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THE 
 
 CANNING 
 
 OF 
 
 FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 Showing the History of the Art of Canning; the Methods Followed 
 
 With Each Species, and Suggestions for Canning Unutilized 
 
 Species; Where, When and How They Are Obtained; 
 
 Together With Other Information of Much 
 
 Value to Canners 
 
 BY 
 
 / JOHN N. COBB 
 
 DIRECTOR, COLLEGE OF FISHERIES, UNIVERSITY OF WASHINGTON. 
 Author of "Fisheries of Alaska," "Fisheries of Hawaii," "Pacific Salmon Fisheries,' 
 "Pacific Cod Fisheries," "Lobster Fishery of Maine," "Tlie Shad 
 Fisheries of North Carolina," Etc., Etc. 
 
 SEATTLE, WASH. 
 
 Miller Freejian, Publlsiier 
 
 1919 
 
Copyright, 1919, by 
 Miller Freeman 
 
 MAk ^5 13^0 
 
 g)CI,A566208 
 
 -\ 
 
PREFACE 
 
 WHEN I began my active fishery career tlaere were but few persons who knew much 
 about the art of canning fishery products, and these Avere chary about imparting 
 what they knew to otliers, who might, in time, develop into competitors. On many 
 occasions I was approaclied by seekers after information along these lines, and in endeav- 
 oring to help them I soon discovered that there was not tlien, and the same holds true 
 today, available any work which treated at length and fully upon the canning of fishery 
 l)roducts. and that what little had been published was in very fragmentary shape and in- 
 accurate in many ways. Appreciating the great need of such a work, I began some years 
 ago to collect data for sanu^ and an intimate connection with the fishing industry of the 
 United States for twenty-four years — part of that time as editor of the Pacific Fisherman 
 of Seattle, Wash., the organ of the great fisheries of the Pacific, and as a practical 
 canner, but mainly as Field Agent of the United States Bureau of Fisheries, in the 
 course of which I have visited, some of them many times, practically every fishing 
 camp and packing plant in the United States proper, Alaska and HaAvaii, also various 
 plants in Canada and Mexico — greatly aided the work. Most of tlie processes described 
 have been developed in the canneries, where they have stood the test of many years' 
 actiml work. The book is written for the cannery operator, and not for chemists or 
 bacteriologists, and as a result has been made as non-technical as possible so as to be 
 easily understood by those for whom it is Avritten, but fcAV of whom are versed in the 
 sciences of chemistry and bacteriology. 
 
 I am indebted to so many sources, both official and private, for information used in 
 this work, that it is impossible to name them all, but the following were especially help- 
 ful : Dr. Hugh M. Smith, U. S. Commissioner of Fisheries ; Dr. E. D. Clark, A. W. Han- 
 sen and H. D. Davi. of the U. S. Bureau of Chemistry; Frank L. Gorrell, Secretary of 
 the National Canners' Association; Capt. E. E. Hahn. of the l^ S. Bureau of Fisheries: 
 John G. Ruge, of Apalachicola. Florida; N. B. Scofield and his assistants of tlie Cali- 
 fornia Fish and Game Commission ; and the various Superintendents of the Ahiska 
 Packers Association. 
 
 I am especially indebted to my wife and daughter for the practical testing and work- 
 ing out of certain processes given in the work, more especially those relating to second- 
 ary products, and also for much valuable assistance in other lines. 
 
 Many of the illustrations are from the exceedingly valuable collection of the Pacific 
 Fisherman of Seattle, Wash., while others were made from photographs taken by the 
 author. The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries kindly permitted the reprodm-tion of drawings of 
 certain fishes from its large and valuable collection. 
 
 JOHN N. COBB. 
 
 University of Washington, Seattle 
 March 1, 1919. 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 THE canning- of food products in the United States is noAV one of tlie great industries 
 of the country and many of tlie producto so prepared are shipped to all parts of the 
 known world. But ' few of the present day cauners appreciate the tremendous 
 handicaps wliich the early operators labored under. At that time the science of bacteri- 
 ology, now of such great importance in the industry, was practically unkiiowu, while 
 the mechanical appliances for the making of cans and the packing and processing of 
 same, now so universally used, were practically unknown, and wei'e developed only 
 after long and costly experimenting. 
 
 For many years the consumption of these products was seriously hampered by a 
 strong prejudice on the part of many people against canned foods. This was due partly 
 to the veil of secrecy which was, up to within a few years ago, usitally thrown around the 
 operations of canneries. Most packers were groping largely in the dai-k and feared that 
 their competitors might discover and appropriate their discoveries, or that the public 
 might learn of their failures, hence high board fences, locked doors, and "Positively No 
 Admission" signs were common around and on canneries, and naturally the public 
 jumped to the conclusion that they were engaged in some nefarious i)ractices which 
 necessitated such precautions. 
 
 As time went on, and the why and wherefore of many problems which had hitherto 
 barred the way to success became clearer, canners began to see things with a more 
 enlightened vision, and, feeling the need of a freer interchange of views on matters 
 connected with the industry, and especiall.y to combat and overcome the prejudice then 
 existing to a considerable extent on tlie part of the great consuming public, began 
 organizing associations covering certain branches of the industry, or certain limited terri- 
 tory, and these efforts finally culminated a few years ago in the formation of a nation- 
 wide organization known as the National Canners Association, which has been a wonder- 
 ful power for good since its inception. At the meetings of these organizations a free 
 interchange of views and experiences became common, and as the packer found that his 
 competitor was a being like himself, and had been beset with much the same problems, 
 the old exelusiveness gradually wore away, and welcome signs began to supersede the 
 old padlocks and "No Admission" signs so common before. The consuming public 
 was also invited into the plants so tliat it might see for itself the efforts which were be- 
 ing put forth to pack only clean, wholesome goods. This publicity also sounded the 
 death-knell of the unsanitary and rascally plants which had thrived under the old con- 
 ditions. 
 
 The earliest expei-imenters in the art of canning worked quite largely with fishery 
 products, and the history of the rise of this great industry shows these products as in 
 the foreground for a considerable part of the time. During the last twenty years the 
 canning of fruit ai.d vegetables has, however, overshadowed the canning of fishery 
 products. Several excellent works have been published on the art of canning the former, 
 but, strange to relate, no work devoted exclusively to the practical canning of fishery 
 products, a work whicli would shoAv the canner how to actually jiack his product, has 
 ever been published. 
 
 The almost world-wide war. which raged from 1914 to late in 1918, created a tre- 
 mendous demand for all sorts of fishery and other food products to make up the shortage 
 caused by the laying waste of great sections b.v the warring armies, and the withdrawal 
 
vi INTRODUCTION 
 
 from productive operations of mauy who had hitherto labored in the fisheries, etc. While 
 the demand for fishery products will not be so insistent now that peace lias come, yet a 
 large part of it will persist, as the consuming public has become thoroughly familiar with 
 the wholesomeness and cheapness of these as compared with meat products. 
 
 In addition to describing the methods followed in canning the fishery products now 
 before the public, an eifort has been made to describe certain species Avhich are suitable 
 for canning, but which have hitherto been neglected for various causes, and to show the 
 processes which would be most likely to succeed in their handling and packing. The 
 available supplies of these species, when and where they are to be obtained, and the best 
 methods for catching them, are also described. In this the author has not confined himself 
 to the United States, but has included, so far as possible, species which are found also 
 in Canada, Mexico and Central America. 
 
 The practice of the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries in including under the head of fishery 
 products all animal and plant life taken from the water b\' means of apparatus operated 
 from a boat, has been followed in this work. 
 
HISTORICAL 
 
 CANNING, as here exemplified, is the art of preserving a food product in lu-rnieti- 
 cally sealed container, the preservation being accomplished through sterilization 
 by means of heat. The object is to retain the food in as nearly a fresh condition, 
 or in the condition in which it is usually consumed, as possible. In this way it is pos- 
 sible to have wholesome vegetable, meat and fish products at all times, and in places far 
 distant from the source of supply, or where otlierwise the cost or the labor of prepara- 
 tion would be pi'ohibitive. 
 
 The art of preserving food by pickling, drying and smoking, is as old almost as the 
 earliest pages of recorded history, but it is only a little over a hundred years ago that 
 the art of canning had its beginning. 
 
 The credit for the discovery of this method is almost universally assigned to Nicholas 
 Appert. a Frenchman. Near the end of the eigliteenth century the French government 
 offered a bounty of 12,000 francs for an improved method of preserving foods, the 
 object being to secure better quality and to reduce the loss in wastage and spoilage in 
 foods used in military and naval stores. Appert worked fi'om 179.5 until 1804 ))efore he 
 attained any considerable measure of success, which consisted in heating the product 
 and then hermetically sealing the container. Encouraged by this lie continued his efforts, 
 using many different sidjstances. and succeeded so admiral)ly that in 1810 he published 
 the results and ■was rewarded with the prize: 
 
 The method of Appert was essentially as follows : The products, which in some 
 cases were partly cooked, were packed almost to the top in glass bottles, sufficient 
 water added to cover, the bottles corked loosely and placed to their necks in tepid 
 water, the heat being raised gradually to a temperature between 190 to 200° F. (88 to 
 94° C.) in the center of his bottles, the maximum Iteing 212- F. The length of the cook- 
 ing depended upon the character of the food, and varied generally from 30 to GO minutes. 
 The bottles were then corked securely and allowed to cool slowly in the bath. 
 
 In 1807 a Mr. Soddington presented a description of a method of preserving to the 
 English Society of Arts. "A method of preserving fruits without sugar, for house or sea 
 stores,"* the essential features of which were that the fruits be placed in glass liottles, 
 loosely corked, put in a water bath at 165° F. for one hour, then boiling water added to 
 cover the fruit, the corks driven in, and the bottles laid on tlieir sides so that the hot 
 liquid might swell the corks. He did not claim to be the originator of the method, and 
 it is believed that the general principles were obtained by him while traveling in Fi-anee. 
 
 Appert tliought tliat tlie exclusion of outside air after applying sufficient heat to the 
 food was tile reason it kept when treated according to his method, and for some years 
 those who followed him also fell into the same error. It was not until the advent of the 
 new science of bacteriology that the true explanation was found. It is now known that 
 all foods, water, air and the containers, are bearers of bacteria and other micro-organisms ; 
 that the effect of the heat is to destroy them, and that tlie hermetic container merely 
 excludes those from without. Tliis science has also shown that all organisms are not 
 killed at the same temperature; that some spores possess great resistance, and that some 
 products bear types of orgajiisms which are more resistant than others. The spores of 
 some bacteria are able to sustain life after continuous boiling for from 6 to 10 hours, })ut 
 
 •Ilassell : I'\iod and Its -Adulterations. London. 1S4.'), p. 43L'. 
 
 vii 
 
viii HISTORICAL 
 
 all spores as yet examined are destroyed at a temperature of 250' F. it" this temperature 
 be applied to them for 20 minutes. This heat must come directly upon the spores, and to 
 this fact is due the difference in tiiue and temperature required to process different 
 foods. 
 
 Appert's discoveries were soon applied commercially on a small scale in Europe, but 
 it was not until the substitution of tin cans in place of glass bottles was successfully 
 accomplished that the general process of canning was extensively applied. These seem to 
 have been first used in 1820, and in 1823 a patent for them was issued to Pierre Antoine 
 Angilbert. Preserved fish liad l.iecn placed in tin cans for many years ijrevious, but not 
 in the maimer known at jjresent as canning. 
 
 Angilbert 's method was very similar to the process in vogue up to the introduction 
 of the sanitary can. A definite amount of the article to be preserved, with some liquid, 
 is placed in a tin can, over which the cover, containing a minute hole, is soldered, and 
 the can and contents are placed in a bath of boiling water. Through the small hole the 
 air and steam escape from the can in boiling, and the heat also kills the bacteria. The 
 hole is closed Avitli a drop of solder, and the process of cooking is completed. 
 
 Ezra Daggett and Thomas Kensett are credited with having introduced the art of 
 canning into this couutr.y. In 1819 they packed some salmon, lobsters and oysters in 
 New Yoi'k. The next year William Underwood and Charles Mitchell packed fruit in Bos- 
 ton. These pioneers had learned the methods before emigrating to this country. Edward 
 Wright packed oysters at Baltimore between 1838 and 1840. The late Thomas Kensett, 
 who is supposed to have started the industry there, is said not to have begun canning 
 o.ASters lentil about 1844. In 1841, Charles Mitchell is said to have opened a cannery at 
 Halifax, Nova Scotia. It is particularly notewoi'thy that nearly all of the pioneer fac- 
 tories started on fishery products as the primary pack, and fi'uits and vegetables as inci- 
 dental. 
 
 In 1839 Upham S. Treat, of Eastport, i\Iaine, engaged in ]iacking salmon at St. Johns, 
 N. B., and he claimed that he sold the first canned salmon that was ever sold in this 
 countiy. In 1841 he removed to Eastport, Maine, Avhere the firm of Treat, Noble & Com- 
 pany was formed, composed of Treat, Isaac Noble and Tristram Halliday, and engaged 
 in packing lobsters and salmon. In 1843 the firm secured the services of Charles Mitchell, 
 who had established the cannery at Halifax in 1841 ; the same year Treat Avithdrew from 
 the firm and the business was carried on by Nol;)le and Mitchell, Halliday apparently 
 having dropped out at some luiknown period. In 1843 the Eastport plant made the first 
 pack of canned mackerel ever prepared. About 1845 Noble & i\Iitchell sold out to 
 William Underwood & Company. 
 
 In 1843 the firm of W. K. Lewis & Brothers put up some goods in Boston, and in 
 1845 started a factory in Portland, Maine, on Custom House Wharf, preserving mostly 
 fish and meats. 
 
 In 1849 Henry Evans, who had been a pupil of U. S. Treat at Eastport, had a pack- 
 ing shop on Custom House Wharf, Portland, but lie continued in business here 
 only about a year. The same year Aaron Ring opened a cannery in Portland, packing 
 lobsters, meats, 'etc., on Burnham's Whaif, and was packing as late as 1854. 
 
 In 1852 the firm of Rumery & Buriiham, composed of Samiii-l Rumery — who had 
 learned the trade at Eastport with Treat, Noble & Co.. and had been connected with 
 various packing companies subsequently — and George Burnham. Jr. — who had learned 
 the trade with Lewis & Co. — established a cannery at Portland. Their principal business 
 was at first the packing of fish, clams, lobsters, meats and poultry. In 1867 the firm was 
 
HISTORICAL ix 
 
 dissolved and was succeeded by tlie firm of Bnrnliam & Morrill, which continued until 
 the early 90 's, wlien the business was incorporated as Burnham & Morrill Co. 
 
 The first salmon was canned at Aberdeen, Scotland, in 1824. Later on a lew were 
 canned in Maine and New Brunswick, but the industry did not become of consequence 
 until canning was begun on the Sacramento River by Messrs. Hapgood, Hume & Co. in 
 1864. Finding the run of fish here somewhat disappointing the company, in the spring 
 of 1866, sent William Hume to prospect the Columbia River, and shortly after he start- 
 ed a cannery at Eagle Cliff, Wash., about 40 miles above Astoria. 
 
 Tlie first salmon cannery in British Columbia was establislied by Ewen & Wise at 
 New Westminster, on the Eraser River, in 1867, Avhile Jackson, Myers & Co. erected the 
 first salmon cannery on Paget Sound, W^ash., at Mukilteo in 1877. 
 
 Alaska is now the greatest producer of canned salmon, but it was not until 1878 
 that tlie first cannery was established by the North Pacific Trading & Packing Co., at 
 Klawak, on Prince of Wales Island. , 
 
 Today salmon canning is the most important fish canning industry of the Pacific 
 coast or of the country. 
 
 The sardine industry was established at Nantes, France, about 1834. Efforts were 
 early made in this country to find a substitute for the popular French sardines. In 1871 
 a plant was located near Port Monmouth, N. J., by the American Sardine Co., and the 
 immature menhaden were packed as sardines. In 1875 the canning of young herring as 
 sardines began in Maine, and rapidly supplanted that of the menhaden. Early in this 
 century the industry was established on the Pacific Coast, where it now is of much 
 importance. 
 
 The first clam cannery in this country was established at Pine Point, Maine, near 
 Portland, hy Burnham & Morrill, about 1870. 
 
 The first shrimps were canned by S. W. Dunbar & Sons at New Orleans, La., in 1875. 
 The first crabs were canned by James McMenamin, at Norfolk, Va., about 1878. Tuna 
 were first canned in Southern California in 1907, by A. P. Half hill. 
 
LOCATION AND EQUIPMENT OF PLANT 
 
 T 
 
 LOCATION OF PLANT 
 
 HIS is one of tin- most imijortaiit matters to be considered by anyone contemijlat- 
 ing going into the canning business. The first, and most essential point, is to secure 
 a location on tlie sliore in as close proximity to the fishing grounds as is possible, 
 regard being had also to its proximity to sliipping facilities either by rail or water. If 
 on tidal \vater care should be exercised to see that there is water enough to permit of 
 vessels lying alongside tlie dock during some or all stages of the tides. A big saving in 
 money and time will result if vessels can lie alongside the dock and load or luiload at 
 all liours of tlie day or night. 
 
 The plant should be, if possible, located over the water. This will prevent the possi- 
 bility of the space under the buildings becoming contaminated with refuse and waste 
 thus forming a breeding place for various bacteria which might do incalculable injury 
 to the pack. 
 
 If this is not possible, the plant should be on high ground, having good natural 
 drainage. In this event, in order to prevent water and waste lodging under the fac- 
 tory, the cannery and fish house at least should be provided with water-tight floors, 
 sloped to gutters, emptying into drains which convey it away from the building. 
 
 WATER SUPPLY 
 
 The next important point is an adequate supplj^ of pure, cold water. This should 
 be introduced into the cannery through large mains, tapped at places convenient to the 
 work. It is false economy to economize in the use of Avater, and the mains should be 
 large enough and the pressure great enough to permit the water to be drawn simultan- 
 eously at several different points without materially lessening the flow at any one. A 
 generous water supply will also be invaluable in case of fire. 
 
 It is well to have several elevated water tanks in which a reserve supply may be 
 stored, so that in case anything happens to cut off, temporarily, the regular supply line, 
 it will not be necessary to shut down the plant, which may entail a heavy money loss 
 should it occur in the height of the packing season. 
 
 Many canneries located on the shores of streams and bays have a short line to the 
 deeper water, and by connecting this up with the pump are enabled in case of breakdown 
 of the regular water line, or a scarcity of water, to secure ample water to use in wash- 
 ing down and for otlier rough work in the eannei'v and fish house. 
 
 LABOR 
 
 The one advantage of locating in the neighborhood of a town or city is that all 
 the resident labor necessary to conduct the more important and responsible operations 
 of the cannery will be available, while sufficient floating labor can be obtained for the 
 rougher work and during times of extraordinary rush. In fish canning labor saving 
 devices have been brought to a high state of efficiency, so that it is not necessary to liave 
 more than a few skilled workers on hand. The bulk of the help is unskilled, but it should 
 be such as tlie canner can depend upon. Nearly all canneries have to import help during 
 the rush season, but for this very reason it is difficult to secure good help when wanted. 
 
 1 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 The fishing- business is one of gluts and famines, the fish being eitlier abundant or 
 almost, or entirely, wanting at times, and should the labor not be available to handle it in 
 times of glut the raw material spoiled may in a few days eat up the profits of the entire 
 pack. If an attempt is made to "work up" the surplus it will be necessary to do night 
 work, and while this can always be counted ou as a certainty during the busy season, it 
 becomes a source of much trouble to the management if it is too frequent. In times of 
 glut the work is strenuous and the help, after putting in a full day, are not eager to 
 work in the evening. Extra wages for "overtime'' several evenings in the week are 
 sufficient to induce most of them to work, but if more is attempted they are apt either to 
 slight the work of the next day or remain away altogether. 
 
 SANITATION 
 
 The rough-boarded, unpainted cluster of buildings which once masqueraded as a 
 canning plant is but rarely ever seen in these modern days. The modern cannery is built 
 either of corrugated iron or wood, with iron or shingle roof. On account of the fire 
 hazard the former type is rapidly predomiiuiting. Designed with an eye to beauty, as 
 well as convenience in operating, most owners take a pride in beautifying the surround- 
 ings, and in the case of fish canneries, which are usually located on the shores of rivers 
 or bays, this is not difficult. 
 
 In the modern plant the ceilings of all rooms should be high, with ample provision 
 for light and ventilation. Owing to the steam from the exhaust boxes there shoiild be 
 ample ventilators in the roof for getting rid of this as speedily as possible. Light has 
 a beneficial et¥eet upon employees, contributes to cleanliness, and is an active, constant 
 disinfectant. An abundance of light and air is a combination Avhich will contribute to 
 the maximum of labor efficiency. 
 
 The best floor for the cannery proper is of Portland cement. When properly fin- 
 ished as to surface it is practically impervious and may be easily cleaned with a hose. 
 It will l)e hard enough to enable the setting of ordinary machines directly upon it, and 
 it will indefinitely resist wear due to walking upon it. Much water is used in fish- 
 canning plants, and as a result careful attention should be given to the grading of the 
 surface of the finished floor. The grade should be not less than one-eighth of an 
 inch to the foot, and the length in any direction should not be more tlian 16 feet. Where 
 it is necessary that some water should run over the floor where persons are working, a 
 good plan is to form lialf-round grooves, one inch wide, -i inches center to center, in the 
 surface of the floor, and these will carry off the greater part of the water, thus giving a 
 reasonably dry working surface. 
 
 If the floor is of wood it should be watertight, sloped to gutters emptying into 
 drains, for cai-rying off the water and waste. It is very difficult, if not impossible, to 
 keep tliem water-tight, especially in canneries Avhich are idle part of the year, as the 
 wood shrinks, swells and cracks with changes of moisture, the cracks are hard to clean, 
 while leakage is almost certain to occur. Upper floors shcnild not be chosen for food pre- 
 paration if plenty of ground space is available, for the reason it is difficult to keep them 
 tight. 
 
 Slat gratings are frequently used to cover the floor in places where there is a splash- 
 ing or overflow of water. These may be made in sections about 2 by 4 feet, and can be 
 taken up for cleaning. There is no excuse for floors being so wet or sloppy that the 
 workers must wear rubbers, which is sometimes the case. No crew Avhich has to slop 
 around in water Avhile working is ever contented. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 All side-walls, partitions, ceilings and supports should Ije smooth, to admit of easy 
 cleaning. Preferably they should he light-colored and, so far as possible, of such 
 material as can be washed with a hose, as this is the easiest method of cleaning or of 
 applying whitewash. That part of the factory in which prepared material is in any way 
 exposed should be screened to keep out flies and dust. 
 
 The tables used in the various stages of canning should be plain and of a material 
 that is easily cleaned. Hardwood is the best material for tin- majority of plants, as they 
 will absorb little water or slime, and clean easily with soap, water and scrubbing brush. 
 The machinery used should be of the most sanitary type and set in such a manner as to 
 be accessible from all sides for cleaning. Water and steam pipes, with hose attachment, 
 should be conveniently placed about tlie plant for cleaning tables, machines, floors, walls 
 and ceilings. 
 
 In the modern cannery especial provision is made for the cleanliness and comfort of 
 the employees. Sinks, with running water, should b& placed at convenient spots that 
 the workers ma.v wash their hands often, and sanitary drinking fountains installed to 
 take the place of the common cup. Proper toilet and clothes rooms (where employees 
 may change from street to working clothes and vice versa) should be provided, and the 
 latter .should have lockers in which the clothes can be stored, as wearing apparel should 
 not be hung about the plant. Some plants provide special suits for its employees, and 
 manicurists to keej) their hands in order. Stools should be provided such emplo.yees as 
 do work which can be performed as well sitting down as standing up. Wooden spring- 
 boards should be provided those emplo.yees who have to stand in one place upon a cement 
 floor. The various states now fix the general conditions under which labor may be 
 performed, as age limit, number of working hours in the day or week, and physical con- 
 dition. No person affected with a skin disease should be employed in a food factoiw. 
 
 The following requirements adopted b.v the National Canners Association for the 
 operation of sardine canneries, will give an idea of the stress now laid upon sanitary con- 
 ditions in such plants and might be profitably emplo.ved by other canning plants : 
 
 PRELIMINARY REQUIREMENTS FOR OPENING OF SARDINE CANNING SEASON 
 
 1. The walls should be thoroughly cleaned aTd painted or whitewashed. 
 
 2. The floors should be thoroughly scraped and scrubbed until clean. They should be made tight 
 to prevent accumulation of dirt in cracks and to make it possible to keep them clean. Packing tables, 
 machinery and all utensils should be thoroughly washed or cleaned. 
 
 3. Separate toilets should be provided for each sex. The floors should be tight so that they 
 can be readily cleaned. Unless provided with a flushing system they should be separate from the 
 cannery. They should be screened, well lighted and ventilated. Sanitary toilet paper should be 
 provided. 
 
 4. Adequate lavatories adjacent to the toilets should be provided, with soap and clean towels. 
 
 5. Suitable provisions should be made for the removal of refuse daily and to secure proper 
 drainage in connection with the cannery. 
 
 REQUIREMENTS DURING CANNING SEASON 
 
 1. Canners should see that the requirements contained in the circular letter of April Sth, ad- 
 dressed to the fishermen and boatmen, are lived up to, covering the quality of the fish. 
 
 2. Canners should see that the fish boats bringing the fish to the canneries are kept clean and 
 sanitary and provided with tight tanks. 
 
 3. When fish are brought from a considerable distance, the last fish out of the boat, being In 
 poorer condition, should be packed first, assuming of course that they are suitable for packing. 
 
 4. The pickling brine should be changed daily or after each operation. 
 
 5. The flakes should be clean. A pair of revolving brushes and cleansing powder, consisting 
 of a mixture of carbonate of soda with a little caustic soda, are suggested for this purpose. 
 
 6. The racks should be scrubbed often enough to be kept clean. 
 
 7. Steam boxes and dryers should be kept clean. 
 
 8. Flaking machinery and other machinery sliould be cleaned daily or after each operation. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 9. Tables should be washed clean dally or after each operation. In case of wooden tables, the 
 tops should be free from cracks and preferably of hard wood. 
 
 10. The pans should be kept clean. They should not be stacked on top of each other in 
 such a way that the bottom of the pan can come in contact with the fish in the cans below. 
 
 11. Fry baskets should be kept as clean as possible. 
 
 12. "Mush" pans should be emptied and cleaned daily or after each operation. 
 
 13. The water in bath tanks should be changed daily or after each operation. 
 
 14. The floors should be cleaned dally or after each operation. 
 
 15. The toilets should be provided with sanitary toilet paper and should be kept clean. 
 
 16. The lavatories should be kept clean and provided with soap, clean towels and running water. 
 They should be separate from, but near, the toilets. 
 
 17. The hands and nails of employees handling fish should be kept clean. Employees should 
 wash their hands before beginning work and after leaving the toilet. 
 
 IS. The employees should wear washable clothing or aprons and change them frequently. 
 Women should wear caps over their hair. 
 
 19. Spitting on the walls or floors of canneries should be prohibited. Cuspidors should be 
 provided, if necessary, and should be kept clean. The use of tobacco by employees should be dis- 
 couraged In the canneries. 
 
 20. The cans in which the fish are packed should be clean and should be stored in such a man- 
 ner as to avoid contamination. The filled cans should be cleaned before packing for shipment. 
 
 EQUIPMENT OF A CANNING PLANT 
 
 Tile proper et(uipnK'iit of the plant is a most iiuportant consideration. A poor 
 equipment, or one that is out of date, not only increases the cost of packing, but also is 
 a hindrance in the production of best quality. As the raw material for fish canneries 
 would come over the fish dock it is essential for economical operation that it be so 
 liaiidled that there will be no costly back steps. 
 
 When the fish reach the cannery dock they should be raised from the boat to the 
 dock in an elevator, or in baskets or boxes. In handling large species the pewing of the 
 fish, which causes unsightly holes in which the blood congeals, should be prevented by 
 employing unloading scows. In these the fish are allowed to slide from the scow through 
 a gate in the side into the hopper of an elevator, which carries them up to the fish dock. 
 A few cannerymen run the elevator to a point some distance above the floor of the dock, 
 and by construcfing in the fish house a false floor so arranged that the sides all slope 
 toward the center and the fish cleaning machines, the whole being raised sufficiently 
 that the fisli will naturally slide to and down this chute onto a table where they may be 
 dressed, or fed to a machine to be used for this purpose, or to an endless belt that will 
 carry them to dressing tables or washing tanks, save much pewing and handling on 
 the fish-house floor. Should the fish become dry on the outside and stick during 
 this operation it is oidy necessary to turn a hose on them for a few minutes when the 
 moist slime will cause them to slide freely. 
 
 The improvement of conveying machinery in recent years has been marvelous, 
 and the canner will find it economical to introduce .such wherever possible, as the 
 saving in labor alone will be considerable, while it will also cut down to a minimum the 
 direct handling of the raw product by the workers, a thing much to be desired. 
 
 With a proper arrangement of the plant the material ought to move steadily for- 
 ward, in as straight a line as possible, from the point where it is first received until it 
 comes from the retort ready to be trucked into the warehouse. 
 
 The various products which are to be canned generally require machinery specially 
 constructed to do the work, and when it is known jusl what kind of goods are to be 
 prepared, it is a matter of judgment to determine what machines are best for the pur- 
 pose. There are machinery manufacturers who have special lines for the canning of all 
 regular products, and any of these would gladly submit detailed estimates of what is 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 needed, including also, if desired, the pulleys, belting, piping, etc. Should the product 
 be a special one, machinery may have to be built according to the packer's idea for this 
 particular Avork. 
 
 In buying machinery the canner sliould make absolutely sure that it will be ample 
 to take care of all the raw material received as rapidly as possible. It is not wise, nor 
 economical, to run full with no reserve machines to take up the work in case of break- 
 downs. 
 
 BOILER CAPACITY 
 
 A good boiler of ample size should be installed as a plentiful supply of dry steam is 
 a very necessary requirement. Aside from the initial cost, it is much cheaper to instal 
 a boiler of nearly, or quite, double the capacity that you anticipate using. A small 
 boiler, taxed beyond its capacity, is more likely to break down at critical moments, while 
 it wiir consume more fuel in propoi'tion, and much of the time will deliver wet steam. A 
 plan followed by many plants is to have a battery of two boilers, each of suiificient size 
 to run the factory to its full capacity. The extra cost of two is more than offset by the 
 fact that the disabling of one will not cause a shut-down of the plant, which, if occur- 
 ring in the height of the run, would prove financially disastrous. They should, of course, 
 be run as a battery, not singly, thereby obtaining virtually the same advantage as from 
 one large boiler. When possible the steam plant should be in a separate building, as this 
 Mould materially reduce the fire hazard. 
 
 CONTAINERS 
 
 The tin can is preeminently the containei' >ised in commercial canning, and has l)een so 
 almost from the inception of the industry. The tin can has undergone a number of 
 changes. The first cans had flush sides and fuds, or plumb joints; these gave way to the 
 stamped-overlapped ends, and all inside soldei" has been superseded by lock seams and 
 outside soldering. Most solder caps are hemmed, so that only the amount necessary to 
 seal is \ised. The solder can lias been siiperseded in most fish canneries by the open-top, 
 or so-called sanitary can. and in this ease the sealing is done by double seaming on the 
 top, no solder being used on the can except in making the side seam. The former objec- 
 tions to acid and solder, on the ground that they contaminated tlie foodstuffs, have thus 
 been largely overcome. 
 
 Tin cans are classed as open-top and hole-and-cap. Cans are known as key-opening 
 if some part of the can has been sufficient!}' cut to permit opening 1)y strip]iing a part out 
 of the side or top by means of a key ; these are generally packed with sardines. 
 
 With certain products, such as lobsters, shrimps, crabs, etc., it is necessary to keep 
 the product from coming in direct contact with the tin, and this is accomplished by either 
 lining the inside of the can with wood, parchment paper or cloth, or by coating or 
 lacquering the inside. The latter type of can is known as the "enamel-lined" can. Vari- 
 ous coatings have been tried at different times without entire success, and while the 
 present lining is not perfect, it does effect a marked improvement in many lines of pack- 
 ing. This enameling is accomplished in two ways — by baking the lacquer on the sheet 
 and by spraying it on the inside of the finished can. 
 
 In the salmon industry many of the companies, and especially those operating in the 
 more remote sections of Alaska, manufacture their own cans. This is due largely to the 
 fact that less freight space is occupied by the tin plate in sheets than by the manufac- 
 tured cans. The companies also have to take up large crews to pack the fish, and these 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 can be employed iu making the cans during the interval between arrival at the plant 
 and the appearance of the fish. However, the question of freight space saved is over- 
 come by a recent improvement in can-making, by which the can bodies are made, then 
 flattened out, and upon arrival at the cannery are run through a machine which sliapes 
 them once more so that the ends can be put on. 
 
 A number of can-making factories are now located witliin reasonable shipping dis- 
 tance of many of the canneries and furnish tlie packer with his cans, these usually be- 
 ing shipped in regular shipping boxes. 
 
 Tops are made separately and most of the cainieries which make their own cans 
 usually purchase the tops from the regular can factories. 
 
 There are a great variety of shapes and sizes of cans, and one can get a product in 
 almost any weight from Vgth ounce to about one gallon. This anomalous condition has 
 developed in three ways. First, the cans were made to utilize a standard sheet of metal 
 with the minimum of waste by the method of can-making in vogue at the time. This 
 resulted in cans of arbitrary volume, bearing no definite relation to standards of volume, 
 like tlie pint, quart or gallon, and these arbitrary sizes have persisted because of becom- 
 ing a fixture in trade, and the expense iu changing machinery, cans, shipping eases, etc. 
 Second, was the introduction of sizes to fit a given weight of a certain product : this is 
 particularly true of meat products. The shapes have also been changed to enable per- 
 fect packing of a certain product. Thirdly, is the attempt to make cans that will hold 
 a quantity of a given article to retail at a popular price. like 10 cents. This applies par- 
 ticularly to soups, etc. 
 
 Canners of fishery products have been as great olfenders along these lines as any of 
 the others, particularly those packing oysters and clams. 
 
 In 1913, in an efl:ort to standardize can sizes, the National Canners Association agreed 
 upon the following sizes, and these are in use for many products : 
 
 Diam. Height. Diam. Height. 
 
 Hole and Cap Cans — Ins. Ins. Sanitar.v Cans — Ins. Ins. 
 
 No. 1 size 2\i i No. 1 size 2ti 4 
 
 No. 2 3% 4^ No. 2 3-^ 4ft 
 
 No. 2'^. 4 4% No. 2V. 4^ 4% 
 
 No. 3, 4% inclies 4^ 4Vs No. 3, 4% inches 414 4% 
 
 No. 3. 5 inches 4% 5 No. 3, 5 inches 4% 5 
 
 No. 3. 51-. inches 4% 5^! No. 3, .'ji;. inches :.. 4% 5% 
 
 No. 10 6% 6% No. 10 6ft 7 
 
 Glass jars are coming into use for certain fishery products, and all that prevents 
 their more general use is that they bi'eak easily, cannot be handled by automatic machin- 
 ery, will not stand hard processing without special precautions, and cost more in freight 
 rates. Against these objections may be set forth the fact that tliey make a much cleaner 
 and neater package, and also display certain products to much greater advantage than 
 any other type of container. Of recent years great improvements have been made in 
 glass jars and the methods of sealing, which may cause a wide expansion of their sphere 
 of usefulness in canning. 
 
 STOREHOrSE FOR EMPTY CANS 
 
 The empty cans should be stored in a building protected from dampness and steam, 
 and preferably on the second floor, as they Avill then be at sucli an elevation above the 
 filling machines and packing tables that they can be delivered in properly constructed 
 chutes, by gravity, to points where they are to be filled. When storing cans in bulk in 
 bins, la.v on side in even and regular tiers, keeping cap end to cap end, or start with the 
 fir.st tier cap end out. the balance with bottom out. "When stored in shipping ease, place 
 the bottom layer cap end up. and the top layer cap end down. 
 
METHODS AND PROCESSES 
 
 THE steps in canning will vary with the product, but, in general, there are certain 
 features which are common to all, and may be descriljed in this outline, as receiv- 
 ing- the product, washing and dressing, preparing for the can. tilling, exhausting, 
 capping, processing and cooling. The more intimate details will be found in full luider 
 the various products enumerated. 
 
 RAW MATERIAL 
 
 It is essential that the raw product be delivered fresh and in first-class condition at 
 tlie plant. When possible it should be packed in ice, and in compartments or boxes to 
 avoid bruising and excessive pressure. The nearer the cannery is to the point of pro- 
 duction the better will be the finished product. Fishery products si^oil easily and 
 ([uickly if not properly handled, so great care should be exercised at all stages. It should 
 never be forgotten that if the raw material is not fresh and wholesome, canning will not 
 improve it in the slightest ; it can only suspend the deterioration of the product while 
 the latter is in the hermetically sealed package. 
 
 GRADING 
 
 At most plants the products are graded according to size, species, and sometimes as 
 to color of flesh. This should be done in the iish house by men who are trained to this 
 work. A mixing of the different grades in the same case ma.v cause rejection of a large 
 shipment by the buyer's agent, this sometimes entailing a heavy money loss, and fre- 
 quently creating a pre,iudice in the bu.yer'smind against all of the seller's products. 
 
 WASHING AND DRESSING 
 
 This operation is one of the most important in the factory. Fish are ustuilly given 
 a washing with the hose before being dressed. This is especially true with salmon, which 
 are protected by a heavy coat of slime. Salmon are split, the entrails removed, and the 
 lui-ad. tail and fins cut otif in a machine known as the "Iron C'liink." An improved type 
 of this machine, and another special machine, is used to "slinu'" the fish and more 
 thoroughly clean out the abdominal cavity. Many fishery products are. however, dressed 
 and cleaned by hand. Great care must be exercised to make sure of all blood being re- 
 moved from around the backbone, and to insure this and for general cleaning each opera- 
 tor has an individual faucet pla.ving constantly upon his dressing board or bin. Many of 
 them have a short piece of hose attached with which to give the fish an even more 
 thorough cleaning. They are then washed in tanks filled with either cold fresh or salt 
 water, or brine, varying with the different products to be handled. 
 
 The larger dressed fish are then cut into can lengths hy hand or machine, while the 
 smaller fish are usually handled without cutting. 
 
 In filling the product into the can the cut pieces are put in by either hand or 
 machine, while the small ones, such as sardines, are u.sually put in by hand. In most 
 canneries the cans come down from the second floor in a chute and just before reach- 
 ing the filling machine the quantity of salt needed for taste is put in by an automatic 
 device. The methods of filling are described in detail under the different products. 
 Filling machines have been vastly improved of recent years, and most of the work is now 
 done with nicety and precision. All filling machines operate upon the principle of deliv- 
 
CANNING OF P^ISHERV I'KODI ( TS 
 
 ering a certain volmnc ratlier than a given weight, and for tlie fishery products liaiidled 
 in this way tliis method is very satisfactory In all cases, wliether the can be tilled by 
 weight or volume, the amount of material u .cd should be all that can be put in the can 
 in first-class condition. Some packers insist, and justly, that the best results are obtained 
 by hand packing, but in regions where labor is scarce the filling machine is a necessity. 
 In filling the cans head space equivalent to one-eighth to one-fourth of an iu'ih 
 should be left. The amount of head space needed depends in a measure upon the nature 
 of the product, but without some space the production of a small amount of gas will de- 
 stroy the vacuum. In the hole-and-cap cans this space is available, because the sealing can- 
 not be done without .some room, and as a result springers are rare. The tendency is to 
 ovei'-flU the open-top cans. The later types of sanitary capping machines are provided 
 with plungers to squeeze down solidly the contents of the cans, but care must be used in 
 packing a solid product like fish not to overfill. 
 
 EXHAUSTING 
 
 After the cans are filled they should be exhausted, that is, heated until the con- 
 tents are hot and as much as possible of the air driven out. This process is not consid- 
 ered necessary for articles that are subjected to previous cooking, or for those that are 
 filled hot, or which receive a hot brine or other dressing, although it is advantageous 
 even under these conditions and is quite generally done. Despite the belief of mp.ny 
 canuers, exhausting has little to do with sterilization, liut it does aid in relieving the 
 intense strain upon the cans in the final process ; also if the air be not driven out there 
 is not the proper collapse of the can, and it may be difficult to tell when spoilage occurs. 
 Another important reason is that it lessens the attack of the contents upon the container. 
 
 The exhausting of cans previously capped may be accomplished by piling the mi'tal 
 coolers, or trays, containing the cans on a truck and placing it in a steam box. where 
 they are subjected to the action of steam at a very low pressure for a specified time, 
 or by placing them one tier deep in a shallow crate and submerging in a tank of boiling 
 water, or running them through a tank of boiling water on an endless belt, removing 
 after the directed time has elapsed and tipping as quickly as possible thereafter. In 
 this connection it must be noted that from the time the cans are exhausted by any 
 method they must be kept in speedy and constant motion until in the process retort. 
 This is the danger period when germ.s — bacteria Avliich are not destroyed by the fin:'.! 
 process — are developed in the goods or absorbed from the air. To overcome this danger 
 most fish packers now use a long, tight box Avith open ends, into which live steam is 
 vigorously injected, and through which the cans travel back and forth on endless belts 
 a number of times before finally being ejected at the opposite end. A long exhaust is 
 given as fish conducts heat quite slowly and there is usually but little free liquid in the 
 cans. Some salmon caiuiers exhaust as long as 20 miiuites. but 15 minutes is the aver- 
 age time. Exhaust boxes employing revolving spirals, designed mainly to conserve 
 space, and various other types, have been invented and used more or less. The tempera- 
 ture required to properly exhaust is usually from 210 to 212" Fahrenheit. 
 
 Fishery products are usually capped loosely before exhausting, as it was found 
 when the cans passed through the exhaust box with the tops open that the steam con- 
 densed upon the fish, making the product unattractive, while the exhaust box was 
 littered with pieces of fish lost from the cans during their passage. 
 
 In recent years mechanical methods of vacnumizing have been coming to the fore. 
 One machine which has been tried in salmon and tuna canneries has given excellent 
 resiilts. At present the vacuum on this machine is made suddenly and is acting for 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 only about two seconds. This is possible on certain fishes because being without a free 
 liquid tliere is nothing to obstruct the passage of the air from the can to the chamber. 
 Where brine, water or oil is concerned the machine is apt to cause some of the liquid 
 to be expelled. It is probable that the machine will ultimately be so improved that 
 products with much free liquid can be exhausted properly in it. 
 
 Ordinary cans have a partial vacuum of from 6 to 8 inches, those well exhausted 
 10 to 13 inches, and those very well exhausted up to 22 inches. 
 
 TOPPING 
 
 Open-top cans, which are the kind in geieral use by fish canners, are sealed by a 
 special machine known as a double seamer. The lid is pressed into place and steel 
 rollers crimp it on without acid or solder. This action is automatic, a single can at a 
 time, but at the rate of 30 to 120 per minute, depending upon the type of machine. Cans 
 with solder tops are sealed by automatic machinery, 12 at a time, 85 per minute, or 
 5,000 per hour. The top is wiped, the cap placed on, acid applied, the hot soldering 
 irons drop into place, and the vent is afterwards closed, all in one series of operations, 
 without touching by hand. But few fish canneries now use solder-top cans. When 
 they do the cans generally go from the capper to the hot water tank, where they are 
 tested for leaks. Any imperfection in the can or defect in sealing will be shown by a 
 series of air bubbles issuing from the opening, and the can is taken out for repairs. 
 
 TIPPING 
 
 Tipping is not much practised by fish canners nowadays, the sanitary can having 
 quite generally eliminated the necessity for it. With a few products, however, the cans 
 are tipped after they come from the soldering machine. In the case of certain fishery 
 products packed in the old style way the cans are vented after coming from the steam 
 exhaust box and tipped again immediately. 
 
 TIPPING A TIN CAN 
 
 When tipping cans have the flux jar and brush conveniently at hand, dip the lu'ush 
 in the flux and strike the venthole a side stroke lightly with the In'usli saturated with 
 flux. Place the point of the wire solder ovei' the venthole. Place upon this the point 
 of the hot, bright, tipping copper. Press down with a i-otary motion and remove quickly. 
 
 PROCESSING 
 
 Processing is the sterilizing or cooking of the foods contained in hermetically sealed 
 packages. This work may be performed in any vessel of suitable dimensions that can 
 be provided with a constant and easily regulated supply of either boiling water or steam 
 under pressure during tlie period necessary to cook or sterilize the product. 
 
 For products which do not require a temperature exceeding 212° F., wooden or 
 iron tanks, round, square or rectangular, with perforated coils or crosses in the bottom 
 for the introduction of jets of live steam to boil the water, are in use and this is known 
 as the "open-bath process." 
 
 For substances requiring a tempei'ature of more than 212° F. (most fishery products 
 do), and when it is desired to hasten the operation with those requiring less, iron tanks, 
 or retorts, of various shapes, round, half round, square or rectangular, placed either 
 horizontally or perpendicularly, and fitted with doors which can be clamped and made 
 steam tight, are used, and this is known as the "closed process." Horizontal retorts. 
 
10 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 wliic'li arc used quite generally for fisliei'y products, are worked with dry steam as a 
 cooking medium. Upright retorts, which are employed for a few products, may be used 
 witii dry steam or with water and steam, as preferred. 
 
 In addition to the steam inlet, retorts should be provided with a top steam exhaust, 
 bottom waste and safety valves ; also bath thermometers and steam gauge. The pressure 
 in these retorts will vary from 5 to 15 pounds, thus giving temperatures from 220° F. 
 (105- C.) to 255° F, (124° C). 
 
 In the open-bath process the kettles shoidd lie fitted with a compartment for hold- 
 ing a thermometer, and this compartment should lie titled with a pet cock at the top or 
 bottom so as to insure a perfect circulation around the thermometer end. Unless this 
 is done there is a possibility of the compartment being "dead" and so show a false 
 register on the thermometer. The pet cock should be kept at a .slight crack, so that a 
 thin emission of steam will always be apparent. 
 
 It has been Avell established that the thermal death point of all spore-bearing bac- 
 teria is 250 F. if this temperature be applied directly to them for 20 minutes. This 
 means that when the entire contents of the sealed packages are heated to this degree 
 the sterilization is complete and the goods will be preserved indefinitely. From the 
 above it would seem that the processing is merely a question of getting the temperature 
 noted above and holding it for the time stated in order to avoid any chances of future 
 spoilage. Unfortunately this temperature is entirely too high to give all foods, in fact 
 the higher the temperature in general the poorer the appearance of the finished goods. 
 (The principal reason temperatures approaching 250° are used in processing fishes is 
 for the purpose of softening the bones.) For this reason it becomes extremely desirable 
 for every canner to know exactly whether the particular pack has been properly put up, 
 and what is the lowest possible temperature and the shortest possible time that he 
 may safely use in his process. There is absolutely no way to answer this problem except 
 by experiment — every day's run ought to be tested; in fact, every coolerful should be 
 tested, if possible, and the process determined by this method only. As long as spore- 
 bearing bacteria are present and likely to contaminate canned foods in the water or in 
 the factory, it will be impossible for any one to recommend a satisfactory and infallible 
 processing time ami temperature that will not only be safe for a certain canned food, 
 but commercially profitable as well. 
 
 When processing in an open bath fill the kettle about half full of water, or suffi- 
 cient to cover the cans, and bring to a boil, sluit oft' steam, lower the filled crate in 
 kettle by any mechanical means, throwing tlu' 1)ails of loM'er crate on side ; turn on full 
 head of steam and when the water boils, the thermometer marking 212°, make note of 
 the time : cut the .steam down, leaving valve open just enough to keep up a lively l)oil ; 
 when time directed has expired shut off' steam and remove crates from kettle. 
 
 Should a higher temperature than 212° in an open bath be desired, or where the 
 altitude is such that water boils at less than 212\ the result may be obtained by using 
 a solution of chloride of calcium instead of water and heating with a closed coil instead 
 of the usual perforated coil or cross. The rest of the process is the same as above after 
 desired temperature has been attained. 
 
 "When processing in a retort with steam provide an overflow pipe in connection 
 with the bottom outlet of such a height that the steam inlet will be covered with 1 inch 
 to 2 inches of water, thus supplying wet steam, which will not scorch or discolor the 
 product as will dry steam under any considerable pressure. Close the bottom exhaust, 
 run the cars in on the track, close the door.and fasten the clamp or clamps opposite the 
 hinge, then back in order, securing the clamp next the liinge last; open the top exhaust 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 11 
 
 valve and turn on steam; when the steam issues freely, nearly, but never entirely, elose 
 the top exhaust. This allows the escape of gases formed and creates a certain amount 
 of eircidation of steam in the retort. It is claimed hy some packers that if the retort is 
 closed absolutely tight a gas is formed Avhich envelops each can and, acting as a non- 
 conductor of heat, prevents the full action of the steam on the contents. The bottom 
 valve is then opened just sufficient to allow the condensed steam to escape. When the 
 tiierniometer marks the temperature desired, take the time, then regulate the steam with 
 valve so that this temperature is maintained. When the process time is ended shut ot¥ 
 steam, open both upper and lower exhaust valves, and when gauge shows no pressure 
 loosen clamps, reversing the action observed in closing, the clamps next the hinge being 
 loosened first and those opposite last ; throw back door and run cars out. Some canner.i 
 insert in the door a pop valve, sensitive to a half pound and set to blow oft' at a ((uarter 
 pound more pressure than the process temperature demands. 
 
 Wlien processing in a retort with water and steam, elose bottom outlet and fill 
 retort half full of water; bring to a boil: shut off steam and place crates; then handle 
 same as with steam, of course keeping liottom outlet closed. 
 
 PROCESSING GLASS 
 
 In processing glass jars either in water or direct steam, sudden variation increase 
 or decrease of pressure or temperature must be avoided. They are best processed in 
 water at 212° or in steam at a temperature not much in excess of this. The 
 jars should be sterilized before filling. This may be done by placing in vessel of cool 
 water on a stove to heat and kept hot in water until needed. If possible, fill with hot 
 liquid instead of exhausting. After filling cans and closing same place in water of 
 about same temperature as contents of package, and raise the temperature progressively, 
 taking about 15 minutes to reach boiling; or 212° F. If the jars are to be processed at 
 this temperature, then start counting the time from the moment the water starts boil- 
 ing. JIaintain a slow boiling for the length of time required, then turn off steam and 
 allow the water in kettles to cool to about 189° before removing jars. Should they lie 
 taken out of the hot boiling water the glass is liable to crack should there be a cold 
 draft in the room. 
 
 When processing with steam great care should be taken to heat slowly, especially 
 at the stai't. 
 
 Glass jars may be processed in an ordinary steam exhaust box, or in an extra long 
 continuous steam exhaust box run at the proper speed. The heating and cooling should 
 both be done very slowly. 
 
 The percentage of loss in sealing and processing should not exceed 2 per cent., and 
 under best conditions should be reduced to one per cent. 
 
 WARNING 
 
 Under the different products given the processing times are stated. It should be 
 thoroughly understood, however, that these periods are the actual cooking times, and 
 should be computed from the moment the inside of the retort reaches the temperature 
 prescribed until the steam is shut off. About 5 minutes is required to bring the tem- 
 perature of the retort to the required point, and about 5 minutes more is required at 
 the end of the cook to bring the gauge to a no-pressure basis. 
 
 While the processing times can be considered approximately correct, the canner 
 should not tnist to them alone — as the state of the weather and the condition of the 
 
rz CANNhNG OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 product sometimes necessitates a change in the process — and should test the packed 
 goods several times a day in order to check up results. Frequent tests should be made, 
 especially of the temperature attained during the processing, for which purpose a self- 
 registering sterilizing thermometer may bs used. Cut cans frequently, noting cook, 
 weight, color and general appearance of the goods. 
 
 Both thermometers and gauges should be frequently compared with standard in- 
 struments known to be correct. Thermometers particularly should be tested before 
 packing is begun each year. 
 
 GAUGE PRESSURE AND TEMPERATURE 
 
 Aec'ording to Kent, under ordinary conditions at the sea level the air pressure is 
 14.7 pounds per square ineh, and steam is formed at a temperature of 212° F. ; jxauge 
 pressure will give temperature as follows: 
 
 Gauge Pressure. Degrees. Gauge Pressure. Degrees. 
 
 Pounds per sq ineh. Temperature F. Pounds per sq ineh. Temperature F. 
 
 .304 213.0 8.3 - 235.4 
 
 1.3 -216.3 9.3 ._ 237.8 
 
 2.3 219.4 10.3 240.0 
 
 3.3 222.4 11.3 242.2 
 
 4.3 225.2 12.3 244.3 
 
 5.3 227.9 13.3 246.3 
 
 6.3... 230.5 14.3 24S.3 
 
 7.3 233.0 15.3 250.2 
 
 Should yom- thermometers and gauges not agree with this table, have them tested. 
 
 ALTITUDE STERILIZATION TABLE* 
 
 Most fish eaiuierifs are located at sea level, in which event the question of altitude 
 does not botlier. but if the factoi-y is located above sea level to such an extent as to 
 cause trouble in the process room, first determine just bow high it is. then consult tlie 
 following- table, and it will help to solve some of your ti'oid)les. Add time in third 
 column to the process time : 
 
 Altitude. Water Hoils at — Additional Time. 
 
 J?eet. Degrees. Minutes. 
 
 512 - 211 2 
 
 1,025 ..- 210 4 
 
 1.539 209 6 
 
 2.063 --- 20S .---- 8 
 
 2.589 - - 207 10 
 
 3.115 . 206 12 
 
 3,642 . : - 205 14 
 
 4,169 - 204 16 
 
 4,697 203 18 
 
 5.225 .- 202 20 
 
 5^674 201 -.. 22 
 
 6,304 . -- 200 24 
 
 •Bashed on 2 9 incli harometer, with temperature at TOO p. at sea level. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PKODICTS 1:3 
 
 Al'TOMATIC CONTROLLERS 
 
 It is obvious tliat the control of time and temperature in processing is exeeeding-ly 
 important, so mucli so tliat most progressive canners have installed temperature con- 
 trollers and timing devices, as well as recording thermometers, as part of the equi'p- 
 ment, in order to guard against mistakes by the processor. These have been perfected 
 to such a degree that in processing a retort the processor, or bathman, can turn on the 
 steam, turn the key on the controllers, and know that the temperature will be main- 
 tained, that the steam will be cut off at the right time, and that the air and water will 
 be admitted to properly cool the cans. 
 
 COOLING 
 
 As soon as the processing is completed the cans should be cooled with water. 
 Unless this is done the heat will be held so long that the contents become overcooked.- 
 The cooling may be done by turning cold water into the retort, by removing the basket 
 or erate of cans to a cooling tank, or by spraying with water in the air. There is less 
 difference in the results obtained by ditt'erent methods of applying either heat or cold 
 than some claim: the important point is to accomplish these steps quickly. 
 
 WASHING THE CANS 
 
 While apparently a simple matter, the washing of cans is really a very important 
 part of the process. From the moment the sheet has been coated with tin it begins 
 accumulating foreign substances with most discouraging regularity. It does not follow 
 that, simply because the can appears bright, it is strictly clean, as may be demonstrated 
 by er.amining the water after rinsing a hundred or more. A large perceytajie of the 
 packers are now using can-washing devices, but they should all use them. In most fish 
 canneries the cans are washed before being filled, and then the outside is wasted twice 
 before the can reaches the retort, and once after coming out of the retort. 
 
 The devices used in washing are many and the packer has a wide range to select 
 from. Some are patented (li»vices while otliers are home-made affairs. 
 
 STAMPING CANS 
 
 E\er3 can should be stanijifd or an identifying mark placed on it as soon as topped, 
 or earlier, in order to avoid mixing in the wareliouse. There are a number of little 
 machines now on the market by which each can may be indelibly marked with any 
 legend desired. The name of the goods, the quality and date, if desired (the code being 
 secret, of course) may be placed on each can. When so marked the eanner is sure of 
 what is in the can. and is thus able to guard against imposition through the rejec 
 tion of other goods as his, and in any action by the pure food authorities is enabled to 
 identify his goods. A typical instance which came under the writer's observation 
 exemplifies the value of this marking. A salmon eanner had some 40,000 eases of salmon 
 of about five grades, each piled ])y itself, in a warehouse, waiting for an opportunity to 
 ship, when the pilirg underneath the floor gave way and all were precipitated into the 
 water in one mass. As none of the cans had been marked the packer, after salvaging 
 about two-thirds of them, had to sell most of them as of the lowest grade, thus losing 
 the difference between the selling prices of the lowest and the higher grades, a very 
 large sum in this instance. 
 
14 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 INSPECTION 
 
 At all stages the j^aeker should be on the lookout for unsound cans, or what are 
 known to the trade as "swells." Before the cans are put on the market each one should 
 be thoroughly examined and tested to detect any which have developed as "swells." 
 The best time for doing this is after they have cooled on the cannery tloor and are still 
 in the coolers or crates, and thus easily accessible. The tester, armed with a thin piece 
 of iron about 6 inches long, or a 12-penny nail, should pass over the cans and tap each 
 one with the nail. Sound cans should show a vacuum, as indicated by the concavity of 
 the ends, and should emit a peculiar note when struck. On the other hand, unsound 
 cans which have not yet swelled give a characteristic dull tone when struck. By the 
 difference in the quality of the tones a skilled inspector can instantly distinguish 
 between sound and unsound cans. Any cans not showing a vacuum should be rejected. 
 After inspection the cans are generally put in stacks, and before shipping are again 
 examined. 
 
 SPOILAGE 
 
 Tnsufficient processing, defective containers or the use of unfit material may cause 
 spoilage. These losses are generally classed under the heads of swells, flat sours and 
 leaks. Some few years ago losses were heavy at many factories, but owing to a better 
 kno^^■ledge of what is necessary in material, handling and improved appliances, these 
 have been growing less each year. Forraerly the processor used his own judgment 
 exclusively, but now the up-to-date canner has accurate thermometers and gauges, auto- 
 matic tempera ture-regidating devices, and time recorders, so that now the processor has 
 merely to keep these multifariotis agencies in working order and they will do the work. 
 More attention is also now paid to the bacteriological side of the business, with the 
 result that the product is handled in such away that the bacteria are killed in processing. 
 
 Spoilage due to insufficient processing is generally divided into two classes — swells 
 and flat sours. In the former there is a generation of gas, causing the ends of the 
 cans to become distended ; in the latter the contents of the can is sour, but there is noth- 
 ing in the appearance of the can to enable the customer to determine the condition until 
 the can is opened. Swells are generally due to under-processing good material, while 
 flat sours most often result from giving the regular process to material which has been 
 allowed to stand for some time. Swelling is more likely to occur and be detected early, 
 while souring is apt to be delayed, though it may occur early. In the latter case the 
 material is more or less sour to the smell and taste, but is sterile, the heat of process- 
 ing having killed the bacteria. 
 
 There are two conditions known to the trade as "springers" and "flippers." The 
 former is a can the end of which will bulge slightly after a time, but on opening there 
 is found neither gas nor spoilage, though the cans have the appearance of being swells. 
 It has been found that this condition is due to overfilling or to packing eold.j When 
 placed in a warm place, such as a well-heated grocery store, the can will bulge, owing to 
 the temperature. A flipper is a springer of such mild character that the head may be 
 drawn in by striking the can on a hard object, as a wooden block. The use of a micro- 
 scope will quickly show the difference between a swell and a springer, as in the former 
 there Avill be large numbers of organisms Avhile in the latter there will be very few. 
 
 In these modern days can-making has reached such a point of perfection that manu- 
 facturers guarantee all above two to the thousand, and these imperfect cans are usually 
 due to Ihe solder not making a perfect union or to defects in crimping or double seam- 
 ing. With tlu' use of the automatic capping anil tijiiiing luachiiit's there arc fewer leaks 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 15 
 
 tliau i'oi'iiu'i-ly oci-nrred Avlieu the work was done by hand; leaks in sanitary cans are 
 g:enerally due to poor adjustment of the rollers. In tlie can-making plants leakers are 
 recognized, as a rule, by testing in the hot bath. Leaks may be very small, even micro- 
 scopic in size, and, therefore, difficult to detect, or pieces of the can content may be 
 driven into the opening and seal it for the time. Leaks invarialdy cause swells. 
 
 TESTING ROOM 
 
 "While the chief problem of the processor is to know Mhen his goods are sterile, it is 
 of equal importance for him to accomplish complete sterilization in the shortest possible 
 time. Tliis not only saves time and fuel, but also impi'oves the appearance of the fin- 
 ished goods. In order to do this the canner ought to have means right at the factory 
 of incubating samples of every lot of canned foods as they come from the retorts. A 
 room having a constant temperature of approximately 9S° F. may easily be built and 
 maintained, and such a room will pay for itself in a very short time, and by means of 
 it without further examination a packer can separate all swells and accurately deter- 
 mine whenever his process is insufficient in such a manner that swells are going to 
 result. The "hot room" will even show, by the sense of taste alone in the canned foods 
 stored therein for the proper time to allow of the development of bacteria, whetlier 
 spoilage is going to occur or not. 
 
 Were the packer to supply himself with a good microscope, with one-twelfth oil 
 immersion objective, and an incubator, it would be a very easy matter to know posi- 
 tively if a given process was sufficient. Several cans from each day's work could be 
 placed in the incubator, and if the sterilization was not complete the bacteria would 
 develop at a blood temperature (98° F.) within 24 to 48 hours; juice from these cans 
 could be made into a hanging drop, and if any bacteria happened to be present, the 
 microscope would reveal them. Most of the spore-bearing bacteria are motile, and 
 there would be some present, even in small quantities of the juice, long before the forma- 
 tion of sufficient gas to swell the cans. By testing in this way the packer could also 
 keep close watch on the sterilizing process, and in some cases could reduce the time, 
 which would insure a better flavor at less expense. 
 
 "DO-OVERS" 
 
 For many years it was the custom, and is yet in some lines and plants, to take the 
 defective cans found in inspecting the pack during the various stages after processing, 
 and reprocess them by venting, repairing the can, exhaust, tip and process the regular 
 time. As our knowledge of bacteria increased it was seen by tlie more intelligent packers 
 that tliere was serious danger of ptomaines forming in the food in these leaky cans 
 while the air had access to them, and also that the second cooking had a decidedly 
 injurious effect upon the flavor and appearance of the food. As a result a number of 
 the packers now discard entirely defective cans found after several days have elapsed 
 after processing. 
 
 Those defective cans found while they are passing through the various processes, and 
 wliile the cans are still wai'm, are repaired and placed in a lower grade. 
 
 SALT AND BRINE 
 
 Salt which is intended for use by canners should be as pure as possible. This fact 
 is beginning to be thoroughly understood by the canner, who finds little economy in 
 using an impure cheap salt, and, besides, may encounter certain difficulties if he uses 
 
16 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODri'TS 
 
 such. If salt contains an excess of magnesium sulphate or of lime, the latter in the form 
 of calcium sulphate, it is liable, in the case of the latter, to TJroduce a bitterness in the 
 canned foods. Practically all commercial salt does contain a small (joantity of lime, and 
 it •would be entirely impracticable to free the salt from the last trace of lime, on account 
 of the enormous expense involved, but where the amount of calcium sulphate in a salt 
 runs from 2', to 4% it shows that the salt has not been properly purified, and conse- 
 quently it is not fit for use in delicate food products. 
 
 Impure salt contains a higher moisture content than pure salt, so that when the 
 packer buys the former with an idea of economy he is likely to lose two ways : first, by 
 getting too much lime, and, secondly, by getting too much water — both of which he pays 
 for at the price of salt. 
 
 Some fishery products are covered with a weak brine when canned, and this brine 
 generally contains about 2Jo of salt. Much care should be used in seeing to it that both 
 the salt and water used in making the brine are suitable. The water used for making 
 brine should always be free from iron, and from excessive suspended matter, and should 
 be comparatively soft. A total hardness of 150 parts per million is about the limit 
 permissible for canners' use. Most of the impurities Avhieh are likely to be present 
 in a water of the hardness mentioned are harmless to canned foods, but if the water 
 contains much iron there is danger of discoloring the flesh of fish processed in cans. 
 This is the reason for the parchment paper lining, to keep the fish away from the can, 
 because a. very small trace of iron in fish will cause discoloration through the formation 
 of iron sulphide from the sulphur which is liberated from the proteids of the fish by the 
 high process. 
 
 The impurities which deleteriously aff'ect the quality of canned foods are the same 
 found in both hard water and commercial salt. It is, therefore, plain that both must be 
 watched, because if both of them are veiy impure the sum of the impurities may readily 
 become too great for canned foods. 
 
 When the hardness of water is excessive, and no soft water is available, the packer 
 may often remove the hardness by a simple treatment of the water with soda ash. The 
 latter precipitates the calcium and inagnesium carbonates, which settle to the bottom as 
 a white sludge, leaving the water in the upper portion of the tank comparatively soft and 
 usually entirely suitable for canners. Water-softening in some such manner as above is 
 practised by some canners through necessity, not only for obtaining a pure water for 
 brine, but for obtaining a soft water for use in their boilers. A distilling apparatus 
 especially designed for this purpose may also be used in obtaining the small amount 
 needed for making brine. ' 
 
 Every canner should submit to a reputable chemist a sample of the salt he intends 
 using in his season's pack, absolutely rejecting any brand that falls below 98% pure 
 salt, and it would make assurance doubly sure to get a salt which tests not less than 99%. 
 
 MAKING BRINES 
 
 Various receptacles are employed in making brines. The favorite is a wooden tank 
 in which is carried a copper pipe with an L on end to the bottom of the tank, and 
 direct to the opposite side, la making the brine the water should be first brought to a 
 violent boil, then add the salt, etc., and stir imtil dissolved. The steam jet used in this 
 method obviates the necessity for much stirring of the mixture. The bottom outlet of 
 the tank should be guarded with a strainer to retain chips and particles of other foreign 
 substances which may be in the salt. If the material used contains much dirt or specks 
 it should be placed in a closely woven bag and suspended just below the surface of the 
 boiling water. 
 
CANNINC4 OF FISHERY PRODl'CTS 
 
 17 
 
 Brines of various streugths are used in cainiiiig some fishery pi'oducts. The table 
 following shows the proportions of salt and water required to make brines of given 
 percentage strengths : 
 
 Strength Salt Water 
 
 of Brine. Necessary. Necessary. 
 
 Per cent. Pounds. Gals. Qts. Pts. 
 
 1 1 12 1 1 
 
 2 . 2 12 1 
 
 3- 3 12 .. 1 
 
 6 6 11 3 
 
 8 8 11 2 
 
 10 10 11 1 
 
 12 12 11 
 
 15 15 10 2 1 
 
 18 18 10 1 
 
 24 24 9 2.. 
 
 SOLDER 
 
 Solder is composed of lead and tin combined in various proportion.s — half and half 
 for hard solder, 9 parts tin and 10 parts lead for medium, and 8 parts tin to 10 parts 
 lead for soft. Many cauners prepare their own solder, usually in bars. The finished 
 article ma.v be purchased in the form of triangular or rectangiUar bars, triangular drops, 
 wire or wire segments. In the form of wire, wound on spool, it is used for power cap- 
 ping machines and is a convenient shape to use in tipping. 
 
 FLUX 
 
 It is so easy to purchase fluxes and soldering fluids, and the purchased articles 
 give generally so much better satisfaction than those of home manufacture, that the 
 canner will probably find it cheaper and better to buy the prepared article than to try 
 to make one of his own. 
 
 TINNING THE CAPPING STEEL 
 
 The capping steel should be first cleaned with a file, brick or knife. Then take a 
 section of a 3-pound tin can or an iron jar of about the same diameter and about 3 
 inches deep. Put into this about 2 inches of granulated sal-ammoniac and some scrap 
 solder. Then clean the steels in diluted muriatic acid or in soldering flux and insert in 
 the sal-ammoniac and solder, revolving it in the mixture until tinned. Then clean 
 again in diluted muriatic acid or soldering flux. 
 
 TINNING THE TIPPING COPPER 
 
 The tipping copper is tinned in much the same way as the capping iron. Sometimes 
 it is desirable, however, to file the tipping copper sufficiently to make it smooth and to 
 correct the point. The copper should be filed to nearly a sharp point. All particles of 
 smudge, burned materials, etb., should be removed from the iron before tinning. Heat 
 the copper and rotate the tip of it in the mixture of sal-ammoniac and solder until it has 
 been covered with the melted solder and is as bright as silver. 
 
18 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 LACQUERING 
 
 Formerly it 'was the custom to lacquer nearly all can? contaiuiug fishery products. 
 This custom origiiuitcd in the early days of salmon cauuinn- and was due to the follow- 
 ing reasons : The English market, which at that time absorbed the greater part of the 
 goods, insisted on their shipments being finished in this way ; and the cauners thought 
 that if they did not protect their cans in some way enormous losses through rust, caused 
 supposedly by the long sea voyage, would ensue. Several machines are in use for doing 
 this work and perform it excellently. Several of the largest salmon packers, however, 
 now use enameled ends and depend upon the label to protect the sides, for both domestic 
 and foreign shipments, while a few flat and oval cans are not lacquered at all. but are 
 protected from rust by wrapping in tissue paper, over which the label is placed. 
 
 It is the custom with sardine canners to print a number of copies of the label on a 
 sheet of tin, and then lacqvier it, after which the cans are cut out, shaped and the ends 
 put on. Some packers, however, do not lacquer the cans at all and protect them either 
 by putting in a printed carton or wrapping in tissue paper and pasting the label over this. 
 
 Many fishery products are wholly packed in unlacfiuered cans, and this custom is 
 steadily growing in favor, especially for goods sold in the country of origin. 
 
 Tile quick-drying brown lacquer used quite generally at the present time carries 
 asphaltum in the form of an asphalt varnish as its base, this being supplanted in some 
 cases by gilsonite. This lacquer can be procured in eitlier a heavy or light body, is 
 generally reduced with benzine or gasoline, and is applied according to the require- 
 ments of the market, which in some localities demands a heavy coating and in others a 
 much lighter finish, the latter giving a rich golden brown color. Some experiments have 
 also been made in using brighter colored lacquers for this work. Several of these, made 
 to give a briglit golden copper, or other color, are extremely attractive in appearance, 
 while at the same time protecting the tin against rust quite as well as the bi-own. 
 
 The lacquering period is one of considerable danger in canneries, especially in damp 
 or rainy weather, when it is not possible to open warehouse doors and windows, the 
 gas arising from the vats being highly inflammable. The striking of a match by a care- 
 less workman under these conditions is apt to cause an explosion, with a resulting fire 
 which may occasion either partial or total loss of the plant, and also cause injury or deatli 
 to some of the woi'kers. 
 
 LABELS 
 
 A very important feature of the canning industry is the selection of appropriate 
 brands or labels for the various kinds of fishery products. A well-known brand has a 
 value in itself and sometimes is a very important asset. A packer will sometimes market 
 a considerable part of his product in one section, and here, where the consumer has 
 become familiar with the label and pleased with the contents of the can, he will ask 
 for and accept no other, despite the fact that the latter might be, and probably is, the 
 equal of the product he has been using. Elsewhere in this work will be found a copy 
 of the Ti'ade Mark law of the United States and other information relating to the protec- 
 tion of trade marks not only in the United States but in foreign countries as well. 
 
 In designing a label there are several things which should be borne in mind. It 
 should be an easily remembered name and design ; a name difficult of pronunciation 
 should be avoided at all cost. The design should be as simple as possible, as experience 
 has demonstrated that a simple form — so simple that it can be fully understood by a 
 mere glance — will gain by regular repetition, while a more complicated design Avill lose 
 in this process. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY -PRODUCTS 1!) 
 
 A special room sjliould be provided in the eauiiery for labels, and this should be, as 
 far as possible, dust and steam-proof. Each size and variety of label should have a 
 compartment by itself. It is best to wrap each bundle of labels in paper, Avith one placed 
 on top outside. 
 
 The cans should be labeled with the cap end down. Expensive labels, such as gilt 
 and embossed, should be protected with an outside wrapper of tissue paper. There are 
 on the market several makes of machines suitable for putting the labels on the cans. 
 
 CARE OF CANNED GOODS 
 
 Much waste of food in wholesale and retail stores results from carelessness in pro- 
 viding dry storage space for canned goods. Moisture will I'ust tin goods, producing 
 holes in the cans and resulting in spoilage. Even in the cases where cans are not perfor- 
 ated and the contents spoiled, they will be discolored and the labels rusted when stored 
 in places which are liable to become either too Avarm or too moist. The bright, attrac- 
 tive appearance of canned goods is an important factor in their sale, and all labor and 
 care given this merchandise is repaid many fold in the maintenance of attractiveness 
 which makes for sales. It should be the duty of everyone, from the manager down, to 
 see that canned goods are given safe storage. 
 
 FROZEN CANS 
 
 Frozen canned goods should be stored in a dr.y, cool place until they thaw out. 
 Freezing sometimes causes them to put? out like swells, from the expansion of the con- 
 tents from freezing. The puffing will subside in a few days after the goods are put in 
 a warehouse, and the quality of tlie goods is seldom injured by freezing. If stored in a 
 warm place such goods will "sweat" and rust. 
 
FISHES 
 
 ALEWIVES 
 
 ALEWIPE, OR BRANCH HERRING (Pomolohns psrudohan-ngus). 
 
 Till'] alewife or bruucli heiTiug (Fomolohtia pseudoharcnyiis) and the glut herring 
 fP. aestivalis) are marketed under the name of alewife or river herring. The two 
 species are found, either singly or together, in waters adjacent to the Atlantic Ocean 
 from Florida northward to Labrador. The former is also found in certain small lakes 
 in New York tributary to the St. Lawrence River and in Lake Ontario. Like the shad, 
 they are anadromus species, living normally in salt water and only entering fresh water 
 streams for the purpose of spawning. They are generally caught at the same time with, 
 and in the same apparatus as, the shad. P. pseudoJiarengus appears in the rivers three 
 or four weeks earlier than the glut herring and the shad. Both species average about 
 a half ]iound in weight and from 8 to 10 inches in length. 
 
 The alewife fishery is one of the most important carried on by our fishermen. In 
 1908, the last year for which we have complete data, the fishermen marketed 89,078,000 
 pounds, valued at |.589,000. Alewives were taken in every state on the Atlantic seaboard, 
 but three states — Virginia, Maryland and North Carolina — produced over SO per cent, of 
 the total. In Canada during the year 191(5-17 there were marketed by the Canadian 
 fisheiineu r),871,fl00 pounds of alewives. 
 
 Pound nets, trap nets, weirs, seines and gill nets were the principal apparatus used; 
 the fixed gear caught over 73 per cent, of the total. 
 
 The hickory shad {P. mediocris), which is also known as fall herring, is fairly com- 
 mon from Cape Cod to Alabama. It is most abundant in the vicinity of Chesapeake Bay. 
 In the southern portion of its range it enters the streams, in Chesapeake Bay usually 
 appearing in the rivers in the spring, before the shad. It reaches a maximum length of 24 
 inches, though examples of more than 3 pounds weight are not often seen. They are fre- 
 quently sold to the unwary as shad. It does not rank high as a food fish. In 1908 
 876,000 pounds, \alued at |3S,000, were marketed by our fishermen. The bulk of the 
 catch comes from North Carolina, Virginia, Florida and Alabama. 
 
 The opportunities for the building up of an important canning industry based upon 
 alewives are exceptionally good. The raw material is abundant and cheajt, while 
 
 21 
 
22 t;ANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 by the use uf iiuthuI nets luul weivs the tisli can he hehl alive in the apjiai-atus for a 
 day or two in times of glut, an important advantage. The region iu which the alewife 
 is most abundant — Virginia, Maryland and Xorth Carolina waters — is the habitat or 
 resort of several other abundant species, noted elsewhere in this work, which can also 
 be canned with profit. 
 
 As soon as landed the fish are scaled, eviscerated, the fins cut off and the heads 
 removed, after which they are washed in clean Avater. On Chesapeake Day the fish 
 are then placed in the salting vats, the bottoms of which are first covered with 4 or 5 
 inches of very strong brine. As the fish are put in they are stirred about, after which 
 more salt is put on top, and so on fish and salt alternately, until the total quantity of 
 fish is in the vats or the latter are full ; 6 barrels of salt are generally used for 32 barrels 
 of fish. After 12 to 14 hours the mass is broken up with a spudger, after which they are 
 removed and washed in an abundance of lukewarm fresh water, thoroughly drained, 
 and packed in the cans. The cans are then exhausted for about 10 to 15 minutes at 
 212° F., after which they are processed at 244° F., No. 1 cans for 55 minutes, No. 2 cans 
 for 60 minutes. The fish shrink considerably in i>rocessing ; this may be overcome largely 
 by first drying the fish for a while in an artificial dryer, which will remove part of the 
 moisture. 
 
 They can also be kippered the same as recommended for sea herring and then canned, 
 using the same pj-ocess as for the latter. 
 
 TJie fish can also be packed in tomato or mustard sauce, either of which would im- 
 prove its flavor. By following closely the methods used by the packers of sea herring 
 alewife canners will be most successful in producing a choice canned article. 
 
 ANCHOVIES 
 
 On the Pacific coast from southern Alaska to Lower California is found the Northern 
 anchovy t I-Jiifinnili.s iitnrd(i.r\. South of Santa Parbara are also found two other 
 ancho\ies, the Southern anchovy (Aiidioviulla delirutissiiiiKsJ and the deep-bodied an- 
 chovy or sprat (A. compressus) . 
 
 The Northern anchovy is the largest and most valuable of our anchovies, growing to 
 a length of 7 inches. It is found in great abundance and is canned to some extent in 
 California. It is, at present, considered inferior, when canned, to the sardine, but 
 this, it is believed, is mainly because the proper methods of canning are not practised. 
 
 The Southern anchovy is very abundant on the southei-n California coast. It does 
 not much exceed .3 inches in length. It is most delicate when crisply fried in oil. 
 
 The deei>-bodied anchovy grows to a length of 5 inches and is abundant on the 
 southern California coast. Its flesh is thin and dry and cannot be compared with the 
 other two anchovies. 
 
