showing how to arrange for a system of bottom gates, when such gates must be made in the pii around a brick mould. Where the POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 193 Fig. 109. Fig. 110. 194 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. pits are damp, it is absolutely necessary to have the gates protected from the moisture. The method shown needs no explanation other than can be discovered by a careful examination of the figure. A A are the gates prepared in the mould, against which are set cores BB, these again being surmounted by other cores, as seen, until the top is reached. If the mould is unusually long, and there is danger of the metal becoming too slug- Fig, in. gish to fill the upper parts of the mould correctly, then apply the gates on the top, after the manner as fully ex- plained in " The Iron Founder," page 163. The utility of feeding castings is questioned by some; but a little reflection will, I am sure, lead all who deny its efficacy to see the erroneousness of their conclusions. The ball shown at Fig. Ill is supposed to be 12 inches in diameter, and suppose that such a ball was cast (without riser) with hot iron, and left to cool in the same position it was cast : it is certain that the upper surface would have POURING, FLOWING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 195 fallen in, in proportion to the amount of shrinkage which would have taken place before the crust was firm enough to sustain itself; the amount of shrinkage would of course be according to the nature of the iron it was cast with. Now if this ball when cold was split in two it would be found that the upper hemisphere would show a sponginess similar to that seen in the sectional illustration at Fig. 112. The figure quoted is a good illustration of the point under consideration, being a sectional representation of a piece of v_y Fig. 112. Fig. 113. roll cast from inferior iron ; the internal shrinkage, unsup- ported by any system of feeding, causing the sponginess at the heart and very evident fracture at the neck. Mortars, such as shown at Fig. 113, were formerly cast solid, with a shrink head from A up. The head was after- wards turned off, and the casting bored out to the broken lines. And yet with the head cast on, as shown, it was never deemed advisable to risk a cast without keeping the heart free from scum, so that a constant supply of hot iron could be introduced to fill up the space which gradually forms as the shrinkage takes place. Now in the ball shown at Fig. Ill we endeavor to reach the heart of the casting through the riser A, which is made 196 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. no larger than will just serve the purpose of feeding the ball. (In the former instance no riser was supposed to be on.) If the mould now under consideration was left to take its own course after being cast, the natural feeding would occur as long as the iron in the neck of the riser remained fluid ; but, as shown by the shaded lines, by the time the neck was solid there would still remain a considerable area of iron in a molten condition, and it is at this juncture that the rod B gets in its fine work by simply keeping open a communication between the upper and lower bodies by a constant supply of hot iron from the cupola. This is not, as some seem to think, a sort of pumping or forcing of the Fig. 114. iron below; the motion of the rod exercises no influence whatever, only to preserve a free channel through which the hot iron can pass into the shrinking mass below. Excellent results may be obtained by pressure-feeding sometimes, as illustrated at Fig. 114, which figure is intended to show how to feed the solid rim of a gear-blank by 'freezing' the runner A immediately the mould is full, and afterwards pouring hot iron alternately down risers B and C, so regulating the operation that the body of metal below POURING, FLO WING-OFF, AND FEEDING. 197 at D may be kept in motion as long as it remains in a fluid state. The possibilities of making such a casting solid by this method of feeding are considerably enhanced by the aug- mented head pressure, which in this instance is 1 foot 6 inches more than would be the case ordinarily. Still it must be evident even to the least observant that this method has its limits of usefulness clearly defined, and can only be resorted to when the riser and casting are of equal magnitudes, or nearly so. When this is the case the process of solidifying proceeds equally and uninterruptedly from the outside, at both riser and casting, the shrinkage of the contracting mass being made good at every step by the constant and increasing pressure of liquid iron, which is being forced through from above; but it must be observed that certainty of results can only be reckoned on when this entire operation is con- tinued until the point of congelation is reached. As proof of the above, let a riser of the same dimensions be applied to a body of larger area, and no matter how hot the supply or how high the pressure, the riser will have congealed long before the heart of the casting, as is clearly demonstrated at Fig. Ill, making it absolutely imperative that the feeding-rod be used, as heretofore explained, or that pressure and area of riser be increased commensurate with the increased magnitude of the casting. 198 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. HOW TO USE AND HOW TO AVOID USING THEM. As long as moulds are made with cores forming a part of their general make-up, we must accept studs and ehajjlets as a necessary evil. Fully recognizing the fact that they have ' come to stay/ we must endeavor to use them with such discrimination as will give us the maximum of good and the minimum of evil attendant upon their use. True, their use may he entirely discarded in many jobs, if it be thought desirable to incur the expense of furnish- ing suitable means for securing the work without them; and it is always in order that a good moulder, if permitted, will make such disposition of the details connected with his job as shall in some instances result in accomplishing his work independent of chaplets altogether. To wilfully eschew such practice, when practicable, is a superbness of ignorance simply astounding; nevertheless, such is truly the case, and the fact is to be deplored. How many jobs, at very little outlay for cost, might be made after the manner shown at Fig. 115, where it is seen that the core, formed upon a true barrel A, is made to rest accurately, in finished bearings, at each end of an extension or outboard B, which forms in this case part of the flask, but may if necessary be a separate device to be firmly bolted to any flask, when occasion demands such practice! The manner of holding the core is shown at C, C, being simply caps which grip the barrel only, and are bolted, as seen. When such a mould must be cast on end, additional security will be given by providing a collar or pin, to pre- vent any possibility of the barrel sliding in either direction. " Oh, well," says some one, " I've seen that done before; STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 199 that's simple enough; " all of which I grant. But surely its very simplicity ought to suggest a more frequent adoption of its principles, especially when we remember that by such means we are enabled to discard the use of chaplets, "a consummation most devoutly to be wished " in all cases. A little thought expended on the principles involved in this simple expedient will demonstrate its value as an ex- Fig. 115. cellent device for saving chaplets, and, what is far better, saving castings also. Another means for the accomplishment of this desirable end is to secure cores, which would otherwise need chaplets, by a system of double seatings. (See " The Iron Founder," page 245, where cores .ST and L are made independent of the chaplet shown, by just such an arrangement as above advocated.) It only requires ordinary ingenuity to make the latter method available in hundreds of instances, where the only seeming possible way of surmounting the difficulty is per- haps a rusty stud, held in position by nails picked up from the foundry floor. Avoid rust as you would a viper. The sudden decom- 200 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. position of -gV of an inch of rust spread over the surface of a stud-plate 3" X 5" will produce a mould-destroying shock, with startling effect at the point of eruption, and extend- ing with a decreasing force to a distance of over six feet; and bar-spaces in the cope 6" wide and 10" deep, in the immediate viciuity of the offending plate, will be blown out with terrible effect sometimes, making it a positive danger to use such carelessly provided tackle. This element of danger always exists in proportion to the amount of rust present, and whilst a small amount may not possess the explosive force above described, the gases generated are a constant source of annoyance and loss, caus- ing blown places in parts of the casting which are not easily located; and consequently we often hear of the failure of a pump or cylinder after the engine has been running some time, and all was considered perfect. Nine times out of ten the verdict is, ' rusty chaplets.' Another illustration of how to avoid chaplets in special cases is shown at page 197 of " The Iron Founder," where cores D and E are seen to be secured by means equally effective, yet different in principle. The method of join- ing cores to front plates, as there illustrated, is eminently useful, and might with great advantage be more generally adopted for a wide range of work, both in loam and sand. There is no part of the moulder's trade which offers more opportunities for the inventive genius of the me- chanic than does this particular one of avoiding the use of chaplets, and when we think of the good accruing from such practice it ought to encourage every one interested to a pursuance of such improved methods, even if the cost of production be increased thereby. What if "first cost" be increased ! the results will more than compensate for the additional outlay. If it should occur that chaplets must be used at places where the casting requires to be absolutely sound, the studs STUBS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 201 necessary for the job may be rammed in the centre of a round core, thoroughly dried, and coated with lead. This will leave a clean hole in the casting, which, if necessary, may be tapped for plugging. Another method, when using plain stem chaplets for thin castings, is to glue two or three thicknesses of thin paper on the end which enters the casting, with a further coating of lead, all well dried. This will keep the molten iron from direct contact with the naked chaplet, whilst the nature of the covering used will serve to soften the surrounding iron, making the sub- sequent tapping of the hole more easy of accomplishment. Eecognizing the fact that we cannot escape the use of studs and chaplets, and this in a large measure sometimes, it Fig. 116. Fig. 117. Fig. 118. behooves us to select and rightly use such as are best quali- fied to fulfil the mission for which they were originally designed. Figs. 116 and 117 represent the common solid stud chaplets, 1£" diameter, to be used when, because of danger from melting or from a lack of strength, any of the others would be too light. It must be borne in mind that studs will melt before a constant stream of very hot iron; even solid ones need protecting sometimes, which latter can be effectively done by coating the stud, as before directed. Fig. 118 is a solid stub, l|"x 3", for use under heavy loads, where, owing to the form of the mould, an ordinary tud could only with difficulty be made to stand. The tail A 202 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. can be pushed into the sand or loam, and made good around; by this means the stud is held firmly in its place without fear of dislocation. A very useful modification of 1 16 and 117 is shown at Figs. 119 and 120, which represent similar sizes to those quoted, and may be any degree of strength desirable: some very light jobs would require them no thicker than T J g of an inch. To make these in cast iron, make them in strings carrying the upper plates A in the cope, the bottom plates B being arranged on a core print Fig. 119. Fig. 120. Fig. 121. corresponding to the depth between A and B, the cores for which must be pierced at correct intervals by the connect- ing bar C. Where studs of this kind have been introduced for the first time, it invariably happens that their ability is overestimated, and numbers of castings are lost before it is discovered that these light-cast studs melt away most miraculously when set before the stream. I have shown at Fig. 121 how to make studs, similar to the preceding, out of wrought iron : it will be seen that bars A and A have been riveted to plate B, which, being prepared like plate C, is very easy to do; C is now set on and se- cured by riveting also, the parts at DD being left a little long for the purpose. Where it is thought that cast iron would be too risky, these may be substituted, as they can be made of any desired strength very quickly. STUBS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 203 Fig. 122 is a common spring chaplet intended for binding and steadying only; the usefulness of these good cliaplets is in most places greatly marred on account of the irno- rance displayed in their manufacture. Ask for a springer, and you will probably receive a piece of rusty hoop iron bent in the form of a horseshoe; this, of course, answers the purpose of steadying the core, but how unsightly the scar Fig. 122. Fig. 123. Fig. 124. Fig. 125. it leaves on the outside of the casting ! This objectionable feature can be easily overcome by a good blacksmith, or by the moulder himself, should the former worthy function- ary be -non est at that place, by following the instructions given, and fully illustrated by the following figures. At Fig. 129 the vise jaws hold a piece of iron equal in dimensions (less the thickness of the hoop iron) to the thickness of the chaplet required, against which the hoop iron has been jammed and hammered over, Fig. 130 show- ing the position of the same after the operation has been 204 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. again repeated. This leaves the springer as shown at Fig. 122, but only requires the ends hammering back, as seen at Fig. 132, to make the very useful chaplet shown at Fig. 123. By the method above described a really good and useful chaplet can be obtained at very short notice. The several operations required to produce the double- hoop iron stud, Fig. 125, are shown in their order at Figs. Fig. 126. Fig. 127. Fig. 128. 134, 136, and 138; and any modification of this class of studs; such as the one shown at Fig. 124, which may be made witli or without the tail A, may be very readily made by the simple manner described, which gives an elegant chaplet with an absolutely true face, thus obviating the trouble previou ly spoken of. A most effective and proper stem chaplet is shown at Fig. 126, its chief characteristic being that the head A is forgad with the stem, and additional strength allowed at the juncture. A good blacksmith finds no difficulty in forging chaplets of this class with heads 2 inches across; STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 205 this, of course, leaves no excuse for using those abortions which are supposed to be riveted fast, but almost always separate at the first blow of the hammer. Plainly stated, the plain wrought one shown at Fig. 127 is the stud par excellence of them all, as it can be made to answer for an almost unlimited number of emergencies, as will be noticed more fully further on. Fig. 128 represents a class of stud that, in some special instances, may be made very useful and handy; the one shown is 1" diameter at the stem A, and 2|" diameter at plate B. Being cast iron, these chaplets are apt to snap off below the casting, leaving an unsightly scar; to prevent this, let the pattern from which they are cast be nicked, as Fig. 129. Fig. 130. seen at C, a little above the thickness of the casting for which they are intended; what remains after the upper portion is knocked off can then be chipped true to the face. When practicable, it is always best to place these chap- lets in their respective positions on the pattern, and ram them in the cope, to be afterwards withdrawn, and the front edge of the hole enlarged by a taper plug made for the purpose. By this mode of procedure two very impor- tant ends are gained, viz., accuracy as to position, and free- dom from anxiety with regard to the edge of the hole, which, being clear of the chaplet, allows for its easy motion in either direction without fear of damage to the cope. To those unaccustomed to the use of a variety of studs and chaplets, Fig. 131 will be of interest, and serve the 206 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. purpose of an object-lesson; it is the sectional elevation of a 36" X 36" column having internal webs formed by cores, and as all these cores are entirely surrounded with iron, they must of necessity be supported, steadied, and anchored American Machht Fig. 13!. down by a system of studs or chaplets, or, as is seen in this case, it may be a combination of both. Beginning with the two lower cores, it will be seen that three different means are shown for supporting them, the right-hand core being upheld by f" stem chaplets A and B, which are driven firmly into the block of wood (^previ- ously set down 12' below the surface for this purpose. The left-hand core is upheld by a method much superior to the other, especially when the weight to be borne is great; STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 207 in this case one of the same chaplets used at AB is used at D, but because the foundation is iron a blunt end is best. An entirely different mode of procedure is necessitated when the square supports E are used, as in this event all the supports E must be set in position when the bed is formed for the bottom of the mould, the pattern being set Fig. 132. Fig. 133. Fig. 136. exactly over them; all that is then necessary, when ready for the cores, is to set on each support a stud like the one seen at F, which is supposed to be similar to Figs. 116 or 117. It will be observed that chaplet Fig. 125 is permanent at G, being nailed fast to the right-hand core; whilst at H and /springers, Fig. 124, are used for the purpose of bind- ing the whole together. The dry cores shown at this place 208 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. are for the special purpose of permitting this to be done effectually. Stud chaplets corresponding to Figs. 116, 120, and 119 are set between the remaining cores; the blunt stem chaplets J and K, Fig. 126, being the permanent rests against which the cores are pressed by springer L. At the top cores a chaplet similar to Fig. 123 is nailed fast at M, and chaplets NO are pressed inwards by the application of wedges be- hind, as seen. Chaplets like Fig. 128 are used on the left-hand top core Fig. 134. ;,.; 'A- -'■"••*-: l'» K~ Jvjjti -J } ^M^ Fig. 135. Fig. 137. at PQ; this may be done when dependence can be placed on the surface of such chaplet being sufficient to resist the upward pressure without crushing the core. In any case, nowever, the plain studs R and S, Fig. 127, are the best, as ample provision can be made to meet every emergency by he placing of suitable blocks when the core is made on which the stud can rest, as seen at T and U. One other very important thing remains to be done, and the system is complete, viz., to set the binding-beam Facross the cope, resting on the outer edge at just such a height as will permit of two wedges, not one, being used for the pur- STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 209 pose of securing the studs as seen at Fand Z. Imperfect wedging at the last is a frequent cause of disaster, and only ignorant or very careless men are derelict in this particular. Especially should care be exercised when cast-iron wedges are the only ones obtainable; in this event a piece of wrought iron should be set in immediate contact with the stud, with the wedges over; by pursuing this course a cracked wedge will be likely to create less havoc than might be the case otherwise. Fig. 133 illustrates how to use chaplets like Fig. 125, when it might be difficult to set studs into the mould proper. By simply nailing them fast to the core, the latter Fig. i3j. Fig. 139. becomes in some measure self-centring— a thing to be de- sired in quite a number of jobs. Fig. 135 shows three kinds of fast chaplets for use in dry- sand work when the position of the mould must be changed for casting. The one at A is to be set in to exact depth when the mould is green, while those at B and Care equally applicable to both loam and dry sand, as they can be firmly attached to any part of the mould, when dry, without fear of displacement; the one at is eminently useful when a stud is