■ f^- ' '■' <^- .■- Qass. Book- COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION HARRISBURG History and Social Science English General Science Mathematics Foreign Languages High School Administration Libraries REPRINT FROM PROCEEDINGS OF EDUCATIONAL CONGRESS, NOVEMBER. 1919. HARRISBURG, PA.: J. L. L. KUHN, PRINTER TO THE COMMONWEALTH 1920. COMMONWEALTH OF PENNSYLVANIA, V DEPARTMEN T OF PUBLIC INSTRUC TION. HARRISBURG ^ Piistory and Social Science English General Science Mathematics Foreign Languages High School Administration Libraries REPRINT From the Proceedings of the EDUCATIONAL CONGRESS NOVEMBER, 1919 ^ m n: •f •. OCT 22 1920 (2) in HISTORY AND SOCIAL SCIENCE \. m (4) SOCIAL SCIENCES IX THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 1. cniCS EOK THE GHADES J. LYNN BARNARD, Philadelphia School of Pedagogy Of late we are coming to vision a twelve year program of training in citizenship extending from the- first year of the elementary school to the last 3'ear of the secondary school. In fact, that is the only justification of the public school system, that it shall train for active, intelligent citizenship ; and all its work must he shaped to that end. Jn all the varied curriculum of the modern school, History and Civics stand out preeminently as tlie studies which most directly train for citizenship. This training must be based on certain fundamental principles. It must be continuous and cumulative ; it must i)roceed from the near, the simple, the concrete to the relatively remote, complex, abstract; it must jn'ogress from fiuu-lion to piiructure, from actis'ities to organ- ization ; it must relate civics to past events — history made, and to present events — history in the making; and, finally, it must relate civics to conduct — hence a curriculum botli of study and of activities. The civics program for the elementary and junior high schools may be considered und<'r tlie following classification: civic virtues. Grades I — lY; community .cooperation. Grades III — V; industrial cooperation, Grade VI ; community organization, Grades Y^II — VIII ; industrial organization. Grade IX. On this foundation the senior high school may build a superstructure of socialized history, European and American, and of social problems, a study of which shall lead into the elements of sociology, economics, and political science. Now as to the basic work of the first six years, beginning with the civic virtues. v During these early years the child's predominant psychological stage is that of imagination ; his environment is a limited one, center- ing in his home and his school ; and the work in civics must be planned accordingly. Such civic virtues as obedience, cleanliness, orderliness, (5) «ourtesy^ helpfulness, punctuality, truthfulness, fair play, thorough- aess, honesty, courage, self-control, perseverance, thrift may be in- culcated in the impressionable young citizens. The progression in these virtues will at once be observed, namely from the objective to the subjective, from the simpler to the more mature. Kesults will best be secured by the use of stories, poems, memory gems, songs, pi<;tures, games, and dramatization of stories told by the teacher. The object is that of habit formation, that shall both culti- vate these civic virtues in the young citizen and at the same time afford a basis of social experience for the interpretation of new social situations as they shall arise. Coming now to community cooperation, we discover that the child is emerging from that delightful age of the imagination — so unreal to his elders, so real to him — and passing into the age of idealization, of hero-worship, where his chief interest is in adventure, in heroic deeds, in people who are doing things. Moreover, his environment is a rapidly widening one, reaching out to the community round about him. And our civic teaching must follow the child. The baker, the milkman, the butcher, the shoemaker, the dress- maker, the carpenter, the plumber, the painter, the doctor, the nurse, — all these people who help to make up the community, and without whose constant aid he could not even preserve life or health, must be made known to him as verj^ living and very interesting realities. Then will come policeman, fireman, street-sweeper, ash and garb- age collector, and other community employees who render direct and immediate service to the child and his family. And this will be followed by those who supply more indirect and remote service, such as water, gas, electricity, and the telephone, parks, playgrounds, etc. Several objects must be kept in view in this part of the work: first, the service rendered by each member of the community, and the dependence of the young citizen and his family on that service; second, the interdependence of each member of the community on the others, and the cooperation that makes such interdependence possible ; third, the adult embodiment of those very civic virtues that have already been impressed upon the children. The third aim is, after all, only a continuation of the training in habit formation begun, as we have seen, in the earlier grades. However, the effect is now indirect, personified in those of mature years who are really of use in the world, instead of- direct and ^personal, as heretofore. As to the method to be employed: discussion, trips, class reports, and stories of men and women who have made good take the place of the earlier songs, games, fairy tales, and dramatization. Of course, the final object of these later years must be kept steadily in mind — that of arousing interest in our community servants, of bringing the child to appreciate the character and importance of their work, and of leading him to want to do what he can to help. The ''curriculum of activities" mentioned above, must not be forgotten. By the time the sixth grade is reached the environment of the child, in many homes, has come to be distinctly economic. The law says, in Pennsylvania, that the young citizens may leave school — except for the few hours a week in a continuation school, where there is one — at the close of their sixth school year, provided they are four- teen years of age and can meet a few other conditions. And away they go, these youthful burden-bearers, by the thousands every year, a mournful procession to those who realize its significance. Before these children leave their daily school life, perhaps all regular schooling, they must learn that there is such a thing as good citizenship in industry. They must be given some notion of the in- dustrial life around them and of how they can best fit themselves into some occupation where they can render real service to their employer and to the community at large. So we may call this sixth year the ''vocational civics" year. This will be time well spent, not only for those who are soon to leave, but for those who are to remain. Through write-ups of local industries and occupations, which each community will need to prepare for itself, and through trips and class discussions, the objects of this phase of civic training may be realized. These aims are, in brief, to give vocational guidance, to show community cooperation in industry, and to train the young citizen in the ethics of business — what the employer owes him and what he owes the employer. And ethics in business is discovered to be nothing more, after all, than the exemplification of those very civic virtues he has been kept in touch with all along the way. Once again he learns the value of right habit formation, which alone makes for real success in life and which is in itself the essence of good citizenship. The young people have now arrived at the early adolescent stage, which marks the beginning of the junior high school years. They are gradually emerging from the stage of hero worship, of interest in people who are doing things, and are beginning to look for the causes that lie back of individual activit}'. We sometimes call it the age of integration, of unification. Tlie boys and girls have now reached the time when they are interested in sequence, in cause and effect ; hence they are ready to think about the organization that gives unit}^ and power to wliat lias seemed before to be only^ indi- vidual initiative. Moreover, this is tlie age when the "gang spirit" begins to manifest itself, and this lends additional meaning to a study of community organization. The need is now to shape and mould this ''gang spirit" so that it shall develop into the cooperative spirit of true citizenship. Once more our method of civic teaching changes, to keep pace with our young citizens. And now for a year or two, preferably two, the so-called ''elements of civic welfare" may well be studied. There are: health, protection of life and property, education, recreation, civic beauty, communication, transportation, wealth. 80 much for the normal individuals. But it is equally an element of civic welfare that the subnormal, the physically and mentally handicapped, shall be cared for by the community. And it is just as important that the moral weaklings, the anti-social, shall receive the sort of treat- ment they require. These last two classes may be discussed under separate headings such as "charities" and ''correction," or under one licading such as "care of the unfortunate." In both, the keynote must be prevention. In the earlier topics the executive or administrative side of gov- ernment has been constantly under discussion, until the various de- partments, bureaus, and commissions are fairly well understood. The last two topics have been equally dependent on the judiciary. But, though frequent reference has been made to laws and ordinances, the method and scope of law-making have not been considered. These are not beyond the pupils' intelligence and interest, now that they have learned what laws are for and how they are enforced. Of much importance, if time permits, is a very elementary discus- sion of taxation, — of where the money comes from to run all these branches of our local, state, and national government, how the money is appropriated, and how the expenditures are checked up at fairly regular intervals. It would seem as if the list of topics was now complete. But there still remains a l>rief study of political parties, of how they are organ- ized and how they work. This will include a look at both party organ- ization and election machinery. We must not forget that without their steady cooperation our ''check and balance" system of govern- ment — with its division of ^jowers between state and nation, and its separation of powers between legislative, executive, and judicial — would be absolutely unworkable. This can be made plain, in simple terms, to the eighth grade pupil who has had consecutive training in civics for a number of years. Special attention may need to be given by the teacher of civics to xVmericanization in its larger aspects, especially in the industrial centers. This must include not only the machinery of naturalization but also the years of preparatory training in English and civics for our foreign population. While this is primarily for adults, the lesson 9 of "prt'ijareuuesa" may be transmitted from tlie school into the homes. We cau no longer ailoid to wait complacently for the "second genera- tion/' trained in our schools, to take the place of the "tirst genera- tion." The children must carry this message home to their parents, and their parents must heed the warning.- Four steps will naturally be taken in a study of the "elements of welfare." First is the "apiuoach," which opens up the topic and siiows how important and liow interesting it is to each boy and girl. Then come the "means," through which the result is to be attained ; for example, health may be secured through pure air, pure water, pure food, freedom from contagious disease, etc. This, in turn, leads u> a study of the "agencies" — local, state, and national, public and private — bj' means of which these civic needs are supplied; for ex- ample, departments or bureaus of health, housing, building inspec- tion, and the like. Following this, or running through all that has preceded, comes the practical lesson of }>ersonal responsibility to co()])erate with civic agencies, which must be learned by each young citizen of the class. ^ While this cooperation is often individual, it is usually more etileotive when it is collective, groupal; and, fortunately, the "gang s})irit" once more comes to the rescue and reinforces the suggestions or hints of the teacher. This organized cooperation can be worked out through Thrift Clubs, Junior Civic Leagues, Junior Bed Cross, Health Crusaders, Junior Police, or in any other fashion that fits the work to be accomplished by the class. This citizen responsibility takes one of three forms: first, to do the thing one's self; second, to summon the agency, public or private, that has been established to look after the nuitter and then leave it to that agency; third, to work continuously with that agency. Kx jMjiples of each will occur 1o the I'oader. Under the guidance of a teacher with the civic viewpoint the acti- vities that will be undertaken by a junior high school class, in an organized way, will be both practical and of the highest educational value to the young people, lliese 3'oung citizens will "learn by doing" lliat the new civics is both a curriculum of study and a curriculum of activities. The last year of the junior high school, or the first year of th^ usual four-year high school, has now been reached. No matter which type of organization prevails, the school mortality of this particular year is high. As in the sixth school year so in the ninth, there is a very considerable exodus. So once again it would seem that the civics teaching should be vocational in character. The old-time anci- ent history, with its discouraging array of Greek and Latin names, is being merged in a later survey of the great epochs and institutions of European history ; and its place is being taken by a year of careful 10 thought about the elementary principles of economic life, such as the production and consumption of wealth and of how one may best fit himself into the economic niche that nature has fitted him to occupy. Of course, the way in which the young worker will be aided by governmental and private agencies is carefully noted, and the service he may expect to render to society in any particular occupation or industry. While the foregoing program of civics instruction is planned prim- arily for city and town schools, yet it is equally applicable to rural schools provided it is modified in details. City and country alike have need to cultivate both the civic virtues and the spirit of com- munity cooperation. Both city and country must secure the elements of civic welfare for the citizens, though the agencies in the former may be more complex than in the latter. In both alike the young citizens need special training in the civic aspects of the vocational life which they will soon enter; they must learn the full meaning of the term "good citizenship in industry." And, finally, the young person must learn that good citizenship is a growth, an achievement, the result of years of right thinking and right acting, and not a happy accident. 2. CIVICS FOR THE UPPER GRADES AND THE .JlL\!OR HIGH SCHOOL ARTHUR W. DUNN, U. S. Bureau of Education, Wai^hington, D. CI A thoroughgoing study of community civics is recommended for the seventh and eighth grades. It is essential, however, to recognize the essential purposes and characteristics of community x^ivics, and to organize its study around clearly defined, vitalizing ideas. I. It must be civics. 1. By the derivation of the word, it is that which pertains to citizenship. The controlling purpose Is to train for and in citizen- ship, and not merely to communicate any particular body of knowl- edge. Efficient citizenship requires the possession of a fund of well organized, accurate knowledge, and community civics must provide for this. But good citizenship does not necessarily follow from the mere transmission of knowledge. Much so-called community civics consists in the impartation of knowledge that does not function in good citizenship. 13 2. Civics has always implied a study of government, and should continue to do so. Community civics is not a substitute for the study of government, as some seem to imply, but a method by which to study it. Community civics involves the acquisition of much knowl- edge that is not governmental — economic and social — but it fails of its purpose if it does not include the governmental. Government is the community's organization for civic teamwork. Community civics in the grammar grades and junior high school must get this idea across. II. Community civics must be vitalized civics. This means that the instruction given shall not only relate to facts that are "vital," or important, in themselves, but that it shall be made to function in the life of the pupil. The basic test of the effectiveness of the civics instruction is the etfect it has upon the present attitude of mind of the pupil toicard his community relations and toicard all government (home, school^ local, state, and national) as a means of securing teamwork for common ends. A further analysis of this test is given in U. S. Bureau of Education Bulletin, 1916, No. 28, pp. 57, 58. Some of the vitalizing elements in the method of community civics are: 1. The demonstration by and for the pupil of the existence of com- mon interests and purposes (common to him and to all others in the community — home, school, neighborhood, city, state, or nation.) These common purposes or interests atford a basis within the pupil for the organization of the study of government. 