■MnBHHDHHflBRRnl ■HMM HfOSn ■HhHHHH IlBiniBnlllll I wm 1853 IH 1 II: mm ll H SHtBSKsSall wBBBB mm H Ills erae LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 00003T51017 ■w mes faulty when carried to the extreme. Discourses which are to be spoken require a more diffuse yle than books which are to be read. I The style of a feeble writer indicates that he has an indis- :nct view of the subject ; unmeaning words and loose epi- 46 thets will escape him; his expressions will be vague and gen- eral ; his arrangements indistinct ; and our conceptions of his meaning will be faint and confused. A nervous writer always gives us a strong idea of his meaning. His words are always expressive because his mind is full of his subject ; every word, every phrase, and every figure, render the picture which he would set before us more striking and complete. A dry style excludes every kind of ornament. Content with being understood, it aims not to please either the fancy or the ear. A plain style rises one degree above a dry one. A writer of this character employs very little ornament, but rests al- most entirely upon his sense. He is particular to observe purity, propriety and precision in his language. A neat style is the next in order and advances into the re- gion of ornament ; but not of the most sparkling kind. A writer of this charactor pays considerable attention to the choice of his words and to their graceful collocation. His sentences are of a moderate length ; incling rather to brevity, than to a swelling structure, and closing with pro- priety. An elegant style implies a higher degree of ornament than a neat one ; possessing all its virtues without any of its defects, A flowery or florid style implies excess of ornament. It is a promising symptom in a young composer, but in 47 a more experienced writer, judgment should chasten imagi- nation and cause him to reject every ornament which is unsuitable and redundant. DIRECTIONS FOR FORMING A PROPER STYLE. Study clear ideas of the subject concerning which you are to write or speak. Be acquainted with the views of as many authors on the same subject as possible. Try and form a correct judgment on the different subjects which may come under your consideration. Endeavor to be interested in the subject yourself; without this your style will be too dry, but when warm and inter- ested you will find expression to flow with ease and ra- pidity. Cultivate a taste for composing. Write compositions on a great variety of subjects. Arrange your thoughts in as orderly a method as possible , ] commencing with the principal and most interesting thought, in order to secure the attention of your readers. Before commencing your composition, draw off a sketch of iyour thoughts embracing the different items upon which you wish to write ? arranging them No. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. This being- done you can then arrange the different items according to the order in which you choose to place them in the compo- , sition. 48 Beware of writing in such haste as to acquire a bad style ; write therefore with much care. You must not however have such anxiety for words as to retard the course of your thoughts or cool the heat of your imagination. This you would naturally do by pausing too long on every word you employ. The work of correction must be left for a subsequent ex- amination. Be well acquainted with the style of the best authors. This will teach you to form a correct taste, and it will also supply you with a full stock of words on every subject. Translate some good author into your own words. In doing this have some confidence in your own genius. Be careful not to adopt the author's peculiar phrases. GENERAL RULE. Be attentive to your words and expressions and solicitous about your matter. ELOQUENCE OF POPULAR ASSEMBLIES. Eloquence is the art of persuasion. The essential properties of eloquence are solid argument, a clear method, and a manifested sincerity in the speaker. A commanding utterance and graceful style are also indis- pensable to true eloquence. 49 Its foundation is good sense and solid thought. Conviction should be the principal object of the orator. He should also study the art of persuasion. Conviction affects the understanding, persuasion the will and the practice. The orator, therefore must not be satisfied with convinc- ing ; he must address himself to the passions; he must paint to the fancy and touch the heart. Eloquence is generally divided into three degrees ; the first is such as merely please the hearer, like Panegyrics and inaugural addresses : the second is when the speaker aims not merely to please but to inform, to instruct, and con- vince ; the third is that by which the hearer is not only con- vinced but interested and agitated, and carried along with the speaker ; the passions rising with his, and sharing all his emotions. By passion is meant that state of mind which is agitated and fired by some object in view. The public speaker should be perfectly master of the sub- ject upon which he is to speak ; he should have the different parts all arranged in his mind, and be well acquainted with J the views and sentiments of learned authors on the same subject. The speaker should always rest upon his matter and argu- (ment ; for these will give to his discourse an air of manli- Inessand strength, which are powerful instruments of per- < suasion. t Ornament requires only a secondary consideration. 4 50 RULES. In public speaking you ought always to be persuaded of whatever you recommend to others. II. The speaker should spare no pains in preparing and ar- ranging his matter : the words and expressions should be left chiefly for the time of delivery. III. Short notes of the substance of the speech or discourse is very allowable, especially to those who are beginning to speak in public. Popular assemblies give scope for the most animated man- ner of public speaking. In a great assembly there are movements communicated by mutual sympathy between the orator and his audience, and therefore in them passion is very easily excited. The expressed warmth of the speaker should always be suited to the subject, for it would be ridiculous to introduce great vehemence in a subject of small importance, or which from its nature should be treated with calmness. The speaker should never counterfeit warmth without feeling it. Rule. — Follow nature ; and never attempt a strain of el- oquence which is not prompted by your own genius. 51 A public speaker should never lose command of himself, lest in so doing he should lose the command of his audience. He must not attempt to warm his hearers at once, but gradually, and equally with himself. A speaker should be so far master of himself as in the midst of his warmth to be accurate in his expressions : this aids him to a very great degree both to please and persuade. The confusion and disorder, which so often attend the warmth of uneducated speakers render them ungraceful and undignified ; and in a great measure hinder their speech or discourse from having the desired effect. It is necessary for the speaker carefully to regard what the public ear will receive without disgust. Imitation of ancient authors will betray a speaker into a boldness of manner with which the coolness of modern taste would be greatly displeased. No one should attempt to speak in public without know- ing what would be suitable to his age and character ; to the subject and hearers, the place and the occasion. A diffuse manner is generally considered as the most pro- per for public speakers. In this matter however, the speaker must be guided by his subject and circumstances. It ought never to be forgotten that lest the hearer should grow weary with a long discourse, the speaker had better say too little than too much. By giving too many views of the subject and thereby 52 lengthening it, he will surely exhaust the attention of his hearers, and leave them languid and fatigued, and with very confused views of the subject ; with which they might have been otherwise interested and delighted. ELOQUENCE OF THE BAK. To be successful in speaking in popular assemblies the speaker must apply himself to every principle of action in human nature ; to the passions, to the heart, and to the un- derstanding ; but at the har conviction is the principal object. As the speaker at the bar addresses himself to one, or at most to a few judges, he would subject himself to very great ridicule, by attempting that high, vehement, and passionate tone, which is suited only to a multitude of people. His chief business is to apply the subject in debate to law and statute. The judicial orations of the ancients must not be consid- ered as a model of this kind of speaking ; as eloquence rather than jurisprudence was their chief study. The grand secret of a lawyers success, is his profound knowledge of his profession. He may be a splendid speaker, and yet if his knowledge of the law be superficial very few will choose to engage him in their defence. He should be very particular in knowing all the facts and circumstances connected with every case entrusted to his care. 53 He will thus be enabled to fortify the weak parts of his client's cause, and he will also be prepared for all the argu- ments of his opponent. The study of eloquence is still necessary ; for the dryness of the subject usually agitated at the bar requires this study to command attention, and to prevent what the pleader ad- vances from being passed unregarded. There is as much difference between impressions made on the mind by a cold, dry, and confused speaker, and that made by one who pleads the same cause with elegance, order and strength, as there is between our conceptions of an object when presented in twilight, and when viewed in the efful- gence of noon. Purity and neatness of expression should be the lawyer's grand study. , His style should be perspicuous and proper, not needless- ly overcharged with the pedantry of law terms, nor affectedly avoiding these, when suitable and requisite. He should be particular in guarding against verbosity, a fault which is so often occasioned by speaking and writing hastily. He should form himself to the habit of a strong and cor- ! ect style while he has leisure, that it may become natural to him afterwards when compelled by a multiplicity of busi- ness to compose with precipitation. In speaking at the bar, it should be distinctly shown, first, after stating the question, what is admitted : secondly, what is denied ; and, thirdly, where the line of division begins between the pleader and the adverse party. 