-.,, )rc< ftex. ' ; OF 'tsl II u^ f:tl \ ^ ,'/ ! t^ UUi'-gui ^ T.F.TOUT,MA. ?g AND JAMES SULLIVAN^PkR jft««B»ii«<»J*»«in'**""'""-"'""^'(|.i}i. ( Class J r\ 1 ^ Book.. _ZE.Mil ()op}Tight}J^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. iiiiiiiiB!i'[iiiiriiiirfJ!iiii'iiiiiiii!il AN ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF ENGLAND WITH ILLUSTRATIONS, TABLES, MAPS, AND PLANS T. F. TOUT, M.A. PROFESSOR OF MKDI/EVAL AND M0DP:RN HISTORY IN THE UNlVEUSrrY OF MANCHESTER JAMES SULLIVAN, Ph.D. HIGH SCHOOL OF COMMERCE, NEW YORK NEW YORK LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO. 91 AND 93 FIFTH AVENUE 1904 LIB^o«?V «' 10NGRFSS SEP 29 1904 ^51 Cooyrfeht Entry CLASB ^ XXo. No. COPY B Copyright, 1904, By Longmans, Green, & Co. All rights reserved. THE UNIVERSITY PRESS CAMBRIDGE, U. S, A. PREFACE The present work is not meant absolutely for beginners. The writers are convinced that the best way of kindling the first interest in history in young children is by the oral narration of picturesque stories and biographies. For this stage no text-book seems necessary or even de- sirable. But as children grow a little older there is a, danger in relying altogether on detached incidents and episodes. It is almost equally hazardous to trust ex- clusively to oral teaching without book. In many cases both these methods tend to^vards leaving little save a passing impression on the pupil's mind. They are too often destitute of any permanent or tangible result. At first permanent impressions of detail do not much matter, but after a time they are necessary. An ele- mentary text-book may attain the ends desired in two ways. One method is simply to write out at length the same sort of historical details that the teacher has hith- erto given viva voce. But to follow this plan for the whole of English History needs a volume of considerable dimensions. The writers have therefore deliberately re- jected the method of attempting to tell a large number of familiar stories at length. They have preferred to adopt the second possible way. This is to put together a fairly continuous narrative, even at the risk of some parts of it being less attractive than they might have been made by the fuller mode of proceeding. The writers are, however, convinced that the living voice of VI Preface the teacher, necessary enough at all stages of historical teaching, is still vitally important for pupils at the stage of those for whom this work is intended. The text- book should supplement, not supersede, the teacher, and the authors have aimed primarily at making the present work a series of pegs, on which the experienced teacher can hansf such illustrative matter as seems to him most fitted for his purpose. At the same time, they have aimed at sufficient completeness to enable the teacher who cannot give much time to the subject to use the work without any such amplification. The authors believe that even in the earlier stages of instruction some effort should be made to put before young minds the ideas of continuity and growth which lie at the root of all history. They are sure that this end can only be attained by some form of consecutive narra- tive. Moreover, a work so designed may, it is believed, be helpful to the teacher by supplying the hard kernel of facts, names, and dates, which young minds readily assimilate, and without which they may be interested, but hardly taught. It is hoped that by careful attention to simplicity and proportion, and by the remorseless omission of much that is commonly found even in the shortest primers of English History, these objects may be in some measure attained without any material sacri- fice of picturesque interest. Of recent years there has been a growing interest in the institutional, social, and industrial life of the people. It has been felt by historians, and rightly, that such matters are of more importance than petty anecdotes in the lives of kings and queens. In answer to the grow- ing demand for such topics, the authors have felt called upon to devote a larger proportion of the text to insti- Preface vii tutional, social, and industrial conditions than is usual in most text-books of this nature. There has been a tendency of late on the part of our text-book writers, especially the more scholarly of tliera, to fill their books, even for the elementary schools, with bibliographies of books of such a difficult nature as to be read only by grown people. It has been the object of the authors of this book to put under the head of " Topics " at the end of each chapter a list of easy fiction. This will be the only kind of reading the pupils can do, if they have any time to do reading at all. Even some of this fiction will prove difficult for the average pupil, but it is put in with tlie hope of training a few to read some of the best historical fiction. It is not to our purpose to enter into a defence of this kind of material for reading. We know that a great deal of it is poor and deserves the title of " unhistorical fiction," but it is better to have children read even this than to read nothing at all. It is impossible for a pupil of twelve to do anything more than struggle through such books as the " Epochs " and " Twelve English Statesmen " series. Even when such reading is done it is of very doubtful value. Ac- cordingly, such books have been set down under the heading of " Books for Teachers." SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS Teachers would do well to have at their disposal in the class-room the following books : — Acland and Ransome, A Handbook of English Political History. Bates and Coman, English Historg Told hg English Poets. Cheyney, E. P., Industrial and Social History of England. Colby, C. W., Selections from the Sources of English History. Feilden, H., A Short Constitutional History of England. Gardiner, S. R., A Student's History of England. Gee and Hardy, Documents Ulustratice of English Church History. Hill, Mabel, Liberty Documents. Powell, F. Y., and Tout, T. F., History of England. Tout, T. F., Sho7't Analysis of English History. Ample information for further reading by the teacher may be found in the bibliographies of the above books and in the fol- lowing : — Bourne, H. E., The Teaching of History and Civics. Committee of the New England History Teachers' Association, His- torical Sources in Schools. Gardiner and Mullinger, Introduction to English History. Gross, C, The Sources and Literature of English History. Under " Topics " the list of suggestive questions does not pretend to be exhaustive. The teacher may work out others along the same line. It was not thought necessary by the authors to put down such questions as : "Who was Caesar," etc., but rather only such ques- tions as would lead the pupil to use his reason. CONTENTS PAGE Preface v Table of Contents ix List of Illustrations xx List of Maps and Plans xxii List of Genealogical and other Tables xxiii Table of Kings and Queens xxiv SoME Important Dates xxvi PART I. EARLY ENGLAND. To 10G6 DATE Down to 410. Chapter I. The Britons and the Ro- mans down to 410 1-8 1. The Britisli Islands in the earliest times .... 1 2. The Britons 2 3. The Picts and Scots 3 4. Julius Cffisar and the Romans 4 5. The Roman Conquest of Britain 5 6. Roman rule in South Britain 7 410. 7. The end of Roman rule in Britain 7 410-597. Chapter II. How the English came to Britain 9-i8 1. Tlie Brilons driven into the West 9 2. Who the Welsh are 9 449. 3. The comino- of the p:nolish 9 4. The chief divisions among the English — The Jutes, the Saxons 10 5. And the Angles 11 6. The figliting between the English kingdoms . . 12 7. The four chief English Kingdoms 13 597-664. Chapter III. How the English became Christians is-is 1. The religion of the old English 15 2. Pope Gregory and the English heathens ... 15 597. 3. Mission of Augustine to Kent 16 4. Paulinus sent to Northumbria 16 626. 5. The fight between the Christians and the heathens 17 6. Aidan and the conversion of the North .... 17 X Contents PAGE 664-899. Chapter IV. The Union of England and the Comings of the Danes 19-24 1. How England became united under one church and one king 19 19 20 20 21 21 22 23 23 d. 839. 2. Egbert of Wessex . . 3. The Danisli invasions .... 871. 4. The Danes attack Wessex . . 5. Alfred and the Danes .... 878. 6. The Treaty of Chipi)enham : the Dane law d. 899. 7. How Alfred became the chief king in England 8. What Alfred did for the English army and navy 9. Why Alfred was called Alfred the Great . . 899-1066. Chapter V. From Alfred to Edward the Confessor 26-30 899-959. 1. How Alfred's successors became Kings of the English and Emperors of Britain 26 959-975. 2. The reign of King Edgar 26 3. Archbishop Dimstan 27 975-1016. 4. The reigns of Edward the Martyr and Ethelred tlie Unready 27 5. The Danes again invade England 27 6. Danegeld 28 7. The Danes conquer England 28 1017-1035. 8. Cnut King of England and Denmark .... 28 1042-1066. 9. The reign of Edward the Confessor 29 To 1066. Chapter VI. Institutions of Early Eng^- land 31-37 1. The king 31 2. The Witan or Council 31 3. Justice, (a) Methods of Trial 32 Compurgation 32 Ordeal 33 (b) Courts 33 4. Religion 33 5 Classes of the people 35 6. Towns 36 7. Gilds 36 PART II. THE NORMAN KINGS. 1066-1154 1066. Chapter VII. The Norman Conquest • . 38-45 1. Emma of Normandy 38 2. Normandy and the Normans ....... 38 3. How the Normans became like Frenchmen . . 39 4. Edward the Confessor brings Normans into England 39 5. Earl Harold drives away the Normans ... 41 Contents xi PAGE 1066. 6. Harold becomes King of the English .... 42 " 7. Duke William lands in England 42 " 8. Harold beats the Norwegians and marches against the Normans 42 *' 9. The Battle of Hastings — William becomes King of the English 43-.5 1066-1154. Chapter VIII. The Norman Kings • • • 46-51 1. How William the Conqueror dealt witli the Normans and English 46 2. Norman castles 46 3. The revolts of the Norman barons 47 4. The English support William against the barons 47 5. How William became a strong king 47 6. The Domesday Book 47 7. The sons of William the Conqueror 48 1087-1100. 8. The reign of William Eufus 48 9. llufus and Archbishop Anselm 48 1100. 10. Rufus's death in the New Forest 49 1100-1135. 11. The reign of Henrv 1 49 1135-1154. 12. The reign of Stephen .50 13. The Avar between Stephen and Matilda .... 50 14. The miseries of Stephen's reign 51 1066-1154. Chapter IX. Norman England .... 52-58 1 . Changes by the Normans 52 2. The king 52 3. The Great Council 52 4. The Privy Council 53 5. Justice 53 6. The Church 53 7. Classes of society 54 8. The feudal .system 54 9. Chivalry 56 10. Towns 56 11. The manor 58 PART III. THE ANGf:VIN KINGS. 1154-1399 1154-1189. Chapter X. Henry II. 59-66 1. How the House of An jou began 59 2. Henry II. 's great dominions 61 3. Character of Henry II 61 4. Henry II. 's new law.s. Assizes and trial by jury 61 5. English and Normans become one people ... 62 6. Thomas Becket 62 7. Quarrel of Henry II. and Thomas 63 8. The quarrel is patched up and breaks out again 63 1189-1199. 1. 1189. 3. 4. .5. 1199-1216. 6. xii Contents PAGE 1170. 9. Mnrdcr of Thomas at Canterbury 63 10. Tliomas is made a saint 64 11. Henry's troul)k's and pilgrimage to Thomas's tomi) 65 12. Henry II. 's last years and death 65 1189-1216. Chapter XI The Sons of Henry II. • . 67-72 IJichard I., the Lion Heart 67 The Crusades 67 The 'Jliird Crusade 68 Kichard taken prisoner in Germany 69 Kic'hard's last years and death 69 King John .' 69 7. The loss of Normandy and Anjou 69 8. Quarrel of John and Innocent III 70 9. John becomes the Pope's vassal 70 10. The barons oppose John 71 1215. 11. Magna Carta 71 1216. 12. John overthrows the Charter — His death . . 72 1216-1272 Chapter XII. Henry III 73-79 1217. 1. Defeat of Louis of France 73 2. The rule of Stephen Langtou and William iVlarshall 73 3. Character of Henry III 74 4. Henry's weak rule 74 5. The beginnings of parliament 75 1258. 6. The Provisions of Oxford 75 7. Ilenrv and the barons renew their quarrel. . . 75 1264. 8. Battle of Lewes 76 1265. 9. Karl Simon's Parliament of 1265 76 " 10. The Battle of Evesham 78 1265-1272. 11. The restoration and death of Henry in. ... 78 1272-1307. Chapter XIII. Edward I. 80-85 1. Character of Edward 1 80 1282. 2. The Concpiest of Wales 80 3. Edward makes John Balliol King of Scots . . 81 1293. 4. Edward quarrels with Balliol and conquers Scotland 82 5. Rising of Wallace and Edward's second conquest of Scotland 82 1306. 6. Robert Bruce becomes King of Scots .... 84 7. Edward the creator of modern parliament . . 84 1297. 8. The Confirmation of the Charters ..... 85 1307-1327. Chapter XIV. Edward II. 86-88 1. Edward II. and Gaveston 86 1314. 2. The Battle of Bannockburu 86 3. Robert Bruce recognized as King of Scots . . 87 1327. 4. The deposition of Edward II 88 Contents xiii PAGE 1327-1377. Chapter XV. Edward III. 89-95 1. Edward III. and the Hundred Years' War . . 89 2. Causes of the war 89 1328. . 3. Edward III. claims the French throne .... 90 4. Beginning of the war 90 1346. 5. Battle of Crecy 90 1356. 6. Battle of Foiiiers 91 1360. 7. The Treaty of Bretigny 92 8. The war renewed and France lost 92 9. Englishmen become proud of their country and language 92 1349. 10. The Black Death 94 1376-1377. 11. The Good Parliament and the death of Ed- ward III 94 1377-1399. Chapter XVI. Richard II. 96-ioi 1. The minority of Kichard II 96 1381. 2. The Feasants' Revolt 96 3. Richard puts down the Peasants' Revolt ... 97 4. The state of the Church 97 5. John Wycliffe 97 6. Wvcliffe tries to reform the Church 98 7. Ge'offrey Chaucer 99 8. liichard tries to make himself a despot ... 99 1399. 9. Henry of Lancaster deposes Richard II. . . . 99 1154-1399. Chapter XVII. The Angevin Period • • 102-108 1. Changes 102 2. The king 102 3. Parliament 103 4. Powers of parliament 104 5. Taxation 104 6. Justice 105 7. Towns and trade 106 8. Manufactures 107 9. Markets and fairs 108 10. Agriculture 108 PART IV. THE LANCASTRIAN AND YORKIST KINGS. 1399-1485 1399-1461. Chapter XVIII. The Lancastrian Kings 109-117 1399. 1. Why Henry IV. was made king 109 2. Henry IV. puts down the Lollards 110 3. Revolts against Henrv IV 110 1413. 4. Death of Henrv IV^ "^ 110 1413-1423. .5. Character of lienrv V Ill 1416. 6. The Battle of Agincourt Ill 7. The Treaty of Troyes 112 xiv Contents PAGE 1422. 8. Bedford upholds Henry VI.'s throne .... 113 9. The mission of Joan of Arc 113 10. Joan relieves Orleans and takes Charles VII. to Reims 113 11. The death of Joan 11.5 1453. 12. The fall of the English power in France ... 115 13. Henry VI.'s weak rule 116 14. Richard Duke of York 116 1461. 15. The deposition of Henry VI 116 1461-1485. Chapter XIX. The Yorkist Kings • • . 118-121 1. The Wars of the Roses 118 1461. 2. Edward IV.'s claim to the throne 118 3. Edward quarrels with Warwick 118 1470-1471. 4. Henry VI. restored 118 1471-1483. 5. Edward IV. wins back the throne 119 1483. 6. Edward V 119 1483-1485. 7. Richard III 120 1399-1485. Chapter XX. Lancastrian and Yorkist Period 122-124 1. Changes 122 2. King 122 3. Parliament 122 4. Education 123 5. Printing 123 PART V. THE TUDOR KINGS. 1485-1603 1485-1509. Chapter XXI. Henry VII. 125-128 1485. 1. The union of York and Lancaster 125 1497. 2. The imposture of Perkin Warbeck 125 3. The marriages of Henry's Children 126 4. How Henry VII. increased the royal power . . 127 5. Maritime enterprise 127 1509-1547. Chapter XXII. Henry VIII. 129-139 1. Character of Henry VIII 129 2. Cardinal Wolsey 129 3. Wolsey restores the English power abroad . . 131 4. The divorce of Catharine of Aragon .... 132 1529. 5. The fall of Wolsey 133 6. The Reformation 133 1534. 7. Henry VIII. abolishes the Pope's power in England 134 1535. 8. Execution of Sir Thomas More 135 1536-1539. 9. The suppression of the monasteries 135 10. The Engli.sh Bible 137 11. Anne of Cleves and the fall of Cromwell . . . 137 1547. 12. The end of Henry VIII.'s reign 138 13. Henry VIII.'s children 138 Contents xv PAGE 1547-1558. Chapter XXIII. Edward VI., 1547-1553, and Mary, 1553-1558 i40-U4 1547-1549. 1. Somerset ami the Englisli Prayer-book . . . 140 1549-1553. 2. Northumherlaiul drives Somerset from power . 140 1553. 3. The death of Edward VI. and the attempt to make Lady Jane Grey queen 141 " 4. Mary Tudor becomes queen 142 5. The Spanish marriage 142 6. Mary and tlie Protestants 143 1558. 7. Mary's hist years 144 1558-1603. Chapter XXIV. Elizabeth 14.0-157 1. Elizabetli, her ministers and favorites .... 14.5 2. Tlie Churc-Ii finally reformed 145 0, Elizaljeth and the Puritans 146 4. Elizal)eth and the l^oman Catholics 146 5. Mary Stuart and the Reformation in Scotland . 146 6. Mary Stuart in Scotland 148 d, 1587. 7. Mary Stuart in England 148 8. England and Scotland become more friendly . . 149 9. Elizabeth and Philip of Spain ' . . 149 10. The discovery of America 150 11. Quarrels of English and Spanish seamen ... 150 1577-1580. 12. Drake's voyage round the world 151 1588. 13. Tlie Invincible Armada defeated 151 14. Elizai)eth's victories over Spain 152 15. The Tudor conquest of Ireland 153 16. The glories of the end of Elizabeth's reign . . 156 1485-1603. Chapter XXV The Tudor Period . . 1. Changes . 158-161 158 158 3 Ivino" anil parliament . . . . . . 158 159 .5 Agriculture . . 159 159 7. Commerce 8 Education ... . . IGO 160 9. Firearms 160 PART VI. THE STUART KINGS. 1603-1714 1603-1625. Chapter XXVI. James 1 1 62-169 1603. 1. James I. becomes Kiug of Great Britain ... 162 2. And Ireland 163 3. The new royal arms 164 4. Beginnings of the Colonial and trading Empire 164 5. The Stuarts quarrel with their parliaments . . 166 6. Character of James 1 166 xvi Contents PAGE 1605. 7. The Gunpowder Plot 167 8. The Duke of Buckingham 167 9. James and the Spanish marriage 167 1625. 10. Failure of the marriage and death of James . . 169 1625-1649. Chapter XXVII. Charles I i7o-i80 1. Charles I. and Buckingham 170 2. War with France and Spain 170 1628. 3. The Petition of Right 171 4. Charles sends away his parliament 172 5. John Hampden resists ship-money 172 6. Laud and the Puritans 172 7. The Scots resist Charles 174 8. Weutworth and '* thorough " 174 1640. 9. Tlie Long Parliament meets 174 10. Fall of Strafford and Laud 175 11. Charles gets the Churcli party on his side . . 175 1642. 12. Beginning of the great C'ivil War 176 13. Cavaliers and Koundheads 176 14. Charles's early victories and failures .... 176 1645. 15. Cromwell and the New Model — Defeat of Charles 178 16. Quarrel of the army and parliament .... 178 1649. 17. The execution of Charles 1 179 1649-1660. Chapter XXVIII. The Commonwealth • isi-ise 1649-1653. 1. The Pule of the Kump 181 1649. 2. The Conquest of Ireland 181 1650. 3. The Conquest of Scotland 181 1653. 4. Cromwell made Lord Protector 182 1653-1658. 5. Cromwell's home government 182 " " 6. Cromwell and foreign powers 184 1659. 7. Fall of Richard Cromwell 184 1660. 8. Monk restores Charles II 184 1660-1688. Chapter XXIX. Charles II., 1660-1685, and James II., 1685-1688 187-196 1. Character of Charles I r 187 2. The results of the Restoration 187 3. The French alliance 188 4. Commerce and colonies 188 1665-1666. 5. The Plague, and Fire of London 188 1673. 6. The Test Act 189 1678. 7. The Popish Plot 190 1679. 8. The Haheas Corpus Act and the Exclusion Bill 190 9. Whigs and Tories 191 10. The Rve House Plot and fall of the Whigs . . 191 1685. 11. Early days of James II 192 " 12. Monmouth's rebellion 192 13. The suspending power 192 14. General opposition to Jameo 193 1688. 15. The Revolution of 1688 194 Contents xvii PAGE 1689-1702. Chapter XXX. William III, 1689-1702, and Mary II., 1689-1694 196-200 1689. 1. William and Mary made king and queen by parliament 196 2. The Bill of Rights and the Toleration Act . . 196 3. Beginning of party government 197 4. The Revolution in Ireland 198 5. The Revolution in Scotland 199 6. The war against France 199 7. William III. and the Jacobites 199 1702-1714. Chapter XXXI. Anne 201-206 1. Anne and Marlborough 201 1702-1713. 2. The War of the Spanish Succession 201 3. Marlborough's victories 201 1713. 4. The Tory ministry and the Treaty of Utrecht . 203 1707. 5. The union with Scotland 204 1713-1714. 6. The last years of Queen Anne 20.5 1603-1714. Chapter XXXII. Period of the Stuart Kings 207-211 1. Power of the king 207 2. Parliament 208 3. Justice 209 4. Church 209 5. Agriculture 209 6. Commerce 210 7. Manufactures 211 PART VII. THE HANOVERIAN KINGS. 1714-1904 1714-1727. Chapter XXXIII. George I 212-214 1. The long Whig rule 212 1715. 2. The Jacobite revolt of 1715 212 1720. 3. The South Sea Hubble 214 1720-1742. 4. Walpole's Ministry 214 1727-1760. Chapter XXXIV. George II. 215-224 1720-1742. 1. Walpcle Prime Minister 215 2. The War of the Austrian Succession .... 215 1745. 3. The Jacobite revolt of 1745 216 1745-1746. 4. The march to Derby and the Battle of Culloden 217 5. Newcastle and the Whig nobles 218 6. William Pitt 218 7. Quarrels of the English and French in America 220 8. And in India . .' 220 1756-1763. 9. The Seven Years' War 220 xviii Contents PAGE 1760-1820. Chapter XXXV. George III. 225-239 1. George III. and the Whif(s 225 2. George aims at choosing his own ministers . . 225 1775. 3. Ilevolt of the American Colonies 227 4. Chatham and America 227 1783. 5. American independence acknowledged .... 228 1783-1801. 6. The ministry of the younger Pitt 228 7. >ingland becomes a manufacturing country . . 230 1789. 8. The French K evolution 230 1793-1815 9. The great war against France 231 10. Napoleon's successes 231 1793-1806. 11. Pitt prevents changes in Fngland 2,33 1798. 12. The revolt of 1798 in Ireland 233 1800. 13. The union of Great Britain and Ireland ... 235 1801. 14. Pitt's resignation 235 1807-1830. 15. The long Tory rule 235 1808-1814. 16. The Peninsular War 236 1814-1815. 17. The fall of Napolecm 236 1812. 18. War with America 238 1820. 19. Death of George III 238 1820-1837. Chapter XXXVI. George IV., 1820-1830, and William IV., 1830-1837 240-244 1. Character of George IV 240 2. George Canning 240 1829. 3. Catholic Emancipation 241 4. The beginnings of steamships and railways . . 242 5. The need for reform of parliament 242 1832. 6. The Reform Bill passed 243 7. Abolition of negro slavery 243 8. Peel and the Conservatives 244 1837-1901. Chapter XXXVII. Victoria 245-261 1. The Queen and Prince Albert 245 2. Pepealers and Chartists 245 3. The Anti-Corn Law League 246 1841-1846. 4. The Peel Ministry ". . 246 5. Peel and the Corn Laws 246 1846. 6. Repeal of the Corn Laws 248 7. Peelites, Protectionists, and Whigs 248 1854-1856. 8. The Crimean War 249 1857. 9. The Indian Mutiny 250 1865. 10. Death of Palmerston 250 11. (yivil War in America 250 12. Gladstone and Disraeli •. . . 252 1868-1874. 13. Gladstone's first Ministry 2.53 1874-1880. 14. Disraeli's Ministry . ^ 253 15. England and Egypt 254 1884-1885. 16. Home Rule and the third Reform Act . . . . 2.54 1886. 17. Home Rulers and Unionists 256 1886-1901. 18. The Unionist Ministries 256 1899-1902. 19. The Boer War 258 Contents xix PAGE 1867-1901. 20. The Dominion of Canada and tlie Common- wealth of Australia 258 1901. 21. Deatli of Queen Victoria — Accession of Ed- ward VII 260 1714-1904. Chapter XXXVIII. The Hanoverian Period 262-272 1. Chano^es 262 2. The kiuu- . . . . " 262 3. The Cabinet 262 4. Parliament 263 5. The Empire 263 6. The government of the Colonies 264 7. The industrial Revolution 265 8. Machinery 266 9. Capital and labor 266 10. Labor Unions 268 11. Trusts 268 12. Factory legislation 268 13. Agriculture 269 14. Transportation 269 15. Electricity 270 16. Literature 270 17. Education 271 Index 273 LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE The New Houses of Parliameut Frontispiece Flint Arrow-heads 2 A British Bronze Helmet 2 A Bronze Bowl 2 Bronze Caldron found in Ireland 3 Flint Implements 4 Bust of Julius Caisar 5 A Roman Soldier 7 A Gold Coin of a British Chief 8 Weapons of the Anglo-Saxon Period 12 Remains of a Scandinavian Ship 21 Old English Glass and Pottery 22 Edward the Confessor, as depicted on his Great Seal 29 Stone Church at Bradford (Saxon Architecture) 34 Country Life in the Eleventh Century 35 Norman Ships. From the Bayeux Tapestry 39 Portion of the Bayeux Tapestry, showing (A) the Death of Edward the Confessor, (B) his Burial in Westminster Abbey .... 41 A Scene from the Battle of Hastings (Bayeux Tapestry) .... 44 The Death of Harold (Bayeux Tapestry) 44 Porchester Church (Norman Architecture) 54 Plan of a Manor 57 Canterbury Cathedral. View of the part East of High Altar where Becket's Slirine was placed 64 Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem 68 Silver Penny of John's Reign 74 A Knight (to show Armor worn about 1250-1300) 76 Tomb of Henry III. in Westminster Abbey 77 Carnarvon Castle 82 JohnWycliffe 98 Portion of Page of tlie Manuscript of Wycliffe's Bible 100 Beverley Minster (Gothic Architecture) 103 Peasants threshing wheat 106 Longthorpe Manor House (about a. d. 1235) 107 Owen Glendower as Prince of Wales Ill A Ship of the Fifteenth Century 120 Henry VIII 130 Cardinal Wolsey 131 Catharine of Aragou ..... , 132 Martin Luther » 134 The Tower of London and Neighborhood about 1550 136 Thomas Cranmer 143 Queen Elizabeth 147 List of Illustrations xxi PAOE A Warship of the Sixteenth Century 152 London and the Thames before the Spire of St. Paul's was burnt . 154 William Shakespeare 155 A Milled Half-sovereign of Elizabeth 157 Armor as worn in Elizabeth's reign 160 Royal Arms borne by James I. and succeeding Stuart Sovereigns . 164 George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham 168 Charles 1 171 John Hampden 173 Soldier armed with a Pike (c//ca 1630) , 178 A Twenty-sliilling Piece of Charles 1 180 Oliver Cromwell 183 A Coach of the Middle of the Seventeenth Century 185 Old St. Paul's on Fire 1 89 James II. 193 William III 197 Queen Anne 202 Battle of Blenheim 205 Soldier with Musket and Crutch {circa 1630) 208 Mowing Grass in the Eighteenth Century 210 George I 213 Sir Robert Walpole 216 George II 217 William Pitt, afterwards Earl of Chatham 219 Robert Clive 222 A Coach of the Middle of the Eighteenth Century 223 George III. in 1767 226 One of the Stamps as appointed to be used under George III.'s American Stamp Act 227 William Pitt the Younger 229 Lord Nelson . . . .' 232 The Union Flag 234 The Duke of Wellington 237 Napoleon's Medal struck to commemorate the Invasion of England which never took place 238 George IV 241 Sir Robert Peel 247 Benjamin Disraeli, Lord Beacousfield 251 William Ewart Gladstone 252 Queen Victoria 255 King Edward VII 259 Hand-Loom in Roman times 264 The Hand-Loom 265 An early form of Ste.am-Pump for Mines 266 Power Loom in Factory 267 Threshing Machine 269 A Roman Wagon "... 270 An early English Steamboat 270 An early English Locomotive 271 LIST OF MAPS AND PLANS PAGE County Map of Modern England and Wales xxviii The Roman Advance on Gaul and Bi-itain 6 The Old Homes of the English 11 South Britain after the English Conquest (about 600) . . . . , 14 The Old Homes of the Norseman .... 20 England, 106G-1485 25 England after Alfred's Peace witli the Danes 40 Normandy and South-east Enghmd in 1066 43 Part of Hampshire, showing the New Forest 49 The Empire of Henry 11 60 Map showing Position of Runnymede 71 Southern Scotland during the later Middle Ages 83 Battle of Bannockburn 87 The English Dominions in France after the Treaty of Bretigny, 1360 93 Lands held by Henry VI and Charles VII. in France about 1429 . 114 Map to illustrate the Revolt of the Spanish Netherlands . . . . 150 The Route of the Spanish Armada 153 Ireland after the Plantation of Ulster 163 The New England Colonies, Virginia, New York, and Carolina . . 165 England and Wales during the Great Civil War 177 The Position of the Boyne 198 Map of the Netherlands to illustrate Marlborough's Campaigns . . 203 The Position of Gibraltar 204 North America before the Seven Years' War 221 Map to illustrate the Crimean War 249 The British Empire in 1901 257 LIST OF GENEALOGICAL AND OTHER TABLES fAGB Table of Kings and Queens xxiv List of Important Dates xxvi The Chief English Kings before the Norman Conquest 45 Genealogy of the Norman Kings 51 Table showing the Descent of Henry II. from the Norman and English l^oyal Houses 59 Table showing the Descendants of Henry II. down to Edward III. . 65 Table showing the Claims of Edward III. to the French Throne . . 90 Table showing the Descendants of Edward III 95 The Chief Battles of the Wars of the Roses 121 Genealogy of the Tudor Kings 121 Genealogy of the House of Stuart 156 Genealogical Table of the House of Hanover 206 TABLE OF KINGS AND QUEENS THE CHIEF OLD ENGLISH KINGS PAGE Egbert, King of the West Saxons, J. 839 19 Alfred the Great, King of the West Saxons, 871-899 .... 23 Edward the Elder, first King of the English, 899-925 .... 26 Edgar the Peaceful, 959-975 26 Edward the Martyr, 975-978 27 Ethelred the Unready, 978-1016 27 Cnut, 1017-1035 28 Edward the Confessor, 1042-1066 29 Harold, Sou of Godwin, 1066 41 THE NORMAN KINGS William I., the Conqueror, 1066-1087 45 William II, liuf as, 1087-1100 48 Henry I, 1100-1135 49 Stephen, 1135-1154 50 THE HOUSE OF ANJOU Henrv II., of Anjou, 1154-1189 59 Richard I., Lion Heart, 1189-1199 67 John, 1199-1216 69 Henry III., 1216-1272 73 Edward I., 1272-1307 80 Edward II., of Carnarvon, 1307-1327 86 Edward III., 1327-1377 89 Richard XL, 1377-1399 96 THE HOUSE OF LANCASTER Henry IV., 1399-1413 109 Henry v., 1413-1422 Ill Henry VI., 1422-1461 112 and 1470-1471 119 THE HOUSE OF YORK Edward IV., 1461-1470 118 and 1471-1483 119 Edward v., 1483 , 119 Richard III , 1483-1485 120 Table of Kings and Queens xxv THE HOUSE OF TUDOR PAGE Henrv VII., 1485-1509 121 Henry VIII., 1509-1547 129 Edward VI., 1547-1553 140 Mary, 1553-1558 140 Elizabeth, 1558-1603 145 THE HOUSE OF STUART James I., 1603-1625 162 Charles I., 162.5-1649 170 The Commouwealth, 1649-16.53 181 and 1659-1660 184 Oliver Cromwell, Protector, 1653-1658 182 Richard Cromwell, Protector, 1658-1659 184 Charles II., 1660-1685 187 James II., 1685-1688 192 AVilliam III. and Marv II., 1689-1694 } ,„„ William III., 1689-170^2 ( ^^^ Anne, 1702-1714 201 THE HOUSE OF HANOVER George I, 1714-1727 212 George II., 1727-1760 215 George III., 1760-1820 225 George IV., 1820-1830 240 William IV., 1830-1837 242 Victoria, 1837-1901 245 Edward VIL, 1901- 260 LIST OF SOME OF THE IMPORTANT DATES IN ENGLISH HISTORY DATE B.C. 55. Julius Caesar invades Britain. A.D. 410. The Roniaus leave Britain. 449. Landing of Hengist and Horsa. 597. Landing of St. Augustine. 839. Death of Egbert, King of Wessex. 878. Treaty of Chippenhnni. 899. Death of Alfred. 975. Death of Edgar. 1017. Accession of Cnut. 1066. The Norman Con(|uest. 1154. Accession of Henry IL 1170. Murder of Thomas Becket. 1189. The Third Crusade. 1215. Magna Carta. 1258. Provisions of Oxford. 1265. Montfort's Parliament and Battle of Evesham. 1282. Edward L's Conquest of Wales. 1297. Confirmation of the Charters. 1298. Battle of Falkirk. 1314. Battle of Bannockburn. 1346. Battle of Crecy. 1356. Battle of Poitiers. 1381. The Peasants' Revolt. 1399. The Deposition of Richard IL 1415. Battle of Agincourt. 1453. Loss of the English King's Lands in France. 1455. Beginning of the Wars of the Roses. 1461. Battle of Towton. 1485. Battle of Bosworth. 1513. Battle of Flodden. 1 529. Fall of Wolsey. 1534. Henry VLII. passes the Act of Supremacy. 1536. Suppression of the Smaller Monasteries. 1549. Somerset introduces the English Prayer-book. 1553. Failure of Lady Jane Grey. 1558. Elizabeth restores Protestantism. 1577. Drake begins his Voyage round the World. 1587. Execution of Mary Queen of Scots. 1588. Defeat of the Spanish Armada. 1603. Union of the English and Scottish Crowns. List of Some Important Dates xxvii DATE 1607. Settlement of Virginia. 1628. The Petition of Kight. 1640. Meeting of the Long Parliament. 1642. Beginning of the Great Civil War. 1645. Battle of ^'aseby. 1649. Establishment of the Commonwealth. 1653. Oliver Cromwell made Protector. 1660. Restoration of Charles II. 1678. The Popish Plot. 168.5. Monmouth's Rebellion. 1689. The Revolution. 1690. Battle of the Boyne. 1704. Battle of Blenheim. 1707. Union of England and Scotland. 1713. Peace of Utrecht. 1715. The Jacobite Revolt. 1720. The South Sea Bubble. 1742. Fall of Walpole. 1746. Battle of Culloden. 1766. Beginning of Seven Years' War. 1757. Pitt becomes Prime Minister. 1770. Lord North becomes Prime Minister. 1775. Beginning of the American War. 1783. Independence of America acknowledged. 1783. The Younger Pitt becomes Prime Minister. 1789. Beginning of the French Revolution. 1793. England goes to war against France. 1800. Union of Great Britain and Ireland. 1805. Battle of Trafalgar. 1808. Beginning of Peninsular War. 1815. Battle of Waterloo. 1829. Catholic Emancipation granted. 1832. The First Reform Bill. 1841. Peel's Ministrv begins, 1846. Corn Laws abolished. 1854. Crimean War begins. 1865. Death of Palmerston. 1884. The Tliird Reform Act. 1899. Beginning of the Boer War, 1901. Death of Queen Victoria. 1901. Accession of Edward VII. 1902. End of the Boer War. REFERENCE. Towna above 700,000 Inhabt.CMmffa Towns aboue 25,000 inhabt. Derby i Towns below 25, 000 inhabt. Oahham Longitude West 4 of G Longitude o of Greenwich frailer &£outaUsc. County Map of Modern England and Wales HISTORY OF ENGLAND Part I. — Early England. To 1066 CHAPTER I The Britons and the Romans down to 410 1. History is the subject that tells us what has hap- pened to a country or a people in the past. This little book aims at telling the history of the Brit- ish Islands. These islands consist of an island islands in called Great Britain, now divided into Eng^- *^^ earliest times. land, Scotland, and Wales, and a smaller is- land situated to the west of it, called Ireland. Two tliousand years ago, however, things were very different in Britain from what they are now. There was as yet no England, for the English people, who gave England her name, had not yet crossed the seas from their old homes, which Avere in Germany. Southern Britain was inhabited by a people called the Britons^ from whom the island took its name of Britain. Yet these Britons were not the first people who lived in the island. Before they came to the land several other races of men had dwelt in it. We know little about these oldest inhabitants. We should not know that they ever existed had not their old burial-places been dug up from time to time, and bones, tools, and weapons been found. Eor a long 2 The Britons and the Romans down to 410 time these people did not know tlie use of metals. They made tools and weapons out of flint-stones, cleverly cut Flint AiTow-heads. and sharpened. At last, however, they found out how to use bronze and iron. Then they gave up their rough flint implements, and fashioned metal ones instead. A British Bronze Helmet. (Frcm the British Museum ) A Bronze Bowl. 2. We know much more about the Britons than about those who had dwelt in the land before their coming. The Britons and the Romans down to 410 3 The Britons were a tall, fair-haired race, and very brave, strong, and active. Though herce and savage, they were civilized enough to know how to make iron swords to fight with, and gold bracelets with which to adorn themselves. Their descendants still Britons live in the land, though they are not now called the Britons, but the Welsh. The Britons spoke a language which is an older form of the Welsh lan- guage, which is still the mother-tongue of Welshmen. 3. The Britons did not dwell in every part of Britain. In the extreme North, in what are now called the Hi(/h- la7ids of Scotland^ there lived a fiercer and more warlike race called the Picts. More- '^^^ ^^^Js and Scots. over, in Ireland there lived a race called the Scots. Some of these Scots afterwards crossed over from Ireland to Northern Britain, and gave that coun- Bronze Caldron fouucl in Ireland. try the ncAV name of Scotland^ or land of the Scots. Gradually the Picts became mixed up with the Scots, so that the descendants of both Picts and Scots came to be called the Scots. Then the Scots who were left in Ire- land ceased to be called Scots, and were named the Irish. Britons, Scots, and Irish were not, however, very differ- ent from each other in their habits and speech. All The Britons and the Romans down to 410 Julius Caesar and the Romans three belonged to a single great family of nations called the Celts, The languages spoken by the Irish and Scots are still used by some of their descendants, both in the mountains of Northern Scotland and in Ireland. 4. There dwelt in other lands more civilized people than the Britons. Two thousand years ago the Romans were the foremost among civilized nations. The Romans took their name from the city of Rome in Italy. At first they only ruled over their own city, but they were so brave and wise that they conquered many lands, and at last won Gaul^ the country now called France. The Ro- man general who conquered Gaul was Caius Julius CcBsar^ who was the most famous of all the Romans. After defeat- ing the Gauls, ' Csesar led a small army to Britain. This happened fifty- five years be- fore the birth of Christ. The Britons fought 1. A Hafted Hatchet found in tlie Sol way Moss. SO braVCly 2. Axe found near Egreton in Cumberland, with wooden oni — __ — _^:^ -^ '^%^ iM ^'^ -^ ' ^^^ fv> ^--V^^ ^ ^^3^,3^ i^^A^^ _— _ Remains of a Scandinavian Ship. [Now in the University at Christiania. ) 6. The most famous of these treaties was the Treaty of Cldppenham of 878. By it Alfred agreed to divide England with tlie Danes. The Danes took r^^^ Treat northern and eastern England, and ruled it of Chippen- as they pleased. This district was now called the Dane laii\ that is, the country in which the Danish law prevailed. But tliere was no great difference between the English and Danes, and the Danes soon began to 22 Union of England and Coming of the Danes [664- learn the English tongue and customs. The greatest difference at first had been tliat the Danes were heath- ens, Avhile the Enghsh were Christians. But law. Alfred persuaded them to become Christians. When the Danes got used to their new re- ligion, they became very much like the English, except that they still remained somewhat stronger and braver. Old English Glass and Pottery. 7. The Danes did one good thing for Alfred. They had settled in Northumbria, northern Mercia, and East ,, , Anglia, and had destroyed the old lines of How Alfred , . ^ .' -, v ^ • ^ a i -i became the kmgs lu those districts. And there were so chief king in nianv little Danish states set up in the Dane England. , -^ , „ ., i i i law that not one oi them could be very powerful. Hence their princes were soon forced to rec- ognize Alfred as their master. Thus Alfred was able to restore the overlordship of Wessex, which his grand- father had established, and which the Danish invasions had threatened to destroy. Though he never called him- -899.] Union of England and Coming of the Danes 23 self more than King of the West Saxons, Alfred was really the first King of all the English. 8. Alfred was as wise in peace as he was brave in war. He took care to Avard off future invasions of the Danes by setting up a new and a better army than England had had before. jNIoreover, did for the he was not content to wait until the Danes English army and navy. landed. He bunt snips that might go out and attack the Danes on the sea, and thus save England the miseries of invasion. This is the first English navy of which history tells us, and we may therefore look upon Alfred as the founder of England's greatness on the sea. 9. Alfred brought back prosperity to England. He built churches, and trained priests to preach religion to his subiects. He loved learning- and ^u £ ^ 1 TT ^ Why Alfred the company 01 learned men. He set up ^vas called schools, and wrote books in the English Alfred the Great- tongue instead of the Latin, that they might be more generally understood by his people. He col- lected the old laws of the English, and added to them some new ones of his own. He was not only wise, but good, and the most precious example that he set to his people was in his pure, noble, and holy life. Though constantly suffering from poor health, he never lost courage and heart in laboring for the good of his king- dom. When he died in 899,^ England was stronger, better, wiser and more united than he had found it. He was called Alfred the Grreat^ and though more than a thousand years have passed away since he died, his name is still held in high honor. Summary. The Church helps to unite England into one kingdom. Egbert and his grand.son Alfred have great trouble 1 Professor W. H. Stevenson has shown that the date of Alfred's death was 899, and not 901 as nsually given. 24 Union of England and Coming of the Danes with Danish invaders, and Alfred has to divide England with them. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Compare the invasion of the Danes with those of the Koinans and the Saxons. Was the Danish invasion a good thing for England ? King Alfred: Hnghes, T., Alfred the Great ; Tappan, E. M., In the Days of Alfred the Great. Danish Invasions : Henty, G. A., The Dragon and the Raven. The Danes: Engelbach, A., The Danes in England. Alfred's Boyhood: Fenn, G, M., The King's So7is. Books for Teachers. (See Chapter II.) Green, J. R., The Conquest of England; Plummer, A., Life and Times of Alfred the Great. Union of England and Coming of the Danes 25 ENGLAND after Alfred's Peace with the Danes, Walker & Cockerell sc. CHAPTER V From Alfred to Edward the Confessor, 899-1066 1. For more than seventy years after the death of Alfred, the England which he had left united and pros- How Alfred' P^^o^^ continued to flourish. The kings successors were brave and hard-working, and, though o"h"lniulh they had plenty of fighting to do, they were and Emperors generally able to put down their enemies. of Britain. Alfred's son, Ediuard the Elder, dropped his father's title of King of the West Saxons, and called himself King of the English. Edward died in 925. Before long even the name of King of the English was not grand enough for his successors. They conquered the Dane Law ; they subdued the Welsh and the Scots. They began to call themselves Emperors of Britain. In those days the title Emperor was the grandest a man could have, since it had been borne by the Roman Emperors, the lords of all the civilized world. 2. The most famous of the successors of Alfred was his great-grandson. King Edgar, who ruled over the English from 959 to 975. His was the only Khie Edffa° I'^ign in those fierce old days in which England remained long at peace. For this reason men called the king Edgar the Peaceful. Edgar ruled not only over England, but also over the whole of Britain, though the Scotch and the Welsh still had kings of their own. These kings acknowledged Edgar as their overlord. A story is told that during Edgar's reign there was a great gathering of these dependent kings to meet their overlord, Edgar, at Chester. After 1066.] From Alfred to Edward the Confessor 27 they had taken counsel togetlier, it was said that eight kings rowed Edgar in a boat up the river Dee. 3. Edgar's peaceful reign was largely due to his chief minister Dunsta^i, Archbisliop of Canterbury. Dunstan was the wisest Englishman of his time, and the first English statesman who was neitlier a Dunstan.°^ king nor a warrior. lie was a pious bishop, who did a great deal for religion, education, and learn- ing. But he was also very anxious to make all the different races who dwelt in England live quietly and on friendly terms with eacli other. In particular, he tried to keep the Danes, wdio lived in the Dane law, and the English from quarrelling with each other. Luckily, the two peoples were now so much alike that it was not very hard to make them agree. Thus it was that England remained at peace, thanks to Edgar and Archbishop Dunstan. 4. Evil times began when Edgar was dead. He left two sons, Edivard and Ethelred. The elder of these succeeded to the throne, but was cruelly murdered after a very short reio^n. For "J^^ ^^^¥^1 °^ •^ , » Edward the this reason men called him Edward the Martyr and Martyr. His brother Ethelred now became un^ready.'^^ king. Ethelred was a bad ruler. He re- fused to take the advice of the nobles, and was therefore called E^thelred the Unready, a term which at that time meant wanting in counsel. But he was not wise or strong enough to rule properly by himself. Under his weak government the land lost its prosperity, and every- where fighting and confusion were renewed. 5. After a few years of troubles, fresh Danes came from Denmark, and began to plunder the land and destroy the people. Since the days of Alfred r^^^ Danes the Danish invasions had ceased, and the again invade only Danes that had given trouble had been ^^g^^^'^- the Danes dwelling in England. But Ethelred's weak- 28 From Alfred to Edward the Confessor [893- ness once more tempted the Danes living in their land to take ship for the island; and now there was no one like Alfred to withstand them. 6. Ethelred was afraid to fight the Danes, He thought it was easier to bribe them to go away peace- ably. He therefore raised a tax called Dane- gcld^ that is, Danes' money, and paid it over to them, hoping that they would go away. Next year they naturally came back again, and Avanted more money. The more Ethelred bribed the Danes, the more they came to England to get his treasure. 