LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. B3~ntt5 ©fjap iop^rig^ f n.-- Skelf ...•.&_& UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. THE ELEMENTS MORAL PHILOSOPHY. / WILLIAM AUSTIN SMITH, M.D., M.A., Ph.D., PROFESSOR OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY IN THE COLUMBIA TENNESSEE ATHENAEUM. I lC 6 11 3 ^ c /r . ^OFW. A. S. BARNES & COMPANY, NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. \ v Copyright, 1882, £y A. S. Barnes & Co. Smith k McDougal, Electrotype**, 82 Beekmun St., N. Y. PREFACE. rT^HE time lias come when moral philosophy must obey the law which has, within the past half cen- tury, acted so powerfully upon the sciences, and speak the language of the people. Fifty or sixty years ago, moral philosophy had a brilliant epoch, insomuch as it was called the queen of the sciences ; but since that time, its progress has been retarded. Meanwhile, the physical sciences have made a wonderful advance. One reason for this phenomenon is that the physical sciences have been popularized, while moral philosophy has spoken in the language of the universities. Better results are accomplished with students in this branch of education by the topical, than by the Socratic method of instruction by questions and answers. The teacher of moral philosophy ought not to rest contented with asking a question and receiving an answer, per- haps in a monosyllable. Eather let him name a topic, and require the pupil to state in his own words what he IV PKEFACE. has learned. This plan will he found to he improving and scientific. Many persons — even the young — already know what their duty is in a given sphere of action. Where they are not thoroughly informed, they need to be in- structed ; yet the chief thing is for them to he re- minded of their duty over and over again, so that they may put it into practice. This truth must he kept in view constantly, if the grand object of instruction in moral science is to be attained. The student is both to know and do his duty; thus the problems in moral philosophy are impressed upon him with all the force of personal illustrations. W. A. S. Columbia, Tenn., January, 1883. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. THE NATURE AND IMPORTANCE OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. PAGE Division of the Mental Powers 8 Harmony 9 Causes by which this Harmony is Interrupted 10 Interest of this Science 17 Sources of Knowledge : 18 CHAPTEE II. FIRST TRUTHS. In the Science of Moral Philosophy 19 Resemblance in Mental Philosophy and Ethics 21 Classification „ 22 The Nature and Quality of Actions 23 A Great First Cause , 24 Moral Responsibility 25 Future Existence 25 Consequences of these First Truths 25 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. MORAL FEELINGS. PAGE Man 27 The Desires, the Affections, and Self-Love 29 The Human Will 30 Explication 30 Deliberation 31 Conscience 31 Man's Relation to God 32 CHAPTER IV. THE DESIRES. Remark 34 Animal Propensities 35 The Desire of Wealth 38 Ambition 37 Illustration 38 Emulation 38 The Desire of Society 39 Of Esteem 40 The Desire of Knowledge 40 Kinds of Knowledge 41 Moral Improvement 41 The Desire of Action 42 Regulation of the Desires 43 CHAPTER V. AFFECTIONS. Justice, Integrity 45 To Freedom of Action 45 CONTENTS. Vll PAGE Justice to Reputation 46 Duty to Our Neighbor 47 Conduct and Character 47 Candor 48 Justice to the Feelings 49 The Golden Rule 50 Moral Condition 50 CHAPTEK VI. COMPASSION AND BENEVOLENCE. Benevolences to Distresses 53 To Reputation 54 To Character and Conduct 55 To Feelings 56 Caution 57 Improving Moral Condition 57 Definition.. . . c 57 CHAPTER VII. VERACITY. Love of Truth 61 Ascertaining Facts 61 Delivering Statements 62 Observations 64 Truth of Purpose 64 CHAPTER VIII. FRIENDSHIP AND KINDRED AFFECTIONS. Friendship, Love, and Gratitude 65 Love of Country 66 Domestic Affections 66 Vlll CONTENTS. PAGE The Defensive Affections 67 Exercise of the Affections 68 Observations 69 Moral Approbation. 70 Happiness 71 Downward Progress 72 Temper 72 Self-Love 73 Sense in which Self-Love is Used 73 Compared with Selfishness 74 Eemarks 75 Tendency of Self-Love 75 Selfishness 76 Disinterested Conduct and Self-Denial 77 Observations 78 CHAPTER IX. THE WILL. Volition 80 Moral Causes 81 Their Nature 81 Uniformity of Moral Relations 83 Knowledge 83 Attention 84 Moral Habits 84 The Influence of Habits upon Character 85 Means of Correcting Injurious Habits 86 Conclusions 87 Divine Assistance 87 Its Necessity and Probability 88 Faith 88 Illustration 89 CONTENTS. IX CHAPTER X. CONSCIENCE. PAGE The Moral Principle 90 Conscience 92 Its Function 92 Proofs of the Existenca of Conscience 93 Nature of its Operation 94 Obsarvations 95 Conscience and Reason 96 How Conscience Acts. .• 97 A Portion of God's Spirit 97 Right and Wrong 97 The Influence of Conscience 98 Knowledge Derived from Conscience 98 Divine Attributes Compared with the State of Man 99 The Christian Revelation 100 Impaired Conscience 101 Its Influence 102 Attention 103 Responsibility for Belief 103 Moral Emotions and Intellectual Processes 103 Harmony 104 CHAPTER XL THE ORIGIN OF VICE AND VIRTUE. Conscience 106 The System of Mandeville. . 106 System of Clarke and Wollaston 107 Of Utility 108 The Selfish System 109 X CONTENTS. PAGE Selfishness 110 Paley's System , 110 Defect of Moral Systems 110 Barbarous Nations Ill Theory of Sympathy Ill The Use of Sympathy 112 Reason in Moral Decisions 112 The Corruption of Conscience 113 Harmony of the Moral Feelings 113 Consistency of Character 114 CHAPTER XII. man's relation to god. An Appeal to the Deity 117 A Close Relation 117 Justice, Benevolence, etc 118 View of the Divine Character 118 Moral Feelings 119 The Divine Presence 119 Submission 120 Our Moral Imperfection 121 Gratitude, Affection, and Love 121 Character 122 Means of Cultivating a Sense of the Divine Presence 122 Habitual Effort 123 Faith 123 Its Province 124 Illustration 125 Truths which are Faith's Object 125 The Influence of Faith 126 Moral Condition 127 Its Province in Christianity 128 COHTE^TS. XI PAGE Christianity and Moral Philosophy 130 The Will of God 130 Common Sense 130 Growth in Beauty 131 APPENDIX. Political Economy 132 Domestic Economy 133 Esthetics 133 Natural Theology 134 Evidences of Christianity 134 Alphabetical Index 137 CHAPTER I. The Nature and Importance of Moral Philosophy — Division of the Mental Powers — Harmony— Causes by which this harmony is interrupted — interest of this Science — Sources of Knowledge. The Nature and Importance of Moral Phil- osophy. — The mental powers are divided into intel- lectual and moral : ethics, or moral philosophy, is the science of duty, and duty is anything that ought to be done. Man is to be contemplated as an intellectual, and as a moral being. By his intellectual powers he acquires the knowledge of facts, observes their connections, and traces the conclusions which arise from them. These mental operations, however, even in a high state of cultivation, may be directed entirely to truths of any extrinsic kind — either to the moral condition of the individual, or to his relations to other sentient beings. They exist in the man that is so selfish that he cares for nothing, and for nobody but himself and his own good ; he feels little beyond the personal wants, or the selfish enjoyments of the hour that is passing over him. But when we contemplate man as a moral being, new relations open on our view, and these are of mightier import. We find him occupying a place in a great 14 ELEMEISTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. system of moral government, in which he has an im- portant station to fill and high duties to perform. The two parts of his mental constitution we perceive to be remarkably distinct from each other. The intellectual powers may be in vigorous exercise in him who has little feeling of his moral condition; and the moral feelings may be in a high state of culture in the man who, in point of intellectual acquirement, knows little beyond the truths which it most concerns him to know — those great but simple principles, which guide his conduct as a responsible being. Intellectual philosophy teaches about the mind, and moral philosophy treats of the soul. Division of the Mental Powers into Intellec- tual and Moral. — Man is to be contemplated as an intellectual, and as a moral being. By his intellectual powers man acquires the knowl- edge of facts. They may exist in an eminent degree in the man who lives only for himself, and feels little beyond the personal wants, or the selfish enjoyments of the hour that is passing over him. But when we contemplate man as a moral being, new relations open on our view, and these are of greater import. We find him occupying a place in a greater, or moral government, in which he has an important station to fill and high duties to perform. We find man placed in certain relations to a great ELEMEOTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 15 moral Governor who presides over this system of things. Man is possessed of powers which qualify him to feel these relations, and of principles calculated to guide him through the solemn responsibilities which attend his state of moral discipline. In a well-regulated mind there is an intimate har- mony or a cooperation between these two departments of man's nature. Harmony That Ought to Exist between These Classes. — There is nothing so pleasant as to see harmony and friendship existing between the in- tellectual and moral powers. Yet harmony and friendship should not merely exist between classes, but in all the faculties. While I am speaking upon the subject of Harmony, I shall say something upon the subject of Association. In the class now to be mentioned, the associations are formed according to relations, which are local or casual. Thus a fact, a thought, or a mental impression is asso- ciated with the person by whom it was communicated, and is recalled to the mind when the place or person is seen, mentioned, or considered. Some persons seem to form almost no other associa- tions than those of this description. When a place which they had visited, for example, is spoken of, they immediately relate, in connection with it, the persons whom they met there, incidents which occurred in their company, and opinions or statements 16 ELEMENTS OF MOBAL PHILOSOPHY. which were mentioned in conversation with them; and from this, perhaps, they may branch off to other cir- cumstances relating to these individuals, their families, or connections. These associations, however, often make a great im- pression on the mind. Thus we avoid a place that is associated with some painful recollection. Without harmony of the moral and intellectual powers there can be no perfect character. The intellec- tual faculties maybe in a healthful state while the moral are not, or the moral faculties may be in a healthful condition while the intellectual are not; and, of coarse, no harmony will exist under these circumstances. But to form a perfect moral character, there should be per- fect harmony in the intellectual and moral parts of our nature. We must have a sound mind, in order to know and understand what God commands us to do. We need, also, a good, forgiving disposition, so that we can do our duty toward our fellow-men, and do unto others as we would have them do unto us. Causes by Which This Harmony Is Inter- rupted, and Means of Counteracting Them. — It requires only slight observation to show us that a perfectly regulated mental condition does not exist in the generality of mankind. Dr. Abercrombie does not enter into particulars in tracing the circumstances which bear upon producing ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 17 this mental derangement. Being surrounded by ob- jects of sense, our minds are, of course, influenced by external things, and it is natural that some facts should escape our memory; but this would not be the case if the mind were left at liberty to recall its own associations. We have two sources of knowledge, which will always be correct guides ; these are the light of conscience and divine revelation. But some object to an appeal to the sacred writings ; for they say it is a departure from the strict course of philosophical inquiry. Interest of the Science of the Moral Feel- ings. — The subject of the moral feelings is one of in- tense importance. Its importance, then, of course, ren- ders it difficult. It suggests great powers and properties of the think- ing principle. This leads us to think of a probable time when this body is dissolved, and our thinking and reasoning powers pass into a higher state of being, where they will still exercise their faculties — where the life of each individual can be brought up at one glance. Could we realize such a mental condition, we should contemplate the impressions then made with feelings far different from those which influence us now. This science must be considered as the highest of all our pursuits, the science which contemplates man with relation to God and eternal things. In this great science we have two infallible guides which, if we heed them, will conduct us to the truth. These guides are conscience and divine revelation. 18 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. If, in investigating this science, we disregard the light of the Holy Bible, we shall resemble an astronomer who depends npon his unaided sight for things which can only be revealed to him by the most powerful tele- scope. Peculiar Source of Knowledge Bearing- upon it from the Light of Conscience and of Divine Revelation. — There are the lights of divine revelation. Some will consider an appeal to sacred writings a de- parture from philosophical method. This opinion is at variance with the truth. Induction of sound philosophy, along with the dic- tates of conscience and the light of revealed truth, we shall find to constitute a harmonious whole. The various parts tend to establish and illustrate each other. If, indeed, in any investigation of moral science, we disregard the light which is furnished by the sacred writings, we resemble an astronomer who would rely entirely on his unaided sight, and rejects those optical inventions which extend so remarkably his field of vision, and are to him a revelation of things not seen. The Holy Bible spreads forth truths, the view be- coming clearer and brighter the farther they are pur- sued, and the rays which illuminate the path converge in the throne of him who is eternal. CHAPTEE II. First Truths in the Science op Moral Philosophy — Resemblance in Mental Philosophy and Ethics— Classification— The Nature and Quality op Actions — A Great First Cause — Moral Responsibility — Future Existence— Consequence op these First Truths. First Truths in Moral Science.— The knowl- edge which we gain through our intellectual powers, may be divided into two classes; namely, knowledge which is acquired, and that which is intuitive; but we shall speak principally of the intuitive knowledge. This knowledge is a part of the mental constitution, arising with a feeling of certainty in every sound mind. The convictions derived from this source seem to occupy the same place in the moral system that the intuitive articles of belief do in the intellectual. They do not admit of direct proofs by the process of reason- ing. Intuitive knowledge is in itself more simple than anything by which it could be proved. The intuitive convictions differ in different individ- uals, arising from the peculiarities of their own mental condition. When, therefore, we appeal to certain con- ditions in the mental constitution, our appeal is made to a mind which is neither obscured by depravity, nor bewildered by the refinements of a false philosophy. 20 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. These two elements must go together in every correct inquiry in moral science, and we would no more think of applying to a man in an opposite condition, in regard to the principles of moral truth, than we would to a maniac. By this intuitive knowledge, we have a per- ception of the nature and quality of actions, as just or unjust, right or wrong, and a conviction of duties which a man owes to other men. Every man, of course, ex- pects the same offices from others, and on this expecta- tion, is founded the precept, that we should do unto others as we would that they should do unto us. From this moral impression, there arises a conviction of the existence of a great moral Governor of the universe. A belief in this Being as the First Great Cause is de- rived by a simple step of reasoning, that every event must have an adequate cause. First Truths in the Science of Moral Phil- osophy. — We have several first truths in the science of the moral feelings. 1st. We have perceptions of the nature of actions, to show whether they are just or unjust, and a convic- tion of certain duties which every man owes to his fellow-men. 2d. When this is fully impressed upon the mind, there arises the conviction of the existence of a moral Governor of the universe. 3d. A sense of moral responsibility; and, 4th. A belief in our existence in a future life. There are certain truths laid down in the beginning ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 21 of every science, which are so plain that they do not admit of a proof ; for anything used to prove them would he harder to understand than the principles to be proved; hence, we call them intuitive principles, or first truths. Thus, in geometry, we have axioms; such as, ' ' Things which are equal to the same thing are equal to each other," etc. These first truths form the basis of the science. In moral philosophy, we also have first truths ; we know that to injure any one, or give him pain is wrong; this knowledge is not acquired, but intuitive. If we violate one of these principles, it is readily seen how easily we violate another ; we go on until we become wicked, and finally lost as a moral being. All the moral principles have some relations ex- isting among them. Again, by observing these princi- ples that we know are right, we are led on and on, until we become benevolent and useful to our fellow-men. Resemblance between First Truths, or In- tuitive Principles of Belief in Mental Philoso- phy and in Ethics.— In intellectual philosophy, we have certain principles, which are recognized by the common consent of mankind ; they are called First Truths. In moral philosophy, we also have first truths ; they correspond with those of the intellectual science. These truths, in both sciences, do not admit of being established by any process of reasoning ; attempts of this kind have been made, but more harm than good has resulted from such attempts. 22 ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. The only evidence we have of the existence of first truths, in both of these sciences, is an appeal to the consciousness of every sound, rational being. They correspond to each other, and the first thing that we do in an investigation is to look for these truths. A person may become immoral, and these first truths in intellectual philosophy will remain sound, but the truths of the other sciences may be injured by a wrong process of the mind. If the thoughts are unholy, they will have a vicious influence upon the character, and these truths may finally be forgotten ; at least, they will exert no influence. Classification of First Truths in Moral Science. — The first truths in moral science are classed : 1st. A perception of the nature and quality of actions, as just or unjust, right or wrong, and a conviction of certain duties, as of justice, and kindness, which every man owes to his fellow-men. 2d. From this primary moral impression, there arises a conviction of the exist- ence of a great moral Governor of the universe. Our sense of his moral attributes arises, with a feeling of equal certainty, when, from the moral impressions of our own minds, we infer the moral attributes of him who thus formed us. 3d. From these combined im- pressions, there naturally springs a sense of moral re- sponsibility, that for the just performance of the duties which are indicated by the conscience, man is responsi- ble to the Governor of the universe. 4th. From this ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 23 chain of moral convictions, it is impossible to separate a deep impression of continued existence. Perception of the Nature and Quality of Ac- tions. — A perception is noticed of the nature and qual- ity of actions, as just or unjust, right or wrong, and a conviction of certain duties; as, of justice, veracity, and benevolence, which every man owes to his fellow-men. Every man, in his own case, expects the same offices from others ; and on this feeling is founded the precept, which is felt to be one of universal obligation, to do to others as we would have others do to us. There are rules given us, and they are briefly stated here, in reference to the place which they hold as first truths. In applying to these important articles of belief the name of first truths, some persons ascribe to them the nature of innate ideas. It appears to be a point of the utmost practical importance, that we should consider them as arising out of principles which form a part of our moral con- stitution; and it is in this way only, that we can con- sider them as calculated to influence the mass of man- kind. But, notwithstanding all their truth and all their utility, it may be doubted whether they are to every one the foundation of his faith in another state of being. Certain fixed and defined principles of relative duty appear to be recognized by the consent of mankind, as an essential part of their moral constitution, by as abso- 24 ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. lute a conviction as that by which our bodily powers are recognized. Conviction of the Existence and Attributes of a Great First Cause. — There exists, most cer- tainly, in each human being, a conviction of certain duties ; as, benevolence, justice, etc., which are due him from his fellow-beings ; and in return, of course, he is expected by others to perform the same offices. From this first moral impression the very natural result is a conviction and belief in a great moral Governor. And the cause of our belief in this greater and purer Being, is clearly shown by mankind, and a survey of nature in its wonderful works. Our certainty of God's existence becomes stronger, as we view man's moral impressions, and then think of Him who created man. And when these thoughts are gathered together, they make us feel a moral responsibility ; that is, we believe that, according as man performs the many duties dictated by his moral conscience, he is responsible, and must answer to the Great Creator and Governor of the universe. In feeling thus, man must surely have sentiments also of awe and homage for this Great First Cause, very different from those which are due to his fellow- mortals. And at last, there is connected with these impressions, and inseparable from them, a belief in a state of happiness and moral reward beyond this present existence. ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 25 Conviction of Moral Responsibility. — There are certain first, moral principles, which arise in the mind of every man, on the slighest reflection ; one of these is, the conviction of moral responsibility ; that is, the conviction that, in the due performance of all our duties indicated by conscience, we are responsible to God ; and farther, that we owe to Him a certain homage dis- tinct from that which we owe our fellow-men. Impressions of Future Existence. — There are certain impressions, which show that we shall have a future existence. Some believe that when a man dies, he is no more ; that there is no future existence. Others, that there is a future state, where all our thinking faculties, our feelings, and our soul still live, and are not destroyed by death. The soul lives in this world, and in a world to come. Knowing this, we should be ready for the future. Consequence of These First Truths. — The im- portance of these convictions of the existence and at- tributes of a Great First Cause and Moral Governor, of moral responsibility, and of future existence, as intuitive articles of belief, is clearly seen. In our moral science, as well as in intellectual and other great sciences, there must be some established first truths, which admit of no argument, and afford no doubt. In moral philosophy, we have some important first truths, which, if we do not accept as such, all far- 2 26 ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. ther investigation relating to this science is fruitless. The Supreme Being has furnished us with a power, by which, from the perception of nature, we may judge of actions as right or wrong, just or unjust ; and from this, we are compelled to acknowledge a Great First Cause and Moral Governor as the author of our being. Man, going thus far in such a belief, must feel that he is responsible for his actions, when he knows that he has the power of distinguishing right from wrong. We must not deny a first truth, but accept it as a first truth. With these intuitive articles of belief, man is prepared to live, and to strive, in order to fit himself for a future and better state. Without these convic- tions, everything would be in a more corrupt condition than we now find it ; there would be no desire to do anything good ; for man is prone to evil. CHAPTER III. Moral Feelings — The Desires, the Affections, and Self-Love— The Human Will— Explication— Deliber- ation— Conscience— Man's Relation to God. Moral Feelings. — We have feelings which are intuitive, and others which come to ns through our five senses. Conscience, however, is the principal of the moral faculties, placed in us by Deity, to guide us in all of our actions ; and by it we are able to know right from wrong. Act as we may, conscience dictates to us what is just and what is unjust. Our desires are those feelings which prompt us to act for our own good and pleasure, without always caring about the feelings of others ; they are such as the desire for wealth, the desire for moral improve- ment, and so forth. The affections lead us to act for the pleasure and benefit of others, regardless of our own comfort; they are such as benevolence and justice. All of these are moral feelings, which are regulated by conscience ; that is, when it is allowed to rule. In many cases, however, the authority of conscience is disregarded. Let us now attempt to make an analysis of man as a 28 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. moral being. In this analysis, the first thing to be considered is the action of man ; for by this we judge his internal principles. But one action may proceed from several motives which are different in character. When we are capable of comprehending motives, we shall then be able to judge of man's moral character. The elements which constitute a sensible and respon- sible person are various ; we may study them one at a time, and then take them together,* remembering that while we are thus occupied, we are gaming a knowledge of ourselves. There is a certain condition of the mind, in regard to things to be obtained. This is called desire. But when it is relative to actions towards others, it is affec- tion. Then there is another condition, which is some- what connected with both of these, and this is self-love. It influences us to seek protection for ourselves, and to try to obtain every thing that will be to our advantage. This principle is sound and good in its place, but when allowed to overreach its boundary, and gain too much influence over us, it becomes selfishness. Then a man can entertain very little affection for his fellow-beings. But there is still another element of man's nature, and that is the moral principle, which is known as con- science; this often requires a sacrifice of self-love, and thus prevents it from exercising a bad influence over man's affections. Self-love, in moderation, is right ; but selfishness is wrong. Self-love makes us take proper care of ourselves, but it degenerates into selfishness when it becomes excessive. ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 29 The Desires, the Affections, and Self-Love. — When an object presents itself to our view, we may- have a desire to obtain it, and if we have reason to believe that it is within our reach, we experience hope; if we think we can obtain it, we then have faith; if we do obtain it, the result is joy; but if not, we suffer disappointment and sorrow. If we have an affection, we wish to be able to act in accordance with it. This is natural, and we suffer when our affections are not duly exercised. Seeing a prospect of satisfying an affection, we entertain hope. The reverse of this is despair. We have a desire for an object, and an affection for a person. Sometimes we desire power; this is the desire of ruling. Again, we have a desire for society, and this is one of the most common desires; as almost every person wishes for society, in every condition of life, and in all stages of civilization. One of the great- est of the desires is that of moral improvement. We desire to be better than we are. This leads to the high- est state of man, and it belongs to every state of society ; every person should have a desire to improve his moral habits. Now let us notice the affections. As the desires are calculated to bring some gratification to ourselves, the affections lead ns to our relations to other men, and to a certain line of conduct which arises out of these rela- tions. Our affections show themselves in a great many ways. Thus, for example, a mother proves her love for her child, when she watches day and night over its 30 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. sick-bed, and never stops to think about being tired, but continues showing her affection for her offspring. Self-love. There has been some dispute respecting the term self-love, both as to its general propriety and as to the mental feelings which ought to be referred to it. There can be no doubt, however, that every per- son has some self-love, and hence all study their own interest, gratification, and comfort. While some peo- ple have self-love in a low degree, many carry it to an excess, or do not keep it under control. The Human Will. — Simple volition, or the will, is that state of mind which immediately precedes ac- tion. If we will an act, the act follows, unless it is prevented by some restraint, or physical inability to perform the action. The will is regulated by fixed principles, and these principles are influenced by moral causes, as the affections and moral rectitude. The will is also influenced by attention, habit, knowledge, and reason. Divine aid is necessary to restore the will when it is impaired, and this is the province of faith. Explication. — Man has a will, and it occupies an important place among his faculties. The -will may be cultivated; that is, it may be turned away from things which are wrong, and directed towards those things which are right. The will is free, otherwise man would be little better than a machine. Now, since the will is free, man is responsible for his actions ; he is ELEMENTS 0E MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 31 able to subordinate his will to that of God, and to choose that which is true, beautiful, and good. Deliberation. — We sometimes deliberate in regard to an action, and nothing seems to prevent its perform- ance ; but when we take another thought, we reflect that if we do so, it will injure the good name that we haye secured, or the favorable impression which we have made; perhaps, it will not benefit us much, and it may assist our fellow-men to a great extent; selfish- ness would not see others gain so much at our expense, and it would suggest the non-performance of the action. But in this case, we must be guided, not by selfishness, but by the principles of moral rectitude. In other words, we must do what we know to be right. Conscience. — Conscience is our guide, and when we have no divine revelation to consult, it tells us the right way, and urges us to walk in it ; hence conscience is a faithful monitor. "There has been much dispute respecting the name, the nature, and even the existence of the moral principle, as a distinct element of our men- tal constitution ; but this controversy may probably be considered as allied to other speculations of a metaphy- sical nature, in regard to which a kind of evidence was sought of which the subjects are not susceptible. With- out arguing respecting the propriety of speaking of a separate power or principle, we simply contend for the fact, that there is a mental exercise, by which we feel certain actions to be right and certain others to be 32 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. wrong. It is an element or a movement of our moral nature which admits of no analysis and no explanation." We have a proof of the existence of conscience as a dis- tinct principle of the soul ; because conscience has an influence over every person. Conscience should not be degraded by any power. Man's Relation to God.— Undoubtedly man, as a moral being, is drawn into a close relation to his Maker, and he should follow the example that God has set for him as closely as possible. Besides, a person who is moral and obeys the divine law, recognizes his duty to improve his fellow-men by associating with them, and by setting a good example for them to follow. The moral relation of man to the Deity is intimate, and man's place in reference to his Creator should be, and is, his most important position. Hence, the first in- quiry is, what should be the condition of a man's heart, in order to fill this position with propriety ? 1st. He should cultivate a sense of the divine pres- ence, and regulate his conduct thereby. 2d. Humble submission to Providence, as regulated by a Being of infinite power and w T isdom. 3d. A sense of moral imperfection and guilt, with the humility and self-abasement which arise out of this feeling. 4th. A sense of gratitude and love towards the Deity, as the giver of all good, as our preserver and gracious benefactor. CHAPTER IV. The Desires — Animal Propensities — The Desire op Wealth — Ambition — Illustration — Emulation — The Desire of Society— Of Esteem — The Desire of Knowl- edge—Kinds of Knowledge — Moral Improvement — The Deslre of Action — Regulation of the Desires. The Desires. — We have a desire for any object when we wish to possess it, and think that the posses- sion of it will make us happy. There are a great many desires; among which are the desire for society, the desire of reputation, the desire of wealth, of power, of friends, and of various other things. But the desires should be kept under our control ; for when they are once allowed to have full sway, it will cause some trou- ble to restrain them. Two persons may have the same desire, but be prompted by entirely different motives. One person may have a desire for wealth ; because he thinks that he could aid the needy. The other person thinks that if he were wealthy, his friends would love him more than they do under the present circum- stances. We should exercise great care in directing our desires. They should tend towards something that will benefit some one. The objects of desire embrace all those attainments and gratifications which mankind 34 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. consider worthy of being sought after. The object pursued in each particular case is determined by the views, habits, and moral dispositions of the individual. In this manner, one person may regard an object as above every other worthy of being sought after, which to another appears insignificant and worthless. Remark. — A person sees an object, wants it, and thinks it worthy to be sought after. The principles which regulate diversities in the desires, and conse- quently form one of the great differences in human character, belong to another part of our inquiry. In forming a classification of the desires, we must be guided simply by the nature of the various objects which are desired. Those which may be specified as the most prevalent, and the most clearly to be distinguished as separate, may be referred to the following heads. Among the desires, we have noticed the desire for knowledge, for moral improvement, for superiority, for esteem and approbation, for wealth, for information, and for society. All of these desires can be carried too far ; as, for instance, a desire for wealth increases until a man loves gold and forgets his duties ; then he is called a miser. It is right to make money, if the pro- cess does not interfere with any higher duty ; but the desire of wealth, like any other desire, is hurtful when it is allowed to exercise an undue influence over the character. Desire may act differently upon different persons. For instance, one man will gratify a desire as soon as it makes appearance, regardless of conse- ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 35 quences; a second will hesitate, consider the circum- stances, and sometimes act one way, and sometimes another ; but a third person has such fixed moral prin- ciples in his character, that he will determine at once not to gratify an improper desire by any means. Thus we have three persons acting differently under the same desire. The man who can do what is right, against the force of an ardent desire, is a man of prin- ciple, and we can depend upon the rectitude of his conduct, even in cases where other men would falter or go astray. Desire of the Animal Propensities. — The ani- mal propensities are among the desires, and they lead to the gratification of the appetites ; we see this illus- trated in the case of the glutton and the drunkard. When the desire of the animal propensities is allowed to usurp undue influence, we have the lowest and most degraded character that can be conceived in the social world. The gratification of the animal propensities is commonly called the appetites. Appetites are implanted in us for important pur- poses. When the animal propensities are allowed to break through all restraints, the consequences to society are of the most hurtful nature. What accumulated guilt, degradation, and wretchedness follow the course of the libertine! Thus is constituted a class of evils, of which no human law can take any adequate cogni- zance, and which therefore raise our views, in a special and peculiar manner, to a Supreme Moral Governor. 36 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. Unrestrained animal propensities injure both the indi- vidual and society. Man is more than a mere animal, for he possesses reason. The animal is guided by impulse, but man is controlled by law. He who knows how to subdue his passions has learned an important lesson in morality. Such a man has risen to a higher level in the scale of humanity. He has conquered himself, and this is one of the greatest victories that lie can achieve. His pas- sions no longer master him, but he has overcome them, and uses them as his servants. A victory like this is worthy of a man's best endeavors. The Desire of Wealth is possessed by almost every one, and when it is properly used, it is an excel- lent thing; in the hands of a benevolent person it is of great use and importance, but when it is carried too far, it degenerates into a sin. A miser has any amount of money, yet he does no good with it ; he sees persons around him suffering for want of food, and still he does not relieve them ; he thinks of little but his money ; he neglects his duty to God, puts his whole power at work collecting money, and dies carrying nothing with him but sin, and leaving his money behind him. Other persons have wealth, live in luxury and ease ; they ' relieve all around them, thus making money of great use and pleasure to themselves and to suffering human- ity. Money is a good thing to possess, except when it takes our thoughts from every thing higher, and then we are led to neglect our duties to God and to man- ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 37 kind. Some persons stoop to sin, in order to obtain wealth; they will steal, and even commit murder to procure money. The Desire of Power. — Ambition, or the desire of power, is the love of ruling, or of giving law to a circle of men, whether more or less extensive. When it becomes the governing propensity, the strongest principles of human nature give way before it, even those of personal comfort and safety. Thus we read of conquerors, who brave every danger to attain power ; also of the statesman, who sacrifices health and peace. Then, there is the desire of exercising power over the minds of men ; of persuading a multitude, by arguments or eloquence, to deeds of usefulness ; of pleading the cause of the oppressed ; a power of influencing the opinions of others, and of guiding them into sound sentiments and virtuous conduct. This is a species of power, the most gratifying by far to an exalted and virtuous mind, and one calculated to carry benefits to others wherever it is exerted. The Desire of Superiority, or Emulation. — This is allied to the desire of power, except that it does not include any desire to rule, but it aims simply at the acquirement of pre-eminence. It is apt to lead to un- due means for the accomplishment of its object; and every real or imagined failure tends to excite envy. Hence, it requires the most careful regulation, and when much encouraged in the young, it is not free 38 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. from the danger of sinking into malignant passions. Emulation may be seen in the case of gentlemen who strive to excel in dress and the luxury of the table, so that they may surpass their associates in these particu- lars. The same principle, directed to more worthy objects, may influence him who seeks to be dis- tinguished in some high pursuit, intended to confer a lasting benefit upon his country. Illustration. — The desire of power is seen in a sol- dier, when he sacrifices his life, health, and every thing to win a name ; so ambitious, so anxious is he to be distinguished. Still, this desire, if not allowed to pass its bounds, does good. Many men strive for post- humous fame, in order to leave a great name in the world after they are dead. But when self-love or vanity is too great, the ambitious man neglects his real duty for some less worthy object. Emulation.— The desire of superiority, or emula- tion, has an extended influence, when once allowed to gain power over man; and it is not easily confined within the limits of principle. It will lead a man on until he will hesitate at nothing to accomplish his object ; and when he fails in this, he is almost sure to become envious, or his hatred will be aroused. There- fore this desire should be carefully guarded. It is well that we should possess some ambition. But this should not be too much encouraged in the young ; for, after a while, it may result in evil passions. ELEMEOTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. ' 39 The influence is measured according to the objects toward which the desire is directed. We see examples of it around us almost every day. A lady seeks to surpass her associates in the richness and elegance of her apparel, the profusion of her table, or the at- tractiveness of her house. Again it is seen in a man whose desire is to perform the most daring deeds, or to be the most fearless rider, and in a thousand other instances. But this same principle, when directed toward higher objects, may be useful and beneficial to him who pos- sesses it as well as to his associates. There is some reason to think, however, that the custom of giving prizes to children in school is attended with as much harm as good. Emulation is thus excited to such a pitch that the result is often anything but pleasing. Bad feelings are thus aroused among pupils, and the teacher learns too late that it would have been better if he had not excited so much emulation. The Desire of Society. — Necessary as this desire is for the exercise of all of the affections, it is found in the union of men in communities, and in social inter- course, in the ties of friendship, and in the union of the domestic circle. If a person is not permitted to associate with his fellow-men, he is almost certain to show a strong attachment for animals ; as if he could not live without some object on which to exercise the feelings which are given to every one, as a bond of union. 40 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. The Desire of Esteem, or Approbation.— Here is the love of haying a good name, and of being esteemed by everybody. One man has a desire, but he will not gratify it, for fear that a certain person, or perhaps the community, will not approve of his course, and that, if he gratifies his desire, he will be less highly regarded. Some people there are, who will do almost anything to gain the approbation of men. They are not always guided by their own conscience, or sense of what is right, but they do exactly so as to please other people, and to be praised by them. It is a good thing to be praised by those who are themselves praised, and the esteem of good people is worth striving for; and while we are seeking for the praise of men, it is proper to make this distinction. When we praise others, it should be done in moderation, if it is to be worth any- thing. The more our characters are improved, the more value will belong to the praise which we bestow. Remember that, in giving and receiving approbation. The Desire of Knowledge.— When an object possesses qualities which we think render it worthy of our possession, we feel a desire for it. So our conduct is often regulated by the desires and affections. Of the desires there may be many mentioned in moral philosophy, and these may, or may not, exert a good in II nonce, according to the manner in which they are governed. All of the desires are of a kind of selfish nature. The desire of knowledge includes the prin- ciple of curiosity, which is only another name for the ELEMENTS OE MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 41 spirit of inquiry. The tendency of this high principle must depend, as in the former cases, on its ^gulation, and the objects to which it is directed. The desire of knowledge may be considered among the more elevated desires ; but this, too, when it is the predominating power, may become selfish. But when this desire keeps a fair means of obtaining its ends, and when obtained, is not selfishly used, it may be considered as one of the most influential powers. It is interesting to watch the desire of knowledge manifesting itself in children. The objects of this desire may vary from the idle tattle of the day to the highest attainments in literature. i Kinds of Knowledge. — There are two kinds of knowledge ; as, intuitive and acquired. The intuitive principles, or first truths, are those which we know from the first; they were made with the soul, and are the foundation of ethics, or moral philosophy. Ac- quired knowledge is gained by experience. We know that we exist, and this is intuitive knowledge. On the other hand, we can easily tell, for instance, what harm gambling does, by looking at the many men who have gone to ruin from year to year by indulging in such practices. This, however, is acquired information. The Desire of Moral Improvement is less likely to distort our feelings than any of the desires ; but even this may be carried to such an extent that the person who thus exercises this desire sacrifices not 42 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. only his own pleasure with that of others, but he may also unconsciously injure men in order to do this ; so intent is he upon one object, that he neglects other important ones. Still the desire of moral improvement leads to the highest state of man, and it bears this pecu- liar character, that it is adapted to men in every scale of society, and teuds to diffuse a beneficial influence around the circle with which the individual is con- nected. The Desire of Action. — A principle this is which ought to be mentioned as a leading peculiarity of hu- man nature, though it may be difficult to determine the class to which it belongs. A person who is accustomed to work becomes weary, and then he desires rest ; but when he has accomplished his desire, and has nothing to do, he finds himself dissatisfied and wretched. Tri- fling engagements of the unoccupied are referable to the same principle ; they arise simply from a desire of mental excitement, the bliss of having something to 'do, rather than from any interest which occupations of that kind really possess. Rest with its true pleasure is known best by those who must work regularly at their employments. Con- tinued rest soon becomes tiresome, and on this account we may assert that the greatest degree of real happi- ness and enjoyment belongs to the middle classes of people, who have, besides the pleasures of life, an im- portant and useful occupation, nnd not to the men of idleness, or to the unemployed votaries of fashion. ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 43 There is scarcely anything of more importance, in the external circumstances of individuals, than the promotion of their happiness, which is due to an interesting occupation. Regulation of the Desires. — We should keep our desires under control, and be careful not to have too many unnecessary wants ; for, if we can not get them supplied, it will make us unhappy. We should not waste our time upon useless desires, as it will make us cold and selfish. A desire for wealth is allowable, but we must not suffer it to interfere with our duties; if we are avaricious, it makes us love the bright glim- mer of gold so much that we forget our duty to God, and to our fellow-men. CHAPTER V. The Affections — Justice, Integrity — Freedom of Action —Justice to Reputation — Duty to our Neighbor — Conduct and Character— Candor — Justice to the Feelings— The Golden Rule— Moral Condition. The Affections. — As the desires are intended to bring some gratification to ourselves, the affections lead us to our relations to men, and to a certain line of conduct which proceeds from these relations. Thus avarice, or ambition, or the desire of knowledge, and all of the other desires, have for their object the pro- curing of some gratification for ourselves ; it is the pleasure of the possession of the money, or the power, or the knowledge, upon which the mind rests. But the feeling of justice, benevolence, parental affection, and the others here brought to view, are of a different na- ture. They are not desires seeking gratifications for ourselves, but feelings of duty to be performed towards others. An affection is a feeling of justice and benevo- lence. Emulation is a desire ; it seeks a gratification for itself. Patriotism and regard for truth belong to the affections. They arise out of our relations to others, and urge us to certain duties towards them. Our affec- tions gain strength, the longer they are exercised. The ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 45 mother loves her infant; but the older it grows, the more her love for the child increases. An affection tends to guard us against certain conduct of men. We say that we have an affection and love for living per- sons, and a desire for inanimate objects. The affections are to be viewed as original principles of our nature, planted within us for wise purposes. Their action is distinct from that of conscience and of reason. Justice to the Interests of Others is Integrity. —Justice is at all times due to the person and property of others. This constitutes honesty or integrity. The great rule for guidance in this branch of science is found in the principles of moral rectitude. The test is, that our conduct to others should be the same as that which we should like to receive from them, were our interests concerned. In other words, we must obey the golden rule, and act towards others as we would have them act towards us. This secures peace and happiness. Justice to the Freedom of Action of Others. — Some writers class justice with the affections; and it seems to be more nearly allied to them than to any of the moral emotions. Justice is a primary and essen- tial part of our moral constitution ; and hence, in youth, we should be taught to act justly towards every one, and continue it all through life. Justice embraces certain facts, in which every person has an absolute right; and here no man has a right to interfere with him. These rights have been divided into three classes; 46 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. namely, First, what I possess, no man has a right to take from me. Second, what I have a right to do, no man must prevent it. And, third, what I expect from other persons, it is their duty to perform. Justice is due to the person, property, and interest of all men. To be just constitutes honesty and integrity. Of course, it implies abstaining from every dishonest or injurious violation of men's rights. Justice admonishes us not to interfere with the freedom of action claimed by persons. This constitutes personal liberty, which is of priceless value to its possessor. Justice to the Reputation of Others. — In rep- resenting every thing in its true light, this consists. We should correct a false report that is being cir- culated, whether it concerns our friends or enemies, and use every effort to prevent its further circulation. A person may become involved in great difficulty, by attempting to show justice to one who has been placed in a false position; for by showing justice to one per- son, he may involve another in trouble. Great care should be exercised in collecting the truths together, so that every thing may be represented as it is, and then, if one is compelled to make his decision, let it be in favor of the person who has been misrepresented. By all means, let the decision be just. If all persons would only be careful as to what they say of others, there would be a great harmony in the world; and we should always remember that other persons may value their reputation as much as we do ours. When we are ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 47 compelled to tell any thing which we do not like to repeat, we should weigh every word, and think what impression it will convey, before we utter it, and then there is little danger in being embarrassed, if we are cross-questioned. Nor shall we be sorry for the words that we have spoken. Without a doubt, justice is due to the reputation of others. We should do nothing that would injure the good name of any man. The best of us may have a dislike for a person, although he has never done any thing that would injure us, and we may hear things said about him that would damage his reputation ; but it is our duty, in such a case, to correct the report, if we know that it is false. Duty to our Neighbor. — Our duty towards our neighbor admonishes us not to do him any injustice, nor must we wrong him in any way. We must not make unpleasant remarks about him, thus injuring him in the opinion of men. This is negative ; but we have a positive duty towards our neighbor, which bids us to love him, and to aid him whenever it is in our power to give him assistance. This reflection, when carried to its full extent, admitting the fatherhood of God, recognizes the universal brotherhood of men. Justice in Estimating the Conduct and Character of Others. — To succeed in this, requires that we should carefully consider the motives that caused a person to act in a certain manner. We should 48 ELEMENTS OF MOJtAL PHILOSOPHY. not hastily judge of the character of a person from one action ; for this act may be contrary to his usual con- duct. When an action is referable to several motives, we must always attribute it to the most favorable one. It may happen that one has performed a deed against us; in trying to assign the action to the most favorable motive, there will be a violent conflict with self-love. We should then put ourselves in his place, and see if we should not have acted in the very same manner, under like circumstances. We shall generally find that we were at first too severe in our judgment. It is easier and better to forgive than to resent an injury, while it tends to cultivate the amiable qualities of goodness, mercy, and gentleness of disposition ; seeds which are sown on earth, but destined to flourish in Paradise. Candor; or, Justice to the Opinions of Others. — We should be just in all of our undertak- ings, whatever may be the consequences. When a person expresses an opinion, we should not be influ- enced by dislike, so as not to be just in regard to its correctness, neither should we be blinded by affec- tion, to think that the opinions of a person are right. It is our duty not to regard our love or dislike, in de- ciding whether a mnn is right or wrong, but we must be just. Candor is a quality which few possess in the highest degree. People are too much afraid of not being esteemed, and this restrains them from expressing their opinions freely. However, if a person entertains ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 49 an erroneous notion, we should correct it; and in the same manner we should be just in our estimation of individuals, all along striving to guard ourselves against the bad influences of prejudice. We may not expect to acquire moral perfection all at once, but we are to improve little by little. Justice to the Feelings of Others. — Justice is due to the feelings of others, and this applies in many instances which do not affect either their character or their reputation. We may be unconscious of it, but at the same time wound men's feelings by our behavior before them. There are some persons who are exceed- ingly sensitive; towards these one strives to make himself as agreeable as possible, when he is in their presence. We may find persons who would not injure any one's feelings intentionally, but would still neglect paying the proper attention to things of this kind. And some men even bestow real benefits in such a manner as to wound the feeling of him upon whom the kindness is bestowed. But the higher orders or degrees of misconduct, without any intended injury, may inflict permauent pain. Justice is opposed to flattery on the one hand, and on the other, to any unnecessary depreciation of character. The interests of others should not be in- jured. There is also a still higher class of injuries which the conscientious man will avoid; namely, in- juries done to the moral principle. Towards minds of an extreme delicacy, a person of correct feeling strives 3 50 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. to conduct himself with suitable tenderness. We may find, however, persons of honest and upright minds, who would shrink from the least approach to real in- jury, but yet neglect the necessary attention to the feelings. The lower degrees of this principle belong to what is called mere good training, which has been denned as benevolence in trifles; but the higher de- grees may restrain from conduct which, without any real injury, inflicts permanent distress. The Golden Rule. — A great principle of justice is embraced in the golden rule. We should not be regardless of each other's feelings. Some of our friends, perhaps, are sensitive, and w r hat we could say to one with impunity would wound the feelings of others. If we put ourselves in their places, w T e see precisely how we should wish them to treat us, and there will be no reason to complain ; for surely we do not wish our friends to treat us indifferently, or slight us in the least ; and if they act well towards us, w T e ought to do the same for them. Justice to the Moral Condition of Others.