QUESTIONS IN Physical Geography GIVEN AT EXAMINATIONS HELD BY THE REGENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OP THE STATE OP NEW YORK ARRANGED BY S. O- KIMM u Supervising Principal, Keeseville, N. Y. SYRACUSE, N. Y. . Copyri^nt tntry CLASS (X Wto No T_-L_ (* -b 3 COPY 'J PREFACE This little book of questions and answers was not designed for "cramming" but for a help to both teacher and pupil at the close of the term after the sub- ject has been honestly and thoroughly studied. I have chosen what seemed to me the most important and frequently recurring questions in the Regents examina- tions, and have arranged them by topics. The answers are made more valuable by references to the leading authors, as shown in the list on page 31 of the Key. The maps and pictures are sometimes repeated that they may adjoin the matter they illustrate, the one object being to make the book convenient and usable. SUBJECTS Pages The earth as a planet, 1-20 9, 33 The earth's surface, 21-74 10, 37 Water, 75-123 14, 57 Atmosphere, 124-206 17, 91 Flora and fauna, 207-247 23, 115 General questions, 248-293 26, 125 Eegents Questions-Physical Geography THE EARTH AS A PJLANET 1 Define (a) solstice, (b) satellite, (c) ecliptic, (d) aphelion, (e) perihelion, (J) cotidal lines, (g) parhelia. 2 Describe the solar system. 3 Compare the earth with the planet Jupiter as to (a) size, (6) mass, (c) distance from the sun. 4 Give the causes of the change of seasons. 5 Show by a diagram the position of the earth in its orbit, and (a) the inclination of its axis at the times of the summer and winter solstices, and (&) of the vernal and autumnal equinoxes. 6 Describe the two principal motions of the earth and state their respective effects on its physical condition. 7 Show how one of the earth' s motions produces the change of seasons. 8 Give five proofs of the rotundity of the earth. 9 Describe the earth as to (a) form, (6) size and (c) mass. 10 Describe each of the mathematical zones as to (a) location, (b) width. 11 Name and define five important circles on the earth, and give the reason for the position of each. 12 At what time during the year are day and night of equal length over all the earth ? 13 Explain. (9) 10 EEGENTS QUESTIONS 14 Name the planets in order of their size. 15 Describe the experiments to prove the rotation of the earth. 16 Define (a) latitude; (b) longitude. 17 (a) Where does a degree of latitude have the great- est length ? (b) Why ? (c) State in miles the approxi- mate length of a degree of latitude. 18 (d) How do degrees of longitude compare as to length in different latitudes? (e) Why? 19 Explain the relation of longitude to latitude. 20 Define (a) polar projection, (b) conical projection, (c) equatorial projection. THE EARTH'S SURFACE 21 Describe the proofs of the original fluidity of the earth. 22 Give the proofs of a present heated interior of the earth. 23 Name four effects of the heated interior of the earth. 24 Describe two kinds of volcanic eruptions and men- tion a volcano illustrative of each. 25 Describe two forms of volcanic cones and show how each is produced. 26 What force causes lava to rise in a volcano ? 27 Discuss the relations existing between earthquakes and volcanoes. 28 (a) State the leading theory with reference to the cause of earthquakes. (6) Describe the great earth- quake of Lisbon. 29 (a) Describe the movements of the ground in earth- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 11 quakes, (b) What regions are especially subject to earthquakes ? 30 Why do they occur more frequently at night than during the day, in winter than in summer, and during new and full moon? 31 Name the causes of volcanoes and earthquakes. Name two volcanic regions. 32 Mention three effects of the contraction of the earth's crust. 33 What two elementary substances form the greater part by weight of the earth's crust? 34 In what classes may rocks be divided as to (a) ori- gin, (6) condition? 35 Describe the formation of a coal bed. 36 Name four agencies that are constantly effecting changes in the contour of the surface of the earth. 37 Describe the land masses of the earth as to (a) distribution, (b) relative size. 38 Name three peculiarities in the distribution of the land masses. 39 Name two classes of islands. Name an important island of each class, locate it, describe its physical fea- tures and tell how it was formed. 40 Describe some volcanic island with regard to its formation and present characteristics. 41 Describe the growth of a barrier reef. Mention a noted example of a barrier reef. 42 State the physical conditions necessary to the growth of coral islands. 43 Name and describe four varieties of coral forma- tions. Give an example of each. 12 REGENTS QUESTIONS 44 Give Darwin's theory concerning the formation of coral islands. 45 Describe the development of a mountain system. State the cause. 46 Describe the relief forms of Asia and show how they have affected the development of that country. 47 Why has the great low plain of Europe no large river system ? Explain. 48 Describe the great low plain of South America as to (a) location and extent, (6) nature of the soil, (c) kind of vegetation. 49 Describe the great low plain of Europe as to (a) location, (6) topography, (c) drainage. 50 Describe the great low plain of North America as to (a) location and extent, (6) topography, (c) drain- age, (d) adaptation to human life. 51 Compare the coast line of North America with that of Europe as to indentation. Which is the more favorable to commerce ? Why ? 52 Describe the Rocky Mountain System and state its effect on the climate of North America. 53 Give the location and state the cause of the desert belt of the eastern continents. 54 Give a brief description of the Atlantic highlands of North America. 55 Mention three points in which the relief forms of North America resemble those of South America. Two points in which they differ. 56 Describe as to location and extent the plains of South America, Asia, North America, Europe and Australia. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 13 57 Mention three points in which the relief forms of Europe resemble those of Asia, and two points in which they differ. 58 Describe the relief of Europe. 59 Show the effect of the Mohawk gap at Little Falls on the development of New York City. 60 Describe the predominant mountain system of Europe. 61 Describe the formation of a longitudinal valley. 62 Name, locate and describe the predominant moun- tain system in each of the following: Asia, South Amer- ica, North America and Africa. 63 Define lagoon, fossil, volcano, earthquake, rock, mineral, island, orology, palaeontology, plateau, plain, intermont. 64 Describe the formation of fluviatile or marine plains, lacusturine plains. Illustrate. 65 Describe or explain the formation of peneplains. Illustrate. 66 Into what three classes are mountains divided ? 