7. Even Ethelred saw that it was of no use to raise any more Danegeld, so he tried another way of getting The Danes ^^^ ^^ ^^^ enemies. By his orders many of conquer the Danes settled in England were suddenly "^ ^" * set upon and murdered. This cruelty only made the Danes in Denmark eager to go once more to England to avenge their slaughtered fellow-countrymen. At last Swegen^ King of all Denmark, came and con- quered England. After that he died; and Ethelred died soon after. 8. There was now more fighting, but soon Cnut^ Swegen's son, made himself King of all England. The Eng'lish g-ladly took him as king^, since he Cnut, King ^ ^ \ • i i i n of England was a bravc and a wise man, who ruled well, ^^ , and brouo^ht back the peace that had been unknown since the death of Edgar. Under him England was once more prosperous. Not only did Cnut rule the English justly, but he called upon them to help him govern his own kingdoms of Denmark and Norway. Cnut was a pious Christian, and eager to make all his subjects more civilized. He knew that the English were better educated and more civilized than the rough Danes and Norwegians. He therefore believed that the English were likely to make the Danes more peaceable and religious. Cnut knew that the Danes ■1086 ] From Alfred to Edward the Confessor 29 fought better than the English, and his Danish warriors were very useful in keeping England quiet. 9. Cnut died soon, and his two sons were men very different from their father. Both reigned badly and died shortly afterwards. Thereupon the English tliought it was time to bring back their old of Edward line of kings. Tliey sent to Normandy for the Edward^ the son of Ethelred tlie Unready, and his Norman wife Emma. In 1042 Edwai'd became King of the English, and reigned until 1066. He was a Edward the Confessor as depicted on his Great Seal. very good and religious man. He was therefore called Edward the Confessor, that is, Edward the Saint. He cared much more for the Church than for the people, and built the famous Westminster Abbey. As he was not fierce or warlike, this good man did not prove such 30 From Alfred to Edward the Confessor [i066. a useful kiuo- as the foreio-n Cnut. Edward had been brought up in his mother's huid of Normandy, and all through his reign showed such love to Normans that he gave them everything that he had to give. Under his weak rule the Norman conquest of England really begins. Summary. Edgar, the great-grandson of Alfred, increases the power of the king. Dunstau helps him. Edgar's son Ethelred is so weak that the Danes invade England. Cnut of the Danes makes himself king of all England. After his death and the death of his sons, Edward the Confessor, son of Ethelred, is made king. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Why was Cnut's rule better for the English (1) than Ethelred's? (2) than Edward the Confessor's ? Why was it that the wisest men of this time were in the Church ? Cnut and Edmund Ironside: Crake, A. D., Alfgar the Dane. Struggles against the Danes: Whistler, C. W., King Olaf's Kinsman. Danish Conquest : Whistler, C. W., Wulfric, the Weapon Thane. Books for Teachers. (See Chapters II. and IV.) A Gold Coin of a British Chief. CHAPTER YI Institutions of Early England 1. In very early times, while the Saxons and Angles were still in Germany, they were in a state of civilization somewhat similar to that of the North Amer- ican Indians when Columbus discovered America. They were divided into tribes, and over each of these was a chief chosen by the members of the tribe for his bravery in war. In times of peace the chief also acted as judge, but if he proved a poor leader in war or peace, the members of the tribe would replace him with a better man. About the chief were grouped the otlier wari'iors of the tribe. Each of the strongest and bravest of them had grouped about him a certain number of men with whom he went on plundering expeditions. It was on expeditions of this sort that the Angles and Saxons came to Britain ; and after returning again and again for more booty they linally settled on the island. The leaders of these expeditions, through holding the place of leader so long, came to be looked upon as kings, and, if there was no objection on the part of their fol- lowers, their sons were chosen to the same office. How- ever, the Saxons never lost sight of the fact that they had the right to elect and depose their leaders or kings. 2. In their original homes in Germany all the mem- bers of a tribe had a share in advising the leader, as well as in electing or deposing him. But the ^^^^ witen- advice of the bravest and the strongest and age mot or the oldest naturally carried most weight, and ^°u"<=^^- as the years wore on the business of advising the leader 32 Institutions of Early England fell into the hands of these men. In England this body of men came to be called the Wite7iagemot, that is, the gemot or meeting of the Wise Men or Witan^ and the rio-ht of all the members of the tribe to share in its counsels was gradually lost sight of. With the growth of population the assembling of all the men of the tribe, or nation as it had now grown to be, became impossible and the business of conducting the government fell entirely into the hands of the king and the Witan — the latter assuming the rights of electing and deposing the king, and of making grants of land, together with such other rights as the members of the tribe had originally held. 3. (a) Methods of Trial. In early times, when one man injured another, the injured man and his relatives would try to do an equal injury to the guilty •'"^ ^ ' man and his family. A feud was then said to exist between the families, and this feud sometimes went on until both families were entirely killed off. As men became more civilized the injured man and his family would accept a mone}^ payment, or a payment in cattle or goods, for the injuiy done. This payment was called the luergeld, or man-money, and it gradually took the place of the feud because the king and the Church were becoming stiong enough to force the wrong-doer to pay, and the injured man to accept this payment. It was not always possible, however, to tell who com- mitted a crime, for many crimes, such as murder and stealing, were often done in secret. Any man tioJT^"^^^" accused of a crime was believed to be guilty, and had to prove himself innocent. He did this by declaring on oath that he was innocent, and by getting a certain number of men to come before the court and swear that they believed he was telling the truth. These men were called compurgators and the process was called compurgation (cleansing together). Institutions of Early England 33 If the accused could not get the necessary compurgators, or for one reason or another was not allowed to prove his innocence by this method, he had to prove it by the ordml. There were many kinds of ordeals, probably the most common being the tiial by hot ivater. By this the accused plunged his arm into scalding water. The arm was then bandaged, and if at the end of three da3^s it was nicely healed, the accused was considered innocent, but if it was festered, he was guilty. To the priests was left the decision as to the condition of the heabng, so you may see that it was they Avho really determined the guilt or innocence of a man. If guilty, the accused had to pay the fine for the crime. {h) Courts. A kingdom was divided into districts called shires., the shires into districts called hundreds, and the hundreds into districts called tovmships. The assem- blies of the citizens of these districts w^ere the courts, and the members of the assemblies acted as judges. When an accused man was brought before them, they did not weigh evidence and pronounce judgment as our courts do. The}^ simply decided which form of trial the accused would have to use to prove his innocence. The highest court in tlie land consisted of tlie king and the Witan, but cases were very seldom taken so high. They were ordinarily decided in the assembly of the hundred (hundred-moot^., but an appeal could be made to the assembly of the shire {shire-moot. ) Below the hundred-moot was the town-meeting (town-moot), but few if any cases for trial were brought before it. 4. Before coming to Britain the Angles and Saxons believed in many gods sucli as the Sun, the Moon, Thiu (god of war), Woden (god of all gods), Thor (god of thunder), Freya (goddess of ^ ^§^^o"- love). So great was their influence on the life of the people that the days of the week were named after them. The Angles and Saxons found that the native Britons 3 34 Institutions of Early England had Ixien coiivorU^d to (Jlnistiaiiity Iroiii the ancient faith of I)rui(hsiii. 'Hie ))ii(jsts of this religion were called Druids, and a temple of theii-s called Stonehenge is still standing. The Angles and Saxons, as we saw, Saxon Stone Churcli at Bradfonl-on-Avon. (Sliowiii(( 8axoM Htyle of architw:tiir<;.) did not at iiist ;idopt ( 'lii-istianity, Ijiit \vli(;)i tli(;y did and l)(;canic nnunlxii's of the great ('atholic (>lnn-ch, any man vviio rl(;chii(;d himscdl Jiot a ni(;nd>(;r ol that Churcii was an (;ii(;niy of (lod, and to })e an (jnt^niy of (iod was as had as to h(j an (Miciiiy of th(; king. At the head of the ('liiirch was tiie J\jpe at Home. ih; was r(ipr(^sent(;d in iMigland by archbishops who had under thciin bishops, and these in turn had under them priests. These men had charge; of churches, large or small, and attend(;d to the rehgious (Mlucation of men. I>esides these clergymen wlio were known as the Hccular denjy there W(;re others, prin(;i pally in Ireland and the north of l^wMgland, who were known as th(; regular clergy b(u;aus(; th(;y liv(;d in monast(;i'i(;s and followed a f;(;rtain refpila^ or rnh;. At the head of th(; monastery was the abbot, }Uid undei' him w(;r'(; c(;riain oth(;r officials and the monks. St. Patrick of Ji(;land was a monk, and founded the system of monasteries in that country. Institutions of Early England 35 5. .Viuoug the Angles and Saxons, oveu before they came to England, there were three classes of people; noble, free, and servile. The last elass was inereased in nnniber by the enslavement of peop^^^ ° some of the captive l>ritons. The land which the Angles and Saxons eonqnered Avas taken by certain families, noble or free, who settled down in groups upon Si I'hniijhiug ami Sowing. Moirhuj. <^J lazii l'lircs/ii)i;/ mul ]\"ninoiri)i 1- 1 TTT the English to capture. We can still see all over the land the ruins of these castles which the Normans built to overawe the English. The most famous of them is the Toiver of London, The Norman Kings 47 3. William soon found that the Norman barons or nobles were not to be trusted. They wanted to have as much power as they could for themselves, ^^^^ revolts and they were very anxious to prevent of the Nor- WilKam from becoming too strong. They "^^^ Karons, were always rising in rebellion against him. 4. The Norman barons were much more cruel to the English than the king was, and the English soon dis- covered that the king was alwaj^s anxious to protect them ag^ainst the barons. The result '^^^ English 1 1 1 AT 11 support was that when the Norman barons revolted, William the English helped the king to put down against the 1 • 1 IT -l^r'^^^ ill i-i bafons. then- rebellions. William rewarded the Eng- lish for this help by keeping up, as far as he could, their old laws. 5. By these means William made himself a very powerful king. This was a good thing for England, since in those rouo-h days the only way of „ „,., , * T r 1 ^ ' How Wll- keepiiig peace and order was for the king to liam became be strong enough to make everybody do his ^.strong will. But the English had to pay heavily for the peace which William gave them. In particular, William forced them to pay very high taxes. 6. William was anxious to raise as many taxes as he could. He therefore took great pains to find out how much land and property every man possessed. With that object, he ordered a book to be day Book.^^" drawn up called the Domesdaij Bool', in which was set down how much land there was in Eng- land, to what people the land belonged, and how much they were bound to pay the king. The English grumbled a great deal at this. " There w^as not," they said, '' a rood of land, nor an ox, or a cow, or a pig passed by." But we have more reason to be grateful to William than the English of his own day. His Domes- day Book tells us more about the state of England eight 48 The Norman Kings [1O66- hundred years ago than we know about any other country at that period. 7. William had three sons, Robert^ William^ and Henry. The eldest of these was Robert, and when the The sons of ^onqi^eror died, in 1087, Robert became William the Duke of Normandy. The Norman nobles onqueror. ^^^ wished him to be king over the English. Their reason was that they knew that Robert was weak and lazy, and that, if he were their king, they could do just what they liked. The Conqueror himself felt sure that Robert, as king, would undo all his work. He therefore said, as he lay dying, that he desired William to succeed him. With the help of the English this wish was carried out. The Norman nobles tried more than once to put Robert on the throne ; but young William was too clever to allow them to carry out their purpose. 8. William II. was a hot-tempered, violent man. Though greedy, brutal, and fierce, he was very strong The reign of ^^^ cunning. He had red hair, and a fair, William florid face. He was therefore called Rufus, or the Red King. He kept the nobles in order, but he ruled very badly. He specially showed his cruelty by the way in which he robbed the Church. Bishops and priests could not fight as well as barons, so William thought it was easier to misuse them. 9. The Archbishop of Canterbury in William II.'s days was named Anselm. He was a very holy man, Rufus and ^^^ ^^^ ^^^J famous both for the sanctity Archbishop of his life and for the learned and thought- ^' ful books which he had written. He had not wanted to be archbishop, but the post had been forced upon him. Before long William began to ill- treat him. Though Anselm was a weak old man, he was never afraid to stand up for the rights of the Church or to tell the truth to the king's face. This -1154.] The Norman Kings 49 made William so angry that he drove Anselm out of the kingdom. 10. The Normans were very fond of hunting. For the sake of hunting, William the Conqueror had made a great many new forests. We call a forest p , , nowadays any large space covered with trees, death in the But in Norman times a forest meant a dis- ^^^ Forest, trict in which wild beasts were allowed to roam freely, so that the king and his nobles might hunt them. Among the new forests set up by William was one still called the Neiv Forest^ in Hampshire, and many farmers and villagers had been forced to leave their homes in order that the king might chase deer over their lands. One day in 1100 William Rufus set out to hunt in the New For- est. Next morning his body was found there with an arrow shot through the heart. The poor saw in this sudden murder of the wicked king God's judg- ment on his sins. 11. Henry, the youngest son of the Conqueror, was now made King Henry I. Once more Robert tried to get the throne for himself, and once more he failed. After a few years Henry defeated Je^^^^^p °^ his brother in battle, and shut him up in prison for the rest of his life. The English helped Henry against Robert, as they had helped William H. earlier. With their aid, Henry kept the Norman nobles in order. He was as cruel as the Red King ; but he was much more prudent. He took care to rule justly, and his subjects called him the Lion of Bigliteousness. Like Rufus, Henry had a dispute with Anselm, but they soon 4 Part of Hampshire, showing the New Forest, and the Rufus Stone where William II. is supposed to have been slain. 50 The Norman Kings [1066- made up their quarrel, and became better friends than ever. One very popular thing Henry did was to marry a lady named Matilda., daughter of the King of Scot- land. Matilda was, through her mother, descended from the old line of kings who had reigned in England before the Norman Conquest. It was through this marriage that the blood of Egbert and Alfred runs in the veins of nearly all English kings down to King Edward VII. 12. Henry I. and Matilda of Scotland had an only son and a daughter. The daughter was called Matilda^ like her mother. The son was drowned during Stepheif" ° l^is father's lifetime. On her brother's death the king persuaded the barons to promise to recognize his daughter Matilda as queen after his death. But it was an unheard-of thing in those days for a woman to rule, and the barons broke the oaths they had taken to Matilda as soon as Henry I. was dead. Instead of her, they chose as their king her cousin Stephen., a grandson of William the Conqueror. Stephen was a brave soldier, but too much like Robert of Normandy in disposition to be a good king. The barons soon found that they could do what they liked under such a careless and easy-going ruler as Stephen. 13. After a few years Matilda came to England and claimed her father's throne. A long civil war followed. Some of the barons fought for Stephen, and between others for Matilda ; but most of them cared Stephen and for neither. Each baron fought for his own interests, and wished to keep up the quarrel of Stephen and Matilda as long as possible, in order that neither should be able to rule with a strong hand. After many years of misery, it was at last agreed that Stephen should reign for the rest of his life, but that on his death Henry of Anjou, Matilda's son, should be the next king. Shortly after this settlement had been made Stephen died, in 1154. -1154.] The Norman Kings 51 14. Great as were the miseries that England had suf- fered from tlie tyranny of the first three Norman kings, it endured far more terrible things during Themiserie the weak rule of Stephen. The people died of Stephen's of hunger or were tortured to death by rob- ^^^^"• bers. It was said that during Stephen's reign Christ and His Saints slept. It was now clear that the rule of the nobles was much worse than the rule of the Crown, and that the strong rule of the Norman kings was the greatest blessing that the Conquest had given to England. Genealogy of the Xorman Kings. William I. I I ' \ i Robert. William II. Henry I., A daughter. m. Matilda, | daughter of Stephen. Margaret of Scotland, great-granddaughter of Ethelred the Unready. Summary. William 1. rules harshly, but with some justice towards the English, who support him against the barons. He makes the Domesday Book. William Rufus rules cruelly and drives Anselm from the country. Henry I. rules justly, but after him a civil war breaks out between Stephen and Matilda for possession of the throne. Topics and Supplementary Reading. What do we have made every ten years that is like the Domesday Book ? Why was it necessary for William I. to have the Book made ? What does " anarchy " mean? William 1. : Tappan, E. M., In the Bays of William the Conqueror. Anselm: Hollis, Gertrude, In the Days of St. Anselm. Outlaws of Stephen's Reign : Chetwode, R. D., The Knight of the Golden Chain. Life of the Times: Yonge, C. M., The Little Duke. Books for Teachers. Freeman, E. A., William the Conqueror, Church, A. J., ,S^^ Anselm; Jewett, S. O., Story of the Normans. CHAPTER IX Norman England, 1066-1154 1. Writers of histories used to think that very few changes took place in English life and institutions when Chang-es by ^^^ Normans conquered England, but of late the Nor- years the historians have come more and ™^"^' more to believe that the changes were so many and so abrupt that we can almost think of a red line dividinof the institutions of the Saxons from those which were established after the Norman Conquest. 2. William I. had himself chosen king by the Witan, but this was only a matter of form, for he was king by right of conquest. The fact that the Nor- mans had conquered England made the Nor- man much stronger than the Saxon kings. Instead of asking the consent of the Witan to the making of laws and the imposing of taxes, the Norman kings frequently made the laws and levied the taxes without consulting the Witan at all. Thus the power of the Norman kings was almost absolute, and they did much as they liked. 3. After the Conquest the Great Council took the place of the Witan, but had not nearly so much power. It consisted of the great churchmen and Council^ nobles, who held large tracts of land as ten- ants of the king, and met about three times a year. When a king died the council chose the new king, but he was scarcely ever any one but the dead king's eldest son. Norman England 53 4. As the population of England increased there was more business for the king than he could attend to alone. So he had a secretary (cliancellor) , a treasurer, and a judge with him all the time ^uncn^^^ to help him with his letters, take charge of his money and aid him in giving justice. These three officers Avith some others were called the king's privy or private council. This council corresponded in a way to the Cabinet of the President of the United States. It still exists in England, but has many more members than it had in Norman times. 5. The highest court of justice was now no longer the Witan (or Great Council), but the Privy Council of the king. This body followed the king from place to place in order to hear appeals from the lower courts which remained much the same as before the Conquest. The same methods of proving a man's guilt or innocence continued in use, but the Nor- mans added a new method called the Wager of Battle, By this method the accuser and the accused, or their champions, fought each other — it being thought at the time that God would have the right man win. 6. The Church organization did not change with the Conquest, but the Norman kings made the Church offices more subordinate to the office of king than under the Saxons. William I., however, did church permit the clergy to try their own members for wrong-doing. This privilege caused a great deal of trouble later. In Europe there had been a great deal of trouble between Pope Gregory VII. and Emperor Henry IV. as to whether the popes or the kings should invest a bishop with his office. In England Henry I. settled the difficulty in such a way as to give both pope and king a share in the ceremony. 7. The same classes existed under the Normans as under the Saxons, but we know from Domesday Book 54 Norman England that many Saxon nobles were deprived of their lands and many Saxon freemen reduced to serfs, or villeivs as the Normans called them. On the Classes of other hand by the influence of the Church ^' the condition of the slaves was much im- proved and manv were freed. Porchester Church, Hanipshh-e, built about 1135. (Showing Norman style of architecture.) 8. Even in Saxon times the king had not been en- tirely strong enough to hold all liis people, especially the great lords, in subjection and obedience to him. There had begun to grow up a sys- tem by which this might be done, and when the Normans came over - they brought a system very The feudal system. Norman England 55 much like the one growing up in Enghind, only it was more perfect. This is know^n as the feudal system. It is very difficult to understand, but if you will try to remember a few things about it, that will be enough. In the first place all land was supposed to belong to the king. He let it out to certain men, usually important nobles. These in turn might let out to lesser nobles certain portions of the land given to them. In this way every part of the land was held directly or indirectly from the king. The man wlio gave out the land was called the lord and he who received it was called the vassal. Thus one man might be a vassal to the king and yet a lord to another man. Instead of paying rent or taxes the vassal did service for his lord, and made him gifts called aids. The service was usually to serve the lord in war and the aids were (1) to ransom his lord if the latter was captured, (2) to pay the expenses of knighting the lord's eldest son, and (3) to contribute to the marriage expenses of the lord's eldest daughter. If the vassal died the vassal's son could only get his land by paying the lord a sum called a relief. For all this the lord had to give his vassal protection. There were many other services and dues of one kind or another, but these were the most important. Every man except the king had a lord above him and every lord had usu- ally many vassals. William the Conqueror was so afraid that his nobles would become stronger than he that he would not give them great tracts of land all in one locality, but gave them a small piece in one part of Eng- land and a small piece in another part. Then he made all men, even men who were not his vassals, but vassals of the men to whom he had given out land, take an oath of allegiance direct to him. He hoped by this to make every man feel that he owed obedience to the king first of all. Now all this may seem very simple to you, but what is put down here is only the ideal 56 Norman England system. In actual working it was very much more complicated. 9. Above we spoke about " knighting " the lord's eld- est son. This was the most important part of an insti- tution called cJiivalry. Every boy of noble birth went through a long training to be- come a knight. When he was seven he was made a page about the court of his father's lord and learned polite manners from the ladies, and manly behavior from the lords. When he reached the age of fourteen he became a squire and attended the lord upon the field of battle. At the age of twenty-one he was made a knight after going through much gorgeous ceremony. He then received his sword and armor and went into battle like the man that he was. The favorite sport for the knights was a mock battle called a tournament. This was held in a great enclosed field called the lists. The battle was sometimes between two single knights, or between many knights, an equal number being on each side. Instead of using swords and trying to kill each other they used long wooden lances and tried to unhorse their opponents. He who unhorsed his opponent or broke the most lances in try- ing to do so was declared the winner. Chivalry and the tournament kept before men in these very rough times a standard of manly conduct and honor, and a high regard for women. 10. The Normans did not have a dislike for towns and as they built much in stone the towns grew rapidly ^ in size and wealth. So wealthy did some of Towns. , 1 1 1 1 1 . <. 1 them grow that they bought their freedom from the control of the king's or lord's officers by pay- ing a certain sum down. The king or the lord then gave them charters guaranteeing them certain rights. In pur- chasing these charters the towns were much aided by the merchant-gilds which had grown wealthy and in many Norman England 57 cases controlled the government of the towns. After the Conquest a new form of gild called the erafUgilds grew up. These were somewhat similar to our modern trade- Waste Waste. Common pasture \9 2 Common Fields with tenants' strips ■ r^^ 9 q ^ Plan of Manor. (Reproduced from Gibbins' " Industrial History of England," by permission of Messrs. Methuen & Co.) uniorts. They Avere organizations of the artisans of a town such as weavers, shoemakers, and so forth, made for mutual benefit. They regulated the kind of work done and made rules for the training and entrance of 58 Norman England new members. In time the craft-gilds became very powerful. 11. To a township or Tillage which remained under the control of a lord the Normans gave the name manor. The manor was a little w^orld in itself. On it lived all classes of people from the lord to the slave. On it were grown all the necessaries of life and in the village were to be found the workmen who made clothing to wear and implements to work with. The lord lived in his manor-house. Some slaves were in his service. Villeins of the lord tilled the soil or were employed as artisans. Some few freemen might be tenants on certain portions of land. Summary. The power of the king increases. The Grand Council takes the place of the Witan, but has less power. The Privy Council takes over some of the duties of the king. The wager of battle is introduced. The dispute with the pope about the office of bishop is settled. Some Saxon nobles lose their lands and some Saxon freemen are made villeins. The feudal system and chivalry are introduced. The towns grow wealthy and the craft-gilds are organized. The Anglo-Saxon township or vill be- comes the manor. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Was the wager of battle worse than the ordeal or compurgation ? What is a trade- union? What is a charter? Have you ever heard of charters in American history? Were there ever any slaves in the United States ? Chivalry: (See books by Church and Bulfinch in Chap. II.) Tournament: Scott, Sir W., Ivanhoe. Books for Teachers. (See Preface under Feilden and Cheyney.) Part III. — The Angevin Kings. 1154-1399 CHAPTER X Henry II., 1154-1189 1. Henry 11.^ the son of Matilda, was the first king since Edward the Confessor who was descended from the honse of Egbert and Alfred. It was h^^ ^^e through his grandmother, 3Iatilda of Scot- House of layidf the wife of Henry I., that he traced "-"^^ ^g^r\. this descent. He was often called Henry of Ayijou^ because his father, Geoffrey^ was Count of Anjou, a district in France to the south of Normandy. For this reason Henry II. and his successors are often called the House of Anjou. They were also called the House of Plant aye net because in tiieir coat of arms they had a broom-plant, — the Norman-French word for this being plante-genet. Table showing Descent of Henry II. from the Norman AND English Royal Houses. Ethelred the Unready, great-graudfather of Margaret, Queen of Scots. "William I. I I Matilda, m. Henry I. I Matilda I Henry II. 6o Henry II. 1154- Dominions of Henry //. Dominions ruled ty vassals Domln f and Dependen i of the Kin^ ^France t, COCKCRELL.DEL The Empire of Henry II. -1189.] Henry II. 6i 2. Henry II. was already Duke of Normandy and Count of Anjou when he became King of England. He „ jj , had also won a very great territory in great southern and western France called Aqui- dominions. taine through his marriage with Eleanor of Aqidtaine, the rich heiress of those regions. Thus Henry ruled over more French land than the King of France himself. Moreover, he subdued the Scots and the Welsh. He also conquered part of Ireland, and was the first English king to be called Lord of Ireland. But his power was not very great in any of these regions, and in Ireland he had little real authority. It was not until the days of the Tudor kings that England thoroughly conquered Ireland. 8. All these possessions, however, made Henry II. a very powerful king. He ruled over all these territories very wisely and vigorously. He was hot- Henrv^il^ °^ tempered, violent, and sometimes ratlier cruel. But he knew how to make himself obeyed. He put an end to the disorderly state of things that had prevailed in England under King Stephen. He pulled down the castles that the barons had built in Stephen's days without asking for the king's permission. Under him England was again peaceful and well gov- erned, as it had been in the days of his grandfather, Henry I. 4. Henry II. was very fond of making changes in the government of the country. The most famous of these changes was a system of trying prisoners, m:vv^aws ^ whicli he borrowed from his grandfather, and set up on such a firm basis that it has lasted ever since. He sent his judges over all the country from time to time, and so established the trfaTby^'unf system of Assizes, or circuit courts, which have continued down to the present time. Henry also used the system of trial by jury so often that 62 Henry II. [ll54- it became henceforth the regular way of trying criminals. When the king's judge went round to hold the assizes, or law courts, in each county, he was helped in trying- prisoners by a body of men belonging to the neighbor- hood who swore that they would tell the truth as they knew it. They were called a jury, from the Latin word jurati^ which means sworn men. 5. During Henry II. 's long reign the English and Normans gradually became one people. For a long time after the Conquest there was a clear Nof mans" li^^G o^ division between the Norman rulers become one and the English people that they ruled. ^^ ^ * So many Normans had now married English ladies that most of the nobles liad English as well as Norman ancestors. Many new families rose into power that were wholly English by descent. The upper classes still used more French than English, as had been the case ever since the days of William the Conqueror. Even when they spoke the French tongue, however, they were thoroughly English in feeling. They were very glad to hght the French kings, and the English kings now gave them plenty of chances of doing that. 6. Henry II. had a famous dispute with one of his Archbishops of Canterbury, whose name was Thomas Beeket. In the early part of his reign Becket. Thomas had been the king's chief minister, and had worked very zealously in the king's service. When the Archbishop of Canterbury died, the king thought it would be a fine thing to make his faith- ful minister archbishop. He believed that as archbishop Becket would take care to bring the Church over to the king's side. In those days the Church was very power- ful, and even kings were afraid to quarrel with it. 7. Becket was made archbishop. He took a very serious view of his office, and tried to follow in the footsteps of Anselm. He was very eager to uphold -1189.] Henry II. e>7, all the riglits and liberties of the Church, and had not long been archbishop when he had a fierce quarrel with the kino-. The chief cause of the dispute ^ , , ^1 ^- T. 1 111 Quarrel of was the question how clergymen who had Henry li. committed offences were to be tried. Henry ^^^ Thomas. wished to have them brought before tlie king's courts like anybody else. Becket said that the clergy ought only to be tried in tlie courts of the Church, because it was profane to bring such holy men before the judges of the king. The result was that the old friends became very bitter enemies. Before long Henry drove Thomas out of the kingdom, and lie remained in exile for six years. 8. At last, in 1170, Henry and Thomas patched up their quarrel, and Thomas went back to Canterbury. But Thomas was very restless and meddle- ^, T , /» 1 T The quarrel some, and soon began to start iresh disputes, is patched up This made the kinaf very anofry. He burst ^"^ breaks ^ o ./ out again. into a mad rage, and said all sorts of severe things about tlie arclibishop. " Will not one of my cowardly servants," he cried, " rid me of this turbulent priest? " 9. Four of Henry's followers took the king at his word. 1'hey went sti'aight to Canterbury, thinking that they would please the king by murdering the jvim-der of archbishop. Thomas took refuge from them Thomas at in his cathedral. The murderers thundered Canterbury, at the door. " Unbolt that door ! " said Thomas to his clergy. " I will not have God's house made a fortress for me." Then the four rushed into the church, crying, " Where is the traitor ? " " Here I am," answered Thomas ; " no traitor, but archbishop and priest of God." Then they fell upon him with their swords, and cruelly put him to death. When the foul deed was done, they cried, " Let us go now. He will never rise again." 10. All Europe was horrified at the murder of Becket in his own church. Tales were quickl}^ spread of the 64 Henry II. [ll54- holiness of his life and the bravery of his death. Men forgot that Becket was no gentle saint like Anselm, but always quarrelsome and violent, and that madTa sa?nt. ^^^ fought not SO much for justice and truth as for the rights of the Church. His noble death had given a touch of nobility to his whole life. He was now called St. Thomas of Canterbury^ the martyr Canterbury Cathedral. View of part of east of High Altar where Becket's Shrine was placed. (The tombs under canopies are those of Henry IV. aiid the Black Prince.) for the liberties of Holy Church. His shriyie^ or tomb, at Canterbury Cathedral became the most famous place of pilgrimage in England. Thousands of men flocked as pilgrims from all parts of Europe to pray at the martyr's burial-place. 11. Henry was horrified at what the knights had done. They had thought to serve him, but they had -1189.] Henry II. 65 made him hateful to all Christendom. Nothing pros- pered with him. His subjects looked upon him with fear. His nobles rose in revolt against him. Henry saw that he must make it clear that he was sorry for his rash words, and had not wished to take the archbishop's life. He went himself as a pilgrim to Can- terbury. He knelt humbly before the tomb trouSfes and of his old enemy, and was flogged with rods pilgrimage ^ as his punishment. The Pope tlien declared tomb.°"^^^ ^ that the king's repentance had atoned for his sin. But the worst result of Becket's murder was that Henry was obliged to allow the law to remain as Becket had wished it. Until the Reformation any cler- gyman who committed a crime was tried in the courts of the Churcli, and not in the courts of the king. 12. Henry's last years were full of disasters. His sons were disobedient and faithless. More than once they rose in revolt against their father, though ^^^^ jj, he had always been foolishly kind to them, last years They joined with his great enemy the lying ^"^^ ^^^t^- of France, and gave the old king all the trouble they could. In the midst of one of these revolts Henry II. died, overwhelmed with misfortunes, in 1189. Table showing the Descendants of Henry II. down to Edward III. Henry II., m. Eleanor of Aqnitaine. I . i I Richard I. John. I Henry III. I Edward I. I Edward II., m. Isabella of France. I Edward III. 5 GG Henry II. Summary. Henry II., a powerful king, introduces better methods for trying criminals. English and Normans become one people. Quarrel between Henry and Thomas Kecket ends in the murder of Thomas. Henry's last years disturbed by revolt of his sons. Topics and Supplementary Readmg. Is jury trial better than trial by compurgation, ordeal, or wager of battle? Have we circuit courts in the United States ? What is a pilgrimage ? Outlaws : Gilliat, E., Forest Outlaws^ or St. Hugh and the King. Wars on the Welsh Border: Scott, Sir W., The Betrothed. Books for Teachers, (jreen, Mrs. J. H., Henry 11. ; Stubbs, W., Early Plantagenets ; Hutton, W. IL, St. Thomas, Archbishop of Canterbury. CHAPTER XI The Sons of Henry II., 1189-1216 1. The eldest living son of Henry, Richard, now became King Richard I. He was very fond of fighting, and more anxious to win glory for himself than to govern his kingdom well. He was l^o^ Heart. English king for more than ten years, but he lived almost entirely in his French dominions. Only twice did he visit England, and on each occasion for a very short time. As soon as he had collected enough money to enable him to carry out his plans of fighting, he hurried away again. Yet Englishmen honored him for his deeds of daring, and called him Richard Lion Heart. However, not one of all the Eng- lish kings Avas so little of an Englishman, or cared so little for the country as King Richard. 2. Soon after he became king, Richard went on what was called a Crusade. A Crusade was a holy war against the Mohammedans, and w^as so called because those who took part in it wore a cross sewn cmsades on to their clothes to show that they were engaged in a holy work. The first of these crusades had begun in the days of William Rufus, and the cru- sade that Richard took part in was called the Third Crusade. It was the fashion in those da3^s for men to go on pilgrimages^ or holy journeys to the tombs of great saints and holy men. We have seen how in England a great many people went on pilgrimage to the tomb of St. Thomas of Canterbury. But no pilgrimage was so meritorious as that to the Holy Sepulchre at 68 The Sons of Henry II. [1189- Jerusalem. However, Jerusalem was in the hands of the Turks, who liated the Christian faith and robbed and murdered the Christian pilgrims. The Crusades were started to drive the Turks out of Jerusalem, and to set M^ Church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem. up a Christian kingdom in the holy places where Jesus Christ had lived His earthly life. 3. The First Crusade had expelled the Turks from The Third Jerusalem, and had set up a Christian king- Crusade, (^[qj^-^ there. But after nearly a hundred years there arose a very gallant and noble Turkish Sultan, called Saladin^ who drove the Christians out of Jerusa- -1216.] The Sons of Henry II. 69 lem again. The Tliircl Crusade was undertaken in order to restore Christian rule in the Holy City. 4. Richard fought well against Saladin, and won many battles against him. But he did not manage to conquer Jerusalem, though he came within sight of its walls. Thereupon he turned his taken pris- face away, saying that if he were not able to °"^^ ^" conquer it he was not worthy to look at it. However, he made a truce with Saladin, by which the Christians were allowed to go on pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulchre. Then he started home. On his way he was taken prisoner by the Duke of Austria, a German noble- man with whom he had quarrelled in the Holy Land. He was left in prison until the English paid an enor- mous sum of money to the Germans by way of ran- soming their captive king. It was only in 1194 that Richard got back to England. • 5. As soon as he had raised a large treasure, Richard left England again. He spent the rest of his life fighting the King of France, who had tried Richard's to rob him of his French lands while he was last years a prisoner in Germany. After five years, he ^^ ^^*^' was shot dead from the wall of a castle which he was besieging. 6. Richard left no children, and his younger brother, John, became king in his stead. John was the very wickedest and worst of all English kings. Cruel, greedy, self-willed, and violent, he failed in everything that he tried to do. He ruled so badly that he turned most of his subjects against him. 7. Before John had been king for four years the nobles of his French territories rose in revolt, and called upon the French king to come to their help, r^^^ j^^^ ^^ The French king did this very willingly. Normandy He declared that John had forfeited all his ^"^ ^"J°"' lands in France, and took possession of Normandy and 70 The Sons of Henry II. [ll89- Anjou. All that was left to John of Henry II.'s great French possessions was a part of the inheritance of his mother, Eleanor of Aqnitaine. This district, which was called Gascony^ had Bordeaux as its chief town, and re- mained the property of the English kings for two hun- dred and fifty years longer. 8. In John's days there lived one of the most famous of all the Popes or Bishops of Rome. The name of this Pope was Innocent HI. Now, John and John and Innoccnt could not agree as to who should f°P^ ,,, be Archbishop of Canterbury. The king Innocent III. ^ ^ . ^^ wanted to appoint a very unnt man to the post; but the Pope would not allow this, and wished to give the archbishopric to Stepheyi Langton^ the wisest and most learned Englishman of his day. John objected, and a fierce quarrel followed, which lasted several years. In the course of it Innocent put England under what was called an Interdict. That means that he stopped all public services in church, until John gave way. But though the pious English were very unhappy at all divine worship being cut off, the godless John only laughed at the Pope's threats. 9. Innocent was determined not to be beaten. At last he declared that John had no right to reign any longer, and called upon the King of France becomes to invade England and drive John away from the Pope's ^ig kingdom. This threat brought John to his knees. He suddenly submitted to the Pope. He agreed to accept Langton as archbishop. But he did more than that. He took his crown off his head and handed it over to Pandulf^ the Pope's repre- sentative. He promised that henceforth he would regard the Pope as his overlord, and pay him a sum of money every year by wa}" of tribute. It was the most disgrace- ful surrender that any king of England ever made. John, however, cared little for the shame of it, if he could get -1216.] The Sons of Henry II. 71 out of his immediate difficulty. He thought it Avould be a great advantage to him to have the Pope henceforward on his side. 10. During all these yeai'S John had been reigning very badly. The barons had long hated liim, and now the poorer people began to fall away from him and to put themselves on the side of the '^^^ barons 1 * 1 1 • 1 T i ■ 1 oppose John. barons. Archbisiiop Langton wi-sely strove to bring together all the different classes of Englishmen against the cruel king. The barons went to war against Runnymede •John, and very few cared to fight for the tyrant. In 1215 John found that he could resist no longer. He met the barons near Staines, on a meadow by the banks of the river Thames, called Runnymede. There he was forced to agree to the terms which the barons had drawn up. 11. The demands of the barons were contained in a document called, in Latin, Magna Carta, ; that is, in English, the Great Charter. Till now the Norman kings had ruled as they chose, like ca^fa.