— To the moral feelings of others, justice is due; and this may be applied to many circumstances. Without injuring people in their interest or their reputation, or even in our own opinion, we may behave to them in Buch a manner as to give them offence. However, we may find persons of honest and well-disposed minds, who neglect the necessary attention to the feelings. ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 51 To this head we may, perhaps, refer a due regard to the estimate which we lead a man to form of himself. This is opposed to flattery on the one hand, and on the other, to any unnecessary depreciation of his character. Flattery, indeed, is to be considered as a violation of that part of the truth which is known as veracity. A good definition of veracity is, that it consists in telling the truth. Injuries done to the moral principles of men, form a class of offences of which no human law takes any adequate cognizance; but we know that such injuries are wicked in their character and in their consequences. CHAPTER VI. Compassion and Benevolence — Benevolence to Dis- tresses — To Reputation — To Character and Con- duct — To Feelings— Caution — Improving Moral Con- dition—Definition. The Cultivation of the Feelings of Compas- sion and Benevolence is calculated to promote two objects: the alleviation of distress in others, and the promotion in ourselves of a mental condition adapted to a state of moral discipline. Benevolence is wishing well to everybody, and beneficence is doing well to mankind. But if we really and truly wish well to our fellow-mortals, good conduct towards them is almost sure to be the result. Our benevolence is more certain of success, if its object is to relieve human suffering rather than to promote happiness directly. By bring- ing us continually in contact with the suffering and want of others, compassion and benevolence have a tendency to withdraw us from the power of self-love ; they enable us to benefit others, but they also benefit ourselves. Compassion and benevolent exertion are due towards alleviating the distresses of others, towards their reputation, towards their character and conduct, and towards their feelings; they are also exercised ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 53 towards overcoming the moral degradation of others, including their ignorance and vice. The philanthropist is a lover of men, and in his conduct, benevolence and compassion are exemplified. He seeks for the suffering, and uses his best efforts to bring them certain and speedy assistance. Compassion and benevolence can be cultivated and improved in our own characters, so that, instead of giving us trouble, they will become easy by repetition, blessing us with a high degree of moral satisfaction and enjoyment. Benevolence towards the Distresses of Others. — Kindness, benevolence, and gentleness should mark our conduct towards every one, for by this way we increase the fund of human happiness and gain many friends. Benevolence is to be exercised towards others ; this consists not only in avoiding all injustice to their characters, but in protecting them against injuries, to check the course of slander, and to subdue the bad effects of those things which would make angry feelings among friends. Politeness, be- nevolence, morality, and religion teach us to cultivate good-will towards men. Benevolence seeks to extend the light of divine truth to nations that sit in moral darkness, and looks anxiously for the period of time when the knowledge of Christianity shall dispel every false faith, and put an end to the horrors of supersti- tion. We should keep in mind that we must sometimes deprive ourselves of comforts for the benefit of others. 54 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. Giving aid by money, with those who have the means, is one of the easiest forms in which benevolence can be granted. By personal exertion and by individual kindness, the same affection may be exercised in a degree much higher in itself, and often this personal aid is more useful than money to the afflicted. Full details of this subject would lead us into a field of inquiry which is too extensive for our present purpose. Benevolence towards the Reputation of Others. — Towards the reputation of others benevo- lence is to be exercised. This consists, not only in avoiding any injury to their characters, but in exer- tions to protect them from hurtful things, to correct misrepresentations, to check the course of slander, and to obviate the attempts of those who would poison the confidence of friends, or disturb the harmony of society. Benevolence is a disposition to do good to every one. If we are always kind to men, and do or say nothing that we think will be unpleasant to them, we shall act benevolently. If we can not say anything that will raise their reputation, we need not say anything at all. We should avoid those who slander or otherwise disturb the peace of society. A short slander reaches farther than a long apology does. One of the affections, as it is, benevolence is of a most exalted character. When brought to bear upon the reputation, it tries to preserve a man's good name, but ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 55 not by any false intimation, or anything of that kind. A benevolent man will regret to know that any human being has suffered an injury in his reputation. It is the part of benevolence to protect mankind against all such misfortunes. It corrects erroneous statements, and guards human character as a jewel which is far more precious than diamonds and rubies. If you hear that a worthy character has a lauded reputation, by no means injure it; on the contrary, if you know of a single good quality belonging to him, let him have the benefit of it, but do not assist about making a report, unless you have the necessary information. It is a good thing to wish well to everybody, so that both our words and actions may be characterized by genuine and true benevolence. Benevolence towards the Character and Conduct. — Including forgiveness of injuries, this con- sists in guarding ourselves against injuring the charac- ter of others. Character is what a man really is, while reputation is only what the world says about him. We* must not damage a person's character by speaking, or by insinuation, particularly if he has in any way of- fended us. Even if we hear any one abusing his char- acter, we are not to stand and listen to it in silence. If this person happens to be a very clear friend, of course the hearer will not listen to anything that might hurt his character. If it does require courage, then, speak even in behalf of an enemy ; and though this course may not be praised by our friends, it is 56 ELEMENTS OE MORAL PHILOSOPHY. more in the sight of God than simply taking the part of a friend. Forgiveness of injuries is appropriately placed here ; for if we are careful to avoid injuring another's charac- ter, we shall soon be prepared to forgive the injuries that he may have inflicted. Benevolence towards the Feelings of Others. — Good-will towards the feelings of men is benevolence ; it includes those kindly affections which produce such a powerful influence in all the relations of life, but which it is hard for us to* delineate. Benevolence seems particularly to belong to our association with inferiors a*nd dependents. It may often relate to trifles, but it includes many circumstances in which we may surrender our own feelings to those of others. Many persons, who are benevolent in numerous respects, are apt to forget that a highly important feature of benevo- lence consists in the cultivation of gentleness, courtesy, and kindness. An important feature of veracity is correctness in ascertaining facts. This is essential to the love of truth. In the reception of truth, especially on the evi- dence of testimony, we acquire by degrees an experi- ence of caution, arising from having been deceived sometimes. The want of necessary caution leads to credulity; but it is the part of a well-regulated mind to avoid this extreme. In other minds, this may pro- due,' a kind of uncertainty with regard to all evidence; that is, it may produce scepticism, which is the other extreme, and should also be avoided. ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 57 Caution. — We should be very careful not to wound the feelings of any person. Eemember that, to some people, we can say a great deal, and they will not object to it, while, if we were to say half as much to others, they will be deeply wounded. We should not only be particular in this respect, but we should discourage others from saying objectionable things; and when such remarks have been made, it is our duty to prevent their bad effects, so far as it may be in our power to make the reparation. Benevolence towards Improving the Moral Condition of Others. — There are different ways of improving the condition of a man. We may do this in a kind, friendly way; if we are wealthy, our gifts should be tendered in a gentle way, with loving gen- erosity. Some givers are benevolent just for approba- tion ; they wish the public to know of their gifts; they bestow them in such a condescending manner that the receiver is made to feel badly ; while others have good intentions, but do not know how to act in a becoming spirit. Definition. — Affections are feelings towards a per- son or persons; as, love, friendship, gratitude, and the domestic affections. In morals it is advisable that we should know what a duty is itself, and not content our- selves by explaining a term by a mere word or set of words. The best way to understand the true meaning of benevolence and compassion is to study them in the 58 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. conduct of our associates, and to practise them our- selves as important means of improving our moral characters. Unquestionably there are different kinds of affec- tions; as, the parental, the filial, the conjugal, the human affections, the kind regard which we entertain for our fellow-men, together with our love for God. Benevolence is to be exercised in regard to the moral degradation of fallen humanity, including men's igno- rance and vice. This prevents us from deriving satis- faction from moral evil, even though it should contribute to our advantage. It aims at raising man's moral condition. CHAPTEE VII. Veracity — Love of Truth — Ascertaining Facts — De- livered Statements — Observations — Truth of Pur- pose. Although we have spoken about veracity, we re- turn to it now for the purpose of examining it more particularly. Its place in moral philosophy is too im- portant for it to be neglected, and we should spare no pains to make it a practical feature in our moral char- acter. All men have a natural tendency to speak the truth, unless this principle is overcome by some strong, sel- fish motive. We are inclined to depend upon the veracity of others, until, by experience, we grow cau- tious. This is the reason why children and inexperi- enced persons are credulous and easily imposed upon by unfounded statements. Upon this confidence in the truthfulness of mankind, is founded a large portion of the knowledge on which we rely; such as that which we receive through the historian, the traveller, and the naturalist. Credulity believes too much, while scep- ticism believes too little; and these are the two ex- tremes, which we must learn to avoid with all of the patient attention which we are able to command. 60 ELEMEifTS OE MORAL PHILOSOPHY. Some of the principal elements which are essential to veracity are: first, correctness in obtaining facts; second, accuracy in relating them ; and third, fidelity in keeping promises. The correctness in learning facts is necessary to the love of truth. It requires us to be very careful respecting all statements which we accept as true, and not to accept anything as the truth, until we are sure that the authority is good, and that the statement contains all the facts to which our attention ought to be directed. Closely connected with the love of truth in receiving, is the exercise of veracity in the statement of facts, whether derived from our own observation, or accepted by testimony from others. We should be careful in relating anything, and should state it just as it is, in such a manner as to make a correct impression upon the hearer. To veracity, under this head, we also refer the rule of giving to others an honest and fair impres- sion of our views, motives, and intentions. This is sincerity. We now come to the third element of veracity, which is truth of purpose, or fidelity in keeping promises. This is opposed to any actual departure from what was really promised, or to avoiding the performance of a stated or implied engagement, on any other ground than inability to perform it. By this integrity of pur- pose, an individual gives a clear impression of what he honestly intends to perform, and does it, no matter what may have happened to make fulfilment dis- agreeable or injurious to himself. Still, the person to ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 61 whom one makes a promise, may release him from its performance. The Love of Truth in the Reception of it. — We are to exercise much care respecting every state- ment which we receive as true, and are not to receive an assertion until we are thoroughly satisfied that the authority is of a nature upon which we can fully rely. The sound exercise of judgment, which is connected with this love of truth, differs, therefore, from the art of ingenious disputation, and is often found directly at variance with it. The love of truth, however, is of equal importance in the reception of facts, and in the formation of opinions. The practice of this sincere and candid search after truth, on every subject to which the mind may be directed, ought to be cultivated in early life with great care. It is a habit of the mind, which must exercise a most important influence in the formation of both moral and intellectual character. In the reception of truth, especially on the evidence of testimony, we ac- quire by experience a degree of caution. Some minds lack this, while others have too much caution. Ascertaining Facts. — One important element of veracity is correctness in ascertaining facts. This is essential to the love of truth. It requires us to exercise discretion in regard to every statement which we receive as true, and not to accept it as such, until we are assured that it is worthy of belief, and that the state- C2 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. ment contains all of the facts to which our attention ought to be directed. In science we may suppose that the wonderful statements have been advanced without attention to this direction ; and yet, if we examine the matter, we shall find that many of the admissions, which appear so strange to us, were not received until they were proved by scientists in different ages, and in countries which are remote from each other. This procedure guards us against those limited views, by which party spirit, or a love of favorite dogmas, leads a man to receive the facts which favor a particular opin- ion, and neglect those which are opposed to it. The practice of a sincere and candid search after truth, on every subject to which the mind may be directed, ought to be cultivated in early life, with the most assiduous attention. Veracity in Delivering Statements. — Asso- ciated with the love of truth in receiving facts, is the exercise of veracity in the statement of them, whether derived from our personal observation, or received by testimony from others. This includes sincerity. It consists not only in the most scrupulous accuracy of relation, but in giving it in such a manner as to convey a correct impression to the hearer. Veracity is opposed to that method which tries merely to assume the appear- ance of truth. Facts may be associated together in such a manner as to give the appearance of cause and effect, when they are in truth entirely unconnected; or an event may be ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 63 represented as usual, which has occurred only in one or two instances. The common saying, that there are two ways of telling a story, does not directly refer to what is called fabrication, or falsehood, but to those distortions of circumstances which, however slight, have the effect of changing the impression made by the whole statement. Sincerity is opposed to flattery, which tends to give a man a false impression of our opinion and feeling toward him, and leads him to a false estimate of his own character. Another element of veracity is truth of purpose, or fidelity in the fulfilment of promises. This is opposed to a departure from what was promised; likewise, to exciting a hope, or conveying an impression which one does not mean to fulfil. When a man promises a thing, he ought to keep his promise, though he may find it disagreeable or injurious to himself. "He sweareth to his own hurt," says a sacred writer, " and changeth not." Fallacy does not always consist in stating the facts erroneously. Sometimes the facts, though truly given, leave a false impression. We should guard against this ; because it is equivalent to a direct false statement in its effect. And we should not infer that because a cer- tain thing happened once or twice it must always be so. We should state facts as they are : one change may cause a wrong impression. Closely allied to this is sin- cerity. It is directly opposed to hypocrisy ; for it does not feel one thing and say another. Its sentiments are always stated just as they come from the heart. 64 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. Observations. — When we have told the truth about anything, we experience satisfaction and enjoy- ment, although we may be punished for it, instead of gaining a reward from our fellow-men; for the y look on the outward part, but God looks upon the heart, the soul, while he sees what our motives are, and what prompts us to action. Therefore, let us always speak the truth; it is mighty, and shall prevail. Veracity is truthfulness, and leads to fidelity in the fulfilment of a promise. It is the duty of every one to tell the truth, as far as it is in his power to do so. When we have been deceived by a person, we are disposed never to believe a statement of his without the testimony of some one else, in whose veracity we confide. Some- times we may promise a thing which it is unpleasant to fulfil, but duty admonishes us to keep our promises. Truth of Purpose. — Faithfulness, or truth of purpose, in the fulfilment of promises, is an element of veracity ; it is opposed to all those deceits by which one may convey a false impression. By a straight- forward, honest, and upright purpose, one gives a clear impression of what he really intends to perform. Every person should be careful about making promises ; and no one should make a promise, unless he knows that he is able to fulfil it. Then, if he promises and fails fco do as he said he would, he must have a good reason for such conduct. Promises are easily made, and they arc as easily broken, but they are not so easily forgotten by those persons who have thus been disappointed. CHAPTEE VIII. Friendship and Kindred Affections — Friendship, Love, and Gratitude — Love of Country — Domestic Affec- tions—The Defensive Affections — Exercise of the Affections— Observations — Moral Approbation — Hap- piness — Downward Progress — Temper — Self-Love — Sense in which Self-Love is Used — Self-Love Com- pared with Selfishness— Remarks — Tendency of Self- Love — Selfishness — Disinterested Conduct — Observa- tions. Friendship and Kindred Affections. — Friend- ship, love, and gratitude, as affections, are nearly con- nected. They consist in a personal attachment to an individual, or to individuals. We exercise these affec- tions in a manner to promote the interest and comfort of the object of our regard ; to preserve and advance his reputation ; his feelings we treat with great tender- ness. "We endeavor to improve his intellectual and moral condition. Improvement of moral condition is the highest office of friendship. Gratitude is a feeling of thankfulness towards a benefactor for some deed of his kindness. Gratitude, the affections, and self-love are all closely and inti- mately related to each other; they show themselves in a peculiar love for a person or for persons. 66 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. Love of Country. — Patriotism is the love of coun- try ; it can not be considered as a distinct affection, but as a result of other affections. It requires that we should respect the institutions of our country, willingly submit to the laws, and defend our laud in all attacks made upon its liberty. Patriotism also requires that we cultivate this love of country in others, and try to improve the moral as well as the mental condition of our fellow-citizens. This last is the highest office of patriotism. The love of one's country is a very laudable affection. It is a wish to promote the interest of the government in every possible way, influenced by no other motive than a pure love of country. Care should be taken that the affections, particularly the defensive affections of anger, jealousy, and resent- ment, do not exert an undue influence upon our con- duct. They are good enough in their places, but the trouble is, that when they are aroused we are not able to restore them to perfect tranquillity. The Domestic Affections. — In this class are in- cluded the conjugal affections, parental feeling, with the ties of brothers and sisters. These affections and feelings call forth a high degree of exertion, to perform the duties required by them. In the conjugal relation, the affections lead persons to the tenderness, the con- fidence, the united sympathy of those who have one hope, one course of duty, and one interest. The pa- rental affections require the highest possible degree of ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 67 that feeling which studies the advantage and the wel- fare of the object of a parent's care. The father studies the advancement of his child's happiness, the improve- ment of his min 1, together with the formation of his character and habits, both as a rational and as a moral being. It is very beautiful to observe how these domestic affections arise out of each other, and how the right exercise of them tends to their mutual development. The father should consider his son as his special care ; he should watch over the strengthening of his character, and the cultivation of his moral feelings. He should see that his son has suitable company ; and, as far as possible, has good influences over him, by never doing anything in his presence which it would injure the the child to imitate. The Defensive Affections are the feelings of jealousy, anger, and resentment; these are, not less than the other affections, to be considered as a part of our moral nature. They are calculated to perform a very important duty, provided they are kept under the con- trol of reason and of the moral principle, or conscience. By the exercise of our feelings of justice and benevo- lence, we sympathize with the injured and oppressed, and try to defeat the schemes of their enemies. But a still higher object can be accomplished by these feel- ings; that is, to seek the offender, and try to convert enemies into friends. These feelings are often improp- erly used, and that is the case when they are allowed V 68 ELEMENTS OF MOBAL PHILOSOPHY. to be roused by trivial causes. When our feelings are excited to a higher pitch than the injury calls for, or when we harbor our revenge long after we should have forgotten and forgiven the affront, and when resent- ments lead in any measure to retaliation or undue revenge, they are wrong. Yet the sound exercise of the defensive affections is frequently necessary. Their proper object is primarily a sense of blamable conduct in others, and they lead us to use proper measures for protecting ourselves. Defensive affections can do both good and evil. We may do wrong, and cause the anger of our parents or friends ; and to think of losing friends, perchance by our own carelessness, may bring us to a heartfelt repent- ance. What a happy man must he be, who puts the best construction upon everything! who does not take offence at trifles ; does not study, as some do, irritating speeches to rouse the anger of a person who has done him no harm ! Those who are the most ready to take offence, are the persons who are not always prepared to forgive. Important Influence Produced upon the Ex- ercise of the Affections. — The influence produced upon the affections by attention and by habit is very strong, or important, and it consists in directing the mind intensely to all the considerations which ought to guide us, in the case to which the affection refers. It leads us to imagine ourselves in other peoples' places, and it teaches us to do unto them as we would have ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 69 them act in regard to us. We then not only enter into their feelings and try to relieve the distress of those with whom we are brought in contact, but we are in- clined to seek out persons who are in trouble, and try to console them : this is called sympathy. By steadily directing the attention to sympathy, we, in a great measure, overcome our selfishness. The influence produced upon the affections by habit is great. A distinguished philosopher says: "The tendency of all emotions is to become weaker by repetition, or to be less acutely felt, the oftener they are experienced." When the emotion of pity for human distress is aroused, it ought to accomplish its proper object, before it sinks into barren coldness and indifference to suffering. Observations. — Parental love is very strong. We see it illustrated wiien a mother sits up night after night with her sick child, regardless of her own health. She does not act thus because she is afraid that she will be considered heartless, and be censured by her neigh- bors if she does not do so, nor because she thinks that it is her duty ; but because of her great love for the child. The filial affection is also remarkable. A loving child will do almost anything for his parents. Obedi- ence is the first care with him, and it is his chief duty. In order that moral causes may be uniform, persons should have sound minds and be civilized. We hardly ex- pect a savage to experience the same effects from moral causes that a civilized person does. The barbarian knows little of the divine Governor of the universe, 70 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. and even this little is imperfect; he has not been taught to read the Scriptures. Neither do we expect to find an idiot expounding the Word of God; the idiot cannot understand it, as his mind is impaired, or entirely destroyed; he knows nothing of God, or the hereafter. We do hope to find persons with good minds and highly educated, influenced by moral causes. But there are many things which call the mind from God, and we find some of the highly-educated persons among skeptics; but there is something seriously wrong about the person, if he does not believe in the Supreme Being, and in a future state of rewards and punishments, or retribution. Man is a fallen creature. God made him perfect at first ; — perfect, he made man like himself ; — but now, man is weak, erring, and sinful. A change has come over man, by which the harmony of his physical, men- tal, and moral powers is impaired. God gave to man perfect qualities, divine and pure ; but now we see man plunged into every species of sin and misery. Man was made upright, but how has he fallen from his pure estate ! Still a free agent, man can be good, but not perfect in his present state of discipline. God has given us many blessings, and he has placed among our faculties conscience, as a guiding principle; but few men always go according to the dictates of their con- sciences, hence we see moral degradation. The Feeling of Moral Approbation.