2. The demonstration of the necessity for organized teamwork grow- ing out of the existence of the common pur}>oses and our interde- pendence. 3. The demonstration of government as a means of securing such organized teamwork. The organization of government has two phases with which the pupil must be made familiar: 1. The organization for service, involving leadership. 2. The organization for popular control. III. The significance of the word "community" in community civics is to be found in the above mentioned vitalizing elements ; for a com- munity is a group of people working together (teamwork) under cammon laios (organization and leadership) for common purposes. In the junior high school this conception should be applied to the study of our national community, and even of the world community, as well as to the study of the local community. IV. Some misapprehensions regarding community civics. 12 1. The local study idea. Community civics performed an important service in directing attention to the local community and its organization. The prinmry value of local study in community civics, however, is to secure a hasis of familiar experience by which the more unfamiliar and remote organization of the national community may be inter- preted to young citizens. In these days especially, community civics will fail of an important mission if it does not include the national community in its scope. Moreover, local study may be as dead as the old civil government ii' the vitalizing principles above mentioned are not injected into it. 2. The sociological point of view from which community civics is approached, and the sociological material in it, have led some to consider the subject as merely an -'elementary sociology," from which the civic element, or at least the governmental element, is largely eliminated. 3. The "pupil participation*' conception. Group activities, within and outside of the school, are an essential element in community civics. But they do not in themselves con- stitute community Civics. Their values: (1) The formation of civic habits. (2) The affording of a basis of experience by which to inter- pret new situations as they arise. Community civics will not only draw upon the pupils' present and past experience, but it will seek to broaden and enrich that experi- ence, (a) By creating conditions of school life typical of the larger life outside of school. (b) By increasing the pupils' contacts with, and participation in, the larger community activities. A civic habit is a customary mode of reaction to a civic situation. Habitual response depends upon the existence of recognized stimuli. If we are to cultivate civic habits in school, (a) The conditions under which the school activities take place must be as nearly identical as possible with conditions that prevail outside of school, and (b) The activities in which the pupils participate must be accom- panied by instruction that will aid the pupil to identify the elements in his present experience with the elements in typical situations of community and national life. This is +He function of community civics. 13 HlSTOili AND SOCIAL ►SCiElvCE iJS THE ELEME^sTARY SCHOOL 1. A fc^TUDi' OE \ OCATiO:N\S AND OF ELExMENTAKY ECO- NOMICS AS A PAliT OF THE El^MENTAKY SCHOOL COUKSE .NLA-llY McAKULE, Inciii Junior High School, Pittsburgh The 011I3' basis for public support of education is service to the state in the development of an increasingly better citizenship. The lirst requisite of good citizenship is ability to be self-supporting, to earn a living, and it is therefore incumbent upon the schools to pro- vide education that will supply this requisite, A study of vocations and of elementary economics is a necessary part of such an education, for there must be developed a proper realization of the worker's best place in the world's work, and of his relation to the complicated social and economic structure in which he lives, and to which he bears a citizen's relation. Since so man}' boys and girls do not complete a high school course or proceed far into a high school course, it is necessary that such instruction be placed in the school curriculum where it will be of greatest benetit to the largest number of those able to beJbenefited by it. ' That makes it })art of the work for the early adolescent years, the curriculum for whicli should be organized on the secondary school basis, or as tiie Junior High School. The Junior High Schools of Pittsburgh first developed such a course to meet the needs of the boys enrolled in the courses arranged under the Smith-Huglies Act, and combined a consideration of the cooperative effort of people to satisfy individual and community wants, and of government as a means of cooperation, with a study of the vocations toward which the members of the class were working as the means by which they would take their places as economically independent members of the community, and a study of the elementary economic principles underlying industry both as concerns the indi- vidual vocations, and as concerns the other phases of industry related to them and to the welfare of the community as a whole. Such a course being valuable to vocational students it is capable of being developed into a course considering vocations other than in- industrial ones in order that it way serve two ends, a means of civic training in fundamental human relationships, and a means of educa- tional guidance so that the aims of education, individual and social may be better attained. 14 2. THE REPORl OF THE COMMITTEE OF EIGHT— HOW IT HAS WORKED ARMAND J. GERSON, William Penri High School, Fhiladelphia. The Report oi" the Committee of Eight, issued by the American Historical Association about ten years ago, has been of great sig- nificance ever since in the modification of History courses through- out the country. As a reminder to those whose work has not been chiefly in the grades, it may be in order to introduce the subject of this talk with a brief summary of the Committee's report. Grades 1, 2 and 3 deal with stories of primitive life, the celebration of holi- days, and hero tales; Grades 4 and 5 contain a biographical treat- ment of American history ; Grade 6 is devoted to the European ante- cedents of American history ; Grades 7 and 8 provide ior the formal study of American history. The Report of the Committee of Eight has made certain very definite permanent contributions. In the first place, it has given clear recognition to the value of history in all the grades. Experi- ence seems to have shown that even in Grade 1 it is of importance that the teacher shall regard history content as a separate problem with a distinctive aim of its own. Related to this contribution of the report is the general policy it advocates of assigning to each grade in the school a definite part of the general program. The work has been so distributed that the necessity for stopping now and again for reviews has been avoided. Finally, the report has been of great significance in the emphasis it has placed upon the necessity of pre- senting the European background of American history. The present course in History used in the Philadelphia schools has been modeled very directly upon the recommendations of the Com- mittee of Eight, The variations from these recommendations that are to l)e found in the Philadelphia grades are not of much signifi- cance. Many teachers in the Philadelphia system, while enthusiastic over the working out of their course in history, have come to recognize what they regard as certain points of weakness. It has been felt by some that there is an over-emijhasis on the biographical approach in Grades 4 and 5; that the European background as outlined is too remote and too separate from its application; that it is a mistake to make no more definite provision for American history in the case of those pupils who leave school at the end of Grade 6. The chief point of weakness in the Report of the Committee of Eight, however, is to be found in its failure to recognize that group- ing of grades which the development of the Junior High School has 16 necessitated. This failure can not be counted a criticism of the Keport, as the Junior High School was not in being at the time the Committee was working. Today, educators favor grouping the grades, I — 2 — 3 ; 4 — 5 — (j ; 7 — 8 — 9. The discrepancy here referred to is par ticularly evident in Grade G where the Committee obviously intended the work in European history as preliminary to the American history taken up in grades 7 and 8. Today we regard Grade 0, not as the first year in a group of grades, but as the culmination of a six-grade school organization. The following general suggestions for revision of the Report of the (Jommittee of Eight are put forward tentatively and as a basis for discussion : In the first place it is suggested that a course in civics should in every school system run parallel with the course in history through all the grades. The history recommendations of the Com- mittee for Grades 1, 2 and 3 seem to have justified themselves in the Philadelphia system, and no suggestion is here made for any change in this part of the work. It is suggested that in Grades 4, 5 and <> a simple narrative of American history be presented, making use of such biographical material and European background as will be directly helpful. Finally, it is suggested that in Grades 7, 8 and 9 (the Junior High School), certain pressing problems of the present time be discussed from the point of view of their historic develop- ment. If we regard the chief purpose of history teaching to be the interpretation of present conditions, it follows that the historic ap- proach to the civic and social problems of the present day must receive recognition. Furthermore, the approach to such troublesome issues as the Labor Situation, the High Cost of Living, Immigration, Our Relations with Mexico, and the like, should be of such a nature as to, secure, not so much a final opinion on these matters, as a toler- ance of attitude and that patience with *'historical-mindedness'' tends to develop. Courses built upon the Report of the Committee of Eight were in many school systems radically different from the previous courses w^hich they superseded. It has required a definite campaign of edu- cation among the teachers of the grades to secure the kind of accept- ance and enthusiasm necessary to the success of these courses. I think it very important, therefore, that no further fundamental changes should be made hastily, and that when they are decided upon they shall ho inti'orluced gradually and with the approval of the teaching body. 16 PROPOSED KE\'ISI(>X OF COMMITTEE OF EU.ilT liEPOKT DANIEL C. KNOWLTON, Lincoln School, Teachers College, New York City. It behooves me at the outset to correct a misimder.stauding. n\e committee which 1 represent had no thought of making a special onslaught upon the report of the Committee of Eight and I am at quite a loss to know just why I have been selected to deal with this particidar part of the program in history. Our committee's work is concerned only with this report as it represents a portion of the twelve 3'ears for which we are making recommendations. We have reached the point in our educational development where it is im- perative that we regard the entire twelve years as a single unit and plan our courses accordingly. This is tlie task to which we as a com- mittee have set our hands. The proposals, therefore, which we have to make for these first eight years are to be judged by what we propose for the next four. With the problem of the junior high school before us whatever we recommend for these three years will })redetermine to a certain extent whatever precedes and will go far towards shaping whatever is to follow. i)ur attitude as a committee as indicated by our preliminary report was very favorable at the outset towards the work of the Committee of Eight as the following extract indicates: "The Committee accepts t!ie report of the former Committee of ICight of the American Historical Association (The Study of History in the Elementary Schools. Xew York, Scribners, 1900), as the basis of the common-school history work, but it expects to study this report with a view to adjusting its recommendations to the new situation which will result from a recasting of the high-school work, and for the purpose of eMecting other improvements that may seem i)racti- cable." We regarded it as Doctor Gerson pointed out as a real landmark in the reorganization of our history work. It is now just ten years since it was given. to the public. WHien we came to examine it in the light of the principles which we had laid down for our com- mittee and when we began to get in touch with those who had tried it out, we came to the very same conclusions which Doctor Gerson laid before you. We recognized its permanent contribntion to be the inclusion of more European history in the work of the past six years, especially in the sixth year. We recognized also that it was built np to complete the work of the Committee of Seven which had confined its attention entirely to the high school. With the revi- 17 sion of this part of the course which our committee deemed neces- sary arose the necessity for a revision of the course as planned for these eight grades. The Junior High School was not anticipated when the Committee of Eight drew up its report; in fact the elunior High School move- ment has made its greatest progress within the past live or six years. Any course which is outlined for the first eight grades today must take into account the Junior High School. We have discovered, or recognized more clearly, that the secondary education o^ a child should begin, or really does begin, with the seventh year. He begins to take a different view of life and the world about him. This is the outstanding fact about the boy or girl which the school failed to recognize. He was essentially a dilierent propo- sition from what he had been in those early grades. The school must, therefore, reorganize its courses with this fact in mind. This is the j;eriod when v,e should try lo bring him into more direct contacts through our course of study with this lara;er world towards which his interests are directed. One of the fundamental principles u^Km .wiicn .mu- proposals for the twelve years are based must be recognized in this connection and berein is to be found one of the weaknesses of the report of the (.'onmiittee of Eight. Tliis principle is that every new step in history instruction must be a step forward and recognized by the student as such. The work planued for the seventh and eighth year by the Committee of Eight seemed to the child a repetition and often was a mere repetition of the \\ork of the fourth and fifth grades. This was felt to be dea'dening to any further work in history and any twelve year scheme. Looking at the Junior High School as the crux of the situation we felt that what was done here determined more largely what should precede and what should follow than any other part of the school course. We conceive in our twelve year plan of four great cycles. One of these is the making of the community and is begun and pos- sibly com])leted in the second grade. The second is the making of the United States which covers grades three to four inclusive. The third is a junior high school cycle in which we present the United States of America in her world setting. It is a two year survey of world history with our own, country given her proper place in the scheme. This is followed by ,the senior high school cycle in which attention is specially directed to the modern world. Let me elaborate in more detail the work planned for these cycles, which are mutually interdependent. Each one depends for its success upon the other. They represent the conception that history is not only a body of information — a certain amount of subject matter — but is essentially a method. I was very much interested to hear Dr. 2 18 Dunn refer to Civics in this same way. It was "an attitude of mind," be said — "a reaction to civic responsibilities'' that was sought, lu the same way we conceive of the greatest values attaching to the study of history through the development of the right kind of method. ITie kind of objective towards which we are driving is expressed in some of the aims stated in our preliminary report. For example, we insist that "The supreme aim in teaching of history and social science is to give positive direction to the growth of those mental and moral qualities of children which, rightly developed, constitute t^he basis of the highest type of citizenship. "Historical training (a) frees the mind from the trammels, of time and place, substituting the idea of social development and change for the instinctive notion of a static social world, performing in this respect a service in education analogous to that performed by biology for organic nature or by geology for inorganic nature, (b) It tends to produce openmindedness, which mitigates native prejudice and per- mits truth to gain recognition, (c) It induces patient inquiry for the purpose of disclosing the facts of a given situation before passing judgment, (d) It gives some grasp upon the methods of investigation and the tests of accuracy, (e) It develops that form of judgment which deals with the shifting and conditional relations of men in --society, supplementing the scientific judgment which arises from the study of animate and inanimate nature and of mathematics, (f) It yields, or should yield, the high moral and ethical concepts of loyalty to principles and to institutions bj' revealing tlie cost at which the elements of civilization have been secured for us." The testing of this kind of a result is, indeed, difficult, but it is a much more valuable contribution to make to the equipment of our boys and girls than so much information. Our committee insists that there is a particular — a specific method — of presenting history which should run throughout the whole 12 years. The insistence upon it will tend towards the results we have indicated. It is diffi- cult to describe this method. Taking a leaf possibly from the report of the committee on Social Studies of the N. E. A. we insist that in this first cycle the teacher shall begin with those things nearest the child in her excusions into the past and before she is done shall establish again points of contact with the present. The past is to be presented as the past, taking the child back over past centuries by first placing him in contact with that past by means of things familiar to him or his present environment. 