^ despots. John was now forced to have re- gard to the rights of church, barons, and people. He was not to raise fresh taxes without tlie consent of the barons, and he was not to put any one into prison save according to the law of the land. Thus the Great Charter contains the beginnings of English liberty and 72 The Sons of Henry II. [12I6. of the English constitution. It took a very long while before all its articles were really carried out, but it Avas something to have made a beginning. 12. John soon broke his word, threw over the Charter, hired foreign soldiers to fight for him, and went to war against the barons. He pressed them so throwsThe hard that they were forced to call on Louis Charter. gf France, the eldest son of the French king. His death. / ' ^ 1 i xi -n •?^ to come over to help tliem. Even with French help, they found it hard to overcome John. Luckily, next year, in 1216, John suddenly died. Summary. Richard Lion Heart and the Crusades. John loses Normandy and Anjou. Quarrel between John and Pope Innocent III. leads John to become the vassal of the popes. Barons oppose John and gain the Magna Carta. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Why is the Magna Carta so important? Do you think Richard attended to the business of the kingdom well? Do you think that the loss of Normandy was a good or a bad thing for England? Richard I. : Scott, Sir W., Ivanhoe. Third Crusade : Henty, G. A., Winning His Spurs ; Scott, Sir W., The Talisman. The Magna Carta: Edgar, J. G., Runnymede and Lincoln Fair. Loss of Normandy : Gilliat, E., Wolfs Head. John's Time: Yonge, C. M., Constable of the Tower. Books for Teachers, Stubbs, W., Early Plantagenets ; Archer, T. A., Crusade of Richard I. Silver Penny of John's Reign. CHAPTER XII Henry III., 1216-1272 1. On John's death his eldest son became Henry III. The new kuig was a boy, only nine years old. The barons who had called in Louis of France ^ . . r Defeat of refused to recognize Henry as their king, and Louis of the civil war went on for two years longer. F^^^^^- Louis' friends gradually fell away from him, and Henry's side became stronger and stronger. It was felt by many that it was a bad thing to be ruled by the man who on his father's death would become king of F" ranee also. The little king was quite innocent of his father's mis- deeds. His friends now showed that they did not intend to allow him to govern in the way that King John had ruled. They issued Magna Carta once more as a free- will grant of Henry III. This took away the only good reason for opposing Henry. Louis' cause now rapidly began to lose ground. In 1217 he was forced to leave England, and Henry III. became undisputed king. 2. The two chief supporters of Henry in his struggle against Louis were Stephen Langton^ the Archbishop of Canterbury, and William Marshall^ Earl of The rule of Pembroke. After the Frenchman had gone Stephen home, these two wise men restored England wiiiiam to peace and prosperity. Though Pembroke Marshall. was an old man, who died in 1219, the work wliich he had begun was carried on after his death. Gradually the horrors of the civil war were forgotten. John's foreign soldiers were driven out of England, and Eng- lishmen again became the rulers of their own country. 74 Henry III. [1216- 3. Unluckily, new troubles arose when Henry III. became old enough to govern. He was a much better man than most of the kings who had gone Heriry^lii.° before him. He was pious, gentle, and good- natured. He was faithful to his friends and devoted to his wife and children. He was well educated, and loved to build beautiful churches and to adorn them with fine statues and decorations. The most famous churcli that he built was the Westminster Abbey which now exists. Henry pulled down Edward the Confessor's church, and set up a far finer and richer one in its place. He did this because he specially honored Edward the Confessor. Another way he had of showing respect to this king was to call his eldest son Edward. Perhaps one reason why Henry loved Edward the Confessor so much was that he was not unlike him in character. Like the Confessor, Henry was too weak and too fond of foreigners to be a good king. He gave many rich estates and high offices to his wife's kinsfolk, w^ho came from the south of France, and were very numerous and greedy. Every clever young Frenchman was sure to receive a warm welcome from Henry if he went to England. It soon became quite the fashion for young French nobles to make their way to England, in order to push their fortunes there. One of these was Simon of Mont/ort. He married the king's sister, and w^as recognized by Henry as Earl of Leicester. 4. Neither Henry nor his foreign friends knew how to rule England. The promise which the king had made, that he would govern according to weak^uie ^^^^ Great Charter, was not kept. The king was always collecting heavy taxes. But he wasted the money on his favorites, and did not keep good order. The barons at last grew very angry. They resolved that they would force Henry to take their advice, and rule the country better. -1272.] Henry III. 75 5. Since the Great Charter, the barons had much more power than they had had before. The king was no longer a despot, but was bound to ask t,, , . ^ r \ ^ ^^^ begin- the consent of a body called parliament nings of before he raised fresh taxes or passed new P^^^i^^™^"*. laws. The parliament of those days was not like the present parliament, composed of representatives of the whole people. It consisted only of the earls, barons, bishops, and other leading nobles and clergymen. But it was becoming a real check on the king, and especially on a weak king like Henry III. 6. At first the parliament of barons was unable to do much against the king. It lacked a good leader, and it was a long time before one was found. At last an excellent leader appeared in the per- The Pro- son of tlie king's brother-in-law, Simon of oxford.° Montfort. Montfort had now become quite a good Englishman. He liad at first supported the king, like the other foreigners. But he was so much wiser than Henry that he soon grew disgusted with his brother-in-law's careless ways. He quarrelled violently with him, and headed the barons opposed to the king. In 1258 the parliament met at Oxford, and drew up, under Simon's guidance, some new laws, called the Pro- visions of Oxford. By these the foreigners were driven out of the country, and the government of England handed over from the king to the barons. 7. The new system Avorked pretty Avell for a few years. However, Henry hated it, and so did his son Edward, who was now a grown man, and much wiser and more determined than his the barons foolish father. The king and his son could renew their have done little if the barons had agreed among themselves. This, however, Avas not long the case. Earl Simon thought that the barons AA^ere ruling selfislily in their oavu interests. He Avished to do more 76 Henry III. [1216- Battle of Lewes. for the common people. The result was a quarrel between Simon and his friends. This gave Henry and Edward their chance. They took up arms against the barons. The civil war that followed is called the Barons' War. 8. When it came to fighting, the barons once more had to unite. Simon of Montfort now took the lead over all. In 1264 he won a great victory over the royalists at Lewes, in Sussex, where Henry and Ed- ward were both taken prisoners. 9. Simon was now the real ruler of England. Early in Earl Simon's ^-^^ ^^^ called to- Parliament gethcr a parliament °^"^5- to help him. Up to this time most parliaments had, as we have seen, been gatherings of nobles only. But Montfort's Parliament of 1265 was a great deal more than this. He summoned every county to elect two represen- tatives of the free landholders to speak on its behalf. He also requested every toAvn to choose in the same way two of its burgesses to sit as its representatives. This was not quite the first time that representatives of the counties had been summoned to parliament, though it was the most A Knight. (To show Armor worn about 1250 to 1300. ) -1272] Henry III. 77 Tomb of Henry III. at Westminster Abbey. 78 Henry III. [1216- famous occasion on which they had been called. It was, however, the first time that the towns had been asked to send members to parliament. It is clear that Montfort asked them to come because he believed that every class of the people ought to have their say in the government of the country. Thus we owe it to Mont- fort that parliament became, not merely a gathering of nobles, but an assembly of representatives of every class of Englishmen. 10. Simon's power lasted less than a year. Wise and great as he was, he was very overbearing and quarrel- some. Some of the nobles hated him be- The battle of ^a^^ge he trusted the people, and others Evesham. ^ ^ . because they believed he was very ambitious and greedy of power for himself. They began to quar- rel with him once more. Henry was now old and worn out, and his wishes counted for little, even on his own side. Edward was the real leader of the royalists. He escaped from prison, joined Montfort's enemies, and went to war agaiust him. In 1265 he defeated and slew Simon, at the battle of Evesham^ in Worcestershire. 11. Edward then restored his father to his throne. After this, things remained quiet for the rest of the old The restora- king's reign. After a year or two, Edward tion and death fouiid that the land was so peaceful that o enry . j^^ went Oil a crusadc. He fought bravely against the Turks, but could not do much against them. He was still away in the East when Henry III. died, in 1272. Summary. Henry III., nine years old, becomes king. He wastes money on foreign favorites and gets into trouble with the barons. Simon of JNIontfort calls the Parliament of 1265 after defeating the king at l^ewes. Simon is killed at Evesham, Henry dies, and Edward, his son, succeeds to the throne. Topics and Supplementary Reading. For what body under the Norman kings is parliament another name? Can you think -1272.] Henry III. 79 of any other reason than the one given in the book why Montfort asked the representatives of the people to come to parliament? Who was Edward the Confessor? Find in a dictionary what the word " burgess " means. Henry HI. : Yonge, C. M., The Prince and the Page. The Barons' War: Green, E. E., A Clerk at Oxford; Edgar, J. G., How I Won My Spurs. Chivalry: Pickering, E., A Stout English Bowman. Days of Henry HI. : Foster, A. J., and Cuthell, E. C, The Robber Baron of Bedford Castle. Books for Teachers. Creighton, ]\I., Simon de Montfort; Hutton, W. H., Misrule of Henry III. and Simon de Montfort. CHAPTER XIII Edward I., 1272-1307 1 . Though it was nearly two years before Udward I. set foot in his kingdom, everything went on peaceably during his absence. The new king had well ofEdward I. learned the lessons of his youth, and ruled after a very different fashion from Henry III. He had also taken to heart the lessons of Earl Simon's life. Like Simon, he wished to have the people on his side, and to teach them to trust him. He was fond of power, but he saw that he would really get more of his own wa}^ if he took the people into some sort of part- nership with him. He was brave, energetic, straight- forward, and lionorable. He boasted that he always kept liis word, but sometimes he was content to keep the letter rather than the spirit of his promise. More- over, he had so hot a temper that it sometimes made him hard and cruel. He was, however, one of the best of the kings, and few rulers have done more good to England. 2. One of the chief events of this reign was the con- quest of the Prineipalitij of Wales. Wales, the old ^, refuge of the Britons, had been constantly quest of becoming smaller and smaller as time went Wales. Qj-^^ ]^^^ ^YiQ greater part of it was still ruled by a prince of its OAvn. Lleivelyn^ Prince of Wales, refused to take the oath to obey Edward, which earlier Welsh princes had always taken to tlie English king. Edward endured this patiently for some years. At last, however, he conquered all Llewelyn's dominions, and added them to his own. Llewelyn was killed in battle Edward I. 8i in 1282, and there were no more native princes of Wales. A few years afterwards, however, Edward made his eld- est son, Edward^ Prince of Wales. This Edward had been born at Carnarvon, where his father had bnilt a strong castle to keep the Welsh in check. In later times it gradually became the fashion for the king's eldest son to be called Prince of Wales. That custom has lasted down to our own day. Carnarvon Castle. (Built by Edward I.) 3. The conquest of Wales left Scotland the only part of Britain that was not ruled by the English king. Scotland was a much larger country than Wales, and was governed, not by a prince, make^^john but by a king. Though some of the kings Baiiiol King of Scotland had recognized the English kings as their overlords, the Scottisli kings were much freer and stronger than the Welsh princes. A few 6 82 Edward I. [l272- years after the conquest of Wales, Edward had a good chance of making his power felt in Scotland. There was a dispute between the Scots as to the choice of their next king. Some were in favor of John Balliol, others were for Robert Bruce, and others supported other can- didates. At last the Scots thought their best course was to ask Edward to decide for them which of the claimants had the best right. Edward agreed to undertake this task, but before he set to work he asked all the candi- dates to admit that he was overlord of Scotland. All of them agreed to this, and promised to obey Edward as over- lord. Then Edward heard all that they had to say. At last he declared that John Balliol had the best title to be king. Balliol then took an oath to obey Edward, and was crowned King of Scots, 4. Disputes soon arose between Edward and Balliol. Edward wanted to interfere in Scottish affairs more Edward ^^^^^^ earlier English monarchs had done, quarrels with and Balliol Avas very much annoyed at his conquers" action. In a very few years war broke out. Scotland. Jn 1296 Edward invaded Scotland, took Balliol prisoner, and forced him to give up his kingdom. Then he appointed English governors to rule over the Scots. He was resolved that he himself would hence- forth be the only king in Scotland. 5. The Scots hated to be subject to the English king. Things were made worse by some of the English gov- . . , ernors treating^ the Scots very cruelly. After Rising of ^ -, 1 r^ : • 1. • ; Wallace, and a few mouths the Scots rose m revolt against Edward's Edward. Thev chose as their leader a fierce second con- ^ tt/'/t" ttt n quest of and resolute soldier, named WiUiam Waliace. Scotland. Under his guidance they drove the English out of Scotland. Next year Edward came himself, at the head of a great army, to win back Scotland to his obedience. In 1298 he defeated Wallace in the battle of Falkirk, but though Edward won this battle, he was -1307.] Edward I. 83 far from having subdued Scotland. The Scots were de- termined not to be ruled by him, and as soon as tlie king put them down in one place, they rose in revolt in another. Wallace remained at liberty for seven years after his defeat at Falkirk. At last, however, he was SOUTHERN SCOTLAND during the later Middle Ages. taken prisoner, and put to death as a traitor. Tlie Scots said that Wallace was no traitor, since he was only de- fending his native country, and had never taken an oath to obey Edward. After his death Edward subdued all the land. This second conquest was, as Ave have seen, a much harder business than the first conquest in the days of John Balliol. Yet it did not last much lono-er. o 6. Very soon the Scots rose once more in revolt. They had now a new leader in Rohcrt Bruce^ grandson of the Robert Bruce who had claimed the throne against 84 Edward I. [l27J^ John Balliol. Bruce had till now generally been on Edward's side, but he had a quarrel with another nobleman, named John Corny n, and murdered Bruce be- him in a church. Edward would not forgive comes King Bruce this lawless deed, so Bruce rose in re- volt in 1306, and was joined by so many that he was soon crowned King of Scots. Edward, who was now nearly seventy years old, saw that he must conquer Scotland for a third time. He marched to Carlisle with a great army, but before he could reach Scottish soil death carried him off, at Burgh-on-Sands, near the border. Thus he failed to accomplish that conquest of Scotland on which he had set his heart. It was natural that the Scots should look upon him as a cruel tyrant. Yet, even in dealing with the Scots, Edward had meant to do right. He believed that it was best for all Britain to be ruled by one king, and that he would be able to govern the Scots more wisely than they could themselves. The Scots, however, loved their freedom so much that nothing would induce them to accept even benefits from Edward's hands. 7. It is pleasant to turn from Edward's constant Avars with the Scots to his doings in England, where he , , proved himself a very successful king". He Edward the ^ „ „ •{ , ^ e creator of was lamous lor passing a large number oi modern ^yj^g laws, and for makino' England more parliament. ■^ ^ peaceable and better governed than it ever had been before. The greatest benefit that Edward did to England was to ciill together the Model Parliament in 1295. This settled that parliament should always be, like Simon of Montfort's Parliament of 1265, com- posed of representatives of the people as well as of the great lords and bishops. Tlie result was that, before long, parliament was divided into two parts. The lords and bishops made up the House of Lords, and the mem- bers for the counties and towns formed the House of -1307.] Edward I. 85 Commons. Thus Edward I. is, even more than Shnon of Montfort, the creator of the free English Constitution. 8. Before long Edward Avas forced to make greater concessions to his people than he Avished to do. In 1297 he found that the people Avould not ^u r r. help him against the Scots unless he agreed mationofthe to a new Confirmation of the Charters, by ^^^^^t^rs. which the king promised to raise no more fresh taxes without the consent of parliament. It is the best proof of the new love of freedom that had grown up in England that the people were able to force so strong and fierce a king as Edward to yield to their demands. Summary. Edward I. conquers Wales, makes John Balliol King- of Scots, and then conquers Scotland. Scots rise under Wallace and are again conquered. Edward calls together a Model Parliament and confirms the charters. Robert Bruce becomes King of Scots and Edward dies on his way to conquer Scotland for the third time. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Which king granted the first great charter? Is the English Constitution written out like the Constitution of the United States ? Why was Scotland a hard country to subdue? Edward's Crusade: Yonge, C. M., The Prince and the Page. Wars in AVales : Gilliat, E., The King^s Reeve. AVallace and Bruce: Henty, G. A., In Freedonis Cause. Books for Teachers. Tout, T. F., Edward I.; Edwards, O. M., Story of Wales. CHAPTER XIV Edward II., 1307-1327 1. Edward of Carnarvon now became Edward II. He thought of nothing but amusing himself, and Edward II allowed worthless favorites to rule England and in his name. The first of these was Piers aves on. Qavcstoii, a joung man who came from Gas- cony, the part of southern France which the English kings still ruled after John had lost most of the English king's lands in France. Gaveston was a friend of the new king when a boy. Edward I., seeing that his influence on his son was bad, had driven him out of the country. As soon as his father was dead, Edward II. called Gaveston back to England, and gave him many rich estates. Before long the barons grew indignant that Gaveston should have more influence over the king than they had themselves. They took him prisoner, and cruelly put him to death. Edward was so weak and lazy that he soon forgot even the death of his best friend. 2. While Edward was quarrelling with his barons about Gaveston, Robert Bruce was gradually conquering The Battle ^^^ Scotland. At last Stirling was the only of Bannock- place that still held out against him, and burn. Stirling was closely besieged by him. Edward and his barons were now better friends than they had been, and in 1314 they agreed to march with an army to prevent the Scots from taking Stirling. The English got near to the besieged town. Bruce had, however, posted his army at Bannockhurn, a little south of Stirling, and the only way for the English to reach the garrison Edward II. 87 was for them to drive away the Scots. Bruce's army was nearly all on foot, while most of the English were mounted on horseback. l>race placed his Scots in a strong position, on rising ground and behind a bog. He also dug pits before his soldiers, and covered them A. Bruce's Armij b. Pits dug by Bruce. C. English Cavalry... D. English Infantry... Battle of Bannockburn. over lightly with turf and sticks. The English cavalry rushed at full speed towards the Scots, but many of the Southerners fell into the pits, and all were thrown into confusion. The result was that the battle of Bannock- burn proved an overwhelming victory for the Scots. 3. A few years later the English recognized Bruce as Robert, King of Scots, and agreed that the Robert English king had no claim to be his overlord. Much trouble resulted from there being two independent kings in one little island. For the next two hundred years the English and Scots Bruce rec- ognized as King of Scots. 88 Edward II. were nearly always fighting each other, and each nation worked all sorts of damage on its rival. 4. After Bannockburn things got worse and worse. Edward was now ruled by new favorites, the two The deposi- Hugh Despcnsers, father and son. The pride tion of and violence of the Despensers disgusted everybody with them and their master. At last even Edward's wife, Isabella of France, turned against him, and joined his enemies. The wretched Edward was now driven from the throne, and his eldest son made king, as Edward III. Next year Edward II. was cruelly put to death, at Berkeley/ Castle, in Glouces- tershire. In those days deposed kings did not live long. Summary. Edward XL, weak and worthless, is under the con- trol of a favorite, Gaveston. Bruce defeats Edward at Bannock- burn and is recognized by the English as King of Scots. Edward is deposed and put to death. Topics and Supplementary Reading. What was the differ- ence in results between the wars against Wales and the wars against Scotland? To what great family of nations did the Scots and Welsh belong ? Where did the Welsh live before they went to Wales? Bruce: Aguilar, G., The Days of Bruce. Bannockburn : Lanier, S., Bofs Froissart. Books for Teachers. Maxwell, Sir H., Robert the Bruce; Mackintosh, J., Story of Scotland. CHAPTER XV Edward III., 1327-1377 1. Edivard III. was a vain, showy man, who was fond of pomp, and kept up a magnificent court. He wished to win battles, and to make a name for him- _, , , ___ 1- rr^i p ^ • Edward III. self as a soldier. The most famous thmg and the that happened in his long reign was the yrar^^^w beginning of a great war between England and France, which has been called the Hundred Years' War. This does not mean that England and France were constantly fighting for exactly a hundred years. Yet for longer than that time the two countries were nearly always unfriendly, and generally actually at war with each other. 2. There were many causes of this mighty struggle. The French and English could never long remain friends so long as the English king remained Duke of Gascony. This made him tlie subject of Causes of the King of France, and led to many disputes breaking out between the two. INIoreover, the French had given a great deal of help to Robert Bruce and the Scots, and the English thought that France had no right to interfere between England and her island enemies. However, the thing that brought these dis- putes to a head was Edward HI.'s claim to the French throne. 3. In 1328 the old line of French kings died out, and the French made Plillip, Count of Valois^ their king as Philip VI. They did this because he was the nearest male heir to the former kings. It was true that there 90 Edward III. [l327- were nearer heirs, and among them was Edward III. himself, whose mother, Isabella of France, was sister to the French king who had reigned before claims the ' PbiHp of Valois. As the French would not French permit a woman to reign in France, they would not even allow a man to claim the throne through his mother. They therefore passed over Edward's claim, and for nearly ten years Edward said very little about it. 4. After all this time Edward quarrelled with Philip VI. for various other reasons. Thereupon he renewed his former pretensions. He now took the fAh'^war title of King of France, and declared that he was bound to go to war to drive out the usurper Philip. His claim was not a just one, for it was a question for Frenchmen only who was to be the king of their own country. Edward followed up his claim with such vigor that he soon won famous victories over the French, and gained for the English the reputa- tion of being the best soldiers in Europe. Table showing Edward III.'s Claim to the French Throne. Philip III., King of France. I I I Philip IV., King of France. Charles. Count of Valois. I I Queen Isabella, Philip VI. of Valois, King of France, m. Edward II. I I I Edward III. John, King of France. 5. One of Edward's greatest victories over the French w^as in 1346. In that year Edward and his son, Edward, Prince of Wales — called, from Crecy. ^^^® color of his armor, the Black Prince — landed in Normandy and marched almost to the gates of Paris, the capital of France. But the -1377.1 Edward III. 91 French now gathered together a much larger army than that of the English, and forced them to retreat towards the north. At last the Encrlish turned, and gave battle to the enemy at Crecy. The English pre- pared for the fight very much as the Scots had done at Bannockburn. Those who had horses sent them to the rear, and all stood on foot, shoulder to shoulder, protected by a strong position on a hill, to face the charge of the French, who still fought on horseback, after the fashion that we saw the Normans had adopted at Hastings. The result of the battle proved once more what Bannockburn had shown alread}^, that well-drilled foot soldiers could defeat horse soldiers. In particular tlie English archers did excellent service by shooting showers of arrows against the French horsemen. Thouo-h the French were much more numerous than the English, they were very badly beaten. The Black Prince, tliough a mere boy, fought very bravely, and won for liimself a great name. Soon afterwards the victorious English captured the French town of Calais, after a long siege. It remained English for more than two hundred years. 6. Ten years after the battle of Cr^cy, the Black Prince won another victory, almost as famous as Crdcy itself. This time Edward III. was in England, but his son was now old enough to fight by po^^gj-s^ himself. His father had made him Duke of Gascony, and he now lived at Bordeaux, the chief town of that duchy. In 1356 he led a brilliant army north- wards, against the French. King Philip was now dead, but his son. King John, tried to block the Black Prince's retreat home to Bordeaux, and forced him to fight a battle near Poitiers^ against overwhelming odds. The Black Prince and his gallant English and Gascon soldiers easil}^ defeated the French, and made King John a prisoner. The Black Prince treated his 92 Edward III. [1327- defeated enemy with great generosity. Though John was his foe, he highly honored him because he had fought so bravely. 7. France now fell into a terrible state, and in 1360 King John was glad to make peace in the Treaty of Bretigny. By this Edward gave up his '^^^ T/.^^*^ claim to the French throne, and in return of Bretigny. . ' for that he received, besides Calais, nearly all the lands between the Loire and the Pyrenees, the same districts that Eleanor of Aquitaine had brought to the English Crown on her marriage to Henry II. 8. This peace did not last very long. The provinces ceded to Edward rose in revolt against him, and the ^, French soon beg-an to help them. By this The war _ & i j renewed and time the French had found oat that the France lost. Ej-,giiyi^ ^^^^^ better than they Avere in fighting pitched battles. They now avoided regular fights, and strove to wear down the English by making them march about till thc}^ were tired out. This new fashion of fighting soon proved very successful, especially as the Black Prince fell ill, and went home from Bordeaux to die in his own land. Before the end of Edward II I. 's reign, the English had lost nearly all that they had won, save a few coast towns like Calais and Bordeaux. 9. The Englisli won great glory in these wars, and took an immense pride in themselves and their country. Englishmen ^^1^© result of this was that the English king beconie proud ^nd uoblcs began to speak English. Ever country and siucc the Nomiau Conquest French had language. been the ordinary language of the upper classes in England. Now, however, English was again spoken by the great as well as by the smaller folk, and many famous books were written in it. 10. The English suffered as much as they gained by the war. They became fiercer and more cruel and .1377. Edward III. 93 I \English Territory H French A Battlefields. The English Dominions in France after the Treaty of Bretigny, 1300. 94 Edward III. [i327- greedy. Even a kindly gentleman like the Black Prince dealt harshly with the common people. They soon found tliat the French war meant heavy Death^^^^ taxes. A terrible plague called the Black Death devastated England so cruelly that it was believed that one man in three died of it. The worst outbreak of this scourge was in 1349. 11. Things grew still worse as Edward III. became old and foolish. At last parliament set to work to try to The Good make the king rule better. In 1376 a parlia- Parliament meut met, which did so much for the people of Edward that men called it the Good Parliament. ^^^- The last service that the Black Prince did to his country was to support the Good Parliament against his father. While the Prince of Wales was thus on the side of the people, his younger brother, the Duke of Lancaster, upheld the old king and his courtiers. This duke was called John of G-aunt, because he was born at Gaunt, or Ghent, in Flanders. There were hot words passed between the two brothers. Edward died while the parliament was still sitting, and then John of Gaunt and the courtiers were strong enough to send the parliament home, and bring back the evil ministers that parliament had driven from power. Soon after Edward III. died, after a reign that gave England more glory than happiness. And even the glory was gone long before his death. Summary. Edward III. claims the French throne and begins the Hundred Years' War against France. He and his son the Black Prince defeat the French at Crecy and Poitiers and make the Treaty of Bre'tigny. The French renew the war and gain back what they had lost. The nobles begin to speak English. The Black Death and heavy taxes cause much misery and the Good Parliament exacts reforms from Edward III., who shortly after- wards dies. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Look up the word " Salic " in the dictionary and show what it had to do with the -1377. Edward III. 95 Hundred Years' War. What other parliaments do you recall? ^V^as the Hundred Years' War good for England? The Black Prince: Yonge, C. M., The Lances of Lynwood ; Edgar, J. G., Creasy and Poictiers. Crecy: Green, E. E., In the Days of Chicalry. Hundred Years' War: Henty, G. A., St. George for England; Lanier, S., Boy''s Froissart. Books for Teachers. AVarburton, W^., Edward III.; Oman, C. W. C, England and the Hundred Years' War; Ashley, W. J., Wars of Edward III. Table showing the Descendants of Edward IH. Edward III. 1 I I I Edward the Lionel, Duke Tlie Duke Johu of Black Prince, of Clarence. of York, Gaunt, Duke I I grandfather of Lancaster. Richard II. Philippa. of | The Duke of Gloucester. The Earl of March, grand fatlier of Richard, Duke of York. ! Edward IV., m. Elizabeth Woodville. I Richard III. I Edward V. I Richard, Duke of York. Henry IV. Henry V., m. Catliarine of France. I Henry VI., m. Margaret of Anjou. Edward. Prince of Wales. John Beaufort, grandfather of John, Duke of Bedford. Lady Margaret Beaufort, m. Edmund Tudor. Elizabeth, m. Henry VII. I Henry VIII. CHAPTER XVI Richard II., i377-i399 1. The next king was Richard II. He was the eldest son'of the Black Pruice, and was only a child when his ■ o-randfather died. During the first years of Richard II. England for him, but everything went wrong, and the people'' became very discontented. At last, in 1381, there was a general revolt all over England. 2. ' This rebellion is often called the Feasants' Revolt, because the peasants, or country people, took a very large share in it. The most famous of the The Peas- jigings was in Kent. It began because one ants' Revolt. ^^ ^^^^ gatherers of a new and hated tax was rude to the daughter of a workman named Wat Tyler. Wat killed the fellow on the spot. He then put him- self at the head of a swarm of Laboring men, and per- suaded them to rise in revolt against the new tax. Under Wat's command the rebels marched to London. They had plenty of real complaints, and had suffered cruelly. They were ignorant and brutal, and committed terrible deeds of violence. They burned John of Gaunt's house, and declared that they would have no king named John. 3. When the rebels had got to London the ministers were very much frightened. The young king, though not sixteen years old, showed wonderful coolness. He went out to meet Wat Tyler, and asked him what he wanted. Tyler answered roughly, and some of Rich- -1399.] Richard II. 97 ard's attendants thought he meant to kill the king. Thereupon one of them slew the rebel leader with his dag^Sfer. The angary mob cried for venc^eance, „ . ^ ^ ^ . 1 ■ • .1 TT,^ 1 1 Richard puts and the king was m great danger. Kichard, down the however, never lost heart. " I will be your Peasants' leader," he said to the followers of the murdered Tyler, and the peasants took him at his word. He persuaded them to go home quietly, and promised to set right the things about which they had complained. There was a good deal of hard fighting before the rebel- lion was put down, and in subduing the rising the king's friends behaved as cruelly as the rebels themselves had done in the time of their success. Though the Peasants' Revolt seemed at first sight a failure, yet some good came from it. It frightened John of Gaunt from power. It showed everybody that even the poor laborer must have his rights respected, or he would take up arms and become a danger to the whole State. 4. There were other discontented people in England besides the peasants. Ever since the distant days when Augustine first taught Englishmen the Christian faith, everybody had believed the theVhurch^ teaching^ of the Church. The Church was not so pure or so active as it had once been. It was so wealthy that many worldly men became clergymen in order to enjoy its riches and power. 5. About this time a priest, named John Wy cliff e^ began to teach that the Church was in sore need of being reformed. Wycliffe was so bold, learned, and hard-working that a great many people wycliffe. listened to what he had to say. His followers were called Lollards ; that is, babblers, or sayers of vain things. 6. Wycliffe taught that the Pope of Rome had no right to be head of the Church in England. He advised the nobles to take away from the Church its wealth, so 7 98 Richard II. [i377- that the clergy, being poor like Christ, might also be able to live more Christlike lives. He translated the Bible W cliffe ^^^^ English, so that Englishmen might be tries to re- able to read it for themselves. He sent out Church.^ a number of his disciples, who were called Wycliffe's Poor Priests. These men ex- plained their master's teaching to the people, and spread copies of his English Bibles. At last he boldly denied John Wy cliffe. some of the chief doctrines of the Church. At this many lovers of old ways were frightened. The bishops stopped Wycliffe's teaching, and made him live at his parish of Lutterworth in Leicestershire. There he died soon afterwards, in 1384. Yet even after his death the Lollards remained very numerous. -1399.] Richard II. 99 7. At the same time as Wycliffe there lived another man who wrote in English. This was G-eoffrey Chaucer^ and the book he wrote was chaucer. called the Canterlmry Tales. 8. Richard II. did not carry ont the promise of his youth. He was no idler like Edward II., but he was proud, iealous, whimsical, and eag^er to be a 1 IxTi il-iv ^- Richard II. despot. He was long kept m leadmg-strmgs tries to make by his uncles. After John of Gaunt gave himself a up the government, another of his uncles, ^^^° * the Duke of Gloucester, took the chief place among his ministers. One day Richard suddenly asked his uncle Gloucester, '' How old am I ? " Gloucester told him that he was twenty-two years old. Richard answered, " Then I am quite old enough to manage my own affairs. " He drove his uncle from power, and soon got everything into his own hands. Then he took his revenge, and slew several of his chief enemies, one of them being his uncle Gloucester. He now thought he might rule like a despot, and laugh at parliament and the nobles. 9. One of Richard's old enemies was his cousin, Henry of Lancaster, the eldest son of John of Gaunt. Henry had deserted Gloucester, and Richard had ^^ l^ c 111- A f Henry of tnereiore pardoned hnn. A few years later, Lancaster however, Richard found an excuse for send- 55.P°^^^, „ TT 1 TT Richard II. ing Henry into banishment. While Henry was abroad, John of Gaunt died, and then Richard laid hands upon the great estates of the duchy of Lancaster. Henry was very angry at this, and, in 1399, he landed in England, declaring that he had come back to claim his father's lands. Many people joined him, being disgusted with the despotic rule of Richard. Henry was soon so successful that he claimed his cousin's throne as well as his father's duchy. Richard made a very poor fight for his kingdom. Parliament recognized Henry as king. L.ofO. Richard II. [1377- and deprived Richard of liichard, like Edward II., murdered in prison. [lis throne. A Uttle later, his great-grandfather, was y^ bigptmjm^:^^ mabc of tunut-lirartt^ hofhs usereaou peftur of Ctpve/ftud yc ^myt ?of i^clCttDriBaS bom on pcTBatiiS/ flnDpT)i tofi?/ tt i^flSguoD^^lictrpartitrpcl^ero bcclmcIR^ 1^ y C cumuO ittuniBctiD iBaS^maad .oDfii/miD ^iJ /fciDe/];c ftrmomctttbc maaOw v^tt9^i)Di8^of tettte: I Dcparte mmns fro v$ait\8JanOgd(i mafi^c ftr /y c ammucttt-fuoi^eleieatrisf^^at wwm (m v^fir' tnamftil7titu?asD(mCb/audsT)Ddc|nOrv^ftniiflmct: Portion of a page of tlie Manuscript of Wycliffe's Bible. (Three-fourths Scale of Original.) Summary. John of Gaunt rules England badly during the childhood of Richard II., son of the Black Prince. Peasants' Revolt is put down by Richard. John Wycliffe tries to reform the Church, but he and his followers are persecuted. Richard rules despotically and is deposed by his cousin, Henry of Lancaster. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Why did not the peasants want a king named " John " ? What kings of England -1399.] Richard II. loi had had trouble with the clergy ? Did the villeins (peasants) at this time have any say as to what their taxes should be ? Wat Tyler: Bramston, M., The Banner of St. George; Gilliat, E., John Standish, or the Harrowing of London; Henty, G. A., ^ March on London. John Ball : Morris, "W., A Dream of John Ball. Peasants' Revolt : Lanier, S., Boy's Froissart. Lollards: Howitt, AV., Jack of the Mill. Books for Teachers. Poole, R. L., WycUf; Gibbins, H., English Social Reformers. CHAPTER XVII The Angevin Period, 1 154-1399 1. During this long period of more than two hundred years the Church, the classes of society, the feudal system, chivalry, the gilds, and the manor &nges. remained much the same as they had been during the period of the Norman kings. Important changes did take place, however, in the powers of the king and of parliament, in the courts, in the towns, and in the institution of slavery. Slavery died out entirely. The attempts of the haK-free villeins to have villeinage abolished failed, though many villeins got their freedom, and the institution of villeinage began from the close of this period to die out gradually. 2. Under the last of the Norman kings the great nobles of England had acquired much power and built many strong castles so as to resist the king. Under Henry II. the nobles lost some of their power, but under his successors the nobles were strong enough to make the king sign the Magna Carta and agree to give up some of the powers he and his predecessors had been exercising. They forced the other Plantagenet kings to summon parliaments, they put Henry III. under the control of a council of their own number, and they deposed Edward II. and Richard II. Thus under the Plantagenets the power of the king steadily declined. 3. The name of parliament came gradually into use in the course of the thirteenth century to designate the Grand Council, and after that date the name became 1399. The Angevin Period 03 Beverley Minster, Yorkshire — the South Transept ; built about 1220-1230. (Showiug the Gothic style of Architecture.) Parliament. very common. The nobles in their struggles with the king saw that it was a very good thing to have the support of the peoi)le. So in the Magna Cartii the nobles forced John to promise to redress not only the wrongs of the nobles, but also those of the merchants and other classes. It was for the same purpose that Simon of Montfort had representatives from I04 The Angevin Period [ll54- the counties and towns come to his parliament in 1265. You must bear in mind that after all only a small num- ber of people had the right to choose such representa- tives. To vote in the counties a man had to be a free landholder or one of the lesser nobles, and to vote in the towns a voter had to be a man of some wealth and prom- inence. The large mass of the people — the villeins and the poor artisans of the towns — had no share in the voting. At that time, however, the towns and the counties were not so anxious as they are to-day to be represented in parliament. They regarded it as a burden and tried to get out of it. As the men who were sent had to pay their own expenses, they too did not wish to serve. 4. As the power of the nobles increased so the power of parliament increased, for the nobles at this time were the most important members of parliament. Powers of Parliament got control of taxation, and parliament. o , . , . usually no law could be passed without its consent, or without the consent of both houses after it was divided in Edward III.'s reign. It frequently asserted its power to alter the succession to the crown, to appoint regencies over a young king, or in a king's absence, to impeach the king's ministers, and to depose the king and set up a new one, as in the case of Richard 11. and Henry of Lancaster. 5. In earlier times very little money was given to the king in the way of taxes. His tenants gave him military service in wars and certain produce Taxation. fy^yy^ ^\^q[y estates in payment of feudal dues. As the kingdom grew, however, this method of paying dues to the king was very awkward. Instead of produce, money payments for feudal dues were made to the king. With the increase in the business of the kingdom, espe- cially in the way of foreign wars, the feudal dues to the king were no longer sufficient to pay expenses. An -1399.] The Angevin Period 105 extraordinary tax such as Danegeld had to be levied in Anglo-Saxon times, and the Norman kings continued to levy it although the Danes no longer ravaged the land. Henry II. got the nobles to pay him a certain sum called scutage (shield-money) in place of their military service. As time went on more and more ways were found by the king and parliament for getting money. 