— Attached to the exercise of the affections, is this feeling of moral ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 71 approbation, it is a part of our moral constitution, in- tended to bind men together by certain offices of jus- tice, friendship, compassion, and conscience, which last has been well termed "the voice of God within us." Moral approbation is an impression of merit, which is frequently attached to the exercise of our affections. When a man, without any regard for his own comfort, devotes himself to accomplishing a natural impulse, we may, or may not, give to his conduct the feeling of moral approbation. He acts merely from an inward movement, which he perceives to be a part of his con- stitution, and he, perhaps, does not think that he de- serves any special praise for doing his duty. This principle applies to all of the affections in a certain degree. Youth is the time when the affections are to be trained in the proper manner, so that children may learn, in early life, to act well their parts, and thus receive the moral approbation of God, their fellow-men, and their own consciences. Happiness Arising from a Due Exercise of the Affections. — When we exercise the affections, we not only have the satisfaction of knowing that we have done our duty, but we feel that we have relieved others of their distress, and have thus made them happy. This is also obeying God, and the golden rule. If we entertain good affections, and use them properly, we shall feel contented and happy. True happiness is to be obtained, not so much by confining our attention 72 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. to our own welfare exclusively, but by relieving the sufferings and promoting the interests of those by whom we are surrounded. Remember, however, that it is harder to promote happiness directly, than it is to accomplish the same object by relieving distress. Children should be shown instances of human want, and be allowed to help the afflicted. They should be told what one ought to do under such circumstances. When grown, a person thus taught will not forget the lesson, and whenever brought into contact with such cases of misery, he will not withstand the emotions which prompt him to lend a helping hand and a pitying heart. Downward Progress. — The first time that a man does anything wrong, he is astonished at himself; but he seems to think that he can not improve, and he goes from bad to worse, until there is little hope for him, or for his reformation. After a while, it becomes as easy for him to do a wrong as a right action. But if he had resolved, after the first offence, not to do anything else that was wrong, he could have stopped his bad career, and he would have been pardoned. The Influence of Temper.— When we view any subject for its truth, or real meaning, our whole mind must be in a placid condition. Imagine our feeling of sorrow, when wo look upon a person who has none of the benevolent or uniting affections, but who is over- ruled by anger, jealousy, and resentment. On the con- ELEMENTS OE MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 73 trary, what a constant source of pure enjoyment is a meek and quiet spirit ! the desires of which are moder- ate and under due regulation, which puts upon every- thing the best construction of which it will admit, is slow to take offence, seeks no distinction, but views itself with humility, and others with candor, benevo- lence, and indulgence. Such a disposition makes the man happy in himself, and a source of happiness and peace to all around him. He loves others, and is him- self loved in return. His is an amiable disposition. Self-Love. — In one sense, self-love is important, if we do not let it run into selfishness. It is desirable that we should be good to ourselves, and steadily advance towards perfection. The Sense in Which Self-Love Is Employed. — We use the term self-love to express the good and proper regard a person has for himself, which provides for his health, comfort, and improvement. Like the other mental feelings, self-love is to be considered as a part of our moral constitution, and intended to answer important purposes, provided it is kept in its proper place, and does not encroach upon the duties and affec- tions which we owe to society. A sound self-love ought to lead us to seek our own true happiness, and should prove a check upon those appetites and passions which interfere with this; for many of them, it must be allow T ed, may be not less adverse to our own real interest and comfort, than they 4 74 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. are to our duty to other men. We should not only avoid everything that is opposed to our own interest, but also that which will disturb our peace of mind. Self-love, viewed in this manner, appears to be placed as a regulating principle among the other powers, much inferior to the great principle of conscience, so far as regards the moral condition of the individual, but de- signed to answer important purposes in promoting the harmony of society. We may consider among these purposes the pleasure belonging to the exercise of our affections themselves, a feature of our moral constitution. There is also a feeling of dissatisfaction and self-reproach, which fol- lows any neglect of a due exercise of the affections, and which, in a well-regulated mind, disturbs the mental tranquillity fully as much as the disapprobation of other men does. It is farther evident that a man of badly regulated affections destroys his own peace, damages his health, and often causes his premature death. There is not, perhaps, a state of more intense suffering than when the depraved heart, disappointed in those gratifications to which it is enslaved, and shut up from the excite- ment by which it seeks to escape from the horrors of reflection, is thrown back upon itself to be its own tormentor. Self-Love Compared with Selfishness.— Ac- cording to our use of the terms, self-love is right, but Belfishness is wrong. We are to have enough love and ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 75 respect for our characters to protect them from injury, and not allow ourselves to be imposed upon by any one ; we should consult our own happiness to a certain extent, without being selfish. But whenever w r e go to the extreme, and do nothing unless it will materially assist our individual power, wealth, and advantage, it is no longer self-love, but selfishness. The motive gives moral quality to an action. Remarks. — Self-love is one of the affections, and is possessed by everybody to some extent; all strive to promote their own pleasure and interest before that of any one else, unless they have by experience learned to modify such conduct. Some persons are so anxious for their own pleasure, and care so little about that of others, that they in many instances materially injure near and dear friends. When self-love has long held complete control of a man, he grows selfish, and cares for nothing but him- self. He will even sacrifice the lives of persons in dis- tress, when it is in his power to aid them. Selfishness is one of the most detestable traits that a man can pos- sess. A selfish person causes his friends to dislike him ; and often, in a struggle to enhance his interest, he goes so far as to risk his own safety, while he is endangering that of others. The Tendency of Self-Love.— A true and ra- tional self-love leads us to the improvement of our minds; it makes us prudent about our words and ac- 76 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. tions, while we are striving to obtain health, wisdom, and goodness. It makes us thoughtful about what people say of us ; because we are anxious for our fellow- beings to love us. Rational self-love is improving, while it is kept within the limits of moderation; but when given a free rein, it becomes a curse rather than a blessing ; its proper tendency is thus misdirected. Under these circumstances, it leads us to resort to any means for the attainment of an object, regardless of the consequence, and the resulting selfishness is a cause of great misery. The man who is so engrossed with self, encased, as it were, in armor against the distresses of the poor, and utterly oblivious to everything that does not affect his own interest or pleasure, is he in whom selfishness has been allowed to assert a controlling power. Generosity, on the other hand, is a beautiful trait of character, which is eminently worthy of due cultivation. Selfishness. — When the principle of self-love be- comes deranged or excessive in its exercise, it leads to those habits by which a man seeks his own gratifica- tion. If any of his business is connected with his neighbor, whenever it suits him to change it in any way, he thinks but little, except of his own conve- nience, and probably puts his neighbor to much trou- ble. This he may do by an undue pursuit of any of the desires ; avarice, ambition, or even the love of knowledge itself may be so indulged as to assume the same character. But a man of this kind often seeks ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 77 the applause of the public, from whom he expects to derive some personal benefit or advantage. Heuce we place much more value upon anything that we know to be done by a free good-will than upon what is done in a selfish manner. Generous conduct commands the approbation of all men, and it is striking to remark how, in the highest conception of such a character that fancy can delineate, we are met by the sublime morality of the sacred writings, impressed upon us by the purest motives. Disinterested Conduct and Self-Denial. — As the principle of self-love is distorted in its aims and action, it leads to those habits by w T hich a man strives after his own pleasure in a way which interferes with his personal and social obligations. The doctrine of self-denial was taught by the ancient Stoics, and it occupies a prominent place in Christianity, where we are taught to forgive those who injure us, to love our enemies, to bless those who curse us, and to pray for those who despitefully use us and persecute us ; thus we are taught to deny ourselves. Deeds of kindness may be misdirected and carried to excess, when they are merely performed for the ap- plause of the world, or for the approbation of some particular person from whom one expects to receive a rew T ard. But the noblest pattern of disinterested con- duct and self-denial may be found in the sacred writ- ings, and it is recorded there for our imitation. Unless we draw our hearts from selfish things, we can not T8 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. hear the music of angelic choirs, attuned to that great harp whose countless strings are swept by the hand divine. Then, let us cultivate generosity, kindness, and forbearance. This course of action is impressed upon us through the purest and the most exalted mo- tives, the imitation of Him who is the giver of all good. We are instructed to imitate our divine Exemplar, so that we may be the children of our Father, who is in heaven; for he makes his sun to rise on the evil and on the good; and he bestows his refreshing showers upon the just as well as upon the unjust. His mercy is so great that it blesses the righteous and extends to the wicked. Love is the fulfilling of the law, and men are commanded to love one another. Observations. — Taking a review of self-denial, we see that it is directly opposed to selfishness. It con- sists in abstaining from comforts and enjoyments, in order to promote our ^happiness and that of others. One may deny himself a great many things to gain the good-will of another, yet this is self-interest. But when a man practises self-denial in order to give pleas- ure to others, even when he knows that he will receive nothing for it in return, he deserves credit, while his conduct is worthy of sincere regard and imitation. CHAPTER IX. The Will— Volition— Moral Causes— Their Nature- Uniformity op Moral Relations — Knowledge — At- tention — Moral Habits — Habits and Character — Correcting Injurious Habits — Conclusions — Divine Assistance — Its Necessity and Probability— Faith- Illustration. The Will is a great feature in human character. A moral man wills to do what is right, because it is right; a religious man does what is right, because it is the will of God. Will is one of the principles which constitute man as a moral being, one who is responsible for his actions. It is that which determines man's conduct. When he wills an act, it will most certainly follow, if not re- strained by some outside influence ; or the deed will be prevented, if the man is incapable of performing it. These are the things which can prevent a man from following his will. A great many persons are proud of their wills, and take pleasure in them. Truly, it is an excellent thing to have a will of your own; but still more so, if you have judgment and discretion in exer- cising it; and while thus engaged, one should never be so narrow-minded as to forget the interests of others. 80 ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. We must will a thing before we can succeed in ac- complishing it; and though, at first, it may seem diffi- cult to do, yet if our will is strong enough, we shall succeed in our undertaking. The objects which belong to the will, maybe divided into two classes; namely, things to be obtained, and actions to be performed to- wards members of the human family. The will should be trained in childhood, so that, in after years, it may not be unrestrained, and prove a disadvantage to its owner. Actions produced by the will arise out of the mental emotions formerly treated of, — the desires and the affections ; the next mental act, according to the reg- ular course of a reflecting mind, is proposing to our- selves the question, Shall we gratify the desire ? or shall we exercise the affection? Then follows the process of considering or deliberating. Simple Volition.— We have said that simple voli- tion, or the act of willing, has its origin from the de- sires or affections. We see, perhaps, a variety of con- siderations or inducements, some of which are in favor of gratifying the desire or exercising the affection, while others are opposed to it. Without intellect there is no light, and without sensibility there is no motive. As distinguished from mere impulse, rational will involves rational choice; but without the intellect there can be no rationality, and without the sensibility there can be nothing to choose. With these we have all that we need, not as a cause, but as a condition for the will. ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 81 "We desire an object, or we experience an affection ; the next mental act, according to a well-regulated and reflective mind, is to inquire whether we shall gratify this desire or affection; then we must look at both sides of the question, seeing the way in which it will be of any advantage to us, and also its disadvantages, from which we can make our decision. This last act of the mind is what we call will, or simple volition. Then, if we will to do anything, the act will be done ; and if we will not to perform it, the act will be left undone, unless the will is overcome. The Operation of Moral Causes.— For the operation of moral causes upon the will, certain cir- cumstances are required of the individual, upon whom they are expected to exert their power. It is necessary that we should have a knowledge of our moral condi- tion ; and that the truths may be presented to us in such a manner that we shall fully comprehend them, we must ourselves be in a perfect state of moral feeling. We can generally tell what effect a tale of distress will have upon any person, just from our knowledge of his moral feelings. The Nature of Moral Causes.— In studying the nature of moral causes, we are led to notice the diversity of their operation in different individuals. When a person is deliberating whether he will perform an act, certain motives are brought into view, and they are known as moral causes. It is the nature of moral 82 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. causes to determine whether or not the deed shall be performed. Self-love is a moral cause ; for if the act should require too much exertion, or self-denial, it would tend to keep us from doing the deed. We feel under certain obligations to some persons, and if our conduct opposes their interest, it restrains us from our purpose. Another moral cause is judg- ment, which shows us the effect of a certain act. Still another moral cause is the feeling of duty, which com- pels us to go forward. We thus see people act from different motives. One acts in the way by which he will acquire influence, or gain advantage. Another person will sometimes act in one way, and sometimes in another way. Yet another will always do right, regardless of consequences. We can always tell what the conduct of the first and third of these persons will be, but we can not foretell about the second. The causes of this diversity are referable to attention, to knowledge, and to moral habits. The first, attention, exercises a great influence. It requires that we should know the import of the facts, and see their relation to each other. Knowledge re- quires that we should grasp all of the truths, and not join two things together as cause and effect, unless they really have such a relation. So much depends upon the moral habits of a person. If he has been doing right all the time, it will be com- paratively easy for him to continue in the path of recti- tude. But if he has not tried to do right, it will be difficult for him to do so without a special effort. Upon ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 83 a person whose moral habits are correct, moral causes will act. Moral causes resemble physical causes in requiring certain conditions for their operation. Uniformity of Moral Relations. — TTe have every reason to believe that there are moral causes, which have a tendency to influence the volition and the con- duct in the same manner that chemical agents affect each other. These moral causes do not act all the time, but we receive them with the same degree of cer- tainty as we do testimony. The moral causes act in the same manner as two chemical substances ; they must first be brought together, before they can act. Sometimes we depend upon this uniformity altogether, and in other cases, we only rely upon it to a certain extent. Knowledge. — A primary and essential element, in the due regulation of the will, is a correct knowledge of truths and motives, which tend to influence its de- termination. The highest of these comprehends the truths of religious belief, a series of moral causes, the tendencies of which are of the most important kind, calculated to exert a uniform power over every man, who surrenders himself to their guidance. For this purpose, a correct knowledge of these truths and motives is required, and all who have this knowl- edge within their reach, acquire a deep moral responsi- bility for their conduct. From nature and revelation we may derive a knowledge of the character of Deity. 84 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. Without knowledge, we should not expect moral causes to act. For instance, a man must know what his duty- is, before he can reduce it to practice. Hence arises the importance of moral and religious instruction. Attention. — A very important question, morally, is strict attention, so as to bring ethical ideas together in the proper way. If a man will honestly attend to his own affairs, in the course of time, he will be decidedly improved. When a particular subject is present to his mind, he has the power to decide whether or not he can be influenced by it, and also to determine whether or not that can guide him. If, by this, the inclination is condemned, a sound mind soon dismisses it, and the moral state is retained in a healthful condition. This, however, may be neglected, and something else may occupy the mind ; it may not be exercised in the correct way, or the man may become careless. And if the truth is not properly received, the mental action is destroyed, and so is purity of heart. The habits that are thus welcomed, soon acquire great control over a person's feelings. Inattention is indulged so much that it becomes a habit, and the unfortunate man is carried away by passion. Then good feelings are grad- ually weakened, and soon destroyed, in such a condition of the moral powers. Moral Habits. — A condition in which a desire or an affection, repeatedly acted upon, is, after each repeti- tion, acted upon with less effort, is a moral habit. In ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 85 the same way, when a truth or moral principle has been passed over, time and again, without any ade- quate attention, each time it makes less and less im- pression, until at length, it ceases to exert any influence over the moral feelings or actions. That conduct which follows sympathy and benevo- lence, at first, requires some effort, but after each repe- tition, it becomes easier, until, at last, habits of active benevolence are formed. It is the same way with habits of vice. The Influence of Habits upon Character. — Important is the truth about habit, that it deserves constant and deep attention ; for character consists, in a great measure, of habits. These habits arise out of individual acts and repeated operations of the mind. Thus, we may hear of a man who swears that he will abandon intoxicants for a certain number of years, and probably the very same man will be found in a state of inebriation the next day. Or the habit may be sus- pended by the influence of an oath ; but the desire re- mains unsubdued, and resumes its former power, when- ever this artificial restraint is withdrawn. The effect is the same as if the man had been in confinement during the time, or had been kept from his indulgence by some other restraint, entirely of an external kind. The gratification was prevented, but his moral nature was unchanged. Habit is at first like a spider's web, which may be brushed away; but, after long' indulgence, it becomes 86 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. like a strong cable, binding its unhappy victim hand and foot, conquering the will, and making reformation almost impossible. On the other hand, benevolent conduct, at first, may require a certain effort, and is accompanied by a strong feeling of the emotion which leads to it. But after each repetition the acts go on with less feeling of the emotion, while there is pro- gressively forming the habit of active benevolence. Attention has much to do with the formation of character, and habit is next in order ; for after we have practised any action for a while, it becomes so easy that it is called secoud nature, and we delight in it. What may at first seem difficult to perform, after con- stant attention and practice, becomes a habit. It is no difficult matter to fall into degenerating habits ; but after we have engaged in elevating pursuits, they are quite easy ; consequently, our good habits form good character. It is precisely the same with habits of vice. At first a deed requires an effort and a powerful contest with moral principles ; then it is speedily followed by that feeling of regret, to which superficial observers give the name of repentance. This is the voice of conscience ; but its power is more and more diminished after each repetition of the deed. Even the judgment becomes perverted respecting the great principles of moral recti- tude ; and acts, which at first caused a violent conflict, are committed without remorse. Means of Correcting Injurious Habits.— The best way of correcting injurious habits is, first, to ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 87 let conscience have entire control over the morals, and to act in accordance with its promptings. When we are just ready to perform a deed, let us ask ourselves, Is it right? or is it wrong? and conscience will give the correct answer. It depends, however, upon whether or not we have become so hardened by allowing the pas- sions to rule over us, that the dictates of conscience may not have any influence over our behavior. Then we must harmonize the affections and desires. We shall think for a long while that it is impossible for us to become good, but in the end perseverance will conquer. Conclusions. — There are some practical conclusions which arise from the principles of moral habits. By our moral habits we are brought into close relation to the Divine Being, and here we learn the lesson of obedi- ence. If we are under this influence, we are more affectionate to humanity, and more ready to forgive an injury done us, than we should be otherwise. It is of great moment that we should have moral influences thrown around us, in order to develop moral character. Our associates should be known to possess moral char- acter. We may not be able to make a fortune, or to occupy a place of high distinction, but we can be good, and it is within our power to improve our moral con- dition. Divine Assistance. — Without divine aid we can not correct the moral derangement, when our soul or conscience tells of our error. God can correct it, and 88 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. if we ask him to do so, he will answer us by granting our request, for he has said, " Seek, and ye shall find ; ask, and it shall be given unto you." The Necessity and Probability of Divine Aid. — There is no improbability that the Holy One does hold communication with the soul, and impart an influence in the hour of its deepest need. In accord- ance with our highest conceptions, man is among the greatest of his works. We contemplate the moral prin- ciple as an emanation from the Deity. We know that God's eye reaches the inmost movements of our souls, and every thing is exposed to his view. He knows all things. When our affections are wandering away from him, he looks down upon them, and has compassion upon us as a father pities his son. Upon every sound principle of philosophy, all things must be open to God's inspection. When the spirit tries to throw off its earthy bondage, and strives to con- form its will to that of the Deity, then God affords his assistance. In all such instances, we can not believe it to be otherwise. It is impossible for us to believe that all things could go on without his aid. God is every- where, looking upon us. He has the powder and will- ingness to impart to us the aid which w 7 e require. Faith. — Now we come to study the influence of that mental power which is called faith. There is a power in (he mind itself which is calculated to drawdown upon it an influence of the most efficient kind. This ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 89 is produced by the mental process called faith. Sup- pose that we have a friend who is very intelligent and virtuous, and who has a great influence over us ; he excites us to good conduct, and elevates our character by example and precept. If we are removed from this cherished friend, we often think of his influence. Faith causes us to look upon God. as our best friend, and it inculcates upon us humble obedience to His righteous commands. Circumstances of difficulty and danger occur, in which we feel the want of a guide and counsellor. In the reflections to which the situation naturally gives rise, the image of our friend is brought before us, an influence is conveyed, like that which was often pro- duced by his presence and his advice. Then we feel as if he were actually present to give us his counsel and notice our behavior. This impression will be greatly strengthened, if we can think that this absent friend is able to communicate with us. Such is the intercourse of the soul with God. He is present with the mind when, in any situation of duty, distress, or discipline, the man under this exercise of faith, realizes the presence and character of the Deity. Illustration. — When we ask for something, and con- fidently expect to receive it, we call that faith. We are told that through faith we are saved. There is a good illustration of this in the case of the woman who lived near the wall of Jericho. It was through her faith that she was saved. CHAPTER X. Conscience—Its Functions— Proofs of the Existence of Conscience— The Nature of its Operation— Observa- tions — Conscience and Reason— How Conscience Acts —A Portion of God's Spirit— Right and Wrong— The Influence of Conscience — Knowledge Derived from Conscience — Divine Attributes Compared with the State of Man — The Christian Revelation — Impaired Conscience — Its Influence — Attention — Responsibil- ity for Belief — Moral Emotions and Intellectual Processes — Harmony. Conscience appears in connection with our moral choices. Having a moral nature, we might judge cor- rectly of the moral conduct of others, hut that would not be conscience. But couscience is our moral con- sciousness; not our outward acts, but our choices. It is at work previous to choice, affirming obligation to choose in accordance with that which is highest; and after choice it gives us, in connection with the ideas of merit and demerit, the feelings of self-approbation, as well as of guilt and remorse. The moral principle is conscience. The active prin- ciples of man are those which decide his conduct as a moral being. There is also a class of feelings, which may be called passive or connecting emotions. Con- ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. 