54 He should be distinct in the order and arrangement of all the parts of his pleading. A clear method is of the highest consequence in every species of oration ; but in those intricate cases which belong- to the bar, it is infinitely essential. He must be as concise as possible in relating facts ; for unnecessary minuteness in relating them overloads the memory. In argumentation, a more diffuse manner seems requisite at the bar than on some other occasions ; for the intricacy of law points frequently requires the argument to be expan- ded, and placed in different lights, in order to be fully ap- prehended. The lawyer should always be candid in stating the argu- ments of his adversary. If he disguise them, or place them in false light, the artifice will soon be discovered ; and the judge or judges will conclude, that he either wants discern- ment to perceive, or fairness to admit the strength of his opponent's reasoning. But if he state with accuracy and candor the arguments used against him, before he endeavors to combat them, a strong prejudice will be created in his favor, he will appear to have full confidence in his cause, and the judge or judges will be inclined to receive more readily the impressions made upon him by a speaker who appears both fair and pene- trating. Wit is sometimes serviceable at the bar, particularly in a lively reply, by which ridicule is thrown on what an adver- sary has advanced. None however rises to eminence by be- ing a witty lawyer. 55 An advocate should be particular in declining a cause which is odious and manifestly unjust : and in a doubtful case he should lay his chief stress upon those arguments which appear to him to be most forcible, but he should al- ways keep in view a dignity of character so highly important to his profession. ELOQUENCE OF THE PULPIT. To preach with interest, effect and power, it is necessary for the preacher to have a fixed and habitual view of its ob- ject ; viz., to persuade men to become good. The principal characteristic of pulpit eloquence is gravity and warmth. It is neither easy nor common to unite these two to- gether. A proper union of these two, forms that character cf preaching which the French call Onction ; that affecting, penetrating and interesting manner, which flows from a strong sense in the preacher of the importance of the truths he delivers, and an earnest desire that they may make full impression upon the minds and hearts of his hearers. A pulpit discourse requires a strict attention to unity. By this is meant that there should be some main point to which the whole tenure of the sermon shall refer. One object must predominate throughout the whole dis- course. The unity of a sermon does not exclude the division of it 56 into heads, or even the subdivision of these heads : it requires only that union and connection be so far preserved, as to make the whole concur in some one impression on the mind. The subject of every sermon should be precise and partic- ular ; as unity can never be so perfect in a general, as in a particular subject. Attention is always commanded by taking some particular view of a great subject, and employing on that the whole force of argument and eloquence. A preacher should be cautious not to exhaust his subject since unnecessary and tedious fullness is the very opposite of persuasion. There are always some things which he may suppose the hearers to know, and some which require only brief at- tention. The grand object of the preacher should be to render his instructions interesting. He should bring home to their hearts the truths which he inculcates ; and make each suppose himself particularly ad- dressed. He should avoid all intricate reasoning, avoid expressing himself in general, speculative propositions ; or laying down truths in an abstract, metaphysical manner. A discourse ought never to be carried on in the strain of one writing an essay, but of one speaking to a multitude. The preacher should keep in view the different ages, char- acters, and conditions of men ; and he should accommodate 57 directions and exhortations to each of these different classes. Whenever he advances what touches a man's character, or is applicable to his circumstances, he is sure of his attention. The study of the human heart is very necessary for the preacher. To discover a man to himself in a light in which he never saw his character before, produces a wonderful effect in preaching. Sermons which are founded on the illustration of some peculiar character, or remarkable piece of history, in the sa- cred writings, although difficult in composition, are not only the most beautiful, but also the most useful. By pursuing this course, the preacher lays open, some of the most secret windings of the human heart. This is an extensive field but little explored, and possesses all the advantages of being curious, new, and highly useful. Truth and good sense are the sole basis upon which the preacher can build with safety. THE PLAN OF A DISCOURSE. There are six parts which compose a regular discourse ; viz., the exordium or introduction, the statement or the divi- sion of the subject, the narration or explication, the reason- ing or arguments, the pathetic part and the conclusion. It is not necessary that each of these enter into every pub- lic discourse ; but they are the constituent "parts of a regular oration, and in every discourse some of them must occur. 58 Great care should be taken in the introduction, as, at that time the minds of the hearers are more easily prejudiced for, or against the speaker than at any other time. An introduction should be easy and natural, and always suggested by the subject. The writer should not plan it until he has arranged in his own mind the substance of his discourse. Correctness of expression should be carefully studied in the introduction. At the beginning the hearers are more disposed to criti- cise than at any other period, their attention is then entirely directed to the style and manner of the speaker. Modesty is an indispensable characteristic of a good in- troduction. The modesty of the speaker should appear not only in his expression but in his whole manner ; in his looks, in his ges~ tures, and even in the tone of his voice. Together with modesty, the orator should show a certain sense of dignity, arising from a persuasion of the justice or importance of his subject. The orator should seldom put forth all his strength at the beginning ; but it should rise and grow upon his hearers, as his discourse advances, The introduction is seldom the place for vehemence and passion ; for the audience ought to be gradually prepared, before the speaker venture on strong and passionate senti- ments. When the subject is such that the very mention of it na- 59 turally awakens some passionate emotion, or when the "un- expected presence of some person or object in a popular as- sembly inflames the speaker, either of these will justify an abrupt and vehement exordium. An introduction should be proportioned both in length and kind to the discourse which is to follow. After the introduction, the proposition or enunciation of the subject commonly succeeds. This should be expressed without any affectation, in the most concise and simple manner. It should also be clear and distiuct. To this generally succeeds the division, or laying down the method of the discourse; in the management of which the following rules should be carefully observed. The parts into which the subject is divided should be really distinct from each other. Observe. Should a speaker propose to explain, first the advantages of virtue, and next those of justice or temper- ance, his divisions would be absurd, because the first head plainly comprehends the second. II. Care should be taken always to follow the order of nature, beginning with the most simple points, with such as are most easily understood, and necessary to be first discussed, and 60 proceeding to those which are built on the former, and which are supposed to be known. III. The members of a division ought to exhaust the subject, otherwise the division is incomplete ; the subject is exhibited by pieces only, without displaying the whole. IV. Let preciseness and precision be peculiarly studied. Ob. 1. A division always appears to most advantago, when the several heads are expressed in the clearest, and most for- cible, and fewest words possible. 2. This never fails to strike the hearers agreeably ; and contributes also to make the divisions more easily re- membered. V. Unnecessary multiplication of heads should be cautiously avoided. Ob. 1. To divide a subject into many minute parts, by endless divisions and subdivisions, produces a bad effect in speaking. 2. In a logical treatise this may be proper, but it renders an oration hard and dry, and unnecessarily fatigues the memory. 