6. The ordeal was abolished in England in 1218. The trial hy battle was so unpopular that the citizens of many towns w^ere exempted from it by their charters. The compiirgation was gradually superseded by the trial hy jury. Wlien a crime was committed and a man accused of it, sufficient men were called from the vicinity in which the crime Avas committed until twelve were found who declared from their own knowledge that the accused did or did not commit the crime. Thus this early jury was really a body of tvitnesses. It was not like our modern jury of twelve men, who, knowing little about the case they are trying, have Avitnesses called before them and then from hearing their evidence pronounce a unanimous decision. The early jury shows us how it happens tliat our modern jury of tweh^e men must give a unanimous decision. The trial by jury was regarded as so important that a clause was put in the Magna Carta, confirming it as a right to be enjoyed by all. Besides this jury, known as the 2^efty Jicry, there also grew up a body of men called the jury of presentment. It consisted of sixteen or more men of the county, and they had to present for trial any criminals tliat they could find in their districts. This jury, which has developed into our grand jury presented these criminals for trial at the county court, or before the king's justice Avhen he came on circuit into the county. The king's courts over wliich the king himself or the chief justice of the Privy Council presided, either sat at o6 The Angevin Period [1154- Westminster near London or went Avith the king on his travels. This was very inconvenient for those who wished to have their cases tried and so tlie system grew up gradually of sending the royal justices about the country to hear cases. From this practice our modern circuit courts have grown up. Peasants Threshing Wheat with a Flail. (From the Luttrel Psalter, ' Vetusta MonumentaJ' ) 7. During the Crusades many of the towns bought charters which gave them freedom from tlie control of the king or of the barons. Under these char- Sade^^ ^^^ ^®^'^ ^^^® towns became wealthy througli trade. The Italian city, Venice, which had profited greatly b}^ the Crusades, sent her ships to England to trade, and the great league of cities of Northern Europe, called the Hanseatic League, established a large yard and warehouses at London, called the Steelyard. During the time of the Norman kings English trade had been mainly internal, and very little was done in the way of foreign commerce. All the necessaries of life, -1399. The Angevin Period 107 as we saw, were to be found on the manor. When the Black Death came, however, and reduced the number of farm laborers, many owners of manors found it paid much better to turn the manors into great sheep-farms. This was called enclosing the manorial fields, or the sys- tem of enclosures. The wool from the sheep was sent to Flanders, where it was in great demand by the weavers, had sent some wool to Flanders before this Longthorpe Manor House, Northampton ; built about 1235. (The home of the lord of the manor. The tower was for protection against marauders and in time of war.) period, but now she sent a great deal more, and the for- eign trade grew rapidly. The interference with this trade by the French was one of the important causes of the Hundred Years' War. 8. Manufactures did not increase as rapidly as the wool-trade. In every town there were arti- Manufac- sans engaged in producing certain articles, tures. There were some weavers, but most of the English wool io8 The Angevin Period was sent to Flanders to be woven into cloth. Edward III. encouraged Flemish weavers to come to England, but in spite of his efforts the large bulk of cloth manu- facture was done outside of England. 9. Though most of the necessaries of life were to be found on the manor, nevertheless there were always certain articles, such as salt fish and spices, and'^ fairs. whicli had to be purchased elsewhere. Ex- cept in large cities like London there were few shops such as we know. The roads were bad and supplies needed had to be bought from merchants who came to the great annual fairs in various localities. Provisions not obtainable on the manor were to be had at the local markets in certain towns at certain times in the month. 10. On account of the decline of serfdom or villein- age and the beginning of the enclosures the manor of the Norman times was changing very much, gncu ure. 1^^^.^^-^^ were now beginning to be rented to free farmers in much the same way as they are rented nowadays. Summary. During the Angevin period the power of the king declines and that of parliament increases. Many new forms of taxes are introduced, and also new methods of trying criminals. Towns and trade flourish, but only slight progress is made in man- ufactures. Markets and fairs grow with the increased trade. Villeinage is slowly disappearing, and a new class of free farmers arising. Enclosures. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Trace the power of the king from Anglo-Saxon times. Name and define the feudal dues. What w^ere the ordeal, trial by battle, and compurgation? Books for Teachers. (See ' Suggestions,' p. viii. — Cheyney and Feilden.) Part IV. — The Lancastrian and Yorkist Kings, 1399-1485 CHAPTER XVIII The Lancastrian Kings, 1399-1461 1. Parliament had made Henry of Lancaster King Henry IV.^ and parliament had every right to do so. But son had so often succeeded father to ^j^ Henry the English throne, that some people were IV. was beginning to get tlie notion that, when one "^^ ^ ^"^' king died or was deposed, the nearest heir ought at once to receive the throne. Now the nearest heir to the throne was not Henry of Lancaster. His father, John of Gaunt, was the third son of Edward III., and, though Richard II. had no children, yet Lionel^ Duke of Clarence, the second son of Edward III., had left a daughter, Philippa, whose son, the Earl of 3Iarch, was really the nearest representative to Edward III. Yet there was no need for parliament to make the Earl of March king, and the people had been so much alarmed at Richard's attempt to play the despot that it w^as a wise tiling not only to get rid of the tyrant, but also to set up his chief enemy in his place. Owing his throne to parliament, Henry IV. was obliged to govern in ac- cordance with its will. His accession, then, was a tri- umph for parliament and tlie Constitution. All the kings of the House of Lancaster were constitutional kings, who generally followed the wishes of parliament. no The Lancastrian Kings [1399- 2. Henry IV. was a great friend of the Church. The Church now said that the Lollards, the followers of Wy cliff e, were teachers of false doctrine, puts down Henry therefore resolved to put them down, the Lollards, jjg g^j- ^ jaw passed through parliament by which any person declared by the Church to be a teacher of false doctrine was to be burned to death. Many Lol- lards were put to death under this stern law, and, after a few years, the Lollards ceased to give the Church any further trouble. It seems to us a cruel thing to burn people alive because we do not agree with their religious views, but in those days many good men believed that it was their duty to stamp out false teaching, even by such harsh means as this. 3. Henry IV.'s reign Avas a short and a troubled one. The nobles who had helped him to the throne rose in revolt against him. At their head was Henry against Percy^ Earl of Northumherland^ and his son, Henry IV. g^]^^^ Henry Percy^ whom men called HoUjpur because of his rash bravery. They made an alliance with a very bold and wise Welsh gentleman, called Given Glendower^ who tried to renew the independence of Wales, and was for many years obeyed by most Welsh- men as Prince of Wales. But the Percies and Owen did not work very well together, and gradually Henry was able to beat them all. Glendower, even when defeated, still held his own among the mountains of Wales, and died a free man early in the next reign. 4. At last Henry got over his worst difficulties. But he wore himself out in the struggle, and Henr^ ^v ^^^^ "^^^ wretchcd health. On his death, in 1413, his eldest son Henry became Henry V. 5. As a boy Henry V. is said to have been wild and disorderly. But all the stories told about him can hardly be true, since he was ke[)t hard at work by his father, fighting the Welsh and doing other things. How- -1461. The Lancastrian Kings III ever that may be, lie was exceedingly grave and vir- tuous after he became king. He was a splendid soldier, and very anxious for glory. At the same time, he w^as wise enough to follow the ad vice of parliament at home. He was, there fore, both a very popular and a very successful king. The great event of his i-eign was the renewal of the war with France. Character of Henry V. Owen Glendower as Prince of Wales. (From his Great Seal. ) 6. Henry V., like Edward IH,, claimed the French crown, though his claim was even more absurd than that of his great-grandfather, since he was yj^g battle not, as we have seen, Edward's nearest heir, of Agin- However, in 1415 he led a well-trained army into France. After marching through Normandy, Henry turned northwards, like Edward HI., to retreat to Calais, and was followed up by a French army much larger than his own. Again like Edward HI., Henry was 112 The Lancastrian Kings [l399- forced to fight a battle with his pursuers. This was the battle of Agincourt. It took place not very far from Crecy, and was quite as brilliant and magnificent a vic- tory. Again the English archers and infantry over- whelmed the proud nobles of France. However, the victorious army was so small that all Henry could do after the battle was to make his way back to Calais. 7. A few years later, Henry again invaded Nor- mandy, and gradually conquered it. The Normans fought bravely against him, but they got o/rro^es^^ very little help from the rest of France. France was, in those days, in a deplorable condition. The king, Charles FZ, was a madman, and the French nobles thought more of fighting each other than of resisting the English invaders. There were two great parties among them. One was headed by the mad king's son, whose name was also Charles. The other was headed by his cousin John^ Duke of Burgundy, a very powerful prince. At last the friends of Charles, the king's son, cruelly murdered the Duke of Burgundy. His followers were so disgusted that they made a treaty with Henry of England, by which they joined with the English. By this treaty, called the Treaty of Troyes, the mad king was to go on reigning for the rest of his life, but Avas to marry his daughter Catharine to Henry V. Moreover, as the French king could not really gov- ern, Henry was to rule the country in Charles VI.'s name. On the mad king's death, Henry was to become king of France, and ever after the two thrones were to be united under his children by Catharine. 8. In 1422 Henry V. died. Charles VI. of France died soon afterwards, and the two thrones of France and England thus went to the baby son of Henry and Cath- arine, who was proclaimed king when only a few months old. Luckily, the little Henry VI. had a wise guardian in his uncle, John, Duke of Bedford, a true brother of -1461.] The Lancastrian Kings 113 Henry V. Bedford strove with all his might to win for his nephew the throne of France, as well as the throne of England. Thanks to the help of Philip, the new Duke of Burgundy, Bedford upholds managed to make most of northern France Henry vi.'s obey his nephew as king. South of the River Loire the old king's son was proclaimed Charles VII. But he was lazy and feeble, and men had not yet forgotten how he had murdered the Duke of Burgundy. The result was that neither Charles VII. nor Bedford was strong enough to beat the other. This was the worst of all things for France, which suffered terrible misery from the constant fighting. 9. A great many Frenchmen, the Burgundian party they were called, still fought on the English side. It seems stransre to us that men should side ^^ . . . ° . . . The mission With the loreigner against their own coun- of Joan of trymen. But Frenchmen hated each other '^^^• more than they hated the English, and love of father- land seemed dead in their breasts. At last there hap- pened one of the most wonderful things in all history. In 1429 a country girl, named Joan of Arc^ appeared at the Coui't of Charles VII. She told liim that God had sent her to save France from the foreigner, and to make Charles the real king of all France. The careless king had little faith in what Joan said, but things Avere so desperate that he let her do what she wished. 10. At that moment the English were besieging Orleans^ and the French were on the point of yielding them the town. Joan now donned armor , Joan like a man, and forced her way at the head relieves of a troop of soldiers into the besieg^ed city. Orleans O */ 3.T1C1 tflkc^ Her faith and courage inspired the defenders Charles VII. with a new spirit. Before long she drove *° Reims, the English from the siege. Then she led Charles to the city of Reims^ in whose cathedral all the French 8 114 The Lancastrian Kings WAIKEH * COCKEBELL. DEL I \ English Territory IH French ^M Burgund/on A Battlefields. Lands held by Henry VI. and Charles VII. in France about 1429. -1461.] The Lancastrian Kings 115 kings were crowned. She stood by while Charles was crowned kinof. Then she led him back over the Loire. 11. Even now Joan's mission was not finished. She wrote to the English, telling them to go back home, as she had been commanded by God to expel them from her country. After more feats '^}^f death 1 11 1 °^ Joan. of valor she grew a little reckless, and at last fell into the hands of her enemies, who burned lier to death at Rouen. She died so nobly that the rough Enoflish soldiers who watched her were stricken with awe. "We are undone," they cried, "for this maid whom we have burned is indeed a saint." 12. The simple faith of Joan of Arc saved France from ruin. She made the French who fought for the English ashamed of themselves, and, not many years after her martyrdom, the Duke t^e English of Burgundy himself gave up the English power in alliance, and recognized his father's mur- derer, as Charles VIL, the lawful King of France. Bed- ford struggled heroically to prevent the ruin of the English cause, but died in the same year in which France and Burgundy made peace. The English were at last forced to ask for a truce, and in return for a short period of rest, Henry VI. was married to Margaret of Anjou, the niece of Charles VII. Before long, how- ever, the French renewed the war, and drove the Eng- lish out of Normandy, which tliey had conquered thirty years before. At last, in 1453, the English were driven out of Gascony, which had been ruled by its English dukes since the days of Henry II. Of all the English king's old lands in France, Calais alone remained to him. 13. Henry VI. liad now grown up to manhood. He was good, pious, and intelligent, but he was not strong enough, either in mind or body, to rule England. His wife, Margaret of Anjou, had the courage and force which he did not possess. People hated her because ii6 The Lancastrian Kings she was a Frenchwoman, and she always thought more of helping her own friends than of helping England. Under such a king as Henry the nobles could weak^rufe '^ do what they pleased. England was soon almost as full of bloodshed and violence as France had been. By degrees Englishmen found out that things would never get better as long as Henry was on the throne. In 1453, however, Henry suddenly w^ent mad. 14. In their despair, men turned to his cousin, Richard^ Duke of York. York was the grandson and heir of that Richard ^^^^ of March who was descended from Duke of Lionel, Duke of Clarence, the second son of °^ * Edward III. By birth, then, he was nearer the throne than the king himself. As yet, however, no one thought of making him king. When Henry went mad, York was made Protector. Unluckily, Henry soon recovered, and drove York from power. The best chance of good rule was thus lost. 15. York would not be put aside without a struggle. In 1455 he waged war against the king's ministers, and Tv,^ A^^r.^: defeated them at the Battle of St. Albans. The deposi- ^^ tion of This was the beginning of thirty years of Henry VI. struggle. York was soon cheated out of the fruits of victory, and once more took up arms. At last he claimed the throne, declaring that he was the rightful heir, and that all the Lancastrians were usurpers. Henry had not enough spirit to fight vigorously, even for his own rights, but Queen Margaret strove with all her might to prevent York from fulfilling his purpose. Before long she defeated and slew York, in the Battle of Wakefield. York's son, Edward, proved a more danger- ous enemy to Margaret than his father had ever been. He marched to London, and was proclaimed King Edward IV. On Palm Sunday, 1461, he won the Battle of Toivton, near York. This battle secured -1461.] The Lancastrian Kings 117 the throne for Edward. Margaret fled to France, and Henry was imprisoned in the Tower of London. Summary. Parliament makes Henry IV. king. He puts down the Lollards and rebellious nobles. Henry V. succeeds him, claims the French crown, wins the battle of Agincourt, and has the French crown assured, him by Treaty of Troyes, according to which he marries the daughter of the French king, Charles VI. Henry V. and Charles VI. die. Duke of Bedford wars against France to maintain the claim of Henry V.'s baby son, Henry VI., to the French throne ; Joan of Arc defeats the English, but is captured and burned. Henry VI. loses France, goes mad, and is deposed. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Why were the Lan- castrian kings "constitutional kings"? Who was Wycliffe? When was Wales subdued by England? What were the battles of Cre'cy and Poitiers? Days of Henry IV. and V. : Call well, J. M., A Champion of the Faith; Elrington, II., In the Days of Prince Hal. Agincourt: Henty, G. A., At Agincourt. Henry VI. : Yonge, C. M., Two Penniless Princesses. Books for Teachers. Gairdner, J., The Houses of Lancaster and York; Bradley, A. G., Oiven Gbjndwr ; Church, A. J., Henry V. ; Lowell, F. C, Joan of Arc. CHAPTER XIX The Yorkist Kings, 1461-1485 1. Richard, Duke of York, had begun to wage war against Henry VT. in 1455. Now, after six years' hght- The Wars ^^^^' ^^^^ ^^^^ ^^'"^^ become King Edward IV. of the Yet this was only the first part of the long °^^^' fight which the two houses of York and Lancaster were to wage against each other. It was not until 1485 that the struggle ended. This period of thirty j^ears of fighting and confusion is called the time of the Wars of the Hoses. The Yorkists wore a white rose, and the Lancastrians were said to have worn a red rose as their badge. 2. Edward IV. was the first Yorkist king. He claimed the throne as the nearest heir of Edward III. ; but few Englishmen cared who was the rightful heir, iv^s^ciaim ^^^ ^^^^^ claim to rule was that he was a to the wiser man and better soldier than poor throne. jj^^^^,^ yj^ j^ ^^^ j^^p^^^ ^^^^^ j^^ ^^^^^ govern England more firmly than Henrj^ had done. 3. Like Henry IV., Edward IV. found it harder to keep his throne than to win it. He had been greatly helped by Richard Neville, Earl of Warivick, quarrels the wealthiest of the English nobles. So y^lf^ . , powerful was Warwick that men called him vv 3.rwick the hing-maher. Warwick now showed that he could unmake as well as make kings. Like the Percies under Henry IV., he soon found that Edward did not listen to his advice. The result was that Edward and Warwick quarrelled. Eor the moment Edward got the upper hand, and in 1470 Warwick was forced to flee to France. The Yorkist Kings 119 4. In a few months Warwick had his revenge. He made friends in France with Margaret of Anjou, and agreed to help lier to restore her husband to the throne, hi a few months he Avas back ^^^^y y ^• restored. in Eno'land. This time it was Edward's o turn to flee. Warwick now took Henry VI. out of the Tower, and restored him to the throne. Thus, for the second time, he earned his title of " king-maker." Indeed, he was now king in all but name, for Henry had lost his wits owing to his misfortunes, and Margaret had not yet returned from France. 5. It Avas still easier to conquer than to hold Eng- land. In 1471 Edward IV. came back to recover his throne. On Easter Sunday he defeated and Edward iv slew Warwick in the battle of Barnet. wins back Margaret of Anjou soon afterwards arrived ^ ^ ^ ^°"^* in England. Edward won another victory over her at Teivheshury^ and sent her back to France. Through these two battles Edward IV. was restored to the throne. Poor Henry VI. was now again his prisoner, and was soon secretly put to death. For the next twelve years Edward IV. reigned in peace. He kept good order, and summoned parliaments very seldom. He died in 1483, when still quite young. 6. Edward IV. left two sons, Udtvard, Prince of Wales^ and Richard^ Duke of York. The elder of these now became King Edward V. He was too young to rule, so his uncle, Richard, Duke of Gloucester, Edward IV. 's younger brother, Avas made Protector. Gloucester Avas a clever but cruel and ambi- tious man. In a fcAV weeks he declared that his nephew had no right to the throne, and made himself king. The little Edward V. and his brother Richard, Duke of York, Avere shut up in the Tower, Avhere they Avere probably murdered by their uncle. At any rate no one heard anything more about them. I20 The Yorkist Kings [1461- 7. Thus Gloucester became King Richard III. But he did not gain much by his Avickedness. The York- ists hated him because he had treated his nephews so badly. The Lancastrians would not support him because he belonged to the. other side. The heir of the House of Lancaster was now Henry A Ship of the Fifteenth Century. Tudor, Earl of Richmond. Henry's mother, Lady Mar- garet Beaufort, was a descendant of John of Gaunt, though his father was the son of a poor Welsh gentle- man named Tudor. Richmond had long been in exile. In 1485 he landed at Milford Haven, in Wales, and re- ceived such support from his fellow-countrymen that he was able to make war against Richard. At the battle of Bosivorth in Leicestershire, Richmond Avas victorious over Richard, who lost both crown and life on that fatal day. Thus the House of Lancaster at last won back the -1485.] The Yorkist Kings 121 throne. The Welshman, Henry Tudor, now became King Henry VII. The Chief Battles of the Wars of the Roses. 1455. Battle of St. Albans. 1460. Battle of Wakefield. 1461. Battle of Towton. 1471. Battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury. 1485. Battle of Bosworth. Genealogy of the Tudor Kings. Henry VII., m. Elizabeth of York. I Arthur, Henry VIII., Margaret, m. James IV. Prince of Wales. married of Scotland. (1) Catharine of Aragon. (2) Anne Boleyn. (3) Jane Seymour. Mary. Elizabeth. Edward VI. Summary. Edward IV. of York wins the throne from Henry VI. Edward falls out with the Earl of Warwick, and Warwick restores the throne to Henry VI. Edward defeats Warwick and gets back the throne. He dies, leaving the throne to Edward V., who with his brother, is made way with by Richard of Gloucester, who takes the title of Richard III. He is defeated and killed at Bosworth by Henry Tudor of the House of Lancaster. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Which house had the best claim to the throne — York or Lancaster? Who had first given the throne to the house of Lancaster and by what right? Can you see any reason why the Y'orkist kings did not summon parliaments? Barnet: Church, A. J., The Chantr// Priest of Barnet. Wars of the Roses : Edgar, J. G., The Wars of the Roses ; Green, E. E., In the Wars of the Roses; Holt, E. S., Red and White. Earl of Warwick : Lytton, Lord, The Last of the Barons. Books for Teachers. Gairdner, J., The Houses of Lancaster and York; Oman, C. W. C, Wartvick the Kingmaker; Thompson, E., The Wars of Lancaster and York. CHAPTER XX Lancastrian and Yorkist Period, 1399-1485 1. The changes begun in the agricultural and indus- trial life of the latter part of the Angevin period con- tinued during this. Though war was going Changes. ^^^ almost constantly the lower classes of people were little affected. In the country districts en- closures continued, and manufacturing slowly increased in the towns. 2. It was unfortunate for the people, but fortunate for the king, that so many nobles were killed in the Wars of the Roses. The Lancastrian kings, as they owed tlieir crowns to the will of the nobles expressed through parliament, did not have much power. The Yorkist kings got their crowns by force of arms, and as they owed nothing to parliament, they called it together but seldom. The great nobles^ who had given parliament its strength had been killed. So under the Yorkist kings the power of the king was almost ab- solute. 3. Parliament was very strong under the Lancastrians and people began to value the privilege of voting for its „ ,. members. When representatives from the Parliament. . ^ n i r - shires or counties were nrst called tor m early times, the free landholders all had the right of vot- ing for representatives at the meeting of the freemen in the county court. Certain men, however, began to come to the meeting who had no right to vote, and in order to prevent their voting parliament passed a law in the reign of Henry VI. which restricted the voting to free land- Lancastrian and Yorkist Period 123 holders who had an income of forty shillings (equal in present value to about #200 in our money) a year from their land. Though this did not change the kind of men wlio were sent to parliament, it really made the number of men who could vote for representatives very small, because most of the land of England came to be owned by a few great families. This caused much trouble, as we shall see later. 4. During Saxon and Norman times very little had been done for education. The people of all classes were very ignorant and superstitious. The clergy Avere the best educated of all, because they had to know how to read and write in order to fulfil their duties. After the twelfth century many schools arose, especially in connection with cathedrals and mon- asteries, where boys who were to become churchmen were taught. For those who Avished to carry on their studies further, universities arose like Oxford and Cambridge. For the man, however, who did not wish to be a church- man, there Avas little opportunity to become educated. William of Wykeham opened a school at Winchester in 1393, and Henry VI. established a school at Eton^ but even these Avere mainly for the clergy. In fact every- body Avho had much education usually became a clergy- man. 5. Down to about the middle of the fifteenth century all books had to be Avritten out and copied again and again after the same fashion if new copies . . , -, rpi . 11-1 Printing. AA^ere Avanted. I his Avas very laborious and expensive and did not spread learning very fast. About this time, hoAvever, a man in Germany named Gutenberg discovered the use of separate type and began to print books. This invention Avas brought over to England by William Caxton in 1477. Slowly and gradually printed books began to be circulated. Thus Avas education helped in another way. 124 Lancastrian and Yorkist Period Summary. Increase of the power of tlie king and decrease of the power of parliament. The right to vote is restricted. The people at large are uneducated. The establishment of schools and the introduction of printing helps education. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Under what other house of kings besides the House of York had the power of parlia- ment been weak? What early king had promoted education? Does a man have to have property to vote in the United States? Books for Teachers. (See p. viii. under Feilden and Cheyney.) Part V. — The Tudor Kings. 1485-1608 CHAPTER XXI Henry VII., 1485-1509 1. Henry VII. was a cold and selfish man who never made himself loved. He was, however, far-seeing, care- ful, and thrifty, and wished to be king over ^^^ ^^.^^ ^^ the whole nation, and not merely the head of York and the House of Lancaster. He now married Lancaster. Elizabeth of York^ the daughter of Edward IV. Eliza- beth was by the death of her brothers the nearest heir to the Yorkist house, and Henry was, as we have seen, the representative of Lancaster. By this marriage the long disputes of the rival houses were at last settled, and the children of Henry VII. and Elizabeth could boast tliat they represented equally both York and Lancaster. 2. Not even his wedding with the daughter of Edward IV. could make Henry VII. welcome to the Yorkists, who formed many plots against him. The . Yorkists had no longer any leaders. They ture of were, therefore, forced to follow leaders who J!^^^^" , Warbeck. pretended to be members of the house of York, when really they were nothing of the sort. The most important of these was Perkin Warbeck. This man was the son of a poor townsman of Tournai^ a city in the Netherlands. He now claimed to be Richard, Duke of York, the younger son of Edward IV., who 126 Henry VII. [i485- was generally thought to have been murdered with his brother, Edward V., in the Tower of London. Warbeck played his part so well that many people seriously be- lieved that he really was the Duke of York. For many years he Avas a dangerous enemy to Henry. All English- men who disliked the new king supported Perkin, and, besides his friends in England, the impostor was helped by the French and the Scots. Henry Avisely made friends with the French and Scots, and persuaded them to give up supporting his enemy. Perkin did not, however, lose heart. He boldly landed in Cornwall in 1497. Now, the Cornishmen were grumbling at the severe taxes that the king forced them to pay, and many of them, there- fore, helped Perkin against the king. Perkin was not, however, strong enough to face the king's soldiers, and was soon taken prisoner and shut up in the Tower. A little later he was put to death for trying to escape. With his failure the Wars of the Roses came to an end, and no one any longer disputed Henry VII.'s claim to the throne. 3. Henry tried to make himself more powerful by marrying his children to great foreign princes. The leading king in Europe in those days was marriages Ferdinand^ King of Spain. Henry married of Henry's hig eldest SOU, Arthur, Prince of Wales, to Ferdinand's daughter, Catharine of Aragon. Before long, however, Prince Arthur died, and his younger brother, Henri/, became Prince of Wales. King Henry set so much store on the Spanish marriage that he arranged for the wedding of Catharine to the new Prince of Wales, her former husband's brother. The king thus managed to keep the great riches which Catharine had brought from Spain. At the same time he retained the king, her father, as his friend. A second royal marriage was that of Henry's eldest daughter, Margaret, to James IV., King of Scots. The king -1509.] Henry VII. 127 hoped that it would make the EngUsh and Scots, who were generally fighting each otlier, more friendly. At first little came of this hope, but a hundred years later the great-grandson of James and Margaret became king of both England and Scotland. 4. Henry was fond of money, and his subjects grum- bled at the heavy taxes which he compelled them to pay. However, he used his wealth wisely, kept ^^^ ^^^^^ o-ood Older in the land, and made even the vii. in- greatest nobles obey the law. Till now the J^^^J^p^w.^^. nobles had done almost what they liked. The Wars of the Roses had been caused by their con- stant quarrelling with each other. But Henry set up a new court of justice, which was called the Star Chamber, because it sat in a room whose ceiling was painted with stars. The chief work of this court was to keep the nobles in order, and force them to obey the law. Henry succeeded so w^ell agahist the nobles that he became a .much more powerful king than those who had gone before him. 5. Henry did what he could to encourage maritime enterprise. In his reign Cliristopher C^olumbus discov- ered America, and other navigators followed ^^^^.^.^^ on his tracks and sought to explore the new enterprise, world. Among them was John Cabot, wliom Henry VII. sent on a voyage of discovery to America in 1497. Though this exx)lorer discovered Labrador, the Enghsh made no attempt to take advantage of it, and the'^ Spaniards and French began to colonize America before them. Summary. Henry VI T. unites the claims of the Houses of York and Lancaster. ^ He puts down the impostor, Warbeck. He allies Spain and Scotland to England by marriages, increases the power of the king, and encourages maritime enterprise. w 128 Henry VII. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Did Henry or Eliza- beth of York have the better claim to the throne ? What was the date of Columbus's discovery of America? Where was Cornwall? Days of Henry VII. : Cowper, Frank, The Captain of the Wight. Ireland in the time of Henry VII. : Green, E. E., The Heir of Hascomhe Hall. Books for Teachers. Moberly, C. E., The Early Tuclorsj Gairdner, J., Henry VII. CHAPTER XXII Henry VIII., 1509-1547 1. Henry, Prince of Wales, now became Henry VIII. He did not have to fight for his throne, as his father had done, and all Englishmen agreed that he was their lawful kins^. He Avas therefore able to S^^^^^I^^t^^ ^ Henry VIII. be bolder and more reckless than the cold- hearted Henry VII. He was very handsome, he dressed splendidly, and amused himself in a very magnificent fashion. He made his people love him by his hearty ways. Later on the young king grew hard and cruel. At last he became little better than a tyrant. With all his faults, however, he did a great work for England. 2. Henry seemed to spend a great deal of his time on his amusements, but as he loved power better than any- thing else, he never neglected his duties as king. To carry out the many great schemes wolsey. that he had in his mind he needed slirewd helpers. At last he found a minister after his own heart in a young clergyman named Tkomas IVolsei/, who was the son of a merchant. Wolsey rose through the king's favor to the highest posts in Church and State. He became Archbishop of York, a Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, and the legate or representative of the Pope in England. He was also Lord Chancellor and chief min- ister of the king. He grew so rich, and lived in such splendid fashion that he seemed grander than the great- est nobles. But, though proud to the nobles, he was always kind to the poor. He spent great sums of money in building schools and colleges. 130 Henry VIII. [1509- King Henry VIII. (From a Picture belonging to the Earl of "Warwick.) -1547. Henry VIII. 131 3. Wolsey took great pains to make England's power again felt abroad. During the time of liis ministry, Henry VIII. twice went to war against the French. The kingf did not win for himself ^°^^^y o restores much glory in those wars. Henry fought English the Scots also, and gained a famous victory abroad over his brother-in-law, James IV. of Scot- land. In 1513 the Scotch king invaded England. He hoped by that to help the French by giving the Eng- Cardinal Wolsey. lish two enemies to fight at once. James was, however, beaten and killed at the Battle of Flodden Field. For a long time after tliis Henry had no great trouble from the Scots. 132 Henry VIII. [i509- 4. Henry had married, as we have seen, Catharine of Aragon, the widow of his brother Arthur. The king The divorce ^^^w grew tired of her, and fell in love with of Catharine a lady named Anne Boleyn. He became ragon. ^^^^ eager to put away Queen Catharine and to marry Anne Boleyn. He found an excuse for this in pretending that his conscience made him uneasy Catharine of Aragon. at marrying his brother's widow. Such a marriage w^as against the law of the Church ; but Pope Julius H. had granted Henry what was called a dispensation^ by which he set aside the general law in this particular case. Now, however, Henry said that even the Pope had not power to do this. Accordingly he went to the new Pope, Clement VIL, and begged him to declare that his marriage with Catharine had never been lawful. Clement was very unwilling to fall in with the king's -1547.] Henry VIII. 133 request, but he did not like to offend so powerful a kino- as Henry. He therefore appointed Wolsey and another cardinal to try the case in England, and decide whether the marriage had been lawful or not. Henry felt sure that Wolsey would decide that it had been contrary to the law of the Church. The Po[>e did not give Wolsey the chance to end the business. Before the case was finished Clement ordered the trial to be begun again at Rome. 5. Henry was very angry Avith both the Pope and Wolsey. He could not touch the Pope, but Wolsey soon felt the force of the king's wrath. In 1529 the Cardinal was driven from all his woigf °^ offices and sent to his archbishopric. Tlie next winter he Avas suddenly summoned to London to answer a charge of treason against the king. He died on the road, and thus escaped Henry's vengeance. 6. Henry had now to get his marriage declared un- lawful by other means. He had till now been very friendly with the Popes, and had helped r^^ie them against their enemies. For many hun- Reforma- dreds of years all Europe had believed that *^°"' the Pope was the head of the Christian Church. But in 1517 a German named Martin Luther had been preach- ing against the Pope's power, and bringing in many changes in religion. This was the beginning of what is called the Reformation^ which soon broke up Europe into different Churches. Luther and his followers were called Protestants^ because they protested against the Pope, while those Avho still followed the Pope Avere called Roman CatJiolics. The Protestants were noAV growing very numerous in northern Europe, and were giving the Pope a great deal of trouble. Hitherto Henry and England had been in favor of the Pope and against Luther. Now that the Pope Avould not do what Henry Avished, it Avas clear that there Avould soon be a quarrel betAveen them. 134 Henry VIII. [1509. 7. Finding that Clement VII. was determined not to allow liim to pnt away Queen Catharine, Henry resolved to take the question away from the Pope altogether. He persuaded parliament to pass laws which said that the Pope had no power at all in England. It followed that the case of the queen should be tried, not in the Pope's court at Rome, but in the court of the Archbishop of Henry VIII abolishes the Pope's power in England. Martin Luther. Canterbury, the chief bishop of England. The arch- bishop was now Thomas Craiiiner, a timid man, Avho was quite certain to do anything that the king wished. Cran- mer soon declared Henry's marriage with Catharine un- lawful. Thereupon the king at once wedded Anne -1547.] Henry VIII. 135 Boleyn. Soon after, parliament passed a law declaring that Henry was Supreme Head of the Church of England. This was called the Act of Sui^remacy. It was passed in 1534, and was the last of the many laws that pnt an end to the Pope's authority in England. 8. Henry was not content with getting Avhat he wanted. He told all Ins subjects that they must declare that Anne Boleyn was his lawful wife, and Execution of that he was "supreme head of the Church. Sir Thomas Those who refused to do this were to be put '^^^' to death as traitors. So fierce was Henry's will, and so much were his people afraid of him, that very few dared to risk their lives by setting up their opinion against the king's. A few brave men, however, ventured to with- stand the king's wishes. The most important of these was Sir Thomcis More^ a very learned and good man, and a famous lawyer, and writer of a book called Utopia. When Wolsey had been driven from the office of Chancellor, Henry had appointed More his successor. Now the new Lord Chancellor became so disgusted with the king's acts that he gave up office. Henry soon ordered him to say that he was in favor of Anne Boleyn and against the Pope. More refused to do tliis, and in consequence was condemned to death as a traitor. In 1535 he was beheaded on Tower Hill, outside the Tower of London. His fate scared less bold men into obeying the fierce king. 9. Henry soon aimed a new blow against the old Church. Since the days of Augustine a great many of the most pious and devoted of Englishmen r^^^ suppres- and Englishwomen had taken vows to give sion of the up the world for the sake of religion. They "^^^^steries. were called monks and nnns^ and the houses in Avhich they lived were called monasteries and nunneries. Within them they lived very self-denying lives. They were not alloAved to marry; they had nothing which they 136 Henry VIII. [1509- coiikl call their own, and they were bound to obey strictly the head of the house and the law of the community. They lived on the coarsest food, and spent most of their time in prayer and meditation. In the old days many of the best and lioliest men had become monks. Among- them were many of those who had taken the greatest places in English history. For instance, among the monks ^/^>l1 -^^^S- River Thames The Tower of London and Neighborhood about 1550. who had been Archbishops of Canterbury were Augustine himself, Dunstan, and Anselm. The great days of the monks, however, had long gone by. There were many careless and some wicked monks. Many monasteries were too rich, and the monks became idle and extrava- gant. The monks were, therefore, not so much liked by the people as they had been. Henry now thought it would be a fine way to make himself rich, if he put an end to the monasteries and seized their lands and money for himself. He called on Thomas Crcmuvell^ formerly in the employ of Wolsey, to help him in the matter. Cromwell was wily, selfish, and careless of everything -1547] Henry VIII. 137 but himself and his master. He soon found plenty of excuses for putting an end to the monasteries. In 1536 he began by abolishing the smaller ones. Within three years he had got rid of them all. Part of the monks' property went to the Church, but most of it went to the king. Henry used some of it to build ships and defend the country; but he gave a great deal away to his favorites and ministers, and after a few years was as poor as ever. 10. Cromwell persuaded Henry to make other changes in religion, and it looked as if the king were gradually becoming a Protestant like Luther. One of the things now done was the making of a BiW?"^^^^^ new translation of the Bible from Latin into English. The king ordered that a copy of this English Bible should be bought for every parish church, where it was to lie open, that every one might read it. 11. Cromwell, like Wolse}^ did not keep the king's favor forever. Before long Henry got tired of making changes, and blamed Cromwell for being too friendly to the Protestants. Since the king cieves and had put aside Catharine of Araeron he had ^^^ ^^^^ °f 11 1 . TT . -1 ^ Cromwell. had several wives. He soon grew tn^ed of Anne Boleyn, and she was beheaded. He at once married a third wife, Jane Seymour. This lady was the mother of Henry's only son, the future Edward VL, but slie died soon after his birth. Cromwell then persuaded Henry to take as his fourth wife a German princess, Atme of Oleves, hoping thus to make friends with the German Protestants. Henry found that Anne was ugly and stupid, and put her away at once. His anger fell on Cromwell, who had made the matcli, and in 1540 he accused him of treason, and put him to death. 12. Before long the king married a fifth Avife, — Catharine Howard., a cousin of Anne Boleyn's. She was soon beheaded like Anne, and Henry then found 138 Henry VIII. [l509- a sixth Avife in a young widow named Catharine Parr. She was more prudent than the others, and managed to outlive her husband. Some of Henry's six Henry wives were not good women ; but the king Vill.'s reign, ^y.