19 Children in the early grades are mature enough to recognize the element of change in the world, and it is through the appreciation of this fact that we are living in a changing world, that we look for the real values in the study of history. In this II grade, for example, the main points in the development of his community from Indian and pioneer days to the present can be presented in this \\ay. It is the same method which will characterize the work of the next four grades, Til — VI, in which we take as our theme or thesis, the making of tlie Ignited States, basing our work essentially on our first cycle and enlarging upon it by presenting such aspects of American history as how Europeans found our Continent and what they did with it, in the II grade; How Englishmen became Americans, in the IV Grade, taking the story from 1607 on through the Revolu- tion to 1783 ; and in the next year and a half (Grades V — VI A or B), How America came to be what it is today. At this point, taking into account those who complete their Edu- cation with this grade, in order that we may better realize our objective "that there shall be no gaps between the students' knowl- edge and the life he enters upon leaving school." and mindful that lie will soon be saddled with civic responsibilities — we devote one- half year to the study of our government: what it is, what it does for us, and what we can do for it. In the same way, following the same method, and emphasizing throughout the social and economic as well as the political factors involved, we present the survey designed for the Junior H. S. Our great problem here is to adjust our content to the time available. The dcMuands of (he Junior H. S. mean a large number of subjects with a new beginning to the boy or girl, a many sided vicAV of life, nnd it Follows that avo can only ask for three periods a, week. If the'-jo lire supervfsed study periods of 50 — 00 minutes, it means, with the time requirement for work outside the class room, that we ran ask for at best but from 200 to 240 minutes. This makes the se!e'-ti(m of material for this cycle a matter of considerable moment. Thei-e is another phase of the Junior H. S. course which is of interest. The oonimittee is providing an easy transition from the recommeiidations of the Committee of light to the new program. The work of the VI grade which as planned for them may teach the child mUo completes his school work at this point without any sj'ecial i)oints of contact with the present is now transferred to the ^'Ilth orade and carried to 1607. In the Vlllth grade the s;ame kind of work is carried on, thereby enlarging his horizon beyond the limits set by his own country's history, and avoiding that nnrrow provincialism so characteristic to many of our people who leave school at the end of the Vlllth vear. I shall not go into 20 detail as to the IXth year, as that is outside my province, beyond merely saying tJunt here again, anticipat!: j that the reorganization of our schools on a 6 3-3 or a 6-6 basis will hold boys and girls witliin the school for at least a year longer than before. We plan •)t this j)oint for a fours;*' wlitr']! '•<>iit:i!iis n(vlin]>s a larger element f civics. Finally, we would wish it nuderslood that we look upon onr pro- posals as rei)resenlir?g minimum essentials. We have selected from thfe field of history those portions that bear directly on this prob- lem. This W'C take it is essentially the ])roblem before tlie State of T*<^'^^^""'vnnia Avith refeiion.oe to the Pori.n1 ^^.-.-'ov. .^... HISTORY AND SOCIAL SCIENCE IN THE HIGH SCHOOL A REOEGANIZEJ) COURSE IN HISTORY AND SOCIAL SCIE^r^T^ 770TJ THE FOT^R YEAR HIOR SCHOOL JESfSIE C. EVANS, William Perm Hi(/h ."School, Philadelphia AIMH OF THE COURSE General Aim: To train citizens v^ho are not only intelligent mem- bers of modern socie'^v ^"'*' ■"'" •■^i'-'o -..--i- im ...vvo 1^:. ;-;,-:.K,!.nity. Subsidiary aims: (1) To enable the boys and girls to appreciate tlio jtresent social order. (2) To make Ihem uiiderstand that this social order i>; the result of development. (3) To give them ideals of service i inmunity. (4) To help them to f(.rm habits of co-operative citizenslii]). (5) To prepare them for a wise use of leisure time. 1'Ki^L'iri.hiS U-\ WnlLil iili:. <:uLii^r. >-//fj( iJJ JU] BUILT Hi To make each unit of v?lr» h^ itsolf, not luoiely an iistrodiic- tion to another unir (2) To give the most innnediate values first, not last. (3) To build a logical sequence of units, each one more advanced than the last. 21 FLAX OF THE COURSE The ideal course for the social Mciences (including History) should cover four Aears of required work of four periods per week. In a'ldi'.ioii ihero should be offered at least two years of electives. Dth (rraile. ''Vocatioual" or ''Economic" Civics, one half j^ear and "Community" Civics, one half year or "Vocational' Civics one year, if "Community'' Civics is given in the 8tli '"■■-'■ lOtli Grade. lOuropean Ilisto^^^ 11 til Grade. Advanced American Historv. 12th Graile. Problems of Democracy. y (Current Topics. lnter])retation of current events should accom- pany every year of Ihe course. Electives. Contemporary Europcau History. History of the Brit- ish Empirie. Ancient TTistory. rniJ TEACHER AVhether or not Ave achieve the aims outlined above is entirely dependent upon the teacher. The first and last requisite 4n a course of training for citizenship is a teacher well grounded in history and the social sciences and having the spirit of the new kind of citizen- ship. Distributing the iiuits to anybod,y with a spare hour will defeat even' purpose. 2. NINTH GRADE CIVICS EDWIN W. ADAiMS, Superintendent of SchooU, Radnor Township It is indeed gratiiyiiig to iiio:e of us who iiaxc cr^'ji active during tlie past ten years in the attempt to develop and put into the curricu- lum of the public schools a course of study in Civics, to find that it has at last been so fully recognized as to win a definite place on the program of so important an educational congress as the one we are attending. The admirable courses which have been presented by Mr. Dunn and Dr. Barnard covering the entire elementary school course and the first two years of the Junior High Rchool, deser\e th;it there should be no falling off in effectiveness of purpose and worthiness of aini iu the culminating yea: " ' Junior High School. 22 I desire to assure you at the outset that the course which 1 am presenting to you is by no means an "arm chair" course but that it has been worked out in the hot fire of actual class room experi- mentation. Presupposition, — There are certain presuppositions which I desire to set down before presenting to you the general plan of the course itself. Tn the first place, I am presupposing a school organization based upon the six-three-three plan and that the ninth grade is to be considered as the third year of the Junior High School. Again, T must take for granted, a course of study in the elementary grades and first two years of the Junior High School which is continuous and cumulative, such as that which has already been presented to you. I should desire also that we consider such a course as having made provision for vocational guidance in the last half of the sixth grade and for a study of the elements of community welfare in the seventh and eighth grades. I shall also insist that the course pre- supposes a strong and well equipped teacher who has a civic point of view and is capable of putting over to the pupils, the ideas and ideals involyed in the course. General Theme, — The genera] theme which has been selected for the work of the year may very properly be called Indiistrial Civics, or, if we care to be more specific. Industrial and Vocational Civics, with an economic and social background. I would venture to sug- gest, however, that while the title may seem to be high sounding, we are, nevertheless, dealing with the same problem which has con- cerned us in the past eight years, that is. Community Civics. Aims, — I shall attempt to list some of the aims which seem to mc to be most fundamental in determining both the nature of the cou- tent materia] of the course and also the method which is to 1»c used in its presentation. 1. To develop in tlie mind of the child an appreciation of the industrial basis of the communities of which he is a part — local, state and national. 2. To malce clear some of the fundamental economic and sociolo^ ical principles which underlie modern business and to make througli these for an appreciation of the social and economic problems of everv^ day life. •S. To develop in the mind of the pupil a proper pride in his local community, liis state and the nation, liecause of the service which eacli renders through its industrial organizations to the individual, his fellow>-. and in world relationship. 23 4. To direct the attention of the in\\nl toward tlie various occu- pations and pursuits which lie open to him. not only in the present with his limited capacity, but in the future when his personal talents may have been developed. 5. To make evident to the pupil the necessity of continuing his education so that he may become a more intelligent worker, more contented, and, therefore, more happ,y in his vocation, a leader in thought and in action, in his community and a force for social righteousness, in brief, a better citizen. Content, — The material for the content of the course is to be found in the industrial and vocational activities: first, in the local community, then reaching out through gradually broadening circles into state and national communities. To be more specific, let me enumerate a few of the points which seem to me to be fundamental from the standpoint of content. I. Industries — The list of industries presented in the course would comprise those which have played a part in giving each of the com- munities its present position of importance as an industrial com- munity, and also those industries which are of leading importance in various sections of the local community, the state and the nation. The number of such industries as might be enumerated in a definite course of study would, of necessity, be very long. This multiplicity of topics, however, instead of complicating the work of the teacher should result in simplyfying it. Comparatively few of the indus- tries could possibly be treated in the course of the school year. From this list, the teacher would select, first, those, which, because of the immediateness of contact, would be the natural point of approach and, second, those which, while of vital importance to the eommtmity life, touched it rather indirectly. Then too, tlie value of the particular topic in the attaining of the aims of the course, would also aid in determining the selection. IT. Occupations — Any worth while study of an industry will, of necessity, make mention of many of the occupations v/hich are found within tlie industry. It is here that the direct application of the study of the industry will be made to the needs of the indi- vidual. It might be well, at this point, to indicate that not only the strictly industrial occupations are intended, but also commercial, professional and others. III. Economical Princi])]es Uuderlying Industrial Society — Much of the work suggested for this grade is a continued and more advanced presentation of the topic of Wealth which has been treated in a very simple manner in the eighth grade. Here we are 24 - conceiiied witli the principles underlyiiis, — productiou, distribu- tion, and consumption of Wealth. Problems such as those would arise under a discusssion of the sources of Wealth — land, labor, angi'ai)hy, <•!• economics or sociology but as problems in citizehsiup. 11 is uo( jntonded, by any moans, tbiit Die work be merely a stmly of particnlnv industries and occupatioEs. It is not a preparation for a voratiou. It is not tlie acqniring of information. It is intended as a i" uiatter to give instruction, in the subjects listed, if the obj' instruction were the mere acquisition of information. The difficuUy. li.'wever, lies in the fact that we are attempting to develop a pomt of view, an attitude of mind, a civic consciousness. The crux of the situation lies in the teacher. If our ends are to be attained, the !e;u-her must be an intelligent, broadminded, far seeing citizen with ;i civic ])oint of vioAv, capable of inspiring our boys and; g:rls witli the desire for rendering a real service to themselves, and to tlieir fellow Citiz^'n"^ in tl*'^ Irwpl r'nii"'iini?Ti-i'-\' in +]'p t'f'i+o •T'lil in flm nation. In concliisitMi may I preseni the four words which I believe ni;'.v be taken as representative of the dominating ideals of civic instruc- tion as we find it developing today for the twelve years. First moi'ality; second, service; third, coopcration^; fourth, leadership. As the course is inductive, 1 believe that we must find in the iipper years of the Junior High School and in tli« Penior High School as -'! whole, all four of these ];rinciples, but that we must rely on our Senior High Rrhool for tli-:> -'-'i>rr!cnt of the r^.;! lead'^r;-^ of r'^rht, 26 civic thought and action in our communities. And it therefore behooves us to exercise every; possible care that the boys and girls who possess qualities of leadership be urged, encouraged, and assisted in every possible way to continue their education that they may develop into the highest possible type of good citizen. A TOPICAL COT'RSE IN UNITED STATES HISTORY FOR THE LATTER PART OF THE HIGH SCHOOL COURSE J. MONTGOMERY GAMBRILL, ColumUa University , N. Y. All history courses should be topical. There is a place in the earlier grades for studies' primarily intended to give simple story, atmosphere, familiarity with persons and events, interest, and the like; incidentall}' there should be throughout the twelve years of school collateral reading that is selected chiefly for such ends. But from the earliest attempt to organize a connected course to show development, the progress of a society, a topical treatment is essen- tial to adequate results. Only by intelligent grouping can the relation of details to larger movements, as well as the influence of these movements of change upon each other and upon the whole course of development, be indicated. It does not follow, however, that the topical ti'eatment should be the same for all courses in a given field. On the contrary there can and should be graded progress within the subject, just as there are stages of advancement in mathematics or French. The grading of history with reference to the maturity of the pupil has been admir- ably treated by Professor Johnson ("Teaching of History-, ch. u), who shows that "Particular facts relating to external conditions and activities are plainly the A B C's of history * * * » » Advanced history is history presented in the form of general con- cepts." There is progress from "concrete examples" to "collective or general facts." Another kind of advancement may follow this ])rogress described