\y A DESCRIPTIVE PAMPHLET OF STEREOPTICON SLIDES IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION m THE COLLECTION OF PAUL MONROE Professor of the History of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University New York 1915 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION IN THE COLLECTION OF PAUL MONROE Professor of the History of Education, Teachers College, Columbia University Set I. Primitive Education. Oriental Education and the Fusion of Western Education with Oriental. Set 11. Greek and Roman Education. Set III. Education During the Middle Ages. Set IV. The Universities. Set V. Development of Secondary Education. Set VI. Development of Elementary Education. Set VII. American Education. Set VIII. Development of Method. New York Copyright, 1915. by Paul Monroe •^Iv^ V Descriptive Pamphlet of Stereopticon Views in the History of Education SET I. PRIMITIVE EDUCATION. ORIENTAL EDUCATION AND THE FUSION OF WESTERN EDUCATION WITH ORIENTAL (Note. This pamphlet gives references to books where descriptive matter relating: to the slides may be readily found. All references to Monroe's Text Book in the History of Educatio7i are given as Text Book; to Monroe's Brief Course in the History of Education are given as Brief Course: to Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education as Cydo pedia. Fuller references will be found in A Syllabus' of the Course of Study in the History of Education by the same author, published by the Macmillan Company, price 25 cents. Full titles of other works referred to in the pamplilet are given in the Syllabus.) Slide i. Amenophis III and his double. The double is the second figure. Maspero, in his Life in Ancient Egypt and Assyria, says : "When one is born into this world, his double, or to give it the native name, the Ka, enters it with him. Since this double is usually invisible, the painters and sculptors seldom represent it. When they attempt to do so they depict it as the exact image of the being to which it is attached. The picture at Luxor in which Pharaoh Amenophis III has reproduced the history of his childhood is a good example of the fashion in which it should be imagined. Amenophis is born, and his double is, like himself, an infant, whom nurses cherish with the same care ; he grows and his double grows with him. The double faithfully accompanies his prototype through all the vicissitudes of his earthly existence. After death it follows him to the tomb and dwells there near the mummy, sometimes hidden in the funeral chambers, some- times escaping outside, recognizable at night by a pale light, which has won for it the name of Luminous, Khu." Text Book, pp. 2-6; Brief Course, 6-8. See Frazer, Golden Bough: Tylor, Anthropology ; Tylor. Primitive Culture, Vols. I and II. Slides 2, 3, 4, 5, 8 and 9 are taken from Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, (with the permission of the publishers for use in this series). This entire volume is a description of these initiatory rites. \ Text Book, 13-15; Brief Course, 8-10; Cyclopedia V, 31-35. Slides 6 and 7 (produced by pertnission of Klinkhardt and Bierman, Leipzig) show customs similar to Slides 2-9. General significance is found in the references given above. Special description give^i in Africa. by Herzog, Adolf Friedrich, of Mecklenburg. Slide 10. An account of a military expedition by the Huron Indians consisting of five boat loads of warriors led by chief "Kingfisher", taking place on the lake and lasting three days, as indicated by the suns under the horizon. Many such illustrations are given in the Reports of the United States Bureau of Ethnology. Text Book. Ch. 8; Brief Course. Ch. I. See Tylor. Early History of Mankind. ^GI,A398152 FEB 19 1915 "^f ;"> PRIMITIVE EDUCATION 3 Slide ii. Illustrating the language difficulties in the early stages of education. Chinese ideographs indicating the same ideas in different styles of writing: (from right to left) the ornamental or seal, the official, the literary pattern, the running hand, the free running hand or abbre- viated, and the Sung or early printed. The mastery of language becomes of necessity the chief end of formal education. Text Book, 26-28; Brief Course, 11-12. See Williams, The Middle Kingdom, Vol. I, Ch. X. Further references in Syllabus. Slide 12. Photograph of a Chinese compositor's font of 8000 type. This is from one of the mission publishing houses. The fonts of the native firms are more extensive or the printing is done from plates for each page engraved on blocks, no movable type being used. Same references as above. Slides 13, 14, 15. Real and idealized presentation of the old style .schools. These yet exist in practically every village. Slides 13 and 15 are from native drawings, 14 is a recent photograph. Method of teaching is indicated in all. The entire work of the Chinese elementary school can be described from these three slides. Text Book, 26-34; Brief Course, 15, 17-18; Cyclopedia, Vol. I, pp. 634-6. See Williams, Middle Kitigdom; Martin, The Lore of Cathay; or any work on the Chinese schools. Slide 16. The entertainment of the teacher by the pupil. From a native drawing. Any description of the Chinese schools will give evidence of the high social position, through humble economic one, of the teacher. See references above. Slide 17 gives the four forms of obeisance: bowing, clasping hands, kneeling and prostration (Kowtowing). The Chinese child must know on what occasions and for what persons each of these forms is called for. This is true of a multitude of other forms and ceremonies. Learn- ing these from the moral and religious texts constituted a large part of the old education. Text Book, 17-23; Brief Course, 11-13. Other references as above. Slide 18. Practical instruction of girls in the home. From a native drawing. Girls receive little if any literary training, but are quite expert in various kinds of industrial activities. For status and education of Chinese women see Martin, and Williams as above; Smith, Village Life in China; and Burton. Education of Women in China. Slide 19. A few endowed, provincial, or private schools existed to sup- plement the examination system. Text Book, 34, and references as above. Such schools required an elaborate set of buildings. Present government schools are often on this plan, using old temple buildings. Slide 20. A tablet from a gate of one of these endowed schools show- ing the master with a pupil. The inscription is "The heavenly reason penetrates past and the present (i. e. is eternal)." The incription on the other crate is "Virtue takes rank with heaven and earth." 