LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. Chap... Copyright No, ShellLtVll4~ UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. METHOD IN Grammar and Language. BY GEO. W. NEET, Professor of Pedagogy in the Northern Indiana Normal School, valparaiso, ind. M. E. BOGAETE, PUBLISHER, VALPARAISO, INDIANA. 1900. TWO COPIES RECEIVED, Library of Congretq Office of tilt MAY 2 - 1900 Register of Copyrights V 57608 COPYRIGHT 1900, BY GEO. W. NEET. StCJND COPY, PREFACE. This little book on method in grammar and language is prompted by a desire to give help to the students in the author 's classes in method on these subjects. There are many students who appreciate that grammar and language are subjects that offer many and peculiar difficulties in teaching, and who are earnestly seeking for help along the line of a better method of teaching these subjects than is com- monly in use. To give guidance to these students, with whom the writer comes in contact in his^ daily teaching is one idea that prompted to the preparation of these studies. A second thought is, that many fellow teachers who see to some extent the natural and most helpful way of teaching these subjects, but who have not had the time or opportunity to work out in full these ideas may receive help and direction from these studies. It is the aim of the discussions (1) to investigate the theory phase of the method of grammar and language lessons; (2) to give a goodly number of concrete illustrations of what these lessons should be in the light of the theory ; and (3) to criticise existing practices in teaching these subjects, which are IV. PREFACE. thought to be pernicious in their effects. Thus the studies are theoretical, practical and critical to a greater or less extent. While this little volume is arranged with a view to use in the writer's own classes in method in gram- mar and language, an effort has been made to prevent the arrangement from detracting from its useful- ness and interest to any one pursuing this line of work. It is believed that these studies are in harmony with the best educational thought of to-day on the subjects of grammar and language. G. W. N. CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. General Method, - - - 9-31 The Teaching- Act, .... 9 The Processes in It, - - - 9 Nature of Method as a Subject, - - 10-11 Classes of Method, - - - 11 The Learner's Method, ... 11-13 The Teacher's Method, - - - 13-20 Method as a Physical Process, - - 20-25 Comparison of Teacher's and Pupil's Method, 25-26 Two Views of Method, ... - 26-28 No Danger in Too Much Study of Method, - 29-30 Factors Determining - Method, - - 30-31 CHAPTER II. The Purpose of Grammar, - 32-44 The Traditional Purpose, ... 32-33 How Purpose Is to Be Determined, - - 33-34 Effect of the Study of Grammar on the Learner, 34-35 Mental Discipline Furnished, - - 35-40 Knowledge of How to Speak and Write Cor- rectly, ----- 40-41 Its Study Not Adapted to the Child, - 41-42 The Guidance Grammatical Knowledge Really Gives, 42-43 A Basis for Other Language Work, - 43-44 CHAPTER III. The Subject-matter of Grammar, - 45-55 The Former View, 45 The Better View, - 45-47 VI CONTENTS. The Sentence the Subject-matter of Grammar, 48 As to Nature, 48 As to Definition, - - - 48-52 As to Classification, - - - 52-53 As to Relation, - - - 53-55 CHAPTER IV. The Inductive Method in Grammar, 56-64 Nature of Inductive Method. - - - 56-57 The Inductive Method and Definition, - 57-58 The Mind's Natural Way of Getting Definitions, 58-59 The Correct Way to Teach Definitions, - 59-60 Advantages of Inductive Method, - - 60-64 CHAPTER V. Basis in Grammar, - - - 65-70 Basis for the Sentence as to Nature, - - 65-66 Principles of Mind Underlying Basis, - 66-68 Violations of Basis, --'-.- 68-69 Work in Harmony with Basis, - - 69-70 CHAPTER VI. Steps in Grammar, - 71-80 Meaning of Steps, - - - - - 71 Order of Steps, .... 71-73 Help on the Problem, - - 72-73 The Mind's Attitude toward the Sentence, 73-74 Outline, 74-80 CHAPTER VII. Concrete Illustrations, - 81-99 The Object, - 81-83 An Attribute, ----- 83-84 Relation, 84-86 The Idea, - - 86-87 The Word, 87-88 The Thought, 88-90 CONTENTS. VII The Sentence, - 90-91 Classes of Sentences on Basis of Meaning, 91-92 Classes of Sentences on Basis of the Form of Thought Expressed, 92-94 The Essential Elements of the Sentence, 95 Noun and Pronoun, 95 The Appositive and Possessive, 96 Comparison of Noun and Pronoun, 96 Gender, ------ - 96-97 Case, - - - - - - 97-99 CHAPTER VIII. Devices in Grammar, 100-108 Kinds of Devices, 100 Assignments, ... - - 100-102 Class Discussions, 102-103 Text-books, 103-104 Parsing, -- 105-106 Analysis, 106-107 Diagraming, 107-108 CHAPTER IX. Common Errors in Teaching Grammar, 109-118 Prevalence of, 109 Teaching with Indefinite, Erroneous Pur- poses, - - - - - 109-110 Bad Methods of Teaching Definitions, 110-111 Wrong Use of Text-book, 111-112 Emphasizing the Form Side, 112-113 Bad Assignments, 113 Abuse of Parsing and Diagraming, 113-114 Bad Methods of Analyzing, 114-115 Method of Expanding, 115-116 Attempting to Teach Grammar Too Early in the Child's Life, 116 118 VIII CONTENTS. CHAPTER X. The Purpose of Language Lessons, 119-127 Origin of Language as a Subject, - - 119-121 History of Language Lessons in the Primary School, 121-123 The Purpose of Language Lessons Analyzed, 123-124 Distinctive Aims of Language Lessons, - 124-126 Aims in Common with Other Subjects, 126-127 The Aims of Language and Grammar, - 127 CHAPTER XL Nature of Language Lessons, 128-144 The Problem, - 128 How to Get Help on the Problem, - - 128-129 The Mind's Natural Way of Learning Language, 129-130 The Language Period, - - 130-133 Conditions under Which Language Is Used, - 133 Correlation of School Work with Living, - 134 Principles of Language Lessons, - - 134-137 The Subject-matter of Language, - - 137 Oral and Written Discourse, - 137-138 Description, Narration, Exposition and Argument, - - - 138-141 Relation of Language to Other Subjects, - 141-144 Conclusions, .... . ^44 CHAPTER XII. Method of Procedure in Language Teaching, 145-164 General Procedure, ... . 145 Development of Thought and Feeling, 145-149 Stimulating to the Communication of Thought and Feeling, - - - 149-150 Supplying the Correct Form, - 150-152 Corrections, - - - 152-154 Points to Be Kept in Mind, - 154-155 Concrete Illustrations, - - - 155-163 The Blue Violet, 155-159 Indian Corn, - - 159-163 Common Errors in Teaching Language, - 163-164 Conclusion, ... . 1^4 CHAPTER I. GENERAL METHOD. The Teaching Act. — The school exists as an organ- ization in order that the most favorable conditions may be furnished for the act of teaching. It is in this act that the mind of the pupil comes into vital touch with the mind of the teacher. Here the miracle of the influence of one mind upon another is mani- fested. Here it is that an all-important duty of the teacher is involved. To this process all other pro- cesses of the school point. The school finds the idea that created it in the process of realization in the teaching act. The act of teaching is a process for it is a series of steps directed toward the accomplish- ment of an end. The teaching act is not a simple process for it is a large process made up of smaller processes. The Processes in It. — A brief analysis of the teach- ing act will show that there are three processes going on in it, — (1) the thinking the learner is doing; (2) the thinking the teacher is doing; (3) a process of hand- ling questions, directions, objects, assignments, and so on — the manipulation of means in teaching. The first two of these processes are spiritual, or mental, 10 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. processes, and the third is external to the minds of both the teacher and the pupil and is a physical pro- cess. Illustration. — In teaching the definition of a noun to a student, first, the student's mind goes through the process of thinking (1) that the noun is a sub- stantive word; and (2) that it expresses an object by naming it. This is the process in the mind of the student in the teaching act. Secondly, the teacher thinks these same points through with the student, but he thinks several other things, too. This is the spiritual process of the teacher in the teaching act. Thirdly, there is a process of asking questions, an- swering questions, illustrating, possibly referring to text-books, etc., going on, and this is the physical process in the teaching act. Nature of Method as a Subject of Study. — The ques- tion, What is the subject of method like? is often asked. It may be answered in a general way by say- » ing it is a subject of study the pursuit of which has for its special object to make teachers more skillful in teaching than they would be without such study. But this much might be said of any pedagogical study — of psychology, for instance. To be more definite, method as a subject is that study which deals with the three processes in the act of teaching as indicated above. These three processes in their various phases constitute the material of all study in the subject of method. METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 11 The Subject-matter of Method. — By subject-matter is meant the material of study in any subject or lesson. It is the thought and feeling embodied in any subject or lesson which are to be got from such subject or lesson by study. It always consists of facts and relations among such facts. So the sub- ject-matter of method, as a subject of study, is the three processes, one in the mind of the learner, one in the mind of the teacher, and one a physical pro- cess, in their relation to the growth in the life of the learner. Definition of Method. — Method is thus seen to be a complex and comprehensive thing. Any definition, to be perfectly accurate, must include the various phases of these three processes. The following, it seems, does this: Method is the triple process in the act of teaching by which the learner is induced to take the steps from his real condition to a higher condition held up as an ideal. This is the definition of method con- sidered in its broadest and most comprehensive sense, and the sense in which its study will give the most help to the teacher. Classes of Method. — Since there are three pro- cesses going on in the teaching act there are, in a sense, three methods, — the learner's method, the teacher's method, and physical method. These three wiU be studied somewhat in detail. The Learner's Method. — The learner's method is the movement of his mind in gaining any point of 12 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. knowledge. The pupil's method is thus a living, spiritual process internal to his life. Method from this point of view is mental growth. That is to say, it is the change of potential mental activity into actual mental activity, and this is the essence of growth. Illustration. — If the child learns in a number lesson that 8+7=15, the activity of his mind in thinking the following steps is his method: — (1) The mind rethinks the number 8; (2) the mind rethinks the number 7; (3) the mind thinks the number 8 and the number 7 together; (4) the mind thinks the name of the new number. These four steps are the mind's process in thinking the point of knowledge, and are, therefore, the mind's method. This phase of method calls attention to the fact that the thing to be watched and emphasized in teaching is the change in the learner's life by which he is constantly rising to a higher plane of living. Definition of the Learner's Method. — This phase of method may be characterized by the following defini- tions : — 1. Method is the process in the learner's mind in thinking a thing. 2. Method is the movement by which the mind of the learner identifies itself with the thought and feeling of the external world. The external world here means anything external to the mind of the learner. 3. Method is the mental activity in which the METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 13 mind makes the objective the subjective. The object- ive means the external world, and the subjective means the self. And the self means one's original capacity to know, to feel, and to will, plus the effect of experiences on this power. 4. Method is the process by which the mind of the learner goes from its real condition to an ideal condition. One 's real condition is his condition just as he is at any time. His ideal condition is one dif- ferent from what he is in at any time, and which actually has no existence except as an idea in the mind; hence the name ideal. The ideal condition is not necessarily a better condition than the real, but may be either a better or worse condition. The Teachers Method. — The part the teacher per- forms in the process of teaching is a very important topic of study in the subject of method. This must be thoroughly understood by one who is to succeed best. To study this is to study the teacher's method. And to this we turn. First, the teacher must think the thought in the point or points to be taught; that is, he must think the subject-matter. Secondly, he must see in terms of development of the learner's life the reasons for teaching the subject-matter; that is, he must see the purpose. Thirdly, the teacher must see the nearest related knowledge possessed by the learner which he can use as a foundation to build upon in teaching the new point; that is, he must see the basis. Fourthly, 14 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. the teacher must see the activities the learner's mind puts forth in mastering the points of truth in the subject-matter; that is, he must see the steps. Lastly, the teacher must see the means he may best employ in leading the mind of the learner to take the steps in mastering the subject-matter; that is, the teacher must think out the devices. Thus the teacher in teaching a lesson must think (1) the subject-matter; (2) the purpose; (3) the basis; (4) the steps; and (5) the devices. These five things every teacher does in some sort of way in teaching every lesson. Some think them out clearly and accurately, and some think them oirt scarcely at all, and do not know that they do even that much. A teacher can think the teaching of a single point, or of a whole lesson, or of a whole subject, under these five heads, and must do so with more or less accuracy in teaching. It is worth our while to study these five points further for the help the study will give. Subject-matter. — In a general way the subject- matter is that which is to be mastered by study. It is the thought embodied in the thing studied by the mind of the learner. In a particular lesson the sub- ject-matter is just that to be got from the lesson which the learner should have after the recitation. In a particular subject, as grammar or history, the sub- ject-matter is just that to be got from the subject which the learner should be in possession of after the study of the subject. In this general sense the sub- METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 15 ject-matter of education is the whole world of thought. This study is too general to be very helpful. A closer study will reveal the fact that every subject-matter is composed of two things: 1. The facts to be taught or to be studied. 2. The relation in which these facts are to be taught or studied. Illustration. — Suppose the words, inquiry, dis- course, and aspirant are to be taught. Now, a spelling lesson might be made of it; and if it were a spelling lesson, the subject-matter would be, the words, in- quiry, discourse, and aspirant, as to their correct written or printed forms. Thus the words inquiry, discourse, and aspirant are the facts to be taught or studied, and "as to their written or printed form" indicates the relation in which they are to be taught or studied. But these same facts might be used, and the lesson not be a spelling lesson at all. If the rela- tion they are to be studied or taught in is as to their correct pronunciation the lesson would be one in orthoepy, and the subject-matter would be, the words, inquiry, discourse, and aspirant as to their cor- rect pronunciation. Further Illustration. — Suppose the facts of the revolution of the earth around the sun are taught, who can say whether the lesson is one in astronomy or one in geography? If, however, these are taught in their relation to the distribution of life, climate and relief forms on the earth's surface, the lesson at once reveals itself as a geography lesson. From 16 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. these illustrations it is to be seen that a subject- matter consists of (1) the facts to be taught or studied; and (2) the relation in which these facts are to be considered. This relation is often called the organising principle of the subject-matter. General Statement of Subject-inatter. — The state- ment of a subject-matter is not the subject-matter any more than a word is an idea, or a sentence a thought. The statement of the subject-matter bears the same relation to the subject-matter that the word bears to the idea and that the sentence bears to the thought; that is, the statement bears the same rela- tion to the subject-matter that the symbol does to the thing symbolized. The general statement of a subject-matter is very valuable to a teacher, whether it be of a single lesson, or of a whole subject. It is helpful to the teacher because it must do two things: (1) it must name the facts to be taught, and (2) it must tell the relation in which these facts are to be taught. Thus the general statement of the subject-matter of any subject is a perennial guide to the teacher in teaching that sub- ject, in that it shows, in a general way, what to teach and in what relation (how) to teach it. Purpose. — Purpose in reality is beginning and end in every process. The purpose as idea — the be- ginning — moves forward in the process to its realiza- tion — the end. The purpose exists in the teacher's mind, but is to be realized in the life of the learner. METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. It The purpose is the effect the mastery of the subject- matter should have on the life of the child. In actual teaching the teacher is to go from the subject-matter by way of comparison with the effect the thinking the subject-matter has on his own mind to its effect on the child's life, which is the purpose. That is to say, there is no way to tell the purpose of any subject- matter except from the effect its mastery produces on the child's life. The course of study — the subject- matter— is usually provided for the teacher. So the teacher must start with the subject-matter and find out the purpose in teaching it. Much depends in the teaching act upon how well the teacher does this. If the teacher has definitely in mind just what he wants to do in the lesson he will be drawn steadily and con- stantly toward its accomplishment. A definite pur- pose saves time, economizes energy, emphasizes the important, organizes, and prevents aimless wan- dering. It will be seen that in teaching any lesson there are two phases of the purpose: (1) To give knowledge valuable for guidance in living; (2) to give mental dis- cipline; that is, to furnish a mental gymnastic to the end that the mind may grow strong by exercising it. Basis.— This is the learner's nearest related knowledge to the new points to be taught, and upon which the teacher may build in teaching the new point. Basis is an important point in teaching. Many errors are made in teaching because the learner has 18 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. not basis for learning the new point, or because the teacher does not see the basis. Teaching in harmony with the principle underlying basis, the mind natu- rally goes to the unknown from the nearest related knoivn, means a progressive development of a subject, each step becoming basis for the step succeeding it. There are many violations of basis in teaching, as often done. Illustration. — If the lesson to be taught is that 5+4 = 9, the child must know the number 5 and the number 4 as basis before he could learn that 5+4=9. If the teacher should attempt to teach this lesson without having taught the numbers 5 and 4 he would meet with the difficulty of insufficient basis. Again, if a teacher attempts to teach the noun to a class with- out the class having a definite knowledge of an object, he will most surely meet a difficulty in the basis. The teacher to teach well must see and choose definitely his basis. Steps. — Steps are more or less complete move- ments of the mind. They are mental things and in the teaching act are in the life of the learner. They are the advances of the mind in mastering the sep- arate points of the lesson to be learned. Or in a more general sense they are the advances of the mind in mastering the various phases of a subject. Illustration. — If the lesson to be taught were that 17 — 8 = 9, the steps would be: 1. The advance of the mind in rethinking the number 17, 2, The advance of METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 19 the mind in rethinking the number 8. 3. The ad- vance of the mind in thinking the number 8 away from 17. 4. The advance of the mind in thinking the number 9 as remainder. Again, if the lesson were to teach the definition of the triangle, after examining several triangles, the steps would be: 1. The advance of the mind in thinking that a triangle is a figure. 2. The advance of the mind in thinking a triangle has three sides. 3. The advance of the mind in think- ing a triangle has three angles. 4. The advance of the mind in synthesizing these points into the defini- tion, A triangle is a figure having three sides and three angles. To know the steps the mind takes in working out any new lesson is a matter of much importance to the teacher. He must know something of the steps or he can not teach at all; and, other things equal, the more clearly the teacher has thought the steps, the better will he teach the lesson. Devices. — The devices are the various things used by the teacher to lead the mind of the learner to think and feel in the manner desired. A synonym for devices is the term means. Devices, or means, constitute a very important factor in teaching. There is opportunity for the exercise of rare judgment, tact and skill in the selection of devices. When it is un- derstood that questions, text-books, and reference books; maps, globes, and school apparatus in general; blocks, sticks, etc., are devices in teaching, some- 20 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. thing of their importance in school work becomes evi- dent. Devices are so important that among many, method means nothing more than the manipulation of devices. However important they are it must not be lost sight of that they are always determined in the light of the mental process they are to induce. They are means to an end, and in nature the end is always more important than the means. Method as a Physical Process. — It is, perhaps, us- ing the term method in its most popular significance to think of it as meaning some physical process ex- ternal to the life of the learner. That is to say, it is using the term in the sense in which most persons commonly use it in speaking and writing. This idea of method is the one usually held by persons who have not made a careful study of what the term really ought to mean. There is a sort of indefinite- ness in the minds of most of such persons as to just what they do mean by method. However, upon ex- amination it will be found usually that the idea that method is the manner of doing some physical thing prevails, though even this is held in mind more or less vaguely. From thinking of method in this sense we have the following terms: — "Object Method," "Concert Method," "Consecutive Method," "Promis- cuous Method," "Catechetic Method," "Lecture Method," "Socratic Method," and -" Laboratory Method." These all refer to the manipulation of objects, METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 21 questions, and answers in the teaching act, and so are to be studied briefly under method as a physical process. The Object Method. — By this is meant the handling of objects by teacher and pupils in the process of learning. It is a good line of work, if used judi- ciously. It has its proper place in teaching number work, primary reading, nature work, primary geog- raphy, and primary language. The Concert Method. — The concert method means having students to answer questions, read, and speak simultaneously in the recitation. There is much that may be said against concert work, but very little to be said for it. It is objectionable because it (1) vio- lates the law of self activity; (2) stifles individual effort and individual responsibility; (3) does not bring out clear, definite answers or thinking; and (4) leads to confusion, disorder, and chaotic class work. There may possibly be instances in which concert work may be used advantageously, but as a rule it should be avoided. The Consecutive Method. — The consecutive method of asking and answering in the recitation means be- ginning at some point, the head of the class, or at the name beginning with A, and proceeding in some regu- lar order back to the point of starting. In proceed- ing in recitation this way the students know pretty well when the "turn "of each one will come. This method, like the preceding one, has many things 22 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. against it, but little to recommend it. It is objection- able because it leads to (1) habits of inattention; (2) disorder and disorganization of the class; (3) habits of idleness; and (4) bad methods of study. However good a student may be, if, when he has an- swered a question, he knows to a certainty that he wiU not be called upon again for some time, the tend- ency is for him to relax his attention. If the student is not a good one, the tendency in this kind of work is for him to become worse, and since he is not called upon to attend closely he is prone to do something else, thereby causing disorder and disorganization. Idleness in the class is a direct result of inattention, and bad habits of study result from the student's be- ing able to prepare just those points in the lesson which he has reckoned will come to him. Promiscuous Work.