67 What are the causes of coastal plains ? 68 What are mesas or buttes ? 69 State how the distribution of volcanoes is related to the position of the oceans. Account for this relation. 70 Compare the coast line of the eastern continents with those of the western continents, those of the north- ern hemisphere with those of the southern hemisphere, those of the western side of the continents with those of the eastern side of the continents. 71 Show how the relief of New York State has spec- ially fitted it for the occupancy of mankind. 14 REGENTS QUESTIONS 72 What is the difference between a plain and a plateau ? 73 Mention two great plains and two great plateaus. 74 State the effect of the destruction of forests. WATER 75 Define silt, geyser, water, spring, river, water- shed, river-system, basin, channel, delta, lakes, water, tides, fiord. 76 Describe the solvent powers of water. 77 Name and describe six springs, giving a noted ex- ample of each. 78 Describe the formation of (a) fluviatile islands, (b) fluviatile lakes. 79 Describe the distribution of lakes in the United States and state the causes of this distribution. 80 Account for the existence of salt lakes. Give two examples of salt lakes. 81 Mention five principal lakes within New York state. Explain how each of these lakes has contributed to the welfare of people in its vicinity. 82 Explain the action of rivers in forming alluvial flats and islands. 83 Give the principal cause of the formation of lakes. Account for the elevated beaches found in New York stale near Lake Ontario and Lake Erie. 84 Describe two fluvio-marine formations. Give examples of each. 85 Describe the drainage system of each of the follow- ing countries: North America, Asia, Europe and South America. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 15 86 Describe the Nile River, touching on (a) causes of its periodic rise and fall, (b) economic effect of its annual overflow. 87 Describe the drainage of New York State. Show the relation of this drainage to the prosperity of the state. 88 Compare the drainage of North America with the drainage of Africa. 89 What is meant by deposition of silt? Mention four parts of a river basin where this phenomenon occurs. 90 Describe the formation of (a) caverns, (b) cascades. 91 Give reasons for regarding the drainage system of the highland of Canada, lying between the St. Lawrence and Hudson Bay as being in a comparatively early stage of development. 92 Explain how river courses tend to become senous. Give illustrations. 93 State the conditions necessary for the formation of (a) sand bars, (6) sounds, (c) flood plains. 94 Name and describe five river basins that determ- ine the drainage of Africa. 95 Explain why the river channel in the lower courses of large rivers is usually characterized by wide bends. 96 Account for the saltness and the color of the ocean. 97 Compare the Pacific Ocean with the Atlantic Ocean«as to (a) depth, (b) relative size, (c) shape. 98 Describe the bed of the Atlantic Ocean. 99 Give the topography of the ocean bottom. 100 Describe the bed of the Pacific. 101 Mention three oceanic movements and give the cause of each. 16 REGENTS QUESTIONS 102 Describe ocean waves as to (a) cause, (6) form, (c) effects. 103 Describe the origin and progress of the tidal wave of the Pacific. 104 Trace the course, of the Kuro Sivo (Japan Cur- rent) and state its effect upon climate. 105 Give principal cause of ocean currents. Men- tion the currents of the Atlantic. 106 State in regard to spring tides (a) the conditions under which they occur, (6) frequency of occurrence. 107 Discuss tides (a) as to cause, (6) as to laws of occurrence. 108 Give an example of the influence of oceanic currents on climate. 109 State in regard to neap tides (a) conditions under which they occur, (b) number of times they occur annually. 110 Describe the south equatorial current of the At- lantic as to (or) cause, (b) course, (c) influence on climate. 111 Explain how tides are produced. At what in- tervals do the tides occur ? Explain. 112 Mention five principal causes of the deflection of polar and equatorial ocean currents. 113 Explain the production of tides. 114 Explain how races and whirlpools are caused. 115 Mention three causes that prevent the polar cur- rents from moving in the direct line of the meridians. 116 Describe the north equatorial current of the Pa- cific as to (a) cause, (6) direction, (c) extent, (d) in- fluence on climate. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 17 117 Illustrate by means of a drawing the direction of the constant surface ocean currents in the northern hemisphere; in the southern hemisphere. 118 Compare waves with tide and with ocean cur- rents as to causes, motion of water and effects. 119 What is the Gulf Stream ? Trace its course and state its effect. 120 Explain by diagram or otherwise the formation of artesian wells. What has been learned from such wells regarding the temperature of the earth below the surface ? 121 Explain the formation of an ordinary hillside spring. 122 Account for the formation of geysers. Mention three noted geyser regions. 123 What is a periodic spring? Illustrate by a drawing. ATMOSPHERE 124 Define climate, monsoon, glacier, magnet, iso- therm, meteor, barograph, moraine, mirage, isobar, simoon. 125 Explain the causes of atmospheric circulation. 126 Mention five elements that enter into the com- position of the atmosphere. 127 Explain the principle of the barometer. 128 Mention four constituents of the air, and give the function of two of these constituents. 129 Show how the barometer may be used in meas- uring the height of mountains. 130 Mention four principal causes on which climate depends. Explain one of them. 18 REGENTS QUESTIONS 131 Define the astronomical and physical climates. 132 Compare the temperature of the ocean with that of the continents in (a) winter, (6) summer. Explain. 133 Compare the climate of Irkutsk, an inland town of Siberia, with the climate of Dublin in nearly the same latitude. Explain. 134 Account for the climatic conditions in the zone of polar winds in (a) summer, (6) winter. 135 Account for the fact that New York State has a cold winter, while Italy in the same latitude has a mild climate. 136 Account for the marked contrast between the climate of the eastern and that of the western coast of the United States. 137 Name five factors influencing the climate of Charleston, South Carolina. State how each of these factors affects the climate. 138 During what month is the heat greatest in places having the same latitude as Havana, Cuba ? Why ? 139 Why are places in the eastern coast of South America warmer than places in the same latitude on the western coast ? 140 Assume that an area of high barometer is mov- ing across the United States; state the weather condi- tions that will probably prevail along its course. 