 In canning the same methods are followed as in canning sardines in southern Cali- 
 fornia, but under a ruling of the federal government the name "sardines" must not be 
 applied to them. 
 
 In Sweden a considerable industry has been created in the canning of anchovies, 
 which are, however, really sprats, the real anchovy occurring liut rarely in Swedish waters. 
 They are also prepared in Finland and Germany, and in the latter country are known 
 as "delikatessen.'' Each manufacturer has his own special recipe, which is kept secret. 
 
 A consular representative furnishes the following account of the process: 
 
 ''The preparation of sprats and small Baltic herring (stroniiuiiKj) as delikatesser has 
 been carried on in Finland for manv generations as a household industry, the fishermen 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 23 
 
 of some districts having a great reputatiou for the excellent wares produced. There 
 are now several preserving factories for making anchovies and spiced herring at Helsing- 
 fors and at Reval. on the Russian coast, and jiractically all the sprats taken — often over 
 2,(i0(» cwt. — are made iulo 'anclioxies.' Thanks to the fact that a fishery expert carried 
 on experiments on the jirocesses for three years and has published the details in a Finnish 
 technical journal, we are enabled to give below exact recipes for the preparation of the 
 anchovies or spiced herrings, the recipes for each being the same. The sprats are first 
 thoroughly washed but are used whole and ungutted, and, following the Finnish practice, 
 the small herrings are treated in the same way. <»nly the very best and fattest herrings 
 are used; spawning or meagre fish are rigorously rejected. The most suitable are the 
 small fat stroiuiuiiu/ caught in autumn by drift nets, and they must be perfectly fresh. 
 In Sweden the small herrings are gutted, beheaded and cleansed, but it is objected that 
 by gutting and cleaning the valuable rich intra-abdominal fat is removed, and the native 
 practice of using the herring whole is recommended. The process is usually carried on 
 in the small keg known as a sprat keg iJiva.sshiil-slaufidr) . but tins are recommended 
 instead for domestic or local use, usually of one litre capacity, while goods for export 
 must be put up in air-tight tins in the usual way. 
 
 "The'preservative and spicing mixture consists of (1) ingredients lor the preserva- 
 tion of the fish, and these consist first of all of common salt, and secondly of sugar. The 
 proportion of salt varies according to the season, the degree of duraliility retjuired, etc.; 
 (2 ) ingredients for flavoring consisting of saltpetre, Jamaica jiepper, black pepper, white 
 pepper, Cayenne pepper, cloves, mace, ginger, cinnamon, red sandalwood (for coloring). 
 Spanish hops and bay-leaves. No recipe includes all these substances, and the pro](Oi- 
 tious vary considerably in dittereut recipes. As for salt, finely crushed Lunelnirg salt is 
 said to be the best, though a recent Finnish recipe (No. ^'III.) provides for Liverpool 
 salt ('pure dried vacuum salt' I. The salt]ietre and the sugar should I)e finely pow- 
 dered; the different varieties of pepper should not be too fine, but not coarse; the cloves, 
 mace, cinnamon, sandalwood, and ginger should not be too finely powdered, while the 
 Spanish hops and bay-leaves are used whole, the hops being mixed with the other spices 
 while the bay-leaves are u.sed whole and placed between the layers of fish. It is said the 
 weighings must be accurate. The salt, sugar and saltpetre are first weighed out and 
 thor(»ughly mixed together; then the other ingredients are weighed and llioroughly mixed 
 wilh the salt and sugar. 
 
 "In dealing with sprats llie tish are well 'roused' with llu mixture. A preliminary 
 'ronsing' is not mentioned in connection with the herrings, the process being as follows : 
 Some of the spice mixture is strewn on the bottom of the one-litre tin, then a layer of 
 herrings, in rows, is placed ujion it, with the backs of the fish downwards and the mix- 
 ture strewn over it; another layer of herrings is laid down in the .same way, the rows 
 being i)laced obliquely across the rows in the layec below, and so on, not more than four 
 layers being laid down in the one-litre tin. One whole bay-leaf is placed at the bottom, 
 one between each layer, and one on the top. The lid is then put on, and for local use 
 made airtight with paraffin wax. The tins, after being closed, are placed in a cool place, 
 preferalily in an ice-house ; it is said there is no comparison between the product left to 
 rijien in a warm room and that ripened in a cool place. No temperature is given, and 
 probably the best course for any one trying the process is to follow the practice in Ger- 
 many, keeping the temperature at about 30° F. 
 
 "With regard to the recijies given and rejtrodnced here, it is said that No. VI. is a 
 Danish recipe and No. YU. an old Norwegian recipe for spiced herrings (l-ri/ddcrsaltet- 
 sild), a little modified, and furnishing, it is .said, a very fine product. The others are the 
 
2-t 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 result of the Finnisli experiments; No. VIII. is the most recent, and is described as in 
 very general u.se. In the table the original weights for a one-litre tin are given in the 
 
 Luneburg salt . . . 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Saltpetre 
 
 Jamaica pepper , 
 Black pepper. . . 
 
 Cloves 
 
 Mace 
 
 Cinnamon 
 
 Ginger 
 
 Sandalwood. . . . 
 Spanish hops. . . . 
 Bay leaves 
 
 Lvineburg salt . . . 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Saltpetre 
 
 Jamaica pepper. 
 Black ijcpper. . . 
 
 Cloves 
 
 Ginger 
 
 Sandalwood. . . . 
 Spanish hops. . . 
 Bay leaves 
 
 Luneburg salt. . , 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Saltpetre 
 
 Jamaica pepper. 
 Black pepper. . . 
 White pepper. . . 
 
 Cloves 
 
 Mace 
 
 Ginger 
 
 Cimiamon 
 
 Spanish hops. . . 
 Bay leaves 
 
 Luneburg salt. . . 
 Liverpool salt.. . 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Saltpetre 
 
 Jamaica pepper. 
 
 Black pepper 
 
 Cayenne pepper 
 
 Cloves 
 
 Sandalwood . . . . 
 
 Cinnamon 
 
 Ginger 
 
 Mace 
 
 S]3anish hops.. . 
 Bay leaves 
 
 Grammes 
 per litre 
 
 Ounces per 
 10 gallons 
 
 No. I. 
 
 125-1.50 
 50 
 \Vi 
 
 1 
 
 1^ 
 
 1 
 
 Wi 
 
 198. 
 
 4-238.1 
 
 150 
 
 238.1 
 
 79.4 
 
 100 
 
 153.8 
 
 2.38 
 
 2 
 
 3.2 
 
 5.5 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 1.6 
 
 2 
 
 3.2 
 
 2.38 
 
 IJ'2 
 
 2.38 
 
 1.6 
 
 
 — 
 
 0.8 
 
 — 
 
 — 
 
 0.8 
 
 1 
 
 1.6 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 1.6 
 
 — 
 
 1 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.38 
 
 2 
 
 3.2 
 
 No. III. 
 
 125-150 
 60 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 198 
 
 4-238.1 
 95.2 
 
 1.6 
 
 3.2 
 
 100 
 50 
 
 1 
 3 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 
 1.6 
 1.6 
 1.6 
 
 W2 
 1 
 
 1 
 9 
 
 U 
 
 
 n 8 
 
 No. V. 
 
 25 
 50 
 
 6 
 3 
 
 W2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 1 
 
 98.4 
 
 79.4 
 
 2.38 
 
 9.5 
 
 4.76 
 
 2.38 
 
 3.2 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 No. VII. 
 
 150 
 
 80 
 1 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 Wi 
 2H 
 
 238.1 
 
 127.0 
 1.6 
 3 
 2 
 
 2 
 38 
 
 38 
 38 
 38 
 6 
 
 2.38 
 4.0 
 
 Grammes 
 per litre 
 
 Ounces per 
 10 gallons 
 
 No. II. 
 
 No., IV. 
 
 158.8 
 
 79.4 
 
 1.6 
 
 4.76 
 
 3.2 
 
 2.38 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 3.2 
 
 No. VI. 
 
 125-150 198.4-238.1 
 60 95.2 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 V/2 
 
 No VIII. 
 
 3.2 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.8 
 
 0.8 
 
 1.6 
 
 2.38 
 
 2.38 
 
 150 
 100 
 
 4 
 
 3 
 
 0.04 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 238.1 
 158.8 
 
 6.4 
 
 4.76 
 
 0.06 
 
 3.2 
 
 1.6 
 
 1.6 
 
 3.2 
 
 1.6 
 
 3.2 
 
 3.2 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 first column, and this has been calciUated, for ten gaUons, in Enj;lisli ounces in the second 
 column; one litre is equal to 0.2201 imperial gallon, and, approximately, ii/o litres are 
 equal to one gallon ; one ounce is equal to 28.35 grammes. It will be noticed that the com- 
 position of the mixture, and especially the proportion of the various spices, varies con- 
 siderably; apart from the salt and sugar the weight of the spices for a one-litre tin 
 ranges from 6I/0 grammes (No. III.) to 18 grammes (No- VIII.). It would almost seem 
 as if every manufacturer had his own recipe. There is at all events in the above table 
 sufficient information for trials to be made in the preparation of this delikatessen in this 
 country, and it is to be hoped such trials will be carried out." 
 
 LEADING COMMERCIAL FISHES OP SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. 
 
 These Pictures Were Made from Models Owned by Warren S. King, President of tlie White Star Canning Co., 
 
 and are as follows: 1 — Grouper or Rock Cod; 2 — Yellowtail; 3 — Rock Bass; 4 — Albacore 
 
 or Tuna; 5 — Wail-Eyed Bass; 6 — Barracuda; 7 — Black Cod, and 8 — Bonito. 
 
 BARRACUDA 
 
 The barracuda [Sijhyraena arf/ciitea) occur.s on our Pacific coast from San Francisco 
 to Cape San Lucas, being very common among the Santa Barbara islands. Many are 
 taken commercially by the fishermen of southern California. It is a long, slender fish and 
 reaches a length of 4 or 3 feet. It rarely exceeds 1.5 pounds in weight, and usually 
 appears in early spring in vast schools coming from the south. In 1917 the fishermen of 
 
26 CANNING OP FISHERY PRODFC'TS 
 
 California caught 3,080,810 ponuds of barracuda. As the catch at present is larger than 
 can be marketed fresh, experiments have been made looking toward the smoking and can- 
 ning of the surplus, and Dr. E. 1>. ("lark, and II. D. Davi, of the T. S. Bureau of (^"hem- 
 istrv, lune ]iul)lished the results of such in a preliminary announcement issued by the 
 liureau, from which I have condensed the following data: 
 
 The authors recommend that the barracinla he dressed as soon as caught as other- 
 wise the fish will rajjidly deterioraie. In this ojieration the gills and entrails are removed 
 and the lilood carefully scraped out of the body cavity and around the backbone. The 
 tish should l)e thoroughly washed in a weak brine testing about 10 per cent, saturated 
 salt solution. 
 
 On reaching shore the head and tail are first removed and then the fish scaled 
 thoroughly. The cut along the abdominal cavity made in dressing is continued with a 
 long, deep incision down the ventral surface to the tail, in order to release any blood 
 lodged along the tail heme, after which the fish is thoroughly washed, a moderately stiff 
 brush being employed for doing this work. The flsh is then given a final washing in a 
 weak brine testing about 10 per cent, salt, or in clean sea water, after which they are 
 allowed to drain. 
 
 The fish should be graded now into three sizes, measuring 17, 21 and 25 inches, 
 respectively, from the najies to the end of the tail. In order to allow quicker penetra- 
 tion of the salt in the iiickliug jiroi'css sever.-il cuts sliouid he made Ihrough the skin on 
 both sides of the fish: these cuts shuuld l)e made into the thick portiims of the oily dark 
 flesh on the lateral line. 
 
 In splitting the fish the knife is inserted and ])uslied along the left side of the back- 
 bone and the cut continued to the lail, the sides being thus laid flat. The knife is then 
 inserted under the backbone and the above operation repeated, when the latter can 
 be removed. Care should be taken that the knife does not penetrate beyond the inner 
 side of the backbone as otherwise the l)ack of the fish will be weakened. In this condi 
 tion the flsh will lay flat. 
 
 No fresh water should be used in washing the flsh after splitting as it tends to 
 "puff" the flesh, encouraging rapid decomposition. Puffing also results in the loosening 
 of the flakes of flesh from the skin, which greatly mars its a])pearance when finished. 
 
 The flsh are then buried in a cold brine testing about ".j per cent, saturated salt 
 solution. Care should be taken thai all parts ot I lie flsh are submerged below the surface 
 of the brine. If the flsh are intended for immediate consumjition twithin 2 to 4 days), 
 three-quarters to one and one-quarter hours of brining will suffice. For canning pur- 
 po.ses one-lmlf to one hour of pickling will give the desired saltiness. Longer brining does 
 not inci'ease the keeping (piality, but rather tends lo injure the palat.-iliilily of the flnal 
 product. 
 
 The flsh are then drained and dried, first by waterhorsing in small piles, flesh side 
 down, and then by drying on trays, with wii'e bottoms, placed on racks in the sun. The 
 a])])earance of the fish Avill indicate when the drying process has progressed sufficiently. 
 Should the weather be unfavorable the drying may be carried on in the smokehouse, 
 after opening doors and ventilators to allow a free circulation of air and by keeping 
 fires burning slowly until the com])letion of the drying, but the temperature shoidd not 
 exceed 100° F. in the smokehouse. 
 
 After drying the flsh are removed from the 1i-a\s and suspended from the nai)es 
 with two "S" shaped hooks, and hung on iron rods about i -j-inch in diameter. 
 
 Smokehouses may lie of any design, size and nundier of compartments, the only 
 essential being that they be constructed in such a way that various kippering tempera 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 27 
 
 tures, ranging from 80° to 125° F. can be easily and continnonsly maintained. Experi- 
 ments sliow that the temiieratnre tor Idjipering liarrac-nda slionld be Ivept as near 105° 
 as possible, and nnder no circnnistances slKHild it exceed 115° F. Tlie Iionse slionld be 
 of moderate height with some system of ventilation on the (o]i and ii])]ier sides. Sup- 
 ports on which to hang tJie smoke rods should be placed in the smokehouse, beginning 
 about 7 feet above the Are and conlinuiug for 7 or 8 feet. 
 
 The rods filled with fish are now placed in the liays or up])er part of the smoke 
 house, the largest fish being linng ui)]iermost. Several small fires are then built in 
 shallow depressions in the earth floor, dry hardwood blocks such as oak, maple, alder or 
 of tan bark being employed. No resinous material should be used- When the fires have 
 begiin to bui'n vigorously, the flames are smothered with a small amount of dry hard- 
 wood sawdust in order to maintain the temperature at the desired jioint. Several Fah 
 renheit thermometers should be placed among the flsh and the temperature kept from 
 100° to 105° F. Should the temjierature begin to rise, the upjier ventilators are opened 
 to release the hot air. If the fish are intended for canning, a smoking of 7 to 8 hours 
 or less at 100° F. is sufficient to give the flavor, color and texture desired. The color of 
 the product can be controlled by the density of the smoke. 
 
 After kijipering is com])leted all doors and ventilators should be ojiened to allow the 
 flsh to cool thoroughly. After cooling the fish are removed from the smoke house and the 
 sides carefully wiped free from ]iarticles of soot and dust which may have collected 
 during smoking. Evajioration of the salt near the tail end, and shrinkage of the skin 
 away from the outer edges of the flesh are evidences of too high temperatures during 
 smoking. 
 
 In canning the sides of the flsh are cut into choice square ](ieces to fit the size cans 
 to be nsed. The skins are removed and the pieces placed in the can with the brown 
 side uj). The cans are then filled with peach kernel or any \>uve nut oil, as these seem 
 to blend well with the smoke flavor and the natural oil of the barracuda. If so desired, 
 the fish may be packed in a light brine, but their ajipearance is somewhat altered by pro- 
 cessing in such a brine- The cans should be exhausted 25 minutes at 212° F., sealed 
 immediately, and then processed three hours at 212° F. A bath of boiling water should 
 be used for the processing as a steam retort does not give a uniformly cooked jtroduct. 
 After removal from the bath the cans should be cooled in a stream of cold water. The 
 amount of water in the can after ])rocessing should not exceed 25 per cent, of total 
 volume of the liquid if packed in oil. 
 
 For canning purposes the average loss in weight from the round tish to the fish 
 when ready for packing is 50 jier cent. 
 
 BLUEFISH 
 
 The liluefish {Powutouui>i sdltdtii-r) is found on our Atlantic and <iulf coasls. From 
 Cape P^lorida to Penobscot P.ay blueflsh are abundant at all seasons when the tempera- 
 ture of the water is propitious, which probably is above 10°. The menhaden is their 
 principal food and their abundance is largely dependent upon the presence of that 
 species. The blueflsh is a pelagic or wandering flsh, very capricious in its movements, 
 varying in numbers at jiarticnlar localities in different years and sometimes disappear- 
 ing from certain regions for many years at a time. It is a carnivorous animal of the 
 most pronounced type and does a tremendous amount of wanton destruction amongst 
 the menhaden schools- The* average size of the blufish is 3 to 5 pounds and the maxi- 
 mum size is about 15 pounds. It is one of the best of food fishes, ranking in public esti- 
 mation next after the fiesli mackerel. The flesh is firm and very sweet. 
 
28 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 BLUEFISH 
 
 
 
 .^^ 
 
 BLUEFISH (Poinatomus saltathx). 
 
 In 1908 the blueflsh catch amoimted to 7.G47,0()0 pouuds, valued at |506,000, the 
 smallest catch for years back. Lines take nearly half the catch, (iill nets, pound nets 
 and seines also take considerable quantities. Nearly one-half of tlie catch was made by 
 New York fishermen. 
 
 Small quantities of bhiefish have been canned at times and made an excellent pro- 
 duct. As soon as possible after being; landed Ihe flsh are scaled, the head cut otf, the 
 belly slit down to the vent and the entrails and backbone removed. The fish is then cut 
 into pieces of suitable size and placed in 50 degrees (salometer) brine and soaked until 
 the blood is extracted. The fish are then put into cans which are filled up with brine 
 made by dissolving 3 pounds of salt in each I2V2 gallons of water used, the tops put 
 on, exhausted 10 minutes at 212° P., vented and processed SO to 100 minutes at 240° F- 
 The cans are then removed from the retort and run through the cooling bath. 
 
 BON I TO 
 
 The California bonito, or skipJMck {Sanln cliHensis) is found from San Francisco to 
 Patagonia, also around Hawaii. It is abundant in summer in the northern jiart of its 
 range. It reaches a length of 2 or 3 feet and a weight of 20 ])()unds. The average weight 
 is said to be about 8 pounds. It is caught by trolling and can be kept around the boat 
 by chumming. The species comes north in spring and leaves for the south in winter. 
 While it is a near relative of the albicore, its tiesli is a i)ale grey instead of Iteing white 
 like the former. 
 
 During the last few years the tima canners of southern Calildrnia liave l)een citn- 
 ning lioniio when not busy on the former, and are ra]>idly developing a market foi- the 
 product. It is canned in almost identically the same way as tuna. 
 
 The Atlantic bonito {Sarda sarda) likes the open sea, wandering around in large 
 schools in search of food, and only approaches land when attracted by abundance of suit- 
 able food or for spawning purposes. It occurs in summer from Cape Cod to Cape Sable, 
 and occasionally in the Gulf of Mexico. It reaches a length of 2 or 3 feet and a 
 weight of 10 to 12 pounds. Its flesh is fully as good as that of its Pacific brethren, and 
 ought to make a good fish for canning. The bulk of the catch of this species is made in 
 New Jersey, and is taken mainly in pound nets, although lines also bring in a consider- 
 able quantity. It is probable that the catch could be largely increased if vessels were 
 sent farther oft' the coast in search of the fish. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 29 
 
 CATFISH 
 
 One of the most iniportaut commercial fisheries of the i^^orth American continent 
 is that for catfish. Most of these are obtained in the fresh waters^ the principal ones 
 being the channel cats (Ictahirus), mud cats (Amemrus), yellow cats (Leptops). and 
 stone cats {Notitius). There is much confusion, however, in the application of these 
 names, the name in common use in one place sometimes being applied in another place 
 to a totally difiereut species. There are also two species of salt water catfish, one of 
 which has attained to considerable commercial importance. These are the gaff-topsail cat 
 ( FrJiclifltijs }iifiriinis) and the sea catfish (Gdlcichthijs millierti). 
 
 The catfish is found in most fresh waters east of the Rocky Mountains, thriving best 
 in the ^Mississippi ^'alley. Xoiie are indigenous to the Pacific coast, although Ainciurus 
 nehulosus and Aiitriiinis riitiis have been introduced into California waters, and have 
 beconi;' fairly abundant. 
 
 The catfishes range in weight from a few ounces to 150 pounds, and in size from a 
 few inches to 5 feet. They attain their greatest size in the Mississippi Valley- The 
 flesh is firm, flaky and of excellent flavor. 
 
 The U. S. census returns for 1908 show that 1S.;3S(;,!)(I() ]M)un(ls, valued at 1792.830, 
 were marketed. There has probably been a large increase in the ])roduction of these fishes 
 since then. At that time Louisiana produced 4,405,000 pounds, but the claim is made 
 that the production here is now about 18,01)0,000 pounds a year. Illinois .md Florida 
 are also heavy producers of catfish. 
 
 In Canada, in 191617, the catch amounted to 939.1*00 pounds, valued at 174,068. 
 Ontario produced more than half of the total. 
 
 Catfish are taken willi many forms of apparatus, although trot lines and fykes 
 seem to be the favorites. 
 
 The catfish has been canned in Lotiisiana, but it was camouflaged as salmon, and 
 the enactment of the Pure Food Law killed the business. 
 
 The following method is suggested as probably suitable for canning catfish, but care 
 should be used at first to test the method at frequent intervals. 
 
 The fish .should be skinned, dressed, the head removed and the body cut into lengths to 
 fit the can. The pieces should then be put into a G0° (salometer) brine solution and 
 allowed to soak tintil all the blood has been extracted. The brine should be made fresh 
 every time. The pieces can then be put into the cans with V^ ounce of salt added for 
 a 1-pound can, the top put on loosely, and the cans exhausted for about 15 minutes at 
 212^ F. The tops should then be sealed tightly and the cans processed for from 60 to 
 80 minutes at 240° F., after which the cans should be removed from the retort and 
 cooled in the cooling bath or with a hose. 
 
 CODFISH 
 
 One fff the best oppoi'tunilies for the development of a large industry in the I'nited 
 States and Canada is to be found in the canning of "codfish flakes," or "fish flakes," as 
 they are called ^^hell haddock or some other mendier of the Gadida' is mixed with the 
 cod. In this condition codfish is a much more sanitary and useful product than the 
 dry-salted fish, and also has the advantage of being available for u.se every month of the 
 year, and not, as in the case of the dry-salted j>roduct, unmarketable during the hot 
 season. 
 
 The family Gadida^ is a large one with iibout 25 genera and 140 species, many of 
 which are highly valued as food. They inhabit chiefly the northern seas; one species 
 
CATFISH AND COD FISHERIES. 
 
 1. — Catching Cod Over the Rail, of the Vessel; 2 — An Ohio River Catfish, and 3 — Cod on 
 
 the Deck of the Vessel ; Several Halibut are also Hanging from Shrouds. 
 
 30 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 31 
 
 (Lota) is coufliiecl to I'lesliwalcr lakes ami stieams. The cod tislieries of (lie world are 
 surpassed in importance only bv those for herring. 
 
 The coniinon codfish (Gadus ralhirkis) is found in tlie Xortli Alhintic and on lioth 
 coasts, south to Prance and Virginia. A very siniihir species is the Ahislva codfish (6' 
 macroccpholus), which is very abundant in Bering Sea on both shores, and ranges south 
 ward on our coast as far as Cape Flattery. Both are exceedingly important factors in 
 the fisheries of the United States and Canada, notably on the Atlantic coast, our Pacific 
 fishery not having as yet been developed to sucli an extent. The other members of the 
 family are usually taken at the same time as the cod. 
 
 Cod vary greatly in size and weight, some attaining a very large size. They are 
 generally taken with hand and trawl lines, and can be caught any month in the year. 
 In Alaska shore stations are maintained at various places in the Sliumagin and Sannak 
 groujis, and on T'nimak Island, most of lliese being operated all the year, while a fleet 
 of vessels freipient the ofi-shore banks in the North Pacific and Bering Sea from May to 
 August inclusive. On the Atlantic fishing is iirosecuted on the banks adjacent to the 
 New England coast and on the (irand Bank. A fishery with boats is also prosecuted off 
 the New Jersey coast. 
 
 AA'hile the Atlantic waters produce several very important species closely related to 
 the true cod, and which can be marketed along with them, our Pacific waters produce 
 but one or two species, and these too small to be marketed along with cod. 
 
 The most important of the related species is the haddock {McUuminuininni iirglc- 
 fhnisj. which occurs from V;\\)e Hatteras north to the Strait of Belle Isle. They are 
 abundant on the ^Massachusetts coast in summer, and it is then tliat the lai'gest catches 
 are made there as well as on the ofl'-shore banks in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The usual 
 size of the haddock is al)out 3 or 4 jK)unds, and the maximum about IT pounds. 
 
 The pollock (PoUachius vircns) is common on both coasts of the Atlantic, on our 
 side ranging north from New York. It is most abundant in the southern part of its 
 range, and at times is ipiite common as far south as Cape Cod. It i-eaches a length of 
 more than 3 feet and a weight of 25 pounds or more. 
 
 The Alaska pollock iThrr<i</r>i (hdlcofpyiiiiiintfi) is found in Bering Sea and neigh- 
 boring waters south to Sitka and the Kurils. It is very abundant throughout Bering 
 Sea, swimming near the surface and furnisliing the greater part of the food of the fur 
 seal. It reaches a length of 3 feet. No fishery has yet been established for it. 
 
 The codlings, or hakes, contain only two s]iecies which are of value as food. These 
 are the white hake iUrophi/ci.^ leiniis) and llie scpiirrel hake (!'. cliiiss). They are 
 found on our Atlantic Coast from Labrador to Caiie Hatteras, l)eing especi.-illy abundant 
 to the northward, and are found at a depth as great as 300 fathoms. They are most 
 abundant during summer and Call along the coast of Maine and Massachusetts. The 
 average size of the hake taken i)robably does not exceed 5 to 10 pounds, though each 
 species reaches a much larger size. A quite extensive fishery is prosecuted for hake, 
 lines and trawls being employed. 
 
 The cusk, or torsk (Brm^ni'nift hrnsinr) is a large fish found on both shores of the 
 North Atlantic, on this side ranging north from Cape Cod. 
 
 The common tomcod or frostfish {Microfjadiis iomcod) is a very small codfish which 
 is found on our Atlantic coast from Virginia to Cape Sable. On the Pacific coast is 
 found the California tomcod (M. proximus), which occurs from Monterey Bay to Un- 
 alaska. They are most abundant in early winter, when they approach the shores and 
 even ascend rivers and creeks for spawning purposes. Though most abundant in winter 
 they may be found along the shore at all seasons. The tomcod rarely exceeds a foot in 
 length. 
 
32 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 The only freshwater member of the cod family in North America is the ling or 
 lawyer {Lota maculosa). It is found pretty well distributed in the larger lakes of 
 Canada and the northern United States from Maine and New Brunswick to the head- 
 waters of the Missouri, and to Alaska. It is probably most abundant in the Great Lakes. 
 It I'eaches a length of 1 to 3 feet. 
 
 As soon as caught all of the Gudidse, and, in fact, any of the large species, should be 
 bled by having its throat cut. This gets rid of most of the blood and prevents it from dis- 
 coloring the Hesh if allowed to congeal in the flsh after death. 
 
 During the calendar year 1917 the American fishing fleets operating from Gloucester 
 and Boston, Mass., and Portland, Maine, landed the following catches of cod and relateci 
 species: Cod, 5G,44r>,.52S pounds; haddock, 33,554,385 pounds; hake, 7,914,646 pounds; 
 pollock, 14,507,792 pounds; cusk, 3,549,303 pounds; livers, 959,420 pounds; sounds, 53,335 
 pounds; tongues, 1,688 pounds, and spawn, 148,591 pounds. This does not take into 
 account the large quantity of the various species landed at other ports in New England 
 and the Middle Atlantic states, other than New York and New Jersey, for which we have 
 no data available for the year in question. This catch would run up into the millions 
 of jKiunds. In New York and New Jersey the tishermen landed the following: Cod, 
 436,075 pounds; haddock, 24,775 pounds; hake, 2.161,787 pounds, and pollock, 320,062 
 pounds. In 1908 the tomcod catch of the United States amounted to 289,000 pounds. 
 
 The catch in Pacific waters by the American fleet and shore stations amounted in 
 1917 to 15,522,-532 pounds of cod. 
 
 During the year ended March 31, 1917, the fishermen of Canada landed the following 
 catches of cod and related species: Cod, 196.286,000 pounds; haddock, 58,202,800 pounds; 
 hake and cusk, 38,595,300 pounds; pollock, 14,330,600 pounds; tomcod, 1,431,400 pounds; 
 tongues and sounds, 242,800 pounds. 
 
 Newfoundland and Labrador during the year 1917 produced about 1,299,200,000 
 pounds of the various species of the Gadidre. 
 
 Codfish and the related species may be canned either plain or corned. In canning 
 plain codfish the fish should be split to the vent, the gill rakers, entrails and membrane 
 lining (in the majority of cases this will be black, and will not look good in the 
 can) of the stomach removed, the head and fins cut off, and the fish cut in pieces to fit 
 the size of the can to be filled. They are then put in a tub and covered with a brine of 
 SO'^ (salometer) strength and soaked one or two hours in order to extract the blood, etc. 
 The thicker the fish the longer the soaking required. After the fish have been removed 
 this brine should be thrown away and a fresh brine made for the next lot. The fish 
 should be put into the cans, the tops put on loosely, and the cans run through the exhaust 
 box for 10 minutes at a temperature of 212° F., then be sealed up and processed 45 
 minutes at 240° F., then raise to 250° F. for 10 minutes; or processed 65 to 70 minutes 
 at a temperature of 245 to 247 degrees. After removal from retort they can be cooled 
 in the same manner as salmon. 
 
 A much better method is after dressing the fish as noted above, to put them on trays 
 and run these into a retort or oven, whichever is most convenient, and heat the fish until 
 a large part of the excessive moisture in the flesh has been removed and the skin is 
 ready to peel off. After removal from the retort the skin is (aken off and the body cut 
 iiil(( pieces to fit the can, llie loose rib bones removed wilh ii |iair of tweezers, the can 
 filled and sealed, and then exhausted and pi-ocessed as noted above. It is possible that 
 the exhausting could be done away with after a, little ex]ierimenting, esjiecially if the 
 meat was packed in liallixjund cans. Some canners save the oil o])tained in cooking 
 the flsh and put in the can with the flesh, which gives the latter the true cod flavor. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 33 
 
 In corning the fish are dressed by having the head removed, the belly split to the 
 veut and the gills and entrails removed. Some packers split down the back. The fish are 
 then cleaned and wiped dry without the use of water. For each 100 pounds of fish the 
 packer then mixes thoroughly 5 ounces of powdered saltpeter, 5 pounds of salt and 5 
 pounds of brown sugar, and rubs the outside and inside of the fish with the mixture. 
 The fish are then placed in tanks, skin side down, several planks placed on top and 
 these weighted down. They are allowed to remain here from 48 to 60 hours; the thicker 
 the fish the longer the time. After removal from the tank and washing and draining 
 the fish are cut to fit the size can in use and placed in the can. The can is then filled 
 with a sauce made from the following materials and in the manner noted: V2 pound of 
 whole cloves, Vo ounce of bay leaves and y^ pound of whole black pepper, and placed in 
 1 gallon of GO-grain vinegar and allowed to soak 48 or more hours. Two pounds of chopped 
 onions and 3 pounds of salt are placed in a kettle with t2i.j gallons of water and brought 
 to a boil, after which it is cooked 30 minutes, the vinegar and spices then added. The 
 mixture is allowed to boil one minute, after which it is strained. 
 
 The top is then sealed on tightly and processed at 240° F., 1-pound cans for 30 
 minutes and 2 pound cans for 45 minutes. 
 
 In canning codfish the can should be lined with parchment paper as otherwise the 
 flesh will discolor. 
 
 CTJLTUS OR BLUE COD 
 
 This exceedingly common Pacific coast fish is found from Sitka to Santa Barbara, 
 being especially abundant in lower British Columbia and the State of Washington, and is 
 a quite important food fish. The demand for it is constantly increasing, but the fisher- 
 men could increase the catch a hundredfold if there was sufficient demand to justify it. 
 
 The cultus cod (Ophidion elongatus) is a large, coarse fish, reaching a length of 3 to 
 4 feet, and a weight of 30 to 40 pounds. The flesh of the fish is livid blue or green in color, 
 but turns white in cooking. 
 
 The following method might work in canning this species. Scale, dress and head 
 the tish. Cut in pieces to fit can, and soak these in 50° (salometer) brine until blood 
 has been extracted. Do not use the brine the second time. Put pieces in 1-pound cans 
 with 14 ounce of salt, put top on loosely, and exhanst for 15 minutes at 212° F. Seal 
 tops and process cans for from 90 to 120 minutes (the time can be determined only by 
 experiment) at 240^" F. Remove from retort and cool in bath or with hose. , 
 
 DRUM 
 
 The sea drum (Pogonias croiuis) is found fi'om New England to the Rio Grande, 
 and is a common and well known fish on sandy shores everywhere, particularly south- 
 ward. It is one of the largest food fishes on our coast, an example weighing 140 jjounds 
 having been caught in Florida. Though those seen in market usually weigh only a few 
 pounds, examples weighing 50 to SO pounds are not rare. The fish is a sluggish one, 
 feeding chiefly at the bottom, where its long, sensitive barbels aids greatly in its search 
 for food, which consists chiefly of crustaceans and mollusks. 
 
 In the south it is held in much esteem as a food fish. The flesh is coarse, though 
 tender and of delicate flavor. In North Carolina it is frequently dry-salted and is then 
 known locally as "North Carolina cod." The fact Ihat muscle parasites are found in the 
 posterior part of the back has militated against its more general use as a food fish. While 
 these would not have a deleterious effect on the consnmer, it is possible that they could be 
 
34 CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 eliminated in some way. The roe is considereil a ureat delicacy and is often salted 
 and diied, and also might be canned, the siiine method being used as is now followed 
 with other fish eggs. The scales are used to some extent in Florida in the manufacture 
 of the handiwork known as "flshscale jewelry." 
 
 The drum is usually taken in seines or traps, while many are taken with hook and 
 line. 
 
 The freshwater drum (Aplodinotus gniiniiciis) is a large species occurring in our 
 larger lakes and sluggish streams and bayous from the Great Lakes and west of the 
 Alleghenies southward through the Mississippi valley to Louisiana, and in lowland streams 
 through Texas to the mouth of the Rio Grande. It is jnost abundant in the Great Lakes 
 and in the lowland sti'eams of Louisiana and Texas. It is one of the largest of our fresh- 
 water fishes as it reaches a weight of 50 to (iO pounds and a length of 4 feet. The aver- 
 age, however, is much smaller. It is much esteemed as a food fish in the south. 
 
 This species has many common names. In the (Jreat Lakes it is the sheepshead or 
 freshwater drum; in the Ohio it is the white perch, gray perch, or .simply perch; farther 
 south it is drum, while in Louisiana, it is called gaspergou. 
 
 In 1008 the production in the United States of saltwater drum amounted to 4,576,000 
 pounds, and of freshwater drum, 6,532,000 pounds. 
 
 These fishes would probably be best corned, the same as codfish, and then canned 
 the same as the latter. 
 
 EELS 
 
 The common eel (Aiij/iiind vhrlsmta) is (uie of the most familiar denizens of the 
 waters of Eastern North America. On our Atlantic coast it ranges from Newfoundland 
 to Mexico and Central America, and is also abundant amongst the islands of the West 
 Indies. Unlike other eels, it ascends freshwater streams long distances, and may be 
 found even in the headwaters of nearly all the rivers of the Atlantic coast and the Missis- 
 sippi valley. They average about 21/0 to 3 feet in length. 
 
 The eel is a freshwater fish whose real home is in the fresh water rivers and 
 lakes, but which runs down to salt water at spawning time. The common eel spawns 
 in salt water, usually off the mouths of rivers, on mudbanks, to which they go in great 
 numbers at the spawning time, which is in the fall. At the beginning of the second 
 spring after the young eels find their way to the mouths of the rivers, which they ascend 
 in incredible numbers. In these freshwater streams and lakes they remain until of 
 adult age, when they return to the sea for spawning purposes. This seaward migration 
 takes place in the fall, when large numbers are caught in eel traps, pots and other devices. 
 The downstream movement occurs usually at night, commencing soon after suu.set, and 
 ceases an hour or more before sunrise. Like the Pacific salmons, the eels die after 
 spawning, never returning to fresh water the second time. 
 
 The common eel is remarkably prolific, as many as 10,700,000 eggs having been 
 taken from a female. 
 
 The catch of eels in the United States in ]00S anioiuilcd to 3,3.58,(10(1 pounds, but as 
 the interior lakes and the upper courses of the rivers were not canvassed that year the 
 above figures do not represent anything like the total (piantity obtained liy the fisher- 
 men. New York and Massachusetts lead with 736,000 and 722,000 pounds respectively. 
 Owing to the popular prejudice against the eel as an article of food in certain sections, 
 but little fishing is now carried on in these for the species, but this would be speedily 
 overcome should a demand arise from the canning interests for them. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 35 
 
 In Canada during the year 1916-17 the catch of eels amounted to l,i08,800 pounds, of 
 which 874,100 pounds came from the Province of Quebec ; lCi5,100 pounds from the Prov- 
 ince of Ontario; 210,400 pounds from Nova Scotia; 147,000 pounds from New Brunswick, 
 and 10,300 pounds from Prince Edward Island. As in the United States, the produc- 
 tion can he much increased should the demand warrant it. 
 
 If canneries were located in suitable spots, say in Chesapeake Bay or the sounds of 
 North Carolina, where eels are plentiful and cheap, quite a business could undoubtedly 
 be built up in canning them smoked, pickled and in jelly. 
 
 Smoked 
 
 As soon as possible after received the eels are dressed by splitting them from the 
 head to the vent and removing the viscera. Some continue the splitting sufficiently deep 
 to remove the large vein along the backbone, but sometimes this may be pulled out without 
 splitting the fish more than an inch or two beyond the vent; many smokers, however, 
 pay no attention to this vein. The eels are then immersed in a strong brine (about 20 
 pounds of Liverpool salt, or other good salt, to 100 pounds of fish being required ) from 
 2 to 7 hours, according to strength of brine, size of fish and the desired flavor. The 
 thicker the fish the stronger the brine and the longer time required. 
 
 The eels are then taken out and dipped in water to remove the slime and surplus 
 salt. Some throw them into a tub of water and beat them with a net for several minutes 
 to accomplish this purpose. The eels are then strung on iron or steel rods, this passing 
 through the head of each eel, or through the throat cartilage and out of the mouth, and 
 hung in the open air a few hours for drying; some smokers transfer them immediately 
 to the smokehouse. 
 
 In some places the fish are subjected to a mild smoke for about 5 or G hours until 
 they have acquired the proper color, when the fires are gradually increased and they are 
 hot-smoked or cooked for 30 or 40 minutes. Along the Great Lakes the smoking is 
 usually at an even temperature tlimnghout and continues for C or 8 hours. ilahogany 
 or cedar sawdust is used for nuikiug the smoke, while hickory or white-oak wood is used 
 for cooking, the latter being preferred. The smoking must be carefully attended to, for 
 if the heat becomes too great the fish will curl up out of shai»e. A good test to determine 
 whether the cooking is sufficient is to notice the ease with which the skin may be separated 
 or peeled from the flesh where the eel has been split. 
 
 The percentage of decrease in weight by dressing and smoking is about 35 per cent. 
 
 Occasionally the eels are skinned before being smoked, the process being the same 
 as above described, except that less salting and smoking is reciuired, and it is also very 
 difficult to keep them from falling down ofif the rods in the smokehouse. 
 
 The eels are then cut into lengths slightly less than the height of the can, and these 
 pieces placed close together in the latter, the interstices being filled with diluted cotton- 
 seed oil suitably flavored with vinegar, cloves, etc., the top sealed on, exhausted about 
 10 minutes at 212° F., and then processed for about 100 minutes at 240'=' F. 
 
 Eels in Jelly and Pickled 
 
 Small and medium-sized eels are selected and after the head, skin and viscera are 
 removed the eels are cut into suitable lengths and placed on wire trays and cooked in 
 a steam retort, or, in some 'cases, fried in an oven for 20 or 30 minutes. They are then 
 placed in cans, either plain or with a small amount of jellies to hold them firmly 
 together, or with a sauce made of vinegar and spices, or in tomato sauce. 
 
36 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCT.S 
 
 The jelly can be made by dissolving on flre isinglass which has previonsly soaked 
 one day in \vatei-. Add salt and spices to taste, and flavor with port or sherry wine. 
 The jelly should be clarified after being made. 
 
 The cans should then be sealed, exhausted for about Id minutes at -12 F. if put in 
 cans cold (no exhausting is necesary if product is jiacked hot), and processed for about 
 !)() minutes at 240° F. The exact processing time can be determined by actual experi- 
 ment. 
 
 FINNAN HADDIE 
 
 This s]iecial method of curing haddocks takes its name from the village of Findon 
 (of which Finnan is a corruption), near Aberdeen, (Scotland. At first it was a i)urely 
 home indnsti-y, luit as time went on the product became better known and the mai'ket 
 expanded, until today the fish so prepared in various lands has a wide sale amongst 
 fish lovers. 
 
 The business was first introduced into this country about 1850. Portland, Maine, 
 was the scene of the first serious effort at the industry, and in this same city today the 
 larger part of the present pack is prepared. Finnan liaddie are also prepared at East- 
 port, Maine, New York City, and Gloucester, Mass., and at St. Johns and Digby in the 
 British provinces. 
 
 When first caught the fish should be bled either by cultiiig the throat or by cutting 
 one fold. of the gill on each side of the head. If this is not done, and the landing of the 
 fish is delayed for some days, the lilood will be so thoroughly congealed in the bones of 
 the fish that it will be next lo impossible to extract it thoroughly, thus causing a general 
 discolorment that will detract much from its value. 
 
 In dressing the head is first removed, following the shape of the gill cover. The fish 
 should then be laid on its side upon a bench or table, its shoulders being towards the 
 v.orker and its throat toward his right hand. Taking hold of the "lugs" of the fish with 
 his left hand, the operator should insert the knife at the throat and run it down along 
 the belly to the anal fin. The opening should be done by one forward sweep of the knife, 
 and not by repeated cuts. The entrails are then removed. The fish should then be 
 washed in clean water and the black membrane lining of the stomach removed. 
 
 In splitting the operator lifts the haddocks one by one with his left hand, laying each 
 fish in front of him with its tail toward him. Taking a firm hold of the upper nape of 
 the fish with his left hand, he enters the knife above the bone at the shoulder, and draws 
 it down to within an inch of the tail, keeping the blade close to the bone during the 
 operation, and taking care not to run the knife through the skin of the fish. This will 
 make the fish lie out fiat. If the blood bone has not been cut through the fish should be 
 turned round and as much of the bone chipped oft:' with the point of the knife as will 
 expose the lilood cavity. They are then given a thorough Viashing, especially on the 
 inside. 
 
 The fish are then ready for the pickle, ^^•hich should be strong enough to fioat a 
 ]>otato, or about 90° salonieter. They should remain here for 20 minutes to half an hour, 
 according to the size of the fish and the requirements of the market for which they are 
 destined. They are then hung uji on upright planks to drain and usually remain here 
 overnight. 
 
 The smoking kilns are built on the general model of an open fireplace with chimney. 
 The fish are fastened to the sticks from which they are suspended in the smokehouse, the 
 napes being stretched out flat and pierced by two small iron spikes or nails in the smoke- 
 sticks. Sometimes these sticks are used for the draining of the fish and then suspended 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 37 
 
 in the smokehouse, the sticks being placed in tiers, one above another, with space be- 
 tween to allow the smoke to circulate. A fire of hardwood, usually oak, is started over 
 the floor of the smoking kiln and allowed to burn from 8 to 18 hours, when sawdust is 
 applied, smoldering the Are and producing a dense smoke, which thoroughly impreg- 
 nates the fish. In smokehouses with a low ceiling the smoking can be completed in 4 or 
 5 hours. In some smokehouses no wood is used, the curing being effected by burning 
 hardwood sawdust, rock maple or beech being preferred, and the temperature is kept as 
 high as practicable without burning the fish, which are placed high up in the bays. The 
 time of cooking or smoking depends on the condition of the fish, temperature of the air, 
 and the probable time to elapse before consumption, but never exceeds one night. 
 
 ^^'hen the smoking is completed the fish are removed from the smokehouse and placed 
 on racks for cooling, and when thoroughly cooled are packed tor shipment. Only enough 
 are cured at a time to supply the immediate demand, as it is important that they reach 
 the retail dealers in good condition. During warm weather they will keeji only a few 
 days, but when the weather is cool they will, under ordinary conditions, keep from 10 
 days to 2 or even :i weeks. If it is desirable to keep them longei- they must be smoked 
 much harder. 
 
 The season for Finnan haddie begins in October and lasts until the following April. 
 100 pounds of round fish yields about 55 pounds of smoked. The choicest haddie are 
 tender. The inside is of a light yellowish-brown or straw-color. 
 
 As Finnan haddie when sold in boxes will keep but for a vei*y limited period, efforts 
 have been made at enclosing them in hermetically sealed packages. A pojiular package 
 with some packers is the glass jar. The fish are cut to fit these jars, packed in, the jars 
 sealed in vacuum, and then processed in a retort at aljout 240'- F. for a period to be 
 determined by experiment. 
 
 GERMAN CARP 
 
 
 SCALE CARP (Ci)l>riiiiis crirpio). 
 
 One of the most abundant of the freshwater sj)ecies of this country is the (ierman 
 carji {Ciijiriiiiis rdi'iiio). This species is a very ancient one in Asia and Europe, and has 
 been cultivated in ponds for many centuries; in Germany and Austria this is an import- 
 ant commercial industry. It was ])robal)!y first introduced into this country by ^Mr. J. 
 A. Pop])e, of Sonoma, Califoiiiia. in 1S72. In ISTTiTT the U. S. Fish Commission began 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 the iutroductiou of the species, and in a few years had distributed specimens through- 
 out the country. 
 
 It was the intention to restrict the range of these tish to ponds, but as a result of 
 freshets, accidents to dams, etc., many of them got into the rivers and large lakes, whei-e 
 they found conditions so propitious that they increased enormously in numbers. 
 
 Unfortunately our people took a dislike to the fish, due largely to the fact that it 
 roots in the mud at the bottom of lakes and streams in its search for succulent roots, 
 and this gives the flesh a muddy flavor if it is killed during the warm montlis. If 
 marketed from October to April, however, the flesh has a fairly good flavor. 
 
 It is said that the carp may live to be 100 or even 150 years old and may come to 
 weigh 80 to 90 pounds, but these statements are not well authenticated. They have 
 attained in our waters a weight of fully 10 jiounds. In warm waters in which plenty 
 of fool is obtainable the rate of growth of these fishes is remarkably fast. 
 
 While the carp is quite generally and abundantly distributed in our fresh waters, 
 it is jiarticularly altundant in Lake Erie, especially at the western end, Sandusky and 
 Port Clinton, Ohio, and Monroe, Mich., being the principal shipping points, Lake St. 
 Clair (at its upper end), and in the Illinois River. Should the demand arise almost 
 any section of the country could produce large quantities of this species. 
 
 The carp thrives well under domestication. In ponds they become easily tamed, 
 learn to come to a certain spot to be fed, and, it is said, will even take food from the 
 hand. They are vegetable feeders and usually move in schools. In our southern states 
 and California spawning often begins in April. Elsewhere the spawning season seems to 
 be in the latter part of May and early June. 
 
 One objection to the use of the fish as food is that the flesh has a muddy flavor. This 
 is true of those fish which have lived in very muddy jdaces, especially where the water 
 is stagnant and the temperature rather high. If the carp are removed from such places 
 and kept for a short time in fresh running water, the muddy flavor it is claimed can 
 be eliminated. Skinning the fish is also said to remove the undesirable flavor, which 
 is thought to reside in the skin and fat immediately underlying it. Cutting off the head of 
 the live fish and bleeding it is also said to woi-k an improvement. At the principal fishery 
 centers it is the custom to catch the fish with haul seines, and put them alive iu ponds 
 made by fencing off little bays or bights with narrow entrances, and keeping them here 
 until tlie winter months, or until prices are sufliciently high to justify shipping. In 
 cold weather the muddy flavor is absent, or but little noticeable, while the fish also 
 commands a much higher price than it would bring during the summer and early fall. 
 
 In 1908 the total production of German carp in our waters amoimted to 12,703,000 
 pounds, valued at |1,1.'{5,000. Of 38 states having fisheries of a commercial nature in that 
 year, 31 reported German carp. Of the grand total Illinois rejjortcd slightly over one- 
 half. The other leading producers were Ohio, Michigan, Missouri, Wisconsin, Iowa and 
 Minnesota in the order named. California produced 427,000 pounds. Only a compara- 
 tively small catch is made in Canada. Since 190S there has been a considerable increase 
 in the demand for this species, ^vith a corresponding increase in the production, although 
 no authentic figures are available showing the exact extent of the increase. 
 
 If a market could be established for canned German carp the supply would be almost 
 limitless. At the present time the Jews are the princii)al consumers, and they prefer the fish 
 alive, or, if dead, in a I'ound condition, or just as taken from the water. Whether they 
 could be persuaded to take them canned could be determined only by experiment. There 
 would be but little trouble in keeping the fish alive until it could be canned, as it is an 
 exceedingly hardy species. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 39 
 
 Some years ago a few carp were canned in (^"leveland, Ijnt the process followed is 
 not known. It is suggested that the fish be skinned, dressed and cut iuto pieces of a 
 size to fit the cans, and after being thoroughl.y washed, put into clean, fresh brine made 
 by dissolving 3 pounds of salt in each 12i/. gallons of water used and left here until all 
 the blood is extracted, usually from one to two hours. The pieces should then be put 
 in the cans, the tops put on loosely, and the cans run through an exhaust box for about 
 10 to 15 minutes at 212° F., the tops then sealed on, and the cans i)rocessed for from 100 
 to 110 minutes at 240'' F. for 1-pouud cans (a little longer time for 2-pound cans), after 
 which they should be removed and placed in cooling bath. A little experimenting will 
 speedily disclose what changes, if any, are necessary in this process. 
 
 Canned SmokeJd Carp 
 
 Canned smoked carp might prove <a very salable product. For smoking the larger 
 fish are used, weighing usually 12 to 15 pounds. As these fish are not popular with the 
 consuming trade it is probable that they could be bought by the canuer at a fairly low 
 price. With a sharp knife the skin and scales are cut off in broad strips (about three to 
 a side), the cuts not going so deejt, however, Init that the imprints of the scales still show 
 on the flesh. The head, viscera and fins are all cut away, and the fish is then cut up 
 into transverse sections, some two or three inches in thickness. These steaks are placed 
 in brine of 90° salinity to cover them and allowed to remain here from 10 to Ifi hours, 
 according to the strength of the pickle and the flavor desired. They are then strung on 
 long iron rods, dipped in fresh water to remove surplus or undissolved salt, etc., drained 
 and sns])ended in the smokehouse 4 to 8 feet above the floor, and subjected to a gentle 
 smoke for 4 or 5 hours. The door or damper is then closed, the fires spread or built up 
 and the fish cooked for one or two hours, according to the amount of fire, the height of 
 the fish, and the particular cure desired. The cooling is accomplished by opening the 
 doors of the smokehouse or by removing the fish to the outside. 
 
 They should then be canned the same as shown above, the packer being prepared, 
 however, to alter the ])rocess as exj)erience may show is necessary. 
 
 CATCHING GREYFISH PROM A PUGET SOUND WHARF. 
 
40 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 GREYFISH 
 
 The wi-iter hesitjited long ovei- includinji' sliarks and greyfish iu his ti.she.s nuitable 
 for canning', despite the fact that many have arisen to tell ns they are excellent when so 
 prepared. AVhile the writer does not question that the tiesh of these tishes fresh, smoked 
 or salted is nutritious, and, no doubt, pleasing to many palates, it is still a (piestion 
 whether the flesh can be canned in such a way as to be palatable. Several Pacific coast 
 salmon canners took up the luisiness on a fairly large scale and with most disastrous 
 financial results. Their failure was due exclusively to the fact that the flesh of these 
 fishes contains a large percentage of urea. 
 
 The r. S. Bureau of Chemistry and private parties are now carrying on experiments 
 looking (o the elimination of the urea iu the early stages of packing, and the results so 
 far obtained have been fairly satisfactory, but, unfortunately, the tiesh of the grayfish 
 lacks the solidity found in the flesh of other fishes, and thus is unsuitable for canning 
 whole, although it might be found suitable for canning in the shape of fish ])aste. loaf, 
 or sausage. 
 
 One decided disadvantage, in a business way, to the canning of greyfish is ihat the 
 liatent desire of the fishery authorities and the fishermen generally is to exterminate the 
 species altogether. In the marketing of a new canned food the first (piestion the brokers 
 and wholesalers, who in many instances be ir all, or a considerable jiart, of the expense 
 of introducing it to the consuming public, ;»sk is as to the (piantity that can be obtained 
 and the jiermanence of the suii])ly. The knowledge that the main desire of the authori- 
 ties and fishermen generally is to exterminate the species, would cause most of them to 
 refuse to jiut forth their best efforts to extend the demand for the i)rodnct as they would 
 soon l)e in the unenviable ]iosition of having created a demand they were unable to snp])ly. 
 
 The name greyfish is now a)i|ili('(l to two species ol' dogfish, Axliirli, while they resem- 
 ble each other exteriorly, dift'er (piite radically in composition of flesh. 
 
 The horned dogfish {Sqiiiiliis <icintthi(ts \ during the summer and fall months is 
 abundant along the Atlantic coast from Newl'oundlaiid to Cape Cod, and duiing the win- 
 ter occurs as far south as Cuba. They are strong and active swimmers, and roam along 
 our coasts in great schools, pursuing their prey like a pack of wolves. In length the 
 adults vary from 2 to 3 feet and in weight from 5 to 15 pounds. The horned dogfish is 
 to be distinguished from the smooth dogfish by its small sharp teeth and a rather high 
 dorsal s])ine in front of each of the two dorsal fins. Fnlike most other fishes the eggs of the 
 female are fertilized internally, and they develop inside of the egg tubes, and the young 
 when born are similar to adults except in size. The flesh contains a large percentage of 
 oil. 
 
 The schools of dogfish feed ipiite generall,\ on mackerel, herring, ((id, haddock and 
 other coast fishes. A\'Iien a school of these wolves of the sea appears ajxin the fishing 
 banks they drive the food fishes away from them and the fishermen are con)])elled to 
 suspend operations until they leave for other pastures. Not only do they destroy better 
 food fishes, but they rob and injure or destroy the gill nets, seines, trawls and other gear 
 of the fishermen. 
 
 The smooth dogfish i Miixtrlus cuiiis) occurs in great numbers along our Atlantic 
 coast from Cape Cod to Florida, and is found in the I'acific from Alaska to southern 
 California. In this species the teeth are fiat and pavement like, well adapted for crush- 
 ing rather than for seizing and holding pre.v. The average length of the smooth dogfish 
 is about 3 feet, but occasionally specimens are taken that measure as much as 5 
 feet. The mode of reproduction in this sj)ecies is the same as with the horned dogtish. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 41 
 
 It is a botloiii feeder, preying almost entirely upon crabs, lobsters and other crustaceaus. 
 On the Pacific many are to be found under the flshhouses feeding ujion the salmon refuse. 
 It does not run iri schools as does the horned dogfish. In composition the fiesh of the 
 smooth dogfish i.s free from oil. 
 
 Much is said of the abundance of greyfish, and while this may he. and proliably 
 is, true, it does not necessarily follow that many can be caught by the fishermen. On the 
 Pacific coast the general experience of the fishermen has been that when first engaged in 
 the fishery is (juite productive, but in a few weeks the catch begins to dwindle rapidly 
 until it is soon unprofitable, and the fishermen must then seek other grounds. The fisher- 
 men claim that the fish have not been caught out, but have migrated elsewhere to escape 
 them, as they can usually be found in abundance beyond the range covered in the 
 previous operations. 
 
 In both species the liver is exceedingly rich in oil, and has been jmt to a number of 
 uses in the arts and sciences. It has also been refined for medicinal uses and is claimed 
 by some to be as good as cod-liver oil. 
 
 The skin of the greyfish is durable, iion jiorons and covered with numerous small, 
 pointed denticles closely set together, and has been used in various ways. Turners, 
 cabinetmakers and carpenters and metal workers have used it for polishing purposes. 
 In the East it is used for polishing ivory. In France the skin, when prepared with the 
 placoid scales in place and dyed, usually green, is used for covering cardcases, jewel 
 boxes, sword sheaths, desk ornaments, etc., and may also be used for covering the 
 handles of swords and tennis rackets, on whi<h it is desiralde to get a firm grip. If 
 produced in large quantities it would be a difficult matter to get much for them unless 
 the present denmnd is largely increased. 
 
 It is possible that sizing might be prepared from the cartilaginous parts, but it is 
 hopeless to ex])ect to make a good glue from these parts. 
 
 The eggs are used for making puddings, pancakes, etc., and otherwise as a substitute 
 for fowls' eggs. 
 
 GROUPERS 
 
 This, one of the most important genera of Amei-ican fishes, comprises about a dozen 
 species in our waters, most of them of large size and all valued as food. 
 
 The most imjiortant member of the group is the red groujier ( Kpiiirpliclus uwrio). 
 It is found on our South Atlantic and Gulf coasts from ^'irginia to Texas. It is a very 
 handsome fish, and is one of the largest and most important food fishes of our trojiical 
 waters, reaching a length of 2 or 3 feet and a weight of 20 to 40 pounds. It is 
 abundant on the west and south coast of Florida. It is most abundant, hoAvever, on the 
 red snapper banks of the Gulf of Mexico, which it frequents in company with the former. 
 It is '.iiuch more abundant than the I'cd snapper, which supports an important vessel 
 fishery, but as it does not sell as readily as the latter the fishermen are limited as to the 
 qiiantity they can bring in. They are caught with hook and line, the same as red snapper. 
 
 The rock hind (E. adsccnsioiiis) is known from southern Florida and the West 
 Indies. It is common in rocky places, reaches a length of 18 inches, and is considei'ed 
 the finest food fish of the group. It is found mainly around Key West, and is taken 
 with lu'ok and line. 
 
 The Nassau grouper (E. striatiis) is common all of the year around Key West. It 
 attains a length of 3 feet and a weight of .jO pounds, although the average is more 
 nearlv ]0 ]ii>uii(ls. It is an excellent food fish. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 The speckled hiiul (7:;. dniiiiinoiid-liayi] is most abundant ou the red snapper banks 
 in the Gulf of Mexico, and many are brought in to Pensacola by the snapper fleet. It 
 attains a weight of 3(1 pounds. 
 
 A closely related species is the black jewtish or black grouper (Garnipa nigrita), 
 which occurs from Charleston and Pensacola south. It is an immense fish, one of the 
 largest known, reaching a weight of about 500 pounds, and rivaling in size the largest 
 known examples of the spotted jewflsh and the California jewtish. No small examples 
 have ever been seen, only one weighing less than 100 pounds having been recorded. They 
 are taken with hook and line, like all the rest, or with grains. 
 
 The spotted jewflsh {Proniicroiis itaiarn) rivals the black grouper and California 
 jewfish in weight. It reaches 2 to 6 feet in length and occurs on both coasts of tropical 
 America north of Florida and the Gulf of California. 
 
 These fishes can jirobably be canned in practically the same manner as red snap- 
 per and a large industry built up on the Gulf coast, as the red snapper vessels can 
 catch almost unlimited quantities if they are assured of a market for them. The same 
 plants could also can red snapper and several other species available in that section. 
 
 HALIBUT 
 
 Tlie halibut ( Hiiipof/lossiis hippor/lossiis) is found in all northern seas, and is one of 
 the most valued food fishes of the world. In the North Atlantic it is found on the 
 American side as far south as Montauk Point. Its occun-euce south of 40° is unusual. 
 Northward its range extends at least as far as Cumberland Gulf, in latitude 64°, and 
 on the coast of Greenland to 70° north. It is abundant about Iceland and Spitzbergen, 
 in latitude 80°. In the Pacific the halibut ranges from the Farallones to P>ering Straits. 
 The bulk of the world's supply of halibut comes from the banks along the Alaska coast; 
 but little is now taken from the Atlantic banks. 
 
 The halibut thrives best in the coldest waters. The temjierature of the water in 
 which it is taken rarely exceeds 45° F., and it is often as cold as 32°. It is one of the 
 largest of fishes; the author saw one at Juneau, Alaska, about 1900, which weighed 3Go 
 pounds, while Nilsson records one from the coast of Sweden that weighed 720 pounds. 
 The male halibut is always much smaller than the female, and rarely exceeds 50 pounds 
 in weight. Very large fish are not so highly esteemed as tliose of smaller size. Tho.se 
 from 30 to about 100 jiounds fetch the best price. 
 
 ^\"llile the fishery is now insignificant on the Atlantic coast, the banks being nearly 
 exhausted, it is one of the most important of our Pacific fisheries. A large fleet of 
 steamers and power vessels, with headquarters at Seattle, A'ancouver, Prince Rupert, 
 Ketchikan, Petersburg, and Juneau, engage in the fishery throughout the year. In 1917 
 the American fleet ojierating on the Pacific banks caught 43,892,002 pounds, while the 
 British Columbia fleet caught 9,710,030 i)ounds, a grand total for the Pacific of 53,002,032 
 pounds, as compared with approximately 3,742,1(;4 pounds caught on the Atlantic banks 
 during the same jiei'iod. 
 
 By far the greater portion of the catch is marketed in a fresh condition, and a consid 
 erable part is shipjjcd to the East. Some are frozen, while a veiw small portion is 
 fletched. None are canned for nuirket, although if properly managed a considerable 
 trade could be developed along this line. 
 
 On our California coast, from Tomales Bay to Cerros Island, and abjng the coast 
 of Lower California, is found the bastard halibut (Prettichthijs californicus), which is 
 I'eally a flounder, although commonly marketed as halibut. It reaches a length of 3 
 feet, a Aveight of 50 or 00 pounds, and is quite common. It does not rank near as high 
 
CANNING OP" FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 43 
 
 A DECKLOAD OF HALIBUT. 
 
 LANDING A SLINGFUL OF HALIBUT AND TWO SKATES OF GEAR ON DECK. 
 
4-t CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 as the lialibut as a lood fish. lu 1917 4,45:2,014: pounds were hiuded iu Califoruia from 
 the bauks. 
 
 Considerable experimental -work has been done in the canninj; of halibut, in several 
 instances with marked success. 
 
 In cue the flsh were dressed and cut into pieies lo lit the I-i)onnd cans, a little 
 brine added, the tops put on loosely, and the cans exhausted for about 15 minutes at a 
 temperature of about 210° F. They were then sealed u]i and rooked in a retort for about 
 80 mitiutes at a temperature of about 248° F. 
 
 In another the lisli were first cooked the same as is done with tuna, the meat 
 separated from The skin and bones, then put in the cans, the tops ]int on loosely, the cans 
 exhausted and cooked as noted above. Some consider the exhausting: unnecessary in this 
 process. 
 
 The halibut have also been corned before beinc; canned. In this process the flsh, 
 after being' dressed, split into two halves along the backbone, and wiped di-y, are thor- 
 oughly rubbed, inside and out, with an intimate mixture composed of 23 pounds of brown 
 sugar, 25 pounds of salt and 1 pound 9 ounces of powdered saltpeter, to each 500 pounds 
 of fish. The fish are then laid, skin side down, in tanks, and allowed to remain here from 
 50 to 00 hours, according to the thickness of the fish. They are then taken out of the 
 tanks, washed and the moisture allowed to drain oft' them, after which they are cut to 
 fit the cans, placed in same, which are then filled with a sauce made as follows: Soak 
 % pound whole black pepper, i^; pound whole cloves and Vi; ounce bay-leaves in one 
 gallon 00-grain vinegar for 48 hours. Two pounds of chopped onions and 3 pounds of salt 
 are then put in a kettle with 12ii; gallons of water, brought to a boil and cooked for ?>0 
 minutes, after which the vinegar and spices are added, the whole mass allowed to boil 
 one minute, after which it is removed and strained. The cans are then sealed and for 
 Ipound cans processed for 30 minutes at 240'^' F., and for 2 ])0und cans 45 minutes at 
 the same temperature. 
 
 ^^'hile oil can be used in the cans it does not jirescnt a xcry atli-active a]i])earance in 
 contrast with the extreme whiteness of the meat. Tomato or mustard sauce can be used. 
 
 A comparatively snmll quantity of smoked halibut is packed annually in cans and 
 jars. Fletches are used for smoking, and when needed they are removed from the kenches. 
 washed thoroughly in fresh water with corn brooms or bristle brushes, and soaked in 
 water for three or four hours. The water is then changed and they are again soaked for 
 about the same length of time. This soaking is necessaiy in order to remove the coating 
 of salt from the fish, and so soften its fiber that tlie smoke may easily penetrate the flesh. 
 They are then water-horsed, skin side up, and with weights on top, for flve or six liours, 
 after which they are placed on flakes similar to those used in curing codfish. Here they 
 are exposed to the sun's action for about 24 clear daylight hours, the flsh being placed 
 in small piles and covered with flake boxes during the night or in rainy weather. After 
 drying the fletches are cut in small pieces, from two to six ])ieces to the fletch, with a 
 gash in each piece where the flesh is thin and the skin appears tough. 
 
 The fletches are then strung on smooth, round, hardwood sticks or small iron or 
 steel rods, the sticks passing through the splits or gashes cut in the fletches, each piece 
 being two or three inches fi"om the adjacent ones to pei'mit the smoke to pass freely 
 among them. The sticks with the fletches attached are then j'assed into the smokehouse. 
 
 There are a number of types of smokehouses, the descriptions of which do not come 
 within the purview of this book. 
 
 The fuel for smoking consists principally of hardwood, chi]is of oak being especially 
 good, with sawdust to smother the flames. Smoking is usually completed in from two 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 45 
 
 to five days. lu damp weatliei- luoisluiL" collects ou the lish and the process may then 
 require a week, while during the wiuter it is jjossible to keep the fires hotter, aud the 
 smoking may he completed in two days. The fires must not he allowed to get too hot, for 
 then the fietches may become too soft to hang on the sticks, (lro])i(ing to the floor. The 
 doors are slightly open at all times to permit a circulation of air to keep the hnlihiit 
 cool, and they will also "take the smoke" better. One hundred pounds of fietches will 
 yield about 82 pounds smoked. 
 
 The smoked halibut is then sliced in chips and packed in cans or glass jars. The 
 containers are then sealed in vacuum and are processed for a period of from 1 1 ■_, to 2 
 hours (the exact time can best be determined by actual trial) in boiling water heated by 
 steam. The cans may be cooled by spraying cold water over them after removal from 
 the hot water, but the jars should be allowed to cool off 1.") minutes in the bath. 
 
 HERRING 
 
 On the Atlantic coast the herring is one of the most abundant fishes inhabiting the 
 North Atlantic Ocean. It ranges as far south as Cajje TIatteras, but never occurs in 
 great abundance south of Block Island, and the jirincipal fisheries are north of Cape 
 Cod. The northernmost ])ortion of North An;erica in which the herring fishery is per- 
 sistently and extensively followed is Newfoundland, and there are likewise more or less 
 extensive fisheries at the Magdalene Islands and at other places on the Gulf of St. Law- 
 rence, while from the Ray of Fundy to Cape Cod the fishing grounds are jiratically con- 
 tinuous. 
 
 On the Pacific Chipca pnlhisii is found from San Diego to the Arctic, being most 
 abundant northward, wheie the bays and sounds are filled with them in summer. They 
 are also to be found in these waters in lesser abundance throughout the rest of the year. 
 In Alaska they usually sjtawn in the spring. They ai-e fattest in the fall and early 
 winter, and reach a length of 18 inches in certain sections of Alaska. Init the average 
 length is much less. 
 
 In California the herring is taken only from December to Ajiril, when it enters the 
 sheltered bays to spawn. Its whereabouts is not known for the balance of the year. The 
 California herx'ing are small in size, but few of them reaching 10 inches in length. 
 
 The brush weir, a primitive form of the pound, or trap, net, is the princi]>al form of 
 appai'atus used in the Allanlic fisheries. The fish are led into a large enclosure by uuans 
 of long leaders and wings, which usually terminate in a funnel-sliai)ed entrance. Their 
 esca])e is ]irevented liy the extension of these wings into the enclosure, thereliy forming a 
 triangular hook at the end of each, so that the fish, as they circle around inside the weir, 
 are directed past the entrance. In some instances a droi), or curtain, made of netting is 
 attached to each side of the mouth and when the fish have entered it is let down and 
 closes the mouth of the weir. 
 
 ^'^'eirs are built in the spring, from Ajiril 1 to -Tune 1. It is customary for a num- 
 ber of men, usually from two to five, to build, own and operate a weir together in equal 
 shares. 
 
 As all i)arts of a weir are stationary it is necessary to use a seine, usualy a ])urse 
 seine, for taking out the fish after they have been entrapped. The weir is fished at both 
 low tides each day when the fish are running. 
 
 In a few jilaces on the Atlantic coast gill nets are used for herring. The nets are 
 always set at some distance below the surface, (iill nets are also useil sometimes in 
 .Vlaska and California. The cork lines are alwavs at the surface. I'ur.se seines are the 
 
THE MAINE HERRING FISHERIES. 
 
 1 — Dipping tlie Young Herring into Weir Boat; 2 — A Maine Herring Weir; 3 — A Maine 
 
 Herring Smokeliouse. 
 
 46 
 
CANNING OF FISHEKY PRODUCTS 
 
 47 
 
 coiiiiiioiiest I'oiiu 1)1' apparatus used in Alaska, wliile jiurse uud haul seines ai-e used iu 
 other sections of the I'aciflc coast. 
 
 Herring were first canned in Calil'oruia in 1!)17, and the scene of operations was at 
 Pittsburg, at the junction of the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers. As the product 
 becomes better known the range of operations will doubtless be greatly extended. Owing 
 to the smallness of the California fish, but few of them reaching 10 inches in length, they 
 are better suited for canning than pickling. 
 
 Upon arrival at the cannery the herring are put tlirougli a revolving scaler and are 
 then dressed by hand. After a thoi'ough washing they are carried on belts through a 
 drying chamber through which a blast of warm air is driven. This is to remove the excess 
 moisture and to dry the surface of the fish so that they will jiresent a more pleasing 
 appearance and also so they will not disintegrate or shrink in the can. A suitable quan- 
 tity of oil and spice or tomato sauce is then placed in the can, after which the fish are 
 packed heads and tails alternately. From here they pass on an endless belt through an 
 exhaust box for from 5 to 10 minutes at a temperature of about 210° F. The covers are 
 then crimped on and the cans run into the retort, where they are cooked for about 90 
 niiTiutos at a temperature of about 24.^° F. 
 
 A small (piaiitity of herring are canned in Maine also, the met hod being very similar 
 to that followed in California. 
 
 Some experiments in the canning of herring have been carried out at certain salmon 
 canneries in Alaska. One canner packed some in yo-poimd ctnis. The fish were dressed 
 and cleaned, and then were cut down to fit the can, in whicli they were stood upright. 
 The top was then put on loosely, after which the cans were turned over so the loose end 
 would be on the lower side. In this condition they were run through the exhaust box, 
 the packer claiming that by this method the excessive amount of water in the fish is 
 drawn off and allowed to pass out, while the valuable natural oil of the fish is retained. 
 After they leave the exhaust box the cans are reversed before they reach the double 
 seamer. They are then processed the same as salmon. 
 
 THE ALASKA-PACIFIC HERRING COMPANY'S CANNERY AT BIG PORT WALTER, ALASKA. 
 
 Kippered Herring 
 
 Kil)pered herring have been canned in Elaine in small quantities for some years. In 
 l!tl(> the business began in "Alaska. In the latter section when the herring are delivered 
 at the cannery they are spread on the floor in a thin layer and sprinkled with salt, and 
 they remain here until such time as the dress gang is ready to clean them. In dressing 
 
■iS 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODl'CTS 
 
 the fish aic placed on tables, ainiiiid which (ialher the women, who cut off the head and 
 ienio\e the viscera. Tlie fish are then tlioron,<;hl.v cleansed by being immersed in a 60° 
 (salomcter) brine for one to two hours. Tlr.' tish are then removed, drained and taken 
 to the smokinjj- room, where they are hunii by the tail on sticks studded on both sides 
 with rdws of sharpened nails, ^^'hen tilled with fish these sticlcs are ](laced side by side 
 and tier above tier, the first one starting about seven I'eet above the Hoor of the smoke- 
 house, where they are exposed to alderwood .smoke over night, during- which operation all 
 
 KIPPERED HERRING IN OVAL CAN. 
 
 the surplus moisture has been driven from the body and the natural oil commences to 
 appear. They are then taken down and carried to the cannery where they are packed by 
 hand in l-]iound oval cans; each can holds from five to eight fish. The cans are then 
 sealed without the addition of any oil or dressing, and are cooked abont - hours by 
 immersion in boiling water heated by steam pipes to a temperature of 1^12 F. 
 
 In California the fish are dressed the same as for jtacking fresh, after which they 
 are run through the dryer, then kijtpered, after which they are canned the same as fresh 
 herring. 
 
 R.MOKED riEitrtiXG 
 
 One Alaska canner in preparing fish in this manner dresses the fish by splitting 
 them down the belly and removing the entrails. They are then put in brine for 30 
 minutes in order that the fish may be thoroughly washed and lightlv struck. Should the 
 tub, or tank, be well filled with fish it will he necessary to rouse them around consider- 
 ably in order to make sure that the brine reaches all parts of the flesh. The fish are 
 then drained until they no longer drip, when the belly is opened by the insertion cro.ss- 
 wise of the fish of a short stick, and the herring are then hung up in the smokehou.se. 
 The smoking lasts about two days, and cottonwood branches and hai-dwood sawdust are 
 used in the smoking. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 49 
 
 After being smoked a suffliMeiit leiiiilli of time tlie fish are removed, split in two 
 halves along the backbone, the head, tail and enough of the body cut off to jierniit of the 
 fish fitting upright into the size can used. The skin is allowed to remain on the fish as it 
 aids in retaining the moisture of the flesh and prevents the fish from getting too di-y. In 
 packing in the can half are put in head end down and the rest head end uj), thus filling 
 the can more uniformly. The cover is then put on and the can exhausted iu the same 
 niainier as a can of salmon. After being sealed the cans are processed for 45 minutes 
 at a temperature of 245° F. 
 
 Quite an important business is carried on in Maine, and occasionally at other places, 
 in the packing of hard-smoked herring which have been skinned and boned. The fish are 
 purchased from the smokers and then skinned, the head, viscera and backbone removed. 
 The fish are then packed eight to twelve in small wooden boxes with glass fronts, or in 
 glass jars. Another method is to put six bunches of a dozen fish each in neat wooden 
 boxes. By skinning the herring and placing them together their flesh is brought in close 
 contact, preserving their inherent moisture and flavor, this effect being further increased 
 by placing them in a box. The best effect, however, is obtained by packing the fish in 
 glass jars, as in these but little of the moisture in the fish will be evaporated. The fish 
 also presents a much neater appearance in glass when offered for sale, and is more 
 attractive to customers. 
 
 MACKEREL 
 
 The common mackerel (Scomher firomhriiN), one of the choicest of the world's food 
 fishes, inliabits the North Atlantic ocean and on our coast ranges from Cape Ilatteras 
 to the Straits of Belle Isle. The species first appears in spring off Cape Hatteras, and 
 later reach the shores of the Middle and New England States and Canada and New- 
 foundland, coming in from the sea from a southerly or southeasterly direction. They 
 leave the coast in the same way in fall and winter. The mackerel is a wandering fish and 
 its movement and the causes thereof are not fully understood. It is an abundant 
 species on our Atlantic coast, although not so common as 30 or 40 years ago. The schools 
 are frequently of great extent, swim at the surface or near to it, and in a rather compact 
 body. However, periods of scarcity alternate with seasons of abundance. 
 
 The migi-ition to our coast is for the i)nrpose of sjiawning, and this season extends 
 from ]\Iay to -Inly, Jnue prolinhly being the jirincipal month. Most of the bays and 
 sounds on the New England coast contain important spawning grounds. Prior to 
 spawning, and for several weeks after, the mackerel are lean and poor. 
 
 The mackerel feeds upon the small crustaceans and other small animals which 
 swarm in the sea. One of the surface swimming copepods, known as "red feed," is a 
 favorite food; when mackerel have been feeding freely on it they spoil very quickly after 
 being caught, owing to their sides rotting or ''burning.'' The only way in which this can 
 be avoided is by keping the mackerel alive in a corral until they have passed all the food 
 in their stomach, when they can be killed with impunity. 
 
 On our coast the vessel fishery is carried on chiefly from Gloucester. The vessels go 
 south in the early spring, falling in with the fish when they first appear off our southern 
 coast, and landing their catch fresh at Philadelphia and New York. The fleet next seeks 
 the school oft' the southern shore of Nova Scotia and follows it to the Gulf of St. Law- 
 rence. Most of the fall fishing is done on the New England shore. Some of the finest 
 fishing vessels in the United States are engaged in this fishery, and ])urse seines are used 
 almost exclusively. The shore and boat fishery is carried on from New Jersey to Elaine, 
 the catch being usuallv sold fresh. 
 
50 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 To the flslieniieu small mackerel are kuuwn as "spikes," 'iilinkers" and "tinkers." 
 The former are the smallest caught by the commercial fishermen, they being five or six 
 inches long and five to seven months old, or younger. Tinkers are under nine inches in 
 length and are supposed to be about four ye.irs old. Iilinkers are intermediate in size 
 and age. Maturity is probably attained in the fourth year. 
 