— The promiscuous method of asking questions and receiving answers refers to dis- tributing the questions and receiving answers from students promiscuously. No student knows to whom the answer to the question will fall. This method un- like the two preceding has much to be said for it and little or nothing against it. It is desirable be- cause (1) it fosters habits of attention and concentra- tion; (2) it is flexible and gives the teacher the best opportunities for meeting the needs of individual stu- dents; (3) it fosters habits of order and organization in the class work; and (4) it tends to industrious habits, and right methods of study. By the use of METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE 23 the promiscuous method students are held constantly to attending to the question under consideration, to the careful preparation of the lesson as a whole, and to order and unity in the class. As a rule, the pro- miscuous method is certainly the best for class work. Catechetic Method. — This is, in its original form, not much used any more, and so needs very little said about it. According to this method the question was written in the text-book and just after the question was the answer to it. The student's business was to read the question, and then commit to memory the answer. In the recitation the teacher with text-book in hand read the question and the student gave, in the words of the text, the answer. Such a manner of conducting a recitation has nothing to recommend it and so needs no further study. Lecture Method. — The lecture method refers to teaching by means of talks or lectures. This method, perhaps, has its advantages and disadvantages. It is certainly not adapted to all kinds of school work, and probably not adapted to any kind of school work if used exclusively. There are, however, some phases of school work which may be profitably taught by talks, or lectures. To elementary school work the lecture method is not at all adapted, and but very poor- ly adapted to secondary school work. In the first eight years of the child's school life he must be taught dif- ferently than by this method. That stays with the child which he has an opportunity to see, hear, and 24 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. think about. This, however, is not to be construed to mean that oral teaching should not be done in primary history, primary geography, nature work, etc. If the lecture method has any legitimate place in school work it is in the college and university. However it may seem theoretically, it remains as a fact that those things which are digged out by the student, recited upon in the class, and discussed by questions and answers are the things which in the end stay with him and do him good. Certainly the lecture method in the average teacher's school work is, to say the least, to be used sparingly, and with much caution when used at all. The Socratic Method. — This method takes its name from Socrates a Greek philosopher and teacher born 469 B. C. It is sometimes called the developing method. It proceeds by the employment of subtle questions to lead the student to think what it is desired for him to think without telling him anything. "The Socratic method, more or less perfectly under- stood, has had great influence upon professional ped- agogy. In many schools for the professional training of teachers, and in many schools in charge of teachers professionally trained, systematic questioning of this sort is looked upon as ideal teaching ; and there is no lack of conscientious endeavor to prepare for use in recitation, series of questions which shall lead the child's mind to take the logical steps which given oc- casion requires. One who doubts the value of such METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. *2o systematic questioning may usually be converted by hearing a single typical recitation conducted by a master of the art. The power of such a recitation to touch, move, chasten and direct the soul is so evident, that if Socrates and Plato had taught us nothing but how to do such work their fame as teachers would be justified." It is noteworthy that the "Socratic Method " is diametrically opposed to the "Lecture Method." The Laboratory Method. — This is also often called the "Scientific Method, " and it means a procedure in which the student is lead to investigate and think for himself. It is opposed to taking things on mere authority without investigation, and to the text-book method. It proceeds by leading the student to deal with the actual material of study rather than to deal with what some one has said about it. In botany, studied in this way, the student deals with plants; in zoology, with animals; in grammar, with sentences and parts of sentences. This method has much to recommend it. 1. It fosters habits of free inquiry and free investigation. 2. It is the mind's natural way of learning. 3. It makes the student self-direct- ive and self-helpful. 4. It fixes with the student right methods of study. 5. It gives the student a critical attitude of mind. All these are very desirable characteristics for a student to have. Comparison of Teacher's and PujriVs Method. — These two methods are alike as follows : 1. They are both 26 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. spiritual processes. 2. The mind of the learner and the mind of the teacher go through the same process in thinking the thing to be learned. 3. Both the teacher and the pupil keep in mind to some extent the purpose of the process in the teaching act. These two methods are different as follows : 1. The teacher, in addition to thinking the truths to be learned, must think the learner's thinking of them. 2. The teacher must think out the means or devices to be used in leading the learner to think the desired points of truth. 3. While both the teacher and pupil keep in mind the purpose, the teacher sees it defi- nitely, or should do so, while the pupil only sees it vaguely. The teacher's method thus includes more than the learner's. Two Views of Method. — The foregoing study sug- gests to us that there are two views of method. It is unfortunate that educational writers hold these two views, as considerable confusion prevails because of this fact. One class of educators, those who have studied method least, mean by method simply the physical process in the act of teaching. A second class, those who have been special students of meth- od, mean by method the triple process in the act of teaching. Comparison of the Two Views. — In our study of method we may call these two views respectively the popular vieiv and the special vieiv. The popular view will thus designate method as the manipulation of METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 27 external means, or devices, and the special view will designate method as the triple process. Thinking of method according to the popular view constantly places the mind's emphasis upon something external to the life of the learner. This has in the past led to much that was bad in teaching and is still doing so. The teacher loses sight thus of the fact that it is in the learner 's life that the educat- ing process is to be carried on. He is prone to make the manipulating, the text-book, or some petty scheme of teaching an end instead of a means. Every ques- tion that arises concerning teaching must be settled in the light of the effect upon the life of the learner. The ultimate question is, How does it affect the life of the learner? The process in which the mind of the learner masters the new point of knowledge is the point of prime importance in the teaching act and the thing always to be emphasized in the study of the act of teaching. The popular view of method leads to almost hopeless confusion. Everyone holding this view who happens to use some different device, or means in teaching calls it his method and gives it a name. Since there is an almost infinite number of devices which may be used, there thus arises an almost infinite number of methods, which no teacher can or desires to keep informed upon. This leads to a hopelessly chaotic condition of things in the study of method. The popular view of method has led to much dis- 28 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE, paragement of the study of method among persons who should be friendly to its study. These are often- times persons who are very good thinkers, but who have not given special study to method. It is a com- mon remark among this class of teachers that one may study method in a subject at the expense of a knowledge of that subject. The depreciating remarks made about method, which arise from the popular view of method, are a source of much harm to the pro- fession of teaching. This is true, because many persons who would otherwise make a careful study of method and would receive the benefit that must come to the teacher thereby, are kept from beginning the study by this disparaging attitude on the part of some teachers. It may be safely said that there is need for no one thing among teachers more than an intensely professional spirit. It seems strange that some teachers take pleasure in saying depreci- ating things about method work! It is, however, probably to be explained from a misconception of method. I have never yet heard the first person speak depreciatingly of method, who had been a stu- dent of the subject. The special view may be proven to be the better view. This is the argument : A thing is good accord- ingly as it realizes the purpose which brought it into existence. Method as a subject came into existence to supply the want for something, the study of which would help the teacher to do better work in his daily METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 29 teaching. Accordingly, that thing whose study helps the -teacher most is the best. It has already been shown that the study of method as a triple process is more helpful to the teacher than the study of method as the manner of manipulating some external means or device. Therefore, the special view is the better view of method. No Danger in Too Much Study. — It is not difficult to see that there is no danger of a teacher 's devoting too much time to the study of method when one takes the proper view of method. The teacher can not study the process through which the mind goes in mastering any point of knowledge until he has the knowledge himself. For instance, the teacher can not see the mental steps the mind of the learner takes in learning the definition of an adjective without knowing the definition of an adjective himself. To know the method in teaching the definition of an adjec- tive is to know two things : 1. The definition of an adjective. 2. The process the mind naturally em- ploys in learning the definition of an adjective. No teacher can rationally and well teach the adjective who does not know these two things. Further Illustration: — In the teaching of history this point becomes quite evident. The teacher who knows method in history knows these two things : 1. The events of mankind in their relation to the strug- gle of the race for freedom. That is to say, he must know history. 2. The natural processes of the mind 30 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. in learning history. No teacher can teach history at all without a knowledge of the first, and it is equally clear -to any person who will think, that no one can teach history well without a knowledge of the second. So this question reduces itself to the following: It is not possible for a teacher to study method too much, unless it is possible for a teacher to know too much about his subjects and to know too well the mind's natural process in learning those subjects. Factors Determining Method, — Nearly twenty years ago one of our foremost educators said, 'The law in the mind and the thought in the thing studied deter- mine the method. ' This statement can not well be improved upon. And it reveals the two factors which determine method. They are (1) the law in the mind; (2) the thought in the thing studied. It is to be no- ticed that it is the law of the mind; that is, the gener- al truths of mental activity — the forms *t>f activity common to all minds. Each mind has individual traits, but in general, all minds act in the same way. The laws of mind are the forms of activity common to all minds. Each thing is the embodiment of thought. That is to say, each thing expresses thought. Long fellow's "Evangeline," the ink-stand, the maple. tree is each the embodiment of thought. Illustration, — Holding in mind that method is the mind's process of learning, we can readily see that the process is different in learning things much alike. The activity the mind puts forth in learning the def- METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 31 inition for the noun is very different from that put forth in getting the thought and feeling from Tenny- son's "Bugle Song." One cause of the difference is, that there is a great difference in the thought em- bodied in the two things. This illustrates that the thought in the thing studied is a factor in determining the method. Again, a child of six .could not under any set of circumstances solve a difficult geometry problem because it would violate the laws of his mind. He could on the other hand learn that the printed word hat represents the idea hat. Thus in this case the law of the mind would determine the method. This whole study of method should emphasize the truth that the essential thing in teaching is opening up the way for the realization of the child's inherent possibilities. "Truth is within ourselves; it takes no rise From outward things, whate'er you may believe". There is an inmost center in us all, Where truth abides in fullness, and around, Wall upon wall, the gross flesh hems it in, ****** And to know Rather consists in opening out a way Whence the imprisoned splendor may escape, Than in effecting entry for a light Supposed to be without." CHAPTER II. THE PURPOSE OF GRAMMAR. The Traditional Purpose. — There was a time in the history of our schools when the course of study con- sisted of only spelling, reading, writing, and arith- metic. But in the course of time it was felt that the children in communicating their thoughts and feel- ings did not use as good English as they should. It was seen that there was no subject in the school curriculum that had as its special object to give the children the ability to do this. As this thought and feeling grew in the minds of the people, there became a real felt-need for some subject in the school curric- ulum that would fix with the children the habit of using good English in expressing their thoughts and feelings. And this is the thing that brought gram- mar as a subject into the school curriculum. It was thought that if the children knew hoiv to use good En- glish, they would do so in speaking and writing. So it was said that the purpose of grammar was to teach how to speak and write correctly. This was taken to mean the same as to give the habit of speaking and writing correctly. This idea of the purpose of gram- mar was given from one generation to another, and METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 33 accepted as correct for a long time, and for this rea- son is called the traditional purpose of grammar. So we now say the traditional purpose of grammar is, that its study was to teach how to speak and write correctly. For a long time it does not seem to have been considered whether the study of grammar had more than one purpose; and, of course, it was not seen that it has a primary purpose of great impor- tance and a secondary purpose of less importance. How Purpose Is to Be Determined. — If it is held that the purpose of a study is one thing, and the study actually accomplishes an entirely different thing, there is a contradiction between the purpose and the thing accomplished. This being the condition of things, people will sooner or later think that the purpose is not what it has been held to be. And if the thing actually accomplished is a worthy thing, it will come to be regarded as the purpose of the study of a subject. This gives the key to the only way that we have of determining the purpose of any subject in the school curriculum. It may be stated thus : the purpose of any subject in the school curriculum is determined from the effect the pursuit of that subject produces on the life of the one studying it. This is true of any lesson. Illustration. — If we study as a lesson the follow- ing, from Browning, we will get the thought that progress is the characteristic which distinguishes man from God on one band, and from the beasts on 34 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. the other. So if we seek the purpose of the selection, we determine it from the effect on our lives, and say its main purpose is to set before us the thought that progress distinguishes man from both God and the beasts. " Progress, man's distinctive mark alone, Not God's, and not the beasts'; God is, they are, Man partly is, and wholly hopes to be." The Real Purpose of Grammar. — It will be remem- bered from our previous study that the pursuit of any subject gives two things, — knowledge and discipline. Then the .pursuit of grammar will give these two things, and in general will have these two purposes. That is to say, grammar has a disciplinary purpose and a knowledge-giving purpose. The question im- mediately suggests itself whether the disciplinary or knowledge-giving purpose is the more important. Keeping in mind how the purpose of any school sub- ject is to be determined, let us study the question. Effect of the Study of Grammar on the Learner. — The study of grammar does the three following things for the one who pursues such study : 1. It gives excellent mental discipline. 2. It gives knowledge, to some ex- tent, as to how to speak and write correctly. 3. It gives knowledge which forms a basis for other work in language subjects. The extent to which the study of grammar does these three things respectively must be taken into consideration, as well as the value to be derived from each one, in a systematic study of the METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 35 effect of studying grammar on the life of the learner. We will study each one in turn. Mental Discipline Furnished by the Study of Gram- mar. — Mental discipline is mental exercise in think- ing, feeling, and willing, to the end of (1) becoming a clear, ready, and accurate thinker; (2) developing a love for truth, beauty and righteousness ; (3) giving habits of self-control and self-direction. Mental dis- cipline is based upon the principle that the mind learns to do by doing. So the question for study here is, What does the mind get exercise in, in study- ing grammar? To answer this leads us into the study of three psychological questions, — conception, judgment and reasoning. Conception. — Our ideas of the various things ex- pressed by common nouns are our concepts of these things. Thus the words tree, barn, boy, flower, and bird express concepts. These words each symbolize the attributes common to all the objects which each names. That is to say, each word names a class. The terms concept, general idea, and general notion all mean the same thing. Now, conception is the mind's process of forming a general idea, or concept, or gen- eral notion. And a general idea is an idea appropriate to the common attributes of a class of objects. The following is the definition for conception : Conception is the mind's process of forming an idea appropriate to a class of objects. The Mind's Natural Way of Getting Its General 6b METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. Ideas. — The mind naturally gets its general ideas from the study of particulars. Suppose the first barn a child sees is a square one painted red, with a roof sloping one way, containing only hay and corn. From this particular the child's idea of a barn will contain square form, red color, this particular kind of roof and filled with hay and corn. Say the next barn has all these attributes but square form. From the study of these two particulars, his idea of a barn will contain red color, roof sloping one way, filled with hay and corn. To be brief, the child from the study of particulars goes on correcting his idea of a barn by dropping out elements, and possibly adding some, until just those attributes remain which are possessed in common by barns. This is the way the mind naturally gets its concepts in life. When it examines the first particular, it forms a tentative, or trial, con- cept. But it goes on and examines other particulars to correct this tentative concept. It must be noted carefully that the mind naturally examines the real, particular objects of which it forms its concepts. The logical steps in an act of conception are the following : — 1. The mind acts an activity appropriate to a particular object by thinking its attributes. 2. The mind repeats the process with other ob- jects. 3. The mind compares and contrasts these ob- jects. METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 37 4. The mind abstracts by holding in conscious- ness the common attributes and dropping from con- sciousness more or less the others. 5. The mind generalizes by extending the com- mon attributes of the particulars studied to all the objects of the class. 6. The mind thinks the name of the class. The first two steps are often put together, thus making five steps, and they are called (1) the exami- nation of particulars; (2) comparison and contrast; (3) abstraction ; (4) generalization; and (5) denomina- tion. Judgment. — The concept is expressed by the com- mon noun, and in a similar way the judgment is ex- pressed by the sentence. We are in the habit of saying the sentence expresses the thought, and it is right to do so, for the judgment and. the thought mean the same thing. The mind at some time in its past experience got the idea trees; also, the idea grow. Now it grasps the relation between these two ideas and asserts it, and thinks trees grow. When the mind does this it is judging, and the result of judging is the judgment. Note that in judging there are three activities in- volved : 1. The mind reacts the old idea trees. 2. The mind reacts the old idea grow. 3. The mind thinks the relation between them. The following is the definition for judgment : A judgment is the mental prod- uct which the mind reaches by asserting the relation be- tween two ideas. 38 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. Reasoning. — In judging* the mind grasps the rela- tion between ideas, and in reasoning it in a somewhat similar manner grasps the relation among judgments. But in reasoning there are three judgments involved, and they are so related that the last one is reached because of its relation to the other two. The follow- ing illustrates it : Animals have voluntary motion. This object is an animal. This object has voluntary motion. The sentence, or proposition, "Animals have vol- untary motion," expresses one judgment, or thought; the sentence, or proposition, "This object is an animal," expresses another judgment, or thought; and the mind reaches the judgment, or thought, ex- pressed by the sentence, or proposition, "This object has voluntary motion," because of its relation to the preceding judgments. From the above study we get the following definition for reasoning : Reasoning is the mind's 'process of reaching a judgment because of its relation to two preceding judgments. On the basis of the order of the judgments in the mind, there are three classes of reasoning, — deduc- tion, identification, and induction. The following will illustrate it. I. Expression Animals have voluntary motion, of This object is an animal. Deduction. This object has voluntary motion. METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 39 II. Expression Animals have voluntary motion, of This object has voluntary motion. Identification. This object is an animal. III. Expression This object is an animal. of This object has voluntary motion. Induction. Animals have voluntary motion. In logic the three propositions which express a complete act of reasoning are collectively called the syllogism, and the first two are called the premises, and the third is called the conclusion. Thus it may be said that the syllogism is the expression of a com- plete act of reasoning, consisting of three proposi- tions, the first two being the premises and the last the conclusion. These three propositions arranged as in "I " above are called the first figure of the syllo- gism ; if arranged as in "II "above they are called the second figure of the syllogism ; and if arranged as in "III" above they form the third figure of the syllo- gism. Thus the first figure of the syllogism expresses, or symbolizes, deductive reasoning ; the second figure symbolizes identification ; and the third figure symbol- izes induction. The mind's ability to think readily, and accu- rately sums itself up in its ability to form accurate concepts, make correct judgments, and reason readily and logically. Now all definition making in grammar, 40 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. if correctly done, is among the very best of exercises in forming accurate concepts, and in making correct judgments. Definition making gives excellent exer- cise in inductive reasoning ; and all parsing and ana- lyzing employs identifying reasoning. These activi- ties are accompanied with the feelings which always accompany clear, accurate, logical thinking. These are feelings of energy, triumph, and exaltation as well- as a love for the beauty of the sentence. Now no subject in the school curriculum is better adapted to give discipline in these mental processes than gram- mar. Thus the disciplinary phase of the purpose of grammar stands out as very important. Knowledge of Hoiv to Speak and Write Correctly. — That it is the purpose of grammar to furnish knowl- edge which will be valuable for guidance in speaking and writing no one will deny. But that the knowl- edge gained by studying grammar is so valuable as has been thought may well be questioned. Just what knowledge do all the definition making, parsing, and analyzing done in grammar give that will guide one in using correct language ? We are compelled to answer very little. But granting that various phases of the study of grammar do give knowledge of this kind it still remains to be seen : (1) just what this knowledge is ; (2) whether the study which gives this knowledge is adapted to the life of the child when he is forming his language habits ; (3) whether, having such knowl- METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 41 edge, it does actually guide to any great extent in using good English. Just What the Knowledge Is.- — When one attempts to enumerate here, he finds not so much to enumer- ate as he at first thought. But the following may be named : 1. A verb must agree with its subject in person and number. 2. The right case forms must be used for nouns and pronouns in the various cases. 3. The right number forms must be used for substantives in various numbers. 4. The correct gender and person forms must be used when the substantives have various genders and persons. 