by Professor Johnson, however, an advancement based upon increasing mastery of the materials as well as upon ability to grasp general facts. What can be done in the latter part of the high school will depend upon what has been done in the pre- ceeding grades. What kind of progress is desirable as well as possible? should be the next question. The educators of today are more and more insisting that history should be so taught that it may assist one in 27 iijulerslanflinjf the society of which he is a part, and contribute to his ability to attack the problems with which that society must (leal. Some extremists propose that the ordered study of historical development be abandoned entirely in favor of an incidental study of the "back-ground" of particular problems that arise in connection with "projects" In civics, geography, industrial arts, or current events. Such a phm would sacrifice the distinctive contribution which history has 1o make to education — the conception of an ever- changing society in which the various factors of influence (economic, social, political, geographic, personal, etc.) are intimately related as parts of one complex whole. It would inevitably leave informa- tion scrappy and impressions confused, as to how our modern world came to be as it is. At the same time it must be admitted that if history is to have a practical value for citizenship aside from the general conceptions and attitudes that it may create, a usefulness for attacking, particular problems that confront the citizen, the demand will come in connection with particular problems like for- eign relations (or more specifically, the Monroe Doctrine, say), pro- tective staff, political parties, labor problems, transportation, or some phase of social reform. There are, in fact, two sets of aims, both desirable, both essential to the best practical training that tbe subject can offer. There should be a conception of society developing (changing in some ways for the better and in some for the worse) and of the inter-relations of all the varied activities of man; but there should also be ready knowledge of the facts about origins and development behind par- ticular current situations and problems, the habit of using this mode of approach, and the ability to do it efficiently. These two things cannot be adequately done in the same course in the same year (at least with present time allotments), though much can be accomplished by an intelligently planned series of topical reviews at the end of the course. But they can be accom- plished when the same field is covered successively in different years. American history is now taught both in the elementary and the secondary school, usually for several years in all. The pro- posals of the new Committee of Eight provide for American history in grades III to VI (preceded by local history), and for considerable if not dominant attention to that field in connection with the world survey suggested for grades VII-VIII. Even with less extended study of the American field in the earlier grades, is it not wasteful to go through the same old type of general survey and epitome in the last year of the high scTiool? It is a well known fact that chil- dren weary of this endless repetition, reviewing in a little more mature way the same old material. 28 Real progiv's.s might be made both in knowladgw of history aad in ihe practical value of liistorical study for civic education, not to mention fresh interest and enthusiasm, if in the several cycles there were introduced not only some new topics but radically different organizations of the field. It should be possilde to |ssume by the end of the higfi school course that the pupil has some useable knowl- edge of the general story of American history, of its main charac- ters and events. A general familiarity, even in the absence of inti- mate or thorough mastery, would suffice as a basis for new modes of attack in the field. The earlier work should, moreover, provide a topical groupiiTg around interpretative themes within the large periods into which the whole development natural!}' falls, -thus revealing the relations of men and events to the main tendencies of the times. Upon such a foundation could be built a final course devoted exclusively to topics, eitlier large or small, running through- out the whole field necessary to study completely their origin anhicl! it will be most serviceable to study intensively in the genetj oposed. Can the work be done most profitably with rather largo to]>ies, like "Economic and Industrial Develop- ment," "Fore';j:i IR'lations," "Progress of Democracy/' "The Ameri- can People," Mcrican Ideals," or much smaller units like the development nortation inventions, tarifl", political parties, domestic con;; . . . i oreign commerce, money and finance, immigra- tion, trusts, the Monroe doctrine? Each plan will have its advan- tages and disadvantages, and in eitlier case the overla[»ping will be t'udless, more .so in the American field than in any other perhaps. ?Iy own preference would be for a study based primaril}' on a few large topics, perhaps six to ten ; folloAved by, or perhaps accom- panied by, studies of the smaller, specific probh'uis orowiiio' out of regular classroom v;ork with current events. TJie subject is no't one that justifies dogmatism. It needs a good deal of careful study of tlie materials and carefu.lly-planued, prop- erly controlled experiment in the classroom. It must be realized that a topical course for the latter part of the high school cannot be safely planned by itself, but only v/ith reference to what has gone before, and consequently it may become necessary to intro- duce such courses gradually until properly prepared students are ready to realise the full possibilities. With such precautions, it seems to me that the case is very strong for such a topical course as has been suggested. If intelligently carried out it promises to 20 improve markedly the actual knowledge of the subject, and definitely to increase its value for civic education by developing the habit of viewing current i^roblems in relation to their historic background and the equipment for making the studies of the citizen efficient. 4. THE SOCIAL SCIENCES IN THE 12TH GRADE EDGAR DAWSON, Hunter College, N. Y. AN ABSTRACT. I take it that the problems of democracy may be, in the main, economic and sociological; and that our organization of the com- munity for their solution is a matter of politics, government of political science. For I shoidd define political science as the state ment of our systematic knowledge of the best methods of organiza- /tion through which public opinion, the popular will, nmy be expressed in public administration. Most of our urobleras of democracy are age long problems; and our teaching of Them should leave in the mind of the pupil the fact that, while they niay not be insoluble, we must be patient with the efforts being made for their solution. He must bo- trained to reserve his judgment, to seek information, to organize with others in the formation of opinion, to distrust the cocksure demagogue and soap-box orator, to trust the expert and the scholar, to look back into historj' for similar phenomena to those of liis day and learn lessons from the past. rt has been recommended that we ask for a whole year of required economics and a whole year of American history and government. This seems to me an impracticable proposal. In the first place, the committees who are studjang the matter of organization of the high school are disposed to put the American history into the 11th srade. In the second place, it seems a little unreasonable to ask lor two-fifths of the ]jupils tinie in the 12th grade for the social studies, and other departments will become justly i)ii]>atient of us if we seem to them to be grasping. In the third place, it is likely that one year of four or five periods a week vrill ])rove to be enougji to state our case if our teachers are trained and if our work is well organized for purposes of efficient instruction. 30 The year devoted to the social studies should be divided about in two, the first half being given to problems of economics and sociology; the second half to methods of organization. But there may be two opinions about this method of arrangement. Some ask that the problems and the organizatio.n be taught together. While J cannot see the wisdom of this arrangement, I believe that the trained teacher who believes in it had better follow his own bent in the matter. Among the subjects to be taken up in the first part of the year, whether this part overrun the half or not, would be first, our resources of land, forests, streams, minerals, and the like; second, our industrial organization and the problems of labor supply and organization, the problem of the health of the worker and his safety, the problem of credit and capital ; third, our facilities for transpor- tation and communication, with the problems of monopoly control, rate adjustment, and the like; fourth, our facilities for education and our methods for their improvement; fifth, our arrangements for the care of those who cannot or will not care for themselves. These problems are mentioned, of course, merely to illustrate the sort of material that should be placed in this first part of the year. They should be taught as a matter of information, it is true, and every citizen should be informed about them ; but the main use to be derived from the teaching of them is the appreciation by the' pupil of the difficulties of modern society, its complexity, our need of the wisest organization obtainable and of * the best trained experts that we can produce. In the second half of the year, or somewhat less than half, we come to the organization of the community for purposes of coop- eration in the solution of these problems. Here, I maintain, the basic principles of political science can be taught and that with great profit. We should teach first the principles j^f our govern- ment in so far as these principles are sound, — the efficacy of rep- resentative institutions, confidence in law and its administration even when its administration does not reach the point of super- human perfection, willingness to support the system- of private property as the best means of stimulating energy and constructive economic thought; but we should not be satisfied with teaching things as they are. The science of politics tells us that much of our organization is defective having been based on the now dis- credited theory of the separation of powers. Our scholars in this 'field are in almost absolute agreement on certain changes that should be made in our governments, — particularly those of the states and cities. The proposals for these changes are based in the most careful study and analj'^sis of political experience; and they should be taught in the schools. Among them are the short ballot, 31 executive budget, departmental organization in the state and city governments with consolidation of our numerous boards, commis- sions, and other loose ends of irresponsibility and extravagance. It is useless here to go into any discussion of the content of such a course, and time is not available for it; these topics are mentioned only to illustrate the contention that the soundest principles of democratic organization should be taught in the last year of the high school. The graduates of the high schools are to be our leaders. The college and university get so small a proportion of our growing citizens that their output is not sufficient. We must depend on the work of the high schools to put into the public mind the main principles that we want incorporated in our public life. If we want the executive budget it must be taught in the high school and if we do so teach it will come even though it may be slow in doing so. But to recur to the first part of the year, we cannot interest the pupils in these questions of organization unless we catch their attention with the problems for the solution of which the organization is to be main- tained. This teaching may be made concrete and constructive. It should never be distructive or generally critical. A course in government which does not result in an abiding faith in the future of democracy is a curse, and any teacher who is not an enthusiast for organized representative government should never be allowed to conduct a recitation in history, economics, or government if he can be prevented from doing so. The pessimist and the critic with a disorganized or unorganized mind is a canker in any community, and to make a teacher of him merely helps him to spread his disease. The scholars in the field of government have developed and published a model city charter. A model state constitution is in process of preparation. These documents will not be the dreams of the fanatic or the fragile webs of the theorist; but they will be the result of joint work on the part of careful, trained, practical men, and they will be based on the best experience now available. They should be taught as the basis of our future political thought. The teacher should not teach as political science the opinions of a few. He should be able to difterentiate between what is accepted by a large majority, possibly of all, the scholars in his field, on the one hand, and the proposals of a few on the other. Above all things the teacher should not air his personal opinions to his classes without the most careful statement that they are merely his personal opinions. It is undesirable for him to do so even then, for what we need is citizens who look to generalizations based on cooperative scientific effort, only through such teaching can democracy be made safe from the demagogue^ And so we come to the basic i'act oi ail teaching. The course depends on the teacher; the teacher is the course. To paraphrase a statement made in other connections. If 1 may control the training of the teachers, let anyone who will write the course of study. Give_ us teachers soundly trained in the principles of government and in the problems we have to solve, and I shall guarantee the results. Without such teachers, all the course making is futile waste of time and effort. SOME piiijs^cirLt:s of method i:n teaching history AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES C. H. FISHEK, State Normal School, Went Chester History iov history's sake has no place in the public school system. The impression left upon a child by a fact in history is more im- portant than the fact itself. The changes made in the individual are the fmal test in the teaching of any subject. There has been too much teaching of history and the social sciences for mere historical information and a knowledge^of the machinery of government and of the organization of society. The events of the last few years have shown us that our peop.e have not learned to think in these subjects. The mere amassing of information apart from the direct interests of life will never make anyone think in these subjects. We have set up a dualism between subject-matter and method. We rearrange the content of our courses and then superjmpose method upon that content. It is as though mind and the world of things^ were two separate entitles instead of two parts of the same thing that are acting and reacting upon each other. Dewey says, "Never is method something outside of the material. Method in any case is but an effective way of employing some material for some end. Method means that arrangement of subject-matter which makes it most effective in use." History and social science teachers are guilty of tb.e same fundamental error that Latin and Mathematics teachers commit. They rearrange the content of their courses, change the emphasis of this or that, and improve the methods of instruction, but fail to examine the fundamental aims of High School education that may be promoted by their subject-matter. The first essential in any undertaking is to determine what one wants to accomplish. Then select the materials that will aid in the accomplishment and let the methods be the most effective that will bring about the desired ends. The ends are the fundamental socikl 33 . aiuis of education, namely ethical efficiency, health efficiency, home- making efficiency, vocational efficiency, political efficiency, social service, use of individual leisure, and social intercourse. The psy- chological aspect of the ends sought are expressed in certain controls through which the social aims are to be accomplished. Such controls are ideals, attitudes, appreciation, opinions, points-ofview, vocabulary control, a manj^-sidedness of knowledge control, habit control, and transfer. An analysis of these aims will show little habit control, consider- able vocabulary control, a great deal of many-sidedness of knowledge, but most important of all the great possibilities for the development of ideals, attitudes, appreciations, opiniojis, and points of viev*'. Transfer is possible when the coiiditions of transfer are met. Trans fer can be made reasonably certain because the subject matter of liistory and the social sciences can be related to real