 Certain of the sardine factories of JIaine can small mackerel. In dressing these 
 fish are split down the belly and the viscera, head and tail removed. The rest of the 
 process is exactly the same as followed in ](acking sardines. The fish are generally 
 packed with mustard, tomato sauce or spiced vinegar, the same as sardines, and then 
 placed in oval-shaped cans holding from 1 to 3 pounds. They are sometimes placed in 
 fancy glass receptacles and these are sobl at high prices. A few cases are alsct prepared 
 in the same size cans as sardines. 
 
 The demand for small packages of brine-salted mackerel led some years ago to the 
 preparation of them in tin cans. In jiacking these the better grades, usually No. L', are 
 used. They are washed and scraped, to give them a neat appearance, and the heads and 
 tails are cut off, and if large the fish are sometimes cut traversely in two jiieces. In 
 packing a small (piantity of fine salt is sprinkled in the bottom of the can and the fish 
 are carefully arranged flesh side up, except the top layer, which is placed flesh side down. 
 A small quantity of salt is then sprinkled over the fish and the top is soldered on. The 
 can is then completely filled with brine through a jmncture about one-third inch in 
 diameter which is made at the side of the can, after which a tin button is soldered over 
 this puncture and the can is cleaned and labeled for market. A barrel of mackerel will 
 "mess" about 180 pounds, which will fill three ca.ses each containing one dozen .^-jiuund 
 cans. This work is usually done at the salting houses. 
 
 The 5 pound cans are of two shapes, each of which is about 31- inches deep : the first 
 is round and 9 inches in diameter, the second is oval and Ci/. inches wide and !!' - inches 
 long. In addition to the 5-pound cans, 3-pound. 4-pound and 10-pound cans are occa- 
 sionally used. But few of these tins are now prepared owing to the scarcity of the 
 mackerel. 
 
 The Chub ou Ti.xker M.vckerel 
 
 The chub or tinker mackerel (Scoiiihcr jopouicus] is found on both coasts, in the 
 Atlantic north to Maine, and to San Francisco on our west coast, although an occasional 
 straggler has been reported as far north as ^'ancouver Island. The species has had a 
 very erratic career in the Atlantic. Up to about 1840 it was apparently an abundant 
 fish, but between 1840 and ISiiO it seems to have di.sa])iieared entirely. But in 1879 a 
 considerable school was seen at Provincetown. It again disappeared in 1880, but it is 
 not rare at present. 
 
 In early spring on the Pacific large schools come up the coast and afford good sport 
 for anglers. They are found in varying abundance until fall, when lliey leave for some 
 unknown resort. Their average length is about 10 inches. 
 
 This species is an excellent food fish, and it is strange that so little economic use has 
 been made of it heretofore. In 1917 the tuna canners began canning it and they have 
 met with much encouragement in disposing of the jtack. 
 
 Upon arrival at the cannery the fish are scaled, eviscerated, the head, ventral and 
 pectoral fins with their supporting bones removed, then cut to fit cans, and the jiieces 
 put into a 75° (salometer) brine and allowed to remain here until the blood has been 
 extracted from the fle.sh, or about 45 minutes, after which they are lightly rinsed in fresh 
 water. The pieces are then ]nit into the cans, care being taken to see that the cans are 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 51 
 
 jiacked ;i>< tightly as possible and slightly alu)\x' the lop to allow foi- shriiikagL' in fool- 
 ing. This is necessary in order lliai Ihe ]iack may stand up well under long distance 
 shipment. 
 
 The cans are tlien inverted and cooked in steam at 2 to 3 pounds pressure for 4.j min- 
 utes. After removal from tlie retort tlie cans are allowed to drain 30 minutes or 
 longer. The cans are then reversed and the pieces of backbone removed. This malves 
 practically a lioneless product and adds much to its value at hut little cost. One-third 
 to one-half fluid ounce of cottonseed or corn oil is then added. The cans are then ex- 
 hatisted for about 10 minutes at 1'12- F.. sealed, and processed lio hours at l!10^ F., or 
 2 hours at 230° F. 
 
 Some cauuers pack in a bouillon. In this method the head and trimmings should 
 be saved. In making the bouillon Kl gallons of the waslied heads and trimmings should 
 be placed in a soup kettle; to which add 12 gallons of cold water, 2 jtounds ehoi)ped 
 onions, a bunch of parsley, 1 pound of chopped carrots, i- pound whole juniper lierries, 
 % pound ground white peppei", 2 ounces ground red pepper. Uring to a l)oil then simmer 
 gently one or two hours. The li(|uid should then be strained and 3 per cent, of salt 
 added, when it is ready to be potired in the cans with the tisli, in i)lace of oil, after 
 which the cans are handled the same as described ab()ve. excejit thai they do not have 
 to be exhausted if the bouillon is put in the can hot. 
 
 Quite small mackerel are obtained in considerable (luantities, and these are prepared 
 in the same manner as sardines, and packed either in oil, mustard or tomato sauce. 
 
 MICNHADEN 
 
 
 THE MENHADEN (Brcvoortia ti/rannus). 
 
 The menhaden (Brcvoortia fi/rdiiinis) o-curs on our Atlaiit ic coast fi-oni Xova Scotia 
 to Brazil, and is by far the most abundant tish on our eastern coast. The migrations 
 of this species appear to be largely dependent u])on the temperature of the water, a 
 temperature of above 51° F. being most favorable to them. They first appear in Chesa- 
 peake Bay in the early spring; on the coast of New Jersey in April and early May; on 
 the coast of New England in late April and May; off Cape Ann about the middle of 
 May, and in the Gulf of Maine in the latter part of May and the first of June. Return- 
 ing, they leave Maine late in September or October; Massachusetts in October, Novem- 
 ber and sometimes Decemb'er; Long Island Sound and vicinty in Novend)er and Decem- 
 ber; Chesapeake Bay in I>ecend)er, and Cape Hatteras in January. Farther to the south 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 they appear to leiiiaiii more or less constantly tlirdiigboiit the year. The winter habitat 
 of the northern schools is unknown. 
 
 The menhaden swim in immense schools, their heads close to the snrface, packed 
 side by side, and ol'ten tier above tier, almost as closely as sardines in a box. A gentle 
 ripple indicates their position, and this may be seen at a distance of nearly a mile by 
 the lookout at the masthead of a tisliinji' vessel, and is of great assistance to tlie purse- 
 seiners in setting their nets. At the slightest alarm the school sinks toward the bottom, 
 often escaping its pursuers. Their movements are very capricious. 
 
 The chief importance of the menhaden is as an oil and fertilizer producer. The 
 animal is exceedingly oily, and large factories are maintained solely for the extraction 
 of the oil from it, and the use of the residue as fertilizer or fish meal. 
 
 At one time large quantities of menhaden were canned for food; in 1S74 the produc- 
 tion was about 50(1,000 cases. During this ]i(M'iod they bore various ticlitimis names, 
 such as ''sea trout," "ocean mackerel" and '■bliieback mackerel," ■'shadine," "Auierican 
 Club-fish," and "ocean trout." Jlost of the iiroducing jilants were near Port Monmouth, 
 N. J., while several of the Elaine canneries have jiacked them at (inies. (4oode in his "His- 
 tory of the Auierican ^Menhaden," (page 1:57) gives the following description of the 
 methods in use at one of these iilants: 
 
 "We aim to have our catch of moss-bunkers in by or 7 o'clock a.m., as the fish seem 
 to be strongly impregnated with phosphorus and soon spoil in warm weather. As soon 
 as the fish are landed, we jiut our entire force of men to cleaning, cutting and scaling, 
 for which we have machines adajjted. AVlien the fish are cleaned they are at once ])ut in 
 hogsheads and salted just sufficiently to keep and to remove their extreme freshness. 
 They are then packed in cooking cans, which are a little larger than the jtacking cans, 
 and i)ut into the tanks, where they are steamed for the sjtace of about two hours. After 
 the fish are taken out they are placed in the regular market cans, which are then laid 
 upon zinc-covered tables, where they are filled with salad oil. They then go to the tin- 
 ners, who solder on the lids, after which the can is again steamed and vented, and passed 
 up into the cleaning and labeling rooui. Each day's work is piled up separately, each 
 can being thoroughly tested to see that it is perfectl.y aii'tight. For this we have an 
 experienced hand. At the expiration of this time, after being again tested, the cans are 
 packed in wooden cases containing two dozen each, and are then ready for market. . ." 
 
 On pages 138-1.'{!) he gives another description of the i)rocess : 
 
 Mr. Barnet Phillijis describes, in the New York Times, a visit to the "Ocean trout" 
 manufactory at Port Monmouth. He writes: "If the name of the sidmonUhir be taken 
 a little in vain, the trout manufactured out of moss-bunkers are by no means to be 
 despised. 'Ocean trout' may not be the (/(irinii cooked with Tragasoean salt, but it is 
 a fair fish-food and as an alimentary substance is in good demand. The process of 
 manufacture is simple. The fresh fish are scaled by machinery, by means of a revolving 
 wheel, are then cooked in steam, packed into boxes, which boxes have a cover put on 
 them perforated with a couple of holes. The box containing only the fish is then jilunged 
 into a bath of pickle, where it remains until it fills itself, then the box, now full of fish 
 and pickle, goes through a second cooking, ^'\'hen all hot, filled with steam, the two 
 minute holes are closed with solder, a label is i)ut on, and the moss bunker, now nieta- 
 mor]>hosed into 'ocean trout.' instead of being turned into oil ov being employed as a 
 top dressing for sterile soil. . 
 
 From the above descrijitinns the modern canner can easily work out the jirocess 
 necessary for ]iackiiig the lish in the modern sanitary can. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 53 
 
 Iiiimatiire uienluuleu can lie iiix'icned in the same manner as sardines, this having 
 been done quite extensively in the early TO's. 
 
 The writer has eaten this fish canned and found it excellent, and there is no doubt 
 that there would continue to be a big demand for it were it possible to use the old trade 
 names under which it formerly nuis(iueruded. Unfortunately, the consuming public 
 associates the name menhaden with the oil and fertilizer obtained from the great bulk 
 of the catch. As the lish has been blessed (?) with a large array of common names 
 this handicap might be overcome by taking one of these. North of Cape Cod the name 
 "Porgy" is almost universally in use. About Cape Ann "Hardhead shad" is in use, while 
 in New York it is known as the "Moss-bunker." In Delaware Ray, the Potomac and the 
 Chesapeake, among other names we find "rilcher" and "Green-tail." From North Caro- 
 lina to Florida "Fat-back," referring to the oiliness of "the flesh, prevails. 
 
 MULLET 
 
 '•f"!^ 
 
 THE STRIPED MULLET (Muciil reijhalus). 
 
 The striped mullet iMin/il (■ciilnilns] is found on the Atlantic coast from Cape Cod 
 to Brazil, being exceedingly abundant along our South Atlantic and Gulf coasts. On 
 the Pacitic coast it occurs from Monterey to Chile. It is also found on the coasts of 
 southern Europe and northern Africa. It goes in great schools and is everywhere abun- 
 dant in bays, lagoons and sheltered waters. It averages about one foot in length and 
 one i)Ound in weight, but sometimes reaches a weight of from 4 to 5 pounds and a length 
 of 2 feet. 
 
 The white mullet (M. ciircmd) occurs from Cape Cod to Brazil on our Atlantic 
 coast. It is abundant, especially in the tropics, and entei's the sea more freely than the 
 striped mullet, next to which it is the most important food .species of the family in our 
 waters. 
 
 The mullet catch of this country in 1908 amounted to .33,703,000 pounds, of which 
 24,582,000 pounds were taken from Florida waters. The next most important section 
 was Nortli Carolina, where 5,070,000 pounds were taken. In Florida the bulk of the 
 catch is made on the west coast between the Punta Gorda region and Apalachicola, the 
 fish literally swarming in all suitable places. The catch on the California coast in 1917 
 amounted to 61,328 pounds. 
 
 ^Mullets are caught in haul seines, gill nets, cast nets, pound nets, etc. Gill nets are 
 the most productive. 
 
54 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 Large nuiiiber.s are salted for local use or shipiiieiit, hut the hulk of the catch is 
 packed in ice for shipment to northern towns and cities. 
 
 There are no particular obstacles, so far as kiiowTi, in the way of canning mullet, 
 and as the raw material would he both abundant and cheap, the only difficulty would be 
 in finding a market for the product, and this ought not to be very difficult of accom- 
 plishment. 
 
 The fish should be scaled, the gills removed, the belly slit down to the vent and the 
 entrails removed, and the body then cut to can lengths. The pieces should then be 
 washed off in clean water and covered with a sufficient quantity of 50° (salometer) 
 brine, in which they should be allowed to soak for one or two hours, according to the 
 thickness of the fish, or until all the blood is extracted ; the brine should be fresh made 
 each time. The fish should then be placed in the cans, and the latter filled with brine 
 made by dissolving 3 pounds of salt in each 12U gallons of water. The top should 
 then be put on loosely and the can exhausted 10 minutes at lMl'° F., then sealed and pro- 
 cessed about ()0 minutes, the first 50 minutes at about l.'40 F., and the last 10 minutes 
 at about 250° F. 
 
 It should he understood that the above are merely suggestions as to the proper 
 process, and that exact methods will have to be woj'ked out by experiment. 
 
 I'ADDLEFTSn OR SPOONBILL CAT 
 
 The ]»addletish, or spoonbill cat {Polijuiloii sjiutluihn, is ])robal)ly the most singular 
 looking fish found in our waters. It is a sculeless fish, with a body very much like the 
 shark, with a lowbrowed, armor-plated head that runs forward into a broad, thin 
 ''l)addle'" of bone, constituting one-third the length of the entire fish. Its home is in the 
 bayous and lowland streams and lakes of the Jfississip])! ^'alley, and here this remark- 
 able instrument is doubtless used in turning u]i the mud at the bottom of the waters in 
 which it lives, in searching for food. It reaches a great size and weight, s[)ecimens G 
 feet 2 inches in length and weighing 1221 ^ pounds being known, all hough the average is 
 more nearly around 'M) pounds. 
 
 The species was considered worthless from a food standpoint until aifout 20 years 
 ago, when the sturgeon fishermen who were seeking a substitute for sturgeon eggs in 
 making caviar, the latter having become quite scarce through excessive fishing, discovei-ed 
 that the eggs of the jiaddleflsh very much resembled sturgeon eggs both in apjiearance 
 and flavor, also that the Hesh made a very good substitute for sturgeon flesh. Since then 
 an imjjortant fishery has been prosecuted for the species and much ticsh and consider- 
 able quantities of eggs have been prepared and marketed each season. The fiesh is pre- 
 pared in the same manner as sturgeon flesh and the same method of canning can be fol- 
 lowed. 
 
 The fish is caught usually with set line; nr in haul seines. 
 
 PIKELIKE FISHES 
 
 In our fresh waters are to he found a number of s])ecies of fishes, some of which are 
 true pikes, while the others resemble pikes. These are nearly all excellent food fishes, 
 and some of them are very important commercially. They are all good for canning and 
 have been grouped together under one heading for convenience. 
 
 The conuiKin pike or ])ickerel (Eao.r liirinx) is the most wid(My distributeil and most 
 im])ortant species of the family. It is found in all suitable fresh waters of northern 
 North America, Europe and Asia. On this continent it is found from New York and the 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODFCTS 
 
 55 
 
 Ohio Kiver northward. It is not found on tlie Pacific coast except in Alaslca. In the 
 small lakes of the upper Mississijuti \'aller, and in the Oreat Lakes, it is generally com- 
 mon. It is a common fish in Canada. It readies a length of 4 feet and a weight of 
 4t) jionnds or more. 
 
 THE EASTERN PICKEREL (Eso.r n'ti( ulatis) . 
 
 The common eastern |(ickerel or jack iExo.r rrticitlafift) is found from Maine to 
 Florida, Louisiana, Arkansas and Tennessee, common everywhere east and south of the 
 Alleghanies. It is a common and familiar inhahitant of nearly every lake and pond in 
 New England, New York, New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania. It is also found in the 
 lakes of eastern Canada. This species attains a length of i.' feet and a weight of 
 several pounds. It is fished for in all sorts of ways. In winter many are taken through 
 the ice hy using live minnow halt. Its Hesh is firm and flaky and ]iossesses a pleasant 
 
 The total quantity of ])ike and iiickerei taken in the waters of the Lnited States hy 
 commercial fishenneu in IDdS amounted to 2,9o9,(M)() pounds, 2,142,(1(10 pounds of which 
 came from the Great Lakes. Pound nets, seines, fyke and hoop nets and gill nets take 
 the bulk of the catch. Ohio fishermen operating niainly in Lake Erie, took 1,118,000 
 pounds, while those of Michigan and Minnesota caught 478,000 jiounds and 351,000 
 respectively. In 1916-17 the Canadian fishermen marketed 10, .142, 800 pounds of pickerel, 
 with the prospect of very large increase as means of transportation to its many inland 
 lakes are developed. These came mainly from Jfanitoha, Ontario, Saskatchewan, Alberta 
 and Quebec. 
 
 MrsKAi.i.fxoE 
 
 The muskallunge or maskinonge ( hJxo.r iiKisqiiinoiirii/) is native to all the Great 
 Lakes, the upjier St. Lawrence River, certain streams and lakes tributary to the Great 
 Lakes, and in a few lakes in the u])jier ^lississippi ^'alley. It also occurs in Canada 
 north of the Great Lakes, also in Manitoba. It is not very abundant anywhere. 
 
 The Chautauqua muskallunge (E. oh'onisis) is found in Chautan(pm Lake and the 
 Ohio basin. It is quite abundant in the lake, where it is taken by trolling. It is said 
 to reach a length of o feet. 
 
 The total catch of muskallunge in the I'nited States in 1008 amounter. to 250,000 
 |)ounds, while the catch in Canada during the year 191(j-17 ainditiilcd lo 9, :!()() jionnds. 
 
 Piki:-Pi:rciies 
 
 The wall eyed i)ike or jiike perch { Stizostcdinii ritrnmn. while not related to the 
 pikes in any way, has a body resembling that of the pikes, and is frequently found in 
 
56 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 coin]i;m,v with them, and could he canned in the ^anie way. This species has a wide dis- 
 ti'ihnlion. It is tonnd lioni l^ake Chaniplain westward throughout the (ireat Lakes 
 i-egion and to Assiniboia. It is native also to the small lakes of New York and the Sus- 
 quehanna and Juniata Rivers, east of the Alleghanies, where it is known as jack salmon. 
 In the Mississippi Valley it occurs in many of the larger streams and small lakes as far 
 
 THE WALL-EYED PIKE ( Stizostedion vitnum). 
 
 south as (ieorgia and A-lahama, where it is known as salmon. In Canada, besides the 
 Great Lakes region, it is found in the Hudson Itay region and Labrador. It is prefer- 
 ably a lish of the lakes, and it reaches its greatest abundance in the (ireat Lakes, par- 
 ticularly in Lake Erie. In Lakes Erie and Ontario is found the blue i)ike, supposed by 
 fishermen to be a distinct species, but which is really the young of the wall-eyed pike. 
 
 The species ranges greatly in size, the maximum length being about 3 feet and 
 the maximum weight about 25 pounds. The average is very much less. The flesh is firm, 
 flaky and white, and of delicious flavor. 
 
 The Sanger, or sand jdke i N. (■(iiKidciisr), is found from the St. Lawrence westward 
 through the Great Lakes and in the Mississipj)! ^'alley west to ^Montana and south to 
 Tennessee and Arkansas. It is especially abundant northward, in the St. Lawrence and 
 the (irea',: Lakes. In Canada, besides the Great Lakes, it is found in waters of Manitoba 
 and perhaps Saskatchewan. The sauger is a much smaller fish than the wall-eyed pike, 
 its length seldom exceeding a foot or 18 inches, and its weight a pound or two. 
 
 The catch of pike-])erches in the T'nited States in 1!)()S amounted to 1.5,247,000 
 pounds. Of the total amount, IT), 115, 000 pounds were taken in the (ireat Lakes. Over 
 half of the total catch was taken by the Ohio fishermen ojierating in Lake Erie. The fish 
 are taken princii)ally in gill nets an.d pound nets. 
 
 In Canada during the year IDKMT the catch amounted to 7,39!),3(I0 pounds, mostly 
 from Manitoba, Ontario, Saskatchewan, Alberta and Quebec. 
 
 Can N En 
 
 To can these fishes they should be scaled, the gills taken out, the fish split down the 
 belly to the vent and the entrails removed, the fins cut off' and the fish cut to the length 
 of the can to be used. Wash the i)ieces in clean fresh water, and then place in a iuh or 
 tank and cover over with a quantity of 50° (salometer) brine, made fresh each time, in 
 which one-half to one per cent, of alum has been dissolved (the flesh of freshwater 
 fishes is generally softer than that of saltwater sjiecies, and the alum is for the purpose 
 of hai-dening the flesh) and soak until all the blood has been extracted, which usually 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 57 
 
 requires Iroiii one to two hours. The fish are then placed in the can, which is filled with 
 hrine (;_! pounds of salt to 12V-; gallons of water), or some sauce, the top put on loosely, 
 exhausted 10 minutes at 212° F., the top then sealed, and the cans processed about 53 
 minutes at about 245° F. 
 
 Smoked and Canned 
 
 These fishes are excellent smoked and then canned. In this event the fish should be 
 split down the belly and the entrails removed, the fins cut oft', but the head allowed to 
 remain on. They are then washed thoroughly and packed in tubs, about four- pounds of 
 fine salt to 100 jiounds of fish scattered among them, and sufficient brine of 90^ salinity 
 to cover them. From one-half to one per cent, of alum should be added to the brine for 
 the purpose of hardening the flesh. Either dry salt or brine alone may be used, the former 
 being jireferred in warm weather and the latter during the winter. In case brine alone 
 is iised, some dry salt should be placed on top to strengthen the weak ])ickle fioating at 
 the surface. After remaining in the pickle for several hours, depending upon the strength 
 of the pickle and the flavor desired, the fish are removed and strung on smoke rods, the 
 rods passing in at the right gill opening and out at the mouth. Several other appliances 
 for holding the flsli may be, employed, if desired. If it is desired to have the fish well 
 smoked on the inside, small wooden sticks should l)e used to keeji the abdominal cavity 
 stretched open. 
 
 Unless they have been riused before stringing, the strung fish are dijiped in fresh 
 water to clean them, drained and suspended in the smokehouse four to eight feet aI)ove 
 the Hoor, and subjected to a gentle smoke for four or five hours. The door or damper is 
 then clo.sed, the fires spread or built uj) and the fish cooked for one or two hours, acc(u-d- 
 ing to the amount of fire, the height of the fish and tli(> particular cure desired. After 
 cooling, which is accomplished either by opening I he doors of the smokehouse or by remov- 
 ing the fish to the outside, the head is cut oft', tiie fish cut in lengths to fit the can, placed 
 in same dry. and the tops sealed on. The,v are then exhausted Id minutes at 212" F., and 
 processed at 240° F., 1-pound ciins 30 minutes. 2-])ound cans l.T minutes. Some canuers 
 fill the interstices of the can with either brine, oil or sauce. 
 
 PINTADO AND CA^'ALLA 
 
 In the neighborhood of Key West are found two species of fish, the iiintado (Sront- 
 bcroiiiorHf: rri/iiHx) and the cavalla, or kingfish (»S'. cdnilhi'', which closely resemble each 
 other, and are near lelatives of the Spanish mackerel. The pintado is found from Cape 
 Cod to Jjrazil, but is not common anywhere excejit about Florida and Cuba. It grows 
 to 5 or feet in length, 20 (tounds or more in weight, and is an excellent food fish. 
 It is most abundiint around south Florida and is caught by trolling. 
 
 The cavalla is a fish of the tropical seas, often coming in immense numbers to the 
 coasts of Florida and the Carolinas. It is common on our South Atlantic coast and 
 among the Florida keys; it is one of the most important food fishes in the Key West 
 markets. It usually appears in Novendjer and remains until April, during which time it 
 is caught by trolling. As a food fish it takes a very high rank, the flesh being firm and 
 of excellent flavor. The cavalla reaches a length of 5 feet and a weight of 100 pounds, 
 while examples weighing 40 to 50 pounds are not rare. The average size, however, of 
 those taken about Ke.v West is only about 10 jiounds. or perhaps even less. In 1008 the 
 fishermen caught 1.5f)4,0()|[) pounds of cavalla, of which 1.435.000 pounds were taken in 
 Florida. This does not begin to represent the possiliilities of the fishery as the market 
 at that time for the fish in a fresh condition was verv linuted. 
 
58 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 Neither of these fishes have beeu canned fur market as yet. It probably would be a 
 comparatively simple matter to so preserve, and would sujjgest the following trial method, 
 which may be altered as expei'ience indicates is necessary. 
 
 The fish should be scaled and dressed, the head and tail removed, and the body cut 
 into lengths to fit the cans, and Ihoronghly washed off in clean water. The pieces 
 should then be covered with a (JU isalometei-i biine and soaked until all the blood is 
 extracted, usually one or two hours, according to the thickness of the fish. This brine 
 should not be used the second time. 
 
 The pieces should then be put into the cans, \\ith 14 ounce of salt, and if the sanitary 
 can is used, the top should be put on loosely and Ihe cans run through the exhaust box 
 for 10 or l.j minutes at 212^ F., the top then sealed on and the fish processed in the 
 retort for 90 minutes at 240° F., after which they should be removed from the retort and 
 placed in the cooling bath. 
 
 It undoubtedly would improve the flavor of both fishes if they were lightly smoked 
 before canning. ' 
 
 KE1> SNAI'PER 
 
 THE RED SNAPPER (Lutianus uija). 
 
 The red snapper (Lutianus ai/o) is undoubtedly the handsomest of all our food fishes, 
 being a brilliant red in color, and in addition is one of the most important economic fishes 
 of the United States. Its range extends from Long Island to Urazil, but the center of 
 abundance is in the Oulf of Mexico, in rather deep water on the rocky banks off the 
 coasts of Cami)eche and Yucatan. It is fairly abundant off the east coast of Florida and 
 the coast of Georgia. The bulk of the fishery is centered at I'ensaeola, from whence a con- 
 siderable fleet sails to the banks. A few vessels also have headqnai-ters at Mobile, New 
 Orleans, and Galveston. 
 
 The red sna])per reaches a length of 2 to :> feet and a weight of 10 to 3~^ pounds. 
 They are caught with hand lines alone, and these are worked from the deck of the 
 vessel, the latter being ci I her ancluired on the bank or else allowed to drift broadside 
 across it. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 59 
 
 111 I'.illS the eateli of red suapjiers aiiiotiiiieil lo i:!.4'.is,(l(i(i jkhhhIs, \ allied at |()30,- 
 (10(1. Tlie lislierv was confined to Florida. Alabama, Texas, (ieorgia and South Carolina, 
 their importance being- in the order named. 
 
 At tlie present time practically all ol' the red snajijters are marketed in a fresh con- 
 dition, but a few experiments have lieen undertaken looking- toward the canning of the 
 surplus. A plant established 1o handle this species could also handle groujiers, wliich 
 frequent the same banks, and unlimited (jnantities of which could be brought in by the 
 red snapper fishermen. 
 
 Tlie following method wduld probably lie found suitable for this sjiecies: The fish 
 should be scaled, eviscerated and the head removed. It should then be put in a (]0° 
 (salometer) brine and left here until all the blood has been extracted. The brine should 
 be made fresh each time. The fish should then be cut into can sizes and packed in the 
 receptacles with 14 ounce of salt added, the tops put on loosely, and the cans exhausted 
 for from 10 to 17 minutes at 210° F. The tops should then be sealed tightly and the cans 
 processed from 100 to 120 minutes at 2-1:0° F., or a little shorter time if the temperature 
 is at 215- F. 
 
 It is possible that both the red sna]t]ier and grouper could be kipjiered before being 
 canned. 
 
 ROCKFISHES 
 
 On our Pacific coast is found a gronj) of fishes, of the geuus Sebastodes, the members 
 of which are commonly known as i-ed rin-kfish, red rock cod, orange red rockfish, yellow- 
 backed rockfish, Sitka ■black bass," which is steadily increasing- in popularity. 
 Nearly all are to be found in abundaiici' fro:ii Alaska to Lower California. They range 
 fairly large in size, some of them attaining a length of nearly 3 feet and a weight of 
 many jiounds. They are caught at juesent mainly with hook and line, but the otter 
 trawl could be lised with much effect as the fish are bottom feeders. At iiresent the 
 sn]i]>ly is far in excess of the demand, and it is jiossible a market might be created for 
 them in a canned condition. The ttesh is white and flaky, and it ought to be jiossible to 
 can them by the same ]u-ocess as followed in canning red snapper. 
 
 SALMON 
 
 One of the most important Ihings for the canner^iiien to knu\\- is wlicie and \\-lien 
 the ditt'erent species of salmon are to be found. As each species forms a difi'erent grade, 
 the value of which vary much in the markets, and as they do not all a|)iiear in the same 
 abundance or all run togellier in the same waters, the caniiei- who w jslicd to jiack a cer- 
 tain grade would naturally select a location along the waters in which that s]icries was 
 most abundant. 
 
 Five species of salmon i Oiicorlniiiclius 1 are found in the waters of the North Pacific, 
 ranging northwaid from Monterey Pay on the .\merican coast and Japan on the Asiatic, 
 the extreme northern distribution of certain of the species having not yet been accui-ately 
 determined. The five species are: (1) Oncnrln/iir-liiif! tschairytficha. quinnat, tyee, Chi- 
 nook, spring or king salmon; (2) Onrnrhi/iichitfi iicrl-a. blueback, red, sukkegli or sockeye 
 salmon; (?>) Oncorhi/iichiis l-isiitch, siWver, coho or white salmon; (4) OiicorhjiHchus gor- 
 bu.^ch'i, humpback or pink salmon; (5) Oncorhi/nchiis leta, dog or chum salmon. 
 
 In addition the steelhead trout {Sdliiin r/airdiicri) is classed as a salmun by the 
 commercial fishermen. 
 
< 
 
 X 
 m 
 
 < 
 
 o 
 
 « 
 
 Z 
 
 o 
 <; 
 
 tn 
 
 O 
 2 
 
 < 
 
 m 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 61 
 
 Chinook, Quinnat or King Salmon 
 
 The largest, best known and most valuable of these is the chinook or king salmon 
 (0. tschaicijtschu)- It is found throughout the region from the ^'entura River, Calif., 
 to Norton Sound, Alaska, and on the Asiatic coast as far south as Northern China. As 
 knowledge extends, it will probably be recorded in the Arctic. 
 
 In the spring the Ijody is silvery, the back, dorsal fin and caudal tin having more or 
 less of round black spots, and the sides of the head having a peculiar tin-colored metallic 
 luster. In the fall the color is, in some places, black or dirty red. The flsh has an 
 average weight of about 2l! ])ouiuls, but individuals weighing 7(1 to over 100 pounds are 
 occasionally taken. The Southeasi Alaska tish average as high as i';'. ])(iun(ls in certain 
 seasons, followed by an average of about 2- jxiunds in the Cdlumbia Kiver, and about 
 1(1 ]iounds in the Sacramento. 
 
 In most places the flesh is of a dee]) salmon led, but in cerlain places, notably South- 
 east Alaska, Bristol Bay, Paget Sound and British Columbia, many of the fish, the pro- 
 portion being sometimes as much as one-third of the catch, have white flesh. A few 
 examples have been taken with one side of the body red and the other white, while some 
 are found with mottled flesh. No reasonable explanation of this phenomenon has yet 
 been given. 
 
 In its southern range llie i|uinnat strikes in at ^Monterey Bay in suflicient numbers 
 to justify commeicial Ashing nlionf llie middle of April, where it is seen feeding upon 
 the inshore moving schools of herring and sardines, continuing until in August. There 
 are two runs of spawning flsh in the Sacramento, the flrst or '■spring run" beginning in 
 April and continuing throughout May and June, these fish spawning mainly in the cold 
 tributaries of the Sacramento, such as the ^IcCloud and Fall Rivers. The second or "fall 
 run" occurs in August, Sei)tend)er and October, and these fish sjiawn in the riffles in the 
 main river between Tehama and Redding, also entering the tributaries in that vicinity. 
 The two runs merge into each other. It is claimed that there is a tliii-d run which 
 comes in December. 
 
 The Eel and Mad Rivers of Xorthein California have only a late or fall run, while 
 the Klamath River has both a spring and a fall run, and Smith River has a sjiring run 
 alone. Rogue River in Oregon has a spring and a fall run, and the Fmp(|ua and several 
 other coast streams of Oregon have small early runs. 
 
 The Columbia River has three runs, the flrst entering during January, February 
 and March, and si)awning mainly in the Clackamas and neighboring streams. The .second, 
 which is the best run, enters during May, June and part of July, spawning mainly in the 
 headwaters. The third run occurs during late July, August, Septendier and part of 
 October, and spawns in the tributaries of the lower Columbia. 
 
 In Puget Sound chinook salmon are found throughout the year, ailliongh it is only 
 during the spawning .season that they are vei-y abundant. In the Eraser River, a tribu- 
 tary of the sound, the run occurs from March to August. 
 
 In the Skeena River, British Columbia, the run occurs from May to July, the same 
 being approximately true of the Nass also. 
 
 In Southeast Alaska they are found all the months of the year. From March to the 
 middle of June they are abundant and feeding in the numerous straits and sounds ; in ilay 
 and June the spawning fish enter the Cnuk, Stikine, Taku, Chilkat, Alsek and Copper 
 Rivers in large numbers, and in a few smaller streams in lesser abundance. In August, 
 Sei)tember and October they are again to be found in large nund)ers feeding in the bays 
 and sounds, while during the winter months a few have been taken on trawls set for 
 halibut, showing that they are living in the lower depths at this time. 
 
62 
 
 •CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 FT" 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PEODUCTS 63 
 
 In Cook Inlet the run ocoui-.s during May and June and is composed whollj' of red- 
 meated fish; in the rivers of Bristol Bay the run comes in June, and the same is true of 
 the Togiak. Kuskokwim and Yukon Rivers, although flsh may be seen in the upper courses 
 of the Ynkon in July, the lateness here being due to the immense distance the flsh have 
 to go. 
 
 On the Asiatic side the Chinook is found in some of the rivers of Siberia. 
 
 Owing to their special suitability most of the chinooks are now marketed in either 
 a fresh, frozen or mild-cured condition. The principal canning is done on the Columbia 
 River and along the Oregon and California coasts. A few are canned along the rest of the 
 coast, but the price obtained for the canned product is, under normal conditions, so low 
 that the canners find it almost impossible to compete with the fresh fish buyers and 
 mild curers. But very few white-meated kings are canned now. As it is a difficult mat- 
 ter to dispose of these in any other condition except at a greatly reduced price, it is to 
 be hoped that the market for them canned will be expanded, thus furnishing a much 
 needed profitable outlet for them. 
 
 SOCKEYE, BlUEBACK OR ReD SALMON 
 
 The sockeye, red or bluehack salmonCO. iirrka). which forms the greatest part of the 
 canned salmon of the world, when it first comes in from the sea, is a clear bright blue 
 above in color, silvery below. Soon after entering the river for the purpose of spawning, 
 the color of the head changes to a rich olive, the back and sides to crimson and finally to 
 a daik blood red. and the belly to a dirty white. The maximum weight is about 12 
 I)ounds, and length o feet, with the average weight about .") jiounds, varying greatly, 
 however, in dift'erent localities. A run of small, or dwarf, males accompanies certain of 
 the main runs, these being especially noticeable in the Chigiiik lagoon, Alaska, run. This 
 species usually enters streams with accessible lakes in their courses. 
 
 A few specimens of the socke.ye have been taken as far south as the Sacramento 
 River. In Humboldt county, California, small runs are said to occur in Mad and Eel 
 Rivers. Only an occasional specimen appears in the coastal streams of Oregon. The 
 Columbia is the most southern river in which this species is known (o run in any numbers, 
 entering the river with the spring run of chinooks. From here south the species is called 
 blueback exclusively. A considerable run enters the Quinniault River, Washington, and 
 there is also a small run in Ozette Lake, just south of Cape Flattery. 
 
 In the Puget Sound region, where it is known as the sockeye, this species ascends only 
 the Skagit River in commercial numbers, although a small run appears in the Lake 
 Washington system of lakes and, possibly, in the Snohomish, Sdllaguaniish and Nook- 
 sack Rivers. 
 
 The greatest of all the sockeye streams was the Fraser River, British Columbia, and 
 this stream was famous from very early days for its enormous runs of this S])ecies, a 
 peculiar feature of which is that there is a marked quadriennial periodicity in the run. 
 The maximum occurs the year following leap year, the minimum on the year following 
 that. The greater part of the catch of the Puget Sound fishermen is made from this run 
 as it is passing through Washington waters on its way to the Fraser. The fish strike in 
 during July and August on the southwest coast of Vancouver Island, a]iparently coming 
 from the open sea to the northwest. They pass the Straits of Juan de Fuca, Rosario and 
 Georgia, spending considerable time in the passage and about the mouth of the river. 
 Small nnml)ers run as early as ]\Iay and as late as October, but the main body enters 
 about the first week in August. The run has of recent years dwindled until it is now but 
 a fraction of its former size. 
 
64 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 The sockeye occurs in most of the coastal streams of British Columbia, and is usually 
 the most abundant species. The principal waters frequented are the Skeena, Rivers 
 Inlet, Nass, Lowe Inlet, Dean Channel, Nanui Harbor, ISella Coola, Smith Inlet, Alei't 
 Bay and Alberni Canal. 
 
 In Alaska, where this fish is genei-ally known as the red salmon, it is abundant and 
 runs in great numbers in all suitable streams, of which, in Southeast Alaska, the follow- 
 ing are the most important: Boca de Quadra, Naha, Yes Bay, Thorne Bay, Karta Bay, 
 Nowisky Bay, Peter Johnson, Hessa, Hetta, Hunter Bay, Klawak, Kedflsh Bay. Stikine, 
 Taku, Chilkoot, Chilkat, Alsek, Seetuck, Ankow, etc. ; in Central Alaska, Copper, Knik, 
 Kenai, Sushitna, Afognak, Karluk, Alitak, Chignik; in the Bristol Bay region, the Cga- 
 shik, Ugaguk, Naknek, Kvichak, Nushagak and Wood. It is also supposed to occur in the 
 Togiak, Kuskokwim and Yukon Rivers, which debouch into P.ering Sea, and probably 
 occurs in the Arctic streams of Alaska. The run in Alaska begins usually in June and 
 extends usually to the middle of August. It begins earlier in Prince William Smmd, and 
 sometimes extends into September in Southeast Alaska. 
 
 On the Asiatic side the species is known to occur at Bering Island and in all suit- 
 able streams south to Japan, where it is found land-locked in Lake Akan, in Northern 
 Hokkaido. 
 
 This sj)ecies is the most abundant from a canning standpoint. Its value, however, 
 varies considerably with the geographical location of the cannery. Under the designa- 
 tion (if blueback it was formerly abundant in the Columbia River, but in recent years the 
 pack, except in a couple of years, has been quite small, and has ceased to be a factor in 
 the markets. The common designation for tliis species in Puget Sound and British 
 Columbia is sockeye, and under this name the pack is marketed at a considerably higher 
 figure tlian the same species when paclced in Alaska and called red salmon. Some can- 
 ners claim that the Puget Sound and Fraser River sockeye contains more oil than the 
 Alaska red, and while this may be true, it is extremely unlikely that it would be true 
 also with res])ect to the sockeyes running in the other streams of British Columbia, 
 especially those in the northern portion. By far the greater i)art of the total pack of 
 this species is made in Alaska. 
 
 The flesh is a deep red, and it retains this color wlien canned, and this, with the 
 comjiaratively large quantity of oil found in its tissues, makes it sjiecially valuable for 
 this ])nr])ose. The bulk of our foreign exports is composed of this species. The packer 
 rarely ever has any difflcnlty in disposing of his jtack of this species at remunerative 
 figures. 
 
 Sii.vici! <)i; ilEDir.M Reii Salmon* 
 
 Tlie siher, silverside, medium red or coho salmon ( O. l-isittdi ) is silvery in spring, 
 greenish on the njiper jiarts, where there are a few IninI black spots. In the fall the 
 males are mostly of a dirty red. The flesh in this species is of excellent flavor, but jialer 
 in color than tlie red salmon, and hence less (nlued for canning purjioses. 
 
 This species has a maximum weight of about :j(l pounds, ^^•ith a gcnei-al average of 
 about pounds. 
 
 The silver salmon is found as far south as Monterey Bay, where it apjiears diiring 
 the month of July and is taken by the trollers. From Eel River, in ("alil'ornia, north, it 
 is found in most of the coastal streams. It usually appears in July and runs as late as 
 November, the time of appearance and disap])earanee varying somewhat in dift'erent sec- 
 tions. Owing to its late appearance comparatively few, and they usually in the early 
 part of the season, are packed by the canneries, most of wliic h shut down in July and 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 65 
 
 August. This fish also tan-ies but a short time about the uiouth of the sti'eaui it is to 
 euter, and is wary of nets, which makes it ralher unprofitable to fish for the latter part 
 of the season when it is running alone. 
 
 On the Asiatic side the coho ranges down the coast to Japan. 
 
 This species, owing to its lighter color wlu'ii canned, does not command as good a 
 price as 0. nerka. and is not in as good demand, as a result of which, and for other 
 reasons noted above, the yearly pack is comi)aratively small. 
 
 HuJii'P.-\rK OR Pink Salmon 
 
 The humpback or pink salmon (O. (/oihiiKcJia \, is the smallest of the American 
 species, weighing from '.i to 11 ])ounds, the average being about 4 ]iounds. In color 
 it is bluish above, silvery below, tiie posterior and upper ]iarls w lib many round black 
 spots, the caudal flu always having a few black sjiots, oblong in shape. The males in 
 fall are dirty red and are very much distorted in shape, a decided bumii ai)pearing on 
 the back, from which deformity the s])efies acquires its name. The Hesh is softer than in 
 the other species; it is pale in color, hence its canned name, "pink" salmon. 
 
 The southern limit of the fish is the Sacr;nuento River, but only occasional specimens 
 are found here and in the rivers northward until Puget Sound is reached. Hei'e a large 
 run ajipears every other year, the only place on the coast where such is the case. 
 
 The humpback occurs in varying abundance in the waters of British Columbia, but 
 it is in the waters of Southeast Alaska that it appears in its greatest abundance. Many 
 of the canneries in this region depend mainly upon the humpback for their season's pack, 
 and the canned product now occupies an excellent position in the markets of the world. 
 The fish spawn in nearly all of the small, short streams. 
 
 In Central and Western Alaska the runs are much smaller and the hum]iback is not 
 much sought after by the cannery men, who are usually able to fill their cans with the 
 more vahiable species. 
 
 On the Asiatic side it is found in Ihe rivers of Siberia (abundaiil in the Annul, but 
 not in Japan. 
 
 In Southeast Alaska the run begins in June and continues until Se])tend)er, or 
 even later in some places. In \A'estern Alaska the period is somewhat shorter. In Puget 
 Sound it continues until late in the fall. 
 
 This is the second most abundant sjiecies from a canning stand])oint, and owing to 
 its great abundance it will ultiinalely atlain to first place as the more valuable species 
 are rcduceil in numbers by excessix'e fishing. 
 
 I>o(i oii CiiiM Salmon 
 
 The dog or chum salmon {<). Icta) reaches a maximum weight of 1(> pounds, the 
 average being about 8 jionnds. When it first appears along the coast it is dirty 
 silvery, immaculate or sprinkled wilh small black specks, the fins dusky, the sides with 
 faint traces of gridiron-like bars. Later in the season the male is brick red or blackish, 
 and its jaws are greatly distorted. Its flesh is quite pale, especially when canned, when 
 also it is mushy in texture. It is especially good for freezing, salting and smoking. 
 
 This species has a wide distribution. It is found as far south as San Francisco, but 
 it is not utilized commercially in California except on Eel River. It is found in most of 
 the coastal streams from here north, being es]»ecially abundant from Puget Sound north- 
 ward to Southeast Alaska, both inclusive. In this region it is being utilized in greater 
 numbers each vear, as the markel for it widens. 
 
66 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 lu Central, Western and Aretie Alaska, the species ofcnis in vaiving ahnnilanee, 
 but is utilized siiarinjily, except l)y the natives, witli wIkhu it is the favorite species dried 
 for winter food. 
 
 This is tlie most abundant species of salmon in Ja|)an. where it is called salce, and 
 large quantities are dry-salted each year. In Siberia the s])ecies is abundant and is known 
 as kaita or kita. 
 
 The run of dog salmon comes later than that ol' any other species excejit the coho. In 
 Alaska it begins in .lune, lint the height of the .season does not occur until late in August 
 or early in Sejitember, and fish are found as late as November. In I'uget Sound the.v 
 run from about the middle of August until late in N(»vember, and practically the same 
 is true in the Columbia River. 
 
 The pack of this species varies greatl.v, dejiending mainly ujton the demand. If the 
 price is remunerative a large pack can be made as the species runs for a longer period 
 than any othei*. ' 
 
 Handling the Fish 
 
 The ]irime requisite in this business is to so locate the cannery that it will be within 
 convenient distance of the fishing grounds, thus reducing to a niininium the distance 
 the fish have to be trans]iorted. This will make ]iossible the jiacking of an almost abso- 
 lutely Iresh jiroduct and will also cut down expenses vei-y materially, as the trans])ortn- 
 tion of the raw product from the fishing grounds to the cannery forms a large item even 
 to the best situated canneries. 
 
 At convenient s](ots near the fishing grounds large scows and lighters are anchored 
 and the fishing crews deliver their catches aboard these, the tallyman on each scow keep- 
 ing a record and giving the crew a receipt. ^len fishing near the cannery delivei' their 
 catch alongside. Steamers and launches are used to tow out empty scows and liring in 
 those filled. In the old days the fish were pitched liy hand into bins on the wharves, but 
 this laboi-ious method has been superseded by the use of an elevator, which extends from 
 a short distance above the to]> of the wharf to the water's edge, jtrovision being made 
 for raising or lowering the lower end according to the stage of the tide. This elevator is 
 slanting, and is made of an endless chain operating in a shallow trough. About every 
 two feet there is attached to the chain a cro-ispiece of wood. At the top of the elevator 
 are chutes which deliver the fish at various convenient spots on the cutting-rooni Ibior. 
 Self-unloading scows are also coming into use now, and with these it is not necessary to 
 use a pew in emptying them. 
 
 Great care should be used in keejting the cutting-room clean. Most cannerymen, as 
 .soon as it has been cleared of a batch of fish, turn the hose ujion it and thoroughly wash 
 down the walls and Hood the floor, after which the floors are salted, and then it is ready 
 for the next batch. Unfortunately some few cannerymen cannot see the necessity lor 
 this thorough and fi'equent cleansing of this most important jiart of the cannery jircqier, 
 and do it at infrequent intervals, with the result that the room soon emits a most 
 unpleasant odor, and the ]irodnct undoubtedly suft'ers Ironi (his lack of cleanliness. 
 
 Salmon are generally used very shortly after reaching the cannery. ^Most cannery- 
 men agree that it is necessary to allow the fish to lie from ten to twenty-four hours after 
 being taken from the water before being canned, claiming tlmt if some of its moisture 
 has not been allowed to evaporate a pound of meat cannot be packed into the can. While 
 Chinook, coho, red and, at times, chum salmon may possibly lie kejit with safety and jirofit 
 for twenty-foin- hours, this can rarely ever be done with the hunqiback salmon, which soon 
 softens and sjtoils after being removed from the water. The condition of the weather and 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 67 
 
 MACHINE FOR CUTTING SALMON INTO LENGTHS TO FIT THE SIZE OF CAN USED. 
 
 THE "IRON CHINK," WHICH DULSt^iCS AND SLIMES 'IliE SALMON. 
 
6S CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 the teiiiperatiue very materially affect the time .salmon may be kept. lu Alaska, where 
 the weather is generally moist and the temperature low, fish may be kept much Jouger 
 than in ^^'ashington, Oregon and California, where the weather is usually dry and the 
 temperature high in the summer time, when the canning is done. Tlie danger of canning 
 flsh that are too fresh, however, is of minor importance as compared with the tendency 
 in the other direction U])<)n the part of some unscriijinlous canners. 
 
 Salmon are covered with a natural coat of slime, and this aids very materially in 
 preserving the fish from decay. 
 
 HeCore dressing the fish a stream of water is kept jilaying over them in order to 
 remove the dirt and slime, after which men with j/Cws separate the different species int<? 
 piles. 
 
 The work of dressing is done by the "Iron Chink," a marvellous piece of mechanism 
 which l)utchers the salmon at the rate of three thou.sand per hour. Before the fish enter 
 the machine the head and tail are cut off by band-saws. After it enters the machine no 
 hand touches it until it emerges. It is fed to the machine tail-end first, belly up, and 
 in the course of its journey upwards around the wheel, gang knives first divest it of its 
 fins, a stationary knife, somewhere in the circuit, slits open the belly, and a revolving 
 brush sweeps out the entrails, wliich drop through a hole in the floor onto conveyors 
 beneath, and thence are transported to the scows. An imjiroved type of this machine will 
 also "slime" the fi.sh, thus materially reducing the ainoiinl of labor needed. 
 
 After passing through the '-Iron Chink" (lie lish jiasscx on to a belt elevatoi-, which 
 carries it to a trough of running water, where it is scaled, washed and scraped. It is then 
 passed to another tank of water, where it receives a second washing, scraj)ing and final 
 brushing with a whisklike broom, which removes any offal, blood and scales that were 
 overlooked in the first washing. This is called "sliming," and after it is finished the fish 
 are removed to large bins on either side of the cutting machine. There are now on the 
 market a couple of machines for doing the "sliming." 
 
 The usual method of cutting the salmon is by a machine. This is generally a large 
 wooden cylindrical carrier, elliptical in shai)e, thus ha\ing a larger carrying capacity, 
 and with ledges or rests on the outside wide enough to hold the fish, and i;re slit in 
 cross section through the ledges and outer ciising 1<> receive the gang knives. The carrier 
 and gang knives are set in motion, each i-evolving on its own shaft. As a rest on the 
 carrier comes to a horizontal position, men stationed at the fish liins lay a fish on each 
 ledge as it passes. Thence it is conveyed to the revolving gang knives and, after being 
 divided, pas.ses thi'ough on the downward course, sliding off the rest into the filling chute. 
 The knives in these machines are so arranged as to cut the fish transversely in sections 
 the exact length of the cans to lie filled. 
 
 The rotary cutler shunts the tail pieces to one side, and these are carried by means 
 of a chute to baskets, from which they are later removed and canned separately. As the 
 tail portion is much smaller, with less meat, and jiroportionately more bone, it can not 
 I«' idaced in the cans with the middle and head sections without detracting fi-oni their 
 value. 
 
 In some of the smaller canneries, especially in those packing flat cans, the gang knives 
 are worked by hand. In this case the knives are not circular, but elongated or semi- 
 circular in shape, tapering at the outer ends. They are mounted on an axle having a 
 large iron lever at one end, and when this lever is raised the ends of the gang knives are 
 thrown up and back. The fish is then placed in position under them and the lever pulled 
 forward, the knives, with a scimitar like movement, dividing the fish. 
 
PILLING SALMON CANS BY HAND. 
 
 THE SALMON PILLING AND WEIGHING MACHINES. 
 
 69 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 Canning the Fish 
 
 Every cau of salmon is seasoned with one-foni'th of on ounce of salt, which, to insure 
 uniformity, is added by mechanical means. A table is used, in the top of which are 
 holes equal distances apart. On the under side of the top is a sheet-iron plate, with an 
 equal number of holes, which slide in a groove at the sides, and is worked either by a 
 hand or foot lever. Just below is an open space large enough to accommodate a tray 
 holding 36 to 48 cans. A workman stands in front of the table and slides a tray of cans 
 into the open space. He then throws a quantity' of salt upon the table and immediately 
 scrapes this otf \^•i1]l a thin piece of wood, each hole being filled in the operation, and the 
 salt being prevented from falling through by the iron plate undei-neath. The lever is 
 then pressed, the iron j)late moves foi*^\'ard until the holes in it are directly under the 
 table top, when the .«alt drops through into the cans. This operation can be repeated four 
 or five times in a minute. Special machines which automatically deposit the required 
 amount of salt in the can just before it enters the filling macliiiie are now in quite general 
 use. 
 
 Most canneries now use filling machines, although a few, more particularly those 
 packing flat and odd-sized cans, still fill by hand. 
 
 The filling machine consists of a chute with a belt to which are attached wire racks 
 about four inches apart, set at an angle to prevent the salt from spilling out, into which 
 the salted cans are fed from the floor above and pass into the machine. At the same time 
 the divided sections of salmon pass down another chute into the mouth of what looks like 
 a hand coffee mill. They pass through here down a smaller chute and are forced by two 
 dogs into a receptacle through which the plunger, or filler, passes. Here the plunger 
 comes opposite the open mouth of the empty can, which when it reaches this point is 
 caught by a clasp or hook and held in front of the plunger, Avhicli is immediately thrust 
 forward through a chamber filled with salmon, cutting the fish longitudinally and 
 at the same time filling the can. The next movement forces the can out upon a table. 
 When running at full speed one of these machines will fill about 80 cans a minute. 
 
 On being released by the clanqi the cans roll u]ion a long table and are picked up by a 
 man stationed here, who strikes each one upon a square ]iiece of lead set in the table, in 
 order to settle the contents down into the can and for the purpose of detecting any defici- 
 ency in weight. 11 not quite full the cans are pushed to the other side of the table, where 
 an operator adds the ipiantity of fish needed, a su])])ly of small jiieces being kei)t at hand 
 for this purpose. (Jenerally the cans overrun in weight, frecpiently as much as an ounce. 
 Occasionally a can is weighed in order to see that the machine is in perfect adjustment. 
 
 Most canneries now use a weighing machine, which forms part of the regular line 
 of machinery. Should the can be of the proper weight it will pass right along, but if 
 short weight it is switched to one side, and is then brought to the required weight by 
 filling u]) with ])ieces. > 
 
 In the hand method the fillers stand or sit on each side of a long table with a trough 
 running down tln^ middle from end to end. This is filled with the cut pieces of salmon, 
 and the fillers, usually women and children, put into the cans the large pieces first and 
 then smaller pieces to occupy the vacant spaces. By this method the fish are so placed 
 in the can that when opened by the consumer later on it i)resents a much more uniform 
 and inviting appearance than the cans filled by machinery, which necessarily have a 
 somewhat jnmlded api^earance when oi>ened. 
 
 In some canneries the cans are then washed hy applying either jets of water or steam 
 to the sides. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 71 
 
 Sanitary Method 
 
 The sauitary can has now almost entirely supei-seded the old soldered can. The 
 statement is frecjnently heard that this type of can is solderltss, but such is not really 
 the case. As a matter of fact the long- side seam of this type of can is treated with both 
 solder and flux, the latter usually of an acid character, but the can is of such a superior 
 type that it is but rare to find one which will show a trace of either solder or flux on the 
 inside. The tops and bottoms are crimped on without acid or solder by machines called 
 "double seamers," because they fold the flanges of side and end over twice in the crimp- 
 inji i)rocess. In order to make sure of an airtight joint the ends are coated with a rub- 
 ber like compound. A recent invention is that of a paper gasket to accomplish this 
 purpose. 
 
 P.y the use of sanitary cans the soldering machine, iu fact, all use of solder and acid 
 after the cans have been filled, is done away with, while the exhausting in retorts and 
 the subsequent venting and soldering are completely done away with, a considerable sav- 
 ing both in labor and time consumed. 
 
 In the sanitary method the cans when they come from th'> filler pass along an end- 
 less belt to the topper and crimper. This machine trues uft the ui)per edge of the can 
 and attaches the top of the can loosely to the body in such a way as to allow the gas 
 generated in the can during the exhausting process to escape gradually, yet prevents the 
 fish fi-om coming in direct contact with the steam of the exhaust box. 
 
 Some of the exhaust boxes used in connection with sanitary cans ai-e about 30 feet 
 long, with the cans traversing the i'uU length seven times, while others are so arranged 
 that they traverse the full length eleven times. Each run is supposed to take about a 
 minute and a half, with a total in the first instance of about 10 minutes for a can to pass 
 entirely through the box, or about 15 minutes with the last ramed, but there is consid- 
 erable deviation from this time in various canneries, some shortening the period, while 
 others lengthen it. The heat is usually fi"om 200° to 212° F., 210° appearing to be the 
 safest in most cases. The above holds good mainly in Alaska. 
 
 On Puget Sound sockeye l-])ound tall cans are usually exhausted S to 10 minutes 
 at a temjteratnre of 210 ' to 211^, while 1-pound flats are usually exhausted at the same 
 tempci-alnre for about (i ininulcs. and halves for about 7 minutes. Colios, ]iinks and 
 cinims are exhausted the same as soi-keyes. ^^'ith i-j-pdund sjirings the cxhausl is usually 
 for about 7 minutes at 210° to 211°. 
 
 Upon leaving the exhaust box (he cans jiass to the double seamer, which com))letes 
 the operation of sealing on the tops. Passing from here on the endless belt the cans 
 are run through another washer and then are transferred to the coolers and these are 
 immediately placed upon the trucks and run into the retort for the one cooking they are 
 to undergo. The time they are to remain here varies in the different sections and with 
 the different species and sizes of cans. In Alaska 1-pound tall reds, cohos, chums and 
 pinks are generally cooked from 00 to 120 minutes at 12 to 18 lbs. pressure and a tem- 
 perature of 242° to 248° F. One-pound flats and half-pound cans are generally cooked 
 about 10 minutes less time. Owing to their larger bones king salmon are generally 
 cooked from 10 to 20 minutes longer than the other species. 
 
 On Puget Sound l-]K)un(l lall sockeyes, cohos and ]iinks are generally cooked for 
 90 minutes at a pressure of 10 jiounds and a temjierature of 240"' F. Halves and 1-pound 
 flats are generally cooked at the same temiierature but for only 80 minutes. Chum 
 tails are generally cooked for 10."i minutes at a jn'cssure of 10 pounds and a. temperature 
 of 240°, while spring salmon are cooked for 120 minutes at a j)ressure of 10 ])(ninds and 
 a temperature of 240°. 
 
CANNING OF FISHKRY PRODFCTS 
 
 It is tlu' custom III all caiiiitM-ies, no iiiatlcr wlial llic system, to allow about Ave 
 minutes at tlie beginnins;- of the liigh teniperatuie eook to woik up the required heat of 
 the retort, and when eookiiig is complete theie is a lilce period for reducing the tempera- 
 ture and pressure before opening tlie doors. The cooking times given above are exclu- 
 sive of the two five minute periods noted here. 
 
 EMPTYING RETORTS OF THE CARS LOADED WITH COOLERS OF FILLED CANS. 
 
 It should be distin<'lly understood that the ]irocessii)g times noted are only approxi- 
 mate. Tlie condition of the flsh, tlie weather — whether hot or cold, rainy or dry — etc., 
 all have a bearing on the (piestion and must be taken into account. The packer cannot 
 go far astray, however, if he keeps generally within the narrow margins noted above. 
 
 Imperfect cans which are repaired befoie cooking are naturally in the same condi- 
 tion as if there had been no defects. If the leaks are discovered after cooking and are 
 repaired at once and the contents recooked, they are still very good, the only ditticulty 
 being that they have lost .some weight in the process of i-epairiug the leaks. The above 
 goods usually go in with the regular pack of their kind and are not classed as "do-overs." 
 
 When, however, a cannery is running at full capacity, defective cans can not always 
 be repaireil and recooked at once and are sometimes set aside for days. Decomposition 
 follows, of course, as with any other meat that is exposed to the air, and the fish becomes 
 unfit for food. When recooked the meat becomes mushy and the blowing or venting 
 makes the cans very light, a defect which is frequently corrected by adding salt water 
 or a soup made by boiling salmon in water. This, the "do-over," is the lowest class of 
 goods, and but few are ever shipped by canners, as the consensus of oiiinion amongst 
 food officials and cannerymen generally is that they are not a fit article of food. 
 
 On coming from the retort the coolers are lowered into a bath of lye, or, as in some 
 canneries, the cans are run through such a bath on an endless belt, which, with the aid 
 of a slight rinsing and a few rubs with a brush over the top, removes from the can all the 
 grease and other materials which have accumulated on it in its. passage through the can- 
 nery, and then passes into another bath where the lye is washed off in hot fresh water. 
 
 From the lye bath the cans go to the cooling room, where a stream of water is played 
 upon them, or, during rainy weather, are placed out of doors upon the wharf, and there 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 73 
 
 allowed to cool. This is very necessary, as otherwise the heated contents of the cans 
 would continue to cook for some time after beiusi removed from the i-etort, and jiossilily 
 become mushy from overcooking. 
 
 The top and bottom of the cans contract in cooliuii'. and for several hours a sharp 
 popping noise is heard. Here, as in nearly evei'y process through which they pass, the 
 cans are again tested, this time by tapping the tops with a small piece of iron about six 
 inches long, or, sometimes, a 12-penny nail. The sound conveys to the trained ear of the 
 tester an unmistakable meaning as to the condition of the casi, and the faiilty cans that 
 escape notice during the other tests are generally found in this one. 
 
 Lacquering 
 
 A common and at one time universal custom in the salmon-canning industry, but 
 one that is not common in the canning of vegetables, fruits, etc., is that of lacquering the 
 cans. This idea of protecting the can on the outside ha.s been followed from the very 
 beginning, for two rea.sons : (1) That the English market which, at that time especially, 
 absorlied the greater ]>art of these goods, insisted on their shiimients being finished in this 
 
 SALMON CANNING LINE SHOWING EXHAUST BOX, DOUBLE SEAMER, ETC. 
 
74 
 
 CANNING OF FISHI<:RY PRODUCTS 
 
 Wii.v, ;ui(l C'l from the fju-1, as Ww cainiers tiiiMi tliunglit, that if they did not protect 
 their cans in some way enormons losses through rust would ensue. 
 
 The first experiment of this nature was to jiaint the cans hy liaiid with red paint, 
 treating each can singly. Xext a composition of logwood extract and alcohol was tried, 
 which, however, did not ]»rodnce satisfactory results for a very plain reason — the can 
 was dyed instead o( being la((]uered. The next attempt was to varnish the cans with a 
 japan varnish reduced with alcohol, but this was found to dry too slowly for speedy 
 handling. After extended experimentation the (|ui(k-drying brown lacquer of the pres- 
 ent time was evolved, which carries asphaltum iu the form of an as]ihalt varnish as its 
 base, this lieing su])]danted in some cases by gilsonite. This luc(]tier can be jirocured in 
 either a heavy or light body, is generally reduced with benzine or gasoline, and is 
 applied according to the retpiirenients of the m.nrket, which in some localities demands 
 a heavy coating and in others a much lighter tinisli. the latter giving a rich golden-brown 
 color. Some experiments have also been made in using brighter colored lac(iners for this 
 work. Several of these, made to gi\e a bright golden. coi)pei' or oilier color, are extremely 
 
 MAKING SALMON CANS IN AN ALASKA CANNERY. 
 
 attractive in appearance, while at the same time protecting the tin against rust quite as 
 well as the brown. 
 
 The industry soon outgrew the hand method of lacquering, and the work is now done 
 almost entirely by special machinery designed for this purpose. 
 
 A few of the large packing companies have given up the lacquering of the body of the 
 cans, claiming that the label fully protects this jtortion ol the receptacle. As the 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 75 
 
 enameled ends ara usually bought from the can-making companies, those who follow 
 this practice have been enabled to cut loose altogetliei" ii-om the somewhat dangerous 
 work of lacquering in the cannery. 
 
 A few flat and oval cans arc not lactpiered, Imi are [trotectcd from riisl by wrapping 
 in tissue ])a]ier, over which I lie label is jilaced. 
 
 Boxing 
 
 A case of salmon generally contains 4S one pound cans or llie e(jui\alent, i.e., 24 
 two-pound cans or 96 half-pound cans. Some canneries pack their half-i)ound cans in 
 cases holding 48 cans. The cases are made of wood and are generally bought from the 
 mills cut to the proper lengths for putting together in the cannery. 
 
 CAX-il.VKING 
 
 Along the coast and in jiarts of i^outheast Alaska most of tlie canners buy their cans 
 ready made, but, owing to Ihe bulk of the empty cans making the freight rates dis]n-opor- 
 tionate to the weight involved, the canners in ^^'estern and Central Alaska and parts 
 of Southeast Alaska, have installcil can-nniking machinery at their i)lants and, in the case 
 of sanitary cans, numufacture the bodies of the cans from she"t tin, the to]is and bottoms 
 being ])nrchased from the ''an-makers on the coast. In the case of the old-style cans not 
 only the bodies, but also the tojis and bottoms, are manufactured at the cannerv. One 
 can-making company has recently devised a system by which it can collapse the body of 
 the can so that 400 may be ]iacked in the ordinary 4S one-pound tall salmon case. At 
 the cannery the collapsed bodies are run through a simi)le reshaping machine and the 
 bottoms may then be put on in the same manner as are the tops. An added advantage 
 which the big canners find in making their own cans is that it provides work for a large 
 part of the cannery crew who would otherwise be unemplo.ved while the rest of the force 
 was getting ready the other necessary paraphei'nalia. 
 
 Analyses of Canned Saljion. 1911 Pack 
 
 [By U. S. Department of Agriculture] 
 
 
 Water 
 
 Ethyl 
 
 Ether 
 
 Extract* 
 
 Protein 
 
 (Nx 
 6.25) 
 
 Total ash 
 
 NaCl.f 
 
 AMMONIACAL 
 NITROGEN 
 
 
 Richard- 
 son 
 method 
 
 Alcohol 
 Vapor 
 method 
 
 No. 1— 
 
 Puget Sound Sockeye Salmon 
 
 No. 2— 
 
 Puget Sound Sockeye Salmon 
 
 No. 3— 
 
 Alaska Medium Red Salmon 
 
 62.44 
 61.84 
 69.97 
 73,48 
 74.12 
 70.88 
 
 15.17 
 13 74 
 7.81 
 2.88 
 4 75 
 5.20 
 
 20.25 
 21.77 
 20.40 
 21.33 
 19.75 
 21.79 
 
 2.50 
 2.73 
 2.58 
 2 57 
 1.98 
 2 35 
 
 0.79 
 1.10 
 1.09 
 0.83 
 0.50 
 0.64 
 
 0.0403 
 
 0.0437 
 
 0.04965 
 
 0563 
 
 .0404 
 
 .0455 
 
 0.0348 
 0.0410 
 
 No. 4— 
 Alaska Chum Salmon 
 
 0557 
 
 No. 5— 
 
 Alaska Pink or Humpback Salmon. 
 No. 6— 
 
 Alaska Red Salmon 
 
 
 
 
 Each sample was average of two or more cans. 
 
 .\I1 samples, except No. 2, were old form 1 lb. tall cans. 
 
 No. 2 was J'2-lb. flat cans. 
 
 *Represents the fat. 
 
 tRepresents the salt. 
 
76 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 Canned Smoked Salmon 
 
 Smoked salmon is one of the choicest of fishery products, and while the greater part 
 so prepared is sold in bulk, a constantly incieasini; (piantity is being packed in cans and 
 jars, in which condition it will keep indefinitely, an impossibility when not so packed. 
 
 While a few canners use hard-salted, mild-cured or frozen fish for smoking previous 
 to canning, most of them prepare fresh salmon for this purpose, so the methods followed 
 in the curing and thawing of the former will not be described here. 
 
 When handling fresh fish, after dressing (they are usually split down the back in 
 this operation) they ai-e placed in a pickle of !)0 ' (salometer) and allowed to soak here 
 for about 8 to 12 hours, deiiending upon the size of the fish; small fish require less 
 time than large fish. AVhen hard-salted or miid-cured fish are used, the greater i)art of 
 the saltiness must first be removed, while in the case of frozen salmon the fish are thawed 
 out either by immersing them in water over night or by laying them on boards in a 
 moderate temperature and turning them over every 2 or 3 hours for 8 or 10 hours, when 
 they are sulficiently thawed for handling, after which they are pickled the same as fresh 
 fish. 
 
 After they are sufficiently soaked the flesh is smoothed with the side of a flat knife, 
 all ragged parts being pressed down. Each fish is then trussed wide open and arranged 
 with cords or iron or wire hooks so they can be hung up on the cross sticks in the smoke- 
 house. 
 
 After draining for several hours, they are hung in the ujiper part of the smokehouse, 
 away from the heat, but not so high as to be in the warm air which accumulates at the 
 top of the bay. Usually only two rows or tiers are smoked at a time, and in the lofty 
 smokehouses the smoking is continued for 18 to 30 hours. About 24 hours are usually 
 required, but on dry, windy days 10 to 18 hours are sufficient, and during sultry weather 
 30 or more are necessary. When low smokehouses are used, in which the fish are hung 
 within 8 or 10 feet of the fire, the smoking is usually completed in about 12 hours. 
 The smoke should be even throughout and with little fire. In some houses a light fire is 
 built under the fish as soon as placed in the smokehouse, and this continued for or 7 
 hours, when a shovelful of sawdust is added and the smoking continued for 12 or 1-t 
 hours. Fish so prepared will keep for 10 days or longer under favorable conditions. 
 
 Some salmon are kijipered before being canned. In this event the fish are gener- 
 ally cut in cross sections after salting, and these pieces placed on wirework screens, 
 which are slipped into racks with grooved compartments for receiving and holding 
 them. These racks are UMumted on rollers and as soon as filled are run into the 
 bays, the work being carried on on the upper floor of the smokehouse. Some smoke the 
 fish whole. Here they are dried in the heat from a hot fire for about 20 hours ; the flii-e 
 is then somewhat smothered with hardwood sawdust and the fish smoked for about 24 
 hours. Small fish require less time for smoking than large. 
 
 One canner prepares his product by curing the fish for 8 hours in brine testing 
 90°, or sufficiently strong to float a potato. After smoking for 12 hours the fish are 
 cut in pieces to fit the cans. The tops are then put on loosely, the cans run through the 
 exhaust box for 10 minutes at 212° F., the tops sealed, and the cans processed for 90 
 minutes at 245° F. 
 
 It is a comparatively easy matter to pack hard smoked or kippered salmon in cans or 
 jars. Some cut the smoked fish in pieces to fit the cans, as is done when packing fresh 
 salmon, while others smoke them after cutting, and after placing these in the cans pro- 
 ceed as with fresh salmon. If the fish are hot when placed in the can it w'ill not be 
 necessary to exhaust tJiem, but if put in cold they should be exhausted for about 15 to 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 77 
 
 SLICED SMOKED SALMON IN FLAT CAN. 
 
 ^^«»LW 
 
 A PACIFIC COAST SALMON SMOKEHOUSE. 
 
78 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 IT luiinUes ;ir 21:2° P., iind then jnocessed, 1 ]ioiiii(ls lor nltont iT, inimites at about 
 •2i-2'' F. 
 
 Oue cauuer, iu VJl'.i, put up some hard smoked salmon in glass jars without exhaust- 
 ing or processing, and in 1919 tliese were still in good condition. 
 
 Several companies at varying periods have taken up llie packing of sliced smoked 
 salmon in cans. One which operated in Seattle several years ago smoked mildctired 
 salmon until it reached the condition known in the trade as "hard smoked," cohos and 
 kings being employed. The salmon was then cut transversely of the body into very thin 
 slices, averaging 40 to 50 slices to the pound. These strijts were then packed flat in cans 
 shaped like sardine cans, a little salad oil added and then sealed up the same as sardines. 
 The cans were then exhausted the same as salmon and ]ii-ori'ssi'd lor about !)(l minutes at 
 240° F. 
 
 S.VLJIOX IX Si'K.'KS 
 
 The salmon are dressed, cleaned and cut into pieces of a size to fit the cans in which 
 they are to be i)acked, after which they are washed off in clean water. They are then 
 put in a tub or tank and covered with a 60° (salometer) brine and allowed to soak about 
 IVo hours, or until all the blood has been extracted. 
 
 The si)iced pickle can be made in the qnantity desired by making in the proportion 
 of one quart of cider vinegar, one half ounce of celery seed, one-third ounce dried mint, 
 one-third ounce dried jtarsley, one garlic, three small onions sliced, three whole cloves, 
 a teasjioonful of wliole ]iepper-corns, and one half leaspoonful of salt. Put into pot and 
 bring to a boiling point; then pour the mixture over the salmon and allow it to stand 
 for 24 hours. If the vinegar is very strong reduce with water. 
 
 Should the above condiination of spices not suit it can easily be changed l\v the 
 substitution or adding of other spices. 
 
 The fish should be put into cans, some of the mixture added, and the cans exhausted 
 and processed the same as with canned fresh salmon. 
 
 SARDINES 
 
 The .second great fish-canning industry of Ibis country is that for sardines. This 
 industry is centered almost wholly in Maine and California. In the former state the 
 industry is a comparatively old one, having been started in 1875. In California it is 
 comparatively new, having been begun early in the century, although it is only since 
 about 191G that it has attained to any considerable dimensions. In Maine the industry 
 is centered in the eastern part, while in California ]iacking is carried on mainly at Mon- 
 terey and in southern California. ! 
 
 On the Maine coast the species used in jiacking is the young of the .sea herring 
 (Cliipca hdroHius) , and in Alaska and on Puget Sound the young of a closely related 
 species, C. paUiisil. A description of the methods of the fishery, etc., for these species will 
 be found under the heading of "Herring" elsewhere in this volume. 
 
 In California the s]>ecies nsed is the California sardine (CJupca ('(irrKlrn ). The 
 latter occurs in great abundance along the entire west coast and southward on the coast 
 of lower California. It is taken the year round and is especially abundant from Septem- 
 ber to December. It spawns in the spring. It is an oily, delicately-flavored fish that 
 resembles very closely the European sardine (('In pea pilch(irrhis). and when packed in 
 the same manner as in France and with as good condiments, will compare most favorably 
 with them. Although the European species grows to be nearly as large as ours, only 
 
so CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 the sniallsized fish are canned there. On our coast fishes of all sizes are canned. The 
 fishery is prosecuted with haul and imrse seines. 
 
 With the exce])fion of in southern California but little sardine cauiiing has been 
 prosecuted on the I'aciflc coast, although there are abundant supplies of raw material 
 available in a nund)er of sections. Several modest attempts at sardine canning have 
 been inaugurated on I'uget Sound, but for various reasons other than a lack of raw 
 material they all came to naught. Under the conditions which have prevailed during the 
 last few months it is quite certain that properly located plants would prove successful if 
 operated on business principles. 
 
 In Alaska, and particularly in the southeast section, young herring, suitable for can- 
 ning as sardines, are exceedingly abundant, and as the demand for this product increases 
 canneries will eventually be established here. In 1905 a small plant was established in 
 Juneau, where an excellent grade of sardines was put up. The difticulty experienced at 
 that time in securing sufficient labor, and the necessity for comiieting with the then low- 
 priced Maine jiroduct, proved too much and the infant industry soon suspended opera- 
 tions. 
 
 Young herring and pilchards are also abundant along the British Columbia coast, 
 and this section will some day be as abundantly dotted with sardine canneries as it is at 
 present with those for salmon. 
 
 On the Maine coast sardines are packed wiiolly in the Hut obhing 14' V2 ^md %- 
 pound cans so familiar to the trade. 
 
 In California canning began about fifteen years ago. For some years the fish were 
 packed mainly in 1-pound oval cans, only an occasional pack of the cans typical of 
 the Maine product being put up. In the fall of 1910 the tuna canners, attracted by the 
 high prices then prevailing for sardines, began the packing of the fish in the round flat 
 cans used for tuna. The consumers did not enthuse over this, to them, unusual shape of 
 can. so the packers sjteedily installed machinery foi- packing the fiat cans so familiar to 
 the trade, with the result that in I'.ilS tJie ]i:uk amonnted to 1,356,048 cases. 
 
 The legal season in which weirs can operate in Maine is from April 15 to December 
 15, but it is seldom that fishing begins as early as the legal season allows. The Maine 
 canneries do not open before May 1, and many of them not before August, consequently 
 there is not much demand for fish until May or June. In California the canneries usually 
 begin on sardines in July. On both coasts the best fishing is said to occur from about 
 the first of August to the end of November. 
 
 While sardine canneries are scattered all along the Maine coast, they are most abun- 
 ilant on Passamaquoddy Bay, as they are thus enabled to draw abundant supplies of raw 
 material from not only the American weirs, but also from the adjacent Canadian weirs. 
 The canneries have collecting boats which visit the weirs regularly and buy the sardine- 
 hei'ring, the rest of the catch, which is too large for canning, being sold to the smokers 
 or salters by the owners of the weirs. 
 
 On the Pacific coast the fish are usually cajiturcd so near the canneries that the 
 fishermen bring them in in their fishing boats. 
 
 Amongst the Maine and California sardine canneries are to be lunnd some of the 
 largest and finest fish-packing plants in the country. The buildings, which are located 
 on wharves, for convenience in receiving the fish, are usually two-story frame build- 
 ings. The interior is partitioned into separate rooms for convenience in performing the 
 various kinds of work necessary. On the first, or lower, floor is the cutting, salting 
 and testing rooms, and storerooms. The second floor has tlie sealing, packing, drying 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODT-('TS 
 
 81 
 
 INTERIOR OF PACIFIC COAST SARDINE CANNERY. 
 
 INTERIOR OF CANADIAN CANNERY PACKING SAIMJIXE.S AND OTHER FISHERY PRODUCTS. 
 
82 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 aud cooling rooms, and a storei'oom for cans. The attic is used lor sawdust and as a 
 general storeroom. The oil and mustard tanks are also located here, and their con- 
 tents conveyed to the packing rooms by means of pipes. There are usually several smaller 
 buildings for housing the oliice, the power plant aud the box plant, while others have 
 special warehouses for storing the finished product. 
 
 In Maine a majority of the employees are residents of the towns and villages in 
 which the cannei-ies are located. There is also a considerable number who come in from 
 the country and the Canadian islands in the vicinit;\- of Eastport aud Lubec to work in 
 the canneries during the summer and return home again at the close of the season. Each 
 cannei-y employs from 50 to upwards of 250 jtersons, tlie average being about 140. The 
 employees in every instance comprise both men and women, and a large percentage of 
 boys and girls. The work is usually done I)y the jiiece, but clerks, foremen and general 
 laborers are paid by the day or week. 
 