5. The correct principal parts of verbs must be used when the verb is in its various tenses, modes, and voices. These five general principles cover most of the grammatical knowledge that guides in using good English, and what they do not cover is of the same general character. Its Study Not Adapted to the Child. — A study of child nature reveals the fact to us that there is a lan- guage period in the life of the child when he learns language as naturally as he learns to walk; also, that if the child does not learn to use fairly good language in this period he either never will or wiU do so at great cost and with much difficulty. Now this language 42 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. period in the child's life is between the ages of two and fourteen. The question now arises whether the study re- quired to learn those points of grammatical knowledge claimed to guide in using good English is suitable for children in the language period. No one who under- stands how hard a subject grammar really is will answer in the affirmative. No subject in the school course requires closer analyzing, judging, and reason- ing than grammar. No subject, not even psychology or geometry, in the school curriculum is more diffi- cult. The Guidance Grammatical Knowledge Really Gives. — If to know how to speak and write correctly and to have the habit of speaking and writing correctly were the same thing, the purpose of grammar teaching in school would certainly be different. We all know they are widely different things. To know grammatical principles is no guarantee that one will habitually use good English. A friend who is an excellent gram- marian, and who knows what good English is, makes many common errors in speaking and writing. It is unnatural to learn rules and then form one's English in the light of these rules. The language was first and the rules have been derived from the language. One's habits are formed in language before he has reached a period of development sufficient to study, with any degree of success, grammar. The most that can be expected of grammatical knowledge in METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 43 the way of guidance is of a negative character. It shows us some things to avoid. As a matter of fact though, under a tension of thought and feeling we usually forget these negative precepts and conform to old habits. Then again, grammar deals only with correctness in the sentence. Now, correctness is only one element of good English. Good English has as its characteristics correctness, clearness, elegance, and energy. Thus our study shows grammatical knowledge to be of much less value for guidance in the use of good English than is usually supposed. A Basis for Other Language Work. — All can see that the study of grammar gives knowledge that makes a good basis upon which to build in teach- ing rhetoric, literature, German, Latin, Greek, French, etc. This seems an important part of the knowledge-giving purpose of grammar. Our study shows, I think, that this phase of the knowledge-giving purpose is much more important than the phase of giving knowledge for guidance in speaking and writing. Summary. — Our study leads to the conclusion that the primary purpose of the study of grammar is the excellent mental discipline its study furnishes; and that of the secondary purposes, the acquirement of knowledge for a basis in other language teaching is the more important, while least important of all is 44 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. the acquirement of knowledge for guidance in speak- ing and writing. Professor W. D. Whitney says: "That the leading- object of the study of English grammar is to teach the correct use of English is, in my view, an error, and one which is gradually becoming removed, giving way to the sounder opinion that grammar is the re- flective study of language, for a variety of purposes, of which correctness in writing is only one, and a secondary or subordinate one — by no means unim- portant, but best attained when sought indirectly. It should be a pervading element in the whole school and home training of the young, to make them use their own tongue with accuracy and force, and along with any special drilling directed to this end, some of the rudimentary distinctions and rules of grammar are conveniently taught; but this is not the study of grammar, and it will not bear the intrusion of .much formal grammar without being spoiled for its own ends. It is constant use and practice, under never- failing watch and correction, that makes good writers and speakers; the application of direct authority is the most efficient corrective. Grammar has its part to contribute, but rather in the higher than in the lower stages of the work. One must be a somewhat reflective user of language to amend even here and there a point by grammatical reasons; and no one ever changed from a bad speaker to a good one by applying the rules of grammar to what he said. " CHAPTER III. THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF GRAMMAR. The FormerView. — There was a time when it was thought that grammar was a subject so broad that it included almost any phase of work which dealt with language. As such, grammar was said to be divided into orthography, etymology, syntax, and prosody . And following up the same line of thought orthography was said to treat of sounds, letters, syllables, and spelling. Such a view of grammar lacks definiteness. It is so general that it gives the teacher no help. A teacher who holds such a view of grammar can do almost anything with language and justify it as gram- mar work. Seeing this trouble, good thinkers on this subject began to analyze this general notion. As a result of this study they are pretty generally agreed that grammar deals only with the sentence as a unit, rather than with language as a whole. The following study will show the thought here. The Better View. — There are three language units, — the word, the sentence, and discourse. These are three wholes of which all language is made up, and so they are called the language units. There are some subjects which deal with the word as their language 46 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. unit. These subjects are called word-studies. They are orthography, orthoepy, etymology, and lexicology. There is but one subject which deals with the sen- tence as its language unit. This subject is grammar. In our language studies, discourse as a finished prod- uct is dealt with in the pursuit of some subjects, while in other subjects discourse in the process of making is dealt with. ''Miles Standish, " "The Bare- foot Boy, " "The Discontented Pendulum," or any other selections in our readers, or any other pieces of literature, are discourse as a finished product. When one is speaking, or writing a letter, or an essay, he is making discourse, and it thus is discourse in the pro- cess of making. Reading, literature, and rhetoric as the science of discourse deal with discourse as a finished product as their language unit. Primary language, and composition deal with discourse in the process of making as their language unit. The following diagram will reveal the relation among the group of subjects called language sub- jects, or the language group. ( Orthography. word - 1 ° rthoe py- wom 1 Etymology. [Lexicology. Sentence - Grammar. Language Units. Discourse 1 f As a finished product. In the process of making. | Reading. I Literature. j Rhetoric as the 1 science of discourse. { Language \ lessons. [ Composition. i METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. At At first sight it might seem that grammar deals with the word as its language unit. A little study will show, however, that while words are studied in gram mar, they are always studied in relation to the sentence as the whole thing. An isolated word can have no grammatical meaning. It can only be studied grammatically when used in the sentence. Purpose of Language. — What is the work the word, the sentence, and the thought have to do? That is to say, What is the purpose of language? We can help ourselves in the study of this question by investigat- ing the birth of language. And this investigation shows us that the instinct in humanity to communi- cate experience gave birth to language. When a human being has an experience he wishes to arouse a similar experience in some other human being. Now, there is no way to communicate an experience except by some physical medium, and language came into existence as this physical medium. Thus language was born of a felt-need for some physical medium to communicate thought and feeling. A word was born of a desire to communicate an idea. A sentence was born of a desire to communicate a thought. Dis- course was born of a desire to communicate related thoughts. It is the purpose of everything to realize the idea that created it, and we call it good just to the extent it does realize this idea. Then the whole purpose of language is to communicate thought and feeling. 48 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. The Sentence the Subject- matter of Grammar. — From our study so far we are led to the conclusion that the sentence as a medium for communicating thought is the subject-matter of grammar. This is, in general, a true statement for the subject-matter of grammar, and the one held at present by the best thinkers on this sub- ject. However, we can help ourselves further here by seeing just what we do when we study the sen- tence as a medium for communicating thought and feel- ing. So to look at it from this view-point, it may be said that the subject-matter of grammar is the sen- tence, as a whole and in its parts, as to nature, defini- tion, classification, and relations. That is to say, we study the sentence as a whole in grammar, and we study its parts, each as to its nature, definition, classification, and relations. As to Nature. — Nature means according to the way a thing is born. So to study the nature of the sentence, or any class of sentences, or any part, or class of parts is to investigate how it came to be. It is to study the idea that created it. And since all language is born of a desire to com- municate thought and feeling, studying the nature of the various things in grammar means to seek in the thought behind the language form, the reason for this form. And this is a vital point in all (/ram mar teaching. Definition. — The popular notion is that definition is some sort of formal statement, either oral or writ- ten ; but this idea is a superficial one, and one produc- METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 49 tive of much bad work in grammar teaching. Defini- tion is in its essential nature a mental process and as such should be perfectly understood by every gram- mar teacher. "Definitions are usually treated as mere formal statements to be recited and lodged away in memory, rather than thought processes in funda- mental forms of mental activity." An examination of how the mind naturally forms a definition will reveal the nature of the process. If the thing to be defined is the triangle, the mind will naturally examine a particular triangle, noting several of its attributes; then, it will examine a second triangle, noting several of its attributes ; then, a third ; then, a number sufficient to itself. It com- pares these various triangles, and selects the attri- butes possessed in common by each triangle. It finds they are these: — 1. It is a figure. 2. It has three sides. 3. It has three angles. The mind now puts together, or synthesizes, the truths common to triangles, in the form of a thought, and thinks the following: A triangle is a figure having three sides and three angles. But this examining triangles, and the mind's process of putting together these common truths of triangles in the form of a thought is defining. It will be remembered that in the general idea, or concept, triangle we found that there were the same three common truths indicated above. So we are now in a position to give the following statement for definition : Definition is the mind's process of syn- 50 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. thesizing the common elements of a general idea, or a con- cept, in the form of a thought. Illustration. — The mind examines several particu- lar nouns in sentences and sees that each one (1) is a substantive word ; (2) expresses an object by naming it. Then the mind puts together, or synthesizes, these two truths of nouns as follows : A noun is a substantive word which expresses an object by nam- ing it. But this defines the noun. Steps in Definition. — In synthesizing the common elements in a general idea in the form of a thought, that is, in defining, the mind takes the following steps : — 1. The mind thinks the name of the thing to be defined. 2. The mind puts the thing to be defined in the first known class larger than itself. 3. The mind sets the thing to be defined off from all other things of that class. Illustration. — In the definition for the sentence, "The sentence is that language unit which expresses a thought," "The sentence" names what is to be defined; "is that language unit " puts the thing to be defined into the class language units: and "which ex- presses a thought "sets the thing to be defined off from the other things of the class, the word and discourse. And again we find the same three steps in the definition of the noun : A noun is a substantive word METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 51 which names its object. "A noun" expresses the first step; "is a substantive word "is the second step, and "which names its object" sets the noun off from the other substantive word, the pronoun. What is Defined. — In grammar the thing defined is always a class. When the mind defines the adjec- tive or pronoun, the definition is not for some partic- ular adjective or pronoun, but it is for the class adjec- tive or for the class pronoun. So a definition must include all particulars of the class defined. That is to say, it must be inclusive. Also, a definition must exclude everything except the particulars of the class defined. That is to say, it must be exclusive. Errors in Definitions. — The most common errors in definition are (1) they are untruthful in part or wholly; (2) they are not helpful; (3) they are not inclu- sive; (4) they are not exclusive. The following is un- truthful : The predicate of a sentence is that which is asserted of the subject. Neither of the following definitions is helpful: "An adjective is a word that lessens the extensiveness but increases the compre- hensiveness of a substantive word. " "A noun is the name of an object. ' ' The latter is an example of what is called defining in a circle. This definition of an adjective is one that is neither inclusive nor ex- clusive: "An adjective is a word which modifies a noun." It includes nouns and pronouns in the pos- sessive case, and appositives; and it excludes adjec- tives which modify pronouns. 52 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. Definition, Synonym and Description. — A clear dis- tinction is to be made between a definition and a synonym ; also, between a definition and a description. A synonym is a word which has the same or very nearly the same signification as some other word, while a definition as used here is a sentence which expresses the mind's process in synthesizing the common elements in a general idea. A definition is to be distinguished from a description in that a de- scription sets forth the attributes of a particular ob- ject, while definition sets forth the common attributes of a class of objects. Importance to Teacher of Understanding Definition. — The teacher who well understands the mind's pro- cess of definition will thereby become self -helpful and self- directive in definition making. He will be able to free himself from the text-book, rise above it, and criticise it. He will have confidence in his own ability and will depend upon the integrity of his own thought. He will thus become an independent and ready thinker. And his students will thus be affected in these ways by his teaching. Classification, — By classification is meant separat- ing and unifying objects in the light of some common truths. The mind classifies in order to help itself by saving time and energy in thinking the world of ob- jects. Thus if there are 100,000 nouns in English, and the common truths of nouns are (1) they are words ; (2) they express objects ; (3) they name their METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. o3 objects, to know their essential nature without think- ing them as a class, the mind must think 300,000 things. But if the mind thinks them as a class, it must first think the three things true of all nouns, then think that each one of the particulars is a noun, making in all 100,003 things. Therefore, by thinking the noun as a class the mind has saved the time and energy required to think 199,997 things. The common truth or truths according to which objects are classified are called the basis of classifica- tion. So in asking for classes the basis must always be given. To ask the question, What are the classes of verbs ? is too indefinite. There are many mistakes made in grammar on this point. Relation. — By relation is meant the connection the mind makes among objects because of their like- ness. Thus in grammar there is relation between the noun and the pronoun ; between the adjective and the adverb; between the relative pronoun and the conjunctive adverb ; between the conjunction and the relative pronoun, etc. One phase of relation very helpful to work in grammar is comparison and contrast. Thus after the noun and pronoun have been studied nothing is more helpful than to ask students to compare and contrast them . Illustration. — In order to compare and contrast two grammatical terms well a systematic plan must be followed. A little thought here will show that 54 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. grammatical terms may be alike and different as follows : 1. As to essential ideas. 2. As to grammatical use in the sentence. 3. As to modifiers they may take. Some terms may have other points of likeness and difference, but these are the essential ones. These are all evident as to meaning unless it be the first. Essential ideas are those common truths that make up the definition of anything. Thus the essen- tial ideas of a triangle are (1) it is a figure; (2) it has three sides ; and (3) it has three angles. Comparison and Contrast of Noun and Pronoun. — As to essential ideas. Likeness. 1. They are both substantive words. Difference. 1. The noun names its object, but the pronoun does not name its object. As to use in the sentence. Likeness. 1. They may both be used as subject, predicate, direct object, indirect object, possessive, appositive, adverbially, absolutely, independently, and as the principal term of a prepositional phrase. Difference. None. As to modifiers they may take. Likeness. METHOD IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 55 1. They -may both take the adjective and appositive modifier. Difference. 1. The noun takes the possessive modi- fier, but the pronoun does not. No lesson on the noun and pronoun will acquaint the student with the exact status of his knowledge of them better than such a one as this. It also makes the very best kind of review. CHAPTER IV. THE INDUCTIVE METHOD IN GRAMMAR. Nature of Inductive Method. — The inductive method was discussed to some extent in chapter I of these studies under the title of the "Laboratory, or Scien- tific, " method. It is a procedure in which the pupil is led to observe, investigate and think for himself. It is opposed to taking things on mere authority in all cases where the pupil can investigate, and do original thinking. It is diametrically opposed to what is called the text-book method in teaching. By the inductive method the student deals with the actual material of study rather than with what some one has said about it. In studying botany by the inductive method, the pupil deals with plants ; in studying zool- ogy, with animals; in studying chemistry, with chem- icals ; in studying grammar, with sentences and parts of sentences. As the inductive method, it gets its name from the mental process of induction, or inductive reasoning. This, also studied in a previous chapter, is the mind's process in going from the examination of particular objects to some general truth. It begins by study- ing particulars and ends by reaching a judgment METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 57 whose subject is an idea of a class and whose predi- cate is an idea of some truth asserted of the class. Illustration.- — Five nouns have been examined, and each has been found to be a substantive word which names its object. So the mind reasons this way :— These things are all nouns. These things are all substantive words which name their objects. Therefore, nouns are substantive words which name their objects. It is to be noted here that the mind starts by studying particulars and from this study reaches a truth about the class, nouns. This truth is, that they are all substantive words which name their objects. The Inductive Method and Definition. — Definition in several of its phases was studied in the last chapter, and keeping in mind what was learned there, we will be able to push the study further here in connection with the inductive method. In all definition the mind naturally employs the inductive method. That is to say, it employs inductive reasoning. Illustration. — The mind starts out to define the sentence, and studies sentences, one, two, three, four, five, and six, seeing that each of them is a language unit which expresses a thought. It then thinks the definition, — A sentence is a language unit which expresses a thought. But a study of this process will show that there are here to be found six processes of inductive reasoning. When the mind examines the first sen- 58 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. tence it reasons thus : This is a sentence; this is a language unit which expresses a thought ; therefore, the sentence (so far as seen) is a language unit which expresses a thought. This process is repeated with each particular, the mind becoming firmer in its belief all the time that it was right at first. These processes are each induction, in the main, though deduction is involved. The Mind's Natural Way of Getting Definitions.— From our study of definition, conception, and the in- ductive method, it ought not to be difficult to see that the mind 's natural way of getting definitions is by the inductive method when it is at all possible -to get the particular things to study. We may systematize this by saying the mind's natural way of getting defini- tions is by : 1. Studying particulars of the class to be defined. 2. Selecting out the common truths of these par- ticulars. 3. Synthesizing these common truths in the form of a thought. The one and only legitimate objection which can be urged against leading children to form their own definitions in this way from the study of particular cases is that in some subjects the particulars can not be had for study. But this can not be urged in the study of grammar, for the particulars to be studied are sentences and parts of sentences. The material is omnipresent. METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 59 The Correct Way to Teach Definition. — If the mind's natural way of getting definitions is a guide as to the method of teaching definitions, all definitions in gram- mar must be taught by the inductive method. That is to say, particular cases of the thing to be studied are placed before the pupil. He is led by questions to discover for himself the truths common to the par- ticular cases, and is asked to state them as essential ideas. And as the last step in the process he is asked to synthesize these common truths in the form of a thought ; that is, he is asked to define. Illustration,. — Subject of the lesson is the noun and pronoun. The children have previously studied the classes of words on the basis of what they express and know well the meaning of substantive word. They also know what it means to name anything. 1. That rose is very beautiful. 2. The oriole builds a hanging nest. 3. One should cultivate a love for beauty. 4. John is an industrious boy. 5. William was rewarded for his industry. 6. He is known to be honest. 7. / gave it to him. What do the italicized words in the above sen- tences express? On the basis of what they express what kind of words are they? How do those in the first five sentences differ from those in sentences 6 and 7? Those in the first five, grammarians call nouns and those in 6 and 7 they call pronouns. How 60 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. does the noun differ from the pronoun? Give the essential ideas of the noun ; also, of the pronoun. ' Define the noun ; also, the pronoun. Answers : The italicized words express ideas of objects. They are substantive words. Those in the first five name their objects, while those in 6 and 7 do not. The noun names an object, while the pronoun does not. The essential ideas of the noun are, (1) the noun is a sub- stantive word ; (2) it names its object. The essential ideas of the pronoun are, (1) the pronoun is a substan- tive word ; (2) it does not name its object. The noun is a substantive word which names its object. The pro- noun is a substantive word which does not name its object. Comparison of Two Ways.— Definition is often taught in grammar by assigning as a lesson formal statements of definitions to be learned from a text- book and committed to memory. This way consists simply in memorizing what some one has worked out in the subject. It makes the student dependent, and helpless, and gives him an undue respect for the text- book. He comes to think that the subject is found between the lids of the book. He gets an attitude of mind which causes him to accept it because the book says so. This way of learning definitions lacks in- herent interest, is unnatural, and often is nothing more than the verbal memory of meaningless terms. It is always liable to this abuse, and, in fact, it can scarcely be avoided. It cultivates memory, but the kind of memory that breaks down ability to think METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 61 logically. It produces the appearance of understand- ing without the reality. Herbert Spencer says on this point : ''To give the net product of inquiry, with- out the inquiry that leads to it, is found to be both enervating and inefficient. General truths to be of due and permanent use, must be earned. 'Easy come easy go, ' is a saying as applicable to knowledge as to wealth. While rules (definitions), lying isolated in the mind — not joined to its other contents as outgrowths from them— are continually forgotten, the principles which those rules express piece-meal, become, when once reached by the understanding, enduring posses- sions. While the rule-taught youth is at sea when be- yond his rules, the youth instructed in principles solves a new case as readily as an old one. Between a mind of rules and a mind of principles, there exists a difference such as that between a confused heap of materials, and the same materials organized into a complete whole, with all its parts bound together. " Advantages of Inductive Method — The advantages of the inductive method in grammar are many. The following are some of them :— 1. It is the natural way of learning grammar. 2. It makes students in- dependent and self-helpful. 3. It gives students the habit of free inquiry and free investigation. 4. It establishes a critical attitude of mind. 5. It makes grammar a subject full of interest. 