61 3. A sermon may admit from one to four giand divisions ; seldom are more allowable. Narration or explication is the next part of the discourse in order. To be clear and distinct, to be probable, and to be concise, are the qualities which critics chiefly require in narration. At the bar an act, or single circumstance left in obscurity, or misunderstood by the judge, may destroy the effect of all the argument and reasoning which the pleader may have employed. If his narration be improbable, it will be disregarded ; if it be tedious and diffuse, it will fatigue and be forgotten. To render narration distinct particular attention is requi- site in ascertaining clearly the names, dates, places, and ev- ery other important circumstance of the facts recounted. In order to be probable in narration, it is necessary to ex- hibit the character of the persons of whom we speak, and to show that their actions proceeded from such motives as are natural and likely to gain belief. In sermons, explication of the subject to be discoursed on occupies the place of narration at the bar, and is to be con- ducted in a similar manner. It must be concise, clear and distinct ; in a style correct and elegant rather than highly adorned. To be well heard the preacher must explain the doctrine of his text with propriety ; he must give a full and clear ac- count of the nature of that virtue or duty which forms the subject of discourse. 62 He must also consider what light his text will derive from other passages of scripture, whether it be a subject nearly allied to some other, from which it ought to be distinguished ; whether it can be advantageously illustrated by comparing or opposing it to some other thing ; by searching into cau- ses, and tracing effects ; by pointing out examples, or ap- pealing to the hearts of the hearers, that thus a precise and circumstantial view may be given of the doctrine inculcated. ARGUMENTATIVE PART OF A DISCOURSE. Reason and argument constitute the foundation of all manly and persuasive eloquence. With regard to argument three things require attention ; first, invention of them ; secondly, proper disposition and arrangement of them ; and thirdly, the disposition of them in the most forcible manner. Invention is undoubtedly the most material and the basis of the rest. Arguments should advance in the form of climax, from the weakest to the most forcible, This method is recommended, when the speaker is convinced that his cause is clear and easy to be proved. If he distrust his cause, and have but one material argu- ment, it is very proper to place this argument in the front; so as to prejudice his hearers early in his favor, and thus dis- pose them to pay attention to the weaker reasons which he may afterwards introduce. When amidst a variety of arguments, there is one or two more feeble than the rest, Cicero advises to place them in 63 the middle, as a situation less conspicuous than either the beginning or end of the train of reasoning. When arguments are strong, convincing and satisfactory. the more they are separated the better ; each can be viewed alone, can be amplified and contemplated. When the arguments are of a doubtful character, or a presumptive nature it is safer to crowd them together, to form them into a phalanx, that, though individually weak, they may mutually support each other. Arguments should never be extended too far, nor multi- plied too much ; this diminishes the strength of a cause and renders it suspicious. A few well chosen arguments can be remembered to ad- vantage, while a multiplicity of them burdens the memory and is sure to weaken conviction. A speaker should never expose a favorable argument in a variety of lights for fear of enfeebling the impression which it would otherwise have made. THE PATHETIC PART OF A DISCOURSE. Carefully examine whether the subject admits of the pa- ! thetic. To determine this belongs to good sense and sound judg- ; inent. A great variety of subjects do not admit the pathetic at all, and even in those that are susceptible of it, an attempt to excite the passions in the wrong place may expose an ora- tor to ridicule. 64 The speaker must secure the judgment and understand- ing of his hearers ; for they must be satisfied there is suf- ficient cause for engaging in the cause with zeal and ardor. The pathetic is never admitted until argument and rea- soning have produced their full effect. The speaker should cautiously avoid giving his hearers warning even by insinuation, that he intends to excite their passions. To every emotion and passion, nature has adapted certain corresponding objects, and without setting these before the mind, it is impossible for an orator to excite that emotion. We are warmed with gratitude, we are touched with com- passion, not when a speaker shows us that these are noble dispositions, and that it is our duty to feel them ; nor when he exclaims against us for our indifference and coldness, but when he paints them before the mind in all their native love- liness and beauty. The basis of all successful execution in pathetic oratory is to paint the object of that passion which we desire to raise in the most natural and striking manner. The language of passion is always unaffected and simple, In painting to the imagination you may be cool and delib- erate, but in painting to the heart you must be rapid and ardent. All digressions should be avoided which may interrupt or turn aside the swell of passion. Comparisons are always dangerous and highly improper i n the midst of the pathetic. 65 As violent emotions cannot be lasting so the pathetic should not be overlengthened. The speaker must also be careful to know what the hear- ers will bear ; for he who attempts to carry them farther in passion than they will follow him frustrates his purpose, and instead of warming them he takes the sure means of freezing them completely. THE PERORATION. A few words is always sufficient in the conclusion of a discourse. Sometimes the whole pathetic part comes in most proper- ly at the peroration. When the discourse has been altogether argumentative, it is proper to conclude by summing up the arguments, pla- cing them in one view, and leaving the impression of them full and strong upon the minds of the hearers. Rule. — Place that last upon which you choose to rest the strength of your cause. In every kind of public speaking, it is important to hit the precise time of concluding. Rule. — Do not end abruptly nor unexpectedly. Do not disappoint the expectation of the hearers, when they look for the end of the discourse. The speaker should always close with dignity and spirit, that the minds of the hearers may be left warm, and that 5 66 they may depart with a favorable impression of the subject and of himself. ON DELIVERY. The orator should endeavor to speak so as to be fully and easily understood. He should express himself with such grace and energy as to please and to move his hearers. To be fully and easily understood, the chief requisites are, a due degree of loudness of voice, distinctness, slowness and propriety of pronunciation. The most important thing is to be heard, the speaker must therefore, endeavor to fill with his voice the space occupied by the assembly. Much depends upon the proper pitch and management of the voice. Every man has three pitches in his voice, the high, the middle, and the low. The high is used in calling aloud to some one at a distance ; the low approaches to a whisper ; the middle is that which is employed in common conversation, and which should gen- erally be used in public speaking. The highest pitch is not necessary to be well heard by a great assembly. The voice may be rendered louder without altering the key ; and the speaker will always be able to give the most 67 persevering force of sound, in that pitch of voice to which in conversation he is accustomed. If he begin higher than this, he will fatigue himself and speak with pain ; and thereby be heard with pain by his au- dience. A greater quantity of voice should never be uttered, than can be afforded without pain, and without any extraordinary effort. Eule. — Let the speaker fix his eye on some of the most distant persons in the congregation or assembly, and imagine himself speaking to them. The reason of the above rule is ; we naturally and me- chanically utter our words with such strength, as to be heard by one to whom we address ourselves, provided he be within the reach of our voice. Speaking too loudly is very offensive and exceedingly dis- gusting. The ear is wounded when the voice comes upon it in rumbling indistinct masses. Assent is never obtained by vehemence and force of sound. Distinctness of articulation is what is essentially necessary rather than quantity of sound. With distinct articulation a man of a weak voice will make it extend further than the strongest voice can reach with- out it. The speaker must give every sound its due proportion, 68 and make every syllable and even every letter to be heard distinctly. Rapidity of pronunciation must be carefully avoided. There is a happy medium between this and a lifeless drawling method, which last method should be carefully avoided. Slowness of pronunciation and clearness of articulation cannot be too industriously studied by the public speaker. Such pronunciation gives weight and dignity to a discourse, and assists the voice by pauses and rests, so very necessary to a graceful delivery. A hurried manner excites that flutter of spirit, which is the greatest enemy to all right execution in oratory. Eule — Let every word receive that sound which the most polite usage has appropriated to it, and let the broad and vulgar pronunciation be cautiously avoided. Dissyllables, trissylables and polysyllables have always one accented syllable, let the speaker mark that syllable by a stronger percussion, and pass more slightly over the rest. • The same accent should be given to every word in public speaking and in common discourse. The higher parts of delivery are comprehended under four heads : viz., emphasis, pauses, tones, and gestures By emphasis is meant a fuller and stronger sound of voice, by which we distinguish between the accented syllable some word, on which we intend to lay particular stress. 