 On the Pacific coast the canneries are located within the limits of good-sized cities, 
 I'l-oiu which aie easily drawn the labor needed. 
 
 The packers and Hakers are all women and girls, while the fish-cutters are mostly 
 women and boys and girls. The latter go from one factory to another in the same town, 
 as fish are received at one or the other, and are thus enabled to secure more continuous 
 employment than the others. 
 
 On both coasts the food of the herring consists of snuill animal organisms, chiefly of 
 two small crustaceans, viz.: copepods, or "red feed," and Scbizoiiud crustaceans, or the 
 "shrimp" of the fishermen. When the herring is taken from the water their stomachs are 
 sometimes filled with undigested food and are known as "feedy" when in this condition. 
 The "red feed" noted above rajddly decomposes aftei- the fish dies, even within two or 
 three hours, and this results in the breaking open of the belly of the tish, making an 
 unsightly and practically unsalable product. 
 
 There are only two known ways in which this handicap may be overcome. On the 
 Maine coast the fish are usually left alive in the weirs until they have digested this 
 food, when they can be handled without any resulting damage. On the Pacific coast 
 the best method is to anchor a large, square net in close proximity to the fishing ground 
 and turn the catch alive into this until the food has been digested. 
 
 The other method is to cut and eviscerate the fish as speedily as possible after being 
 landed, but owing to the scarcity of suitable labor for this work it has usually been 
 impossible to follow it. 
 
 In Maine, when the fish arrive at the cannery they are hoisted by power winches 
 from the collecting boat to the wharf in baskets. The baskets are carried into the cutting 
 room usually by being attached to hooks suspended from an overhead track A\hich passes 
 close to the ends of the cutting tables. A few canneries transport them on cars which 
 run on tracks on the floors, or on wheelbarrows. As the fish are brought in they are 
 turned out and distributed along the middle of the tables, so as to be within easy reach 
 of the cutters, who stand on either side at convenient distances apart. The fish-cuting 
 consists in removing the heads and viscera, the work being done with great rapidity. 
 The cutter takes several fish in the left hand at once and, with a special make of shears, 
 or a sharp knife, in the right, cuts off the heads one at a time. (Machinery to perform 
 the above work has been employed to some extent, but with unsatisfactory results, due 
 jirincipally to the varied sizes of the fish used.) Sometimes even the bones are taken 
 out when a certain grade of flsh is to be packed. A sweep of the shears or knife removes 
 the viscera and throws the "cuttings" into a barrel at the cutter's side. The fish are 
 thrown bv a movement of the left hand into the cutting box, which is located luider the 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 83 
 
 FRYING THE SARDINES. 
 
 FISH-CUTTING ROOM 
 
84 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 edge of tbe table. The euttiiig boxes are eatli consideied to hold tisli eiioii<>h to pack one 
 case of .sardines, and it is generally estimated that if the herring are of suitable size and 
 in good condition, so there will be no waste except •'cuttings," one hogshead (supposed 
 to hold one thousand pounds of fish, although it really holds about eleven hundred pounds) 
 will pack from 20 to 22 ca.ses, and possibly a larger number. The cutters are attended 
 by a man who removes the boxes (giving the cutter a check for each) and rolls aside the 
 barrels when filled, putting em])ty ones in their places, so the work may continue with- 
 out interruption. 
 
 As .soon as the fish have been cut they are taken to the salting-room and put into a 
 washing-tank, where a man stands with an ordinary scoop net and washes them by rous- 
 ing them up and down. The water in the washing-tank is being constantly renewed by 
 means of a lio.se, the surplus water passing out llnongh an escape pipe. The fish are 
 then dipped out into (he jiickling tanks. The tanks are sometimes hogsheads cut off just 
 above the bilge, but usually they are built of planks and are about :> feet wide and 2i/'o 
 feet deep, being generally about 15 feet long and divided into two or three sections. They 
 are filled with strong jiickle, made by dissolving one bushel of salt in every ?>t) gallons of 
 water, or, as it is figured at some canneries, using 12 buckets of salt to 51) bushels of 
 herring. They are allowed to remain here from twenty minutes to an hour, the length 
 of time dei)ending somewhat u]Kin the fatness of the fish and the condition of the weather. 
 If the fish are very fat or the weather is cold it re(piires a longer time, but ordinarily not 
 more than from 30 to 40 minutes. After being sufficiently "struck" in the i)ickle they 
 are dii)])ed out into baskets and allowed to drain, after which they are sent up to the 
 tiaking-room. The Hakers take the fish from the baskets and lav them on the flakes in 
 
 PUTTING SAUCE IN CANS FOR TOMATO PACK. 
 
COOKING PACIFIC COAST SAUDINES IN HUia/,UN TAl. la-rrtJKT. 
 
 CRATES FOR HOLDING THE CANS AND PERPENDICULAR RETORTS IN WHICH THEY 
 
 ARE COMMONLY COOKED. 
 
 85 
 
86 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 rows. The flakes are Iraiiies al)oiit 3 feet long and l!2 inihes wide, and are tilled in 
 with galvanized wire an inch or more apart. Eaeh tlake contains five rows of from IS 
 to 25 fish eaeli, or from !)(! to 125 to the flake, accordinji to the size of the fish, and about 
 10 Hakes are re(inired to ]iack a case of sardines. The flaking is now done by machinery 
 in certain plants. 
 
 As soon as a Hake is filled it is jilaceil in a movahle rack which rnns on rollers. 
 These racks hold a number of flakes and as soon as one is tilled it is run into a horizon- 
 tal retort, the door closed and bolted tightly, when the fish are steamed in a live steam 
 bath for 10 or 15 minutes, according to the size of the fish. They are then taken into 
 the drying-room where they are dried by means of a cnrrent of dry warm air being 
 forced over and around them for two hours by means of a blower. At a few canneries 
 the drying, when the weather permits, is done by placing the flakes in the open air. 
 
 The above method supersedes at many plants the one formerly in vogue of cooking 
 the fish by placing them in wire baskets and submerging them in an oblong tank filled 
 with boiling cottonseed oil (at a temperature of 210' F. ) for oO minutes, and then drying 
 them before placing in the cans. 
 
 The fish are then i)acked in the cans and the latter stihmerged in boiling oil. heated 
 to a temperature of 210^ F., for four minutes, after which the required condiments are 
 placed in the cans and they are then sealed up. 
 
 The sardines are packed in cottonseed, olive or peanut oil, mustard sauce, tomato 
 sauce or vinegar with spices. The spices employed are usually mustard seed, allspice, 
 cloves and bay leaves. The mustard sauce is composed of mustard, cayenne pepper, 
 tumeric and other spices, ^'inegar is also used for diluting the mustard sauce. The 
 tomato sauce may be prepared by boiling two hours in an enameled kettle: Tomatoes, 
 100 pounds; .salt, 18 ounces; bay leaves, i/o ounce; cloves, lo ounce; onions, 3 pounds. 
 The preparation is then passed through a fine sieve. The above sauce can be made some 
 time in advance and when needed can be made ready by boiling it again and adding one 
 ounce of butter per jxiund of sauce. 
 
 I'nder the regulations now in force, prescribed by Maine law, not less than one gallon 
 of the condiment should be used to each case of sardines. The prescribed (|nantities 
 are one-hundredth part of a gallon for quarter and one-fiftieth of a gallon for three- 
 quarter cans. 
 
 The bath tank is generally separated into two compartments, which are filled with 
 water and heated by steam. The steam is conveyed from the boiler of the engine by iron 
 pipes, which pass around the inside of the tank in a number of coils. The pipe in the 
 tank is perforated, so tliat the steam may come in contact with the water. Each compart- 
 ment of the tank is fitted with six coolers or large wire ba.skets. The cans are placed in 
 the coolers and lowered into the tank, where they are completely submerged in boiling 
 water which is heated to a temperature of 212° F. The quarter oil cans are allowed to 
 remain in the bath two liotn's, and three-quarter mustard, or other large cans, two and 
 one-half hours. They are then hoisted out and the bottoms of the coolers, which are 
 arranged to slide out, are removed, and the can."5 are released at the head of a chute or 
 screen in the floor which leads down into the testing room. They are first cooled and 
 dried in sawdust, and then shoved down the chute by means of a wooden scraper. 
 
 In the testing-room every can is carefully gone over and if a swell is found it is sent 
 to the leak-menders. The final testing for leaks is made by bringing two tins in sharp 
 contact with each other, the absence of oil in the tins being detected solely by sound. 
 The leaks are carefully mended, after which the can has to be vented and refilled with 
 new mixture. A ])uncture is usually made on the bottom of the can at one end near the 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 87 
 
 SHOWING MANNER OP PACKING SARDINES IN QUARTER OILS. 
 
 edge. The cover and bottom are then pressed back into their projicr concave shape and 
 another pnncture is made in a similar place at (he opposite end, alter which the can is 
 stood endwise in a |)an of nil, or other condiment, niilil i( i.s refilled. The pnnctnres are 
 then closed with solder and the can is again ]iiit throngh Hie bath. 
 
 The jierlect cans are nibbed clean with sawdnst and are then ready to be packed in 
 cases for shipment. In ea*;^ case there are 100 cans of the (piarter or lialf sizes, or 50 cans 
 of the three-qnarter size. The latter, when packed in vinegar and spices, are called 
 "marinees." 
 
88 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 A few siiidines are aliso smoked and after cdoHiij;- are packed in cans, the cans then 
 filled with oil niechanicall.v and passed thronj;h the sealing machine. They are then pro- 
 cesed by heatinji for one and one-half to two honi-s. The cans are iisuallj' cleaned while 
 hot and after cooling are tested and are then ready for casing. 
 
 Sardines are jtacked in 14s, 1/28 and -^s on the Maine coast, while on the California 
 coast the same sizes and in addition 1-pound ovals are packed. Most of the small-sized 
 cans have the lettering ])nt directly on the tin before it is made into the can, after 
 which it is lacquered and then made into the can shape. A few of these sizes are left 
 plain and enclosed in cartons, while others are left ]ilain, wrapped in tissue paper and 
 the label then ]iasted over this. The 1-ponnd ovals are not lacquered, but have a litho- 
 graped label i)asted around them. A considerable number of the cans are now equipped 
 so they can be opened with keys. 
 
 < "<i.\ii'i)srnox OF il.vixic Sakoinks 
 
 According to II. .M. Loomis, director of sardine ins](ec(i()n, National Canners" Asso- 
 ciation, the average composition of Maine sardines is as follows: 
 
 Plain Fried 
 
 sardines sardines 
 
 in oil. in oil. 
 
 \\'ater-free substance - 47.9 51.0 
 
 Oil 25.5 28.1 
 
 Protein 19.2 19.3 
 
 Salt 1.5 1.5 
 
 Total mineral matter 3.8 4.0 
 
 Canning on Pacific Coast 
 
 On the I'acitic coast tor some years large sardines (])iil iiji in l-](ound oval cans) 
 were usually the only ones packed, and these were prepared at Monterey. These fish are 
 caught generally at night and delivered at the cannery in the morning. Immediately upon 
 
 MACHINK FOll WASHING AND SCALING THE SARDINES. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 89 
 
 arrival the fish are put into bins and Icejit wet with running, water for some honrs. Some 
 canners use them immediately upon arrival. They are then fed into a revolving drum 
 made of wire, which removes the scales, and from here they pass down a chute into the 
 water tanks, whei-e thev are washed. 
 
 SCALING AND DRESSING THE SARDINES. 
 
 They are then dipped onto tables where operators head them and remove the entrails. 
 They are then washed by machinery and put in pickle tanks, where they are left from 30 
 minutes to an hour, according;- to the size and condition of the fish. 
 
 As soon as "struck" the fish are removed with dip nets and placed on w lie flakes to 
 dry. In order to expedite this part of the work the flakes are jilaced on a long galvan- 
 ized wire screen belt that passes slowly back and forth in a mechanical dryer at a tem- 
 perature of W)° to 100'^ for about 'M) minutes so that all surface moisture will be removed. 
 At some plants a j)art of the ]iack is dried by jdacing the flakes on racks in the open air 
 and depending upon nature to do the work. While this latter method is slower, it is 
 
90 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 CLEANING THE SARDINES. 
 
 probable that a better grade i>\' tisli is obtained. It the tish are not jirojierly dried befoi'e 
 thev are cooked tlie results are not satisfactory. 
 
 AUTOMATIC BRINE-WASHING MACHINE. 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 91 
 
 ^=^ 
 
 
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 Q 
 
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 f— I 
 
 H 
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 <: 
 
 ia*P»!('8J»*^; (S 1S«IM!1I» ^,*1'J» 
 
 o 
 
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 s 
 
92 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 The flakes are then placed on an endless chain which carries them through a long, 
 narrow vat. At the bottom of this vat is a steam coil. When ready for operation the 
 
 SPREADING THE SARDINES ON FLAKING TlvA\S. 
 
 vat is partially filled with water, and then enough oil added 1o fill it nearly to the top. 
 The oil being lighter than the water will remain on top. Olive oil was u.sed exclusively 
 for some years, but recently cottonseed oil and peanut oil have taken its place. Steam 
 
 FLAKING SARDINES IN THE SU.N. 
 
 being turned on, the water and oil soon attain sufficient heat for cooking, about 240° 
 F., when the flakes are started through. The flakes with large fish i-equire about 12 
 minutes to pass through. The tail gets brittle when the fish are sufficiently cooked. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 93 
 
 DRYING SARDINES BY ARTIFICIAL HEAT. 
 
 SEALING SAKDINES IN QUARTER-OIL CANS. 
 
94 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 The thike.s are then traiislerred to trucks and allowed to remain here to drain and cool 
 for several hours. They are then dumped onto the jiackinj;- tables, \\here the tisli are packed 
 into the cans by hand and oil or sauce adde.l to till liie interstices. After cai)ping they 
 go through an exhaust box for <S minutes at a temjieralnre of 212^ P., then to the retort, 
 where they are cooked for about one hour and lij minutes at a tein])erature of 240^ F. 
 From here the cans go through a lye bath in which the outsides are cleaned, and then to 
 the cooling platform until cool enough to be packed in the cases. 
 
 PACKING SARDINES IN OVAL CANS. 
 
 In southern California, where smaller fish are |)acked, the fish are generally dried in 
 the sun from one to two hours, artitiical dryers being utilized only in emergencies. When 
 packed in regular cans they are cooked in the same manner as the larger ones, but only 
 for from 4Vl> to 5 minutes, owing to their smaller size, after which they are allowed to cool 
 from (j to 12 hours. After being put into th? cans with the re juired condiments they are 
 exhausted in the exhaust box, capped, and then jn-ocessed in retort from IV'i; to2i- hours 
 at a tem]ierature of 220 to 240" F. ; the lower the temperature the longer the jircu'essing 
 time. 
 
 Cottonseed and peanut oils are the ones generally used in the cans. "Soused" is a 
 mixture of small peppers, cloves, allspice and mustard s(^ed mixed with vinegar. 
 
 Sometimes the fish are ]iut up in round cans, the same as used for tuna. In this 
 event the fish are cut to fit the can, packed in raw, exhausted, and then processed in a 
 regular steam retort. 
 
 It would undoubtedly pay our canners to pack a i)art of their product in the same 
 manner as the Norwegians, as thev have built u]) a considerable trade in this country 
 with these fish. After being brined the fish "are placed in long rows of little grooves in 
 which a wire rod is run through the eye of each fish. Each I'od, with 22 fish on it, is then 
 liung on a flat frame, 30 rods to each frame, making 000 fish on a frame. Ten of these 
 frames are then placed one above the other, with the O.tiOO fish hanging fiom them, in a 
 crate or larger frame. This is wheeled into one of the many smoking ovens, where the 
 fish are smoked for 30 minutes or so, the length of time depending upon the condition 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 95 
 
 of the tish. They should be lightly smoked and cooked, but not enongh to hrowu them, as 
 the tine silvery tinisli must be retained for canning. 
 
 "The fish are then taken from the smoking ovens to tlie cutting machine, where their 
 heads are cut off by a machine. The fish are then sorted by hand ready for packing in 
 the cans in uniform sizes. . . .'"* 
 
 STAitrii IN Tomato Sauce Used in Packing Sardines 
 
 The U. S. Bureau of Chemistry in 1918 made the following ruling in reference to the 
 use of starch in tomato sauce used in packing sardines : "Dr. ( ". L. .Vlslierg, Chief, in a letter 
 states that a large number of packers of food products who use tomato sauce have been 
 interviewed and their opinion requested on the propriety of the use of starch in the prep- 
 aration of this sauce. By far the greater number of these packers are of the opinion that 
 starch is not a proper ingredient of tomato sauce and its use is simply that of a substitute 
 or cheapener. This view is concurred in by the Bureau and in the enforcement of the 
 Food and Drugs Act the presence of starch in tomato sauce used in the packing of sar- 
 dines will be considered as an adulteration." 
 
 Labeling Sardines 
 
 The U. S. Bureau of Chemistry in construing the provisions of Food Inspection 
 Decision 64 is of the opinion that "whenever the name 'sardine' is applied to a fish of the 
 clupeoid family, caught upon or near the shores of, and packed in the United States, it 
 should be (jualifled by the word 'American' or 'Maine,' or some similar appelation. The 
 Bureau does not consider the designation 'native' to be sufficiently informative as to the 
 country or state in which the fish are taken and prepared. If the expression 'native 
 sardines' is used, it should also be accompanied by the information concerning the coun- 
 try or state as indicated in the Food Inspection Decision C4." 
 
 Inspection of Products 
 
 For some years much complaint was heard from consumers as to the quality of the 
 majority of the sardines packed in Maine. It was claimed, and with considerable truth, 
 that large and small fish would be used in filling the smallest size cans, the large ones 
 being cut down so they would fit in, this constituting in addition an economic waste of 
 nearly half of the fish; that fish which had been too long out of the water, or had been 
 bruised or broken either in handling or dressing, and fish with "red feed" in them, were 
 canned; that too little care was employed in brining, dressing, di'ying and cooliing the 
 fish, and that unsanitary canneries were altogether too common. While these condi- 
 tions prevailed in some of the canneries, a number of the others were doing their best to 
 ]>ack a high grade of goDds, but the actions of tlie lemainder prfived so much of a handicap 
 that finally early in lillti all but three of the packers came together and formed the "Sar- 
 dine Section" of the National ('aimers Association and entered into an agreement to 
 support a reasonable and thorongh ])lan of insi)ection, to abide by the rulings of the 
 association, and to pay an assessment of two cents on every case of sardines packed to 
 defray the expenses of this inspection. Tlie appointment of the director of inspection 
 and the inspectors (now luindiering about 20"), as well as the forimilating of rules and 
 regulations, was left entirely in the hands of the officers of the National Canners Asso- 
 ciation. The duties of the inspectors are to see that only fish of godd (|iiality ai-e received 
 and packed at the I'aclories, and that the sanitary requirements are lived up to. These 
 
 ♦From V. S. Commerce Reports. No. l."»7. for .Tul.v 7. 1!']7. p. 7ri. 
 
96 
 
 CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 SAKUINE CAN-MAKING PLANT. 
 
 reqtiiieiiieiits are about twenty in number, covering cleanliness of lautory e(iuii(nient and 
 jirovisions for the comfort and welfare of the emi)]oyees. 
 
 \\'iien tish of j)r()])er (niality are pacl^ed in accordance witii tlie association's require- 
 ments, tlie ])acker is entitle<l lo receive a certttcate of the association, to be attached to 
 each case of sardines packed. These certiticiites are issued to the paclcer only after the 
 Inspection of each lot of goods and a receipt for them is given to the inspector. The 
 certificate reads as follows: 
 
 "Tliese sardines have been insjiected and i)acked under our sujiervision in accord- 
 ance witli our sanitary rei|uirements for j)acking sardines. National Canners Associa- 
 tion. H. JI. Loomis, Director of Inspection." 
 
 In connection with this inspection work the packers authorized the equipment of a 
 lalxuMtory for chemical and liacteriological investigation of problems connected with the 
 industry. This was i)ut into operation in 1917 and several inijiortant jiroblems are now 
 under investigation. 
 
 As a result of the remarkable expansion of the California sardine industry in 1016 
 and 1017, many ])ersons took u]) ihe business who were unfamiliar with the jiroper 
 methods to be followed, while a h'w made but little effort to ]iut ujt a sanitary product. 
 Complaints from the trade became so many and so insistenl that in the latter part of 
 1917 the jtackers adojited jiractically the same method of ins|iertion as is now in force 
 in Maine, and early in 1!I1S the fdllowing leunlal ions were promulgated: 
 
 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS 
 
 1. No fish shall be used for canning without the approval of the inspector. Whenever practicable 
 the inspector will inspect the fish on the boats and also at intervals, In his discretion, within the 
 
CANNING OF FISHP]RY PRODUCTS 97 
 
 cannery. In the absence of the inspector fish may be received subject to liis approval upon arrival. 
 Each canner will be expected to provide a ladder or other convenient means of access to the boats 
 for the use of the inspectors. 
 
 2. The cannery, both inside and outside, must at all times be maintained in a sanitary condition 
 satisfactory to the office of inspection. 
 
 3. Tlie fish, as well as the sauces or oils, must be handled in a clean and sanitary manner satis- 
 factory to the office of inspection from the time received until disposed of. 
 
 4. Sauces and oils must be of uniform high quality and of the grade commonly used for food 
 purposes. Tomato sauce must be made from whole ripe tomatoes and of good consistency. 
 
 5. All packs must have a neat, clean appearance. The presence of excessive entrails, slime or 
 blood will not be tolerated. 
 
 6. All packs must be of good quality, that is, there shall be no excessive decomposition of the 
 fish and the salting, drying, steaming, frying, oiling, sterilizing or any other essential part of the 
 process shall be done in such a manner that the finished product will be satisfactory to the office of 
 inspection. 
 
 7. All packs must be full weight. 
 
 8. All packs must be labeled in strict conformity with all applicable food laws. 
 
 REQUIREMENTS IN PACKING QUARTER OILS 
 
 1. Pish must be clean square cut at the shoulder. 
 
 2. Entrails should not ajipear in more than one fish per can. 
 
 3. The fish should be dried and fried. 
 
 4. No broken fish shall be packed. 
 
 5. Not more than two (2) fish to the can with slightly broken skin will be permitted. 
 
 6. Not less than eight (8) fish shall be packed in can. 
 
 7. The number of fish in the can should be stamped on the outside of the case, reading 8 to 12, 
 or 12 to 16. 
 
 8. Oil should be one-half gallon per case, and/or sufl[icient to cover the fish. 
 
 9. In packing the cans in cases they should be so arranged that the keys will not mar the 
 lithographed tops. 
 
 REQUIREMENTS IN PACKING HALF-POUND SQUARES 
 
 1. The fish must be dried and fried. 
 
 2. The oil used should run one gallon of oil per case, and/or sufficient to cover the fish. 
 
 3. Must run six to ten or ten to sixteen fish to the can. 
 
 4. The number of fish to the can sliould be stamped on the outside of the case. 
 
 REQUIREMENTS IN PACKING OVALS 
 
 1. The fish should be dried and fried. 
 
 2. One pound ovals should contain not less than four (4) fish. 
 
 3. The approximate number of fish in the can should be stamped on the outside of the case. 
 
 4. Tomato sauce should run one gallon of good, thick tomato sauce per case. 
 
 5. Pish in one-pound ovals may be soused or packed in mustard, kippered, smoked or split. 
 
 6. Number does not apply to kippered or split. 
 
 REQUIREMENTS IN PACKING ROUND CANS 
 
 1. Bellies must be sound. 
 
 2. Minimum number of fish in round cans shall not be less than five (5). Maximum number of 
 fish in round cans shall not exceed twelve (12) in quarters and halves and fifteen (15) in ones. 
 
 3. May be packed in mustard, tomato or oil. 
 
 ISSUANCE OP CERTIPICATES 
 
 Certificates will remain in the custody of the office of inspection until issued. 
 
 Certificates are numbered serially and a record of their issuance will be kept by the office of 
 inspection. 
 
 Certificates will be issued only at the request of the inspector and after samples of the pack 
 have been examined and approved by the director or assistant director of investigations. 
 
 Certificates will not be issued until cases are packed. 
 
 Certificates will not be issued to any canner until his guarantee fund has been paid in full. 
 
 Daily packs on which certificates are to be issued must be stored separately. 
 
 Inspectors shall have access to packing and storage rooms. 
 
 Pailure to comply with any portion of the regulations will be deemed sufficient cause for re- 
 fusal of certificates on the pack involved. 
 
98 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 rii.cnAuiis 
 
 lu British Coluiiiliia and on Puget Soniid llic |)il(liai(l, as the raiildrnia sardine 
 is known, is put up bv some of the salmon canners in l-]iound tall cans. A ninch neater 
 package could he prejiared hy using an oblong can and ])utting the tish in by hand, same 
 as sardines, but this would require the installation of s])ei-ial machinery for handling 
 this special-shaped can, and thus force the salmon cainiers out of the business. I'nder 
 present methods the filled cans are run through tlie exhaust box for about 10 to 15 min- 
 utes at 212° F., and sealed in the doubleseaniei-, and cooked for 45 minutes at 242° F. 
 
 As this species is especially abundant from Sei)tember to December, or just after the 
 run of salmon is over, it makes an excellent fish foi- handling at these jjlants, which 
 would otherwise be idle dnriiig the period in (piestion. 
 
 SHAD 
 
 ii./^ 
 
 :1liAw|ttf#f 
 
 THE SHAD (Alosa snpi'Ussima). 
 
 The only section in which this well known species is canned is on the Pacific coast. 
 The species is not indigenous to this region, but was first introduced through the efforts 
 of the California Fish Commission in 1S71, lf),(»()(l fry being planted in the Sacramento 
 River. Since then a, number of plants have been made by the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries 
 in the Sacranienio, Columbia and other rivers. Owing to the migratory habits of the 
 species its range has been extended naturally from soutliern California to Alaska, but it 
 is not abundant anywhere except in the Saci'amento and Columbia Rivers. 
 
 In the Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivei's there is but one distinct run of shad 
 each spring, and this begins about the first of March and lasts until the first of June, the 
 height of the run being in April. A few shad, however, are taken here and in San Fran- 
 cisco Bay in striped bass and salmon nets practically tlie year round. Shad ascend the 
 Sacramento River for 300 miles or more. 
 
 In California shad fishing is practically all done with drift gill nels having a 
 stretched mesh of from 51/4 to Gi/o inches. The regular salmon boat and gear are used, 
 but the gill net is of smaller mesh and of somewhat lighter twine. The nets are from 
 150 to 350 fathoms long and 25 to 65 meshes deej). 
 
 In the CoUnnbia River shad are caught mainly in liaul seines operated for salmon 
 from April to July inclusive. They are regularly found as far as the Cascades, 150 miles 
 above the mouth, a few even going higher uji. The fish is found in greatest ;il)undance 
 
K*.^:^^y^ 
 
 SHAD PISHING IN NORTH CAROLINA. 
 
 1 — Pound Net Fish on Packing Floor; 2 — The Catch on the Beach; 3 — Steam Floats Preparing to 
 Set the Haul Seine; 4 — Hauling the Seine on the Beach. 
 
 99 
 
100 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 from the mouth of the river to a short distance below the mouth of the Willamette River. 
 They are usually' spawning in May, June and July. 
 
 The shad is the most imjiortant anadromns species of the Atlantic coast, being especi- 
 ally abundant in the fresh and brackish waters of North Carolina, Mrginia, Maryland, 
 Delaware, Pennsylvania and New Jersey. Every state bordering on the Atlantic supports 
 a commercial fishery for this species and in some it is the most imjtortant of all. The time of 
 the ap]jearance of the shad varies in different rivers. They fiist appear in St. Johns 
 River, Florida, u.sually in November, but not in great abundance until February and 
 March, and a])pear a little later in each stream as one g't)es north, the run not beginning 
 in Maine until in May. 
 
 As .stated above, no shad are canned on (he Atlantic coast, due to the great popular- 
 ity of this species in a fresh condition, and to the fact that canning of fishes other than 
 sardines is an insignificant business on that coast. On the Pacific coast the canning of 
 shad is carried on as a side line by the salmon canners, the fish usually appearing when 
 salmon are scarce, and as a result their canning helps to keep the regular force busy. 
 The first fish were put up some ten years ago, and like all other new canned products the 
 work of finding a market has progressed but slowly. Being virtually a waste product of 
 the Pacific fisheries, the fish in a fresh state have cost the packers but little, and as a 
 result they have been enabled to ofter them at a low figure. The price obtained is regu- 
 lated largely by the prices of low-grade canned salmon, being usually five or ten cents a 
 dozen cans lower than canned chum salmon. At present the product finds a market 
 mainly on account of its cheapness, l)ut the time is rapidly approaching when the good 
 qualities of the product itself will fix its intrinsic value and it will then sell at a higher 
 figure. Fortunately the industry can be expanded to an almost indefinite extent as the 
 supply of shad in the season is very heavy. 
 
 In canning shad the fish are scaled and then dressed by having the head, l:iil and fins 
 cut off, split down the belly and entrails removed, after which they are thoroughly 
 cleaned both inside and outside. They are then cut to the pr((])er length to fit the can in 
 a machine used for cutting iip salmon. The fish pass through the regnlai' machinery 
 used in canning salmon, and are generally packed in ]-]iound tall cans. S<Hne canners 
 run the fish through the exhaust box for 4 minutes, while others do not exhaust at all. 
 They are processed for 1 hour and 20 minutes at a temperature of 242" F. 
 
 A few years ago a canner on the Columbia River jjacked some shad without exhaust- 
 ing in any way. In jirocessing the cans were cooked 100 minutes with from lOio to 11 
 pounds pressure at a temperature of 240°, and the resulting jiroduct is said to have been 
 excellent. 
 
 Kii'PEREo Sri.vn 
 
 A few shad are at present being kippered and canned, and there will probnlily he a 
 big develojtment along this line, as the product is meeting with much favor. 
 
 When landed at the fish bouse the head and scales are removed, the fish s])lit down 
 the back, the point of the knife jiassing close along the left side of the backbone to the 
 abdominal cavity, and thence to the tail, after which the fish may be opened flat. The 
 entrails are removed and all blood lodged near the backbone or in the body cavity scrnped 
 oft'. Three short, deej) cuts are then made along the side of the fish so as to give the 
 brine and smoke a chance to jienetrate into llic I hick sides and oily dnrk meat. 
 
 The dressed fish are now ]>laced in a brine testing aliont 10%, and allowed to soak 
 here until all the slime and blood have been washed oft', after which they are removed 
 and allowed to drain. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 101 
 
 As soon as drained the lisli are immersed conii)letely in a strong brine, about 75% 
 saturated, and allowed to remain here for about two hours. As soon as taken from the 
 brine the shad are hung on sticks or hooks, whichever the smoker may have found best 
 for his purpose, the tlesh side being out. These are then placed in the sun, on a frame 
 or scaffolding, preferably in a light and airy place that is protected from dust and flies, 
 and allowed to remain here until the fish have dried sufficiently for smoking. In damp 
 weather the drying may be done in the smokehouse by using low fires and a good air cir- 
 culation through open ventilators. 
 
 Any ordinary smokehouse in which a temperature of from 80° to 125° F. can be easily 
 and continuously maintained will answer for this work. In kippering shad the tempera- 
 ture should be kept at not more than 112^ to 113° and under no circumstances higher 
 than 120° F. 
 
 The shad are now placed in the upper part of the house. Two or three small fires are 
 built of some hard wood, such as oak, maple, birch, alder, etc., but in no case of pine, 
 redwood or any wood containing resinous or turpentine-like material. The wood should 
 be dry, and as soon as it begins to flame vigorously should be smothered with dry hard- 
 wood sawdust in order to produce the maximum amount of smoke and to maintain the 
 temperature at the desired point. Several Fahrenheit thermometers should be suspend- 
 ed among the fish and the temperatiire maintained at about 112° to 113° F. As stated 
 above the temperature should never be allowed to go above 120°, and if it shows a 
 tendency to do this the upper ventilators should be opened in order to let out the hot air 
 and the burning wood smothered. For canning purposes the shad should be smoked for 
 
 7 or 8 hours, or even less may be sutticient to gi\e the desired tlaviir. 
 
 At the end of the smoking period the fires are piit out and all the doors and ven- 
 tilators opened in order to allow the fish to cool. This cooling should be allowed to 
 go on for to 12 hours. The fish are then cut to fit the size of can in which it is 
 to be packed, and placed in it with a small amount of o% brine added. They are then 
 sealed and the cans cooked for about SO to 90 minutes at a temperature of about 242° F. 
 The time of cooking will vary somewhat at different places. 
 
 SMELT 
 
 The American smelt (Osiiierus mordax) is the smelt of America. It is found along 
 our Atlantic coast from Virginia to the Gulf of St. Lawrence, entering streams, and is 
 often landlocked. It is abundant in Lakes Champlain and Memi)hremagog, aiid in many 
 other lakes in New England, New Urunswick and Xova Scotia. It entei-s our livers and 
 brackish bays during the winter months for the purpose of sjiawning, when it is caught 
 in immense numbers in nets, and by hook and line. JIany are taken through holes cut 
 in the ice, and are frequently frozen naturally. Those which have not Iteen frozen are 
 termed "green" smelts, and are much more highly esteemed. The smelt does not usually 
 exceed 8 or 10 inches in length, l)nt it sometimes exceeds a foot in length, and a weight 
 of a jioun.d. 
 
 The I'acitic smelt (0. flifilriclilln/x) is found on our I'acitic coast from San Francisco 
 nortlnvard to Bristol I5ay in Alaska, and is fairly common. The flesh of this species is 
 soft and does not keeji well, but is of excellent flavor. The fish attains a length of from 
 
 8 to inches. 
 
 Fnder the heading of smelts have been included several well known and closely related 
 species, all of which are eminently suitable for canning in the same manner as smelts. 
 
 The enlachon, or candleftsh (ThdleicJithi/fi jiacificu.'^), or, as it is freciuently called, 
 the '•( "olumbia River smelt," has been descrilied as being "the finest food fish in the world 
 
102 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 — tender, fragrant, digestible." It is probably the fattest of tishes, but its oil lias a 
 peculiarly delicate, agreeable flavor and, when extracted, is solid at ordinary tempera- 
 tures. In the abundance and consistence of its fats its nutritive value is more like that 
 of the best grades of meats than is the case with most other tishes. Like the salmons, 
 the eulachon has the habit of running into rivers and brooks to spawn, and is found from 
 Oregon northward, running in the Fraser, Nass and other streams of British Columbia, 
 Washington and Alaska in enormous numbers. They are slender fish — when adult about 
 a foot long — and although resembling the smelt in form, lack its brilliant silvery sheen. 
 
 The capelin (Mallotus villosus) is found on both coasts of Arctic America, south to 
 Cape Cod and British Columbia. It is a most delicious fish, much valued in the north, 
 and is found in almost countless numbers. 
 
 The surf smelt (HiJiiomcsiis prctiosiis) attains a length of a foot and is found on 
 the coasts of California, Oregon and Washington, from ilonterey northward, usually 
 abundant and spawning in the surf. It is a firm tleshed and fat little fish of delicious 
 flavor, scarcely inferior to the eulachon. 
 
 In ('anada, in lillO-lT, the catch of smelt amounted to 0,802,000 i)ounds, of which 
 5, 502, .500 pounds came from New Brunswick waters and the remainder from Prince 
 Edward Island, Nova Scotia, British Columbia and Quebec in the order named. During 
 the same year the catch of capelin (all from Quebec i aiiiimnted to 4,;j.5(),S00 jiounds, 
 while the catch of eulachons amounted to 1,200,000 pounds, of which practically all came 
 from Briti.sh Columbia. There is room for an immense increase in the catch of capelin 
 and eulachons in Canada and .Vlaska, as the immense runs of these species have hardly 
 been touched as yet. 
 
 In 1008 the smelt catch of the Cnited States amounted to 4,:U0,(I(M) jiounds, of which 
 3,645,000 pounds were taken on the Pacific coast. 
 
 The canning of the eulachon has been taken up recently on the Cowlitz River with 
 considerable success. The canning of smelts proper has never attained to much promin- 
 ence, however, due doubtless to an abundance of sardines, the fish with which they would 
 compete. The methods of canning are not Avel! established, and the following should be 
 considered as merely aids in the experiments which should be undertaken by the int'\nd- 
 ing canner for the pnrjjose of establishing correct methods. 
 
 For canning in a fresh condition the fish should be headed, dressed, and llien dried 
 in an artificial dryer, or in the sun, for from one to two hours. They should then he 
 packed in cans with oil, tomato or mustard sauce, to|i]ied loosely, exhausted for al)out 
 10 minutes at a temperature of about 212° F.. to]is scaled light, and then jirocessed at 
 a temperature of 240"^ F. for a jteriod which can only be determined by exiteriment, but 
 which should jtrobably be froTu 50 to 70 minutes. If the tish hshow a decided tendency 
 to mush they should be first soaked for about an hour in a !M) brine in which liom one- 
 half to one per cent, of alum has been dissohcd. wliicli may possibly aid in ]ire\enting 
 the tendency to mush. 
 
 The fish are sometimes lightly smoked in a roiind condilion. ^^'hen prejiared in thi.«t 
 way the fish should be soaked first in a Ot)" brine solution for 1 or 2 hours (the time to be 
 determined by experiment i after which they should be hung in the smokehouse and 
 lightly smoked and then packed in 1-pound oval cans and exhausted and ])rocessed as 
 above. 
 
 Another method of canning is wfth spices. The fish are cleaned and washed in one 
 or two waters, after which they are salted over night. They are then washed again, put 
 on flakes and either dried in the sunlight or in an artificial dryer for an hour or two. To 
 one gallon of vinegar use two tablespoons of ground mustard, one tablespoon cayenne 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 103 
 
 pepper, oue tablespoon inace, one tablespoon whole allspice, and one tablespoon cloves. 
 I'ut spices into vinegar and let it come to a boil before ponring over the smelt when 
 packed in the can. The cover is then put on and after exhausting the cans are processed 
 for about one hour (the period can be determined definitely by exi>eriiiient | at a tem- 
 perature of about 240" F. The (juantity of mustard should be varied to suit the taste. 
 
 SQUETEAGUE OR WEAKFISH, AXD WHITE SEA BASS 
 
 THE SQUETEAGUE OR WEAKFISH (Cynosrion irgaUs). 
 
 The squeteague, weakfish or sea trout [Cijiiosvion ni/tili-'i) is found throughout the 
 entire length of our Atlantic and Gulf coasts, and ranges as far north as the Bay of 
 Fundy. It is rare in the Gulf of Mexico, and is most abundant in season off the Middle 
 Atlantic states. It has varied greatly in abundance within the last hundred years, but 
 is always one of our commonest and best known fishes. The fish is found generally 
 close to the coast, but it sometimes runs up tidal waters, and then prefers the vicinity 
 of river mouths. It is highly j)rized in southei-n markets. The squeteague reaches 
 a maximum weight of 30 pounds, though examples of more than 10 (u- li' pounds are very 
 rare, and the average weight is much less. 
 
 
 » ^ i f t. i 
 
 THE SPOTTED WEAKFISH (Cynoscion nebulosus). 
 
104 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 The spotted weaktisli or spotted sea trout (C. nrhinofius) is associated on the eoasts 
 of New Jersey and Virginia with the squeteagiie, from which it may be readily dis- 
 tinguished by the presence of numerous round black spots on the body posteriorly. Ow- 
 ing to its shape and the spots noted above, it is known on the southern coast as spotted 
 sea ti'out. It becomes more abundant as we go southward until otf the coast from North 
 Carolina to Georgia it is one of the most common food fishes. This species is more 
 migratory in its habits than its relatives. At Beaufort, N. C, it appears from the south 
 iu the spring and passes through the inlets on the flood tide. Early in May it pro- 
 ceeds northward, extending its journey as far as Long Island. On the North Carolina 
 coast they are perhaps more abundant than any other species except the mullet. The 
 average weight of the sjiecies is from 2 to 4 jxuinds, though the maximum is much 
 greater. 
 
 The bastard weaklish (('. iiofhus] is a well marked species, ditfering in numerous 
 respects from the others of the genus. It occurs on onr South Atlantic and Gulf coasts, 
 and is a good food flsli. 
 
 Fishing for the above sjiecies begins in Ihe latter ])art of Ajiril (they are also (piite 
 abundant in the Indian Kiver, Florida, during the wintei- and early spring), and lasts 
 from six to eight weeks, until the schools begin to move off inio deeper and cooler waters. 
 In 1908 nearly one-half of the entire catch was made in pound nets, traji nets and weirs, 
 and one-third in seines. 
 
 The total catch on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts in 1908 amounted to 18,532.000 
 pounds, valued to the fishermen at |1, 731, 000. Of this catch nearly one-half was taken 
 in almost equal quantities by New York and New Jersey fishermen. Every state from 
 Massachusetts to Texas, both inclusive, participated in the fishery. 
 
 The white sea bass {('. iiohilix] is an iiiqiortant game tish of southern ("alifornia 
 waters. It ranges north to San Francisco and occasionally even to \'ictoria, ^'ancouver 
 Island. It is most abundant about Santa ( 'atalina, but is also taken in large (juantities 
 in Monterey Hay. It i-eaches a weight of 20 to 80 ]>ounds, and is an excellent food tish. 
 It comes in schools from somewhere in April and remains late into the summer. Dur- 
 ing 1917 some 507,079 jtounds were taken and marketed by the fishermen, but this quan- 
 tity cotdd have been largely increased had tlier:" been a market availaljle. 
 
 The so-called sea trout of southern California ( r. ji(irriiiiiniis\ is a relative of the 
 white sea bass, but attains a much smaller size, ranging up to 12 or 15 pounds. It is 
 also commonly known as the bluefish. It is found from the Santa Barbara islands to 
 Guaymas and Mazatlan, being common as far north as San Pedro, and is an excellent 
 food fish. During 1917 the Califoi'uia fishermen marketed 83,051 jiounds of this species, 
 but this could have been largely increased had the demand existe<i. 
 
 In preparing the fish for canning they are scaled, the gills cut and these and the 
 entrails removed by pulling with the fingers, or else the head cut off just forward of the 
 shoulder and the belly slit to the vent and the entrails removed. The fins are then cut 
 off and the fish cut to can lengths. The fish are then co'.ered with a generous quantity 
 of GO'^ (salometer) brine and soaked one or two hours, according to the thickness of the 
 fish and the weather; they must remain until all the blood is extracted. The brine should 
 never be used the second time. The fish are then put into cans and the latter filled with 
 brine made by dissolving 3 pounds of salt in each 121/^ gallons of water used, and 
 the toi>s put on. They are then exhausted 10 minutes at 212"^ F., the tops sealed and the 
 cans ju-ocessed from 80 to 90 minutes at 240° F., after which they are renu)ved from the 
 retort and ])laced in cooling bath. Small size fish require less time to process than noted 
 above for the larger fish, the time required probably being from 50 to 00 minutes. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 105 
 
 STRIPED AND WHITE BASS 
 
 THE STRIPED BASS OR ROCKFISH (Borcus Hnratus). 
 
 The striped bass, or rockflsh (Roccns lincatiin) occurs on our Alhintic coast from 
 the St. Lawrence River to tlie Escambia River in western Florida. It is most common 
 between Cape May and Cape Cod and on the North Carolina coast. It is particularly 
 abundant in the great estuaries and open stretches of large rivers. Some years ago it 
 was introduced in Pacific coast waters and is now fairly abundant in California waters, 
 particularly in the Sacramento River. 
 
 The striped bass is strictly an anadromus i5sh, living chietiy in salt or brackish 
 water, and entering fresh water only at spawning time. As a food fish it is one of the 
 very best. Some very large tish have been reported, the largest weighing 112 jjounds. 
 The average weight, however, is about 5 pounds. 
 
 At one time the species was exceedingly abundant on the Atlantic coast. In 1908 
 the catch on the Atlantic const amounted to 1,S81,()00 jiounds, while the California catch 
 amounted to ],131,55() pounds. The Hesh is white and flaky and would can easily, either 
 plain like the squeteague, or corned like the cod. A few were canned on the Sacramento 
 River in ISDCi. The j>roeessing time would be somewhere between 70 to SO minutes for the 
 small fishes, and for the large fish from 110 to 120 minutes, at a temperature of 240' F. 
 
 A closely related species is the white bass {R. chri/sops), which is found throughout 
 the Great Lakes region from the St. Lawrence to Manitoba, and south in the Mississippi 
 Valley to the Ouachita River in Arkansas. It is generally abundant in the Great Lakes. 
 It does not occur in salt water, but frequents the deep, still waters of the lakes, seldom 
 ascending small streams. It reaches a length of a foot to IS inches and a weight of 
 one to two pounds. It is an excellent food fish, and could be canned the same as the 
 striped bass. The brine in which it is soaked must, however, contain one-half to one per 
 cent, of alum, as freshwater lish are softer fieshed than saltwater species. 
 
 STURGEON 
 
 At one time the sturgeon was exceedingly abundant in some of our waters at cer- 
 tain seasons of the year, but the great demand for their eggs in making caviar, and the 
 high prices obtained for the fiesh, led to such intensive fishing that they have become 
 
106 
 
 CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 almost extinct at places where tbey formei-ly were exceedingly aliiindant. They are 
 anadronius fishes and only enter fresh water for the purpose of spawning. 
 
 The common sturgeon {Acipenser sttirio ) ranges from Maine to South Carolina, and 
 up to ISSO the species was exceedingly abundant. The chief center of abundance was, 
 and is, the Delaware River, although considerable fishing is done in the ocean off Nags 
 Head, North Carolina, and off certain sjiots on the New Jersey coast. The maximum 
 
 LANDING A TEN-FOOT STURGEON. 
 
 length of the fish is about 10 feet, and weight about 500 jjounds. in all the species the 
 females are much larger than the males. 
 
 The short-nosed sturgeon {A. hirvirostris) ranges from Cape Cod to the coast of 
 Texas. It was at one time quite abundant in the Ocklocknee and Apalachicola Rivers 
 and the rivers debouching into I^scambia Bay. This sturgeon is much smaller than the 
 common sturgeon, it rarely ever attaining a length greater than 3 feet. 
 
 The white sturgeon (.1. truiisiiKnitcnius) ranges north from Jlonterey, Cal., to Alaska, 
 ascending the Sacramento, Columbia and Fraser Rivers in the spring in greatly decreased 
 numbers as compared with a few years ago. This species attains an enormous size; the 
 largest examples of which we have record were 13 feet long and weighed 1.000 pounds. 
 They run usually from April to November. 
 
 The range of the green sturgeon (A. medirostri.i) is approximately the same as that 
 of the white sturgeon, l)nt it has never been so abundant and does not attain so large a 
 size as the latter. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 107 
 
 SKINNING A STURGEON. 
 
 The lake sturgeon (A. ri(hicuiidiis) is found as an inhabitant of the (Jreat Lakes and 
 the hirger rivers connected therewith, Lake of the Woods, and many of tlie Canadian 
 lakes. Jt i.s also found in the upper Mississippi Valley, and the lower portions of the 
 Ohio and Missouri Rivers. In the Great Lakes it is most abundant in Lakes Erie and 
 Ontario. The average weight at present is about 40 or 50 pounds, with an average length 
 of about o feet. 
 
 The shovel-nosed sturgeon fSvuiiliirliynclins platori/Hchus) is known only from the 
 upper and middle Mississippi valley. It is most abundant in the Ohio, Illinois and Mis- 
 souri Rivers. It does not attain a very large size. It is caught usimlly on set lines. 
 
 As the sturgeon decreased in abundance the fishermen began seeking a substitute 
 and found it in the paddleflsh or spoonbill cat (Pohjodoii siitilhiihi). This is one of the 
 most singular and interesting fishes occurring in our waters. Its home is in the bayous 
 and lowland streams of the Mississippi Valley from Texas j.nd Louisiana on the south 
 to ^linnesota and Wisconsin on the north. At one time it was particularly abundant in 
 the streams of Arkansas, the lower Ohio, and the Mississippi River in Mississippi and 
 Tennessee. They are usually taken with set lines. Specimens have been caught which 
 were six feet two inches in total ^ength, and weighed loO pounds, but the average is 
 nmch less than this. Its flesh is sold as sturgeon meat, while the eggs are used in making 
 caviar. 
 
 C.\xxED Smoked Sturgeon 
 
 A very small quantity of smoked sturgeon is canned each year. When intended for 
 canning the fresh fish are cut into pieces to fit the size of the can for which they are 
 intended and placed in a wire drum, the cross-section of which is equal to the cross- 
 section of the can. This drum is so arranged that one side or head enters the 
 receptacle and by means of a spring or clasp is pressed into the drum, thus slightly com- 
 pressing the contents. While it is subjected to the action of the smoke, and as the fish 
 
108 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 becomes more and more compact, the movable bead will gradually press it against the 
 fixed bead, so tbat tbe contents take the shajte of a disk with comparatively tlat sides. 
 The drum is so suspended that it may be turned oi rotated from time to time, so that tbe 
 juice that settles to the bottom is brought to the top and compelled to How through the 
 mass again, thus retaining it in tbe flesh. When the smoking is finished tbe disks of fish 
 are removed from the drum and placed in cau.s with a small quantity of cottonseed oil, 
 without exhausting, and the cans hermetically sealed. The product is very palatable and 
 will keep for a year or two under favorable conditions. At one time quite a quantity of 
 this product was prepared annualh', but the present great scarcity- of sturgeon has 
 caused an almost total cessation of tbe business. 
 
 DOLLY VARDON TROUT 
 
 Along our Northwest sloi)e and in Alaska is luiind IIk' Ddlly >'ar(l(in Innit, also 
 known as salmon trout i SdlrcIiiiKS parkei), which is so abundant tbat it has liecome a 
 .serious menace to the salmon fisheries. It i.s found in the streams and lakes of the coast 
 states, British Columbia and Alaska. Though a freshwater fish it often descends to the 
 sea and is frequently taken in salt and brackish waters. it reaches a length of 2 to 
 li feet and a weight of 5 to 112 pounds. The average is nnuli less, however. 
 
 This species is the most persistent and destructive enemy of the saliiniii eggs and 
 fry. In vast numbers they acc()ni])any the spawning fish to the beds with the sole object 
 of feeding upon the salmon eggs when extrutled. .\fter the eggs have hatched the fry 
 and lingerlings fall a ready jtrey to this voracious trout, which pursties them not 
 only in the streams and lakes but down to salt water, where the destruction cdntinues 
 until the salmon have grown large enough to protect themselves. 
 
 Lai'ge numbers of these trout are taken in the tra]is and other nets njHM-ated for 
 salmon, but little use is made of them at present, largely because of the game laws which 
 make no distinction between this destructive species and other fronts. In Alaska a few 
 are canned in the same manner as salmon, but there is not much demand for them in this 
 shape. It is believed, however, that if the smaller ones A\ere selected and packed whole 
 in 1 and 2-pound oval cans they would present a more inviting ajqiearance, and it 
 is possible a good trade in them could be built up throughout the country, as tbe trout 
 label would be a novelty in the East, and also one to conjui-e with, as the name stands 
 for a choice article in the minds of the people. 
 
 The following method would probably work successfully in canning whole trout. 
 It should be understood, however, that it is impossible to give exact directions to cover 
 all contingencies, especially with a new and untried product, and the operator will have 
 to use care until he has demonstrated for himself the exact method to be followed. Even 
 with old-established products with which the packer is thoroughly familiar the methods 
 have to he varied from time to time in order to meet unusual coiulitions which will arise. 
 
 In ])acking the fish should be nearly uniform in size, and should be as fresh as it is 
 possible to obtain them. The head should be cut oil and the lielly slit to the vent and the 
 entrails removed, or they could be removed without splitting. The fins should then be 
 cut off and the fish washed in clean water, after which they should be covered over 
 with a generous quantity of 00° (salometer i brine and soaked one or two hours, accord- 
 ing to tbe thickness of the fish, care being exercised to see that all tbe blood is extracted. 
 Fresh brine should be used each time. The fish should I)e ])laced with shoulder and tails 
 alternating so they will nmke a neat and even pack. Then fill the cans with brine (3 
 pounds of salt to 121,4 gallons of water), place the tops on loosely, run them through the 
 exhaust for about 10 minutes at 212° F., after which the 1oi)s should be sealed, and the 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 109 
 
 caus proces.sed at a teiniieratme betweeu 240'- and 247° lor a leugtU ol' time which can 
 he determined only bv exiieriinent, but probably for about one hour. Should the fish 
 develop a teudeiu-y t(i iinisli in the cans one-hall' to one per cen(. of alnm should be 
 dissolved in the brine in which they are soaked. 
 
 The large fish can be dressed and packed in the same manner as canned salmon. 
 
 STEELHEAD TROUT 
 
 The steelliead trout (t^nhno gairdiicri) is commonly classed as one of the salmons 
 by the canuers of the Pacific coast. In different localities the average weight is placed at 
 from 8 to 15 jtounds, while exti-eme sizes reach 4". pounds. The excellent quality of its 
 Oesli cau.ses it to be highly prized for the fresh market, but owing to its jiale color only 
 limited quantities are canned. 
 
 The principal center of abundance of this species is the Columbia River. It is found 
 from Carmel River, Califcn'nia, north to central Alaska, and possibly has an even wider 
 range in Alaska. It seems to be found in the rivers during the greater part of the year. 
 In the Columbia River the spawning season is from February to May, in Puget Sound 
 in the spring, and in southeast Alaska in May and June. The liest commercial fishing is 
 in January, February and March. In California the catching of this species is restricted 
 to hook and line fishing. 
 
 Wherever used commercially the steelhead is generally caught along with the salmon. 
 Practically all of the steeiheads canned are i»nt up on the ("olunibia Kiver or along the 
 Washington coast. 
 
 The actual process of canning steeiheads is the same as for salmon, with the excep- 
 tion that ihey are processed ten minutes longer than are salmon. The reason for this 
 is that the bones of the steelhead are harder than the bones of the salmons and a longer 
 cooking is necessary in order to properly soften them. 
 
 TUNA 
 
 One of the newest of our canned fishery products is the tuna. The business is car- 
 ried on solely in southern California, the only ])lace where the species has been found in 
 
 SAN DIEGO, CAL., TUNA CANNERIES. 
 
110 
 
 CANiNlNG OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 abuudance on the I'afitif coast. This species was first canned in 1!I07. No large quantity 
 was packed until 1!U], when the two canneries then operating put up about 20,000 cases. 
 In 1912 there were five jdants in operation and they packed about 80,000 cases. The 
 output in 191S amounted to 32."), 000 cases of all sizes of cans. 
 
 Awhile the canned product is labeled tuna, the species utilized is really the albicore, 
 or long-tinned tuna ((Irniio (ihilinif/u). as it is sometimes called. The albicore is a pela- 
 gic species found in all tropical seas, and closely resend)les Thunnus, the regular tuna, 
 from which it differs chieliy in having the pectoral long and sabre-shaped, the length in 
 the adult being almost one-half that of the body. It is a comparatively short, but excep- 
 tionally thick-set, fish. While specimens weighing as much as 100 pounds have been 
 taken, the average weight is about ;!0 pounds. 
 
 This species is raiely seen on our Atlantic coast. It makes its appearance in the 
 waters of southern Calilornia early in the spring, and tishing operations are olten car- 
 ried on as late as l>ecembei'. The fishermen stale that during Ibis period the fish often 
 disapitear for several months, and it is presumed that they are then spawning. 
 
 The albicore is a deep-sea fish, and is taken li-oiii Iwo to forty-five miles off shore, 
 moving usually in large, well distributed schools and at a depth of ten or more feet. It 
 is not so active as the leajiing tuna {Thuiniii.^ tlii/nnvs) and the yellow-tin tuna [Thun' 
 mix )nficro]iti-nifi'i . with which it schools. 
 
 The commercial fishery for this species is a comjtaratively recent one, although the 
 taking of them has been a somewhat popular sport with anglers for a number of years, 
 Hand trolling lines are used almost exclusively by the commercial fishermen, this primi- 
 tive form of ap]>aratus seriously handicapi)ing the extension of the business. Unfor- 
 tunately no better method of catching them has been found, although efforts have been 
 made with floating traps and i)nrse seines, but with indifferent success so far. 
 
 CATCHING ALBICORE. 
 Bait, comprising live sardines, is held in the "live tank" shown on deck. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 111 
 
 The boats employed iu the tishery are open niotorboats with engines of about eijjhl 
 horsepower. Usually three or four men constitute the crew, Japanese and Portuguese 
 predominating. 
 
 Before starting out in the moi'uing a quantity of chum bait is ])repared by chopping 
 up sardines or other small lish. On the way out sardines are caught in small meshed 
 seines and these are retained alive in a tank filled Avith sea water. Upon reaching the 
 grounds a live sardine is placed on the hook and the trolling line paid out. the boat 
 moving slowly forward. At the first bite the engine is stoi)i)ed and chum (mashed-up 
 sardines I is then thrown overboard, this serving lo draw I be school close to the boat. 
 The liand lines are baited with sardines and if the tish are in numbers they can be taken 
 
 FISH HUNG ON KAt'KS TO PERMIT OF THE BLiioD DKAlNINLi. 
 
 almost as fast as the lines can be casl and haulcil. Aiiiiosl inncdiblc ralches are i-ejiort 
 ed as being taken when conditions were favorable. 
 
 Daily trips are made to the fishing grounds when ihc wealber permits, the tleet 
 returning each afternoon or evening to the canneries. The fish are dressed on the home 
 trip by removing the viscera and head. 
 
 The tuna (Thinniiitt thyniuis) is canned on the Mediterranean, and considerable 
 quantities of same are imported into this country from Italy, and meets with a consider- 
 able sale amongst the Italians and other South European peoples resident in this country. 
 
 On the Atlantic coast this species is found as far north as Xewfoundlaud, and ia 
 known as the tunny, Inn-se mackerel or great albacore. They aii]>ear on this coast early 
 in the summer and remain until October, being very abundani sonielimes, and it is 
 strange that with the great demand now for canned tuna some one has not taken up the 
 business. Despite their great size (a length of 10 or more feet and a weight t)f l,.")(l(f 
 
112 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 pounds has been recorded i they are not diffienlt to cateh. Owing to hick oT a market for 
 them but few are saved by the fishermen. Most f.f Ihose taken are in the fisheries of 
 Massacliusetts and Xew Jersey. They are said to be abundant during the season oflf 
 Rhode Island. ' 
 
 This species is found on the Pacific coast as far nortli as .Monterey P.ay. Tliey are 
 not abundant, and do not attain to such a large size as on tlie Atlantic coast, the largest 
 taken by the anglers weighing but 251 pounds. 
 
 In the neighborhood of the Hawaiian Islands is found another member of the alba- 
 core family, Gernio gcrnio. known locally as alii, \\liile the bonito {(IjiiiiuoHiirda jichniiis), 
 
 COOKING THE FISH. 
 
 known locally as the aku, is also found. Polli are abundant and are now being canned 
 by local packers. 
 
 On being delivered at the cannery the fish are first washed in brine and then in fresh 
 water, after which they are hung by the tail from racks to drain the blood and thus 
 insure the whiteness of the fiesh. (If the fish were bled by having their throat cut when 
 first caught a considerable i)art of this work would be unnecessary.) After draining 
 the fish are placed in iron meshed trays or pans (usually three fish to a jian i in a large 
 low-pressure retort, where they are cooked with live steam for about three hours (de- 
 pending upon the size of the fish; the large fish require the longest time), at practically 
 no pressure, or a temperature of 212° to 220° F. This cooking is foi- the jiurpose of soften- 
 ing the flesh, loosening the skin and trying out the oil. As 1lie fish usually arrive at the 
 canneries in the late afternoon or evening, the night is generally devoted to this stage of 
 the process. T'pon removal froni the cookers they are run into the cooling room, where 
 thev are cooled l)v means of fans. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODIT'TS 
 
 113 
 
 III the iiHiiiiiiij; tlie cooked tisli are transreiied to the eiittinji and tillinn tables. Here 
 tlie girls, standing on one side of the lung tallies, lireak the tish in two longitudinally and 
 renun" the backbone. The skin and dark la\er oT meat inst nnder same are then removed 
 
 PUTTING THE TUNA IN CANS. 
 This Picture Was Taken at the Plant of the Los Angeles Tuna Canning Co., at Long Beach, Cal. 
 
 with kni\es, after which the tiesh is cut into sections of the jirojier size to fill the 
 i/iliounil, i^l'O'intl iiii'l l-potind Hat i^aiis in which the iirfidiict is packed. 
 
 FINAL COOKI.XG OF THE CANXKD FISH IX RETORTS. 
 
 In the center of the table are two endless belts running in parallel grooves. At the 
 head of the table a chute running from the mezzauine floor to one of the belts delivers 
 
114 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 the empty cans to it, and while it is covering this distance each can is antomatically 
 provided with 14-ounce of fine salt and a teaspoonful of cottonseed or some other pure 
 nut oil, to supply the lack of natural oil in the flesh of the fish. The girls on the filling 
 side of the table remove the empty cans from one belt, fill them with meat, and then 
 place them on the other belt, which carries them to the topper, then through an exhaust 
 box for 11 minutes at a temperature of 210° for halves, and 15 minutes at 220° for 
 pounds. A few packers do not exhaust at all. In some of the plants a vacuum machine 
 is used for the purpose of exhausting the cans and does the work in an excellent manner. 
 They then pass through the washer, where the outsides of the cans are cleaned, and then 
 are transferred in coolers to the retort and once more cooked, this time for about 55 
 minutes at a temperature of 240° for halves, and about 05 minutes at a temperature of 
 240° F., and a steam pressure of 12 pounds for l-])()und cans. The cans are then 
 cleaned, cooled, tested for leaks, labeled and boxed for shipment. The cans are not lac- 
 quered as in the case of salmon. 
 
 It is estimated that a ton of fish will fill 23 cases of ISone-pound cans each, or 45 
 cases of 48 i/^poim'^ <"'Ti*^ ^'ich of the white meat. 
 
 A few of the jiackers let the dark meat go along with the refuse material to the 
 gurry scow, which transports it to the fertilizer plant, or, if the cannery has a fertilizer 
 plant attached, direct to it on an endless belt. The majority of the packers, however, use 
 the dark meat and the small scraps and bits from the white meat in making what is 
 termed potted, or deviled, tuna, this being packed in 14 pound and i/4-pound cans. These 
 are exhausted and processed the same as the white meat. In preparing this product the 
 meat is run through a grinder; spices may or may not be added, as the packer wishes. 
 
 UTAH LAKE CHUB 
 
 The Utah Lake chub (Leticisnis liiwatiis) is one of the largest and most widely dis- 
 tributed species of this genus, and is abundant everywhere in the Great Basin of Utah, 
 and in the Snake River basin aliove Shoshone Falls. In Ulali Lake it is exceedingly abun- 
 dant, as it is also in Jackson's Lake, Yellowstone Lake and other similar waters, where, 
 owing to its large size, it is of considerable importance as a food fish. It attains to a 
 length of from 12 to 15 inches. In 1916 the canning of this species was begun by a plant 
 located at Utah Lake. 
 
 WHITEFISH 
 
 Whitefish are among the most important freshwater fishes of America, and rank 
 high as food fishes. 
 
 The common whitefish (Corcfiouus i-lupciforniis) is the most valuable species of all. 
 It is found throughout the Great Lakes region from Lake C]KUii])lain to Lake Superior, 
 and possibly to Lake Winnipeg. The common whitefish lives habitually in the deeper 
 waters of the lakes, coming out into more shallow water at spawning time, which, in the 
 Great Lakes, is from late October into December. Fishing is carried on in all months 
 except January, February and March, when the whereabouts of the fish are unknown. 
 In Lake Erie the fish ranges from about iVo to 5 or pounds, but seldom exceeds 4 or 
 5 pounds. It attains a weight of 12 pounds or more, and some have lieen reported weigh- 
 ing as high as 20 pounds. Gill nets are the favorite form of apparatus, although pound 
 nets, trap nets and seines take considerable. The trade is centered chiefly at Chicago, 
 Detroit, Sandusky, Cleveland, Erie and Buffalo. 
 
 The Rocky Mountain whitefish, or mountain herring ( C. villi(imsoiii), has a very 
 wide distribution, occurring in all suitable waters from the west slope of the Rockies to 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 115 
 
 the Pacific and from Utah to British Columbia. It prefers tlie cold, clear lakes, such as 
 those of Idaho, Oregon and Washington, but is also found in many streams. During the 
 spawning season, which occurs in late fall or early winter, those living in the lakes run 
 out into the tributary streams, in some places in incredible numbers ; the rest of the time 
 they spend in comparatively deep water. 
 
 TJiis species attains a length of a foot or more, and a weight of about 4 iionnds, 
 though the average is somewhat less. Considerable fishing is carried on for this species 
 during the spawning season, the catch being shipped to Eastern points. 
 
 The broad whitefish or nuiksun (C. krnn/icotti) is known from the Yukon River north 
 in Alaska, and in Great Bear Lake and Mackenzie River in Canada. It is one of the 
 largest species of the genus, and reaches a weight of 30 pounds, and as a food fish is 
 
 '■.iSX, 
 
 THE COMMON WHITEFISH (Coregonus cliipeifonnis). 
 
 held in high esteem. It is said to be abundant \v the Yukon in both winter and summer, 
 and that it spawns in September, when it enters the small tributary streams. 
 
 The menominee, or round whitefish (C. qiiadrlhiteniJis), is found in the lakes of 
 Labrador, New Brunswick and New England, westward through the Adirondacks and 
 the Great Lakes, thence northward into British Columbia, Alaska and northern Canada, 
 making it the most widely distributed species of American whitefish. It is ordinarily 
 found in rather deep water of the lakes, and does not often enter streams. It spawns 
 in the fall. The menominee reaches a length of 12 to 15 inches, and a weight of 2 
 pounds; the average weight, however, does not exceed 1 pound. Lake Champlain and 
 the small lakes of ^'ermont and New York yield considerable quantities each year, while 
 in Lakes Huron, Michigan and Superior still larger quantities are taken, gill nets being 
 the gear usually enijiloyed for this purpo.se. t% ^ 
 
 In 1008 the combined American whitefish catch from the Great Lakes, Lake of the 
 
 Woods and Rainv Lake amounted t( 
 
 1,000 ituunds, the greater portion, 4,772,000 
 
 pounds, being taken by tlie fishermen of Michigan. Large quantities are taken commer- 
 cially in the smaller lakes of New York, Vermont, Wa.shington and Idaho, of which no 
 record is available. 
 
 In Canada during the year 1910-17 the catch of whitefish amounted to 16,499,200 
 pounds, of which 5,033,900 pounds were take in Manitoba waters, (5,071,100 pounds from 
 
116 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 Ontario, 2,855,100 pounds from Saskatchewan, 2,145,200 pounds from Alberta, 309,900 
 pounds from Quebec, and 78,900 pounds from Yukon Teritory. 
 
 Lake Herring or Cisco 
 
 THE LAKE HERRING OR CISCO (Leuiirhthi/s artrdil. 
 
 This misnamed species is really closely related to the whiteflshes and is a strictly 
 freshwater species with no relationship to the sea herring'. The lake herring, or cisco 
 fLciicichfhi/s (irfrdi), as it is freipiently called, is found throughout the Great Lakes and 
 northward into the Hudson P.ay drainage, and to Labrador. 
 
 It is taken in enormous quantities each year and in most of the lakes is the object 
 of a sjiecial fishery. In 1908 the catch in the T'nited States was 41,118,000 pounds, of 
 which 12,124,000 pounds were taken in Wisconsin and 14,787.000 pounds in Michigan. 
 The species is most abundant in Lake Michigan (with 21,059,000 pounds), while Lake 
 Erie ranks .second in importance with 10,000,000 jiounds. Gill nets and pound nets take 
 nearly all of the catch. 
 
 The Canadian catch for the year 1910-17 amounted to 5,853,700 pounds, principally 
 in the province of ^lanitoba. 
 
 The fisliing begins in the spring, generally early in April, and lasts usually until 
 November. The average weight of the species does not exceed a pound, and the ma.ximum 
 weight two Jiounds. The fish are marketed fresh, pickled, smoked and canned. 
 
 The blackfin whitefish (Argi/rosoniiis nif/rii)inins) is commercially classed with the 
 whiteflshes, although scientifically it belongs with the ciscos, and is known certainly 
 only from Lake Michigan and Miltona Lake. Minnesota, though it has been reported from 
 other small deejiwater lakes of Minnesota and Wisconsin. It has also been reported from 
 Lake Superior, but probably erroneously. The blackttn is probably the most alnindant 
 fish of commercial importance in the deeper waters of Lake Michigan. The sjiawning 
 season occurs in November and December. It is taken usually in gill nets. It reaches a 
 length of 18 inches, aiul a weight of one to two pounds. 
 
 Like the blackfin, the tullibee (A. tullibrc) is classed commercially with the white- 
 fishes, although it belongs with the ciscos, or lake herrings, and is known from Lakes 
 Onondaga (New York), Erie, Superior and Michigan, also from Lake of the Woods, and 
 in the provinces of Manitoba and Saskatchewan, Alban.\- River and other waters north- 
 A\ard. It is especially abundant in Lake of the ^^'oods and in the provinces of Assiniboia 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 117 
 
 and Jlaiiitoba. It is not at all common in the (iieat Lakes. The tiiUibee attains a len^h 
 of 18 or 20 inches and a weight of SVo pounds. It mnks hi<ih as a food fish. 
 
 The bloater whitetish, or lon}>ja\v (A. iiro<iinithi(s) is known Iruiii all the Great 
 Lakes except Lake Erie. It is most abundant in Lakes Ontario and JIichi<;an. It 
 reaches a length of 8 to 16 inches, and a weight of a pound or less. It is generally 
 found in deep water. 
 
 The process of smoking and canning whiteflsh and lake herring is identical. 
 
 The fish should be split down the belly to the vent, eviscerated, the gills and flns 
 removed, washed thoroughly, and pickled i i tubs or barrels, about 4 i)Ounds of fiue 
 salt to 100 pounds of fish being scattered among them and sufficient brine of 90° salinity 
 to cover them. Either dry salt or brine alone may be used, the former being preferred 
 in warm weather and the latter during the winter. The brine should be freshly made 
 each time. In case brine alone is used some dry salt should be jdaeed on top to strengthen 
 the weak ])ickle floating at the surface. Fr< ni one half to one ]ier cent, of alum, or some 
 other hardening agent, must be put in the brine as the flesh of freshwater fish is apt to 
 be soft. They should remain here until all the blood has been extracted. If the fish are 
 then to be canned the head should be removed and the fish cut into lengths to fit the 
 can. After placing them in the cans the interstices should be filled with brine compris- 
 ing 3 pounds of salt to 12'/-i gallons of water, ca])ped loosely, exhausted 10 minutes 
 at 212^ F., sealed and jn-ocessed 55 minutes at 245° V. 
 
 If fish are to lie smoked before canning, they are strung on the smoke rods after 
 coming from the pickle. Should it be desired to have the fish well smoked on the inside 
 the abdominal cavity can be stretched open by means of small wooden sticks. The fish 
 are then dip])ed in fresh water to remove the surplus or undissolved salt, etc., drained 
 and suspended in the smokehouse 4 to 8 feet above the floor, and subjected to a 
 gentle smoke for 4 or 5 hours. The door or danijier is then closed, the fires spread 
 or built uj), and the fish cooked for 1 or 2 hours, according to the amount of fire, the 
 height of the fish and the particular cui-e desired. After cooling, which is accomplished 
 either by opening the doors of the smokehouse or by removing the fish to the outside, the 
 fish are taken off the rods, the head cut off and the fish cut into lengths to fit the can. 
 
 After placing in the cans the interstices are filled either with brine, oil or sauce, the 
 tops i)ut on loosely and the cans exhausted for 10 minutes at 212 F., .sealed up and pro- 
 cessed for about 55 minutes at 245° F. 
 
 Under a ruling of the U. S. Department of Agriculture (Service and Regulatory 
 Announcements No. IS) all species of Corcfioniis should he called whiteflsh, while all 
 members of the genus Leufichtht/!^ should be called lake herrirg. 
 
 WHITING 
 
 The whiting or kingttsh i Mrnticirrhiifi .siijr(itill>i) has been steadily growing in favor 
 as a food fish during the past twenty years. In 1S!I8 less than 50,000 pounds were mar- 
 keted, but in 1008 about one and one half million ])ounds were sold, while in 1917 
 11,890,055 pounds were caught in the coasta fisheries o( New York and New Jersej' alone, 
 while in 1916-17 S,700 pounds were taken in Canada. 
 
 The species is found from Cajie Ann to Key \Vest and Pensacola, its center of great- 
 est abundance being in the north, and princiiially along the New England and New Jer- 
 sey c'oasts. It is normally a resident of deep waters offshore, but during spring and 
 early summer it comes to our northern coast in vast schools, its migrations to the coast 
 being imjielled by the search for f(>od. It reaches a maximum length of about 18 inches, 
 
118 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 but its average length is about 12 or 14 inches. They are caught principally by lines, 
 seines and gill nets. 
 
 The sand whiting or Carolina whiting {M. aiiicricainis] is found on our South Atlan- 
 tic and Gulf coasts from the Chesapeake Bay to Texas. It is very common on sandy 
 shores southward, and is a food flsh of considerable importance. This species is most 
 common off the Carolinas, 1,091,000 pounds having been caught here in 1908. 
 
 The surf whiting or silver whiting (M. littonilis) is found on sandy shores from the 
 Carolinas to Texas and is generally common. 
 
 The California whiting {M. undulatus) occurs from the Santa Barbara islands 
 southward on sandy shores, and is a food flsh of some value. 
 
 The whiting is a sweet flsh, but unfortunately its flesh is rather soft, which some- 
 what militates against its being shipped fresh to distant points. Considerable are pickled 
 and frozen, while a few have been canned. It should not be difficult to can this species, 
 and a close perusal of the methods used in packing similar fishes, shown elsewhere in 
 this work, together with a little experimenting, ought to quickly develop the process most 
 suitable for the consuming trade in view. The softness of the flesh may be overcome 
 somewhat in canning by dissolving in the brine in which the fish is soaked one-half to 
 one per cent, of alum or some other hardening agent. Would suggest that the fish be 
 dressed, cleaned and soaked in fresh brine made by dissolving 3 pounds of salt in each 
 12i'o gallons of water used until all the blood has been extracted, usually from one to 
 two hours. They should then be jiacked in the cans, with V4 ounce of salt, the tops put 
 on loosely and the cans exhausted for about 10 minutes at 212 ' F., the tops sealed on 
 and the cans proces.sed at 210- F., 1-pound cans about 50 to V,?> minutes, after which 
 they should be removed and cooled in cooling bath. 
 
 YKLLOWTAIL OR AMBERFISH 
 
 The yellowtail [htiriuhi dursalis) is found on the Pacific coast from Mazatlan and 
 Cape San Lucas north to the Santa Barbara Islands. This species arrives in southern 
 California about :March and remains until December, and occasionally throughout the 
 year. In Winter it goes south and off into deep water, being occasionaly taken on the 
 outer hanks at that time. The flsh attains a weight of 100 jiounds and a length of 
 nearly '> feet, but the average weight is about 20 ])onn(ls. The greater part of the catch 
 
 ./ 
 
 «,^^ 
 
 ■Ji^^ 
 
 THE AMBERFISH OR AMBERJACK (Scriola clumerili). 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 119 
 
 is made with lines. In 1915 1,(194,410 pounds, valued at |:3G,1L';{, were marketed in a 
 fresh condition, and 124,500 pounds, valued at |4,743, iu a salted condition. 
 
 Several years ago the tuna canners, whose fishermen frequently made large catches 
 of yellowtail, began putting them in cans using the same methods as followed in 
 canning tuna. The demand for the product is steadily increasing as it becomes better 
 known. The canners now use the name amberfish, a name applied to a closely related 
 species found in Florida, in place of yellowtail, on the can labels. 
 
 On the Florida coast is found a related species, the ambertish or amberjack (l^criola 
 dumerlli). It is a not uncommon specie.s in winter and attains a maximum .size of SO 
 pounds or more, although the avei-age size is less than half of this. As on the Pacific 
 coast, the species is taken mainly by trolling, and will can as readily as its California 
 relative. 
 
MOLLUSKS 
 
 A B ALONE 
 
 IT is ouly within the last three or four years, and tlien since canning was taken up, 
 that the abalone has been considered as an article of food by white residents of the 
 Pacific coast. It has been highly esteemed, however, for many years as an article of 
 diet by Orientals living in this country, while large quantities in a dried condition were 
 shipped to Asia. 
 
 While not a resident of our Atlantic shores, tlie mollusk abounds along our Pacific 
 coast from San Diego to Alaska. The animal has a single calcareous shell, from (! 
 inches to nearly a foot in length, and this is one of the most brilliantly beautiful in its 
 interior of any known. 
 
 The abalone crawls about the bottom of the ocean, just outside the surf, at a depth 
 of from 20 to 120 feet. A large holding muscle, really the foot of the animal, is attached 
 to the shell near the middle, and with this the animal, when disturbed, clings to the rocks 
 with a tenacity which makes it a difficult matter for the fisherman to dislodge it. 
 
 Most of the ftsliing is done by Japanese, who go down in diving suits and detach the 
 abalone from llie rocks by slipping a shucking chisel under the expanded foot of the 
 animal before it is alarmed. The captured abalones are put into a basket, which has been 
 let down by the rest of the crew from a boat at the surface, and this is then hauled up, 
 enii)lie(l, and sent down again until the diver is tired and comes to the surface to rest. 
 
 The white fishernuui usually rows along iiear the rocks in a boat and examines the 
 bottom through a water telescope (a short wooden box with ii jjane of glass at one end, 
 through which the bottom can be seen undistui-bed by the surface ripples), and when a 
 shell is found it is i)ried off by a chisel fastened to a long jiole, which then is pressed 
 against the body of the animal, so raising it to the surface. 
 
 Chinamen also wade along close inshore and pry the abalones off with a short chisel, 
 dropping the shells into a basket. 
 