required to be fastened on a covering-plate or cope. Fig. 137 shows how cores may be firmly held in dry-sand moulds, that must be turned on end, with chaplets of the type shown at Fig. 126 exclusively, all of which can be in- serted when the mould is green. For some kinds of lisrht 210 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. work for which there is constant demand this is an admir- able method, and saves both time and labor. How to close moulds almost as readily in green sand by using similar chaplets is shown at Fig. 139, anchorage for -Jj jL 7zrfvr! VV////////M Fig 141. which is obtained by casting pockets in the flask opposite to where the chaplet is required to be set, into which are driven wood plugs. All that is needed then is to sharpen the chaplets to a length suitable for taking a firm grip in the wood, and the end is accomplished. A good illustra- STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 211 tion of the usefulness of this scheme is given at Fig. 140, which is a partial representation of the section of a cylin- der-head cope immediately over one of the suspended cores. Usually these cores, six or eight in number, are held in place by three bearings or prints to each core, which serve the purpose of anchoring to the cope as well as to carry off the gas, and all of these must be tapped and plugged after the core has been taken out. Instead of the three prints mentioned above, let pockets be provided in the flask-bars at A, and pursue the course previously explained; there will then be three firmly fixed chaplets B in the cope, on which to rest the core, one hole in the centre being sufficient through which to carry the Fig. 142. Fig. 143. Fig. 144. air and effect an anchorage. A double-threaded gas-pipe C, which enters the core-iron by means of a nut cast there- in at D, serves the double purpose of vent-pipe and anchor, as will be seen by a careful inspection of the figure. The question of economy should at once decide in favor of this proposed scheme, for only eight holes require plugging, in- stead of twenty-four, as in the former instance. The pos- sibilities for other jobs by this method are truly marvellous, with the margin of safety increased tenfold. To all who may be still digging holes and driving chaplet- blocks A after the manner seen on the right hand of Fig. 141, 1 would ask them to look on the other side of the figure, where a round cast-block 3|" diameter across the edge at B, extending 5" down to a point at C, is driven down, on which stud D is resting, and say whether the end cannot 212 THE IRON FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. be much better served by the method suggested. For cores up to 12" this little block is a wonder, very few believiug l*=3 A j=j5] Fig. 145. American Machinist Fig. 146. the amount of weight they will safely bear until they have tried them. Fig. 142 shows the top half of a 12-inch pipe, on which a chaplet of the common riveted type has been used; the STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 213 thin plate A has yielded to the combined influence of heat and pressure, with the result shown. Fig. 143 shows a de- cided improvement in the form of chaplet, but the bulki- ness of the button A makes it absolutely necessary that thickness be added at B, which gives a very unsightly ap- pearance to the casting. Both of these evils can be totally remedied by adopting the loose stud A, resting on a stud- plate rammed in the core, as seen at Fig. 144. Fig. 145 represents a half column in green sand 4 feet diameter, with dry-sand core resting on curved stud chap- lets of the type shown at Fig. 118. Foundation-plates A, ■-;;■ ■' - Fig. 147. 3 ft. 6 in.X 1 ft., with supports B (cast on), extending up to and assuming the curve of the casting, are set down solid with the curved surface of the supports flush with the pattern when the bed is formed, thus giving solid bearing for the studs C. Should there be danger of the core yield- ing, provision must be made by inserting suitable bearings, which will meet the studs C. Fig. 146 shows how to provide for using the same kind of studs in a hollow cone 4 ft. diameter, 3 ft. 6 in. deejj, in green sand, with dry core in sections. Cores of whatever magnitude may be made to rest with the greatest degree of safety on stud chaplets when suitable provision is made, as seen at Fig. 147. The figure is a sec- 214 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. tional view of the lower edge of a loam mould of large di- mensions, the core of which must rest positively on stud chaplets; this, as shown, is made possible by the aid of square supports A, set down on the foundation-plate D, and built in along with the lower courses, which forms the bottom of. the mould at E. The studs B, cast on the core covering-plate F, directly opposite to the supports A, com- plete the arrangement, and permit of any amount of added weight above being supported with safety by stud chap- lets^ C. Figs. 148 and 149 will serve to explain some modes for lUllmumilliiHiililP 1 Fig. 148. securing chaplets in both sand and loam work. Fig. 148 is a partial view of the top covering-plate of a loam-mould, with the upper edge of core revealed, on which are resting stud chaplets A and B, but there are times when under heavy pressures the loam must yield; it is then important that other means of resistance be provided. The stud C can then be resorted to, there being no difficulty in making it fast when clamp D is cast directly over the hole made to receive it. If it be required that the studs shall pass through the covering-plate after the mould is closed, then cast in the clamps clear of the holes, as seen at E and F, and pack the STUDS, CHAPLETS, AND ANCHORS. 21i studs by means of the bar G. This expedient is far su- perior to any of the modes of securing studs by means of outside rigging. Fig. 149 shows a portion of cope flask A, on the front end of which, at B, is shown the sort of cast girder needed for very heavy work; this, as seen, must be made fast to the flask by clamps or bolts at G before the chaplets are wedged. The style of bar shown at C is intended for regular use on ordinary work ; it must be understood that the end at His Fig. 149. similar to that at 7, but is pulled in under the flange to allow of the latter end passing clear of the flange at J, when it can be pushed back until one half of the clamp end at Ids equally divided under the flanges at both sides. Supposing the box flange to be 2h inches wide, this will give one inch, good, at both ends, and is amply sufficient for wedging purposes; this combination of bar and clamps is a very useful contrivance for all ordinary work, and saves considerable trouble. For all work that is repeated day after day, it pays well to rig a flask after the manner shown at D E, or F, as in 216 TEE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. the former instance; the bar L passed through the holes D and E serves for an almost instant adjustment of the chap- let; the same may be observed with regard to the single bar expedient at F, where the chaplet can be inserted be- fore the cope is turned up for closing, after which a couple of wedges under M decide the matter even quicker than is possible by the former arrangement. HIGH-CLASS MOULDING. EXPLAINED BY A DESCRIPTION OF DIFFERENT WAYS OF MOULDING A FOUR-WAY VENTILATING-SHAFT. The following excellent example may with propriety be termed advanced practice in the art of moulding. Un- varied success in producing castings of this type is only possible when the most skilful workmen are employed to produce it. This particular carting has been selected for illustration on this occasion, because in its numerous and varied phases under altered circumstances, superinduced by the lack of facilities in some foundries for making such work readily, it presents a wide range of difficulties, that can be success- fully met only when the best efforts of the most adroit artisan are put forth. At Fig. 150 is shown the plan and elevation of a four- chambered ventilating-shaft 4 feet diameter, 11 feet long, and 1\ inches thick all through. The casting as seen is simply a plain cylinder, with internal webs that intersect each other at right angles at the centre, extending through- out its entire length, and forming four separate compart- ments, or chambers. Founders having no facilities for moulding such a casting HIGH- CLASS MOULDING. 917 vertically in 10am, but who are in every sense well equipped for its production in halves in green sand, would naturally hesitate about sub-letting the job at a considerably ad- vanced figure, if bolting the halves together violated no part of their contract. Fig. 151 is plan and elevation of the half casting for this purpose, showing the web at A to be slightly reduced in thickness, and still further lightened by the eight openings, marked from B to /, respectively, for one half; six similar openings in the other half to be set exactly between, as indicated by the broken lines, giving space sufficient for a bed of cement that is to be applied for the prevention of leakage from one chamber to another. The subject now resolves itself into the moulding of two castings, one of which, the half, is to be cast horizontally in green sand with dry-sand cores, and the whole one ver- tically in loam, with cores after various methods, to be illustrated further on. As previously stated, these castings are good examples of their kind, calling forth and develop- ing ideas of moulding, which, if intelligently understood, may be made of universal application. We will first consider the half one in green sand (Fig. 151), and before we sit in judgment on what appears so plain a job, let us examine into some of the chief features connected with it. Firstly. The core weighs in the neighborhood of seven tons, a large proportion of which weight must be borne on studs necessarily. This of course must be provided for by preparing good foundations for the studs and a more than ordinarily solid core, the latter to be divided in such manner as will be most convenient for drying, handling, setting, and anchoring. Secondly. The pressure under this core is over twenty tons, and this pressure must be resisted by a judicious dis- tribution of chaplets and studs, which must rest on suitably 218 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. provided iron bearings in the cores, as the latter must be held in position by a greater weight above, or, what is bet- Fig. 150. Fig. 151. ter, by a system of binders sufficiently strong to resist the upward pressure. We must not omit to remember here that pressure is exerted in every direction as long as the HIGH- CLASS MOULDING. 219 metal is in a molten condition; consequently the green-sand mould needs to be well made if it is expected to retain its original shape under such a test. Thirdly. As such a casting would weigh about three tons, it would be judicious to divide the iron, pouring one half at each end by a system of ruuners cut under the core, as described in chapter on "Pouring,'' etc., page 192. This would strengthen the ends of the casting by insuring a supply of hot iron at those parts to the last, and would sensibly lessen the damage from abrasion, which is un- pleasantly noticeable when large quantities of iron enter the mould at one place. Starting with the above knowledge of the chief require- ments, we are more than half-equipped for the undertaking before a blow is struck. How much of this power of intro- spection is lacking amongst us as a class is only too well known, and to the lack of this ability to judge of the needs and requirements in the case most of the disasters that are constantly occurring may be traced : plainly demonstrating that Ave as moulders are not equal to the demands made on our ingenuity and judgment, because of the almost uni- versal ignorance which prevails among us as a class. The magnitude of this job demands a reliable substitute for the prevailing method of 'rolling over/ and this may be found in the bed-sweep, or former, shown at Fig. 152, consisting of two boards A and B, equal to the circle of the shaft-pattern, and held together by the straight edges C and D, the length of which corresponds to the length of the pattern. There must be width sufficient to make the ramming of the remainder an easy matter after the pattern has been set upon the formed bed. Let the reader turn to Fig. 153, which is a sectional view of the whole mould when everything has been achieved up to the closing of the cope ; but before Ave attempt any description of the methods adopted for the accomplishment 220 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. of what is there seen, it will be best to understand the sys- tem of coring as here applied. Literally speaking, this job can be made with two cores formed on strong arbors full Fig. 152. Fig. 153. length of the casting; but preference may with considerable reason be made of the means herein represented, inasmuch as it accomplishes the object with equal facility by a number of pieces that are soon dried, and can be readily handled, whilst the arrangement of the core-iron for the HIGH- CLASS MOULDING. 221 bottom sections of core, makes, what in either case would be a tedious undertaking, a very simple piece of work. To set these cores on either side of the web separately would be a critical operation, on account of the tendency to slide off the studs towards the centre. This difficulty is effectually met in this case by uniting the two bottom sec- tions of cores at the bearing C,Fig. 154, also at A and E, at which points the core-iron is allowed to pass through the Fig. 154. casting, thus making one firm core out of both. The irons are easily snapped off when the casting is cleaned. Fig 154, D, shows the end view of frame for making this section of core. The frame is made one foot longer than the half of the shaft, and simply rests over the core- iron, as shown by broken lines at D. This frame and a smooth plate is all the core-box required for this part of the job, as the core can be easily turned over when dry, and lifted into the mould with ropes round the cross-bars at B, D, and E. 222 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. By this means staples for lifting are unnecessary, and the surface is consequently left clear for the upper sections of core to rest on. The upper cores A and B, Fig. 153, four in number, may be made on a smooth plate with the upper face down, to be reversed again when dry, in which event sides and ends with a temporary preparation for the circle on one side will be all the core-box needed at this part. Remembering the amount of pressure that this core is called upon to resist, there must be no mistake about having the stud-plates and D, Fig. 153, to rest firmly, iron and iron, on whatever system of core-irons may be used for the purpose. On the other hand, remembering the amount of weight that the bottom sections must sustain, equal attention must be paid to the selection of material that will hold the weight with- out fracture at the point of contact with the stud. But should the strength of the material used be found in- adequate to the work, then make such an arrangement as will insure the stud to press directly against the core-iron, in which case, assurance is made doubly sure. Supposing our cores to be all ready, we will at once proceed to make the mould, giving reasons for the several operations as we proceed. The mould, as shown at Fig. 153, is contained in the floor; but it is far preferable to have a lower box constructed of stout sides, with external flanges to correspond with those at E and F, the depth of which may be about 2 feet, standing out of the floor about half its depth. These sides must be connected with extra-strong cross-bars extending down under the job, making it only necessary to clamp or bolt the two flanges at E and F to- gether in order to secure anything that may be cast therein. The upper flange can be utilized for holding down cores, as in this case, after the manner shown in chapter on "Studs, Chaplets," etc., page 215. After a good cinder-bed has been laid down at G, 12 HIGH- CLASS MOULDING. 223 inches below the bottom of the mould, ram solid to within 6 inches, and set down the bed-former, Fig. 152, at such depth as will bring the pattern, when set thereon, even with the joint of the flask at E, Fig. 153. The former will serve as a guide for placing the anchor-plates H in such numbers and position as will best serve the purpose of supporting the cores. A knowledge of the weight these must carry will suggest the propriety of having them on solid ground; otherwise they will be pressed downward, and a consequent diminution of the thickness at the bottom of the casting ensue. The anchor-plates satisfactorily set, proceed to ram old sand within the frame to within one inch of the surface, when the whole must be vented down to the cinders, after which the facing sand can be applied by treading an extra thickness all over as evenly as possible; the surplus can then be struck off to the frame. After the frame has been lifted out, continue the ramming to the edge of the formed bed, set on the pattern, and proceed to ram along the re- maining portion of the pattern in the usual w;iy. This mode of bed-forming will be found infinitely supe- rior to any other for 'bedding in ' for not only large circular, but all classes of work with surfaces more or less irregular. As we close this mould we realize very sensibly the advan- tages gained by the methods adopted for moulding it. We know that the foundations H are solid; that the studs II, in consequence of the wedge attachment at the back, are immovable thereon; that the bottom section of cores, safely held together by the cross-bars, cannot be changed from their position, and constitute a safe bed whereon to set the upper cores, A and B, without fear of failure. All this, we say, conspires to make the closing of this mould a marvel of simplicity, dispatch, and safety. As a loam job, to be cast whole and in vertical position, we encounter a new order of things altogether; the re- •2*24: THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. quirements are so much different from the case we have been discussing as to make the business of moulding this shaft in loam appear another trade. As we propose to mould this in its entire length, a suffi- cient height of oven and crane, as well as depth of pit, are prime requisites. It might be that an indifference as to inside finish could be taken advantage of, and the labor on the core considerably reduced thereby. A method of moulding under such circumstances will be shown, as well as a more elaborate one, in case it should be necessary to separate the parts in order to a perfect finish, inside as well as outside. Whilst it might not, in this particular instance, be de- sirable to adopt a system of drj'-sand cores, yet changes of design might make such a course indispensable ; therefore a method calculated to meet the altered circumstances will be discussed and suitably illustrated as we pursue the subject. It would be superfluous to go through every detail con- nected with the moulding of such a casting; therefore, in dealing with this subject, we shall pass over all the ordinary processes of loam-moulding (fully discussed and illustrated iu "The Iron-Founder" page 147), and confine ourselves to those parts only that possess more than ordinary interest to the workman. To those who may be unacquainted with this particular class of work it may be well to state that a quadrant of 4 feet diameter does not make a very stable structure, in loam, when built to the height of 12 feet, and some method must be devised whereby the divided core may not only be handled, but conveyed in and out of the oven, and finally to the pit for casting. We will first consider how best to make such a mould if it were allowed to deliver the casting with no more finish to the inside webs than could be given them by reaching from the outside. Under such circumstanoes the cores HIGH-CLASS MOULDING. 