3e > of Rule. — Study to acquire a just conception of the force and spirit of those sentiments which you are about to deliver. Emphatical words are not to be multiplied too much, but are to be used with prudent reserve. Pauses are of two kinds : first, emphatical pauses ; and secondly, such as mark the distinction of sense. An emphatical pause is designed to fix the hearer's atten- tion on something which has been just said. Such pauses are subject to the same rules of emphasis, and are not to be too often repeated. The principal use of pauses is, to mark the division of the sense, and at the same time permit the speaker to draw his breath ; and the proper management of such pau- ses is one of the nicest and most difficult articles in de- livery. It is peculiarly necessary for the speaker to have a proper command of breath. He should always provide a full supply of breath for what- ever he is to utter. The breath must be gathered at the intervals of a period as well as at the end of it. Pauses in public discourse must be formed upon the man- ner in which we express ourselves in sensible conversation, and not upon the stiff, artificial manner which we acquire from reading books, according to common punctuation. In his tones the speaker is to regulate himself by the man- 70 ner in which he speaks when engaged in earnest discourse' with others. Tones of pronunciation are different from those of em- phasis and pauses. They consist in the modulation of the voice ; the notes or variations of sound which are employed in public speaking. Rule. — Form your tones of public speaking upon those of animated conversation. When we speak upon a subject which deeply interests us, we naturally and mechanically speak in an eloquent, and per- suasive tone and manner. The speaker should never lay aside in the public assembly, that voice with which he expresses himself in private. Nature will guide him so as to make the most forcible and pleasing impressions ; but affectation is contemptibly dis- gusting. ON GESTURE. Rule. — Attend to the looks and gestures in which earn- estness, indignation, compassion, or any other emotion dis- covers itself to the most advantage in the common discourses of men, and let these be your model. A public speaker however must adopt that manner most peculiar to himself, else it will appear stiff and forced. The study of action consists chiefly in guarding against 71 any disagreeable motion, and in learning to perform such motions as are natural in the most graceful manner. Every speaker should study to preserve as much dignity as possible in the attitude of his body. His position should be erect and firm, that he may have the fullest and freest command of all his motions. His countenance should correspond with the nature of his discourse. In every kind of discourse a serious and manly look is to be maintained. The eyes should never be fixed entirely on one object, but they should move easily around the audience. Motion made with the hands should be the principal part of gesture ; and it is more natural to use the right hand than the left. Warm emotions require the exercise of both hands ; but all motions should be easy and unrestrained. Motions made with the hands should proceed from the shoulders rather than from the elbow, to prevent narrow and confined motions which are always ungraceful. Perpendicular movements are to be avoided. Oblique motions are most pleasing and graceful. Sudden and rapid motions are not good. Affectation is the destruction of good delivery ; whatever is natural is most likely to please because it shows the man, and has the appearance of proceeding from the heart. 72 ON MEANS OF IMPROVING IN ELOQUENCE. To improve in eloquence the speaker should endeavor to improve and refine his moral feelings. He should also cultivate habits of the several virtues. A true orator must possess generous sentiments, warm feelings, and a mind turned towards admiration of those great and high objects, which men are by nature formed to venerate. Connected with manly virtues, he should possess strong and tender sensibility to all the injuries, distresses, and sor- rows of his fellow creatures. A fund of knowledge is also indispensable to true oratory. A pleader must make himself thoroughly acquainted with law ; he must possess all that learning and experience which can be useful in supporting a cause or convincing a judge. A preacher must apply himself closely to the study of di- vinity, of practical religion, of morals, and of human nature ; that he may be rich in all topics of instruction and per- suasion. He who wishes to excel in any council or assembly should be thoroughly acquainted with the business that belongs to such assembly ; and should attend with accuracy to all the facts which may be the subject of question or deliberation. Beside the knowledge peculiar to his profession the pub- lic speaker should be acquainted with the general circle of polite literature. 73 He should be acquainted with poetry for the purpose of embellishing his style, and for, suggesting lively images or pleasing illusions. He should be acquainted with history, because the know- ledge of facts, of eminent characters, and of the course of human affairs finds place on many occasions. Deficiency of knowledge on general subjects will expose a public speaker to many disadvantages ; and it will give his rival, who may be better qualified, a decided superiority over him. Without application and industry it is impossible for a person to excel in eloquence. No one ever became a distinguished pleader, or preacher, or speaker, in any assembly without previous labor and ap- plication. The student must beware of indolence and dissipation. He who is destined to excel in any art, will be distinguished by enthusiasm for that art ; which, firing his mind with the object in view, will dispose him to relish every necessary labor. Attention to the best models contributes greatly to im- provement in the arts of speaking and writing with pro- priety. No genius is so original, as not to receive improvement from examples in style, composition, and delivery. In imitating style a difference is to be observed between spoken and written discourses ; in the latter we expect cor- rectness and precision. 74 Speaking allows a more easy, copious style, less confined ; repetitions may sometimes be requisite ; the same thought must often be placed in different points of view ; since the hearers can catch it only from the mouth of the speaker. Exercise, both in composing and speaking, is a necessary means of improvement. That kind of composition is most useful, which is con- nected with the profession to which the person intends to devote himself. He who wishes to write or speak correctly, should, in the most- trivial kind of composition, in writing a letter, or even in common conversation, study to express himself .with propriety. Exercises in speaking is only important when under pro- per regulations. Many debating societies in which people are brought to- gether from low stations, who know nothing of the Rules of public speaking but merely assemble to exhibit their talent, are not only useless but highly injurious. Even in those well regulated societies, the student of ora- tory should never accustom himself to speak at random on any subject; he shonld never speak without meditation, and he should be very particular in the choice of his subjects. A student of oratory should never attempt to speak upon a subject upon which he is ignorant, and when speaking, he should keep good sense and persuasion in view rather than a show of unmeaning eloquence. 75 Aristotle was the first who took Rhetoric from the soph- ists and founded it on reason and solid sense. His treatise on Rhetoric is a very valuable composition. The Greek Rhetoricians who succeeded him improved on his foundation. Two of their works still remain, Demetrius Phalereus, and Dionysius of Halitences, who both wrote on the construc- tion of sentences and who deserve to be consulted. Cicero and Quintilian were both able writers upon this subject and their works are not only instructive but highly useful. ON HISTORY. History is a connected recital of past or present events. Its office is to trace the progress of man from the savage state, and through the several degrees of civilization, to the nearest perfection of which social institutions are capable. History serves to amuse the imagination and interest the passions. It improves the understanding, and tends to strengthen the sentiments of virtue. Oral tradition was, in early times, the only vehicle of his-^ torical knowledge : hence to secure the remembrance of im- portant facts, as compacts, treaties, &c, they were recited in the assemblies of the people. 