91 science, like consciousness, is a knowing with. We know our choices, and together with the knowledge of them we have through conscience a knowledge of their moral quality, and so a judgment concerning them. It is therefore strictly personal, and resembles the tribunal of God in judging of choices and motives. Its precise nature and office are given by the Apostle Paul when he says: "For when the Gentiles, which have not the law, do by nature the things contained in the law, these having not the law, are a law unto themselves. Which show the work of the law written in their hearts, their conscience also bearing witness, and their thoughts the meanwhile accusing or else excusing one another." When we arrive at such a point as to leave no doubt of our obtaining an object of our desires, this is called confidence; it is one of the elements of faith. If we see no opportunity of obtaining what is desired, it is called despair, and this leads us to abandon the pursuit. If we obtain the object, we feel a thrill of pleasure or joy. When we do not gain what we are seeking, we feel a regret. If some danger threatens us, we experience a feeling of fear, and we exert ourselves to avert it ; if we suc- ceed in overcoming the danger, we experience satisfac- tion, but if we do not succeed, we have a feeling of sorrow. If the danger seems unavoidable, we suffer from a feeling of despair. Again, when we have acted according to the dictates of conscience, we rejoice in the feeling of self-approbation. Law is one thing and conscience is another. 92 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. Without arguing about the propriety of speaking of a separate power or principle, we simply contend that there is a certain mental exercise by which we can feel actions to be right or wrong. This is termed conscience. Our conscience is an element of our moral nature, which may admit of no explanation, and is referable to no other principle than a simple recognition of the facts which force themselves upon the conviction of every man, who looks into the pro- cesses of his own soul. Of the nature of this most important element, con- science, the evidence is entirely within. We appeal to the consciousness of every man, that he perceives a power which, in particular cases, warns him of the conduct that he ought to pursue, and administers a solemn warning when he has departed from the path of rectitude. We look to every one's conscience for the real proof of its existence. If a man does a great crime, he can always feel perfectly sure in his own mind that he is guilty, as his conscience decides this question at once. His judgment also conveys to him an impression, both of the tendencies and certain qual- ities of actions, though this may be without regard to their final consequences. The Function of Conscience. — Conscience gives us a perception of the nature and quality of actions, as just or unjust, right or wrong, and a conviction of the duties which a man owes to other men. Conscience is the moral principle. If we listen to it, and go accord- ELEMENTS OE MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 03 ing to conscience, we shall have an infallible guide, as a son Las the counsel of his father. Although the voice of conscience is inaudible to the outward ear, we feel it saying to us, This is the right wa} 7 , walk in it. Con- science, therefore, should regulate our actions. Proofs of Conscience. — That there are certain proofs of the existence of conscience as a distinct prin- ciple of our moral constitution, will scarcely be denied. Of the existence and nature of this principle, the evi- dence is within ourselves. The law is a law within us, by which we become a law to ourselves. It is a fact that there is a moral exercise, by which we feel certain ac- tions to be right, and others to be wrong. It is an element of our moral nature which admits of no analysis. Conscience is present affirming obligation, and en- abling us to judge generally of moral subjects, while in its relations to us personally, and when we come to act, this same moral nature becomes conscience, and bears witness to the moral quality of our choices, and either accuses or excuses us for what we do. Conscience con- veys to every one a conviction of what is morally right and wrong, in regard to individual conduct, and con- cerning the general exercise of the desires and affec- tions. It does this without acquired knowledge, and without reference to any other standard of duty. To act under the influence of conscience is to per- form deeds simply because we feel them to be right, and to abstain from others, because we feel that they 94 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. are wrong, without regard to any other impression, or to the consequences of the actions, either to ourselves or to others. He who, on this principle, performs an action, though it may be highly disagreeable to him, or abstains from another, though it may be desirable, is a conscientious man. The acts are done by the man, the bearing wit- ness, the accusing and excusing are done by the con- science. We know our choices, and also whether they are or are not in accordance with what we believe obli- gation requires. It is to this last that conscience witnesses, and then either excuses or accuses us. We can define conscience as an inward feeling, which renders us capable of discerning right from wrong. This conviction is forced upon every man who looks into the recesses of his own soul. In many instances we perceive a warning appeal from conscience that our conduct is straying from the true path, and that feel- ing imparts to us a solemn admonition to pursue the good way that it dictates. Thus conscience gives man a moral conviction. To be governed by it, is simply to perform an action because it is strictly right, and to abstain from actions, because we feel them to be wrong, however desirable they may seem to the promotion of our happiness. Thus, under the influence of habit, we are governed by the suggestion of conscience, and freed from those propensities which oppose it. Conscience occupies a place among our moral powers like that which reason holds with regard to the intellectual faculties. Con- ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 95 science may be at' variance with circumstances, but it is always ready to dictate, and is truly the regulating power that acts upon the desires and affections, as reason acts upon a series of facts, preserving their har- mony and order. Conscience represses our selfish propensities, leading us to the proper view of our interest, and the duty we owe our fellow-mortals. When conscience is disre- garded, self-love assumes control, selfish gratifications are indulged without restraint, and thus our moment- ary impulses are acted upon, without regard to their future results. It is improper to say that a man is conscientious when he does not act as his conscience prompts him. But if a man does as his moral principle directs him, regardless of apparent personal interests, then he is indeed worthy to be called a conscientious person. Conscience is God's judge placed within us, to control our actions. If Ave heed its promptings, we shall do our duty. Observations. — Our conscience is a natural guide to us, in every situation of life in which we may be placed. Some persons do that which they believe to be right, while others think that it is wrong. And sometimes conscience tells us that certain things are wrong, while the law does not censure them. We may, for instance, mention a person who has been educated among the Catholics, and has been taught that it is wrong to eat meat during Lent. He says that his conscience tells 90 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. him that it is wrong. Another person, who has been trained among Protestants, was taught that it is right to eat meat during the whole year, and so he believes. Conscience and Reason. — There is an analogy between conscience and reason. What would this world be, if mankind did not have a conscientious knowledge of right and wrong ? — if a man could do everything he wished to do, without that feeling which now and then tells him that he has done wrong ? Eeason is a great power, and without it a person can not accomplish much. But taking them both to- gether, we think that conscience is the highest faculty of man. After all, however, we conclude that reason and con- science resemble each other, that they are governing principles in their respective spheres or domains. If we were to train ourselves to it, conscientious obedience would soon become habitual with us, and we should be freer and freer from every feeling and propensity which is opposed to conscience. There is a close analogy between conscience and reason. When we look at them in this light, it makes them both appear more beautiful. The office of conscience is different from that as- signed to it by Mr. Martineau. He says that "when the whole series of springs of action has been experi- enced, the feeling or 'knowledge with ourselves' of their relative rank constitutes the individual con- science." But this seems to he merely preliminary, ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 97 and not the action of conscience at all. Let a man judge as he may of the springs of action, there is no accusing or excusing connected with it. He judges of them as of other things. How Conscience Acts. — Conscience tells us with correctness when a thing is right or wrong, just or un- just ; it does not require a long process of reasoning; for conscience immediately decides. Every man must know whether he chooses and acts in accordance with his sense of obligation. Mr. Martineau places the office of conscience at a point where we judge of springs of action. But we place it at the point where we judge of our choices as conformed or not conformed to the sense of obligation. In his view it has nothing to do with the will ; in our view it respects the action of the will. A Portion of God's Spirit. — By some writers, conscience is said to be a portion of the spirit of God placed within us. Consequently, we can see the near relation in which we stand towards the Deity. All persons, whether they are educated or not, are governed by conscience. A man may be degraded, yet con- science still asserts its power over him ; he may, how- ever, refuse to listen to conscience until its warning produces little effect. Right and Wrong. — If a human being experiences any doubt whether he will be justified in performing a 5 98 ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. certain deed, he first asks himself whether it is right or wrong ; and if he decides that it is right, then be per- forms the deed. Taking cognizance only of choices and motives, the judgment of conscience has nothing to do with means, or opportunity, or outward failure or success; and if we deal honestly with it, conscience will anticipate and accord with the judgment of God. The Influence of Conscience.— Conveying an impression of the moral attributes of the Deity, con- science has a great influence, and this is magnified when it is taken in combination with reason. When the conscience is taken as our guide, we see how every thing was made for our good, how thankful we should be for it, and what is best suited to us as rational and accountable beings. The conscience should be obeyed. It is given in connection with a choice which deter- mines the drift of character. Knowledge Derived from Conscience.— In a moral being, conscience seems to occupy the same place that reason does in an intellectual person. It is the ruler. There have been some writers who denied the existence of such a principle ; but for proof of its existence, we need only ask any honest man if there is not something which tells him that there are certain acts which are right, and others which are wrong. The province of conscience is to show us how to act, in all of our undertakings. By conscience we learn that there are certain duties that we owe to others ; ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 99 such as, justice and veracity. We learn that we are responsible beings, and must render an account of ourselves. Farther, we learn that we are, to a certain extent, accountable for the moral condition of those by whom we are immediately surrounded. Again, we learn that we must make our passions yield to the authority of the moral principle. It not only teaches us of our relation to the human race, but conscience also teaches us about our divine Creator. Combined with reason, conscience teaches us that there is a God. We look at the phenomena of nature, and form a notion of the Great First Cause. He has given us principles of veracity, justice, and benevolence ; consequently, we infer that he possesses these attributes in the state of perfection. Conscience is the regulating principle, and if we always follow its dictates, we shall reach the highest moral condition which it is possi- ble for a human being in this state of discipline to attain. Comparison of the Divine Attributes with the State of Man. — By a simple step of reasoning, which conveys an impression of absolute conviction, we conclude that He who formed us with these feelings, possesses in his own character corresponding moral attributes, which, while they resemble in kind, must infinitely exceed in degree those qualities in the wisest and best of men. In our actual observation of man- kind, we see these attributes impaired in their exercise 100 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. by human weakness, distorted by human passion, and impeded in their operation by personal wants and sel- fish interests. Therefore, we conclude that the Almighty is perfect in the exercise of all moral attributes, and that he takes the most rigid estimate of any infringement of them by men. As we view such a Being, apart from any inferior creature, all seems harmony; we have only to contemplate him as high and holy, enjoying perfect happiness in his own spotless attributes. But when we view him in relation to man, in that state tainted deeply with moral evil, a difficulty of an appalling magnitude arises. There is ample scope now, we perceive, for the exer- cise of the supreme holiness and veracity; so God ap- pears with sublime majesty, in his exalted character as the moral Governor of the universe, full of mercy and forgiveness. In a moral Governor of infinite perfec- tion, there can be neither ignorance of facts nor change of purpose. Difficulties. — All difficulties which arise from the foregoing comparison are removed by the Christian revelation. The soundest inductions of philosophy applied to the actual state of man, bring us to this momentous conclusion ; but the highest efforts of human science fail to reconcile justice with mercy. It is in our utmost need that we are met by the dictates of revelation, and we are called upon to humble the pride of human reason before that display of the har- ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 101 mony and integrity of the divine character. We there learn truths far beyond the inductions of human science, and the utmost reaches of human thought; that an atonement between God and man is made, a sacrifice is offered and accepted; and that the exercise of forgiveness is consistent with the perfections of the Deity. Thus, by a process of the mind itself, which seems to present every element of fair and logical exactness, we arrive at a full conviction of the necessity and the moral probability of that truth, which forms the great peculiarity of the Christian revelation. These facts are impressed upon us with renewed power, when we fix our attention upon them in all of their bearings. The truths which are revealed to the Christian, show him that there is a Being of infinite wisdom and purity ; also that man is a poor, weak, and sinful creature. But men, who know nothing of practical religion, think that they are perfect, and thus they deceive themselves. Impaired Conscience. — A mental process has been observed, by which the regulating power of conscience is impaired or lost. When we endeavor to trace the manner in which men have departed so widely from the high pattern of perfection, we arrive at moral phenomena, of which we can offer no explanation. A problem of greater importance, is to mark the process by which conscience ceases to be the regulating prin- 102 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. ciple of the character, and this is a simple and legiti- mate object of philosophical observation. Indeed, we can view it only as a matter of fact, with- out being able to refer it to any special principle. The fact to which we allude is a certain relation between the truths which are designed to act upon us as moral causes, and the mental emotions which ought to result from them. If the due harmony between these truths and emotions is patiently cultivated, the result is a sound moral condition. But every time this harmony is violated, a morbid influence is introduced, which gains strength in each succeeding violation. If this tendency of the emotions is diligently ob- served, that is, if the emotion of compassion is properly cultivated, for instance, the result is active benevo- lence; but if the emotion is violated, its influence is diminished, and a character of cold, barren selfishness is produced. We should always pay careful and strict attention to conscience, and then it is sure to guide and direct us in the right way. The Influence of Impaired Conscience.— This influence acting upon the judgment in regard to moral truth, consists in a distortion of the understanding itself regarding the first great moral principles. Con- science being dethroned, there next arises a desire to discover a view of things more in accordance with the corrupt feelings. This is followed by a corresponding train of reflections opposed to the truth. This process, advancing step by step, terminates in moral anarchy. ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 103 Attention. — Moral decision is greatly influenced by attention. Before the decision is made in regard to a subject, we should always listen attentively to both sides of the question, and then form our conclusion. We should not allow prejudice, money, or friendship to pervert our decision, but we should act with justice. Besides, we should not form our opinions too hastily, but take the necessary time to give each sound argu- ment its due consideration. Mistakes in judgment are easily made, but they are not always so easily corrected. Responsibility for Belief. — Man is responsible for his belief. If he could not distinguish the right from the wrong, and had no possible means of finding out the truth, then he would not be held accountable. His belief is influenced very much by education and circumstances; but, by the assistance of his own reason and conccience, man can establish belief of the truth, and for this he is responsible. Of course, this process belongs to a sane mind and a sound moral constitution. When the truth is presented, we have the power to accept it or to reject it. If the will were restrained here by necessity, man would be little more than a ma- chine. Freedom of choice, however, belongs to man, and hence he is responsible, not only for his beliefs, but also for his thoughts, his words, and his actions. Moral Emotions and Intellectual Processes. — Between the moral emotions and the voluntary intel- lectual processes, there exists an important relation. 104 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. These emotions are, properly speaking, not the objects of will or volition, nor do they arise directly at our bidding, but according to our constitution. They are the natural or established result of certain intellectual processes, and in one sense, they are the actions of our- selves, and are voluntary. The emotions of compassion and benevolence, for example, are the natural result of the sight, or even the description of distress, and the primary steps of this process are entirely within our power to perform them, if we will. We can visit the afflicted family, listen to their tale of distress, and consider their circumstances ; that is, we can give our attention to them in such a way that the natural effect will be produced upon our moral feelings. If sympathy does not follow this course, after some repetition, it terminates in selfishness. Harmony. — By our intellectual powers we receive a subject into the mind, and by reasoning we deter- mine whether the subject has a true or false foundation, and we place it in its true light within our own minds, and afterwards in the mind of others. Without justice, we should, in all probability, not place this subject in its true light, and without truth of purpose, often when we know exactly how an affair ought to appear, we put it in another light. Without the moral principle, our intellectual powers would be unrestrained. Hence we discover a beautiful harmony among all of our mural and mental powers. CHAPTER XI. The Origin of Virtue and Vice— Conscience— The Sys- tem of Mandeville— Clarke and Wollaston— Utility — The Selfish System — Selfishness — Paley's System — Defect of Moral Systems— Barbarous Nations— The- ory of Sympathy — The Use of Sympathy — Reason in Moral Decisions— Corruption of Conscience— Harmony of the Moral Feelings — Consistency of Character. The Origin of Virtue and Vice.— When we contemplate men's actions in relation to each other, we pronounce some deeds right and others wrong. We first determine what the intentions of the actor were. If we find that he intended evil, we blame him ; while, on the contrary, if his intentions w r ere good, we praise him. There is a line of conduct to which we ourselves and others are bound by strong obligation. If we observe it, we are virtuous ; if we do not, we are vicious. There is a moral principle within each one of us, that decides the good or bad quality of an action. If we obey conscience, our conduct will be morally right; for, at all times, unless it has been debased, it dictates to us precisely what our actions ought to be. Mr. Hume supports the theory that whatever action is useful is virtuous. The objection to this is, that it 106 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. also applies to inanimate objects. Mr. Hume, in order to obviate this difficulty, said that the sense of utility must be combined with a feeling of approbation. Conscience. — We find the origin of our idea of virtue and vice in conscience. A person may be vir- tuous while he does not even so much as know the meaning of virtue. Conscience has been called the voice of God whispering in our souls. We find ourselves in the midst of good and evil, but it is our duty to choose the good and refuse the evil, knowing that we are wrong every time that we go out of the line of conduct which conscience indicates. Obeying conscience, we know that we are acting in a becoming manner. The System of Mandeville.— Mr. Mandeville says that man naturally seeks his own gratifications, without any regard to the happiness of other men. But legislators found that it would be necessary to in- duce man in some way to surrender a portion of his personal gratification for the good of humanity. Leg- islators made certain laws for the general good, and they flattered mankind into the belief that it was praiseworthy to observe them, and noble to sacrifice a certain portion of their own pleasures for the good of other persons. "What we call virtue," says Mr. Mandeville, "re- solves itself into the love of praise." Laws are intended for the public good, and while they are in force, it is the duty of every good citizen to obey them. But no ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 107 laws can alter, and no statutes can modify those great principles of moral conduct, which are engraved upon the consciences of all classes of the human race. Kings may make laws, but they can not create virtue. The system of Mr. Mandevilie ascribes our impressions of moral rectitude entirely to the enactments of law- makers. Man, he says, seeks only his gratifications, without any regard to the happiness of others. But legislators found that it would be necessary to induce man in some way to surrender a portion of his gratifi- cations for the benefit of others. To do this with any degree of success, the legislators were obliged to offer man some kind of recompense. This is Mr. Mande- ville's theory of morals. The System of Clarke and Wollaston. — In a theory supported by these eminent men, virtue was considered to depend upon a conformity of the conduct to a certain sense of the fitness of things, or their truth. The meaning of this is rather obscure. It refers the essence of virtue to a revelation perceived by the pro- cess of reason, with the belief of the impressions being universal. It may therefore be held as at variance with God's essential attributes, the effect of which is the general happiness of his creatures. Whatever is right is also expedient for man, but the converse of this proposition by no means follows, that what men think expedient necessarily comes to be right. According to this theory, virtue was considered to depend upon an agreement of the conduct with a certain sense of 108 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. the fitness of things, or the truth of things. We are at a loss to understand the meaning of this definition ; but it does not imply that the essence of virtue is universal. The System of Utility.— This theory of morals is supported by Mr. David Hume. In accordance with it, we estimate the virtue of an action and an agent entirely by their usefulness. This is objected to on the ground already stated, that it holds good for both animate and inanimate beings. This theory holds that every thing which is expedient is right, and that all things which are right must be expedient. Partly this is so. Every thing that is right is expedient, but every thing that is expedient is not always right. It was, however, ably supported by Mr. Hume. According to this theory of utility, as advocated by Mr. Hume, we determine the value or virtue of an action, as well as of an agent, by the principle of their usefulness. Mr. Hume refers all of our mental impres- sions to the two principles of reason and taste. Reason here is the knowledge of truth and falsehood. Taste gives an impression of pleasure or pain, and becomes a motive of action, while reason does not thus act. An obvious objection to the doctrine of utility is, that it might be applied to a printing-press, as well as to a meritorious person. To obviate this objection, Mr. Hume was driven to a distinction, which, in fact, amounted to giving up the argument, that the sense of utility must be combined with a feeling of approba- ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 109 tion. This leads us back to the previous question, on what the feeling of approbation is founded. This important distinction has been well stated by Professor Mills of Oxford. He defines morality to be "an obedience to the law and constitution of man's nature, assigned him by the Deity, in conformity with his own essential attributes, the effect of which is the general happiness of his creatures." To the theory of taste, Mr. Hume refers our impressions of beauty and deformity, vice and virtue. His definition of right resolves itself into the impression of usefulness. The Selfish System. — The selfish system of morals, according to the statement of its advocates, is a desire to promote man's own interest. This theory has appeared from an early period, in the history of moral science, in various forms. Mr. Hobbes was the most remarkable promoter of it in modern times. Ac- cording to his doctrine, man is influenced entirely to promote his own interest ; and that which does so, he considers as right, and that which does not, as wrong. That which is supposed, may be considered as con- tradicted by facts ; for even in our own experience, the pleasure that attends an act of kindness in ourselves, as well as our approbation of it in others, is diminished by the impression that there is a selfish purpose to be answered by the action. Virtuous conduct imparts gratification of the highest kind, and it promotes the true interest of the agent. There is a modification of the selfish system, which 110 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. attempts to avoid its offensive aspect by a singular and circuitous chain of moral emotions. This may be con- sidered as an ingenious play upon words. Selfishness. — We become selfish when we let our affections take the wrong course, when we do not con- trol them, but allow them to centre upon ourselves, to the exclusion of everybody else. We think only of self, and do not care for our fellow-men. If an affair is to our own interest, we do not care if it ruins men in their business, their reputation, or in any other way. The System of Paley. — Differences of opinion have sprung from this system. Dr. Paley says that virtue is doing good to all mankind, according to the will of God and for everlasting happiness. He says that the will of God is made known to us partly by revela- tion, and partly by the works of nature. He thinks that God wishes and wills the happiness of his creatures. If we wish to arrive at the will of God, he says, w T e must see if the action promotes happiness. His con- clusion is, that whatever is expedient is right. We object to this theory, because it gives right action no higher motive than simply that of receiving a reward. The Defect of Moral Systems. — Primarily the defect of many systems of morals is, in their not ac- knowledging the supreme authority of conscience. All theories of morals that do not acknowledge the power of conscience, as the regulating principle, are open to ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. Ill objections. It is clear that persons do not have the same opinions. What one man thinks right, another condemns as wrong. Besides, if man formed the code by which he is to be judged, it is natural that he would be lenient towards himself. Barbarous Nations. — We can readily see that the moral feelings of barbarous nations are uncultivated. They are unacquainted with the divine revelation, and they have imperfect notions of God ; hence, we do not expect to find that their opinions agree with those of men who have received the blessings of sound moral and religious instruction. The System of Sympathy.