-^g j^^g^ly ^Q blame for the terrible things that happened within his family. As he grew older he became more and more savage. He no longer made great changes in the Church ; but he believed that he had found a '' middle way " between the Protestants and the Roman Catholics. He tried to make everybody profess to believe exactly what he believed. Those who would not follow in the king's footsteps were brutally punished. Henry burned Protestants to deatli, because he called them heretics^ or teachers of false doctrine. Roman Catholics he beheaded as traitors, because he said that those who did not believe in his supremacy over the Church could not be faithful to him. Cruel and merciless as he was, he kept England in good order and in peace. When he died, in 1547, such troubles arose that many were sorry that the fierce king was no longer alive to force all men into obedience to him. 13. Henry VHI. left three children. The elder ones were two daughters, Mary^ whose mother was Catharine of Araofon, and Elizabeth the child of Anne Henry ° vni.'s Boleyn. The third was his only son, Edivard, children. Prince of Wales, the chikl of Jane Seymour. On his father's death this prince became Edward VI. Summary. Henry VIII. seeks a divorce from his wife and disgraces Wolsey becanse the latter does not support hira. Henry sets up a separate church in England becanse the Pope refuses a divorce. He executes More for refusing to recognize him as head of the Church. He suppresses the monasteries, puts the English Bible into use, and causes the death of his minister Thomas Cromwell. -1547.] Henry VIII. 139 Topics and Supplementary Reading. What does the word ♦'Reformation" mean? AVhen were monasteries first established in England? Was this the first translation of the Bible into English ? Destruction of the monasteries: Shipley, M. E., Like a Rasen Fiddler. Resistance to the Destruction of the Monasteries : Gilliat, E., Dorothy Dymoke. Last Days of Henry VIII. : Holt, E. S., Lettice Eden. Times of Henry VIII. : Yonge, C. M., The Armourer's Prentices. Books for Teachers. Moberly, C. E., The Early Tudors ; Creighton, M., Cardinal Wolsey. CHAPTER XXIII Edward VI., i547-i553 ; and Mary, 1553-1558 1. Edivard VI. was a boy ten years old, not old enough to reign for himself. His uncle, Edivard Seymour., Duke Somerset and ^f >^'^^^^^S6'^, his mother's brother, was there- the English fore made Lord Protector. He was to rule rayer- 00 . ^^^ j^^^ nephew's behalf. Somerset was a friend of the Reformation. He began once more to make changes in the Church. The most important of these was the great change which he made in the ser- vices. Down to this time all the prayers said in church were in Latin. The Reformers, or Protestants, believed that the prayers should be said in English, because the people could always understand their mother tongue, and only educated men could understand Latin. Somer- set strongly held this view, and Archbishop Cranmer, who agreed with Somerset, set to work to turn the service-books into English, and to alter them so as to suit the new notions about religion. In 1549 he had done his task, and parliament passed a law that hence- forth every church should use the new English service- book, which was called the Booh of Common Prayer. 2. Somerset meant to do what he thought right, but many of the ministers were selfish men, whose only aim was to make themselves rich. They land drives ' governed England badly, and neither Som- Somerset ersct nor Cranmer was strong enough to rom p w . ]jggp ^]^gi^^ ii^ order. At last, in 1549, the people rose in rebellion. Somerset was too weak to put the rebels down, and was therefore driven from power. Edward VI. and Mary 141 In his place John Dudley^ Duke of Nortlmmherland^ be- came ruler of England. He was a much worse man than Somerset, but he was more resolute and strong- minded, and therefore seemed better able to rule over the Englisli. However, he was so selhsh that he thought a great deal more about himself and his family than about the king or the country. He pretended to be a very earnest Protestant, and made fui'ther changes in religion. Before long he put Somerset to death. 3. Edward VI. was a thoughtful and serious boy, and an eager Protestant. His health was poor, and he knew that he had not long; to live. It t>, , ,, , o 1 he death of troubled him greatly that his elder sister, Edward VI., :\hiry, would be Queen of England after his \T^^^lZlly death. Mary, like her mother, was no friend Jane Grey of the new religion, and Edward feared that ^"^^"• after he was gone she would put an end to Prot- estantism. Northumberland also was afraid that his power would end with the king's death. He persuaded Edward to put aside botli his sisters and draw up a will in which he declared that his cousin, Lady Jane Grey^ should be the next queen of England. North- umberland's real reason for this was that the Lady Jane was married to one of his sons, the Lord Cruildford Dudley. But no one wished that Northumberland should go on ruling through his daughter-in-law, and every one believed that the daughters of Henrj^ VHI. had a better right to be queens than Jane, wdio was the granddaughter of Henry's sister. When Edward died in 1553, Northumberland tried to make Lady Jane queen, but even the Protestants would not all support him. Lady Jane was a good and pious girl, and worthy of a better fate. She was the innocent sufferer from North- umberland's greediness. She only reigned ten days. 4. Mary^ Edward's elder sister, then became queen, and after the cruel fashion of the time, she put Northum- 142 Edward VI. and Mary [1647- berland, the Lady Jane, and her husband to death. The Duke deserved his fate ; but we cannot but feel Mary Tudor ^oiTj for the innocent boy and girl who per- becomes ished through his ambition. Mary was a true queen. daughter of Catharine of Aragon, and hated the changes in religion that her father and brother had brought about. She now drove away the Protestant clergy or put them in prison. Before long she got rid of the Book of Common Prayer and brought back the Latin services. Not contented with that, she persuaded parliament to agree to recognize the power of the Pope. Thus the old state of the Church was restored as regards everything except the monasteries. The nobles had got most of the monks' lands. They were so determined not to give them up that Mary did not venture to go against their wishes. 5. Thus things were once more much as they had been before Henry VIII. put away Mary's mother. It was not only in religion that Mary went marriage. back to the old ways. She made friends with Spain, her mother's country, and mar- ried her cousin, Philip 11.^ King of Spain, the most powerful king in Europe, and a leading supporter of the Pope. To please her husband, Mary went to war against the French. In the course of this war the French conquered Calais, which had belonged to the English since the days of Edward III. Mary was so grieved at losing Calais that she said, " When I die you will find Calais written upon my heart." There were many other tilings to make her miserable. Philip of Spain treated her very unkindly, and she began to see that the Protestants were still strong, despite all her efforts to put them down. 6. Nowadays everybody is allowed to believe what he likes, and worship God after his own fashion. This was not the case, however, in early days, and in -1558.] Edward VI. and Mary 143 Mary's reign everybody was sure that it was the duty of the king or queen to put down by force all religions with which they disagreed. Henry VIII. j^j^^.^ had burned Protestants and beheaded Ro- and the man CathoUcs. Even Edward VI. had put some men to death for their faith. Mary now went on the same course. She was very earnest, and believed Thomas Cranmer. that she was doing God's work in stamping out Protes- tantism. Among her victims was Archbishop Cranmer, whom she particularly hated, because he had declared that her mother's marriage to Henry VIII. was not valid. Cranmer, weak as ever almost to the last, tried to save his life by giving up his faith. But Mary was determined to put him to death. At the last moment 144 Edward VI. and Mary [l558. Cranmer repented his weakness, and died declaring his belief in the Protestant religion. 7. Mary's last years were made wretched by the feeling that, despite all that she had done, her sister Elizabeth would undo all her work as soon y^ars.^^^^* as she was dead. Cruel as she was against the Protestants, Mary was a well-meaning and upright woman, and her sad life should make lis pity rather than blame her. Summary. While Edward VI. is young the regents Somer- set and Northuniberhind introduce many reforms in the new Church. On Edward VI.'s death Lady Jane Grey attempts to get the throne but is captured and put to death by Mary, who is made queen. She marries Philip 11. of Spain and persecutes the Prot- estants. She loses Calais. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Were there any queens of England before Mary ? Does the eldest child succeed to the throne in England ? Was Mary to be blamed for cruelty any more than Henry VII L? Edward VI. : Clemens, S. L., The Prince and the Pauper. Elizabeth and Mary : Mathew, Frank, The Royal Sisters. Persecutions by Mary: Weyman, S. J., The Story of Francis Cludde. Books for Teachers. Moberly, C. E., The Early Tudors, Creighton, M. The Tudors and the Reformation. CHAPTER XXIV Elizabeth, 1558-1603 1. FAizaheth^ the new queen, was good-looking, hard- working, and well educated. She was a true daughter of Henry VHL, and like her father in many ^,. ^ ^ ,1 111 Elizabeth, ways, thougii never so cruel as he became, her minis- She had the same hearty manners that had Y^^ ^J}^ , , . lavontes. made Henry popular. She was very vain and selfish, and loved to be flattered. Mean in most things, she never cared how much money she wasted in amusing herself, or in buying fine dresses, or in making presents to her favorites. But she was wise in great things, and followed the advice of wise ministers. Elizabeth loved power and ruling more than anything else in the world. She made up her mind that she would never marry, because she would not share her throne even with a husband. 2. Elizabeth's first business Avas to settle the future of the Church. She once more put an end to the power of the Pope in England, and got rid of the r^^^ church Latin services. She brought back the Eng- finally lish Prayer-book of Edward VI., and drove '"^fo^^^^^- from their bishoprics all those bishops who remained faithful to the teaching of Queen Mary's days. She was very careful not to alter things too much, and liked the ways of her father better than those of her brother. 3. Before long the thorough-going Protestants com- plained that the queen did not go far enough for them. They asked for further changes in the Church, and dis- liked many of the forms and ceremonies that the queen 10 146 Elizabeth [l558- still kept up. They thought that it was not right that clergymen should wear white surplices when reading Elizabeth pi'^yers in church, and some of them did not and the believe in the rule of the Church by bishops. Puritans. These extreme men were called Puritans, because they wished for greater purity in the Church. 4. Though the Puritans gave Elizabeth a great deal of trouble, they agreed with her in opposing the Roman Catholics. Elizabeth put many of the Puri- and the tans iuto prisou and took away the " livings " Roman from the Puritan clergy. She was much more stern to the Roman Catholics, who still wished to keep up the power of the Pope. She expected everybody to attend cliurch and listen to the Book of Common Prayer. If they refused, she made them pay large sums of money to her. The friends of the Pope were afraid lest her stern policy should drive out their way of thinking altogether from England. After a few years they began to send Roman Catholic missionary clergymen to England to keep up the love for the old doctrines. Nor was this all. The Pope de- clared that Elizabeth had no right to be queen of Eng- land. This made it hard for a man to be both a good Roman Catholic and a loyal subject of Elizabeth. It gave Elizabeth a good excuse for going back to the old policy of Henry VIII., who had put Roman Catholics to death as traitors. She began to persecute Roman Cath- olics for their religion as Mary her sister had persecuted Protestants for theirs. 5. Elizabeth had a great deal of trouble abroad. She was afraid both of France and Spain. At first the King of France was her most dangerous and the Ref- enemy. He had married Mary Stuart, Queen ormation in qf Scots, the granddaughter of Margaret Tudor and King James IV. Mary Stuart had been Queen of Scotland ever since she was a baby. -1603.] Elizabeth 147 She had been brought up m France, and was more of a Frenchwoman than a Scot. She was beautiful and Queen Elizabeth. talented, but ambitious and unscrupulous. As long as she was Queen of France she was a real danger to 148 Elizabeth [l558- Elizabeth. Her husband soon died, and then she went back to Scotland. She was, however, a Roman Catholic, and the Scots had lately become Protestants. Now, the Scotch Protestants Avere not Protestants like Queen Elizabeth. They were strong Puritans, who got rid of all the old ceremonies and would not allow bishops to rule their Church. The Scotch Protestant Church be- came what is called Presbyterian^ — that is to say, it had no bishops, but was governed by little meetings of ministers, who were called jjreshf/ters, or elders. Natu- rally, Mary did not get on well with the Presbyterians. 6. The persecuted English Catholics would have been glad to get rid of Elizabeth and make Mary their queen. There were more Catholics in England than in ^Scotland, in Scotland, so that she had a better chance in England tlian in Scotland. The Scotch Protestants were too much afraid of Mary to allow her to rule over them as she pleased. Before long she fell into serious trouble in her own country. She had married as her second husband a cousin of hers, Loi^d Barnley. Parnley was a very foolish and jealous man, and Mary soon began to hate him. After a time Darn- ley was murdered, and everybody in Scotland believed that his wife had set his murderers to work. The Scots rose in revolt against Mary, and shut her up in a lonely castle, and made her baby son, James, King James VI. in her place. Before long Mary escaped from her prison and strove to win back her throne. She was, however, defeated in battle, and ran away to England. 7. Mary now asked Elizabeth for help. Instead of giving her assistance, Elizabeth put her in captivity. Mary in her prison was even more formidable h! Engllnd!^ to Elizabeth than she had been when she was Queen of Erance and Scotland. The Catholics looked upon her as the Queen of England, and rose in revolt to raise her to the throne. After .] Elizabeth 149 Elizabeth had put down their rebellion, they continued to make conspiracies in Mary's favor. Elizabeth's ministers believed that as long as Mary lived Elizabeth would never be safe. They at last accused Mary of having a sliare in an attempt to murder Elizabeth, and brought her up for trial at Fotheringay Castle, in North- hamptonshire. In 1587 Mary Avas condemned and be- headed. 8. With ]\Iary's death Elizabeth's worst dangers passed awa}^ Mary's son, James W. of Scotland, was a Protestant, and a good friend of Elizabeth. Protestant Scotland^ liad given up the old |"of land ^"""^ alliance between Scotland and Erance, since become France still remained a Catholic country, and f^j^n^dly. the Scots hated Catholics above all others. So, for the first time since the reign of Edward I., Eng- land and Scotland were becoming really friendly. This was the more important, since James VI. was the next heir to the Englisli throne after Elizabeth's death. 9. In her early years Elizabeth kept on fairlj^ good terms with her brother-in-law, Philip II. of Spain. Philip, as a Catholic, hated Elizabeth's re- Elizabeth ligion, but he wanted Elizabeth's support and Philip against the French. England and Spain, °^ Spain, however, soon began to quarrel with each other. To begin with, the English were Protestants, and tlie Span- iards Roman Catholics, and in those days religious feel- ing ran so high that it seemed natural that Protestants and Catholics should always be fighting with each other. Now, there was one country ruled by Philip of Spain where there were a great many Protestants. This was the Netherlands, and especially that part of the northern Netherlands called Holland. I^liilip cruelly persecuted the Protestants of Holland, and at last the Dutch, as the people of the Netherlands are called, rose in revolt against him. The English helped the Dutch to win 15° Elizabeth 1558- their independence from King Philip. This made Philip very angry, and he tried to pay them back by helping all the conspiracies in favor of Mary Stuart. He was the more angry as he was unable to put down the Dutch. They set up a free commonwealth called the Uni- ted Netherlands^ which took in all the north of that country. Only the southern Nether- lands, which were Catholic, re- mained under Philip's rule. 10. Englishmen and Span- iards soon had other things The dis- ^^ quarrel about covery of bcsidcs religion. America. ^^ j^.^^^ ^^^^^ j^^^^ in the days of Henry VII., ChrlstopJier Columbus had dis- Walker A C'uckL-r dlse Revolted Provinces shaded thus:- ^M Spanish Netherlands „ „ El cOVCrcd tllC UCW WOrld Called Map to illustrate the Revolt of the Spanish Netherlands. America. Though Columbus was an Italian, he was in the service of King Ferdinand of Spain, and his discovery gave the Spaniards the first chance of getting America for themselves. By the time of Philip II. the Spaniards had enormous possessions in America. In Spanish America there were many rich silver-mines, and every year great fleets of Spanish ships sailed from America laden with the treasures of her mines. 11. Before the days of Elizabeth few Englishmen were fond of the sea, but the stories of the wonderful discoveries made in remote regions of the English^and globe now made them long to travel and win Spanish glory and profit. Thus English seamen began to be seen in distant parts of the world, but wherever they went they found the Spaniards were -1603.1 Elizabeth ^51 already in possession. Tliey became angry Avlien they discovered that the Spaniards would not allow them to trade peacefully with their colonies. They soon saw that the Spanish colonies were too large to be easily pro- tected, and that it was not a very difficult thing to rob the Spaniards. Before long no part of the Spanish Em- pire was safe from the English sailors. Most of them were zealous Protestants, and believed that they were helping religion by plundering the Catholic Spaniards. 12. The most famous of tliese English seamen was Sir Francis Drake. Between 1577 and 1580 he sailed round the world, coming back safely to Drake's England with his ship laden with Span- voyage round ish plunder. He was the first Englishman ^^^ '^°'^'^- to make a voyage round the Avorld. Another bold sea- man, Sir Martin Frobisher, tried to discover a northwest passage to India by sailing to the north of North America. 13. All these things made the English and Spanish bitter foes to each other. At last Philip II. resolved to send out a great fleet with which he might ^j^^ invin- conquer England and be revenged on the cible Armada people who had done him so much mischief. '^^^^^^^^• This fleet was so large and so finely fitted out that the Spaniards called it the Invincible Armada, that is, the fleet which could not be conquered. In the summer of 1588 the Armada appeared in the English Channel. The English had beaten the Spaniards so often before that they were not afraid of them now. Elizabeth made Lord Hoivard of Effingham the admiral of her fleet, and under him were Drake, Frobisher, and other old sailors of great experience who were lifelong enemies of the Spaniards. The English fleet remained at Plymouth until the Spaniards had sailed past that port on their way up the Channel. Then the Englisli ships came out of harbor and closely pursued the Spanish fleet. The English ships were smaller than the Spanish, but were 152 Elizabeth [1558- better managed, and could sail much more quickly. The English were therefore able to attack the Spaniards when they liked, and could always sail away from them if they found tliem too strong to fight. In this way they worried the Spaniards so much that they gradually lost all heart. Then the English fleet fell upon the Spaniards and defeated them in a pitched battle in the Straits of A War Ship of the Sixteenth Century. Dover. Many of the Spanish ships were destroyed, and the rest had to make their way homeward by sailing round the north coast of Scotland. Terrible storms spread further havoc among the fugitive Spanish ships, and few reached home in safety. -14. Elizabeth's victory over the Armada made her very famous over all Europe. She remained at war ^,. ^ ^, Avith Spain for the rest of her life, and rained Ehzabeth's J- . . i o • i victories over many other victories over the Spaniards. Spain. Erom those days onward Englishmen have remained foremost as sailors and discoverers. -1603.] Elizabeth 153 15. In Elizabeth's reign, Ireland was first really con- quered by England. Since Henry II.'s days the King of England liad had some little power in Ireland. Lque''st°of But only the district round Dublin, the Irish ^^^^^"'^- capital, was really ruled by the English kings. The rest of Ireland was governed by a large number of SPAIN jLisbon The Route of the Spanish Armada. chieftains, each of whom could do almost as he liked Henry VIII. was the first king who resolved he would make himself real master of all Ireland. Not satisfied with the title of Lord of Ireland, borne by every knig since Henry II., he called himself King of Ireland, The work that Henry VIII. had begun had to be done over ao-ain by his vounger daughter. Elizabeth, however, had great difficulties to meet. The Irish remained strong 154 Elizabeth [1568- -1603.] Elizabeth 155 Roman Catholics, and called on Philip of Spain to help them. They rose in three separate rebellions, and each of these gave the queen a great deal of trouble. At last, at the end of the old queen's life, Ireland was thoroughly subdued. The Irish, however, bitterly hated the Eng- lish, and the English too often despised the Irish, and treated them cruelly. William Shakespeare. (From the Bust at Stratford-on-Avon. ) 16. The latter part of the reign of Elizabeth is marked by many important events. The Spaniaixls were beaten ; Ireland was conquered ; the voyages of Elizabeth's sea- men were adding to trade, and increasing the know- ledge of the remotest parts of the world. England was prosperous, happy, and contented. The rich lived more 156 Elizabeth [l558- luxuriously and elegantly, and the poor had better wages, and became more comfortable. The most wonderful thing of all was the large number and fine of the^nd of quality of the poems, books, and plays which Elizabeth's were written by Englishmen. It was the ^^^^"' age of William Shakespeare^ the greatest of all writers of plays, in whose dramas and poems we can still read all the energy, vigor, and movement of this most famous reign. In her reign Edmund Spenser wrote his Faerie Queene and Sir Francis Bacon some of his famous Essays. It was now that Englishmen began to be more restless, active, enterprising, curious, and eager than they had ever been before. For this reason we are often told that Modern Times really begin with the age of the great queen. Genealogy of the House of Stuart. Walter, Steward of Scotland, m. Margaret, daughter of Robert Bruce. Robert II., first Stewart or Stuart, Henry VII. Kiug of Scots, and I ancestor of Margaret Tudor, m. James IV., King of Scots. James V. Kiug of Scots. Mary Queen of Scots, m. Lord Darnley. James VI. of Scotland and I. of England. Charles I. I I I I Charles II. Mary. James II. I I ! William III., m. Mary. Anne. James, the Old Pretender. I Charles Edward, the Young Pretender. 1603. Elizabeth 157 Summary. Elizabeth reforms the Church and persecutes both Puritans and CathoHcs. She puts Mary Queen of Scots to death as a dangerous rival. She supports the Netherlands against Spain. Drake voyages round the world. The luvincible Armada is de- feated. Ireland is conquered. Elizabeth's reign ends gloriously. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Whose daughter was Elizabeth? AVhy could not P^lizabeth be queen and also believe in Roman Catholicism? AVhat does the word "armada" mean? Ireland in Elizabeth's Time : Reed, T. B., Sir Ludar. Mary, Queen of Scots : Yonge, C. M., Unknown to History. Wars of Elizabeth: Tillotson, J., Storiesi of the Wars. Drake : Henty, G. A., Under Drake's FUuj. Elizabeth: Scott, Sir Walter, Kenilwortli ; Tappan, E. M., In the Days of Queen Elizabeth. Explorers : Kingsley, C, Westward Ho ! Netherlands: Pollard, E. F., A Gentleman of England ; Henty, G. A., By Enyland's Aid. Armada: Holt, E. S., Clare Avery. Sea Fights : Leighton, R., The Golden Galleon. Books for Teachers. Creighton, M., Age of Elizabeth: Rait, R. S., Mary, Queen of Scots :^Bei^s\y, E. S., Elizabeth; Froude, J. A., English Seamen; Corbett, J., Drake. ^^:^^, Milled Half-sovereign of Elizabeth (1561-1572). CHAPTER XXV The Tudor Period, 1485-1603 1. Under the Tudors England lost its mediaeval character, feudalism practically became extinct, and the king's power became absolute. In the coun- anges. ^^^ districts enclosures still continued, while in commerce, manufactures, and education great progress was made. 2. Feudalism received its death blow in the Wars of the Roses, when so many of the great barons were killed. As early as the time of Henry H. the king sm. ^^^^ tried to come into direct contact with all his subjects and to be independent of the support of the feudal lords. As time went on this was gradually accomplished. Scutage, circuit courts, and the decay of the manor and of villeinage helped to bring it about. Even before the Wars of the Roses the feudal system was rather thoroughly broken, and those wars destroyed it. The lands of the dead barons went back to the king and he gave them out to a new nobility. The new nobles were not great warriors, but rich men or tried officials who supported the king in parliament. Many of the vexatious dues of the feudal system still remained after this period, but they were soon abolished. 3. Nominally at the opening of the Tudor period the parliament had many rights which the king should respect. But parliament was weak and was ^arifame'Lt. filled with supporters of the king. The king proceeded to make laws and levy taxes in a manner which he had not dared to do before. Par- -1603.1 The Tudor Period 159 liament even went so far as to declare, in 1539, that the king's prochimations had the force of law. Under the circumstances it is not surprising that the Tudors called parliament together very seldom. 4. Under the Tudors two new and very tyrannical courts were established. One, the Court of Star Chaynher^ has already been mentioned. It tried crimes and almost any other case the king wished J"^*^^^- to bring before it. Terrible punislnnents were inflicted by it, but at first it did good service in making rich nobles obey the law. After the Keformation there arose under Elizabeth another court — called the Court of High Commission — whicli dealt with church cases and became very tyrannical. 5. Agriculture was unprofitable during almost the whole of this period. Tliis was due to many causes. In manv cases the soil had been worked out 1 " rni • 1 Agriculture, and gave very poor crops. I he manorial system and villeinage had largely died out. Men who were farmers now were usually freemen (called yeomen), renting small farms, or were free agricultural laborers working on the farms of others. Small farms would not pay, and were gradually being taken up by the large landowners. Owners of large farms let them out for tillage or for sheep-farming. For the latter purpose more and more enclosures took place. As only a few shepherds were necessary to tend the sheep, many agii- cultural laborers and small tenants were thrown out of employment. In some places the misery was so great that there were risings of the farmers. 6. During this period England sent less and less raw wool abroad, but manufactured it into cloth at home. On account of the troublesome regulations of the craft-gilds of the large towns the manufac- " "^*^^' ture of cloth was more and more transferred to small villages. In many cases a weaver worked in his own i6o The Tudor Period [1485- Commerce. home and at his own loom. INIore frequently some master clothier with plenty of money employed various weavers and apprentices to work for him at his home or at theirs. In this manner cloth, and not raw wool, was becoming the great article of export from Eng- land. 7. Internal trade was carried on as before at markets and fairs. The dis- coveries and adventures of Drake led the English to engage in foreign trade in their own ships. The Venetian fleet ceased to come to Engf-land and Elizabeth abol- ished the Steelyard. This gave tlie English a better chance to carry tlieir goods to foreign lands. 8. Colet and Erasmus, two great scholars of the time of Henry VII., were much interested in promoting education in Eng- land. Colet founded St. Paul's School in London. Henry VIII. and Edward VI. established schools which were in a way to take the place of the old monas- tery schools. They did not establish enough of them to do this, but those they did establish were very important. They were im- portant because they did not train for the Church alone, but also gave an education to those who were not going to become Churchmen. 9. Though gunpowder had been known since the time of the Hundred Years' War, no arms had been invented to make its use very effective in war. Now, however, firearms began to displace rapidly the older weapons of the Middle Ages. They were an important factor in the decay of feudalism and chivalry. Education. i^m Armor as worn diiinng Elizabeth's reign, even though firearms had come into use. -1603.] The Tudor Period i6t Firearms put a weak man on an equality with a strong man, and made infantry as strong as cavalry. Summary. The feudal nobility dies out and the king becomes supreme over parliament. Justice is harshly administered. Agri- culture declines, but manufactures and commerce grow. Better schools and better firearms are introduced. Topics and Supplementary Reading. What was scutage ; circuit courts; the feudal system? Explain tlie name: Court of Star Chamber. Find out as much as you can about a loom and about weaving. What had become of the monastery schools? Books for Teachers. (See ' Suggestions,' p. viii. — Feilden and Cheyney.) Montague, F. C, The Elements of English Consti- tutional History. 11 Part VI. — The Stuart Kings. 1603-1714 CHAPTER XXVI James I., 1603-1625 1. For more than a hundred years the Welsh House of Tudor had ruled England. Now, on Elizabeth's death, was to come the turn of the Scottish House comes king" ^f Stuart, This famous family had now been of Great reigning in Scotland since the days of Ed- ward III. Its ancestor, the Steward of Scot- land, married a daughter of Robert Bruce, and their son thus became King of Scots. In 1603 the Steward's de- scendant, James VI. of Scotland, became James I. of England. James was the son of Mary, Queen of Scots, and the great-great-grandson of Henry VH. Thus, after a hundred years, the good results which Henry VH. had hoped for from the marriage of his daughter Margaret with James IV. of Scotland were at last brought about. For hundreds of years the English and Scots had always been quarrelling with each other. Now they were brought together peaceably under the rule of a single king. James was proud of being the king of the two countries. Not content with being styled King of England and Scotland, he described himself King of Great Britain. Before very long people born in either England or Scotland called themselves Britons^ though this was really the old name of the Welsh. 2, James was king of Ireland as well as of Great Britain. At the time he came to the English throne -1625.] James I. 163 the slow conquest of Ireland by the English had just been finished. But the Irish were mostly Roman Cath- oUcs, and hated the English. James thought it would be a good plan to settle in Ireland ^"^ Iceland, a large number of English and Scotch Protestants who would be loyal to him. He drove the native Irish from The shaded part shows the Protestant districts in Ireland, which resulted from James I's. Plantations. their lands in eastern Ulster, and gave them to English- men and Scotchmen. This was called the Plantation of Ulster. The Plantation of Ulster is tlie reason why the northeast corner of Ireland is still mainly Protes- tant and English. ^ 3. Mindful of the fact that he ruled over Great Brit- am and Ireland, James I. adopted a new style of royal 164 James I. Beginnings of the Colonial and trading Empire. arms. Since Edward III. had claimed the French crown the 3'oyal arms of England had consisted of the three lions of England and the three lilies of The new France. To these James I. now added the royal arms. c -i i ^ rampant lion 01 Scotland and the harp of Ireland. These arms continned to be borne by English kings until about a hundred years ago, when the un- meaning French lilies were at last given up. 4. Under James I. the English Colonial Empire began. The sailors and explorers of Elizabeth's reign had shown the way to the fresh and untilled lands of North America. Soon after James became king, the first successful English colonies were planted in the new world. The first of these to be established was called Vir- ginia. It took its name from Queen Elizabeth, the vir- gin queen. During her reign Sir Walter Raleigh had made unsuccessful attempts to have it colonized. The first permanent settlement, however, was made in 1607, after Raleigh's disgrace and imprisonment. A little later other colonies were set up in the colder lands that lay far north of Virginia. This district was called New Eng- land^ and most of those who settled there were Puritans. Under the leadership of such men as John Carver and John Winthrop they left their homes in the old England because James, like Elizabeth, would not let them worship God after their own fashion. They were very steady, hard-working, and thrifty men, and were just the right sort to inhabit a new land. Before Royal Arms borne by James I. and succeeding Stuart Sovereigns. -1625.] James I. 165 long both New England and Virginia became very pros- perous, and other colonies Avere added to them. These were the lands which have since become the United States of America. English traders now began to take ship with their goods to the distant regions of the East, and particularly to India. A company of merchants trading to India was established at the end of Elizabeth's N'€w York T L A N T I G OCEAN The New England Colonies, Virginia, New York, and Carolina. reign. This was called the East India Comipany., and it soon began to be very prosperous. Other companies, such as the London Company and the Plymouth Comimny., were organized to develop respectively Virginia and New England. All these changes made the England tliat James I. ruled over very much like modern Eng- land. Henceforth British history is not the history of one or two little islands. We have to tell of the for- tunes of Englishmen all over the world. i66 James I. [l603- 5. At this same time great changes were beginning in England itself, and especially in the way in which Eng- land was ruled. All the Tudor kings had quarrel with governed England much as they liked, and their \y^^ almost made themselves despots. The lamen . g^^^^,^ kings found that they could not go on ruling as the Tudors had ruled. This was partly their own fault. They were not so wise nor so strong as Henry VIII. or Elizabeth. There were other reasons besides this. Englishmen were now thinking and act- ing for themselves, and believed that they ought to have a share with the king in the government of the country. The result was that parliament, which had supported the Tudors, began to oppose the Stuarts. A contest between king and parliament began under James I., and lasted as long as the Stuarts reigned in England. In the long run parliament got the better of the kings, and so set up that free England in which parliament, w^hich the people choose, and not the king, has the chief share in ruling the country. 6. James I. wanted to govern England as Elizabeth had ruled, but he did not know how to carry on her policy. Though lie was learned and shrewd. Character of ^iq was conceited, lazy, and cowardly. He James I. n t-i • i tt never understood Englishmen. He was not thrifty and saving, like Elizabeth, but was always in want of money. His chief way of getting money was by asking parliament to raise new taxes for him. He took no trouble to please his parliaments, and was al- ways quarrelling with them. He therefore got very small supplies from them, and they were always grum- bling at Avhat he did. 7. In religious matters James treated those who dis- agreed with the English Church almost as severely as Elizabeth had done. He was so hard on the Puritans that, as we have seen, many of them fled from his -1625.] James I. 167 persecution to America. Though his mother had been a Roman Catholic, he treated Roman Catholics very severely. Some of the Catholics were so disgusted at his harshness that they formed Jo^d^"p"i plots against him, as they had against Queen Elizabeth. The most famous of these was made in 1605, and called the Gunpowder Plot. This was a plan to blow up with gunpowder the king and all his parliament. Guij Faiukes^ a daring soldier, hired a cel- lar underneath the House of Lords, and filled it with gunpowder. On November 5, 1605, the king was to come down to the House of Lords to open parliament, and then Fawkes was to fire the powder. Luckily James's ministers found out all about the plot, and Fawkes and tlie other conspirators were put to death. The Protestants were terribly frightened, and the cruel laws against the Catholics were carried out more strictly than ever, though only a few Catholics had any part in the scheme. 8. James I. was a weak man, who easily fell under the rule of favorites. The chief of these was George Vllliers, whom James made Duke of Buck- r^.^^ Duke of inrjham. Buckingham was also a great Bucking- friend of the king's eldest son, Charles, Prince of Wales. The old king used to call Bucking- ham " Steenie," and his son " Baby Charles," and made people laugh at the foolish ways in which he showed his affection. 9. James was fond of peace. As soon as he became king he ended the long war with Spain. He was always anxious to be friendly with the Spaniards, james and and at last proposed that liis son Charles the Spanish should marry an Infanta, that is to say, a "^^^'^^^se- daughter of the Spanish king. The English did not like the match, because they wished Charles to many a Prot- estant. Even the Spaniards were not in earnest about i68 James I. it, because they were unwilling for their king's daughter to marry a heretic. They pretended to wish for the marriage, in order to keep James friendly to them asfainst their enemies. George Villiers, First Duke of Buckingham (1592-1628). (From the Picture in tlie National Portrait Gallery.) 10. Years passed away, and the Spanish marriage still remained unsettled. At last Prince Charles grew im- patient. He set out for Spain, and took Buckingham with him. He had never seen the Infanta, and thought -1625.] James I. 169 that, if tliey got to know each other, there was more chance of her being willing to marry him. When he reached Spain he soon found out that the Infanta did not Uke him, and that the the'ma^r°^ Spaniards would never let her marry a riage and Protestant. He went back to England in james° a rage, and persuaded the old king to go to war against Spain. Soon afterwards, however, James T. died, in 1625. Summary. Union of England and Scotland and Ireland under one king. Colonies founded in America. James quarrels with parliament. The Gunpowder Plot. The marriage of Prince Charles to the Spanish Infanta falls through. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Did the Spanish and French establish colonies in America for the same reasons that the English did ? Why did James want to be friendly with the Span- iards? ^^'hy did parliament quarrel with the Stuarts and not with the Tudors V Times of James : Frith, H., For Queen and King. Character of James: Scott, W., The Fortunes of Nigel. The Gunpowder Plot : Green, E. E., The Lost Treasure of Trev- lyn; Holt, E. S., /^ Might Have Been. The Spanish Marriage : Ainsworth, W. H., The Spanish Match. Books for Teachers. Gardiner, S. R., The First Two Stuarts and the Puritan Revolution: Traill, H. D., Social England, vol. iv. (illustrated edition) ; Mackinnon, J., The Union between England and Scotland. CHAPTER XXVII Charles I., 1625-1649 1. Prince Charles now became King Charles I. He was good-looking, serious, and dignified. But he was Charles I ^^^ ^° shrewd as his father, and was and Buck- neither clear-headed nor straightforward, ing am. jj^ thought more about himself than about his people, and was never to be trusted thoroughly. He was even more under Buckingham's influence than James had been. Buckingham was hated by the people, and so King Charles had no chance of making himself popular, because he was Buckingham's friend. Charles quarrelled with his parliaments even more bitterly than James I. had done. Yet the new king needed the help of parliament even more than his father. James had generally been at peace, but Charles was at war with Spain, and required much money in order to pay soldiers and sailors to fight his enemies. When he asked his parliaments for money, they answered that they would not vote him new taxes unless he gave up his friendship for Buckingham. Charles refused to do this, and sent his parliaments home full of anger against the king and his favorite. 2. As parliament would not help him, Charles turned for aid to the King of France, and married Henrietta ^ .^^ Maria, the sister of the French king. This France and match was not popular in England, because Spain. ^YiQ new queen was a Roman Catholic. Moreover, it brought Charles little real support from France. In a short time he quarrelled with France as -1649. Charles I. 171 well as with Spain. This fresh war made him more helpless than ever, and gave parliament a good chance to have its own way. Charles I. 3. In 1628 a new parliament met. It drew up a document called the Petition of Right. This demanded that Charles should never raise taxes or loans without consent of parliament, or put Jf^Ri^hV*^°^ people in prison except for lawful reasons. Charles Avas forced to consent to this, because he could only thus obtain enough supplies to fight France and Spain. It was the first great victory that parliament had won over the king since parliament had driven Richard II. from the throne. The Tudor despotism now came to an end. 172 Charles I. [i625- 4. Charles did not get mucli good from his submission. He prepared an army and fleet to fight the French, but nothing came of all his efforts. Buck- sends away ingham, who was to have been general of hisparha- ^j^g expedition, was murdered, and Charles was forced to make peace both with France and Spain. Parliament soon met again, and complained that Charles had not honestly kept the Petition of Right, because he still raised customs duties called tonnage and poundage, which parliament had never granted liim. It denounced Charles so bitterly that the king thought it wise to put an end to parliament. For the next eleven years he ruled without any parliament at all. 5. During these years Charles had to raise money as best he could. He was afraid to raise resfular taxes John Ham - "^^^^^^^^ parliament had not sanctioned, but den resists he tried by all sorts of shrewd tricks to get ship-money. g^^pp|i^g ^^^ ways wdiich did not seem to be against the law. He found out that in earlier days kings had raised a tax for building ships of war, without a grant by parliament. This tax was called ship-money. Charles now called upon all his subjects to pay him ship-money. A Buckinghamshire gentleman named John Hampden refused to pay this tax. He said that no tax was lawful unless it had been specially agreed upon by parliament. The judges, however, decided against Hampden, and declared that the king might raise ship- money if he wished. Though the king got some money by this means, he made himself much disliked, and everybody praised Hampden for his bravery in resisting the king's will. 6. Charles's way of dealing with religious matters Laud and disgusted his subjects even more than his the Puri- attempts to raise money. He was more op- *^"^' posed to the Puritans than even Elizabeth and James I. had been. He chose for his chief adviser -1649. Charles I. 73 in affairs connected with the Church William Laud^ Ay-chhisliop of Canterbury. Laud was a learned, hard- working, and pious man, but he was too fond of in- terfering with things that he had better have left alone. He was so bitterly opposed to the Puritans that John II;uii[)(lt' they thought him little better than a Roman Catholic. He loved to make the worship of God stately and beautiful, and liis enemies said that he was upsetting the work done at the Reformation. 7. Laud and Charles were not contented with driving the Puritans out of the Church in England. They wanted to make the Puritan Church of Scotland more like the English Church. The Scotch Presbyterians were now forced to obey the rule of bishops. At last 174 Charles I. [i625- Laud drew up a Prayer-book which Charles ordered the Scots to use for divine service. The Scots hated all Th s ^®^ forms of worship, and thought Laud's resist Prajer-book worse than the English Book Charles. ^£ QQi^^n^Q^ Prayer. They refused to obey the king, and rose in revolt against hun. Charles found that neither English nor Scots would fight for him. He wasted what little money he had in trying to force the Prayer-book on the Scots. He utterly failed to do what he wished. At last Charles was forced to make peace with them. He gave up the Prayer-book and the bishops. Thus the Scotch Church once more became Presby- terian, and the success of the Scots encouraged the English also to oppose their king. 8. After Laud, Charles's chief adviser was Tliomas Wejitworth, Earl of Strafford. Wentworth was a w ntworth ^'igoi'o^^s, fierce, able man, who liked to see and the king's power strong. He and Laud "thorough. ' gy^]^]^g(j their plans for ruling the people ^' thorough." Wentworth was made governor of Ireland, and there he set up the king's power very fully. He made himself hated through his despotic and harsh ways, and there was a great outcry against both him and Laud. 9. Charles was now again in urgent want of money. He was therefore obliged once more to call a parliament. ^, ^ In 1640 a parliament met, which sat for so The Long ^ ni i • i t- Pariiament many years that men called it the Lo7ig meets. Parliament. As in 1628, Charles was quite helpless, and was obliged to do what the parliament told him to do. Its leader was John Hampden, the man who had denied the king's right to levy ship-money. Under his guidance the members of this parliament began to attack Charles and his ministers very severely. 