6. It makes grammar a subject not excelled by any in giving men- tal discipline in ; 62 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 1. Accurate observation. 2. Comparison and contrast. 3. Abstraction. 4. Generalization. 5. Inductive reasoning. 6. Identification. 7. Deductive reasoning. 8. The kind of memory that does not break down the ability to think accurately. Dr. Arnold Tompkins says the following of defini- tion taught by the inductive method : "It (definition) is a process of thinking which brings into unity the individual and universal — the problem of all thought, and which brings the learner into unity with the world of thought, the end of all learning. This is its primary educational value. The power to discern unity in the midst of diver- sity; to detect essential likenesses amidst engrossing and non-essential differences; to find the enduring under the mask of obtruding, accidental, and super- ficial attributes, is a fundamental characteristic of every well-trained mind. To define is not simply to unify individuals ; but, in unifying, to find their essen- tial nature. The common nature in which they are unified is the essential nature of each individual. Hence the habit of thinking in the form of definition is the habit of thinking the true nature of things; which is the primary function of mind. This unifying act of mind is complex ; and has a METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 63 richer significance in training than at first appears. It requires accurate, thorough, and methodical obser- vation; precise discrimination through comparison and contrast ; abstraction of that which abides after dif- ferences have been canceled ; and generalization, by holding in mind the difference of individuals while binding them into the unity of their common nature. So that while training to correct habits of definition, the teacher is carrying forward a large number of related habits. Too much can not be said, therefore, by way of urging the teacher to train the student in the power of logical definition, since it is a form of activity by which he comes into unity with the world of thought. Definitions are usually treated as mere formal statements to be recited and lodged away in memory, rather than thought processes of defining in funda- mental forms of mental activity. " "To reap the best results, the formal statement of a definition should not be made until the student has had a full experi- ence of all the subordinate processes on which the definition is based. In some cases, days, or even weeks; should be spent in observing, comparing and contrasting, abstracting, and generalizing, before any effort is made to formulate a definition. The formal definition of an infinitive is the last step in the process and not the first, as usually given. A definition made in this way, when asked for in reproduction, will not be remembered as a form of words ; but the entire 64 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. experience in making the definition will, in brief, be repeated. Definitions made in this way can not be forgotten ; or, if forgotten, may be reconstructed on a moment's notice. " CHAPTER V. BASIS IN GRAMMAR. Basis for the Sentence as to Nature. — The starting point proper in teaching grammar is the sentence, and the first work to be done with the sentence is to study its nature. But to study the nature of the sen- tence is to study how it was born ; that is, how it came to be. We know that the sentence was born of a desire to communicate a thought. So in order to un- derstand the nature of the sentence the nature of the thought must be understood. The nature of the thought can not be understood, however, without knowing what an idea is, and an idea can not well be understood without involving a knowledge of its sym- bol, the word. Ideas are the mind 'snactivi ties appro- priate to objects, attributes, and relations. These three things, objects, "attributes, and relations make up the universe. There is nothing which is not an object or an attribute or a relation. Ideas thus arise^from the consideration by the mind of objects, attributes, and relations. So to understand well an idea, an object, an attribute, and a relation must be under- stood. Therefore, to build up the basis for teaching the nature of the sentence well objects, attributes, 66 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. relations, ideas, and thoughts must be understood. The following little outline will show the basis for teaching the sentence. I 1 . The object, l 2 . Classes. I 3 . Material. 2 3 . Immaterial. 2 2 . Attributes. I 3 . Classes. I 4 . Quality. 2 4 . Condition. 3 4 . Action. 3 2 . Relations. 2 1 . Idea. I 2 . Symbol of. I 3 . Word. I 4 . Classes on basis of what they ex- press. I 5 . Substantive. 2 5 . Attributive. 3 5 . Relational. 4 5 . Form. 3 1 . Thought. I 2 . Elements of. I 3 . Subject. 2 3 . Predicate. 3 3 . Copula. 2-'. Symbol of. I 3 . Sentence. Principles of Mind Underlying Basis. — Basis, as has been said before, means the points of knowledge the child already has upon which one can build in teaching any new point or points of knowledge. The METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 67 principles of mind upon which basis in its pedagog- ical aspect is founded are as follows : — 1. The mind naturally goes to the unknown from the nearest related knoivn. 2. The mind from its organic nature best grasps, and retains that which is well organized. The mind can go no other way in learning than from the known to the unknown, but it makes a differ- ence whether it attempts to go from the nearest re- lated known to the unknown, or from some remotely related known to the unknown. Illustration. — The mind in denning an adjective does not naturally think that the adjective is a thing, though it is the truth; but it thinks the adjective is an attributive word, a class of known things, and then narrows it down further. A thing is known, but is not as closely related to the adjective as an attributive word, another known thing. It is well known that those things which are taught in a fragmentary, unsystematic, unorganized manner are difficult to grasp and to remember, while work well organized is much more easily grasped and remembered. This is true because only in that which is well organized are the relations traced out and em- phasized. This truth makes it imperative that in teaching any subject it be progressively developed, each step taken forming a basis for the next step in the development. The subject of geometry well 68 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. illustrates this point, but it is equally true in de- veloping the subject of grammar. Violations of Basis.— There are many violations of basis in grammar as treated in text-books on the subject and as usually taught. These occur in two ways. First, a subject is treated for which the basis has not been given, or a lesson taught for which the basis has not been worked out. Secondly, subjects are treated and lessons taught in such a way that use is not made of the basis the child has. Both are bad and detract from habits of careful thinking. Illustration. — A text-book in treating the gram- matical properties of the noun gave the following statement for the objective case: "The objective case is the use of the noun or pronoun as the object of a transitive verb in the active voice or of its participles. " The transitive verb and active voice had not been mentioned before and participles had had mere men- tion. Again, the definition of the preposition, "A preposition is a word which shows the relation be- tween its object and some other word" violates basis. The meaning of the "object of a preposition" has not been worked out in the text up to this place, nor is it worked out afterwards, for that matter. A teacher often endeavors to teach case without having care- fully worked out the many ways a substantive is used in the sentence, or he attempts to teach the nature of the sentence without having taught the thought. The mistake in each case is one of violation of basis, METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 69 Further Illustration. — The definition for a relative pronoun, "A relative pronoun is a word used to rep- resent a preceding word or expression called its antecedent to which it joins a modifying clause," is a violation of basis in that it does not use what the child has already learned. The pupil has already learned what the pronoun is and this knowledge should be used as a basis in defining the relative pronoun. The mind knows what a pronoun is, and to define the rela- tive pronoun has only to set it off from other pronouns to define it according to the laws of definition. This it is able to do as soon as it sees that the relative pro- noun has a connective use in the sentence. So the natural definition for a relative pronoun is as follows: A relative pronoun is a pronoun which has a connect- ive use in the sentence. The child's knowledge of the pronoun is thus used as a basis for teaching the relative pronoun. Work in Harmony with Basis. — To start out in grammar teaching and work all the time in harmony with basis, the work must proceed somewhat as follows: Objects, attributes, and relations must be taught as basis for teaching the idea. Substantive, attributive, and relational ideas must be taught as a basis for teaching words, and the classes of words; also, as basis for teaching the thought. The thought and its elements must be taught as a basis for teach- ing the sentence and its elements. The sentence and its elements must be taught as a basis for teaching 70 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. the classes of sentences, and for teaching the various parts of the sentence. And so on through the subject. The advantages of working in harmony with the right basis are those which accrue from the natural and progressive unfolding of the subject. They are as follows: 1. Economy of time and energy. 2. Right habits of thinking. 3. Right methods of study. 4. Interest in the subject. 5. The cultivation of the right kind of memory, the kind that does not break down the ability to think logically, but aids in logical thinking. CHAPTER VI. STEPS IN GRAMMAR. Meaning of Steps. — Steps in a whole subject mean the various more or less complete advances the mind takes in mastering that subject. There are in the subject of grammar many distinct points of knowl- edge to be mastered, and the mentality correspond- ing to these points are steps. Thus the mental activity corresponding to the noun, and the mental activity corresponding to the pronoun, are two steps in grammar. Of course, these steps appropriate to the noun and pronoun are analyzable into smaller steps. Order of Steps. — The question of most importance concerning steps in grammar is the order of the steps. What shall be taught first, and what shall be taught next, and so on? Here is a large amount of grammatical material to be taught, and it is possible to begin at many different places, and move forward in many ways. What shall be the order of taking the steps in the subject? Or does it make any difference what order the various truths of the subject are taught in? The examination of text- books will not solve the problem for us, for no two books agree en~ 72 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. tirely in their order of presenting the grammar work. Text-books on grammar in general follow two plans. First, in most of the older texts and in some newer ones, the parts of speech together with their gram- matical properties constitute the first part of the book. The second part consists of the sentence, taken up as a whole, classified into its classes, then broken up into essential elements, and modifying ele- ments, etc. The second plan just reverses this order. The sentence as a whole, its elements, both essential and modifying, etc., according to this plan, constitute the first part of the book, the second part consisting of the parts of speech and their grammatical proper- ties, etc. Help on the Problem. — In the search for a solution to this problem we have to turn to our knowledge of the human mind and its natural mode of acting. As in the solution of every educational problem, so in the solution of this we thus get some help. A little re- flection reveals to us that the mind naturally grasps an object as a whole, first, in order to get a grasp of it in its entirety ; next it proceeds to break it up into its largest parts, and to grasp them as wholes, and in relation to the whole object ; next the parts are broken up into smaller parts, and it may be that these in turn are analyzed into smaller parts ; and thus it goes on. This the mind naturally does whether its activity be appropriate to a tree, a sewing machine, a lily, a poem, a problem in arithmetic, an "original" in METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 73 geometry, or a sentence. If any one is not certain of this point, he has only to watch his own natural men- tal activity in taking up any new object of study to prove its truth satisfactorily. The Mind's Attitude toward the Sentence. — From the foregoing study, it is evident that the mind natu- rally grasps the sentence as a whole, first ; then it pro- ceeds to break it up into its largest parts ; then the next smaller, and so on through the subject. So if we can determine in our study what these parts in the order indicated are, we will have the mind's natu- ral order of taking up the subject of grammar. It will be necessary to see what the mind can do with the sentence as a whole in this subject. First, it can seek its nature; secondly, it can define it; thirdly, it can classify sentences on two bases, — form, and meaning. These various classes can be studied as to nature, definition, etc. After working out all these general ideas from the thought side, the mind naturally seeks to verify its conclusions by exercising itself in identifying particulars. After thus dealing with the sentence as a whole, it would next be broken up into its largest parts. The largest parts of the sentence are its essential elements, — the subject, the predicate, and the copula. The nature, definition, classes, and relation of these one to another, the mind will trace out. These gen- eral ideas having been worked out from the thought side by the inductive method, the mind naturally 74 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. seeks to verify its conclusions by exercises in identifi- cation. In the next general movement the essential ele- ments will be broken up into the following : 1. On the meaning side, into principal and modifying ele- ments. 2. On the form side, into words, phrases and clauses. Modifying elements will be broken up into: .1. Substantive modifiers. 2. Attributive modifiers, and these into their sub-classes. The next general movement in the breaking up process would give the parts of speech, and these would come in something like the following order: 1. Noun. 2. Pronoun. 3. Verb. 4. Adjective. 5. Participle. 6. Infinitive. 7. Adverb. 8. Preposi- tion. 9. Conjunction. 10. Interjection. This is, in general, the order in which the mind would naturally take up the subject of grammar. There may be places where minor variations in the order should be made depending upon the circum- stances under which the subject is taught. As a rule, the mind's natural way of doing any school work should be sought out and followed as nearly as pos- sible since it is not only rational, but most economical. So any great departure from this general order is to be avoided. The following outline will indicate in a general way a good order of teaching the subject of grammar: I. The object. * l 1 . Classes. METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 75 ■» l 2 . Material. 2 2 . Immaterial. 2 1 . Attributes. I 2 . Classes. I 3 . Quality. 2 3 . Condition. 3 3 . Action. 3 1 . Relations. II. Idea. I 1 . Classes. I 2 . Substantive. 2 2 . Attributive. 3 2 . Relational. 2 1 . Symbol of idea. I 2 . Word. I 3 . Classes on basis of what they express. I 4 . Substantive. 2 4 . Attributive. 3 4 . Relational. 4 4 . Form. III. Thought. I 1 , Elements of. I 2 . Subject. 2 2 . Predicate. 3 2 . Copula. 2 1 . Symbol of. I 2 . Sentence. I 3 . Nature of. 2 3 . Definition of. I 4 . Nature of definition in general. 3 3 . Classes on basis of meaning. I 4 . Declarative. 2 4 . Imperative. 3 4 . Interrogative. 4 4 . Exclamatory. 76 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE, 4 3 . Classes on basis of form of thought ex- pressed. I 4 . Simple. 2 4 . Complex. 3 4 . Compound. 5 3 . Elements of. I 4 . Essential. I 5 . Subject. 2 5 . Predicate. I 6 . Classes-on basis of form. I 7 . Word. 2 7 . Phrase. 3 7 . Clause. 2 6 . Classes on basis of what they express. I 7 . Substantive. 2 7 . Attributive. 3 5 . Copula. 2 4 . Modifying. I 5 . Classes on basis of what they express. I 6 . Substantive. I 7 . Objective. 2 7 . Objective adverbial. 3 7 . Appositive. 4 7 . Possessive. 2 6 . Attributive. I 7 . Adjective. 2 7 . Adverbial. IV. Parts of speech. I 1 . Noun. I 2 . Classes. P. Proper. 2 3 . Common. METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 77 l 4 . Classes. I 5 . Class. 2 5 . Abstract. 3 5 . Mass. 2 2 . Grammatical properties. I 3 . Gender. I 4 . Classes. I 5 . Masculine. 2 5 . Feminine. 3 5 . Neuter. 4 5 . Common. 2 3 . Person. I 4 . Classes. I 5 . First. 2 5 . Second. 3 5 . Third. 3 3 . Number. I 4 . Classes. I 5 . Singular. 2 5 . Plural. 4 3 . Case. I 4 . Classes. , l 5 . Nominative. 2 5 . Objective. 3 5 . Possessive. 2 1 . Pronoun. I 2 . Classes. I 3 . Personal. 2 3 . Relative. 3 3 . Interrogative. 2 2 . Grammatical properties. I 3 . Same as noun. 3 2 . Inflection. I 3 . Declension. 78 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 3 1 . Verb. P. Classes on basis of what they express. I 3 . Pure. 2 3 . Attributive. I 4 . Classes. I 5 . Transitive. 2 5 . Intransitive. 2 2 . Classes on basis of form. I 3 . Regular. 2 3 . Irregular. 3 2 . Classes on basis of rank. I 3 . Principal. 2 3 . Auxiliary. 4 2 . Classes on basis of number of parts. I 3 . Complete. 2 3 . Redundant. 3 3 . Defective. o 2 . Grammatical properties. I 3 . Voice. I 4 . Classes. I 5 . Active. 2 5 . Passive. 2 3 . Mode. I 4 . Classes on basis of meaning. I 5 . Indicative. 2 5 . Subjunctive. 3 5 . Imperative. 3 3 . Tense. I 4 . Classes. I 5 . Absolute. I 6 . Present. 2«. Past. 3 e . Future. METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 79 2 5 . Relative. I 6 . Present perfect. 2 6 . Past perfect. 3 6 . Future perfect. 6 2 . Inflection of. I 3 . Conjugation. 4 1 . Adjective. I 2 . Classes on basis of the way they affect the substantive to which they belong. I 3 . Descriptive. 2 3 . Limiting. 3 3 . Limiting-descriptive. 2 2 . Classes on basis of non- attributive use. I 3 . Interrogative. 2 3 . Relative. 3 2 . Inflection of. I 3 . Comparison. 5 1 . Participle. I 2 . Nature. 2 2 . Classes. * 3 2 . Use in sentence. 6 1 . Infinitive. I 2 . Nature. 2 2 . Classes. 3 2 . Use in sentence. 7 1 . Adverb. I 2 . Classes on basis of non- attributive use in sentence. I 3 . Interrogative. 2 3 . Conjunctive. 2 2 . Inflection. I 3 . Comparison. 8 1 . Preposition. 9 1 . Conjunction. 80 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. P. Classes on the basis of kind of relation ex- pressed. I 3 . Coordinate. 2 3 . Subordinate. 10 1 . Interjection. This outline is not meant to be exhaustive at all. It is meant to be suggestive, and so can be followed by any teacher without detracting from the teacher's individuality. At nearly all places there must be much material filled in, in actual grammar teaching. Whenever the general ideas are worked out, there must be an abundance of work given in identification to the end of fixing in the mind of the learner these general ideas. For instance, if the definitions for the subject, copula and predicate of the sentence have been worked out, the pupils should have an abundance of practice in identifying subjects, predicates, and copulas in many various sentences. They should give their reasons for making the identifications as they do. This is the procedure the mind naturally takes after having formed a general idea. CHAPTER VII. CONCRETE ILLUSTRATIONS. Purpose. — It will be the purpose of these illustra- tions to show how the subject of grammar may be taught inductively; to show how the pupils may be led to work out the subject for themselves in a way perfectly natural to them. The lessons illustrated will follow the outline given in the last chapter. The Object. — 1. The robin is a friendly bird. 2. Longfellow had good ideas of life. 3. The sea is the home of many curious things. 4. Water is composed of two gases. 5. The maple is a beautiful tree. 6. Love is the mainspring of all human activity. 7. The student was rewarded for his industry. 8. Virtue will bring its reward. 9. Whittier loved truth and goodness. 10. Hate and anger are not necessarily bad. What do the italicized words in the above sen- tences suggest to you? What else may they be called? What do you mean by an object? What is one truth of each of the objects expressed by the italicized words? What is a second truth? Each of these truths is called an essential idea of an object. What are the essential ideas of an object? Define an object. Note the relation between the essential ideas of an object and its definition. What is meant by the es- sential ideas of anything? How do the objects ex- 82 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. pressed by the italicized words in sentences 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, differ from the objects expressed by the itali- cized words in 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10? Those expressed in 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 are called material objects; those in 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 are called immaterial objects. What are the essential ideas of a material object; also, of an im- material object? Define each. Answers to the above questions. — They suggest things to us. They may be called objects. We mean a thing of some sort. It is some sort of thing. The mind thinks about it. The essential ideas of an ob- ject are, — 1. It is a thing. 2. The mind thinks about it. An object is anything about which the mind thinks. The essential ideas of anything are just those points which enter into a definition of that thing. Those ex- pressed in 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 occupy space while those expressed in 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 do not. The essential ideas of a material object are, — 1. It is an object. 2. It occupies space. The essential ideas of an imma- terial object are, — 1. It is an object. 2. It does not occupy space. A material object is an object ivhich occupies space. An immaterial object is an object which does not occupy space. These sentences and questions constitute the assignment for the lesson and are given to the stu- dents to study before going to the recitation. The answers are what would be worked out in the recita- tion. Oral questions supplementary to the written would no doubt have to be asked in the class. But METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 88 the pupil is ultimately to be led to make the answers indicated. The succeeding lesson should be a lesson having the following points: — 1. Fixing in the minds of the pupils the points already worked out. 2. Good exer- cises in pointing out objects, and the classes of ob- jects. An Attribute. — 1. Beautiful days are pleasant. 2. Gold is yellow. 3. The road is dusty. 4. The stove is hot now. 5. The children are singing. 6. The run- ning water babbles. The italicized words in the above sentences ex- press attributes. To what does each attribute be- long? What does it do for the object? What is another term for an attribute? Give the essential ideas of an attribute. Define an attribute. What do the attributes expressed in sentences 1, and 2 tell about their objects? What do those in 3, and 4 tell about their objects? What do those in 5, and 6 tell about their objects? On the basis of what they tell about their objects how many classes of attributes expressed in the above sentences? What are good names for these three classes? Give the essential ideas of each class. Define each class. Answers to above. — Each attribute belongs to an object. It shows the mind something about the ob- ject in order that it may know it. Mark, and charac- teristic, are other terms for attribute. The essential ideas of an attribute are, — 1. It is any mark of an ob- 84 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. ject. 2. The mind knows an object by these marks. An attribute is any mark of an object which helps the mind in knowing it. Those in 1, and 2 tell the quality of their objects. Those in 3, and 4 tell the condition of their objects. Those in 5, and 6 tell that their objects are acting. On the basis of what they tell about their objects there are three classes. Attri- butes of quality, attributes of condition, and attri- butes of action, are good names. The essential ideas of an attribute of quality are, — 1. It is an attribute. 2. It is permanent in the object. The essential ideas of an attribute of condition are, — 1. It is an attribute. 2. It shows its object as different at different times. The essential ideas of an attribute of action are, — 1. It is an attribute. 2. It shows its object as changing. An attribute of quality is an attribute which remains permanent in an object. An attribute of condition is an attribute ivhich shows an object as different at different times. An attribute of action is an attribute which shoivs its object as changing. In this lesson, like the preceding one, and like several that will follow, the sentences and the ques- tions constitute the assignment. The answers are those which would be worked out in the class dis- cussion at recitation. Relation, — Text-books in grammar and teachers of grammar usually assume that pupils understand relation and proceed to talk of relation in various ways in grammar work. As a matter of fact it is a METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 8ft very hard task for any one to get a very definite idea of just what the term relation means as used in English. It is surely worthy of a definite study. 1. The house on the hill is a dwelling. 2. Sponges are animals. 3. The apple blossom is a rose. 4. Henry and Edward are worthy boys. 5. He sprang across the brook. The italicized words in the above sentences ex- press relation. What does "on" do for "house" and "hill"? What does "are" do for "sponges" and "animals"? Do the italicized words in 3, 4, and 5 have a similar use? Show. Why does the mind make this connection? How do we happen to have such words as the italicized above? What are the essential ideas of a relation? Define a relation. Answers to the above questions. — "On" ex- presses a connection between the objects expressed by "house" and "hill". "Are" does the same thing for "sponges" and "animals". They do. In each case the mind goes naturally from one term to the other by the way of the thing the italicized words ex- press. Thus they express a connection. The mind naturally makes this connection among things be- cause of their likeness and difference. The mind having made this connection, there became a neces- sity for such words to express this connection. This necessity is the origin of such words. The essential ideas of a relation are, — 1. It is a connection between things. 