— Dr. Adam Smith advanced the system of sympathy. Our sympathy can not be supposed to constitute an action right or wrong, but it enables us to apply to individual cases the moral quality derived from conscience, and, in doing so, to clear our own judgment from the blinding influence of those selfish feelings, by which we are so apt to be misled. In estimating our own conduct, we apply to it those conclusions which we have made with regard to the conduct of our associates. Or we imagine others ap- plying the same process in regard to us, and we reflect how our conduct would appear to an impartial observer. If we sympathize with the feelings and intentions of the agent, we approve of his conduct as right; if not, we consider it as wrong. We observe our feelings in regard to the conduct of others, even when we are not 112 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. personally concerned. According to Dr. Adam Smith, it is required for our moral sentiments respecting an action, that we enter into the feelings both of the agent and of him to whom the action relates. The Use of Sympathy* — If it were not for our sympathizing with persons in distress, we should be of little service to humanity. "When we hear an account of sorrow and do not sympathize with the sufferer, we are not prepared to use our ability towards relieving the distress. Tender sympathy is a flower worthy to bloom in the Paradise of God. The Province of Reason. — In moral decisions, reason has its province of comparing thoughts and things with each other. It should be cultivated, in order to render us wise in our conclusions. For in- stance, in feeling an ardent wish to promote the interest or relieve the distress of a human being, we must seek the most effectual means of giving our assistance. Fre- quently our intentions are good, but we err in judg- ment. We must, by study, learn to adapt ourselves to persons of different temperaments, and then we can readily understand what each will accept. We must, in a measure, learn from experience, and importance should be attached to the principles from which actions derive their character of uprightness. Reason should be applied to their tendencies, while we must reflect what would be the consequence and the propriety of such actions. Especially is this the case with our ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 113 affections, seeking the best modes of exercising them, and in many cases deciding whether we should exercise them at all. Benevolence is a noble trait in a person's character, but let us take pains to see that our compas- sion is worthily bestowed. Prudence will show that if one is unworthy, we must exert ourselves for the most deserving person. It is hard for a strictly conscientious man to act, under circumstances in which his duty seems to inter- fere with that of another person. We should bring reason to bear in deciding whether it is a real duty ; but at all times, we should proceed upon a calm con- sideration of the motives by which we are influenced. The Corruption of Conscience. — Here we make a few remarks on the observations of some late writers respecting the corruption of conscience. Those writers to whom we refer, do not admit the authority of con- science. They seem to refer our moral impressions entirely to the will of the Deity, as made known to us by revelation. This power of the soul, conscience, is derived in one of two ways. It is either received from the divine Being, or it is the result of our speculations concerning utility ; but some writers reject this sys- tem. The theory of which they write, is the same that we call conscience ; they know it by different names, and the controversy resolves itself into a dispute about a name. Harmony of the Moral Feelings.— If a truthful 114 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. person tells us that an affair is right, we are likely to believe him ; because we have confidence in what he tells us. Though, to have harmony among our moral feel- ings, we should always let conscience be our guide. Otherwise this harmony is disturbed and our moral nature suffers. Consistency of Character. — True consistency of character is the result of a regulated condition of the moral feeliugs, and it serves to promote due attention to the various responsibilities connected with the situa- tion in which the individual is placed. It does so by continually causing man to raise his views to the Eter- nal One, who is witness of all he does, and to whom every man is responsible for his actions. Consistency of character helps to keep man from all those partial and one-sided courses of conduct to which men are led by the mere love of praise, and by any of the other inferior motives, which are closely connected with self-love. Keligious pretension often show r s itself by external demonstrations, w T hile there are not the corresponding feelings within the soul. From such inconsistency of character arises an evil that has an injurious effect upon many persons. There may be much pretension where there is little, if any, real feeling. But we must not infer from this that there is no real virtue ; for such persons as these pretenders are compelled to have something real and genuine to counterfeit. By a slight gilding, articles of a trifling value may be made to assume the appearance of gold, but on this account, it ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 115 would not be reasonable to say that there is no gold. There must be something valuable before it is imi- tated. If there were no sincere virtues, the hypocrite would have no necessity to assume good qualities, which he does not possess. Again, the imitations that we notice convince us that true virtue must be a reality. Consistency of character arises from a due harmony of the moral feelings. When all of the desires and affections are in perfect unison, and the moral con- dition is not impaired, we may rely upon, uniformity of conduct in such a person. We may, to a certain extent, know how he would act under given circum- stances. But in most cases, there is some predominat- ing affection which usurps an undue influence. This consistency of character is opposed to a depraved, dis- torted, warped disposition, which does not make a dis- tinction between the truth and falsehood. It is the business of a rational and free being not to create any thing as God did, but to construct a course of conduct. And this he is to do from the same principle, and on the same model, as God has constructed the universe. The principle is love. This we learn from the Word of God. The model is a variety of forces, broader and less broad, which may be represented by a pyramid, the forces being regulated in their relation by the law of limitation. This we learn from the works of God, or Nature. . . CHAPTEE XII. Man's Relation to God — An Appeal to the Deity — A Close Relation — Justice and Benevolence — View op the Divine Character — Moral Feelings — The Divine Presence — Submission — Our Moral Imperfection — Gratitude, Affection, and Love — Character — Means of Cultivating a Sense of the Divine Presence — Habitual Effort — Faith — Its Province — Illustration — Truths which are Faith's Object — The Influence of Faith — Moral Condition — Faith's Province in Christianity — Christianity and Moral Philosophy — The Will of God — Common Sense — Growth in Beauty. Those affections and acts which are involved in worship are conditioned on all that is below them. From this it will follow that worship is the highest act which man can perform, and that his nature does not reach its full expression without that. The Moral Relation of Man towards the Deity. — Some considerations lead us to the duties which a man owes to his fellow-men, while others call our attention to that homage of the mind and of the soul, which man owes peculiarly to God. For the du- ties to our fellow-beings, we are equally responsible to God, as the moral Governor of the universe, but their ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 117 immediate reference is to our associations with other men. Still there are duties which respect our relation to the Deity himself, and therefore consist, in a great measure, in the purity and devotedness of the soul. In human systems of ethics, attention has been chiefly directed to the obligations of social and relative moral- ity, but the two classes are closely associated in the sacred writings, and the sound condition of the moral feelings is pointed out as that acquirement which, along with corresponding integrity of character, quali- fies man in an especial manner for acceptance with the Deity. An Appeal to the Deity. — In all man's relations to his fellow-creatures, we may appeal to God as the governing power, but there is a nearer relation. It is not surprising that, as the Creator of man's wonderful body and mind, God should have direct intercourse with the mind, and even in secret see into its workings, and hence the great importance of keeping the mind perfectly free from impure thoughts. God has placed conscience within us, to let us know that man has fallen, and that he may realize his near relation to Deity previous to the fall ; also that man may approach as near to perfection as possible. A Close Relation. — Man is closely related to the Deity, his governor and protector, who has made his laws and caused them to be written in his book, in order that they may be known and obeyed. He gives 118 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. ns strength to perform our duties, if we come to him in the hour of need. He leaves the way open to us ; but if we persist in doing wrong, and will not ask his forgive- ness when we have sinned, we incur his displeasure. Justice and Benevolence. — In contemplating man's relation to the Deity, there are three great facts to be considered; justice, benevolence, and conformity to duty. We are led to study our duty to God, to our fellow-men, and to ourselves. Man judges by the out- ward appearance, but God judges by the inner state of the heart. If a man loves God, relies upon him, and obeys his laws, God will stand to such a man in the same relation that a father occupies to his son. The Divine Character. — In reference to this re- lation, when we view the Divine character, we look upon God as our great moral Governor, an infinite, self- existent, and eternal Being. We see his superintend- ing care and goodness, in the way that he has made ample provision for supplying the wants, and minis- tering to the comfort of all his creatures. We con- template God as a high and holy being, endowed with unlimited power and wisdom. God is a Spirit, in- finitely wise, holy, just, and merciful. But when we compare him with the people upon earth, he appears in sublime and glorious majesty in his exalted character as a moral Governor. He created us, hence he knows, not only all our ac- tions, but our most secret thoughts. God looks upon ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 119 the heart, and knows it altogether. A subject more interesting can not be found than the condition of the heart, after which every man ought to seek when he knows that he is always exposed to the inspection of the Almighty. Moral Feelings. — That regulation of the moral feelings which ought to arise out of man's relation to God, implies sacred reverence for the character of the Deity. It is opposed to anything that will weaken the reverential feelings due to the character and name of the Almighty. There is a state of mind which the moral feelings approve ; this appears in two relations, one referring to the Deity, and the other to our fellow- men. The first is an effort to have every desire, affec- tion, thought, and emotion of the soul in submission to the Creator. The second division includes the cultiva- tion of feelings of kindness towards all men with the love of peace and truth. From these two mental conditions must spring a character distinguished alike for piety towards God, and for active usefulness to men. He who earnestly cultivates this purity within, feels that he requires watchfulness. He knows also that he can look up with confidence and hope w T hen, under a sense of moral weakness, he asks for the powerful aid of the Deity. Habitual Effort to Cultivate a Sense of the Divine Presence. — This implies reverence and love for the Deity, while it is opposed to every kind of pro- 120 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. faneness, or anything by which one might weaken in himself, or in others, the reverential feeling due to- wards the character and attributes of God. This must not only be extended to the outward conduct, but it must reach the inmost affections of the soul. A benev- olent regard for our fellow-men may be checked from producing exemplary conduct, while envy and hatred remain in the soul. It is upon the mind that cherishes malevolent pas- sions, with impure desires and imaginations, that God looks with feelings of displeasure and condemnation. Amid the various pursuits of ordinary life, we are too apt to lose sight of those duties and responsibilities, which attend a state of moral discipline, and that cul- ture of the soul which is required, as a preparation for the future state of existence to which we are hastening. There may be original principles in our nature which lead to a certain exercise of justice, veracity, and be- nevolence, independently of any knowledge of divine authority. We may see also that, as the necessity in nature that is before freedom is necessary, in order that man may rule over nature, so also is the necessity after freedom of consequences within himself necessary in order that God may rule over him, by any system of natural consequences, or indeed by reward and punish- ment in any form. Submission. — Humble and willing submission is due to the appointments of Providence, as parts of a great system, which is regulated by infinite wisdom ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 121 Any man who bears upon his mind this sublime im- pression, has learned to contemplate the Almighty One as disposing of the events of this world, assigning to every creature the place that he occupies. He sees that duties belong to the position, and they call for the cultivation of moral qualities adapted to the circumstances. Whether the positions are those of comfort, influence, or wealth, solemn obligations arise out of the means of usefulness which these command. Such a submission of the human soul to the appointments of God does not preclude the use of all legitimate means for im- proving our condition, or for preventing and removing distress. Our freedom lies between two forms of ne- cessity, the one necessary to the existence of freedom, the other to the moral government of free beings. Moral Imperfection. — Man experiences the sense of moral imperfection, of guilt, then he makes supplica- tion for mercy, with a full reliance upon divine aid. This sense of our own imperfections, of course, leads us to realize our condition, and when we are convinced of it, we plead for mercy. And as God has told us that when we rightly ask for mercy, it shall be given unto us, we. expect aid from him, knowing that we can do nothing that is meritorious without his guidance. Gratitude and Love. — The sense of gratitude, affection, and love towards the Deity, is produced by his kindness and his love for us. He is the giver of 6 122 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. all good, and is our daily preserver and benefactor; he is merciful and gracious, slow to anger. The character of the Messiah is often spoken of as a matter of mere historical interest, but he presents the purest and most perfect example that was ever known to the world. He went about doing good, healing the sick, giving sight to the blind, teaching pure morality, and then giving his life for the whole world. It is this sense of gratitude, affection, and love that causes us, while in sickness, to suffer so long, without murmuring, but in perfect submission to God's will. The Deity's character corresponds with that high tone of morals enjoined in the sacred writings. Its elements are defined and clear. Would we seek to estimate its sublimity and its truth, we have only to compare it with those distorted and temporizing systems, which have resulted from the inventions of men. Conduct and Character. — If we would have our conduct and character adapted to the right condition of moral feelings, there should be a due regulation of the desires and affections. We must patiently submit to the will of the Almighty, and suppress every selfish feeling. Such a character as this corresponds with that described in the Holy Scriptures. The word and the works of God give as the law of conduct. Our conduct is to spring from rational love; the man, meanwhile, being brought under obligations. Means of Cultivating a Sense of the Divine ELEMENTS OE MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 123 Presence. — To cultivate a feeling of the presence of the Creator, we must have reverence for his character, and avoid every thing that would tend to the contrary. We must pay strict attention to the nature of our thoughts, and always entertain pure meditations; for evil thoughts have a bad influence, and draw our at- tention away from the contemplation of the character of the Deity. If we think of him, we shall see how weak and sinful we are; this will be accompanied by a feeling of humility, and a desire to be more like him. In this way, though little by little, our characters will be improved. Habitual Effort. — There should be the habitual effort to cultivate a sense of the Divine presence, and by this to regulate the moral feelings and character. A character thus finished will constitute one of the high- e:t in the scale of moral beings, where there is a con- stant endeavor to shape the character so as to make it as nearly as possible like that of the Giver of all good gifts. He, who sees in secret, is the source of all good- ness, knows all things, and must be perfect in all his attributes. The Operation of Faith. — In order to become good Christians, we must first repent of all our sins, and then have faith. This faith is a compound opera- tion, which can be analyzed. It is composed of reason, attention, and a modification of conception. Eeason finds out the truth of all the statements whim come 124 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. into the mind, and can in any way act upon the moral feelings. The province of attention must next be ex- amined as one of the elements of faith. Assisted by reason it is to direct the mind closely to the truths, so as to see clearly their relations and tendencies. By the last process the truths are brought before us in such a manner as to appear real. In these ways, truths relating to things for which we have not the evidence of our senses, or referring to events which are future, but fully expected to happen, are kept before the mind, and influence the moral feelings as well as the character, in the same manner as if the facts be- lieved were actually seen, or the events expected were taking place in our view. The real definition of faith given to us by Saint Paul is, that " Faith is the sub- stance of things hoped for, and the evidence of things not seen." The substance is that which gives things subsistence in the views and feelings of the soul, and leads it to treat them as if they were real. While the evidence produces conviction of their reality and importance; that they actually are as they are re- presented. Faith is a glorious reality and mightily efficacious. The Province of Faith in the Philosophy of the Moral Feelings, — Intimately connected with (his subject, also, is a remarkable principle in our constitution, formerly referred to ; the relation be- tween certain facts or truths and the moral emotions which arise from them, according to the chain of se- ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 125 quences which has been established in the economy o.T the mind. A very close connection exists between our intellectual habits and our moral feelings, which un- questionably leads to consequences of the utmost prac- tical moment. Though we have little voluntary power over our moral emotions, we have a power over the intellectual processes with which these are associated. We can direct the mind to truths, and we can cherish traing of thought, which are designed to produce cor- rect moral feelings; besides, we can avoid or banish mental images and trains of thought which have an opposite tendency. This is the power over the succes- sion of our thoughts, the due exercise of which forms so marked a feature of a well-regulated mind, in regard to intellectual culture. Illustration. — Without faith we can not be saved from the power of sin. If we did not believe the sa- cred Scriptures, it is clear that we could not have faith in them. When God told an Israelite king to do a certain thing, he obeyed, but lacked faith, and so he was punished. The woman of Jericho was saved by faith. She took some spies and hid them when they were in danger, and upon their departure they prom- ised to save her and her family when the city was captured. Truths Which are Faith's Object.— The human mind is ever and restlessly breaking loose from the present and all things perishable about it, and grasping 126 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. after something in the future distance. Search after happiness is the great law of human nature, and in all the wanderings of the mind in search of something that can be relied upon as the foundation of unalloyed happiness, it instinctively turns to the lessons taught us in early life, which are truths recorded in the sacred writings of divine origin. After careful research, and study of the truths found in the Scriptures, we are convinced of the certainty of the existence of an all- wise God; also, that our hopes of true happiness are based upon the laws and provisions offered by inspired authors. The more we search, and the more thought we give to the Word of God, the more convinced w r e are of the truth of the Christian religion, as taught by our Saviour while on earth. These truths being es- tablished in our minds, we are naturally led to an abiding faith in God, to whom we look for the blessings of this life, and the rewards promised in the life to come. So the establishment of these truths in our minds has the tendency of purifying our conduct in a moral point of view, thereby securing to us that great boon — happiness, for which the mind is seeking. This is a happiness which is both perfect and everlasting. The Influence of Faith. — But, independent of our conviction of an actual communication from the Deity, there is a power in the mind itself, which draws down upon it an influence of the process which we call faith. It may be illustrated by an impression which many persons must have experienced. Thus, for an ELEMENTS OF MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. 12? example, let us suppose that we have a friend of ex- alted intelligence aud virtue, who has often exercised over us a commanding influence, restraining us from wrong pursuits, and exciting us to good conduct. This friend is our counsellor. Such is the communication of the soul with God. Faith's Influence on the Moral Condition. — These truths are not the visions of enthusiasm, neither are they the result of any process of reasoning by which different men may arrive at various conclusions. They force themselves upon our conviction with a power which we can not put away from us, when we think about the solemn inquiry, What we are, why we are here, whither we are tending, and what is God ? In the writings of the Bible, these truths are detailed and illustrated in a connected and harmonious manner, and they are forced upon our minds by a revelation from the Deity himself. But the principles there disclosed meet with an im- pression in our moral constitution, which pleads with authority for their truth. It is the province of faith to keep these facts ever before our minds, and it causes them to influence the feelings and the conduct, as if they were objects of sense, as if the Deity, in all the purity of his character, were actually disclosed to our view. The man w r ho thus feels the power of these principles, and exhibits their influence upon his con- duct, is a person who lives by faith. AT hen under this mental exercise a man brings him- 128 ELEMENTS OE MOEAL PHILOSOPHY. self into the immediate presence of the eternal One, when a man arraigns himself, as it were, before the bar of the omniscient Judge, when man places be- fore himself that future state which extends into end- less existence, a train of feelings must arise in his mind to which he was a stranger, so long as he placidly resigned himself to the sole influence of things pre- sented by the senses. It is the province of faith to keep constantly before us the revelations from the Deity, and to cause them to influence the feelings and the conduct, as if they w 7 ere objects of sense, as if God, in all his perfect attri- butes, were visibly before our view. When under this impression a man brings himself into the presence of God, he views the Deity as a being of infinite holiness, as one who has been, all the man's life, the witness of his conduct, and who knows all the secrets of his char- acter. Such a man will try then to improve his moral condition, so that he can better undergo the inspection of the divine Being. Faith in Christianity.— That is a solemn hour, when we, after retiring from the tumult of life, ask ourselves about our moral condition, What has been our occupation in this life that will soon end? And (hen, are we willing to unfold to the incomprehensible One our moral character? But as he sees us, do we think, when the full splendor of his eye is upon us, and we arc called into the presence of his unerring purity, that we shall be ready to answer for our conduct? ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 129 Faith occupies a prominent place in the Christian doctrine, and it is interesting to get a clear view of its nature. It is a process that all feel, but few can fully define. One who believes that he will receive the gifts of God, and that the Deity is a holy, just, and merciful God, will be saved through his faith. When a sick man hears that there is one to administer something for his comfort, if there is virtue in the remedy, if he has confidence in the person, he will apply for the remedy; he receives it, and thus his faith saves him; because, by means of it, he sought the offered aid. But were he merely to admit the fact, his belief would avail him nothing. Thus faith unfolds a dispensation of peace, by which the Deity offers mercy, forgiveness, and an influence from himself, which has power to purify the moral being. So these blessings are con- ferred upon men who believe ; and they are the persons who are fully convinced of their guilt, and who con- ceive their utter inability to rescue themselves, and willingly confess the power that God has of overcoming their sinful tendencies — their faith saves them. A man asks the promised aid, and receives it. We shall not seek the remedy, if we do not have confidence in its good effects. Man knows of his moral condition from the voice of conscience. We know the sincerity of God's offer from the impression of the unchangeable attributes of the Deity, and if we come to him with the hope of acceptance, we are required to come in the assurance of faith. 