225 might be built stationary on the foundation-plate, but, as before said, something must be done to save the fabric Fig. 155. from settling out of shape during the process of transit from the centre to the oven and back. Fig. 155 is a representation of such a core under course of construction after the cope has been struck and lifted away. The outside bearing is seen at A, and cores B are 226 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. built a short distance up, where a break is made for the purpose of placing the first of four similar plates, or frames, that are to be built into the cores at intervals of 2' 101- ", which distances would bring the last one U" from the top. It is at once observed that the four quadrants are joined together, and form, as it were, a whole cast frame by allow- ing the connection to pass through the web at C ; it will also be noticed that V's are formed round the connecting piece to insure a clean break, uniform with the casting, when the irons are broken out. Patterns for the webs are, in this case, made 2' 10£" long; eight pieces only are needed, as the under ones can be drawn when the building has reached the top edge of the upper one. It will also be seen at C, D, and E that provision for the connecting web is made by cutting out a portion of the pattern, the pieces F and G being neces- sarily made loose and pinned, this permits them to be taken out after the web pattern has been withdrawn. In this case the core-sweep H need be but a few inches longer than will finish off each length of core as they are built. In building these cores have all plates 1 \" clear of the casting, and be sure that the brickwork is very open, well cindered, and all loam as porous as possible. The holes JK indicate that a short length of 4" pipe is to be used for building up to, drawing it up as the work pro- gresses; the cindered spaces leading up to that point guarantee a sure connection at each course as they are laid. It is important that that portion of the core-plates which passes through the casting should be as free as possible from sand and blackening, otherwise they might be found loose when the irons were broken out of the cores. In order to reach the inside for a superior finish we must lift out two opposite cores. How this may be done will be shown by the aid of Figs. 15G and 157, where the whole process is delineated in detail, cores A and B, Fig. HIGII-CLASS MOULDING. 227 156. being the ones to be lifted out. Referring to Fig. 157, we see the foundation-plate at A ; bearing for the cope at Fig. 156. B; cope-ring at C ; and the inside lifting-plates, with a por- tion of the cores built, are seen in position. It is always 228 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. preferable to have the inside plates made as seen, so that their own impression forms the joint, and leaves them alto- gether free from loam. The manner of setting these inside plates is as follows : First, strike a bed for the bottom, lay out the quadrants, and, after cleaning and oiling the plates, set them in their exact position opposite each other, bed them down solid, and then build on a course and strike off a little above the plates all over; this gives the bed for the ribs as well as 33 u^i :■ i— J-i [•□□ LOuO T -fA wA go %ZXi ''.■■;■_ ~W m 33 apcuii^ 3 Fig. 157. the bearing for the cope-ring at B. The bed, as formed by the plate, is shown at C, Fig. 156, whilst the plate in position would appear as seen at D in the same figure. In this case it is best to have the web patterns made full length, set into position, and used as bearings on which to run a strickle vertically, thus obviating the use of the sweep-board altogether — a thing most devoutly to be wished for when the cores are very long, as in this instance. The webs being all set in position, place the bolts as seen at D, with a wedge underneath to keep them up snug, and if a template is prepared answering to the position of the bolt-holes in plate at E, it may be lowered around the tops of the bolts and screwed fast to the webs, thus serving tlie double purpose of keeping the webs in place and hold- HIGH- CLASS MOULDING. 229 ing the bolts in position whilst the cores are being built. For reasons obvious, a four-inch perforated pipe is prepared for each of these cores, to be built in the centre and stand out through the covering plate, as shown at i^and G, Fig. 157, the object of this being that a plate, or cross, Fig. 159, with holes cast corresponding to the position of the pipes, may be firmly wedged around the pipes during the time that the cores are being moved about on the foundation- plate. Holes cast in the covering- plate through which the pipes pass, as seen at Fig. 157, can be utilized for the pur- pose of stiffening the whole structure after the mould is closed. These cores are to be further strengthened by building in plates, as shown at F, Fig. 116, at about three places before 6" from the top is reached, when the plate shown at E is to be set on as seen, and the nuts screwed down. The hand- ling of these cores is done by the three staples seen, which, when a three-legged buckle chain is used, can be easily regulated to a plumb-line. The pipes, in conjunction with the building-rings, stiffen the core laterally, as well as serve the purpose of a direct medium through which the gas can pass away freely at the top. The same precautions are to be taken in this case, as in the last, to have an open-built core with cinders form- ing a channel towards the holes in the pipe at every course. As before explained, the cores C and F are to be sta- tionary, consequently there will be nothing except the per- forated pipe, and about six of the building-plates used in their construction. The bolt G is shown simply to give some idea of how core A would appear when that height had been reached. Of course it becomes an easy matter to finish the inside of this mould when these opposite cores are taken away, as illustrated above. The simplest method of making full-length dry-sand 230 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. cores for this casting is shown at Fig. 158. To be sure in this case 8 cores, each 6 feet long, could be used effectually if it were necessary to adopt that mode of procedure ; but we set out to discover a means of making them in one length, supposing that a contingency might on some occa- sion present itself which would admit of no other solution to the difficulty. The chief prerequisites in this case are : first, an arbor American-Machinist Fig. 158. or core-iron as light as possible, and yet strong enough laterally to stand turning up on end without springing; second, that the end bearing must be iron, and indepen- dent of the sand core; and third, that means be taken to insure a safe elevation of the core, and having the same? to hang plumb for closing in the mould. The end section and side elevation of a suitable arbor for such a core is shown at A and B, Fig. 158, the dimen- sions being 2" thick and 12" deep, on which wings Care to be firmly wedged, as seen at A. The bottom wing must be made extra strong, and must have a stud 3" diameter HIGH-CLASS MOULDING. 231 cast at each corner, and when the core-iron is placed in the core-box these studs must rest against the bottom of the core-box, as seen ut G, H, J, and K. These studs must be placed to correspond with bearings set upon the founda- tion-plate, and even with the seatings formed to receive the core ; by this means the weight of the core is made to rest independent of the sand seating. As seen, this bottom wing is securely held both ways by wedged pins inserted at holes L and M, provided for the purpose. Other holes, not seen, are to be used at intervals in a similar manner, with the view of distributing the Fig. 159. weight of the core along the bar, and not depending en- tirely on the wedges which bind the wings to the bar. Additional stiffness may be given to this core at the bot- tom by casting intermediate studs 1' diameter on the wings at N, 0, P, R, S, and T, as far back as is thought neces- sary. This core can be made readily in a box after the manner shown at UU, the rolling over being effected by securing a stout wood frame at VV, filling in with old sand and bricks, and bolting or clamping the core-plate there- on, taking care to wedge between the plate and core-iron at IF and X before rolling over, the latter precaution being necessary when the arbor is heavy, as in this case. Six inches of sand, rammed solid to the face, is all that would be required for a core of this description; the re- maining portion, or heart of the core, can be cinders. 232 TBE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Once dry, the rest is simple, as the core can be safely transorted by means of the holes I^and Z, the latter hole being made oblong for the purpose of regulating the swing when closing into the mould. The mode of swinging is shown at Fig. 160 and consists of a wood block A about 18" Fig. 160. square, rammed firmly in the floor for about 2| feet, the top end of which must have a groove cut thereon nearly as deep as that portion of the arbor that extends past the end of the core, and about the width of the same. The elevation of this core is easily accomplished by means of the shackle B, which is made to fit the arbor, and is provided with a threaded pin that precludes all pos- sibility of the shackle spreading. SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN-SAND WORK. 233 SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR HEAVY GREEN- SAND WORK. INCLUDING DRAWBACKS, CRITICAL GREEN-SAND CORES, ETC. ; OR, SOME THINGS BEYOND THE CAPACITY OF THE MOULDING-MACHINE. A casual observer of the foundry business to-day, more particularly such foundries as make a specialty of match- work, with and without the moulding-machine, would be apt to make a very serious mistake, and imagine that brains were a superfluous commodity, that need not be taken into account when the question of hiring moulders was upper- most. It would appear at the places above noted that the moulder has been reduced to a mere automaton or pat- ent 'Kodak/ with this immense disadvantage, that be- fore the button is touched for you to 'do the rest* the operator must move considerable sand and perform an amount of athletics truly astonishing, clearly demonstrat- ing the fact that no matter at whatever degree brains might be rated in this undertaking, muscle is most assur- edly at a discount. A little thought will serve to dispel some of the illusions which are apt to creep in while contemplating this inter- esting subject. All this remarkable display of muscular energy has most undoubtedly been forced upon us by the ever-increasing demands of manufacturers for a larger number of castings at reduced rates, and is but the natural outcome of a healthy rivalry and legitimate competition by intelligent founders to secure the lion's share of this largely augmented business. 234 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. ' The Moulding Machine has come to stay/ no matter how much opposition maybe brought to bear against it; and, on the whole, I cannot see why there should have been such widespread opposition to its more general adop- tion. Other trades have proved how utterly impossible it is to stem the tide of modern improvements in labor-sav- ing machinery; it therefore behooves us to accept the inev- itable, and gracefully welcome the iron man as one of the ' fraternity.' Wherever the machine can be utilized for the production of castings, a truer and more perfect du- plicate of the pattern is obtained in consequence of the absolute regularity and precision of the whole operation; the ramming or pressing of the sand around the patterns being in every instance the same, while the withdrawal of the patterns and the subsequent closing of parts insures a degree of accuracy impossible of attainment by the ordi- nary processes. It is gratifying to notice that the various improvements in electric and pneumatic cranes are being taken advan- tage of around the mould ing-in;ichiues, making it infinitely easier for the operators, and naturally enabling them to accomplish a larger amount of work. I am looking for- ward to an early application to this industry of some of the numerous admirable methods of mixing and conveying which might be readily adopted, and thus aid in handling the immense amount of sand that must be used every day. "This is a consummation most devoutly to be wished." Admitting that the moulding-machine has well-estab- lished claims for recognition, and also that superior cast- ings, within certain limits as to magnitude and diversity of parts, can be produced by its use, yet there will, I pre- sume, always be a very big margin of castings to make de- manding the ripest judgment and calling forth the highest order of constructive ability for their successful accom- plishment. SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN SAND WORE. 235 Scientific papers and trade journals hasten to inform their readers of the immense number of castings produced in an hour by the aid of some new contrivance, and every reflective moulder gets a twinge once in a while when he learns of the almost superhuman efforts made by some one of his craft to 'beat the record' and produce a larger amount of work in a given time than has ever before been accomplished, but we seldom hear much of the patient plodding and anxious hours, and weeks in some instances, which have been industriously spent to produce some of the very intricate and critical work that is being made in our best foundries every day. To rightly determine who do this work is not a very hard matter, simply because the bad and mediocre mould- ers constitute the large majority, making it absolutely impossible for genius to fail in commanding attention, no matter how modest and unassuming the individual may be. To have the confidence of one's employer or foreman is a source of inward satisfaction to any man; but, gratifying as this most assuredly is, it is as nothing compared with the infinite pleasure which accompanies a sense of your ability to help those around you who unfeignedly acknowl- edge your superiority and disinterestedly seek your aid. To command such proud distinction should be the aim of every young moulder who aspires to a leadership among his fellows; but unless the aspirant for such high honors determines to master the first principles of his trade, no such eminence awaits him ; he may rest assured that no amount of pretence or bombast will successfully take the place of talent when the latter quality is absolutely essen- tial. With the view of inculcating first principles in the minds of such moulders as are anxious to examine into and obtain a more extended knowledge of these subjects, I 236 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. propose taking up the several principles one by one, using familiar illustrations in order to their proper elucidation. When we say that a mould, in the ordinary acceptance of the term, consists of an upper or cope part, in which the impression of the top side of the pattern is carried; and a lower, or nowal part, containing the impression of all the remaining parts of the pattern, — we have perhaps said suf- ficient to satisfy the ordinary seeker after knowledge of a general kind. How far this generalizing comes short of the real thing can only he understood by such as are more or less skilled in the multitudinous intricacies attending prac- tice of a higher order. Aside from the special ability which enables the moulder to manipulate the material out of which he fashions his mould, there is constant and imperative demands on a mature judgment, coupled with a measure of constructive ability sufficient to enable him to carry and secure all the parts of his mould, not only accurately, but with absolute safety; and, be it remembered, he must meet every exi- gency entirely unaided by any of the 'helps' which his more fortunate brethren in the iron industries can so easily avail themselves of. Presuming that the student in these things has been correctly instructed in all that pertains to a knowledge of moulding common objects, we will inquire into methods and principles called forth in the moulding of work greater in magnitude and more elegant in design. One of the chiei essentials for moulding the class of work above men- tioned is to separate the mould into as many parts as will enable the workman to extract his pattern undamaged, as well as to leave his mould as free from fracture as possible; and, at the same time, easy access for finishing, setting, and securing cores, etc., must be provided for. As previously stated in "The Iron-Founder/' page 171, it is much easier to accomplish all this in loam than in sand, SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN-SAND WORK. 237 for what might be a comparatively easy job if done in loam, becomes at once a critical undertaking when at- tempted in green sand. It is to the latter class of work that this present writing is devoted. Figs. 161, 162, and 163 represent cross-sections of a class of work commonly met with in almost all of our tool and engine shops, the first being that of an ordinary lathe Fig. 161. Fig. 162. Fig. 163. oed, while the latter may be taken for either engine or machine foundations. Choice has been made of these common objects simply because they offer the best oppor- tunity for a review of the underlying principles which must govern the moulder who essays the accomplishment of all such jobs, and the treatment of these will serve as a guide, and apply to all others of a like nature. One great feature in all castings similar to Fig. 161 is to obtain a perfect and clean surface at the parts A, A, and this can only be accomplished by casting the mould in the 238 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. position shown at Fig. 164. This method insures a com- tivoly clean surface at those parts, whilst the sullage, which always forms and rises into the upper parts of the mould, finds a lodgment where it is less objectionable. When the mould is wide, as in this case, and the outside projections, A and B, are narrow, the inside can be lifted out and the mould finished without much trouble; but to effect this properly we must first have those portions of K ? Fig. 164. the pattern marked A, B, C, and D made separate from the hody, as shown at Fig. 164. The body can then rest on the bottom surface of the mould, and the loose pieces, in suitable lengths for drawing, laid against it afterwards. The reasons for this arrangement will be fully appreci- ated if it be understood that when the body of the pattern has been withdrawn from the sand, the core G can be lifted out with perfect freedom, and the inside pieces C and D can be taken away without damaging the joint at //, H. The pieces A and B can be then drawn inwards, the operation being materially facilitated by having ample draught at 7, I. So much for the general features connected with mould- ing this job; but we have not considered how all this is to be done. The casting may be 12 or perhaps 30 feet long: if the former length, then one lifting-plate would suffice; SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN-SAND WORK. 239 but in the event of the latter, it might be advisable to have two or more lengths of core, divided at convenient inter- vals at the cross-bars. The principle of a lifting-plate for this class of work is shown in plan and side elevation at Fig. 165, and an end elevation of the same is shown at Fig. 164. In all cases plates of this kind must be made pro- portionate to the weight to be borne upon them, and due Fig. 165. consideration must be given to such a distribution of the lifting-handles as will insure the least amount of spring or bend in the plate. All lifting-handles should be made as wide as is practi- cable with a straight turn, as shown at J, Fig. 164 ; this allows of an easy adjustment of the hook, and thus insures a straight lift on the core — something which cannot be as easily done when round eyes are used. In bedding down plates of this kind great care should be taken to have them as much above the surface to be lifted as will allow the irons to rest thereon, with only as much sand between as will permit of a solid bedding down 240 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. of the iron. Too much care cannot be taken to insure a good job here, for it must be remembered that this is the foundation upon which all the weight of the core must rest, and no reliance can be placed on soft sand. Additional stiffness is imparted to cores of this descrip- tion by alternate layers of irons laid crosswise during the process of ramming, as seen at iT and L, Fig. 164: and all corners may be still further strengthened by an occasional gngger being set therein in a diagonal position. Fig. 166 is a plan view of cross-iron intended for use on such work ; all edges next the casting are chamfered, but that portion which rests on the plate is left flat, and some Fig. 166. increase of thickness made in order to meet the require- ments before mentioned. An entire change of procedure is made necessary when this job is contracted in width. If the opening betwixt the sides is considered too small for safety in green sand, then recourse must be had to a system of dry-sand cores; but a reference to Fig. 167 will show how a very small opening may with safety be utilized in the moulding of such jobs in green sand. Several methods present themselves for overcoming this difficulty, first of which we will notice the one as previ- ously explained, and made possible on such a reduced plate by setting the same with its upper surface on a level with the bottom bed, as seen at A, upon which surface are laid narrow strips of cast iron held together by internal webs, as seen at B in elevation and plan ; these, standing a little above the surface to be lifted, allow the core-iron C to rest solid thereon, making it impossible for any damage to ensue, no matter what weight the superincumbent core SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN-SAND WORK. 241 may be. The core is still further stiffened by the rods marked 1 to 7, respectively, in plan Fig. 167, and in end ele- vation at A, Fig. 1G8 ; these latter combine with the cross- irons and corner gaggers to make this core, narrow as it is, almost if not altogether as firm as the one previously de- Fig. 167. scribed. It will be seen at D, Fig. 167, how to make a wide handle on a single stein, and this particular item is worth remembering, as it will prove very useful in a life's experience among this class of work. I need not men- tion that the pattern is to be in this case as for the last ; consequently the pieces E and i^are entirely loose at the 242 TEE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. first move of the core, thereby obviating all danger of dragging down sand at the neck when the core is lifted out. Should it be thought desirable to lift away the ontsides of such a mould and leave the core standing, the iron strips B could rest on solid bearings provided for the purpose, and iron stakes could be driven down to answer the pur- pose of irons A, Fig. 168. In all other respects the opera- i _ A Fig. 168. tions would be similar to those previously explained, excepting that on account of pieces E and F having to be withdrawn after the sides were taken away, sufficient draught must be allowed to make the operation easy and safe, and the projections at G and H must necessarily be made loose to fall down after said pieces were drawn out. Two important items in side lifting-plates, or" draw- backs," merit some attention here, which, if once properly understood, makes the rest comparatively easy. First find out how much projecting sand is to be carried, and make the SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN-SAND WORK. 243 plate wide enough to allow the irons as much length back as will more than compensate for the weight in front, as seen at /and J, Fig. 167. The other item is to so place the lifting-handles K that a correct lift may be taken with the least amount of trouble. It will be seen that in this case the lifting-handle K is set a little forward to make up for the extra weight on front, and also that the handle itself is wide, as before explained ; and therefore any dis- crepancy can be easily rectified at the point of suspension. Ordinarily, a common drawback of this kind is rammed up and the hole entirely filled during the operation, to be subsequently dug around when the mould is to be separated; but if all of the cope be contained within the limits of the drawback, this extra labor may in a great many instances be saved by casting taper-holes at intervals along the back of the plate, as seen at L, into which stout bars can be driven, as seen at M, Fig. 167; these serve as supports for boards or plates, thus obviating the extra digging and ram- ming previously spoken of. A careful scrutiny of the right-hand side of Fig. 167 will make it apparent that all this may be accomplished in a more elegant manner than has hitherto been suggested, but it must be observed that what we have been saying in reference to side plates is intended to apply only when the nature of the order would not warrant us in adopting more systematic methods, at an enhanced cost. The rig shown consists of an inverted lifting-plate N, to which, by means of brackets 0, a back plate P is attached; the hinges R, upon which the whole side is to be turned, are placed at suitable intervals along the back plate, taking care to have them in close proximity to the brackets. The position of the cheek when turned up is indicated by the broken lines at T. This method is very simple, as will be noticed. The bottom hinges U are cast fast to the long bar V; this. 244 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. when cast, is rammed firmly into the floor, with its upper edge parallel to the bottom bed. Additional rigidity is given by inserting a stout bearing-plate W, and wedging under the hinge, as seen. The upper hinges are to be bolted on the back plate after all has been firmly secured. The fixing 8 is in this case necessary to obtain the re- quired leverage for turning the side over on its hinges, and, as seen, is secured to the bracket by set-screws at the top. Fig. 169. I have shown at Fig. 163 how to rest long narrow cores, such as we have been discussing. The rig is simply a common wooden horse, with wedges B and C nailed fast thereon; by this means the core can be safely housed, and the finishing proceeded with as comfortable as if it were hanging in the crane. When the jobs are not too ponderous and it is desired to reach every part of such moulds, the method described at page 45 of "The Iron Founder "is most assuredly the best ; for by the method there explained everything is con- SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN-SAND WORK. 245 tained within the limits of the flask, and all the extra labor involved by bedding in the floor is entirely saved. I have shown at Fig. 169 a cheap makeshift for small jobs of this class: this whole outfit consists of a plate A, cast in one piece, on which is placed a wooden frame stiffened at the waist by iron bars B, C, and D, after the manner Fig. 171. as before explained at Fig. 167. This frame may be fitted with a wood cope, or an iron one can be used temporarily if the order will not allow of an entire irou rig being made. It sometimes happens that projections occur at certain places along the length of foundations, etc., which, if pro- vided for by the methods as previously described, would necessitate the use of some very unwieldy plates. Fig. 170 246 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. illustrates how such a difficulty may be overcome by a very simple arrangement ; the figure includes plan showing the wide projection extending from the regular web B, B; it will be seen that the back of the lifting-plate C has not been made wider at that point, thus making the surface to be lifted at A very much wider than the lifting-plate itself, which, if not provided for, would inevitably collapse when the plate was lifted away. The staples E, seen in end section above, are cast in the lifting-plate in the position shown at D, D in the plan ; and, as shown in the figure, serve the purpose of wedging down the bar F, seen to rest on all the irons, and thus securing them firmly to the plate. By this means the irons become as one with the plate, and absolute safety is assured. Fig. 171 shows how the same results may be obtained by casting irons in the lifting-plate; but for general purposes SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR U HEENSAND WORK. 247 the other mode is by far the best, especially when the rig must be used more than once. The crank end at A can be made very useful on special occasions, and materially helps to stiffen a critical corner that would otherwise be dangerous to risk in green sand. Fig. 173 represents a method for lifting out the inside core when the web extends round the end of the plate. A very neat and effective method of carrying such a core is Fig. 173. here shown : the cross-irons extend to within a short dis- tance of the end of Ihe plate, and the remaining portion is cared for by the crank-irons A, set in at right angles to, and resting firmly on the cross-irons. The conditions on such a job are very much changed when the inner web is widened as shown at Fig. 173. This emergency is well met by introducing a grate, or ' grid,' cast for the purpose, which, as in all the other cases men- tioned, must have a sure rest on the plate, to which it must be firmly secured by bolts at the holes indicated. When from any cause whatever the plate does not stand high enough to rest the grid upon, then recourse must be 248 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. had to packing, as in all cases of tin's nature we must have iron and iron: a strict adherence to this rule will save many a blunder. Fig. 174 shows how to carry awa- a deep overhanging side in green sand, and is simply the application of the principle set forth at Fig. 170. The section of lifting-plate A, with Fig. 174. handle for lifting B, also staple C for securing, is shown, on which studs D for the support of bars E are resting. On these bars the first row of irons F are seen in position. The same process at the two upper tiers brings us to the top row of irons (J, on which the bar 1 is placed and securely anchored, the bolts J having been previously set in position before the ramming commenced. The value of this kind of lifting-handle is again forcibly demonstrated SECTIONAL MOULDING FOR GREEN SAND WORK. 249 in this instance, as by changing the angle a little almost every inequality of weight may be provided for. If a side must be carried away, exposing a web or pro- jection of more than ordinary dimensions, it is just as well to make a flask drawback to cover the whole thing; this will serve the double purpose of fitting the lower surface and carrying away the side. Extra precautions must in Fig. 175. this case be taken to provide suitable bearings at each corner of the flask; these must rest on anchor-plates set down solid below the mould. Fig. 175 is the representation of just such a mould as would require the arrangement we have been describing. At A we have the surface level with the floor, whilst the surface B, at right angles to A, ex- tends to another similar surface directly under the flask C. With such an arrangement as is here illustrated, such work, difficult as it may seem, becomes comparatively simple. 250 TEE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. HYDRAULIC CYLINDER-MOULDING UNDER DIFFICULTIES; OR, BIG CASTINGS IN LITTLE FOUNDRIES. To my certain knowledge there are no men, as a class, more ambitions of distinction in their profession than foundry proprietors. Especially may this be said of such founders as have not the room space or power in their foundries necessary for the safe handling of heavy castings difficult to mould, owing to their great size and complexity of design. Many and ingenious are the efforts put forth to accom- plish work that at first sight strikes them as being beyond their ability to make; but on further reflection, and urged by the principle above spoken of, they have ultimately decided to make the effort, cost what it might. Moulders who have done all their moulding in shops provided with every convenience for different kinds of work, and whose every need and requirement lias been anticipated by one or more heads that have been trained scientifically as well as practically to a thorough knowledge of founding in all its multitudinous branches, know little or nothing of the skill and perseverance practised in the small and less- favored shops to mould castings which to them would be a comparatively easy task. When a graduate from one of the paragon foundries undertakes to mould similar work in the latter-mentioned places, particularly if it should happen to be one of the meanest, he immediately discovers the truth of the above, and mentally resolves to keep his faculties on the alert; otherwise his deficiencies as a thorough moulder will be at once detected. His discovery of the non-existence of con- HYDRAULIC CYLINDER-MOULDING. 251 veniences and tools hitherto looked upon by him as in- dispensable for making such work almost unmans him; but when, upon hinting the advisability of procuring these costly adjuncts, he observes the grim, far-away look on the countenances of his new shopmates, he not unfrequently retires from his new field of operations a thoroughly dis- heartened man. This, of course, is decidedly wrong; a moment's reflection should convince him that the cause of his present embarrassment is the natural result of his past environments, which latter, aided by his present oppor- tunities, would, if taken advantage of, insure for him a bright and useful future. To transport a mould or casting weighing 20 tons, in a foundry more than adequately equipped with 50-ton power cranes of the latest improved patterns, is the simplest matter imaginable. How such moulds must be divided up, and what devices must be planned to move the same weight where the capacity of the cranes do not exceed from 7| to 10 tons, is best known to many of the ambitious proprietors of small foundries, who are every day demonstrating possi- bilities beyond even what we are now considering. I am aware that the consideration of the following sub- ject will be provocative of a smile among the luminaries whose effulgent light is dispensed only in the paragon shops previously spoken of; but let such be reminded that we are attempting the accomplishment of this job in a small foundry, where the means are far below its legitimate requirements. Let it be required to mould a plain hydraulic cylinder 2' 10" outside diameter, 1' 2' inside diameter, and 14' 0" long, including 2' 0" for head, at a foundry where every facility exists for the immediate execution of such an order. Almost certainly there will be a 'plug' pattern ready at hand, requiring but a very slight alteration to make it suitable for the job; flasks are sure to be found in 252 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. sufficient numbers to make up the required length; and in all probability a core-barrel, with or without tripod, will be found also, — thus making a full rig wherewith to com- mence the moulding of this casting on the instant of the order's reception. Owing to the skill and foresight exercised in the man- agement of such an establishment, the place assigned for the ramming of this class of work is separate from and in- dependent of the regular run of crane work, and is also in direct communication, by rail or crane, with the oven; neither is there any interference with such regular work by the constant monopoly of the crane attendant upon the ramming up of such jobs, owing to the fact that this con- tingency has been anticipated and a separate crane provided for the purpose. The exercise of due alacrity on the part of the core- maker produces core and mould simultaneously at this place in an incredibly short space of time, and as there is power sufficient to lift all the mould together if need be, that particular item requires no consideration whatever. In all probability there will be from 25 to 40 feet clear above, in which case the length of the core gives no con- cern whatever, being simply hitched on and suspended with tripod attached, lowered into the mould, centred, and secured. Subsequent operations connected with cast- ing and shipping are, owing to such excellent means, very light events, and merit no notice here. How different is all this when we undertake to mould this cylinder in a shop 50 feet square, having cranes capable of lifting only 10 tons, with a height from floor to crane- hook of L2£ feet, and without either pattern, flask, or core- barrel wherewith to make the job. Under circumstances of this nature we must either incur the expense of new patterns and flasks, or go back to the time- honored practice HYDRAULIC CYLINDER-MOULDING. 253 of making it in loam.' The latter method is what we pro- pose to explain as we proceed. In the first place, this casting will weigh about 16 J tons; this, of course, necessitates the division of the metal, for pouring with, into at least two portions, each of which must be less than 10 tons, the latter weight being the limit of the crane's capacity. Next, there must be such a separation of the copes forming the outride of the mould as will permit the core to be inserted at about midway of its length, the remaining portion to be lowered over the core subsequently. Another important item in the general arrangement is to place the lower part of the mould into the pit at such depth as will allow the core when suspended to swing clear of it, and as the core exclusive of lifting-tackle is about 14' 6" long, it must of necessity travel in a trench dug in the floor from the point where it has been suspended to the pit. The labor of digging this trench will naturally suggest the keeping of these two points as near together as is consistent with safety. As before stated, when there is unlimited height, the core, with its necessary appendage, can be lowered down into its place after the outside has been all set; this allows the core to swing from the tripod clear of the mould during the operations of closing; but in this instance the core, owing to the altered circumstances, must first find a resting- place at the bottom of the mould, until the remaining part of the mould has been closed over, after which the tripod can be attached and the core freed from its temporary anchorage. For the benefit of moulders whose experience has not embraced this particular phase of the trade, I shall, by the aid of the accompanying illustrations, endeavor to make plain how best to mould such a job in loam, where the con- ditions for doing so are about equal to those related above 254 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Fig. 176. HYDRAULIC CYLINDER-MOULDING. 255 A glance at Fig. 170 will give a good general idea of the whole apparatus required for constructing the mould; the other figures will be found useful, and aid the mind in arriving at an accurate knowledge of its numerous details. We will first consider the mould proper, which consists of lower section A, that is seen to be built upon a stout foundation-plate B, of such form and dimensions as will permit a double course of bricks beyond a suitable thick- ness of loam. Provision is also made for building in a system of running-gates down opposite sides of the mould. The form of this foundation-plate, as well as all cope and binding rings used on the job, ma}' be seen at A, Fig. 177, that being a plan view of the top of the mould, exposing top binding-plate, tripod, and one runner-basin, the latter being purposely drawn out of place in order that a sectional elevation of the same with its connections lower down could be obtained, as seen. How much of the mould is contained in this lower section will be seen at a glance by referring to B, Fig. 177; the bottom connection of one of the running-gates spoken of is shown at C; the opposite one (not shown here) must be taken for granted. A tapered iron block 4" square on its upper surface is to be built in, as seen at D, for reasons that will be made clear as we proceed. The two upper sections of cope may be built separately, closed together when green, finished, marked with guides for final closing, and then blackened and dried separately. To meet all the conditions previously laid down, it is necessary to make an equal division of the copes above the bottom section; this makes them about 6' 3'' each in length, and in order to give the requisite strength to the structure it is important that each cope be bound together as seen, the principle of binding being to cast four addi- tional lugs, with staples on each cope-ring, as shown at C, C, Fig. 1 7G. By this means the upper binding-ring can be 256 THE IRON- FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Fiq. 177. HYDRA ULIC CYLINDER-MO ULDING. 257 drawn down firmly, and thus make of the whole courses of brick one unyielding fabric. The upper cope is a fac-simile of the one described, excepting that, instead of placing the binding-ring one course of bricks below the joint, as in the lower, it is in the higher placed on the top course of bricks, with its smooth side uppermost; this gives a better surface for the tripod E to rest upon. The core-barrel, 10" diameter outside and 1" thick, in this case need not be over elaborate, nor possess any element of fitting beyond the capacity of the ordinary Fig. 178. foundry blacksmith; a careful examination of Fig. 177 will explain all its parts, internal and external. Three lugs, with holes for bolts, are to be cast on 8" from the top, as shown in all the figures; and midway betwixt these lugs and the top a hole 2£" diameter must be cast on opposite sides, through which a 2" steel bolt-pin can be inserted for the purpose of suspending the core for closing, as seen at Figs. 178 and 180. The gudgeon A, Fig 178, 2V' diameter, is purposely pro- vided with an eye for lifting by, but must be screwed out when the core has been suspended, as seen at Fig. 180, and replaced with the one shown at E, Fig. 177 The object of the latter plug is twofold: at first it is screwed exactly even with the bottom of the core, and forms a sure rest, independent of the loam on the barrel, the full value of 258 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. which arrangement will be apparent when the test of its merits are exhibited further on. At FF, Fig. 177, are shown plan and projected elevation of the tripod to be used on this occasion for the final suspen- sion of the core. As seen, it consists of three legs or stands, connected by a stout central ring which encircles the core- barrel; three holes, corresponding to the position of the holes in the lugs, are cast in the central ring for bolts G to pass through. The height of these lugs on the barrel determines the depth of the tripod, and it is always ad- vantageous to allow for a steel bearing about 1" thick to rest upon the top ring for the screws H to work upon. Before commencing to close this mould, let me draw attention to the cross or cradle, shown at Fig. 170, and explain its use. It is composed of two half-circular boards 2" thick, halved in the centre and strengthened by four corner-pieces, as seen. The outer circle at J" corresponds to the curve at the bottom of the mould, whilst the curve at K answers to that of the core. An iron pin L, 2£" di- ameter, is let into and extends through the cross; this pin, as seen again at M, Fig. 177, stands flush at both ends, the lower end resting upon the stud or block D, whilst the upper forms an immovable support for the core, the whole weight of which is carried by the screwed plug E, previ- ously spoken of. This cross, as will be plainly seen at N, Fig. 177, forms a cradle, which fits the mould exactly and gives a central guide for the core, the bearing for which is, by this con- trivance, a direct connection of the barrel with the founda- tion-plate irrespective and independent of either the mould or core. AVhen this cradle has been set into the bottom section of the mould, lift on the lower piece of cope and proceed to swing the core. As stated at the outset, this can only be done by lowering the bottom end as much into the floor as HYDRA ULIC C TLINDER-MO ULDING. 