4 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION Slide 21. A photograph of the hterary poles erected before the homes of those having taken the literary degrees. More frequently these poles are erected before the ancestral or clan temples. These are yet very numerous but are rapidly falling into decay. Text Book, p. 35 ; Brief Course, 16. All accounts of Chinese educa- tion contain description of the examination system. Slides 22, 23, 24, 26, arc photographs of the cells or halls of the old examination system, almost all destroyed since the abandonment of the system in 1905. Text Book, 34-39; Brief Course, 16-17. Other references as above. Slide 25 is a reproduction of an old drawing showing the successful examination candidate worshipping before Confucius. Slide 27 shows the worship of Confucius in an old time school. The picture of Confucius, or a large paper containing characters representing the leading virtues, some of his sayings, or even his name, are the only symbols or objects of worship in Confucian temples or in schools. Slide 28 is a photograph, taken by the author, of a kindergarten held in a converted Confucian temple where the children were saluting the por- trait of Froebel probably in much the same spirit as others had previously done before the picture of Confucius. Slides 29 to 37 are photographs of western schools in China, 31. 32. 34 of government schools, the remainder of mission schools. The govern- ment schools are strongly influenced by Japanese school method, as these in turn had been by the German. This is evidenced in the illustration. The mission schools follow closely the methods of the home country. A recent bulletin by Dr. King, issued by the U. S. Bureau of Education at Washington," and The Chinese System of Public Education, by Ping Wen Kuo, a Teachers College publication, give the latest account of the transi- tion now going on. See also Lewis, Educational Conquest of the Far East. Slide 38. A photograph of the city walls of Peking, pierced for the railway. Similar cases of juxtaposition of the medieval and the modern are found throughout China, affecting every phase of life. Slide 39 is a photograph of a modern Japanese school showing the work in arithmetic on the abacus. (Cf. with slide 32.) While the method is entirely modernized after the German model, some of the old aids are retained. Many mechanical contrivances are used as aids in arithmetic. Slides 40-45, are photographs of the schools of the Japan Woman's University at Tokio. These schools are similar to those annexed to the deparLments of education in several American universities. Every phase of the most recent educational work in America or Europe is to be found and at the same time a perpetuation of much of the old as in the instruc- tion in etiquette and aesthetics. Many if not most public schools have a special room for teaching etiquette. As a rule the schools are far better provided with all forms of visual aids to teaching than are American schools. See Lewis, Educational Conquest of the Far East; Cyclopedia, Vol. 3, pp. 518-528, and especially see Lewis, Sharp, Thwing, or Kikuchi, Japanese Educatioti. PRIMITIVE EDUCATION 5 Slide 46. A photograph of an old type Philippine school, with boys sitting on the floor, engaged in memoriter literary work. Slide 47. A photograph of industrial work in Philippine schools under American regime. Every child spends at least two 'hours per day in some form of industrial work. The products are of commercial value and are sold, the profits going to the child. See annual Reports of the Director of Education of the Philippine Islands, to be obtained from the Bureau of Insular Affairs, Washington. Slide 48. The school garden is always in connection with home gardens. The Filipino people did not garden and had few vegetables and a very meagre diet. The American schools have vastly improved health and economic conditions through the school gardens. See Reports as above. Slide 49. Corn has been introduced to supplement rice as the staple diet. Important since the rice crop often failed. References as above. Slide 50. The attempt is made to influence the Filipino home through the school. Domestic science is taught in a building designed to serve as a model Filipino home. For further material see Reports as above. There are many illustra- tions in these. The Bureau of Science, Manila, sells many slides at 50 cents per slide, showing phases of Filipino life, but unfortunately none relate directly to the schools. Note: Many illustrations relating to topics in this first series can be had from the National Geographic Magazine. They will reproduce these in slide form for 75 cents per slide but will allow no reproduction. Descriptive Pamphlet of Stereopticon Views in the History of Education SET II. GREEK AND ROMAN EDUCATION (Note. This pamphlet gives references to books where descriptive matter relating to the slides may be readily found. All references to Monroe's Text Book in the History of Education are given as Text Book; to Monroe's Brief Course in the History of Education are given as Brief Course; to Monroe's Cyclopedia of EduC'ition as Cyclo- pedia. Fuller references will be found in A Syllabus of the Course of Study in the History of Education by the same author, published by the Macmillan Company, price 25 cents. Full titles of other works referred to in the pamphlet are given in the Syllabus.) Slide 51. Drawing from a Greek vase showing a youth (Heracles) with his pedagogue. The two are evidently on their way to or from school ; the chaplet on the brow of the youth together with the spear in his hand would indicate that the youth had just won honor in the exercises of the gymnastic school. The lyre in the hand of the pedagogue would indicate that they were on the way to the music school. Such illustrations on Greek vases are common. Slide 52. Lesson on flute and lyre from a Greek cylix or drinking vase by Hieron about the 4th century B. C. To the left is the pedagogue ; next a boy playing the flute while his teacher is instructing him or is repeating a poem to his accompaniment ; further to the right is a boy with the lyre awaiting instruction ; to the right is the boy's pedagogue. For all of the slides 51-76 see the general descriptions of Greek school work as given in Text Book, Source Book, Brief Course, or any text book on the subject. See Laurie, Davidson, Aristotle and Greek Education, and especially Freeman, Schools of Hellas. Also