Cc CIass_i^^ Book___fr w r 1. Spikelet, Magnified. 2. Flower. FOWL MEADOW. See p. 44. 3. Gorm. PRACTICAL TREATISE GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS COMFBISINa THEIR NATURAL HISTORY, COMPARATIVE NUTRITIVE VALUE, METHODS OF CULTIVATING, CUTTING AND CURING, AND THE MANAGEMENT OF GRASS LANDS. BY CHARLES L. FLINT, A.M., 8K0RETABT OF THE MASSACHUSETTS 8TATB BOARD OF AGRICULTURE, MEMBER OP TH8 BOSTON SOCIETY OP NATURAL HISTORY, ETC. ETC. NEW YORK: G. P. PUTNAM & CO., 321 BROADWAY. LONDON: N. TRUBNER & CO., 12 PATERNOSTER ROW. 1857. 2f. ^^''d-H Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, By George P. Putnam & Co., In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. dy transfer frocc Pat. ®fiiee Lib. Aprt) 1914 WiLLi.VM White, Printer, 4 Spring Lane, Boston. PREFACE. It has been my endeavor, in the following pages, to treat my subject in a plain, simple manner, so as to enable the farmer to distinguish between the different species of grass by means of the descriptions given, and to awaken an interest in the pursuit of the subject, treating cursorily of the natural history of the grasses, and indicating to the reader the vast field of study which lies open to him in this department. The illustrations, which will be found to be very care- fully and accurately drawn, will tend to render the under- standing of the text more easy, and thus make interesting to all much that would be attractive only to the scientific student of botany if they were omitted. In looking at the subject in its economical aspect, I have tried to give all that is known to be of value, and have presented the conclusions of practical men in regard to points about which the opinions of individuals actively engaged in agriculture differ. It has been my object, in a word, to give the work an eminently practical character, and not to make it merely a collection of doubt- ful theories and vague generalities. It must be left to the reader to determine how far I have accomplished this purpose. IV PREFACE. The local names of many species of grass are so numerous that I can hardly hope to have given them all, in every case, though what are known to me I have given as synonyms. Should the work meet with such favor as to call-for another edition, I shall attempt to make it less imperfect in this respect. It may not be irrelevant to remark here that but little is known of the real economical value of some of the grasses which I have described, and it is by no means impossible that many of our wild grasses which we now look upon as almost worthless, may be found at some future time to possess valuable nutritive qualities, and thus be added to our list of grasses which may be profitably cultivated. It seems to be altogether unnecessary to multiply authorities, either here or in the body of the work, to prove the importance of the subject. Perhaps the most forcible expression of opinion on this point may be found in the French writer Avho asserts that the term grass is only another name for beef, mutton, bread and clothing ; and in the Belgian proverb — " No grass, no cattle ; no cattle, no manure ; no manure, no crops ! " For myself I can only say that if my researches, — imperfect as they doubtless have been, — shall have the effect of creating a more general interest in the subject, and leading to more careful inquiry and more general and accurate investiga- tion, I shall be amply rewarded for any labor I may have undergone in the preparation of these pages. c. L. F. Boston, Feb., 1857. GRASSES AND EOMGE PLANTS. I propose to speak of the grasses, a family of plants the most extensive and the most beautiful, as well as the most important to mankind. It embraces nearly a sixth part of the whole vegetable kingdom ; it clothes the globe with perpetual verdure, or adorns it at fixed seasons with a thick matted carpet of green, none the less beautiful for its simplicity, and it nour- ishes and sustains by far the greater part of the animals that serve us and minister to our wants. When we consider the character of our climate, and the necessity of stall feeding during five or six months of the year, for which we are dependent mainly on the grasses, we shall see that in an economical point of view, this subject is one of the most important that can occupy the farmer's attention. The annual value of the grass crop to the country, for pasturage and hay together, is not less than ISOO^OOOjOOO. I shall endeavor to give a brief account of the natural history or description of all the useful grasses found in our fields and pastures, partly because it is essential to a complete under- standing of the subject, and partly because there is at present no popular treatise on the subject within the easy reach of our farmers, and something of the kind is needed for reference ; but I shall confine myself mainly to a plain and practical treat- ment of the subject, making such suggestions as I think may be useful, on the cultivation, cutting and curing of the grasses for hay, the comparative value of the different varieties, and the general management of grass lands. This subject, familiar to me from my earliest recollection, has occupied my attention almost exclusively, during the past 2 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. year. Within this period I have been able to make an exten sive collection, embracing nearly all the varieties of our New England grasses, for preservation in the Agricultnral Mnseum connected with my office. The grasses are variously divided, classified and arranged. They are sometimes designated as natural or artificial ; the former comprising all the true grasses, — that is, plants with long, simple, narrow leaves, each leaf having many fine veins or lines running parallel with a central prominent vein or mid- rib, and a long sheath (Fig. 1.) divided to the base, which seems to clasp the stem, or through which the stem seems to pass, the stem being hollow, with very few exceptions, and closed at the nodes or joints ; and the latter — the artificial — comprising those plants, mostly leguminous, which have been cultivated and used like the grasses, though they do not properly belong to that family, such as the clovers, sainfoin and medic. In common language the term is often used in a sense not strictly proper, bemg not unfrequently applied to any herbage which affords nourishment to herbaceous animals, including, of course, not only many leguminous plants like clovers, but some others which would more properly be called forage plants. But in botanical language, and speakhig more precisely, the grasses, Graminecc, embrace most of the grains cultivated and used by man, as wheat, rye, Indian corn, barley and rice, all of which will be at once recognized as having leaves and stems very similar in shape and structure to most of the plants popu- larly called grasses. As the general appearance of plants is often greatly modified by climate, soil and modes of cultivation, it is important to fix upon certain characteristics which are permanent and unaltered by circumstances, by means of which the particular genus and species may be identified with ease and certainty. It is evident that these characteristics could not be simply in the leaves, or the stems, or the size of the plant, because there will be a great difference between plants growing in a poor, thin, sandy soil, and others of the same species on a deep, rich loam. Bota- nists have, therefore, been compelled to xesort to other peculiari- ties to distinguish between different species; and the terms used NATURAL HISTORY. .Sf,IMett ^Shettk otleaf^ Fig. 1. Annual Spear Grass. NATURAL HISTORY. 5 to express these, like the terms used in other departments of natural history, are technical; and hence, in detailing the natural history of the grasses, the use of technical language to a greater or less extent, cannot be avoided. I shall endeavor, however, by the use of plates and synonyms to bring the de- scription of species within the easy comprehension of every one who will carefully examine the subject. The flowers of the grasses are arranged on the stem in spikes, as where they are set on a common stalk without small stalks or branches for each separate flower, as in Herds-grass, {plileum praiense,') or in panicles, or loose subdivided clusters, as in orchard grass, (dactylis glomerata.') A panicle is said to be loose or spreading, as in redtop, (agrostis vulgaris,} when the small branches on which the flowers are set, are open, or ex- tended out freely in different directions ; it is said to be dense, or crowded or compressed, when the branches are so short as to give it more or less of the spike form. The spikelets (Fig. 2) have a calyx, (Fig. 4) containing one, two or more florets, (Fig. 3.) This whole arrangement will be seen in Fig. 1, which represents a stalk of the common annual spear grass, (poa annua,} a plant familiar to every one as often troublesome in gravel walks and on hard, dry soils. Here the joint, the stem or culm, clasped by the sheath of the leaf, the leaf itself, the ligule and the spikelets, all distinctly appear, and the reader will do well to make himself familiar with the few technical terms used by a study of this figure, in con^ nection with Fig. 2, where the spikelet is so magnified as to show the florets and the calyx very distinctly, all of which are generally very easily seen with the naked eye, and Fig. 3, showing a floret still more magnified, with its two palejB, the outer palea being the longer and generally keeled, — that is, having one, three or more longitudinal ribs, often having on the