10. The men of the Long Parliament hated and feared Strafford more than any of the rest. They therefore -1649.] Charles I. 175 passed a law that Strafford should be put to death be- cause he had done so much harm to the country by upholdmg the king. Charles had to agree to p^^j ^^ this law before Strafford could be executed Strafford under it. He was so afraid of parliament ^"^ Laud, that he did not dare to refuse to pass it. Strafford was therefore beheaded on Tower Hill. As he laid down his head on the block, he said, " Put not your trust in princes." Archbishop Laud was shut up in the Tower. There he remained for several years, until he also was executed like Strafford. He was quite an old man, and it was a cruel thing to treat him so harshly. But when he had been in power he had been very severe against the Puritans. Now that the Puritan parliament had a chance of being revenged, it took it. 11. The Long Parliament passed many wise laws, which were so framed that they made it impossible for any king^ to rule as Charles had done Avith- ^, , " ^ Charles gets out the support of parliament. Hampden the Church and many of its leaders were very strongly Ffg^gj^J^" in favor of the Puritans. They now wanted to change the whole system of the Church, so as to get rid of the bishops and the Prayer-book and to make the English Church Presbyterian like the Church in Scot- land. Many people, who had agreed with them in pun- ishing Strafford and Laud and in cutting down the king's power, thought that this was going too far. As Charles was very strongly against these changes in the Church, the friends of bishops and the Prayer-book began to support him. Perhaps they thought that he could not do much harm now that his bad counsellors had been driven away and his own power checked by the new laws that had been passed. 12. Charles now had a great many people on his side. As long as almost everybody was against him he had been quite helpless, but now he plucked up his courage 176 Charles I. [1625- ancl began to think of fighting his parliament. He still made many blunders and disgusted his friends Beginning by his want of straightforwardness. This r^- *M vv ^^^^ ^^^ parliament to wish to cut down his power still more. Charles thought he was strong enough to resist this, and in 1642 went to war against parliament. 13. The Grreat Civil War lasted for more than four years. Englishmen were pretty equally divided be- Cavaliers tween king and parliament. This made the and Round- fight very long and obstinate. Those who fought for the king were called Ro3^alists or Cavaliers — that is, horsemen or gentlemen. Those who fought for the parliament were nicknamed Soundheads, because the Puritans cut their hair so short that their heads looked round. 14. At first the king did better than his enemies. In 1642 he won the Battle of Udgehill, the first battle that was fought. Then he made his headquarters early victo- at Oxford, while London was the chief centre nes and ^f ^]^q parliament. The north and west sup- failures. ^ -'■ ported the king, while the south and east was in favor of 2)arliament. Parties were very evenly divided, and in the early years of tlie struggle the king pressed parliament so hard that at last the Scots had to come to its help. In 1644 the Scots and English together won their first great victory over the king in the Battle of Marston Moor near York. But even after this the king won fresh triumphs. It almost looked as if some of the parliament's generals were afraid of defeating the king too completely. 15. The best soldier that fought for the parliament was a Huntingdonshire gentleman named Oliver Crom- well. He belonged to the same family as Thomas Cromwell, the minister of Henry VIII., and had some- thing of Thomas Cromwell's fierce spirit, though he -1649.] Charles I. 177 England and Wales during the Great Civil Wa 12 1 78 Charles I. [1625- Defeat of Charles. was a much more honorable and better man. OHver grew very angry at the slowness and slackness of the .. parliamentary generals. He drew np a plan and the for making the army better disciplined, bet- New Model ^g^, j3^^i^|^ .^^^ ]^g^^g^, ^|3lg ^^ ^^Yl^^ rpj^-g ^^g called the JVetv Model. By it the incompetent generals were got rid of and Cromwell himself became one of the army's chief leaders. This reform of the parliamentary army settled the fate of the war. In 1645 the New Model defeated Charles completely at the Battle ofNasehy in Northampton- shire. Next year Charles found that he could fight no longer, and gave him- self up to his enemies. 16. Parliament had thus beaten the king. Even during the fi g h t i n g Charles's ene- mies had not agreed very w^ e 1 1. No w that they had gained the day, they began to quarrel fiercely both as to how England should be governed and how the Church was to be ruled. In this dispute it was soon found that the Long Parliament took one side, while the New Model army took the other. The quarrel of parliament and the army made both of these anxious to win the king's support. Charles listened to both, but proved true to neither. Once more it was seen that the king was a man whose word no one could trust. Quarrel of the army and parlia- ment. Soldier' armed with a Pike. (From a broadside, printed circa 1630.) -1649.] Charles I. 179 17. The army soon got the better of parliament. They had force on their side, and it was natural that they should win. The triumph of the arm}^ made Cromwell, the most trusted of the generals, tion of the chief man in the country. He severely Charles I. blamed the king for his treachery and deceit, and demanded that he should be tried as a traitor to the nation. He drove away from Westminster all those members of parliament who Avould not agree to this. Those who were left, who were called The Rump^ set up a High Court of Justice. This court condemned Charles to death, and on January 30, 1649, his head was cut off before his own palace in London. Charles died so nobly and piously that many of those who had dis- trusted him felt sorrow and pity for his cruel end. Summary. Charles I.'s affection for Buckingham and his methods of raising money for wars bring him into conflict with parliament, wliich presents the Petition of Right. The ship- money, the rule of Laud and Strafford, and the war with the Scotch lead to the Civil War between Charles and Long Parlia- ment. On the latter's side Cromwell with his New Model over- comes the king, who is finally executed. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Find out from some other history if Wentworth was always on the king's side. Why did the judges decide against Hampden? When was the principle that there should be no taxes without the consent of parliament first set forth? Who had set up an English Church in England independent of the Pope? Who first had the English Book of Common Prayer made ? What other English kings had lost the throne by action of parliament? The Army of Charles : Reid, Capt. M., The White Gauntlet. Naseby : Pickering, E., The Dogs of War. The Civil War: Church, A. J., With the King at Oxford; Lee, Mary and C, Rosamond Fane. Laud : Lyall, Edna, In Spite of All. Hampden : Lyall, Edna, To Right the Wrong. Incidents of the War: Henty, G. A., Friends Though Divided; Marryat, Caj)t. F., llie Children of the New Forest. i8o Charles I. Parties: Edgar, J. G., Cavaliers and Roundheads. End of the War: Yoiige, C. M., The Pic/eon Pie. Execution of Charles: Dumas, Alex., Twenty Years After. Books for Teachers. (See Chapter XXI.); Hutton, W. 11., Laud; Traill, H. D., Strafford: Gardiner, S. R., History of Eng- land from 1603 to 1042 \ History of the Great Civil War. A Twenty-shilling Piece of Charles I. Struck at Oxford a.d. 1643. CHAPTER XXVIII The Commonwealth, 1649-1660 1. The Ramp now voted tliat England should have no more kings, but should be henceforth a Common- wealth or Republic. They abolished the House of Lords as well as the Monarchy, so the^Rump. that the House of Commons became the only thing in the state that was left. 2. The fighting was not yet over. Though England was entirely in the hands of the Rump, the Scots called upon the dead king's eldest son, Charles, Prince of Wales, to become their king as Jf^^relTnd!^^^ Charles II. Besides this, Ireland mostly de- clared for the young king. The Irish Catholics had been in revolt for some years. They had no love for the English Church, but they were still more afraid of the Puritans. The result of all this was that the New Model had to conquer Scotland and Ireland before its task was really over. The soldiers did not find much difficulty with this work. h\ 1649 Cromwell invaded Ireland, and before long made himself absolute master of the whole island. 3. In 1650 Cromwell attacked Scotland, and defeated the young king at the Battle of Dunhar. Next year Charles made a desperate effort to invade England. Cromwell pursued him closely, Jf^lc'c^Uand.'* and beat him utterly at the Battle of Worcester in 1651. This was the last fighting that was necessary. The King of Scots managed to reach France after various hairbreadth escapes. All the three king- i82 The Commonwealth [i64d- cloms were now in the power of Cromwell and his Puritan soldiers. 4. Cromwell soon quarrelled with the Rump of the Long Parliament. He wanted it to give up its power n^ ^ ^n and allow fresh elections to be held. But the made Lord Rump was afraid to do this, and preferred Protector. ^^ |^^|^| ^^^ ^^ ^j^^ government as long as it could. At last Cromwell lost patience. In 1653 he went down to parliament and turned out all the members. Thus the army and its general put an end to the House of Commons as well as to the king, the House of Lords, and the old Church. The army now alone remained. But the soldiers did not like it to be thought that the three kingdoms Avere ruled by the sword alone. The officers therefore drew up a new plan for the government of England. The country was still to be a commonwealth ; but there was to be a single person to act as chief ruler, with the title of Lord Protector. Cromwell was made Protector, and with this title he governed England until his death. 5. Cromwell now showed that he was as wise as a statesman as he had been as a general. He strove hard „, to end the troubles which the civil wars CromweHs , • i home had caused. He ruled the country justly, government. |^^^^ ]-^g ^^g ^g^,y stern against all who dis- obeyed him. He quarrelled with his parliaments as much as Charles I. had done, but he was much more rough in putting down their opposition than the weak king had been. He formed all sorts of plans for the improvement of the country. He was Jiot content to have parliament represent England and Wales only, but summoned Irish and Scotch members to his parlia- ments. He tried to settle the Church question by giving liberty to all sorts of Puritans to worship as they chose. He would not, however, allow members of the English Church or Roman Catholics the same freedom -1660.] The Commonwealth 183 to follow their consciences. He was afraid of extending liberty to these Churches, because he knew that they were friends of the young King of Scots. Cromwell's rule was not generall}^ liked. The English royalists, Oliver Cromwell. most of the Scotch and Irish, and all members of the English Church and Roman Catholics hated it. Many of CromAvell's own Puritan friends now fell away from him, since they thought he was becoming a sort of king, and they detested monarchy of all sorts. Indeed, before his death Cromwell was offered the title of king by his parliament. He refused to accept it, be- 184 The Commonwealth [l649- cause he knew that by doing so he would give much offence to the repubhcan soldiers whose swords had won for him his power. 6. The best side of Cromwell's rule is seen in his dealings with foreign powers. Since Elizabeth's days ,, Eneland had lost most of its influence Cromwell '^ • i • i i i and foreign abroad. Cromwell now revived its old glory, powers. jjg defeated the Dutch and thereby increased English commerce. Like Elizabeth, he joined France against Spain. France was now ruled by Louis XIV., the most powerful of its later kings. Cromwell and Louis won victories over the Spaniards both by sea and land. He took the West Indian island of Jajnaica from the Spaniards, and it has remained English ever since. Even Royalists, who hated Cromwell as the murderer of their king, admired him for his vigor and success against the Spaniards. 7. Oliver died in 1658. His son, Richard CroinweU, was made Protector in his stead. Richard was a lazy Fall of ^^^^ foolish fellow, who did not care at all Richard to be the head of the state. He quarrelled Cromwell. ^yi^]^ the army, whicli soon drove him from power. The army did not know what to do when it had got rid of the Protector. At last it brought back the Rump of the Long Parliament to power. The army and the ,Rump, however, soon began to quarrel again, just as they had done before Cromwell became Protector. 8. Every one was now tired of the rule of the Rump and the army. It was soon seen that the only way to jyj , put things right again was to bring back the restores king, but uo oue knew how that was to be Charles II. ^^^^^^ ^^ ^.^^^ ^j^^ ^^^^1 ^^^^ taken by General Monk, the commander of the troops in Scotland. He marched to London, and found that every one wanted to get rid of the Rump and restore the king. He therefore insisted that a new parliament should be ■1660. The Commonwealth 185 chosen, which was to decide what was to be done in the future. This parliament met in 1660, and at once asked the son of Charles I. to return to England and take up the government. On May 29, 1660, which was his birthday, Charles II. entered London. Thus A Coach of the Middle of the Seventeenth Century, about 1650. was brought about what was called the Restoration. Everybody rejoiced that the rule of the soldiers and Puritans was over, and that the king had come back to his own asfain. Summary. After subduing h"eland and Scotland and driving Prince Charles from the country, Cromwell dismisses the Rump Parliament. He is made Lord Protector and carries on the gov- ernment well at home and abroad, but when he dies his son Richard is too weak to govern, and Prince Charles is called back by General Monk. Topics and Supplementary Reading. What other great gen- erals were good rulers? ^Miat rulers of England had had wars with Ireland and with Scotland? What were the results? i86 The Commonwealth Conquest of Ireland : Brereton, F. S., In ilie King^s Service. Cromwell and Prince Charles: Scott, W., Wooddock. Prince Charles: Green, E. E., After Worcester. Cromwell: Barr, A. E,, The Lion's WheJp ; Friend Olivia. Books for Teachers. Firth, C. H., Cromwell; Morley, J., Cromwell; Gardiner, S. R., CroinweWs Place in History ; History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate. CHAPTER XXIX Charles II., 1660-1685, and James II., 1685-1688 1. Charles II. was by far the ablest of the Stuart kings. Brought up in exile and in poverty, he had learned many useful lessons during those hard days. He understood Englishmen charfesH^ better than his father had done, and was willing to let them have some of their own way so long as they were willing to keep him as their king. But he was selfish, extravagant, laz}^ and pleasure-loving. He set a very bad example to his subjects, which many of them followed too faithfully. There was soon a great deal of grumbling. Yet Charles was so shrewd, good-natured, and witty that he never altogether lost his popularity. 2. King and Parliament set to work together to make things once more as they had been before the Civil War. Cromwell's army was broken up. A few ^^^^ results regiments, however, were kept under arms, of the and these regiments were the beginning of estoration. England's modern " standing army." Cromwell's union of England with Scotland and Ireland was given up, and both Scotland and Ireland got back their own Parlia- ments. In Scotland bishops were restored in the Church. The Presbyterians were badly treated. The English Church was made what it had been before the Rebellion, and the Prayer-book and bishops Avere brought back. The Puritans were now very unpopular, and few people cared what became of them. Many of the Puritans ceased to be members of the Church, and set up separate churches of their own. They were called Dissenters^ 1 88 Charles II. and James II. [166O- because they " dissented " or disagreed with tlie Church. Their lot was a very hard one. They were not allowed to build chapels of their own or meet together for wor- ship. Parliament, which before the Civil War had been on the side of the Puritans, now passed many harsh laws against the Dissenters. 3. In some things Charles II. tried to follow in Crom- well's footsteps. lie l^ept up friendsliip with France as Cromwell liad done. Charles, however, alliance. could not hold his own against Louis XIV. Before long he began to take bribes from the French king and made with him the Secret Treaty of Dover against the Dutch. Moreover, Louis XIV. was now so powerful that Englishmen were growing afraid of him. All these things made the French alliance unpopular in England. 4. Charles II. was as careful as Cromwell to protect English commerce and colonies. He fought two wars against the Dutch, England's chief rival on Commerce ^|^ ^^^^ j^^ ^-j^-^^g \NQ\\t on, the English took and colonies c i ■ away from the Dutcli much 01 their trade. Later the Dutch and English became better friends, as they both had to join together against Louis XIV. In one of the wars against the Dutch, England captured Neiv Amsterdam, the chief Dutch colony in North America. Tlie English now gave it the name of New York, in honor of the king's brother, the Duke of York. Other new colonies were also set up in America. One of them was called Carolina, after Charles himself, and another Pennsylvania, after its founder, William Penn. 5. Two heavy troubles fell upon London during the reign of Charles II. In 1665 there broke out a pestilence, -,, p. called the Great Plague of London. This and Fire of was a terrible disease, which spread rapidly London. -^^ ^^iQ badly drained, crowded lanes of the old city. The doctors did not know how to cure those 1688.] Charles II. and James II. 189 who caught the phigue, and so many people died of the disease that they had to be buried in great pits, which held hundreds of bodies. Next year (1666) another disaster befell London. This was the Great Fire, Avhich burnt down a large part of the city. Many beautiful old buildings were destroyed, and among them Old St. Paul's on Fire. the old Cathedral of St. Paul's. Some good, however, came from the fire, for the town was rebuilt in a more healthful fashion. The streets were made broader, and the houses were built of brick instead of wood. 6. Ever since the Restoration the Roman Catholic Church had been very busy in England. The harsh laws passed against the Roman Catholics in earlier times were still in force. They T^^ ^^^^ , . , , -^ Act. were, however, not carried out nearly so strictly as they had been. A huge number of important persons turned Roman Catholics. The chief of these converts was James, Duke of York, the younger brother 190 Charles II. and James II. [166O- of Charles II., and the next heir to the throne on the king's death. Charles himself cared very little about religion ; but if he believed in anything, he believed in the doctrines of the Catholics. He tried more than once to give toleration both to the Catholics and to the Prot- estant Dissenters. Parliament was against this, and refused to allow any toleration. In 1673 it passed a law called the Test ^(^f, which prevented Roman Catholics from holding any office. Men remained very jealous and sus- picious of the Roman Catholics for many years, and were willing to believe anything that was said against them. 7. In 1678 a story arose that the Catholics had formed what was called the Popish Plot. A knavish clergyman of the English Church, called Titus Oates, PkTt ^°P'^^ said that he had discovered that the Catholics had formed a plot to kill Charles and make the Duke of York king in his stead. Gates was an un- blusliing liar, and the stories he told were quite untrue ; but people were in such a state of panic about the Roman Catholics that nearly everybody believed him. Other wicked men followed Oates's example. It was now a very paying business to tell tales about the Popish Plot. Any scoundrel who wanted money and fame had only to invent a new story to become popular. All England soon became wild with excitement. Many innocent Cath- olics were sent to the scaffold on the lying evidence of Gates and other informers. 8. The shrewdest statesman of these days was the £arl of Shaftesbury/. He had once been one of the king's -n,- TT . ministers, but had been driven from power. The Habeas ' . ,^ • tt Corpus Act and was anxious to get office again. He was rery unscrupulous, and did not much care and the Ex- clusion Bill. what he did if he could get what he wanted. He now took advantage of the panic excited by the Popish Plot to win influence for himself. For the next two or three years he could do what he pleased with the -1688.J Charles 11. and James 11. 191 House of Commons. Some of the laws which he per- suaded Parliament to pass Avere wise. The best of them was the Habeas Corpus Act oi 1679, which made it harder for the Government to shut up innocent people in prison. The law which Shaftesbury was most anxious to pass was one for preventing the Duke of York from becoming king after Charles II.'s death. This was called the Ux- elusion Bill, and the reason it gave for excluding the duke from the throne was that he was a Roman Catholic. The Exclusion Bill was passed by the House of Commons, but the king put an end to parliament for the time in order to prevent the Bill being brought before the House of Lords. All through this period Charles II. showed great prudence. He let Shaftesbury have a good deal of his own way ; but Shaftesbury was so violent that people began to be disgusted with him. Gradually the panic against the Roman Catholics died away. Men began to see that Gates had been telling them lies. When parliament met again the House of Lords rejected the Exclusion Bill. 9. England was now divided into two parties, one for Shaftesbury, the other against him. Shaftesbury's friends were called Whif/s, while his enemies were called Tories. It looked for a time as yy^!^^ ^"^ 1 ones. if there would be civil war between them ; but Shaftesbury had gone too far, and so the Whigs lost ground. At last Shaftesbury fled to Holland, and died there. For the rest of Charles II. 's life the Tories remained in office. 10. Disgusted at losing power, some of the fiercer Whigs formed a plot to kill the king. This was called the Mi/e House Plot, because it was hoped to shoot the king as he rode past a house House^Piot called the Rye House, which belonged to and fall of the conspirators. The plot was soon dis- ^^^ Whigs. covered, and the chief leaders of it put to death. 192 Charles II. and James II. [1660- 11. Charles II. died suddenly in 1685, and the Duke of York became King James IL, despite the Exclusion Bill. The new king was much duller than onimt7n. l^i« brother, and had many of the faults of his father, Charles I. ; but he remained stead- fast in his devotion to the Roman Catholic Church. He had run the risk of losing the throne rather than give up what he believed to be true. Now that he had become king, he saw that he owed liis tin-one to the support of the Tories, who were mostly Protestants. He said that he would let the Protestant Church go on as it was, pro- vided that lie was allowed liberty to worship God after his owii fashion. For a short time everything went well. Charles's Tory ministers were kept in office, and James ruled by their advice. When parliament met it strongly supported the new king. 12. Unable to win power by other means, some of the Whigs started a revolt against James. Their leader was the king's nephew, the Duke of Mon- Monmouth's ^^^^^^^^ j.^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^1^^ rebellion at rebellion. i the Battle of Sedgemoor (1685), in Somer- set, the last pitched battle fought in England. Mon- mouth was put to death, and his followers were very cruelly treated. 13. James now began to adopt a bolder policy. He thought it very unfair that Roman Catholics should be kept out of all offices by the Test Act, and The suspend- asked parliament to repeal that law. Par- ing power. Yi^mQut refused, thinking that the Test Act was more than ever necessary under a Catholic king. James then set to work to get round the law in all those indirect ways which Charles I. had been so fond of. He claimed what was called a Suspending Power, — that is, a right of stopping the carrying out of any law if he were so minded. By virtue of this suspending power, he practi- cally put aside the Test iict and many other laws against -1688. Charles II. and James II. 193 Roman Catholics. He tilled the army and navy with Catholic officers. He appointed Roman Catholics to be his chief ministers, and even gave them offices in the Protestant Church. At last he issued what he called a Declaration of Indulgence^ — that is, he declared that he King James TI. (From a Picture in the National Portrait Gallery.) would suspend all the laws Avhich prevented men from worshipping God after their own fashion. 14. James hoped to join the Roman Catholics and the Protestant Dissenters too-ether in an attack on the o Enoii.sh Church. He was now clearly aimincr o , ^ ^ J in General op- at overthrowing the English Church and position to making himself a despot. The Protestant J^"^^^- Dissenters were as much afraid of Rome and of despotism 13 194 Charles II. and James II. [l660- as the members of the English Church. Before long all sorts of Protestants joined together to save the liberties of England and the Protestant religion. 15. James was an old man, and till now his next heir had been his daughter, the Princess Mary. She was a good Protestant, and had been married to The Revolu- j^g^. cousin, William, Prince of Oranqe, the tion of 1688. J ij 1 chief ruler of the Dutch Republic, and the leading Protestant in all Europe. Now a son was born to James. This child would be brought up a Catholic, and it looked as if the line of Roman Catholic kings would go on forever. This was more than the English could endure. Some leading men of both the Whig and Tory parties met together, and agreed to invite the Prince of Orange to come over to England and save the country from King James. William promised to do this, and landed in Devonshire on November 5, 1688, the anni- versary of the discovery of the Gunpowder Plot. He at once marched to London. James found that no one would fight for him, and ran away to France. A parlia- ment met, and declared the throne vacant. Then it offered the throne to William and Mary, who accepted. Thus Avas brought about what Englishmen long called the Glorious Revolution of 168S. It ended the long struggle of king and parliament that had begun with the accession of James I. It ended it by driving out the king, who had tried to set himself up against his people, and by making a new king by Act of Parliament. Parliament thus de- feated the crown, and became the strongest power in the English state. o Summary. Charles II. restores to England the institutions existing before the Civil War, and persecutes the Dissenters. He takes New York from the Dutch. The Plague and Fire of Lon- don. The Catholic faith of Charles's brother James leads to the Test Act, Popish Plot, the Exclusion Bill of Shaftesbury, the Whig and Tory quarrels, and the Rye House Plot. Habeas Corpus Act -1688.] Charles II. and James II. 195 the most important of the reign. James II. 's accession to the throne disputed by Monmouth. Acts of tyranny by James cause his expulsion and the coming of his son-in-law, William of Orange. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Why were the Puritans so called? In whose reign did they first become important? Were the people who came over in the " Mayflower " Puritans? At w^hat other time had there been a great plague in England? What is meant by toleration? What right was assured to Englishmen by the Habeas Corpus Act? The Plague: Hoare, E. N., The Brave Men of E yam; Defoe, Daniel, Journal of the Plague Year. The P'ire : Henty, G. A., When London Burned. Popish Plots: Scott, W., Peveril of the Peak. Rye House Plot: Rowsell, M. C, Traitor or Patriot. Monmouth's Rebellion: Green, E. E., In Taunton Town; Doyle, A. C, Micah Clarke; Besant, W., For Faith and Freedom. The Revolution of 1688 : Yonge, C. M., The Last of the Cavaliers; Macdonald, R., The Sword of the King. Story of the Times : Lee, M. and C, The Oak Staircase. Books for Teachers. Airy, O., The English Restoration (Long- mans' Epochs); Hale, E., The Fall of the Stuarts (Longmans' Epochs) ; Taylor, W. F., England under Charles IL ; Traill, H. D., Shaftesbury. CHAPTER XXX William III., 1689-1702, and Mary II., 1689-1694 1. William III. was a grandson of Charles I., and Queen Mari/ II. was a daughter of James II., but they did not reign because of their royal descent. \A^iiiiam and 'X'hev reisrned because they were asked to do Mary made -^ ^. n i- . ^ king and SO by parliament, rariiament, however, was queen by careful not to break away from the ordinary parliament. . „ . i • i i line of succession any more than it could help. This was the reason why it made Mary share the throne with her husband. We always call the king's wife the queen, but it is only in Mary's case that we call the reign after the queen's name as well as after the king's. The reason is that Mary was made a reigning queen, like Elizabeth and Victoria. It was not simply because she was the king's wife that she bore the royal title. 2. Parliament now passed some laws to prevent any future king from acting as James II. had done. The chief of these was called the Bill of Rights. Rights^ and It declared that no king had a right to a the Tolera- suspending power such as James II. had claimed. It also said that Roman Catholics should not be alloAved to rule in England. By other laws it was arranged that if William and Mary died without children, the next ruler should be Mary's younger sister, Anne. If Anne died without children, Sophia, Electress of Hanover, and her Protestant descend- ants were to succeed to the throne. Sophia was a granddaughter of James I. She was chosen because William III. and Mary II. 197 she was the nearest Protestant relative of the king and queen. It is by reason of this hiw tliat all English kings and queens, who have reigned from this period down to the present day, have had a right to rule. An- other law of the same time was the Toleration Aet^ which William III. gave the Protestant Dissenters a right to worship freely in their own chapels. 3. Unlike the Stuart kings, William III. obeyed the law strictly, and was forced to govern in a fashion that pleased parliament. William did not like Beginning this, as he was fond of power. He was of party not, however, able to help himself. Parlia- ^o^^^""^^" • ment only gave him enough money to carry on the government from year to year. If he had ruled in a 198 William III. and Mary II. 1689- way parliament did not like, it could always stop sup- plies, and so make him helpless. One result of this growing power of parliament was that William was gradually forced to choose all his ministers from the party that was strongest in parliament. At first Wil- liam chose some Whigs and some Tories to be his min- isters. But a Whig parliament so disliked William's Tory ministers that they forced him to dismiss them from office, and keep no ministers except Whigs. When, a few years later, the Tories got the majority in parlia- ment, William was forced to have none but Tory minis- ters. Thus began what is called "party government" in England, which has lasted ever since. Its result was to hand over to parliament a great deal of the power the kings had had up to that time. UR 1 SH feleof the Boyne SE AM Dublin^ j-^ <^ r^ fir ^ The Position of the Boyne. 4. William III. had to fight hard before he made him- self master of Ireland and Scotland. The Irish Roman The Revolu- ^atholics supported James long after he tion in had been driven from England. At last Ireland. James himself went to Ireland and reigned there for some time. In 1690 William defeated James at the Battle of the Boyne^ and soon drove him out of the country. Thus Ireland was once more conquered. The Catholics were punished for supporting James by being treated very badly. They lost nearly all their -1702.] William III. and Mary II. 199 land, and only Protestants were allowed to govern the country. This state of things lasted for more than a hundred years. 5. The Scots followed the example of the English, and drove James from the throne. They chose William and Mar}^ as king and queen, and abolished ^.^^ Revolu- bishops in the Scottish Church. Ever since tion in that time the Church of Scotland has re- Scotland, mained Presbyterian. Before long the Highlanders, who dwelt in the hills in the north of Scotland, rose in revolt in favor of James II. But after winning a battle at KiUiecrankie, the Highlanders w^ent home, and the friends of King William finally got the upper hand. 6. After James II. was driven from England, he got much help from Louis XIV. of France. William III. had already been struggling against the -,, ^ power of France for nearly twenty yeare. against He now persuaded the English to declare ^r*"^^- war against Louis. For eight years the English and French went on fighting. This war, known in Europe as the War of the Palatinate, was called in America King WillianCs War. England was not very successful on land, but gained a complete victory over the French at sea at the battle of La Hogue. At last peace was made at Ryswich This war cost so much money that William was not able to pay for it year by year. He had to bor- row money for this purpose and pay interest upon it. This was the beginning of the National Debt. 7. Queen Mary died in 1694. She was much more English and more beloved than William. William was a very able man, but he took no pains to vviiiiam III. understand English ways, and the English and the people disliked him. He became so unpop- •'^^° ^*^^' ular that many attempts were made to bring back his father-in-law to the throne. James II. 's friends were now called Jacobites. This word comes from Jacobus, 200 William III. and Mary II. the Latin for James. Louis XIV. still supported James IL, and when he died the French king recognized his son as James III. This made William and the English so angry that they made ready to fight Louis again. Before anything could be done William III. died, in 1702. Summary. Parliament makes William and Mavy king and queen, passes the Bill of Rights, the Toleration Act, and an act re- garding the succession to the throne. The party in power, Whig or Tory, controls the king's power. William defeats the rebellious Irish under James II. at the Boyne and also subdues Scotland. He defeats France at La Hogue and starts a national debt. The Jacobites try to put James back on the throne. Topics and Supplementary Reading. What other Queen Mary had ruled England? What was the suspending power? Do we have a State Church in the United States? Is everybody here allowed to believe in any religion he chooses? Do we have politi- cal parties in the United States? Name them. Do you know what name was applied to the Irish who fought on AVilliam's side at the Boyne? Have we a national debt? Character of Queen Mary II. : Marshall, E., Kensington Palace. Marriage of Mary to William ; Paull, M. A., My Mistress the Queen. The Boyne: Henty, G. A., The Orange and the Green. The Scotch War: Crockett, S. R., Lochinvar. The Jacobites: INIarryat, Capt. F., Snarleyyow or The Dog Fiend; Weyman, S. J., Shreioshury. Book for Teachers. Traill, H. D., William III. CHAPTER XXXI Anne, 1702-1714 1. Queen A7ine was kind and good-natured, but not very gifted. Had she really had to govern the country, she could hardly have done it very well, p^^^^ ^^^ She was ruled, however, by her great friend Mari- the Duchess of Marlborough, whose husband, borough, the Duke of Marlborough, was the chief general England then had. This was very lucky, for war with France was just beginning, and Marlborough was by far the best man to manage the affairs of England. For sev- eral years he was both general of the army and chief minister. 2. The war that was now fought was called the War of the Spanish Succession, but was known in America as Queen Anne's War. Louis XIV. wished to _^ „, Tnc War of make his grandson Philip king of Spain, the Spanish England, Holland, Austria, and many other Succession, states joined together in what was called the Grand Alliance in order to prevent him. Their chief reason for doing this was that they were so much afraid of the power of France that they did not wish France and Spain to be joined together. 3. During this war Marlborough won many famous victories over the French. The first of these was at Blenheim, in Germany, in 1704. Marlbor- j^^rl- ough's victory was the more brilliant, since borough's the French had won nearly every battle they '^^^^°^^^^- had fought all through the long reign of Louis XIV. Afterwards Marlborough won three battles in the Neth- 202 Anne [1702- erlands : at Bmnillies, at Oudenarde^ and at Malplaquet. Another great gain of the English in this war was the capture of the rock of Gibraltar in the south of Spain. Gibraltar has remained English ever since. However Queen Anne. (After a Portrait by John Closterman in the National Portrait Gallery.) hard the English fought, they could not drive Louis' grandson out of Spain, because nearly all the Spaniards supported him. 4. The war was very bloody and costly. Before long people began to wonder why peace was not made, In -1714.] Anne particular the Tories became ver}^ anxious war. Marlborough had always been a Tory, so eager to go on lighting that he threw over his old friends and joined the Wliigs. His ministry, which had been Tory, thus became Whig-. But the Whio-s made the mistake of continuing the war longer than was necess; a great cry rose for peace. The Tories got a 203 to end tlie but he was The Tory ministry and the Treaty of Utrecht. ar}'. Soon majority in ■ /!/ R T K Map of the Netherlands to illustrate Marlborough's Campaigns. parliament, and drove Marlborough from office. Anne was now quite willing to get rid of Marlborough, be- cause she had quarrelled, with his wife, whose overbear- ing ways the queen had at last got tired of. The Tories remained in office for the rest of Anne's reign. The chief thing they did was to make peace with France. 204 Anne [1702- The Position of Gibraltar. This they did in the Treaty of Utrecht^ which was signed in 1713. Though they were in such a hurry to make peace that they did not make as good terms with the French as they might, this treaty gave England many advantages. It rec- ognized Philip as King of Spain, though it gave England Gibraltar. In America France gave up to England the Hudson's Bay territory. Nova Sco- tia, and Newfoundland. 5. A great event of Queen Anne's reign was the union between England and Scotland. Though England and Scotland had had one The union king since 1603, each country was still gov- with Scot- erned after its own fashion ; except in Crom- ' well's time, both countries kept a separate parliament. This did not work well, and the English and Scots disagreed so much that there was a prospect even of a union of the crowns coming to an end. Queen Anne's ministers proposed that the parliaments and gov- ernments of the two countries should be united, so that there might be less chance of Englishmen and Scots quarrelling. Both countries consented to this, and in 1707 the Act of Union was passed. Henceforward there were no longer separate English and Scottish parliaments. A single parliament of Great Britain sat at Westminster. In this Scotland was represented both in the House of Lords and in the House of Com- mons. It was, however, agreed that Scotland should keep her own Presbyterian Church. The union was not popular at first in either country, but it was a wise measure, and turned out in the long run to be a great success. -1714.] Anne 205 6. Queen Anne had married Prince George of Den- mark. All her children had died before her, and Anne herself was now in very poor health. The The last old Electress Sophia of Hanover died about years of this time, so, accoixling to law, the next king Queen would be her son, George, Elector of Han- over, George was a great friend of the Whigs, and the queen's Tory ministers felt sure that if he became king The Battle of Blenheim. (From an Engraving after a Picture by La Guerre at Marlborough House. ) he would drive them from power. Lord Bolinghrohe was the most brilliant but the least honest of the Tory statesmen. He formed a plan for securing the throne for Anne's brother, the son of James II., whom most Englishmen called The Pretender, However, before his phms were ready, Anne suddenly died. The Elector of Hanover Avas now proclaimed George I. without oppo- 2o6 Anne sition, and Bolingbroke had to flee the country. Thus Queen Anne was the last of the House of Stuart. Henceforward the House of Hanover reigned in its stead. Genealogical Table of the House of Hanover. James I., grandfather of Sophia, Electress of Hanover. George I. I George II. grandfather of George III. I \ I George IV. William IV. The Duke of Kent. Victoria. I Edward VII. Summary. Marlborough, Queen Anne's chief general and ad- viser, engages in the War of the Spanish Succession against France and wins many victories, but is put out of power after a time and the Peace of Utrecht is made. The Act of Union abolishes the Scotch Parliament and gives representation to Scotland in the English Parliament. Failure of Bolingbroke's plan to have Anne's brother succeed her instead of George, Elector of Hanover. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Whose daughter was Anne V Why did parliament let her ascend the throne and reject her father? Did Ireland have its own parliament? Marlborough: Henty, G. A., In the Irish Brigade; A Cornet of Horse. Blenheim : Burton, J. E. B., Across the Salt Seas ; Southey, R., After Blenheim (poem). War in Spain ; Henty, G. A., Bravest of the Brave. Life in Queen Anne's Reign: Green, E. E., Tom Tufton's Travels; Tom Tufton's Toll; Thackeray, W. M., Esmond. Books for Teachers. Morris, E. E., The Age of Anne ; Seeley, J. R., The Expansion (f England. CHAPTER XXXII Period of the Stuart Kings, 1603-1714 1. It must always be remembered that the early Stuart kings did not try to get more power than their predecessors the Tudor kings had had. It was parliament which tried to deprive them ^^^jfj^^^ of powers which the Tudor sovereigns had been exercising for more than a century. It was this which brouglit about the Civil War. James and his successor supported their claims to power by advancing a very old doctrine called the Theory of the Divine Right of Kings. According to this theory the king had his power from God, was responsible to Him alone, and the people had nothing to do with it. Parliament and Crom- well put an end to this theory for a time, but when Charles II. came back he put a man to death for assert- ing that kings were responsible to their subjects. James II. was exiled because he tried to put the theory of Divine Right into practice again, and when William and Mary came to the throne the power of the king was finally and definitely restricted by two documents called the Bill of Rights and the Act of Settlement. By the first of these the king Avas not allowed to suspend or dis- pense with any laws, to levy taxes, or to have a standing army without the consent of parliament ; by the second the king was prevented from filling offices with foreign friends, from pardoning men impeached by parliament, and from removing judges from office at his own will. 2. Parliament, which had been so weak under the Tudors and called to meet so seldom, now began to 2o8 Period of the Stuart Kings assert its power. By the Great Protest of 1621 it de- clared that it was entitled to freedom of debate ; by the Petition of Right of 1628 it declared against taxation or the borrowing of money by the king without the consent of parliament; and by the Grand Remonstrance of 1641 it summed up what it con- Soldier with Musket and Crutch : from a broadside printed about 1630. (Showing the absence of almost all armor.) sidered to be its own rights and privileges and those of the citizens of England. In 1641 by the Triennial Act it declared that parliament should be summoned at least once in three years. As a result of the Civil War and of the Revolution of 1688, parliament became supreme over the king, and with few exceptions has continued to maintain its supremacy down to the present day. 3. The Courts of Star Chamber and High Commission established by the Tudors, now become mere engines of despotism, were abolished by parliament in 1641 be- Period of the Stuart Kings 209 cause of the tyrannical purposes for which they were used. The right of an imprisoned man to the writ of habeas corpus was so frequently violated by the king that in 1679 parliament passed the Habeas Corpus Act. By it a man who was seized and cast into prison might be brought before a judge within a short time to find out what charges there were against him and who his accusers were. 4. The Anglican Church established by the Tudors, which persecuted Roman Catholics, Puritans, Separat- ists, Scotch Presbyterians (the last were also called Covenanters because they agreed to a certain document called a Covenant), and all others who did not belong to that Church, was as much a cause of the Civil War as was the tyranny of the king. Dur- ing the Commonwealth the episcopacy of the Anglican Church was abolished and the presbyterian system set up in its place, but when Charles II. returned the old system of church government was restored. James II. tried to bring back the Roman Catholic Church, but his deposition stopped tliat, and the English Established Church, or Anglican Church as it is called, remained the State Church. Church affairs had great influence on political parties. In the Civil War the Cavaliers were generally staunch members of the Episcopal Church, whereas the Roundheads were usually Puri- tans, Separatists, and Presbyterians. In time the Cava- liers became the Tories, and the Roundheads became the Whigs. The former still remained members of the An- glican Church, but many of the latter were Dissenters. 