Plato's dialogue Lysis. The colors on all these colored slides are fac simile reproduction of the original. The defects, where such are shown, are all now found in the original vase. Slide 53. A music school scene from a Greek hudria or water bottle. From left to right are (i) a boy playing the fifes or flute; (2) boy taking flute from case; (3) boy with lyre playing with pet leopard while waiting his turn; (4) master with harp accompanying; (5) youth who is playing the flute; (6) small boy, possibly a servant; (7) youth entering from gymnastic school as is shown by close-wrapped garment; (8) youth entering also from gymnastic school as shown by javelin he is carrying. All the boys wear chaplets probably won in gymnastic school. References as above. Slide 54. A Greek music school, companion-piece to Slide 53. On the left is a pedagogue leading a pet leopard belonging to youth who precedes him carrying a lyre. In center is the master giving instruction on the lyre to youth in front of him ; to the left are a youth departing and one who has just come from the gymnastic school as shown by the chaplet and the manner in which he wears his garments. References as above. CREEK AND ROMAN KDUCATION 7 Slide 55. A Greek music school from a cylix by Douris about 4th century B. C. This with its companion-piece (56) are the most frequently shown pictures of the Greek school. The vase is now preserved in the Berlin museum. To the left is a master playing a flute while a boy repeats the poem to his accompaniment. In the center a master corrects a written exercise, while on the left is a pedagogue. On the wall hang a lyre and cases for books or manuscripts. Slide 56. The remainder of the decorative band shown as Slide 55. On the extreme right and left of the wall hang vases similar to the one from which the illustrations are taken. Also on the wall are lyres, a tiute case and a satchel for books. To the left sits a boy receiving instruction on the lyre from his master. In the center is a boy repeating a portion of the Homeric poems to his teacher who holds the scroll. To the right with his legs crossed, as no freeman would sit, is the pedagogue. Slide 57. An abacus recently discovered (1899) at Salamis. This in- dicates a phase of school work which came in at a later period. It was not found in old Greek education. See references above. Slide 58. A frieze from a Greek temple showing the curriculum of the gymnastic school. This is now preserved in the Louvre. To the left is (i) the paedotribe or gymnastic master; (2) then a youth throwing the discus; (3) a youth casting a javelin; (4) two youths wrestling; (5) the next figure is a spectator: (7) the next represents jumping; (8) the fol- lowing is the paedotribe with his palm branch ; the two following genii are in a running race ; the last two in a boxing match. Between these last is another figure, either a spectator or an assistant or pupil teacher of whom there were probably many. These may appear also in other vase school scenes. In addition to references above there are numerous ones on Greek gymnastics and physical education including most of the histories of Greek education and of physical education. See especially Burette, His- toire des Athletes; Lobker, Die Gymnastic der Hellenen; Krame, Die Gym- nastic der Hellenen; Jacqu, Die Gymnastic der Hellenen; Fedde, Ditten- berger, &c. (also in German). See Becker's Charicles (translated). Guhl & Koner, Life of Greeks and Romans; Gulick, Life of the Ancient Greeks; Hill, Illustrations from School Classics; Gardiner, Greek Ath- letic Sports and Festivals. Slide 59. Drawing from a Greek vase of youths in a running race. For the place of running in this gymnastic training and its educational value, see references above, especially Davidson's Aristotle. Slide 60. Drawing from a Greek vase showing youths running armed with shield. This was a part of the training of the Ephebi giving them skill in acting in unison and in handling their armor. Spears were also carried in some exercises. References, see above. Slide 61. A vase illustration showing a gymnastic school, from a cylix. Youths to the left are wrestling, the one to the right is loosening the e STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION ground for jumping. In the center is the paedotribe or master of gym- nastics indicated here as usually by the forked stick in his hand. This with some companion-pieces have recently been reproduced (only in part) in Freeman (as aljove). For references to Greek athletics and their educational significance, see above. Slide 62. Companion-piece to the above from the same cylix. Here the boys in the center are boxing, with their hands bound with leather thongs ; often small stones or pieces of lead were sewn in these thongs. A paedotribe is actively directing the contest. To the right a boy is jumping, with weights in his hands. These he probably throws behind him as he jumps. To the left a boy is measuring the length of a jump. The right hand figure of the previous slide joins this, so as to give two youths with the tape line. References as above. Slide 63. Drawing from a Greek vase showing two youths wrest- ling before the paedotribe. The paedotribe carries the symbol of his authority, the forked branch. Classical dictionaries give a great variety of forms of wrestling, which contemporary Greek literature describes. It is evident from the references that different gymnastic masters were noted for the particular combination of movements which they taught as efifective forms of wrestling. So that the contest was a complicated form of exercise which could be taught by observation and instruction. For its educational value, see Freeman or Davidson, or the references in Greek literature to which these authors refer. Slide 64. The Greek pancratium, from a vase drawing. The pan- cratium was a form of contest in which any method of overcoming an opponent was permitted. It was cruel and brutal, and often resulted in maiming for life. For these reasons it was discontinued by the Athenians, but it was often used by other Greeks to develop hardihood. See references as above. Slide 65. Drawing from a Greek vase showing the development of boxing into professionalism. The Greeks discountenanced any form of professionalism in athletics as being unsymmetrical and destructive of all educational value. Here is shown the over-developed physique with the suggestion of neglect of other worthier forms of activity. This slide together with a number of the above are taken from the Monumcnti Inediti