76 Historical poems was another method of transmitting the knowledge of events. The next method of preserving traditions was by visible monuments, erected upon occasion of any remarkable event: of this nature was the heap of stones raised by Jacob and Laban as a memorial of their mutual reconciliation. Coins, medals, and inscriptions, may be regarded as por- table, historical monuments. A general and accurate knowledge of Geography and Chronology is necessary in the study of history. A knowledge of the situation and relative magnitude of the several countries of the earth assists and affords clear and distinct ideas of the events : and a general comprehen- sion of the current of time enables a person distinctly to trace their dependence on each other. A good historian should have a general acquaintance with the sciences, and with the principles which actuate human nature, as it will enable him to judge of the possibility and probability of certain facts, and be a guide in estimating the consistency of human characters, and with what is, or is not, within the powers of human nature. History, with regard to the nature of its subjects, may be divided into two classes : general and particular ; and with respect to time into two more : ancient and modern. i General history relates to nations and to every thing of a public nature connected with them : the subject of particu- lar history refers to individual countries, or particular periods. Ancient history commences with the creation of the world, 77 as given by Moses, and extends to the reign of Charlemagne A. D., 800. Modern history is dated from that period and extends to our own times. General history is divided into civil and ecclesiastical : the first contains the history of mankind in their various rela- tions to one another : the second considers them as acting or pretending to act in obedience to what they believe to be the will of God. History resolves itself into certain periods at each of which a great revolution took place, either with regard to the whole world, or a very considerable part of it. The first general period refers to transactions from the creation of the world to the flood, which are recorded in the first six chapters of the Bible. In that period men were not in a savage state : they had made some progress in the mechanical arts; they had invented music, and they found out the method of working metals. The second period of history commences at the deluge, about 1656 after the creation, and it extends to the beginning of profane history. It includes the attempt ^t building the tower of Babel ; the history of Noah's sons ; the foundation of the kingdom of Babylonia and Assyria ; the migration and history of the Israelites ; the history of the Greeks and their expedition against Troy : the founding of Carthage and of Eome. The third begins with the 28th Olympiad, about the year 78 B. C. 668 ; and it includes the destruction of the kingdom of Assyria by theMedes and Babylonians, and the overthrow of the kingdom of Judea by Nebuchadnezzar King of Babylon. The fourth period of history extends only to the conquest of Babylon by Cyrus, a period of 31 years, which event took place in the year B. C. 538. During the fifth period, the Jews under Cyrus, obtained leave to return to their own country, rebuild their temple, and re-establish their own worship : it includes likewise the reign of Alexander the great, and the overthrow of the Per- sian Empire. The sixth period includes the rise and progress of the four empires which had arisen out of the vast empire of Alex- ander, and the history of the exploits of the Romans and Carthaginians till the destruction of Carthage about a cen- tury and a half prior to the birth of Christ. The seventh period is occupied in the conquests of the Romans, until their empire had attained its greatest mag- nitude, and until the time when an end was put to the Ro- man Republic ; it includes also the conquests of Britain by Claudius, and the destruction of Jerusalem by Vespasian. It ends with the death of Trajan. The eighth period extends fro^n the death of Trajan to the division of the empire under Constantino. The ninth period exhibits the decline and miserable end of the western part of the Roman empire : it details important revolutions that occurred in Britain, Italy, France, and Spain. 79 During this period Africa had changed its masters three times : the Vandals had expelled the Romans, and erected an independent kingdom which was at length overturned by the Emperors of Constantinople, and from them it was taken by the Goths, A. D. 620. The tenth period is dated from the flight of Mahomet in the year 622 : it includes the rise, progress, and victories of the conqueror, and the fall of his empire : it relates to the conquests of the Turks and Saracens, and extends to the time of the Crusades. The eleventh period of history commences with the cru- sades, and includes all the space intervening from between that time and the present. ON HISTORICAL WRITING. The great requisites in a historian are, impartiality, fidelity, and accuracy. His first object should be to give his subject all possible unity. The portions of history should be connected by some uniting principle, which will produce on the mind something J that is one. A historian should trace actions and events to their ' sources. He should be well acquainted with human nature and with | politics. His skill in the former will enable him to describe the 80 characters of individuals ; and his knowledge of the latter to account for the revolutions of government, and the opera- tion of political causes on public affairs. Large experience, of the different modes of government has improved the modern historian, beyond the historian of antiquity. It is in the form of narrative only, that the historian is to impart political knowledge ; for formal discussions expose him to suspicion of being willing to accommodate his facts to his theory. Reflections, whether moral, political, or philosophical, may be insinuated in the body of the narrative. Clearness, order and connection are primary virtues in historical narration. This is attained when the historian is complete master of his subject, when he can see the whole at one view ; and comprehend the dependence of all its parts. History should be conspicuous for gravity. There should be nothing mean or vulgar in the style ; no quaintness, no smartness, no affectation, no wit. A history should also be interesting ; and this is the qual- ity which distinguishes a writer of genius and eloquence. To be interesting, a historian must preserve a medium be- tween rapid recital, and prolix detail. He should be careful in making a proper selection of cir- cumstances. 81 This gives life, body and coloring, to his narration, and constitutes what is termed historical painting. In picteresque description, the ancients eminently excel : for example the works of Thucydides, Liyy, Sallust, and Tacitus are read with pleasure and delight. Sound morality should always reign in history. The historian should be always on the side of virtue, not by delivering moral instruction in a formal manner, but merely by exciting indignation against the designing and vicious ; by appeals to the passions, he will not only improve his reader, but take away from the natural coolness of his- torical narration. The inferior kinds of historical composition are annals, memoirs and lives. ON LOGIC. In discourses written or spoken the writer or speaker should possess Logic as a philosopher, and employ it as an orator. He should dispose his arguments in a natural and lucid manner, and express them in such a style as to give them full force. Logic is the art of reasoning ; and is intended to guide and assist the intellectual powers in the investigation of truth, and in communicating it to others. The operations of the mind in acquiring and communica- 6 82 ting knowledge are, Perception, Judgment, Reasoning and Disposition ; and into these parts logic is divided. Perception, or conception, is the attention which the mind gives to impressions made upon it, and the results of per- ception are sensations and ideas. Judgment is the operation of the mind by which we join two or more ideas together by an affirmation or negation. Judgment expressed in words is called an enunciation, and more frequently a proposition. In reasoning we determine the relation between two ideas, by comparing them with a third idea, called the middle term. The result of reasoning is an inference ; and the expres- sion of an act of reasoning is called a syllogism. Example. A Creator is to be worshipped. God is a Creator; Therefore God is to be worshipped. This is a syl- logism : and the inference is that God is to be worshipped. A proposition is the affirmation or negation of one term about another ; and is either simple or compound. A simple proposition is that which cannot be resolved into several : as Man is an animal. A compound proposition is that which can be resolved in- to several. A simple proposition consists of two parts, the subject and predicate. Tho subject is that of which something is affirmed or 83 denied : the, predicate, that which is affirmed or denied of the subject. The predicate consists of two parts, the copula and res copulata. Example In the proposition, Man is an animal, the term man is the subject, is the copula, and animal the res copulata. The res copulata alone, without the copula, is commonly called the predicate, and by some the attribute. A proposition consists necessarily of three parts : the thing about which something is asserted, called the subject : the thing which is asserted about it, called the predicate : and the particles expressing the nature of the assertion which is made. The predicate and particles expressive of the nature of the assertion are sometimes taken collectively, and called the predicate. Attribute should only be applied to the predicate when it is an adjective, as Man is rational. Logicians acknowledge no verb in a proposition but the verb substantive ; and if any other occur, they resolve it into the verb substantive or participial noun : as in the proposi- tion, A man runs, the predicate runs is resolved into — a run- ning thing. Simple propositions are divided into modal and pure. A modal proposition is that in which there occurs one of 84 the four modes — it is necessary, impossible, possible, con- tingent. A pure proposition is that in which none of them occurs. A modal proposition consists of the dictum and modus. Thus in the proposition, it is necessary that a man should be an animal ; — that a man should be an animal is the dictum, and necessary is the modus. The dictum is the subject, and the modus is the predicate : for the modus is connected with the copula, and what is so connected is the predicate. The proposition therefore ought to be expressed — that a man should be an animal is necessary. Propositions may also be divided into affirmative and neg- ative : the affirmative connects the predicate with the sub- ject ; as " gold is heavy 7 : the negative separates the predi- cate from the subject ; as " man is not perfect" Propositions are universal and particular : in a universal proposition the predicate extends to the whole subject; as " all men are mortal." The signs of a universal proposition are usually all, every, no, none. In a particular proposition the predicate is limited to a part of the subject : as, " some people are good." The signs of a particular proposition are, some, many, few &e. Propositions are either true or false : a true proposition unites ideas that agree, and separates those that disagree; as "God is good." 85 A false proposition affirms an agreement between ideas that disagree, and a disagreement between those which agree : as " A good king oppresses his subjects." " Virtue is not the road to happiness-" A demonstrable proposition is one that may be proved by a train of reasoning, called demonstration. Demonstration is a succession of connected propositions, beginning with self evident, and advancing to remoter truths : such is mathematical demonstration, which begins with defi- nitions : from these it advances to axioms, or self evident propositions ; and from thence to more remote truths. Corrolaries are inferences deduced from truths already demonstrated. ON SYLLOGISM. A syllogism is the expression of an act of reasoning, and includes three distinct propositions. Example 1. — 1. Whatever is useful is honorable. 