130 ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. Harmony. — Christian truth and the moral feelings accord with each other, and there is a beautiful har- mony between them, as is shown by careful examina- tion. The Christian finds it difficult at first, perhaps, to imitate his great exemplar • but after a while, ad- vancing step by step, he approaches the perfect light. Man undoubtedly owes much of his present and future happiness to the great truths of morality and religion. The will of God is communicated to us immediately through our conscience. As has already been said, conscience is a portion of God's spirit placed within us, and it is not to direct, but it is to be directed by him, and by this direction we are guided. This mediate or immediate communication of the will of God to man is a problem which has caused no little controversy among philosophers. However, it is plain that God does reveal his will to man for the purposes of instruc- tion, reproof, and guidance. Common Sense. — This common sense is a quality of the mind, not so common as the words imply. Many claim it, who have no title to its possession. It is a high standard of mental worth. The brain coin that bears its imprint, has a par value wherever man is governed by pure reason. It interprets law and defines justice. Its precious beam is to the scientist what the compass is to the mariner. When men cut loose from its anchorage, they are lost in the sea of speculation. Truth inscribes it on her banner of beauty, and under ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 131 its folds marshals her armies of peasants, princes, and potentates. Growth in Beauty. — Human beings may outgrow disease and become healthful, by proper attention to their physical constitution. By moderate daily exer- cise and suitable food, any person who has no heredi- tary disease may become strong in limb and muscle. But is there any process by which people may grow beautiful ? Live as we may, age dims the lustre of the eye, and pales the flush of the cheek, while infirm- ities mar the human form divine. But while this is true, dim as the eye is, pallid and sunken as may be the face of beauty, frail and feeble that once strong, erect, and symmetrical form, the immortal soul, just fledging its wings for Heaven, may look out through those faded windows as beautiful as a dewdrop on a summer's morning, as melting as the tears that glisten in affection's eye ; by growing kindly, by cultivating sympathy with all mankind, by cherishing forbearance towards the follies and foibles of our race, and feeding day by day on that love of God and man which lifts us from the brute, and makes us akin to angels. . APPENDIX. Political Economy— Domestic Economy— Esthetics— Nat- ural Theology — Evidences of Christianity. Political Economy. — This is the science which teaches the laws that regulate the production, distribu- tion, and exchange of wealth. Any thing for which something can be had in exchange is wealth, and a commodity is wealth in a tangible form. Capital is wealth saved, and used in production. Air and water may, or may not, be considered as wealth ; when they are free, or we are free to use them, then they are not wealth ; but when Ave are compelled to give any thing for them, then they are wealth. Water in a diving-bell is worse than useless, but to a thirsty man in the desert it has a great value. A man's money locked up without interest is not productive capital. Political economy relates to public wealth, and domestic economy belongs to home affairs. Exam- ples from this science are advantageously used as illus- trations of problems in ethics, or moral philosophy. To produce wealth, the three things required are — natural agents, capital, and labor. Natural agents, which are limited in quantity, are wealth, and those ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 133 which are practically unlimited are not wealth. Capi- tal is divided into fixed and circulating, but the pro- portion of fixed to circulating capital depends upon the way in which capital is used. The stock of capital is kept up by constant reproduction, while the amount of capital used measures the amount of labor employed. Domestic Economy relates to the management of wealth at home, the manner in which to gain wealth, and when it is obtained, to take care of, and use property to advantage. Wealth is any thing which can be used to produce more wealth ; such as corn, houses, land, and money. Capital is wealth that is used to produce more wealth ; thus, the sum of one thousand dollars, if put out at interest, is productive capital. The principles of political and domestic econ- omy are much the same, though political economy may be said to embrace domestic economy. ^Esthetics. — ^Esthetics is the science of the beau- tiful. The true is the conformity of thoughts with things, the beautiful is the consummation of the true, and the good is the consummation of the beautiful. When an object is regular, bounded by systematic out- lines, and makes an agreeable impression upon us, we say that it is beautiful. A beautiful person has fea- tures which have pleasant outline and surface. The beautiful extends its domain through the physical, the intellectual, the moral, and the religious worlds. God is the source of the true, the beautiful, and the good. 134 ELEMENTS OF MOKAL PHILOSOPHY. Natural Theology. — If we were inclined to doubt the possibility of a future state of existence, we find in nature much to overcome this uncertainty, and to con- vince us of the truth. This science, from nature, proves the existence of God ; it shows also that he must be infinitely wise, good, and holy. In nature we see design, and hence there must be a designer; we see justice, mercy, and goodness, but he who bestows these virtues must possess them in an infinite degree, and the infinitely just, merciful, and good Being is God. In all cases wherein the mind feels itself in danger of being confounded by variety, it is sure to rest upon a few strong points, or perhaps upon a single instance. Among a multitude of proofs, there is one which is the strongest. If we observe in any argument that hardly two minds fix upon the same instance, the di- versity of choice shows the strength of the argument, because it shows the number and competition of the examples. Evidences of Christianity. — The New Testa- ment gives internal evidences of Christianity, and there are also external or historical evidences. Powerful evidences of Christianity, or the religion of the New Testament, are afforded by prophecy, miracles, the spread of the gospel, and the fruits of Christianity, as they are exemplified in the lives of true believers. These evidences .show the divine authority of Chris- tianity, and the inspiration of the Scriptures. "VVe have not only a religion revealed from God, but an infallible ELEMENTS OF MORAL PHILOSOPHY. 135 expression of its doctrine and duties. We have the guide, as well as the way to everlasting bliss, both equally certain, equally divine. Let us be thankful for such unspeakable gifts. Next to the mercy of a Saviour, able and ready to save to the uttermost all who come unto God by him, is the book of the inspiration of God, which, as a lamp to our feet, and a light to our path, conducts us to such a Friend, and teaches us the way of salvation. INDEX. Actions, 23. Action, The Desire of, 42. ^Esthetics, 133. Affection, 121. Affections, 29, 44, 65. Ambition, 37. Animal Propensities, 35. Appeal to the Deity, 117. Appendix, 132. Attention, 84, 103. Attributes, Divine, 99. Barbarous nations, 111. Benevolence, 52, 118. Candor, 48. Causes by which Harmony is Interrupted, 10. Caution, 157. Character, 47, 55, 85, 114, 122. Christianity, 134. Christian Revelation, 100. Clarke, 107. Classification, 22. Common Sense, 130. Compassion, 52. Conclusions, 81. Conduct, 47, 55. Conscience, 31, 90, 92, 96, 106. Consistency of Character, 114. Corruption of Conscience, 113. Defect of Moral Systems, 110. Defensive Affections, 67. Definition, 57. Deliberation, 31. Desires, 29, 33. Disinterested Conduct, 77. Distresses, 53. Divine Assistance, 87. Divine Presence, The, 119, 122. Division of the Mental Powers, 8. Domestic Affections, 66. Domestic Economy, 133. Downward Progress, 72. Duty to Our Neighbor, 47. Emulation, 38. Esteem, The Desire of, 40. Evidences of Christianity, 134. Exercise of the Affections, 68. Explication, 30. 138 INDEX. Facts, Ascertaining, 61. Faith, 88, 123. Faith's Province in Christianity, 128. Feelings, 49, 56. First Cause, The Great, 24. First Truths, 19, 22. Freedom of Action, 45. Friendship, 65. Function of Conscience, The, 93. Future Existence, 25. God's Spirit, 97. Golden Rule, 50. Gratitude, 65, 121. Growth in Beauty, 131. Habits, 85. Habitual Effort, 123. Happiness, 71. Harmony, 9, 104, 130. Harmony of the Moral Feelings, 113. How Conscience Acts, 97. Illustration, 38, 89, 125. Impaired Conscience, 101. Influence of Conscience, The, 98, 102. Influence of Faith, The, 126. Integrity, 45. Intellectual Processes, 103. Interest of this Science, 17. Justice, 45, 49, 118. Knowledge, 83. Knowledge Derived from Con- science, 98. Knowledge, Kinds cf, 41. Knowledge, The Desire of, 40. Love, 65, 121. Love of Country, 66. Man, 30. Mandeville, 106. Man's Relation to God, 32,. 116. Means of Correcting Injurious Habits, 86. Moral Approbation, 70. Moral Causes, 81. Moral Condition, 50, 57, 127. Moral Emotions, 103. Moral Feelings, 27, 119. Moral Habits, 84. Moral Imperfection, Our, 121. Moral Improvement, 41. Moral Principle, The, 92. Moral Responsibility, 25. Moral Systems, Defect of, 110. Natural Theology, 134. Nature and Importance of Ethics, 7. Nature and Probability of Di- vine Aid, 88. Nature of Moral Causes, 81. INDEX. 139 Observations, 64, 69, 78, 95. Origin of Virtue and Vice, 105. Paley's System, 110. Political Economy, 182. Proofs of Conscience, 93. Province of Faith, The, 124, 128. Reason, 96. Reason in Moral Decisions, 112. Regulation of the Desires, 43. Relation, A Close, 117. Remarks, 34, 75. Reputation, 46, 54 Resemblance of First Truths, 21. Responsibility for Belief, 103. Right and Wrong, 97. Self-Denial, 77. Selfishness, 74, 76, 110. Selfish System, The, 109. Self-Love, 29, 73. Society, The Desire of, 39. Sources of Knowledge, 18. Statements, Delivering, 62. Submission, 120. Sympathy, Theory of, 111. Sympathy, The Use of, 112. Temper, 72. Tendency of Self-Love, 75. Theory of Sympathy, 111. Truth, Love of, 61. Truth of Purpose, 64. Truths which are Faith's Ob- ject, 125. Uniformity of Moral Relations, 83. Utility, The System of, 108. Veracity, 59. Vice, 105. View of the Divine Character, 118. Virtue, 105. Volition, 80. Wealth, The Desire of, 36. Will of God, The, 130. Will, The Human, 30, 79. Wollaston, 107. THE END. BARNES'S MAGAZINE OF AMERICAN HISTORY. B. F. DeCosta and Henry P. Johnston, editors. The only periodical on this continent exclusively devoted to the history and antiquities of America ; containing original essays, articles, and docu- ments, reprints and translations of rare papers necessary to the student and general reader ; literary reviews and notices of current publications, serving as a guide to the collector; a special department of notes and queries, and a monthly chronicle of occurrences. It appears monthly, in numbers of eighty pages each, is handsomely \ rinted and illustrated with a profusion of steel and wood engravings, and makes two elegant volumes a year. This publication is now firmly established with the support of the cultivated people of the country. It is invaluable to the reading public, covering a Held not occupied by ordinary periodical literature. It numbers among its contributors many of the most distinguished historical scholars of the country, and is in every way an admirable table companion for the scholar, and for all persons of literary and antiquarian tastes. It has met with general approval, and already forms a storehouse of material not accessible in any other form. It is of the greatest value to teachers of history and their classes. It affords a profitable reading exercise for older scholars. The first and second volumes of this magazine have become scarce, so that they can be supplied only as odd numbers can be picked up here and there. The publishers will receive orders for them, however, which they will endeavor to fill as rapidly as possible, and in the order in which subscriptions are. received. Parties who desire the current volume had better secure it by sub- scribing now, rather than run the risk of obtaining it at the end of the year. Subscription price, $5.00. For clubs (not less than five under one cover), we will pay a cash commission of one dollar on each subscription. Sample number, 50 cents. On receipt of $5.00 we will send the " Monthly" and any SI. 50 book of the Teachers' Library, post-paid. On receipt of $20.00 we will accept four subscriptions, or one subscription for four years, and send as premium '•' Barnes's Popular United States History," price, $6.00. We wish to appoint an agent in every town, city, and county in the United States, and will furnish blanks and envelopes for the purpose to the first responsible applicant. A. S. BARNES AND COMPANY, Publishers, NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. SCHOOL AID COLLEGE TEXT-BOOKS. » The National Series Readers and Spellers, THE NATIONAL READERS, No. i. No. 2. No. 3. No. 4. No. 5. No. 6. By PARKER and WATSON National Primer . . . National First Reader . National Second Reader National Third Reader National Fourth Reader National Fifth Reader . National Elementary Speller National Pronouncing Speller 64 pp 16° 128 " 16° 224 " 16° 288 " 12° 432 " 12° 600 " 12° 160 pp 16° 188 «' 12° THE INDEPENDENT READERS, By J. MADISON -WATSON. The Independent First ( Pri ™ ry ) Reader . 80 pp .16° The Independent Second Reader . . . 160 " 16° The Independent Third Reader . . 240 ' 16° The Independent Fourth Reader . . . 264 " 12° The Independent Fifth Reader . . . 336 " 12° The Independent Sixth Reader . . . • 474 " 12° The Independent Complete Speller . 162 " 16° The Independent Child's Speller (Script) 80 pp. 16° The Independent Youth's Speller (Script) 168 " 12° THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. SUPPLEMENTARY READING. Monteith's Popular Science Reader. James Monteitb, author of Monteith's Geographies, as here presented a Supple- mentary Reading Book expressly for the work of instruction in reading and science at one and the same time. It presents a number of easy and interesting lessons on Natural Science and Natural History, interspersed with appropriate selectious in prose and poetry from standard authors, with blackboard drawing and written exercises. It serves to instil the noblest, qualities of soul and mind, without rehearsing stories of moral and menial depravity, as is too often done in juvenile books. The book is elabo- rately illustrated with fine engravings, and brief notes at the foot of each page add to the value and teachableness of the volume. 12mo, half bound, 360 pages. The Standard Supplementary Readers. The Standard Supplementary Readers (formerly Sivinton's Supplementary Readirs), edited by William Swinton and George R. Cathcart. have been received with marked favor in representative quarters from Maine to California. They comprise a series of carefully graduated reading books, designed to connect with any series of school Readers. They are attractive in appearance, are bound in cloth, and the first four books are profusely illustrated by Fredericks, White, Dielman, Church, and others. The six books, which are closely co-ordinated with the several Readers of any regular series, are : — 1. Easy Steps for Little Feet. Supplementary to First Reader. In this book the attractive is the chief aim, and the pieces have been written and chosen with special reference to the feelings and fancies of early childhood. 128 pages, bound in cloth and profusely illustrated. 2. Golden Book of Choice Reading. Supplementary to Second Reader. This book represents a great variety of pleasing and instructive reading, consisting of child-lore and poetry, noble examples and attractive object-reading, written specially for it. 11)2 pages, cloth, with numerous illustrations. 3. Book of Tales. Being School Readings Imaginative and Emotional. Supplementary to Third Reader. In this book the youthful taste for imaginative and emotional is fed with pure and noble creations drawn from the literature of all nations. 272 pages, cloth. Fully illustrated. 4. Readings in Nature's Book. Supplementary to Fourth Reader. This book contains a varied collection of charming readings in natural history and botany, drawn from the works of the great modern naturabsts and travellers. 352 pages, cloth. Fully illustrated. 5. Seven American Classics. 6. Seven British Classics. The " Classics " are suitable for reading in advanced grades, and aim to instil a taste for the higher literature, by the presentation of gems of British and American authorship. 220 pages each, cloth. 8 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. ORTHOGRAPHY. Smith's Series. Smith's Series supplies a Speller for every class in graded schools, and comprises the most complete and excellent treatise on English Orthography and its companion branches extant. 1. Smith's Little Speller. First round in the ladder of learning. 2. Smith's Juvenile Definer. Lessons composed of familiar words grouped with reference to similar significa- tion or use, and correctly spelled, accented, and defined. 3. Smith's Grammar-School Speller. Familiar words, grouped with reference to the sameness of sound of syllables dif- ferently spelled. Also definitions, complete rules for spelling and formation of deriva- tives, and exercises in false orthography. 4. Smith's Speller and Definer's Manual. A complete School Dictionary, containing 14,000 words, with various other useful matter in the way of rules and exercises. 5. Smith's Etymology — Small and Complete Editions. The first and only Etymology to recognize the Anglo- Saxon our mother tongue; containing also full lists of derivatives from the Latin, Greek, Gaelic, Swedish, Norman, &c. , &.c. ; being, in fact, a complete etymology of the language for schools. Northend's Dictation Exercises. Embracing valuable information on a thousand topics, communicated in such a manner as at once to relieve the exercise of spelling of its usual tedium, and combine it with instruction of a general character calculated to profit and amuse. Phillip's Independent Writing Spellers. 1. Primary. 2. Intermediate. 3. Advanced. Unquestionably the best results can be attained in writing spelling exercises. This series combines with written exercise a thorough and practical instruction in penman- ship. Copies in capitals and small letters are set on every page. Spaces for twenty words and definitions and errors are given in each lesson. In the advanced book there is additional space lor sentences. In practical life we spell only when we write. Brown's Pencil Tablet for Written Spelling. The cheapest prepared pad of ruled blanks, with stiff board back, sufficient for 54 lessons of 2o words. Pooler's Test Speller. The best collection of " hard words " yet made. The more uncommon ones are fully defined, and the whole are arranged alphabetically for convenient reference. The book is designed for Teachers' Institutes and " Spelling Schools," and is prepared by an experienced and well-known conductor of Institutes. Wright's Analytical Orthography. This standard work is popular, because it teaches the elementary sounds in a plain and philosophical manner, and presents orthography and orthoepy in an easy, uniform system of analysis or parsing. 9 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. ORTHOGRAPHY — Continued. Barber's Complete Writing Speller. " The Student's Own Hand-Book of Orthography, Definitions, and Sentences, con- sisting of Written Exercises in the Proper Spelling, Meaning, and Use 01 Words'' (Published 1873.) This differs from Sherwood's and other writing spellers in its mon comprehensive character. Its blanks are adapted to writing whole sentences instea< of detached words, with the proper divisions for numbering, corrections, &c. Suci aids as this, like Watson's Child's Speller and Phillip's Writing Speller, find tlieii raison d'etre in the postulate that the art of correct spelling is dependent upon written, and not upon spoken language, for its utility, if not for its very existence. Henc the indirectness of purely oral instruction. ETYMOLOGY. Smith's Complete Etymology. Smith's Condensed Etymology. Containing the Anglo-Saxon, French, Dutch, German, Welsh, Danish, Gothic, Swedish, Gaelic, Italian, Latin, and Greek roots, and the English words derived therefrom accurately spelled, accented, and defined. From Hon. Jno. G. McMvnn, late State Superintendent of Wisconsin. " I wish every teacher in the country had a copy of this work." From Prof. C. H. Verrill, Pa. State Xormal School. "The Etymology (Smith's) which we procured of you we like much. It is the best work for the class-room we have seen." * From Prin. Wm. F. Phelps, Minn, State Normal. "The book is superb — just what is needed in the department of etymology and spelling." From Hon. Edward Ballard, Supt. of Common Sclcools, State of Maine. '' The author has furnished a manual of singular utility for its purpose." DICTIONARY. Williams's Dictionary of Synonymes ; Or, Topical Lexicon. This work is a School Dictionary, an Etymology, a compilation of Synonymes, and a manual of General Information. It differs from the ordinary lexicon in being arranged by topics, instead of the letters of the alphabet, thus realizing the apparent paradox of a " Readable Dictionary." An unusually valuable school-book. Kwong's Dictionary of English Phrases. With Illustrative Sentences, collections of English and Chinese Proverbs, transla- tions of Latin and French Phrases, historical sketch of the Chinese Empire, a chrono- logical list of the Chinese Dynasties, brief biographical sketches of Confucius and of Jesus, and complete index 15* Kwong Ki Chin, late Member of the Chinese Edu- cational Mission in the United States, and formerly principal teacher of English in the Government School at Shanghai, China fliOpiges. Svo. Cloth. From the Hartjord Courant : " The volume is one. of the most curious and interest- ing of linguistic works.'' From the New York Nation : " It will amaze the sand-lot gentry to be informed that this remarkable work will supplement our English dictionaries even for native Americans." 10 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. ENGLISH GRAMMAR. SILL'S SYSTEM. Practical Lessons in English. A brief course in Grammar and Composition. By J. M. B. Sill. This beautiful book, by a distinguished and experienced teacher, at once adopted for exclusive use in the State of Oregon and the city of Detroit, simply releases English Grammar from bondage to Latin and Greek formulas. Our language is worthy of being taught as a distinct and independent science. It is almost destitute of inflections and yet capable of being systematized, and its study may certainly be simplified if treated by itself and for itself alone. Superintendent Sill has cut the Gordian knot and lead3 the van of a new school of grammarians. CLARK'S SYSTEM. Clark's Easy Lessons in Language Contains illustrated object-lessons of the most attractive character, and is couched in language freed as much as possible from the dry technicalities of the science. Clark's Brief English Grammar. Part Lis adapted to youngest learners, and the whole forms a complete " brief course " in one volume, adequate to the wants of the common school. There is no- where published a superior text-book for learning the English tongue than this. Clark's Normal Grammar. Designed to occupy the same grade as the author's veteran "Practical" Grammar, though the latter is still furnished upon order. The Normal is an entirely new treatise. It is a full exposition of the system as described below, with all the most recent im- provements. Some of its peculiarities are, — a happy blending of Syntheses with Analyses; thorough criticisms of common errors in" the use of our language; and important improvements in the syntax of sentences and of phrases. Clark's Key to the Diagrams. Clark's Analysis of the English Language. Clark's Grammatical Chart. The theory and practice of teaching grammar in American schools is meeting with a thorough revolution from the use of this system. While the old methods offer profi- ciency to the pupil only after much weary plodding and dull memorizing, this affords from the inception the advantage of practical Object Teaching, addressing the eye by means of illustrative figures ; furnishes association to the memory, its most powerful aid, and diverts the pupil by taxing his ingenuity. Teachers who are using Clark's Grammar uniformly testify that they and their pupils find it the most interesting study of the school course. Like all great and radical improvements, the system naturally met at first with much unreasonable opposition. It has not only outlived the greater part of this opposition, but finds many of its warmest admirers among those who could not at first tolerate so radical an innovation. All it wants is an impartial trial to convince the most scep- tical of its merit No one who has fairly and intelligently tested it in the school-room has ever been known to go back to the old method. A great success is already established, and it is easy to prophesy that the day is not far distant when it will be the only system of teaching English Grammar. As the System is copyrighted, no other text-books can appropriate this obvious and great improvement. Welch's Analysis of the English Sentence. Remarkable for its new and simple classification, its method of treating connectives, its explanations of the idioms and constructive laws of the language, &c. 11 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. GEOGRAPHY. MONTEITH'S SYSTEM. TWO-BOOK SERIES. INDEPENDENT COURSE. Elementary Geography. Comprehensive Geography (with 103 maps). ^W^ These volumes are not revisions of old works, not an addition to any series, but are entirely new productions, — each by itself complete, independent, compiehen- sive, yet simple, brief, cheap, and popular; or, taken together, the most admirable *' series " ever ottered for a common-school course. They present the following features, skilfully interwoven, the student learning all about one country at a time. Always revised to date of printing. LOCAL GEOGRAPHY. — Or, the Use of Maps. Important features of the maps aretlie coloring of States as objects, and the ingenious system for laying down a much larger number of names for reference than are lound ou any other maps of same size, and without crowdine. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Or, the Natural Features of the Earth; illus- trated by the original and striking relief maps, being bird's-eye views or photographic pictures' of the earth's surface. DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. — Including the Physical; with some account of Governments and Races, Animals, &c. HISTORICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Or, a brief summary of the salient points of history, explaining the present distribution of nations, origin of geographical names, &c. MATHEMATICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Including Astronomical, which describes the Earth's position and character among planets ; also the Zones, Parallels, &c. COMPARATIVE GEOGRAPHY. —Or, a system of analogy, connecting new lessons with the previous ones. Comparative sizes and latitudes are shown on the margin of each map, and all countries are measured in the " frame of Kansas. " TOPICAL GEOGRAPHY. — Consisting of questions for review, and testing the student's general and specific knowledge of the subject, with suggestions for geographical compositions. ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY. — A section devoted to this subject, with maps, will be appreciated by teachers. It is seldom taught in our common schools, because it has heretofore required the purchase of a separate book. GRAPHIC GEOGRAPHY, or Map-Drawing by Allen's "Unit of Measure- ment" system (now almost universally recognized as without a rival), is introduced throughout the lessons, and not as an appendix. CONSTRUCTIVE GEOGRAPHY. — Or, Globe-Making. With each book a set of map segments is furnished, with which each student may make his own globe by following the directions given. RAILROAD GEOGRAPHY. — With a grand commercial map of the United States, illustrating steamer and railroad routes of travel in the United States, submarine telegraph lines, &c. Also a " Practical Tour in Europe." MONTEITH AND McNALLY'S SYSTEM. THREE AND FIVE BOOKS. NATIONAL COURSE. Monteith's First Lessons in Geography. Monteith's New Manual of Geography. McNally's System of Geography. The new edition of McNally's Geography is now ready, rewritten throughout by James Monteith and S. C. Frost. In its new dress, printed from new type, and illus- trated with 100 new engravings, it is the latest, most attractive, as well as the most thoroughly practical book on geography extant 13 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. DAVIES AND PECK'S ARITHMETICS. OPTIONAL OR CONSECUTIVE. The best thoughts of these two illustrious mathematicians are combined in the following beautiful works, which are the natural successors of Davies's Arithmetics, sumptuously printed, and bound in crimson, green, and gold: — Davies and Peck's Brief Arithmetic. Also called the "Elementary Arithmetic." It is the shortest presentation of the sub- ject, and is adequate for all grades in common schools, being a thorough introduction to practical life, except for the specialist. At first the authors play with the little learner for a few lessons, by object-teaching and kindred allurements ; but he soon begins to realize that study is earnest, as he becomes familiar with the simpler operations, and is delighted to find himself master of important results. The second part reviews the Fundamental Operations on a scale proportioned to the enlarged intelligence of the learner. It establishes the General Principles and Properties of Numbers, and then proceeds to Fractions. Currency and the Metric System are fully treated in connection with Decimals. Compound Numbers and Re- duction follow, and finally Percentage with all its varied applications. An Index of words and principles concludes the book, lor which every scholar and most teachers will be grateful. How much time has been spent in searching for a half- forgotten definition or principle in a former lesson ! Davies and Peck's Complete Arithmetic. This work certainly deserves its name in the best sense. Though complete, it is not, like most others which bear the same title, cumbersome. These authors excel in clear, lucid demonstrations, teaching the science pure and simple, yet not ignoring convenient methods and practical applications. For turning out a thorough business man no other work is so well adapted. He will have a clear comprehension of the science as a whole, and a working acquaintance with detai.s which must serve him well in all emergencies. Distinguishing features of the book are the logical progression of the subjects and the great variety of practical problems, not puzzles, which are beneath the dignity of educational science. A clear- minded critic has said of Dr. Peck's work that it is free from that juggling with numbers which some authors falsely call " Analysis." A series of Tables for converting ordinary weights and measures into the Metric System appear in the later editions. PECK'S ARITHMETICS. Peck's First Lessons in Numbers. This book begins with pictorial illustrations, and unfolds gradually the science of numbers. It noticeably simplifies the subject by developing the principles of addition and subtraction simultaneously ; as it does, also, those of multiplication and division. Peck's Manual of Arithmetic. This book is designed especially or those who seek sufficient instruction to carry them successfully through practical life, but have not time for extended stud}'. Peck's Complete Arithmetic. This completes the series but is a much briefer book than most of the complete arithmetics, and is recommended not only for what it contains, but also for what is omitted. It may be said of Dr. Peck's books more truly than of any other series published, that they are clear and simple in definition and rule, and that superfluous matter of every kind has been faithfully eliminated, thus magnifying the working value of the book and saving unnecessary expense of time and labor. 