141 Mention two reasons that account for the differ- ence in climate between London and the southern part of Labrador. 142 Compare the climate of the Adirondack region with that of Long Island. 143 Why do places on the coast have a more equa- PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 19 ble temperature than places in the interior of a country ? 144 Why is the mean annual temperature of Stock- holm, about 60 degrees north latitude, the same as that of Montreal, about 45 degrees north latitude ? 145 Define isothermal lines. Are they straight lines? Explain. 146 Show why isothermal lines do not coincide with parallels of latitude. Consider at least 4 reasons. 147 Give the approximate course of the isotherm of 50 degrees across North America, the Atlantic Ocean and Europe. 148 Trace the course of the isotherm of 30 degrees north across the earth and account for its deviation from the parallels of latitude. 149 What is the cause of winds ? Make a diagram showing the origin and the direction of atmospheric currents. 150 Describe the wind zones. 151 Describe the movement of storms across the United States and the Atlantic Ocean. 152 Describe and account for monsoons. Mention two regions of monsoons. 153 What conditions are necessary for the production of (a) land breezes, (b) sea breezes, (c) mountain breezes. 154 From what direction do the coldest winds come in Eastern North America ? Explain. 155 What are periodic winds ? Mention and de- scribe two. 20 KEGENTS QUESTIONS 156 Describe the trade winds as to (a) cause, (6) location, (c) direction, (d) beneficial results. 157 Describe the periodic winds of India, giving their causes and their results. 158 Account for the prevalence of monsoons in the Indian Ocean ; in the Gulf of Guinea. 159 State the principal cause of the West India cy- clone and trace its path. 160 What are cyclones? Where are they most fre- quent and what are their peculiarities ? 161 Account for the rotation and the direction of the progression of cyclones in the Southern Hemisphere. 162 Give the cause, origin and course of a West India hurricane. 163 Name three of the principal hurricane regions. Indicate by diagram or otherwise the two movements common to hurricanes in these regions. 164 Describe the simoon. Explain why it is espec- ially dangerous. 165 Describe a Chinese typhoon as to (a) cause, (6) time of occurrence, (c) kinds of motion. 166 State from what source and how the moisture in the atmosphere comes, and through what processes it must pass before it is precipitated in the form of rain. 167 What is each of the following: dew, fog, cloud, hoar frost, snow ? 168 Explain the statements: the dew point is fifty- six; the humidity is seventy. 169 What is meant by point of saturation of the at- mosphere ? Distinguish between actual humidity and relative humidity. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 21 170 What is meant by the mean annual rainfall ? How is this rainfall determined for a given place? What is the mean annual rainfall in the United States? 171 State the conditions necessary for rainfall in the zone of the trade. 172 Explain why dew gathers more heavily in the valleys than on hilltops. 173 How is the formation of dew affected by (a) clouds, (6) winds? Explain. 174 Describe an experiment to illustrate the deposit of dew. 175 Why does frost injure vegetation in the valley before it touches vegetation on the hill ? 176 Give with reference to the section in which you live (a) the mean annual temperature, (6) the mean annual rainfall. 177 Name three causes of a sufficient reduction of temperature to produce a fall of rain. 178 Describe the rainfall in the region of calms. 179 Describe fully the effects of mountain chains on rainfall in their vicinity. 180 Give the cause of (a) rainbows, (6) coronas. 181 Account for the absence of rain in the desert of Gobi in Mongolia. 182 Name three conditions on which the height of the snow line depends. 183 Account for the prevalence of fog off the banks of Newfoundland. 184 Mention two reasons why rainfall on plateaus is less copious than that on other forms of relief. 22 EEGENTS QUESTIONS 185 Give the cause of the absence of rain in the Arabian desert. 186 Mention two services rendered by the weather bureau. 187 Describe the various forms of clouds and discuss the atmospheric conditions that precede and those that succeed rainfall. 188 Describe the cumulus cloud as to (a) cause, (6) form, (c) height, (d) time of occurrence. 180 Describe the stratus cloud as to (a) cause, (b) form, (c) time of occurrence. 190 Explain what is meant by The Aurora Borealis. 191 Why does more rain fall (a) on mountains than on plains, (6) on the coast than in the interior of a country ? 192 Compare the process of the formation of snow with that of hail. 193 Give the location and state the cause of the des- ert belt of the eastern continent. 194 Give the cause of the brilliant colors often seen in the clouds at sunset. 195 Give the cause of the blue color of the sky. 196 Discuss the formation and distribution of icebergs. 197 Give the geographic distribution of glaciers. 198 Account for (a) the formation of glaciers, (6) the motion of glaciers. Upon what does the rate of motion of a glacier depend ? 199 Classify moraines and state the origin of each class. 200 What two powers has a glacier ? Explain. 201 Define isogonal lines, looming, isoclinal lines. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 23 202 Describe five kinds of optical phenomena and explain the cause of each. 203 Explain the phrase, " declination of the mag- netic needle". Where does the line of no declination cross the United States ? 204. Account for (a) the inclination or dip of the magnetic needle, (6) the variation of the magnetic needle. 205 Suggest an experiment to illustrate refraction of light. Explain. 206 Discuss the magnetic properties of the globe. FLORA AND FAUNA 207 Define plant geography, zoological geography. 208 What are the essential conditions of vegetation ? Show how both horizontal and vertical distribution de« pends on these conditions. 209 Mention two regions where rice is extensively grown and show why these regions are adapted to such growth. 210 Mention five cereals and give the northern limit of the growth of each as determined by latitude. 211 Explain the influence of latitude on plant and animal life. Give illustrations. 212 Give the geographic distribution of cereals. 213 Mention 10 characteristic food plants of the tropic regions. 214 Compare the flora and fauna of Australia with those of other continents. 215 Name five important food plants. Name con- ditions necessary to the growth of each and mention two widely separated localities where these conditions 24 REGENTS QUESTIONS are met and consequently where the plants are grown. 216 Mention five food plants that contribute largely to the wealth of New York State, and indicate localities where these are extensively cultivated. 