dell Instituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica, which contains a large number of similar illustrations with descriptive texts. Slide 66. A piece of Greek statuary known as "Hercules Shooting the Bow". It gives a representation of the instruction of the Greek youth in the use of the bow. Educationally this had for its value the coordination of hand and eye, the development of precision, coolness, steadiness and accuracy of sense perception ; its public value lay in the direct preparation it afforded for military service. Every Athenian youth had to learn how to use the bow. References as above. GRKEK AND ROMAN EDUCATION 9 Slide 67. From a Greek amphore, showing a myrtle-crowned youth returning from the hunt. The hare tied to his right arm evidences his success. The knobbed stick with its crook probably shows the weapon used. Hanging to his left arm is the oil flask which reveals his destina- tion as the g3'mnasium. On the reverse (not shown here) is a youth offering a myrtle crown to the successful boy. For references see above. Also Xenophon's references to hare hunting. Slide 68. A reproduction of a drawing showing a youth hunting deer This exercise was more common with the Spartans and with the Greeks living in wilder regions. It was often combined with horseback riding. Here, as usually, the youth accompanies his inspirer or guardian. Such hunting scenes form frequent decoration for Greek vases. Slide 69. Decoration from a Greek cylix attributed to Euphronios. This is a picture of youths in a riding school, one of them on horseback, the other mounting with the aid of a pole. A riding master is on the left giving directions to the boy as to mounting. This activity serves not only as a part of their physical education hut is directly in line with their military training. See references as above. Slide 70. A similar illustration from the same artist, showing a race of the Ephebes in the riding school. The goal post is indicated on the right. The youths are riding with spear and armor, accustoming them further to military activity. References as above. Slidi; 71. A Greek youth chariot racing, from a vase decoration. The Athenian source of the illustration is indicated by the owl. The dis- figurement of the illustration is a result of the present condition of the vase. The slide, when in colors, is a facsimile. For references see above. Also, for the place of horse and chariot racing in Greek culture, see Aristophanes, Clouds (selection in Monroe's Source Book). Slide 72. The west frieze from the Parthenon showing the Pan- athenaic procession of the Ephebi on horseback. This was both a culmination of the Ephebic training and the chief ceremony of worship of the year at Athens. The object of the sculptor of the Parthenon frieze was to exhibit in full this Panathenaic procession. This west end represents the preparation and start of the procession and is a full repre- sentation of the culmination of the Ephebic training. For the Parthenon see Murray, The Sculptures of the Parthenon. For the Ephebic training see references above and in Syllabus. Slide 73. Spartain maiden racing. A statue from the Vatican museum. This is one of the most beautiful and graceful pieces of Greek statuary now preserved. For the place of physical education in the training of Spartans and for the training of girls, see as above Freeman, Laurie, Davidson, also Plu- lO STEREOPTICON VIEWS IX THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION tarch's Lycur7 gives one of the early advertisements of a Pestalozzian school. This comes from a Virginia newspaper of 1816. See Monroe as above, together with Barnard's Journal and his volume on Pesta- loz^ianism. Slide 338 is a diploma from a Girls' Academy of the early 19th century. It shows the expansion of the curriculum and especially the type of education then being developed for girls. See article on Women, Higher Education of, in Cyclopedia. Slide 339 is an early engraving of the earliest institution for the higher education of women in this country, that of the Bethlehem, Pa., Semin- ary in 1786. established by the Moravians. The illustration shows the Sisters' House, the old church, and the community store house. Slide 340. The Troy Seminary, Troy, N. Y., in 1822, founded by Mrs. Emma Hart Willard. This was the first institution for the higher -educa- tion of women to receive state aid. References as above. Slide 341 gives the examination room in the Troy Seminary. The oral examinations given here formed one of the conspicuous academic features of the early 19th century. References as above and in Barnard's Journal. Slide 342 is a New England academy in the early 19th century. In the background is the early academy founded in the late i8th century. In the foreground is the new academy, built in the early 19th century, while to the right is the dormitory. Such institutions grew up all over New England and in fact in all of the states. Some states such as New 56 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION York, numbered almost three hundred such institutions. As a system they died with the growth of the high school. See Brown. The Making of our Middle Schools. Slide 343 is from a pamphlet on Popular Education by J. Orville Tay- lor, published in 1856. It gives the real and the ideal of the district school. See references as above on the district system. Slide 344 shows the evolution of the high school in what is now a portion of New York City. The upper picture is the old divided school used until 1851 ; the second is the ward school used from 1851 to 1901 and showing the influence of the classical ideals of the middle of the i8th cen- tury. No. 3 is a 20th century school house and indicates the development of the unified city system after the passing of the ward system. Slide 345 gives the ideal of the school of 1876. It is taken from the Educational Monthly during the Centennial year. Note the severity, stiff- ness and lack of freedom evidenced in every detail of the school room. This comes from a period of probably the greatest dominance of mechan- ical ideas in our public school work, and illustrates the influence of an extreme interpretation of the Pestalozzian method. Slide 346, the ideal of 1900, shows a class in geography in open-air work. This study of actual objects and of processes of nature direct, rather than through books, is a method sought for in almost every subject. With our large classes it cannot be made a substitute for text book work, but can supplement it at least. Photographs