2. The mind makes it because of the like- 86 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. ness and difference of these. A relation is the con- nection which the mind makes between things because of their likeness and difference. The Idea. — 1. The rose is a beautiful flower. 2. Bryant was the poet of nature. 3. The mushroom is a peculiar plant. 4. Indianapolis is the capital of Indiana. 5. The lily is a beautiful flower. Each of the italicized words expresses an idea. What kind of thing is that expressed by each word? What difference is there between that expressed by each word and that expressed by each whole sen- tence? What are the essential ideas of an idea? De- fine an idea. What do "rose", "flower", "Bryant", "mushroom", "plant", "Indianapolis", and "lily", express ideas of? What do "was", "is" and "of" ex- press ideas of? What do "peculiar" and "beautiful" express ideas of? How many classes of ideas in the above sentences? What are good names for these ideas? Answers to the above questions. — Each word ex- presses a mental thing. Each word expresses a more simple thing than that expressed by each sen- tence. The essential ideas of an idea are, — 1. An idea is a mental product. 2. It is the simplest mental product appropriate to a thing as a whole. An idea is the simplest mental product appropriate to a thing as a whole. They express ideas of objects. They express ideas of relations. They express ideas of attributes. There are three classes of ideas in the METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 87 above sentences. Substantive ideas, attributive ideas, and relational ideas are good names for them. The Word. — 1. Beautiful flowers are a blessing. 2. Life is real, life is earliest. 3. There are four sevens in twenty -eight. 4. Oh! there are people shivering with cold to-day. 5. A dainty flower is ivy green. What is each of the italicized in the above sen- tences? What is each word? What does each word do? Give the essential ideas of a word. Define a word. What kinds of ideas do the words in these sentences express? On the basis of the kinds of ideas they express how many classes of words are there? What would be good names for these classes of words? Give the essential ideas of each class. De- fine each class. Answers to the above questions. — They are words. Each word is a language form. Each word expresses an idea. The essential ideas of a word are, — 1. It is a language form. 2. It expresses an idea. A word is a language form which expresses an idea. The words in these sentences express substantive ideas, attributive ideas, and relational ideas. There are three classes. Good names for them are sub- stantive words, attributive ivords, and relational words. The essential ideas of the substantive word are, — 1. It is a word. 2. It expresses a substantive idea. Of the attributive, — 1. It is a word. 2. It expresses an attributive idea. Of the relational word, — 1. It is a word. 2. It expresses a relational idea. The sub- 8H METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. stantive word is a word that expresses a substantive idea. The attributive word is a word that expresses an attribu- tive idea. A relational word is a word that expresses a relational idea. It must not be lost sight of that after working out these general ideas in this inductive manner, the points must be fixed in mind, and abundant exercises given. The following will indicate what an assign- ment for a lesson of this kind would be: — 1. Fix in mind all points we have had on the word and its classes. 2. Classify the words in the following sentences and give reasons for your opinions. 1. Maud Muller on a summer day Raked the meadow sweet with hay. 2. The oriole builds a swinging nest. 3. Mold, mil- dew, yeast and mushrooms are wonderful plants. 4. The brain is about one fortieth of the entire body in weight. 5. Life should be full of earnest work. 6. All. labor is noble and holy. 7. Truth crushed to earth will rise again, For the eternal years of god are her's. 8. Alas ! there are people dying of hunger to- day. 9. He who gives himself with his gift feeds three. 10. There is a divinity which shapes our ends. The Thought. — 1. Man is an animal. 2. Plants grow. 3. The bird is singing. 4. The happy chil- dren are playing in the woods. 5. Industrious men are usually successful. 6. Go. 7. Excused. Each of the above expresses what? A thought is first of all what kind of thing? How is a thought method in language and grammar. Kg formed? How many ideas must a thought have in it? Show. What are the essential ideas of a thought? Define a thought. How many elements has every thought? Show. What may we call them? What are the essential ideas of each of the elements of a thought? Define the elements of a thought. Answers to the above questions. — Each expresses a thought. First, a thought is a mental product. A thought is formed by the mind's thinking the relation between two ideas. Every thought must have in it three ideas, at the least. There must be two ideas for a relation to exist between; and there must be an idea of the relation between them. The essential ideas of a thought are as foUows, — 1. It is a mental product. 2. It consists of three ideas one of which asserts the relation between the other two. A thought is a mental product consisting of three ideas one of which asserts the relation between the other two. Every thought has three elements. First, there are two ideas to be related, each making an element; secondly, there is the idea asserting the relation, making the third element. They are called the sub- ject of the thought; the predicate of the thought; and the copula of the thought. The essential ideas of the subject of a thought are, — 1. It is an idea. 2. Some- thing is asserted of the object of which it is the idea. The subject of a thought is an idea of an object of which something is asserted. The essential ideas of a predi- cate of thought are,- — 1. It is an idea. 2. This idea is 90 MEtHOD IN G&AMMAft AND LANGUAGE. that which is asserted of the subject idea. The predi- cate of a thought is the idea which is asserted of the sub- ject of thought. The essential ideas of the copula of thought are,— 1. It is an idea. 2. It asserts the re- lation between the subject and predicate of thought. The copula of thought is an idea which asserts the rela- tion between the subject and predicate of thought. The Sentence. — 1. Man is mortal. 2. The tree is green. 3. Shut the door. 4. Excused. 5. The whale is not a fish. 6. The black-snake is harmless. 7. The robin is a good friend to man. 8. In a tree. 9. On the hill. 10. A fine red apple. What, first, are each of the above? What do 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 do? How do 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 differ from 8, 9, and 10? What are 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 called? 8, 9, and 10 are called phrases. How does a sentence differ from a phrase? What are the essen- tial ideas of a sentence? Define a sentence. How did a sentence come to be? Answers to the above questions. — Each of the above is a language form. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 ex- press thoughts while 8, 9, and 10 do not. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 are sentences. A sentence differs from a phrase in that a sentence expresses a thought while a phrase expresses merely related ideas, but not a thought. The essential ideas of a sentence are, — 1. It is a language form. 2. It expresses a thought. A sentence is that language form which expresses a thought. The mind had a thought and wished to communicate METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 91 it. This wish to communicate a thought brought the sentence into existence. Classes of Sentences on Basis of Meaning. — 1. Dewey is called the hero of Manila. 2. A successful life is usually one of intense activity. 3. Why is there so much poverty in such a rich country? 4. Where did you lose the ball? 5. Mercy, how it rains ! 6. O, what a sad calamity! 7. Go, thou, and do like- wise. 8. Prepare for your work. How do sentences 1, and 2 appeal to the mindy How do 3, and 4 appeal to the mind? What is the purpose of 5, and 6; of 7, and 8? On the basis of pur- pose, or the way they appeal to the mind, or meaning, how many classes of sentences here? What are they called? Give the essential ideas of each class. De- fine each class. Answers to the above questions. — Sentences 1, and 2 appeal to the mind for the purpose of giving information. Sentences 3, and 4 appeal to the mind for the purpose of seeking information. Sentences 5, and 6 have as their purpose to arouse feeling. Sentences 7, and 8 have as their purpose to move to action. There are four classes of sentences. They are called declarative, interrogative, exclamatory, and imperative. (If students should not know the names of these four classes of sentences, the proper thing would be just to give them the names). The essential ideas of the declarative sentence are, — 1. It is a sen- tence. 2. Its purpose is to give information. A de- 92 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. clarative sentence is a sentence ivhose purpose is to give information, The essential ideas of an interrogative sentence are, — 1. It is a sentence. 2. Its purpose is to seek for information. An interrogative sentence is a sentence whose purpose is to seek for information. The essential ideas of an exclamatory sentence are, — 1. It is a sentence. 2. Its purpose is to arouse feeling. An exclamatory sentence is a sentence whose purpose is to arouse feeling. The essential ideas of the imperative sentence are, — 1. It is a sentence. 2. Its purpose is to move to action. An imperative sentence is a sentence whose purpose is to more to action. Classes of Sentences on the Basis of the Form of Thought Expressed. — 1. Mr. McKinley is our presi- dent. 2. Bright days bring cheerful faces. 3. The man who killed Garfield and who was hanged was an assassin. 4. A peculiarity of English is, that it has so many borrowed words. 5. Life is real and life is earnest. 6. He made the proposition, but they did not accept it. How many thoughts expressed by each of the first two sentences? How do the second two senten- ces differ from the first two? How do they differ from the third two? On the basis of the form of thought expressed how many classes of sentences in the above? The first two are called simple sentences; the second two complex sentences; and the third two, compound sentences. Give the essential ideas of the simple sentence. Give the essential ideas of the com- METHOD JN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 93 plex sentence. Give the essential ideas of the com- pound sentence. Define the simple sentence; the complex; also, the compound. Answers to the above. — Each of the first two sentences expresses just one thought. The second two sentences each express two or more thoughts one or more of which are not of equal importance to the other, while the third two sentences each express more than one thought each of which is of equal im- portance to the others. There are three classes. The essential ideas of the simple sentence are,— 1. It is a sentence. 2. It expresses but a single thought. The essential ideas of the complex sentence are, — 1. It is a sentence. 2. It expresses two or more thoughts one or more of which are of less importance than the leading thought. The essential ideas of a compound sentence are, — 1. It is a sentence. 2. It expresses two or more thoughts of equal importance and not of less importance than any other thought ex- pressed in the sentence. The simple sentence is a sen- tence which expresses but a single thought. A complex sentence is a sentence which expresses two or more thoughts one or more of which are of less importance than the leading thought. The compound sentence is a sen- tence which expresses two or more thoughts of equal im- portance, and not of less importance than any other thought expressed in the sentence. Fixing the General Ideas in Mind. — After working out general notions, the mind always of its own ac- 94 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. cord returns to the examination of particulars to verify, and fix with itself those ideas. The following is a lesson in this line of work. Classify the following sentences on both the basis of meaning and the basis of form of thought ex- pressed. Give reasons for each step: — 1. Hope comes with smiles to cheer the hour of pain. 2. Men's opinions vary with their interests. 3. The power which brings a pin to the ground holds the earth in its orbit. 4. He necessarily remains weak who never tries exertion. 5. William and Thomas went to town. 6. John and Mary are a handsome couple. 7. Silently, one by one, in the infinite meadows of heaven, blossomed the lovely stars. 8. Faith builds a bridge across the gulf of death. 9. Art is long and time is fleeting. 10. The time when w T e should act is at hand and the time will come when we must cease to act. 11. Our intention is, that this shall not disturb you. 12. Pride goeth before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall. Assignments. — Since one object of this book is to serve as a text in method classes, in the following portions of this chapter some assignments on sub- METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 95 jects chosen promiscuously will be given without the answers. The Essential Elements of the Sentence. — 1. Dewey is a hero. 2. The boy runs. 3. The boy is running. 4. Flowers of early spring are blooming in the meadow. 5. Birds fly. 6. The soul lives. What does each of the above sentences express? How many elements has each thought? What are they called? What in each sentence expresses the subject of thought; the predicate of thought; also, the copula of thought? From the thought side, how many essential elements has the sentence? Name them. What is the first thing that each essential element of the sentence is? What does each do? Give the essential ideas of each of the essential ele- ments of the sentence. Define each of the essential elements of the sentence. Noun and Pronoun. — 1. The bird was wounded by the storm. 2. The forest is the home of many creat- ures. 3. Where are you going? 4. He came hur- riedly into the room. What do the italicized words express? On the basis of what they express what kind of words are they? How do those in 1, and 2 differ from those in 3, and 4? What part of speech are those in 1, and 2; those in 3, and 4? Give the essential ideas of the noun. Give the essential ideas of the pronoun. De- fine each. 96 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. The Appositive and the Possessive.— 1. The nation's emblem is an eagle. 2. William's effort was re- warded. 3. His industry was noticed. 4. William the student was rewarded. 5. Dewey the psychologist is a great thinker. 6. He himself told me so. How are the italicized terms in 1, 2, and 3 like those in 4, 5, and 6? How are they different? What are the italicized terms in 1, 2, and 3 called? What are those in 4, 5, and 6 called? Give the essential ideas of the possessive; of the appositive. Define the appositive; the possessive. Compare and contrast the appositive and possessive as to the following points: — 1. Essential ideas. 2. Use in sentence. 3. Modifiers they may take. Comparison of Noun ami Pronoun. — Compare and contrast the noun and pronoun as to, — 1. Essential ideas. 2. Use in sentence. 3. Modifiers they may take. Gender. — 1. The teacher made his report. 2. The teacher made her report. 3. The boy studies his les- son. 4. The girl studies her lesson. 5. The man is a scholar. 6. That lady is an author. 7. The sun shows his power. 8. The moon hides her pale face. 9. The chair is a present. 10. Only a parent fully understands a child. 11. He is a statesman. What can you tell about the object expressed by each italicized word as regards sex? What shows this? Whatever shows this is called gender. Give the essential ideas of gender. Define gender. There METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 97 is basis for how many classes of gender in the above sentences? Name them. Give the essential ideas of each class. Define each class. Case. — 1. Horses are domestic animals. 2. Flowers of spring are pleasing to us. 3. He who will not keep Ms promises should not be trusted. 4. Mary's mother was kind to her. 5. The teacher does her work well. What is one essential difference you notice among the italicized words in the above sentences? See if you can find out a second difference. What do these two things show 7 about the italicized words? These two things considered as to what they show are called ease by grammarians. Case belongs to what class of words? Work out the essential ideas of case. De- fine case. There is basis for how many cases in the above sentences? Nominative Case. — 1. Sponges are animals. 2. I know that jloivers area blessing. 3. My stars! is this fairy-land? 4. John, you shut the door. 5. Spain, we vanquished her. 6. Summer having come, we will rejoice. 7. William being a true man, all respected him. 8. His being a policeman prevented the trouble. 9. Henry the poet was an ornament to his country. 10. Dewey is called the hero of Manila. 11. They seem to have been successful men. How are the italicized substantives used in the above sentences? A substantive used as any of the above is in the nominative relation. What are the 98 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. essential ideas of the nominative case? Define it. Illustrate nominative relation with original sentences. The Objective Case. — 1. John struck James. 2. They saw him run. 3. We believe him to be an honest man. 4. The president asked Mm to speak. 5. For that man to be a hero is impossible. 6. The precept was for Mm to be always an honest man. 7. God was angry with the children of Israel for he overthrew them in the ivilderness. 8. Bring me the book. 9. You can not run a mile but you can walk it. 10. He was presented a cane by his friends. 11. I saw Niagara, a grand spectacle. How are the italicized substantives used in the above sentences? A substantive used as any of the above is in the objective relation. Give the essential ideas of the objective case. Define it. Illustrate the objective relation with good original English senten- ces. Further Study of the Above Illustrations. — In the light of the purpose of grammar as studied in a pre- vious chapter, it is easily seen that the above series of concrete lessons have value in realizing each phase of the triple purpose of this subject. They are of most worth, however, in working out the disciplinary purpose of grammar. They are inductive in nature; they lead the student to do the work for himself; they make him independent and self-helpful; they work from the thought side constantly; they establish the spirit of free inquiry and free investigation; they give c J METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 99 right habits of study; and they give a critical attitude of mind. But these various things are the essence of mental discipline from the side of ability to think readily and accurately. CHAPTER VIII. DEVICES IN GRAMMAR. Kinds of Devices. — Devices in any kind of teaching are of great importance and are worthy of the most careful consideration, because whether the desired end is reached in teaching depends always to a greater or less extent upon the means employed. But in grammar teaching the means employed to- gether with the way they are employed is second in importance to no other question in the study of method in grammar. The following are all properly to be considered as devices in grammar teaching: 1. Assignments. 2. Class discussions. 3. Parsing. 4. Analysis. 5. Diagraming. 6. Text-books. These all have their legitimate uses in grammar teaching and are all subject to abuses. Each is worth special study. Assignments. — There is no other device in the hands of the teacher that can be used with so much effect in making his grammar teaching a success as his assignments. No other device furnishes better opportunity for the display of tact and skill in gram- mar teaching. Every assignment in any subject should place before the class a definite problem for Method in grammar and language. lot solution, and it must be so stated that the learner will see just what the problem is. While this is true in every subject, it applies with unusual force in gram- mar. Clear, definite, logical assignments bring clear, definite, logical thinking; and systematic, energetic habits of study. These economize time and energy and in every way facilitate success. On the other hand loose, indefinite, general assignments bring slovenly habits of thinking; vague, feeble, uninterest- ing recitations; and illogical, bad habits of study. As a rule one can depend upon it that he will get just about as good recitations as are good his assignments. The teacher by skillful assignments can lead the pupils to think largely what he wants them to think. The assignments in grammar should always go upon the principle that form in the sentence is de- termined by the thought underlying it, and that meaning is the strongest bond of association with form. Thus the assignment should lead the learner to see the form as determined from the thought side. In so far as possible the assignment in grammar must lead the learner to do his own thinking. Illustration. — If a teacher should give the follow- ing assignment to a class, — Define the possessive modifier; also, the appositive modifier. How are they alike and different in idea? — he would be likely to get one of two results. First, the students would go to some text-book and commit to memory the definitions found there, and make a trial at the comparison. 102 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE, Secondly, they would find no inherent interest in the work and, after a feeble effort, give it up without suf- ficient preparation. As a matter of fact, in a class of any considerable size, a teacher would get both re- sults, neither of which is good. What would be gained by the following? 1. The nation's emblem is an eagle. 2. William's effort was rewarded. 3. His honesty was mentioned? 4. Henry the poet is remembered. 5. Dewey the psychologist is a clear thinker. 6. He himself told me so. On the basis of what they express what kind of terms are the italicized? What kind of terms do they modify? What difference between those in 1, 2, and 3, and those in 4, 5, and 6? Those in 1, 2, and 3 are called what kind of modifiers? Those in 4, 5, and 6 are called what kind of modifiers? Compare and con- trast the appositive modifier with the possessive modifier as to essential ideas. Define the possessive modifier; also, the appositive modifier. For best results the assignment must be given a sufficient time before the recitation to give students ample opportunity to work out the problems given in it. And the more closely the students are held to working out the assignments for themselves the more successful will be the work and the more good will they get from the work. This point is as true in any other subject as in teaching grammar. Class Discussions. — It is so evident that class dis- cussions are a necessity as a device in teaching gram- ME^ttOD Itt GRAMMAR A&D LANGUAGE. 10§ mar that no further comment is needed on this phase of the study. These discussions have the following purposes: 1. To test the learner on his preparation and understanding of the problems given in the as- signment. 2. To supplement the knowledge got in the preparation of the lesson. 3. To give right habits of study. 4. To approve, and stimulate the learner in his work. In the class discussion is where the points given in the assignments are finally worked out. It often happens that a student after making an honest effort fails to completely work out a point in the assign- ment. Here the teacher has a chance by questions, illustrations, and directions to lead the student to think out the point for himself. The teacher's oppor- tunities for manifesting rare tact and skill in class discussions are unlimited. Indeed, teachers are usually regarded as successful or unsuccessful ac- cording to their skill in conducting class discussions. But successful discussions are not isolated things in teaching. Every circumstance that goes to make school a success or a failure conditions class dis- cussions. Text-books. — The text-book is relegated to its proper importance in grammar teaching when it is considered as a mere device. In the way in which grammar is frequently taught in school the text-book is given a much more important place in the minds of both teacher and pupils than it should have. So 104 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. much emphasis is placed upon the text that students get the impression that grammar as a subject is con- tained between the lids of the book. On the other hand the student should see that the text-book merely contains what some one has said on the sub- ject of grammar, and that the subject would still truly exist, if every text-book were by some means simultaneously destroyed. The text-book is com- monly given undue importance in teaching grammar. It is an abuse of the text-book as a device in grammar teaching to have the learner commit to memory the various definitions, principles, and rules usually found in such books. To ask the student to master certain sections of the text, and demand ver- bal reproduction of it in the recitation is bad in the extreme in teaching English grammar. There are, at any rate, two legitimate uses of the text-book as a device in teaching grammar. 1. If it contains a good collection of sentences, these may be used advantageously in the study of particulars in the various exercises where sentences are needed. 