 Practically all of 1he fishing at ju-esent is confined to the coast south of ^Monterey 
 Bay, but as the lu-oduct becomes better known to the consuming public the almost limit- 
 less supplies along the coast north of here will be drawn upon Four or five plants were 
 engaged in canning the ubaloiie in 1917. All but Uie viscera are utilized. The flesh and 
 juice are treated togelher and the i)roduct is said 1o acquire a flavor more delicate than 
 that of the oyster. It may be stewed or fried, while the juice makes a good broth, soup 
 or appetizer. Being highly albuminous the meat is very nutritious. 
 
 Upou arrival at the cannery the meat is detached from the shell by means of chisels, 
 the visceral mass being cut away. It is then put into salt water and allowed to i-emain 
 here for a coujtle of days, or sufficient time to remove the black envelope around the foot 
 muscle. For the white trade only the foot muscle is used, and this is sliced and then 
 minced in a meat grinder; but for the Oriental trade both loot muscle and mantle cut 
 into cubes are used. 
 
 After packing in cans, usually in Ipound tails and flats, the cans are run through 
 an exhaust box for 4.^ minutes at a temperature of 108 F., after which they are run 
 through the double seamer and the tops sealed on. They are then put into retort and 
 cooked one hour under 1.") i^ounds pressure, the temperature being between 240" and 
 
 120 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 121 
 
 250° F., at the end of which period they are taken out of the retort, sprayed, and then 
 laid out to cool. 
 
 In California the best season for canning is in May, June and July. During the 
 winter months the flesh of the mollusk is at its poorest. It spawns during February. 
 
 It is strongly reconinioiided by the packers as a health food, containing, it is saia, 
 a higher percentage of albumen than any other canned food. 
 
 A considerable business is done in the selling of the polished shells, which ai-e highly 
 esteemed as ornaments the world over. 
 
 CLAMS 
 
 Next to the oyster, the clam is the most important mollusk found in our waters. In 
 1908 the clam product ranked sixth in value, amounting to 1,900,000 bushels, valued at 
 11,917,000. Included in this total product were 970,000 bushels of hard clams, valued 
 at $1,317,000 ; 865.000 bushels of soft clams, valued at |553,000 ; 26,000 bushels of razor 
 clams, valued at |25,000, and 33,000 bushels of surf clams, valued at .f21,000. What few 
 cockles were taken were included in one or the other varieties of the clams mentioned. 
 
 In 1908 Alaska was credited with 850 bushels, valued at |350, all of which were 
 mai'keted locally. About 1915 the canning of clams was taken up, with the result that in 
 1918 45,191 cases of clams and 90 cases of clam juice were packed. The next few years 
 will see a great development in clam canning in Alaska, as beds arc iiunicroiis and hut 
 few have ever been worked heretofore except for local use. 
 
 In Canada in 1910-17 the production of clams of all kinds amounted to 54,942 barrels, 
 all but 5,-538 barrels (from British Columliia) of which came from Atlantic waters. 
 British Columbia will in time be a heavy producer of clams as the location and extent of 
 her beds become better known. 
 
 The quahog, hard clam, or round clam {Venus mercenaria). is the most important 
 member of the clam family, and is found in abundance from C;ipe Cod to Texas, but is 
 not much used as a food south of North Carolina. It is the "clam" of the nmrkets of New 
 York, Philadelphia and southward, and it is also utilized to some extent in New Eng- 
 land. It has a heavy shell and lives on the muddy bottoms, principally below low-water 
 mai-k, where it is taken by means of specially designed rakes. Most of the raking is done 
 by hand from sail or power boats, but occasionally one is dragged over the bottom by 
 a sail or power vessel while drifting or movhig slowly. Tongs, similar in shape to oyster 
 tongs, are occasionally used, while ordinary shovels are also employed in a few places to 
 dig them up. ^Many are secured by "treading," i.e.. the clammer wades about and feels 
 for the clams with his toes, and then ])icks them up by hand or with a short rake. 
 
 The long clam, or mananose (ili/<i (irenarin) is found from South Carolina to the 
 Arctic Ocean. It is scarce south of Cape Hatteras, but is the principal species in the 
 regions north of New Y'ork, and on account of the comi>aralive lightness of its shell is 
 often called the "soft clam." It was introduced into San Francisco Bay about 1870 with 
 importations of Eastern seed oysters, later was planted at Santa Cruz, Cal., and in Coos 
 and T'm]»qua Bays-, in Oregon, and in Willapa Harbor. Wa.shington, from which places 
 it has spread widely, and is now an important food product. 
 
 The 'soft clani" is found principally on sandy shores or in a mixture of sand and 
 mud, between the tide nmrks. Its long siphon permits it to burrow to a considerable 
 depth, and it is dug from Its burrow by means of spades, stout forks or heavy hoes or 
 rakes, with three or four broad prongs, the mollusk betraj'ing its jjresence by squirting 
 water np when the sand is shaken or pressed. 
 
SOME OF THE RAZOR CLAM CANNERIES OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 
 
 1— Nahcotta Canning Co., Nahcotta, Wash; 2 — Copalis, Wash., Plant of Sea Beach Packing Works; 
 
 3 — Aberdeen Plant of Elmore Packing Co.; 4 — Pacific Fisheries and Packing Co., Moclips, Wash.; 
 
 5 — Surf Packing Co., Aberdeen, Wash. 
 
 TLAAl, rUAll A.\l) OVSTKK FISHERMEN. 
 1— Emptying a Crab Pot; 2— Ready to Set a Crab Hoop Net; 3— Tonging Oysters in California; 
 4 — Digging Razor Clams on the Pacific Beaches. 
 
 122 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODICTS 
 
 123 
 
 The surf clam (Mm-tru solidis.siiiKi ) . which is also kuowu as "sea clam," "heu clam," 
 "skimmer," etc., is foiiiul on both coasts and is distiniiiiished hy its jiieat size and smooth 
 surface, some of the shells being- more than six inches long and four or five inches broad ; 
 there is great variation in the form of the shell. On the Atlantic coast it ranges from 
 the Gulf of ^Mexico to Labrador, but it is only in New Jersey and New York that it is of 
 commercial importance. Owing to the diflflculty experienced in freeing the meat from 
 the sand, which its exposed beach habitat causes to accumulate inside the shell, but few 
 are eaten, the gieat majority being marketed as bait. It ought to be possible for some 
 canner to remove this sand, when he would have an excellent and abundant product for 
 canning purposes. 
 
 THE RAZOR CLAM (Machacra piituhi). 
 
 The razor clam (Muchitn-n jxiliild) is the most important of the native west coast 
 species, being found on nearly all of the sandy beaches from the southern boundary of 
 Oregon north to the Arctic. The shell of this bivalve is long and sub-cylindrical, resem- 
 bling in shape a razor. They excavate large elliptical holes, which penetrate downward, 
 usually in a nearly vertical direction, to a depth of two or three feet. Owing to the short- 
 ness of their siphons, or breathing tubes, they are obliged to come up to the opening of 
 the hole in order to obtain oxygen and food. When the tide is in, and no danger is near, 
 the end of the shell usually projects above the surface for an inch or two, but a sudden 
 jar startles them, and down they go with great rapidity. Short-handled spades are used 
 in digging the molhisk out. 
 
 As the razor clam lives below high water, and is usually most abundant about low 
 tide, the hours in which the diggers can work each day are few. The best digging is dur- 
 ing the spring tides, when the greatest run-out occurs, thus exposing more of the beach 
 than in the ordinary tides. The best months for digging are May, April and September, 
 
124 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 in the order named, while December is the poorest, on acconnt of the storms usually 
 encountered then. In the state of Washington there is a closed season from June 1 to 
 September 1. About 34 pounds of meats are obtained from 100 pounds of clams as taken 
 from the water. 
 
 The little-neck, or hard shell clam (Tapes stamiiica). the ''hard shelled clam" of the. 
 markets, and the butter clam (tSaxidomus nuftali), both very abniidant in all parts of 
 Puget Sound, and only less plentiful in many other places, are the principal clams of the 
 Washington, British Columbia and Alaska markets, l.arge r|nantities are used fresh, 
 while many, especially of the last named, are canned. 
 
 The great Washington clam {Tresiis iinttali), which sometimes reaches a length of 
 eight or ten inches, when minced makes an excellent canned product. It is abundant in 
 Puget Sound and is also found all along the coast as far south as Mexico. 
 
 Several species of cockles are also found on the Pacific coast and are occasionally 
 canned along with the clams. 
 
 A large business is done in Xew England in canning .soft clams; in the Middle, South 
 Atlantic and Gulf states in canning quahogs, and on the Pacific coast in canning razor, 
 littleueck and butter clams. i 
 
 On the Pacific Coast the canning of razor clams has been brought to a high degree 
 of perfection in certain plants through the development of si)ecial machinery for doing 
 certain parts of the work. 
 
 Upon the arrival of the clams at these plants they are dumped into one end of a long 
 rectangular box. In this is a wire rack which has a slight upward curve. This rack has 
 successive steps, one a little higher than the other, and the whole rack is operated some- 
 what on the same principle as a rocker in a quartz staniji mill. In the center of the box 
 is a tank of hot water, surmounted by a square box resting on the top of the main box. 
 The hot water causes the clams to gape widely and the action of the rocker shakes the 
 meats out and also advances the meats and shells step by step until they reach the oppo- 
 site end. Here jets of cold water are played upon the meats in order to cool them rapidly ; 
 should they cool slowly they would become tough. The meats are jiicked off the frame 
 and placed in large dish pans, while the shells pass on and drop onto the beach through 
 an opening in the side of the building. 
 
 The pans of meats are then taken into another room where girls sitting in front of 
 long zinc-covered tables dress the bivalves. Taking a clam in her left hand the girl splits 
 it from tip to tip on one side with a medium-sized pair of scissors, causing it to lay wide 
 open. Near the end of the siphon is a darkmass, composed principally of sand and dirt, 
 which is then clipped off. 
 
 The meats are then placed in a cylindrical perforated washing machine, which revolves 
 automatically half a turn both ways in a tank tilled with water for the final washing 
 They are then taken to another set of operators who cut off the siphon and side walls of 
 the body. The stomach is then slit open with a pair of scissors and cleaned out, after 
 which it is put with the rest of the meat. 
 
 The meats are then dumped into a hopper, fitted wilh a ]iliinger to force them dowu, 
 and thence into a grinder, whence they emerge in a minced condition. The mass is then 
 dumped into a square hopper, which automatically feeds the quantity desired into the 
 can, which is brought under the mouth of the hopper on an endles belt. Should the mass 
 in the hopper become dry and move sluggishly, the operator feeds a little clam nectar to 
 it by means of a hose from a small tank running to the edge of the hopper. The operator 
 also stirs uji the mass occasionally with a wooden jiaddle. It is said that one bushel of 
 razor clams in the shell will, when prepared for canning, fill 20 one-pound cans. 
 
RAZOR CLAM CANNING. 
 1 — Washing the Clams by Machinery; 2 — Cleaning the Clams; 3 — Adding Nectar to the Pilled Cans: 
 
 4 — Removing the Meats from the Shells. 
 
 125 
 
126 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 As the filled cans jiass by on the endless belt nnotlier mieratoi' adds the necessary 
 clam nectar by means of a hose pipe fitted with a pair of nippers for the purpose of shut 
 ting off the flow. The belt upon which the cans travel slopes slightly toward the opera 
 tor, thus facilitating the adding of the fluid. 
 
 The tops are then put on loosely, after which the cans pass into the exhaust box, 
 where they remain about 8 minutes, temperature 210° F., and then pass out, when the 
 top is sealed. They are then packed in coolers, these piled one on top of the other on a 
 car, when the car is run into a retort, where they are cooked, 1-pouud cans about 90 
 minutes at a temperature of 220° F., i-o-pound cans 70 minutes at similar temperature. 
 
 As soon as the cooking is completed the steam is blown out and heavy sprays of cold 
 water i>layed on the cans so as to cool them rapidly : should they be allowed to cool 
 slowly the meats will become tough. They are then taken out of the retort, cleaned in 
 a lye bath, and are then ready for lacquering and labeling. 
 
 In the more primitive plants the clams are steamed in wooden vats and are washed 
 and dres.sed in what are virtually enameled lavatory basins, arranged in rows, each 
 with two separate faucets. The other operations are the same. 
 
 In one plant a rectangular box with three compartments is in use. The clams are 
 placed in a box with sides and bottom of netting. This is lifted by a block and fall and 
 let down into the first compartment, where the clams are washed in cold water. It is then 
 lifted out of this and lowered into the second compartment, which has hot water, where 
 the clams open themselves. The box is then put into the last compartment, which is 
 filled with cold water in which the meats are cooled oft'. 
 
 The little-neck and Inillcr clams, and several related s])ecies, are usually canned whole, 
 although at times considerable quantities are canned minced. 
 
 Upon arrival from the beds a few of the canneries packing whole clams put the 
 bivalves in a tank of water and throw cornmeal over them and allow them to remain 
 here for 24 hours. During this period they pass all the food and other material in their 
 stomachs when dug, and the cornmeal helps to clean and bleach the flesh. 
 
 The outsides of the shells are then thoroughly washed, after which they are jdaced 
 in a receptacle so arranged that all the liquor in the shells may be saved. Steam is then 
 tnined on for 30 minutes, the receptacle having a temperature of 212° F. When taken 
 out the shells are wide open, from which the meats can quickly and easily be removed, 
 while the juice is transferred to another receptacle. 
 
 If the meats are to be canned whole the greater i)art of 1he siphon, which is quite 
 tough, is cut off. In making minced clams the meats aie run tliroiigh a meat grinder, in 
 which event the siphon can go in with the rest of the meat. 
 
 The meats, together witli some of the liquor, are then packed hot into the cans, the 
 tops sealed, and then the cans run into closed retort, where 1-pound cans are cooked 
 1 hour and 40 minutes at a pressure of 10 pounds, and a temperature of 240° F. A 
 long cook is necessary in order to produce a tender product. Half-pound cans are usually 
 cooked at the same temperature for about one hour. Should the meats be held until cold 
 it will be necessary to run them through an exhaust box for about 10 minutes at a tem- 
 perature of about 212° F. 
 
 Clam Nectar 
 
 The surplus liquor, or juice, also known as nectar, is packed separately, and after 
 being put hot into the cans the latter are sealed, aftei- which l-])Ound cans are cooked for 
 1 hour at a pressure of 10 jxainds and a tenqterature of 240° F. Should the liquor he 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 127 
 
 cold wlien jiut into tlie cans tliev should be exhausted about the same as the meats. Half 
 Itouiul cans are usually cooked at the same temperature but lor a shorter time. Tho 
 length of the cook for the latter can .soon be determined by experiment. 
 
 Hard .\nd Soft Claris 
 
 In cauiiiufi- the soft clam the siphon is cut oil (there being no siphon, this is not 
 necessary with the (piahog), the thin skin or film covering removed, and the clams cleaned 
 in the same manner as when prepared for the table. The meats are then placed in tin 
 cans, holding from (Uo to 12 ounces (known in the trade as 1-pound and 2-pound 
 cans), after which the cans are nearly filled with the licjuid, diluted with either fresh, 
 salt or sea watei% and the covers put on. The cans are exhausted for 10 minutes at 212° 
 F., the tops then sealed on, after which they are cooked at 240° F., 1-pound cans for 
 15 minutes and 2-pound cans for 20 minutes. 
 
 In packing quahog or hard clams the only difference in the treatment is to process 
 l-pound cans 20 minutes, 2-pound cans 2."i minutes, and ."Vpound cans .'iO minutes. 
 
 A lew (pialiogs are jiickled. New Yoi-k being the center of this trade. The clams are 
 generally steamed in the shell, a basketful being placed in the steam box at a time, where 
 they lemain for 10 to 30 minutes, according to the time for which they are to be kept. 
 On removal the clams and liciuor are cooled separately, the latter being first sti-ained 
 and flavored with \inegar, lemon, mace, etc., and then combined and scaled up in suit 
 able receptacles. 
 
 Clam Chowder 
 
 Considerable clam chowder is packed annually. The meats are prepared in the man- 
 ner previously described. Owing to its more pronounced flavor the quahog is the most 
 popular species for this purpose. Usually in preparing clam chowder it is found much 
 cheaper to get together and prepare the necessary ingredients for a large than a small 
 quantity. In preparing the chowder, to 2,500 (piahog meats are added the following 
 ingredients: 25 pounds bacon, 25 pounds jiotatoes, 7 pounds onions, 23 pounds tomatoes, 
 V4 pound finely chopped parsley, ^ s pound thyme, 1 ounce sweet marjoram, 1 pound salt. 
 ¥2 pound ground white pepper, and 15 gallon of water. 
 
 The clams should be washed in cold water, drained and chopped. Cut the potatoes 
 and bacon in dice, and place the water, clams, bacon, onions, potatoes and tomatoes in 
 kettle, bring to a boil and cook 10 minutes; then add other igrcdients: stir thoroughly and 
 place in cans. The cans are then topped and processed, No. 3 cans for 80 minutes at 
 250° F. : for quarts, 50 minutes at 250° F. < 
 
 Any quantity of clam chowder can be prepared at one time by correspondingly in- 
 creasing or decreasing the quantities noted above. 
 
 Clam chowder is usually packed in No. 3 cans, though it is also put up in No. 1, No. 
 2 and No. 10 cans. 
 
 A condensed clam chowder is prepared in the same way as plain clam chowder. In 
 jirejiaring this only half the quantity of water is used. After all the ingredients are 
 added and mixed, and the steam turned off, the liquid is drawn from the bottom of the 
 kettle, the cans filled with.the solid materials and covered with the liquid. They are 
 then eajiped, tipped and processed, No. 1 cans 40 minutes at 250° F. V\'hen preparing 
 this for the table additional milk or water can be added in the quantity most desirable. 
 
128 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 Clam Extract 
 
 Of recent years it has been ■well establi'^hed that clams, both hard and soft, form one 
 of the most nourishing and easily assimilated of all foods, especially when the hard indi- 
 gestible poi'tions are eliminated. As a result clam juice or extract is now almost univer- 
 sally employed as a food for invalids or convalescents. 
 
 In preparing clam extract the uncooked clams are placed on open racks or gratings 
 in a retort, which is air and steam-tight, and live steam is admitted for about 20 minutes. 
 The heat causes the clam to open its shell, and the liquor drops into pans placed under 
 the racks. The juice is then passed through a filter, and is then boiled to evaporate a 
 l)art of the water and concentrate the extract, thus making a given quantity of it richer 
 than it would otherwise be, the boiling preventing decompasilion when the product is 
 exposed to the air. The liquid is finally ])ut, while hot or cold, into cans and hermetically 
 sealed, the time of processing or cooking the cans so as to exclude the air and have it 
 keep in any climate, varying as to whether the concentrated juice or extract is jtoured 
 into the cans hot or cold. One-pound cans packed hot are usually jirocessed for 1 hour 
 at a temperature of 240" F. Half-pound cans should be jirocessed for a little shorter time 
 but at the same temperature. If packed cold tin' iinxluct should be exhausted about 10 
 minutes at a temperatui-e of 212° F. 
 
 Amount of Meat in Can 
 
 The U. S. Food and Drugs Board in Food Inspection Decision Xo. Ill rules that in 
 canned food jirodncts the can serves not only as a container but also as an index of the 
 quantity of food therein, and should be as full of food as practicable for packing and 
 processing. Where the addition of brine or water is necessary for proper preparation, 
 the can should contain only sufficient licpiid to fill the sjiace between the meat and cover 
 the product, ilany canners of clams have asked the Board to rule regarding the weight 
 of clams necessary to comply with Decision Xo. 111. As a result of investigations the 
 lioard states its opinion that cans which contain the weights of drained clam meat shown 
 below will fulfill the requirements. These w ights are "cut out" weights, i.e., the weight 
 of meat left in the can after all free liquor has been drained oft. 
 
 ■'Cut out" Weight 
 Type of Can. Diameter. Heiglit. of Clams. 
 
 No. 1 Regular or oyster 2fJ inches 4 inches 5 ounces 
 
 No. 1 Maine style 3 Inches 4/,; inches 8 ounces 
 
 No. 2 Short or picnic 3% inches 4 inches 8'4 ounces 
 
 No. 2 Regular '. 3% inches ii'n inches 10 ounces 
 
 When cans of other sizes are used, they should contain proportional weights of meat. 
 
 It should be remembered, the Board states, that a loss of weight almost invariably 
 occurs when clams are processed, and due allowance should be made for this loss in weigh- 
 ing the clams into the can. It may be said that the investigations made in the Bureau 
 indicate that the loss in weight in processing varies from about 5 to 15 per cent., the 
 average loss being about 10 per cent, of the clams placed in the cans. The weights of 
 drained clam meat should not fall below those given above, or, if a variation occurs, it 
 should be as often above as below the weights sjiecifled. 
 
 SEA MUSSELS 
 
 Of the many neglected products of our saltwalers none can compare with the sea 
 mvissel in abundance, nutritiousness and palatability. The Atlantic species (Mytilus 
 rdiilifi) has a wide distribution, extending down our eastern coast to X'^orth Carolina, 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 129 
 
 while a closely related species [M. californiiuiiis) extends down the Pacific coast to San 
 Francisco, Cal. It is extremely abundant in the shallow, sheltered bays along the coasts 
 of New Jersey, Long Island, Rhode Island and Massachusetts on the Atlantic coast, and 
 in the same class of bays in Oregon, Washington and Alaska on the Pacific coast. The 
 mussel seems to grow equally well in shallow and deep water. The favorite habitat of 
 the mollusk is where the water is slightly brackish, in shallow, i)rotected bays and estu- 
 aries, on a bottom of mud rich in diatoms and covered more or less with stones or other 
 solid objects to which it may attach by means of its byssal threads. The swift tideways of 
 shallow inlets are also very good situations for the mussel. In these localities the 
 animals thrive in enormous bodies. Other situations chosen by the mollusk are the piles 
 and timbers of bridges, wharves, rocks and other objects. 
 
 Despite the fact that the mus.sel was a favorite article of food with the aborigines, 
 it has been sadly neglected by our people. In a few sections — Puget Sound and San Fran- 
 cisco on the west coast, and New York on the east coast, mainly — it figures as an article 
 of food. The mussel is as palatable as the oyster, much more nutritious and more digest- 
 ible. It contains only half as much waste as the oyster, is more abundant, is more easily 
 cultivated in that it requires less special conditions for growth, and it is adapted for 
 making a greater variety of food preparations. Furthermore, it is in season for the table 
 when the oyster is out of season. 
 
 The only ditticulty in the marketing or canning of mussels fur food purposes is that 
 / they spoil quickly after being removed from the water. It is necessary to use them within 
 twenty-four hours after they are collected or ptomaine poisoning may result. To insure 
 one's self against illness from eating them, the mus.sels must be taken from water that is 
 ])ure and subject to the constant circulation of tidal currents. For the canner on the 
 I'acific coast these conditions are easily comidied with as the coast itself is not so much 
 built up as on the Atlantic. On the latter coast, however, suitable sites are very 
 abundant. 
 
 The sea mussel is of all shellfish jiarticularly adapted for canning. Unlike the oyster 
 it remains tender and retains its full flavor when subjected to the high temperatures 
 necessary to prepare it in this way. It also does not shrivel up like the oyster when 
 cooked, thus presenting a far more sightly appearance when canned than the latter. 
 
 There are three {ilants — one on the Atlantic and two on the Pacific — engaged in 
 canning the mussel. The method in use in canning is either that devised by I>r. Irving A. 
 Field ill his experimental work prosecuted under the auspices of the U. S. Bureau of 
 P^'isheries, or slight modification of same. Dr. Field's method is as follows: 
 
 "The mussels when taken from the collecting boats are rapidly picked over by hand to 
 eliminate any dead or unhealthy ones which may be present, as well as the coarse adher- 
 ing debris. Then they are placed in a cleaning apparatus, such as shown in Fig. 2. It 
 consists of a rectangular box 2x2x3 feet, which revolves on its long axis. The ends of the 
 box are of solid yellow pine and are firmly held in place by 4 pair of braces .1 feet long, 2 
 inches wide and lo inch thick. Three sides of the box are enclosed with -^-inch mesh 
 galvanized wire netting. The fourth side has a door 8 inches wide, running the length 
 of the box. The door is clamped firmly in place by means of a lever, which is swung over 
 it. The rest of the side is filled in with parallel strips of wood jilaced i ^ inch apart. The 
 projecting ends of the axis rest on the walls of a trough IX^ feet deep, in whicli there is 
 running sea water. A crank at one end serves as a means to rotate the cage. 
 
 "About one bushel of mussels is i)laced in this cleaning apparatus, which is set in 
 rotation at the rate of 30 revolutions a minute for 15 minutes. The treatment cleans off 
 from the shells all clinging sea weeds, sand and debris, besides i)reaking open the shells 
 
o 
 
 CO 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 131 
 
 of (lead imissels and washing away the iiijuridus snbstance eoiitained within iheni. In 
 the experimental work this method of cleaning mussels proved very effective. For clean- 
 ing on a commercial scale the device may easily be constructed on larger dimensions and 
 operated by means of steam or water power. 
 
 "After this treatment the mussels are removed and rinsed otf with clean water. They 
 are placed in a chest and subjected to live steam for from ."> to 1(1 minutes, or until 
 the shells begin to open. They are next emptied out into shallow pans to cool and the 
 natural liquor which has escaped into the chest is preser\ed in a sejiarate dish. As soon 
 as they are cool enough to be handled the mussels are shucked and the horny "beard" 
 removed, the meats and liquor being preserved in separate dishes. 
 
 "^A'hile the liquor taken from the steam chest and that taken from the mussels dur- 
 ing the process of shucking is filtering through a fine-meshed cloth, the mussel meats are 
 packed in glass jars or bottles. The filtered liquor is brought to a boil and two ounces 
 of salt are added for each gallon. The jars containing the meats are then tilled with the 
 boiling liquid and sealed. To insure complete sterilization, the sealed jars are placed in 
 a steam chest and subjected to 5 pounds pressure for 15 minutes. They are allowed 
 to cool down slowly and when the temperature has fallen to about 100 degrees F. they 
 are removed and set aside for future use."* 
 
 Aside from the small (juantity now canned, itickling is the only form of preservation 
 in use. As an article of trade they are known only to New York City and vicinity, one 
 man supplying most of the demand. l>r. Field found the following an excellent method 
 of pickling : ' 
 
 "After thoroughly washing the mussel shells in the cleaning ajqiaratus already des- 
 cribed, the mussels are placed in a steam cliest for about 10 minutes, or until the shells 
 have opened. They are then shucked, the liquor and meats being preserved in separate 
 vessels. Care should be taken to see that the horny filament or "beard" is removed 
 from the base of the foot. For each quart of natural liquor there is added 1 pint of vine- 
 gar, Vi ounce of allspice, i/o ounce of cinnamon, % ounce of cloves, V^ ounce of salt and 
 1 small red pepper. The mixture is allowed to simmer upon the stove for lo minutes 
 and is then poured over the meats. After standing about twenty-four hours the meats 
 are removed from the spiced liquor and are neatly packed in bottles or fruit jars. The 
 liquor, after being filtered through a fine-meshed cloth to remove the undissolved sjiices 
 and sediment that is formed, is heated to boiling and poured over the meats until the jars 
 are brimming full. The jars are sealed airtight and placed in a steam chest, where they 
 are subjected to 5 pounds steam pressure for 1.5 minutes."* 
 
 After this treatment they will remain in a good state of ]ireservation for about two 
 years. If the pickled mussels are desired for immediate consumption it is not necessary 
 to seal them up; they may be kept a week or more in o|)en tubs without deteriorating. 
 If kept much longer than this they graduall\- turn dark and fall to pieces. 
 
 OYSTERS 
 
 The oyster industry is the most imitortant prosecuted by the fishermen of this coun- 
 trj'. It is carried on in every coastal state in the T'nion except New Hami)shire. There 
 is but one species of oyster, Ostrca riniinicd. found upon the eastern coast of the United 
 States. Upon the western coast there are two species which are of commercial import- 
 ance, the native oyster fOstrra Iiiridn). found in all lluee states, and the eastern oyster, 
 
 •"The Food Value of Sea Mussels," bv Ii-yius A. Fieki. Bull. U.S. Bureau o£ Fisheries. Vol. XXIX,. lOOn, 
 pp. 111-13. 
 
 • Uiiil, p. 114. 
 
132 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
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CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 133 
 
 which w;is first plauted in San Francisco Bay about 1872, and since in other bays along 
 the coast, its culture now forming the basis of a somewhat important industry. For 
 some reason it generally does not propagate when transplanted to the Pacific coast, 
 possibly due to the considerable difference in the temperature of the water on the two 
 coasts, and the supply is kept up by the constant importation of new seed. A few years 
 ago some beds of oysters which had grown from spat deposited by Eastern oysters were 
 found in Willapa Harbor, Washington. Some of these were i and .5 years old. They 
 were in such abundance that it is probable a hardy type has been evolved and it is pos- 
 sible that within a short period of time the present costly method of bringing the seed 
 from eastern beds can be given up. The native oyster is much smaller than the eastern 
 and has a light, thin shell. It occurs in greatest abundance in the state of Washington. 
 
 TU.MilXC (iVrillOKS i.\ INI-: (ili.F dl' Al lOX l( '( ), 
 
 Tongs and dredges are practically the only forms of ajipaiatus used in the Atlantic 
 fisheries, the former being used mainly in shallow waters and the latter in deep waters, 
 On the Pacific coast, where the oyster beds are in quite shallow water, most of them being 
 exposed at low tide, the dredge is not used, short tongs, and sometimes rakes, being the 
 principal ajtparatus used. Jfany are ])icked up by hand when the ground is bare. 
 
 When taken from the bottom oysiers ai" usually quite muddy and have to be washed. 
 On the steam dredgers this is usually done by hauling the load close to the surface of the 
 water, then dropjiing it a short distance, a friction clutch on the winch permitting of 
 this, then raised again and dropped, until the mud has been washed out. The tongers 
 and dredgers who operate on the natural reefs have to cull the catch there, and while 
 culling they clean the oysters. 
 
134 
 
 CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 ^A'lieii the oysters are brought in from the grovinds they are tirst culled and sorted 
 into the different grades that are required by the trade. For canning small oysters are 
 generally employed, and as such are most abundant in the southern states, these have 
 become almost the sole source of supply. For man,y years the business was most import- 
 ant in Maryland, but Mississippi now leads in this respect. These goods are generally 
 marketed under the trade name of "Cove Oysters.'' Several reasons ai'e given to account 
 for the use of this name, the oldest being that the original "cove oysters" were found in 
 coves on the west side of Chesapeake Bay, above the Potomac, and were famous for 
 their size and quality. Mr. Hugh S. Orem states that its origin is far more prosaic and 
 commoiijdaoe. "In those years (1865-70) 'Cove' Street, the identity of which is now 
 entirely lost, was more an alley than a street, and ran east and west from the northern- 
 most point of Baltimore's harbor, for the distance of three short blocks. Two 'oyster 
 shops,' as they were then called, were located in one of these blocks, almost directly 
 opposite. One was a shipper of oysters in the fresh, or raw state, the other a canner of 
 hermetically sealed oysters. The canner used a label upon which was printed 'Fresh 
 Chesapeake Oysters,' to which the 'raw' man demurred. Hence to differentiate between 
 raw and cooked oysters, the term 'Cove Oysters' was decided upon. The name of a street 
 supplied the title, and not any cove or other place in the Chesapeal-e Bay."'' 
 
 The cannery should be located along the waterfront so that the oyster vessels can 
 come alongside the dock. When taken from the vessels the oysters are placed in cars of 
 
 DUMPING OYSTERS INTO CARS IN WHICH THEY ARE LATER STEAMED. 
 
 iron framework, G or 8 feet long, with capacity for about liO bushels unshucked. 
 These cars are run on a track into a steam-tight chest or box. At some canneries, before 
 reaching the steam box they are stopped and two streams of water forced on top of the 
 
 • "Baltimore. Master of the Art of Canning-." bv Hugli S. Orem, in a History of tiie Canning 
 II., The Canning Trade. Baitimore, Md., Jan. 10, 1914. Vol. 37, No. 21. 
 
 Industry, Part 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 135 
 
 car lor the purpose of washiii<;- the bivalves. The steam chest is a rectangiUar oak box, 
 lij to 2U feet long, lined with sheet iron, fitted with appliances for turning on steam to 
 any desired pressure, and with a door at each end which shuts closely and is so packed 
 with felt or some other material as to make the joint between the door and box as 
 nearly steanitight as practicable.. As soon as the car is in the steam chest the latter is 
 closed up, steam admitted until the gauge marks 10 jjounds pressure, and maintained at 
 this point S to 10 minutes; should Ihere be numerous mussels clinging to the oyster shells 
 from o to .") minutes more will be required. The steam should then be exhausted, the 
 doors opened liy releasing the clamps nearest the hinges first, and those opposite last, just 
 the reverse of that followed in closing it. The door at the other end is then opened 
 and the car run into the shucking room, to be succeeded in the steam chest by another 
 full car. 
 
 In the shucking room the cars are surrounded by the shuckers, each provided with 
 a knife and a can arranged so as to hook to the upper bar of the iron framework of the 
 car. The steaming causes the oyster shells to open moi-e or less widely, and the meat 
 is readily removed. In Maryland the shucking is done in a cup known legally as the 
 "oyster-gallon cup," which holds 9 pints, wine measure. The shuckers generally roughly 
 sort the meats into two sizes, primes and selects. Each bushel yields about 50 ounces 
 of "solid meats." 
 
 After shucking the canners have been in the habit ol' washing the meats in cold water, 
 but the U. S. Bureau of Chemistry now recommends as the most ])ractical and eftective 
 method of cleaning shucked oysters, and removing any deleterious organisms they may 
 have acquired during the i)rocess of shucking, is by mechanical agitation while washing 
 them in a weak salt solution. In establishments which ai'e not equipped with mechanical 
 means for agitating the oysters during washing, it is ad\isablc, according to the Bureau, 
 to hose or spray them on the colander or skimmer and then to place the oysters in clean 
 metal or enamel-lined tubs containing 1',' salt solution i a]q)r()ximately 2 jiounds and 
 1 ounce of salt to 2.") gallons of water i. The oysters should be thoroughly stii'red with 
 a paddle for 2 or 3 minutes, then lightly hcsed or sprayed on the skimmer, carefully 
 turned until they are dry, and then packed. The salt solution in the tubs should be fre- 
 quently renewed. 
 
 After being washed the oysters are transferred to the fillers' table, during which 
 operation the broken, torn and discolored oysters should be removed as Ihey should not 
 be canned. 
 
 (The oysters are generally used as soon as shucked, but if for any reason it is neces- 
 sary to carry these oysters over night they should be covered over with cold water in 
 which has been dissolved one per cent, bicarbonate of soda.) 
 
 Here the required amount of meats is weighed out and placed in the can, which is 
 then filled up with hot brine, which is prepared in the proportion of 2i/o pounds of salt 
 to 121 o gallons of water. The can is then capped, exhausted 10 minutes at 212°, the tip 
 hole closed, after which the cans are placed in a cylindrical basket or crate and lowered 
 into a large cylindrical kettle, called the process kettle or retort, which is partly filled 
 with water, which is heated by live steam, and here they are processed, No. 1 cans 12 to 
 14 minutes and No. 2 cans 14 to 17 minutes, according to the weight of meat, at a tem- 
 perature of 240° F. After this they are placed, crate and all, in a vat of cold water, this 
 serving the double purposa of arresting the operation of cooking by cooling them and of 
 testing for leaks. When sufficiently cool to be handled the cans are transferred to another 
 department, labeled and packed in cases for shipment. 
 
136 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 METHOD OF DIKING OYSTER GROUND EMPLOYED ON PUGET SOUND, WASH. 
 
 At times il may be found necessary to can raw shucked oysters. These should first 
 be well washed in cold water, given a bath in a 1 per cent, sdlnlion (it t)icarbonate of 
 sdda, then plunged in boiling water until the gills curl, alter which they should be 
 handlei] ihe same as steamed stock. ' 
 
 Some years ago pickled oysters were quite popular in and about New York city, but 
 the demand is but slight nowadays. The oysters, with their licjuor, are boiled in an open 
 kettle for 5 to 30 minutes, according to the length of time it is intended to keep 
 them. When boiled sufficiently the oysters and liquor are separated, the former spread 
 on shelves to cool and the latter strained and mixed with sufficient vinegar to impart the 
 flavor desired, to which may be added mace, lemon and other flavoring ingredients. 
 \Vhen both the oysters and liquor are quite cool they ai'e combined and sealed up in glass 
 jars or other suitable receptacles. One serious objection to these oysters is that the boil- 
 ing shrivels them up and causes them to present a rather unsightly appearance. 
 
 Oysters fried in crumbs have also been put in sealed cans, but the demand for these 
 has never been of much importance. 
 
 According t(t the V. S. I'ureau of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture, the follow- 
 ing weights of drained meats taken from the can will meet with approval: 
 
 Size of Can. Weight of Drained 
 
 Diameter. Height. Oysters "Cut Out" 
 
 2^1; inches 2% inches 3 ounces 
 
 2\i inches 3% inches 4 ounces 
 
 2\i inches 4 inches No. 1 5 ounces 
 
 3ys inches 3JS inches 8 ounces 
 
 3% inches 41",; inches No. 2 10 ounces 
 
 The procedure adopted by the Bureau for draining in order to determine the "cut- 
 out" or drained weight is as follows: 
 
 "Make a circular cut almost around the top of the can, push the cut top back into 
 its original jiosition, invert, and allow the contents to drain through the circular open- 
 ing for one iiiiinttc. Pour the liquid through a colander and return to the can any weigh- 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 137 
 
 able iiiuticles ol' solids which have been carried away by the liquid. The openings in the 
 colander should not exceed 3-lG inch in diameter." 
 
 rEUIWINKLES 
 
 The periwinkle, or whelk (Litturiini littorcaj as it is sometimes called, is found in 
 abundance on our coasts. On the Atlantic Biicciiiiim midatum is very common from 
 Cape Cod iiorlhwards. In Bering; Sea, and probably other parts of the Pacific coast, is 
 found liiicriiiiiiii (ilciiticinii. also T]i(ii>t hniiellosfi. In Europe related mollusks are a 
 popular article of FimkI, but so far our jioiijiie have not seen fit to utilize them. The 
 wri(('i- has rr('(|iu'ul ly enlcii fliciii in Alaska and can testily to llieir lastefulness. 
 
 These mollusks could be canned, ])rol)ably by using the same process as is common 
 with clams. After steaming or boiling, they can be easily removed from the shell by 
 means of a sharji jioin.ted tool. 
 
 PIDDOCKS 
 
 Oil the Aflanlie coast, from Florida to Cajie Hatteras. in culonics 1(1 inches to a 
 foot deep, in sandy mud, also in wood and rocks, is found the piddock, or angels' wings 
 (Pholafi cofitiitd). The white valves conform strikingly in outline, color and sculpture 
 to the conventional representation of angels' wings. The shells are 7 to 8 inches long. 
 The meats are eaten, jiickled in vinegar, on the Normandy coast; they are also cooked 
 with fine herbs and breadcrumbs. On this continent it is a staple article of food in the 
 markets of Havana. If canned either whole or qs chowder, they could doubtless be pro 
 cessed somewhat as clams are. 
 
 SQUID 
 
 S(|ni(l arc (|nilc abundant in our waters, especially in Ihe North Atlantic, where 
 they are generally used as bait in the line and trawl fisheries. Many are also sold in San 
 Francisco and Seattle markets. In Spain these mollusks are canned. As soon as landed 
 they are thoroughly cleaned and washed, care being taken not to burst the little sack of 
 black liquid they contain. The raw squid are then placed in layers in shallow tin cans 
 similar in shape to those used for sardines, covered with olive oil and the top soldered 
 on. The can is then cooked in boiling water for from 10 to 20 minutes, vented, tipped 
 and processed for almost the same length of time. 
 
 NATICA 
 
 The moon shell (Natica) is found in abundance on the Atlantic and Pacific coasts, 
 where it is one of the worst enemies the clams have. On the Atlantic they are found 
 from ]\Taine to New Jersey, while on the Pacific their habitat is from California to Alaska; 
 they are especially abundant in Puget Sound. The former has a diameter of 3 to 4I/2 
 inches, and the latter from 3 to 5 inches. The animal's foot is a flattened pad of flesh 
 three times as long as the shell's diameter and half as wide as long, the general shape 
 being similar to that of the bottom of an old-fashioned flat iron. A fleshy band on top 
 of the foot folds back over the head, protecting it as the burrowing foot drags the body 
 rapidly after it through the wet sand. When a clam is met down comes the hood from 
 over the head, the radnla it contains soon has a neat round hole drilled in the shell, 
 through which the soft parts are extracted by the sucking mouth of the Natica. 
 
 It would be a very easy matter to can this mollusk at the clam canneries, as large 
 numbers are caught by the clanimers when digging clams. They could be steamed, 
 
13S CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 removed from the shell, the juice being saved, the meat minced and then packed in cans 
 with tlie juice and processed the same as clams. The foot is tough when cooked, but this 
 would not be noticeable wlien minced. 
 
 An idea has been prevalent in a few sections that the flesh of the natica is poison- 
 ous, but this is nonsensical, as the shells are found by thousands in the Indian kitchen 
 middens on the Pacific coast, showing that they formed a considerable part of the food of 
 the aborigines. 
 
CRUSTACEANS 
 
 CRABS 
 
 THE crab flsberies aiv ul' great iiiipoi-taiK-e and are pi-osernleil in every coastal state 
 except Maine and New Hampshire. In 1908 tlie crab lislieries of tbe United States 
 produced ()(»,(!2fi,0()(( pounds, valued at |!)38,()00 to tlie tisliernien, nearly all of wbicb 
 were edible. In Uritisli (V)lund)ia in 1915 the tishernieu caught .508,10(1 pounds, valued 
 
 at 122,883. 
 
 The most im[)ortaut branch of tlie industry is that for blue crab {Calliuectes sapi- 
 dus). This crustacean is found in large nundiers along the Middle and South Atlantic 
 and Gulf coasts, but the fishery is centered mainly in chesaiiealve Bay, which body of 
 water fairly swarms with tlieni, ^laryland and ^'irgillia in 191 .5 ])roducing together 
 41,250,823 pounds of hard shell blue crabs, valued at |578,129, and 9,080,445 pounds of 
 soft-shell bine crabs, valued at $403,678. 
 
 The favorite haunt of the blue crab is in the waters of some bay or at the mouth of 
 a river, and it prefers shallow water with mud bottom and abundance of vegetation, to 
 that of much depth. In summer it lives close to the shore; in the winter it moves into 
 deeper water. 
 
 The bodies of all crustaceans are enclosed in a tough, unyielding shell, and in order 
 that tlie animal may grow it is necessary for it to throw off, or moult, the old shell, 
 which is re^jlaced by a hardening of the surface of the body. In the blue crab ihe moult- 
 ing i)eriod occupies about two or three days, and at this time, when it is what is called 
 a "soft shell," it is much more valuable to the fishermen than when a "hard shell." 
 
 On Chesapeake Bay the crabbers classify a crab's life into si.x stages, as follows: 
 First, the "hard crab," or one in its natural condition ; second, a "snot," or one that has 
 just entered the moulting stage; third, a "peeler," when the old shell has begun to break; 
 fourth, a "buster," when the new shell can be seen ; fifth, the "soft crab," when the old 
 shell has Iteen thrown off; sixth, a "paper shell," or "buckram," when the new shell is 
 beginning to harden. Several hours after moulting the crab reaches the "paper shell" 
 stage, and within three days the hardening process is completed. The warmer the water 
 the more rapidly do the changes take place. 
 
 Blue-crabbing is usually divided into two branches, i.e., soft-crabbing and hard-crab- 
 bing. In Chesapeake Bay (the seasons are a little earlier or a little later in other sec- 
 tions, depending upon whether they are north or south of the bay) the soft-crab season 
 extends from the first of May to the last of October, the season being at its height in 
 June. Soft crabs are usually taken with scrapes, scoop nets and small seines. The 
 scrapes are somewhat similar in design and method of operation to the oyster dredge, 
 only much lighter. 
 
 The hard-crab fishery is carried on during the whole year in the more southerly 
 range of the crustaceans, and during the open season in its more northerly range, the 
 larger part of the catch being obtained during the summer months. They are usually 
 taken with trot lines, varying in length from 200 to l,t)00 yards. Some fishermen attach 
 gangeons about 18 inches in length to the main line at intervals of 3 or 4 feet. Beef 
 tripe and eels constitute the usual bait, although animal flesh of any sort will answer. 
 and the lines ai-e usually baited but once a week. 
 
 139 
 
THE COMMON CRAB fCancer ma(jister) OF THE PACIFIC COAST. 
 
 FLOATS FOK UULDIXG LIVE CIJAI'.S (>.\ ( HKSAI'KAKK i;AV. 
 
 140 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 141 
 
 Every soft crabber has what is kuowu as a float, a rectangular box approximately 
 10 or 15 feet long, 4 feet wide and 2 feet deep, the sides and ends being constructed of 
 laths, and the bottom of 6-inch planks. Extending around the float on the outside, mid- 
 way of its heiglit, is a shelf about 7 inches wide, to prevent the float from sinking. The 
 laths on the sides and ends are placed about one-fourth inch apart, to prevent minnows 
 or other small enemies from getting at the crabs inside. These floats are used by the 
 fishermen as a means of handling crabs that have entered upon the shedding process, 
 but which have not yet reached the "peeler" or salable condition. The dealers use larger 
 floats. The floats arc generally enclosed by a fence to prevent their being washed away 
 by strong winds. At intervals part of the floats are hauled out to dry as otherwise they 
 would soon get waterlogged. Dealers employ men to watch their floats constantly and 
 remove the crabs from the water immediately after the shedding process, to prevent the 
 hardening of the shell. 
 
 In shipping the crabs are packed in shallow trays with wet seaweed or moss under 
 and over them, with a layer of fine crushed ice on top. These trays are placed one on 
 top of another in a box. The crabs can be kept alive from GO to 70 hours after leaving 
 the water. 
 
 Floats are not used by tlie hard crab fishermen, although the dealers use them. Live 
 hard crabs are shipped in either barrels or boxes. 
 
 On the Pacific coast the principal edible crab is Cancer magistcr, which is found 
 from Lower California to Unalaska, in shallow water on exposed sandy beaches or in 
 sandy bays. This crab is often found buried in the sand, from which it issues promptly 
 when food appears. Its food consists chiefly of small fish, shrimps, small crabs, small 
 clams, etc. Old individuals attain a considerable size. Males measuring 914 inches 
 across the back, and females (which are never as large) of 71/0 inches in breadth, have 
 been found. The writer weighed one in Eureka, Cal.. in March, 1010, and it weighed just 
 4 pounds after boiling. At the time one of the dealers stated that some time before he 
 had received one which weighed G^A pounds. 
 
 Although the range of this crab is so great, it is not everywhere an important fish- 
 ery. This is due sometimes to a scarcity of crabs and at other times to weather and 
 water conditions being such as to prevent boats from frequenting the spots where the 
 crabs are abundant. There are long stretches on the Pacific coast where harbors are very 
 infrequent, and the surf such as to prevent any kind of fishing At present the southern- 
 most fishery of consequence is that at San Francisco. One of the most important, at 
 present, is at Eureka, on Humboldt Bay. In Oregon they are fished at Coos Bay, 
 Yaqnina, etc., and about the mouth of the Columbia, and will be found abundant in some 
 of the other bays when transportation facilities to consuming markets have been devel- 
 oped sufficiently to justify the fishermen in resorting to these places. An important fish- 
 ery is carried on in and adjacent to Grays Harbor, Washington. On Puget Sound one of 
 the earliest fisheries was at Dungeness, and in the Northwest it quite generally bears the 
 name "Dungeness crab," but the fisheries about Anacortes and Neah Bay are now more 
 important. In British Columbia the crab is extensively fished at Boundary Bay and at 
 Prince Rupert, as well as locally at many other points. In time British Columbia will 
 be an important producer of crabs. 
 
 This crab is exceedingly abundant in Alaska, but the fishery has never been developed 
 to any extent, chiefly through the lack of an adequate market. They are especially 
 abundant in Kasaan Bay, around Wrangell Narrows, in Icy Straits and in Prince Wil- 
 liam Sound (the last-named section is said to produce the largest crabs found on the 
 
142 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 coast), aud may be even more abundant elsewhere, althougli this has not been actually 
 proven yet. 
 
 At present the legal size is 7 inches in California, fiV- inches in Washington and G 
 inches in Oregon and British Columbia. Alaska has no regulations whatever affecting 
 crabs. In Oregon and Washington no crabs can be legally taken during the months of 
 July, August and September, while in California the closed season comprises August, 
 September, October and the first half of November. British Columbia has no closed 
 season. 
 
 Cancer iiiii(/i-<t(r moults just the same as its Atlantic relative, but the fishing here 
 depends almost ■•nlirely on the use of bait, and as the crustacean is (|uite helpless when 
 its shell is soft, and remains hidden until the hardening of the shell has progressed far 
 enough to give it some protection, practically none of tl.em are caught in the nets and 
 pots while in this stage. On the Atlantic the cralis are taken with dip nets in very 
 shallow water, or on a larger scale in deeper water with dredges, so that the fact that 
 the crab is not active at this time does not materially allcct the catch. The western 
 crab is also much larger than the bli'.e crab of the lOast, and for this reason could not he 
 put to the same uses; it is also luuch more watery and of an inferior flavor during the 
 •soft-shell stage. 
 
 The fishing at San Francisco and Eui-eka is done in exposed waters off the harbors, 
 and here, as well as at other localities where conditions are similar, the hoop net is 
 exclusively used. The framework of the net comprises two iron rings, and these ai-e con- 
 nected by netting to form, when held by the line, a basin-shajied receptacle from which the 
 crab cannot crawl, but which lies flat on the bottom when fishing, and at that time offers 
 no hindrance to the crab in reaching the bait. Fifteen to twenty of these are set on one 
 long line, ranged in line with the run of the tide, and left from half an hour to an hour, 
 when the string is underrun until time to quit for the day, when all are taken into the 
 boat and brought ashore, as otherwise the nets would be silted under. 
 
 In sheltered bays and sounds a gear closely resembling the eastern lobster pot is 
 used. The {lot may be entirely covered with netting, but it is more common to make the 
 funnels of netting and cover the rest with chicken wire, all being tarred to protect them 
 from salt water. They are usually left continuously in llie water, being hauled as often 
 as experience indicates is best. 
 
 Spears are frequently used in the more sheltered bays by those who are fishing for 
 their own use. 
 
 In the Gulf of Alaska is found the spider crab. These crabs have a medium-sized 
 body, with a great spread of long, slender legs, some specimens measuring six feet ftom 
 tip to tip of legs. This is the species packed in Japan, but so far no commercial fishery 
 for it has developed on this coast. They are mainly found at cousiderable de|)ths and 
 usually in open waters. 
 
 H.vxDi.ixG THE Crabs 
 
 The crabs are boiled in either an oblong tank or a large kettle, so equipped that 
 steam may be forced in at the bottom in order to heat the «ater in which they are boiled. 
 Upon arrival at the factory the crabs are thoroughly washed and then dumped into a 
 tank about one-fourth tilled with water in which has been dissolved one pound of bicar 
 bonate of soda to each 25 pounds of crabs, and which has been brought to a jumping boil 
 before The crabs are put in. The live crabs will bring down the temperature of the 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 143 
 
 water, and it isliuuUl be brought to a boil once more, and the crabs cooked from 20 to 60 
 minutes. The hirger the crab the longer the time required, and also the greater the 
 number of crabs cooked at one time the longer the time required. The small blue crab 
 requires the least time and the spider crab the longest. No attention should be paid to 
 the foam, which should be let run over and go to wastie. The liquid should be drawn off 
 
 AN ALASKAN CRAB BOILING PLANT. 
 
 after cooking, and the crabs then washed with cold water, after which they are dumped 
 onto the picking tables, where the pickers remo\e the shells and strip the meat from the 
 claws, legs and body with specially shaped instruments, which should be kept in a bright, 
 clean condition. In a few factories the meat is removed by centrifugal force or by com- 
 pressed air. The latter methods, which are of recent origin, are effective and save much 
 labor. In the former method the shell and claw are cut across to expose the tissue and 
 a quantity so prejiared is placed in a centrifugal drum. The latter is made to- spin at a 
 high speed and all the meat is extracted. The compressed air method consists of an air 
 compressor and a storage tank, with pipes leading to a nozzle. The shell is held in front 
 of the nozzle, the air is turned on and the meat blown out. Either method is far super- 
 ior in every way to hand picking. 
 
 The meat is then washed in cold 1% brine (one i)Ound of salt to 12iy4 gallon.s of 
 water I, drained, slightly pressed to drive out what water may have been absorbed in 
 washing, packed in cans with Vs ounce of salt in i/o-pouud can, the top put on, leaving 
 tip hole open, or else thg top put on loosely, and exhausted at 212° F., No. 1 cans S 
 minutes. No. 2 cans 10 minutes. The tip hole should then be closed or the loose top 
 sealed tight, and the cans taken to the retort, where thej- are processed. No. 1 cans 20 
 
144 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 miuutes at 240°, then 10 minutes at 250° F. ; Xo. 2 cans, 35 minutes at 240°, then 15 
 minutes at 250° F. Five minutes should be allowed for bringing up the temperature of 
 the I'Btort to the proper point. 
 
 Some heat No. 1 cans for 30 minutes in boiling water, then vent and tip them, after 
 which they are processed for 60 minutes at 240° F. 
 
 In some plants the crabs are placed in open slat-work cars and these rolled into a 
 steam box, whei-e they are cooked from 20 to 40 minutes, the time varying at different 
 places, and according to the number cooked. It is claimed by some packers that more 
 water remains in the meat after boiling than after steaming. 
 
 As soon as the processing time is over the retort is blown off, and, without opening 
 it, a stream of cold water is introduced through a pipe entering at the top of the retort, 
 in this manner cooling the cans without direct exposure to the air. The meat will darken 
 if the cans are taken out of the retort before cooling. 
 
 The Japanese, who can large quantities of crab meat, process about as follows: 
 
 When ordinary kettles, with water, are used, tlie cans are first heated for one hour 
 at 212" F. The cans are then taken out, vented, tipped and cooked again for 1 hour 
 and 30 minutes at 212° F. In case steam heat is used, the heating must first cover 40 
 minutes at a pressure of 3 to 5 pounds of steam (222° to 228° F.). The cans are then 
 removed, vented, tipped and put back for a final processing for 1 hour and 20 minutes 
 at 4 pounds pressure of steam (225° F.). The vent holes are made as small as possible, 
 and after sterilization is finished the cans are immediately placed in cold water and 
 cooled. 
 
 Care should be exercised to see that the water in which the crabs are cooked is free 
 from sulphur or iron. 
 
 Cans enameled or lacquered on the inside, or plain cans lined with parchment paper, 
 are used in packing crabs, as the direct contact of the meat witli the tin frequently 
 causes the former to turn dark. 
 
 The meat is usually packed in two grades, the large clear white meat and the mix- 
 ture of small bits and of dark meat. The meat from 12 blue crabs are generally required 
 to fill each 1-pound can. ; 
 
 Cax.ned Soft-Shell Crabs 
 
 A considerable number of soft-shell blue crabs are put up in Virginia and Maryland 
 in hermetically sealed cans. The live crabs are first cleaned and prepared, then placed 
 in wire baskets and cooked the same as the hard crabs. They are then packed in 1 and 
 2pound cans. After the crabs are in the cans they are filled with hot 3% brine, the top 
 crimped on, tipped, and then processed the same as hard crab meat. 
 
 Another method is to cook the crabs in boiling oil or lard for 5 minutes, the kettle 
 being provided with an extension top so that the oil will not overflow. They are then 
 packed in the cans with a small quantity of the hot lard or oil, the top crimped on, 
 tipped and processed the same as hard cralB. 
 
 Canned Whole Crabs 
 
 Several Mississippi canneries pack hard blue crabs whole in 1 and 2 pound cans, 
 while a few years ago a British Columbia cauiery packed Cmircr iininisicr whole in ly^- 
 pound flat cans. The entire crab, body and claws, was packed. The crabs had been 
 cooked first and wei'e put hot into the cans, which were then sealed up. 
 
146 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 Canned Deviled Crab Meat 
 
 Wlieu picking crabs the meat is divided into three classes — ''flakes," '"ordinary" and 
 "fat meat"; the flakes are considered much superior to the others because they are whiter 
 and firmer. They are taken mostly from the "hip" of the crab, and are used principally 
 in preparing deviled crabs by those who make them. Any portion can, however, be used 
 for this purpose. 
 
 Each packer has his own special recipe, and, while a recipe is given below, the 
 intending canner can use it or substitute another for it, or add anything to the one given, 
 as it suits his own particular desires. In any event it ■\\ill be well for the packer to try 
 out several sample lots first in order to make sure he has obtained the right combination. 
 The shell of a blue crab will hold the meat from two crabs. In shipping deviled crab the 
 packer also ships enough empty shells for use in holding the meat when ready for con- 
 sumption. 
 
 One pound of butter should be placed in a suilablc kettle and melted, after which one 
 pound of flour is added and the whole mixed intinmtely. One gallon of fresh milk is 
 added, and the whole brought to a thorough boil while stirring constantly, when 2 
 ounces of chopped parsley, 2 ounces of onions minced finely, i^ ounce of ground white 
 pepper, iv, ounce of ground red jiepper and 4 ounces of salt are added; then enough crab 
 meat added to make a mass of the pi'oper consistency to fill the crab shells. The mix- 
 ture is i)acked in cans while hot, capped and processed. No. 1 cans at 240 ' F. for about 
 40 minutes. 
 
 FRESHWATER CRAWFISH 
 
 The crawfish, or crayfish, is found in msny of the freshwater streams of this country, 
 though it is in but few states that they give r se to a commercial fishery, although in nmny 
 states they are taken in snmll quantities for home consumption. They are especially 
 abundant in Oregon, A\'ashington, Wisconsin, Missouri and Louisiana, where they form 
 an important article of comnierce in each. The species found on the Pacific slope belong 
 to the genera Axtdciif:, while those found in the Mississippi Valley belong to the genera 
 CdinharKs. In general a])pearance the crawfish resembles the lobster, minus its cutting 
 claws. They vary much in size in different sections of the country; in Oregon they 
 average 3 pounds to the dozen. 
 
 As an article of diet the crawfish is becoming more popular as it becomes better 
 known. At the present time the chief markets for its sale are San Francisco, Port- 
 land, Oregon ; New York city and New Orleans. Foreigners, especially Frenchmen, are 
 the principal consumers. In the East the crawfish is used principally by hotels and 
 restaurants for making soups and bisque of crawfish, and for garnishing fish dishes and 
 lobster salads. On the Pacific coast, however, they are prepared and eaten in the same 
 manner as the lobster. Many are packed alive in boxes and shipped to various markets. 
 
 The crawfish are captured usually by means of small circular pots, similar to those 
 used in catching eels, set on trawls, and made usually of wire netting. After being 
 caught they are usually held in floats, divided by lattice work into compartments, until 
 needed for shii)ment. In a few places baited dip nets are used. 
 
 Canned Whole 
 
 A bouillon .should be prepared as follows: Water, 2 gallons; white wine, 2 gallons; 
 cloves, 20; onions, in slices, 12; carrots, in slices, 10; cloves of garlic, 6; pepper to taste; 
 salt, about 2 ounces; 2 bunches of parsley and a little thyme. Boil sloAvly for one hour, 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 147 
 
 replacing, at that time, with hot water the amount lost by evaporation. Before using the 
 crawfishes they should be taken in the hand and the wing, which is in the middle of the 
 tail, torn off, which will at the same time pull out a little black intestine which is very 
 bitter. The live crawfish should then be thrown into the bouillon and boiled one or 
 two minutes, never more. They should then be put in jars or cans, the former preferred, 
 which should be filled up with the strained bouillon and processed in plain boiling water, 
 1-pounds, 1 hour; 2-pounds, ll^ hours. 
 
 Some packers opei'ate with retorts and process at 220° F., 1-pound, J?.") minutes; 
 2-pound, 50 minutes. 
 
 Canned Tails 
 
 The crawfish are thrown alive into bouillon same as described above, and boiled 2 
 minutes. They are then shelled, which operation removes the intestines. The meats are 
 then packed tightly in glass jars, covered with the hot strained bouillon in which they 
 have cooked, sealed and processed in boiling water, iz-o-pounds, 20 minutes; 1-pounds, 30 
 minutes. They should be allowed to cool off' for 15 minutes before taking out of the 
 processing bath. 
 
 Bisque of Crawfish 
 
 Boil the live crawfish in water 2 parts and white wine 1 ])art, the quantity being 
 just sufficient to cover them, and flavored with a bunch of parsley, thyme and bay leaves 
 and a few small onions. Wlien cooked remove the crawfish and add in the kettle the 
 same quantity of meat bouillon (made from 3 pounds of veal boiled slowly in as much 
 water as will cover it, till the meat is reduced to shreds); it must then be well strained 
 as it contains water in which the crawfl h have boiled. To each quart of this mixed 
 bouillon add 4 ounces of ordinary rice and boil slowly for Yo hour. During this time 
 crush into a paste the crawfish meat, shell and all, then pass both the bouillon with 
 rice and the crushed crawfish through a hair sieve. Put back in the kettle, incorporate 
 5 ounces of butter for each quart of the soup, spice with cayenne pepper. Can hot and 
 process at 230° F., 1-pound, 50 minutes; 2-pound, GO minutes. 
 
 LOBSTER 
 
 The American lobster (Honiants americanus) is found only on the shores of the 
 North Atlantic, and on this continent its extreme range is from the southerly coast of 
 North Carolina to Labrador. Its commercial range is much more restricted, however, as 
 the southernmost point at which a commercial fishery is maintained is at Lewes, Dela- 
 Avare. It is most abundant in the eastern part of Maine and in the Canadian provinces. 
 
 This is the most valuable crustacean fishery prosecuted in the United States and 
 Canada. In 1913 the lobster fishery of the Dnited States produced 8,832,017 lobsters, 
 weighing 12,007,017 pounds, valued at 12,394,822. Of this catch Maine produced 5,157,047 
 lobsters; New Hampshire 261,081; Massachusetts 1,197.805; Rhode Island 1,044,308; 
 Connecticut 575,234 ; New York 348,550 ; New .Jersey 227,776, and Delaware 20,480. In 
 Canada, in 1916-17, 48,089,800 pounds of lobsters, valued at $3,476,652, were marketed. 
 Of these New Brunswick produced 9,945..500 pounds; Prince Edward Island 11,128,900 
 pounds; Nova Scotia 24,140,000 pounds, and Quebec 2,875,400 pounds. In addition New- 
 foundland fishermen also caught and marke ed in 1914 2,541,269 lobsters. 
 
 The pot, either square or half-cylindrical in shape, covered with wire or net, with a 
 tunnel entrance, is almost universally employed in catching the crustaceans. These are 
 generally set on trawls or long lines. In orCev to keep the animals alive they are placed 
 
THE LOBSTER FISHERIES OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. 
 1— Dealers' Floats for Holding Live Lobsters, Portland. Maine; 2— Fisherman Empt.ving Lobster Pot; 
 3 — Fisherman's Floats for Holding Live Lobsters. 
 
 148 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 149 
 
 in live boxes moored close inshore, or are placed in large poiuids formed by fencing the 
 narrow moiith of some small bay or cove, or by enclosing a favorable spot with a fence. 
 
 No lobsters have been canned in the United States since 1895, the fixing in Maine of 
 a lOyo-inch rainimnm limit as to the size of lobsters to be taken having made it unpro- 
 fltable. Some of the plants were moved to the Canadian maritime provinces and, together 
 with local plants, have been operated there ever since. 
 
 In canning, the lobsters, which should always be alive at the initial stage, are first 
 boiled. A very few packers first kill the lobster by cutting it at the joint where the tail 
 and body shell come together. The boilers in use are generally rectangular wooden tanks 
 or vats lined with zinc and furnished with a cover. Heat is applied by the introduc- 
 tion of steam through a series of perforated pipes arranged in the bottom of the tank. 
 The lobsters are placed in an iron framework basket of rather slender bars, which fits 
 loosely in the receptacle, and this is lowered into the tank and raised again by means of 
 a small derrick placed over it. When the water, in which about 'S% of salt has been 
 dissolved, is at a jumi)iug boil the basket containing the lobsters is lowered into the 
 tank and they are cooked for 3(1 minutes. The basket is then lifted out and the crustac- 
 eans cooled in cold water in which about Qfc of salt has been placed. 
 
 Some packers plunge the lobsters into rapidly boiling water containing a 3% solu- 
 tion of bicarbonate of soda, and cook 1-5 minutes. The water is then drawn off and the 
 lobsters covered with cold water acidulated with enough vinegar to neutralize the soda 
 remaining in the lobsters, and cooked 15 minutes, after which they are chilled in cold 
 salt water as in the first method. 
 
 Some packers boil the lobsters in fresh water and cool them in 18 per cent, salt 
 brine. 
 
 A very few canneries have used steam for cooking the lobsters, instead of boiling 
 them in water, the cooking time being about 35 minutes. Some canners claim, however, 
 that in this method the meat becomes too dry. 
 
 As soon as cool enough to handle the pickers twist off the claws and tail, split the 
 tail lengthwise underneath into halves and remove the intestines. The body shell is then 
 opened and the liver and coral taken out, after which the body is taken from the shell 
 and the stomach removed. The claws are then cracked and the meat removed in as large 
 pieces as possible from these and the body. A small proportion of salt, to taste, is then 
 mixed with the prepared meat, and the whole is packed solidly in No. 1 cans, (li\iding the 
 claw meat and larger jiieces of the body as equally as possible. The sweet bread, which 
 has been taken from the bodies, is generally put at the top of the can. 
 
 Instead of putting salt in the cans, a few packers cover the meat with a little salt 
 brine, which can lie flavored by boiling i/o hour with pepper, bay leaves and cloves. 
 
 As the meat of the lobster contains considerable phosjihonis, which attacks and cor- 
 rodes the tin coating of the can, causing the meat to turn black and giving it an unpleas- 
 ant taste, it is necessary to line the cans — top, bottom and sides — with parchment paper 
 to prevent the contact of the meat with the cans. 
 
 The cans are then topped and exhausted in .i steam box until contents of cans show 
 a temperature of 15t)° to IflO^. The cans are then vented and tijijied and jirocessed one 
 hour at 250° F., after which they are cooled in cold water. While hot the cans must be 
 handled very gently in order to avoid "matting" or mushing up of the contents. 
 
 The lobster can be packed in glass jars, when they should be processed two hours in 
 boiling water. 
 
150 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 SPINY LOBSTER 
 
 The spiny lobster or crawfish ( Fuinilinis interrupfns) is found on the coast of Cali- 
 fornia from Monterey to San Diego, and southward along the Mexican coast, and also 
 along the Gulf coast of Florida, mainly around Key West. In characteristics and habits 
 it is very similar to the eastern lobster {Homnrus nmctvcanus) ; it is very much more 
 active, however. It attains a total length of about 14 inches, and an average-sized indi- 
 vidual weighs from 2i^ to 3V2 pounds. They are caught mostly in pots, although in 
 Florida grains, or spears, take a few. In 1917 659.318 pounds were marketed in Cali- 
 fornia, the greater portion of these coming from Mexican waters. The latest data for 
 Florida is for the year 1908, and shows a catch of 53,000 pounds. 
 
 On the California coast this crustacean is canned in small quantities, the process 
 employed being similar to that followed with the lobster. 
 
 The U. S. Bureau of Chemistry (Service and Regulatory Announcements No. 102), 
 says : "'It is the opinion of the Bureau that the term 'lobster,' either unqualified or when 
 accompanied by a geographical name such as 'Cape" or 'Pacific,' can not properly be 
 applied to this product. It may be labeled as 'spiny lobster' or 'rock lobster,' but in this 
 case the qualifying words should be given in direct connection with the word 'lobster* 
 and in type of equal size and prominence. The term 'lobster,' without qualification, is 
 applicable only to the true lobster {Eomnruf<). Labels showing pictures of the true lob- 
 ster on canned crawfish are also regarded as false and misleading." 
 
 SHRIMP AND PRAWN 
 
 The shrimp is a decapod crustacean found in varying .tbundance on all our coasts 
 and in man,y inland waters. The usual length of the animal is about 2 inches, but 
 some attain a larger size. The prawn is closely related to the shrimp, which it resembles 
 greatly, but attains to a much lui'ger size, s]>ocimens 7 inches long being not uncom- 
 mon in certain sections. The latter form the bulk of the canned product, the name shrimp 
 being applied to all. 
 
 Owing to its generally small size the shrimp fisheries have never attained to much 
 prominence, in most states the product being used mainly for food locally or as bait in 
 other fisheries. In o>ir southern states, however, where the prawns and larger shrimps 
 abound, important commercial fisheries are prosecuted, mainly in the states of Louisiana, 
 Florida, Georgia, Jfississippi, Texas and North and South Carolina. Some few years ago 
 California produced large quantities, but its catch has been steadily decreasing since 1899, 
 due largely to the destructive methods of fishing practised for many years by Chinese 
 fishermen. The business is of considerable importance in Puget Sound, in Washington. 
 It is probable that Alaska will eventually be a heavy producer of these crustaceans when 
 its resources have been more thoroughly explored. At pre.sent the most important centers 
 of the fishery are on the (Julf coast of Mississippi, Louisiana and Texas, the northeast 
 coast of Florida, San Francisco Bay and vicinity in (California, and I'uget Sound in 
 Washington. 
 
 The crustaceans can be caught in our more southern waters every month in the year, 
 but the principal fishing is generally carried on during the last half of March, and in 
 April, :May, August, September and October, when they are present in greatest abund- 
 ance. Shrimp j)roper are (^uitc abundant in the lower ^lississiiqti River and quite 
 important fisheries are carried on during the summer months in the slates of Tennessee, 
 Arkansas, ^[ississippi and Louisiana. In San Francisco Bay the fishery was formerly 
 jirosecuted throughout the greater jiart of the year, but at ])resent there is a closed season 
 of four months — ^lay, June, July and August. On Puget Sound shrimp are found mainly 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 151 
 
 in Hoods Canal and around Fidalgo and Orcas Islands, ^^'llile tisliing- is carried on here 
 during the greater part of the year, it is most productive from September to Maj' 1st. 
 
 On the Gulf coast and also on the northeast coast of Florida the haul seine, made 
 with a bag in the center, is the principal apparatus used, although cast nets are used by 
 a number of the fishermen. The bag net has recently been introduced on the Gulf coast. 
 In the lower Mississippi River circular traps made of cane, with a small opening at on? 
 end, are used. Barrels, fitted with a net top with opening in the center, and sunk to the 
 bottom by means of weights, are also used. In San Francisco Bay the Chinese use bag 
 nets. This is a great cone-shaped sack or bag, about 40 feet long from mouth to apex, 24 
 feet wide at the mouth, and 4 feet wide at the bottom or point of the cone, which, when 
 set, is tied up with a puckering string. A number of these nets are attached to a bottom 
 line set across the current in channels with the mouths directed toward the current. 
 On Puget Sound they are caught by means of beam trawls or dredges in depths from 10 
 to 70 fathoms. These consist of a frame about 3 feet wide and 12 to 20 feet long, made 
 out of lyn inch pipe, to which is fastened a net or bag about 12 to 15 feet long, and 
 usually tapering toward the end. The frame is placed on broad runners and the whole 
 contrivance is lowered over the stern of the steamer while it is under a slow bell, and 
 towed along the bottom by means of a cable. After being hauled for from 20 to 40 
 minutes the net is hauled in by means of a steam winch and the contents dumped on the 
 deck, where it is sorted over. 
 
 In our southern waters it is essential that the shrimp from the time they are caught 
 be kept cold by means of ice, as otherwise they will soften quickl,y. This is especially 
 important when the crustaceans are moulting, because then they are soft, easily broken 
 in handling and more subject to decomposition. As soon as landed, or earlier, if possible, 
 the shrimp are culled; all soft, damaged or small shrimp should be thrown out 
 (some of these can be nsed for other purposes), and the slime and dirt rt^moved by thor- 
 oughly washing with water. If not to go inuned lately into the cooker the shrimp should 
 be packed in cracked ice or placed in a refrigerator. The nse of ice makes the "peeling" 
 of the shrimps easier. 
 
 The head and shells of all shrimps are removed for canning, and this is known as 
 "peeling." The head and thorax break from the heavy tail with ease and a slight 
 squeeze will separate the shell from the fleshy portion. The meats are then thoroughly 
 washed in two or more changes of water and are then ready for "blaTiching." The 
 blanching consists in boiling the shrimp in salt water, about one pound of salt being 
 used to each gallon of water. The meats are usually placed in a wii'e basket and this 
 suspended in the boiling brine in a kettle. Tiie time of the blanch is usually al»out four 
 minutes for the wet pack and five minutes for the dry pack. When removed from the 
 shell the meats are white or slightly gray in color: the boiling ju-ocess causes them to 
 become bright pink or red. 
 
 The meats are then spread thinly on wire meshed trays and exposed to a free circula- 
 tion of air, which soon results in their proper cooling. As soon as cooled the meats are 
 filled into cans by hand, each can being weighed. The cans ai"e of two sizes. No. 1 or No. 
 11 o. holding about 41,2 and 8 ounces resijectively. No attempt is made to grade the meat. 
 
 Canned shrimp are put np in what are known as dry and wet packs. In the former 
 no liquid is added, while in the wet pack brine is used. The wet pack is the favorite 
 ■product, as it is claimed to have more of the original or natural flavor than the dry; the 
 latter also exudes an unavoidable odor. While this odor is sometimes quite strong 
 when the can is first opened, it soon evaporates and the consumer will find the meat 
 sweet and good. 
 
152 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 The caus are capped and then processed in sreani-tight retorts. In the case of wet 
 pack they are processed at 2-t0° F., No. 1 cans for ]1 minutes and No. lio cans for 12 
 minutes. The process for dry pack is 60 minutes at 240° F. or 4 hours at 212° F. for No. 
 1 cans; and 7.5 minutes at 240'^ F. or 4 hours at 212° F. for No. Ito cans. Great care 
 must be exercised in liandling canned shrimp until the cans are thoroughly chilled, as if 
 given rough treatment while hot the meats will "mush." 
 
 When the weight of meats are in the cans they do not look filled. The experience of 
 packers has shown, however, that close filling causes matting of the shrimp and an 
 unsightly appearance. A barrel of good shrimp will pack 1!)0 No. 1 cans or 100 cans of 
 No. li/o. 
 
 Shrimp are difficult to keep and great caie must be exercised at all stages. It was 
 early discovered that when put up in the ordinary tin can the meats, which apparently 
 contain a chemical substance of a corrosive nature, would blacken in a short time and 
 attack the tin, making minute holes. Mr. G. W. Dunbar, one of the earliest packers, dis- 
 covered that lining the inside of the can would prevent the discoloring of the meats. He 
 inserted a sack in the can and put the meats in this and thus prevented them from com- 
 ing in direct contact with the tin. Later a thin veneering of wood, corn husks, parch- 
 ment paper, asphaltum or enamels were used to accomplish this purpose. Parchment 
 paper is almost exclusively in use now. 
 
 In the wet pack method the brine used is said to neutralize the action of the acid, 
 and lining material is generally not in use in this method. 
 
 Large quantities of shrimp are also put up in 1, 2, .3, 4 and i5-gallon cans, hermetic- 
 ally sealed, but not processed, as are the other cans. 
 
 In cooking these it is necessary to have brines of llie ])roper strength. The strength 
 of these will depend on the relative amounts of sluiiii]) and brine used, the time allowed 
 for cooking, and the degree of saltiness desired. Each packer, by experiment, can deter- 
 mine readily the strength of brine and length of cooking which will yield the results he 
 desires. In general, the brine should contain not less than 10 per cent, by weight of salt 
 and not more than 25 per cent. There should be at least 4 gallons of brine for each 10 
 pounds of .shrimp. 
 
 Most of the handlers cook the shrimp in rectangular iron or wooden tanks or kettles 
 with coils of steam pipes near the bottom, which system permits of exact control of tem- 
 peratures, a most desirable thing. Deep cooking vessels with straight sides that have as 
 little surface as possible for loss of heat and for evaporation, are the most satisfactory. 
 It is not desirable to cook the shrimp in metal tubs, in pots or in wide, shallow kettles 
 over open fires. 
 
 The water is brought to a jumping boil before the shrimi)s are dumped into the 
 vessel. As the shrimji in cooking develop air spaces and ri.se to the surface, they should 
 be held below the surface by a weighted wire screen or some similar device. During the 
 cooking the foam should be allowed to run over and go to waste. 
 
 The length of cooking depends upon the strength of the brine, the quantity of shrimp 
 to be cooked and the flavor desired. In general they are cooked from 15 to 20 minutes 
 after the brine in which they are placed has begun to boil. The shorter the cooking and 
 the weaker the brine the less will be the loss in weight. With the very weak brines 
 continuous refrigeration of the shrimps will be necessary in order to prevent spoilage, 
 and this will necessai-ily restrict their shipping to nearby markets alone. Shrimp that 
 will be shipped to distant markets should first be cooked in 15% brine (139 pounds of 
 dry salt to 100 gallons of water are required to make this strength of brine") for 15 to 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 153 
 
 20 miuutes, couled io ;i chill room to 3o- F., or less, aud tbeu shipped iu a sealed pack- 
 age surrounded by ice. 
 
 It is possible to cook shrimp with live steam, although this is but rarely done. The 
 shrimp are sprinkled evenly with salt and allowed to stand r. short time. They are then 
 placed in a steam tight box and subjected to the action of live steam for half an hour. 
 This process, aside from obviating the necessity for making and handling brines, is said 
 to require less salt, prevents soaking out of flavors and results in less loss in weight. 
 