217 What are selvas, steppes, llanos, heaths, pam- pas ? Describe the vegetable and animal life of any one of these. 218 State where the following articles are found and tell why they are valued: cinchona, bread fruit, caout- chouc, cocaine, manioc, millet, lichens. 219 State the effect on vegetable life of increasing altitude. Explain. 220 Mention two regions of the earth's surface desti- tute of vegetation, and state the physical conditions which render them so. 221 Name three plants useful as furnishing material for clothing; three useful for medicine; four useful in the arts. 222 Name 10 characteristic food plants of the tropic regions. 223 Discuss the effects of decreased density of the atmosphere at high altitude on vegetable and animal life. 224 Name two regions where rice is grown exten- sively; two regions where sugar cane is cultivated extensively. 225 Mention 10 animals characteristic of the north- ern hemisphere; 10 of the southern hemisphere. . 226 Mention five animals characteristic of the Asiatic fauna. 227 Name five animals used in various localities as PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 25 beasts of burden. Indicate how and why each is used. 228 Name five valuable fur-bearing animals formerly- found in the State of New York. 229 Mention 10 characteristic animals of Africa. 230 Mention 10 characteristic animals of South America. 231 Mention five principal burden-bearing animals of the globe and show how each is fitted for the region where it is used. 232 Compare the characteristic animals of the Aus- tralia region with those of the North America region. 233 Compare two characteristic animals of North America with two similar animals of some other region. 234 Mention five orders of animals common to the northern continents. 235 Mention the characteristics of each of three zones of animal life. 236 Describe any two of the following races in res- pect to their physical characteristics and their social conditions: Chinese, Australians, Japanese, American can Indians. 237 Give the general characteristics of the Caucasian race, and the geographic distribution of each. 238 Give arguments that tend to prove the unity of the human race. 239 State how the Northmen were influenced by surroundings. 240 Give the chief characteristics of the Mongolian race. Mention three representative nations of this race. 241 Account for the difference in intellectual devel- 26 REGENTS QUESTIONS opment between the Caucasian and the Mongolian races. 242 Discuss the African race as to origin, distribu- tion, physical and mental peculiarities. 243 Mention five marked cases in which man has greatly modified natural geographic conditions in order to increase commercial facilities. 244 Mention five races of mankind and in the case of each race give a geographic reason for its progress or lack of progress. 245 Give five marked cases illustrating man's skill in overcoming adverse physiographic conditions for the purpose of promoting material prosperity. 246 Mention five noted sections where man has made the country available for his comfort by modify- ing natural conditions, as by irrigation or by reclaiming lands naturally covered by water. 247 Mention three physiographic causes that deter- mine the distribution of plants and animals. GENERAL QUESTIONS 248 Define meteorology, races, water spout, aurora borealis, detritus, undertow, halo, forarmini fera, dol- drums, agone, bore, divide, relief, fauna, estuary, cot- idal lines, physiography, silt, breakers, peat, talus, anemometer, ethnography. 249 Distinguish between physical and political geog- raphy. 250 Mention five minerals and state where each is extensively mined. • 251 In sailing from San Francisco to Yokohoma does a ship take the northern or southern course ? Why ? PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 27 252 Describe three natural conditions favoring the location of cities. 253 Describe any two watersheds of North America, and show how they influence the distribution of popu- lation and the occupation of the people. 254 Mention five physical characteristics of New York that have tended to make it the Empire State. 255 Describe the origin and growth of some land feature that you have observed in your vicinity. 256 State the importance of a mountain pass. Men- tion several mountain passes. 257 Describe the system of internal navigation of New York State. 258 Name five of the principal sources of mineral wealth of New York State. 259 Account for the location of five cities by refer- ence to the physiographic conditions that determined and aided the growth of each. • 260 State two reasons why it takes a vessel less time to sail from New York to Liverpool than from Liver- pool to New York. 261 Explain how the topography of the northern prai- ries of the U. S. has affected the development of farm- ing implements. 262 State two different geographic conditions under which gold is found. State how these conditions are related. 263 What are the following: engrafted river, drowned river, old, middle aged, and new rivers ? Explain. 264 How are salt lakes formed ? Name five noted examples of salt lakes. '28 REGENTS QUESTIONS 265 What are the following : races, whirlpools, mael- strom, convection? 266 Of what value are ocean currents to navigation ? 267 Describe five principal building stones found in the State of New York. Mention a locality where each is found. 268 What is the difference between a glacier deposit and a glacier sediment ? 269 What are the following: till sheets, drumlin, eskers, kames? 270 Name and describe three types of glaciers. 271 Describe a field study that you have made of glacial markings or glacial deposits. 272 Mention the physical characteristics that adapt the United States in a high degree for the development of civilization. 273 Describe the equatorial calms as to (a) cause, (6) location or extent. 274 What is meant by the zone of fracture ? Men- tion the parts of the earth's surface included in this zone. 275 Give the cause and describe the process of the Appalachian Mountains. 276 Explain the existence of the gorge and falls of Niagara. 277 Account for the great difference of rainfall on the west coast and on the east coast of Scandinavia. 278 State the probable effect of (a) a great decrease of the amount of carbon dioxid in the air, (6) a great increase of the amount of carbon dioxid in the air. 279 In what portion of North America does the most rain fall? Explain. PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 29 280 Why is the New England plateau not well adapt- ed to grain farming ? 281 Mention two extensive industrial regions of the United States and show their dependence on physio- graphic conditions. Or 282 Submit a map or weather chart made by you during the term. 283 State the influence on the distribution of animals of (a) water barriers, (6) mountain ranges. Give illustrations. 