life situations. Unless there is transfer to life's activities these subjects are taug\it to no purpose. The analysis shows that those who would stress to the exclusion of all else the social aspects of history, namely, an understanding of the present by the past would eliminate the most important aspects of history, such as, the development of ideals, attitudes, appreciations, opinions, and points-ofview. These latter aims can be realized only in an accumulative way and through an emotional appeal. There must be a careful selection of mateiial and situations that make an emotional appeal. The teaching of a subject like Problems of American Democracy or Civics in the last year of a four-year course will not result in accumulative impressions so desirable for the development of ideals, attitudes, etc. I believe that a careful analysis will show that the mere chronological arrangement of this phase or that phase of history and the social sciences will not result in desirablj aims of education. I would prefer to use the term social science to include history, economics, sociological, political science, civics, and social problems and then disregarding these subjects, as such, select material from>any of these sources that has a reasonable guarantee upon careful analysis of accomplishing the desirable social and psycho- logical aims of education. One might say that there would be no history, economics or sociology left but for this I have no concern. The chief concern is that desirable ends of education may be realized in our citizenship raTllier than that certain subjects should be kept intact. If our people are to learn to think by means of the social sciences then the approach must be such as will make them think. Thinking in- volves a real situation that presents an actual difficulty or problem to the learner. T quote again from Dewey, "The true starting point 84 of history is always some preseut situation with its problems. A systematized branch of know^ledge instead of furnishing a starting point for learning, marks out a consummation." The chronology and logic of the social sciences must give way whenever they preclude the possibility of real thinking. On the other hand chronology and logic are to be retained whenever they serve useful purposes. Out of it all should come principles, chronology, and sequence in so far as they are a desirable asset in one's thinking but as Dewey says this is the consummation and not the starting point. History, economics, sociology and political science as such must be reserved for older and more mature students. A primary obligation rests upon the public* high schools to serve the larger values of education rather than to teach subjects as subjects. While much that has been said may seem to be indefinite yet definiteness is in the background with respect to desirable social and psychological aims of education. More detailed analysis will have to be made than is here possible. Text-books will have to be provided as guides for teachers and along with text-books there ought to be manuals for teachers that would be suggestive of methods. These things could be done only by a consensus of opinion among competent persons, such as, historians, teachers, and educational theorists. ENGLISH (35) m ( aft^ sriU?;rT: LlTEliATl'KE IN SCHOOL ! ) THK AIMS TN TEACHING LITERATURE FN THE ORADES AND HIGH SCHOOLS. VKFA) L. HOMER, ."^chenlci/ Jfiffh iis should books for a secondary school course he selected to attain these ends? The selection should be determined by the range of sympathy and imagination of adolescent minds, be- cause on no other basis can intimacy with books develop. Thought that belongs to maturity is not accessible to inexperience. David caniK)t fight in Saul's armor. A liberal prescribed course from the lOnglish classics has delinite advantages in securing these ends. ( 1 ) It will yield the best body of human experience — social and ethical. (2) It will give the highest types of beauty. (3j It will insure variety of literary types. (4) It will to some extent guard against courses giveri for the i)leasure of the instructor rather than for the benefit of the class. (.")) it will give a common denominator for use of higher institutions. There are also disadvantages to be considered. (I) Being subject to examination, it exalts examination possibilities and sacrifices in- spiration. (2) It hampers instructors in the use of con tempore ry literature (books and magazines). (3) It has a t<^ndency to draw to itself books that are not in the range of adolescent minds — just because they are classics. Balancing these considerations, we may agree to keep a consider- able body of classic reading and to omit certain definite pieces of writing. Omit: 1. Burke's Conciliation in favor of Washington's and Lincoln's writings. 2. Milton's Minor Toenis in favor of selected poems from I'al- grave's Golden Treasury. 3. Carlyle's Burns and, if released by College Entrance Board, Macaulay's Johnson. Substitute familiar essays (Lamb and Stevenson) and contemporary magazine writing. 4. Most literature of the so called formal period: Boswell's Johnson, Pojte, Addison, etc. Read: 1. Old Testament Stories, Iliad, Odyssey, Aeneid. Norse Tales, Song of Roland, Arabian Nights, Fairy Tales and Folk Lore, etc. Cultural background material. 2. Shakespeare and other dramatists: She Stoojjs to Conquer, Rivals. 3. Novels and romances: Ivanhoe, David Copjterfield, Silas Marner, Lorna Doone, Hou^e of Seven Gables, etc. 4. Biography iind Essay: Fraidilin's Aufobiograijliy, Sleveji- son's Travels with a Donkey, etc. .5. Poetry: Tennesson's Idylls, selecteosition. and the lack of oppor- tunity to help students form the linbit of using :\ library. 51 SUBJECT: ORAL ENGLISH (1) ON IMPROVING THE SPEECH HABITS OF SCHOOL CHIL DREN OLIVE ELY HART, South Phihidelphiu Ififfh School The problem ot teaehiug children to speak correctly after they liave readied the high school is largely one of establishing a point of view in regard to habits of speech and of providing dramatic drill in order that right habits may be established. Students must be made to understand that the power to speak well has both a business and a social value. They must be helped to analyze common faults in English until they see that a handful of grammatical errors, some slang phrases and gross slovenliness of enunciation and pronunciation constitute the points of attack. When these fundamentals have been developed chiefly by reports of "overheard conversations'' and of business and social experiences, the way is paved for work. The point of view must be further broadened by insistence upon the fact that "Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth must speak." Another analysis of speech qualities which emphasizes the prime importance of ideas; the necessity for presenting ideas so that they may "get over;" the marvelous power of words to express ideas ; and the imjmrtance of the medium -the voice — through which spoken English takes form, will provide scope for tjie most extensive and intensive work in developing power to speak correctly and effectively. During all the work the best results can be obtained only when there is maintained a core of practice rather than a litany of pre- cepts. Dramatizations of facts to be established, game drills for rules, tag days, speech surveys, conversational conferences, reports of failures, successes, and .schemes for personal improvement, are not mere devices. They are essentials in removing the process of learning to speak well from the recesses of the brain where rules of grammar and rhetoric stagnate, to the tip of the tongue where the give and take of everyday talk must be forced into correct and vital expression. The people who are working most intensively with the problem of helping to train the next generation of Americans to "honor the language of the country as they honor the flag" report progress. What is more, the currents touch from all parts of the country, and there seems to be hope that we may live to walk through the streets 82 • of our cities and lowiis without haviug r>v.v ears assailed as now, with the atrocities which pass lor the Eugiish language in America. The day will not come, however, until the point of attack is not" the high school, but the kindergarten. , (2) THE PKIONENTION AND CORKECTION OF SPEECH DEFECTS- FREDERICK MARTIN, M. D., Director of Speech Improvement, Board of Educatiorh. Neir York "Today I shall s])eak to you upon a topic which should be under- stood by all of us but \^hich is often misunderstood by most of us — that is, the prevention and correction of speech defects. Ignorance of this subject is appalling among those who have the care of chil- dren. T^his is due to the paucity of efficient literature. Parents have been compelled to depend upon misleading advice of friends who would suggest innumerable panaceas, the majority of which but serve to aggravate the condition. The importance of this subject has been brought to the atteutiou of the public lately in connection with the training of men for the army. It was found necessary to reject 10% of the candidates for commissions as officers because of poor articulation. The i^Dints whieli we emphasized at I lie Trainiug Camps. I am sure will be of interest to you. An officer must pos.sess a forceful, commanding voice in order to create the proper morale. This Avas brought to my attention, at Harvard, in the etTect of the voices of the various comnmnders u])on their men and the spirit in which they responded to orders when drilling. Strong, rotund, well delivered commands i>roduccd a fast response, while a jioor delivery evoked only labored actions. So it is with all of us in our daily concourse, it Avill be found that a clear voice, the ability to deliver words so that they can be easily under- stood, will inspire our auditors ■with a better feeling toward us — and a better understanding. Business men recognize that voice is an economic asset and many corporations refuse to employ those suffering from a defect of it. It is necessary that a soldier have a i)ioper development of the vocal chords in order to save his voice when compelled to speak amid the roar and din of the battlefields. This is a point upon which I have been lecturing to school teachers, and one which you would appreciate if you were to come to the Board of Education on 58 1113' office days or to one of our s^wiech (.linics aiul there see the njim- ber of teachers and pupils who sntfer from aphonia because they have never proi»er]y developed their vocal chords. I shall later dwell upon this phase of the work. The, third reason for better speech in the soldier treats the matter from a new viewpoint. Men with well developed speech centres are less liable lo hiliell Shock. The conclusion has been reached that if we develop good strong centres in the brain for speech, we will increase the [nnver and capacity of the other associated cortical areas. Man is ditferentiated from the lower animals by his ability to speak. Speech is the last centre developed in the evolution of the brain and the first faculty lost when we sutler shock in any form. It acts as a keystone to the arch of the brain. This theory was applied in our army work ; and in the development of the soldier, it was deemed necessary to strengthen the speech centres in order to remove the tendeucj' to neurasthenia. We have a Unit at Cape May for the treatment of soldiers who have lost their speech through Shell Shock. It has been found that men with good strong voices and well developed speech centres were less liable to suffer the ill effects of Shell Shock. This principle of the development of the speech centre as the keystone or binding link of the other areas of the brain also applies to the training of the child. If in j'outh we have a pro])er development of this centre, it will help in the proper training of the other associated brain areas such as hearing, memory, color and form. The note of paramount importance which we are trying to impress upon the social mind is that of general speech improvenumt and the prevention of defectvS. In drawing a resume of statistics, it has been ])roven that most speech defects arise during the school age — that is between the years of five and nine. They occur after the child has entered school. There are a great many psychological reasons for this. I do not attribute the fault to the teacher but to the cur- riculum which has neglected to allot sufficient time to this most important subject. We should develop better voices. You can develop good voice production in almost any child unless there is an organic defect or some lesion in the brain. The simplest mode to follow is the daily practice of vocal gymnastics, which will exercise the muscles controlling the vocal chords. If these are brought into play, con- tinually and sufficiently, you will produce the proper voice and a speech which, can be heard. The exercises are built upon the six fundamental sounds: A fas in father), A (as in ate), E (as in eat), AW (as in awning l, <) (as in OH) and 00 (as in food). A manual of exercises built upon these sounds may be obtained by application to the Department of Speech Improvement, Board of Education, New York, 54 In the production of audible speech, it must be remembered that it is* necessary to properly deliver the vowels. When we bring out the vowels we make our words carry. This is a point I give to public speakers and teachers. At the close of the day, when the teacher is tired, the tendency is to tighten the muscles of the face, to close the teeth, to raise the pitch and to force out the words. At such a time, if one will think of the vowels (opening the mouth to let them carry) and lower the pitch, the effect upon the class will be noticeable and the expenditure of nerve power be diminished one- third. THE VOWELS OR OPEN— MOUTH SOUNDS ARE THE VEHICLES OF OUR SPEECH. For example, take the word "vowel." If I say to you "vow-el" you can distinguish the word at a great distance. But if I mouth the vowels (no matter how great the breath force expended), by the time the word reaches the rear of the audience, it might be interpreted as "owl,'* "foul" or many other analogous words. Cliildren in the lower grades who are permitted to continue day by day, the practice of faulty articulation and mumbled speech, grad- ually develop defects which manifest themselves in the competition of later grades. To this add the complexities arising from speech conflict consequent upon difficult studies and we have our major disorders. Correct liaMts of articulation and enunciation are hosed upon scientific principles of production. With daily practice and application of vocal gymnastics and phonic drills, the teacher can soon produce a proper vowel resonance, a clear enunciation and dis- tinct pronunciation. Spoken language is the result of a process of imitation. The only way in which the pupil can attain a faultless enunciation is for the teacher to constitute herself a model from which he must pattern his speech. The proper development of voice — and the speech organs— should precede reading because of the mental conflict in the visualization of his tlioughts. Stammer- ing very often finds its inception in the schools in the pernicious practice of forcing children to articulate words before the areas controlling voice have been properly developed. The brain centres for the production of speech very often do not keep pace with the centres where we form the mental images of words or of written language. The result is that the child will think faster than he can s;)eak. speech conflict will ensue and stammering be engendered. (xreat progress has been made in solving the functional difficulties of the voice. These defects we have divided into five major classi- fications—each of which I shall briefly describe. The classification of speech defects are the following: (1) Stam- mering and Stuttering. (2) Lisping. (3) Lalling and Cognate Defeds, (4 1 Defective Phonatiou and (5) Foreign Accent. Stammeriny and Stutterim/ More noticeable in its manifestations than other defects, because of its many acute phases is stammering. Those suffering with this defect are probably the most neglected class of afiiicted human beings in the world, having received until lately but little attention from either the j»edagogic or medical profession. Stammering, according to its universally accepted meaning in English, is a halting, defective utterance. The sufferer has diflBculty in starting a word or in passing from one letter to another. It is a momentarA^ lack of control of the muscles of articulation in the effort to speak. Often the stammerer will come to an absolute halt, being unable to produce voice. The defect is sometimes accom- panied by irregular spasmodic movements of the organs of the body, often terminating in a partial or serious derangement of the articu- late speech. One form of stammering is commonly known as stut- tering. It is the unnecessary repetition of a letter or a word before passing to the next — as, '*d-d-dog," or ''they-t-they-they went out." For the lack of time I am forced to epitomize my remarks upon this subject of defects. 