259 is lacking in height of crane for effecting a clear swing. Fig. 178 shows the cove resting, at each end, in a trench dug for this purpose; and Fig. 180 is a rough representa- tion of the core A, swinging in the crane and issuing from the trench B, over the mould in pit C. In this case the trench would require to be about 3 feet deep; the lower cope standing at that distance below the floor-line, as shown, would bring the top of the mould, when all is closed, about 3' 6" above. When the core has been lowered into the guide below Fig. !79. Fig. 180. and centred by packings which must be firmly wedged at three or four places round, take care that each packing is placed opposite the binding-ring, as shown at F, F, Fig. 180. It will here be seen why we make these copes so strong: the binding-ring serves the double duty of keeping the mould in good shape and acting as a firm buttress against which to steady the core until the upper cope has been placed, when, if the core is found to be correct at that point also, the work may be continued; but if it should be found necessary to move the core over a little at the top, then loosen the lower braces and proceed to pack above as be- 260 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. fore, using the inner edge of the top binding-ring as a buttress. The tripod may now be lowered over the barrel and made fast thereto, after which bring the set-screws H, Fig. 177, firmly down on the steel packings until the tripod bears the whole weight of the core. If this is done care- fully there will be no further centring to be done. The whole mould, exclusive of the bottom section, is to be now lifted in order to take out the cradle N, and make good the bottom of the core; but before proceeding to do the latter, let the plug E, Fig. 177, be screwed £" farther in: this will permit a covering of loam at that part, and prevent damage from the molten iron. By placing a runner-basin 0, Fig. 177, at each of the down-pouring gates P and R, we obtain a correct plan view of the top of such a mould when the outside has been rammed level with the top, as seen at SS, which point, as before stated, stands about 3' 10" above the floor-line. For obvious reasons, I have omitted showing the cross and slings used for binding purposes; but it is well to say that there must be no bungling here, as there is an upward pressure under this core of about 3^ tons. Use a good cross, and let the packings come directly over the ends of each wing of the tripod. Granted that the conditions for melting iron in this shop are about equal with the majority of our small foundries, and remembering the weight of this casting, we cannot conscientiously withhold our meed of praise for all such founders as can successfully produce such work creditably under circumstances so adverse. STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 261 THE FOUNDING OF STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. EXPLAINING THE * CIRE PERDUE' AND OTHER PROCESSES; WITH A REVIEW OF THE ART AS PRACTISED BY THE ANCIENTS, AND UP TO THE PRESENT TIME. After a careful review of the subject of founding in its relation to sculpture and the fine arts, as ably presented by eminent authorities, past and present, the writer ventures in this article to give a brief outline of its history up to the present; with such technical instructions as will at least leave an intelligent knowledge of the several modes of producing in metals a true representation of the original inspirations of the sculptor. When stone, bone, and horn were the only materials upon which mankind spent its efforts upon such articles of common use as they then needed, it might be then called the stone age. The bronze age did not by any means come into existence at once, but by a very slow process of devel- opment. The native copper they had with them for the fashioning of articles by beating, etc.; but no doubt a grad- ual application of fire for melting was followed by some sort of rude moulding for the purpose of obtaining casts from different objects, which ultimately brought about the art of mixing metals, copper and tin alloy, forming bronze, being the chief amongst them during this age. It was not until metallurgy was a well-established science that iron came into general use, and that assuredly accounts for the rapidity with which it at once asserted its supremacy for almost all uses in science and art. There is no doubt that the arts of man in times past have been considerably influenced by local surroundings. '2&2 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Pure native copper in great abundance is found in North America, and iron seems to have been worked by some por- tions of the Africans, owing to a peculiarity of its nature, from the earliest ages. No knowledge of the use of metals was shown by the natives of Australia, New Zealand, or the northern portion of the continent of America when they were first discovered. In the southern continent, however, strange to say, they were not ignorant of the art of working metals when they were first discovered by the Spaniards in the sixteenth century. It was found that the Peruvians and Mexicans could work with considerable skill in gold and copper, but had not as yet found out anything about iron. It would appear that the change from the bronze to the iron age took place in Greece within the time included in the most learned parts of its history, while the Romans, it is certain, had possessed a knowledge of treating iron ore from the earliest days of their existence as a nation. Iron was known to the Celtic and German tribes when the south- ern races first went among them for the purpose of trading, etc.: and some parts of northern Europe to this day main- tain a supremacy in the manufacture of iron not as yet attained by their almost immediate neighbors. The art of making steel was first acquired by the Romans. The metal which seems to have found most favor in Europe during the earliest ages was gold: this may have been on account of its being found in many parts in such condition as admitted of easy working by beating, etc., into articles of adornment for the person, as well as other deco- rative uses, its beautiful and shining quality, no doubt, being its chief attraction. We find that tin was from the earliest times an article of commerce and trade in the south of England; and when we consider the fact that copper also was mined in large quantities in close proximity to the tin mines, we may, without any stretching of the imagina- STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 263 tion, conclude just how these two metals were ultimately combined to form the wonderful alloy which we call bronze, and which, no doubt, was the beginning of the change that determined the duration of the stone age. The first pro- cesses were undoubtedly the beating and shaping of native malleable copper, followed by the melting of the metal and running into moulds; and finally the discovery that by the same process of smelting the ores could be made to yield whatever copper they contained, which, being mixed with other metals in suitable proportions, resulted in the ability to produce whatever kind of metal the needs and require- ments of the early workers in metals called for. When the art of smelting iron had at length become generally known, and arms, as well as the numerous other articles for which it was better adapted than bronze, had been successfully made, fully demonstrating its superiority over the latter metal for such purposes, the iron age may be said to have arrived. It will be evident to all that there must have been con- siderable attention given to the subject of metallurgy in these early ages before they could have successfully accom- plished the manufacture of wrought-iron goods, as above described; and it is almost certain that the Britons, isolated though they were at that time, knew how to manipulate the metals before Julius Caesar landed with his armies in that country: still, a great impetus may have been given to the business by that event. Chius seems to have been honored by the establishment of a school of sculpture in marble as far back as GGO B.C., and it was in this place that Glaucns is supposed to have introduced the art of welding iron, 692 B.C. Mention is also made by several authorities of the beautiful metal utensils which were produced at this time, as the enormous caldron with projecting griffins' heads, and a support formed of kneeling figures seven ells in height (Herodotus, IV. 152). 264 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Pa»usanias (in. 17, 6) describes, as the oldest example of sculpture in bronze which he had seen, a statue of Jupiter at Sparta - , the work of Clearchus of Rhegium, who was by some called a scholar of Daedalus. It was made of plates of bronze beaten out to the form of the figure, and then secured together by fine nails, from which it would seem that the arts of casting, or even of soldering, were then not known. Theodorus of Samos is supposed by some to have been the inventor of casting in bronze, but Ulrichs argues that there must have been two artists by that name, because the one who invented bronze casting must have lived before 576 B.C., previous to which date this art may be inferred to have been known from the remarks of Herodotus (v. 82) that the Epidaurians were ordered by an oracle to obtain figures of Damia and Auxesia. The rival schools of marble sculpture, and the first of which we have any distinct record, are Chins, and Magnesia on the Meander. Bathycles was the leader of the latter school, and Pausanias tells us that he was the author of the figures and reliefs on the colossal throne of Appolo at Amyclae. As to the date of these schools he does not de- cide, but supposes about 546 B.C. The schools of Argus and iEgina appeared about 508 and 452 B.C., and bronze would seem to have been the material worked with by the former school, whose head was Ageladus, the tutor of Myron, Polycletus, and Phidias. The school of iEgina obtained a great reputation for the quality of the bronze used, and their design and workmanship were greatly esteemed. Onates, whose works consisted of immense groups, as well as other statues of gods and heroes (single), most of which were produced in bronze, was a graduate of the latter school. Anaxagoras, who executed the bronze statue of Zeus, 15 feet high, for Olympia, to celebrate the battle of Platea, was the immediate successor of Onates. STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 265 The school of Magna Grecia is worthily represented hy Pythagoras, whose works were all executed in bronze. The subjects of his choice were invariably male figures, on which he worked with marvellous skill, in order to bring out a pro- nounced representation of muscular attitude as expressed under extreme bodily or mental strain. His statue of Philoctetes at Syracuse was executed in order to show forth the expression of pain, and it is said that his success was such as to move spectators when viewing it. The Athenian Phidias is supposed to have been born about 500 B.C. With his advent a new order of things pre- vailed, as he possessed a knowledge of the art coupled with technical skill hitherto unapproached, and his influence spread far and wide. Originally a painter, he subsequently turned the whole force of his genius to sculpture, producing, among other great works, the colossal statue of Athene the Promachos, which, according to Pausanias, was ordered by the Athenians, and paid for out of the Persian booty. When finished, it was erected on the Acropolis, the top of the spear in her hand and the crest of her helmet being visible at sea from Cape Sunium. Scopas of Parus, 380 B.C., settled in Athens. He was a great bronze sculptor, especially in the portrayal of feeling, which he infused into all his figures, whether human or divine. He maintained his reputation for unapproachable work about thirty years. Lysippus of Sicyon also appeared about this time. He had been formerly employed by the Corinthian sculptor Euphranor, as one of his workmen in bronze; but disdain- ing the lower walks of his profession, he studied hard, and was ultimately rewarded by being esteemed by all as a sculptor of genius. A remarkable feature in this man's career was the immense number of works which passed through his hands, which are supposed to amount to the enormous figure of about 1500 groups and statues, two of 266 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. which may be considered massive productions, being the statue of Jupiter at Tarentum, GO feet high, and the statue of Hercules at the same place. Chares, the founder of the school of sculpture at Khodes, is preeminently noted for having produced the bronze statue of Helius at Ehodes — an immense piece of work, measuring 105 feet in height. This colossal figure remained standing about sixty years, when it was destroyed by an earthquake. The plastic arts were in a degraded condition about the fourth century, coarse in workmanship as well as wanting in the higher principles of design. The lack of expression in works of art at that time shows that at the most it was but imitative of the past. The sixth century produced an entirely new class of sculpture for decorative purposes. This was under the influence of Justinian, who favored the Byzantine style, which latter can only be considered a high- class order of metal-work suitable for decorative purposes, and all such as were used for decorating the church being their highest aim to produce. No doubt this lapsing into working of precious metals resulted from the objections raised by the Church at that period against all efforts at modelling figures which might captivate the senses. The whole Christian world, was influenced by the art of Byzantium up to the twelfth century; and as they had become the greatest workmen in the precious metals at that time, the artists from all over Europe flocked to that city, making it the centre as well as the school of art- work. The Saxon period found the English with but very few attempts even of stone buildings, much less sculpture, and the arts at that time were mainly represented in some few specimens in gold, silver, and copper. True there was some rude sculpture attempted during the Norman period, but nothing of importance in this line is noticed until after the STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 267 thirteenth century, when we find that considerable encour- agement was given to art-work by Henry III. The two bronze figures in Westminster Abbey, modelled and c;ist by William Torell of London, about the year 1300, will, how- ever, bear comparison with some of the best works of that day. These castings are considered perfect as specimens of the cire-perdue process, one representing the crowned head of Henry III., and the other that of the head of Eleanor. William Ansten of London was the artist who modelled and cast the effigy of Richard Beauchamp, 1439, and no work of the fifteenth century has received greater praise. Hubert Le Sceur, a French sculptor, who died about 1G70, modelled and cast the bronze equestrian statue of Charles I. at Charing Cross, supposed to be a fine speci- men of art- work. English sculpture during the eighteenth century was mostly in the hands of Flemish and other artists, Rysbrack being one of the chief amongst them. The more modern public statues of London are, as a rule, somewhat tame and uninteresting, with one brilliant exception, which is the Wellington monument in St. Paul's Cathedral, the almost life-work of Alfred Stevens (1817-1875). The monument consists of a sarcophagus supporting a recumbent bronze effigy of the Duke. At each end is a large bronze group, one representing truth tearing the tongue out of the mouth of falsehood, and the other, valor trampling cowardice under foot. There is no doubt of Stevens' work being made more valuable apparently from the fact that there were so few artists of his day who might be considered good. The Athlete struggling with a Python, by Sir Frederick Leigh- ton, is elegant, both in conception and design, but is marred irreparably by the methods adopted for casting — so common now in England, casting in sand being preferred to the nicer method of the cire-perdue or waste-wax process. 268 THE IRON FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. This latter process consists of modelling the statue in wax, upon a previously prepared core, around which the cope is formed, and the whole thoroughly burned. The wax escapes during the firing, and the space is filled with metal. The original model is, of course, lost. The twelfth and thirteenth centuries found the sculpture of France the finest in the world, but it declined again towards the end of the fifteen tn century. Jean Goujon (d. 1572) was the ablest French sculptor of his time; he com- bined great technical skill with refinement in modelling. With the exception of the two Coustons, who were remark- able mainly for their technical skill, no sculptor of merit appeared in France during the seventeenth century; but a century later Jean Antoine Houdon (1740-1828), a sculptor of most exceptional power, produced the standing colossal statue of St. Bruno at Rome, and other statuary of re- markable merit. The existing French schools of sculpture are esteemed as the most important in the world ; technical skill, combined with an intimate knowledge of the human form, are possessed by many living sculptors to a degree never before attained. Germany continued under the influence of Byzantium until the twelfth century, which fact the bronze pillar reliefs by Bernward at that time plainly show. The thir- teenth century found this country far behind France in artistic progress; but some fine examples of fourteenth- century sculpture are to be found in Nuremberg, also at Prague, where the equestrian bronze group of St. George and Dragon are to be seen in the market-place. For three generations, during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the family of Vischer were among the ablest sculptors in bronze, and few bronze sculptors have ever equalled Peter Vischer in technique. His chief early work was the tomb of Archbishop Ernest in Magdeburg Cathedial (1495). The finest series of bronze statues of the first half of the STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 269 sixteenth century, viz., twenty-eight colossal figures round the tomb of the Emperor Maximilian, are to be seen at Innsbruck. Andreas Schliiter of Hamburg (b. about 1662) produced the colossal statue of Frederick III. which stands on the bridge at Berlin. It was about the fourteenth century that Florence and the neighboring cities became the chief centres of Italian sculpture, till in the fifteenth century Florence had become the chief art city in the world. No grander specimens of bronze statuary are to be found than the equestrian Gattamelata statue at Padua, done by Donatello, and that of Colleoni at Venice, the work of Ver- rochio and Leopardi. It was about this time that Michael Angelo, the greatest master of them all, made his appear- ance, and eclipsed all others by the grandeur of his noble work. The sixteenth century saw a decline in Italian sculpture, although John of Douay (1524-1608) .produced his bronze statue of Mercury flying upwards, now in the Uffizi. He also cast the fine bronze equestrian statue of Cosimo de Medici at Florence. Beuvenuto Cellini (1500- 1569) produced the colossal bronze Perseus at Florence. The description of the great gold lions of Solomon's throne, and the laver of cast bronze, supported on cast figures