284 What is the weight of a cubic foot of air at sea- level ? Why does the density of air vary ? 285 Why is the summer of North Africa so much warmer than regions of the New World in the same latitude ? 286 Suggest an experiment to show convection. What climatic phenomena does the experiment illus- trate;? 287 Explain the construction and the action of a thermometer. How do the Fahrenheit and Centigrade thermometer scales differ? 288 Mention five extensive regions that are not habi- table and give physiographic reasons for such condition. 289 Why are the western coasts of continents in the southern hemisphere colder and the eastern coasts warmer than the latitudes would naturally indicate ? 290 Describe (a) block mountains, (6) folded moun- tains. Give an example of each kind. 291 Account for the prevalence of dense fog off the banks of Newfoundland. 30 REGENTS QUESTIONS 292 Distinguish between physiographic and climatic barriers to the dispersal of animal life over wide areas. 293 Explain how the physical characteristics of Great Britain have tended to promote or to retard the material prosperity of that country. ANSWERS References to text-books are as follows: D Dryer. G Guyot. H Houston. M Maury. R Regents Geography and Key, T Tarr, Elementary. Ta Tarr, New Physical. Key to Eegents Physical Geography 1 (a) Solstice is the time of year when the sun is at its greatest declination, either north or south, and seems to pause before returning on its course, usually P-Jfai-d, 2/ 23J° s. Winter Sclstict. QQi° Autumnal Fn u'j ■quinox. June 21 and December 22 — the summer and winter solstices respectively. (D 23) (6) Satellite is a smaller body revolving around a larger one. There are, in the solar system, 21, rang- ing in size from 5 miles to 3,550 miles in diameter. (c) Ecliptic is the name given to a great circle whose plane coincides with the plane of the earth's orbit. These two planes are inclined at an angle of 23° 27'. (if 32) (d) Aphelion the point in the orbit of a planet farthest from the sun. 34 KEGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY (e) Perihelion the point in the orbit of a planet nearest the sun. (/) Cotidal lines are lines connecting all places which receive the tidal wave at the same time. (H 174) (g) Halos and (h) Coronae are rings of prismatic color surrounding the sun and moon. They are caused by the presence of small crystals of ice or snow. (k) Parhelia are mock suns caused by circles from halos intersecting each other. (H 260) 2 The Solar System comprises the sun, 8 large bodies called planets, and a large number of asteroids, besides comets and meteors. Some of the planets are attended by moons or satellites. 3 Jupiter has (a) about 10 times as long a diam- eter, 13 times the volume, (6) is .4 times as dense, and (c) is a little over 5 times as far from the sun. (H 16) 4 The causes are two: revolution of the earth together with the inclination of the earth's axis to the plane of its orbit, and the constant parallelism of the earth's axis. Sec lc. (H 32; D 19) 5 See H 33 and D 21. 6 Rotation of the earth on its axis from west to east causes change of day and night. Revolution of the earth around the sun from west to east causes the change of seasons. These movements also cause the apparent motion of the heavenly bodies. (H 30) 7 The inclination of the earth axis causes the northern hemisphere to lean towards the sun during half of the year and away from the sun during the remaining half. Hence the vertical rays would fall THE EARTH AS A PLANET 85 north of the equator while the northern hemisphere leaned towards the sun and would have its warmest season or summer. Six months later the same con- ditions would prevail in the southern hemisphere. (H. 32; D 19) 8 Appearance of approaching objects, circular shape of the horizon, shape of the earth's shadow, measurement, and the shape of the great circle of illumination. (H 19) 9 The earth is (a) an oblate spheroid, its axis being the shorter diameter. (6) Its mean diameter is 7,918 miles, and(c) it is 53^ times as dense as water. 10 See any geography. (H 35; R 186) 11 The circles of the earth are divided into great and small circles. The former are the equator and meridian circles. The latter are the parallels — the tropics and polar circles. The polar circles are 23° 27' from the poles and mark the limit of the sun's rays as they shine beyond the poles. The tropics mark the limit of the vertical rays of the sun north and south of the equator. The parallels also define the boundaries of the mathematical zones. See p. 36. (H 22; R 186) 12 About March 21 and September 22. (D 15) 13 The sun is then directly over the equator and the circle of illumination reaches from pole to pole. Thus every place on the earth's surface is in sunlight one-half of the 24 hours. 14 Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, Uranus, Earth, Venus, Mars, Mercury. (H 16) 36 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 15 If we carefully watch the horizon at sunset we shall see it rise slowly away from the sun. N.T>cU wdhL ? ui\We / / 1 ** OrO£c\^\ \ \ I ^^klemf erate W' \ \ \ JX^Sa J 1 ■ * / — -—^-Jrop'ic' o f Co7lC^_— -A """v^ \ \ S TZqiiA Vtor 1 Torrid/ Y&°™ ?" \ i "OpiC' of Capricor \ " r \ \ & \ 3 oWv Xemj J a-ate i Ke. J 1 / r^ -Tfiilarcti o GJJSC£; Jv \ \ s< // ' sV'V" •MZoL S.T,u Trees and fences seem to move past us as we ride on swiftly moving trains. With the telescope we see the heavenly bodies rotating. Marks made by Foucoult's Pendulum. (H 29) Bodies falling from a great height are deflected toward the east. THE EARTH AS A PLANET 37 The deviation of winds and ocean currents and the rotation of cyclones, (if 29) 16 (a) Latitude is the distance north or south of the equator measured on a meridian. (6) Longitude is the distance east or west of any given meridian. 17 (a, c) Degrees of latitude vary from 68.7 miles at the equator to 69.39 miles at the poles. (6) This variation is due to the flattening of the meridians at the poles. 18 (a) Degrees of longitude vary from about 69 1-6 miles at the equator to at the poles, (6) be- cause they are measured on parallels of latitude, and the parallels grow smaller or they approach the poles. See R 186. 19 See 16-18. 