of modern school work of almost any school can be used to amplify this idea. Many such can be drawn from reports of superintendents of schools. Slide 347 is an illustration of the modern kindergarten which might be duplicated from almost any city. Compare this slide with Slides 391- 398 of the following" set. References under these. Slide 348 is an illustration of the outdoor school. This is a recent development originating in German)- in the last two decades. For discus- sion and literature see the Cyclopedia, Vol. 4, pp. 348-351, where will be found further illustrations ; see especially Ayres' Open Air Schools and almost any modern school hygiene. Slide 349 is a modification of the open-air school and of the modern playground necessitated in our large cities. Most of the new school build- ings in these communities are built with a roof garden or playground or school room or all combined. This is an illustration taken from one of the New York schools. See the literature on outdoor schools as above, or on playgrounds. Slide 350 is a photograph of a district school house of the old type. The dominance of the Little Red Schoolhouse in our traditions and literature is very marked, though there is much more to be said of its modern less picturesque substitute. See discussions above on the district school. Old reports of State Superintendent of Public Instruction will furnish many such illustrations. Descriptive Pamphlet of Stereoptieon Views in the History of Education SET VIII. DEVELOPMENT OF METHOD (Note. This pamphlet gives references to books where descriptive matter relating to the slides may be readily found. All references to Monroe's Te.vt Book in the History of Education are given as Te.vt Book; to Monroe's Brief Course in the History of Education are given as Brief Course: to Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education as Cyclo- pedia. Fuller references will be found in A Syllabus of the Course of Study in the History of Education by the same author, published by the Macmillan Conipany, price 25 cetits. Full titles of other works referred to in the pamphlet are given in the Syllabus.) Slide 351-352. Title page and first page of a copy of Donatus printed in the i6th century. Donatus was the elementary Latin grammar written in the 4th Christian century. This text — the one most commonly used — was the second of the three parts — "On the Eight Parts of Speech". It was almost universally used for a thousand years and even beyond the Renaissance period. As Slide 352 indicates, it consisted of the "dry bones" of grammar : definitions and paradigms to be learned "by heart". See Cyclopedia article for references. Also Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, and references on the seven liberal arts (slides 110-114). See also Monroe's Thomas Platter. Slide 353. A double page from the grammar of Priscian, from an early i6th century edition. This page shows how text and comment were arranged in early printed books. This specimen is a fine example of early printing. Priscianus Caesariensis taught in Constantinople and published his Institutionis Grammaticae about 526. It is quite an elaborate work and was the basis of all subsequent works on grammar. The volume from which this illustration is taken is a large quarto of 300 pages, and in fine print. More than 250 authors are quoted — many of them more than 100 times. It contains more than 700 quotations from Vergil. Consequently Priscian served as a thesaurus of literature as well as a text in grammar. It was used as the text for all study in advance of Donatus. See references as above. 5lide 354. "The Marriage of Philology and Mercury" is a fanciful allegory written by an African scholar, Martinus Capella who flourished in the late fourth and early fifth century. The work is really a treatise on the seven liberal arts. Apollo presents as gifts to the bride, seven maid servants, who are the seven liberal arts. (See Slides 1 10-123). The speeches of these maid servants, with their introduction, constitute the treatise on the arts. This work was frequently used as a higher text, its allegorical form offering excellent opportunity for disputation. Text Book, pp. 268-9. For a translation of a portion of Capella, see Cole, Later Roman Education (in Teachers College Publications). Also Tay- lor, or Abelson, as in the Syllabus. 57 58 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION Slide 355. A page from a 14th century manuscript copy of the Doc- trinale of Alexander de Villa Dei. This is a Latin grammar in verse written about 11 19, which formed a frequent substitute for Donatus. Its aim was to simplify the task of memorizing by throwing the essentials of grammar into verse. It is composed of 2645 lines of which 1073 are devoted to syntax, 476 to prosody and 1095 to quantity, accent and figures. See references as above. The most elaborate work on Alexander is Vol. XII of Monumcnta Germaniac Pedagogica, by Reichwig. Slide 356. The Distycha of Cato was also a text commonly used to simplify the task of learning Latin. This consists of a series of apothems and moral sayings cast into two line verse or distichs. While these were probably drawn from a variety of sources they were all attributed to Cato, the Roman statesman of the 2d century B. C. They formed a favorite text as the earliest reading book, especially as a means of building up a vocabulary. They were used in every variety of form. The slide gives a double page from an edition in Greek, Latin and Ger- man. These bi- or tri-lingual texts afforded a favorite method of study. See references as above. Slide 357. With the Renaissance there was a simplification of Latin grammar and an enrichment of language study. How complicated this study of grammar yet remained is indicated by this double page from Lily where seven genders are given. William Lily (1468-1522) was one of the English students in Italy in the early Renaissance period, and first headmaster of St. Paul's when it was refounded by Colet in 1512. His Latin grammar became the "Donatus" for English schoolboys for several hundred years ; King Henry's Grammar and the Eton grammar are modifications only. See references as above ; also Watson, English Gram- mar Schools to 1660. Slide 358. A woodcut of 1519 by Hans Burgkmair, showing a disputa- tion by scholars. The description of Slide 160 and of related slides ap- plies here, though this is of several centuries later. See Rashdall and other references imder universities for discussion of disputation as a method. Slide 