of oxen, shows that the artificers of that time had overcome the difficulties of metal working and founding on a large scale; and Herodotus tells of the enormous number of colossal statues for which Babylon and Nineveh were so famed. The late excavations in the Tigris and Euphrates valleys, and the recent discovery of some bronze statuettes, shown by inscriptions on them to be not later than 2200 B.C., proves the early development of this branch of art among the Assyrians. Early Greek sculptors seem to have executed nearly all their sculpture in metal, preferably to marble; and how much superior in technique theirs was to some of our mod- 270 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. ern works is very clearly demonstrated by the great bronze lions of the Nelson Monument, Loudon, which show in a marked manner how much inferior is the coarse sand casting, now prevalent in England and elsewhere, to the more delicate cire-perchie process. The Japanese are great masters in all manipulations of metals and amalgams, and possess secret processes unknown to workmen elsewhere, showing a great mastery of their material in both designing and moulding. Casting is, in all probability, the oldest method of metal- work, and this has passed through three stages: the first, solid castings, such as were made in ancient times by form- ing moulds in clay, stone, or sand, and pouring in the fluid metal until the hollow was full. The next stage, according to examples now in the British Museum, was to introduce an iron core, in order to save the bronze or even more , valuable metal. The latter method most certainly had its disadvantages, as the casting must necessarily split on such a rigid core. The third stage, which appears with some modifications to be the method now adopted, was the em- ployment of a clay or sand core, round which the figure was cast as thin as possible to save metal. This process was very successfully practised by the Greeks and Romans; and whilst their exact methods are not certainly known, it is more than probable that they were acquainted with the c ire-perdue process, which was so largely practised at a later day by the great European artists in bronze, and still followed to this day. In times past the moulding as well as the casting of a statue was invariably done by the sculptor, whereas at the present time, by the use of a clay model or a plaster cast of the same, the business of sculptor and moulder have become distinct specialties. One great objection to the very elegant process of cire perdue is that the work of the sculptor must be repeated STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 271 as often as failure to reproduce his efforts occurs in the foundry; consequently the whole system of statue moulding has been undergoing a complete change of late in order to keep the model first supplied by the sculptor intact, and always ready for a repetition of the work should circum- stances demand it. Models, in clay or plaster, of large statues are now sup- plied by the sculptor, from which a correct impression in plaster is at once obtained by the founder. Such a model of an antique bronze of the Townley Venus is shown at Fig. 181, a plaster impression of which is obtained by first marking off two or more main divisions of the model and noting the parts which, owing to the peculiar depres- sions on the surface, would fail to separate from the model without fracturing the part ; these found, a separate piece of mould is formed in plaster at such places, the outer surfaces of which will leave their impression in the outer copes. The copes are formed by running plaster over the model, the several divisions of which are obtained by constructing a wooden or clay boundary at the points where it has been determined to separate them, and are held firmly together by skeleton frames constructed with iron bars which are laid in the plaster during the process of covering the model. After these divisions have been made in this manner, one by one, and have become suffi- ciently set or hardened, they are carefully lifted away, set down on their backs, and the false pieces or cores with- drawn from the model and set in their respective seatings in the copes. A correct impression of the model, no matter how intricate its form, is thus obtained, over which, after well oiling, the requisite thickness is laid on in wax by repeated coats applied with a brush. The mould being now ready for forming the core within, a suitable core-iron is formed by attaching cross-bars to one or more main cen- tral rods, such cross-bars reaching into the remote parts of 272 THE IROJS-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. Antique Bronze of the Townley Venus. Fig. 181. STATUES IN IEON AND BRONZE. 273 274 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. the core as seen at Fig. 182; this skeleton core-iron is then placed in position inside the prepared mould, and, after making the necessary preparations, by means of pipes, AA, for conveying away the gases from all remote parts, the composition or cement is poured therein from the highest part of the mould. The cement commonly used for cores in bronze castings is composed of two parts of finely ground fire-bricks to one part plaster of Paris, mixed with water to the consistency of cream. The setting or hardening of cores formed from these materials takes place very soon, so that the plaster copes may bo taken away almost immediately. By exercising care, this may be done without much, if any, damage to the surface of the newly -formed wax model. The core, surrounded with its wax fac-simile cf the original model, i.s now stood on a suitably provided base, and only needs the requisite anchors for keeping it in position when the wax has been melted out, which emergency is met by in- serting, at suitable places, rods of bronze through the core, as seen at BB, Fig. 182, the ends of which standing out some distance from the figure, are made secure by being cemented firmly into the cope, when the latter is duly formed. The next process is to connect the wax of the figure with a number of holes provided at the base, as shown at CO, by means of outlets composed of the same material ; also, to attach wax-running gates, DD, at such places and in such number and size as will insure a safe and clean pour. The gases generated inside the mould when it is cast are led away at the top by means of vents direct, or they may be formed in the same manner as the gates in wax. After inlets, outlets, and vents have been all secured to their respective places on the figure, the whole surface is painted over with a fine composition of some kind; some use fine brick-dust mixed to a consistency with thin glue water, whilst others prefer the white of egg, or molasses, STATUES IN IRON AND BRONZE. 275 with the brick-dust, according to the nature of the work. When about one quarter inch of this composition has been laid over the surface and become moderately hard, the common or ordinary loam, with a plentiful admixture of horse manure or cow hair, may be applied, and a backing of bricks built round, after the usual manner. It is usual, in some cases, to surround the bricks with iron curbs at once, so that all danger from the jarring incident to pit ramming may be avoided. Whatever method of firing be adopted, it is necessary that these moulds, inside and outside, be thoroughly dried. As will be readily seen, the wax thickness, followed by gates and vents, will begin to flow out at the lower aper- tures, CO, Fig. 182, as soon as the heat begins to take effect, and a constant flow will continue until every portion of wax will have run out, leaving the core and cope held in their true relative positions by the bronze rods BB, previ- ously spoken of. When the whole lias been thoroughly dried, it only re- mains to plug the lower apertures CO, through which the wax has escaped, form the runny anthracite, which yields above 90 per cent. This class of coal burns with a very small amount of flame, producing intense local heat, and no smoke. It is especially useful in blast-furnaces and cupolas, but is not as suitable for reverberatory furnaces as some of the other kinds. The most important class of coals is that generally known as bituminous, from their property of softening, or undergoing apparent fusion when heated to a temperature far below that at which actual combustion takes place. The proportion of carbon in bituminous coals may vary from 80 to 90 per cent. The common fuel in India and Egypt is derived from the dung of camels and oxen moulded into thin cakes and dried in the sun. It has a very low heating power, and gives off aciid ammoniacal smoke and vapor whilst burning. Liquid fuel in the form of natural petroleum, and the creosote-oil from coal-tar distilleries, have recently been adopted for heating steam-boilers and other purposes. Though a dangerous substance, it becomes perfectly man- ageable when blown into a heated combustion-chamber as a fine spray by means of steam-jets, where it is immediately volatilized, and takes fire. The heating-power is very great, one ton of creosote-oil being equal to 2 or 2| tons of coal in raising steam. Natural gases, consisting principally of light hydrocar- bons, have now become an acknowledged agent for heat producing; puddling and welding furnaces as well as steam- boilers, etc., are entirely fired by the gas from wells bored 328 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. for oil, some of which are over 1200 feet deep. The oil is conveyed to the several works through a line of pipe ex- tending, in some instances, many miles in length, and is delivered at a pressure of two atmospheres. ANNEALING. Annealing is the process by which metallic and other mineral productions are converted from a brittle to a com- paratively tough quality, presumed to be caused by a new arrangement of their constituent particles. In a consider- able number of bodies that will bear ignition it is found that sudden cooling renders them hard and brittle, while, on the contrary, if tbey are allowed to cool very gradually, they become softened or annealed. We have, however, noticed several alloys of copper (brass in particular), in which sudden cooling has the reverse effect — that of anneal- ing it. The process of annealing requires ability and experience to perform it properly, and varies in the degree of heat applied, as well as in the period of cooling, accord- ing to the nature of the metal or other substance operated upon. In the annealing of steel and iron the metal is heated to a low redness, and suffered to be gradually reduced in its temperature, covered up on a hearth. Ovens are constructed for this purpose, wherein the pieces of metal, according to their massiveness and the quality it is desired they should possess, are placed and retained at a low heat for days, and sometimes weeks together. The annealing of glass is performed precisely in the same manner. EOW TO REPAIR BROKEN CASTINGS. 329 HOW TO EEPAIR BROKEN AND CRACKED CASTINGS. THE FOUNDRY METHODS OF 'BURNING' ALL CLASSES OF WORK FULLY EXPLAINED AND ILLUSTRATED. To say that more than half the attempts to repair castings by the process of ' burning' are failures, is by no means a random statement; and there are large numbers of intelligent moulders with practical experience in this some- what abused branch of. the trade who are convinced of its truth. How it is that failures occur so often does not always strike the average moulder, and he is forced to retire from his sometimes self-imposed task as gracefully as he knows how, and find consolation for his wounded pride behind that oft-quoted refuge of the ignorant, viz., 'It can't be done.' But this is only another proof, added to the many already adduced, that our education comes far behind in matters of this description, and we must, for some time longer at least, continue to grope in the dark. If past experimenters in the art of burning had been more intelligent, the list of failures would most unquestion- ably not have been as numerous; for the simple reason that, possessing a knowledge of the nature of such un- dertakings, impossibilities would have been more rarely attempted. They would have at once consigned to the scrap-pile most of the defective castings, knowing that any attempt at burning must inevitably result in a waste of time and ultimate loss. Even when the advisability of attempting a 'burn' is left to the judgment of the most scientific amongst us, 330 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. there is a lack of positiveness in his utterances and manner. He is well aware of the countless circumstances which are against success, and takes care to supplement his grave advice by quoting a few of the adverse possibilities in the case, and invariably ends by asking his more practical associate how similar cases have resulted in his past ex- perience. It may be well to observe here, that past experience in this business is not by any means to be always taken as reliable data. Difference in construction and proportion of parts, one casting from another, are easily overlooked in similar castings, making them, whilst similar, not alike. Quality and nature of the iron contained in the castings are sure to differ, and even should these conditions approxi- mate somewhat, there may be structural differences, caused by the different temperature of the metal with which the castings were poured; in one instance hot and fluid, giv- ing homogeneousness and strength, and in the other dull and sluggish, with the resulting overlapping cold-shuts, and all the other weakening influences incident to cold pouring. Before attempting to repair any important casting by burning, consider well its general make-up, the variations of form, differences of thickness, rigidity, general or only partial; then think how this is going to be affected by. the extreme heat which must be applied to the parts in the immediate vicinity of the place to be fused. Expansion is an irresistible force, and just as soon as tli is extreme heat is imparted to one part of the casting the adj icent parts are acted upon at once: if there is suf- ficient elasticity in the general make-up of the casting to allow of this thrust taking place without fracture, there is a possibility of its resuming its original shape when con- traction takes place. This is the difficulty met with when it is attempted to join together, by fusion, the cracked arms HOW TO REPAIR BROKEN CASTINGS. 331 of wheels, bed-plates broken in mid-section, cracks or holes in cylinders, condensers, etc. The mere fact of fusing the fractured surfaces, and thus joining the broken ends together by leaving a quantity of molten iron between, is very easy of accomplishment on fairly soft iron, but to avoid the dangers consequent on the operation of doing this is a difficulty not to be overcome so easily. Now, if it were safe and practicable to heat up to nearly melting-point all castings to be burned, and then fuse the fractured parts instantly, the dangers from imperfect fusion or breakage would be reduced to a minimum; but all who have had any real experience in this unsatisfactory phase of the moulder's art know how almost impossible it is to meet all these conditions. Just in proportion as these conditions fail of being met will the measure of success be. The above considerations, taken in conjunction with the fact that the parts melted must become, when cold, as much smaller as their full amount of shrinkage measures, whilst the remaining parts, no matter how much the cast- ing may have been expanded by the regularly employed methods of heating, do not shrink as much by fully 75 per cent, will explain why it is next to impossible to success- fully accomplish such jobs when the fracture is remote from the extremities of the casting. "When the fracture is at the extremities, as at the corners of plates, pieces of propeller-blades, etc., or when two whole sections are to be attached either by fusing the broken pieces together, or by casting on a new piece en- tirely, as in fractured shafts, rolls, etc., all difficulty ceases. These latter, having freedom endwise for expansion, leave nothing to be done except to make sure of a perfect fusing of the broken surfaces, whilst in the previously mentioned instances differences in degree of temperature, caused by unequal distribution of parts with the consequent unequal 332 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. expansion, are sometimes sufficient in themselves to pro- duce disaster from breakage. This danger is supplemented by the before-mentioned fact that, inasmuch ;is there are differences in the amount of shrinkage betwixt the new parts and the old, there always remains this important factor, that if the parts immediately adjacent to the added metal are held rigid by the strength of those behind them, they cannot possibly follow up the full shrinkage of the new metal, and a forcible separation must therefore take place. Aside from this, should the rigidity spoken of not exist, the internal strains produced may act with such force upon the unequally distributed metal as to rend the casting asunder at its weakest place. Two good illustrations of the difficulties we have been discussing are shown at Figs. 194 and 195. The pillow-block B Fig. 194. Fig. 195. cap, Fig. 194, being 6 inches thick, a rising head, 4 inches diameter, was placed at A, and accidentally broken off whilst hot, tearing out a portion of the casting, as shown at B. The party in charge insisted upon burning at once, and proceeded to demonstrate his ability by first heating the casting red-hot, placing a core around the damaged part, and pouring about 1500 pounds of blazing-hot iron direct upon it, working the surface with a bent rod during the operation of pouring. So far as melting the surface was concerned, he was eminently successful, the result being a hole over 3£ inches deep and about 7 inches diameter. HOW TO REPAIR BROKEN CASTINGS. 333 After the superfluous iron had been removed, and the sur- face well filed, I examined the job critical]}', and found that the above conclusions were verified unmistakably: the newly added metal had very perceptibly shrunk away from the rigid walls of the casting, forming a core of metal more or less disconnected at the sides, as shown at C, D. It was not until oil had been allowed to run into the fissure and had been again attracted to the surface by rubbing- soft chalk over it, that my friend could believe such a thing, although to a willing mind the fact was plain to the sight before recourse was had to the latter-mentioned aids. It will be plain from the above, that it is always desirable to limit the area of new metal, and thus lessen the total shrinknge, by ceasing to pour as soon as the fusion is effected. Fig. 195 shows end section of a 24-inch cylinder 1 \ inches thick; any attempt to mend such places by these means invariably ends as shown. It may be asserted by some that it is a common practice to successfully (?) burn holes in round and square columns, and even to attach lugs and brackets by this means; but I am very much afraid that if the results were carefully looked for by a responsible party, most of such attempts would be found more or less faulty, and that the extent of damage done would be always in proportion to the amount of new iron introduced. One reason why so much of this class of work passes muster is, that the paint effectually hides the fault from sight, and there being no subsequent trial by pressure from steam, air, water, etc., the extent of such damage is never ascertained, unless the casting should collapse when the load comes on. I have in mind an eminent structural engineer and iron manufacturer, whose belief in the truth of the above is so strong that he will not allow burning to be practised on 334 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. any casting which will be called upon to sustain a constant load. There is no doubt that risks are taken oftentimes with apparently satisfactory results, but this does not prove the case, and it is always safest to try again whenever there is a doubt in the case. In fact, taking into consideration the amount of time and labor in transporting, heating, and all the subsequent manipulations entailed by a ' big burning job/ it is in the end made almost as costly an operation as moulding over again, to say nothing of the probabilities of failure always attendant upon such efforts. For the successful treatment of such castings as are con- sidered safe to operate upon by the process of burning, there are some few conditions which are indispensable to the production of a correct job. If the casting to be oper- ated upon is very hard, the chances for success are materially lessened; the brittleness of hard iron being proportionate to its hardiuss, this latter objection must be added to the difficulty of effecting perfect fusion. The softer the iron the more readily will it fuse. The same may be said with reference to the iron used for burning with. If the iron used for burning be hard, it loses its heat rapidly, and so conduces to failure in effect- ing a junction by its inability to cut into the surface acted upon; whilst soft iron, with its carbon principally graphitic, is more fluid, and retains its heat for a longer time. Tlie hotter the iron the more speedy and effectual is the opera- tion. All surfaces to be operated upon should be cleansed thoroughly from every particle of foreign matter, such as sand, grease, etc. If there is any doubt whatever, let a new surface be formed by chipping, drilling, filing, or any other Avay that will aid in presenting a pure, raw surface to the action of the molten iron. Open burning along a crack is wonderfully expedited HOW TO REPAIR BROKEN CASTINGS. 