2. After students have worked out well any phase of grammar inductively, they may with much profit go to the text-book and study it carefully on the same points. New suggestions will thus be studied with interest and profit, and that which the student has discovered for himself will be verified and fixed firmly in mind. METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 105 Parsing. — In teaching, as in all other work, things tend to go by extremes. In accord with this idea, there was a time in grammar teaching when it consisted almost wholly of parsing. The parts of speech together with their grammatical properties were studied briefly and in a general way from the text-book, then orders, or schemes, for parsing were committed to memory. The remainder of the work was parsing; the parsing of everything, prose, poetry, figures, and signs arithmetical, algebraic, and geometrical, and even pictures. It finally came to be seen that much of this work was almost wholly value- less, and then came the reaction against it. So in many places at present there is a tendency to do away with parsing altogether. This is the other extreme. There is a place for parsing in teaching grammar, where it may be used with profit. When students have worked through inductively any part of speech and its properties, their minds tend perfectly natu- rally to return to particulars to identify them and verify its conclusions. But this is just what the mind does in parsing. Illustration. — If the students have worked through the noun, the pronoun, and their grammat- ical properties, gender, number, person, and case, a lesson of the following kind would certainly be help- ful, interesting, and since in accord with what the mind naturally tends to do, pedagogical. Point out the substantive words, classify them, 106 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. and give the gender, person, number, and case of each, with reasons, in the following sentences: — 1. There are four Smiths in school. 2. I am he of whom you spoke yesterday. 3. John said to James, "I thought I heard you say to William, 'I have wounded myself". 4. The sun shows his power and glory. 5. Every thought, emotion or impulse one has literally burns some of his brain substance. Abuse of Parsing. — Parsing as a device in gram- mar is liable to abuse. So much emphasis is placed upon it that it becomes the end instead of a means, and to be able to parse well is taken to be the highest good in grammar work. And again parsing often de- generates into the veriest formalism. A set order of parsing must be gone through with, with every word whether it is worth while to do so or not. In the sen- tence, He has groivn to be a man, the word man offers but one point of grammatical importance to any one who knows just a little grammar. So to have the student go through the regulation "noun, common, class, masculine gender, third person, singular num- ber, nominative case, rule, etc." is not only formal, but useless and silly. It is better by far to go di- rectly to the problem the word involves and stop when it is solved. Analysis. — Analysis is a legitimate device in grammar. It has the same purposes in general that parsing has. That is to say, it is valuable work for METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 107 the following reasons: 1. By it the mind verifies the general notions got in the inductive work. 2. By it the mind fixes firmly with itself the definitions, prin- ciples, and rules got in the inductive work. Analyzing is not so liable to abuse as parsing and yet it is liable to similar abuse. It, too, may be made the end of grammar work instead of a means; and it, too, may degenerate into the veriest formalism. Diagraming. — This very popular device in gram- mar teaching is, to say the most for it, of very doubt- ful value. It is at the best a sort of kindergarten device helpful to those who have not the ability to see the relations in the sentence without picturing it for them. There is good reason for thinking that, in- stead of helping students to grow in skill in seeing the fine shades of relation in the sentence, it actually retards this growth. Diagrams only reveal the larger, grosser relations in the sentence; they utterly fail to reveal the finer points in the sentence that close, accurate grammar work must bring out. The English language certainly is a medium for communicating thought, clear enough that the rela- tion in it may be grasped without mechanically muti- lating it and ' hanging these multilated remains on diagrams. ' For students who have reached a stage of de- velopment that fits them for grammar work, it can hardly be proved that diagraming is a good exercise. And again, almost every author has his own 108 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. "method" of diagraming. Thus a large number of "methods" of diagraming are more or less in vogue with which students and teachers can not acquaint themselves, and with which most do not care to acquaint themselves. From a strictly pedagogical point of view, dia- graming in grammar is an exceedingly poor device in grammar teaching. CHAPTER IX. COMMON ERRORS IN TEACHING GRAMMAR. Prevalence of. — There is no subject in the school curriculum the successful teaching of which does not offer difficulties. But some subjects are more easily taught than others, and thus opportunities for error are more numerous in teaching some subjects than in teaching others. Grammar belongs to that class of subjects in the teaching of which the opportunities for errors are numerous. The following are some of the most important common errors: — 1. Teaching with indefinite, erroneous purposes. 2. Bad methods of teaching definitions. 3. Bad use of text-book. 4. Presenting the subject from the form side. 5. In- definite, erroneous assignments. 6. Abuse of pars- ing. 7. Abuse of diagraming. 8. Bad methods of analyzing. 9. The practice of expanding. 10. Teach- ing grammar to children whose stage of mental de- velopment is such that grammar is not adapted to it. For the benefit that comes from the study, each of these will be briefly considered. Teaching with Indefinite, Erroneous Purposes. — In too many cases grammar is taught by teachers who have not clearly in mind any further purpose than to 110 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. follow the school course, or that they may in some way, not clearly seen, help the learner in using good language. Each of these purposes is too vague and indefinite to be of much genuine help in teaching. The teacher with such purposes before him sooner or later comes to believe that grammar is not a subject of much value. He sees no definite good to be accomplished and goes about his work with the in- tention of accomplishing no definite good, and always succeeds. The teacher who holds before himself the idea that the main purpose of grammar is "to teach how to speak and write correctly" soon discovers the contradiction between his purpose and what he actually accomplishes. This leads to confusion and a loss of faith in grammar, and is attended by all the errors that accrue from a lack of faith in one's own work. Bad Methods of Teaching Definitions. — This is, no doubt, the most common and most pernicious error made in teaching grammar. The common practice of having students to commit to memory formal state- ments for various things, called definitions, found in text-books is bad in the extreme. It is bad for the following reasons: 1. It is the exact opposite of the mind's natural way of defining. 2. It encourages the learning of meaningless forms. 3. It can not be kept from degenerating into a METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. Ill kind of memory that breaks down the ability to think accurately. 4. It makes the student dependent and helpless. 5. It kills interest and gives the student an antipathy for grammar. Definitions taught in this way lose all their edu- cational value, and fix with the mind undesirable habits of thought. Wrong Use of Text-Book. — As has been said be- fore, the text-book is a mere device in grammar teaching, and is not for the purpose of being slavishly followed, as is too often done. It is not plain to see how a text- book in which the definitions are formally stated can be successfully used in teaching grammar. Students will depend upon the text-book, and lose the benefit of working out the definitions for themselves in the natural way. And thus they lose what is probably the highest benefit of grammar work. By the use of the text- book in which there are formal statements for definitions, principles, and rules the students form the habit of remembering words in- stead of thoughts and principles. This difficulty can scarcely be avoided. If the text-books were made in such a way that no formal statements of definitions and rules were to be found in them, this difficulty might be avoided. In the light of our studies so far, the best text-book for daily use in the class is one which consists almost wholly of good 112 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. collections of sentences, and directions, but lacking all formal definitions and rules. Emphasizing the Form Side. — It is often lost sight of that all form in language is determined by the thought and meaning which lie behind the form, and that the meaning is the strongest bond of association with the form. To understand meaning as determin- ing the form is always most helpful, in that it is in accord with the very nature of the sentence as an in- strument in communicating thought. Growing out of the error of emphasizing too much the form in its isolation is the standing contro- versy about whether the sentence has or has not in all cases three essential elements. Those who look only at the form side will always hold that such sen- tences as Birds fly have only two essential elements. And this is right on a strictly form basis. However, from the view-point of the work the sentence has to do, every sentence has three essential elements. In the above sentence, "fly" performs two offices. First, it expresses an attribute of the objects ex- pressed by "birds". Secondly, it asserts the rela- tion between the idea birds and the idea/?/. But it is an error to teach the sentence as having only two es- sential elements, because it does not accord with the nature of the sentence and is not most helpful. Again, emphasis upon the form side leads teachers to call such sentences as John and James went to school simple sentences, while from the view- METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 113 point of the work the sentence has to do, it is evidently a compound sentence. Many such obvious errors arise in grammar teaching because of an un- due emphasis upon the form side of the subject. It seems strange that one can find in a text-book extant the statement that the word there is the sub- ject in such sentences as There are four pecks in a bushel. Such errors could only arise because of the habit of isolating form from meaning. Bad Assignments. — Any assignment that does not give the learner a definite grammatical problem to work out, and one worthy of his prowess, is not the best assignment. Any assignment that does not give the problem in such a way that the learner can work it out is not good. Any assignment that does not give the learner right methods of studying grammar is faulty. Errors in assignments in any of these three ways are common in teaching grammar as usually done. Perhaps the worst assignments are those in which certain sections of the text-book are given to be learned and recited. Abuse of Parsing. — This point was treated to some length in the study on "Devices," so will need very little more said about it here. Suffice it to say that the greatest care need be exercised to prevent pars- ing from degenerating into the dryest kind of formal- ism. Parsing which points to skill in parsing as the end is the poorest kind of grammar teaching. Abuse of Diagraming. — This point, too, treated in 114 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. the study on "Devices," does not need much study here, unless it be for the purpose of emphasis. Dia- graming, of doubtful utility at the best, is oftentimes made the predominating exercise in grammar teach- ing. This' is an error which has many bad effects. The ability to diagram sentences, long, short, prose or poetry, is no guarantee of proficiency in the sub- ject of grammar; and, furthermore, it is not a suf- ficient guarantee of an understanding of even the sentence under consideration. Bad Methods of Analyzing. — Methods of analyzing are often of such a character that they just bring out the most evident relations in the sentence, and those to be seen from the view-point of form alone. Illustration. — For instance, in the sentence, The guilt of the slave-trade sprang out of a traffic with Guinea, "guilt" is called the subject, "sprang" is called the predicate, and the copula is not mentioned. "Out of" is called a complex preposition. So far, there is not a word of truth in the analysis. The sub- ject is "The guilt of the slave-trade," and the predi- cate is "sprang out of a traffic with Guinea." The copula is ' ' sprang. ' ' Again, it would be customary to say "out of a traffic with Guinea" is an adverbial modifier of "sprang." So much is evident and is not of much worth in revealing the force of the phrase in the sen- tence. But just what is the force of " out of a traffic METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 115 with Guinea" and the nature of the expression "out of" are points of true grammatical worth in the sen- tence. All this may be expressed by saying analysis often degenerates into the dry est sort of formalism. This is the error to be guarded against. Method of Expanding. — By this is meant that a sentence which offers some difficulty in analysis or parsing is changed into some sentence which means the same, or nearly the same thing, the substituted sentence then being disposed of instead of the origi- nal one. This is simply evading the point. There are no sentences in English which offer difficulties, which can not be recast into sentences which mean the same thing, or very nearly the same, and whose analysis offers little or no difficulty. But the student should not be led into deceiving himself by thinking he thus has disposed of the original sentence. Illustration. — It is of some genuine grammatical value to the student to analyze the sentence, "It was from me that he received the information. " But re- cast the sentence into He received the information from me, and its analysis is worth comparatively little. Then, again, the student or teacher should not think he has analyzed the first sentence, for he has not. It remains just the same unsolved problem it was at the start. Further Illustration. — To take the sentence, / know what is right and recast it into the sentence / 116 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. know the thing ivhich is right before analyzing, is, in my judgment, an error. The first sentence has not been analyzed. It remains, and a point is evaded. There is a real need for such words as "what" in this sentence, and the student of grammar should see what that need is. To analyze another sentence which means the same thing is to turn the student away from this truth. To change the sentence, The book is worth a dollar, to the sentence, The book is ivorth to the extent of a dollar, is to ignore an idiom of our language, and make a sentence that no good English writer would use. All this is an error, for it turns the student away from seeking a knowledge of the relations in English language as it is, and substitutes awkward expres- sions for study. Attempting to Teach Grammar to Children before They Are Capable of Studying It. — It seems strange that efforts have been made for so long, to teach grammar to children in the first five or six years of their school lives without the unreasonableness of such work having been seen by more teachers. How- ever, teachers are in various places awakening to the fact that, in the case of the average child, he needs no grammar teaching before fourteen or fifteen. Grammar is a very abstract, reflective study, and, while children can learn something of the sub- ject before the age of fourteen or fifteen, their time METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 117 would undoubtedly be better employed in some other way. There should be systematic, well prepared language work given regularly in these years in the place of grammar. The difficult grammar work in the average school can be done satisfactorily only later. This attempt to teach a subject above the capacity of children has been a great and common error in grammar work every-where. Conclusion. — In conclusion we may profitably spend a short time in the study of the definition of grammar and its two phases, — the science phase and the art phase. There are these two phases of gram- mar as a subject in the school curriculum, and while the emphasis always has been placed upon the science phase in teaching, and is properly so done, the art phase must also receive attention. Definition of Grammar. — Grammar is a sentence study. That is to say, it is the subject in the school curriculum which deals with the sentence as its language unit. And grammar deals with the sen- tence as an instrument in expressing thought. The formal definition of English grammar according to the view taken in these studies is as follows: English grammar is that language subject which deals with the English sentence as an instrument in expressing thought. The Science Phase. — English grammar as a science has for its purpose the discovery of the truths of the English sentence as determined by the thought it is to express. It seeks to arrange these truths accord- 118 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. ing to laws into a system. Thus English grammar as a science is that phase of the subject which treats of the laws and principles of the English sentence. It is an inductive science. The Art Phase. — English grammar as an art has for its purpose to teach how to apply the truths of the English sentence in correct construction of sen- tences. Under the art phase comes the work of capitalization and punctuation; correct case, number, gender, and person forms; also, correct verb forms, etc. The art phase of grammar deals with these things in the light of the why. Primary language as a subject emphasizes the correct form, but leaves it to grammar to teach the reasons for these forms. All rules of capitalization and punctuation may best be taught inductively. CHAPTER X. THE PURPOSE OF LANGUAGE LESSONS. Origin of Language as a Subject — Primary lan- guage has not always been regarded as a separate subject in the school curriculum. It is within the memory of teachers every-where that there was no such subject in the school course and so no place for it in the daily program. This having been the case, the question, What brought primary language as a subject into the school curriculum of the primary school? at once suggests itself. It states it as a general truth to say that the same thought which brought grammar into the school cur- riculum was, also, the origin of language lessons. That is to say, the thought and feeling that the children did not use good enough English in express- ing their experiences; also, that there was no subject in the school course which was helping the children much in doing this. But the circumstances under which language lessons originated were different from those under which grammar originated. When grammar came into the course of study there was no subject in school for which a claim of specifically helping the children in using good English in speak- 120 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. ing and writing was made. Language came after grammar had been tried and found wanting. It took a good many years for people to appreciate that grammar was not realizing in the lives of the children what was claimed to be its main aim, or purpose. At length this became evident, and then it was thought that there was need for another subject in the school course which would actually give the children help in communicating their thoughts and feelings in good English. There were two aspects of this thought from which language as a subject was born. First, it was thought that children did much toward form- ing their language habits in the first three or four years of their school lives, before they were capable of studying grammar, and that that was the main reason why they did not acquire the habit of using good language in their grammar work. Secondly, it became known that grammar was claimed to do something for the child that it actually did not and could not do ; that is, its study did not and could not fix with the children the habit of using good language in speaking and writing. According to the first idea, it was thought that primary language should be a subject suitable for children to study before they were developed enough to study grammar; that it should form a basis for grammar study, and that as soon as children could take up the study of grammar, they would no longer METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 121 need to study language lessons. This, it was con- ceived, they could do in their fourth or fifth year of school life. According to the second idea, primary language is to be a subject the pursuit of which will actually realize in the life of the learner what grammar had failed to do ; that is, will actually enable the child to use good English in expressing his thoughts and feelings. Thus primary language as a separate school sub- ject was born of two ideas. 1. The need of a subject the pursuit of which would give a basis for grammar work. 2. The need of a subject the pursuit of which would do for the children what grammar had failed to do ; that is, give the child the habit of expressing his thoughts and feelings in good English. History of Language Lessons in the Primary Schools. — There is always help in tracing through the various stages in the growth in the teaching of any subject in the school course. Thus we are enabled to see what has been tried together with the various de- grees of attendant success, and see to some extent what we may do, and what to avoid. School officers were among the first to see the need of a new subject in the school course whose pur- suit would actually teach the children to speak and write correctly. The need was perfectly clear. But what the nature of the subject should be whose study would bring about the desired result was not so clear. 122 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. Teachers, school officers and book-makers every- where courageously went to work on the problem. School officers were careful to have a subject called primary language appear in the courses of study for all primary schools. And every teacher, in order to keep up with the times and avoid the criti- cism of the school officers, must have a period for language lessons appear on his daily program. All felt the need, but no one knew just what the subject should be like. Teachers must teach something and call it primary language. In this first stage language lessons were chaotic, but partook more of the nature of a kind of grammar work. Lessons were given on name words, quality ivords, action luords, asking sentences, telling sentences, etc., the teacher thus seeming to think it was not grammar work, since the names were changed. On one occasion the writer heard a class of second and third year pupils reciting what their teacher called the language lesson. The recitation was intended to be on gender, but the little ones mis- understood the word and called it "ginger," very much to the embarrassment of the teacher. From the point of view of a real language lesson these lessons were almost useless. But they were a beginning. Book-makers, always ready with the very best thing on any subject, soon flooded the country with books on primary language. And this may be re- garded as the second stage in language teaching. METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 123 These books were followed by the teachers and their thought as to what primary language as a subject was like was thus molded. There were no books to be followed in the first stage, but an abundance of books characterized the second stage. The dominating idea of these books was, that principles and rules should be taught to the child in the light of which he was expected to speak and write good English. The dominating idea of these books was so fundamentally wrong that the books were not only almost worthless, but were the source of much mischief. This was true because they were followed by teachers, and thus language teaching in this stage of its growth could not rise above the fundamental error that children learn to use language by rule. In the next stage the language book gave way to the more rational idea that no text was needed either in the hands of the pupils or in the hands of the teacher. This is the third stage in the growth of language teaching, and is the stage of the present. The idea that characterizes this stage is that language lessons may most naturally and best be taught by correlating these lessons with other school work; with nature study, geography, history, reading, and primary literature. The Purpose of Language Lessons Analyzed. — The aim in language lessons analyzes itself into two classes : first, those that are the distinctive aims of primary language as a separate subject in the school 124 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. curriculum; secondly, those that are aims in language teaching, but that are also aims of other school work. That is to say, first, aims that distinguish language lessons from other school subjects; and, secondly, aims which language lessons have in common with other subjects in school. Distinctive Aims of Language Lessons. — These, as indicated, are the aims that distinguish primary language from all other subjects. Of these there is, first, the main aim; and secondly, a subordinate aim. The main aim is the most important one, and so the work which points toward the realization of this is the work upon which the emphasis will fall in teach- ing language lessons. The subordinate distinctive language aim will call for work that looks toward its realization, but, since this is of less importance, less emphasis will be placed upon it. The Main Distinctive Aim of Language Lessons. — The question to be answered here is, What is the main thing that language lessons are to do for the pupil that is not done by any other lessons so welly The answer to this question is, that it is the main aim of these lessons to give the pupil the habit of using good English in communicating his thought and feeling. There are two terms in this statement for the main purpose of language which should be emphasized. First, the term habit, and secondly, the term good English needs special study. It is to be noted that the statement does not say to teach hoiv to use good METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 125 English. There is a world of difference in knowing hoio to use good English and in having the habit of using good English. One may know how to use good English and still have to exercise the greatest care and have great difficulty in doing so. But one who has acquired the habit of using good language in ex- pressing his thoughts does so without trouble, care, or difficulty. It is to fix this habit with the children that we want to aim at in our primary language work. Again, it is not sufficient to aim at teaching how to speak and write correctly, if we mean by correctly what is grammatically correct. Good English is more than grammatically correct English. Correct- ness is but one element of good English. The other elements are clearness, elegance and energy. Thus good English is correct, clear, elegant, and energetic English. Then, the main distinctive aim of language les- sons is to lead the learner to acquire the habit of using correct, clear, elegant and energetic English in communi- cating his thought and feeling. The Subordinate Distinctive Aim of Language Lessons. — This aim is in harmony with one phase of the thought that brought language as a subject of study into the school curriculum. This, it will be re- membered was that language was to form a basis for the study of grammar, which was to be taught later in the child's school life. It is, no doubt, right to re- gard it as a distinctive aim of language lessons to lay 126 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. a basis for grammar work. But this is not the main aim, as once thought. This aim is of little importance when compared with that of fixing the habit with the child of using good language. Aims in Common with Other Subjects. — Every sub- ject in the school curriculum has aims of its own which its study is to realize in the life of the learner ; but each subject also has aims that its study realizes in the life of the learner, but that could be realized probably as well by the study of some other subject. These can not be called distinctive aims of language lessons, but they must not be lost sight of in teaching language. These aims are (1) mental discipline: (2) the acquiring of knowledge valuable for guidance in right living. The meaning of discipline and valuable knowledge have been studied in a previous chapter, so need no further study here. We may sum up the aim of language lessons as follows : l 1 . Aim. I 2 . Distinctive. I 3 . Main. To lead the children to form the habit of using correct, clear, elegant, and ener- getic English in communicating their thoughts and feelings. 