back, base or sum- mit, an awn or beard of difi"erent lengths, as in the oat and brome grasses, the inner palea with two separate fringed ribs, each on a fold at the side. The calyx, bract or outer scale of the spikelet, is shown very much magnified in Fig. 4, composed of two glumes, the upper and lower, the upper glume being the larger. One or both of the glumes are sometimes wanting. In Fig. 5, is shown the pistil magnified, consisting of the nectary, composed of one or two fleshy scales, (in some plants 6 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. of this family both on one side, in some, entirely wanting,) and the germ, ovary, or seed bearing portion of the pistil. The stamens are also seen in the same figure, consisting each of a bag filled with a fine powder or pollen, supported upon a stalk or filament which is analagous to the stalk or stem of a leaf, while the bag which holds the pollen, called the anther, corres- ponds to the blade or body of the leaf. These are essential parts of the flower. At a particular stage of its growth, the anther, bursting, scatters its pollen, some of which, lighting upon the summit of the stigma, is said to fertilize it, when the new seed begins to enlarge, and a germ is formed capable of producing other plants.* This process is very apparent to the observation of the farmer in the case of Indian corn, on which the pollen is so abundant that it may be shaken off in clouds. It falls upon the stigmas or " silks," one of which is attached to each embryo seed or germ ; and without this particle of pol- len, the seed would not be capable of attaining maturity. The same is seen less palpably in the other grasses, as, for instance, in Herds-grass. The same arrangement occurs in this whole family of plants, though it is more evident in Indian corn, on account of its size, than in the smaller grasses. The anther, as will be seen, consists of two cells — very prominent a,nd hanging, supported on the long, slender filaments, and forked or divided at the end. The two short and smooth styles rise from the summit of the ovary, and the stigmas are feathery or rough, » sometimes branched or compound. Only one seed is contained in each ovary, and each seed is covered, when mature, with a thin husk or hull called the pericarp, which originally formed the germ or ovary ; and the ripe seed or fruit is only the ovary arrived at maturity. The substance or albumen of the seed of all the grasses is mealy or farinaceous, as wheat, for instance, or rye, or Indian corn, which are most used as seeds, on account of their size and productiveness. These are the prominent characteristics of this great and universally diffused order of plants, constituting, as it does, the chief support of animals as well as men. They belong, as has * The germ is the first part of the seed that is distinctly formed, and hence, if Indian corn is plucked while " in the milk," or in a green state, fit for boiling, it will germinate the next year as well as if it were allowed to ripen. NATURAL HISTORY. 7 been seen, to other plants than those commonly called grasses, the order gramineas, as I have already stated, embracing the grains, as wheat, barley, rye, and many others, while it does not include the clovers, which properly belong to the order of leguminous plants. These characteristics, or at least the most important of them, will be very easily kept in mind, as the long, narrow and lance shaped leaves, and the mealy nature of the seeds which makes nearly the whole family valuable and nutritious ; but in study- ing the distinctive characteristics of the different species and varieties particularly valuable or interesting to an agriculturist as forage plants, it will be necessary to depend more upon the technical terms already referred to, though these will be avoided, or explained in the context as far as possible. It will have been observed that considerable importance is given to the flowers and seeds as distinguishing characters of the grasses. It will often be found difficult from the mere external appearance of a variety of grass to determine to what species, or even to what genus it belongs, so great is the resem- blance between the different species of this class of plants ; but with the aid of a small magnifying glass there will very seldom be much difficulty in determining the species, especially if the plant is taken while in blossom. Indeed, it will often be pos- sible to arrive at a conclusion from an inspection of a few of the more evident characters. I shall limit myself mainly to a description of those species which it may be for the interest of the farmer to cultivate, or at least to encourage in his pastures, with such others as should be known to be avoided. In the arrangement of species I shall follow mainly the natu- ral