359. A crude woodcut used by Martin Flach at Basel in 1473. This is supposed to be the oldest woodcut school scene. It shows the method of argument or apposition used by pupils and teachers, as th ; pupil attempts to imitate the processes of analysis, etc., used by the teacher. Slide 360. A woodcut of 1485 used by an unknown printer in several text books. It shows a school with an unusual number of pupils for these early woodcuts. The method of instruction is individual and consists in this method of apposition between master and pupil. Slide 361. A woodcut of a school scene from the i6th century by the artist Hans Burgkmair (1475-1531). Here there seems to be more of a group recitation, the position of the children's fingers indicating the form of the argument. For details of early method in this and previous slides. DEVELOPMENT OF METHOD 59 see Foster Watson's The English Grammar Schools to j66o: also his Introduction of Nezv Subjects into the Curriculum. Slide 362. A double page from the Ciccronianus of Netzolius. Tho narrow humanists exalted Cicero into the position held by Aristotle under scholasticism. Practically all the students' time was devoted to a study of Cicero. Erasmus pictures the students as groaning under the burden of the hugh books of comment, phrase and reference books. For the aim of the Ciceronians was to express every idea in Ciceronian phrase. This volume of Netzolius is one of the huge phrase books. Text Book, pp. 370-375. See Scott, Erasmus' Ciccronianus, and also her Con- troversies over the Imitation of Cicero (both in Teachers College pub- lications). Slide 363. A drawing from the early i6th century, illustrating the early Reformation school and the use of the catechetical method. While the catechetical method was used frequently throughout the late Middle Ages, and even as early as Alcuin, its use was greatly emphasized by the Reformation controversies. The pictures indicate the visit of the school committee to a German village school, and the catechising of the children by the village pastor. The teacher is in the rear of the room. The use of the blackboard for catechetical recitations— now chiefly on religious materials — is indicated. Slide 364. A double page from Comenius' Gate of Languages Un- locked, first published in 1631. This illustration comes from the English edition of 1650 translated by Thomas Horn. The Janua is one of the out- standing works in the history of method and involves most of the ideas later made more generally applicable by Pestalozzi. Text Book, pp. 483-496; Brief Course, pp. 238-246. See Comenius, which is the best book in English on the subject. See also Keatinge's Comenius' Great Didactic. 5'lide 365. A double page from the Portal to the Gate of Languages. This was a simpler book preparatory to the Janua, written by Comenius after experience had shown the Janua to be somewhat too difhcult for beginning pupils. References as above. Slide 366. To the Portal an English educator prefixes a work en- titled The Foundation of the Gate of Tongues. The principles involved in this are quite the contrary of those elaborated by Comenius. The chief idea seems to be that of making the memorization of the Latin vocabulary easier. This is done through the mnemonic device of having practically every word of the given chapter begin with the same letter of the alphabet. The page given is that of the letter B. While it works out somewhat better in Latin than in the English, the complete elimination of the idea of content can be seen from the reading of the English. Thus in general the Comenian ideas were prostituted before they were taken into the school. In the edition owned by the writer these three works illustrated in slides 364-365-366 are bound in the same volume. References as above. 6o STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION Slide 367. Instruction through illustration was introduced even before the time of Comenius, though not in a systematic plan. Slide 367 is taken from a work entitled .-Irs M cniorativa printed in Ausgburg in 1475 ^^Y Anton Sorg. The pictures illustrate the meaning of the ordinary German words. Slide 368. The use of illustrations to convey religious ideals was quite common, being carried over from the church. This slide is an illus- tration from a German catechism published previous to the Reformation. It was especially common to illustrate the Lord's Prayer and the Command- ments so as to make them somewhat more concrete to the child. These slides will show that the use of illustrations in teaching did not come in with Comenius. The importance of this work can be learned from the discussions of the Comenian material given above. Slide 369 is an alphabet from the early edition of Comenius' Orbis Pictus, published in 1657. The idea of the Orbis Pictus was to bring the picture of the object to the child's attention. The Janua and similar books made instruction center on the object. The Orbis Pictus brought pictures of objects into the school room. With the alphabet the idea was the onomatopoetic one of having the child get the sound through some sound in nature with which he was familiar. Hence the illustration of the wind, the goose, the cricket, and so on. This illustration comes from a common English edition of 1777. There are earlier English editions. Slide 370. Page containing the school from an English edition of the Orbis Pictus. All social institutions as well as moral ideals were illus- trated and made the basis of instruction. This illustration will show the common method. The different figures in the illustration are numbered and the numbers introduced into the text. In this way the identification of word and object is made certain. Slide 371 Title page to the Vestibula Rerum of Comenius. This is from a Dutch edition of 1673. This work on the "gate to things", really a treatise on the whole round of natural science, was not so generally used as the Gate of Languages. It was a nearer approach to the study of the phenomena of nature than the schools of that period were prepared for. For the significance of this realistic movement and the details of Comenius' work, see references as above. Slide 372. A double page from the Orbis Pictus of Comenius, indicat- ing the introduction of the stud}- of objects and of materials of the animal and vegetable world into the schools through the study of Latin. References as above. Slide 2i72>- This same realistic method was carried to extreme in its application to idealistic subjects. This slide gives the illustration and