1 would refer those eager for an exposition of the subject to my article in School Health News, of February, 1019 (Department of Health. City of New York). The cure of stammering is at once complex and delicate. The slightest mistake may interfere with an effective treatment. There must be developed an equilibrium of emotions, a precision of thought and a new liabit of .speaking. The instructor must make a psycho- logical study of every ca.se — treating each as a jtersonal equation. He must induce an attitude of mind, on the. part of the sufferer, which will increase determination and confidence. The habit of stammering is, in itself, sufficient to derange the nerve mechanism, ju-oducing a lack of confidence and excessive inhibition. The result is timidity and mental retardation. Stammerijig is abnormal and conti-ary to the proper functioning of the organs of the body often terminating in a partial or serious derangement of the nervous system which can only be corrected by removing the cause — stam- mering. The stammerer is inharmonious in his being. We must vitalize and harmonize his three elements — mind, body and voice. There is an inability to respond to stimuli because of his imperfect coordina- tion. This sluggishness must be eliminated by quick, snappy response in all gymnastics whether mental, physical or vocal. He ninst acquire control of his speech mechanism. That is a physio- logical (Mire jnst as control of his thought mechanism is psycholog- ical. 56 It is not by the laying of a cornerstone that a building is com- pleted but rather by the careful placing of one stone upon another. So must constant exercise be given to the stammerer until the larynx function normally and the auditory images become fixed. We might summarize such exercises by placing them in six groups: (1) The development of a proper production of consonants and a fast respon- sive blending of initial consonants with the accompanying vowels ; (2) Syllabication; (3) Tongue and Vocal Gymnastics; (4) Silent reading for the study of production and phraseology; (5) Reading aloud before mirrors, to experience visualization as well as new auditory sensation; (6) Conversation while under the control of suggestion. The fallac}^ of the following methods must be studiously avoided: (1) Silence treatments; (2) Breath control; (3) Unusual intonation of voice; (4) Use of synonyms for words that are feared; (5) Rhyth- mic movements of hands or feet when speaking — and in general, anything unnatural which will but serve to make a stammerer feel that he is atypical. ' I would like to impress upon ^ill the fact that the advice given is generic and must be modified to serve individuals. Every case must be regarded as 'a personal problem, for as brains differ, in their thoughts, their reasoning power, their association of ideas, so the defects of speech arising in brains, manifest different reflexes which one must learn to detect per se. Many unnatural mental disturbances enter into the personal equation with which we have to deal. There- fore, when correcting a case, while we are removing the causes men- tioned above, such as juxtaposition of the organs, over-innervation, rigidity, etc., it is vitally essential that we lead the sulfcror inlo ur^v channels of thought, new associations of ideas and a different sid)- conscious control of stimuli. Lisping Lisping is an imperfect production of silibant sounds. A common form of this defect is the protruding of the tongue (lingual pro- trusion) when giving the "s'' sound, saying "thith for "this" or "thithter" for "sister." This is merely a habit and is corrected by rigid supervision on the part of the instructor. The lisper must be taught to discipline his unruly tongue. A system of tongue gym- nastics and a manual of lessons are employed with such cases when referred to our special clinics. Most cases of lisping find their inception during the period of dentition. This must be corrected when the second teeth cctme in by insisting upon an imitation of correct production, with the teacher or parent as a model. St Lulling and Cognate Defects Lulling as the word implies, signifies an acute sluggishness of the lingual muscles when speaking. This defect is rare in the high scho«l but commonly encountered in the elementary grades, especially among mentally defective children. Many of the cases of lalling are given the misnomer, "tongue-tied." However, out of an average hiMidi'ed cases brought to me as "tongue-tied," I find that but one really is. This defect is caused by a lack of co-ordination of the muscles of the tongue and is corrected by tongue gymnastics and the development of a faster response to stimuli. As.sociated with lalling we find many defects such as nasality and nasal twang. Nasality is the emission of too much sound through the nose. Yo.u will find, as a rule, that this has been caused by hyper- trophied tonsils. It may, in exceptional cases, be directly due to a paralysis of the palate but usually is simply the result of improper usage of the ])alate, which is corrected by stimulation and the exercise of raising and loweiing llie uvula, as employed in the Tongue Gym- nastics. Nasal twang is the omission of all the sound through the mouth. In order to have perfect speech the fundamental sounds should issue from the mouth but these must be reenforced by the resonance of the nasal cavities. The child with adenoid growths. (leMected seijtum oi' any interference in the nasal passages, will not be able to use these difi'erent sounding boards and the result is a nasal twang. In such cases lie or she should be referred directly to a s])ecialist. JJcjective Phonation Defective i)h()na1i()U is the improper production of sounds due to slovenly speech and the lack of sufficient training in the proper phonic values. We hear "dat" for ''that," "lidle" for ''little,'' "could- jer" for "could you" and "Witch is Fit Avnoo?" instead of "Which is Fifth Avenue?" There is no organic cause for this. It is merely a habit, which may be easily corrected by drawing the child's atten- tion to his imperfect production of these sounds. In most cases it is the result of environment. He does not properly visualize his words nor is the auditory sense properly developed. It is analygous to his poor spelling. The production of better articulation in speech will develop better spelling. Foreign Accent This is the largest class with Avhich we have to deal in the public schools of our great city. It is the proper understanding of effectual methods for the elimination of this form of speech, which will be a big factor in the present National Movement for the Americaniza- tion of the Foreigner. Continued use of the mother tongue causes a foreign articulation of the organs of speech and a different auditory 56 conception of the vowel sounds. In developing a better habit of speech in these foreigners, Vv'e must always bear in mind sound pro- ^luction and tone variation. From careful study, I liave divided foreign accent into three classes: (1) The giving of improper or false value to our vowels, for example, "Harry" pronounced as though it were spelled ''Hairy," "Morris" as "Mawruss," "out as "aout," "peach" as "pitch" and "apple" as "ep- ple;" (2) Placing stress on the wrong syllable, as "cha rac' ter" in- stead of "char' ac ter," "pi an o'" for " pi an' o" and "or gan' i za tion" for "or gan i za' tion;" (3) The rising inflection at the end of sen- tences. These various forms of foreign accent are corrected by developing a proper production of the vowel sounds, a study of the phonic ele- ments and by a rehabilitation of pitch. 1 have prepared a syllabus on the subject which is now used in our public schools and may be obtained upon application to tlie Department of Speech Improvement, 157 East 67th Street, New York. Before I leave you, I would like to show an interesting case of auditory aphasia. This girl was pronounced deaf and has therefore never developed the thought of speech. She was referred to us by the Red Cross and after a month of sense training we have developed her auditory centres. Words now begin to have a meaning in her life. In her case there is no organic defect but a vocabulary will have to be developed so that she can interpret all messages. The College of the City of New York conducts a Summer Clinic and Course where those interested from any part of the country may receive the necessary training to qualify them to become special- ists in the field of correcting speech defects and general speech im- provement. The methods taught are those employed in the public schools of New York City and adopted by the U. S. Army in its Base Hospitals for the correction of 8])eorh defects in soldiers suffering from Shell Shock or injuries. THE DEVELOPMENT OF BETTER SPEECH IN CHILDREN HELEN M. PEPPARD, Supvrvi^or of Clinics for Hprcch Defects, College of City of New York Too much cannot be said about the influence of environment upon the speech of our school children. Children are natural born imi- tators ; it is through this facultj^ of imitation that speech is learned. Roger Ascham, the noted English scholar, said, "All languages are begotten and gotten solely by imitation. For as ye are use to hear, 59 so ye learn to speak.'' We luiust reineuiher tUat speech is ind a:i inheritauce but an acquired faculty developed through imitatiou. We cau, therefore, understand what a tremendous amount of harm can be done by association with and imitation of a foreign born parent speaking with a foreign accent or a teacher who enunciates in a slovenly manner. In our modern system of education, ujifortunately, a child spends the majority of his time developing the visual sense, due no doubt, to the old fashioned idea that quiet means discipline. Speech is a natural and primal method of expression. What are we doing to develop this speech ? What are we doing to develop the kinaesthetic sense which is the corner stone of speech? There is an old but er- roneous saying, ''Children talk too much !" Rather let us evolve a new slogan, "Children cannot talk too much 1" I>r. Frederick Martin has shown in his work with "shell shocked" soldiers that where you can develop the speech faculty, you secure an easier co-ordination of the other cranial areas. This same theory siiould bo ai)])lied in Ihe education of the ditferent faculties of chil- dren fi'om their reception into the kindergarten. "The child should have the proper production of speech before at- tempting to read," says Dr. Martin. If we study this deeply we will all agree with him. The speech centre should be well developed in the child before giving him the difficult task of reading. This should he done to prevent Speech Conflict arising over the difficulty of co- onlinating the centres which interpret the content of idea of a sentence atid those concerned in the production of voice; also, for the reason, that there is a vast difference in the phonic interpretation of identical groups of letters in the various languages or in the same tiHigue. i made the statement that speech is taught through imitation, I will modify that by saying that speech is taught through imitation as far as possible and that imitation plays a big factor in its de- velopment. However, we have all found in our experience, children who cannot produce sounds through .either direct or indirect imi- tation. It is here that the study of the speech mechanism plays an important part. It is absolutely necessary in these cases to teach mechanically the correct position of the vocal organs for various sounds. A large percentage of Stammering is due to the lack of knowledge of the exact position of sounds. Dr. Martin, therefore, has arranged a regular system of exercises to be used in all classes of the public schools of New York City. Their aim is to develop better voices and prevent speech defects as well as to eradicate any existing defects. The following is a brief outline of these exercises : Breathing exercises done responsively ; Corrective exercises done vigorously and responsively; 60 Tongue gynuiastics practiced before mirrors to secure better co-ordination of the lingual muscles arid a fast response to stimuli ; Vocal gymnastics aid to secure: Voice support or proper lung poAver. Development of the vocal organs. Correct sound ])roduction and tone ])lacem{'ut. A full, rotund, open-month delivery. These exercises should be practiced standing. The combinations (aha, ahaee, etc.) should be given on (me breath as though each gr-.tup formed a word. (Note: The a used in these exercises is that in tliH vrord make, t ah, a, ee, oh, oo aha, aee, eeaw, awoli, ohoo ahaee, aeeaw, eeawoli, awohoo ahaeeaw, aeeawoh, eeavvolioo ahaeeawoh, aeeawohoo ahaeeawohoo, aeeawohoo ooohaweeah. (3) EN(iLlSH 1\ THE J (JNIOK IlKiH SCHOOl. TnOS. ][. BKIGGS, Cnltniihia r'nivrrsilij A. General purposes of the jrmior high school are conceived as: 1. To explore by means of material in itself worth while the inter- ests, aptitudes, and capacities of the pupils, and to reveal to them the possibilities in the major fields of learning. 2. To teach pupils to do better the desirable activities that they will do anyway. 3. To reveal higher types of activities and at the same time to make them both desired and to an extent possible. 4. To integrate society by teaching a common body of knowledge and ideals, and to differentiate education for individuals according to probable needs. B. Literature 1. The worth of a piece of literature to an individual is proved by the extent to which it elicits from him a satisfying emotional response. The success, therefore, of the selection and teaching of any piece of literature may be measured by the extent to which pupils desire more of the same kind. The school must begin'on the pupil's aesthetic level, however low that may be, and build up gradually. <3l 2. The junior high school must not neglect current books and maga- zines. It should be particularly concerned to develop the power of discrimination between the varying degrees of good material and to leach good habits of silent reading. 3. Worthy literature should be taught so as to contribute even more than aesthetic appreciation. It should give to pupils a. variet}' and breadth of lite bj- means of vicarious ex- periences ; b. interpretation of various phenomena of life, both subject- ive and external ; c. preparation for probable futnre expiM-iences by ideals and , attitudes. Kecoramendation of cycles centering on dcsiied ideals — e. g., of heroism, friendshij), loytilty, j);itriotism, etc. 4. The stndy of literatnre should be for the most part extensive, with occasioiml intensive analyses of sliort classics; better the one (iominant point from twenty masterpieces lh;iii iifly points from one. The extensive plan of study should a. build up a bod^' of integrating common knowledge and ideals ; b. teach young people to do better the kind of reading that they are likely to do later; c. reveal a wide field from which selections may be intelli- gentlj'^ made later; d. result in a background for future more specialized study. 5. If the pupils have not already learned, the junior high school should give them systematic instruction in silent reading, that they may read rapidly with definite purpose evaluating, organizing, and supplementing the material for a worthy end. 6. The school should make possible oral expression, with provi- sions for definite improvements where needed, in dramatic work and in purposeful reading of units considerably longer than now ordi- narily used. C. Composition 1. All composition, both oral and written, should have a motive that seems worthy to the pupils. 2. Composition is best taught by problems rather than by assign- ments of isolated and unmeaningful fragments of a logical organiza- tion. The four fonnal tyi»cs of discourse arc impoitant only as a means to an end. 3. Subjects Should be drawn chiefly from the pui)ils' experiences and interests outside the English class. The other fields of school work should be drawn on frequently, partly to secure good subject- matter, partly to improve expression there, and partly to emphasize the idea that good English is of general worth. 62 4. Besides an impelling motive, each composition should be de- veloped to improve some definite form on rhetorical principle. 