20 (a) In a polar projection the poles form the center and the equator the border of the map. (6) In a conical projection the earth's surface is represented or if drawn on a cone and then unralled. (c) In an equatorial projection the equator passes through the center of the map and a meridian circle forms the border. (H 26) 21 The earth's spheroidal shape is the same as that of the other heavenly bodies, the same as if it were once molten. It is flattened at the poles. When a plastic sphere is rapidly whirled it tends to form an oblate spheroid. (H 40) 22 As we descend toward the earth's center the heat increases 1°F. for every 55 feet. In all lati- tudes great quantities of melted matter escape from 38 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY the interior of the earth. Different parts of the earth's surface are constantly rising and sinking. (ff 40) 23 Crater or volcanic eruptions; fissure or sheet eruptions; gradual changes of level; earthquakes. (H 43) 24 Explosive and nonexplosive. Explosive erup- tions are attended by the formation of quantities of highly heated steam. They are usualy preceded by earthquake shocks; then large quantities of ashes are thrown in the air, and this is followed by the escape of lava, as in Vesuvius. Non-explosive eruptions occur where the lava is more fluid, and there is an absence of suddenly formed vapor, or gas. The lava sometimes flows quietly out of the top, and frequently out of fissures near the bottom or on the side of the mountain. This is due to the enormous pressure exerted by the column of lava. Examples: Kilauea and Etna. (H 48; D 196) 26 The inclination of slope depends on the nature of the material of which they are formed. Where lava is the main ingredient the cone is broad and flat as in Etna and Hawaii. Lava cones range from 3° to 10° according to the liquidity of the lava. Ashes and cinders form steeper cones, whose in- clinations range from 30° to 40°, as in Stromboli and Vesuvius. See 40. {H 46; D 196) 26 The best authorities regard the prime cause of volcanic eruptions as the shrinkage or contraction of the heated interior. Some claim that pressure of steam is one of the causes of lava rising from the the earth's surface 39 plastic interior. If this were true dikes would be filled with air spaces instead of being solid. However, steam and gases do aid to a certain extent in the last stage of the eruption. (H 47; D 208) 27 Earthquakes occur chiefly in regions which are still undergoing movements of elevation and folding, and hence are intimately associated with young mountains and volcanoes They are especially frequent along the borders of the Pacific ocean, where the slopes of the continental plateau are steepest. In Japan noticeable shocks occur almost daily, and delicate instruments show that the earth-crust is in a continual tremor. (Z> 191; H 55; M 22) 28 (a) The elevation, depression, folding and faulting of the earth-crust show that it is subject to a variety of stresses and strains when it finally yields to an increasing stress and a displacement suddenly occurs, a violent jar results, which is prop- agated through the crust and is recognized at the surface as an earthquake. The shock travels about three miles per second. (D 190) (6) For description of earthquake at Lisbon see H 59. 29 (a) Rotary motions are attended by whirling- motion of the crust; Explosive by a violent motion directly upward; Wavelike are horizontally progres- sive, like waves in water. The area of disturbance is great. (H 56) (6) They are most frequent in volcanic districts; in mountainous rather than in flat countries; along the borders of the Pacific ocean; Japan; and in vol- canic islands. (D 191; H 58) 40 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 30 They are more frequent in winter and at night because the cooling and consequent contraction occur more rapidly at these times. It is greater during new and full moon because of the increased force on the earth's crust. (H 58) 31 See 26-30. 32 Mountains were and are gradually being formed. ( T 363) Earthquakes (M 22) and volcanoes. (H 47) 33 Oxygen and silicon. (H 63) 34 (a) Igneous, aqueous and metamorphic. (6) Stratified and unstratified. (H 64) 35 During the carboniferous period the continents were covered with luxuriant vegetation, subject at long intervals to extensive inundations. The decay- ing vegetation, decomposing under water, retained most of its solid constituent carbon and formed a bed of coal. 36 Action of ocean waves, tides and currents; agency of man; winds; erosion; corrosion; weathering; transportation. (D 63; H 72) 37 (a) Horizontal — continents and islands; ver- tical — high lands and low lands. (b) For relative sizes see H 82. 38 Continents extend farther north than south The land masses are crowded together near the north pole. The three main southern projections of the land are separated from each other by extensive oceans. (H 78) 39 Continental and oceanic. (M 38) The former THE EARTH'S SURFACE 41 are near continents, as Great Britain and Ireland. The latter are in mid ocean as the chain of the Sand- wich Islands. Oceanic islands are volcanic and coral. (H 83) 40 Stromboli rises from the Mediterranean sea north of Sicily. It is a conical pile of material re- sembling cinders or the clay of an iron furnace. It is 4 or 5 miles in diameter and 3,000 feet high. It was formed by ejected material. 41 Coral limestone is derived from countless skel- etons of minute polyps that once lived beneath ete surface of the water. The skeletons, however, are not separate, because they increase by building, thus growing into a solid mass. This mass grows upward till the low water mark is reached. They work their way outward, forming four varieties of coral islands: (a) Fringing reefs are narrow ribbons of coral rock lying near the shore of an ordinary island. (6) Barrier reefs are broader and lie at a greater distance but do not extend entirely around the island, (c) Encircling reefs extend entirely around the island. Tahiti of the Society Islands is an example of an encircling reef. New Caledonia and one along northeastern Australia are examples of barrier reefs, (d) Atoll is a name given to reefs that encircle lagoons of water. (H 87; D 176) 42 According to Dana the temperature of the water must never fall below 68° F. Coral islands are confined to tropical water not exceeding 100 to 180 feet in depth. They are never found in cold ocean currents. The most of the coral reefs are 42 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY found in track of the equatorial currents which bring water and food. (H 88; MSI; D 177) .43 See 41. 