2. In- dustry is useful : 3. Therefore industry is honorable. Ex. 2. — 1. Every creature possessed of reason is bound to cultivate his mind. 2. Man is possessed of reason : 3. Therefore man is bound to cultivate his mind. In syllogism the proposition containing the inference is called the conclusion ; the two preceding positions are the premises. Of the two premises, that is called the major proposition in which the greater extreme is compared with the middle 86 term : the minor proposition is that in which the less ex- treme is compared with it. Example. — 1. Truth is venerable. 2, Christianity is truth ; 3. Therefore Christianity is venerable. "Christianity," "Venerable" and "Truth" are in the above example the three terms of the syllogism. " Chris- tianity" and " Venerable" are the extremes, and " Truth" is the middle term. " Venerable" is the major and " Chris- tianity" is the minor term. " Truth is venerable." " Chris- tianity is truth," are the premises ; therefore " Christianity is venerable," is the conclusion. " Truth is venerable," is the major proposition : " Christianity is truth," is the minor proposition. Syllogisms may be almost indefinitely varied, and each variety has obtained a distinct name. A dilemma is a syllogism in which the consequent of a major is a disjunctive proposition, which is taken away in the minor : or it is an argument by which we endeavor to prove the absurdity or falsehood of some assertion. Ex. — 1. If God did not create the world perfect in its kind, it mtist have been from want of inclination or power. 2, But it could not have been from want of inclination or from want of power. 3. Therefore he created the world perfect in its kind. Analogy is an argument from proportionable causes to proportionable effects : and from similarity of circumstances to similarity of consequences. Ex. — 1. All matter with which we are acqainted gravitates ; 2. Therefore gravitation is a universal property of matter. 87 A sophism is a false syllogism not obviously apparent. When a proposition is proved which has no necessary con- nection with the question : this is called ignorantio clenchi. Petitio principii or begging the question is another kind of sophism, and consists of taking for granted what ought to be proved. Arguing in a circle, is to prove the premises by the con- clusion, and the conclusion by the premises. QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. LESSON I. 1. What is Rhetoric ? 2. What is language .? 3. How is it to be regarded ? 4. What is spoken language ? 5. What written ? 6. What was the first attempt towards writing ? 7. Who brought letters first into Greece ? 8. Of how many letters did his alphabet consist ? 9. How was writing first exhibited ? LESSON II. 1. What is taste? 2. Is it common to all? 3. How is this known ? 4. Do all persons possess taste alike ? 5. To what is this difference to be ascribed? 6. How does taste appear to be an improvable faculty ? 7. Repeat the gener- al rule. 8. What are essential in the decisions of taste? 9. Of what is a good taste compounded ? 88 LESSON III. 1. What is criticism ? 2. What is its design ? 3. What is genius ? 4. How may it be improved ? 5. To excel in this talent what must the student do ? 6. What is said of a person indifferently inclined towards the several profes- sions ? LESSSON IV. 1. What is style ? 2. Of what is it a picture ? 3. What are the qualities of a good style ? 4. What does perspicu- ity signify ? 5. What does it require ? 6. With respect to words and phrases, how many properties does perspicuity require ? 7. Name them. 8. To what does purity relate ? 9. Propriety ? 10. What is precision? 11. Name the faults possible to written composition. 12. What is opposed to these three faults ? 13. By what is the ornament of style known ? LESSON V. 1. What is a sentence ? 2. Name the different kinds of sentences. 3. What is a simple sentence ? 4. What is a compound sentence ? 5. What are the principal parts of a sentence ? 6. What are the other parts usually called ? 7. What is a clause or member ? LESSON VI. 1. What is punctuation ? 2. Name the principal points or marks. 3. Repeat Rule 1st, Rule 2nd, Rule 3rd, 4th, 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th. LESSON VII. Repeat Rule 1st for written composition &c, 2nd, 3rd,, 4th. 5th, 6th, 7th, 8th, 9th, 10th, 11th, 12th, 13th, 14th, 15th, 16th, 17th, 18th, 19th, 20th, 21st, 22nd, 23rd, 24th, 25th. Repeat the 1st Example corrected according to Rule 2nd. Thee must have been idle. Not proper because the objective pronoun thee is made the subject of the verb must have been. But according to Rule 2nd, " A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of the verb must be in the Nominative case," Therefore thee should be thou : Thus, Thou must have been idle. Note. Let the pupil correct the whole of the Examples according to this manner. LESSON VIII. 1. What is indispensable to written composition and pub- lic speaking ? 2. What are the properties of a perfect sen- tence ? 3. What does clearness imply ? 4. What is said of the pronouns who, which, what, and that ? 5. What does the unity of a sentence imply ? 6. What is meant by the strength of a sentence ? LESSON ON THE PERORATION. 1. What is sufficient in the conclusion? 2. What is said of the pathetic part ? 3. When the discourse has been alto- gether argumentative how must it be concluded ? 4. Re- peat the rule. 5. What is important in every kind of public speaking ? 6. Repeat the rule. 7. How should the speak- er always close ? 8. Why ? LESSON ON DELIVERY. 1. How should the orator endeavor to speak? 2. To be un- derstood what are the chief requisites ? 3. What is the most important thing ? 4. Mention the three pitches of the hu- man voice. 5. How is each used ? 6. Is the highest pitch 1 necessary to be well heard ? 7. In what pitch will the speak- er be enabled to give the most persevering force of sound ? 8. What will be the consequence if he begin higher than this ? 9. What is said about uttering a greater quantity of voice ? 10. Repeat the rule. 11. What reason is given ? 12. What is very offensive and disgusting ? 13. When is the ear wounded ? 14. What is essentially necessary rather than quantity of sound? 15. Repeat the additional remark. 16. What must the speaker give to every sound ? 17. What must be carefully avoided ? 18. Repeat the additional re- mark. 19. What ought to be industriously studied by every i 90 speaker? 20. What is said of such pronunciation ? 21. What is said of a hurried manner? 22. Repeat the rule. 23. What is said of dissyllables, trissyllables and polysyllables ? 24. What accent should be given to every word in public speaking ? 25. Name the heads of the higher parts of de- livery ? 26. What is meant by Emphasis. 27. Repeat the general rule. 28. How are emphatical words to be used ? 29. Name the two kinds of pauses. 30. What is said of the emphatical pause ? 31. To what rules are such pauses sub- ject? 32. What is said of the use and management of pauses? 33. What three directions are given the public speaker in breathing ? 34. How ought pauses in public speaking to be formed ? 35. How is the speaker to regulate his tones ? 36. In what do tones consist? 37. Repeat the rule? 38. When do men naturally and mechanically speak in an eloquent manner ? 39. What should the speaker do with regard to his voice in a public assembly ? 40. What is nature said to do for the speaker ? 41. What is contemptibly disgusting ? LESSON ON GESTURE. 1. Repeat the general rule on gesture. 2. What manner must the public speaker adopt ? 3. In what consists the stu- dy of action ? 4. What should every speaker study to pre- serve ? 5. What should be his position ? 6. What is said of the speaker's countenance ? 7. What is to be maintained in every kind of discourse ? 8. What is said of the eyes of the speaker ? What should be the principal part of his gesture? 10. What kind of emotions require the exercise of both hands ? 11. What is said of all motions ? 12. What is to be done to prevent narrow and confined motions? 13. What movements are to be avoided ? 14. What motions are most pleasing and graceful ? 15. What motions are not good ? 16. What is the destruction of good delivery ? LESSON ON IMPROVING IN ELOQUENCE. 1. To improve in eloquence what should the speaker do ? 2. What else? 3. What must a true orator possess? 4, What else beside manly virtues ! 5. What is also indispensable ? 6. With what must a pleader be acquainted 1 7. To what must the preacher apply himself? 