335 by having one lip at least of the pouring-ladle made after the manner shown at A, Fig. 196; very many failures are attributable to the mean appliances provided. A self-acting skimmer, the surface of the iron protected from the action of the air by two inches of charcoal, and a ladle-lip like the one shown, will give good results invariably. As before stated, there is but one rule in regard to heat- ing the castings to be burned; that is, to make them as hot Fig. 196. as practicable for working around. In order to accomplish this as near as possible, make all the necessary preparations beforehand; let the new portions of mould, cakes, cores, runners, etc., be made in loam or dry sand of hard, tough texture, and, remembering that the casting will be hot, be sure to provide for a quick and easy adjustment of all the pieces by a judicious paring of the joining parts, so that everything will fit at once, and no time be lost. The pieces thus prepared can be dried during the time the casting is being heated. It is always advisable to adopt a method of slow cooling or annealing after the operation of burning is performed; a very good place for ibis purpose is the oven when it can be spared conveniently: in fact, with all castings having 336 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. complicated parts some method of annealing is indispens- able. The slower they are cooled the better. Sometimes a casting is broken after the manner shown at A, Fig. 197. When it is thought best to burn such a job on its flat, and the broken piece cannot be found, let a cast- ing be made answering to the form required, taking care to cut away the skin at the part to be joined; these can then be laid together and fused, as will be explained far- ther on. Much anxiety and trouble might be saved some- times if, when immediately the casting is poured and there is a doubt as to its soundness, the cope was lifted, and the Fig. 197. holes, if any are found, were burned at once whilst the cast- ing is red-hot. Another important feature in burning on a new piece, such as a tooth of a wheel, etc., is to so place the casting that the molten iron will be sure to pass over the whole sur- face, and also to make such an outlet at the lowest part of the fracture as will insure a steady outflow of the cooled iron after it has been forced over the surface to be fused ; Fig. 198 shows a spur-gear fixed so as to answer these con- ditions. If after failure to effect a junction it is thought advisable to make a, second attempt, be sure to cut the burnt portion away until the good graphitic iron is found; the partially decarbonized iron previously in contact with the molten HOW TO REPAIR BROKEN CASTINGS. 337 iron would effectually preclude all possibility of a second fusion at that place. Burning on to or attaching cast iron to steel when the surface to be acted upon is considerable, is attended with much difficulty on account of the conditions previously spoken of; but here again it is worthy of notice that the nearer the two metals can be brought together in tempera- ture before pouring, the less danger there will be of ulti- mate rupture from internal strains. To this end the steel ye. This is not a burning process; as the pipe to be thus treated must first have a notch cut round its circum- ference, as seen, and being set on end in the floor the flange is formed by means of a pattern, using a covering flask and gating in the usual manner. The rigid pipe naturally interferes with the contraction of the new flange, so that this method is limited to pipes of small diameter. Wrought pipes can readily be provided with extemporized flanges of this kind, the thread end forming an excellent fastening. Going back to Fig. 197, we will endeavor to show how a 338 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. casting of this kind may be repaired. The figure repre- sents an elbow-pipe 3G inches diameter, with square base at- tached. Should the piece at A, A be broken off, it may be fused to the casting by following the directions given. Let the casting, previously made as hot as practicable, be sunk into the floor, and place the first core, A, Fig. 200, directly under the fracture, evenly divided as seen; the piece to be attached is then set in its place, slightly apart from the main piece, so that the molten iron can find its way unin- terruptedly between; cores B, C, D, and E are then set in position as shown at Fig. 201. These cores are then to be /g|8^kiiiiii|iijiA Fig. 200. backed firmly with sand, as shown at Fig. 200. and weighted down; the pig-bed F is then formed, and all is ready for the iron. With a ladle, after the manner shown in Fig. 196, a steady stream of hot iron can be continuously directed along the line of the fissure. Core D being as high as the side cores C and B, prevents the iron from escaping in that direction; it must therefore all pass out over core E. The latter core be- ing raised only one inch higher than the casting, permits the cooled iron to flow rapidly away into the pig-bed F. When these jobs are so placed that the travelling back and forth can be accomplished by means of the racking-gear on the crane, the operation is materially facilitated. An assistant with a rod of iron to feel along the bottom will soon dis- cover-when' both sides of the fissure are fused, at which HOW TO REPAIR BROKEN CASTINGS. 339 poiiit it is advisable to cease pouring, for reasons already adduced. Core E being one inch higher than the casting, and the latter being set level in the floor, will allow sufficient iron to remain in the channel for finishing; therefore when the pouring has ceased it is only necessary to cover the molten surface well with charcoal, and to subsequently lay a few hot scraps over all to prevent too rapid cooling at that part. It is not wise to overdo this piling on of scrap as some do: Fig. 201. all that is required is to bring about equal cooling of the whole piece as toon as possible. It might be thought best to repair this or any other sim- ilar job with the web on edge, in which case all that would be required would be to set cores A and JJ, as seen at Fig. 202, with the additional cores J 31} 63 10 00} 01} 03 05} m 35 70 20 ooj 02} 06 li! 35 70 1 40 30 00} 04 09 17} 52} 1 05 2 10 40 00} 05} 12 23J 70 1 40 2 80 50 01 06} 15 29} 87} 1 75 3 50 100 02 13} 29 58J 1 75 3 50 7 00 200 04 27} 58 i n;§ 3 50 7 00 14 00 300 06 40} 87} 1 75 5 25 10 50 21 00 400 08 54} 1 17 2 33} 7 00 14 00 28 00 500 10 f-8 1 46 2 913 8 75 17 50 35 00 1,000 19} 1 36 2 92 5 83} 17 50 35 00 70 00 2.000 39 2 72} 5 83 11 661 35 00 70 00 140 00 3.000 58 4 08} 8 75 17 50 52 50 105 (ID 210 CO 4.000 78 5 44} 11 07 23 33} 70 00 140 00 280 00 5.000 97 6 80} 14 58 29 105 87 50 175 00 350 00 10,000 1 94 13 61 29 17 58 S3 175 00 350 00 700 00 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 367 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. MEASUKES OF LENGTH. 4 In. make 1 Hand. 7.92 In. tt 1 Link. 18 In. a 1 Cubit. 12 In. a 1 Foot. 6 Ft. (C 1 Fathom. 3 Ft. (C 1 Yard. 5|Yds. a 1 Rod or Pole. 40 Poles et 1 Furlong. 8 Fur. a 1 Mile. 69 T V Miles a 1 Degree. 60 Geographical Miles make 1 Degree. SCRIPTURE LENGTHS. The great Cubit was 21.888 in. = 1.824 ft., and the less 18 in. A Span the longer = \ a cubit == 10.944 in. — .912 ft. A Span the less = \ of a cubit = 7.296 in. = COS ft. A Hand's Breadth = £ of a cubit = 3.684 in. = .304 ft. A Finger's Breadth — 1.24 of a cubit = .912 in. = .076 ft. A Fathom = 4 cubits = 7.296 ft. Ezekiel's Reed = 6 cubits = 10.944 ft. The Mile = 4000 cubits = 7296 ft. The Stadium, T V of their mile = 400 cubits = 729.6 ft. The Parasang, 3 of their miles = 12,000 cubits, or 4 English miles and 580 ft. 33.164 miles was a day's journey— some say 24 miles; and 3500 ft. a Sabbath day's journey — some authorities say 3648 ft. LIQUID MEASURE. 4 Gills make 1 Pint. 2 Pints " 1 Quart. 4 Quarts » 1 Gallon. 2 Gals, make 1 Peck. 31£ Gals. " 1 Barrel. 54 Gals. " 1 Hhd. 368 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. SCRIPTURE MEASURES OF CAPACITY. The Chomer or Homer in King James' translation was 75.625 gals, liquid, and 32.125 peeks dry. The Ephah or Bath was 7 gals. 4 pts., 15 in. sol. The Seah, 4 of ephah, 2 gals. 4 pts., 3 in. sol. The Hin = £ of ephah, 1 gal., 2 pts., 1 in. sol. The Omer = ^ of ephah, 5 pts., 0.5 in. sol. The Cab = ^ of ephah, 3 pts. 10 in. sol. The Log = 7,V of ephah, \ pt., 10 in. sol. The Metretes of Syria (John ii. 6) = Cong. Rom. 7£ pts. The Cotyla Eastern = T ^ F of ephah, £ pt. 3 in. sol. This cotyia contains just 10 oz. Avoirdupois of rain-water. Omer, 100; Ephah, 1000; Cho- mer or Homer, 10,000. MEASURES OF SURFACE. 144 Square Inches make 1 Square Foot. 9 Square Feet 30| Square Yards 40 Square Rods 4 Square Roods 10 Square Chains 640 Square Acres 1 Square Yard. 1 Rod, Perch, or Pole. 1 Square Rood. 1 Square Acre, or 43,560 sq. ft. 1 Square Acre. 1 Square Mile. Gunter's Chain equal to 22 Yards or 100 Links. GUTTER'S CHAIN", ETC. 7.92 inches constitute 1 link; 100 links one chain, 4 rods or poles, or 66 feet, and 80 chains 1 mile. A square chain is 16 square poles, and 10 square chains are 1 acre. Four roods are an acre, each containing 1210 square yards, or 34,785 yards, or 84 yards 28 inches each side. Forty poles of 30.25 square yards each is a rood, and a pole is 5| yards each way. An acre is 4840 square yards, or 69 yds. 1 ft. 8£ in. each way; and 2 acres, or 9080 square yards, are 98 yds. 1 WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 369 ft. 2 in. each way; and 3 acres are 120 J yds. each way. A sauare mile, or a U. S. section of land, is 640 acres; being 10G0 yds. each way; half a mile, or 880 yds. each way, is 160 acres; a quarter of a mile, or 440 yds. each way, is a park or farm of 40 acres; and a furlong, or 220 yds. each way, 10 acres. Any length or breadth in yards which, multiplied, makes 4840, is an acre; any which makes 12.10 is a rood, and 30.25 is a pole. An English acre is a square of nearly 70 yds. each way; a Scotch, of 77£ yds.; and an Irish, of 88| yds. MEASURES OF SOLIDITY. 1728 Cubic Inches make 1 Cubic Foot. 27 Cubic Feet " 1 Cubic Yard. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 27||- Grains make 1 Drachm (dr.) or 27|£ Grains. 16 Drachms " 1 Ounce (oz.) or 437£ " 16 Ounces " 1 Pound (lb.) or 7000 28 Pounds " 1 Quarter (qr.). 4 Quarters " 1 Hundred-weight (cwt.). 20 Cvvts. " 1 Ton. TROY WEIGHT. 24 Grains make 1 Pennyweight, or 24 Grains. 20 Penuyw'ts " 1 Ounce, or 480 " 12 Ounces " 1 Pound, or 5760 APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT. 20 Grains make 1 Scruple. 3 Scruples " 1 Drachm. 8 Drachms make 1 Ounce. 12 Ounces " 1 Pound. 45 Drops = 1 teaspoonful, or a fluid Drachm; 2 tablesnoonfuls = 1 oz. 370 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. DRY MEASURE. 8 Quarts make 1 Peck. 4 Pecks " 1 Bushel. 8 Bushels " 1 Quarter. 36 Bushels " 1 Chaldron. 1 Bushel equal to 2815|- cu. in. nearly. A bushel of Wheat is on an average 60 lbs.; Barley or Buckwheat, 46 lbs. ; Indian Corn or Eye, 56 lbs.; Oats, 30 lbs.; Salt, TO lbs. 14 lbs. of Lead or Iron make 1 Stone; 21£ stone, 1 Pig. 1 Bbl. of Flour contains 196 lbs.; Beef or Pork, 200 lbs. The Imperial Gallon is 10 lbs. avoirdu- pois of pure water; the Pint. 1\ lbs. 1 gal. Sperm Oil weighs 7i lbs.; 1 gal. of Whale Oil, 7 lbs. 11 oz.; 1 gal. of Linseed, 7| lbs.; 1 gal. of Olive, 74 lbs.; 1 gal. of Spirits of Turpentine, 7 lbs. 5 oz. Proof-spirits, 7 lbs. 15 oz.; 1 gal. of Ale, 10.5 lbs. Millemetre Centimetre Decimetre Metre . . Decametre Hec:itometre Chiliometre Myriometre An inch = ft. = 305 met FRENCH MEASURES. MEASURES OF LENGTH. English Inches. .039371. .39371. 3.9371. 39.371, or 3.281 ft., or 1.09364 yds., or nearly 1 yd., \\ nail, or 443.2959 French lines, or .513074 toises. 393.71, or 10 yds., 2 ft., 97 inches. . 3937.1, or 100 yds., 1 ft., 1 in. . 39371, or 4 fur., 213 yds., 1 ft., 10.2 in.; so that 1 chiliometre is nearly f of a mile. . . 393710, or 6 miles, 1 fur., 136 yds., 6 in. .0354 metres; 2441 in. = 62 metres; 10,000 res nearly. FRENCH MEASURES. 371 SUPERFICIAL OR SQUARE MEASURE. Are— a square decametre 3.95 English perches, of 119.6046 sq. yds. Decare .... 1196.0460 sq. yds. Hecatare . . . 11960.46 sq. yds., or 2 acres, 1 rood, 35.4 perches. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. Cubic Iuches. English. Millilitre .06103. Centilitre .... .61028. Decilitre 6.1028. Litre, a cubic decimetre 61.028, or 2.113 wine pints. Decalitre 610.28, or 2.64 wine gals. Hecatolitre . . . . 6102.8, or 3.5317 cu. ft., or 26.4 wine gals. Chiliolitre .... 61028, or 35.3170 cu. ft., or 1 tun, 12 wine gals. Myriolitre .... 610280, or 353.1700 cu. ft. SOLID MEASURE. Cubic Feet, English. Decistre for fire-wood 3.53 L7. Stere, a cubic metre 35.3170. Decastre 353.1700. In order to express decimal proportions in this new os- tein, the following terms have been adopted: The term deca prefixed denotes 10 times; lieca, 100 times; cJtih'o, 1000 times; and myrio, 10,000 times. On the other hand, dcci expresses the 10th part; cent), the 100th part; and milli, the 1000th part, — so that decametre signifies 10 metres, and decimetre the 10th part of a metre, etc., etc. The metre is the element of long measures; are, that of square measure?; stere, that of solid measures; the litre is the element of all measures of capacity; and the gramme, which is the weight of a cubic centimetre of distilled water, is the element for all weights. 372 THE IRON-FOUNDER SUPPLEMENT. TABLE OF THE AREAS OF CIRCLES AND OF THE SIDES OF SQUARES OF THE SAME AREA. Pia'T). of Area of Sides of Sq. Ilium, of Area, of Sides of Sq. Circle ii Circle in of si me Area Circle in Circle in of same Area Indies. Sq. In. in Sq. In Inches. Sq. In. in Sq. In. 1 .785 .89 31 751.77 27.47 4 1.767 1.33 4 779.31 27.92 2 3.1 12 1.77 32 804.25 28.36 4 4.9i»9 2.22 i 829.58 2H.R0 3 7 0(59 2.06 33 855 30 29 25 4 9 oil 3.10 1 881. 41 29.i;9 4 12 566 3 54 34 907 9-2 30.13 1 15.904 3.99 4 931.82 30 57 5 19.615 4 43 35 902.11 31.03 4 23.758 4.87 i 9-9 80 31 46 6 2S -271 5.32 3G 1017.88 31.90 * 31.181 5.76 4 1046 35 3> 35 7" 33.485 6.20 37 1075.21 32 79 i 44.179 6 65 4 1 104 47 83.23 8 50.266 7.(19 38 1134.12 33.68 i 5(5.745 7 53 4 2164.16 34 12 9" 63 617 7.98 39 1194.59 31.56 4 70 . 8(12 8.42 4 1225.42 35.01 10 78.540 8.86 40 1250.64 35.45 * 86.590 9.30 4 1288.25 35.89 11 95 03 9.75 41 1320.36 36.34 4 103.87 10.19 4 1352 66 30.78 13 113.10 10 63 42 1385 45 37 22 i 122.72 11 08 4 1418. G3 37 66 13 132.73 11.52 43 1452.20 38.11 4 113.11 11.96 4 14815.17 38.55 14 153.9+ 12.41 44" 1520.53 3-1.99 k 165 13 12.85 4 1555 29 39.44 15 176.72 13.29 45 1590.43 39.88 i 188.69 13.74 4 1625.97 40.32 16 201.06 14 18 46 1661.91 40 77 * 213.83 14.62 4 169S.23 41 21 17 226.93 15 07 47 1731.95 41.65 i 210.53 15 51 4 1772.06 42 10 18 254.47 15 95 48 1809.56 42.58 i 26<.80 16.40 4 1847.46 42.98 19 283.53 Hi. 84 49" 1885.75 43.43 4 2' iH 65 17.28 i 1924 43 43. K7 20 311.16 17 72 50 19G3.50 44.31 4 330 06 IS. 17 4 2002.97 41.75 ■ 21 346 36 18.61 51 2042.83 45.20 4 3(>3 05 19.05 4 2083 08 45 (14 22 380.13 19.50 52 2123.72 40. OS 4 397.61 19 94 4 2161.76 40.53 23 415.48 20.38 53 2206.19 41'.. 97 4 433.74 20. S3 4 2218.01 47.41 24 452 39 21.27 54 2290.23 47.86 i 471 44 21.71 _4 2332.83 48 30 2.1 4f0 S8 22.16 55 23;." 83 48.74 i 510 71 22 60 i 2419.23 49 19 2G 530.93 23.01 56 2463.01 49.63 i 551.55 23 49 i 2507.19 50.07 27 5:2 56 23.93 57 2551.76 50.51 J 503.90 24.37 4 2596.73 50.96 28 615.75 24.81 58' 2642 09 51.40 4 637.91 25.26 4 2687.81 51.84 29 660 52 25.70 59 2733.98 52.29 4" • 683 49 80.14 * • • 2780 51 52.73 30 706.86 26.59 60 2827 74 53.17 i 730.62 27.03 4 . 2874.76 53! 62 WAQE8 TABLE. 373 WAGES TABLE. Salaries and Wages by the Year, Month, Week, or Day, showing what any sum from $20 to $1600 per annum is per Month, Week, or Day. Per Year Per Month. Per Week. Per Day. i Per Year. Per Month. Per Week. Per Day. $ $ c. $ c. $ c. $ $ c. $ c. $ c. 20 is 1.67 .38 .05 280 is 23.33 5.37 .77 25 2.08 .48 .07 285 23.75 5.47 .78 30 2.50 .58 .08 290 24 17 5.56 .79 85 2.92 .67 .10 295 24.58 5 66 .81 40 3.33 77 .11 300 25 00 5.75 .82 45 3.75 M .12 310 25.83 5.95 .85 50 4.17 .96 .14 320 26.67 6.14 .88 55 4 58 1.06 .15 325 27.08 6.23 89 eo 5.00 1.15 .16 330 27.50 6.3) .90 65 5.42 1.25 .18 340 28.33 6 52 .93 70 5 83 1 31 .19 350 29.17 6.71 .96 75 6 25 1.44 .21 360 30.00 6. 90 .93 80 C.07 1.53 .22 370 30 S3 7.10 1.01 85 7.08 1.63 .23 375 31.25 7.19 1.03 90 7.50 1.73 .25 380 31.67 7.29 1.04 95 7.92 1.82 .26 390 32.50 7.48 1.07 100 8.33 1.92 .27 400 33.33 7. 67 1.10 105 8.75 2.01 .29 425 35 42 8.15 1.16 110 9.17 2 11 .30 450 37.50 8.(,3 1.23 115 9.58 2.21 .32 475 39.58 9.11 1.30 120 10.00 2 30 .33 500 41.67 9 59 1.37 125 10.42 2 40 .34 525 43 75 10.07 1 44 130 10.83 2.49 .36 550 45 83 10.55 1.51 135 11 25 2.59 .37 575 47.92 11.03 1.58 140 11.67 2.69 .38 600 50 00 11 51 1.64 145 12.08 2 78 .40 625 52.08 11 99 1 71 150 12.50 2 88 .41 650 54 17 12 47 1 78 155 12.92 2 97 .42 675 56.25 12 95 1.85 160 13.33 3.07 .44 700 58.33 13.42 1 92 165 13 75 3.16 .45 725 60.42 13.90 1 99 170 14.17 3.26 .47 750 62 50 11 38 2.05 175 14.58 3.36 .48 775 64.58 14.86 2.12 180 15.00 3.45 .49 8U0 66.67 15 34 2.19 185 15 42 3 55 .51 825 68.75 15.82 2.26 190 15.83 3.64 .52 850 70. 83 16.30 2.33 195 IB. 25 3 74 .53 875 72.92 16 78 2.40 200 16 57 3.81 .55 900 75 00 17 26 2 47 205 17.08 3.93 .56 925 77.08 17.74 2 53 210 17 50 4.03 .58 950 79.17 18 22 2 60 215 17.92 4.12 .59 975 81.25 18.70 2 67 220 18 33 4.22 .60 1000 83.33 19 18 2.74 225 18.75 4.31 .62 1050 87 50 20.14 2 88 230 19.17 4.41 .63 1100 91.67 21.10 3 01 235 19.58 4.51 .64 1150 95 83 22 06 3.15 240 20.00 4.60 .60 1200 100 00 23 01 3.29 245 20.42 4.70 .67 1250 104.17 23.29 3 4.' 250 20.83 4 79 .60 1300 108.33 24.93 3.56 2:>5 21 25 4.89 .70 1350 112.50 25.80 3 70 200 21.67 4 99 .71 1400 110.67 26.85 3.84 265 22.08 5.08 .73 1450 120 84 27.80 3.98 270 2.'. 50 5.18 .74 1500 125 00 28 77 4.11 275 22.92 5.27 .75 1600 133.34 30.68 4.38 Note. — If the desired sum i< nor in the table, double some number; for in- stance, if the salary or wages is $J0U0, double the sums opposite $1000^ and so on with the rest. INDEX. A PAGE Addition and subtraction of decimals 85 Air-furuuces, Low to construct r 57 Alcohol and oils as fuel , . 325 Anchors, when aud bow to use 198 Ancients, fouuding of statues by the 261 Annealing, English methods of 304 Annealing, explanation of 317, 328 Annealing-furnaces, capacity of 306 Auuealiug, packing the boxes, or " saggers," for 304, 305 Authracite coal 53, 326 Antique bronze of the Townley Venus 272 Autiquity of working in brass and iron 1, 261, 270 Apothecaries' weight 369 Appliances for foundries 126 Arbors and loose wings for long dry sand-cores 230 Area of circles and sides of squares of the same area. . • 372 Art work of the Hebrews, Babylonians, Ninevites, and Assyrians 269 Avoirdupois weight 369 Basin, pouring 1 82, 186, 255 Beams, advisibility of making wrought iron 165 Beams and crosses, description of , 159 Beam and slings for reversing copes 161, 165 375 376 INDEX. PAGE Beam hooks 163, 165 Beam or cross bar, bow to set tbe binding 208 Beams, some information about 344 Bedding in, methods of ~22 Bed-forming, improved method of 223 Bed fuel in cupola - 44 Bed sweep, " rolling over " substituted by the 219 Bellows 13 Berlin hue cast-iron work 295 Bessemer converter described 352 Bessemer steel, the prodcclion of. 352 Big castings in little foundries 250 Blakeuey cupola 48 Blast 13 Blast, ancient methods of producing 5 Blast-furnaces, examples of early 36 Blast- pressure, explanation of 50 Blister-steel, the production of 350 Block and plate moulding 146 Blooms and slabs 319 Blowers and blowing engines 13, 31 Blowers, some primitive 127 Blowing-engines', the first steam 6 Boiling the metal in the rcverberatory furnace 66 Brains versus muscle 2i]3 Brassing irou castings L>Cl Brass. Scripture evidence of working in 1 Brick cores, importance of open aud well-cindered joints in. . . . 226 Bronze age, the 261,263 Bronzing cast irou without metal or alloy.. 362 Bronzing iron castings 361, 362 Block and plate moulding 146 Buckle chains, instructions for making 164 Burning, arguments for and against 329 Burning, a suitable ladle for 3;i5 Burning, illustrations of and instructions for 335 Burning in closed moulds 341 Burning, setting cores for 3o8 Burning rolls, instructions for 343 Byazntium, the art school of 266 INDEX. 