 After cooking the shrimps should always be cooled thoroughly. In order to do this 
 they are placed in thin layers on cooling racks of wire screens in a temperature below 50° 
 F., if possible, and exposed to a free circulation of air. Under this treatment the crus- 
 taceans quickly lose their heat and the excess of water absorbed from the brine. Some 
 packers determine the degree of coolness by removing the shell and breaking open the 
 meat. This is a much more reliable method than that of merely touching the shells. 
 Air spaces form between the meat and shell in cooking, and as the latter is a poor con- 
 ductor it is frequently cold to the touch even when the meat itself is still warm. 
 
 The cans in which the dry-cooked shrimp are to be packed are lined with water-tight 
 covers or tops which, after the cans are filled, are soldered or fastened tightly to the can. 
 They are not processed as is the case with the smaller hermetically sealed cans. The 
 cans used hold 1, 2, 3, 4 aud 5 gallons respectively. The sealed cans then are packed in 
 ice in burlap-covered barels with drainage holes at the bottom. Such packages are re- 
 iced by the express company when necessary, and even in warm weather can be trans- 
 ported in good condition. 
 
 Some are also packed in a saturated salt solution. At one time considerable quan- 
 tities of headless shriinp used to be packed in this way. As these shrimp become very 
 salty, and take a long time to freshen, they are not so popular as the dry-packed. Pack- 
 ing brines should not be over o to 10% strength. Heavier solutions tend to make the 
 shrimp leathery and too salty, and weaker ones produce softness and flabbiness in the 
 stock and have no appreciable preservative effect. A brine of 7 or 8% should be satisfac- 
 tory for shipping purposes. In such packing both shrimp and brine should be cooled 
 before shipping; otherwise there is danger that the ico may melt during transit and the 
 shrimp consequently decay. 
 
 Peeled shrimp meats which are packed dry in parchment-lined cans similar to those 
 noted above and shipped in barrels of cracked ice are rapidly coming into favor. 
 
 Shrimp Paste 
 
 Pastes made from various fishery products, by grinding up the meat and adding salt 
 and flavoring, are becoming quite popular, and it would be an easy matter for the packers 
 to u.se their broken or small shrimp, or the surplus stock taken in periods of slack mar 
 kets, in making shrimp paste. It could be used for sandwiches and as a relish. 
 
 Other Products 
 
 Aside from canning, some establishments prepare dried shrimp, which are shipped 
 in bags in this condition. 
 
 When shrimp are peeled about 43 per cent of their weight is removed. This waste 
 matter is now saved and sold as fertilizer. 
 
154 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 Analysis op Canned Shrimp 
 
 Accoi'diug to Wiley (Foods aud Their Adulteration, pp. 15(5, 157) iii the total dry 
 edible portion of shrimp, including solids in the liquid contents of the can, are found : 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 Protein 86.89 
 
 Pat 3.44 
 
 Crude asli 8.84 
 
 In edible portion (tlesli [ilus liquid) — Per Cent. 
 
 Water 70.80 
 
 Water-free substance 29.20 
 
 Protein 25.38 
 
 Pat 1.00 
 
 Crude ash - 2.58 
 
 Extractives 0.24 
 
 Nitrogen 4.06 
 
 Total edible portion 100.00 
 
 Food Value op Shrimp Meat 
 
 According to Clark and McNaughton*, ''chemical analysis shows that shrimp are 
 a nitrogenous food containing constituents similar to those found in cheese, meat, oys- 
 ters and eggs. Almost all of the edible portion of raw shrimp is protein, the muscle 
 and tissue building food element. Since shrimp are a concentrated nitrogenous food, 
 they may be used as the principal dish of a meal, as well as the basis of a salad or as an 
 appetizer or relish. . . . 
 
 (Calculated on the fresh basis) 
 Carbo- 
 hydrates 
 Pr. Ct. 
 
 Shrimp (edible portion )- 
 
 Protein 
 Pr. Ct. 
 
 Cooked 27.6 
 
 Canned (dry packed) 25.5 
 
 Canned (wet packed) 20.0 
 
 Dry 71.4 
 
 
 
 
 Comp. Food 
 
 Fat 
 
 Water 
 
 Salt 
 
 Val. per lb. 
 
 Pr. Ct. 
 
 Pr. Ct. 
 
 Pr. Ct. 
 
 Calories 
 
 1.0 
 
 64.5 
 
 4.8 
 
 559 
 
 0.8 
 
 67.7 
 
 2.9 
 
 505 
 
 0.5 
 
 75.7 
 
 1.9 
 
 395 
 
 5.0 
 
 12.5 
 
 6.8 
 
 1,540" 
 
 Cut-out Weight of 
 
 Height 
 4 in. 
 
 Shrimp. 
 5 oz. 
 
 3{l in. 
 
 8% oz. 
 
 4 in. 
 
 5% oz. 
 
 3M in. 
 
 9% oz. 
 
 Weights and Branding op Canned Shrimp 
 
 The U. S. Bureau of Chemistry states that, after consideration of what constitutes 
 proper fill in case of canned shrimps, its opinion is that canned shrimp properly 
 packed should contain not less than the following "cut-out" weights of shrimp : 
 
 Dry Pack Shrimp 
 Size of Can. Diameter 
 
 No. 1 2ii in. 
 
 ^ „, (Sanitary, 3,% in. | 
 
 ^^"- ^ '- I Hole and Cap, 3% in. ) 
 
 No. 1 2\l in. 
 
 „ -J, I Sanitary, Si's in. 1 
 
 '^°- '■'- 1 Hole and Cap, 3% In. J 
 
 Attention is also directed to the requirement that cans should be as full of food as 
 practicable for packing and processing without injuring the quality or appearance of 
 contents. In the case of food packed with water, brine, etc., the cans should be as full 
 as possible of food and should contain only enough liquor to fill the interstices and cover 
 the product. 
 
 Attention is also called to the opinion that the label "Barataria Shrimp" should be 
 applied only to shrimp caught in Barataria Bay, the use of such labels on shrimp caught 
 at other places being held misbranding. 
 
 •Shrimp: Handling. Transportation and Uses. Bv Ernest D. Clark and Leslie .McNaiiKiitnu. U.S. Dept. of 
 Agric, Bur. of Cliemistry, Bulletin No. 53S, p. 7. 1917. 
 
AQUATIC MAMMALS, ETC. 
 
 TURTLES AND TEREAPINS 
 
 THE green turtle is found all aloii.n the Atlantic coast troni Long Island to Central 
 America, altliongh very sparingly north of Florida, and on the Pacific coast from 
 southern California south. It acquires its name from the greenish color of the fat. 
 In its northern range the species is rather small, averaging o to 15 pounds. The size 
 increases as we pass southward, the animal averaging about L")() jiounds in southern 
 Florida, and larger south of there. Along the Yucatan coast is at present the center of 
 abundance of this species. Tlie animal is a vegetable feeder, living mainly on marine 
 plants, especially one called turtle-grass (Zofitera murhui). Frequently, however, a turtle 
 will not eat for months, especially when in captivity, and, strange to relate, this fasting 
 does not seem to effect them either in health or weight. Owing to tlie persistence with 
 which the animal has been hunted along our shores it does not now breed here, but prob- 
 ably has selected some little-frequented islands in the M'est Indies for this purpose. The 
 fiesh of the green turtle is highly prized as food, while the eggs are well lilced. 
 
 The catching of sea turtles is a vessel fishery, sailing vessels of either a schooner or 
 sloop rig being employed. The fishing season is generally from March 1 to September 30, 
 and is confined tc Florida, the principal headquarters of the fleet being at Key West. A 
 few of the vessels visit the Mexican, Yucatan and Nicaraguan coasts, and purchase green 
 turtles from the local turtlers. 
 
 In capturing green and logger head turtles gill nets and pegs are generally employed. 
 
 When landed at Key West the turtles which have been kept alive (the skin of those 
 which die is removed and salted, while the calipee, or belly, and chines are saved and 
 salted) are placed in small, square pens of wattled stakes, called kraals, built in the 
 water, clase to shore, or in staked compartments under wharves, and there kept until the 
 sale days or until they have recovered from the voyage. 
 
 When ready to be sold the turtles are brought to one of the docks at Key West and 
 laid on their back so they cannot move. They are then inspected by the turtle buyers, 
 after which an unique auction is held. When ready the auctioneer advances to the first 
 turtle, and each buyer writes on a slip of pai)er the amount he is willing to give for it. 
 This is handed to the auctioneer, who lays it face down in the palm of his hand, and 
 when all are in turns them over and reads off the highest amount offered. There is no 
 continuous bidding, as in a regular auction, and each buyer is compelled to stand by his 
 bid no matter how much it may vai\v from the others. 
 
 Turtles of from 50 to 200 pounds in weight are usually shipped to the northern mar- 
 kets, principally New York, on the regular steamer lines. The large turtles, some of 
 which attain a weight of 500 pounds, are butchered at Key West and sold in the markets 
 the same as beef and other meats, or direct to the cannery. 
 
 Greex Turtle Meat* 
 
 In preparing green turtles for canning (the females are the best for this work), the 
 head is cut off with an axe and the body hung from hooks until the blood has drained, 
 
 •In the canning of turtle and terrapin extreme care must be used to see that the rooms in which the work is 
 done, and the utensils employed, are scrupulously clean, 
 
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CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 157 
 
 which will require some hours. With ;i sharp knife the upper and lower shells are care- 
 fully removed. The entrails and gall bladder are then removed, particular pains being 
 taken not to break the latter. The calipash, or "clear," a fatty and gelatinous sub- 
 stance of a dull greenish tinge, much esteemed us a delicacy in preparations of turtle, 
 is then cut away from the under side of the upjier shell and put temporarily in a separate 
 dish. The calipee, similar in consistency and deliciousness to the calipash, but of a 
 light yellowish color, is removed from the inside of the under shell and saved. The upper 
 shell is then boiled in water until the scales begin to separate, when it should be taken 
 out and the soft mucilaginous under side scraped off and put in a dish. The under shell 
 is also boiled in the water at the same time and will be completely dissolved. 
 
 The head, flippers, liver, lights and heart are then put in the liquor in which the 
 shells were cooked, also the meat, enclosed in a cage, and the whole mass cooked until the 
 meat is done. The green fat, mucilage and meat are then divided equally among the 
 cans, the interstices of which are filled with the strained liquor, in each gallon of which 
 has been dissolved Vi pound of gelatine. The cans are then capped and processed at 
 250° F., Xo. 1 cans for 50 minutes and No. 2 cans for 70 minutes. 
 
 Green Turtle Soup 
 
 In preparing green turtle soup prepare he turtle the same us for eanuing. ^A'hen the 
 meat, head, liver, etc., are cooked in the liquor in which the shells were boiled, there 
 should be added 2 pounds of chopped onions, 3 ounces parsley, 2 ounces thyme, 2 ounces 
 celery, 1 ounce marjoram, i/^ ounce summer savory, ^o ounce sage, % ounce bay leaves 
 and 2 pounds of dried ham cut in small pieces, to each 20 pounds of turtle meat. After 
 the meat is done, remove the cage containing the meat and strain the liquor. In the 
 meantime Ito pounds of butter should be melted and mixed with 1 pound of flour, to 
 which should be added 2 quarts of liquor, and the whole brought to a boil, then 4 ounces 
 of sugar, 3 ounces of suit and 2 quarts of wine added. The thickened liquor and the 
 meat liquor should then be mixed all together with the chopped yolks of 2 dozen hard- 
 boiled eggs, juice of 1 dozen lemons and 1 ounce of cayenne jiepper. The whole should 
 then be pluced hot in the cans, the tops sealed, and processed about CO minutes at 230° F. 
 
 Some packers boil the meat, fat and the various other parts of the animal in 2 parts 
 white wine, 1 part water and enough liquid to fully cover the turtle, for It^ hours, add 
 mixed spices, salt, cayenne pepper, thyme and sage to taste. The mixture is then drained, 
 the juice pas.sed through a fabric and mixed with 3 times its volume of oxtuil soup, the 
 juice of 1 lemon and 1 i)int of iladeira wine to each S quarts of soup. 
 
 Soft-Shell Turtles 
 
 The species of soft-shell turtles, or tortoises (TrioinjchicJae) are six in number. Their 
 combined range covers most of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. They 
 vary in length from to 8 inches to 2 feet or even more, and their weight is from 4 or 5 
 pounds to 15 or 10 pounds. Their food consists of small fishes, snails and other small 
 animals, and a variety of vegetuble matter. They are most frequently seen on the mar- 
 gin of sluggish, shallow streams, their bodies buried in the mud, and only the tip of their 
 long snout protruding, or crawling over the muddy bottom of the stream, or floating on 
 its surface. They breed in June and July. 
 
 Soft-shell turtles are commonly eaten in the regions where they occur, and are fre- 
 quently seen in markets. Their flesh forms a superior article of food. 
 
 They are caught with hook and line, almost any bait being suitable, for they snap 
 greedily at any kind of food. They are also shot with the rifle while sunning themselves 
 
158 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 or floating on the surface of the water. On the Ohio River many are caught in turtle hoop 
 nets. In winter, when the animals lie torpid at the bottom, many are taken by means of 
 scoop nets operated through holes cut in the ice. 
 
 At Orlando, Florida, is a cannery for packing them. They are canned in the same 
 manner as green turtle.s, the females being the best for the purpose. 
 
 SxAPPiNG Turtles 
 
 The snapping turtles of the United States are two in nimiber, the common snapping 
 turtle {Chehjdm serpentina) and the alligator snapping turtle {Maeroelielys lacertina). 
 The habitat of the former is the United Stales generally east of the Rocky Mountains, 
 while the latter is found in the rivers emptying into the Gulf of Mexico, from western 
 Texas to western Florida, and northward to Missouri. It is common in the Mississippi 
 River. The ma.ximum size of the common suapi)ing turtle is about 40 pounds, while the 
 alligator snapping turtle attains a maximum weight of 140 pounds. Both species inhabit 
 running streams and stagnant, muddy ponds and lakes, but they apparently prefer the 
 latter. Both are carnivorous, and ai-e sometimes seen at considerable distances from the 
 water. i 
 
 Both species ai"e esteemed as food, the former especially in Philadelphia, Baltimore 
 and Washington. 
 
 Many are caught in hoop nets. In New Jersey they are taken with hook and line, 
 while others catch them with hooks baited with skinned eel. The turtles should be alive 
 when brought to market and the females are the best for canning. 
 
 In preparing for canning the head of the turtle should be cut off with an axe and the 
 animal hung up on hooks until the blood has stopped dripping. The animal should then 
 be taken down and washed, and then dropped into boiling water and allowed to x-emain 
 here until the shells part easily. The toe nails should be pulled out and the lower shell 
 removed. The gall bladder should be carefully removed so it will not be broken, as in 
 that event it would make the rest bitter, after which the liver, heart and eggs, if any, 
 should be removed. The entrails should be removed and thrown away. The flesh should 
 then be sejiarated from the upper shell and cut in pieces, and placed, including skin and 
 legs, with the heart, eggs and chopped liver, in kettle with just enough water to cover, 
 and cooked until the skin is soft and jellylike. The whole should then be placed hot in 
 cans, dividing the white meat and eggs as evenly as possible. After topping the cans 
 should be processed at 2.i0° F., No. 1 cans 55 minutes. No. 2 cans 65 minutes, 
 
 Stewed Sn.\pping Turtle 
 
 In canning stewed snapping turtle, a meat jelly should be prepared by boiling slowly 
 for about 9 hours veal and beef houghs, bones, sward, heads, gelatinous parts of pork, 
 etc., with a little more water than actually required to cover them, adding enough pure 
 salt to give it good taste, and a bunch of onions, carrots, parsley and celery. The jelly 
 should not be highly flavored. After boiling is finished the jelly should be drained, then 
 passed through a hair sieve and put in another kettle. Here bring to a slow boil and 
 remove all the fat and foam that rises to the surface, then add a little vinegar to the 
 jelly to make it slightly acid. Take the white of 3 eggs as many times as there are quarts 
 of jelly, add to them one ounce of water per egg, and beat them thoroughly and pour the 
 whole in the jelly, stir gently and turn the steam on. As soon as it starts boiling shut off 
 the steam and pass the hot jelly through a wet fabric or flannel, which will clear it. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 159 
 
 To 50 pounds of meat jelly made as above, add 50 pouuds of snapping turtle as pre- 
 pared for the cans, 2 pounds of salt, 1 ounce of ground cayenne and 2 ounces of ground 
 white pepper, and 1 ounce of ground cinnamon. Bring to a boil, shut off the steam, and 
 add one-half gallon of sherry wine. Place in cans, put on tops and process at 250° F., 
 Xo. I cans 55 minutes, No. 2 cans GO minutes. 
 
 Terrapin 
 
 The must famous member of the turtle family is the diamond back or saltwater terra- 
 pin. This terrapin owes its importance as a food product not to its abundance, but to 
 the excei)ti()nally fine quality of its meat. It is quite scarce now, and exceedingly high in 
 price. 
 
 The diamond-back occurs along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the United States 
 from Massachusetts to Texas. In this section are found four species and one sub-species. 
 All are lovers of salt or brackish waters and find their most congenial homes in low- 
 lying swamps and protected bays or inlets. The female lays her eggs generally during 
 May or June. 
 
 The female is considerably larger than the male, and as the latter is generally below 
 the legal size but few are marketed. The tlesh of the male is also said to be much 
 tougher than that of the female, and also lacks its delicate flavor. In Florida the terra- 
 pins average about three pounds each, in North Carolina about five pounds, and in Chesa- 
 peake Bay about six pounds each. 
 
 The rapid decrease in the supply of diamond-back terrapin, coincident with the im- 
 men.se increase in value of same, stimulated the search for a substitute, and this was 
 easily discovered amongst the freshwater terrapin. There are a number of genera and 
 species of these scattered throughout our interior waters, and while all are available for 
 food a few are either too small or of too rare occurrence to furnish any considerable 
 supply. Those of the proper size make excellent substitutes, and have been used for this 
 purpose for a number of years. These animals are rarely seen north of the 41st parallel 
 of latitude, and live in moist and marshy localities and in running water. 
 
 "Sliders" are abundant in the Mississippi Valley and large quantities are shipped to 
 eastern markets, in November usually. The map terrapin is found throughout Pennsyl- 
 vania and New York, and in the Mississippi Valley as far south as Louisiana. The Cum- 
 berland terrapin is found from Ohio to Kansas, southward to the Gulf states, and to the 
 lower Rio (Jrande River. The red bellied terrapin is found along the Delaware and Sus- 
 quehanna Rivers and stream emptying into Chesapeake Bay. The latter, and the mobi- 
 lianer, found more or less abundantly in all the Gulf states, are the largest of the fresh- 
 water terrapin. 
 
 The diamond back terrapin is occasionally canned in Georgia, although it is now so 
 scarce and costly that they are generally beyond the reach of the canner. 
 
 As with the turtles, the female terrapin are the best for canning. 
 
 Stewed Terrapin 
 
 When ready for canning the terrapin are washed and then plunged alive into boil- 
 ing water, a little salt added, and cooked until the toe nails and outer skin come off 
 readily, when they should be i-emoved and the terrapin placed in clear, salted boiling 
 water and cooked until the legs are quite tender. The terrapin should then be cleaned 
 the same as snappers, except that the small intestines are saved and cut into very small 
 pieces. 
 
160 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
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CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 161 
 
 The cut-up meat of 21 terrapin, together with tlie intestiues, liver, eggs and liquor, 
 should then be placed in the kettle, 10 pounds of butter added, and after this has melted 
 VA gallons of cream, lU ounces of powdered mace and 1 ounce of cayenne pepper should 
 be added, and all brought just to a boil ; then turn off the steam and add the .yolks of 6 
 dozen eggs, previously hard boiled, mashed and creamed with 12 pints of sherry wine. 
 Place the prepared product in cans, seal on tojis and process No. 1 cans 50 minutes at 
 250° F. 
 
 WHALES AND PORPOISES 
 
 For many years this country occupied tlie ]>reeminent place in the whale fisheries of 
 the world, and our whalers traversed all seas from the Arctic to the Antarctic in their 
 quest of these leviathans of the deep. The species sought were the right, bowhead and 
 sperm whales, the two former for the whalebone obtained from their mouth and the oil 
 from their blubber, while the sperm was sought exclusi^ely for the high-grade oil to be 
 obtained from it. 
 
 In the course of time cheap substitutes were obtained for all of these products, thus 
 causing a material decrease in their value, and this eventually led to the abandonment 
 of the industry by most of the operators. 
 
 As "deep-sea whaling," as it was termed, declined in importance, a new style of whal- 
 ing, commonly known as "shore whaling" arose to importance, and today considerably 
 exceeds in value the old style. So far as we are concerned this form of whaling is fol- 
 lowed on the I'aciflc coast alone, the stations being located in Alaska, Itritish Columbia, 
 Washington and California. 
 
 The deep-.sea whalers had frequently encountered in the seas bordering our coasts, 
 and elsewhere, three species of whales, as follows : Sulphur bottom {Balnenoptera sul- 
 fiireiis), finback (B. vclifcra ]. and humpback (Mcf/aptcra loiifjiiiuiiio). As the two first- 
 named were difficult to capture with the appliances then in vogue, while all three yielded 
 a much smaller and inferior grade of whalebone than the right and bowhead, no effort 
 had been made to capture them. These three species comprise the greater part of the 
 catch of the shore wJialers, only an occasional sperm and right whale being caught. 
 These whalers also catch an occasional sei whale (B. horealis). This mammal is common 
 on the Japanese coast, but has not been seen on this coast until within recent years. 
 The flesh from this species is considered the best for food, although the other species are 
 but slightly inferior. The California gray whale (Rhachiaiiccieif f/huicus) is also hunted 
 off the southern California coast and its flesh forms an important addition to the local 
 larder. The average size of this manuaal is Id feet, while the maximum is abour 19 feet. 
 
 The great demand which has arisen throughout the world for fertilizers caused atten- 
 tion to be focused on these great monsters of the deep, and soon floating whaling stations, 
 comjjrising large steamers equipped with machinery for trying out the oil and preparing 
 the residue as fertilizer and meal, also for grinding up the skeleton bones, were equipped, 
 at first mainly by Norwegians, and 'ater by other nationalities. 
 
 The whales are hunted in small steamers and power vessels, in the bow of which is 
 mounted a Svend-Foyn harpoon gnu. This gun is heavily constructed throughout and 
 lias generally a bore of 3 inches. The harpoon is a heavy missile, weighing several 
 liundred pounds. A bomb containing roughly a pound of powder is screwed onto the 
 harpoon, and the latter is then rammed home in the same manner as a shot. About 18 
 inches from the jioint of the harpoon is attached a line, and this is attached to a larger 
 line, which latter runs to the ship's winch. 
 
162 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 WHALING STATION AT AKUTAN, ALASKA. 
 
 As soon as a whale is sighted the vessel is iiiii as close to it as possible, and when 
 within range the gun is tired. A time fuse is attaelied to the bomb on tlie harpoon, this 
 being ignited by the discliarge of the gun, and five seconds after the discharge the bomb 
 explodes. On the shaft of the harpoon are barbs, which expand on entering the whale, 
 making it next to impossible for the harpoon to be drawn out again. After the whale's 
 struggles liave somewhat exhausted him the whalers generally give the coup de grace 
 with a lance, after which the animal is drawn alongside, the flukes of the tail cut off, 
 the body made bouyant by pumping air into the stomach, and then hoisted partially out 
 of the water and towed in to the station in this way. 
 
 The beluga, or white whale [Delphinapterus huicni<), is quite abundant in summer in 
 Cook Inlet and along the Bering Sea shore from Bristol Bay north, being particularly 
 numerous about the mouths of rivers and frequently ascending the larger rivers far above 
 tide water. It is migratory and its movements are said to be regulated by the ice. Many 
 are found in the Kvichak, Nnshagak, Togiak, Kuskokwim and Yukon Rivers. They feed 
 mainly on fish, being especially fond of tonicods. The majority are caught with strong, 
 large-meshed nets, heavily weighted, set oft' outlying i)oints. In rough weather, when the 
 animals cannot see the nets, many are taken, but in clear weather the catch is small. 
 Some are speared, some shot, but unless the shot goes through the spinal column these 
 latter generally escape. The noise of the shot also causes the survivors to almost instantly 
 disappear. In the Bristol Bay section, when a school arrives in the headwaters of a bay 
 or enters the river, the natives gather below it in their canoes and Itidarkas, and by 
 shouting and splashing with their oars on the water, drive the school \\\) onto a flat and 
 continue to hold Ihem here until the receding tide leaves the mammals high and dry, 
 when the natives despatch them with spears, kni\es and guns. 
 
 The porpoise, a small cetacean, is found in abundance on both the Atlantic and 
 Pacific coasts. They average in leng-th fro.n 5 to 9 feet, and on the Atlantic coast are 
 especially abundant at Cape Hatteras during the fail, winter and spring months. This is 
 the only place in the T'nited States where a regular fishery is maintained for them. Por- 
 poises are abundant at other times, but in winter they are the fattest, and furnish the 
 best and most i^rclitable yield. 
 
 From the jawbone of the mammal is obt lined a grade of oil which is unsurpassed as 
 a lubricant for watches, clocks and chronoiueters. and this fetches a high price iu the 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 163 
 
 market. Oil is also obtained from the blubber of the niaiiiinal, but this is suitable only 
 for ordinarj' commercial purposes. 
 
 As the schools swim up and down the coast boats loaded with a large-mesh haul 
 seine are launched through the surf, the school surrounded and hauled ashore with the 
 net. 
 
 The meat is red in color and has been eaten on many occasions, and has also been 
 used in making porpoise sausages. There is only a faint suggestion of the fishy taste. 
 In 191S some porpoise meat was canned in southern California. It looked and tasted 
 very much like canned beef. 
 
 This meat can be packed in the same manner as the meat from the large whales. 
 There is an oily taste to the meat of the beluga and porpoise which is objectionable to 
 some, but this can be eliminated by removing the connective tissue which lies between 
 the blubber and the meat. 
 
 Practically all species of the cetacea are dressed and handled in the same manner, 
 although different methods are employed in capturing them. 
 
 As soon as possible after arrival at the station the whale is hauled out of the water 
 and under the llensiug shed by a powerful steam winch, where the blubber, a layer of 
 fat directly under the skin, covering the whole body like a blanket, and varying in thick- 
 ness from 4 to 7 inches, is removed and taken to the trypots, where the oil is extracted. 
 The remainder of the carcass is then removed to another platform, where the meat is 
 removed. At most of the plants the oil is extracted from this meat and the residue is 
 made into fertilizer and whale meal. 
 
 THE FINBACK WHALE, THE PRINCIPAL SPECIES USED AS P'OOD. 
 
 Only the fiesh of the finback, humpback, sei, Califoinia gray and beluga whales, and 
 the porpoi.se, are used for food. In 1917 considerable quantities were marketed fresh and 
 frozen, and in ]!)18 the canning of it was begun by certain coiiijianies operating on the 
 Pacific coast. The hind (piarters and a portion of the tail of the iiiaiiimals are the parts 
 used for canning. From a humpback whale about six tons of edible meat may be 
 obtained, from the sei whale five tons, and from the finback eight tons. The meat of the 
 whale resembles beef in texture and appearance, and has no fishy fiavor whatever. 
 
 In the practice followed at present the infiuence of salmon canning methods is quite 
 noticeable, but it is likely that better results would be obtained if meat packing methods 
 were followed. 
 
 At present the meat is removed in strips weighing from IT) to 20 pounds. These are 
 at once placed in a cooling house where they remain about S hours for the purpose 
 of removing the animal heat. The nteat is then put in a mild i)ickle for ;!(> hours, which 
 extracts the blood and thoroughly cleans the meat. The strii)s are then fed to !i salmon- 
 cutting machine, which cuts them to a size to fit the regular Ijionnd tall can. The fill- 
 
164 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 ing iiKuliiiie takes the pieces aud fills the cans with them, about 1,4 of an ounce of salt hav- 
 ing previously been put in the can. 
 
 The top is put loosely on the can, which is then run throuj^h the exhaust box 
 for 25 to 30 minutes at a temperature of 212° F. The double seamer then seals the can 
 and it goes to the retort, where it is cooked for 8t) minutes at a temperature of 218° to 
 220° F. 
 
 T^pon removal from the retort it is cooled by playing a stream of cold water for a 
 few minutes on the cooler of cans, after which they go to the cooling platform until 
 thoroughly cooled and the tops have collapsed. 
 
 The product might be nmcli improved if a jelly were used in filliiig in the interstices 
 after the meat has been put in. This could be prei)ared by boiling some whale meat for 
 
 PACKING WHALE MEAT IN COOLING ROOM FOR PURPOSE OF REMOVING 
 ANIMAL HEAT BEFORE CANNING. 
 
 a suflicient number of hours with a little more water than is actually required to cover 
 it, adding enough salt to give it taste, and a bunch of onions, carrots, parsley and celery. 
 The jelly should have a good taste but not be highly flavored. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 165 
 
 After boiling drain the jelly, pass through a hair sieve aud put it in another kettle. 
 Bring to a slow boiling and remove all the fat and foam that rises to the surface. 
 
 It should then be e-Iarifled by adding a little vinegar to (he jelly lo make it slightly 
 acid. The whites of '.i eggs are then taken as many times as there are cpiarls of jelly (5 
 quarts equals 15 eggs), one ounce of water per egg is then added, and the whole beaten 
 thoroughly and poured in the jelly, after which the mass is stirred gently and the heat 
 
 CUTTING WHALE STEAKS. 
 
 turned on. As soon as it starts boiling sluil otf Ihe heat and pass Ihe hot jelly through 
 a wet fabric or llannel, when it will be clear. 
 
 The meat c(^uld lie roasted the same as beef and then canned, or could he corned before 
 canning. This would require some (■x])erinieiital work, as whale meat might recjuire some- 
 what different treatment from beef, but the differences would doubtless be slight. 
 
 AXAI.VSIS OF C.VXXED Wh.vi.e Mkat 
 
 At the request of the American I'acitic Whaling Company of l!ay City, \\'ash., the 
 U. S. Bureau of Fisheries in 1918 made an analysis of canned whale meat with reference 
 to its food value, the results of which aie shown in the accompanying taiile. It is note- 
 worthy that this product is rich in jtrotein, the principal tissue-forming material of 
 food, which constitutes over 34 ])er cent, of whale meat, as compared with 13 to 14 per 
 cent, in beef, mutton and pork. 
 
 In the table the caloric determinations of fuel value per jiound are based on the per- 
 centage of protein — XxG.25 — rather than on the percentage of nitrogenous substances by 
 
166 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 difference. The fuel value per pouud is determiued by the use of factor 9.3 per gram for 
 ether extract and factor 4.1 per gram for protein=Nx6.25. 
 
 
 
 
 
 t-l-M 
 
 
 LC 
 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 5S 
 
 
 (M 
 
 «5 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ss 
 
 
 
 JD Li 
 
 
 X 
 
 
 X^Q 
 
 
 
 2g£ 
 
 
 Z . 
 
 
 
 
 
 5 ^ 
 
 
 
 s 
 
 si o 
 
 
 
 Sg 
 
 ■r? 
 
 ^o 
 
 o . 
 
 
 U 
 
 2S a 
 
 MO 
 
 oO 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S - o 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MCLi 
 
 Cdfo 
 
 < 
 
 Ch 
 
 Ssoiii 
 
 Zfc 
 
 t<CH 
 
 c-r 
 
 ss 
 
 Average of two Determinations 59.57 40.43 4.96 .95 34.52 5.49 or 34.31 847 
 
 ,,..,,„.... ( 60.64 39.36 4.92 .95 33.49 5.38 or 33.63 832 
 
 Individual Determinations I gg_g^ ^^^^g 5^p^ ^^^ 35^5^ g^g^ ^^. gg^^g ggg 
 
MISCELLANEOUS SECONDARY PRODUCTS 
 
 FISH BALLS 
 
 THE making of tisli halls and canning of same has been carried on in a desultory 
 fashion for a number of years. The usual custom has been to use cod or other 
 member of the Gadidae in this work, but the canner of today has a wide range of 
 material from which to select — cod, haddock, hake, salmon, drum, sea basses, tenderloin 
 of sole, flounders and nuuiy others. 
 
 The usual method of preparation is as follows ; For 100 pounds of fish, 125 pounds 
 of potatoes, 10 pounds of I'aw onions and 13 pounds of pure beef tallow are required. 
 If salt fish are used they are soaked in tepid water to remove the salt. The fish are then 
 reduced to a pulp; tlie potatoes are boiled, skinned and mashed; and these ingredients 
 
 •v 
 
 INTERIOR OF CANNERY PACKING PISH BALLS, ETC. 
 
 are warmed and mixed thoroughly with the chopped raw onions and beef tallow, adding 
 C, ounces of pepper or other suitable flavoring condiments. While the ingredients are 
 being mixed they are chopped as line as practicable by machinery. The warm mixture is 
 then placed in the cans, which are then sealed up. As the mixture is warm no exhaust- 
 ing is necessary. The cans are then jn'ocessed, 1-pound, 4.") minutes at 210"' F. ; .3-pound, 
 00 minutes at 221^ F., and 10-pound, !I0 minutes at 240- F. 
 
 167 
 
]68 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 FISH PASTES 
 
 111 Euriipe the luamilactuie ol pastes from fishery pi-odnets has attaiued to consider- 
 able ])romineDce, anchovies, bloaters, shrimp, etc., being the principal materials used. In 
 this conntiy but little paste is made, and this ]irinci])ally of salmon, although many other 
 fishery ])roducts could be utilized. The hitherto waste pieces, such as the napes of cod- 
 fish, tail pieces of salmon, etc., are generally employed for this purpose. 
 
 The meat of fish should be thoroughly cleaned of bones and skin and run through a 
 meat grinder. It should then be thoroughly mixed in a mixing machine with oil, spices 
 and other flavoring substances until it is of the right consistency and flavor. This is 
 largely a matter of taste and each packer will have to decide for himself as the taste of 
 the consuming public varies in ditfeient places. The mixture is then run into cans, the 
 top put on loosely, exhausted lo minutes at -00° F., top sealed and the cans processed 
 45 minutes at 230° F. 
 
 In Jai)an lean i)ieces of fresh flatfish, eels, shark, etc., are freed from the bones, 
 pounded in a stone mortar, and at the same time mixed with a certain (juantity of salt, 
 flour, sweet wine, white of an egg and sacchariferous alg;v (Lamiuaria), until the mix- 
 ture assumes a paste-like consistency. The .Ta])anese mould this mixture into various 
 shapes;, heat it over a charcoal fire, then steam and bake it. It could, however, be run 
 through I lie machines notexl above, put into cans and processed as there noted. 
 
 AxcHOVY Paste 
 
 Paste made fioiii our anchovies would be fully the equal of the best anchovy paste 
 put up in Europe. There are several methods for preparing paste, but the favorite seems 
 to be as follows: For each gallon of fish take 1 pound of salt, ^^ pound of saltpetnr, 1 
 ounce of sal prunella (saltpeter deprived of water by crystallization by heat) and a few 
 grains of cochineal, and pound the whole well together in a mortar. In a stone jar place 
 a layer of the ingredients, then a layer of fish, and so on until the jar is filled, piT^ them 
 down hard and cover up carefully, and let them remain for six months, when the paste 
 is ready for use. 
 
 FISH PUDDING 
 
 Fish jiudding can be made from a variety of fishes and in a variety of ways. Cod, 
 haddock, hake, salmon, whiting, halibut, flounder, sole, etc., have been utilized at various 
 times. 
 
 The fish to be used should first be eviscerated, then boiled or baked, the skin ajd 
 bones removed, and the flesh ground fine in a machine, after which it should be run 
 through a sieve. The fish ]mlp should then be seasoned with s.ilt, jiepper and onion juice. 
 Some butter should then be melted in a vessel; when melted add potato flour and cook 
 for a few minutes; then add slowly the milk, stirring constantly until well sfcdlded; 
 then add the fish imlp, take from the fire and mix thoroughly. The whole should then be 
 pressed well down into a half-gallon can, or whatever size may be convenient, the top 
 put on loosely and the can exhausted for lo minutes at 212° F., then sealed tight an(J 
 processed for 75 minutes at 227° F. 
 
 No effort has been made to give the exact ((uaiitity of each ingredient used, as this 
 will have to be worked out largely by experiment, and also because the taste of the con- 
 suming public varies in different sections, and the packer should endeavor to supply what 
 his trade particularly wants. Some packers may want to eliminate certain of the ingre- 
 dients shown above and substitute others to suit their own special demands. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 169 
 
 The product should be tirui euough to turu whole out of the can, when it can be cut 
 in slices, the same as plum pudding, and served. 
 
 FISH EGGS AND MELT 
 
 Among the choicest of secondary products obtained from many species of fishes are 
 the eggs with which the females are frequently freighted when they are captured by man. 
 In a cooked state it would be ditticult to find a more deliciuus dish ihan cod, shad or ale- 
 wife roe, while sturgeon caviar made from the eggs of the sturgeon is favorably known 
 the world over. Unfortunately, however, with the exception of the latter, the eggs of fish 
 are accessible to but comparatively few jieople, due to the fact that most of them are 
 marketed in a fresh state, which very materially curtails their sale and distribution. The 
 wide vogue of sturgeon caviar is due primarily to the fact that it is cured in such a way 
 that it will keep for a long period of time, and being put up either in cans or air- 
 tight kegs can be shipped anywhere with perfect safety. Owing to the great scarcity of 
 sturgeon caviar, due to the demand and consequent high prices having caused such inten- 
 si\e fishing that the various species of sturgeon are now extinct in many waters, while in 
 others they run in greatly reduced numbers, substitutes have been sought and found in 
 this country in the spoonbill cat or paddle-flsh, salmon, whitefish, etc. 
 
 In addition the roes of many fishes could be canned either in a fresh or salted con- 
 dition, the principal species being herring, alewife, shad, whitefish, cod, haddock, etc. 
 
 At the present time immense quantities of fish eggs are allowed to go to waste for 
 the lack of curing and packing methods which would permit of their preservation and 
 shipment to the markets of the world. Salted, they would be available for many markets; 
 but it is only in a canned condition that they are available for world-wide markets. 
 
 According to the U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, fish eggs "are essentially nitrogenous 
 foods, with a considerable quantity of fat, and differ in composition but little from the 
 fiesh of the fish. They do, however, contain a larger quantity of an important constitu- 
 ent of food, organic phosi)horus in the form of lecithin. The fresh roe contains less water 
 than the flesh, and therefore jiouud for pound has a larger quantity of nutrients. For 
 purposes of comparison some tal)ulated analyses follow. In comparing analyses of the 
 canned with the fresh products, it should be borne in mind that water is added to the 
 product in the cans when it is put up. 
 
 Analyses and Food Value of Fish, Fish Roe, Buokroe, Etc. 
 
 Kind. 
 
 Pill 
 
 fe-o 
 
 o >- 
 
 -?« 
 
 
 o 
 -a ^ 
 
 _ a 
 
 Shad (dressed) 70.62 29.28 18.55 9.48 1.25 28.03 744 
 
 Shad roe (fresh) 71.25 28.75 23.44 3.78 1.53 27.22 595 
 
 River herring (dressed) 74.41 25.59 19.17 4.92 1.47 24.09 564 
 
 River herring roe (canned) 79.67 20.33 14.25 a4.84 1.24 19.09 469 
 
 River herring bucltroe (canned) 81.21 18.79 al4.19 2.41 2.19 16.60 365 
 
 Polloclv Ijucivroe (canned) 79.39 20.61 13.68 2.62 3.98 16.30 365 
 
 Sea herring bucliroe (canned) 79.25 20.75 15.54 2.72 2.49 18.26 403 
 
 Sea herring roe (fresh) 69.22 30.78 a25.21 4.19 1.38 29.40 645 
 
 Sturgeon caviar 66.05 33.95 14.37 8.97 b7.26 23.34 645 
 
 Hen Eggs 65.50 34.50 13.10 9.30 .90 22.40 635 
 
 Chicken (dressed) .•. 71.30 28.70 24.30 2.60 1.40 26.90 661 
 
 .1 By diCEei'ence. b Of this total G.IG parts salt is used in preserving product. 
 
170 CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 "The buckroe or melt i-oe (that part of the male which coiresjiouds to the egg mass 
 of the female and is sometimes called soft roe), as shown by analysis, compares favor- 
 ably in food value with the roe and flesh of the fish. It is, in fact, a most excellent pro- 
 duct, a delicate and palatable fish food, and has been so i)ronounced by teachers of 
 domestic science and others who have given it a trial."* 
 
 Alewife Eggs and Melt 
 
 The U. S. Bureau of Fisherie.s suggests the following method for canning alewife 
 eggs and melt : 
 
 "Herring roe intended for canning is collected in buckets as the fish are cut and 
 washed in fresh water in special trays, blooi and adhering particles of entrails being 
 removed. The roe is then put Iti the cans. As it swells considerably in processing the 
 cans must not be entirely filled. If of the sanitary type, the cans are filled to within 
 about three-fourths of an inch of the top Avlth roe and then filled to the edge with cold 
 salt brine, about 1 pound of salt to 8 or 10 gallons of water beiiig used to make the 
 brine. The brine is added solely for seasoning. The cans are immediately capped and 
 placed in the processing baskets. If solder-top cans are used, the filled cans are placed 
 in the exhaust box. Upon removal from the exhaust [the exhaust should be at 212° 
 P. for a period to be determined by experiment. — Author] the necessary air space is pro- 
 vided for by pre.ssing the roe down with a plunger. Material clinging to the groove 
 where the solder is applied is removed by a brush and the cans are capped and tipped. 
 The canned roe is processed in a closed kettle for 45 to 55 minutes at a temperature of 
 240° to 245^ P. The melt roe may be canned in the same manner as the roe except that 
 the cans can be more completely filled, as this jjroduct does not swell in processing. As 
 the quantity of brine used in this case will be somewhat less, it should be made corre- 
 spondingly stronger.''* 
 
 Con Eg(;s 
 
 Large qiiantities of eggs from cod and kindred fishes, as haddock and ling are going 
 to waste in our fisheries through lack of effort at curing them as caviar auJ pushing 
 their sale in this and other countries. The cod spawns during the winter and early 
 spring, and at this season the Alaska shore-fishing stations devoted to cod throw away 
 many thousands of pounds which rot or form food for the gulls. The K^orwegians have 
 developed a method of preparing cod caviar, which seems to be meeting with much 
 favor, and which could be adapted in this country with much profit. It is as follows: 
 
 *'Por the preparation of cod caviar the Norwegians use the whole ovaties of the cod, 
 which are salted in barrels, and mostly in the Lofoden winter fisheries. The roe must 
 be salted whole without injuring or breaking the enveloping membrane, and must not be 
 salted too much, just sufficient to impart a nice orange-red color. Whei? -^he salted 
 ovaries are removed from the barrels they are first thoroughly washed several times in 
 fresh water and then hung on wires or ropes in the open air, but protected from too 
 strong sunshine. After they have dried for about 24 hours they are taken down for 
 smoking. For this purpose they are hung in the same way in the smoLing-uouse on 
 sticks or rods or put on frames covered with old nets or wirework and cold-smoked for 
 two or three days, or until they become of a dark-brown color. After smokiag, the 
 enveloping membrane or skin of each roe sack is torn and removed, and the eggs packed 
 
 •Fish Roe and Buckroe. U. S. Bureau of Fisheries, Economic Circular No. 36, pp. 1-2. 1918. 
 •Itep. U. S. Com. of Fisheries (or 1917, p. 45. 1917. 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 171 
 
 ill good, tight barrels, whicli are tlien tightly closed and placed iu a uormallj tool place 
 for a month or six weeks. At the end of that period the eggs begin to ferment somewhat, 
 which may be detected by the swelling of the barrel. It is well not to wait too long, but 
 to examine the barrels every week or so, and as soon as fermentation has begun a suffi- 
 cient quantity of salt should be put into the roe, to prevent the product from spoiling. 
 ''By fermentation the roe receives a slight acid flavor and a taste resembling that of 
 fermenting beer or wine, and this fermentation must be stopped by adding salt at a 
 definite point, which is to be learned by experience only. The salt used to stop the fer- 
 mentation must be of the very best quality, and if the roe seems to be dry a little good 
 French olive oil is added to moisten the product. After the roe has been thoroughly 
 mixed with the salt it is put in Ipound glass bottles that are sealed with cork stoppers."* 
 
 Mullet Eggs 
 
 Mullet roe is also a very valuable food, and large quantities are sold fresh, salte«, 
 smoked and dried each year. In 1008 the quantity of roe marketed amounted to 135,000 
 pounds. Canned roe from various fishes is meeting with much favor from efnsumers at 
 present and it is probable that if prepared in the following way, or with such changes 
 as experience may suggest, that a good fool jiroduct may be obtained. 
 
 All adhering shreds and strings, if any, should be cleaned oft", the roe washed in cold 
 water, then soaked two hours in 3% brine, di'ained and packed in cans. After capping 
 the cans are exhausted for 10 minutes at 212^ F., and then processed 60 minutes at 2^0°F, 
 
 Sea Drum Eggs 
 
 Sea drum (Pogoiiias cromis), described elsewhere in this book, is an excellent food 
 fish, and the female of the species has a roe which is considered a great delicacy and is 
 often .salted and dried, and also might be canned, the same method being followed as is 
 used with other fish eggs. 
 
 Sh.\d Eggs 
 
 Considerable quantities of shad eggs are canned on the Columbia and Sacramento 
 Rivers iu the west, and Chesapeake Bay in the east. The roes are carefully washed in 
 brine and then are placed in the cans by hand, with either brine, oil or sauce added, and 
 sealed. Some canners exhaust the cans in the steam box for 1 minutes, while others 
 do not consider it necessary to exhaust. They are then processed for about 75 minutes 
 at a temperature of 240° F. In the west they are packed in 8 and 12-ounce oval tins, 
 The roe being held as nearly whole as possible. The eastern packing is done in Ipound 
 and No. 2 cans, the roe being cut or minced. 
 
 A small quantity of shad roe is brine salted in the Atlantic coast fisheries, especially 
 in North Carolina, Virginia and Maryland, but there is not much opportunity to enlarge 
 the business here owing to the heavy demand for roes in a fresh state. In this work the 
 roes are removed from the fish in dressing the latter, care being taken not to cut or injure 
 the roe bags. They are then washed by stirring with the hands in tubs of water, and are 
 placed in tubs of strong brine with dry Liverpool salt sprinkled among them and at the 
 top. Every 12 hours during the ensuing five days the roes are gently stirred to separate 
 them from each other, and to have them uniformly salted. The sixth day they are 
 removed from the pickle, drained and may then be packed in kegs or in cans. 
 
 *The Preservation of Fishery Products for Food. By diaries H. Stevenson. Bulletin V. S. Fish Com. for 1898. 
 
 p. ."i4S. lS!)f). 
 
172 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 The followiug analysis of sbad roe shows its value as a food product : Water, 71.2 
 per cent. ; protein, 23.1 per cent. ; fat, 3.8 per cent., and ash, l.C per cent. 
 
 MELT OR BUCKROE 
 
 The melts, or buckroe, as it is sometimes called (that part of the male which corre- 
 sponds to the egg mass of the female), of fishes are also an excellent food, but have been 
 almost totally neglected until within recent mouths. As noted above, it compares favor- 
 ably in food value with the roe and flesh of the fish. It is fully as abundant as the 
 roe, and there are no real difliculties in the path of the canner in packing it, provided 
 a market can be built ujt for the product. The melts of river herring or alewife, sea 
 herring, pollock and salmon have so far been utilized, but only to an extremely limited 
 degree. 
 
 In canning the buckroe it should be washed lliorouglily in a brine solution as soon 
 as possible after removal from the fish. As with the roe, it is best if the melt be obtained 
 immediately after the fish is killed, as stale melt will not make a good canned product. 
 Should the melt prove ipiite watery it may be allowed to stand in the brine for a period 
 to be determined by experiment. The brine will draw out the moisture and harden the 
 melt. It should then be placed in the cans, Vi of an ounce of salt being added for flavor- 
 ing. The tops should then be put on loosely and the cans run through the exhaust box 
 for 12 or 15 minutes at 212° F., the tops then double seamed and the cans placed in the 
 retorts and processed for about 50 minutes at 250 F. The above process should be used 
 with care, and changed whenever examination of the pack indicates the necessity there- 
 for. 
 
 S.\LMON Melt 
 
 For many years natives and a few whites living on our Northwest coast have been eat- 
 ing the melt taken from the male salmon when on his way to the spawning grounds. It has 
 been found a most excellent food when treated and served in the proper manner. As 
 salmon run each year in millions the supply available is enormous, and if canning is 
 followed the work can be carried on in the regular saluHin canneries, no special machin- 
 ery being required. 
 
 After being removed from the fish the blue vein or muscle running through the center 
 is removed and the melt is then washed thoroughly in a brine solution, which not only 
 cleanses but also hardens it somewhat. It is then placed in cans, in which 14 of an ounce 
 of salt has been placed for flavoring, the top ])ul on loosely, after which it is run through 
 the exhaust box and the double seatucr the same as with canned salmon. They are then 
 put in the retort, where they are cooked for about 45 minutes at a tenii)erature of about 
 245° F. 
 
 The above process should not be followed too slavishly, as but few have so far been 
 packed in cans. The excessive amount of water which has appeared so far in the melts 
 canned indicate clearly that some method of eliminating a considerable part of this 
 moisture before placing in the can must be devised. Allowing the melts to remain a 
 little longer in the brine solution might accomplish the desired result. 
 
 CAVIAR 
 
 In canning caviar the packer should be ])articular in labeling the product to state 
 from which species of fish it was prepared, as "Spoonbill caviar," '"Salmon caviar," 
 "Whitefish caviar,"' the U. S. Bureau of Chemistry ruling (Service and Regulatory 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 173 
 
 REMOVING EGGS FROM BELLY OF STURGEON. 
 
 RUBBING EGGS THROUGH SIEVE IN TOP OF TABLE TO REMOVE MEMBRANE FROM THEM. 
 
174 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 Aiiuouiiceiuent, issued May 12, I'Jll, p. 112) says, in part: "It is believed that the name 
 of the particular fish from whose eggs caviar is made should appear on the label." 
 
 About 1875 a New York dealer initiated the domestic caviar preserving industry by 
 canning the roe of sturgeon, thus making it available for shipment to any part of the 
 world. 
 
 A 1-pound can of caviar should have the top i)ut on loosely, exhausted 10 to 15 
 minutes at 212° F., the top sealed on and processed about 50 minutes at 250° F. 
 
 The following description of the methods followed in preparing sturgeon caviar will 
 serve in all essential features for the preparation of caviar from the eggs of other species. 
 Where the process differs these differences alone will be shown. 
 
 Sturgeon Caviar 
 
 By far the most valuable substance obtained from the sturgeon is the roe, from 
 which the product called caviar is prepared; this is the most costly food product 
 obtained in our fisheries. For this only the hard roe of the "cow" fish is supposed to be 
 used. The quantity of roe obtained from each fish varies considerably. The Atlantic 
 sturgeon yields from to 12 gallons, the Columbia River sturgeon nearly as much, while 
 those from the Great Lakes average only 2 or :'! gallons to the fish. The manner of pre- 
 paration is as follows: 
 
 After the eggs have been removed from the tish, which should be done at the earliest 
 jiracticable moment after the fish is caught, they are placed in large chunlcs upon a 
 stand, the top of which is formed of a small-meshed screen. On the under side is 
 ari'anged a zinc-iined troiigh, about 18 inches deep, 2 feet wide and 1 feet long. The 
 operator gently rubs the mass of eggs back and foi'th over the screen. The meshes are 
 about 4 to the inch, and are just large enough to let the eggs drop through, and as they 
 are separated from the membrane by the rubbing they fall through into the trough and 
 are thence drawn oft" into tubs by means of sliding doors at the end of the trough. After 
 all the roe has been separated from the- membrane the tub is removed and about Syo 
 pounds of the best Luneberg or Liverpool salt, or 4^/4 pounds of dairy salt (the quantity 
 u.sed varies with the jiacker, some using as high as 10 pounds of the former, and an equal 
 quantity of the latter when it is used), added to each 100 jK)unds of the roe. In cold 
 weather less salt is used than in warm weather. P'or the caviar to retain its delicious 
 flavor fhe roe must be mildly cured. If too ninch salt has been used the caviar on being 
 treated by the canner will taste so strongly oC salt as to be practically unsalable. 
 
 The operator then carefully stirs and mixes the mass with his hands. The most 
 delicate part of the whole operation is in the manner of mixing. No direct rule can be 
 given for doing this portion of the work, as the condition of the roe regulates Ihe time 
 consumed and the manner of handling. It recpiires practical experience to become pro- 
 flcienf. 
 
 Csing both hands, thoroughly mix the eggs and salt for 5 to 8 minutes, until a foam 
 or slime appears on the top of the egg mass. Allow the mass to stand for 10 minutes 
 and then mix again for a few minutes. By this time a copious brine should have been 
 formed so that the eggs will pour readily. If the operation has been properly carried 
 out a slight noise, like small pieces of glass rubbing against one another, is perceptible 
 when the mass is stiri-ed. 
 
 The salted eggs are poured into very fine meshed sieves (the meshes should be about 
 the same as used in flour sifters), which hold about 10 pounds each. In the caviar house 
 are usually arranged long, sloping boards, with narrow cleats nailed on each side. On 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 175 
 
 these the sieves v.ve phiced, and are left there until the liriue is entirely drained off, when 
 the mass will craek open if the bottom of the sieve is pushed up at one point. The eggs 
 have now become the caviar of commerce, and are transferred to small casks, of either oak 
 or pine, which have been steamed to prevent any possible leakage; the caslis are covered 
 and allowed to stand until the gas escapes and the eggs settle. The vacant space caused 
 by the settling is then filled and the cask headed uj< and j>ut in a cool place until ready 
 for shipment. The casks used on the Atlantic coast hold about V,io pounds aet, while 
 those used on the (Jreat Lakes hold about IGO pounds, and those on the Columbia Elver 
 about I4n or 150 pounds. 
 
 Formerly only the hard roe was used in making caviar, but some of the rishermen 
 have become so expert that they can handle roe which is medium soft and still prepare 
 a fair grade of caviar. Others who are not quite so scrupulous as the majority even put 
 up the quite soft roe: as the eggs, when ripe, have become del ached from the membrane, 
 it is not necessary to run them through tlu; sieve. They are then ])ut in pickle to cure 
 them, and, after being allowed to drain, are jdaced in the middle of a cask, with good 
 caviar at the top and bottom. ' 
 
 The best caviar made in this lountry is from the eggs of the lake sturgeon, these 
 being lai'ger and of a more uniform color than those of the coiiinion s])ecies {Ariijcii.scr 
 stiirio). The latter is the sole source of caviar produceil on the Atlantic coast. On the 
 Gulf coast caviar is prej^ared from .4. hrevirostris. The caviar prepared on the Pacific 
 coast is from A. transmontainix. The poorest grade is prepared from the shovel-nose 
 sturgeon (.4. scaphirlii/nchiis) found in the Mississipjii Valley. Caviar of a mixed color 
 is not so valuable as that made from eggs of uniform color, and care should be taken to 
 prepare each roe separately should the roes vary in color. 
 
 In storage the caviar should be held at a low temperature, 38° to 40° F. being found 
 most satisfactory, and under favorable conditions it may be kept for several years. 
 
 The greater part of the caviar prepared in this country is shipped to Germany and 
 goes usually in the original package. When prepared for the domestic retail trade the 
 caviar is put up in hermetically-sealed cans. '\^'hen prepared in this manner it is some- 
 times subjected to a process different from that employed for packing it in kegs. 
 
 The usual size of cans for the retail trade in this country is 14 pound, I/2 pound, -1 
 pound and 2 ])ounds. 
 
 Paihu.kfish Caviar 
 
 The best substitute for sturgeon eggs in making caviar are the eggs of the paddlefish 
 (a description of this species occurs elsewhere in this booki, a freshwater species found 
 in the Mississippi Valley. 
 
 So far as is known the paddlefish spawns in the lower Mississippi Valley, where the 
 species is found in greatest abundance, during March and April, while in the Ohio and 
 northward it spawns during the latter part of ]May and June. The eggs are greenish- 
 black in color, closely resemble sturgeon eggs, and ore very numerous. In preparing the 
 eggs as caviar and then canning the product the same method is followed as with stur- 
 geon caviar. 
 
 Salmon Caviar 
 
 In the aggregate the wastage of salmon eggs is enormous. In lOlS some (JOG, 000, 000 
 pounds of salmon were caught by the fishermen of the Pacific coast, including British 
 Columbia, and these would have produced about 34,200,000 pounds of roe, which, when 
 prepared as caviar, would have amounted, on a very conservative estimate, to about 
 
176 CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 15,000,000 pounds. Not all of this quantity of roe could be saved even under the most 
 favorable conditions, but it shows very clearly the immense quantity of raw material now 
 thrown away. 
 
 A considerable quantity of salmon caviar is now being prepared annually in Siberia. 
 Here, and it is probable the same would apply on this coast, it has been found that there 
 are diflerences in the caviar produced from the various species of salmon, the runs of 
 which occur at different periods of the fishing season, that is, spring, summer and autumn, 
 and a marked difference has been noted in ggs taken from fish caught on or near the sea 
 coast as compared with fish caught farther up the river, and it has been found that the 
 eggs taken from flsh caught upstream are too ripe for caviar manufacture, as the com- 
 pleted [)roduct turns yellow, A\liereas good salmon caviar should be a bright golden red. 
 In Siberia it is claimed that the humpbacks yield about !M) pounds of caviar per 1,000 
 fish; the red or sockeye about 120 jtounds per 1,(M(0 flsh; and the coho or silver about 144 
 pounds of caviar per 1,000 flsh. 
 
 Miss Ida Tuholski, of San Francisco, has been the most successful packer of salmon 
 caviar on this coast. She tries to obtain the roe from live salmon, and in doing this kills 
 and bleeds the flsh, opens up the belly and remo\es the roe, care being taken to avoid 
 rupturing the gall bladder, as this would rniu the caviar. She then puts the eggs into 
 water almost too hot for the hands in order to clean them of dirt, slime, possible para- 
 sites, etc. The eggs are then run through the screen to remove the membrane. If they 
 are to be canned she then cures them by dry-salting with Liverjiool salt. 
 
 Jlost packers, however, use the common method of working the eggs with salt until 
 a copious brine is formed. Some Siberian packers use Luneliurg salt, while others use 
 No. 2 Berkshire salt from England. The succeeding operations are practically the same 
 as employed in making sturgeon caviar. 
 
 Most of the Siberian salmon caviar makers i)repare their product by putting the eggs 
 into a brine solution of 10 to 22% Baume strength immediately after they come from the 
 trough. The eggs should remain in the solution 25 to 45 minutes, governed by the 
 strength of the brine and the temperature. The brine hardens the eggs, but they must 
 not be kept too long in the brine or the caviar is oversalted, and almost worthless, especi- 
 ally for canning. When sufficiently pickled in the brine the eggs are placed in coarse, 
 thin bags under a j)ress and squeezed until the milky albumen of the egg oozes through. 
 This pressure, al (hough great, does not crush the eggs, as they are flexible", and it causes 
 a shrinkage in the weight of the caviar of about 40'"; . The surplus fluid is allowed to 
 run off and the caviar is then either canned at once or ])acked in steamed wooden kegs, 
 which have previously been lined inside with cheesecloth or linen, and handled as pre- 
 viously noted. 
 
 One Siberian canner packed some caviar in cans and sealed them without either 
 exhausting or processing, and the i^roduct remained in good condition for a considerable 
 time. 
 
 German C.\Rr Caviar 
 
 The number of eggs found in a spawning female is very large; it is said one weigh- 
 ing from 4 to 5 pounds will contain on an average 400,000 to 500,000 ova. One weighing 
 lOi'o pounds is said to have had 2,050,750 eggs. These eggs are quite small. The scarcity 
 of sturgeon and the high price obtained for the caviar naturally suggests the possibility 
 of using the roe of the carp for this purpose. Several persons on the Great Lakes have 
 attempted to prepare the eggs as caviar, but all met with failure because in the process 
 the eggs turned pink or red, a characteristic known from early times. It is possible that 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 177 
 
 a trade for this niight be developed amongst the Jews, who generally do not eat caviar 
 made from sturgeon, and are familiar with the change in color of the eggs. 
 
 I'iKE Caviar 
 
 In Germany a form of caviar >s made from the eggs of the pike in the following 
 manner: The fresh eggs on removal from the flsh are rinsed in cold water and rubbed 
 through a coarse sieve to separate them from the membraneous tissues enveloping them. 
 On completion of this they are rinsed two or three times and then placed in a finer-meshed 
 sieve to drain. Next they are well mixed with fine salt and flavoring ingredients, there 
 being added to each 100 pounds of eggs about :li{. pounds of fine salt, 21/0 ounces of citric 
 acid and a small quantity of lemon oil. After being thoroughly mixed with these ingre- 
 dients the eggs are put in a cool place, and after remaining undisturbed for eight days 
 the jars or tubs containing them are tightly sealed. 
 
 "\\'iUTEFisii Caviar 
 
 Some business is being develoi)ed in the manufacture of caviar from whitefish {Core- 
 goiius) eggs and its subsequent canning. This genus has a very wide distribution on 
 the North American continent, as will be noted by reference to description of the family 
 and its habitat, etc., elsewhere in this work. The eggs are prepared in practically the 
 same way as sturgeon eggs, but as they are almost transparent burnt sugar is used in col- 
 oring them so they will more nearly resemble the latter. 
 
 Miscellaneous 
 
 Caviar has also been prepared from the eggs of the lake herring (Lcucichtlnjs) and 
 other species. Descriptions of the species named, with their habitats, etc., will be found 
 under their proper heading in this hook. 
 
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION 
 
 PRODUCTS OF THE COMMERCIAL FISHERIES OF THE UNITED STATES.* 
 
 States 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Alaska 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Connecticut . . . . 
 
 Delaware 
 
 Florida 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Idaho 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 Maine 
 
 Maryland 
 
 Massachusetts . . 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 Nevada 
 
 New Hampshire. 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 New Mexico. . . . 
 
 New York 
 
 North Carolina.. 
 North Dakota. . 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Pennsylvania. . . 
 Rhode Island . . . 
 South Carolina. . 
 South Dakota. . . 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Texas 
 
 Utah 
 
 Vermont 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington 
 
 West Virginia . . . 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 Hawaii 
 
 Total 
 
 Fishes 
 
 Pounds 
 
 7,178,700 
 
 460.301,646 
 
 80.000 
 
 4.475,100 
 
 178.450,472 
 
 1,360.166 
 
 65,055.070 
 
 5,278.200 
 
 61,548,640 
 
 4,505,800 
 
 1,640.000 
 
 40,363,454 
 
 1,076.900 
 
 5,222,493 
 
 432,000 
 
 1.975,100 
 
 11.093,400 
 
 263,231,482 
 
 65,057.784 
 
 201,973,031 
 
 29,251,327 
 
 32,601.679 
 
 8,.520.600 
 
 6.478.900 
 
 110.000 
 
 399.000 
 
 107.536 
 
 642,000 
 
 51,663,428 
 
 70,000 
 
 14,872,296 
 
 38,283.700 
 
 100.000 
 
 31,016,159 
 
 86.700 
 
 35,207,424 
 
 13.147.367 
 
 34,767.000 
 
 2,988.600 
 
 70.000 
 
 2,329,300 
 
 8,864,671 
 
 1,481,863 
 
 678,682 
 
 128.102.295 
 
 145,303.549 
 
 33.000 
 
 24,691.448 
 
 230,000 
 
 6,556.217 
 
 Value 
 
 269.600 
 
 7.770.532 
 
 6.400 
 
 133.200 
 
 5.353,514 
 
 185,493 
 
 593,837 
 
 208,100 
 
 2,.361.093 
 
 344.000 
 
 220.000 
 
 1.280.187 
 
 67.950 
 
 228,089 
 
 28.000 
 
 90.100 
 
 428.800 
 
 4.892,686 
 
 724,118 
 
 6,434,259 
 
 1,469,615 
 
 1,394,147 
 
 163.500 
 
 242.800 
 
 6.000 
 
 22.000 
 
 12,834 
 
 51,600 
 
 1.497.592 
 
 4.900 
 
 1.605,560 
 
 1,731,900 
 
 7,000 
 
 1,614,478 
 
 4.300 
 
 1.518.326 
 
 582.100 
 
 695.100 
 
 140,200 
 
 4.200 
 
 97,200 
 
 380.453 
 
 67.458 
 
 45,069 
 
 1,333,342 
 
 5,970.679 
 
 2.000 
 
 871,015 
 
 13,800 
 
 635,366 
 
 Other Edible Products 
 
 Pounds 
 
 3,359,819 
 97,319 
 
 33,000 
 23,757,782 
 
 29,201,635 
 3.759,996 
 
 14,621,629 
 7.993.579 
 
 95.500 
 
 1,900 
 50.382,700 
 39.314,587 
 58,974,535 
 10,018,190 
 
 687,500 
 
 14,075.340 
 
 91,900 
 
 336.710 
 19,748,819 
 
 39,173,444 
 4,880,144 
 
 700,199 
 
 738.878 
 
 18.191.002 
 
 5,152,768 
 
 6,700 
 2,601,999 
 
 75,551.968 
 3.426,439 
 
 438,181 
 416.518 
 
 Value 
 
 $ 79.484 
 7,186 
 
 4.100 
 2,138.190 
 
 2,048,761 
 243,617 
 422,580 
 275.683 
 
 2.900 
 
 90 
 1.322.178 
 2,847.541 
 2,468,715 
 1,210,697 
 
 275, ;00 
 
 325,502 
 
 11,500 
 
 109,960 
 ,298,770 
 
 3.879,281 
 279,428 
 
 49,268 
 
 56,225 
 
 ,656,961 
 
 106,677 
 
 1,200 
 156,888 
 
 3,334,991 
 541,384 
 
 9,212 
 '42,53i 
 
 Non-Edible Products 
 
 8,395,664 
 
 8,060,050 
 797,812,174 
 
 95,592 810 
 
 66,854,830 
 
 4,330,444 
 
 700 
 
 14,926.000 
 
 18.488.000 
 
 4,700.500 
 
 157.000 
 
 3.413,000 
 
 350,.500 
 
 44.910 
 
 15.621.911 
 
 4.239.000 
 
 923.000 
 
 2,144.000 
 
 212 200 
 
 22,277,610 
 
 95.221,710 
 47.593,110 
 
 50.000 
 
 100 
 260,000 
 
 7,070 
 
 291,305.099 
 4,383.125 
 
 6,304.000 
 
 1.998.954,177 53,604,492 427,830.680 25,206,500 1.513,723,517 5.407,651 3,940,508,374 84,418.643 
 
 Valu 
 
 $ 635,995 
 
 70,100 
 205.894 
 
 389 419 
 
 274.476 
 
 636.416 
 
 3.600 
 
 338.39S 
 251.343 
 
 45,600 
 2.356 
 
 18,000 
 
 126 700 
 
 2.420 
 
 105,058 
 
 347,800 
 
 26,613 
 
 53.115 
 
 18,230 
 
 ' "eio 
 
 62,644 
 
 352,619 
 125,300 
 
 1,236 
 
 75 
 
 4,198 
 
 1,4.50 
 
 1.012,682 
 141.632 
 
 153.672 
 
 Total Products* 
 
 Pounds 
 
 10.538.519 
 
 468.794.629 
 
 80.000 
 
 12.568.150 
 
 1.000,020.428 
 
 1,360,166 
 
 189.849.515 
 
 75.893.026 
 
 80.500.713 
 
 12. .500.079 
 
 1.640 000 
 
 55.289.454 
 
 19.564,900 
 
 10,018.493 
 
 589.000 
 
 5.390,000 
 
 61,826,600 
 
 302.590.979 
 
 139 654,230 
 
 216.230.221 
 
 30.174,327 
 
 35.433,179 
 
 22,595,940 
 
 6.783,000 
 
 110,000 
 
 454,000 
 
 107,536 
 
 978,710 
 
 93,689,855 
 
 70.000 
 
 149,267.450 
 
 90.756,954 
 
 100,000 
 
 31,066,1.59 
 
 86.700 
 
 35.907.623 
 
 13,886.245 
 
 52,958.002 
 
 8.141 468 
 
 330.000 
 
 2.336 000 
 
 11.473.740 
 
 1,481.863 
 
 678.682 
 
 494.959.362 
 
 153.113.113 
 
 33.000 
 
 31.433.029 
 
 230,000 
 
 6.972.735 
 
 Value 
 
 $ 349.084 
 
 8.413.713 
 
 6,400 
 
 207.400 
 
 7.697. .598 
 
 185.493 
 
 3,032,017 
 
 726,193 
 
 3,420,089 
 
 623,2,83 
 
 220,000 
 
 1.618. .5.85 
 
 319,293 
 
 276,589 
 
 30.356 
 
 108,190 
 
 1,877.678 
 
 7,742,647 
 
 3,297,891 
 
 7,992.756 
 
 1,496,228 
 
 1,722.262 
 
 489,002 
 
 272.530 
 
 6.000 
 
 22.610 
 
 12.834 
 
 161.560 
 
 2,859.006 
 
 4.900 
 
 5.837.460 
 
 2,136,628 
 
 7,000 
 
 1,615,714 
 
 4,300 
 
 1 567.594 
 
 638.325 
 
 2.352.061 
 
 246.952 
 
 S.398 
 
 98.400 
 
 538.791 
 
 67.458 
 
 45.069 
 
 5.681.015 
 
 6.653.695 
 
 2 000 
 
 1,033,899 
 
 1 3 800 
 
 677,897 
 
 THE CANNING INDUSTRY IN 1914 
 
 The U. S. Bureau of the Census in 1915 collected statistics of the canning industry 
 of the United Stales, exclusive of Alaska, for the calendar year 1911, and this is the most 
 recent report covering the industry as a whole. The following is a condensed summary 
 of the report, showing by cases, value and states the various products packed: 
 
 Fishery Products Canned in 1914* 
 
 Product.s and States Ca.ses 
 
 Canned Fish and Oysters S,7SS,104 
 
 Salmon (No. 1 size cans) 1,513,300 
 
 California 40.430 
 
 Oiecion 376.492 
 
 Washington 1,096,366 
 
 All other States 12 
 
 Sardines (No. Vi size cans) 5,012,199 
 
 California 302,736 
 
 Maine : 4,634,424 
 
 Massachusetts 75,027 
 
 All other States 12 
 
 t ' 
 
 •Trans, of the American Fish. Soc. for Dec. 1918. Vol. XI.VIII. No. 1. 
 
 179 
 
 Value 
 $22,401,004 
 
 8,712,695 
 
 241,335 
 
 2,314.771 
 
 6,156,558 
 
 31 
 
 6,238,933 
 
 368,420 
 
 5,780.857 
 
 89,596 
 
 60 
 
180 CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 FISHERY PRODUCTS CANNED IN 1914*— Coxtinued 
 
 Products akd States Cases Value 
 
 Oysters (No. 1 size cans) 944,639 2,676,951 
 
 California 24,870 170,946 
 
 Plorifia 16,172 48,657 
 
 Georgia 35,902 79,193 
 
 Louisiana 78,516 237,425 
 
 Maryland 433,440 1,177,091 
 
 Mississippi 196,047 526,106 
 
 North Carolina 33,795 76,680 
 
 Soutli Carolina 118,416 324,405 
 
 Virginia 7,429 35,200 
 
 All other States 52 l',248 
 
 Shrimp (No. 1 size cans) 459,877 1,725,621 
 
 Georgia ,-. 26,014 109,494 
 
 Louisiana 162,005 644,132 
 
 Mississippi 266,021 954,535 
 
 All other States 5,837 17,460 
 
 Tuna (No. 1/2 size cans) - 437,090 1,638,675 
 
 California 437,090 1,638,675 
 
 Clams (No. 1 size cans) 185,186 670,363 
 
 Florida 6,197 26,884 
 
 Maine 94,81 3 270,580 
 
 Oregon 11,690 40,828 
 
 Virginia 14,874 83,068 
 
 Washington 53,000 239,716 
 
 All other States 4,612 9,287 
 
 Clam Bouillon (No. 1 size cans) 45,214 80,867 
 
 Florida 30,960 65,704 
 
 All other States 14,254 15,163 
 
 Clam Chowder (No. 3 size cans) 102.838 386,998 
 
 Florida 11,067 44,300 
 
 Maine 86,771 320,198 
 
 North Carolina 5,000 22,500 
 
 All other Canned Fish 87,761 269,901 
 
 All other States 87,761 269,901 
 
 111 1914 the Alaska canned fl.shery pack was as follows: Salmon, 4,056,653 ca.ses; 
 trout, 141 cases; clams, 60 cases. All were reduced to cases of 48 one-pound cans each. 
 
 Since this report was prejtared there has been a very great increase in fishery prod- 
 ucts canned, as will be noted by comparing the following figures showing the Pacific 
 coast packs in 1917 with the Federal figures for 1914: Washington — Salmon, 2,152,487 
 cases; clams, 38,620 cases; crabs, 9,957 cases; grayflsh, 5,905 cases; shad, 1,008 cases; 
 ling and rock cod, 21 cases; whale, 250 cases. Oregon — Salmon, 406,829 ca.ses; crabs, 25 
 cases; shad, 3,411 cases. California — Salmon, 25,773 cases; herring, 112,051 cases; gray- 
 fish, 07 cases; shad, 19,030 cases; shad roe, 4,418 cases: yellowtail, 1,.501 ca.ses; bonito, 
 1,844 cases; mackerel, 5,542 cases; tuna, 500,000 cases; sardines, about 1,500,000 cases. A 
 grand total of 4,910,005 cases. The 1917 pack figures for Alaska are as follows : Salmon, 
 5,922,320 ca.ses; clams, 49,923 ca.ses; herring, 49,897 cases; trout, 1,064 cases; codfish, 
 2,536 ca.ses. All the above products have been reduced to a common basis of 48 one- 
 pound cans to a case. 
 
 During the year ended March 31, 1917, the Dominion of Canada prepared the follow- 
 ing packs of canned fishery ])roducts: Salmon, 995,198 cases; lobsters, 197,751 cases; 
 haddock, 15,827 ca.ses; herring. 47.159 cases; sardines, 153,680 cases; clams, 17,195 cases: 
 tomalley, 168 cases. 
 
 ♦The quantities of the several classes of products have tieen reduced to standard cases of the following 
 capacities : Sardines. No. '4 cans. 48 to the case : tuna fish. No. V2 cans. 48 to the case ; salmon, shrimp, oysters 
 and clams, No. 1 cans. J8 to the case; soups. No. 1 cans. 48 to the case: clam chowder. No. " cans. 24 to the case. 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
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182 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 TO REMOVE THE SKIN FROM A FISH 
 
 Sometunes fhe canner finds it necessary to remove the skin from a fish previous to 
 canning. This is especially necessary when the skin is tough and thick or contains an 
 excess of glue. The skin may readily be removed by putting the fish in boiling water for 
 two or three minutes, when it can be taken off quickly with a pair of pincers. 
 
 TIME REQUIRED TO SOFTEN I50NES OF FISHES 
 
 In cooking fish the canner not only wants to sterilize the product, but also desires to 
 so soften the bones of the fish that there will be left only a soft, friable, mineral mat- 
 ter that can be eaten alon<;' with the meat. With the bones thus softened the Hesh is 
 much more acceptable as food ; thus, small bony fishes that would be otherwise useless, 
 or fishes of small market value, uuty be saved, and the larger staple fishes made more 
 attractive. 
 
 The time reiiuired to soften the bones of fishes varies with the species, the size of the 
 fish and the pressure and temperature employed. In canning, unless the required time 
 is known, time and fuel may be wasted by overcooking, or by insufficient cooking the 
 bones may not be properly softened. The bones of fish, properly softened as they are 
 by commercial canning, render available an abundant amount of calcium in accept- 
 able form, not encountered in such amounts in any other common food. In additiiu to 
 this they supply ]*hosphoric acid ami other valuable minerals. It is estimated that S-lOth 
 grams of calcium oxide is a necessary daily requirement of the average adult. 
 
 The U. S. Bureau of Fisheries* '"has conducted experiments to determine the time 
 required to soften the bones of about 30 common marine and freshwater fishes of differ- 
 ent sizes. In the table which follows the time given is that determined experimentally 
 for the sizes mentioned. It will be a simple matter to interpolate the time periods 
 required to soften the bones of fishes of the same species but of sizes different from those 
 represented. The term 'softening,' as here used, means the point in cooking when the 
 small bones, ribs, etc., are soft, but when the large vertebra^ are not yet sufficiently soft 
 to be consumed along witli the mtiscle. In some of the larger fishes whose large bones 
 could scarcely be eaten, even if they were softened, it would appear to be a waste of time 
 and fuel to carry them to the point of complete cooking, and in such cases it ought to 
 be sufficient to soften the small bones and sterilize the contents of the can. For such a 
 purpo.se the 'softening" rather than the 'soft' point may be used. 
 
 "These experiments refer to fish cooked in Mason glass jars of quart size. The time 
 periods are measured from the point when the given pressure and temperature are reached 
 (at the top of the cooker) to the time when the heat is shut off. The heating-up and cool- 
 ing-off periods of time are thus not included. The fish were salted, but no water is added. 
 Samples of fish canned during the course of these experiments were kept for six weeks at 
 room temperature (about fiS^ F.) and were then incubated at 08'^ for 48 hours. All were 
 sterile. 
 
 «Rep. tl. S. Com'r. of Fish., 1918, pp. 3.5. 36. 1918. 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 183 
 
 Time Required to Soften the Bones of Various Species of Fish, 
 10 Pounds Pressure, 240° P. 
 
 SPECIES 
 
 Black Bass: 
 
 Large 
 
 Small 
 
 Bluefish: 
 
 Large 
 
 Small 
 
 Butterfish, medium 
 
 Carp 
 
 Catfish: 
 
 Large 
 
 Small 
 
 Cero, medium 
 
 Cod: 
 
 Large 
 
 Small 
 
 Croaker: 
 
 Large 
 
 Small 
 
 Eel 
 
 Flounder: 
 
 Large 
 
 Small 
 
 Haddock: 
 
 Medium 
 
 Small.... 
 