8. To excel in any coun- cil or assembly with what should the speaker be acquainted? 91 6. What else beside the knowledge of his profession? 10. Why should he be acquainted with poetry ? 11. Why with histo- ry ? 12. What would give his rival a decided superiority over him'? 13. What is indispensible to excel in eloquence I 14. Of what must the student beware ? 15. What is neces- sary to excel in 'any art ? 16. What is said of attention to the best models ? 17. What is said about improvement from examples in style, &c ? 18, In imitating style what dif- ference is to be observed ? 19. What is said of speaking ? 20. What is a necessary means of improvement ? 21. What compositon is the most useful ? 22. What should he do who wishes to speak and write correctly ? 23. What is said of ex- ercises in speaking ? 24. What of debating societies ? 25. What should a student of oratory never attempt to do 1 26. What is said of Aristotle ? 27. Who improved on his foundation ? 28. What two works are mentioned, and what is said of them ? 29. What is said of Cicero and Quintilian? LESSON ON HISTORY. 1. What is history? 2. What is its office? 3. What does history serve to do ? 4. What else ? 5. What was the vehicle of historical knowledge in olden times ? 6. What other method ? 7. What the next method ? 8. What are to be regarded as portable, historical monuments ? 9. What is necessary to the study of history ? 10. What else is of importance? 11. With what should a good historian be ac- quainted ? 12. Name the two classes of history. 13. What is said of general and particular history? 14. When does ancient history commence? 15. When does modern? 16. How is general history divided ? 17. Into what does his- tory resolve itself ? 18. To what does the first period refer ? 19. Were men then in a savage state ? 20. Repeat what is said of the second period ? 21. What does this include ? 22. What is said of the third ? 23. Of the fourth? 24. Of the fifth ? 25. Of the sixth ? 26. Of the seventh ? 27. Of the eighth ? 28. Of the ninth ? 29. What is further remarked concerning the ninth period ? 30. What is said of the tenth? 31. Of the eleventh? LESSON ON HISTORICAL WRITING. 1, What are the great requisites in a historian ? 2. What 92 should be his first objects 3. By what should his portions | of history be connected 1 4. To what should he trace ac- tions and events % 5. With what should he be well acquaint- ed 1 6. What is said of this 1 7. What has improved the modern historian % 8. How is the historian to impart politi- cal knowledge 1 9. What is said of reflection, moral, politi- cal or philosophical % 10. What are primary virtues in his- torical narration 1 11. When is this attained 1 12. For what should history be conspicuous % 13. What is said about the historian's style % 14. What further remark is made about history 1 15. To be interesting what must a historian do 1 16. Of what should he be careful 1 LESSON IX. 1. Repeat Rule 1st for Composition. 2. Repeat Rule 2nd. 3. Repeat the observations. 4. Repeat Rule 3rd. 5. Rule 4th. 6. Rule 5th. 7. Repeat the first observation to Rule 5th. 8. The 2nd. 9. The 3rd. 10. Repeat Rule 6th. 11. Repeat the observation. 12. Rule 7th. 13. Repeat observation 1st to Rule 7th. 14. Ob. 2nd. 15. Repeat Rule 8th. 16. Ob. 1st to Rule 8th. 17. Ob. 2nd. 18. Re- peat Rule 9th. 19. Ob. 1st to Rule 9th, 20. Ob 2nd. I 21. Ob. 3rd. 22. Ob, 4th. 23. Ob. 5th. 24. Repeat Rule i 10th. 25. Repeat Ob. 1st to Rule 10th. 26. Ob. 2nd. 27. Repeat Rule 11th. 28. Repeat the observation. 29. Re- peat Rule 12fch. 30. Repeat the observation. 31. Rule 13th. 32. Repeat the observation. 33. Rule 14th. 34. Ob. 1st. 35. Ob. 2nd. 36. Ob. 3rd. 37. Ob. 4th. 38. Ob. 5th. LESSON X.— ON HARMONY. 1. Upon what does the beauty of musical construction de- pend ? 2. What words are most pleasing to the ear ? 3. What is said of long words ? 4. What is always grateful to the ear ? 5. Repeat the Rule. 6. What is said of sound when we aim at dignity or elevation ? 7, What is said of words consisting of short syllables ? 8. What should be done to render discourse sprightly and magnificent ? 9. With what have sounds an intimate correspondence ? LESSON XL— ON FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE. 1. How may figures be regarded? 2. How are figures divided ? 3. What are figures of words commonly called ? 4. What is said of fig-uses of thought ? 5. How is language said to be enriched ? 6. What do figures furnish ? 7* What is said of tropes? 8. What is a synecdoche ? LESSON XII.— ON METAPHORS. 1. Upon what is metaphor entirely founded? 2. It is nearly allied to what ? 3. Give the example. 4. What is further said of metaphor ? 5. Repeat Rule 1st. 6. Repeat Ob. 1st. 7. Ob. 2nd. 8. Rule 2nd. 9. Ob. 1st. 10. Ob. 2nd. 11. Rule 3rd. 12. Ob. 1st. 13. Ob. 2nd. 14. Rule 4th. 15. Rule 5th. 16. Rule 6th. 17. Repeat the Obser- vation. 18. Rule 7th. 19. Ob. 1st. 20. Ob. 2nd. 21. Ob. 3rd. 22. Ob. 4th. LESSON XIII.— HYPERBOLE &c. 1. In what does a hyperbole consist ? 2. What is said of this figure ? 3. Give the examples. 4. How many kinds of hyperboles are there ? 5. Which are the best ? 6. When must hyperboles be employed with more caution ? 7. What ' is a bombast ? 8. What is personification ? 9. Give the examples. 10. How many degrees of this figure are there ? 11 What admits of it? 12 What is said of the second de- cree? 13 What is said of the third? 14 Repeat Rule 1st for personification. 15 Repeat Rule 2nd. LESSON XIV— ON COMPARISON &c. 1 What is a comparison ? 2 How many kinds of com- parison are there ? 3 What is done in explaining compari- sons ? 4 What are chiefly to be studied in comparisons of this kind ? 5 Which occur more frequently ? 6 What is the foundation of this figure ? 7 When should a simile or I comparison not be introduced ? 8 What is said of embel- lishing comparison ? 9 What does it suppose? 10 From what should comparisons not be drawn ? 11 What more? j 12 What is said of the object from which a comparison is ] drawn ? 13 What figures should be avoided in compositions of a serious kind? 14 Upon what is antithesis founded? ] 15 How do objects opposed to one another appear in strong- er light ? 16 What is to be avoided ? 17 What are inter- rogations and exclamations ? 18 Repeat what is said of in- terrogations. When may interrogations be successfully em- ployed ? 94 LESSON XV— ON THE CHARACTERS OF STYLE. 1 How many general characters of style are there? 2 Name them. 3 What is said of a diffuse writer ? 4 Of a concise one ? 5 What is said of each of them ? 6 What difference between spoken and read discourses ? 7 What is said of the style of a feeble writer ? 8 What is said of a nervous writer ? 9 A dry style ? 10 A plain style ? 11 A neat style ? 12 An elegant style ? 13 A florid style ? LESSON XVI— DIRECTIONS &c. 1 What is the first direction for forming a proper style ? 2 The second ? 3 The next ? 4 The fourth ? 5 The next ? 6 The sixth ? 7 The next ? 8 What is necessary before you commence to write your composition ? 9 Of what are you to beware ? 10 What further direction is given ? 11 For what must the work of correction be left ? 12 With what ought the writer to be well acquainted ? 13 What will be the benefit of this ? 14 What direction is here given \ 15 In doing this what is necessary? 16 Of what ought the writer to be careful ? 17 Repeat the general rule. LESSON XVII— ON ELOQUENCE OF POPULAR ASSEMBLIES. 1 What is eloquence ? 2 What are its essential proper- ties ? 3 What are indispensible to true eloquence ? What is its foundation ? 5 What should be the principal object of the orator ? 6 What should he also study ? 7 What do conviction and persuasion affect ? 8 What must the orator j therefore do ? 9 How is eloquence generally divided ? 10 What is said of the three degrees ? 11 What is meant by passion ? 12 What is necessary to the public speaker ? 13 Upon what should he rest ? 14 What is said of ornament ? 15 Repeat Rule 1st. 16 2nd. 17 3rd. 18 What gives scope to the most animated manner of public speaking ? 19 What is said of movements in a great as- sembly ? 20 What is said of the expressed warmth of the speaker ? 21 What should the speaker never do ? 22 Re- peat the Rule. 23 What is further said of the public speak- el- ? 24 What must he not attempt to do ? 25 He should be so far master 6f himself as in the midst of passion to be what ? 26 What is said of the confusion and disorder of \ uneducated speakers ? 27 What is the speaker carefully to i 95 regard ? 23 What is said of the imitation of ancient au- thors ? 29 No one should attempt speaking in public with- out knowing what ? SO Which manner is considered the most proper for public speakers ? 31 By what however must the speaker be guided ? 32 What ought never to be forgotten ? 83 What would be the effect of giving too ma- ny views of the same subject ? LESSON XVIII— ELOQUENCE OF THE BAR. 1 To be successful to what must the speaker apply him - self? 2 By doing what would the speaker at the bar sub- ject himself to very great ridicule ? 3 What is his chief business ? 4 What is said of the judicial orations of the ancients ? 5 What is the grand secret of a lawyer's success ? 6 What is further said ? 7 In what should he be very par- ticular ? 8 What will be the result of this ? 9 What is further said of the study of eloquence ? 10 What compar- ison is made between the cold fyc. tyc, and the elegant speaker? 11 What should be the lawyer's grand study ? 12 What is said of his style ? 13 What should he be par- ticular in guarding against ? 14 To the habit of what should he form himself ? 15 In speaking at the bar what should Ibe distinctly shown ? 16 In what should he be distinct ? 17 What is said of a clear method? 18 What is said of the lawyer's relating facts ? 19 What is said of argumentation ? 20 What should the lawyer be always candid in stating ? 21 What will be the result if he state them with accuracy and candor ? 22 What is said of wit at the bar ? 