2 3 . Subordinate. To give the children a basis for the study of grammar. - 2 2 . In common with other subjects. 1 3 . Mental discipline to the end that the METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 127 children may become ready and accurate thinkers; lovers of truth, beauty and the right ; and possessors of self-control and self-direction. 2 3 . The acquirement of knowledge valu- able for guidance in right living. The Aims of Language and Grammar.— Having studied the purposes, or aims, of both grammar, and language as a subject, some help will come to us from comparing these aims. Language lessons aim at fixing the habit of using good English with the children in communicating their thought and feeling. And this is the predomi- nant and distinctive aim of this work. The aim of grammar which is most like this aim of language is that one which is to give knowledge valuable for guidance in speaking and writing. But this is not the predominant aim of teaching grammar. The pre- dominant aim of English grammar is to train the mind in right habits of thinking and feeling. The purposes of grammar and language as subjects of study are not identical, and no worse mistake can be made than to suppose them to be so. CHAPTER XI. NATURE OF LANGUAGE LESSONS. The Problem. — Having satisfied ourselves that we are right in the view we have taken of the purpose, or aim, of language lessons, we are face to face with the question, What are the lessons to be which will fix with the children the habit of using good English in expressing their thought and feeling? And another phase of the problem is, What lessons are adapted to do this and at the same time be in harmony with the other three aims set up? We can not depend upon what has been done in the past for guidance here, for in no other subject in the school curriculum has the work been so chaotic and unsuccessful. In the teaching of no other sub- ject has more valuable time been wasted, and in no other subject has the work generally been more un- satisfactory to teachers themselves. We can not depend upon text-books for guidance, for there is little or no uniformity among them as -to what language lessons should be. Also, they have been tried and found wanting. Hoiv to Get Help on the Problem. — We can get help upon this problem in two ways. First, by studying METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 129 the best educational thought on language lessons. Secondly, by depending upon the integrity of our own thought after studying the mind's natural way of learning language, together with the way one must use language throughout his life. This means that we get help by studying the learner himself. The MincVs Natural Way of Learning Language. — A little thought will show that the child gets his first words by imitation. There is a time in his life when he is hungry for words. He sees objects, attributes, and relations and asks for the terms which symbolize them, thereafter using the terms by imitation. He has ideas and thoughts but lacks the language forms to communicate them.- His consciousness of this need makes him receptive for words and sentences to satisfy it. It is usually said that the child learns language before he goes to school by imitation from his mother's tongue. This is true, but it is only half the truth. The whole truth is, he learns words for a time by imitation, but he soon begins to use them in combination by inference rather than by imitation. The child is inventive, and manifests it in the ex- pressions he uses. The English language is often in- consistent, and since it is so, the child makes errors because his inferences are too consistent for the lan- guage. A little four-year-old said, "Look out, the cow will hook you, for I see her hooks." Again, a little one three years old said, "I want to go out in 130 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. the shade and hammock." She had heard the word swing used both as a noun and as a verb. She had heard the word hammock used as a noun, and inferred it could be used as a verb. A little boy was taught that a man or boy who does the right thing at the right time is a hero. When asked what a woman or girl should be called who does the right thing at the right time, he promptly said, "I think she is a shero. " One does not have to watch children in the use of language very long to get sufficient evidence of the fact that they are inventive ; that is, that they make new combinations, by inference, of the words learned first by imitation. This little study shows that the child naturally learns language by: 1. Getting thought and feeling, which is aroused by the world of objects, attributes, and relations. 2. Communicating this thought and feeling in language forms. 3. Depending upon his associates for the correct form. And this study further suggests that, if the teacher in teaching follows the child's natural way of learning language, he will, in short, first, develop thought and feeling ; secondly, stimulate to the expres- sion of this thought and feeling; and thirdly, supply the correct language forms ivhen they are lacking. The Language Period. — Students of children are now bringing the fact that there is truly a language period in the child's life before teachers and parents in such a way that there is a growing appreciation of mp:thod in language and grammar. 131 this truth. This language period is, on the average, the period between the ages of one and thirteen. And if this period is permitted to pass by without the child's having acquired the habit of using fair English, the probability is that he either never will do so, or will do so with much difficulty and at great cost. The following from Taylor's "The Study of the Child " is suggestive on this point : "Children seldom lack for words to express their ideas. This is par- ticularly true of children from three to twelve years of age. The confusion and hesitancy of the youth is not generally found earlier in life. Children either tell what they know or frankly say they do not know. They may often be wrong in what they say, but if they think they know a thing, they usually have a word for it. If these things be true, the cultivation of the child's language in these earlier years — years in which we have been exalting sense-perception — needs to be given greater prominence than now ac- corded it." "Grammar is too often taught as a means of help- ing a child correct his language, whereas proper guidance in these years when he was learning lan- guage as naturally as he was learning to walk, would have made all such work unnecessary. " This is the period predominant of brain growth as a whole, and also of the development of the nervous centers situated in the third convolution of the left 132 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. frontal lobe of the brain, which control speech. During this period these nervous centers are taking on their organized modes of action. And in this period they, due to their unstable condition because of growth and development are easily organized into any desired modes of activity. Once this period passed, and the growth completed, the centers be- come stable, and the opportunity for the most effect- ive language teaching is forever gone. "A well-trained nervous system is the greatest friend that the mind can have. An ill-trained nervous system is a relentless enemy to the higher mental powers. It follows its victims and thwarts their aims until the pitying grave stops it. The writer can never forget the despair of a man who had become wealthy and who wished to go into educated society. Early associations had trained his motor mechanism of speech to say: 'He done wrong. I laid down. They set down and rested. I could have went. ' He procured teachers to instruct him in the right forms, and he finally learned them so that he could write them out correctly after a little study. But, alas ! he could not talk with his pen or his fingers. The brain cells governing the vocal muscles worked automat- ically, as they had been early habituated. This automatic working was followed, but not preceded, by consciousness. Not until after the words had escaped him would he know that they were wrong. The brain cells in his third left frontal convolution, METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 138 with the vocal habituation due to them, were an enemy watchful and relentless." Conditions under Which Language Is Used.— Be- fore children go to school they use language when they have thoughts and feelings which they desire to express. And they naturally do not use it at any other time. And when they are using language the mind's energy is focused on the thing about which they are thinking, and not upon the language. And this is a point of knowledge worthy of attention, be- cause of the guidance it will give in language teach- ing. Illustration.— As I am writing a hyacinth just bursting into bloom is on the table at the left, and a child four years old is admiring it. She is chatter- ing about "how pretty, how fragrant and how nice" it is. Her mind is wholly absorbed with the object about which she is thinking and talking. And this is perfectly natural. It is the way language is always naturally used. The child thus naturally learns language with his mind's emphasis of attention on the object about which he is thinking and talking. Is this the way language is to be used through- out life? Will the one who uses the language have his mind's energy largely employed in the thinking he is doing, when he is using language under natural conditions? The answer is, that he certainly will. 134 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. Correlation of School Work with Living. — It is often stated as an educational principle that the school life of the child should correlate with his life after leaving school. This means that any work learned in school must be carried on in the same manner in school as it will be carried on in life by the learner. For instance, the student should learn to write in school as he will be called upon to write after leaving school. Or he should learn to read, or spell as he will be required to read or spell after leaving school. This is a true educational principle, for only thus can school work best prepare one for living — the aim of all work in school. This is substantially the same principle as say- ing one learns to do by doing, and learns to do a thing by doing it, and not by doing something else. For instance, the way to learn to ride a bicycle, to learn to skate, or to learn to play a piano is by doing these very things, and by doing them in the same manner as one desires to do them later. Application of These Principles to Language Les- sons. — Having learned that the child uses language before he goes to school with his attention engrossed with the thing he is thinking about, and that he will use language in the same way all throughout his life, we can plainly see that his language lessons, if they are to correlate with his life work, must be carried on in the same way. That is to say, the language lesson should be of such a character that the learner METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 135 will be acquiring the habit of using good language with his mind's energy focused on the thing he is thinking about, and not with his attention on the language. This principle has generally been violated in language teaching every-where. And because of a failure to grasp this truth and appreciate its im- portance in language teaching, much poor and fruit- less work has been done. Children, in so far as they have studied language and have mastered it, have usually done so by dealing with the language directly with their attention on the language — a way they never naturally use it in life. This is the very way most of us have mastered language, in so far as we have mastered it at all. As a result of this those of us who know what good English is, can use good enough English so long as our minds are centered on the language, but as soon as we have to use language under a tension of thought and feeling which takes the mind's energy away from the language, we make errors in our English. This is just what could be reasonably expected, because we are called upon to use language under a different set of circumstances from those under which we studied it. This is the chief reason why many of us who are not careless and who would really like habitually to use pure and elegant English make blunders in speaking and writing, when we know better. And this is also the main reason why we mispronounce 136 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. words in speaking or reading, and misspell words in writing whose pronunciation and correct spelling we know. Illustration. — A friend who teaches grammar and who knows well what good English is, but who has mastered his English in this unnatural way — by- studying it with his attention on the language — when he is speaking under the tension of thought and feel- ing will make as many as five or more errors per minute. If he were called upon to use the same sentences in such a way that he could keep his atten- tion upon the language, he would not make a single error. This is a common observation as well as a common experience. Principles of Language Lessons. — From the study so far, we are able to deduce some principles which will guide us in our teaching. The following are the most evident : 1. In language, as in the pursuit of any art, the pupil learns to do by doing. 2. The pupil will best acquire the habit of using good language by dealing with the language with his mind engrossed with the object of thought, and not with his attention on the language. 3. The learner desires to use language only when he has thought and feeling to communicate. 4. Language as a subject is to be taught and emphasized in the language period, since it is pecul- iarly adapted to this stage of the child's development. METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 137 5. The child naturally learns language forms by imitation, and afterward uses them by imitation and inference. The Subject-matter of Language. — Language as a subject deals with discourse as its language unit. It aims at the correct use of words, and sentences, it is true, but not in their isolation. Language aims at the correct connection of sentences as well as cor- rectness, elegance, clearness, and energy in the sen- tence. While language deals with words and sen- tences, it only deals with them as parts of the larger whole discourse. Reading, literature, and rhetoric as a science, also deal with discourse as their language unit, but discourse as a finished product. Language and composition as subjects deal with discourse, and with discourse in the process of making. The follow- ing is a statement for the subject-matter of language: The subject-matter of language is discourse in the proc- ess of construction as a medium, for communicating thought and feeling, and considered as to its correctness, clearness, elegance and energy. Oral and Written Discourse. — Language deals with both oral and written discourse. The learner will be called upon during his -life to communicate his thought and feeling in both oral and written form; and since the language lesson is to prepare him for living, he must become skillful in both kinds of com- munication. In the lower grades the oral communi- cation is to predominate, and in the more advanced 138 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE, phase of the language work they should balance each other pretty well. It is a mistake to make the ad- vanced phases of language lessons almost wholly written, or even predominantly written. Description, Narration, Exposition and Argument. —Keeping in mind that the learner is to be prepared for communicating in good English his thought and feeling throughout his life, and that he will do this in discourse, we see the necessity of studying further into the nature of discourse. A little further study shows us that there are classes of discourse depend- ing upon the nature of the thought to be expressed, and that the learner in expressing his thought and feeling will use these various classes of discourse. These classes are description, narration, exposition and argument. Description. — The mind will be called upon to deal with particular objects, and to express its ideas and thoughts appropriate to these objects at various times in life. The object can be dealt with as it is at any fixed time by setting forth its co-existing attributes and parts. Discourse which is the communicating medium for setting forth the co-existent attributes and parts of a particular object is description. Thus description deals with an object as to its statical at- tributes and parts. An object is viewed as it is at any time and the mind embodies its knowledge of the object in discourse, and this discourse is description. Illustration. — Before the writer on the writing METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 139 table sits a hyacinth in full bloom giving off its fra- grance from a large spike of most beautiful violet flowers. If the attributes of the hyacinth as a whole were given, the parts named, and the attributes of them given just as the hyacinth is at the present time, the production would be description. The hyacinth is a particular object, and it would be dealt with as to its co-existing attributes and parts. Narration. — Again, a particular object may be dealt with by setting forth its attributes and parts as changing. Discourse which is the communicating medium for setting forth the changing attributes and parts of a particular object is narration. Description deals with a particular object as to its statical rela- tions, but narration deals with a particular object as to its dynamic relations. Change is the thing empha- sized in narration. Illustration. — If the hyacinth had been noticed from day to day and the change carefully recorded as it grew, with a discussion of its general appearance from time to time, the record of this when put in a readable form would have been narration. The changing attributes and parts of the particular ob- ject would have been thus set forth. The discourse which treats of life histories of animals and plants is narration. The records of incidents, and biographies are narrations. They are narrations because they treat of particular objects as to change. Exposition. — Discourse that sets forth a general 140 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. idea, or general notion, is exposition. The mind thinks the common attributes of a class, the sub- classes of the class with their common attributes and embodies its thoughts in exposition. If the adjective were chosen as a subject and discussed as to what it is, its classes, their definitions, inflections, etc., the discussion would be exposition. Any general idea as tree, horse, light, electricity, case, mode, or honesty worked out by the mind and embodied in discourse is exposition. Argument. — Argument is discourse in which is set forth the application of general accepted truth to particular facts and cases. Argument is the applica- tion of the general idea to particular cases. Thus in- dividuals to argue must agree on some fundamental truths or what promised to be an argument will end merely in dispute. 'Argumentation is the applica- tion of the general notion to concrete reality and life. ' Thus the argument on the question, What constitutes a successful life ? would consist in the application of accepted laws to particular facts of life. It has not been the intention in these studies to discuss at any great length these four classes of dis- course. The thing to be seen is that, in using lan- guage throughout life, the child will have occasion to use these four kinds of discourse, and should be prepared to use them skillfully and readily. Thus the teacher should understand the process of con- struction of these four kinds of discourse. And he METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 141 who does understand these will do better language teaching than he who does not, other things equal. In the primary language work the exercises will in the main be in description and narration. These two kinds of discourse construction are well adapted to the mental development of children in the language period. But exposition and argumentation are forms of discourse construction very poorly adapted to this period. Thus the laws of the mind and the laws of discourse construction show us that the main lines of work in language lessons are to be description and narration. Bad work in language teaching has been done because of a failure on the part of teachers to appre- ciate this truth. Students have been asked to pro- duce expositions and arguments when the work was entirely above their ability. To ask a student to write on "Industry," "Courage," "Patience," "Character," etc., is to ask the student to produce an exposition. Such work kills interest, and stifles endeavor, and gives students an antipathy for the study of language. Relation of Langitage to Other Subjects. — There are some views more or less generally held concern- ing the relation of language lessons to other subjects in the school curriculum which are the source of poor work in teaching this subject. These views are as follows : 1. It is held that there is no such subject as primary language distinct from other subjects. 142 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 2. It is held that what is called primary language is a phase of simple grammar work. 3. It is held that language lessons should not constitute a regular line of work, but that these lessons should be done inci- dentally in connection with other work. Is Primary Language a Subject P — To study this subject systematically we need to see how one sub- ject may be like other subjects and different from them. And we find that their likeness and difference appear in three things. 1. They may deal with the same or different facts. 2. They may deal with these facts in the same or in different ways. 3. They may have the same or different aims. Now, there are only two subjects in the primary school course enough like primary language to need study. All subjects except grammar and composi- tion are evidently different from primary language. To grammar and composition language lessons are closely related. Grammar is different from language lessons in that (1) grammar deals with the sentence as its language unit, while language lessons deal with discourse as the language unit; (2) grammar deals with the sentence as a finished product, in its science phase, but with the sentence as an unfinished pro- duct, in the art phase, and in both cases with the mind's energy upon the sentence, while language lessons deal with discourse as an unfinished product with the mind's energy on the object of thought in- stead of on the language; (3) the main purpose of METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 143 grammar is mental discipline, while the main pur- pose, or aim, of language lessons is to fix with the learner the habit of communicating his thought and feel- ing in clear, correct, elegant and energetic English. It thus appears that language is not identical with grammar in any of the three points in which subjects may be alike and different. Composition and primary language are indeed very much alike. They both deal with discourse in the process of making ; they have the same purpose in the main ; but they do not deal with discourse in exactly the same way. Language is a more element- ary subject than composition, and forms a basis and paves the way for composition work. Composition emphasizes the written medium of communication while primary language emphasizes the oral medium of communication. Primary language is thus entitled to be called a separate subject of the school curriculum. Every teacher should differentiate this subject in his thought from the other subjects of the school course. A failure to do this in teaching leads to confusion and a lack of definiteness. It further leads to the at- tempt to do the work incidentally. And one does not have to observe very long to be convinced that doing work incidentally means slighting the work. Inci- dental work is usually not worth much. Primary language should hold a clear, definite, and dignified position in the teacher's thought to the 144 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. end that the work may be done conscientiously and well. Conclusions concerning the Nature of Language Lessons. — Prom all this study we reach the following conclusions : 1. Anything which is worth learning may be used as an object of study in language lessons. 2. The learner studies the object of thought in order to develop thought and feeling. 3. He communicates this thought and feeling in both oral and written discourse, mainly description and narration, with his emphasis of attention on what he is thinking of. 4. His language is constantly to be under friendly and helpful criticism. CHAPTER XII. METHOD OF PROCEDURE IN LANGUAGE TEACHING. General Procedure. — Every language lesson is like every other in that the following three steps must be taken : 1. The development of thought and feeling. 