 Halibut, medium 
 
 Hickory shad, medium 
 
 Hogfish 
 
 Kingfish, medium 
 
 Lemon Sole: 
 
 Large 
 
 Small 
 
 Mackerel, medium 
 
 Mackerel, Spanish, medium. 
 
 Perch, white, medium 
 
 Perch, yellow, medium 
 
 Pollock, medium 
 
 Salmon, medium 
 
 Sea Bass, medium 
 
 Shad 
 
 Smelt: 
 
 Large 
 
 Small 
 
 Snapper, Red: 
 
 Large 
 
 Small 
 
 Squeteague: 
 
 Large 
 
 Medium 
 
 Small 
 
 Striped Bass: 
 
 Large 
 
 Small 
 
 Sucker, medium 
 
 Tilefish, medium 
 
 Whiting, medium 
 
 Weight 
 
 Softening 
 
 Lbs. 
 
 Mins. 
 
 Mins. 
 
 5-6 
 
 100 
 
 120 
 
 /4 I 
 
 100 
 
 110 
 
 6-9 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 1-2 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 H-'A 
 
 60 
 
 80 
 
 8-12 
 
 110 
 
 120 
 
 l}^-2 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 Vi 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 10-13 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 6-16 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 1-2 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 M-1 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 H-'A 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 2-3J^ 
 
 100 
 
 no 
 
 1-1'X 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 H-1 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 3-5 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 1-2 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 .50-90 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 VA-2 
 
 60 
 
 70 • 
 
 li 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 V2-I 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 2A-%A 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 M-2 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 %-\A 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 Wi-iVi 
 
 100 
 
 110 
 
 Vi-Vi 
 
 100 
 
 110 
 
 Vi-V* 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 5-7H 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 13-19 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 1-11^ 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 SJi 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 (a) 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 (b) 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 10-15 
 
 110 
 
 120 
 
 5-6 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 214-4 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 2 
 
 60 
 
 70 
 
 U-2 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 10-15 
 
 110 
 
 120 
 
 %-lV2 
 
 70 
 
 80 
 
 YrWi 
 
 80 
 
 90 
 
 6-12 
 
 90 
 
 100 
 
 y2-\ 
 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 Soft 
 
 (a) — From 5 to 7 to the pound. 
 
 (b) — From 15 to 20 to the pound. 
 
184 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 TEMPERATURE EQUIVALENTS 
 
 Fahrenheit — Centigrade — Reaumur 
 
 F. c. R. 
 Degrees. Degrees. Degrees. 
 
 200 93.34 74.66 
 
 201 93.89 75.11 
 
 202 94.45 75.55 
 
 203 95 76 
 
 204 95.56 76.44 
 
 205 96.11 76.88 
 
 206 96.67 77.33 
 
 207 97.23 77.77 
 
 208 97.78 78.22 
 
 209 98.34 78.66 
 
 210 98.89 79.11 
 
 211 99.45 79.55 
 
 212 100 80 
 
 213 100.56 80.44 
 
 214 101.11 80.88 
 
 215 
 216 
 217 
 218 
 219 
 220 
 221 
 222 
 223 
 224 
 225 
 226 
 227 
 
 101.67 81.33 
 
 102.23 81.77 
 
 102.78 82.22 
 
 103.34 82.66 
 
 103.89 83.11 
 
 104.45 83.55 
 
 105 84 
 
 105.56 84.44 
 
 106.11 84.88 
 
 106.67 85.33 
 
 107.23 85.77 
 
 107.78 86.22 
 
 108.34 86.66 
 
 F. 
 Degrees. 
 
 228 
 
 C. R. 
 
 Degrees. Degrees. 
 
 .. 108.89 87.11 
 
 229 109.45 87.55 
 
 230 110 88 
 
 231 110.56 88.44 
 
 232 111.11 88.88 
 
 233 111.67 89.33 
 
 234 112.23 89.77 
 
 235 112.78 90.22 
 
 236 113.34 90.66 
 
 237 
 238 
 239 
 240 
 241 
 242 
 243 
 244 
 245 
 246 
 247 
 248 
 249 
 250 
 255 
 260 
 265 
 270 
 
 113.89 91.11 
 
 114.45 91.55 
 
 115 92 
 
 115.56 92.44 
 
 116.11 92.88 
 
 116.67 93.33 
 
 117.23 93.77 
 
 117.78 94.22 
 
 118.34 94.66 
 
 118.89 95.11 
 
 119.45 95.55 
 
 120 96 
 
 120.56 96.44 
 
 121.11 96.88 
 
 123.89 99.11 
 
 126.67 101.33 
 
 129.45 103.55 
 
 132.23 105.77 
 
 TIN PLATE 
 
 , , \^. . Thickness 
 
 Tin Plate Stubs' 
 
 Gauge 
 
 Taggers 38 (34) 
 
 IC 30 
 
 IX 28 
 
 IXX 27 
 
 IXXX : 26 
 
 IXXXX 25 
 
 No. of 
 
 Net "Weight 
 
 Sheets in 
 
 of Box 
 
 Box 
 
 14x20 Sheets 
 
 225 (150) 
 
 112 lbs. 
 
 112 
 
 107 lbs. 
 
 112 
 
 135 lbs. 
 
 112 
 
 156 lbs. 
 
 112 
 
 176 lbs. 
 
 112 
 
 196 lbs. 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FISH, MOLLUSKS, CRUSTACEANS, ETC. 
 
 KIND OF FOOD M.A.TERIAL. 
 
 Ref- 
 
 
 
 Protein 
 
 
 
 Ash or 
 
 
 use 
 
 
 
 by 
 
 
 Carbo- 
 
 min- 
 
 Total 
 
 (bone 
 
 Salt. 
 
 Water. 
 
 factor 
 
 Fat. 
 
 hy- 
 
 eral 
 
 nutri- 
 
 skin, 
 
 
 
 (NX 
 
 
 drates. 
 
 mat- 
 
 ents. 
 
 etc.) 
 
 
 
 6.25) 
 
 
 
 ter. 
 
 
 Per Ct. 
 
 Per Ct. 
 
 Per Ct. 
 
 Per Ct. 
 
 Per Ct. 
 
 Per Ct. 
 
 Per Ct. 
 
 PcrCt. 
 
 49.5 
 
 
 37.6 
 
 9.8 
 
 2.4 
 
 
 0.8 
 
 13.0 
 
 46.7 
 
 
 41.9 
 
 10.3 
 
 .5 
 
 
 .6 
 
 11.4 
 
 56.0 
 
 
 34.6 
 
 8.5 
 
 .4 
 
 
 .0 
 
 9.4 
 
 46.4 
 
 
 40.1 
 
 11.7 
 
 1.3 
 
 
 . / 
 
 13.7 
 
 53.6 
 
 
 34.7 
 
 10.1 
 
 1.1 
 
 
 .6 
 
 11.8 
 
 46.8 
 
 
 42.2 
 
 10.5 
 
 .2 
 
 
 .7 
 
 11.4 
 
 56.1 
 
 
 34.8 
 
 8.7 
 
 .2 
 
 
 .6 
 
 9.5 
 
 51.2 
 
 
 37.4 
 
 8.8 
 
 2.2 
 
 
 .5 
 
 11.5 
 
 55.7 
 
 
 35.0 
 
 8.4 
 
 .5 
 
 
 .5 
 
 9.4 
 
 48.6 
 
 
 40.3 
 
 10.0 
 
 .6 
 
 
 .7 
 
 11.3 
 
 34.6 
 
 
 45.8 
 
 11.8 
 
 7.2 
 
 
 ■ 7 
 
 19.7 
 
 42.8 
 
 
 40.1 
 
 10 3 
 
 6.3 
 
 
 .6 
 
 17.2 
 
 37.1 
 
 
 48.4 
 
 
 
 i 
 
 
 .9 
 
 14.5 
 
 Fuel 
 
 value 
 
 per 
 
 pound. 
 
 FRESH FISH 
 
 Alewife, whole 
 
 Bass, large-mouthed black, dressed. 
 Bass, large-mouthed black, whole . . 
 Bass, small-mouthed black, dressed 
 Bass, small-mouthed black, whole. . 
 
 Bass, sea, dressed 
 
 Bass, sea. whole 
 
 Bass, striped, dressed 
 
 Blaekfish, dressed 
 
 Bluefish, dressed 
 
 Butterfish, dressed , 
 
 Butterfish, whole 
 
 Carp (European analysis) 
 
 Calories 
 
 277 
 209 
 172 
 263 
 227 
 200 
 168 
 249 
 172 
 204 
 503 
 440 
 263 
 
 1907. 
 
 ♦Fish as Food. By C. F. Langworthy. (Rev. 1907.) U. S. Dept. of Agile, Farmers' Bull. No. 85, pp. 10-13. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 185 
 
 COMPOSITION OP FISH, MOLLUSKS, CRUSTACEANS, ETC.— Continued 
 
 KIND OF FOOD MATERIAL. 
 
 FRESH FISH— Continued 
 
 Cod, dressed 
 
 Cod, steaks 
 
 disk, dressed 
 
 Eel, salt-water, dressed 
 
 Flounder, common, dressed 
 
 Flounder, winter, dressed 
 
 Hake, dressed 
 
 Haddock, dressed 
 
 Halibut, dressed 
 
 Herring, whole 
 
 Mackerel, dressed 
 
 Mackerel, Spanish, dressed 
 
 Mackerel, Spanish, whole 
 
 Mullet, dressed 
 
 Mullet, whole 
 
 Perch, white, dressed 
 
 Perch, white, whole 
 
 Perch, yellow, dressed 
 
 Pickerel, dressed 
 
 Pickerel, whole 
 
 Pollock, dressed 
 
 Pompano, whole 
 
 Porgy, dressed 
 
 Porgy , whole 
 
 Red Grouper, dressed 
 
 Red snapper, dressed 
 
 Salmon, California (sections) 
 
 Salmon, Maine, dressed 
 
 Shad, dressed 
 
 Shad, whole 
 
 Shad, roe 
 
 Smelt, whole 
 
 Sturgeon, dressed 
 
 Tomcod, dressed 
 
 Tonicod, whole 
 
 Trout, brook, dressed 
 
 Trout, brook, whole 
 
 Trout, lake, dressed 
 
 Turbot, dressed 
 
 Turbot, whole 
 
 Weakfish, dressed 
 
 Weakfish, whole 
 
 Whitefish, dressed 
 
 Whitefish, whole 
 
 General average of fresh fish as sold. 
 
 PRESERVED FISH 
 
 Mackerel, No. 1, salted 
 
 Cod, salted and dried 
 
 Cod, boneless codfish, salted and dried. 
 
 Caviar 
 
 Herring, salted, smoked and dried 
 
 Haddock, salted, smoked and dried. ... 
 
 Halibut, salted, smoked and dried 
 
 Sardines, canned 
 
 Salmon, canned 
 
 Mackerel, canned 
 
 Mackerel, salt, canned 
 
 Tunny, canned 
 
 Haddock, smoked, cooked, canned 
 
 MOLLUSKS 
 
 Oysters, solids 
 
 Oysters, in shell .... 
 
 Oysters, canned 
 
 Scallops 
 
 Long clams, in shell. 
 Long clams, canned. 
 
 Per Ct. 
 
 29.9 
 9.2 
 40.3 
 20.2 
 57.0 
 56.2 
 52.2 
 51.0 
 17.7 
 42.6 
 40.7 
 24.4 
 34.6 
 49.0 
 57.9 
 54.6 
 
 Ref- 
 use 
 (bone 
 skin, 
 etc.) 
 
 Per Ct. 
 
 62 
 35 
 
 35 
 
 47 
 
 28 
 
 45 
 
 53.7 
 
 60.0 
 
 55.9 
 
 45.3 
 
 10.3 
 
 23.8 
 
 43.9 
 
 50.1 
 
 41.9 
 
 39.5 
 47.7 
 41.7 
 51 9 
 43.6 
 53.5 
 41.6 
 
 19.7 
 24.9 
 
 19.7 
 
 Salt. 
 
 81.4 
 
 8.3 
 17.3 
 21.5 
 
 6.5 
 
 1.4 
 
 12.0 
 
 1.9 
 8.3 
 
 5 6 
 
 41.9 
 
 Water, 
 
 Protein 
 
 b.v 
 
 factor 
 
 {NX 
 6.25) 
 
 Per Ct. 
 58.5 
 72.4 
 
 49.0 
 57.2 
 35.8 
 37.0 
 39.5 
 40.0 
 61.9 
 41.7 
 43.7 
 51.4 
 44 5 
 38.2 
 31.5 
 34.4 
 28.4 
 50.7 
 51.2 
 42.2 
 54 3 
 39.5 
 34.6 
 29.9 
 35.0 
 43.7 
 57.9 
 51.2 
 39 6 
 35.2 
 71.2 
 46.1 
 67.4 
 39.6 
 32.7 
 48.4 
 40.4 
 44.4 
 43.1 
 37.3 
 46.1 
 38.0 
 .39.4 
 32.5 
 44.6 
 
 34.8 
 40.2 
 54.4 
 38.1 
 19.2 
 49.2 
 46.0 
 53.6 
 56.8 
 68.2 
 34.8 
 72.7 
 68.7 
 
 88.3 
 16,1 
 83.4 
 80.3 
 49.9 
 84.5 
 
 Per Ct, 
 11.1 
 17.0 
 10.1 
 
 14.8 
 
 6.4 
 
 6.3 
 
 7 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 16 
 
 14.1 
 
 9.9 
 
 8.2 
 
 8.8 
 
 7.3 
 
 12.8 
 
 12.0 
 
 9.9 
 
 15,4 
 
 10.3 
 
 8.6 
 
 7.4 
 
 8.5 
 
 10.6 
 
 16.7 
 
 15.0 
 
 10.6 
 
 9.4 
 
 23.5 
 
 10.1 
 
 15.1 
 
 8.4 
 
 6.9 
 
 11.9 
 
 9.9 
 
 11.0 
 
 8.9 
 
 7.7 
 
 10.4 
 
 8 6 
 
 12. S 
 
 10.6 
 
 10.9 
 
 13.9 
 19.0 
 26 3 
 30.0 
 20.5 
 15 8 
 19.3 
 23.7 
 19.5 
 19.6 
 13.9 
 21.7 
 22.3 
 
 6.0 
 1.2 
 
 8.8 
 
 14.8 
 
 5.0 
 
 9,0 
 
 Fat, 
 
 Per Ct, 
 
 0.2 
 
 .5 
 
 ,1 
 
 7,2 
 
 ,3 
 
 ,2 
 
 ,3 
 
 ,2 
 
 4,4 
 
 3,9 
 
 3,5 
 
 7,2 
 
 6,2 
 
 2,4 
 
 2,0 
 
 1,8 
 
 1,5 
 
 Per Ct. 
 
 4.3 
 
 2.4 
 
 2,1 
 
 .2 
 
 .3 
 
 14.8 
 
 9.5 
 
 5,4 
 
 4,8 
 
 3,8 
 
 1,0 
 
 1 
 
 .6 
 ,3 
 
 2 
 
 L3 
 1.1 
 6.2 
 8,7 
 7.5 
 1.3 
 1.1 
 3 6 
 3.0 
 2,4 
 
 21.2 
 
 .4 
 
 .3 
 
 19.7 
 
 8.8 
 
 .1 
 
 14,0 
 
 12,1 
 
 7,5 
 
 8.7 
 
 21.2 
 
 4.1 
 
 2,3 
 
 1.3 
 .2 
 
 2.4 
 .1 
 .6 
 
 1.3 
 
 Carbo- 
 hy- 
 drates, 
 
 7.6 
 
 3.3 
 .7 
 3.9 
 3.4 
 1.1 
 2.9 
 
 Asli or 
 min- 
 eral 
 mat- 
 ter. 
 
 Per Ct, 
 0.8 
 1.0 
 .5 
 
 .8 
 .6 
 .5 
 .5 
 ,6 
 .9 
 .9 
 ,7 
 1,2 
 10 
 ,6 
 ,5 
 ,5 
 ,4 
 ,9 
 ,7 
 ,6 
 1,1 
 ,5 
 ,7 
 ,6 
 ,5 
 ,7 
 ,9 
 ,9 
 .8 
 .7 
 15 
 10 
 12 
 .5 
 .4 
 
 2 1 
 12 
 1.7 
 
 a4.6 
 
 .9 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.9 
 
 5.3 
 
 a2.0 
 1.3 
 2.1 
 1.7 
 16 
 
 Total 
 nutri- 
 ents. 
 
 Fuel 
 
 value 
 
 per 
 
 pound. 
 
 1.1 
 .4 
 1,5 
 1,4 
 1.5 
 2.3 
 
 Per Ct, 
 12.1 
 18,5 
 10,7 
 22,8 
 7,3 
 7.0 
 8.1 
 9,2 
 20,6 
 16,0 
 15,8 
 24.7 
 21.3 
 12.9 
 8.9 
 11.1 
 9.2 
 14.4 
 12.9 
 10.7 
 17.1 
 15.1 
 11.7 
 10.1 
 9.2 
 11.6 
 32.4 
 25.4 
 16.8 
 14 9 
 28.8 
 12.1 
 17 9 
 9.2 
 7.5 
 13.9 
 11.6 
 17.9 
 18.4 
 15,9 
 12.4 
 10.3 
 17.3 
 14.3 
 14.0 
 
 37,2 
 20,6 
 28,3 
 61,9 
 30,2 
 16,9 
 35 2 
 41,1 
 29,0 
 29,6 
 37.2 
 27,5 
 26,2 
 
 11,7 
 2,5 
 
 16.6 
 
 19.7 
 8.2 
 
 15.5 
 
 Calories 
 
 209 
 327 
 186 
 558 
 127 
 122 
 145 
 159 
 454 
 363 
 354 
 585 
 508 
 277 
 231 
 231 
 195 
 259 
 227 
 186 
 304 
 358 
 254 
 218 
 163 
 204 
 903 
 658 
 408 
 363 
 581 
 222 
 340 
 163 
 132 
 268 
 222 
 449 
 513 
 445 
 240 
 200 
 376 
 313 
 295 
 
 1,107 
 363 
 4.W 
 
 1,479 
 726 
 290 
 916 
 916 
 658 
 708 
 
 1,107 
 558 
 499 
 
 222 
 41 
 327 
 336 
 136 
 268 
 
186 
 
 CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 COMPOSITION OF FISH, MOLLUSKS, CRUSTACEANS, ETC.— Continued 
 
 KIND OF FOOD MATERIAL 
 
 Ref- 
 use 
 (bone 
 skin, 
 etc.) 
 
 Salt. 
 
 Water. 
 
 Protein 
 
 by 
 
 factor 
 
 (NX 
 6.25) 
 
 Fat. 
 
 Carbo- 
 
 hy- 
 drates. 
 
 Ash oi 
 min- 
 eral 
 mat- 
 ter. 
 
 Total 
 nutri- 
 ents. 
 
 Fuel 
 
 value 
 
 per 
 
 pound. 
 
 MOLLUSKS— Cont. 
 
 Round clams, removed 
 from shell 
 
 Round clams, in shell. . . . 
 
 Round clams, canned. . . . 
 
 Mussels 
 
 General average of mol 
 lusks (exclusive of can- 
 ned) 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 67.5 
 46^7' 
 
 CRUSTACEANS. 
 
 Lobster, in shell 
 
 Lobster, canned 
 
 Crawfish, in shell 
 
 Crabs, in shell 
 
 Crabs, canned 
 
 Shrimp, canned 
 
 Fresh abalone 
 
 Canned abalone, flesh. . 
 
 Canned abalone, liquid in 
 can 
 
 Dried abalone 
 
 General average of crusta- 
 ceans (exclusive of can- 
 ned and dried) 
 
 59.4 
 
 61.7 
 
 86.6 
 52.4 
 
 TERRAPIN, TURTLE, 
 ETC. 
 
 Terrapin, in shell 
 
 Green turtle, in shell 
 
 Average of turtle and ter- 
 rapin 
 
 Frogs' legs 
 
 General average of fish 
 mollusks. crustaceans, 
 etc 
 
 50.2 
 
 75.4 
 76.0. 
 
 75.6 
 32 
 
 OTHER ANIMAL 
 
 FOODS 
 
 Beef, side, medium fat .... 
 
 Veal, side 
 
 Mutton, side 
 
 Average of beef, veal, and 
 
 mutton 
 
 Pork, side 
 
 Chicken 
 
 Turkey 
 
 Milk 
 
 45 
 
 17.4 
 22.6 
 19.3 
 
 19 
 11 
 25 
 22. 
 
 VEGETABLE FOODS 
 
 Wheat flour 
 
 Corn meal 
 
 Wheat bread (from patent 
 
 flour) 
 
 Beans, dried 
 
 Potato 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Corn, canned 
 
 Salad greens 
 
 Apples 
 
 Bananas 
 
 Strawberries 
 
 Sugar 
 
 20 
 15.0 
 
 25 
 
 35 
 
 5 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 80,8 
 28 
 82 9 
 44.9 
 
 34 7 
 
 30.7 
 
 77.8 
 10 9 
 36.7 
 80.0 
 70,8 
 72.8 
 73.2 
 
 93.8 
 39.7 
 
 37.8 
 
 18.3 
 19.2 
 
 18.8 
 56.9 
 
 42 3 
 
 49 4 
 55.2 
 43 3 
 
 49.3 
 26,1 
 47,1 
 42.4 
 87.0 
 
 12.0 
 12.5 
 
 35.3 
 12.6 
 62,6 
 77,7 
 76,1 
 86,7 
 63.3 
 48.9 
 85.9 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 10 6 
 2.1 
 
 10 5 
 4.6 
 
 3.2 
 
 5 9 
 18,1 
 2.1 
 7.9 
 15.8 
 25.4 
 22.2 
 21.7 
 
 4,4 
 36,0 
 
 9 5 
 
 5 2 
 
 4,7 
 
 4.9 
 10 5 
 
 14 8 
 15.6 
 13 
 
 14, 
 
 8, 
 
 13, 
 
 16, 
 
 3, 
 
 11.4 
 9.2 
 
 9.2 
 22 5 
 1.8 
 1.4 
 2,8 
 4 2 
 .3 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 11 
 1 
 
 ,8 
 .6 
 
 .7 
 
 1.1 
 
 .1 
 
 .9 
 
 1,5 
 
 1.0 
 
 .3 
 
 .1 
 
 1 
 .5 
 
 .9. 
 .1 
 
 .5 
 .1 
 
 2,1 
 
 18.1 
 6 3 
 
 24.0 
 
 16 1 
 .54 8 
 12 3 
 18 4 
 4.0 
 
 1.0 
 1,9 
 
 13 
 1,8 
 .1 
 .2 
 1.2 
 .6 
 .3 
 .4 
 .6 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 5,2 
 1,4 
 3 
 2 ■> 
 
 1.4 
 
 3.3 
 3.7 
 
 2 
 20^9 
 
 1.0 
 
 5.0 
 
 75.1 
 75.4 
 
 53 1 
 59.6 
 14.7 
 
 4.8 
 19 
 
 6.3 
 10.8 
 14.3 
 
 7.0 
 100.0 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 2.3 
 
 .9 
 
 2.8 
 
 1.0 
 
 .8 
 2 5 
 2 
 I'S 
 2.0 
 2.6 
 1.4 
 13 
 
 1.5 
 2.9 
 
 1.0 
 
 10 
 
 Per ct. 
 
 19,2 
 4 5 
 
 17,1 
 8,4 
 
 7 6 
 22 2 
 "25 
 10 9 
 20,0 
 29,2 
 27^2 
 26,8 
 
 Calories 
 
 331 
 
 68 
 277 
 150 
 
 6 2 
 
 60,3 
 
 12,0 
 
 6.3 
 
 5.1 
 
 5.7 
 
 11.3 
 
 12,7 
 
 33 6 
 
 22 7 
 
 37,7 
 
 31.3 
 
 63 5 
 
 26.7 
 
 35 3 
 
 13,0 
 
 88,0 
 
 87,5 
 
 64 7 
 
 87.4 
 
 17.4 
 
 7.3 
 
 23 9 
 
 13.3 
 
 11 7 
 
 16,1 
 
 9.1 
 
 100.0 
 
 141 
 381 
 45 
 191 
 358 
 503 
 501 
 489 
 
 93 
 1,079 
 
 220 
 
 132 
 91 
 
 111 
 195 
 
 264 
 
 998 
 
 535 
 
 1,207 
 
 913 
 2,363 
 
 744 
 1,034 
 
 313 
 
 1,610 
 1,610 
 
 1,215 
 1,560 
 303 
 122 
 445 
 213 
 213 
 290 
 168 
 1,860 
 
 aincluding salt. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 187 
 
 "In several cases the analysis of fish, whole and dressed is given. Usually the com- 
 position of the dressed fish was computed from that of whole fish with the aid of the 
 figures for loss of weight in dressing for market, mentioned on page 7." 
 
 "In a number of cases cited in the table above more than one specimen was 
 analyzed, although only the averages are given in the table. In such cases the samples 
 showed moj-e or less variation in total nutrients, but the variation was due more especially 
 to the fats. Thus the fat in the flesh of seven specimens of shad ranged from 6.5 to 13.6 
 per cent., in fresh mackerel from 2.2 to 16.3 per cent., and in fresh halibut from 2.2 to 
 10.6 per cent. The protein and ash or mineral matter remained practically the same in 
 all the specimens where the wide fat variation was noticeable, an increase of fat being 
 accompanied by a decrease of water." 
 
 GUARANTY CLAUSE IN CONTRACT 
 
 The National Canners" Association, under date of October 16, 1915, issued the follow- 
 ing important announcement with respect to a proper guaranty clause to be inserted in 
 selling contracts made by its members, and it behooves all packers of fishery products 
 to study this well and incorporate such clause in their contracts: 
 
 "The Baltimore Canned (ioods Exchange has for some time had under consideration 
 the question of a pro])er guaranty clause, and at its meeting on Tuesday, the 12th inst., 
 endorsed the form adopted by the National Canners' Association at the Baltimore con- 
 vention in February, 1914, as the same had been agreed upon by the conference committee 
 of that association, with a similar committee from the National Wholesale Grocers' 
 Association. This form reads as follows: 
 
 'I (we) the undersigned do hereby warrant and guarantee that articles of food and 
 drugs which the undersigned has sold, or shall at any time hereafter prepare or manufac- 
 ture for, or sell or deliver to do and will comply with the United States 
 
 Pure Food and Drugs Act, June 30. 1906, and all amendments thereto, and are not and 
 shall not be adulterated nor misbranded within the meaning of the said act and amend- 
 meuts. and that they conform also to the food laws of the state to which I (we) ship 
 them. 
 
 'However, if the guarantor shall use labels furnished by the buyer under specific 
 labeling instructions, said guarantor shall not be responsible to the buyer for misbrand- 
 ing, but guarantees only that the contents comply with said food laws. 
 
 'This shall be a continuing guaranty until notice of revocation shall be given in 
 writing. Notice of acceptance of this guaranty hereby waived. 
 
 'Dated at this day of 19 
 
 (Sign in ink) 
 
 (Full address)' 
 
 "After the adoption of this form of guaranty, F. I. D. No. 1.53 was issued on the 5th 
 day of May, 1914, and was published in Bulletin No. 24. under date of May 18, 1914. 
 
 "F. I. D. No. 153 repealed and re-enacted Regulation No. 9 for the enforcement of the 
 Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906, and required that the guaranty should be incor- 
 porated in or attached to, the bill of sale, invoice, bill of lading or other schedule, giving 
 the names and quantities of the article or articles sold, and should not appear on the 
 labels or packages. 
 
188 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 "After the issuance of F. I. D. No. 15^, the luatter of a proper form of guaranty for 
 insertion in contracts intended to be signed by the seller, was submitted to our legal 
 department, and the following form for that purpose was suggested, namely: 
 
 " 'The seller hereby guarantees that the articles of food sold under this contract are 
 not adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of the act of Congress known as the 
 Food and Drugs Act, June 30, 1906, and the amendments thei-eof now in force and the 
 laws of the state where the buyer is located and within the meaning of the laws of the 
 
 state of , where said goods are produced; hut this guaranty does not 
 
 include the misbranding of goods sold under buyer's labels.' 
 
 "This form contains the elements of the guaranty adopted by the Baltimore conven- 
 tion adapted to the requirements of F. I. D. No. 153." 
 
 INSPECTION BY NATIONAL CANNERS ASSOCIATION 
 
 At its annua! meeting in 1919 the National Canners' Association decided to inaugu- 
 rate inspection, "wherever possible, in 1919. To this end the committee appointed met 
 at Washington City on February 28 and March 1 and took the following action : 
 
 Inspection This Yeab 
 
 1. Wherever possible, the several canning states now considering the plan of inspection, to per- 
 fect their organization in time for the 1919 paclv. 
 
 2. The plan of inspection to contemplate: 
 
 (a) An inspection as to sanitation. 
 
 (b) An inspection as to quality of raw material and standards of finished products. The work 
 of sanitary inspection to begin with the new pack. The work of Inspection for quality of standards 
 to begin as soon as the several sections shall have approved the definitions of such standards, and sub- 
 mitted them to and have them approved by the Joint Committee on Definitions and Standards of 
 the Bureau of Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture. 
 
 Sanitaky Regulations 
 
 3. The sanitary rules and regulations adopted in 1914 by the National Canners' Association, 
 as revised by this committee at its session on March 1st, copy of which is herewith attached, shall 
 be the basis for sanitation throughout the several canning states, provided, however, that they shall 
 be made to conform to all the state and Federal regulations as to sanitation, including state regula- 
 tions as to plumbing. 
 
 Standakps of Quality 
 
 As to standards of quality and definitions of grades, the committee directed the chairman pro 
 tern to announce that the definitions and standards for canned peas, as promulgated by the U. S. 
 Department of Agriculture, February 15th, 191S, should govern the canning of peas. As to defini- 
 tions and standards for canned corn, tomatoes and other products, the chairman pro tern was 
 directed to refer the formulation of such standards and definitions to the several sections, and 
 request that the section chairmen appoint suitable committees to prepare sucli definitions and 
 standards, and refer the same to an early meeting of sections for their approval. 
 
 Certificate of Inspection 
 
 5. The chairman was authorized to appoint a committee to recommend a suitable certificate of 
 approval, to embody a design which would be adopted as a national emblem, said committee to 
 work in co-operation with Mr. Gorrell. The committee appointed was as follows: Mr. Cobb, New 
 York; Mr. Strasbaugh, Maryland; Mr. Witwer, Iowa. 
 
 Chemical L.vboratories 
 
 It was agreed to make the following recommendations to the advisory committees of the sev- 
 eral canning states: 
 
 1. That chemical laboratories be established in the office of each chief inspector, and that the 
 chief inspector should be a professional chemist. 
 
 2. That each state immediately employ a competent person to visit the canners, and secure 
 their signature to the contract covering the plan of inspection, the expense of such organizer to 
 be charged as a part of the expense of operations for the first year. 
 
■ CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 189 
 
 The committee adopted the following rules and regulations for sanitary inspection of canneries: 
 Rules and Regulations Adopted by National Committee on Inspection 
 
 Factories preparing food products shall be located so as to be able to receive and distribute 
 their products promptly, without danger of damage or deterioration, and shall not be located in the 
 immediate vicinity of any other industry which may be objectionable because of noxious odors given 
 off, or because of the use of decomposed products. 
 
 No food factory shall be located in an unsanitary place, or one which cannot be made sanitary, 
 or maintained in a sanitary condition. 
 
 No food factory shall be located where the refuse from the plant cannot be disposed of in a 
 sanitary manner, and not of itself become a nuisance to the factory. 
 
 No litter, waste, refuse or decomposed products shall be allowed to accumulate in or around 
 the buildings or yards. All liquid waste shall be conducted from the building by means of suitable 
 drains. Gross by-products suitable for other usage, as pea vines, or corn husks, may be stacked or 
 placed in silos separate from the building, and must be properly drained. Other by-products may 
 be retained only if rendered unobjectionable. Raw tomato skins, cores, etc., shall not be permitted 
 to be piled near the factory. 
 
 All buildings used for the manufacture of food products shall be clean, properly lighted and ven- 
 tilated. The ceilings shall be of sufficient height to permit ample clearance for all work under any 
 suspended shafting, hangers, pipings, galleries, etc. Where natural light and ventilation is insuf- 
 ficient, provision must be made for augmenting the same by mechanical methods. The interiors of 
 all working rooms shall be kept a light color by paint, whitewash or other suitable method. 
 
 The floors of all rooms used for manufacturing should be watertight, and pitched enough to 
 carry all waste to the sewers. Gratings should be provided around cookers, washers and at other 
 places where overflow is unavoidable. 
 
 All scalders, blanchers and tanks of water in which a product is held — as tomatoes before 
 scalding, and peaches and pears before filling into the cans, shall be provided with a continuous 
 fresh supply and an overflow. 
 
 No cans shall be brined or syruped by passing through a tank to receive the brine, syrup or 
 water, by submergence — "dip tank." 
 
 All tables, pails, pans, trays, utensils, conveyors, machines, floors, etc., shall be cleaned with 
 steam and water at the close of each day, and as much oftener as is necessary to prevent souring 
 or unsanitary conditions. There shall be ample water and steam supply to keep the factory cJeaa 
 
 Roadways about the factory shall be sprinkled, oiled or otherwise treated to pre-'ent dust. 
 
 Only potable water shall be used in making syrup, or brine, or in washing equipment cominfi 
 in contact with food. 
 
 Cans must be washed immediately before being filled. 
 All fruits and vegetables shall be washed before canning. 
 
 Toilet rooms must be maintained, and where different sexes are employed they must be separata 
 for each sex, plainly and distinctly marked, and to be used only by the sex designated. 
 
 Toilet rooms, including the walls, floors, ceilings and all fixtures, must be kept clean and pro- 
 vided with sanitary paper. 
 
 Toilet rooms must be open to outside light and air, and be of sufficient size and equipment fo! 
 the number of people employed. 
 
 Where toilet rooms are in the factory they must be supplied with proper flushing appliance and 
 connected with a sewer. 
 
 Outside closets must be sufficiently removed from the factory to avoid being a nuisance, and 
 built tight above the ground. The doors constructed to remain closed, and the buildings properly 
 ventilated, lighted and screened. The vault to be kept thoroughly disinfected, and cleaned when 
 filled to level with the ground. 
 
 Wash rooms must be provided, conveniently located, and of sufficient size and equipment for the 
 accommodation of all employees and separated for sexes, equipped with running water, and pro 
 vided with individual or sanitary towels and plenty of soap. 
 
 Sanitary drinking fountains shall be conveniently placed for employees and common drinking 
 cups prohibited. 
 
 Where a change of clothes for work is necessary, dressing rooms must be provided, and hangers 
 or lockers provided for street clothes. 
 
 No persons afflicted with infectious or contagious disease or infected wounds shall be employed 
 in a factory preparing or canning food. 
 
 Employees are prohibited from using tobacco and from spitting on the floors. 
 Employees must be properly clothed for the work to be done. 
 
 Employees shall keep the finger nails clean and short, and wash their hands before commencing 
 work and after each absence from the room. 
 
 Any dispute between an inspector and a canner, relative to these rules and regulations, shall 
 be referred to the chief inspector of each state, it being understood, however, that the canners 
 shall have the right to appeal from any decision of the chief inspector to the National Canners' 
 Association. 
 
190 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 SOME SAFETY MEASURES IN CANNERIES 
 
 lu 191-4 the National Cauners' Association issned a report by Dr. A. W. Bitting, of 
 the Association's research laboratories, on the responses received to a letter of inquiry 
 sent to the varions packers as to the frequency and character of accidents occurring in 
 canneries. Asa result of a study of these reports Dr. Bitting recommends certain pre- 
 ventative measures as noted below. The inspecting of boilers, steam pipe lines, etc., guard- 
 ing of dynamos and motors, insulating of electric wiring and switches, etc., have been 
 Iiuri)osely omitted by Dr. Bitting. 
 
 Burns 
 
 "The most frequent accidents reported are burns, or scalds, due to exposed steam 
 pipes, exhaust boxes, retorts, and to escaping steam from cookers, etc. 
 
 ''Wherg steam pipes enter exhaust boxes, retorts or jacketed-kettles, or are exposed 
 within reach of employees, they should be protected or insulated. It does not follow that 
 the whole steam pipe system should be insulated, though this may be an economy, but 
 those portions which may be reached or which are likely to be struck by the hand or 
 arm, should be protected. This may be done by the regular insulating material, by box- 
 ing with wood, or by covering with wire netting. Pipes out of ordinary reach, but which 
 might be taken hold of at some time, should be painted red or other distinctive color, as 
 a danger signal. 
 
 ''The uncovered galvanized iron exhaust box is the cause of a rather unexpectedly 
 large number of burns, due to two reasons: First, unwittingly jilacing the hand on 
 some part; and, second, trying to relieve a choked condition too soon after turning 
 off the steam. Some exhaust boxes are covei-ed with wood to avoid the unnecessary 
 radiation of heat and thus overcome, in part, the first criticisms. These boxes can be 
 guarded by railing along the sides but more effectively by frames of wire netting, set a 
 couple of inches from the sides and covering the portion of the top that may be reached, 
 and also by painting them red to call attention to the danger. The burns due to remov- 
 ing chokes can only be avoided by using ordinary intelligence and delaying action until 
 the box has cooled to a point of safety. The same precautions should be used to pro 
 tect against burns from pea blanchers. The burns from pipes, exhaust box and blanchers 
 are usually minor in character, involving the finger tips, hands or some part of the arm. 
 They aj-e usually painful, but ordinarily do not incapacitate from work. The burns 
 occurring from the retort and ju'ocess tanks are for the most part due to personal care- 
 lessness, as opening the retort before the blow-off has been completed, and hoisting the 
 crate out with a jerk, causing scalding water to be thrown upon the helper or slopped or 
 splashed upon the floor. Burns from these causes can only be averted by careful super- 
 intendence. 
 
 Test the Retorts 
 
 "There are other accidents, however, of serious character, that demand safety devices. 
 The inquiry shows that on an average, at lease one retort blows up each year. With each 
 one there is the possibility of either the lo.ss of life or serious burns, and these have 
 happened several times. First of all, the retort should be thoroughly inspected at regu- 
 lar intervals for safety, and this should include a hydrostatic test of at least ten pounds 
 above the working pressure. The safety valves should be lifted each day. If the steam 
 pressure is not automatically controlled there should be a reducing valve in the main 
 line to hold the pressure below the safety limit. Hand control of temperature has a 
 human element of forgetful ness, and although the operation nmy be carried out faith- 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 191 
 
 fully nianj hundreds of times, there is the possibility of relaxation. The automatic con- 
 troller adds a distinct element of safety as well as insuring more uniform cooking. The 
 fact that there has been only an occasional explosion attests more to the care exercised 
 in building retorts than that in their actual operation. 
 
 "The blowing out of gaskets is occasionally the cause of a burn, and for the most part 
 can be avoided by the same precautions already cited. The direction of the blow-oflf, 
 vent valve, etc., are details that need only to be called to one's attention to have 
 the discharge of steam turned in such a direction as not to strike an employe. 
 One precaution which should accompany an installation of retorts or cookers, is that 
 the floor should be made to slope toward the cooker for a distance of two feet or more, 
 and that it should be covered with a grating. This i.s for the purpose of holding any 
 hot water which may be thrown out in boiling or in hoisting crates of cans. 
 
 "The long open bath, such as the Dixon cooker, should be guarded at the sides to pre- 
 vent any one from falling in. This may appeal to some canners as being absurd, but the 
 records show both loss of life and limb from neglect of this precaution. Thi.s can be 
 done by frames which can be raised and lowered without interfering with any working 
 operation. 
 
 In Preserving Plants 
 
 "Burns from preserve or syrup kettles are usually due to splashing of contents in 
 boiling. This may be avoided, in a large measure, on small kettles by using cylinders of 
 the same diameter as the kettle and about one foot in height. These cylinders are 
 attached to a pulley and raised and lowered in position when needed. They have proven 
 to be very effective in the factories where used. 
 
 "The jacketed preserve-kettle, like the retorts and boilers, should be insj)ected at inter- 
 vals by an engineer. Each kettle should have its own safety valve and these should be 
 opened daily to insure against sticking. 
 
 "A number of burns were also reported from the dipping of the capping steel or sol- 
 dering copper in the acid can. These burns have been small and occui-red on the back 
 of the hands or on the face. They have been accompanied by unusual scarring; one 
 report in particular states that a small burn below the lower eye caused a cicatrix and 
 permanent disliguration, and others as leaving unusually prominent marks. .\ protector 
 against such accidents is to place a shield of tin above and on the near side of the acid 
 can. Burns from the gas or gasoline tirepots and capping machines seem to be of rare 
 occurrence. 
 
 "The attention to all small burns may .seem to be trivial, too ti'ivial for s()nie super- 
 intendents and cannery operators. If they are trivial, it will take only a few minutes to 
 cleanse the parts and to give a pi'0])er dressing, the healing Then being only a matter 
 of a very short time. But trivial burns are prone to become infected from neglect and 
 cause scars, or disfigurement, or to become infected with erysipelas and sepsis or pus. 
 One 'trivial' burn in the jialm of the hand became septic and ncessitated the amputa- 
 tion of an arm. All serious burns should receive the immediate attention of a physician. 
 
 Shifti.vo and Oi'.\uding Belts 
 
 "The most serious accidents have been due to placing belts on moving pulleys instead 
 of waiting for the machinery to stop. Broken arms, legs, wrists, mashed Angers and 
 hands, being violently thrown and injured, clothes caught and j)ulled or torn off, are in 
 the records. In most cases the attempt at replacement was made by someone operating 
 a machine who was not familiar with such work and sometimes conti'ary to orders of 
 
192 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 the superintendent. Such accidents cannot be avoided by safety devices, but should be 
 prevented by requiring that the machines be brouglit to a stop, or if permitted to move, 
 it should lie very slowly and under control, and that the belt be replaced by the super- 
 intendent or mechanic. The work of the factory is never so urgent that time cannot be 
 taken to make a stop long enough to replace a belt safely, rather than with risk of an 
 injury. 
 
 "No line or countershaft should be so low Ihat the pulleys or belts can be reached in 
 the performance of any usual operation in the factory. In the case of shafting bearing 
 a number of pulleys, there should be a suspended platform from which to make adjust- 
 ments, to repair and i-eplace belts, and to do the oiling. This is much safer than work- 
 ing from ladders and in the end also proves an economy in time saving. An essential 
 feature of this staging should be a hand rail. 
 
 '"The collar with exposed set-nut continues to find victims. The records against this 
 small piece of apparatus are such that it should be a criminal offence to have one in a 
 modern factory. Safety collars cost on an average only from five to ten cents more than 
 the old style, so that the additional cost to an ordinary factory for the best form would 
 not be more than one or two dollars. The losses occasioned by one serious accident 
 would pay for the additional equipment for all the factories in the country. Shaft 
 couplings are minor offenders, as compared with the collar and set screw, but they should 
 be of the type with unexposed nuts or bolt heads. 
 
 "Belts should be well guarded where they pass through the floor or where they pass 
 so low or in such a position on a machine that they may be touched by the hand or 
 brushed by the clothing. Where belts pass through the floor they should be completely 
 encased to a height of five feet, the casing being made of wood, metal or strong woven- 
 wire, the mesh being about one-half inch. 'Where machines have their driving belts 
 near the floor, but the belting from above, similar guards should be provided. Belts or 
 sprocket chains at the end of a piece of apparatus where someone is likely to staflti 
 should be guarded, and in most cases these guards can be l>est attached to the apparatus. 
 
 Gu.\RDS Over Gears 
 
 "Similar guards should he placed over gear and worm-driven wheels wherever they 
 come in such a position that it is possible to reach them in any operation. These cases 
 need not be expensive or elaborate affairs, and in most instances can be built by the super- 
 intendent or engineer. 
 
 "The manufacturers of canning machinery are assisting greatly in this work by 
 changing their designs, not only to secure greater efficiency, but also to c(unply with sug- 
 gestions made by the several state factory inspectors. The various machines require indi- 
 vidual treatment in guarding against accidents, and some canners have exercised consid- 
 ei'able ingenuity in securing the desired result. The accompanying photographs serve 
 to tell the story better than a description. 
 
 "The crane or hoist for lifting crates in and out of the vertical retort has given consid- 
 erable trouble. The hand crane has proven to be the more dangei'ous, as several cases 
 have been cited where the crank has been whirled around, striking the arm and break- 
 ing bones. Some of the home-made affairs have not been equipped even with a ratchet to 
 hold the load, and others are without a friction brake to check the load when the ratchet 
 is raised to permit the load to come to rest, either in the kettle or on the floor. The 
 ratchet and brake are, obviously, essential parts of the hoist, and it is little less than 
 criminal to operate one without them. 
 
 "The "accidents with electric and steam hoists have been almost wholly attributable to 
 the operator using too great speed — starting and ending 1lu' operation with a jerk. The 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 193 
 
 steam Iioist i-ei|uircs rather more care than motor in cold weather, as the action is not 
 smooth until the cylinder is hot. Most of the accidents have been due to splashing 
 scalding water and to dropping loaded crates, causing hnins in tlie tiist place and occa- 
 sional mashed toes in the second. 
 
 TuAM Rails 
 
 "The overhead trolley has been the cause of a few accidents, due to running loaded 
 crates through an open switch. These have been in the nature of mashed toes and one 
 fractured ankle. The number of these accidents has been very small, but they suggest 
 that the same device which throws a switch and leaves a rail open might also be made 
 to automatically place a stop in a position at the same time. The number of accidents 
 resulting from the overhead tram rail has been small in comparison with floor trucks, 
 and furthermore, the possibilities of prevention seem to be easier. The accidents from 
 floor trucks are, for the most part, due to carelessness of employees backing or running 
 the trucks into others and to falling over the handle. 
 
 G1T.4RDS 
 
 "Guard rails should be placed upon all tramways, and around platforms and around 
 areaways. A properly constructed rail should consist of not only the hand rail at a 
 height of about thirty inches, but also a second a few inches off the floor. This latter is 
 especially desirable wherever a tendency exists for the feet to be carried over the edge in 
 making turns, as in trucking or carrying packages. Elevators should be particularly 
 guarded, as more accidents have been reported occurring there than from the falls from 
 stairs or balconies. The manufacturers of the better class of elevatoi-s are able to supply 
 automatic devices for opening and closing gates, or doors, which have been approved by 
 factory and elevator inspectors and are almost cei>tain to be better than an untried appli- 
 ance. In the absence of automatic guards, the owner should provide lifts or doors which 
 will insure safety. 
 
 "It is not usual to place guard rails along the sides of the runway from the ear to 
 the warehouse, but tliis is so easily done that the precaution .should not be avoided. Of 
 almost equal importance to the hand rail is a guard about three inches in height to keep 
 trucks from going over the edge. This latter ]irecaution should also be followed when 
 trucking follows inclines or narrow runways. 
 
 "A temporary guard should be placed around cellar or trap doors, or openings in the 
 floors, in case these are left open or when making repairs. 
 
 Cuts 
 
 "Cutting the hands on the edge of tin cans is exceedingly frequent in occurrence. This 
 occurs in handling the cans out of the cars, in transferring from storage to chutes and 
 in filling. These cuts, as a rule, are of slight character but the effect of seeing persons 
 working with bloody flngei-s wrapped in rags is repulsive. The handling of the empty 
 cans should be done with gloves. Canvas gloves, made extra heavy on the wearing 
 side, ai-e inexpensive and will reduce cuts to almost a negligible quantity. The elimina- 
 tion of cuts on peeling and packing tables cannot be accomplished so easily. One of the 
 late designs for continuous hand-filling machines embodies the idea of covering the edge 
 of the can while it is being filled. The primary object of the design was lor another pur- 
 pose, but it is also success^l in preventing this accident. Some products, like tomatoes, 
 may be packed in trays holding either a half or a dozen cans, and a copper plate placed 
 over the top. Though this is very simple and lacking in convenience, it is verv effective. 
 
194 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 "The ordinary can opener is a cause of many minor cuts, but fortunately a late inven 
 tion overcomes this source of trouble. It is too large and expensive for domestic use, 
 but very well adapted to factory needs. 
 
 "Many canners use some glass jars in putting up special lines, and a number 
 manufacture ketchup, and thus require bottles. These packers invariably rejtort juore 
 cuts than all other accidents combined. The machinery for handling glass is very imper- 
 fect. There is no good reason why the washing, rinsing, filling and capping of ketchup 
 bottles should not be automatic and independent of any handling by human hands. 
 In the meantime the use of gloves will afford some protection. 
 
 Floors 
 
 "Slippery floors are responsible for a fair share of accidents, varying from hard 
 bruises to fractures of the wrist, arm and leg. The slippery floor is one of the conditions 
 which should be abol'sbed. At one time it was thought to be unavoidable owing to the 
 water used in ])reparation, the overflow from syruping and filling machines, etc. A brin- 
 ing, syruping or filling machine which has no provision to receive and retain the overflow 
 or the contents of a battered or overturned can, is no longer a necessity and does not 
 fill one of the recpiirements of proper sanitation. There are decidedly better and cleaner 
 methods of distributing the products to the tables and removing the filled cans than by 
 the trtick and tray system, so there is little need of water, juice and pieces of fruits and 
 vegetables upon the floor. The best preventive of accidents from slipi)ing is a dry floor, 
 and this is attainable with care and proper equipment. Open gutters should not be per- 
 mitted; instead flush irons or wood gratings should be provided. Wherever overflow is 
 unavoidable, as in front of boiling kettles, blanchers, etc., slat gratings should be pro- 
 vided. It is not possible to avoid all water, overflow or bits of fruits and vegetables on 
 the floor, but there can be a great reduction in the amount in most plants. 
 
 ''Nearly all factory owners realize that the present floors lack a great deal of being 
 ideal. Cement is the best from many standpoints, but is so hard and unyielding that it 
 is extremely tiresome on the feet. A great deal of this foot and leg weariness may be 
 overcome by the use of rubber heels for those who walk a great deal and the use of 
 spring boards for those who are obliged to stand in one place. 
 
 Various Accidents 
 
 "A number of minor accidents were reported, due to women's hair being caught in the 
 belts or moving machinery, riiis is easily pre\ented by wearing cotton caps — a prac- 
 tice that should appeal to one as being proper irrespective of the precaution against acci- 
 dents. 
 
 "Getting dresses caught in moving machinery or conveyors is i)revented in two ways 
 — first, by proper guards, and. second, by a plain overdress which offers no loose nifties 
 or parts to be caught. In some of the larger factories, or in those running practically 
 continuously, these dres.ses or uniforms, are made a necessity, and serve a useful pur- 
 pose in preventing accidents, as well as in greater cleanliness. They are simple in con- 
 struction, easily slipped on and ofl', and easily laundered. 
 
 "All factories employing a dozen or more women should have a rest room, provided 
 with one or two chairs and a couch, where they may be taken in case of accidents, sudden 
 illness, fainting, etc. 
 
 "The only point at which accidents were reported as affecting the eyes was in the 
 operation of corn cutting. Several comments were made upon injuries occurring to the 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 195 
 
 eyes due to small particles of chaff ami juice being- thrown from the cutters. The simple 
 preventive here is the wearing of plain goggles. 
 
 "The corn husking machine is one of the latest to be jdaced u])on the market, but has 
 not reached the point where it can be said to be properly guarded. The energy thus far 
 has been spent upon the design to make it a success at husking. Without doubt this 
 season will see many additions made to insure greater safety. 
 
 First Aid Outfit 
 
 "A first-aid package should be conveniently located in every factory. The equipment 
 need not be large, but should be intended for use. It should consist of a small white 
 enamel wash basin, pitcher, small hand brush, a pair of scissors, a one-half pound roll of 
 absorbent cotton, a half dozen rolls of three-inch cheese-cloth bandages, one two-inch roll 
 of adhesive tape, powdered boracic acid for dry dressing and as an antiseptic to be dis- 
 solved in water for cleansing. Boi-acic acid is a very efficient antiseptic and can be used 
 at the rate of a teaspoonful to a quart of water, or as a dry powder, and with it there 
 is none of the danger that may attend the misuse of mercurial tablets. A four-ounce 
 bottle of ai-omatic s{)irits of ammonia is excellent as a stimulant in case of fainting or 
 exhaustion, the dose being a teaspoonful in a half glass of water. It will answer the pur- 
 pose better than brandy or whiskey. A three-ounce bottle of jjaregoric is advisable in 
 cabinets in factories outside of town. This may be used in case of acute colic or cramps. 
 It should be given only in the exceptional case and when a physician is not available. 
 This should be marked 'Poison.' The dose is one-half to one teasjioonful, and can be 
 repeated in a half hour. The use of paregoric i.s not to be encouraged and should be used 
 only after the home remedies have failed or the pains remain very acute. 
 
 "For burns the liest treatment is picric acid. A saturated solution should be made, 
 and about one pint kept in stock. A small amount should be poured on the burn at fre- 
 quent intervals. This is decidedly better than oil. I'icric acid is poisonous and should 
 be plainly marked 'Poison.' 
 
 "Some one should receive instructions from the local physieian in properly cleaning 
 an infected wound and in the proper application of the emergency bandages. It will be 
 found that a very large per cent, of llie accidents can be handliMl with this sim|(le outfit." 
 
 STANDARD FIRE REQUIREMENTS FOR ALASKA CANNERIES 
 
 The following are the standard requirements for Alaska fish canning and packing 
 plants adopted by the Board of Fii-e Underwriters of the Pacific: 
 
 BniLDixo: Wooden frame construction, composition or metal roof; side walls frame; area not 
 exceeding 10,000 square feet; substantially built of sufficient size and strength to sustain weight of 
 machinery and stock without serious strain or vibration; the construction throughout to be sub- 
 stantial and workmanlike. 
 
 Boiler axd Stack: Boilers must be carefully bricked in and top covered with not less than four 
 inches of brick; floor about boiler to be of non-combustible material. Stacks must extend not less 
 than twenty feet above roof and have eighteen inches clearance from wood in roof or roof frame; 
 and if wood is used for fuel must have an approved spark arrester. 
 
 S-MOKEHorsEs: Brick or concrete walls, roof and floor; interior framing, racks, hangers and 
 treads of iron with a grating not less than ten feet above fire. Communications to main building to 
 be protected by standard fire floors. The sill in openings on firing floor to be at least one foot high. 
 A drain to carry oil away from plant shall be provided. Vent of brick or metal to be provided if 
 the smokehouse is not as high as the adjoining building. Steam jets to be provided. 
 
 Gasolixe Power: Must be operated under what is known as a pumping system. 
 
 Fuel Oil: Oil-burning apparatus must be installed in accordance with rules of the National 
 Board of Fire Underwriters, with pump feed to burners. 
 
 Electric Light and Power: The standard of the National Electrical Code shall govern in the 
 installation of electrical machinery, wiring and devices. 
 
 Water Barrels and Che-mical Extingulsiiers: One barrel to eacli 2500 square feet of floor area, 
 or fraction thereof, with three buckets to each barrel, and not less than four barrels in any cannery. 
 
196 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 Each building to have individual inside protection. One approved 3-gallon chemical extinguisher 
 may be substituted for each barrel and three buckets. 
 
 Inside St.\xdpipe,s : Standpipes not less than 2i{. inches in diameter, having not to exceed 75 
 feet of good l'_.-inch rubber-lined cotton hose, with appropriate nozzle attached, on each floor, sup- 
 plied as per standard for private protection described below. Hydrants to be so located that all 
 points of the building can be covered. 
 
 OiTTsiDE Protection: Yard hydrants located fifty feet from, and within one hundred feet of, 
 building, at least 2'l' inches in diameter, supplied from city mains, or private supply up to standard 
 described below, and 300 feet or more (number of hydrants and amount of hose depending upon 
 extent of plant) of 2iM-inch hose, with nozzles % to 1-inch, to be used for fire purposes only. 
 
 Private Water Supply: Water supply from tank or reservoir, capacity not less than 50,000 
 gallons, located at least 100 feet from the main building and at an elevation sufficient to give 60 to 
 80 pounds pressure at the hydrants. Mains to be not less than 4-inch. Main from reservoir to be 
 increased in size if the conditions demand it. If Are pump is relied upon to obtain efficient pres- 
 sure (60 to 80 pounds), pump must have capacity of not less than 500 gallons per minute, inex- 
 haustible water supply, steam maintained at all times, and the pump and boilers located in a brick 
 building, protected by fire doors, if within 100 feet of main building. 
 
 Citv W.\ter Supply: Supply to be either gravity or pumping system, giving pressure at hydrants 
 of at least 60 pounds. Hydrants to be located on 6-inch or larger mains, to be of regular pattern, 
 and not less than two within 200 feet of the main building. City having organized fire department, 
 with at least 1000 feet of serviceable hose. 
 
 SWELLS AND SPRINGERS* 
 
 BY W. D. BIGEI.OW, CHIEF CHEMIST, NATIONAL CANNERS' ASSOCIATION, WASHINGTON, D. C. 
 
 The subject I have been asked to discuss this moiiiiuji- is one that would require a 
 volume for its adequate consideration. It will be nece.ssary, therefore, to confine our- 
 selves to broad, fundamental principles. It would be much easier to occupy the time 
 allotted by a detailed discussion of one of the phases of the subject. I realize, however, 
 that the questions you have asked me indicate difficulties that frequently present them- 
 .selves, and I shall cover as well as I can the ontliiie su^sested in your invitation to me 
 to present this paper. This outline is as follows: 
 
 1. What constitutes a "swell" or "springer?" 
 
 2. What are the conditions of the product or of the process which might be a causa 
 tive agent in producing swells or springers? 
 
 3. Where should the line be drawn as to wlia( class uf foods coming into this cate- 
 gory might be safely and properly used as food products? 
 
 (a) Should canned fruits or vegetables belonging to the class of '"swells" be per- 
 mitted to be processed, or to be sold to be worked u\> into other products, such as the 
 making of pie stock, or working up into butters, jams or marmalades? 
 
 (b) How may such class of fruits that h;ne been worked \\]> into various by-products 
 be detected by commissioners? 
 
 (c) Does the presence of tin in exce.ssiw ijuantities denote that such products are 
 made from swelled canned goods? 
 
 In considering this problem it is necessary to bear in mind the two general types of 
 cans which are now used for the preservation of food. These are known respectively as 
 the "hole and cap" can and the "open top" or "sanitary" can. 
 
 The hole and cap can is the one whose ends are soldered and which is closed after the 
 introduction of the food by soldering in place a ca]) with a vent hole, which is then 
 tipped with solder. 
 
 In the case of the open top can, one end is crimjicd on to the can by rollers, tight- 
 ness being assured by means of a gasket of some elastic or compressible material, such as 
 rubber composition. 
 
 •ISead before the National Association of Food, Dair.v and Dnig Officials, Portland. Maine. July l.i. 1914. 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 197 
 
 I shall now take up the subject accordiug to the topics assigned in the program, 
 but discussing the first and second topics together. 
 
 A sivell ill canned foods is a can which has undergone decomposition by micro-organ- 
 isms, accompanied by the generation of gas, which first releases the vacuum and then 
 causes pressure in the can. This decomposition is often of putrefactive nature and may 
 be rai)id or slow, according to the organism and temperature. 
 
 Swells are due either to defective sterilization or to leaky cans. It is sometimes diffi- 
 cult to measure the heat conductivity of a given product. Fruit which is thoroughly ripe 
 has a tendency to cook up more than fruit that is greener, and thus lessen the heat con- 
 ductivity of the liquid in the can. In the case of many products, such as corn, the heat 
 required to penetrate to the center of the can increases with the consistency of the prod- 
 uct. If the processor underestimates the I'ipeness of a batch of fruit, therefore, or the 
 consistency of a homogeneous product, or the amount of sugar added, swells may result. 
 
 Owing to defects in the manufacture of the can, or in the plate from which the can 
 is made, there are occasional leaks, sometimes so small that when filled with air even at 
 a pressure of 20 or 30 pounds the air that bubbles through them when placed under 
 water is in such fine particles that it is difficult to see. When such cans are filled with 
 food the bacteria that pass through these openings cause decomposition, and when 
 pressure results the openings are sometimes closed by particles of food and are difficult 
 to find. 
 
 A sprimjcr is a can whose ends are more or less bulged, owing to pressure from 
 hydrogen generated as a result of the chemical action of the contents on the metal of the 
 container, or because the can was over-filled or insufificiently exhausted. 
 
 In springers where the pressure is caused by over-filling the can, or by insufficient 
 exhaust, this pressure does not increase with time, but renuiius constant, except as it is 
 influenced by temperature of storage. The ends of the cans are somewhat distended and 
 may be easily pressed into place with the fingers. When the fingers are removed the 
 ends may lesume a convex position, or may remain concave or flat (according to the 
 pressure \\ithin the can ) until the can is jarred, and sometimes until the temperature to 
 which it is subjected is increased. A number of packers have {uit uj) ju-oducts in the fall 
 which appeared normal till the following summer, when s])ringers developed, and when 
 these were held till the cool weather of the following fall the ends resumed their normal 
 concave position. Thus it has frequently happened that foods jiacked, for instance in 
 New York, Alarylaud or Alaska, have been sold by packers who had no suspicion that 
 they were abnornuil in any way, and yet tho.se that remained on the retailers' shelves 
 the following su)nmer, especially in the southern states, developed springers as a result of 
 inci'eased temperature. 
 
 Springei'S of 1his nature are found chiefly in open top cans, and only rarely in hole 
 and cap cans. With the latter there is always sufficient head space, otherwise the solder- 
 ing iron would heat the air space to so great an extent that it would be impossible to 
 seal. It so happened that the use of the open top can was enormously increased at just 
 the Time when there was an effort on the part of the Federal Government, and also of 
 the best canners, to secure a full can. It was immediately seen that it was possible to fill 
 the open top can full. As a result a large amount of food was packed in the open top 
 cans with very little head space, sometimes practically none. Now if such food was not 
 heated to a pretty high temperature before it was capped, expansion naturally occurred 
 after the product was shipped to a warmer climate and springers resulted. Many of 
 the best firms found that a large proportion of their pack of some products consisted of 
 springers immediately after canning; that is, the ends of the cans did not collapse on 
 
198 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 cooling, bnt remained somewhat distended. As jiackers become more familiar with the 
 open top cans and learn the amount of head space requisite and the necessity of a 
 thorough exhaust, this difficulty is disappearing and springers of this nature will prob- 
 ably not be found to a large extent in the future. 
 
 The case is somewhat different when pressure is due to hydrogen generated by the 
 action of acid fruits on the metal of the can. It is ordinarily taken for granted that 
 the hydrogen thus generated is due to the action of the acid of the fruit on the tin. I 
 think this is a mistake. I think it results in large part, at least, from the action of the 
 acid on the iron and that the amount of hydrogen liberated in the can is usually a 
 measure rather of the iron that has been dissolved than of the tin. The metallic taste 
 in a product of this nature is certainly due to dissolved iron. Of course, where any great 
 amount of iron is dissolved in the product, the tin is also dissolved, but passes largely 
 into an insoluble form. 
 
 This question has been studied for several years and in several laboratories. Exhaus- 
 tive investigations, devoted to the point and to the kindred questions of the action of the 
 foods on the container, have been conducted (involving the expenditure of over $25,000), 
 and the work is now being broadened and increased. Considerable progress has been 
 made, but the solution is not yet in sight. 
 
 In this connection I wish to point out the relation of springers to certain other diffi- 
 culties of the caniier. The natural acids of the fruits attack the container, dissolving the 
 iron and carrying tin into the food and into the liquor, where it is largely, often chiefly, 
 precipitated in insoluble form. This liberates hydrogen, which directly causes springers. 
 While in the nascent state this hydrogen bleaches many of the colored fruits. When 
 lacquer is used in an attempt to prevent this action, jiinholes often result, leading to the 
 spoilage of a considerable percentage of the pack, and with some products an undesir- 
 able flavor is imparted by the lacquer. These difficulties all come from a common cause 
 and will only be overcome by understanding and removing the cause. This statement, 
 however, does not include the solvent action on the metals of the can of amino bodies in 
 certain foods, such as shrimp, pumpkin and aspai'agus. (U. S. Dept. Agr. Bureau of 
 Chem. Cir. 79.) i 
 
 According to the amount and character of the fruit acid present, the tin and especially 
 the iron of the container, are more or less attacked, the latter causing the astringency 
 which is often called the "tin" taste of some canned food, and yielding springers of the 
 class we are now discussing. Since the action is chemical, it is influenced by time and 
 temperature of storage. It progresses more rapidly in summer than in winter; more 
 rapidly in a hot warehouse than in one that is cold. The amount of hydrogen generated 
 depends first on the temperature and time of sterilization ; second on the promptness and 
 efficiency of cooling after sterilization ; third on the time of storage (the age of the canned 
 product) ; fourth, on the temperature of storage. The relative importance of these four 
 factors cannot be stated. In some cases the amount of tin and iron dissolved and the 
 amount of hydrogen generated are greater within a week after canning than after two or 
 three years, if cooled promptly and handled reasonably well. 
 
 The time that elapses before springers of the type now under consideration are 
 formed depends on the four conditions mentioned above, and also on the fill of the cans, 
 i.e., the amount of air space left, and on the vacuum in the can. or, in other words, the 
 temperature of tlie product when the cans are sealed. 
 
 Since the amount of hydrogen increases with time and temperature of storage the 
 pressure on the tin gradually increases until it cannot be distinguished by pressing with 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 199 
 
 rhe Laud from swells. Finally the pressure becomes so great that a seam is sprung, 
 causing leaks and leading to infection and decomposition. 
 
 In distinguishing between swells and springers it is important to bear in mind that 
 the former usually progress rapidly and the latter slowly or not at all. Swells, there 
 fore, usually become hard, or even burst before they reach the retail trade. In fact, it 
 is the custom of canners to store their goods and permit snch swells to develop as far as 
 practicable before they leave the factory. After this it is usually only an occasional can 
 that develops a leak and becomes infected. When a larger percentage of a lot of canned 
 foods shows convex ends which may be pressed into place with the fingers, they are 
 usually springers and not swells. Moreover, when decomposition has progressed so far 
 that the ends begin to bulge, the odor on cutting the can is uumistakabl'*, a^d even before 
 that the peculiar aroiua characteristic of the food is destroyed. In this connection I wish 
 to disclaim the idea that food ichose appearance, odor and taste are acceptable to ohe 
 consumer is necessarily free from decomposition or suitahle for consumption, whether ii 
 be fresh or preserved. There is a great difference, however, between decomposition in the 
 open and in a confined space like a sealed tin can. In the open decomposition is more, 
 or less localized and its volatile products to which the characteristic odor of decomposi- 
 tion is due are largely dissipated, especially on cooking. In the can decomposition, when 
 it occurs, is much more general throughout the mass and these volatile products are 
 confined and are evident when the can is opened. A striking illustration of this is found 
 in peas and corn held in the market till quite stale. They may be quite acceptable when 
 prepared for the table in an open kettle, according to kitchen practice, and yet when 
 canned have an offensive odor. 
 
 I feel that I am very safe in the statement that when decomposition has proceeded 
 within the can to a sufficient extent to cause a perceptible bulging of the ends, the odor 
 of decomposition is evident on cutting the can, even though it may have been vented and 
 resterilized. Many consumers would doubtless ovei'look this distinction in some cases- 
 just as they overlook staleness in market vegetables and incipient decomposition in fisk 
 and shell fi.sh purchased as fresh. For the reasons given above, however, it is more evident 
 than the .same degree of decomposition in market fruits and vegetables. It should be 
 evident to any careful observer and does not require the highly developed sense of taste 
 and smell possessed by tasters of coffee and tea, and especially of wine. It must be borne 
 in mind that as stated above springers due to overfilling or insufficient exhaust will be 
 found in the market less frequently as packers learn the proper fill and exhaust. Spring- 
 ers due to hydrogen are found in strongly acid foods and are largely confined to the more 
 acid fruits. The non-acid foods that attack tin or iron rarely form springers of this 
 class. The three great staples in canned foods, tomatoes, peas and corn, neither attack 
 the metals of the container to any appreciable extent, nor form springers due to hydrogen. 
 
 The third topic assigned to me is: 
 
 Where should the line he drawn as to what class of foods cominc/ info this category 
 might safely and properly he used as food products? 
 
 I will say without reservation that swells should not, under any circumstances, be 
 used as food. Sometimes, especially in the case of fruit, such swells are the result not 
 of bacterial decomposition, but of the action of yeasts and the products are simply sonr. 
 With the exception of highly nitrogenous material, it is probable that toxins are not 
 formed in such swelled goods. In my opinion, however, it is to meet such conditions that 
 a clause has been included in the Federal law, and all state laws, forbidding the sale of 
 products which in whole or in part are ''filthy, decomposed or putrid." Certainly that 
 clause should be held to cover all food which it properly describes, whatever its form and 
 
200 CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 manner of pi-eservation, and all canned foods which are "swells" as a result of decom- 
 position by micro-organisms are intended to be covered by this clause and should be 
 covered by it. They should uot be used as tood or in the preparation of food. 
 
 AVith springers the case is widely different. Springers due to overfilling or insuffi- 
 cient exhaust are .sound and edible in all respects. As I have already stated, however, 
 this type of springers will soon be a matter of history. \^'ith springers of the second 
 type, after the action of the acid on the metal has proceeded to such an extent that the 
 product cannot be distinguished from a true swell, it is my opinion that they should be 
 condemned and destroyed. The strong metallic taste due to dissol\ed iron is commonly 
 so pronounced in such cases as to make the product unpalatable. Moreover, as I have 
 said before, it can not by outward appearance be distinguished from a swell. • 
 
 As just stated in the case of springers due alone to overfilling the can or insufficient 
 exhaust the contents are sterile and sound in every way and their use as food, or for the 
 manufacture of foods, should be peruatted. It is obvious that their sale on the market in 
 that form is impossible and in my opinion it should not be possible. The bulged end, 
 even if it can be readily pushed in place with the fingei's, is taken by the consumer as 
 a warning sign, indicating decomposition. It is a safe and reasonable sign and one which 
 the consumer should continue to use. If food i)roducts of this nature are to be sold, 
 therefoi-e, the cans must be heated, vented, resealed and again sterilized. 
 
 1 realize that the work of food commissioners would be simplified if the venting of 
 an open top can, for instance, were held to be piiiiio facie evidence of decomposition. 
 Such a ]>ractice, however, is not logical nor necessary in order to protect the consumer. 
 It should not be possible acting under the name of the law, to prevent or restrict the sale 
 of food that is sound and wholesome, prepared under good conditions, and in every 
 respect suitable for consumption. Such a decision is unjust to the manufacturer and 
 prejudicial to the public good in so far that it is uneconomic. 
 
 It is a recognized principle of legislation that the public health must be protected 
 even though hardshiji to many be worked thereby. This principle, however, does not 
 apply to the question under discu.ssion. Danger to the jmblic health is not involved. As 
 far as I can learn, thei-e is no evidence and no reason to suppose that illness is ever caused 
 by a prfiduct of this nature. 
 
 When a can of food has undergone decomposition by micro-organisms to such an 
 extent as to cause the slightest bulging of the ends, it is praclically impossible for it to 
 be reprocessed in such a manner that the decomposition will not be betrayed to a careful 
 observer by the odor. Bj reprocessing in this connection, I refer merely to venting and 
 resterilizarion in the can, and not to cooking in an open kettle with or without added 
 sugar and flavor in the preparation of other products. 
 
 Again, it may be found advisable to vent all cans used for certain products, such as 
 meat, fish and shell fish. It has always been customary in packing salmon in hole and cap 
 cans to close the vent in the middle of the caji immediately after sealing, heat in the pro- 
 cess retort, revent to allow the air to escape, close the second vent and sterilize. Since 
 the advent of the open top can without vent holes, I am told by my associate. Dr. Bitting, 
 that the product may be somewhat inferior. It appears that by the second venting in the 
 cap of the old can, there are expelled not only air, but also gases caused by heating the 
 fish and whose retention in the absence of vent holes gives the product a stale odor and 
 flavor. By interrupting the process and venting the open top cans this can be avoided, 
 as in the hole and cap cans. Recent experiments conducted by Dr. Bitting with crabs 
 gave the same results. It is believed that this difficulty has been practically overcome by 
 using two sealing machines. With the first one the cover is loosely crimped on the can, 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 201 
 
 which is tlien given a thorough exhaust and sealed while hot in the second machine. At 
 the same time it is possible that with some products the higher degree of excellence can- 
 not be secured even with the open top can without venting after a preliminary heating 
 in the process retort. 
 
 I regret that the subject assigned to me includes one question which I cannot 
 answer : 
 
 How mail sucli elufis of fruits that have been irorlefJ ii]i into various hy-products be 
 detected bj/ co)nmissionersf 
 
 If this practice were extensive, I would suggest that it might be handled by factory 
 inspection, but conducted as I am infoi-med it is. in a small way, irregularly and only 
 by men who have no connection with any legitimate industry, the inspection of the fac- 
 tories where such by-products are made appears to be out of the question. 
 
 Of course, it is obvious that swells in an advanced state of decomposition cannot be 
 used in the prei)aration of any food whatever. There is no doubt that the great majority 
 of so-called swells which are used in the preparation of products of this nature are not 
 really swells in the sense of having been caused by decomposition, but owe their disten- 
 sion to hydrogen gas formed by the action of the fruit acids on the metal of the container. 
 
 At the same time the situation is different from that found in reprocessing foods in 
 the can. In the case of certain fruit products which have begun to swell, even as a result 
 of decomposition, it is probably sometimes possible, by boiling the ]>roduct in an open 
 kettle, to eliminate the odor of decomposition to such an e.vtent that it is masked to the 
 ordinary taste and smell by the addition of sugar and flavors. This practice is most 
 reprehensible and all possible effort should be made to stop it. Its detection, however, in 
 the finished product is attended by considerable difficulty. Probably the best method is 
 by means of the microscope. Even if the decomposition has not proceeded to an advanced 
 degree, when it has occurred in enclosed space such as a sealed tin can, it is found to 
 be quite general and the histology of the product is changed. Unfortunately, this method 
 can only be employed by analysis with long training and experience in structural botany, 
 and there are very few analysts in the country who are competent to undertake the 
 study of the question. It is hoped that in the near future more attention will be given to 
 this line of work. Chemical methods have not been thoroughly worked out and I do not 
 know that they are possible, though undoubledly progress can be made in this field. 
 
 The determination of the character and amount of acid in fruit products is often of 
 value. In this manner a clue to decomposition can sometimes be obtained by the fact 
 that the normal acid of the fruit in question is not present in proper amount. Lactic 
 acid, which usually accompanies decomposition in tomatoes, is not ordinarily found in 
 decomposition of fruits. It would be strange, however, if the application of bio-chemistry 
 to the problem did not disclose some by-product of the life of microorganisms that might 
 be considered suflicient evidence of decomposition. The attention that has been paid to 
 the detection of decomposition in food is not at all commensurate with our needs. The 
 situation calls for work of a different type from any that has been largely utilized in 
 delecting food adulteration. Such methods are needed, however, not for the examina- 
 tion of products of the type mentioned, but, broadly speaking, for the detection of decom- 
 position in food, whether fresh or preserved and whatever the manner of its preservation. 
 
 Perhaps the most striking feature of the packing of goods in recent years is the pro- 
 gress that has been made in the cleanliness and sanitation of factories and in washing the 
 raw products and hand sorting and trimming to exclude from the finished product rot 
 and decay which, when we come to think of it, is decomposed matter and just as objec- 
 tionable as that found in a swelled can. Notwithstanding this progress, however, the 
 
202 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 amount of such decomposed matter that reaches our tables in our foods, both fresh and 
 manufactured, is still so great that the amount of decomposition introduced into pie 
 filling', jams and fruit butters in the form of blown cans, dwindles into insignificance. I 
 do not deju'eciate the gravity of the latter practice, but wish to emphasize the fact that to 
 give it serious consideration before a more deterniiued effort is made to insure a more 
 satisfactory sanitary condition in food factories of all kinds is like "straining at a gnat 
 and swallowing a camel." 
 
 The final question asked me is : 
 
 Docs flie presence of tin in excessive quantities denote that such products arc made 
 from swelled canned goods? 
 
 Most emphatically it does not. Of course the decomposition that causes the swelling 
 of canned fruits increases their acid content and hence their action on the tin and iron. 
 At the same time, some products which are badly decomposed, even though the pressure 
 has become so great that the can has burst, are not as acid and do not attack the metals 
 of the container as badly as other products which are entirely fresh and sterile. Prob- 
 ably an excessive amount of tin or iron in pie stock, butters, jams and similar materials 
 may indicate that the product has been made from canned material which has attacked 
 the metal of the container to such an extent that it could not be sold as canned food, 
 whether decomposed or not. In the absence of evidence of decomposition probably it 
 may be held that in working over such products in this manner their inferiority is con- 
 cealed and for that reason their .sale is illegal. 
 
 The charge of selling food containing "filthy, decomposed or putrid" material is a 
 very serious one and its full meaning should be preserved. This can only be done by 
 limiting the application of that term to products whose decompo.sition can be demon- 
 strated. 
 
 The presence of tin is obviously not an indication of decomposition and to hold it 
 prima facie evidence of decomposition is unnecessary as a precaution and would weaken 
 tlie law and lessen the sen.se of fairness and justice so necessary to its proper enforce- 
 ment. 
 
 FEDERAL FOOD INSPECTION 
 
 All canned foods, except those consumed within the state in which they are manu- 
 factured, come within the purview of the Federal Food and Drugs Act, passed June 30, 
 190G. All food products intended for export must be packed in conformity with the Fed- 
 eral requirements for purity, except that "food products intended for export may con- 
 tain substances not permitted in foods intended for interstate commerce when the addi- 
 tion of such substances does not conflict with the laws of the countries to which the food 
 products are to be exi)orted and when such substances are added in accordance with the 
 directions of the foreign purchasing agent."' This act, which is administered by the 
 Bureau of Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture, and applying to all foods entering 
 interstate and foreign commei'ce, has had a most wholesome effect in raising the quality 
 of canned foods. 
 