5. Agriculture, which had been in such a poor state during the Tudor period, began to be profitable again when carried on w^ith improved implements on large farms. To get these farms the im- ^"^" portant landholders still resorted to the enclosure system, and small farmers, or yeomen as they were called, ceased U 2IO Period of the Stuart Kings [1603- to exist as a class and became poorly paid agricultural la- borers. Agriculture, however, was not always profitable, for under Charles II. importation of grain was forbidden, and in 1688 a bounty was paid for its export — both Mowing Grass in the Eighteenth Century. (From Hearne's ' Ectypa Varia,^ 1737.) measures being designed to make the raising of grain more profitable. These acts were the beginning of the famous Corn Laws of England. 6. Commerce with foreign lands was the field in which England made her greatest progress during this period. Various trading companies such as the Levant Company and the East India Company made very large profits. In 1651, to encour- age English commerce and destroy the monopoly in trade which the Dutch had enjoyed, parliament passed the Navigation Act providing that no foreign goods should be imported in any but English ships, or ships of the country from which the goods came. This aimed a deadly blov/ at what is called tlie carrying-trade of the Dutch. -1714.] Period of the Stuart Kings 211 7. The export of raw wool, which for centuries had been gradually declining, was in 1660 prohibited. Eng- land now used all her raw wool to manu- facture cloth. This was now even dyed in Manufac- i tures. England and no longer sent to r landers to the Flemish dyers. The cloth, however, was not made in large factories such as we know, but was made by hand-looms in the workman's home. This way of man- ufacturing Avas known as the domestic system. Between the Avorkman and employer there was very little dif- ference in social position, for they were well known to each other and the employer like the workman worked with his own hands. Thousands of workmen made cloth on their own account and sold it to dealers, who marketed it at home or abroad at the great fairs. Summary. James I, preaches the Divine Right of Kings theory, but it is overthrown by parliament forever in 1688. ParHament becomes the supreme power in the land. The tyrannical courts of the Tudors are overthrown. The Habeas Corpus Act is passed. The growth of religious and political parties. The decline of the yeomen. Commerce and manufactures grow rapidly. Topics and Supplementary Reading. When did enclosures begin? Find out from the dictionary what "corn" means in Eng- land. Explain the meaning of the word "presbyterian." Who were the Tudor sovereigns V Books for Teachers. (See 'Suggestions,' p. viii, — Feilden and Cheyney.) Montague, F. C, Elements of English Constitutional History ; Gibbins, H., Industrial History of England. Part VII. — The Hanoverian Kings. 1714-1904 CHAPTER XXXIII George I., 1714-1727 1. George I. was more than fifty years of age when he became king. He knew nothing of England, and never even learned the English language. No one The long cared much for him, but Englishmen made Whig rule. , . , , . , . , . ^ , ^ hmi their king, as the only way 01 keeping out the Pretender. Under his rule the ministers could do almost what they liked, and so the system of Party Government which had begun witli William III. became fully established. The Tories lost their power and popularity. Both under George I. and his son, George II., none but Whigs became the king's ministers. , 2. The friends of the Pretender were much disap- pointed at the peaceable accession of George I. In 1715 The Jacobite ^^^^ stirred up a rebellion against the new revolt of king. Nothing much came of this in Eng- ^^'^" land, but a serious revolt broke out in the Highlands of Scotland. In those days the Highlanders lived quite a different life from that of the rest of the Scots or Englishmen. They were divided into clans., or great families, and each of these clans was ruled by a chieftain. They cared nothing for the law, and were often fighting with each other or uniting to plunder the people of the Lowlands. When the mass of English- men and Scots had ceased to care for the Stuarts, the 1727. George I. 213 Highlanders still remained their friends. They were splendid soldiers, and their fierce charge often threw the slow-moving regular soldiers of those days into utter confusion. In 1715, however, the Highlanders had a poor leader in the Earl of Mar. Befoi'e long the Pre- tender himself went to Scotland. But he was so dull George I. (From a Picture in the National Portrait Gallery : painted after Sir G. Kneller.) and desponding that he killed all enthusiasm for his cause. The disgusted Highlanders went home, and the Pretender quickly returned to France. 3. Ever since the Peace of Utrecht the country had been very prosperous. Men were making much money in trade, and were looking out for good ways of getting a high interest for their savings. A great many people put their money into a company called the South Sea 214 George I. Company. This company had been started to trade with South America, and soon flourished greatly. Its suc- cess encouraged other companies to try to The South gret people to buy their shares. Some of Sea Bubble, f , ^ ^ • "^ • n . these companies were mere swindles, and were soon found out. Then there followed a panic. The price of shares in all these companies went down suddenly. A great many people were ruined, and the whole country was plunged into deep distress. The South Sea Bubble, as it was called, had been blown out so big that it had burst. This happened in 1720. 4. Some of those ruined by the South Sea Bubble found out that the king's ministers had been bribed by the South Sea Company. A great outcry Ministry. I'ose against them, and they were driven from office. Sir Robert Walpole was now made chief minister. He took such wise measures that the panic was soon at an end. He remained in office for more than twenty years. Long before his rule came to an end George I. died suddenly, in 1727. Summary. The Whigs being responsible for George I.'s acces- sion to the throne keep control of the government. The Preten- der's friends stir up a revolt in Scotland, but it does not succeed. The South Sea Bubble causes a financial panic, but Walpole comes to the rescue. Topics and Supplementary Reading. Who was the Pre- tender? What was the Peace of Utrecht? Where is the South Sea? What language did George I. speak? Jacobite Plots: Scott, Sir W., Roh Roy. Jacobite Revolt : Adams, H. C., In the Fifteen. Jacobites : Poynter, H. M., Madamscourt. Days of George I. and II. : Yonge, C. M., Lore and Life. South Sea Bubble: Ainsworth, W. H., The South Sea Bubble. Books for Teachers. Morris, E. E., The Early Hanoverians; Morley, J., Walj^ole. CHAPTER XXXIV George II., 1727-1760 1. George 11. was a thorough German, but he knew more than his father about Enghmd. Before he became king he had been jealous of Walpole. He ^vvalpole was now wise enough to see that Walpole Prime was the best man to be his chief minister, and ^^^ster. kept him on in office. Walpole soon won so strong a posi- tion that all the other ministers were forced to obey him. He was the first ruler who was called Prime Minister. As long as Walpole remained in power he kept England at peace. Walpole was a very prudent statesman. Under him the people became so contented Avith the House of Hanover that the Jacobites had no chance of bringing back the Pretender. As Walpole grew old, however, there was a great outcry for war against Spain. The merchants complained that the Spaniards would not let them trade freely with the Spanish colonies in South America. Very unwillingly Walpole gave way to their clamor, and in 1739 declared war. He took little pains to carry it out vigorously. The outcry against him was renewed, and in 1742 he was driven from office. 2. Before Walpole's fall the war with Spain had grown into a war with France also. The struggle Avas called the War of the Austrian Succession, r^^^ .^^^ ^^ England supported the claim of Maria the Austrian Theresa^ a young girl, to the Austrian throne, accession, while France and other powers wanted to divide her dominions between them. 2i6 George II. [i727- 3. One result of the war was that the Jacobites again rose in revolt against the House of Hanover. James, The Tacobite ^^^® ^^^ Pretender, was still alive, but the Revolt of real leader of the Jacobites was now his son, ^745- Charles Edward^ called the Young Pretender. Charles Edward was good-looking, bright, and enthu si- Sir llobevt Walpole. (From the Picture by Vau Loo in the National Portrait Gallery.) astic, and a much better leader of men than his melan- choly father. In 1745 he landed in the Highlands. The Highlanders gave him a hearty welcome, and he was soon master of nearly all Scotland. His progress was the more rapid since most of the British army was abroad, waging war against the French. Those soldiers sent out against him fought very badly. At the battle .1760] George II. 217 of Preston Pans, near Edinburgh, King George's troops ran away disgracefully from the fierce rush of the Highlanders' charge. George II. (From the Portrait by Thomas Hudson iu the National Portrait Gallery.) 4. The Young Pretender saw that his best chance of succeeding was to be bold. He now invaded England, hoping to march to London and drive King ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ George from his throne. He advanced Derby, and through Cumberland, Lancashire, and Derby- ^^^^^^f^]^ °^ shire, as far as Derby ; but very few of the English joined him, and he dared not proceed further south. He retreated rapidly to Scotland, and was soon driven to the extreme north. At last, in 1746, he was defeated by the king's second son, the Duke of Ciunbcr- 2i8 George II. [l727- land^ at Culloden Moor, near Inverness. The Highland revolt was now cruelly put down by Cumberland, who behaved so brutally that people called him the butcher. Charles Edward escaped to the Continent. He lived for many years more, but soon lost all influence. On his death, and that of his brother, the unfortunate House of Stuart came to an end. Henceforth the House of Hanover remained firmly establislied on the British throne. 5. The period after the fall of Walpole was a dull time. The Whigs continued to govern the country. Newcastle Most of the Whig leaders were great noble- and the men or landlords. They cared very little igno es .j^i^Q^^ ^YiQ common people, and wanted to make as few changes as they could. They kept them- selves in power by bribery. Yet, Avith all their faults, they did not govern the country badly. They were clear-headed, sensible men of business, but there was nothing noble or inspiring about tliem. A good ex- ample of this class of statesmen was the Bake of Neiv- castle. He was a fussy, meddlesome, incompetent man. If he had not been a duke he would never have won a high position for himself. A man such as he was managed well enough in time of peace; but soon a great war was to break out, and Newcastle made it clear that he was not great enough to guide the fortunes of the country in troubled times. 6. Fortunately, England had a far greater statesman than Newcastle. This was William Pitt. Pitt did not W'lr P"tt ^^^^^"^^ t^ ^^^® o^ ^^^® great Whig families, and was never a good man of business. He was wonderfully eloquent, high-minded, and patriotic. He was careless about money and his own interests, and had a lofty scorn for the bribers and wirepullers. He was extremely popular w4th tlie mass of Englishmen, who called him the Great Commoner. In a dull and -1760.] George II. 219 selfish age he did for English politics what was being done for religion in England at the same time by John Wesley^ the famous founder of the Methodist movement. Unluckily, Pitt had not so much influence Avith the House of Commons as with the people. In those days The Right Hou. William Pitt, Paymaster of the Forces, afterwards Earl of Chatham. (From a Painting by Hoare.) the members of the House of Commons were chosen by very few electors. A great number of people had no votes for members of parliament, and many members owed their seats in parliament to the influence of great Whig nobles like Newcastle, who forced all the tenants on their estates to vote for the man they wanted. So it followed that, while Pitt had great power over the 220 George II. [l727- people, Newcastle had more autliorit}^ over the parlia- ment. 7. A war now broke out called the Seven Years^ War. It began with a struggle between the French _ , - and Eup-lish for mastery in two remote parts French ana " . Indian War of the world, America and India. We have in America. ^^^^ how, since the days of James I., the English had set up colonies on the eastern coast of North America. These were now thirteen in number and had become very prosperous. The French had also colonies in North America. The chief of these was Canada^ which lay along the great river St. Lawrence, while the next important was Louisiana^ which was situated on the Lower Mississippi. The Frencli now formed a scheme for joining Canada and Louisiana together, and thus shutting up the English on the east coast. A war, known as the French and Indian War^ thus broke out in the backwoods of America, and the French got the better of it in all the early fighting. 8. There was a similar struggle between the English and French in India. Lip to this time India had been .^ . , ruled by native princes, and the English French in and French only went there as traders. The India. French joined with the native princes against the English, and soon pressed them very hard. Their ally, the Nabob of Bengal^ captured the English settle- ment of Calcutta. He shut up all his prisoners in a room called the Black Hole of Calcutta. In one hot night nearly all the prisoners perished from the heat and overcrowding. 9. As the result of these troubles, war broke out in 1756 between England and France. Newcastle was then Prime Minister, but was quite incom- Years' War. petcnt to carry on the war, and disasters fell upon the English in every part of the world. Newcastle made an alliance with Pitt, who -1760. George II. British \ French CZI Spanish WAtUt* 4 COCKEKCLL.OEL North America before the Seven Years' War (the French and Indian AVar). 222 George II. [1727- joiiied with him in the ministr}^ in 1757. Pitt's faith, courage, and enthusiasm soon changed the whole face of affairs. He had a wonderful power of choosing the Robert Clive. (From the Original Painting by Nathaniel Dance, R.A., at Wolcot.) right men to lead the fleets and armies, and of inspiring them with his own belief in the greatness of England. He sent one of his favorite soldiers. General Wolfe^ to conquer Canada from the French. In 1759 a battle was -1760.] George II. ?23 fought outside Quebec^ the capital of Canada. Though Wolfe was slain in the fight, the French were utterly beaten, and all Canada was soon conquered. Equal success attended English arms in India. In 1757 Robert Clive defeated the cruel Nabob of Bengal at the Battle of Flasseij. All Bengal was soon subdued, and A Coach of the Middle of the Eighteenth Century. thus the British Empire in India began. Warren Hast- ings^ who served under Clive, was made Governor Gen- eral in the next reign, but was so stern in his rule that he was impeached. Thanks to the genius of William Pitt, the Seven Years' War, which had begun so badly for England, had now become the most glorious and suc- cessful war that was fought since the days of Marlborough. It was still going on when George 11. died in 1760, and was succeeded by his grandson, George III. Summary. George II. leaves the government in the hands of Walpole. The War of the Austrian Succession. The Young Pre- tender fails to get the throne by the Jacobite Revolt of 1745. The Whigs govern the country even after the fall of AValpole. Pitt becomes the leader of the Whigs and carries on the Seven Years' War for the sake of England's power in Europe, America, and India. 224 George II. Topics and Supplementary Reading. When had Virginia, New England, and Carolina been settled? At what other times had England been at war with Spain ? Find out in the dictionary what the words " Whig" and " Tory " came from. Clive: Henty, G. A., With Clive in India. War with Spain : Fenn, G. M., In the King's Name ; Ned Ledger. Life of the Times : Marshall, E., The Master of the Musicians ; Fenn, G. M., The Devon Boys. Jacobite Revolt: Henty, G. A., Bonnie Prince Charlie: Scott, Sir W., Waverley: Stevenson, R. L., David Balfour; Adams, H. C, For James or George. Seven Years' VVar : Grant, J., Second to None. Books for Teachers. Morley, J., Walpole; Morris, E. E., Early Hanoverians ; Wilson, Sir Charles, C/iye; Lyall, Sir Alfred, Warren Hastings ; Seeley, J. R. , Expansion of England ; Macaulay, T. B., Essays. CHAPTER XXXV George III., 1760-1820 1. George III. was born in England, and was proud of it. He was not very quick, but he was very persever- ing. He wanted to enjoy as much power Qgo^ge III. as the law allowed hiui. He saw how the and the Whigs under George I. and George II. had ^^^^s. taken away many of the powers that the king had once enjoyed. For that reason he hated the Whigs bitterly, and drove them from office as soon as he could. So blindly did he disUke the Whigs that he could not see that there was any difference between Pitt and New- castle. In fact, he was more afraid of Pitt than Newcastle, because Pitt was so much more liked by his people. He ended the war with France in 1763. He was in such a hurry to make peace that he did not win for Britain all that she might have got. Nevertheless, it was a very profitable peace for the country. By it England kept Canada and the chief power in India. 2, George's chief desire was to choose his own minis- ters freely. Since the Revolution of 1688 the kings had gradually been forced to take as their minis- ^ ^.^^ ters the leaders of the party that was strong- at choosing est in the House of Commons. George J^Jf^^^grs. wished to go bpck to the earlier custom, and have whatever ministers he thought best. He went to work in a very clumsy way to carry out his ideas. But he took care to keep the Whigs out of office as much as he could. At last George found a minister to please him in Lord North, the first Tory Prime Minister since 15 Queen Anne's time. 1770 to 1782. George III. [i760- North remained in power from George III. in 1767. (From a Painting by Allan Ramsay in the National Portrait Gallery.) 3. The great event of Lord North's ministry was the revolt of the American colonies. The Seven Years' War -1820.] George III. 227 had cost England a great deal, and George thought that the Americans ought to pay something towards it. He therefore had caused to be passed a Stamp Revolt of the Act in the British parliament which called American on the Americans to pay certain stamp duties to the English government. The Americans were very angry at this. They said that they ought not to be taxed by the British parliament, because they sent no members to it. They raised such an outcry that the law taxing America was repealed. Be- fore this was done grave troubles had taken place. The Americans levied troops, and rose in revolt against King George. War broke out in 1775, and immediately af- terwards the Americans issued a Declaration of Independence. In this tliey declared that they would be no longer subjects of King George. The thirteen colonies all joined together, and took the name of the United States of America. 4. Many people in England had sj^mpathized with the Americans when they resisted the new taxes. Among these was William Pitt, who had now become Chatham Earl of Chatham. He rejoiced that America and had resisted George IH., just as John Hamp- den had stood out against Charles I. The whole blame of the war, however, did not rest with George. Some of the American leaders were anxious from the beginning to be independent of England. Chatham grew very an- gry when he saw that the result of this was likely to be the break-up of the British Empire. He was still more indignant when France, Spain, and other old enemies of England took up the cause of the Americans and de- One of the Stamps as ap- pointed to he used under George lll.'s American Stamp Act. America. 228 George III. [i760- clared war. With his dying breath he declared that the British Empire, which he had done so much to make, should not be rent asunder. After his death there was no hope that the Americans and British could remain united. When the British colonists in the thirteen states thus threw off all allegiance to the old country, the French of Canada remained loyal to King George, so that Canada still remained a British possession. 5. England had now to face both the Americans and half Europe as well. George III. and Lord North did their best against all these enemies. They independ- were not, liowcver, able to carry on the w^ar ence ac- with the same spirit that Chatham had shown during the Seven Years' War. For a time England even lost the command of the seas, but a great admiral arose in Rodney^ whose victories over the French made England mistress of the ocean once more. The war in America went on badly for the mother countr}^ Two English armies were forced to surrender to the Americans. When peace was made in 1783 England was forced to acknowledge the independence of the United States. 6. Lord North resigned office before the war was over. After a period of great trouble the king found in 1783 another minister whom he could of the^^"^^ ^^ trust. This was William Pitt, the second younger son of the great Lord Chatham. Pitt the younger was only twenty-four when George made him his Prime Minister. He was not such a gen- ius as his father, but he was eloquent, clear-headed, and business-like. He could work with others much better than his father had done. Lie made himself trusted by the people as well as by the king. Now that George had made Pitt his minister he could defy the Whig lords. Pitt remained in office from 1783 to 1801, and then only resigned because he disagreed with the king. -1820.] George III. 229 Pitt was generally called a Tory, though his views were very much like those of his father, who had always been called a Whig. With North and Pitt began a long pe- riod of Tory rule, ^A'liich lasted longer than the reign of William Pitt the Younger. George HI. Pitt's chief rival was the Whig leader, Charles James Fox. Fox was a fine speaker, and was good-tempered and generous. He was, however, rather too fond of his party, and had made himself unpopular by upholding the Americans. He never had such a large number of followers in parliament as Pitt had. Besides that, George disliked him very much, so that he had little chance of holding office. 7. England was changing very quickly during Pitt's ministry. For the first time it w^as becoming a great 230 George III. [l760- manufacturing country. Till now Britain had been a land of farmers and merchants. Some wonderful ma- chines were now invented which made it becomes a possible to make goods more quickly and manufactur- ^^ore cheaply than in the days when yarn ing country. 11^1 i 1 i t%t was spun and cloth Avoven by hand. More- over, the steam-engine was for the first time made use of to drive all sorts of machines. Good hard roads were everywhere built, and deep canals cut. By means of these, manufactured goods could be taken easily and cheaply from the factory to the place where they could be sold. For many years things looked very prosperous. Great towns now arose wherever there was coal or iron. More money was made in England and more people lived in it. Much trouble, however, arose in consequence of all these changes. There were many more poor, and they were badly looked after. Wages were low, and many men were often out of work. Neither masters nor men in the manufacturing districts had any voice in electing members of parliament. The workmen in factories were often very miserable. 8. In 1789 the French Revolution broke out across the Channel. Up to this time France had been ruled by despotic kings, and the people had been very RevoTuTiSn^ ^^^^^J treated. At last things fell into such a desperate state that something had to be done. The French king was forced to summon a sort of parliament of his people. This body, like the Long Parliament, took everything into its own hands. It set up a constitutional government something like that of England ; but the new system would not work. Before long the extreme men got to the head of affairs. They beheaded the king and queen and set up a Republic. Thousands of Frenchmen were put to death. A time set in so full of horrors that it was called the Reign of Terror. The fierce rulers of France now offered to help 1820.] George III. 231 all nations who wished to follow the example of the French and overthrow their kings. 9. In 1793 England went to war against the French. England and France remained at war for more than twenty years, with only one short peace of a j,^^ ^^^^ few months. It was a most desperate strug- war against gle. Pitt was not so snccessfnl a war min- ^'■^^^^• ister as his father, and the French gained many victories. Lnckily, England was more successful by sea than by land. Her victories at sea alone prevented the French from crossing the Channel and invading England. The danger grew worse as time went on. At last the most brilliant of the French generals, Napoleon Bonaparte^ overthrew the French Republic and made himself Em- peror. He forced not only France, but nearly all Europe, to obey him. He gathered together a great army along the north coast of France, and tried hard to entice the British navy away from the Channel, so that he might cross over into England. The English fleet was com- manded by Lord Nelson, the greatest of all English admirals. Nelson was quite able to withstand all Napo- leon's tricks. At last, in 1805, he fell upon the French navy and utterly destroyed it in the Battle of Trafalgar^ off the southwest coast of Spain. Nelson himself w^as killed during the fight, but he had already won the vic- tory. From that time onward England had such com- plete power over the seas that she was in no serious danger of invasion. 10. A little before the Battle of Trafalgar, Pitt per- suaded Austria and Russia to go to war against Napoleon. However, the French emperor was com- pletely successful against them. At last he successes, made an alliance with Russia. It was agreed that the Emperor of Russia should do what he liked in the East, while the Emperor of the French was allowed to do what he liked in the West. A little before this 232 George III. [l760- alliance, Pitt died, in 1806, worn out with anxiety. Though he had made man}^ mistakes, he never lost heart. Lord Nelson. England owes him much for the steadiness with which he kept up the great conflict against Napoleon. 11. Pitt had to fight not only against the French abroad, but also against many people in England who -1820.] George III. 233 were friends of the French Revolution and of Napoleon. The new manufacturing towns in the north were full of ignorant and sufferincr men who wished _. Pitt prevents to follow the example of the French ; but changes in Pitt put them all down with a firm hand. England. Men called him the pilot that weathered the storm of the Revolution. England, however, was too well off to make it likely that she would act as the French had done. Unluckily, tlie fear of the French Revolution made men afraid to make any changes at all. Pitt, like his father, had once been in favor of reforming the way in which parliament was elected. Now, however, there was no chance of this being carried out, since so many feared that any reform would lead to revolution. I-,ong after Napoleon had overthrown the revolutionary move- ment in France, people in England were still afraid of its teachings. 12. Pitt had a great deal of trouble in Ireland. Since Ireland had been conquered by William III. it had been very harshly ruled by the English. Things ^^^ revolt had become better during the reign of George of 1798 in III. Many of the cruel laws against the . ^^^i^nd. Roman Catholics were repealed, and the Irish Parliament was given greater power than it had had in earlier days. None but Protestants, however, could sit in the Dublin parliament, and none but Protestants were allowed to hold offices in the Irish government. This kept the Catholics very dissatisfied, and at last, in 1798, they rose in revolt. The rebellion Avas the more dangerous since England was busily engaged in fighting the French. However, it was successfully stamped out, and Ireland was once more reduced to peace. 13. Pitt saw that it was no longer possible to allow the Irish Protestants to go on ruling Ireland as they liked. He brought forward a scheme for uniting Ire- land to Great Britain, just as England and Scotland 234 George III. [1760- 5. The Union Jack. (Great Britain and Ireland.) 3. Great Britain. (= England and Scotland.) 4. Ireland. The Union Flag. (Showing how the flags of England, Scotland, and Ireland were combined to form the " Uuiou Jack.") -1820.] George III. 235 had been united. The Irish Protestants were very angry at this, since the Dublin parliament was in their hands ; but the Irish Catholics were either careless j,^^ union of about the scheme or in favor of it. Pitt Great Britain tried to win the Catholics over by prom- ^""^ Iceland, ising that when the union had been carried the Cath- olics should be allowed to sit in parliament and act as ministers. Then he had the Act of Union passed in 1800. The Irish Parliament hated the plan, but was bribed into consenting to it. It now ceased to exist ; but Irish peers and Irish members of the House of Commons were henceforth allowed to sit in the united parliament of the three kingdoms at Westminster. 14. Unhappily George III. prevented Pitt from cariy- ing out his scheme in favor of freeing the Roman Catho- lics, which was called Catholic Emancipation. . Pitt s The king declared that he had promised, resignation. when he had been crowned, to uphold the Protestant Church. For this reason George believed that he would break his coronation oath if he granted Catholic Emancipation. Pitt was much disgusted, and resigned office in 1801. The Catholics felt that they were tricked, and soon got to dislike the Union. Bat the blame of this does not belong to Pitt, but to the king. Pitt remained out of office until he was called back to power to carry 011 the great war against Napo- leon. We have seen how he threw all his energies into this task, and how nobly he died fighting at his post. 15. On Pitt's death his old rival. Fox, became Prime Minister, despite the king's hatred of him. Fox had foolishly objected to the war against Napo- leon; but when he became minister he saw Tory rule, that it could not be helped, and did his best to wage it successfully. Within a few months Fox followed Pitt to the grave. George soon got rid of Fox's Whig followers, and again made the Tories his ministers. 236 George III. [l760- The Tories remained in office for the rest of George's reign. They were not so wise as Pitt had been, and their rule was not very successful, although they did good service by constantly fighting the French emperor. Master of the Continent, Napoleon Avished also to be conqueror of England ; but even when fighting single- handed against the great despot, Britain's command of the sea enabled her to hold her own. 16. After 1808 the British began to fight successfully against Napoleon by land as well as by sea. In that The J^^^^ Napoleon had offended the proud Span- Peninsular ish people by making his brother, Joseph ^^' Bonaparte^ King of Spain. The Spaniards would not receive Joseph, and England sent an army to help them. Its general was Arthur WeMesley^ who soon won such great victories over the French that he was made D^ike of Wellington. From 1808 to 1814 he carried on what was called the Peninsular War against the French emperor. It was so called because it was fought in the peninsula which is taken up by the king- doms of Spain and Portugal. In this war, though he gained nearly every battle he fought, Wellington was often very hard pressed by the French, and generally had to retreat after each victory. He kept up his troops' courage, and was always ready to fight again. He was the greatest English general since Marlborough. 17. In 1812 Napoleon quarrelled with Russia, and invaded that country. But when winter came he was forced to retreat, and lost nearly all his The fall of army. This Russian disaster was the begin- apo eon. j-^^^^g ^f ^]^q f^n ^f Napoleou. The nations that he had so long kept in slavery now rose against him, and in 1814 he was forced to resign his empire and go into banishment to the little island of Mba, off the coast of Tuscany in Italy. He was too restless to stay there long:. In 1815 he returned to France and was re- -1820. George III. 237 stored to power. All Europe had now united to put down the great despot, and armies were collecting all round France. Na})oleon fell suddenly upon the army which had assembled in the Netherlands, which con- tained a large number of British troops, and of which Wellington was tlie general. After a fierce fight, Well- The Duke of Wellinuton. ington defeated Napoleon in the Battle of Waterloo. The French emperor was once more driven from power, and spent the rest of his life a prisoner in the small British island of St. Helena^ in the southern Atlantic. 18. Napoleon, by his Berlin and Milan Decrees^ and England, by her Orders in Council^ had done great injury to American commerce. England had also exercised a right of search on American vessels and taken from 23S George III. [1760- them certain sailors said to be Englishmen. As a result the United States declared war against England in 1812 and did a great deal of damage to the War with Eng^lisli navv and merchant ships. On land America. ° ^ i i • the war did not amount to much, being mainly on the Canadian frontier. The English were defeated in an attempt to take New Orleajis, and the war was closed by tJie Treaty of Ghent in 1 814 — really be- fore the battle of New Orleans was fought. 19. George III. died in 1820, after a reign of sixty years. In 1810 he had become insane, and his eldest Death of SOU, George, became ruler of England with George III. the title of Prince Regerd. On the old king's death the regent became George IV. Napoleon's Medal struck to commemorate the Invasion of England which never took place. [(From a Cast in the British Museum.) Summary. George III. tries to rule independently of Minis- ters, and loses the American colonies. England becomes a manu- facturing country, and engages in war against France to preserve the balance of power and protect her own interests. Ireland revolts, and is united to England by the Act of Union. England attacks Napoleon's power in Spain, and is largely responsible for his final defeat at Waterloo. George III. is insane during the latter part of his reign, and the government is under a Regency. -1820.] George III. 239 Topics and Supplementary Reading. Who was John Hamp- den? Explain why it was that neitlier masters nor men in the manufacturing districts had any voice in electing members of par- liament. What was the Long Parliament? War with France and Spain : Henty, G. A., Held Fast for England. War with France: " Colling wood, H.," Log of a Privateersman. Sea Fights : Kingston, W. H. G., From Powder Monkey to Admiral. American Revolution : Henty, G. A., True to the Old Flag ; Kingston, W. H. G., Hurricane Harry. Nelson: Eden, C. H., Afloat with Nelson; Henty, G. A., At Ahoukir and Acre; Kingston, W. H. G., The Fire Ships. Nelson at the Nile : Pickering, E., In Press Gang Days. Peninsular War: Fortescue, J. W., The Drummer's Coat; Henty, G. A., The Young Buglers; With Moore at Corunna; Under Wellington's Command. Waterloo: Henty, G. A., One of the 28th. Life of the Times: Clarke, Mrs. H., A Lad of Devon; Mar- shall, E., Bristol Diamonds ; On the Banks of the Ouse. Schools : Adams, H. C, School Days at Kingscourt. Machinery Troubles: Henty, G. A., Through the Fray. Books for Teachers. Rosebery, Lord, Pitt; Russell, C, Nel- son; Hannay, D., Rodney ; Hooper, G., Wellington. CHAPTER XXXVI George IV., 1820-1830, and William IV., 1830-1837 1. George IV. was a bad man and a feeble king. One good thing came from his weakness. He was not persevering enough to keep in his hands the George*iv° power which George III. had won back for the Crown. The consequence was that the ministers again became appointed by parliament rather than by the King. 2. The Tories remained in power all through the reign of George IV. The Tories were not, however, all of the same mind. Most of their chief Canmng. ministers were opposed to all reforms, but some of the Tories had learned the more liberal teaching of William Pitt. Their leader was the brilliant George Cannijig, who gradually obtained a large share of power. A great many useful and wise changes were then carried out by Canning and his friends. Cainiing was instrumental in getting President Monroe of the United States to issue a message in which were embodied the principles of the now famous Monroe Doctrine. It was to the effect that the American con- tinents had ceased to be fields for European colonization or interference. Canning soon died, and then power went to the Duke of Wellington, who, like Marlborough before him, was a prominent statesman as well as a famous soldier. 3. Wellington was very old-fashioned in his notions, and had been no frieud of Canning and the Liberal Tories. He had always opposed Catholic Emancipation, George IV. and William IV. 241 while Canning, like Pitt, had been in favor of it. A great outcry now arose in Ireland in favor of giving the Roman Catholics equal rights with the catholic Protestants. A very vigorous and able Cath- Emanci- olic Irish lawyer, named Daniel 0' Connelly pation. put himself at the head of this agitation. At last it George IV. (From an unfinished Portrait by Lawrence in the National Portrait Gallery.) looked as if the Irish Catholics would rise in rebellion if their claims were not granted. Wellington knew what a terrible thing war was, and thouglit it better to give the Catholics what they were asking for than run the risk of provoking a revolt. In 1829 he carried through 16 242 George IV. and William IV. [l820- an Act of Parliament which allowed Roman Catholics to sit in parliament and become the king's ministers. 4. George IV. died in 1830. As he had no children, his brother William became King William IV. Just The begin- before George's death the first railways nings of worked by steam-engines were opened for anTi^ii-^^^ traffic. Steam-engines had long been used ways. for pumping and for working machinery. They had now been employed for about twenty years for making ships travel independently of the wind. Now the loco7notive steam-e7igine was invented, and soon became as important as the steamship. The first really important railway was that between Liverpool and Man- chester, which was opened in 1830. Railroads and steamships soon became very common. They made it easier, quicker, and cheaper to move passengers and goods from one place to another. Britain was the place where they were first largely used. They enabled the country to take even a greater share in the trade of the world than it had gained already in the days of the younger Pitt. 5. William IV. was a good-natured and well-meaning king, though he was not very wise, and was very un- dignified. The great event of his short The need - s- xi ^ ^ for reform reign 01 seven years was the rejorm of of parlia- parliament. Though everything in England had chanoed so much, the House of Com- mons was still elected as it had been hundreds of years before. Each English county returned two members, whether it was large and rich, or small and poor. Many great towns, such as Manchester and Birmingham, did not send members to parliament at all, though many very small places returned two members each. The worst of these were called rotten boroughs, and some of them were not even villages. Very few people had votes at elections, and the new manufacturing districts -1837.] George IV. and William IV. 243 were hardly represented at all. Ever since the begin- ning of George III.'s reign there had been a cry for parliamentary reform, and both of the William Pitts had supported it. For a long time, however, people were so afraid of the French Revolution that they feared to make any changes at all, lest moderate reforms should pave the way to an English Reign of Terror. 6. Under George IV. the Whigs took up the cry for parliamentary reform. Wellington, the Prime Minister, said that things were best as they were. But the country had long been in a bad state, Bm^ssedT and many people believed that everything would go right if reform of parliament Avere granted. After William became king the Whigs once more became the larger party in the House of Commons, and drove Wellington from power. Thus ended the fifty years of Tory rule. The Whigs became ministers. In 1832 they carried through the first Reform Act. This famous Bill abolished the rotten boroughs, gave members to all the great towns, and increased the number of members in the larger counties. The num- ber of voters became much larger, though the reformers were afraid to give votes to many workingmen. The Bill cut down the power of the landlords and gave great authority to the middle classes. 7. The Whigs remained in power for the rest of William IV.'s reign. They carried out many other use- ful reforms besides the Reform Bill. By one .u v.