5. Emphasis shoullaced upon the unclassified mass of sensations provided from day to day in the press. The weekly and monthly magazines are, of course, much more depend- able. Nowhere, however, can the reader surrender the right to the exercise of cool judgment for comparisons of opinions and sources. Pupils should be taught to read periodicals with discrimination. They should also be taught to read them with economy. It requires both skill and self-control to dispose of the morning paper with thor- oughness and suitable dispatch. The temptation to read on and on because of the seductive style employed is very great. One speaker has recentl}'^ referred to the process as "taking one's daily dope." It is indeed often little better than a drug habit. A sane, conservative practice, then, should be developed — a practice while not discarding the daily paper, does not permit it to become a master or to occupy more than a legitimate portion of one's time. In the case of the weekly and monthly magazines there are the complemental problems of the selection of the magazine and also the selection of what shall be read in it. To these should be added the third problem of how to read an article so as to get the main points and to remember them. The fact is that at present the almost uni- versal practice seems to be to read the magazine for pastime. Some of them certainly should be read for this purpose, but others should be read for the stimulation of serious thought and for the acquisition of worth while information. This requires analyvsis and memory. It requires concentration and it requires reasoning and judgment. At present these are but slightly exercised. The crowning task of the teacher of periodicals in school is to train pupils to read. This means training in what to read and in how to read it. The use of periodicals will probably increase rather thar decrease. Their influence is at })resent beyond all measurement and growing. Let the English teacher, therefore, rise to his opportunity 67 and train young people in the grammar grades and the high schools to select and use current literature with intelligence and discrimina- tion. The future of the republic depends to a verj' large extent upon his doing so. (2) TEACHING PATRIOTISM IN ENGLISH CLASSES IN THE HIGH SCHOOL J. D. MA HONEY, West Pliiladelpliia High School for Boys Abstract of Address. Before discussing the teaching of "Patriotism" it is really neces- sary to liave some definition of the word itself agreed upon. It would seem to me that, no matter what the final manifestation of patriotic ideals may be in either sentiment or action, it may be asserted that the basis of patriotism lies in a sincere love for those who, with us, make up our nation and live in our country. This naturally leads to the constant desire to have all of us live well and truly as individuals, and to have us deal collectively as a nation in an honorable and truthful way with our neighbor nations. In order that any citizen nuiy exercise patriotism to the advantage of his country, it is necessary that he shall have: first, a genuine feeling of regard and charity for his fellow men ; second, a sufficient knowledge of facts to form a basis for judging what ideas, proposi- tions and courses of action he should support ; and third, a sufficient training in the ability to think logically in order that he may be able to judge intelligently upon such a basis of known facts. In aiming at having pupils in the high school acquire these three qualities so necessary for enlightened patriotism, the English class undoubtedly may play an important part. First. By the reading of good literature in which is embodied the spirit of love of country and in which is inculcated the principles of broad human charity and good will to his fellows, the pupil will develop the basic and impelling sentiment. T^vo things should be avoided in the clioire and conduct of such reading. We shoidd shun all literature wiiich is narrow and intolerant in character and which tends to breed allegiance to one's own country by means of building up hostility towards and suspicion of neighboring peoples. The atti- I; tude of the German people in our recent great war should teach the danger of such schooling if it teaches anything. Reading also should not be forced and made artificial by constant explanation and an- alysis. It should be "reading" not "study." Literature cannot be studied by high school pupils — at least not without ruining literature. 68 Second. The leadiug of all literature and the discussion of all subjects in the P]nglish class room, by choice of material and conduct of class, should aim at having the student constantly desire and seek to know the truth about all things. The chief means of developing this seeking for truth, however, is in the lield of composition and rhetoric. The ability to understand that a sentence is a logical statement which must hold water is the true beginning of an educa- tion which will withstand illogical and falsely emotional propaganda. The constant drill in vocabulary, entailing the knowledge of what a word means and the ability to define its meaning in a way that really defines will lay a basis of truth-seeking that will last through life. Third. The training in English composition should seek to have the student draw sensible conclusions from known facts. It is in advanced compositioji involving Ihe essa}' in written work and the debate in oral Englisli, that this way be \^'(u•ke»« social and community relationships. 77 f n these fields the following type problems are suggested : 1. Natural environment: identification of plant and ani- mal forms, soil and study, seasonal calendars, earth forms, stars, etc. In brief every aspect of nature that is met in the child's local environment. 2. The Child and his relation to nature: Phenomena of Iieat, light, sound, electricity. Home science problems, man's occupations, plant and animal inter relationship. .'i. The child's pergonal and community relationsTiips: water systems, community sanitation, health control, fire prevention, conservation. 111. How assign suhject matter to the curriculum? The subject matter will not change from Grades 1 — 10. However, the point of view will be adjusted to the needs and interest of the developing child. These points of view are illustrated in the following points or themes: Grades 1— 3: The natural environment. Grades 4 — 6: The work of the world. Grades 0—10: Community and social sciences. CONTENT OF THE COURSE IN GENERAL SCIENCE LUCY L. W. WILSON, Principal, South Philadelphia High School Aims must determine the content of courses in general science. When we decided this morning that our object was to do our bit towards developing intelligent citizens with initiative, power to sus- pend judgment, a sense of responsibility, and the ability to cooperate with others in making a better Avorld for every one, then we out- lined the courses of study and the method of teaching it. Yet Dr. Clark tells us that her content varies constantly, and we know that a course in general science for city schools ought to differ from that for rural schools. Why this paradox? When general science came into existence a dozen years ago, teachers of science criticized each new text book as it appeared from the standpoint of content. They felt that no one book offered the necessary all-around course. In some too much emphasis was placed upon physics, in others on biology. Now that smoke of battle has cleared away, we can see clearly that this is as it should be. Only in rural communities can plants and animals equal in importance physics and hygiene in the immediate life of the child. 78 To accomplish the aims to which we have subscribed, the subject matter must be choseu from the child's environment, organized round his needs and interests and reach out and function from them into the community and world. The methods used must be various and varied. But it is imperatively necessary that the children should see problems, carry out projects and gather information. These things take precedence over the question of demonstration, laboratory work and text books. Quite naturally the content of a science course centers in the home, the school, the community. Such topics as heating, ventilating, lighting the home or school; electricity in home or school; house plants and musical instruments; home and school gardens, birds, poultry raising and bee keeping f the trolley, locomotive, automobile, steamships, submarines and aircraft; community water, milk and food supply; contagious diseases; conservation of forests and birds, and even moving pictures are some of the topics from which we may select our course. RECOMMENDATIONS OF COMMITTEE ON SCIENCE Aims and purposes of General Science adopted from report on "Reorganization of Science in Secondary Education," embody the consensus of opinion of this conference and are quoted as follows: A. To acquaint a pupil with his environment to the extent that he recognizes its scientific reaction upon himself and his possible con- structive reaction ujwn him. To make each pupil an immediate factor toward 1. Improvement of the health of the nation and its individual members. It is important that all who are sick be cured, but it is more important that all people be so tough that they may not be- come ill. Dissemination of the basic principles of personal hygiene and public sanitation should be one of the first tasks of General Science. Also propaganda against loss of life, by avoidable accidents. 2. Improvement in standards of home membership. General Science touches the efficiency of the home and life within the home at every angle and should render definite service toward the proper organization, use, and support of home life. These services apply not only to those who have the care of the home and the children within it, but to any member of the family who may be called upon to make repairs to the heating and ventilating system, to adjust electrical appliances, or to do any of the many things which are concerned in making an effective and useful home. There are many 79 conveniences which science has devised to make the modern home comfortable and attractive, and science knowledge is required for their proper use. These activities should be definitely associated with better ideals regarding modern home life. 3. Elevation of the Standards of Citizenship. Individual members of society need to have intelligence, responsibility and connection of obligations regarding the things with which the members come in contact. Modern society should use the truth and appliances of science constantly. Science is indispensable to those who are to be of most service as citizens. The variety of scientific truth and appli- ances used by society necessitates a wide range of subjects to be covered in General Science. 4. Elevation of Ethical Character of Pupil and Community. Ethical Character. It is believed that science studies assist in de- veloping of ethical character by establishing a more adequate con- ception of truth, and in it the laws of the cause and effort. Nature exacts her penalties upon those who disobey her laws and gives legi- timate returns to those who obey her and use them. It cannot be claimed that science study will cure all tendency to divergent ethics, but along with other studies which exalt the truth and establish laws, science should make an important contribution by developing a method of work which may be used in studying the one ethical rela- tion of subjects other than science. Ultimately ethics should be based upon scientific conceptions and producers. B. General Science should develop specific interests, habits and abilities. A large amount of experiences of this sort has been lost in the home training of pupils, experiences which they formerly obtained through the duties, responsibilities and activities of a more self-contained and autonymous ^ome life. This deficiency the school is called upon to meet in a greater and greater degree. Science work properly con- ducted sliould give each pupil a varied contact with actual materials. This sort of experiencing is markedly different from the sort which he gets through books, diagrams, comparisons, and other symbolic materials Avhich make up the content of most subjects of study. Science study then possesses a peculiar value by reason of the ex- perimental work it involves in providing personal experience. To pro- vide the desired actual quality, the materials must have a real sig- nificance in the lives of the pupils. C. General Science should give informational value. Science study should give the pupil control of a large body of facts and principles of significance in the home, school and community, and should build up an intelligent understanding of the conditions, institutions, de- mands and opportunities of modern life. This knowledge should be 80 of (liieet assistance iu enabling the pupil more intelligently to select I'uture vocations or courses of stud3^ The value is not only in the facts and principles but also in the measure which they represent ]>oints of view, deepened and intensified powers of insight, methods of procedure, points of departure for new attempts to reduce a wider range of facts to order. Science Curricula The science curricula to be recommended will vary with the type and environment of the schools. Each year's work should be so outlined that it will give the best training without reference to whether the pupils take courses in science. Many schools will need to make adjustments of an adopted sequence, so that it may best serve the school's particular constituency. The committee has out- lined sequences for the following types of high school: A. The four year high school of the large composite type with adequate teaching staff and equipment, usually enrolling over 500 pupils. B. The four-year high school of medium size, usually enrolling from 200 to 500 pupils. C. The small high school of 200 or fewer pupils. D. The junior-senior high school combination. A. The large composite jour-year high school The conditions usually prevailing in these schools make possible a wide differentiation of science courses since they are likely to be enough pupils of special interest to constitute adequate classes in ditterent lines of science work. In such a four year high school the following plan is recommended: 1st year — General Science. 2nd year— Biological Science — general biology, botany or zoologj'. 3rd and 4th year — Differentiated curricula to meet special needs and interests as follows : a. Physical Science — Chemivstry and Physics. b. Domestic Science, with additional elective courses in Houseliold Chemistry and Physics of the Home. c. Agriculture — two year course — Farm crops. Animal Hus- bandry, Farm Management and" Economics. d. Elective courses in General Geogi'aphy, Botany, Zoology, Physics, Chemistry. 81 B. Four-year High School of Medium Size 1st year — General Science. 2nd year — Biological Science — general biology, botany or zoology. Jird year — Chemistry, witli emphasis on the home, farm and indnstries. -1th year— I'hysics, or elective courses, 3rd and 4th year in Domestic Science. Agriculture, or General Geography. C. Small High School 1st year — General Science. 2nd year — Biological Science — general biology, botany, or zoology. 3rd year — Chemistry, Agriculture, or Domestic Science. 4th year — Agriculture, Domestic Science, or Physics. D. Junior-Senior High School 7th or 8th year: or both years with three periods per week — General Science. 9th year — Biological Science — General biology, botany or zoology. 10th, 11th and 12th years — Differentiated curricula with suffi- cient advanced courses to meet special needs and inter- ests, as: a. Physical Science — Chemistry and Physics. b. Domestic Science — Two or three year course, with addi- tional elective courses in Household Chemistry and Physics of the Home. c. Agriculture — two or three year course — Farm crops, Animal husbandry. Farm Management and Economics, with additional electives from d. d. Electives in General Geography, Botany, Zoology, Physics, Chemistry. W^ m (82) MATHEMATICS (83) M y\.\ (iENEKAL PKiNCiPLES GOVERNING THE ARRANGE- MENT OF A COURSE OF STUDY IN HIGH SCHOOL MATHEMATICS DAVID EUGENE SMITH, ColumUa University. N. Y. 1. Principle of General Injorniution. That it is tlie right and the privilege of every student to know the general significance of the great branches of human knowledge, among which is mathematics. Current literature, such hand-books as the encyclopedias and the common technical manuals, and the general converse of one's fel- lows require that every citizen of a fair degree of education should come in contact with the elements of mathematics. For this reason an introductory course in mathematics should be required of every student. If the student fails in such work, it would be legitimate thereafter to allow the substitution of a course of equal difficulty in some other line. 2. Principle of Interest. That the student has a right to know the purpose of each course, to feel that it is leading to something worth his while, and to have before him a motive that appeals to him as urging to intellectual activity. 3. Principle of Arrangement. That the work shall be so arranged that each year, and possibly each half year, shall mark a definite stage in the student's progress. Jn other words, if the student drops out of school at any time he should feel that he has accom- plished something definitely worth while up to that point, and not that he has been working on something that might possibly be worth while if he had stayed longer. 