23 What causes should an advocate be particular in declining ? LESSON XIX.— ELOQUENCE OF THE PULPIT- I 1 To preach with interest, effect and power, what is nec- essary ? 2 What is the principal characteristic of pulpit el- oquence ? 3 What is said of this ? 4 What is said of the French Onction ? 5 What does a pulpit discourse require? j6 What is meant by this ? 7 What must predominate ? 8 |The unity of a sermon does not what ? 9 What is said of 'the subject of every sermon ? 10 How is attention always commanded? 11 Of what should a preacher be cautious? ;12 Repeat the additional remark? 13 What should be the grand object of the preacher ? 14 What more ? 15 What should he avoid ? 16 What is further said about a discourse? 96 17 What should the preacher keep in view ? 18 When is he sure of attention ? 19 What study is necessary for the preacher ? 20 What produces a wonderful effect in preach- ing ? 21 What is said of sermons ? 22 What does the preacher do by pursuing this course ? 23 What is said of this ? 24 Upon what can the preacher build with safety ? LESSON XX.— THE PLAN OF A DISCOURSE. 1. How many parts are there in a regular discourse ? 2. Repeat what is said of these ? 3. What is said about the in- troduction ? 4. When should a speaker plan his discourse ? 5. What should be carefully studied in the introduction ? 6. Why? 7 What is an indispensable characteristic ? 8 How should the modesty of the speaker appear? 9 What should the orator also whow ? 10 Repeat the additional remark? 11 What is said about vehemence in the introduction? 12 What is the exception to this rule? 13 How should the in- troduction be proportioned? 14 What succeeds the intro- duction? 15 How should this be expressed? 16 To this what generally succeeds? 17 Repeat Rule 1st. 18 The observation to the Rule. 19 Rule 2nd. 20 Rule 3rd. 21 Rule 4th. 22 Ob. 1st. 23 Ob. 2nd. 24 Rule 5th. 25 Ob. 1st. 26 Ob. 2nd. 27 Ob. 3rd. 28 What is the next part in order? 29 What are the properties which critics require in narration ? 30 What is said of an act or single circumstance left in obscurity at the bar ? 31 What will be the result of the improbability of the narration ? 32 To render narration distinct what is necessary ? 33 To be probable what is necessary ? 34 In sermons what takes the place of narration? 35 What is said of it ? 36 What must the Preacher do to be well heard? 37 What must he also do? LESSON XXL— ARGUMENTATIVE PART. 1 What constitutes the foundation of all manly and per- suasive eloquence ? 2 How many things require attention with regard to argument ? 3 What is the basis of the rest ? 4 How should arguments advance ? 5 Where is this method recommended ? 6 If the speaker distrust his cause and have but one material argument, where should it be placed ? 7 When amidst a variety of arguments there be one or two more feeble than the rest, where should they be placed ? 8 What is said of strong and convincing arguments ? 9 Of 97 arguments of doubtful character ? 10 Of a few well chosen arguments ? 11 Of a favorable argument ? LESSON XXII.— PATHETIC PART. 1 Repeat the first direction 2 To determine this belongs to what ? 3 Repeat the additional .remark ? 4 What mult SSS? fi e w°h ? + f Tl , e + ? athetic is never admitted «s when? 6 T\ hat should the speaker avoid? 7 To everv emotion and passion nature has adapted what ? 8 Repeat the additional remark. 9 What is the basis in all success- ful execution in pathetic oratory ? 10 What is said of the language of passion ? 11 What is said of painting to the imagination ? 12 What should be avoided ? P 13 Where are comparisons always dangerous and highly improper ? LESSON XXII— OX PAGE 81. 1 What constitutes historical painting ? 2 In what did the ancients eminently excel ? 3 What should always reign in history ? 4 What is further said about the historian f 5 What are the inferior kinds of historical composition ? LESSON XXIIL—ON LOGIC. 1 In written or spoken discourses what should the writer or speaker possess? 2 How should he dispose his argu- ments ? 3 What is logic? 4 What are the operations^ the mind m acquiring and communicating knowledge » «; What is perception? 6 Judgment? 7 Expressed in words what is it called ? 8 In reasoning what do we do ? 9 What is the result of reasoning ? 10 What is the expression of an act of reasoning called? 11 Give an example > 12 Whit u a proposition ? 13 What is a simple proposition? 14 W hat is a compound proposition ? 15 A simple Drnnnritinn consists of what ? 16* What is the subject?* if Wha he predicate ? 18 Of what does the predicate consist ? 19 Give an example. 20 What is said of the res copula alone without the copula? 21 Of how many plr s does a S" tl0 23 C °wf ? I 2 ^ hatisf ^ersaidlb P out^ dicate ? 23 When should an attribute only be applied to the predicate? 24 What do logicians not acknowledge ? 25 How are simple propositions divided ? 26 What is a li" ^ ? 27 ^ hat a P ure Proposition ? 28 Of what does a modal proposition consist ? 29 What is further 98 said of the dictum and modus ? 30 How may propositions also be divided ? 31 What is further said of propositions ? 32 What are the signs of a universal proposition ? 33 In what is the predicate limited to part of the subject ? 34 What are the signs of a particular proposition ? 35 What is a true proposition ? 36 Whtt is a false proposition ? 37 What is a demonstrable proposition ? 38 What is a demon- stration ? 39 What are corolaries ? LESSON XXXV.—ON SYLLOGISM. 1 What is a syllogism ? 2 Examples. 3 In syllogism what is the conclusion ? 4 What is the major proposition? 5 What the minor ? 6 Example. 7 What is further said of syllogisms ? 8 What is a dilemma ? 9 Example. 10 What is analogy ? 11 Example. 12 What is a sophism ? 13 What is ignorantio clenchi ? 14 What is petitio princi- pii ? 15 What is arguing in a circle ? FINIS INDEX. Dedication, - Page 3 Preface, - - - - - 5 Recommendations, - 9 Rhetoric — Language — Taste, - - - 13 Criticism and Genius — Style, 14 On Sentences, - - - - 15 Punctuation and Rules of - - - 16 Examples to the Rules, - - - 19 Rules for Written Composition, - - - 21 Examples to the Rules, 25 Structure of Sentences, 30 Rules of Rhetoric, 31 On the structure of Sentences — Harmony, - 36 Nature of Figurative Language, 87 On Metaphors, 38 Rules, - - - - - 39 Hyperbole, Personification and Apostrophe, - 41 Rules for the third sort of Personification, - 42 Figures of Speech, 43 On the Characters of Style, - 45 Directions for Forming a Proper Style, - 47 General Rule — Eloquence of Popular Assemblies, 48 Rules, - - - - - 50 Eloquence of the Bar, 52 Eloquence of the Pulpit, 55 The Plan of a Discourse, - - - 57 Argumentative part of a Discourse, 62 The Pathetic part of a Discourse, - • 63 The Peroration, 65 On Delivery, - - - - - 66 On Gesture, - - - - - 70 On Means of Improving in Eloquence, 72 On History, 75 On Historical Writing, 79 On Logic, - - - - - 81 On Syllogism, - - - - - 85 Questions for Examination, - - - 87 RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE PRESS. After a thorough and careful examination of the work, we are convinced that those who are seeking the advancement and welfare of the rising generation will feel grateful to the Rev. Gentleman for this literary production, and we cheer- fully recommend it to those who desire to acquaint them- selves with the fundamental principles of Rhetoric, so essen- tial to good composition. — Belleville Intelligencer. We had observed several favorable notices of the Rev. Mr. Hutchinson's Rhetoric in several of our exchanges, and the fact that it comes highly recommended by gentlemen of ability and experience, residing in this place and elsewhere, affords a guarantee as to its merits. — Hastings Chronicle. We can safely recommend it to the public, as a practical compendium, well adapted to its intended purposes. — To- ronto Patriot. It seems admirably adapted to popular use by the simpli- city of its arrangement, and we trust it will be generally adopted as a class book. — Kingston News. We earnestly recommend it to those who desire to write with;taste, elegance and propriety.— Port Hope Watchman. Rhetoric. — By the Rev. D. Falloon Hutchinson. This is a short and very creditable treatise on Rhetoric. It is very logical in its arrangement and pertinent in its details. We think it well calculated to introduce young persons to the theory of public speaking, in an easy and pleasing manner, as well as to discipline their minds to a clear, unembarrassed and lucid arrangement of a subject. We recommend this un- pretending treatise to the notice of Members of Parliament, Clergymen, Lecturers, and all who have occasion to speak in public. — Toronto Colonist. It is a complete exhibition of the graces and style of Eng- lish composition and public oratory. — Simcoe Standard. M, Hutchinson ^produced ., .very o^^^j Sof mr P ™^gage^ortimetotime tap. Schools. Many P^Boub ^ ^ t to become acqaml than 100 V&g es.-Christian Guardian. The Rev D. P. Hutchinson has placed in out ^hatfj ClfssBolko n Rhetoric designed for *£*«£*$ fierce to those who desire to acquire an easy, elegant ^ correct style.— Cobourg Star. ThpRevMr Hutchinson's Rhetoric. • We have rec lne Kev. mi. "" t ,, aut h or now in Montreal. ^tA^Zcleser,,--Montreal Conner. This worh will no ^^^S^ £ ^ S^on^^^^ introduced as a common School Book.— ii><>«aH man. ZftSSfi. ES»" W- of *. r r »* Sf. Catharines Journal. The Rev. D. F. Hutchinson's Rhetoric. Ai i an _«d t g anS correct writing we ^£oS£lS^ will be exceedingly valuablo.-ityouw ^' a ^ el '% W 11™ I fa, at cii ad 3 a s' the as v and pre! I Clei put. 1 V lish V* .*°^ Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. Ld . > Neutralizing agent: Magnes,um Ox,de \ %. Treatment Date: Oct. 2006 ^ I , ' f ws ..^tinnTorhnnlofllGS «*> V» tVdtesT* v Neutralizing agem: m^ ^ ,<£ *S«* % Treatment Date: Oct. 2006 5* : W^: I PreservationTechnologies ; ' t ,V Jj!* ^*» >0 V «°" (724)779-2111 f t u ©» «