 The provisions of the Food and Drugs Act are particularly strong with reference to 
 adulteration, misbranding and the use of unfit material. The terms misbranding and 
 adulteration are made to have a more comprehensive meaning than is the general con- 
 ception by specification in a definition, as will be noted by referring to the act printed 
 below. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 203 
 
 These provisions are simple and direct and apply to the purity of the product but not 
 to the grade. No standards for the latter have been established. These provisions have 
 been amplitied by numerous "Food and drug decisions," all together making quite a 
 volume in itself, which, while not having the effect of law, indicate the interpretation 
 that the officials charged with the enforcement desire to have placed upon the decisions, 
 and are accepted as guides by the manufacturers, \yhile there are no legal standards for 
 canned foods, there are trade standards accepted by the manufacturer and dealer, which 
 are indicated under the various articles. 
 
 An important feature of the law is that requiring a statement of the quantity of 
 contents upon the label. This statement should be plainly and conspicuously printed 
 and must be a correct statement. Where the quantity in a package will vary it is advis- 
 able to state the minimum weight the package will contain. Do not use the word "mini- 
 mum" or any similar language; make a definite, unqualified statement. The variation 
 must not be below the amount stated oftener than it is above (he amount stated. If you 
 attempt to state the average weight or measure you must be sure it will be the average 
 on every case of goods you put out. It is not suflicient to have one case of goods average 
 above the stated weight, and another case average below the weight or measure. Every 
 case of goods should average correctly. The terms "net weight" or "net measure" mean 
 exclusive of all wrai)pers, containers, etc. They mean that the actual weight or measure 
 of the commodity in the package must be stated. The terms "weight of contents" or "mea- 
 sure of contents" is a better one to use, and this applies to all goods except those destined 
 for states requiring the use of the term "net" in connection with the statement of the quan- 
 tity of contents. Weights should be stated in terms of pounds, ounces and grains avoir- 
 dupois. Measures should be stated in terms of gallons, quarts and fluid ounces. The 
 statement of contents should be printed in tyjte proportionate in size to the other type on 
 the label. It is not sufficient to make this statement in type equal in size to the smallest 
 type employed for the expression of other matters on the label. 
 
 The provisions of the Federal Food and Drugs Act apply particularly to the finished 
 product, but are sufficiently broad to cover the inspection of the manufacturing plants, 
 so as to determine the character of the raw material used and the sanitation. The vari- 
 ous states have their own pure food and sanitary laws, which, while not uniform, agree 
 in essential points with the Federal law, and thereby supplement the latter in the con- 
 trol of the conditions and methods of manufacture. 
 
 Owing to lack of space it has been impossible to reproduce the state laws, while 
 only a few of the more important Federal decisions can be given. These questions 
 are so important that each canner should make an effort to familiarize himself with them 
 or should join some canners' or fishery organization — such as the National Canners' Asso- 
 ciation or the Association of Pacific Fisheries — in which event he would be enabled to 
 call upon such for help and information along any line needed. 
 
 The Food and Drugs Act^ June 80, lOOfi, as Amended August 23. ini2 
 
 AN ACT for preventing the manufacture, sale, or transportation of adulterated or misbranded or 
 poisonous or deleterious foods, drugs, medicines and liquors, and for regulating traffic therein, 
 and for other purposes. 
 
 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in 
 Congress assembled. That it shall be unlawful for any person to manufacture within any territory 
 or the District of Columbia any article of food or drug which is adulterated or misbranded, within 
 the meaning of this act; and any person who shall violate any of the provisions of this section shall 
 be guilty of a misdemeanor, and for each offence shall, upon conviction thereof, be fined not to ex- 
 ceed five hundred dollars or shall be sentenced to one year's imprisonment, or botli such fine and 
 imprisonment, in the discretion of the court, and for each subsequent offence and conviction thereof 
 
204 CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 shall be fined not less than one thousand dollars or sentenced to one year's imprisonment, or both 
 such fine and imprisonment, in the discretion ot the court. 
 
 Sec. 2. That the introduction into any state or territory or the District of Columbia from any 
 other state or territory or the District of Columbia, or from any foreign country, or shipment to any 
 foreign country of any article of food or drugs which is adulterated or misbranded, within the 
 meaning of this act, is hereby prohibited; and any person who shall ship or deliver for shipment 
 from any state or territory or the District of Columbia, to any other state or territory or the Dis- 
 trict of Columbia, or to a foreign country, or who shall receive in any state or territory or the 
 District of Columbia from any other state or territory or the District of Columbia, or 
 foreign country, and having so received, shall deliver, in original unbroken packages, for 
 pay or otherwise, or offer to deliver to any other person, any such article so adulterated 
 or misbranded within the meaning of this act, or any person who shall sell or offer for sale in 
 the District of Columbia or the territories of the United States any such adulterated or misbranded 
 foods or drugs, or export or offer to export the same to any foreign country, shall be guilty of a mis- 
 demeanor, and for such offence be fined not exceeding two hundred dollars for the first offence, 
 and upon conviction for each subsequent offence not exceeding three hundred dollars or be imprisoned 
 not exceeding one year, or both, in the discretion of the court: Proinded, That no article shall be 
 deemed misbranded or adulterated within the provisions of this act when intended for export to any 
 foreign country and prepared or packed according to the specifications or directions of the foreign 
 purchaser when no substance is used in the preparation or packing thereof in conflict with the laws 
 of the foreign country to which said article is intended to be shipped; but if said article shall be 
 in fact sold or offered for sale for domestic use or consumption, then this proviso shall not exempt 
 said article from the operation of any of the other provisions of this act. 
 
 Sec. 3. That the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of Agriculture, and the Secretary of 
 Commerce and Labor shall make uniform rules and regulations for carrying out the provisions ot 
 this act, including the collection and examination of specimens of foods and drugs manufactured or 
 offered for sale in the District of Columbia, or in any territory of the United States, or which shall 
 be offered for sale in unbroken packages in any state other than that in which they shall have been 
 respectively manufactured or produced, or which shall be received from any foreign country, or in- 
 tended for shipment to any foreign country, or which may be submitted for examination by the 
 chief health, food, or drug officer of any state, territory, or the District of Columbia, or at any 
 domestic or foreign port through which such product is offered for interstate commerce, or for export 
 or import between the United States and any foreign port or country. 
 
 Sec. 4. That the examinations of specimens of foods and drugs shall be made in the Bureau of 
 Chemistry of the Department of Agriculture, or under the direction and supervision of such Bureau, 
 for the purpose of determining from such examinations whether such articles are adulterated or 
 misbranded within the meaning of this act; and if it shall appear from any such examination that 
 any of such specimens is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this act, the Secretary 
 ot Agriculture shall cause notice thereof to be given to the party from whom such sample was 
 obtained. Any party so notified shall be given an opportunity to be heard, under such rules and 
 regulations as may be prescribed as aforesaid, and if it appears that any of the provisions ot this 
 act have been violated by such party, then the Secretarj' of Agriculture shall at once certify the 
 facts to the proper United States district attorney, with a copy of the results of the analysis or the 
 examination of such article duly authenticated by the analyst or officer making such examination, 
 under the oath of such officer. After the judgment of the court, notice shall be given by publication 
 in such manner as may be prescribed by the rules and regulations aforesaid. 
 
 Sec. 5. That it shall be the duty of each district attorney to whom the Secretary of Agriculture 
 shall report any violation of this act, or to whom any health or food or drug officer or agent of any 
 state, territory, or the District of Columbia shall present satisfactory evidence of any such viola- 
 tion, to cause appropriate proceedings to be commenced and prosecuted in the proper courts of the 
 United States, without delay, for the enforcement of the penalties as in such case herein provided. 
 
 Sec. 6. That the term "drug" as used in this act, shall include all medicines and preparations 
 recognized in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary for internal or external use, 
 and any substance or mixture of substances intended to be used for the cure, mitigation, or pre- 
 vention of disease of either man or other animals. The term "food," as used herein, shall include 
 all articles used for food, drink, confectionery or condiment by man or other animals, whether 
 simple, mixed, or compound. 
 
 Sec. 7. That for the purposes of this act an article shall be deemed to be adulterated: 
 
 In the case of drugs: 
 
 First. If, when a drug is sold under or by a name recognised in the United States Pharma- 
 copoeia or National Formulary, it differs from the standard of strength, quality, or purity, as deter- 
 mined by the test laid down in the United States Pharmacopoeia or National Formulary official at 
 the time of investigation: Provided. That no drug defined in the United States Pharmacopoeia or 
 National Formulary shall be deemed to be adulterated under this provision if the standard of 
 strength, quality, or purity be plainly stated upon the bottle, box, or other container thereof although 
 the standard may differ from that determined by the test laid down in the United States Pharma- 
 copoeia or National Formulary. 
 
 Second. If its strength or purity fall below the professed standard or quality under which It is 
 sold. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 205 
 
 In the case of confectionery: 
 
 If it contain terra alba, barytes, talc, chrome yellow, or other mineral substance or poisonous 
 color or flavor, or other ingredient deleterious or detrimental to health, or any vinous, malt, or 
 spirituous liquor or compound or narcotic drug. 
 
 In the case of food: 
 
 First. If any substance has been mixed and paclced with it so as to reduce or lower or injuri- 
 ously affect its quality or strength. 
 
 Second. If any substance lias been substituted wholly or in part for the article. 
 
 Third. If any valuable constituent of the article has been wholly or in part abstracted. 
 
 Fourth. If it be mixed, colored, powdered, coated or stained in a manner whereby damage or 
 inferiority is concealed. 
 
 Fifth. If it contain any added poisonous or other added deleterious ingredient which may ren- 
 der such article injurious to health: Proindrd, That when in the preparation of food products for 
 shipment they are preserved by any external application applied in such manner that the preserva- 
 tive is necessarily removed mechanically, or by maceration in water, or otherwise, and directions 
 for the removal of said preservative shall be printed on the covering or the package, the provisions 
 of this act shall be construed as applying only when said products are ready for consumption. 
 
 Sixth. If it consists in whole or in part of a filthy, decomposed, or putrid animal or vegetable 
 substance, or any portion of an animal unfit for food, whether manufactured or not, or if it is the 
 product of a diseased animal, or one that has died otherwise than by slaughter. 
 
 Sec. 8. That the term "misbranded," as used herein, shall apply to all drugs or articles of 
 food, or articles which enter into the composition of food, the package or label of which shall bear 
 any statement, design, or device regarding such article, or the ingredients or substances contained 
 therein which shall be false or misleading in any particular, and to any food or drug product which 
 is falsely branded as to the state, territory, or country in which it is manufactured or produced. 
 
 That for the purposes of this act an article shall also be deemed to be misbranded: 
 
 In the case of drugs: 
 
 First. If it be an imitation of or offered for sa.le under the name of another article. 
 
 Second. If the contents of the package as originally put up shall have been removed, in whole 
 or in part, and other contents shall have been placed in such package, or if the package fail to 
 bear a statement on the label of the quantity or proportion of any alcohol, morphine, opium, cocaine, 
 heroin, alpha or beta eucaine, chloroform, cannabis indica, chloral hydrate, or acetanilide, or any 
 derivative or preparation of any such substances contained therein. 
 
 Third. If its package or label shall bear or contain any statement, design, or device regarding 
 the curative or therapeutic effect of such article or any of the ingredients or substances contained 
 therein, which is false and fraudulent. 
 
 In the case of food: 
 
 First. If it be an imitation of or offered for sale under the distinctive name of another article. 
 
 Second. If it be labeled or branded so as to deceive or mislead the purchaser, or purport to be 
 a foreign product when not so, or if the contents of the package as originally put up shall have 
 been removed in whole or in part and other contents shall have been placed in such package, or if 
 it fail to bear a statement on the label of the quantity or proportion of any morphine, opium, cocaine, 
 heroin, alpha or beta eucaine, chloroform, cannabis indica, chloral hydrate, or acetanilide, or any 
 derivative or preparation of any of such substances contained therein. 
 
 Third.* If in package form, the quantity of the contents be not plainly and conspicuously 
 marked on the outside of the package in terms of weight, measure, or numerical count: Provided, 
 however. That reasonable variations shall be permitted, and tolerances and also exemptions as to 
 small packages shall be established by rules and regulations made in accordance witli the provisions 
 of section three of this act. 
 
 Fourth. If the package containing it or its label shall bear any statement, design, or device 
 regarding the ingredients or the substances contained therein, which statement, design, or device shall 
 be false or misleading in any particular: Provided. That an article of food which does not contain 
 any added poisonous or deleterious ingredients shall not be deemed to be adulterated or misbrand- 
 ed in the following cases: 
 
 First. In the case of mixtures or compounds which may be now or from time to time hereafter 
 known as articles of food, under their own distinctive names, and not an imitation of or offered for 
 sale under the distinctive name of another article, if the name be accompanied on the same label or 
 brand with a statement of the place where said article has been manufactured or produced. 
 
 Second. In the case of articles labeled, branded, or tagged so as to plainly indicate that they 
 are compounds, imitations, or blends, and the word "compound," "imitation," or "blend," as the 
 case may be, is plainly stated on the package in which it is offered for sale: Provided. That the 
 term blend as used herein shall be construed to mean a mixture of like substances, not excluding 
 harmless coloring or flavoring ingredients used for the purpose of coloring and flavoring only: And 
 provided further, That nothing in this act shall be construed as requiring or compelling proprietors 
 or manufacturers of proprietary foods which contain no unwholesome added ingredient to disclose 
 
 •The act of March 3. 191.3, provides that no penalty of fine, imprisonment, or confiscation shall be enforced 
 for any violation of its provisions as to domestic products prepared or foreign products imported prior to eighteen 
 months after its passage. 
 
206 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 their trade formulas, except in so far as the provisions of this act may require to secure freedom 
 from adulteration or misbranding. 
 
 Sec. 9. That no dealer shall be prosecuted under the provisions of this act when he can estab- 
 lish a guaranty signed by the wholesaler, jobber, manufacturer, or other party residing in the 
 United States, from whom he purchases such articles, to the effect that the same is not adulterated 
 or misbranded within the meaning of this act, designating it. Said guaranty, to afford protection, 
 shall contain the name and address of the party or parties making the sale of such articles to such 
 dealer, and in such case said party or parties shall be amenable to the prosecutions, fines and other 
 penalties which would attach, in due course, to the dealer under the provisions of this act. 
 
 Sec. 10. That any article of food, drug, or liquor that is adulterated or misbranded within the 
 meaning of this act, and is being transported from one state, territory, district, or insular 
 possession to another tor sale, or, having been transported, remains unloaded, unsold or in 
 original unbroken packages, or if it be sold or offered for sale in the District of Columbia or the 
 territories, or insular possessions of the United States, or if it be imported from a foreign country 
 for sale, or if it is intended for export to a foreign country, shall be liable to be proceeded against 
 in any district court of the United States within the district where the same is found, and seized 
 for confiscation by a process of libel for condemnation. And if such article is condemned as being 
 adulterated or misbranded, or of a poisonous or deleterious character, within the meaning of this 
 act, the same shall be disposed of by destruction or sale, as the said court may direct, and the pro- 
 ceeds thereof, if sold, less the legal costs and charges, shall be paid into the Treasury of the United 
 States, but such goods shall not be sold in any jurisdiction contrary to the provisions of this act 
 or the laws of that jurisdiction: Provided, hoioevei; That upon the payment of the costs of such libel 
 proceedings and the execution and delivery of a good and sufficient bond to the effect that such 
 articles shall not be sold or otherwise disposed of contrary to the provisions of this act, or the laws 
 of any state, territory, district or insular possession, the court may by order direct that such articles 
 be delivered to the owner thereof. The proceedings of such libel cases shall conform, as near as 
 may be, to the proceedings in admiralty, except that either party may demand trial by jury of any 
 issue of fact joined in any such case, and all proceedings shall be at the suit of and in the name 
 of the United States. 
 
 Sec. 11. The Secretary of the Treasury shall deliver to the Secretary of Agriculture, upon his 
 request from time to time, samples of foods and drugs which are being imported into the United 
 States or offered for import, giving notice thereof to the owner or consignee, who may appear be- 
 fore the Secretary of Agriculture, and have the right to introduce testimony, and if it appear from 
 the examination of such samples that any article of food or drug offered to be imported into the 
 United States is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this act, or is otherwise danger- 
 ous to the health of the people of the United States, or is of a kind forbidden entry into, or forbid- 
 den to be sold or restricted in sale in the country in which it is made or from which it is exported, 
 or is otherwise falsely labeled in any respect, the said article shall be refused admission, and the 
 Secretary of the Treasury shall refuse delivery to the consignee and shall cause the destruction of 
 any goods refused delivery which shall not be exported by the consignee within three months from 
 the date of notice of such refusal under such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury may 
 prescribe: Provided, That the Secretary of the Treasury may deliver to the consignee such goods 
 pending examination and decision in the matter on execution of a penal bond for the amount of 
 the full invoice value of such goods, together with the duty thereon, and on refusal to return such 
 goods for any cause to the custody of the Secretary of the Treasury, when demanded, for the purpose 
 of excluding them from the country, or for any other purpose, said consignee shall forfeit the full 
 amount of the bond: And provided further. That all charges for storage, cartage, and labor on 
 goods which are refused admission or delivery shall be paid by the owner or consignee, and in 
 default of such payment shall constitute a lien against any future importation made by such owner 
 or consignee. 
 
 Sec. 12. That the term "territory" as used in this act shall include the insular possessions of 
 the United States. The word "person" as used in this act shall be construed to import both the 
 plural and the singular, as the case demands, and shall include corporations, companies, societies 
 and associations. When construing and enforcing the provisions of this act, the act, omission, or 
 failure of any officer, agent, or other person acting for or employed by any corporation, company, 
 society, or association, within the scope of his employment or office, shall in every case be also 
 deemed to be the act, omission, or failure of such corporation, company, society, or association as 
 well as that of the person. 
 
 Sec. 13. That this act shall be in force and effect from and after the first day of January, nine- 
 teen hundred and seven. 
 
 Approved June 30, 1906. 
 
 TRADE MARKS AND THE PROTECTION OF SAME 
 
 More than one manufacturer has found in practice that his trade marlvs are just as 
 valuable, or more valuable, than his patents. A patent is likely to be infringed or imitated 
 and expires in seventeen years; a trade mark, wi.sely used, has perpetual life. A trade 
 mark is a necessary incident of all modern merchandising, whether it he canned goods 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 207 
 
 or steel, glassware or clothing, su that the absence of a well-detiued tiade mark iu any 
 manufacturing business is an anomaly. 
 
 In commerce any name by which an article is known may be loosely classed as a 
 trade mark. In law, however, a sharp distinction is drawn between names or marks 
 which are capable of exclusive appropriation as the property of the first user and names 
 or marks which are geographical or descriptive in character, and therefore cannot be the 
 monopoly of any person. 
 
 For many years but few fish canners appreciated the value of a trade mark to place 
 on their can labels, and it has taken some bitter experiences to drive home to the rest that 
 a properly designed trade mark placed upon good goods and the owner protected in its 
 use by the law, has real value, just as much as boats, buildings, machinery, or the thou- 
 sand and one material things required to carry on the business. 
 
 Ownei'ship of trade marks in the I'nited States is still dependent upon the common 
 law, so that the first user of a trade mark who can establish his priority is entitled to the 
 ownershij) of the same, whether the mark is registered or unregistered. Claimants under 
 the common law will, however, find ])roceedings to prevent infringement expensive, 
 annoying to a busy man, and at best will protect one only after at least a certain amount 
 of damage has been done, and it is far safer to avoid this by registering the label at the 
 time of issue, which will give one the further advantage in that a description of the 
 character and quality of the article labeled can be set forth, which will, to a certain 
 extent at least, be protected with the label. 
 
 Registration of a trade mark entitles the registrant to bring a suit in a Federal 
 court for the protection of his mark instead of a local state court, and this is frequently 
 an important advantage. 
 
 The trade mark statute provides that the registrant shall be the jtriinu furic owner 
 of the mark, for the recovery of damages, the right to an injunction, the delivery up of 
 infringing labels, and, what is frequently important, the prevention of the entry of 
 goods into this country bearing an infringing trade mark, '\^'here the mark is registered 
 in the United States I'atent Office, the Treasury Department will without further expense 
 watch all importations to ])revent the coming into this country of goods bearing an 
 infringing mark. 
 
 Furthermore, unless the United States trade maj-k owner registers his trade mark in 
 this country, he can in very many instances not register his trade mark in foreign coun- 
 tries where registration is absolutely necessary to ownership. 
 
 It should furthermore be noted that when a mark is once registered in the United 
 States Patent Office, the Patent Office will automatically refu.se to register the same or a 
 similar mark to another party, whereas if your mark is not registered, any person 
 making the proper form of application is legally entitled to register the same. The 
 statute provides for opposing or cancelling the registration of an interfering trade mark, 
 but such proceedings are always expensive in comparison to the low cost of registration. 
 
 A trade mark is registered for only a parti(nilar line of goods; that is, a registration 
 of a trade mark for salmon confei's no right on the same registrant to said mark for 
 shoes or candies. The Patent Office has divided registrations into forty-nine classes, of 
 which class 46, "Foods and ingredients of foods," includes all food products. 
 
 The following comprise the trade mark laws of the United States as enacted in 1903, 
 with subsequent amendments: 
 
208 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 Trade Mark Laws of the United States 
 Act of Februaky 20, 1905 (as amended) 
 
 AN ACT to authorize the registration of trade marks used in commerce with foreign nations or 
 
 among tlie several states or witli Indian tribes, and to protect the same. 
 
 Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of Ameriea in 
 Congress assembled. That the owner of a trade marl< used in commerce with foreign nations, or 
 among the several states, or with Indian tribes, provided such owner shall be domiciled within the 
 territory of the United States, or resides in or is located in any foreign country which, by treaty, 
 convention, or law, affords similar privileges to the citizens of the United States, may obtain regis- 
 tration for such trade mark by complying with the following requirements; First, by filing in the 
 Patent Office an application therefor, in writing, addressed to the Commissioner of Patents, signed 
 by the applicant, specifying his name, domicile, location, and citizenship; the class of merchandise 
 and the particular description of goods comprised in such class to which the trade mark is appro- 
 priated; a statement of the mode in which the same is applied and affixed to goods, and the length 
 of time during which the trade mark has been used; a description of the trade mark itself shall be 
 included, if desired by the applicant or required by the commissioner, provided such description is 
 of a character to meet the approval of the commissioner. With this statement shall be filed a draw- 
 ing of the trade mark, signed by the applicant, or his attorney, and such number of specimens of 
 the trade mark as actually used as may be required by the Commissioner of Patents. Secondly, by 
 paying into the Treasury of the United States the sum of ten dollars, and otherwise complying 
 with the requirements of this act and such regulations as may be prescribed by the Commissioner 
 of Patents. 
 
 Sec. 2. That the application prescribed in the foregoing section, in order to create any right 
 whatever in favor of the party filing it, must be accompanied by a written declaration verified by 
 the applicant, or by a member of the firm or an officer of the corporation or association applying, to 
 the effect that the applicant believes himself or the firm, corporation, or association in whose behalf 
 he makes the application to be the owner of the trade mark sought to be registered, and that no 
 other person, firm, corporation, or association, to the best of the applicants' knowledge and belief, 
 has the right to use such trade mark in the United States, either in the identical form or in such near 
 resemblance thereto as might be calculated to deceive; that such trade mark is used in commerce 
 among the several states, or with foreign nations, or with Indian tribes, and that the description 
 and drawing presented truly represents the trade mark sought to be registered. If the applicant 
 resides or is located in a foreign country, the statement required shall, in addition to the foregoing, 
 set forth that the trade mark has been registered by the applicant, or that an application for the 
 registration -thereof has been filed by him in the foreign country in which he resides or is located, 
 and shall give the date of such registration, or the application therefor, as the case may be, except 
 that in the application in such cases it shall not be necessary to state that the mark has been 
 used in commerce with tlie United States or among the states thereof. The verification required by 
 this section may be made before any person within the United States authorized by law to administer 
 oaths, or, when the applicant resides in a foreign country, before any minister, charge d'affaires, 
 consul, or commercial agent holding commission under the Government of the United States, or 
 before any notary public, judge, or magistrate having an official seal and authorized to administer 
 oaths in the foreign country in which the applicant may be whose authority shall be proved by a 
 certificate of a diplomatic or consular officer of the United States. 
 
 Sec. 3. That every applicant for registration of a trade mark, or for renewal of registration of 
 a trade mark, who is not domiciled within the United States, shall, before the issuance of the cer- 
 tificate of registration, as hereinafter provided for, designate, by a notice in writing, filed in the 
 Patent Office, some person residing within the United States on whom process or notice of proceed- 
 ings affecting the right of ownership of the trade mark of which such applicant may claim to be 
 the owner, brought under the provisions of this act or under other laws of the United States, may 
 be served, with the same force and effect as if served upon the applicant or registrant in person. 
 For the purposes of this act it shall be deemed sufficient to serve such notice upon such applicant, regis- 
 trant, or representative by leaving a copy of such process or notice addressed to liim at the last 
 address of which the Commissioner of Patents has been notified. 
 
 Sec. 4. That an application for registration of a trade mark filed in this country by any person 
 who has previously regularly filed in any foreign country which, by treaty, convention, or law, 
 affords similar privileges to citizens of the United States an application for registration of the same 
 trade mark shall be accorded the same force and eft'ect as would be accorded to the same applica- 
 tion if filed in this country on the date on which application for registration of the same trade 
 mark was first filed in such foreign country: Provided, That such application is filed in this country 
 within four months from the date on which the application was first filed in such foreign country: 
 And provided. That certificate of registration shall not be issued for any mark for registration of 
 which application has been filed by an applicant located in a foreign country until such mark has 
 been actually registered by the applicant in the country in which he is located. 
 
 Sec. 5. That no mark by which the goods of the owner of the mark may be distinguished from 
 the other goods of the same class shall be refused registration as a trade mark on account of the 
 nature of such mark unless such mark — 
 
 (a) Consists of or comprises immoral or scandalous matter. 
 
 (b) Consists of or comprises the flag or coat of arms or other insignia of the United States or 
 any simulation thereof, or of any state or municipality or of any foreign nation, or of any design 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 209 
 
 or picture that has been or may hereafter be adopted by any fraternal society as its emblem, or 0/ 
 any name, distinguishing mark, character, emblem, colors, flag, or banner adopted by any institu- 
 tion, organization, club or society which was iricorporated in any state in the United States prior to 
 the date of the adoption and use by the applicant: Proinded, That said name, distinguishing mark, 
 character, emblem, colors, flag, or banner was adopted and publicly used by said institution, organi- 
 zation, chib. or society prior to the date of adoption and use by the applicant: Provided, That trade 
 marks which are identical with a registered or known trade mark owned and in use by another 
 and appropriated to merchandise of the same descriptive properties, or which so nearly resemble a 
 registered or known trade mark owned and in use by another and appropriated to merchandise of the 
 same descriptive properties as to be likely to cause confusion or mistake in the mind of the public or to 
 deceive purchasers shall not be registered: Provided, That no mark which consists merely in the 
 name of an individual, firm, corporation, or association not written, printed, impressed, or woven 
 in some particular or distinctive manner, or in association with a portrait of the individual, or 
 merely in words or devices which are descriptive of the goods with which they are used, or of the 
 character or quality of such goods, or merely a geographical name or term, shall be registered 
 under the terms of this act: Proinded further. That no portrait of a living individual may be regis- 
 tered as a trade mark except by the consent of such individual, evidenced by an instrument in 
 writing: And provided further. That nothing herein shall prevent the registration of any mark used 
 by the applicant or his predecessors, or by those from whom title to the mark is derived, in com- 
 merce with foreign nations or among the several states or witli Indian tribes which was in actual 
 and exclusive use as a trade mark of the applicant, or his predecessors from whom he derived title, 
 for ten years next preceding February twentieth, nineteen hundred and five: Provided further. That 
 nothing herein shall prevent the registration of a trade mark otherwise registrable because of Its 
 being the name of the applicant or a portion thereof. 
 
 Sec. 6. That on the tiling of an application for registration of a trade mark which complies 
 with the requirements of this act, and the payment of the fees herein provided for, the Commis- 
 sioner of Patents shall cause an examination thereof to be made; and if on such examination it shall 
 appear that the applicant is entitled to have his trade mark registered under the provisions of this 
 act, the commissioner shall cause the mark to be published at least once in the Official Gazette of 
 the Patent Office. Any person who believes he would be damaged by the registration of a mark 
 may oppose the same by filing notice of opposition, stating the grounds therefor, in the Patent Office 
 within thirty days after the publication of the mark sought to be registered, which said notice of 
 opposition shall be verified by the person filing the same before one of the officers mentioned in 
 section two of this act. An opposition may be filed by a duly authorized attorney, but such opposi- 
 tion shall be null and void unless verified by the opposer within a reasonable time after such filing. 
 If no notice of opposition is filed within said time, the commissioner shall issue a certificate of regis- 
 tration therefor, as hereinafter provided for. If on examination an application is refused, the com- 
 missioner shall notify the applicant, giving him his reasons therefor. 
 
 Sec. 7. That in all cases where notice of opposition has been filed the Commissioner of Patents 
 shall notify the applicant thereof and the grounds therefor. 
 
 Whenever an application is made for the registration of a trade mark which is substantially 
 identical with a trade mark appropriated to goods of the same descriptive properties, for which a 
 certificate of registration has been previously issued to another, or for registration of which another 
 has previously made application, or which so nearly resembles such trade mark, or a known trade 
 mark owned and used by another, as, in the opinion of the commissioner, to be likely to be mis- 
 taken therefor by the public, he may declare that an interference exists as to such trade mark, and 
 in every case of interference or opposition to registration he shall direct the examiner in charge of 
 interferences to determine the question of the right of registration to such trade mark, and of the 
 sufficiency of objections to registration, in such manner and upon such notice to those interested as 
 the commissioner may by rules prescribe. 
 
 The commissioner may refuse to register the mark against the registration of which objection 
 is filed, or may refuse to register both of two interfering marks, or may register the mark, as a 
 trade mark, for the person first to adopt and use the mark, if otherwise entitled to register the same, 
 unless an appeal is taken, as hereinafter provided for, from his decision, by a party interested in 
 the proceeding, within such time (not less than twenty days) as the commissioner may prescribe. 
 
 Sec. 8. That every applicant for the registration of a trade mark, or for the renewal of the 
 registration of a trade mark, which application is refused, or a party to an interference against 
 whom a decision has been rendered, or a party who has filed a notice of opposition as to a trade 
 mark may appeal from the decision of the examiner in charge of trade marks, or the examiner in 
 charge of interferences, as the case may be, to the commissioner in person, having once paid the 
 fee for such appeal. 
 
 Sec. 9. That if an applicant for registration of a trade mark, or a party to an interference as to 
 a trade mark, or a party who has filed an opposition to the registration of a trade mark, or party 
 to an application for the cancellation of the registration of a trade mark, is dissatisfied with the 
 decision of the Commissioner of Patents, he may appeal to the court of appeals of the District of 
 Columbia, on complying with the conditions required in case of an appeal from the decision of the 
 commissioner by an applicant for patent, or a party to an interference as to an invention, and the 
 same rules of practice and procedure shall govern in every stage of such proceedings, as far as 
 the same may be applicable. 
 
 Sec. 10. That every registered trade mark, and every mark for the registration of which appli- 
 cation has been made, together with the application for registration of the same, shall be assignable 
 in connection with the good will of the business in which the mark is used. Such assignment must 
 
210 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 be by an instrument in writing and duly acknowledged according to the laws of the country or 
 state in which the same is executed; any such assignment shall be void as against any subsequent 
 purchaser for a valuable consideration, without notice, unless it is recorded in the Patent OfBce 
 within three months from date thereof. The commissioner shall keep a record of such assignments. 
 
 Sec. 11. That certificates of registration of trade marks shall be issued in the name of the 
 United States of America, under the seal of the Patent Office, and shall be signed by the Commis- 
 sioner of Patents, and a record thereof, together with printed copies of the drawing and statement 
 of the applicant, shall be kept in books for that purpose. The certificate shall state the date on 
 which the application for registration was received in the Patent Office. Certificates of registration 
 of trade marks may be issued to the assignee of the applicant, but the assignment must first be 
 entered of record in the Patent Office. 
 
 Written or printed copies of any records, books, papers, or drawings relating to trade marks 
 belonging to the Patent Office, and of certificates of registration, authenticated by the seal of the 
 Patent Office and certified by the commissioner thereof, shall be evidence in all cases wherein the 
 originals could be evidence; and any person making application therefor and paying the fee required 
 by law shall have certified copies thereof. ' 
 
 Sec. 12. That a certificate of registration shall remain in force for twenty years, except that in 
 the case of trade marks previously registered in a foreign country such certificates shall cease to 
 be in force on the day on which the trade mark ceases to be protected in such foreign country, and 
 shall in no case remain in force more than twenty years, unless renewed. Certificates of registra- 
 tion may be from time to time renewed for like periods on payment of the renewal fees required by 
 this act, upon request by the registrant, his legal representatives, or transferees of record in the 
 Patent Office, and such request may be made at any time not more than six months prior to the ex- 
 piration of the period for which the certificates of registration were issued or renewed. Certificates 
 of registration in force at the date at which this act takes effect shall remain in force for the period 
 for which they were issued, but shall be renewable on the same conditions and for the same periods 
 as certificates issued under the provisions of this act, and when so renewed shall have the same 
 force and effect as certificates issued under this act. 
 
 Sec. 13. That whenever any person shall deem himself injured by the registration of a trade 
 mark in the Patent Office he may at any time apply to the Commissioner of Patents to cancel the 
 registration thereof. The commissioner shall refer such application to the examiner in charge of 
 interferences, who is empowered to hear and determine this question and who shall give notice 
 thereof to the registrant. If it appear after a hearing before the examiner that the registrant was 
 not entitled to the use of the mark at the date of his application for registration thereof, or that 
 the mark is not used by the registrant, or has been abandoned, and the examiner shall so decide, 
 the commissioner shall cancel the registration. Appeal may be taken to the commissioner in per- 
 son from the decision of examiner of interferences. 
 
 Sec. 14. That the following shall be the rates for trade mark fees: 
 
 On filing each original application tor registration of a trade mark, ten dollars: Provided, That 
 an application for registration of a trade mark pending at the date of the passage of this act, and 
 on which certificate of registration shall not have issued at such date, may, at the option of the 
 applicant, be proceeded with and registered under the provisions of this act without the payment 
 of further fee. 
 
 On filing each application for renewal of the registration of a trade mark, ten dollars. 
 
 On filing notice of opposition to the registration of a trade mark, ten dollars. 
 
 On an appeal from the examiner in charge of trade marks to the Commissioner of Patents, fif- 
 teen dollars. 
 
 On an appeal from the decision of the examiner in charge of interferences, awarding ownership 
 of a trade mark or canceling the registration of a trade mark, to the Commissioner of Patents, 
 fifteen dollars. 
 
 For certified and uncertified copies of certificates of registration and other papers, and for record- 
 ing transfers and otJier papers, the same fees as required by law for such copies of patents and for 
 recording assignments and other papers relating to patents. 
 
 Sec. 15. That sections forty-nine hundred and thirty-five and forty-nine hundred and thirty-six 
 of the Revised Statutes, relating to the payment of patent fees and to the repayment of fees paid by 
 mistake, are hereby made applicable to trade mark fees. 
 
 Sec. 16. That the registration of a trade mark under the provisions of this act shall be prima 
 facie evidence of ownership. Any person who shall, without the consent of the owner thereof, 
 reproduce, counterfeit, copy, or colorably imitate any such trade mark and affix the same to mer- 
 chandise of substantially the same descriptive properties as those set forth in the registration, or 
 to labels, signs, prints, packages, wrappers, or receptacles intended to be used upon or in connec- 
 tion with the sale of merchandise of substantially the same descriptive properties as those set forth 
 in such registration, and shall use, or shall have used, such reproduction, counterfeit, copy, or color- 
 able imitation in commerce among the several states, or with a foreign nation, or with the Indian 
 tribes, shall be liable to an action for damages therefor at the suit of the owner thereof; and when- 
 ever in any such action a verdict is rendered for the plaintiff, the court may enter judgment 
 therein for any sum above the amount found by the verdict as the actual damages, according to the 
 circumstances of the case, not exceeding three times the amount of such verdict, together with the 
 costs. 
 
 Sec. 17. That the circuit and territorial courts of the United States and the supreme court of 
 the District of Columbia shall have original jurisdiction, and the circuit courts of appeal of the 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 211 
 
 United States and the court of appeals of the District of Columbia shall have appellate jurisdiction 
 of all suits at law or in equity respecting trade marks registered in accordance with the provisions 
 of this act, arising under the present act, without regard to the amount in controversy. 
 
 Sec. 18. That writs of certiorari may be granted by the Supreme Court of the United States for 
 the review of cases arising under this act in the same manner as provided for patent cases by the 
 act creating the circuit court of appeals. 
 
 Sec. 19. That the several courts vested with jurisdiction of cases arising under the present act 
 shall have power to grant injunctions, according to the course and principles of equity, to prevent 
 the violation of any right of the owner of a trade mark registered under this act, on such terms 
 as the court may deem reasonable; and upon a decree being rendered in any such case for wrong- 
 ful use of a trade mark the complainant shall be entitled to recover, in addition to the profits 
 to be accounted for by the defendant, the damages the complainant has sustained thereby, and the 
 court shall assess the same or cause the same to be assessed under its direction. The court shall 
 have the same power to increase such damages, in its discretion, as is given by section sixteen of 
 this act for increasing damages found by verdict in actions of law; and in assessing profits tlie 
 plaintiff shall be required to prove defendant's sales only; defendant must prove all elements of cost 
 which are claimed. 
 
 Sec. 20. That in any case involving the right to a trade mark registered in accordance with 
 the provisions of this act, in which the verdict has been found for the plaintiff, or an injunction 
 issued, the court may order that all labels, signs, prints, packages, wrappers, or receptacles in the 
 possession of the defendant, bearing the trade mark of the plaintiff or complainant, or any repro- 
 duction, counterfeit, copy, or colorable imitation thereof, shall be delivered up and destroyed. Any 
 injunction that may be granted upon hearing, after notice to the defendant, to prevent the viola- 
 tion of any right of the owner of a trade mark registered in accordance with the provisions of this 
 act, by any circuit court of the United States, or by a judge thereof, may be served on the parties 
 against whom such injunction may be granted anywhere in the United States where they may be 
 found, and shall be operative, and may be enforced by proceedings to punish for contempt, or other- 
 wise, by the court by which such injunction was granted, or by any other circuit court, or judge 
 thereof, in the United States, or by the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia, or a judge 
 thereof. The said courts, or judges thereof, shall have jurisdiction to enforce said injunction, as 
 herein provided, as fully as if the injunction had been granted by the circuit court in which it is 
 sought to be enforced. The clerk of the court or judge granting the injunction shall, when re- 
 quired to do so by the court before which application to enforce said injunction is made, transfer 
 without delay to said court a certified copy of all the papers on which the said injunction was 
 granted that are on file in his ofllce. 
 
 Sec. 21. That no action or suit shall be maintained under the provisions of this act in any case 
 when the trade mark is used in unlawful business, or upon any article injurious in itself, or which 
 mark has been used with the design of deceiving the public in the purchase of merchandise, or has 
 been abandoned, or upon any certificate of registration fraudulently obtained. 
 
 Sec. 22. That whenever there are interfering registered trade marks, any person interested in 
 any one of them may have relief against the interfering registrant, and all persons interested under 
 him, by suit in equity against the said registrant; and the court, on notice to adverse parties and 
 other due proceedings had according to the course of equity, may adjudge and declare either of the 
 registrations void in whole or in part according to the interest of the parties in the trade mark, 
 and may order the certificate of registration to be delivered up to the Commissioner of Patents for 
 cancellation. 
 
 Sec. 23. That nothing in this act shall prevent, lessen, impeach, or avoid any remedy at law or 
 in equity which any party aggrieved by any wrongful use of any trade mark might have had if the 
 provisions of this act had not been passed. 
 
 Sec. 24. That all applications for registration pending in the office of the Commissioner of 
 Patents at the time of the passage of this act may be amended with a view to bringing them, and 
 the certificate issued upon such applications, under its provisions, and the prosecution of such appli- 
 cations may be proceeded with under the provisions of this act. 
 
 Sec. 2.5. That any person who shall procure registration of a trade mark, or entry thereof, in 
 the ofiice of the Commissioner of Patents by a false or fraudulent declaration or representation, oral 
 or in writing, or by any false means, shall be liable to pay any damages sustained in consequence 
 thereof to the injured party, to be recovered by an action on the case. 
 
 Sec. 26. That the Commissioner of Patents is authorized to make rules and regulations, not in- 
 consistent with law, for the conduct of proceedings in reference to the registration of trade marks 
 provided for by this act. 
 
 Sec. 27. That no article of imported merchandise which shall copy or simulate the name of 
 any domestic manufacture, or manufacturer or trader, or of any manufacturer or trader located in 
 any foreign country which, by treaty, convention, or law affords similar privileges to citizens of the 
 United States, or which shall copy or simulate a trade mark registered in accordance with the 
 provisions of this act or shall bear a name or mark calculated to induce the public to believe that 
 the article is manufactured in the United States, or that it is manufactured in any foreign country 
 or locality other than the country or locality in which it is in fact manufactured, shall be admitted 
 to entry at any customhouse of the United States; and, in order to aid the officers of the customs 
 in enforcing this prohibition, any domestic manufacturer or trader, and any foreign manufacturer 
 or trader, who is entitled under the provisions of a treaty, convention, declaration, or agreement 
 between the United States and any foreign country to the advantages afforded by law to citizens of 
 the United States in respect to trade marks and commercial names, may require his name and resi- 
 
212 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 dence, and the name of the locality in which his goods are manufactured, and a copy of the certifi- 
 cate of registration of his trade mark, issued in accordance with the provisions of this act, to be 
 recorded in books which shall be kept for this purpose in the Department of the Treasury, under 
 such regulations as the Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe, and may furnish to the depart- 
 ment facsimilies of his name, the name of the locality in which his goods are manufactured, or of 
 his registered trade mark; and thereupon the Secretary of the Treasury shall cause one or more 
 copies of the same to be transmitted to each collector or other proper officer of customs. 
 
 Sec. 28. That it shall be the duty of the registrant to give notice to the public that a trade 
 mark is registered, either by affixing thereon the words "Registered in U. S. Patent Office," or abbre- 
 viated thus, "Reg. U. S. Pat. Off.," or when, from the character or size of the trade mark, or from its 
 manner of attachment to the article to which it is appropriated, this can not be done, then by affix- 
 ing a label containing a like notice to the package or receptacle wherein the article or articles are 
 inclosed; and in any suit tor infringement by a party failing so to give notice of registration no 
 damages shall be recovered, except on proof that the defendant was duly notified of infringement 
 and continued the same after such notice. 
 
 Sec. 29. That in construing this act the following rules must be observed, except where the 
 contrary intent is plainly apparent from the context thereof: The United States includes and em- 
 braces all territory which is under the jurisdiction and control of the United States. The word 
 "States" includes and embraces the District of Columbia, the Territori'=s of the United States, and 
 such other territory as shall be under the jurisdiction and control of the United States. The terms 
 "person" and "owner," and any word or term used to designate the applicant or other entitled to a 
 benefit or privilege or rendered liable under the provisions of this act, include a firm, corporation, 
 or association as well as a natural person. The term "applicant" and "registrant" embrace the suc- 
 cessors and assigns of such applicant or registrant. The term "trade mark" includes any mark 
 which is entitled to registration under the terms of this act, and whether registered or not, and a 
 trade mark shall be deemed to be "affixed" to an article when it is placed in any manner in or upon 
 either the article itself or the receptacle or package or upon the envelope or other thing in, by, or 
 with which the goods are packed or inclosed or otherwise prepared for sale or distribution. 
 
 Sec. 30. That this act shall be in force and take effect April first, nineteen hundred and five. 
 All acts and parts of acts inconsistent with this act are hereby repealed except so far as the same 
 may apply to certificates of registration issued under the act of Congress approved March third, 
 eighteen hundred and eighty-one, entitled, "An act to authorize the registration of trade marks and 
 protect the same," or under the act approved August fifth, eighteen hundred and eighty-two, 
 entitled "An act relating to the registration of trade marks." 
 
 Approved, February 20, 1905. 
 
 Act of May 4, l!l()(i. 
 
 AN ACT to amend the laws of the United States relating to the registration of trade marks. 
 
 Sec. 2. That the Commissioner of Patents shall establish classes of merchandise for the purpose 
 of trade mark registration, and shall determine the particular description of goods comprised in 
 each class. On a single application for registration of a trade mark the trade mark may be regis- 
 tered at the option of the applicant for any or all goods upon which the mark has actually been 
 used comprised in a single class of merchandise, provided the particular descriptions of goods be 
 stated. 
 
 Sec. 3. That any owner of a trade mark who shall have a manufacturing establishment within 
 the territory of the United States shall be accorded, so far as the registration and protection of 
 trade marks used on the products of such establishment are concerned, the same rights and privi- 
 leges that are accorded to owners of trade marks domiciled within the territory of the United 
 States by the act entitled "An act to authorize the registration of trade marks used in commerce 
 with foreign nations or among the several states or with Indian tribes, and to protect the same," 
 approved February twentieth, nineteen hundred and five. 
 
 Sec. 4. That this act shall take effect July first, nineteen hundred and six. 
 
 Approved, May 4, 1906. 
 
 Act to Incorpor.\te the American National Red Oro.s.'^, Approved January 5, 1905 
 
 (A.S Amenped Juke 23, 1910) 
 
 Sec. 4. That from and after the passage of this act it shall be unlawful for any person within the 
 jurisdiction of the United States to falsely or fraudulently hold himself out as or represent or pre- 
 tend himself to be a member of or an agent for the American National Red Cross for the purpose 
 of soliciting, collecting, or receiving money or material; or for any person to wear or display the 
 sign of the Red Cross or any insignia colored in imitation thereof for the fraudulent purpose of in- 
 ducing the belief that he is a member of or an agent for the American National Red Cross. It shall 
 be unlawful for any person, corporation, or association other than the American National Red Cross 
 and its duly authorized employees and agents and the Army and Navy sanitary and hospital authori- 
 ties of the United States, for the purpose of trade or as an advertisement, to induce the sale of any 
 article whatsoever or for any business or charitable purpose to use within the territory of the 
 United States of America and its exterior possessions the emblem of the Greek Red Cross on a white 
 ground, or any sign or insignia made or colored in imitation thereof, or of the words "Red Cross" 
 
CANNING OP FISHERY PRODUCTS 213 
 
 or "Geneva Cross" or any combination of tliese words: Provided, however, Tliat no person, corpora- 
 tion, or association that actually used or whose assignor actually used the said emblem, sign, insig- 
 nia, or words for any lawful purpose prior to January fifth, nineteen hundred and five, shall be 
 deemed forbidden by this act to continue the use thereof for the same purpose and for the same 
 class of goods. If any person violates the provision of this section he shall be deemed guilty of a 
 misdemeanor, and upon conviction in any Federal court shall be liable to a fine of not less than 
 one or more than five hundred dollars, or imprisonment tor a term not exceeding one year, or both, 
 for each and every offence. 
 
 Sec. 8. That the endowment fund of the American National Red Cross shall be kept and invested 
 under the management and control of a board of nine trustees, who shall be elected from time to 
 time by the incorporators and their successors under such regulations regarding terms and tenure 
 of office, accountability, and expense as said incorporators and successors shall prescribe. 
 
 Approved, June 23, 1910. 
 
 An act was pas.sed at the 1912 session of the rhilippine Legishitnre providing for the 
 registration and protection of patents and trade inarlcs in the Philippine Ishinds. Any 
 patent or trade mark registered in the United States Patent Office, upon being filed in 
 the Executive Pureau of the Philippines, shall receive the same protection as is accorded 
 in the United States, and persons infringing such patent or trade mark shall be liable 
 to the same penalties, provided the rights of property in patents and trade marks secured 
 in the Philippine Islands under the Spanish laws shall be respected as if such laws were 
 in full force and elfcct. To file a patent for protection, a certified coiiy of the patent 
 shall be sent, with a fee of two pesos (|1) and a letter of transmittal, to the chief of the 
 division of archives, patents, copyrights, and trade marks, of the Executive Bureau of 
 the Philippine Islands. A certified copy of a patent Jiiay be filed by another than the 
 owner of the patent if such agent is given power of attorney. Assignments of patents 
 may be filed in the same manner. Any questions arising under (his act shall be deter- 
 mined by courts of first instance of the supreme court of the Philippines. This law 
 became eft:'ective February 10, 1913. 
 
 N.\TioN.\L C.vNXKRs' AssociATiox A'N'iLL ^M.iivE Seakches 
 
 The National (banners' Association has arranged to make, wilhout charge other than 
 regular membership and general dues, a search of the records of llie United States Patent 
 Ofiice as to the registerability of a trade mark or copyrighting label or print. 
 
 They state: "In case it shall be decided by the applicant to enter application for 
 registration of a trade mark, the cost, including the ex]»cnse of an India ink drawing 
 showing the mark, is fifteen dollars; the government fee for the same is ten dollars, mak- 
 ing a total cost of twenty-five dollars. 
 
 "For preparing and prosecuting an application for copyrighting a label or print the 
 cost is ten dollars; the government fee for copyrighting a label or print is six dollars, 
 making a total cost of sixten dollars. 
 
 "From the above it will be .seen that wheie there is no interference or opposition, 
 the cost of registei-ing a trade mark, including the government fee, is |25 ; and the total 
 expense for copyrighting a label or print under the same conditions is flO." 
 
 Foreign Tuade Mark Registration 
 
 Any manufacturer or trade mark user doing an exjiort business must take care of 
 the question of the protection of trade marks in all foreign countries with which he does 
 business, as in most countries registration is dependent upon ownership and not on 
 priority of use. 
 
 The piracy of trade marks has unfortunately been common in the past in Cuba, 
 Argentine Republic, and even in European countries an agent for an American manu- 
 
214 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 facturer will frecnieutly register a trade mark iii lii.s own name, aud ou the expiration 
 of his agency will put his principal to great expense, embarrassment and trouble, and 
 sometimes will cause practical confiscation of his product. 
 
 There are agencies and attorneys who specialize in the registering of trade marks in 
 the United States and foreign countries, and it would be well for the American owner 
 to place his business in the hands of such, especially in connection with foreign registra- 
 tion, as each country has its own special law covering this matter. 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 215 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Page 
 
 Abalone 120 
 
 Ahi 112 
 
 Aku 112 
 
 Alblcore 109 
 
 Alaska Canneries, Standard Fire Require- 
 ments for 195 
 
 Alewife 21 
 
 Alewife Eggs and Melt 170 
 
 Altitude Sterilization Table 12 
 
 Amberfish or Yellowtail 118 
 
 Anchovies 22 
 
 Anchovy Paste 168 
 
 Automatic Controllers 13 
 
 Balls, Pish 167 
 
 Barracuda 25 
 
 Bass, White 105 
 
 Bass, White Sea 104 
 
 Beluga 162', 
 
 Bigelow, W. D 196 
 
 Bitting, A. W 190 
 
 "Black Bass," Sitka 59 
 
 Blue Crab 139 
 
 Bluelish 27 
 
 Blue, or Cultus, Cod 33 
 
 Boiler Capacity 5 
 
 Bones of Fishes, Time Required to Soften 182 
 
 Bonito or Skipjack 28 
 
 Brine and Salt 15 
 
 Brines, Making 16 
 
 Buckroe or Melt 172 
 
 Butter Clam 124 
 
 California Whiting 118 
 
 Canned Goods, Care of 19 
 
 Weights and Sizes 181 
 
 Canneries, Accidents in 190 
 
 Inspection of by National Canners 
 
 Association 188 
 
 Safety Measures in 190 
 
 Standard Fire Requirements for 
 
 Alaska 195 
 
 Canning Industry in 1914 179 
 
 Methods and Processes 7 
 
 Plant, Equipment of 4 
 
 Cans, Cooling 13 
 
 Exhausting 8 
 
 Frozen 19 
 
 Inspection of 14 
 
 Processing 9 
 
 Sizes of 6 
 
 Stamping • 13 
 
 Storehouse for Empty 6 
 
 Tipping Tin 9 
 
 Topping Tin 9 
 
 Washing 13 
 
 Capelin * 102 
 
 Carp, German 37 
 
 Canned Smoked German 39 
 
 Page 
 
 Catfish 29 
 
 Cavalla 57 
 
 Caviar 172 
 
 German Carp 176 
 
 Lake Herring 177 
 
 Paddleflsh 175 
 
 Pike 177 
 
 Salmon 175 
 
 Sturgeon 174 
 
 Whitefish 177 
 
 Chub, Utah Lake 114 
 
 Cisco, or Lake Herring 116 
 
 Clam 121 
 
 Butter 124 
 
 Chowder 127 
 
 Extract 128 
 
 Hard 121 
 
 Nectar 126 
 
 Meat in Can, Amount of 128 
 
 Razor 123 
 
 Soft 121 
 
 Surf 123 
 
 Washington 124 
 
 Cod 29 
 
 Cultus or Blue 33 
 
 Eggs _ 170 
 
 Red Rock 59 
 
 Containers 5 
 
 Contract, Guaranty Clause in 187 
 
 Controllers, Automatic 13 
 
 Crab 139 
 
 Blue 139 
 
 "Dungeness" 141 
 
 Meat, Canned Deviled 146 
 
 Canned Soft Shell 144 
 
 Canned Whole 144 
 
 Cravffish, Freshwater 186 
 
 Bisque of 147 
 
 Canned Whole 146 
 
 Tails, Canned 147 
 
 Crawfish, Sea, or Spiny Lobster 150 
 
 Crustaceans 139 
 
 Composition of 186 
 
 Cusk 31 
 
 Dogfish (see Greyfish) 40 
 
 Dolly Vardon Trout 108 
 
 "Do-Overs" 15 
 
 Drum, Freshwater 34 
 
 Sea 33 
 
 "Dungeness" Crab 141 
 
 Eel 34 
 
 In Jelly and Pickled 35 
 
 Smoked 35 
 
 Eggs, Alewife 170 
 
 Cod 170 
 
 Fish 169 
 
 Mullet 171 
 
 Sea Drum 171 
 
 Shad 171 
 
 Eulachon 101 
 
 Federal Food Inspection 202 
 
216 
 
 CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 Page 
 
 Finnan Haddie 36 
 
 Fire Requirements for Alaska Canneries, 
 
 Standard 195 
 
 Fish Balls 167 
 
 Fish Eggs 169 
 
 Fishes, Composition of Fresh 184 
 
 Composition of Preserved 184 
 
 Time Required to Soften Bones of 182 
 
 Fishery Products of the United States 179 
 
 Fishery Products Packed in Tin 181 
 
 Fish Melt 169 
 
 Pastes 168 
 
 Pudding 168 
 
 To Remove Skin from 182 
 
 Flat Sours 14 
 
 Flippers 14 
 
 Flux 17 
 
 Food and Drugs Act 202 
 
 Food Inspection, Federal 202 
 
 Frostflsh or Tomcod 31 
 
 Gauge Pressure and Temperature 12 
 
 German Carp 37 
 
 Canned Smoked 39 
 
 Caviar 176 
 
 Glass, Processing 11 
 
 Greyflsh 40 
 
 Grouper, Nassau 41 
 
 Red 41 
 
 Guaranty Clause in Contract 187 
 
 Haddock 31 
 
 Hake or Codling 31 
 
 Halibut 42 
 
 Bastard 42 
 
 Herring 45 
 
 Branch - 21 
 
 Kippered 47 
 
 Lake, or Cisco 116 
 
 Smoked 48 
 
 Hind, Rock 41 
 
 Speckled 42 
 
 Historical vii. 
 
 Introduction vi. 
 
 Jewfish 42 
 
 Kingfish or Whiting _ 117 
 
 Labels 18 
 
 Labor :. 1 
 
 Lacquering 18 
 
 Lake Herring or Cisco 116 
 
 Caviar 177 
 
 Ling 32 
 
 Lobster 147 
 
 Lobster, Spiny, or Sea Crawfish 150 
 
 Mackerel 49 
 
 Chub or Tinker 50 
 
 Mammals, Aquatic, etc 155 
 
 Page 
 
 Melt, Alewife 170 
 
 Fish 169, 172 
 
 Salmon 172 
 
 Menhaden 51 
 
 Mollusks 120 
 
 Composition of 185 
 
 Moon-Shell 137 
 
 Mullet 53 
 
 Eggs 171 
 
 Muskallunge 55 
 
 Mussels, Sea 128 
 
 Natica 137 
 
 National Canners Association, Inspection 
 
 by 188 
 
 National Canners Association Will Make 
 
 Trade Mark Searches . _ 213 
 
 Oyster 131 
 
 Meats, Weights of 136 
 
 Pickled 136 
 
 Paddlefish or Spoonbill Cat 54, 107 
 
 Caviar 175 
 
 Paste, Anchovy 168 
 
 Fish 168 
 
 Salmon ; 168 
 
 Periwinkles 137 
 
 Pickerel or Jack 54 
 
 Or Pike 54 
 
 Piddocks 137 
 
 Pike or Pickerel 54 
 
 Caviar 177 
 
 Like Fishes 54 
 
 Perches 55 
 
 Wall-eyed 55 
 
 Pilchard 98 
 
 Pintado 57 
 
 Plant, Location and Equipment of 1, 4 
 
 Pollock 31 
 
 Alaska 31 
 
 Porpoises 161 
 
 Prawn 150 
 
 Preface iv. 
 
 Pressure, Gauge, and Temperature 12 
 
 Products, Fishery, of United States 179 
 
 Grading of 7 
 
 Packed in Tin 181 
 
 Spoilage of 14 
 
 Washing and Dressing 7 
 
 Pudding, Fish 168 
 
 Quahog or Hard Clam : 168 
 
 Raw Material 7 
 
 Razor Clam 123 
 
 Red Snapper 58 
 
 Rockfishes , 59 
 
 Rockfish, Red 59 
 
 Rockfish or Striped Bass 105 
 
 Rock Hind 41 
 
 Safety Measures in Canneries 190 
 
CANNING OF FISHERY PRODUCTS 
 
 217 
 
 Page 
 
 Salmon 59 
 
 Analyses of Canned 75 
 
 Canning 70 
 
 Canning Smoked 76 
 
 Cans, Boxing 75 
 
 Cans, Lacquering 73 
 
 Making 75 
 
 Caviar 175 
 
 Chinook, Quinnat or King 61 
 
 Dog or Chum 65 
 
 Handling 66 
 
 Humpback or Pink 65 
 
 In Spices 78 
 
 Melt 172 
 
 Red, Sockeye or Blueback 63 
 
 Sanitary Method of Canning 71 
 
 Silver, Coho or Medium Red 64 
 
 Trout 108 
 
 Sanitation , 2 
 
 Of Sardine Canneries 3, 96 
 
 Salt and Brine 15 
 
 Sardines 78 
 
 Canneries, Inspection of 95 
 
 Sanitation of 3, 96 
 
 Canning Pacific Coast 88 
 
 Composition of Maine 88 
 
 Inspection 95 
 
 Labeling 95 
 
 Sanger or Sand Pike 56 
 
 Sea Bass, White 104 
 
 Sea Drum 33 
 
 Eggs 171 
 
 Sea Trout 104 
 
 Shad 98 
 
 Eggs 171 
 
 Hickory ■. 21 
 
 Kippered 100 
 
 Shrimp 150 
 
 Analysis of Canned 154 
 
 Meat, Food Value of 154 
 
 Paste .. 153 
 
 Weights and Branding of 154 
 
 Sizes of Canned Goods 181 
 
 Skin from a Fish, to Remove 182 
 
 Skipjack or Bonito 28 
 
 Smelt 101 
 
 Snapper, Red 58 
 
 Solder 17 
 
 Sours, Flat 14 
 
 Spoonbill Cat or Paddlefish 54, 107 
 
 Spiny Lobster or Sea Crawfish 150 
 
 Sprat 22 
 
 Springers 14, 196 
 
 Squeteague 103 
 
 Squid 137 
 
 Steelhead Trout 109 
 
 Sterilization Table, Altitude 12 
 
 Page 
 
 Striped Bass or Rockfish 105 
 
 Sturgeon 105 
 
 Canned Smoked 107 
 
 Caviar 172 
 
 Surf Clam 123 
 
 Swells 14, 196 
 
 "Swells and Springers," by W. D. Bigelow 196 
 
 Temperature Equivalents ^ 184 
 
 Gauge Pressure and 12 
 
 Testing Room 15 
 
 Terrapin 155 
 
 Stewed 159 
 
 Composition of 186 
 
 Tinning the Capping Steel 17 
 
 Tinning the Tipping Copper 17 
 
 Tin Plate 184 
 
 Tin, Products Packed in 181 
 
 Tomato Sauce, Starch in 95 
 
 Tomcod or Frostfish 31 
 
 Trade Mark, Foreign Registration of 213 
 
 And Protection of Same 206 
 
 Laws of the United States 208 
 
 Trout, Dolly Vardon 108 
 
 Salmon 108 
 
 Sea 104 
 
 Steelhead .■ 109 
 
 Tuna 109 
 
 Turtles 155 
 
 Composition of 186 
 
 Meat, Green 155 
 
 Snapping 158 
 
 Soft-shell 157 
 
 Soup, Green 157 
 
 Stewed Snapping 158 
 
 United States, Fishery Products of the 179 
 
 Utah Lake Chub , 114 
 
 Vegetable Foods, Composition of 186 
 
 Warning to Canners 11 
 
 Washington Clam 124 
 
 Water Supply 1 
 
 Weakfish 103 
 
 Weights of Canned Goods 181 
 
 Whale 161 
 
 Meat, Analysis of Canned 165 
 
 White Bass 105 
 
 Whitefish 114 
 
 Longjaw - 117 
 
 Tullibee 116 
 
 Caviar 177 
 
 Whiting, California 118 
 
 Whiting or Kingfish 117 
 
 Yellowtail or Amberfish 118 
 
THE AMERICAN CAN COMPANY is in a 
 position to furnish canners of sea food prod- 
 ucts the most complete and varied Hnes of 
 containers made. Our equipment permits the 
 manufacture of not only an endless variety in 
 styles of cans, but every desirable commercial 
 size demanded by the trade. 
 
 Salmon ends for canners in Alaska or else- 
 w^here v/ho make their own cans from our 
 machinery. 
 
 Closing machines for closing cans. 
 
 Collapsed and reformed cans shipped in knock- 
 down, and equipment for assembling cans at can- 
 ner's factory. 
 
 Factories located at convenient shipping points, 
 allow^ing low^ transportation charges and prompt 
 deliveries. 
 
 Details specifying the various cans and ship- 
 ping points of their manufacture may be found 
 on the tvv^o follow^ing pages. 
 
 AMERICAN CAN COMPANY 
 
 GENERAL OFFICES 
 120 Broadway, New York 
 
AMERICAN CAN COMPANY 
 
 120 Broadway, New York 
 
 Herewith are listed the standard sizes of cans generally 
 used for sea food products, and the factory locations where 
 manufactured. 
 
 CAVIAR CANS 
 
 MADE AT FAIRPORT, N. Y. 
 
 13^ oz 2%xlJg 
 
 3 oz 23^x1^ 
 
 3^ lb 2J^x2^ 
 
 1 lb 2^x311 
 
 CLAM CANS 
 
 MADE AT FAIRPORT. N. Y. 
 
 5 oz 2Hx4 
 
 8, oz 2{ix4^ 
 
 8M0Z 3tVx4 
 
 10 oz 3iVx4^ 
 
 MADE AT PORTLAND, ORE. 
 
 No. 3^ 23,^x2 
 
 No. 1 21^x4 
 
 No. 1 Tall 3x4fi 
 
 No. 2 S^xiVi 
 
 No. 10 6^x6M 
 
 COD FISH CANS 
 
 MADE AT FAIRPORT, N. Y. 
 
 No. 13 2if x3H 
 
 No. 93 3i^x3H 
 
 LOBSTER CANS 
 
 MADE AT NIAGARA FALLS, ONTARIO 
 
 H lb. Flat 2if X IH 
 
 Hlb. Flat 3t^x2 
 
 H lb. Flat 41^ X IK 
 
 1 lb. Flat 4i<i X 214 
 
 1 lb. Tall 2if X 4^ 
 
 OVAL CANS 
 
 MADE AT BOSTON, MASS. 
 
 Small 5% X 3>^ X Ij^ 
 
 Spec. Small 53^ x 3}/^ x Ij^ 
 
 Medium 5]4 x 3^ x IM 
 
 Large 63^ x 4^% x 13^ 
 
 Marshall JU x 4i^ x IH 
 
 MADE AT PORTLAND, ORE., VANCOUVER, B.C., SAN FRANCISCO, 
 
 CAL., AND LOS ANGELES, CAT. 
 H lb. Oval 
 1 lb. Oval 
 
 AMERICAN CAN COMPANY 
 
AMERICAN CAN COMPANY 
 
 120 Broadway, New York 
 OYSTER CANS 
 
 MADE AT BALTO, MD., AND NEW ORLEANS, LA. 
 
 3oz 21ix234 
 
 4oz 2^x3^8 
 
 5oz lu^'U 
 
 6oz oVi^oV: 
 
 6oz i^'liii 
 
 8 oz Q V ^^9* 
 
 10 oz X^^ zkl 
 
 12 oz 3j^x4>^ 
 
 SARDINE CANS 
 
 MADE AT BOSTON. MASS.. AND LUBEC, ME. 
 M Oil Drawn 
 j| Oil Mustard Drawn 
 % Mustard - 3 pieced Can 
 
 MADE AT EASTPORT, ME., AND LOS ANGELES, CAL. 
 ^/i Oil R. T. Key Opening 
 % Mustard R. T. Key Opening 
 
 SALMON CANS 
 
 MADE AT PORTLAND, ORE., AND SEATTLE, WASH. 
 
 No. 1 Tall 3 X 4fi 
 
 1 lb. Flat C. R 43L X 25.^ 
 
 H lb. Flat C. R 33^8 X 2 
 
 r lb. Flat Alaska 4^5 x 2^ 
 
 3^ lb. Flat Alaska 3% x 2^8 
 
 1 lb. Flat P. A 4J5 X 2i6 
 
 3^ lb. Flat P. A 3H X 21/^ 
 
 SHRIMP CANS 
 
 MADE AT NEW ORLEANS, LA. 
 
 No. 1 ^^''l^ 
 
 No.lH f^^^V 
 
 No. 2 3fg X 4t6 
 
 TUNA CANS 
 
 MADE AT LOS ANGELES. CAL. 
 
 M 2HxlM 
 
 <X 33^ ^2 
 
 No. 1 4x23,^ 
 
 In addition to the above sizes of cans for sea foods, 
 the American Can Company manufactures every sort of 
 container — metal or fibre — for any desired purpose. Cor- 
 respondence is soUcited not only from those engaged in 
 business but also from those contemplating placing on the 
 market any sort of package goods. 
 
 AMERICAN CAN COMPANY 
 
 !i5 
 16 
 
No. 32 DOUBLE SEAMER 
 For closing V4, and % oil cans. 
 
 "AMS" 
 
 Double 
 
 S 
 
 earners 
 
 WE ARE NOW PREPARED TO FURNISH AUTOMATIC 
 CLOSING MACHINES FOR ROUND CANS, GIVING ANY 
 DESIRED OUTPUT FROM 50 TO 200 CANS PER MINUTE 
 
 THE MAX AMS MACHINE CO. 
 
 CHAS. M. AMS. President 
 
 NEW YORK, N. Y. 
 
 COAST DISTRIBUTORS: 
 
 THE PREMIER MACHINERY CO. 
 
 SAN FRANCISCO., CAL. 
 
 THE SEAL 
 
 OF SAFETY 
 
 No. 12S DOUBLE SEAMER 
 For round cans — 60-70 per minute. 
 
WANTED; 
 
 Good Pacific 
 
 FISH 
 
 # 
 
 All Varieties and Grades 
 
 SALTED OR CANNED 
 For Export and Domestic Consumption 
 
 SEABOARD TRADING COMPANY 
 
 Established 1903 
 
 12 WATER STREET NEW YORK CITY 
 
 CABLE ADDRESS : SEATRADE, NEW YORK 
 Liber's Iniproyed, A. B. C. Fiftli Improved, and Armsby's Codes Used 
 
COMPLETE LINE OF 
 
 Salmon Canning Machinery 
 
 INCLUDING THE FOLLOWING— 
 
 Standard Fish Cutters 
 
 Sanitary Fish Cutters 
 
 Tall Filling Machines 
 
 Fiat Filling Machines 
 
 Half-Flat Filling Machines 
 
 Weighing Machines 
 
 Clinchers 
 
 Endless Diamond Chain Exhaust Boxes 
 
 Double Seamers 
 
 Retorts 
 
 Retort Trucks 
 
 Coolers, all sizes 
 
 Burpee Home Can Sealer 
 
 Hand Operated 
 For Home and Laboratory Purposes 
 
 Made in the Following Sizes — 
 
 No. 1, No. 1, No. 2il>, No. 3, No. 10, lUb. Flat 
 Salmon, I -lb. Flat Salmon, I -lb. Tall Salmon Cans 
 
 BURPEE & LETSON, Ltd. 
 
 so. BELLINGHAM, WASH. 
 
Turn Your Waste Into Profit 
 
 Our Fislimeal Plants accomplish this iu a clean, sanitary, odor- 
 less manner. 
 
 These plants have been installed in the center of residence 
 districts and cause no complaint. 
 
 Any 
 
 CapacH} 
 
 A II J 
 
 Kind 
 
 of 
 Fisli 
 Any 
 Fuel 
 
 Tan be 
 Installed 
 
 in 
 Unused 
 Part (if 
 ('annery 
 or on a 
 niiarf 
 
 PATENTS PENDING 
 
 The operation is continuous and automatic and requires only 
 one man on the smaller plants and two on the larger ones to 
 operate, and the power needed is very small. 
 
 The products, Fishmeal and Oil, are becoming more used every 
 day, and the profits from the manufacture of them are getting 
 greater. 
 
 If your oft'al is a problem to you. let us show you how to con- 
 vert it into a profit. 
 
 The entire plant is tested before leaving our factory, and is 
 shipped K. D. 
 
 For all particulars, cuts, catalogs, etc.. address 
 
 CALIFORNIA PRESS MFG. CO. 
 
 409 Sixth Street ' San Francisco 
 
World Can Labeler 
 
 H Easily adjustable for different sizes of cans. 
 
 H Uses one kind of gum for pick-up and lap. 
 
 H Each can neatly labeled. No waste of labels. 
 
 H Backed by an organization well known for its lively and 
 continuous interest in satisfying the users of its products. 
 
 ft Will Pdji YoH to Investigate This Macliine 
 
 Economic Machinery Company 
 
 WORCESTER, MASSACHUSETTS 
 
WAS 
 
 Marine and Ship Forgings 
 
 Machinery Forgings 
 
 Turnbuckles 
 
 Stanchions 
 
 Anchors 
 
 Bolts 
 
 SALMON COOLERS 
 WHALE HARPOONS 
 
 L.et us Quote You PRICLi)c>ii 
 YOUR RtQUlRKMhNTS 
 
 WE GALVANIZE 
 
 (Hot Dip Process) 
 
 =s-^fB^-^^ 
 
Troyer-Fox 
 
 Sanitary Seaming 
 
 or 
 
 Closing Machines 
 
 FOR SEALING 
 
 and 
 PRESERVING 
 
 All FISH. JIEAT. VEGE- 
 TABLE and other food pro- 
 ducts by the sanitary process 
 of sealing the end to the 
 flanged body of the can liy 
 the double roll or seam, in- 
 terlined with a rubber cement. 
 
 ^f%rr~# '_u_j!^m^^: 
 
 SPEED— 75 to 90 Cans Per Minute 
 NO SPILLS— NO LEAKS— NO JAMMED CANS 
 
 An automatic spiral can feed. No can, no top, end feed. Two 
 
 seaming operations, can standing still. Seaming rolls — heat treated 
 tool steel — that stay in adjustment. 
 
 Write for catalog. 
 
 Seattle-Astoria Iron Works 
 
 Builders of 
 
 TROYER-FOX Sanitary Can Making and Canners' Machinery 
 
 SEATTLE, WASH. 
 
TROYER-FOX 
 
 Automatic Sanitary Salmon Canning 
 
 Machinery 
 
 IMPROVED JENSEN PATENT AUTOMATIC FILLERS 
 
 For 1 inch Tall, 1 inch Flat and i inch Flat. 
 Speed 75 to 90 cans per minute. 
 
 THIRTY-EIGHT years .specializing in designing and building 
 salmon cauners' machinery. Close intimate touch with every phase 
 of the business. 
 
 Standard equipment for every operation from the water to 
 the can. 
 
 Send for catalog illustrating, describing and giving detailed 
 specifications. 
 
 SEATTLE-ASTORIA IRON WORKS 
 
 Builders of 
 
 TROYER-FOX Sanitary Can Making- and Canners' Machinery 
 
 SEATTLE, WASH. 
 
Is^pi? 
 
 NET YOU MORE IF 
 
 your pack has been processed in kettles 
 equij)ped with TAG Self-Operating 
 Retort Controllers because the costly 
 item of spoil age is then reduced to the 
 minimum. 
 
 You know from experience that even a small 
 pidportion of s])()iled cans (due to under- or 
 over-cooking) greatly depreciates the value of 
 the pack — and rei)resents a large percentage of 
 your lu'f ])roflts. 
 
 TAG 
 
 Self-Operating 
 Retort Controllers 
 
 are the simplest and surest solution liecause by automatically 
 maintaining a uniform temperature within the kettles, UNI- 
 FORM processing is always achieved. 
 
 This is only one of the reasons why TAG Controllers are 
 rapidly replacing unreliable and wasteful hand manipulation 
 of the steam inlet valves, also other makeshifts. 
 
 No auxiliary motive power is required so that TAG Control- 
 lers are simple to install and operate. Moreover, they quickly 
 pay for themselves in the items of spoilage, labor and steam, 
 
 ilSlT] 
 
 "Set it and 
 Forget it" 
 
 If you'd like your "fish net 
 
 to net you more", ask for 
 
 Bulletin F-386 
 
 m 
 
 LIABUE 
 
 MFG.CO. 
 
 TEMPERATURE ENGINEERS 
 l8-88Thirl>r-ThlTd SI. BroolJyn.N.Y. 
 
 3.?®]8®«S«®li!S«®!®l«S?@I°^5®l«®l«^IiaSs®i!^8^l!Ml«^^»^ 1 
 
R. I. MORSE, Pres.-Treas. C. A. MORSE, Vice-Pres. H. E. FISHER, Secy. 
 
 MORSE HARDWARE COMPANY, Inc. 
 
 IMPORTERS AND JOBBERS 
 
 ESTABLISHED 1884 
 
 IRON, STEEL AND HARDWARE MERCHANTS 
 
 A COMPLETE LINE OF 
 
 CANNERY SUPPLIES 
 
 SHIP CHANDLERY 
 
 FISH TRAP NETTING 
 
 TRAP STAPLES, HOG RINGS 
 
 CABLE AND SPROCKET CHAIN 
 
 WIRE ROPE 
 
 CORDAGE 
 
 PIPE AND FITTINGS 
 
 CORRUGATED IRON 
 
 WEATHERPROOF PATENT ROOFING 
 
 WHITE LEAD, LINSEED OIL 
 
 ELECTRIC RUBBER HOSE 
 
 CONDOR RUBBER BELTING 
 
 AMERICAN STEEL PULLEYS AND SHAFTING 
 
 MARINE AND HOUSE PAINT 
 
 DOORS AND WINDOWS 
 
 PURE BELLINGHAM COAL TAR 
 
 WAREHOUSE TRUCKS AND SCALES 
 
 GUNS AND AMMUNITION 
 
 MAJESTIC RANGES AND HEATING STOVES 
 
 BLACKSMITHS' SUPPLIES 
 
 MORSE SPECIAL HOG RINGERS 
 
 CEMENT-COATED COOLER AND BOX NAILS 
 
 1025-1039 ELK STREET BELLINGHAM, WASH. 
 
<*»i^>'**: 
 
 
 SPRAGUE WORKS 
 The Home of the Sign of Quality 
 
 BUILDERS OF 
 
 COMPLETE EQUIPMENT FOR CANNING 
 AND PRESERVING PLANTS 
 
 The only manufacturers who are prepared to supply 
 your requirements in canning factory machinery, complete 
 in every detail, backed up by thirty years of experience and 
 a money-back guarantee of satisfaction. 
 
 Sprague Canning Machinery Company 
 
 FACTORY: HOOPESTOX, ILL. (JEXERAL OFFICES: CHICAGO, ILL. 
 
 EASTERN BRANCH: WESTERN AGENTS: 
 
 SHEPPARD Sl'PPLY & EQl'IPMEM (0. PREMIER MACHINERY CO. 
 37 South Charles Street 1(> California Street 
 
 Baltimore, Md. San Francisco. Calif. 
 
Sal 
 
 C 
 
 mon Vjanners 
 
 Why Pay for High Priced Labor to Unload YourScows? 
 They will UNLOAD THEMSELVES if Equipped with Ihe 
 
 HOONAH AUTOMATIC FISH 
 CONVEYOR SYSTEM 
 
 Patent No. 126246— Issued April 19, 1918 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 SKETCH or HOONAH SCOW BESIDE CANNERY FLOAT 
 
 One Man Can Do The Work of Six 
 
 Under average operating conditions, one man Avorking ten 
 hours a day last year did all work connected with unloading and 
 washing scows at the four-line Hoonah Cannery, which packed 
 101,000 cases in 26 consecutive days. 
 
 Conserve Money and Man Power! The Country Needs Them! 
 
 HOONAH PACKING CO, 
 
 SOUTH BELLINGHAM, WASH. 
 
 SOLE OWNERS 
 
A. LINCOLN NORTH GEORGE S. DALZELL A. A. PEQUIGNOT 
 
 President and Treasurer Vice-President Secretary 
 
 North & Dalzell, Inc. 
 
 Brokers and 
 Commission Merchants 
 
 111 Hudson Street, New York 
 
 Canned Foods, Dried Fruits, 
 
 Beans, California Products, 
 
 Salmon 
 
 REFERENCES: 
 Irving National Bank Fidelity Trust Co. Broadway Trust Co. 
 
 W92 
 


 
 
 
 
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