19 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. BARNES'S NEW MATHEMATICS. In this series Joseph Ficklin, Ph. D., Professor of Mathematics and Astronomy in the University of Missouri, lias combined all the best and latest results of practical and experimental teaching of arithmetic with the assistance of many distinguished mathematical authors. Barnes's Elementary Arithmetic. Barnes's National Arithmetic. These two works constitute a complete arithmetical course in tvjo boohs. They meet the demand for text-books that will help students to acquire the greatest amount of useful and practical knowledge of Arithmetic by the smallest expenditure of time, labor, and money. Nearly every topic in Written Arithmetic is introduced, and its principles illustrated, by exercises in Oral Arithmetic. The free use of Equations ; the concise method of combining and treating Properties of Numbers; the treatment of Multiplication and Division of Fractions in too cases, and then reduced to one ,• Can- cellation by the use of the vertical line, especially in Fractions, Interest, and Proportion ; the brief, simple, and greatly superior method of working Partial Payments- by the "Time Table" and Cancellation ; the substitution of formulas to a great extent for rules ; the full and practical treatment of the Metric System, &c, indicate their com- pleteness. A variety of methods and processes for the same topic, which deprive the pupil of the great benefit of doing a part of the thinking and labor for himself, have been discarded. The statement of principles, definitions," rules, &c, is brief and simple. The illustrations and methods are explicit, direct, and practical. The great number and variety of Examples embody the actual business of the day. The very large amount of matter condensed in so small a compass has been accomplished by econo- mizing every line of space, by rejecting superfluous matter and obsolete terms, and by avoiding the repetition of analyses, explanations, and operations in the advanced topics which have been used in the more elementary parts of these books. AUXILIARIES. For use in district schools, and for supplying a text-book in advanced work for classes having finished the course as given in the ordinary Practical Arithmetics, the .National Arithmetic has been divided and bound separately, as follows : — Barnes's Practical Arithmetic. Barnes's Advanced Arithmetic. In many schools there are classes that for various reasons never reach bevond Percentage. It is just such cases where Barnes s Practical Arithmetic will answer a good purpose, at a price to the pupil much less than to buy the complete book. On the ™ ei \ 1 hand > classes having finished the ordinary Practical Arithmetic can proceed with the higher course by using Barnes's Advanced Arithmetic. For primary schools requiring simply a table book, and the earliest rudiments forcibly presented through object-teaching and copious illustrations, we have prepared Barnes's First Lessons in Arithmetic, which begins with the most elementary notions of numbers, and proceeds, by simple steps, to develop all the fundamental principles of Arithmetic. Barnes's Elements of Algebra. This work, as its title indicates, is elementary in its character and suitable for use, (I) in such public schools as give instruction in the Elements of Algebra ; (2) in institu- tions of learning whose courses of study do not include Higher Akebra ; (3) in schools whose object is to prepare students for entrance into our colleges and universities. i nis book will also meet the wants of students of Physics who require some knowledge of 20 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. Algebra. The student's progress in Algebra depends very largely upon the proper treat- ment of the four Fundamental Operation*. The terms Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division in Algebra have a wider meaning than in Arithmetic, and these operations have been so denned as to include, their arithmetical meaning ; so that the beginner is simply called upon to enlarge his views of those fundamental operations. Much attention has been given to the explanation of the negative sign, in order to remove the well-known difficulties in the use and interpretation of that sign. Special attention is here called to " A Short Method of Removing Symbols of Aggregation," Art. 76. On account of their importance, the subjects of Factoring, Greatest Common Dirisor, and Least Common Multiple have been treated at greater length than is usual in elementary works. In the treatment of Fractions, a method is used which is quite simple, and, at the same time, more general than that usually employed. In connection with Bndical Quantities the roots are expressed by fractional exponents, for the principles and rules applicable to integral exponents may then be used without modification. The Equation is made the chief subject of thought in this work. It is defined near the beginning, and used extensively in every chapter. In addition to this, four chapters are devoted exclusively to the subject of Equations. All Proportions are equations, and in their treatment as such all the difficulty commonly connected with the subject of Proportion disappears. The chapter on Logarithms will doubtless be acceptable to many teachers who do not require the student to master Higher Algebra before entering upon the study of Trigonometry. HIGHER MATHEMATICS. Peck's Manual of Algebra, Bringiug the methods of Bourdon within the range of the Academic Course. Peck's Manual of Geometry. By a method purely practical, and unembarrassed by the details which rather confuse than simplify science. Peck's Practical Calculus. Peck's Analytical Geometry. Peck's Elementary Mechanics. Peck's Mechanics, with Calculus. The briefest treatises on these subjects now published. Adopted by the great Univer- sities : Yale, Harvard, Columbia, Princeton, Cornell, &c. Macnie's Algebraical Equations. Serving as a complement to the more advanced treatises on Algebra, giving special attention to the analysis and solution of equations with numerical coefficients. Church's Elements of Calculus. Church's Analytical Geometry. Church's Descriptive Geometry. With plates. 2 vols. These volumes constitute the "West Point Course "in their several departments. Prof. Church was long the eminent professor of mathematics at West Point Military Academy, and his works are standard in all the leading colleges. Courtenay's Elements of Calculus. A standard work of the very highest grade, presenting the most elaborate attainable survey of the subject. Hackley's Trigonometry. With applications to Navigation and Surveying, Nautical and Practical Geometry, and Geodesy. 21 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. GENERAL HISTORY. Monteith's Youth's History of the United States. A History of the United States for beginners. It is arranged upon the catechetical plan, with illustrative maps and engravings, review questions, dates in parentheses (that their study may be optional with the younger class of learners), and interesting biographical sketches of all persons who have been prominently identified with the history of our country. Willard's United States. School and University Editions. The plan of this standard work is chronologically exhibited in front of the titlepage. The maps and sketches are found useful assistants to the memory ; and dates, usually so difficult to remember, are so systematically arranged as in a great degree to obviate the difficulty. Candor, impartiality, and accuracy are the distinguishing features of the narrative portion. Willard's Universal History. New Edition. The most valuable features of the " United States " are reproduced in this. The peculiarities of the work are its great conciseness and the prominence given to the chronological order of events. The margin marks each successive era with great dis- tinctness, so that the pupil retains not only the event but its time, and thus fixes the order of history firmly and usefully in his mind. Mrs. Willard's books are constantly revised, and at all times written up to embrace important historical events of recent date. Professor Arthur Gilman has edited the last twenty-five years to 1882. Lancaster's English History. By the Master of the Stoughton Grammar School, Boston. The most practical of the " brief books." Though short, it is not a bare and uninteresting outline, but contains enough of explanation and detai 1 to make intelligible the cause and effect of events. Their relations to the history and development of the American people is made specially prominent. Willis's Historical Reader. Being Collier's Great Events of History adapted to American schools. This rare cuitonie of general history, remarkable for its charming style and judicious selection of events on which the destinies of nations have turned, has been skilfully manipulated by I'rofessor Willis, with as few changes as would bring the United States into its proper position in the historical perspective. As reader or text-book it has few equals and no superior. Berard's History of England. By an authoress well known for the success of her History of the United States. The social life of the English people is felicitously interwoven, as in fact, with the civil •nd military transactions of the realm. Ricord's History of Rome. Possesses the charm of an attractive romance. The fables with which this history abounds are introduced in such a way as not to deceive the inexperienced, while adding materially to the value of the work as a reliable index to the character and institutions, a*j well as the history of the Roman people. 22 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. DRAWING. BARNES'S POPULAR DRAWING SERIES. Based upon the experience of the most successful teachers of drawing in the United States. The Primary Course, consisting of a manual, ten cards, and three primary drawing books, A, B, and (J. Intermediate Course. Four numbers and a manual. Advanced Course. Pout numbers and a manual. Instrumental Course. Four numbers and a manual. The Intermediate, Advanced, and Instrumental Courses are furnished either in book or card form at the same prices. Tne books contain the usual blanks, with the unusual advantage of opening from the pupil, — placing the copy directly in front and above the blank, thus occupying but little desk-room. The curds are in the end more econom- ical than the books, if used in connection with the patent blank folios that accompany this series. The cards are arranged to be bound (or tied) in the folios and removed at pleasure. The pupil at the end of each number has a complete book, containing only his own work, while the copies are preserved and inserted in another folio ready for use in the next class. Patent Blank Folios. No. 1. Adapted to Intermediate Course. No. 2. Adapted to Advanced and Instrumental Courses. ADVANTAGES OF THIS SERIES. The Plan and Arrangement. — The examples are so arranged that teachers and pupils can see, at a glance, how they are to be treated and where they are to be copied. In this system, copying and designing do not receive all the attention. The plan is broader in its aims, dealing with drawing as a branch of common-school instruction, and giving it a wide educational value. Correct Methods. — In this system the pupil is led to rely upon himself, and not upon delusive mechanical aids, as printed guide-marks, &c. One of the principal objects of any good course in freehand drawing is to educate the eye to estimate location, form, and size. A system which weakens the motive or re- moves the necessity of thinking is false in theory and ruinous in practice. The object should be to educate, not cram ; to develop the intelligence, not teach tricks. Artistic Effect. — The beauty of the examples is not destroyed by crowding the pages with useless and badly printed text. The Manuals contain all necessary instruction. Stages of Development. — Many of the examples are accompanied by diagrams, showing the different stages of development. Lithographed Examples. — The examples are printed in imitation of pencil drawing (not in hard, black lines) that the pupil's work may resemble them. One Term's Work. — Each book contains what can be accomplished in an average term, and no more. Thus a pupil finishes one book before beginning another. Quality — not Quantity. — Success in drawing depends upon the amount of thought exercised by the pupil, and not upon the large number of examples drawn. Designing. — Elementary design is more skilfully taught in this system than by any other, in addition to the instruction given in the books, the pupil will find printed on the insides of the covers a variety of beautiful patterns. Enlargement and Reduction!! — The practice of enlarging and reducing from copies is not commenced until the pupil is well advanced in the course and therefore better able to cope with this difficult feature in drawing. Natural Forms. —This is the only course that gives at convenient intervals easy and progressive exercises in the drawing of natural forms. Economy. — By the patent binding described above, the copies need not be thrown aside when a book is filled out, but are preserved in perfect condition for future use. The blank books, only, will have to be purchased after the hrst introduction, thus effect- ing a saving of more than half in the usual cost of drawing-books. Manuals for Teachers. — The Manuals accompanying this series contain practical instructions for conducting drawing in the class-room, with definite directions for draw- ing each of the examples in the books, instructions for designing, model and object drawing, drawing from natural forms, &c. 28 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. DR. STEELE'S ONE-TERM SERIES, IN ALL THE SCIENCES. Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Chemistry. Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Astronomy. Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Physics. Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Geology. Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Physiology. Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Zoology. Steele's 14-Weeks Course in Botany. Our text-books in these studies are, as a general thing, dull and uninteresting. They contain from 400 to 600 pages of dry facts and unconnected details. They abound in that which the student cannot learn, much less remember. The pupil commences the study, is confused by the hue print and coarse print, and neither knowing exactly what to learn nor what to hasten over, is crowded through the single term generally assigned to each branch, and frequently comes to the close without a definite and exact idea of a single scientific principle. Steele's " Fourteen-Weeks Courses " contain only that which every well-informed per- son should know, while all that which concerns only the professional scientist is omitted. The language is clear, simple, and interesting, and the illustrations bring the subject within the range of home life and daily experience. They give such of the general principles and the prominent facts as a pupil can make familiar as household words within a single term. The type is large and open ; there is no fine print to annoy ; the cuts are copies of genuine experiments or natural phenomena, and are of fine execution. In fine, by a system of condensation peculiarly his own, the author reduces each branch to tlie limits of a single term of study, while sacrificing nothing that is essential, and nothing that is usually retained from the study of the larger manuals in common use. Thus the student has rare opportunity to economize his time, or rather to employ that which he has to the best advantage. A notable feature is the author's charming "style," fortified by an enthusiasm over his subject in which the student will not fail to partake. Believing that Natural Science is full of fascination, he has moulded it into a form that attracts the attention and kindles the enthusiasm of the pupiL The. recent editions contain the author's "Practical Questions" on a plan never before attempted in scientific text-books. These are questions as to the nature and cause of common phenomena, and are not directly answered in the text, the design being to test and promote an intelligent use of the student's knowledge of the foregoing principles. Steele's Key to all His Works. This work is mainly composed of answers to the Practical Questions, and solutions of the problems, in the author's celebrated " Fourteen-Weeks Courses " in the several sciences, With many hints to teachers, minor tables, &c. Should be on every teacher's desk. Prof. J. Dorman Steele is an indefatigable student, as well as author, and his books have reached a fabulous circulation. It is safe to say of his books that they have accomplished more tangible and better results in the class-room than any other ever offered to American schools, and have been translated into more languages for foreign schools. They are even produced in raised type for the blind. 32 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. ^ESTHETICS. Huntington's Manual of the Fine Arts,, A view of the rise and progress of art in different countries, t> brief account of the most eminent masters of art, and an analysis of the principles 01 art. It is complete in itself, or may precede to advantage the critical work of Lord Karnes. Boyd's Karnes's Elements of Criticism. The best edition of this standard work ; without the study of which none may be considered proficient in the science of the perceptions. No other study can be pursued with so marked an effect upon the taste and refinement of the pupil. ELOCUTION. Watson's Practical Elocution. A scientific presentment of accepted principles of elocutionary drill, with black- board diagrams and full collection of examples for class drill. Cloth. 90 pages, 12mo. Taverner Graham's Reasonable Elocution. Based upon the belief that true elocution is the right interpretation of thought, and guiding the student to an intelligent appreciation, instead of a merely mechanical knowledge, of its rules. Zachos's Analytic Elocution. All departments of elocution — such as the analysis of the voice and the sentence, phonology, rhythm, expression, gesture, &c. — are here arranged for instruction in classes, illustrated by copious examples. SPEAKERS. Northend's Little Orator. Northend's Child's Speaker. Two little works of the same grade but different selections, containing simple and attractive pieces for children under twelve years of age. Northend's Young Declaimer. Northend's National Orator. Two volumes of prose, poetry, and dialogue, adapted to intermediate and grammar classes respectively. Northend's Entertaining Dialogues. Extracts eminently adapted to cultivate the dramatic faculties, as well as entertain. Oakey's Dialogues and Conversations. For school exercises and exhibitions, combining useful instruction. James's Southern Selections, for Reading and Oratory. Embracing exclusively Southern literature. Swett's Common School Speaker. Raymond's Patriotic Speaker. A superb compilation of modern eloquence and poetry, with original dramatic exercises. Nearly every eminent modern orator is represented. 40 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. MODERN LAN GUAGES- A COMPLETE COURSE IN THE GERMAN. By James H. Worman, A.M., Professor of Modern Languages in the Adelphi Acad' emy, Brooklyn, L. I. Worman's First German Book. Worman's Second German Book. Worman's Elementary German Grammar. Worman's Complete German Grammar. These volumes are designed for intermediate and advanced classes respectively. Though following the same general method with " Otto " (that of " Gaspey '"'), our author differs essentially in its application. He is more practical, more systematic more accurate, and besides introduces a number of invaluable features which have never before been combined in a German grammar. Among other things, it may be claimed for Professor Worman that he has been the first to introduce, in an American text-book lor learning German, a system of analogy and comparison with other languages. Our best teachers are also enthusiastic about his methods of inculcating the art of speaking, of understanding the spoken language, of correct pronunciation ; the sensible and convenient original classification of nouns (in four declensions), and of irregular verbs, also deserves much praise. We also note the use of heavy type to indicate etymological changes in the paradigms and, in the exer- cises, the parts which specially illustrate preceding rules. Worman's Elementary German Reader. Worman's Collegiate German Reader. The finest and most judicious compilation of classical and standard German literature. These works embrace, progressively arranged, selections from the masterpieces of Goethe, Schiller, Korner, Seume, Uhland, Freiligrath, Heine, Schlegel, Holty, Lenau, Wieland, Herder, Lessing, Kant, Fichte, Schelling, Winkelmann, Humboldt, Banke, Raumer, Menzel, Gervinus, &c, and contaiu complete Goethe's " Iphigenie," Schiller's "Jungfrau;" also, for instruction in modern conversational German, Benedix's " Eigensinn." There are, besides, biographical sketches of each author contributing, notes, explan- atory and philological (after the text), grammatical references to all leading grammars, as well as the editor's own, and an adequate Vocabulary. Worman's German Echo. Worman's German Copy-Books, 3 Numbers. On the same plan as the most approved systems for English penmanship, with progressive copies. CHAUTAUQUA SERIES. First and Second Books in German. By the natural or Pestalozzian System, for teaching the language without the help of the Learner's Vernacular. By James H. Worman, A. M. These books belong to the new Chautauqua German Language Series, and are in- tended for beginners learning to speak German. The peculiar features, of its method are : — 1. It teaches the language by direct appeal to illustrations of the objects referred to, and does not allow the student to guess what is said, lie speaks from the first hour understandinglv and accurately. Therefore, 2. Grammar is taught both analytically and synthetically throughout the course. The beginning is made with the auxiliaries of tense and mood, because their kinship with the English makes them easily intelligible ; then follow the declensions of nouns, articles, and other parts of speech, always systematically arranged. It is easy to confuse the pupil by giving him one person or one case at a time. This pernicious practice is discarded. Books that beget unsystematic habits of thought are worse than worthless. 43 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. SCHOOL MUSIC. The National School Singer. Bright, new music for the day school, embracing Song Lessons, Exercise Songs, Songs of Study, Order, Promptness, and Obedience, of Industry and Nature, Patriotic and Temperance Songs, Opening and Closing Songs ; in fact, everything needed in the school-room. By an eminent musician and composer. Jepson's Music Readers. 3 vols. These are not books from which children simply leam songs, parrot-like, but teach the subject progressively, the scholar learning to read music by methods similar to tho^e employed in teaching him to read printed language. Any teacher, however igno- rant of music, provided he can, upon trial, simply sound the scale, may teach it without assistance, and will end by being a good singer himself. The " Elementary Music Reader," or first volume, fuily develops the system. The two companion volumes carry the same method into the higher grades, but their use is not essential. The First Reader is also published in three parts, at thirty cents each, for those who prefer them in that form. Nash and Bristow's Cantara. The first volume is a complete musical text-book for schools of every grade. No. 2 is a choice selection of solos and part songs. The authors are Directors of Music in the public schools of New York City, in which these books are the standard of instruction. The Polytechnic. Collection of Part Songs for High and Normal Schools and Clubs. This work con- tains a quantity of exceedingly valuable material, heretofore accessible only in sheet form or scattered in numerous and costly works. The collection of " College Songs " is a very attractive feature. Curtis's Little Singer, — School Vocalist. Kingsley's School-Room Choir, — Young Ladies' Harp. Hager's Echo (A Cantata). SCHOOL DEVOTIONAL EXERCISE. Brooks's School Manual of Devotion. This volume contains daily devotional exercises, consisting of a hymn, selections of Scripture for alternate reading by teacher and pupils, and a prayer. Its value for open- ing and closing school is apparent. Brooks's School Harmonist. Contains appropriate tunes for each hymn in the " Manual of Devotion " described above. Bartley's Songs for the School. A selection of appropriate, hymns of an unsectarian character, carefully classified and set to popular and " singable " tunes, for opening and closing exercises. The Secu- lar Department is full of bright and well-selected music. 49 THE NATIONAL SERIES OF STANDARD SCHOOL-BOOKS. LIBRARY AND MISCELLANEOUS PUBLICATIONS. TEACHERS' WORKING LIBRARY. Object Lessons. Welch. This is a complete exposition of the popular modern system of "object-teaching," for teachers of primary classes. Theory and Practice of Teaching. Page. This volume has, without doubt, been read by two hundred thousand teachers, and its popularity remains undiminished, large editions being exhausted yearly. It was the pioneer, as it is now the patriarch, of professional works for teachers. The Graded School. Wells. The proper way to organize graded schools is here illustrated. The author has availed himself of the best elements of the several systems prevalent in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, St. Louis, and other cities. The Normal. Holbrook. Carries a working school on its visit to teachers, showing the most approved methods of teaching all the common branches, including the technicalities, explanations, demon- strations, and definitions introductory and peculiar to each branch. School Management. Holbrook. Treating of the teacher's qualifications ; how to overcome difficulties in self and others ; organization ; discipline ; methods of inciting diligence and order ; strategy in management ; object-teaching. The Teachers' Institute. Fowle. This is a volume of suggestions inspired by the author's experience at institutes, in the instruction of young teachers. A thousand points of interest to this class are most satisfactorily dealt with. Schools and Schoolmasters. Dickens. Appropriate selections from the writings of the great novelist. The Metric System. Davies. Considered with reference to its general introduction, and embracing the views of John Quincy Adams and Sir John Herschel. The Student ; The Educator. Phelps. 2 vols. The Discipline of Life. Phelps. The authoress of these works is one of the most distinguished writers on education, and they cannot fail to prove a valuable addition to the School and Teachers' Libraries, being in a high degree both interesting and instructive. Law of Public Schools. Burke. By Finley Burke, Counsellor-at-Law. A new volume in " Barnes's Teachers' Library Series." 12mo, cloth. "Mr. Burke has given us the latest expositions of the law on this highly im- portant subject. I shall cordially com- mend his treatise." — Theodore Dwight, LL.D. From the Hon. Joseph M. Beck, Judge of Supreme Court. Iowa. " I have examined with considerable care the manuscript of ' A Treatise on the Law of Public Schools.' by Finley Burke, Esq., of Council Bluffs. In my opinion, the work will be of great value to school teachers and school officers, and to law- yers. The subjects treated of are thought- fully considered and thoroughly examined, and correctly and systematically arranged. The style is perspicuous. The legal doc- trines of the work, so lar as I have been 53 Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide Treatment Date: Dec. 2004 PreservationTechnologies A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive Cranberry Township, PA 16066 (724)779-2111