44 There is reason to believe that in those parts of the ocean where atolls now abound, high mountains once towered. These mountains were islands. Tha polyps built encircling reefs around them; but in many cases, as they built up, a gradual subsidence took place, until the island itself disappeared beneath the waves. Their subsidence on the one hand, and this building up on the other, may have continued for ages and to the extent of thousands of feet, so that where the mountain then was, may be deep waters and low atolls. Thus the mountain-top was replaced by the lagoon, and the encircling reef became the atoll. Tahiti is an illustration. (M 41; H 89) 45 The earth is supposed to have been at one time a molten mass. As it cooled the surface con- tracted and portions of it settled down upon the melted interior. This caused a crumpling or folding in long parallel ridges, making mountain chains and longitudinal valleys. Such a process would make oval mountain tops. Where the rocks were broken and thrust up by lateral pressure the mountains would be broken and jagged. Through these broken strata melted matter from the interior was often forced by the downward pressure of the cooling sur- face and thus we often find huge granite peaks and ridges. (M 28; H 98) The Jura mountains of Switzerland are examples of folded mountains. Often the tops of mountains the earth's surface 43 have been worn off to a depth of hundreds or perhaps thousands of feet, thus making plateaus. These in turn may be cut through by streams and form what is called plateau mountains, as in the Catskills of New York, and the Alleghanies of Pennyslvania and West Virginia. (D 189; H 98) 46 For relief of Asia see Hill. For the effect and the development see 179', 184, 185 of these answers. 47 Because it is one vast plain gradually descend- ing toward the north, permitting the rivers to flow in nearly parallel courses toward the Arctic waters. There are no transverse valleys, as in the lowland plain of North America. 48 (a) It lies between the predominant system on the west and the secondary system on the east. (b) It is mainly of alluvial origin, slightly elevated, and much more level than the great plain of North America, (c) The three rivers divide it into three great regions called llanos of the Orinoco, the selvas of the Amazon, and the jpampas of the Rio de la platta. The llanos are grassy plains which during the rainy season, resemble our prairies, but during the dry weather are deserts. The selvas are covered with dense forests of lux- uriant growth. Near the rivers are great swamps. The pampas are grassy plains on which countless herds of horses and cattle graze. See 217. (H 106) 49 (a) It reaches from the Bay of Biscay on the west to the Ural mts. on the east, and from the pre- dominant system to the northern waters of Europe. 44 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY THE EARTH S SURFACE 45 (b) It is remarkably level being the highest at the Valdor hills, which are about 1100 feet high, (c) The drainage is mostly toward the north in nearly parallel streams. 50 (a) It lies between the Atlantic systems on the east, Pacific system on the west, Arctic ocean on the north and Gulf of Mexico on the south. (b) The height of land divides the plain into two gentle slopes, which descend toward the Arctic ocean and Gulf of Mexico respectively. The northern part is again divided by a gentle swell, and the two basins thus formed are connected by the Nelson river, which runs through a break in the water shed. The central plain is formed by the long gentle slope descending eastward from the base of the Rocky mts. , and the western slope from the Atlantic Highlands. Run- ning nearly through the centre is the Mississippi, fed by the tributaries that descend the long gentle slopes of the Atlantic and Pacific systems. (H 103) (e) Few places on the earth's surface are better fitted for human habitation. The soil is highly pro- ductive, the climate is neither too hot nor too cold, and communication is easy either by railor by the splendid river systems. Perhaps no large section of country in the world can so profitably carry on such a variety of occupations as are carried on in the great low plain of America. 51 The coast line of Europe is much more indented than that of North America. This is due to the fact that spurs of the predominant system extend into the sea. Europe having many more land-locked har- bors is better fitted for commerce. 46 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 52 The Cordillera of the Rocky, mountains, the predominant system, extends from the Arctic ocean to the Isthmus of Panama. It consists of an immense plateau, from 300 to 600 miles in breadth, crossed from north to south by two nearly parallel ranges; the Rocky mts. on the east and the Sierra Nevada and Cascade ranges on the west. The Rocky moun- tain range rests On a plateau about 6000 or 7000 feet high, forming the great water shed of the continent, the eastern slope being drained into the Atlantic, and the western into the Pacific. The culminating point of North America is Mount McKinley in Alaska. The Cascade range robs the prevailing westerly winds of their moisture, so that there is but little rainfall east of this range. Hence Southern Cali- fornia, Arizona, New Mexico and Colorado must de- pend upon irrigation to raise crops. 53 The desert belt of the eastern continent ex- tends from the western shores of Northern Africa eastward to the great Kinghan mountains in Asia. It includes the Desert of Sahara, and the Arabian, Persian and Mongolian deserts. The cause is to be found in the dry tradewinds that have crossed the vast continent of Asia as upper currents, where they have been robbed of their moisture. Persia and Mon- golia owe their deserts to their high mountain borders which rob the clouds of their moisture. The high system of the Himalayas effectually prevents any of the moisture of the southwest winds from pene- trating the plateau of Mongolia. (H 23) THE EARTH'S SURFACE 47 54 The Atlantic highlands consist of a number of nearly parallel chains extending from the St. Law- rence to Alabama and Georgia. They are high at the northern and southern ends, and slope gradually towards the middle. The highest peaks at either end have an elevation of about 6,000 feet. They are broken into by two deep depressions which are tra- 48 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY the earth's surface 49 versed by the Mohawk and Hudson rivers. Between the foot of the system and the Atlantic lies a coast plain from 50 to 250 miles in width. (H 103) 55 In both North and South America the pre- dominant system lies in the west, the secondary systems lie in the east, and the low plains are in the center. See p. 44. They differ in that in North America the predom- inant system is a broad plateau having high moun- tain systems; the secondary system is narrow and is formed of parallel ranges; the low plains are char- acterized by undulations, and contain many deep depressions occupied by extensive lake systems. In South America on the contrary the predominant system is narrow, the secondary systems are broad, and the low plain is exceedingly low and flat, and contains but few depressions and no great lake sys- tems. (H 107) 56 For South America see question 48; for North America, 50; for Europe, 49. The great low plain of Asia is a continuation of the great European low plain and extends from the Arc- tic ocean southwesterly to the Caspian and Black seas. It is hilly in the east, but level in the west. Oh the south it is somewhat fertile but at the north it is gloomy and inhospitable. This vast region is called The Tundnas. It is covered with moss, lakes, and swamps in summer and with ice in winter. (H 114) But little is known of the low plain of Australia. It lies in the interior, and is moderately elevated at 50 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY THE EARTH'S SURFACE 51 the northern, eastern, and western borders. The southeastern portion is well watered and fertile. Several lakes exist in the depressions. (H 118) 57 In both Europe and Asia the chief elevations are in the south and the great low plains are in the north. Each has at the south three great peninsulas. They differ in that the primary highland of Europe is more broken and irregular than that of Asia. Asia is the main body of the double continent, while Europe is the peninsula part of it. Again the different regions of Europe have better facilities of communi- cation than Asia. 58 For a full description see H 107. 