2. Stimulating to the communication of this thought and feeling. 3. Supplying the correct form when the com- municating medium is lacking in any way. These steps are all important in language teach- ing and are worthy of study. So it will pay us to study each one to some extent. The Development of Thought and Feeling. — This is the first step in all language teaching, and it is of the highest importance. Without thought and feeling to be communicated the learner would have no need for a communicating medium — the language. Language — words, sentences and discourse — came into existence to communicate thought and feeling. So, according to the way language originated and according to the way the learner naturally uses language, the first step in language teaching is to help the learner to get 146 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. in mind something worth communicating and some- thing he will want to communicate. Importance of the Step. — As evident as it seems that this must be the first thing to do, and as evident as its importance is, this step has not only not been well done, but the importance of it has not been generally appreciated by teachers of language les- sons. In fact this is the very rock on which many teachers have been shipwrecked in their careers as teachers in language. And the trouble comes about in this way : the teacher keeping his eye fixed upon the fact that he wants to get the learner to use lan- guage, loses sight of the fact that the learner not only does not desire to use language when he has no thought and feeling to communicate, but absolutely can not use coherent language. The teacher gives subject after subject to the child and insists that he must say something either orally or in writing upon them. The child knows comparatively nothing to say and has no feeling to communicate, except, per- haps, one of helplessness, and so produces nothing worth while in the way of discourse. The teacher still urges the learner to say more, and he gets to dis- liking the work, and slights it; the teacher puts on more pressure ; the learner despises the work, and the whole thing is worse than a failure. Many of us have seen just this thing in language and composition lessons. Again, it comes about this way: the teacher METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 147 seems to think that "muchness" of the discourse produced is to be the criterion of success, so demands so much written or oral discourse that the learner can not have time for the development of thought and feeling. The results are the same as in the other case. Mutual Cause and Effect. — It must not be lost sight of that there is no good, clear speaking and writing without good, clear thinking. The cause of incoherent discourse is most usually to be found in the incoherent thinking the discourse expresses. Bad language and bad thinking are to each other mutual cause and effect. If the thinking be unorgan- ized, inaccurate, and unsystematic, the language, which is the formal expression of this thought, par- takes naturally of these characteristics. On the other hand, if one has a poor command of language, so much of his mind's energy will be required in getting the proper language forms that the thought will suffer because of not having the mind's full power upon it. It can not be too thoroughly appreciated and too strongly felt by teachers of primary language that the first thing to do in all language teaching is to direct the learner in thinking in order that he may have thought and feeling in mind to express. Objects of Study. — In the selection of objects for study in language lessons two important truths should guide. 1. The thing studied should be well 148 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. adapted to the mind of the learner; that is, it should not be too hard or too easy, and it must possess in- herent interest. 2. The object of study must be of such a character that it will be worth studying ; that is, the knowledge got by such study must be valuable for guidance in living. The first one of these truths is so evident that it needs no further study. If the language lesson is to possess life, vivacity and interest, the object of study must be one which the learner will like to study. And no language lesson can be much of a success which is not vigorous and interesting. The second one of these truths, though, needs further study in order that an error held to some ex- tent may be corrected, and in order that the truth may be made emphatic. It has been said again and again that the first object is to get the children to talk, that it does not matter whether they talk about anything worth while or not, just so they talk. And in pursuance of this idea pictures, foolish stories, etc., have been given to children to talk about and to write about in their language lessons. This is an error in teaching language, because there is an abundance of things which may be studied and which are worth studying that may be used as a basis for the very best language lessons. The world is so full of interesting and valuable things to learn that there is no excuse for studying anything for a mere mental gymnastic. We do not want to teach the child to talk METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 149 for the mere sake of talking. The world is already too full of people who talk without saying anything. In pursuance of the idea of studying some object worth studying as a basis for language work, lessons may be made to correlate with : 1. Nature study lessons. 2. Concrete geography lessons. 3. Reading lessons. 4. Primary history lessons. 5. Primary literature lessons. 6. Lessons in form. 7. Biography. It is to be noted that in making any of these lines of work a basis for developing thought and feeling, the material of study is valuable in itself. This is a point in language lessons that should not be over- looked. Stimulating to the Communication of Thought and Feeling .—The question, Why have so many students disliked their language work, and their composition work? is a pertinent one. It is the experience of teachers in a great many places that a majority of students dislike the language and composition work. It can not be because students dislike to talk and write, for the human being has a natural impulse which urges him to communicate his thought and feeling. That is to say, he has the instinct of ex- pression. Thus communication is natural, when the mind has thought and feeling to communicate. But 150 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. again it is unnatural to try to use language when there is nothing in the mind surging for expression. And the things which have made the language and composition disagreeable to the students have been, — 1. A failure on the part of teachers sufficiently to lead the students to develop thought and feeling. 2. A failure on the part of teachers to make the study of something interesting and valuable the basis of the language lesson. It may be asserted safely that, if students are led by the teacher to study something interesting until it is well known, it will not be disa- greeable to them to express their thoughts either orally or in writing. For such work to be disagree- able would be unnatural. It is natural, and, there- fore, agreeable to communicate our thoughts. Supplying the Correct Form When the Communicat- ing Medium Is Lacking in Any Way. — This third step in all language teaching is one of much importance, and is worthy of careful study. It shows something of the importance of this step to see that this is the distinctively language- learning step in all teaching and in all life. The little child who is learning to talk depends upon father, mother, brother, sister, and companions for the language forms to express his ideas. These they give him, and this act of giving constitutes real, genuine language teaching. In a sense, every lesson in school must be made a language lesson. That is to say, in any lesson in school work bad language must not be passed by METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 151 without correction. The use of good language is to be made a habit as nearly as it can be. But if the child is held to the use of good language only during the period of daily recitation in language, some twenty or twenty-five minutes in length, and is per- mitted to use indifferent or bad English during the remainder of the day at school and at home, as is the custom in most cases, he will never acquire the habit of using good English. The ability or tendency gained during the recitation in language, under those circumstances, will be constantly antagonized and overcome by the counter-tendency established during the time he is not in recitation. This very thing is what makes successful language teaching such a difficult task. If the child could always hear pure language both in school and out of school, language teaching would be much less difficult. Some have even thought that under those circumstances the child would always use pure English, and there would be no need for language lessons. This probably would not be the case, though. The child's always hearing pure English would not be a guarantee of his always using pure English. Children make logical mistakes in language. For instance, a little four-year-old having heard his parents say, "We aren't going," said, I amn't going." Again, while the language lessons must be predominantly oral for at least the first four years of the child's school life, he must also be taught 152 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. to communicate his thought and feeling by means of a written medium. In this work many, indeed most, of the mistakes are of a negative character — sins of omission rather than of commission. So, however pure the English the child is accustomed to hear, these logical errors in oral language, and the errors in written language, will remain to be corrected. The view that every lesson should be made a lan- guage lesson, in this sense, has been criticized on the ground that every subject is thus subordinated to language. The point is not well taken, because it is a legitimate part of the teaching in every subject to teach the pupil to communicate his knowledge of that subject, and to do so in good language. And the very demand for good language facilitates clearer thinking on the subject. Corrections. — Since so much of the teacher's work in teaching language lessons consists in making cor- rections and supplying correct forms, the study of primary language teaching would be incomplete without a consideration of the when, where and how of corrections. The language lessons in the lower grades are to be largely oral, so the corrections will be those of the child's oral language. Some have held that the cor- rection of an error should not be made immediately after the error, because it would embarrass the child and break up his continuity of thought. Experience teaches, however, that if the correction is made in the METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 153 right spirit, and if the child understands it so, the continuity of thought will not be broken up to any appreciable degree. If Mary should say, "I swang high," and the teacher should cry out, "Stop, Mary! have you not learned that is incorrect?" of course the continuity of thought would be broken up. But if, when Mary makes the error, the teacher gently says "swung" or "I swung high," Mary repeats, using the correct form, and goes on with the recitation. It is best to make the correction as nearly as possible immediately after the error for the following two reasons : 1. The correction is more effective. 2. It is the only practical way of holding the learner con- stantly to good language, for any postponement tends to looseness of criticism. If there is the right under- standing between teacher and learner, no anxiety need be felt on the score of embarrassing and dis- couraging the children, and thus breaking up their continuity of thought. In the written work some time must necessarily elapse between the errors and the criticisms. The criticisms in the written work should be conscien- tiously and well made, however. They must be made in such a way that the children's attention will surely be called to them. It is a good plan to call for a second writing of the production, with a view to im- provement in the language. This will call attention to all criticisms. To criticise in a helpful way is an 154 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. art. Teachers often fail in their language and com- position work because of their weakness in criticism. Points to Be Kept in Mind. — Our study so far may be summarized in the following points, which should be kept in mind in language teaching : 1. The main distinctive aim of language lessons is to lead the learner to form the habit of using cor- rect, clear, elegant and energetic English in communi- cating his thought and feeling. 2. A secondary distinctive aim of language les- sons is to give the learner a basis for grammar work to be done later. 3. Language lessons in common with other sub- jects have it as their aim to give the learner knowl- edge valuable for guidance in right living. 4. Language lessons in common with other sub- jects also have it as their aim to furnish the learner mental discipline to the end of systematic, clear, ready thinking. 5. Language teaching should be in harmony with these principles deduced from the mind's natural way of learning language and of using language : 1 1 . The language lessons must correlate with the learner's life. 2 1 . The learner best acquires a mastery of language by dealing with it with his mind focused, in so far as possible, on the object of thought. 3 ' . There is a language period in the learner 's life in which he learns language as readily as he METHOD IN LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR. 155 learns to walk. This period is, in general, between the ages of one and thirteen. If the learner does not acquire, to a considerable extent, the use of good language in this period, he either never will do so or will do so at great cost and with much difficulty. 6. Eternal vigilance in kindly correcting the learner's language is the price of good language habits. 7. In general in all language teaching the steps are as follows : 1 1 . Developing thought and feeling. 2 1 . Stimulating to the communication of this thought and feeling. 3 1 . Correcting kindly and sympathetically all errors. Concrete Illustrations. — Under this head we will study some illustrations of what language lessons should be, in the light of our previous study. The Blue Violet. — This lesson is adapted to children of the second or third year, and correlates with nature work. The time of the year is near the beginning of the spring term of school — the last of March or the first of April. The lesson is entirely oral. These questions by the teacher are to bring out the discussion concerning the life of the blue violet. The children have been told to watch for the coming of violets. What kind of home has little violet ? Does it live 156 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. in dry ground or in wet ground? Is its home in the sunshine or in the shade? Does it live in the woods or in the field? Does it live in any other places? How did you know where to look for violets? Were they there all winter? Could you see them in the winter? Why could you not? Did Jack Frost kill all of the plant ? Why could he not kill the root? How could the soil, leaves, and snow keep the frost from killing the little violet? What part of the violet did you see first this spring? Why should the leaves come up first? The teacher here tells the children that the leaves protect the flowers. They stand up around the flowers like a row of little soldiers. They are, also, the kitchen where the food is prepared for the whole plant, flowers and all. Where does the little violet get its food? How do the roots get it from the ground ? Do the little roots have mouths? Can you see the mouths of these I have in my hand? The teacher here should show how the roots eat by showing how they could take up salt, soda, or sugar dissolved in water. How does this food reach the leaves ? How could it be drawn up by the stem and leaves ? What do the stem and leaves draw it up for? What must be done with food in the kitchen be- fore it is good to eat? Where do the leaves get heat to cook the food which they have drawn up from the METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 157 roots ? Could the little leaves get along without the sun? Why could they not? When your mother cooks, what do you see rise from the cooking food? What makes the steam rise? Here the teacher should explain to the children how steam rises from the leaves when they are pre- paring food. This may be done by putting a plant under an inverted glass tumbler, and by showing the children the moisture which collects. How did the moisture get out of the leaves? Can you see the little windows ? The teacher here tells the pupils that air goes through these tiny windows and mixes with the food before it is good to eat. While the roots and leaves were working away, what was the little iiower doing? How does it look when you first see it? What happens to the little green cloak before you can see Violet's blue dress? How does Violet unfold her dress? Is her dress wrinkled? What has become of the green cloak? Do all violets have dresses of the same color ? What colored dresses have you seen violets have? How many pieces has Violet's dress? Would you like to know what name the pieces have? Can you re- member that they are called petals ? See if the petals are all the same size and shape. Who can find a pocket in one? What is in the pocket? Honey? It is called nectar. What do you think the nectar is 158 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. there for ? Can you think of anything that would like to eat it ? Bees ? At this place the teacher should explain that the bees come to the violet to get the nectar, and that the bee thrusts its long mouth down into the pocket of the petal in doing so. In doing this he gets flower dust (pollen) on his head and long mouth. This pollen is to feed the tiny seeds so they will grow. The home of the seeds is to be examined and the proc- ess by which the pollen comes in contact with them. This can and must all be shown with the flowers in the hands of the children. Enough has been already suggested for several lessons for second year pupils, but this work should be carried on entirely through the life history of the violet. The questions only are given, but the inference is easily made as to the nature of the work on the children's part. They engage in a free, open, interest- ing and spirited talk. It is to be noted that this lesson is adapted to (1) develop thought and feeling ; (2) induce to the com- munication of this thought and feeling; (3) furnish opportunities to quietly and kindly give the correct forms in language, since the children in such interest- ing discussions make many errors. Again, this lesson is in harmony with the prin- ciples of language lessons laid down in previous study; namely, the lesson correlates with the METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 159 learner's use of language in life, and he is also deal- ing with the language with his mind engrossed with the object of thought. And lastly, it is to be noted that the above lesson is in pursuance of the purpose of language to this ex- tent : the child is learning to use good English just in the way he will use it all his life, to the end that he may fix the habit of communicating his thought and feeling in correct, clear, elegant, and forcible English. And this is the primary distinctive aim of language lessons. This lesson is also in harmony with the two aims which language lessons have in common with every other school subject; (1) good exercise in system- atic thinking to the end that the learner may be- come a ready and accurate thinker — mental discipline; (2) the acquisition of knowledge valuable for guidance in right living. The lesson is oral throughout and so does not aim at correct habits in written communication. Neither does it aim distinctively at laying a basis for the pur- suit of other language subjects. Indian Corn.— This lesson on corn is adapted to fifth or sixth year pupils, and is to be taught near the beginning of the fall term of school. The corn plant is before the' children for examination, and in re- sponse to the teacher's questions the students give the following answers, which the teacher writes on the board. On the plant as a whole: 160 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 1. This corn stalk looks like a big stalk of grass. 2. It is six and one-half feet high. 3. There is a central axis from one and one-half inches to less than a half inch in diameter. 4. It has a bushy-looking brush at the top which is called the tassel. 5. This is called the stalk or culm. 6. The roots are at the lower end of the culm. 7. The tassel crowns the culm. 8. The culm has streamer-like blades on oppo- site sides. 9. This plant has eleven leaves, or blades. 10. The whole plant is green, tinged with yellow in places. 11. This plant has two ears, one on each side the culm. 12. Silk-like hairs stream out from the end of the ears. 13. The silk-like hairs and the tassel are the flowers of the plant. 14. The parts of this corn plant are the culm, the roots, the tassel, the leaves, the flowers, and the fruit. On the Culm : 1. The culm is about six feet long. 2. The culm is largest at the bottom and gradu- ally grows smaller toward the top. 3. The culm stands upright. 4. It is the supporting part of the plant. METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 161 5. The culm is nearly cylindrical in form. 6. At distances of from five to seven inches on the culm there are nodes. 7. The nodes are denser parts and thicker parts of the culm. 8. The culm is pithy within. 9. There is a thin woody layer around the pithy inside. This woody layer is very dense and hard. It gives strength and firmness to the culm. 10. The parts of the culm between the nodes are called inter nodes. 11. The internodes have semicircular grooves, one for each node. 12. The grooves are on alternate sides of the internodes. On the Roots : 1. They are cylindrical in form. 2. They are of two kinds, — fibrous and coarse. 3. They grow out from the nodes. 4. They are arranged in circles around the bottom of the culm. 5. They have two uses ; one is to take food from the soil ; the other is to anchor the plant. 6. The roots of the highest circle are large, strong, and form bench-like braces to hold the plant upright. 7. There are twelve in the upper circle. 8. The circles below do not have so many. 9. There are five distinct circles on this plant. 162 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 10. They are almost white. Enough has been given to indicate the nature of this work. But in the actual language work the corn plant should be worked entirely through this way. As much should be done each day as the time of the recitation will allow. The teacher writes the sen- tences on the blackboard as the students give them. Then the students copy them neatly in note books. After the plant is entirely gone through with in this way, the students are shown that what they have on (1) the plant as a whole; (2) on the culm; (3) on the roots; etc., is not in a form to read well. They then are asked to put it in a form so it will read nicely and smoothly. One of the points, as culm, is usually enough for one lesson. The work as the children have it is read in the class, carefully corrected by the teacher and returned to the students. This corrected work is kept by the students. After having gone through the points thus, the students are asked to write out the whole, noting carefully the corrections previously made on each part. It is evident that this work is the essence of composition; that is, it is composing. The trouble- some question of paragraphing thus becomes easy, for the work naturally falls into seven parts and thus" seven paragraphs: (1) the plant as a whole; (2) the culm ; (3) the roots ; (4) the tassel ; (5) the leaves ; (6) the flower ; (7) the fruit. This lesson is a description, for it deals with a METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. 163 particular object as to its co-existent attributes and parts. This lesson is in harmony with all the pur- poses and principles of language lessons previously studied. Lessons of this kind have been tried with the best of success. Thus, lessons of this kind have both theory and experience in support of them. There are no better language lessons possible. This line of work indicated on the corn plant is both oral and written, the written predominating. Enough work is suggested here for sixteen or more lessons. Other objects easy of similar study are the flax plant, the cotton plant, the potato plant, the bean plant, etc. Any of these subjects may be treated as to their changing attributes and parts thus making the dis- course narration. The life history of any one would be traced through in a narration. Common Errors in Teaching Language. — Language lessons offer opportunities for many errors in the actual teaching. The most common and most perni- cious are the following : 1. Making language lessons a kind of primary grammar work. This kind of work is almost wholly useless and bad from the view-point of the main pur- pose of language as a subject. 2. The teaching largely of principles in the light of which the learner is expected to use good language. 164 METHOD IN GRAMMAR AND LANGUAGE. This is unnatural and all the evils flow from it that accrue from the violation of nature's order. 3. Not sufficiently developing thought and feeling before asking for communication. This always dis- courages students and gives them an antipathy for the work. 4. A failure to exercise eternal vigilance in kind and sympathetic correction of the children's errors in language. 5. A failure to select objects for study which are inherently interesting, and the study of which will give good habits of study and useful knowledge. Conclusion. — In conclusion it may be said that it is thought best not to work out any course of study for language lessons. If the teacher gets in mind the study so far on Method in Language he or she can make his or her own course of study without any re- strictions upon his or her individuality. The main object of this study is to bring out the way to proceed in rational language teaching. When teachers are correlating their language lessons with the nature study, history, geography, primary litera- ture, etc., and are proceeding in harmony with the principles of language lessons as studied here, they are doing the very best language work possible, and may thus proceed in their work with good con- sciences.