4. Principle of Time. Our courses are now so crowded that the element of time is a serious one. For this reason it is doubtful if the large high schools with a rich offering of courses Avill agree to allowing required mathematics to extend beyond the ninth school year. If this shall prove to be the case, we have to consider two plans for the division of time in the general high school course, omitting for the present the question of vocational mathematics of various types. If the three-and-three plan is adopted, say a junior and a senior high school, then the work should be such that at the end of the ninth school year a pupil may know the general significance of Intuitive geometry (form, size, ami posilion of objects, with useful (85) 86 constructions), of useful algebra (the formula, the graph, the nega- tive number, and the equation), of trigonometry (simply for the purpose of knowing how indirect measurements are made by the aid of two or three functions), and of demonstrative geometry (for the purpose of understanding what it means to demonstrate a mathematical truth). All this work should be informational and should be shown to be definitel}^ useful to the general citizen. Where the four-year high school is to be continued, as will be the case in most places for the present, the work of the ninth school year should be an epitome of that of the junior high school as out- lined above. It should be informational, for the purpose of show- ing the general nature of mathematics, opening the door in such a way as to enable the school and the student to decide as to the future work of each individual. Such a plan will make for much better work in the later classes, where mathematics will be elected by those who give promise of success; and it will give to the student a much better idea of the general nature of the science. 5. Principle of Opportunity. That the opportunity of doing much better and more extensive and intensive work in mathematics should be given to those who, at the end of the ninth school year, show promise of benefiting by further study. At present this will probably mean the pursuing of mathematics along the conventional lines. In the future it will undoubtedly mean the offering of more advanced and of better considered work in modern types of mathe- matical study. There is no reason, under such a plan, why the com- posite courses now offered in the freshman classes for many col- leges, or the special courses offered in other colleges, should not be made elective in our larger high schools. 6. Principle of teaching. It is not to be expected that a newer type of course can be at once introduced in every high school. Teachers have to be prepared for any change that is contemplated in any line of work. Such a course, however, while arranged on the plan of seeking for the useful in mathematics, does not in any way discourage the recognition of the disciplinary value of the subject. No one of recognized scientific standing seems to have exi^ressed any doubt of such value, and the 'subject should be so taught as to bring out all such values of the science. 87 FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES UNDERLYING THE COURSE IN MATHEMATICS IN THE SECONDARY SCHOOL AND COLLEGE I. B. BUSH, Superintendent of Schools, Erie The tendency of the age is to test all things. The fact of the exis- tence of a thing for ages is no reason that it shall continue to exist. Ancestor worship is on the wane not only in this country but throughout the world. We are continually discovering newer and better ways of doing everything. Progress is being made daily in the methods of teaching and the selection of subject matter. Courses of stud}' must be in a state of flux. Changes in courses of study began in the schools with the introduction of new subjects, such as manual arts, commercial subjects, fine arts, etc. The spirit of change has gathered such momentum that it will not end until changes have been made in the subject matter of traditional sub- jects. Over against the obstinacy and the conservatism of teachers of traditional subjects is set the movement of those who are deter- mined to fit subjects to pupils rather than to try to fit pupils to subjects. The interest of to-day is in supervised study ; better methods of teaching pupils to think ; in economy of human knowledge and enthusiasm ; in making courses more productive for mental life and growth. Some teachers of mathematics still continue to think that it is a virtue to fail twenty-five per cent, of their classes. Such teachers have no insight into social relations. They have failed to realize that the time has passed when it was the chief duty of the teacher to eliminate what he termed as "the unfit." The time has passed for teaching subject matter to pupils and the time has arrived for teach- ing pupils subject matter. In the Subject of mathematics there must be greater homogeneity of material, a closer and more persistent correlation of matter drawn from the several branches of mathematics. Pupils are most inter- ested in subjects in which practical values are most clearly exhib- ited. Children's minds refuse to act as storage batteries for knowl- edge. The cycle of knowledge is not complete until the knowledge has been used. Four courses should be provided in mathematics; informational courses for those who have but little aptitude for mathematics in order that they may know something of the algebraic processes, geometrical theorems and the trigonometric functions. s 88 An industrial and vocational course that provides subject matter that will function in the particular vocation which the pupil has selected. The correlated course which correlates algebra, geometry and trig- onometry. A course that will fit boys and girls for college. The principles that should govern the selection of subject matter may be stated as follows: 1 — Selection of subject matter that will function in the lives of the pupils. 2 — Motivation of subject matter. 3 — Opportunities should be provided for the pupils to use the subject matter. They should be given an op])ortunity to learn by experience. 4 — A better recognition of vocational needs of pupils. 5 — That it is not the purpose of mathematics to eliminate pupils from school. (2.) A NEW TYPE OF HIGH SCHOOL MATHEMATICS JANE MATTHEWS, Pittshurgh When I obeyed the command of my superior officer to attend this conference, 1 came with an open mind — ready to be instructed not to instruct, as to the new type of mathematics which may well replace the old. The suggestions that I offer, therefore, are not original but have been gleaned from conferences, reading, and experi- ence, and as such 1 pass them on to you. For some years past we teachers of mathematics have had to fight an insidious propaganda against our subject by our friends, the psychologists. They would have the world think from their con- clusions, founded on experiments not in the hands of mathema- ticians, that the cultural claims for our subject were exaggerated and that mathematics no longer had high rank in the curriculum, and therefore, they demanded that less or no time be given mathe- matics in the curriculum. Then came the Great War, and the carp- ing criticism of our enemies have been drowned by its stern call for mathematics, and still more mathematics, to prepare our youth for efticient service. The lesson of the War is, therefore, not less, but more mathematics in our high school courses, for the valuable content of mathematics in its wide-s})i'ea(l usefulness is second only to that of the mother tongue. 89 Since our high school eurolliuents have changed from the few with academic aspirations to the many with varied ambitions, and equally as varieAKY-SCHOOL MATHE- MATICS JODWIX SMITH, Slate VoUcge The minimum requirement in tlie training ol teachers of high-school mathematics should be substantially as follows, in so far as teachers possessing the required qualifications are available: 1. Graduation from a four-year course in a college or university requiring a four-year high school course for admission, or a similar period of stiidj'^ in an institution of the same academic standing. 2. The major subject of the college course should be Mathematics, .md the minor subject should include courses allied and related to mathematics. The major course should consist of Trigonometry, Analytical Geometry, College Algebra, Ditferential and Integral Cal- culus, History of Mathematics, Ditferential Equations, and a course treating of Elementary Mathematics from an advanced view point. The minor courses should be chosen from a group which includes Mechanics, Physics, Surveying, Astronomy and Statistics, and at le-.ist two courses should be taken. o. Two or more courses designed to give the prospective teacher a knowledge of society should be selected from a group including History, Economics, Political Science, Sociology and similar subjects. 4. One or more courses designed to give a knowledge of the indi- vidual, in particular the high-school pupil, should be taken from a group including Psychology, Etliics, Philosophy, and Logic. 5. Three or more courses should be reqiiired from a group including those generally offered in the department or schools of Education in our colleges and universities, in particular such courses as Secondary Education, Principles of Education, High School Administration, History of Education, Educational Hygiene, Educational Psychology rnd Educational Measurements. 94 6. Practice teaching of a class in high-school mathematics in a demonstration school or a good well-organized public or private high ■school for at least one semester. 7. In special cases these minimum requirements should be extended so as to prepare teachers for special groups of students which are found in technical, commercial, vocational, or secondary schools. This special training should, if tlie prospective teacher has not al- ready had the opportunity^ bring him into a knowledge ^of and into a contact with the trade or industry which his students will probably enter. The colleges and universities of the United States offer ample facilities for the training of secondary-school mathematics teachers which I have suggested. No less than forty of the best institutions of the country are offering work along these general lines. The ideal training should require a specialized mathematical course in a college or u^iiversity and this should be followed by at least one year of graduate professional study. The professional study should include original investigation and research in some problem concerning the teaching of secondary-school mathematics. Even with this additional study the standards would be lower than those re- quired of other professions such as Law, Medicine, and the Ministry. THE TRAINING OF MATHEMATICS TEACHERS J. H. MINNICK, University of Pennsylvania The proper training of mathematics teachers can be determined only when we have determined the aims of mathematical education. Without discussing the matter we shall assume that the following are acceptable aims: 1. To give to each individual a means of quantitative adjustment to out-of -school situations. 2. To serve as n means of educational guidance by discovering the child's aptitudes and by showing him the vocations and professions opened by a mastery of mathematics. 3. To develop the child's abilities and capacities. This can be done best only when mathematics is taught in relation to real-life condi- tions. In order that a teacher may realize these aims through mathematics it seems that he should have some such training as that outlined below : 95 I. Mathematical Content: — If a teacher is to present mathematics in its relation to real-life situations he must be able to select and reorganize his material anew to meet the needs of each new problem taken as the center of a piece of work. Out of school mathematics does not occur logically organized subject by subject and page by page. Hence a constant reorganization is necessary. Such teaching demands that a teacher shall be so familiar with the subjects which he teaches that he select and reorganize at will. It will be impossible for any teacher to give a child an adequate view of the opportunities opened to him unless he has knowledge of mathematical subjects far in advance of anj^thing that the child will study. Further, he must have a knowledge of these subjects in rela- tion to their practical applications. Also a knowledge of the part \thich mathematics has played in the development of civilization in giving the child a view of the usefulness of the subject. Hence it seems reasonable that every teacher of mathematics should have a thorough training in the following subjects: Arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry, analytic geometry, calculus, and the history of mathematics. II. Professional Training: — The teacher of mathematics does not work alone. He is a part of a school system and should have a knowledge of the aims and purposes of that system. Also, just as he should appreciate the significance of mathematics in the develop- ment of civilization, he should appreciate the part which education has played in the progress of society. He should also understand the child's mind with which he is to work and the best way of pre- senting his subject to the child. Hence his professional training should include the history of education, secondary education, ele- ments of school administration, educational psychology, special methods in mathematics, and practice teaching, III. Experience in Out-oj ^cliool Life: — If a teacher is to present mathematics as a means of solving problems which the child will meet out of school, then he should have as much experience as pos- sible in the offices, shops, stores, factories, etc. where the boys and girls will find their future employment. Reading about such work will not give the teacher any such real idea of the problems involved I as will first-hand experience. Hence it seems reasonable that every teacher of mathematics should have at least a year of experience in those out-of school activities in which mathematics finds frequent application and that this experience shall be as varied as possible. Within certaiu limits school boards should accept such experience gained ,ersonal and social interests. This leisure, if worthily used, ^\'ill recreate his jjowers and enlarge aud enrich his life, thereby making him better able to meet his responsi- bilities. The unworthy use of leisure impairs health, dis- rupts home life, lessens vocatiomil efficiency, and destroys civic-mindedness. The tendency in industrial life, aided by legislation, is to decrease the working hours of large groups of people. A>'hile shortened hours tend to lessen the harmful reactions that arise from prolonged strain, they increase, if possible, the importance of preparation for leisure. In view of these considerations, education for the worthy use of leisure is of increasing importance as an objective." May the day be hastened when we shall cease the attempt to justify, but accei)t as an unquestionable administrative obligation, the avocational guidance of students in secondary education. The clubs include musical activities — glee clubs and choruses. School Orchestra and a boys' band; the "Pathfinder" staff editing the school paper; athletic organizations of all kinds for boys and girls, organized games, hiking, swimming, and drill clubs, a boys' military club, a girls' relief corps and athletic teams; literary clubs — debating, dramatic, two minute men's club, storytelling and short story club, Watch-j'our-speech club; French and Spanish clubs; patriotic league for girls; camp fire girls auxiliary club and boys' scout patrol leaders training clubs; Science clubs — wild flower, bird, chemistry club and general science; travel club and exploration club, stamp club and camera club; poultry club, wireless club, kite club, first aid club, scrap book club ; many clubs of a vocational character utilizing the special equipmeut of the differentiated courses on the extension plan — Electricity, Drafting, Steel-working, Cartoon- ing, Handicraft, Aero club. Shorthand, Pencil-drawing, Pen-lei tering, Knitting, Millinery, Tatting, Embrodiery, Crochet and Girls' Handi- craft clubs. The club organization is directed by an Executive Committee of the faculty. There are 40 clubs with 64 faculty leaders and a mem- bership of 1650 students. Each club has its own student organiza- tion and club meetings are conducted as are class meetings by stu- dent officers with faculty guidance. By reducing the School activi- ties period on Monday to 15 minutes, the Friday club period is increased to 55 minutes. 117 It has been said that ''the secondary school must be organized with the idea of giving adolescents so innch of good to do that the bad cannot creep in." Dr. Thomas H. Briggs gives as one of the vitalizing purposes of secondary education — "the teaching of children to do better the desirable tilings which they an", bound to do anyway." Students in their clubs apply this vitalizing purpose in actual practice. Class meetings, S. C. assemblies, officer group meetings and stu- dent clubs develop leadership, i)vovides-for the by-products of public speaking, teach parliamentary ])ractice and by actual experience demonstrate the need of rules to govern discussions, the principles