377 C PAGE Can books, how to lift flasks with 164 Can hooks, how to lift loam rings with 163 Capacity of ladles, to tiucl the 105, 107 Carbon, graphitic and combined 315 Carving, model Hug a cheap substitute for 289 Car wheels, chilled 307 Case-hardening cast iron 358 Casting, development of the art of 270 Castings, hidden faults in 172 Castings in iron, who made the first 3 Castings, theory of chilling , 315 Castings, weight and measurement of 81 Cast iron, case-hardening 297 Cast iron, decarbonizing. ... 296 Cast iron, English patent (1514) granted for making 3 Cast-iron mixtures 22, 315 Cast-iron pipes 9 Cast iron, sofieniug and hardening elements in 27 Cast iron statuary, who first made 2 Cast iron, to chill 359 Cast iron, the ancients unacquainted with the uses of 2 Cast iron , to pickle 359 Cast iron, to soften 359 Cast iron, Turner's theory on 25 Casts in metal from an animal, insect or vegetable, to take 285 Casts in plaster, the art of taking 283 Cast steel, the production of 351 Catalan forge 13 Catalan furnace, the 36 Cementation , making steel by, 350 Cement for cast iron 335 Change hook, how to make a 166 Change-wheel gear moulding machine, description of 143 Chains, description of. 16, 159 Chains, four-legged 165 Chains, how to make common 167 Chains, importance of having the best 167 Chain-slings, how to make 162, 163, 166 378 INDEX. PAQS Chains, three legged 165 Chains, important to have large intervening links in 167 Chaplet bars, improved 215 Chaplet blocks, wood and iron 211 Cbaplets fast to cores, how to make 209 Chaplets, how to make and use 198 Charcoal iron, characteristics of 26 Charging the cupola 45, 54 Chemical analysis, determining mixtures by 10, 12 Chemical analysis, mixing cast-iron b} r 24, 26 Chemist, metallurgical. 24 Chemistry in the foundry 10, 12, 24, 315 Chill cast-iron very hard, to 359 Chilled car-wheels, annealing of 317 Chilled car-wheels, annealing-pits or ovens for 318 Chilled car-wheels, core-box for 309 Chilled car-wheels, flasks for 310 Chilled car-wheels, how to make 307 Chilled car-wheels, mixing iron for 316 Chilled car-wheel, mould view of a 311 Chilled car wheels, patterns for 308 Chilled car-wheels, testing 321 Chilled castings, instructions for annealing 318 Chills for car-whet.s, description of 313 Chimney length of air-furnace 60 Chinese blowing engine 15 Cinder lieds, the use of 222 Circle, to find the area of the 102 Circle to find the circumference and diameter of the 101 Cire Perdue, or lost wax process, production of brouze statuary by the 2, 267, 270, 275 Cleansing mills, exhaust 9 Clamps, moulders 139 Clay thickness for statuary moulds 281 Clean moulds ignorantly destroyed 170 Cleansing mill 137 Coal, different kinds of 326 Coke, properties and uses of . 326 Cold-shuts, what produces 179 Colebrookdale Foundry, an account of 4 INDEX. 379 PAGE Collian cupola furnace 49 Colored casts in isinglass 288 Combined carbon in cast -iron 28, 315 Combustion, science of 50 Comparison of loam and green-sand 236 Conveyers for hauling material 9, 132, 234 Copper on cast-iron, to deposit 361 Core-barrel, description of 257 Core-barrels, loose gudgeon for 257 Core-boxes, cheap and simply made 221 Core cement for bronze castings 274, 281, 286 Core irons for cores of statue moulds 271 Cores for statues, how to make . .., 271 Cores, how l o effectually unite ponderous 221, 226 Cores, lifting out green-sand lathe-bed 238 Cores, systems of dividing 220 Cottar-pins for chill flasks 310 Covering-plate, passing studs through the 214 Covering-plate, studs cast on 214 Crane-ladles, dimensions for. 76 Crane-ladles, how to line up 77 Cranes, description of various 128 Cranes, electric and pneumatic , 234 Cranes, improvements in 8 Crooked castings, a prime cause for 179 Cross or four-armed beam, to make a 1G1 Crushing-strength of metals and other substances 120, 124 Crystallized tin plate 357 Cupola, a common 39 Cupola charging, direct methods for 9 Cupola, depth of bottom of 44 Cupola, first charge of iron in. . . , 45 Cupola, height of 41 Cupola, location of , 39 Cupola-man, importance of a good 33, 54 Cupola scaffold, improved methods of conveying material to the 9 Cupola, table of particulars for 42, 43 Cupola, tuyeres for 46 Cupola with drop bottom 37 Cupola with solid foundation 37 380 INDEX. PAGE Cupolas, fuel for 52, 326 Cupoliis, lining and repairing 53 Cupolas, melting capacity of 41 Cupolas, some patent 48 Cupolas, total melting capacity of 51 Cylinders cast horizontally, to obtain clean 186 D Dam, how to preserve hot metal in a 74 Dam, shutters for a 73 Dam, to construct a large 72 Dams, collecting large quantities of iron in 68 Dams for spray-runners 187 Decarbonization, time required for 306 Decimal fractions, how to perform 83 Deep lifts in greeu-saud moulding 249 Depth of bot torn of cupola 44 Diagrams illustrating the flow of molten iron in moulds 178 Dirty runners, effect of 170, 187 Division of decimals 88 Division of labor, deterioration of skill caused by the 10 Double-hoop iron stud, to make a 204 Double sealings, method of 199 Double shear-steel 351 Draw-backs carried on flasks 249 Drawbacks, hinges applied to 243 Draw-backs, how to coustruct 242 Drawbacks, how to save digging around 243 Drawing air, the cause of, and how to prevent 182 Draw-runners, examples of 184 Drop-runners, a description of 185 Dry measure 370 Dry -sand cores, how to suspend long ... 230, 253 Dry-sand cores, some difficult 230 E Education, importance of sound 235 Egyptian bronze, mixture for 282 INDEX. 381 PAOE Elastic moulds, preparation for 288 Elect ric cranes 128, 234 Electric system of melting cast iron 12 Elevators for cupola scaffolds 132 Enamel for castings 353, 364 Engine and machine foundations, to mould 237 Equal distribution of irou in the mould, bow to obtain an. . 180, 182 Evans's sand-riddle 136 Evolution of the iron founder's art 1, 261 Exhaust tumbling-barrel 137 Experiments in burning not always successful 329, 332 Eyes for rope tackle 169 F False cores, bow to manipulate 278 Fan blowers 15, 17 Feeding by pressure explained 1 96 Feeding castings 170, 194 Feeding castings, reasons for 194 Feeding, use of the riser in 196 Finished surfaces, how to obtain cleau 237 Fire-brick, how to judge 322 Fireclay and fire-bricks 321 Flask-drawback, how to make ;ind use a 249 Flasks for statue moulding 278 Flowing off, head pressure 170, 182 Flow-off gate, how to form a 182 Fluxing the charges, instructions for 52 Foremen, demand for superior 10 Forge or puddle-bar rolls «. 349 Former, an ingenious bed 219 Foundation-plate and cope-rings 254 Foundation plate, studs built ou 214 Foundations for cores 206 Foundations, importance of good 223 Founders, old time itinerant 4 Founding, explanation of the term 1, 22 Founding not sufficiently recognized in our schools of tech. uology 11 382 TNDEX. PAGE Founding, students needed in the art of 236 Foundries, comparison of large and small 251 Foundries, graduates from large 250 Foundry appliances 126 Foundry arithmetic , 81 Foundry cupolas 34 Foundry equipment, improvements in 8 Foundry proprietors, ambition of ". 250, 300 Fountain runners 176, 181 Fracture, imperfect running one cause of 179 Fracture, unreliability of judging iron by the 25 French measures 370 French sculpture 268, 281 Friction in the mould during pouring, how to avoid .♦. . . 181 Fuel for cupolas 52, 326 Fuel, nature and value of different kinds of 325 G Galvanizing gray iron castings 362, 363 Gaunister, explaining the nature and uses of 323 Gale cutters, improper use of 170, 171 Gate cutting, faulty 170 Gates, how to form clean 171 Geared ladles 9, 76 Gear moulding by machinery, history of 142 Gear moulding machines 9 German sculpture 268 Girders for flasks 215 Governor-balls, science of running cleau 188 Graphitic carbon in cast iron 28, 315 Graphite or plumbago, the nature and uses of 324 Grate or grid, the utility of the 247 Gray foundry irons 31, 315 Grecian bronze, mixture for . . . 282 Greek bronze statuary, superiority of 269 Green bronze on castings 362 Green-sand and loam work compared 236 Green-sand copes, supporting cores in 211 Green-sand cores, how to make and handle very narrow. . 240, 244 INDEX. 383 page: Green-sand moulds, anchoring cores in 210 Green -sand moulds, the art of dividing 236 Green-sand moulds, to carry large areas of projecting sand in.. . 245 Gunther's chain 368 Handling material 159 Handy contrivances for wedging studs and chaplets 215 Hay rope, machines for spinning 9, UO Heat waste in cupolas, preventing 11 Heavy cores, supporting 258 Height of cupola 41 Herbertz's steam-jet cupola 21 High-class moulding. 216 Hiiching, unsafe 167 Hoi low- ware moulding, the first known example of 5 Hooks, description of 159 Horn gates, use of 183 Horses for reversing copes 161 How to keep metal hot in dams 74 Hydraulic cylinder conveniences for moulding 252 Hydraulic cylinder moulding under difficulties 250 Hydraulic cylinder, pattern and core-barrel for a 251 Improvements in foundry appliances 134 Inability of foremen 160 Instructions for mounting " match plates " 159 Interest rules and tables 365, 366 Iron age. the 261, 263 Iron-founding, process of 1 Iron fouuder's art, evolution of the 1, 261 Iron, gray, mottled, and while 315 Iron oxide for annealing castings 304 Iron smelting, the art of, known to the ancients 2, 261 Iron, scripture evidences of working in. . . 1 Iron sculpture, methods adopted by the ancients to produce.. . . 2 3S4 INDEX. PAGE Iron, the science of filling moulds with molten 172 Isiuglass, to take casts iu 288 Italian sculpture 269 Japanese fine art work 270 Japanning castings 363 Jupiter aud Hercules, ancient statues of 266 L Labor saving devices in the foundry 8 Ladles, dimensions for all sized 78 Ladles, bow to construct geared 75, 140 Lathe-heds, core lifting plate for 288 Lathe-bed moulding, examples iu 237 Lathe-bed, pattern for a 238 Lifting handles, how to make 238, 241, 243, 248 Lifting tackle 160 Lining and repairing cupolas 53 Liquid measure 3(i7 Loam and green-sand work compared 2il6 Loam mills . . . 9, 138 Loam-moulding, change of method to save cost in 224 Loam-moulds, method of stiffening 255 Loam-moulds, vertically cast 223, 253 Loam- work, binding and lifting long cores in. 225 Loam-work, building critical cores iu 225 Loam- work, sectional arrangements in 226.. 2T)3 Long castings all from one end, dangers of runuiug 190. 219 Lugs on loam plates. ... 168, 254 M Machine and engine foundations, to mould 237 Machines for moulding gear-wheels 142 Mackenzie cupola 48 Mackenzie pressure blower 19 INDEX. 385 PAOE Malleable cast-iron, the theory of 301, 305 Malleable-iron castings 296 Malleable-iron, sixteenth-century systems of producing 3 Malleable-iron castings, annealing furnaces for 303, 304 Malleable-iron castings, gates required for 300 Malleable-iron castings, making moulds for 299 Malleable-iron castings, melting iron for 300 Malleable-iron castings, processes for annealing 303 Malleable-iron castings, sofluess, flexibility, and specific gravity of 297 Malleable iron castings, the proper quality of pig-iron for 298 Machinery, the first castings for 7 Manganese in cast-iron, influence of 29 Main blast-pipe, diameter of 45 Match plates, how to mount, etc 159, 300 Measure of surface. 3fi8 Medals, to take casts from 287 Melting points of alloys 121 Melting points of metals 119, 121 Melting, science of 34 Mensuration, definitions in 96 Mineral wool, explanation of 355 Mixing cast iron 22,315 Mixing iron, the use of tanks for 317 Modeller's clay, ingredients for making 290 Modelling in clay, pattern 289 Modelling in clay, instructions for 290 Model or pattern, how in moulding statuary to save the 280 Models of statues in plaster 271 Modern improvements, foundries now supplied with 234. 250 Modern moulding-machines 147 Mortars, method of casting 195 Mould, facility in closing a large green-sand 223 Moulders, past and present 6 Moulders, want of education amongst 219 Moulding a four-chambered ventilating shaft 216 Moulding, advanced practice in high-class 216 Moulding, danger of generalizing the subject of 236 Moulding-machines 9, 126, 147, 234 Moulding machines, their utility discussed 148, 300 386 INDEX. PAGE Moulding, past and present 216 Moulding statuary in sand 277 Moulding statues from plaster models 271 Moulds, a handy device for separating 245 Moulds for plaster casts, bees-wax, dough and bread-crumbs as. 284 Moulds, lifting irregular-formed 1G5 Moulds, to fasten chaplets to . . 209 Moulds, to make elastic 288 Multiplication of decimals 86 N Natural gas as a fuel, the great value of 327 Nelson monument, the 270 O Open-sand cast ing 173 Open-sand, fly-wheels in 173 Open-sand moulds, incompetency of moulders to construct 173 Open-sand plates, difficulty of casting , 174 Open-sand plates, to successfully cast. 174 Open-sand work, decreased cost for 176 Outside runners and gates for loam work, how to arrange. . 193, 255 Overhead trolley for conveying molten iron 8 Overhead trolley system 129 P Peat and turf as fuels 326 Percentage in the foundry 113 Phosphorus in cast iron, influence of 29 Pickling, scaling and cleaning cast-iron 359 Pig iron, bought and sold on analysis 27 Pig iron, capacity of furnaces, 1740, for producing 3 Pig iron, chemical substances found in 27, 315 Pig-iron truck and foundry scales 135 Piston blowers 15 Pit-ramming, methods for obviating 145 INDEX. 387 PAGE Plaster blocks 10 Plaster cast from a person's face, to take a 286 Plaster core-boxes, bow to make 294 Plaster for moulds or casts, bow to mix 282 Plaster models of statues for tbe founder 271 Plaster moulds, to prevent patterns from adheriug to 283 Plate moulding aud plaster blocks 146 Polygons, to find tbe area of 99 Pneumatic cranes 129, 234 Portable furnaces in olden times 4 Pouring-basin, bow to construct a 182, 255 Pouring castings, tbe art of 170, 173, 182, 255 Pouring heavy castings 67, 68 Pouring, to obtain tbe minimum of friction whilst 181 Precious metals, scripture evidences of working in 1 Pressure in moulds 218 Puddling described 347 Pythagoras, the great sculptor 265 R Ramming chill car-wheels, the art of 312 Refinery-furnace, description of a 346 Refilling, puddling, shingling and rolling 346 Reaumur's methods of making pig iron, 1722 3 Regenerative furnace, Siemens 300, 304 Remitting cast iron, effect of 28 Repairing broken castings by burning 329 Reverberatory furnace, charging-doors for 60 lieverberatory furnace, charging the 63 Reverberatory furnace, fuel for 62 Reverberatory furnace, sand bottom for 63 Reverberatory or air furnaces 55 Revolving screen for mixing sand 137 Risers, when to place, etc 191, 196 Riveted cbaplets, inadvisability of usiug 212 Rolling-mill, invention of the 7 Rolls and sbafts, burning 342 Roots' pressure blower 19, 20 Roman bronze, mixture for 282 388 INDEX. PAGE Round columns, how to run 1U1 Hope can hooks 1 09 Rope bitches, to 'make 167 Ropes, description of 159, 168 Rope tackle described 168 Roiary blowers. 19 Roughing and mashing rolls 349 Riddles, screen, sliding, swinging, and revolving 135 Rules for finding the weights of casiiugs 95 Runner for open-sand plates 174 Runners, heavy work 71 Runneis, reasons for the superiority of drop 185 Running pipes at the flanges 190 Rust from cast or wrought iron, to remove 360 Rusty studs, why we should avoid 200 s Sand friction, experiments on 150 Sand for statues 279 Sand riddles, improved machine 135 Saxon and Norman periods of sculpture 266 Scales, improved cupola 134 Scales, smithy and rolling-mill. 304 Schiele's compound blowing fan 17 Scotch irons, the requisite elements in 28 Scrap, how to melt fine 32 Scrap, how to melt massive pieces of 5/ Scrap pile, value of the 23, 3:$ Screw clamp for crane-hook 168 Screw propellers 115 Screw propeller, how our forefathers moulded the 8 Screw propellers, improved methods of moulding 145 Scripture lengths 367 Scripture measures of capacity 368 Sculptor and moulder, relationship of 270, 276 Sculptor, reproducing in metal the work of the 261 Sculpture, ancient schools of 263 Sectional moulding for heavy green-sand woik 233 Shackle, use of the 232 INDEX. 389 PAGE Shear- steel, single and double t 351 Shear steel, the production of 351 Shingling described 349 Shrinkage, the cause of inequality in 179 Shutters for dams, how to make and fit 73 Siemens regenerative furnace 349, 351 Signs in mensuration 82 Silicon in cast iron, influences of 30 Silicon, properties of 24, 25 Silicon, W. I. Keep on 31 Simpson's gear moulding-machiue, description of 143 Single-spliced rope sling 169 Slag in cupolas, how to manage the 52 Slings, description of 159, 101, 1(55 Smeaton's blowing-engine 15 Smelting, Indian mode of 127 Smelting in olden times 36 Smelling, the ancients' skill in the art of 2, 261 Soft and hard iron for burning 334 Softening cast iron 359 Soft castings, to produce 28 Soldering gray cast iron 360 Solidity, measures of 369 Special preparations, cases requiring 101 Specific gravity of metals and other substances 120, 125 Spiral drum, how to gate a 194 Spiral post, to mould a 292 Sponginess, how shrinkage causes 195 Springers, use cf 207 Spring chaplets, how to make and use 203 Square columns, how to run 190 Statuary, building copes for 275 Statuary in cast iron, how to mould 276 Statuary in sections, how to mould large 277 Statuary, method of making small 280 Statuary or modeller's wax, composition for 275 S:atues, founding of 261 Statuettes, busts, etc. in plaster, to make 285 Stat ue of Liberty, New York Harbor 277 Steam hydraulic cranes 129 390 INDEX. PAGE Steel, burning on to 837 Steel, discovery by the Romans of making 2G2 Steel, manufacture of , 350 Stem chaplets, cast and wrought 204 Stevens Institute, a good word for the 11 Stewart rapid cupola 49 Straw ropes, machine-made 140 Slripping-plate, the 10, 147 Studs and chaplets, an object lesson in 'J00, 258 Stud plates, use of 222 Studs and chaplets, danger from melting of 201 Studs and chaplets, how to avoid using 198 Studs and chaplets, how to wedge dowu 208 Studs and chaplets, how to render harmless all 201 Studs and chaplets, supporting great weights on 213, 281, 2"8 Studs and chaplets, to prevent slipping in 201, 213, 223 Studs, danger of melting cast iron 202 Studs, explanation of the use of 198 Studs for chilled car-wheel cores, improved 310, 818 Studs, how to make wrought iron 202 Studs, how to make light cast iron 202 Sturtevant pressure blower 17 Substances used for forming plaster moulds 2S3 Sulphur casts of medals, etc 287 Sulphur in cast iron, influence of 29 Supporting studs 214, 281 Swinging long cores, method of 253, 257, 259 T Table of instructious for working the cupola 42, 43 Table of ladles from 25 pounds to 16 tons capacity 78 Table of weights, strength, melting points, specific gravity, etc. 118 "Tabor" moulding-machine, description of the 152 Technical schools, modelling taught in 289 Technological schools, more substantial recognition of the foun- dry demanded in the 11 "Teetor " moulding-machine, description of the 157 Temperature, important that iron enter the mould at an even... ISO Tensile strength, of metals and other substances 119, 122 INDEX. 391 PAGE Testing bars, description of 122 Testing chilled car-wheels 821 Testing machines 122, 130 Testing the nature and quality of cast iron 10, 33 Theodorus of Samos 264 Theory of chilling castings 315 Thin covered plates, how to run 177 Tinning 856 Tinning iron pots, etc 358 Tinning metal, Kustiliens. 357 Tinning studs aud chaplcts 358 Torsional strength of suhstances 120, 124 Toughness of metals 120, 124 Tracks and foundry trucks 131 Tracks, uses of well- laid 8 Transverse strength of metals and other substances. . . 120, 122, 123 Tripod, illustrations and explanation of the 255, 258 Tromp blower, description of the 37 Troy weight 369 Tumbling-barrel, exhaust 137 Turubuckles 165, 166 Tuyeres for cupolas 37, 46 U Underground blast-pipes 89 V Varnishes for iron-work 354 Varnish for patterns 854 Vent-pipe, anchoring cores by means of the 211 Vents, how best to insure perfect 229 W Wages table 373 Washburn wheel 307 Wax, forming gates and vents in 274, 291 392 INDEX. PAGE Wax, how to pour plaster moulds with modellers 291 Wax patterns, varnish for 292 Wax thickness for statuary moulds 271, 2b0 Wax used by modellers, ingredients of, aud how to make 292 Weights and measures 367 Weight of a cubic foot of metal 119, 121 Weight of a cubic iuch of metal 119, 121 Weight of balls, to find the Ill Weight of circular plates and circular solids, to find the 103 Weight of cylinders, pipes, wheel-rims, columns, etc., to find the 103 Weight of flat bottomed tanks, pans, etc., to find the 108 Weight of pans with spherical or round bottoms, etc. , to find the 110 Wheel arm, burning a broken 341 Wheels, centre core-runners for 192 Wheel-tooth, how to burn on a 336 Wind-box, or chamber 39 Wood-charcoal, value as a fuel of 326 Worm-pinions on end, moulding 145 Wrought and cast iron from steel, to distinguish 358 Wrought iron, processes for manufacturing 346 Y " Yieldiug platen " moulding-machine, description of the 155 Z Zinc, cast iron, or brass, to scour 360 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS ffiffi