a part of the text of the chapter on the Human Soul in Comenius' Orbis Pictus. How successful the realistic method was when applied to such subjects can be judged from the text. Slide 374. A page from the London Vocabulary, a very generally used introductory text in Latin, showing the modification and simplification of the Comenian idea in the i8th century. DF.VELOPMKNT OF METHOD 6l Slide 375 shows the modern survival and interpretation of the Comenian method. This is from a 20th century text book used quite commonly in the German gymnasium and realschule. The illustration shows the chapter on the third declension in which practically all the paradyms are illustrations of this declension. At the same time the entire chapter centers around the illustration of the Roman orator and the text dis- cusses this phase of Roman life. Slide 376. An illustration from an English grammar of tht- early i8th century showing a rather superficial interpretation of the realistic method of teaching. There were many varieties of this. Slide ^77. A double page from Coote's English Schoolmaster pub lished about 1650. See slide 288 for a description of the importance of Coote and the references there. This slide gives some illustration of the method of teaching arithmetic as well as reading. Coote's was by far the most advanced work on method of this period. Slide 378 illustrates the great change that came over education in the later i8th century. It is a copper engraving by Chodowiecki entitled Reformed EAuc2.t\on—V erbesserte Erziehung—lrom Salzmann's Taschcn- buch. Chodowiecki was the artist who illustrated Basedow. Salzmann and a great number of works in this period. Hence he contributed largely to education. Salzmann was one of the followers of Basedow and of Rousseau. See Text Book, pp. 580-583; Cyclopedia and references ap- pended. The illustration shows that education has now been taken out of doors. The boys are engaged in ball playing, swimming, rowing, gathering natural objects and discussing them with the teacher. Slide 370. The school as illustrated in Basedow's Elenientarwerk published in 1774. This is a copper plate by Schuster, a pupil of Cho- dowiecki. It illustrates instruction in natural science through pictures of natural objects and gives the Basedow conception of the school. This work of Basedow was the next great step after that of Com^nius in the introduction of the study of things into the school. See Text Book. pp. 377-383 •' Cvclopedia and references appended. The fullest account in English of the work of Basedow is probably in Barnard's German Teachers and Educators. Slide 380. Also from Basedow's Elementariverk, by Chodowiecki. It shows the application of the realistic method to instruction in morals. It illustrates the fall of Adam on the right, the conflict between the Arch- angel Michael and Satan in the center. On the left the effect on the pupils is well indicated by their attitude and expression. This type of instruction was quite popular in the realistic period and is used very extensively in France at the present time. See references as above ; also Cyclopedia on Moral Education. 5"lide 381. Also by Chodowiecki, from Ziegenhagen, published in I799- It .shows an experiment in the laboratory in electricity and the explanation of lightning. 62 STEREO PTICON VIEWS IN THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION Slide 382 is a typical German school of the late i8th century. It is a woodcut used in a number of books of that period. Note the character of the teacher, the punishment of the pupil on the esel, the spirit of the schoolroom and the conception of interest illustrated in the lower left hand corner where the boy kneels on a triangular block of wood until he masters the alphabet. Slide 383 is Pestalozzi's school at Stanz. This is a companion-piece to slide 293, an early 19th century illustration of the same subject. Same references as 293. Slide 384. A double page from a Pestalozzian geography. Illustra- tion from Hooker's Primary Geography. A companion-piece to Slide 296. Same description will cover it. Slide 385 is an illustration from Fowler's Education and Self Improve- ment. It shows the numbering of the organs of the head, the faculties of the mind based upon the configuration of the skull. The importance of the phrenological movement in the development of early psychological ideas and their application to education is indicated in the Text Book, pp. 596-7. The writings of Combe and Fowler bear directly on this mat- ter. The writings of Fellenberg, Pestalozzi, Lancaster, Spurzheim, Horace Mann, are all more or less influenced by it. As a step in the develop- ment of our educational ideas, though erroneous as some of the other scientific ideas held at that time, phrenology is of interest. See the writ- ings of any of the men mentioned. Slide 386. Title page from Hornbye's Hornbook published, London, 1622. It shows the individual method of instruction which prevailed generally until the early 19th century, when the monitorial system gen- erally replaced it by group instruction. Note the Hornbook with the alphabet, a book probably of religious character following. The bundle of birches forms a substitute for interest. The characteristics of the old alphabetic method of learning to read are recognized. Slide 387. The Lancasterian schoolroom as illustrated in Lancas- ter's British System of Education published in 181 2. The school is divided into different groups, each controlled by the class monitor shown at the left of the rows of seats. The entire school is con- trolled by orders, numbers, or signals given on the bell and worked in a The teacher is seen at the left. The entire conduct of the school is con- trolled by orders, numbers or signals given on the bell and worked in a most mechanical manner. Around the sides of the room are sten hanging the battledores which contain the lessons. On the floor are the semi- circles upon which the group meet, the battledore is taken from the wall and hung on a peg, and the class recites under the direction of the monitor. ^Jlide 388, from the same source, shows the working of the Lan- casterian schoolroom. Here the groups are gathered in class formation under the direction of the monitor. Slide 389. Position of scholars in the Lancasterian system as they follow a set of orders. In one case they are responding to the monitor of slates in a recitation. In the other they respond to the conduct monitor as they prepare for dismissal. Note that it takes about 13 orders for the » DEVELOPMENT