59 Without this gap through the Appalachians there would be no main traveled highway through New York state, and commerce would be carried on through the St. Lawrence at the north or along the line of the Erie railroad in the south. Long before the white man visited America the Indians used the Mohawk and had their main trail along its banks. Later the Erie canal was built, which did much to develop New York state, and now through this gap runs one of the most important trunk line railways in the world. The vast business thus carried on naturally centers in New York city. 60 See H 107. 61 See 45. 62 See 46, 52, 55, 57 and 60. x 63 A lagoon is a body of water inclosed by a low narrow rim of coral rock. Fossils are the remains of plants and animals that 52 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY have been buried in the earth by natural causes. (H 66) A volcano is a mountain or other elevation, more or less conical near the top, provided with an opening or crater, through which escapes from time to time vapors, ashes and lava. See 22-26, 69. {H 44) An earthquake is a shaking of the earth's crust, of degrees varying in intensity from scarcely perceptible tremors to violent agitations. It is sometimes called a seismic throb or shock. See 27, 28. (if 55) Rock, in its geological sense, embraces various mixtures of substances called minerals, that occur naturally in sufficient masses to be properly consid- ered as an essential part of the crust. This includes beds of sand and clay or well as the hard strata. (H 63) A mineral is a fairly definite chemical compound. Some of the important mineral constituents of the earth's crust are felspar, quartz, mica, soapstone, limestone and clay. (if 63) An island is a body of land entirely surrounded by water. Orology is the science which treats of mountains and their formation.. (if 97) Paleontology is the science which treats of the plants and animals whose remains are now found as fossils. (if 66) Plateaus or table lands are broad elevated areas which rise above the level of the surrounding country, sometimes level and sometimes having great mountain chains upon them. (M 28) „ , Plains are those portions of the earth's surface the earth's surface 53 which are level, and which, though diversified with hills, have only a moderate elevation above the sea- level. (M 27) An intermont is a plateau occupying a wide region between distant mountains. (H 95) 64 A fluviatile plain is made by the sediment deposited by a river as the Valley of California. See 78. (D 172) Also deltas of Nile, Ganges and Mississippi. A marine plain was once the floor of the sea. Our Atlantic seaboard is an illustration. A lacustrine plain is one made by the sediment deposited by a lake.. (H 93) Noted examples of lake plains are Lake Agassiz in the great wheat-grow- ing district of the Red river of the North, and the great level tract of country around Great Salt lake. (T 78) 65 Pene plains or plains of denundation were once mountains or plateaus which were worn down by rivers until they assumed the form of only mod- erately elevated, gently rolling lowlands. The plains of Central Russia furnish an example. (H 94) 66 Mountains by flexure, by fracture, by injec- tion of lava between strata. 67 Coastal plains are lowlands gently sloping from the mountains to the coast. They are usually due to a gradual uplift of part of the ocean's bed. They vary in width from narrow tracts to many miles. Our Atlantic sea-board is an example. (H 93) 68 As the age of a plateau increases, the action of the rivers* and weathering increases, and the plateau A USABLE CHASM the earth's surface 55 becomes more and more "dissected" until it may, at last, disappear, except that here and there portions of the old surface stand in bold relief on the low land or flat-topped table mountains, sometimes called mesas or buttes. 69 The proximity of volcanoes to the sea is due to the deep fissures in the earth's crust, along the line of contact of the depressed ocean basin and the uplifted continent. Nowhere are the earth's strata more deeply broken than on the very edge of the continents; and it is along the mighty chasms caused by the upheaval of these vast land masses, that mountain chains, such as encircle the sunken basin of the Pacific, have been raised. There, also, vol- canic vents abound in long lines, following either the top or the foot of the mountain chains. Similar con- ditions exist in the zone of fracture. (G 16; H 52) 70 The eastern continents are much more indented than tlie western continents, the northern hemis- phere than the southern, and the eastern than the western. 71 New York has several depressions that furnish the great lines of travel and commerce and afford excellent agricultural regions. The plateau region in the western part has its temperature modified by the great lakes. The Catskill region is more or less protected by foothills, making it a great dairy section. The Adirondack region is more or less covered with forests and is the water shed for many rivers that are useful for power, floating logs, and the like. The climate of the Taconic region is more or less mod- ified by the Hudson river. See also 59. 56 REGENTS PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY 73 See 63, 64. 74 When the forests are removed from a large portion of a river basin, the rains are no longer ab- sorbed quietly by the ground, but drain rapidly off its surface into the river-channels, causing an over- flow. The most destructive effects.are in early spring when the masses of floating ice become gorged in shallow places and back up the waters above. (H 140) 75 Silt is finely divided gravel, sand, and mud transported and deposited by rivers. (H 142) A geyser is an intermittent hot or thermal spring. Water is a compound liquid made up of two parts of hydrogen and one part of oxygen. A spring is an outpouring of subterranean water. A river is a large stream of water collected from the surface and subterranean drainage of the adjacent territory. A water-shed is a ridge or elevation whi