- r '^ Abolition 01 of these new laws all slaves within the negro British Empire were set free. Up to this ^ ^'^^^y- time the sugar plantations in the English colonies of the West Indies had been tilled by negro slaves^ who had been stolen from their homes in Africa and sold to masters, who forced them to work for them. Thirty years before this the slave-trade^ as it was called, had been abolished, and those who brought fresh negroes from 244 George IV. and William IV. Africa were severely punished. Now the negroes them- selves were made free men. 8. Before William IV. died the Whigs had got quite tired of making changes, and the people were beginning Peel and the ^^ ^^^^ faith in them. The Tories had made Conserva- themselves very unpopular by opposing ^^^^^' parliamentary reform. They now had a very honest and prudent leader in S'ir Robert Peel^ a Lancashire manufacturer's son. He cleverly took advantage of the mistakes of the Whigs, and gradually won over the support of the new voters. As the name Tory still had an evil sound, because of what it had meant before 1832, Peel called himself and his followers Conservatives. The Whigs also began to drop their old name, and preferred to be called Liberals. They were still in office when William IV. died in 1837, and was succeeded by his niece, Queen Victoria, the daughter of his brother, the Duke of Kent. Summary. George IV. is a feeble king. The Tories under Canning and Wellington control the government. Catholics are allowed to sit in parliament and be king's ministers. Steamships and railways are introduced. The Reform Bill is passed and negro slavery is abolished. The Whigs take the name of Liberals, and the Tories that of Conservatives. Topics and Supplementary Reading. When had the Catho- lics lost the right to sit in parliament and to be king's ministers ? What American invented the first steamboat ? Review those por- tions of the book which relate to parliament. Sea Fights: Henty, G. A., With Cochrane the Dauntless. Reform Agitation: Marshall, E-, Under the Mendips ; Lawson, E. M., Through Tumult and Pestilence. Life of the Times : Marshall, E., In Four Reigns. Books for Teachers. Macarthy, J., Epoch of Reform; Hooper, G., Wellington; Thursfield, J. ^., Peel. CHAPTER XXXVII Victoria, 1837 igoi 1. Queen Victoria was only eighteen years old. She was very anxious to do what was right, and worked hard at fittino- herself for her oreat ^, ^ '^ ^ The Queen post. She had inherited some of the firm- and Prince ness of her grandfather, George III., and -^^tjert. took good care that her influence as queen should be felt. She married her cousin, Prince Albert, who proved a good and loving husband, and a wise counsellor to her. She carefull}^ kept herself above parties, and had all the more power because she had no private ends to serve, but devoted herself to the welfare of her people. All through her reign the people were steadily winning more power in the government of the country. Yet they had such trust in the goodness of the queen that they regarded her with great affection, and were glad she was the head of the British State. 2. The state of the country was much disturbed in the early years of the queen's reign. In Ireland there was a great outcry against the Union. O'Connell, who was still the chief Irish and^^^ ^^^ leader, headed in Parliament a party called Chartists. Bepeahrs, ^vho demanded a repeal of tlie Union. In England the state of the people was very bad. Wages were low, and food was dear. This was all the more disappointing, since better times had been hoped for after the Reform Bill had been passed. A party now arose called tlie Chartists. The Chartists had great 246 Victoria [l837- influence over the workmen in the towns. They drew up a plan for a more thorough-going reform of parUa- ment, which they called the People's Charter. They got their name of Chartists from their demand for this People's Charter. In the end neither Repealers nor Cliartists carried things as they wished. 3. One of tlie chief causes of the distress among the people was the high price of bread. This was due to what were called the Corn Laws. In Eng- Corn-Law land com is a general term for wheat and League. other grains. Foreign grain was only al- lowed to enter the country when a heavy duty on it had been paid. The Corn Laws had been passed in order to help the British farmers, but they worked great injury to the manufacturing classes. People began to think that this tax kept the price of food so high that it did more harm than good. Richard Cohden and others started a society which aimed at getting rid of the tax on bread. It was called the Anti-Corn-Laiv League. 4. The Whiof Government was afraid of all these movements. The Whig Prime Minister was a slack and careless man who was fond of saying, Miniftry^ " Can't you leave things alone ? " His weak- ness made him lose power. At last, in 1841, the Whigs were beaten at a new election. The Con- servatives now drove them from power, and formed a strong ministry under their leader, Sir Robert Peel. 5. Peel remained minister from 1841 to 1846. He governed the country very wisely, and put the money affairs of the State into good order. He was Corn Laws, rather stiff and slow, but thoroughly honest. He did not mind changing his opinions if facts showed him that his views were wrong. He had always upheld the Corn Laws, but now experience taught him what distress flowed from the high price of food. A terrible disaster in Ireland proved to him -1901.] Victoria 247 that the high bread-tax could not be kept up. Though the Irish were crying for repeal of the Union, the real thing that made Ireland so discontented was the poverty of its people. The land was tilled by very small farmers, who paid such huge rents that they had little left to live on. They had mainly lived on potatoes, because Sir Robert Peel. (From the Bust by Noble in the National Portrait Gallery.) potatoes were the cheapest food they could get. A disease of the potatoes now made them unfit to be eaten. The result was that Ireland was made miserable by a grievous famine. 6. Peel saw that food could not be taxed when millions of people were starving. In 1846 he carried through parliament an act which aboUshed the Corn 248 Victoria [1837- Laws, and brought in Free Trade in bread. The land- lords and farmers had supported Peel earlier, because they believed he would keep up the Corn ?o?n Laws^.^ Laws. Now they cried out that they had been betrayed. Peel could only carry his Bill with the help of the Whigs or Liberals. Some of his old supporters opposed him very bitterly. They were called the Protectionists^ because they believed in pro- tecting English agriculture by duties. Their leader was Benjamin Disraeli^ a Jew by birth, who was very clever and brilliant, but strange in his dress and ways. Soon after the repeal of the Corn Laws Disraeli joined with the Whigs and drove Peel from office. 7. It was nearly thirty years before the Conservatives again got a majority in the House of Commons. During TD V* o. most of this time the Liberals were in Peelites, Pro- tectionists, power. Their ranks were strengthened by and Whigs, ^j^g ^^^ Whigs being joined by those friends of Peel who had remained on his side after the revolt of the Protectionists. These were called the Peelites. The most important of them was William Eivart Glad- stone, the son of a Liverpool merchant. Peel died soon after his fall from power. Gladstone was as able a manager of the nation's finance as Peel had been. He had learned from Peel to believe in Free Trade, and now proposed and carried laws which did away with most of the duties which still upheld Protection. Soon every one was for Free Trade. After a few years, quarrels among the Liberals made Disraeli minister for a short time. As soon as he came into power he too gave up his idea of Protection. He and his followers now made up the Conservative party. The Peelites joined with the Whigs to form the Liberal party. The most popular among the Whigs was Lord Palmerston. He was more than once minister for foreign affairs, and did much to make England respected and feared abroad. 1901.] Victoria 249 He did not care about making many changes at home. He was easy-going and flippant, and took much less serious views of things than the grave and earnest Gladstone. Though they often sat in the same min- istry, they had no love for each other. 8. Between 1854 and 1856 England was at war with Russia. She had as her ally her old eneaiy France, which was now ruled by Napoleon III., a nephew of the Great Napoleon. Both wa^.^""'^^'' England and France were alarmed at the p]"ogress made by Russia in the East. In particular they were afraid that Russia would conquer Turkey Map to illustrate the Crimean War. and its capital, Constanfinople. Turkey was not like the other countries in Europe. The mass of its in- habitants were Christians, but all power was in the hands of the Turks themselves, who were Mohamme- dans from Asia. The Turks were splendid soldiers, but cruel and careless rulers. They treated their Christian sul)jects very badly, and Russia had long helped the Christians of the East against their Turkish tyrants. England and France now supported the Turks against the Russians. They sent an army to the Crimea, a peninsula belonging to Russia, which runs 250 Victoria [i837- into the northern part of the Black Sea. There the Russians had built a great fortress, called Sebastopol, which the allies besieged. The war that followed was called the Crimean War, The English and French forces were not strong enough to capture Sebastopol easily. The siege lasted all through the winter, which proved an uncommonly severe one. The generals were incapable, and the troops were shamefully neglected. The sufferings from cold, hunger, and disease were much worse than those inflicted by the Russian bullets. At last Sebastopol was captured, and peace made in 1856. 9. In 1857 a trouble even worse than the Crimean War fell upon the Empire. This trouble was called the Indian Mutinif. Since the days of Olive Mutiny. ^^^ the British had gradually conquered a very large part of India. The army which up- held England's power consisted largely of Sepoys^ or native Indian troops. In 1857 many of these Sepoys rose in mutiny, and committed all sorts of dreadful deeds. Luckily, however, some of the Sepoys remained faithful, and the few Englishmen who ruled India showed wonderful courage and skill. At last the mutiny was put down. 10. The ministers had been sadly to blame for the sufferings of the soldiers in the Crimea. They were driven from office, and lost a good deal of Pafmerston. I'Gputatiou. Palmerston alone came well out of the war. He became Prime Minister, and was nearly always in office until he died, a very old man, in 1865. 11. During Palmerston's last ministry the great Civil War in the United States broke out between the free ^. ., ,„ . states of the North and the slave-holdino^ Civil War in <• i <-* 7 rr^i i ^ America. states 01 the South. I he upper classes and the Government of England generally favored the South, whereas the working classes, though they •1901.] Victoria 251 suffered most by the cutting off of the cotton supply, generally favored the North. War between the North and England almost broke out when the North seized Benjamin Disraeli, Lord Beaconsfield. some Southern envoys from the British steamer Trent. The anger of the North was aroused when the English Government allowed a war vessel (2%6' Alabama), bought 252 Victoria [1837- in England by the South, to escape to sea, and subse- quently England had to pay damages (the Alabama Claims) for the many ships which the Alabama had captured. 12. So long as Palmerston lived he kept Gladstone in check. After his death Gladstone became the real William Kwart (ilaastoiie. leader of the Liberal party, and at once prepared the Gi d ^^^^ "^^^ ^ series of great changes. Dis- and raeli, the Conservative leader, opposed him Disraeh. ^g j^^g^ j^^ could; but Gladstone was al- ways in office, except in 1867, when a quarrel among the Liberals gave the Conservatives a chance of holding power for a short time. Disraeli was anxious to show that he was not afraid of the people. So he caused to -1901.1 Victoria 253 be passed, in 1867, tlie Second Reform Act^ which gave votes to nearly all the workmen who happened to live in boroughs. However, he could not keep his power after the election. 13. Gladstone was made Prime jMinister in 18(38, and began to carry through a large number of sweeping- reforms. He strove to make Ireland more ^, , T-i 1 /. Gladstone s contented by two new laws. By the nrst first he took away from tlie Protestant Church ^^i^istry. in Ireland its position as a privileged State church and also a great deal of its property. This was called the DisestabUi.66 The Hanoverian Period 9. To run a factory a great deal oi il is neces- saiy. Sometimes a very rich man puts up a factory. More frequently, however, stock companies are formed to put up the building and provide the ma- Labo^^ ^^^ chinery. Laborers are then employed to run the machines. The difference in social position between the man who owns the factory and the An early form of Steam-Pump for Mines. (From an Engraving dated 1717.) operative wlio works in it has become very marked. There is no longer that good feeling between employer and employee which existed at the time of the domestic system. The Hanoverian Period 267 rower Looms in a Factory. 268 The Hanoverian Period 10. The employer now, in order to compete with another manufacturer, and at the same time make large profits, often gives very low wages to his laborers. This has led the laborers to unite in great trade-unions. liy means of these they have been able to Unions. force their employers to give them better wages. The object of these unions is mainly to get better wages and better conditions to work under. They give little attention to improving the quality of the article they manufacture, as the old craft-gilds did. Like the old craft-gilds the trade-unions try to prevent any men from working who are not members of the union, and to keep down the number of men entering the trade. 11. The employers, or capitalists as they are called, have formed combinations (trusts) to keep up the price of the articles they manufacture. By this means they are enabled to pay higher Avages to the workmen and at the same time to make a profit on their goods. Other capitalists have formed combina- tions to resist the demands of the labor unions. Between capital and labor there have in consequence been many fierce struggles. Some of the employers have tried to settle the troubles by sharing the profits with their em- ployees, but this has not always proved successful. So the great struggle between capital and labor brought on by the factory system remains to-day an unsettled question. 12. After 1800 when the factories were well started the employers were only too ready to make use of any kind of labor they could get, and under any Le'^islation ^^^^ ^^^ conditions. The employment of women and young children was found to be a great evil, and parliament, in 1833, passed an act rem- edying it. This act has been followed by others, so that now the conditions of labor, especially in the great cotton mills, are much better. The Hanoverian Period 269 13. Not in the world of manufactures alone did ma- chinery have a great effect, but on the farm also new machines supplanted the old implements. Scythes and sickles gave way to mowers and reapers, and with these machines one man and a horse could do in a day what it had taken several men a week ^^^^^ ^^^^' to do. Other machines, such as the steam threshing- machine, were also brought into use. Threshing-Machine. (Reproduced by permission from " Encyclopaedia Britannica," Vol. I.) 14. Machinery for manufacturers would have been of little value had not some means been invented to haul coal from the mines to the great factories, to bring cotton from America to England, J^^^q^^^^' and to carry the manufactured articles to all parts of the world, easily, quickly, and cheaply. Fulton, an American inventor, used the steam-engine to propel a boat in 1807, and in England Stevenson used ittodriA^e his locomotive in 1825. Since those times great ocean steamships have developed and railroads have been laid in all parts of the world. Had an old Roman come to 270 The Hanoverian Period England in 1750 he would not have found the conditions of manufacture and transportation so very different from his own times, but were he to come to-day, he Avould indeed find that a great Industrial Revolution had taken place. 15. You have seen that before the industrial revo- lution the great problem was to get power and to use it. That power was steam. Since that time the uses of another great power have been found — that power is electricity. This bids fair to cause an industrial revolution, even as great as that Electricity. A Roman Wao'on. An early English Steamboat. caused by the introduction of machinery. The great advantage that electricity has over steam is that it can be carried great distances. To run a machine, it is no The Hanoverian Period 271 longer necessary to be near the boiler which makes the power. The possibilities of this fact are only begin- ning to be realized. 16. Literature also flourished greatly during this period. In the early part of the nineteenth centur}^, Scott produced his great historical novels. Later Dichens wrote novels on some of the abuses of the times, and Thackcraij in " Pendennis " and " Vanity Fair " pictured the life of the upper and middle All early English LoeoiiK^tive. classes of English society. In the last lialf of the nine- teenth century Teimyaon charmed the English-speaking world with his poetry. 17. In only one field has England lagged beliind the other countries of Europe. Tliat is in the matter of public education. It was not until very re- cently that the state seriously undertook the business of seein^r that the nation is well educated. In o earlier times, as we have seen, education was mainly in the hands of the Church. For a long time the jealousy of rival churches has been a block in tlie way of educa- 272 The Hanoverian Period tional progress, but with the opening of the twentieth century there is a movement to place England on an equal footing with other countries in matters of educa- tion. When this is done, she will be in this respect, as she is in all others, in the vanguard of civilization. Summary. Parliament, supreme over the king, exercises its i:)ower through the Cabinet. England builds up a great empire through the successful government of her colonies. Steam and machinery revolutionize the worlds of agriculture, manufactures, and commerce. As a result come struggles between capital and labor, represented by trusts and trade- unions. Factory legislation. Possibilities of electricity not fully realized. Literature flourishes, but education is backward. Topics and Supplementary Reading. What is the Privy Council ? Under what kings did it begin ? In a careful review of the whole book trace the history of the following: (1) The King; (2) Parliament; (3) Justice; (4) Religion and the Church ; (5) Agricultui-e ; (6) Commerce ; (7) Manufactures ; (8) Education. Machinery troubles : Henty, G. A., Through the Fray. Coal Mines : Henty, G. A., Facing Death. Books for Teachers. (See references at the end of Chapters XXXII. and XXXVII.) Howell, Geo., Conflict of Capital and Labour ; Cunningham, W., Outlines of English Industrial History. INDEX. Act, the Habeas Corpus, 171. the Stamp, 'J27. the, of Supremacy, 135. the Test, 190, 192 the Toleration, 197. the First Reform, 243, 245. the Second Reform, 253. the Third Reform, 255. of Union with Ireland, 235. Africa, negroes from, 243. South, 258, 259, 2G0. Agiucourt, battle of, 111. Agriculture, 247. Aidan, 17. Alabama Claims, 252. Albert, Prince, 245. Alfred the Great, 21-24, 28, 38, 59. Alliance, the Grand, 201. America, British, 2G0. discovery of, 150. North, 1G4, 220. United States of, 1G5, 227, 228. Angles, the, 10, 11, 15, IG, Anglia, East, 11. Danes in, 22. Anjou, 59, Gl. House of, 59. taken from John, 70. Margaret of, 115, 116, 119. Anne, Queen, 19G, 201-205, 22G. Boleyn, Queen, 132, 135, 137. of Cleves, Queen, 137. Anselm, archbishop of Canterbury, 48, 49, G2, 64, 136. Anti-Corn-Law League, the, 24G. Aquitaine, 61. Eleanor of, 70. Aragon, Catharine of, Queen, 126, 132, 134, 137, 142. Arc, Joan of, 113, 115 Archbishop of Canterbury, the first, 16. court of, 134. of York, the first, 16. Archers, the English, 91. Armada, the Invincible, 151, 152. Arms, the royal, 163-164. Army, the New Model, 178. the Cromwellian, 184, 185. the, and Parliament, 178. origin of our standing, 187. Arthur, Prince of Wales, 126. King, 12. Assizes, Henry II. 's, 61, 62. Athelney, 21. Atlantic, the, 237. Augustine, 16, 135. Australia, 260. the Commonwealth of, 260. Austria, 201, 215. Duke of, takes Richard I. prisoner, 69. at War with France, 231. Balliol, John, King of Scots, 82, 84. Bannockburn, battle of, 86-87, 88, 91. Barnet, battle of, 119. Barons' Wars, the, 75-76. Battles — Agincourt, 111. Bamiockburn, 86-87, 88, 91. Barnet, 119. Bosworth, 120. Boyne, the, 198. Crecy, 90-91. CuUoden Moor, 218. Dunbar, 181. Edgehill, 176. Evesham, 78. Falkirk, 82, 83. Flodden Field, 131. Hastings, 42, 44, 91. Hougue La, 199. Killiecrankie, 199. Lewes, 76. Malplaquet, 202. Marston Moor, 176. Naseby, 178. Oudenarde, 202. Plassey, 223. Poitiers, 91. Preston Pans, 217. Ramillies, 202. St. Albans, 116. Sedgemoor, 192. Tewkesbury, 119. Towton, 116. Trafalgar, 231. Wakefield, 116. Waterloo, 237. Worcester, 181. Bayeux, 43. Tapestry, the, 39, 41, 43, 44. Beaufort, Lady Margaret, 120. Becket, Thomas, 62-65. Bedford, John, duke of, 112, 115. Bengal, the Nabob of. 220, 223. Berkeley Castle, 88. Berlin Decree, 237. Bible, the, translated by Wycliffe, 98. the English, 137 ; the Latin, 137. Bill, the Exclusion, 191. the First Reform, 243, 245. the Second Reform, 253. 18 274 Index. Bill, the Third Reform, 256. of Rights, the, 19G. Birmingham, 242, 25G. Black Death, the, 94. Hole of Calcutta, the, 220. Sea, the, '250. Boer War, the, 258. Boers, the, 258. Boleyn, Anne, 132, 135, 137. Bolingbroke, Lord, 205. Bonaparte, Joseph, 230. Napoleon, I., 231, 233, 230, 237, 249. III., 249. Bordeaux, 70, 92. Boroughs, Rotten, 242. Bosworth, battle of, 120. Boyne, battle of the, 198. Bretigny, the treaty of, 92. Britain, Great, 1, 102-103. single Parliament for, 204. Britons, the, 1-3, 102. Bronze weapons, 2. Bruce, Robert, 82. grandson of above, king of Scots, 83, 80, 87, 89. Bubble, the South Sea, 213-214. Buckingham, George Villiers, duke of, 107, 170. Burgh-on-Sands, 84. Burgundy, John, duke of, 112. Philip, duke of, 113, 115. CiESAR, Caius Julius, 4-6. Calais, 91, 92, 115, 142. Calcutta, 220. Canada, 220, 226, 258. the Dominion of, 258. Upper, 258. Lower, 258. Canals, 230. Canning, George, 240, 241 . Canterbury, Augustine, first archbishop of, 10. Dunstau, archbishop of, 27. Anselm, archbishop of, 48, 49, 02, 04, 130. Thomas Becket, archbishop of, 02-05. Langton, Stephen, archbishop of, 70, 71, 73. Cranmer, Thomas, archbishop of, 134, 140, 143-144. Laud, archbishop of, 173, 174, 175. Cathedral, 03-05. archbishop's court of, 134. archbishopric of, dispute between John and Innocent III. as to, 70. Cape Colony, 2.58. of Good Hope, tlie, 258. Carlisle, Edward I. at, 84. Carnarvon, castle of, 81. Carolina, 188. Carver, John, 104. Catharine, queen of Henry V., 112. of Aragon, Queen, 126, 132, 134, 137, 138, 142. Howard, Queen, 137. Parr, Queen, 138. Catholics, the Roman, 133. and Elizabeth, 146-148. Catholics, the Roman, and Charles II., 191. and James II., 192-194. and Emancipation, 240-241. Cavaliers, the, 170. Cavairy, 91. Caxton, William, 123. Celts, the, 4. Chamberlain, Joseph, 256. Chancellor, the Lord, More, 135. Wolsey, 129, 133, 130. Charles I., 107-179, 182, 192, 196. II., 181, 184^185, 187-192. Edward, the Young Pretender, 216, 217, 218. VI., king of France, 112, VII., king of France, 113. Charter, the Great, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75. the People's, 246. Charters confirmed, the, 85. Chartists, the, 240. Chatham, William Pitt, Earl, 227. See Pitt, William. Chaucer, Geoffrey, 99. Chester, 20. Chippenham, treaty of, 21. Christianity, 7, 9, 15-17, 97. conversion of Britain to, 15-17. Christians in Turkey, 249, 253. Church, the, and Becket, 02. state of the, during Richard II. 's reign, 97-98. Henry IV. supports the, 110. the, and Henry VIII., 132-138. . the, and Queen Mary, 142. Cromwell and the, 182-183. the Scottish, and William III., 199. Presbyterian to be retained by Scotland, 204. Churches built by Henry III., 74. Civil War, the, 170. in America, 250. Clans, 212. Clarence, Lionel, duke of, 109, 115. Clement VII., Pope, 132-134. Cleves, Anne of. Queen, 137. Clive, Robert, 223, 250. Clyde, the Firth of, 6. Cnut, 28-29. Cobden, Richard, 240. Colet, John, 100. Colleges established by Wolsey, 129. Colonies, British, 104-105. English, 188, 220, 226, 228. English in American, 220. revolt of American, 226-228. Spanish, 150, 151, 215. Colimibus, Christopher, 150. Commoner, the Great, 218-219. See Pitt. Commons, House of, the, 84, 204, 219, 225, 242, 243. Pitt and the, 218, 220-222. Commonwealth, the, 181-186. of Australia, the, 200. Company, the East India, 105. the South Sea, 213. Comyn, John, 84. Confirmation of the Charters, 85. Conquest, the Norman, 92. Index. 275 Conquest, Roman, the, of Britain, 5. Conservatives, the, 244, 24G, 252, 254, 25(3. Constantinople, 249, 253. Constitution, the, 85, 109. Corn Laws, the, 24G, 247, 248. Cornwall, 12G. Court of Star Chamber, the, 127. Covenanters, 175. Cranmer, Thomas, 134, 140, 143-144. Crecy, battle of, 90-91. Crimea, the, 217. Crimean War, the, 249-250. Cromwell, Thomas, 13G-137, 176. Oliver, 17(.;-184, 188. Richard, 184. Crusade, the First, 67-G8. the Third, Richard I. goes on, G7-69. Edward I. goes on, 78. Crusades, the, G7-G9. Culloden Moor, battle of, 218. Cumberland, 217. the Young Pretender in, 218. the duke of, 218. Danegeld, 28. Dane law, the, 22, 26, 77. Danes, the, 20-23, 27, 28, 38. Darnley, Lord, 148. Death, the Black, 94. Debt, the National, 199. Declaration of Independence, the, 227. of Indulgence, the, 193. Dee, the river, 27. Democracy, 256. Denmark, 28. George, Prince of, 205. Derby, the march to, 217. Derbyshire, Young Pretender in, 217. Despensers, the two Hugh, 88. Diamonds in South Africa, 258. Dickens, 271. Disendowment of Irish Church, 253. Disestablishment of Irish Church, the, 271. Disraeli, Benjamin, earl of Beaconsfield, 251, 252, 253, 254. Dissenters, the, 187-193. toleration to the, 198. Domesday Book, the, 47. Dominion of Canada, the, 260. Drake, Sir Francis, 151. Druidism, 34. Dublin, 153, 235. Dudley, Lord Guildford, 141. John, duke of Northumberland, 141, 142. Dunbar, the battle of, 181. Dunstan, archbishop of Canterbury, 27- 136. Dutch, the, 149, 188. the, in South Africa, 258. Earls, the Norman, 41-46. East India Company, the, 165. Eastern Question, the, 253. Edgar the Peaceful, 2(5. Edgehill, battle of, 176. Edinburgh, 217. Edward the Elder, 26. Edward the Martyr, 27. the Confessor, 29, 30, 38, 39, 40, 41 , 42. I., 74, 75, 76, 78, 80, 84, 149. II., of Carnarvon, 72, 86, 88. III., 89, 94, 109, 111, 116, 118, 142, 162. IV., 116, 118, 125-126. v., 119. VI., 137-141. VII., 19, 50, 260. Edward of Carnarvon made Prince of Wales, 81. Prince of Wales, the Black Prince, 90, 91, 94, 96. Edwin, king of Northumbria, IG, 17. Egbert, king of the West Saxons, 19, 20, 21, 59. Egypt, 254. Elba, 236. Eleanor of Aquitaine, queen of Henry II., 51, 70, 92. Elections, Reform of, 243, 255. See also Reform of Parliament. Elizabeth of York, queen of Henry VII., 125. Queen, 138, 144, 145, 157, 164, 165, 184, 196. Emancipation, Catholic, 235, 240, 241. Emma, wife of Ethelred the Unready, 29, 39. Emperors of Britain, title of, 26. Empire, Pitt and the, 228-229, 230, 232. the British, 253, 254. England, 1, 6, 9. New, 164. English, the, 1, 9, 10-11-12. Edward the Elder calls himself king of the, 26. language, the, 62, 92, 137, 140. Bible translated into, 137. George I. ignorant of, 212. Erasmus. D., 160. Essex, 16, 16. Ethelbert, king of Kent, 16. Ethelred the Unready, 27, 28, 29. Evesham, battle of, 78. Exclusion Bill, the, 191. Factories, 230. Falkirk, battle of, 82, 83. Famine in Ireland, 247. Fawkes, Guy, 167. Ferdinand, king of Spain, 126, 150. Finance, 248. Firth of Clyde, G. of Forth, 6. Flanders, 94. Flint weapons, 2. Flodden Field, battle of, 131. Foot-soldiers, 91. Forests, William I.'s, 49. Fotheringay Castle, 149. Fox, Charles James, 229, 235. France, 4, 38-39. Richard I. at war with the king of, 69. John at war with the king of, 69-70. and England, Hundred Years' Wai between, 84-94. Mary Tudor at war with, 142. 276 Index. France and Elizabeth, 147. the royal arms of, 1G3-1G4. and Charles I., 170. under Louis XIV., 184. and Anne, 201-202. peace with, 204. George II. at war with, 185. and the Seven Years' War, 223. Pitt ends war with, 225. helps America, 227. and the French Revolution, 230, 233. and England at war, 236, 237. Napoleon returns from Elba to, 23G. and England at war with Russia, 249. Free Trade, 248. French language, the, 39, 62, 92. in Canada, the, 258, 259. Frobisher, Sir Martin, 151. Gascont, 70, 86, 89, 91, 115. Gaul, 4. Gauls, the, 4. Gaunt, John of. See John, 86, 94. Gaveston, Piers, 86. Geoffrey, count of Anjou, 61. George!., 212,213,214. II., 215-224. III., 225-239. IV. , 240-244. of Denmark, Prince, 205. Germans, the, 7, 9. Germany, 1, 9. Richard I. prisoner in, 69. Ghent, 94. Gibraltar, 202. Gladstone, William Ewart, 248, 249, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256. Gladstonians, 256. Glendower, Owen, 111. Gloucester, duke of. Uncle of Richard II., 99. Richard, duke of. See Richard III. Gloucestershire, 88. Gold in Australia, 260. in South Africa, 258. Gordon, General, 254. Gregory the Great, Pope, 15-17. VII., Pope. Grey, Lady Jane, 141, 142. Gunpowder Plot, the, 167, 194. Habeas Corpus Act, the, 191. Hampden, John, 172, 227. Hampshire, 49. Hanover, House of, 206, 212. the Elector of, 205. Sophia, Electress of, 196, 205. Harold, king of the English, 42, 45. King of the Norwegians, 42, 45. Hastings, the battle of, 42, 44, 91. Hastings, Warren, 223. Hengist, 10. Henrietta Maria, Queen of Charles I., 170. Henry I., 48, 49, 59, 61. II. of Anjou, 50, 59, 65, 67, 69, 92, 110. III., 73-78. Henry IV., 118. v., 110-112. VI., 112-116, 118, 119. VII., 121, 125-127, 129, 150, 162. VIII., 129-138, 142, 143, 145, 146, 153, 162. Prince of Wales, afterwards Henry VIII., 126. Percy. See Percy. Heretics, 110, 138. High Court of Justice, the, 179. Highlanders, the, 199, 212, 213, 217. Highlands, the Scottish, 3, 199, 212, 213, 216, 217. Holland, 149, 191, 201. See Dutch. Home Rule in Ireland, 255, 256. Rulers. See Home Rule. Horsa, 10. Hotspur, 110. Hougue La, battle of, 199. Howard, Catharine, Queen, 137. of Effingham, Lord, 151, 152. Humber, the river, 11. Hundred Years' War, the, 89. Independence, the Declaration of, 227. India, 165, 220, 223, 225. the Mutiny in, 250. Indian Mutiny, the, 250. Indies, the West, 184. Indulgence, the Declaration of, 193. Infanta of Spain, the, 167. Innocent III., Pope, 70. Interdict, the, 70. Invasions, the Danish, 20-22, 28. Inverness, 218. lona, 17. Ireland, 1, 3. and Henry 11. Henry VIII. king of, 153. in Elizabeth's reign, 153-155. and James I., 162-163. the royal arms of, 164. Wentworth in, 174. and Charles II., 181, 187. Cromwell and, 181-182. and William III., 198. and the younger Pitt, 231-232. united with England, 232-233. Catholics in, 241, 242. and George IV., 241, 242. outcry against the Union in, 245. distress in, 247. Gladstone and, 253, 254. the Church of, 253, 254. Home Rule for, 254-255. Irish, the, 3. Iron weapons, 3. Isabella of France, queen of Edward II., 88, 90. Jacobites, the, 199, 200, 215, 216. Jamaica, 184. James I., king of Great Britain, 127, 148, 149, 162, 169, 193-194, 196, 220. II., 192, 193, 196, 198, 199-200. — III., 200. IV. of Scotland, 127, 131, 146. 61. assumes the title of Index. 277 James VI. of Scotland becomes James I. of England, IG'J. See James I. the Old Pretender, 'JIG. Jane Grey, Lady, 141, 142. Seymour, Queen, 137. Jerusalem, 08-69. Joan of Arc, 113, 115. John, King, G9, 73, 8G. king of France, son of Pliilip VI., 91-9'J. of Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, 94, 9G, 99, 109. Jury, trial by, G1-G2. Jutes, the, 10. Kent, the kingdom of, 10, 13, 16. the Peasants' Kevolt in, 96. duke of, 244. Killiecrankie, battle of, 199. King-maker, Warwick, the, 118. Kitchener, General, 254, 258. Lancashire, the Young Pretender in, 216. Lancaster, House of, 109, IIG, 125. Henry of, son of John of Gaunt, 99. See also Henry IV. John of Gaunt, duke of. See John. Lancastrians, the, 109, 116. Land Law, the Irish, 254. Landlords, Reform Bill and the, 243. Langton, Stephen, archbishop of Can- terbury, 70, 71, 73. Language, the English. See English. Highland, 3. Irish, 3 the French. See French. the Latin. See Latin. the Welsh. See Welsh. Latin Language, the, 7, 10, 140, 145. Laud, William, 173, 174, 175. Law, the Irish Land, 254. Laws, the Corn, repealed, 247-248. League, the Anti-Corn Law, 246. Leicester, Simon of Moutfort, earl of, 74- 75, 78, 84. Leicestershire, 98, 120. Lewes, battle of, 76. Liberal Unionists, 256. Liberals, the, 244, 248, 252, 254, 256. Lindisfarne, 17. Lionel, duke of Clarence, 109, IIG. Liverpool, 248. railway between Manchester and, 242. Llewelyn, Prince of Wales, 80-81. Locomotives, 242. Loire, the river, 92, 113, 115. Lollards, the, 97, 98, 110. London, 16, 93, 9G, 17G. bishopric of, IG. Wat Tyler marches to, 96-97. Company, lt)5. Lords, House of, 84, 167, 181, 204. Louis of France summoned to England by barons against John, 72, 73. XIV. of France, 1S4, 188, 199, 200, 201, 202. Louisiana, 220. Lowlands, 212. Luther, Martin, 133, 137. Lutterworth, 98. Machinery, 230, 242. Magna Carta, 71-72, 73, 74. Malplaquet, battle of, 202. Manchester, 242. railway between Liverpool and, 242. Manufactures, British, 130. Mar, the earl of, 213. March, the earl of, 109, 116. Margaret Tudor, daughter of Henry VII., 126-127, 146, 163. Margaret of Aujou, queen of Henry VI., 115, 116, 117. Maria Theresa, 215. Marlborough, duke of, 201, 203, 236, 240. duchess of, 201, 203. Marshall, William, earl of Pembroke, 73. Marston Moor, battle of, 176. Martyrs, the Protestant, 143-144. Mary, queen of William III., 194, 196, 199. Stewart, queen of Scots, 146, 148, 149. Tudor, Queen, 138, 141, 143-144. Matilda of Scotland, wife of Henry I., 50, 59. daughter of Henry I., 50, 51. Mercia, 11, 12, 19, 22. Methodists, the, 219. Milan Decree, 237. Milford Haven, 120. Mines in South Africa, 258. silver, in America, 150, 151. Ministers, George III.'s choice of, 225. Mississippi, the Lower, 220. Model, the New, 178. Mohammedans, the, 07. Monarchy abolished, 181. Monasteries, 135-130. Monasticism, 135. Monk, General, 184. Monks, 135-130, 142. Moimiouth, the duke of, 192. Monroe Doctrine, 240. Montfort, Simon of, 75, 76, 78, 84. More, Sir Thomas, 135. Mutiny, Indian, 250. Nabob of Bengal, 220, 223. Napoleon Bonaparte I., 231, 233, 235, 236, 237, 249. III., 249. Naseby, battle of, 178. National Debt, 199. Navy, the, 23, 231. Negroes, 243-244. Nelson, Admiral, 231. Netherlands, the United, 150. the Northern, 149. the Southern, 150. Marlborough in the, 201. Napoleon in the, 237. Neville, Richard, Earl of Warwick, 118. New Amsterdam, 188. England, 164. Forest, the, 49. Orleans, 238. 278 Index. Newcastle, the duke of, 218, 219, 221. Nile, the river, 254. Norfolk, 11. Normandy, 29, 30, 38, 60, Gl, G9, 90, 111, 115. Henry II., duke of, 60, 61. See Henry II. taken from John, 60. the Black Prince lands in, 90. conquered by Henry V., 111. lost by Henry VI., 115. Normans, the, 29, 38, 51. Norsemen, the, 20, 38. North, Lord, 22.5-226. Northumberland, 11. Dudley, duke of, 141. Henry Percy, earl of. See Percy. Northumbria, 11, 12, 16, 17, 19, 22. Northumbria, Edwin, king of, 16, 17. Danes in, 22. Norway, 20, 28-29. Norwegians, the, land in Yorkshire, 42. Nunneries, 135. Nuns, 135. Gates, Titus, 190. O'Connell, Daniel, 241, 245. Orange, the Prince of, 194. River Free State, 258. Orders in Council, 237. Orleans, 113. Oudenarde, battle of, 202, Owen Glendower, 110. Oxford, 176. the provisions of, 75. Palmerston, Lord, 248, 249. Pandulf, 70. Paris, 90. Parliament, the beginnings of, 75. of 1265, Earl Simon's, 76, 78. Edward I. and, 84. the Good, 94. and Henry IV., 109, 110. and Henry V., 111. and Edward IV., 119. and Henry VIII., 134. and Edward VI., 140. and Charles I., 170, 172, 174-175, 176, 179. the Long, 175, 176, 178, 179, 181. See also Rump. and Cromwell, 181, 182, 183. restores Charles II., 184-185. and the Test Act, 192. and the Revolution, 194, 196. and William III., 196-197. the Scottish, united with the Eng- lish, 204. and George II., 218. America resents taxation by British, 227-228. reform of, necessary, 229, 230. the Irish, united with the British, 235. and the Roman Catholics, 241-242. Reform of, 235, 243, 245, 253, 255. Gladstone's, 253. Parr, Catharine, Queen, 138. Party Government, 198. Paulinus, 16. Peace. See under Treaty. Peasants' Revolt, the, 96-97. Peel, Sir Robert, 244, 247, 248. Peelites, the, 248. Pembroke, William Marshall, earl of, Peninsular War, the, 236, 237. Pennsylvania, 188. Percies, the, 118. Percy, Henry, earl of Northumberland, 110. Petition of Right, the, 171. Phihp VI. of Valois, king of France, 89. duke of Burgundy, 113, 115. II., king of Spain, 142, 149, 151-152. king of Spain, grandson of Louis XIV., 201, 202. Philippa, daughter of Lionel, duke of Clarence, 109. Picts, the, 3, 6, Pilgrimage, 65, 67. Pitt, William, the Elder, afterwards earl of Chatham, 218-219, 220, 227, 228, 229, the Younger, 228, 229, 232, 233, 240, 241, 243. Plague, 94. of London, the Great, 188. Plantation of Ulster, the, 163. Plantations, sugar, 243. Plassey, battle of, 223 Plot, Gunpowder, 167, 194. the Popish, 190. the Rye House, 191. Plymouth, 151. Company, Poitiers, battle of, 91. Poor priests, Wycliffe's, 98. Pope, the, 15. Gregory the Great, 15, 17. the, and Henry II., 65. Innocent III., 70. the, and Wycliffe, 97. Clement VII., 132, 133. position in England of the, 134, 135. Parliament, Mary's, and the, 142. Elizabeth and the, 145. Portugal, 236, Potatoes, 247. Poundage, 172. Prayer-book, the English, 140, 142, 145, 174, 175, 187. Laud's, for Scotland, 174. Presbyterianism, 148, 173, 175, 187. Presbyterians, 149, 173, 175, 187. Presbyters, 49. Preston Pans, battle of, 217. Pretender, the Old, 205, 212, 213, 215, 216. the Young. 216. Priests, the poor, 98. Piime Minister, title of, 215. Protection, 248. Protectionists, 248. Protector, York becomes, 116. Somerset, Lord, 140. Cromwell, Lord, 182, Index. 279 Protestants, the, 133, 137, 140, 142, 143, 145, 148, 1G7, 193, 194, 197. Scots, 149. in Ireland, 233. Provisions of Oxford, the, 75. Puritans, the, 14G, 148, 104, 172, 173, 17G, 183, 185. Scots, 149. and Charles I., 173. Pyrenees, the, 92. Railroads, 242. Railways, 242. Raleigh, Sir Walter, 164. RamiUies, battle of, 202. Reform of Parliament, 242, 243, 245, 253, 255. Reformation, the, 133, 140, 173. Reformers, the. See Protestants. Regent, George, Prince, 238. See George IV. Reign of Terror, the, 230, 243. Reims, 113-115. Repeal of the Corn Laws, the, 245, 246, 247. Repealers, the, 245. Republic, the Dutch, 194. the French, 230. Republics, the Boer, 258. Restoration, the, 185. Revolt, the Peasants', 96-97. of American Colonies, the, 226, 227, 228, 229. Revolution, the, of 1688, 194 ; in Scotland, 199. French, the, 230-231. England and the, 230, 231. Richard I., the Lion Heart, 67-69. II., 96, 97, 99. III., 120. duke of York, father of Edward IV. and Richard III., 118, 119. afterwards Richard III., 120. son of Edward IV., Warbeck personates, 125. Richmond, Henry Tudor, earl of, 120, 121. See also Henry VII. Right, the Petition of, 171. Rights, the Bill of, 196. Roads, making of, 230. Robert, duke of Normandy, 48, 50. Rodney, Admiral, 228. Roman CathoUcs, 155, 167, 196, 198, 235. 1 1 T 1 ^ '- Irish, 153-155, 198, 235. under William III., 196. Romans, the, 4-7. Rome, 4, 15, 134. Roses, Wars of the, 118. Rouen, 38. Roundheads, the, 176. Royalists, the, 176. Rump, the, 170, 181, 182, 184-185. Runnymede, 71. Russia, 231, 236, 2.33. Napoleon quarrels with, 236. at war with Turkey, 253. Rye House Plot, the, 191. Saint Albans, battle of, 116. Helena, 237. Lawrence, river, 220. Saladin, (i'i. Salisbury, Lord, 256. Saxon.s, the, 10. the West, 19, 20, 23, 26. See also Wessex. Harold, earl of. See Harold. Schools established by Wolsey, 129. Scotland, 1, 3, 6, 17, 81-84, 146-149, 162, 163, 173, 175, 181, 182, 184, 187, 198, 199, 204, 212, 213. and Christianity, 17. and Edward I., 81-84. and Edward II., 87-88. and France, 146-147. the king of, becomes king of Great Britain, 162. the royal anus of, 164. the Church in, 173-174. and Charles I., 173. and Cromwell, 181, 182, 183. and Charles, afterwards Charles II., 181, 182, 184, 185, 187. and William III., 198, 199. and Anne, 201-206. and George I., 212-214. united to England, 235. Scott Walter 271. Scots' the, 3, 6, 20, 59, 89. See Scotland. Seamen, Elizabethan, 150-151. Sebastopol, 250. Secret Treaty of Dover, 188. Sedgemoor, battle of, 192. Seine, the river, 38. Separatists, 209. Sepoys, 250. Sepulchre, the Holy, 67-68. Seven Years' War, the, 223, 226-227. Seymour, Edward, duke of Somerset, 140, 141. Jane, Queen, 137-138. Shaftesbury, the earl of, 190-191. Shakespeare, William, 156. Ship-money, 172. Siege of Sebastopol, the, 250. Slave-trade, the, 210. Slavery, negro, 243. Slaves, negro, 243. Somerset, 21. Edward Seymour, duke of, 140, 141. Sophia, Electress of Hanover, 196-197. South Sea Bubble, the, 214. Company, the, 213-214. Spain, 126, 127, 142, 146, 149, 151, 167, 170, 171, 184,, 201, 202, 204, 215, 231, 236. Ferdinand, king of, 126, 127. and Mary Tudor, 141. and Elizabeth, 148. at war, 149-152. Prince Charles in, 167. Charles I. at war with, 170-171. and Cromwell, 184. War of Succession for, 201-203. and George II., 215-224. helps America, 227. Joseph Bonaparte, king of, 236, 28o Index. Spain, the Peninsular War in, 23G. Staines, 71. Stamp Act, the, 227. Star Chamber, the, 127. States, the United, 165. Steam-engine, the, 230. locomotive, 242. Steamships, 242. Stephen, King, 50, Gl. Stewart, the House of, 162. Mary, Queen of Scots. See Mary. Stewarts, the, 162, 166, 197, 218. and Parliament, 166, 167. Stirling, the siege of, 'i'd. Stonehenge, 34. Strafford, Thomas Wentworth, earl of, 174-175. Straits of Dover, the, 152. Succession, War of the Austrian Succes- sion, 215. the war of the Spanish, 201, 203. Sudan, the, 254. Suez, the Isthmus of, 254. Suffolk, 11. Sugar plantations, 243. Supremacy, the Act of, 135. Suspending power, the, 192, 196, 197. Swegen, king of Denmark, 28. Tapestry, the Bayeux, 43. Taxation, 127, 166, 172. under Henry VII., 127. James I.'s, 166. Charles I.'s, 172. America resists, 227-228. Taxes, William I. imposes, 47, 48. on bread, 246-248. Thames, the, 71. Tennyson, 271. Terror, Reign of, the, 199. Test Act, the, 190, 192. Thackeray, 271. Thomas, St., of Canterbury. See Becket. Toleration Act, the, 197. Tonnage and poundage, 172. Tories, the, 191, 192, 194, 198, 203, 226, 229, 235, 240, 244. See also Conserva- tives. the Liberal, 240. Tournai, 125. Tower of London, the, 46, 117, 135. Hill, 135, 175. Towns send representatives to Parlia- ment, 76-78. Towton, the battle of, 116. Trade, British, 230. Free, 248. the slave, 243. Trafalgar, the battle of, 231. Transvaal, the, 258. Treaty of Chippenham, the, 21. of Bretigny, the, 92. of Troyes, the, 112. of Utrecht, the, 204. Trent Affair, 251. Trial by jury, 61-62. Tribute paid by Britons to Rome, 5. Troyes, the treaty of, 112. Tudor, the House of, 61, 125, 146, 162. Tudor, Henry, Earl of Richmond. See Henry VII. Margaret, 146. Mary, 141, 144. See Mary. Tudors, the, 61, 125, 146, 162, 166. Turkey, 249. See Turks. Turks, the, 68, 216, 253. See Turkey. Tuscany, 231. Tyler, Wat, 96-97. Ulster, 163. the Plantation of, 163. Union of England and Scotland, the, 204. of Great Britain and Ireland, the, 235. Irish, repeal of the, demanded, 245, 254, 256. Unionists, Liberal, 254, 256. United States of America, 165, 227. Utrecht, treaty of, 204, 213. Valois, Philip, Count of, 89. Victoria, Queen, 196, 245-261. Villiers. George, duke of Buckingham, 170, 172. Virginia, 164. Voyage round the world, Drake's, 151. Wakefield, battle of, 116. Wales, 1, 6, 9, 80, 120, 126, 182. Llewelyn, Prince of, 80. Principality of, conquered by Ed- ward I., 80. Edward of Carnarvon, prince of, 80. Edward the Black Prince of, 90, 91, 94, 96. Arthur, prince of, 126. Henry, prince of, 126. Charles, prince of, 167. IL, 181. George, prince of, 238. Wallace, William, 82-83. Walpole, Sir Robert, 215, 218. War, the Great Civil, 187, 188. French and Indian, 220. of the Spanish Succession, 201, 204. of the Austrian Succession, 215. King William's, 198. of Seven Years', 220, 223, 226-227. Palatinate, 199. Peninsular, 236, 237. Queen Anne's, 201. the Crimean, 250. Civil War in America, 250. the Boer, 258. of 1812 with America, 238. Warbeck, Perkin, 125. Wars, the Barons', 75-76. of the Roses, 118, 125. Warwick, Richard Neville, earl of, 118. Waterloo, battle of, 237. Wellesley, Arthur, duke of WeUington, 236, 237, 240, 241, 243. Wellington, duke of, 236, 237, 240, 241, 243 Welsh, the, 3, 9, 10 11, 12, 15, 26, 61, 80, 110. the, and Edward I., 80. the, and Henry II., 61. Index. 28 Welsh, the, and Henry IV., 110. language, the, 3, 'J. Wentworth, Thomas, earl of Strafford, 174, 175. Wesley, John, 219. Wessex, 10, 12, 19, 20, 22, 42. Westminster, 179, 204, 235. Abbey, 29, 42, 45 ; the present, built by Henry III., 74. Whigs, the, 191, 174, 198, 203, 205, 212, 218, 22,5, 228, 244. See also Liberals. William I., the Conqueror, 39, 42, 43, 45, 4G, 47. II., Rufus, 48, 49, 67. — -III., 196, 199,233. IV., 242-244. Wolfe, General, 222-223. Wolsey, Thomas, 129, 133, 136. Worcester, the battle of, 181. Worcestershire, 78. Wyclitfe, John, 97-98, 110. York, 116, 176. archbishops of, 129. Paulinus, archbishop of, 16. Thomas Wolsey, 129, 133, 136. Richard, duke of, 116-117. James, duke of, 189-190. James II. Yorkists, the, 118, 120, 125. Yorkshire, 40. See SEP 29 1904 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS^ 020 684 493