OF METHOD 63 boj- to set his cap on his head though the cap has been hanging on his head all the time. From the same source as 387-8. See references as in 391. Specific explanations and directions are given in the text of the manual. Slide 390 is an illustration from a German source showing the .system of rewards in the Lancasterian school. Lancaster elaborates these rewards into a most extensive system. This involved the chief expense since more was spent on rewards than on text books. The rewards included books, shoes, tops, cake, and a variety of other articles. Slide 391. also from a German source, shows the methods of punish- ment of the Lancasterian school. Lancaster claimed to have eliminated corporal punishment. His German followers evidently did not. Lancaster substituted for corporal punishment a variety of novel forms of punish- ment based chiefly upon the idea of group discipline or the disgrace of the culprit. Hence the hanging of various marks of disapprobation around the neck of the offender, the wearing of the dunce cap, the hauling of the boy in a basket to the ceiling. This was combined in cases with fright, as shown by the boy tied to a post in the room and being frightened by some made-up ferocious character. For references to these four slides, see anyc/ the works of Lancaster, or the early history of New York City schools. Text Book, pp. 722-726 Cyclopedia, Vol. 3, pp. 621-622; Vol. 4, pp. 296-2 9. The best modern criticism of Lancaster is Salmon, Joseph Lancasti . Slide •^92. Wilderspin's Infant School. From Wilderspin's Education of the } 'ing. published in many editions through the first half of the 19th cen iry. One great feature of the infant school was a gallery in which th».> children were massed for instruction by the teacher. Hence the phrase in the early part of the century of a "good gallery teacher". The infant school was the forerunner of the kindergarten, but how remote frorn ;\ is indicated in the following slides. "^ JS^IDE 393. The infant school at work, also from Wilderspin's Educa- ti^. of the Young. Here groups of children are seen marching through the room in lock step. Various forms of physical education were given. Most of the work was memoriter verbal work. The result was to make the children little prigs both intellectually and morally. The great advantage of these schools was that they brought little children into the school pro- cedure. For the infant school, see any of Wilderspin's works. Text Book, pp. 626-627. Cyclopedia, Vol. 3, pp. 452-454, 445-452. Other references ap- pended to these articles. Slide 394. A view of Owen's Institute at New Lanark. Scotland. Owen furthered (some claim founded) the infant school (slides 329-331) and developed the work for older children in these Institutes. Moral instruction (slide 395) was substituted for religious, science for linguis- tics, and pleasurable activities for the old discipline. See references to following slide. Slide 395. Two woodcuts from Robert Owen's essay on the Forma- tion of Human Character, published 1834. These show the type of moral instruction fostered in the infant school. This was to be a substitute for 64 STEREOPTICON VIEWS IN THK HISTORY OF EDUCATION the religious instruction so prominent in the schools of that day and the earlier period. The crudity of this is very generally recognized at the present time, though instruction quite similar is elaborated in the French schools as well as in some English schools of the present. For the value of moral instruction, see Cyclopedia, Vol. 4, pp. 306-314. For Robert Owen, see Cyclopedia, Vol. 4, pp. 576-577, and references appended. See especially Podmore, Robert Owen. Slide 396. A circulating class with the method of instruction by inquiry. A, umpire ; B, medal stand, or point of reckoning ; C, the boy who is answering the question proposed by D, the boy below him ; E, the boy who has previously answered the question of F. The medals describe the number of circles gained or lost by those who wear them. Slide 397. Diagram of the circulating classes by John Stoat. (London, 1826). The numbers described on the figures are intended to represent the children of the classes, and their individual relative proficiency Fig. I, A class of children arranged in the order of proficiency as evidenced by competition for places, according to the Madras system of education. No. I, the superior; No. 20, the inferior child, etc. Fig. 2, the circular class. U, the station of the umpire. Fig. 3, The numbers here show the mixed state of the superior and inferior children, and the advantageous position of the superior part of the class for instructing the nferior children, which is produced by the method of working circulating classes. E, The place of the medal stand, or point of reckoning. Fig- 4, The compound circulating class. E. The point of reckoning, etc., as ( escribed in the treatise. Slide 398. Froebel's first kindergarten on the village green at- Uanken- burg, Germany. This slide is in connection with slides 297-30 j. The location of the first kindergarten is given in slide 299. For the descrip- tion of Froebel's earlier kindergarten see his Autobiography and other Froebelian literature as per Cyclopedia, Text Book, or Syllabus. Slide 399- An illustration from a photograph taken four or five yt^'^rs ago showing the correlation of studies as now carried on in Froebt; s original institute. This is to be taken in connection with slide 300. These cottages are built by groups of students on the mountain beside the school. Here they carry out a life somewhat suggested by S^viss Family Robinson or Robinson Crusoe and attempt to correlate many of their school sub- jects around the activities which the group carry on in these little huts. It is a very simple though realistic and effective attempt to make school subjects grow out of life activities and connect with them. This idea is inherent in Froebel's theory. See his original work on The Education of Man. For more recent literature on this subject see article on Correlation in Cyclopedia with references appended. Slide 400 gives a number of views of the Montessori school taken from recent photographs. This series of pictures probably illustrates better than could any other group the various phases of the work of the Montessori school. For a brief outline of this work see article in Cyclo- pedia, Vol. 4, pp. 303-4. See volume and articles by Miss George, the volume by Professor Holmes, and the recent monograph by Kilpatrick. LiBRftRV OF CONGRESS 005 072 413 fl ^