order adopted by Professor Gray, to whom, as well as to many others, I am indebted for no small assistance, in studying the specific characteristics of many of the specimens collected and presented in the following pages. The reader will find that a frequent reference to figures 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 will greatly aid him in becoming familiar with the technical terms applied to the organs or parts of the flower which it is desirable to understand, and by means of which he will soon learn to distinguish the different species more readily. In giving the scientific names, the first word that occurs in 8 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. parenthesis is the name of the genus ; the second, that of the species ; as for instance, in Herds-grass, (^phleum pratense,') phleum is the generic name, pratense the specific. A genus often contains many species. Tlie grasses which are described more or less minutely in the following pages, are named in Table I. List of Grasses and Forage Plants. Common Name. Botanical Name. Time of Blo.ssomii]g. AVild or Cultv'd. Place of growth. Rice Grass, Leersia oryzoides, . August, wild. Low wet places. White Grass, . Leersia Virginica, . August, u Damp woods. Indian Rice, . Zizania aquatica, . August, " Borders of streams. Meadow Foxtail, . Alopecurus pratensis, . May, cultiv'd, Fields and pastures. Ploating Foxtail, . Alopecurus geniculatus. July, Aug. . wild, Wet meadows, ditches Slender Foxtail, Alopecurus agrestis. July, . " Fields and pastures. Wild Water Foxtail, Alopecurus aristulatus, June to Aug. '■ In wet meadows. Timothy, or Herds-grass, Phleum pratense, June, July, . cultiv'd. Fields and pastures. Rush Grass, . Vilfa aspera, . September, . wild. Dry sandy soils. Late Drop-seed, Sporobolus serotinus, . September, . " Wet sands. Redtop, .... Agrostis vulgaris, . July, . cultiv'd. Fields and pastures. English Bent, Agrostis alba, July, . " Fields and pastures. Fiorin, .... Agrostis stolonifera, July, . " Moist meadows. Brown Bent, . Agrostis canina, . June, July. . - - Fields and pastures. Tickle Grass, . Agrostis scabra. June, July, . wild. Old fields. Southern Bent, Agrostis dispar. July, . . cultiv'd, Fields, pastures. Annual Beard Grass, Polypogon monspeliensis June, July, . wOd, Near the coast. Wood-reed Grass, . Cinna arundinacea, July, August, ' Shady swamps. NunbleWill, . Muhlenbergia diffusa, . August, Sept. i Dry hills, woods. Mexican Mxihlenbergia, . Muhlenbergia Mexicana, August, ' Low grounds. Sylvan Muhlenbergia, . Muhlenbergia sylvatica. August, Sept. ' Rocky woods. Awnless Muhlenbergia, . Muhlenbergia sobolifera, August, Sept. ' Open rocky woods. Willdenow's Muhlenber- gia, .... Muhlenbergia Willdenovii August, Sept. I Open rocky woods. Awned Brachyelytrum, . Brachyelytrum aristatum June, . Rocky woods. Blue Joint Grass, . Calamagrostis Canadensis July, . ' Wet grounds. Glaucous Small Reed, . Calamagrostis coarctata. August, ' Wet grounds. Beach Grass, Sea Reed, . Upright Sea Lyme Grass, Ammophila arundinacea, Elymus arenarius, . August, July, . wild and cultiv'd, cultiv'd, Drifting sands. Drifting sands. Mountain Rice, Oryzopsis melanocarpa, August, wild. Rocky woods. NATURAL HISTORY. Table I. — Continued. Common Hame. Feather Grass, Poverty Grass, Fresh Water Cord Grass, Salt Reed Grass, Rush Salt Grass, . Salt Marsh Grass, . Sand Grass, . Orchard Grass, Pennsylvanian Eatonia, . Rattlesnake Grass, . Obtuse Spear Grass, Long Panicled Manna Grass, .... Botanical Name. Meadow Spear Grass, Pale Manna Grass, . . Spike Grass, . June Grass, . Blue Grass, Annual Spear Grass, Rough Stalked Meadow Wood Meadow Grass, Sea Spear Grass, . Common Manna Grass, . "Wary Meadow Gra^s, Water Spear Grass, Fowl Meadow, Creeping Meadow, . Strong-scented Meadow, Slender Meadow, . Quaking Grass, Small Fescue Grass, Sheep's Fescue, Meadow Fescue, Tall Fescue Grass, . Hard Fescue Grass, Red Fescue Grass, . Slender Fescue, Stipa avenacea, Aristida dichotoma, Spartina cynosuroides, Spartina polystachya, Spartina juncea, . Spartina stricta, . Tricuspis purpurea, Dactylis glomerata, Eatonia Pennsylvanica, Glyceria Canadensis, Glyceria obtusa, . Time of Glyceria elongata, . Glyceria neryata, . Glyceria pallida, . Brizopyrum spicatum, Poa pratensis, Poa compressa, Poa annua, . Poa trivialis, . Poa nemoraUs, Poa maritima, Poa fluitans, . Poa liixa, Poa aquatica, Poa serotina . Eragrostis reptans, Eragrostis poreoides, Eragrostis pilosa, . Briza media, . Festuca tenella, Festuca ovina, Festuca pratensis, . Festuca el^tior, Festuca duriuscula, Festuca rubra, Festuca loliacea, . July, . September, August, Auguet, August, August, August, Sept June, June, . July, . August, June, July, June, July, July, . August, June, July, July, August, April to Oct. July, . June, . July, . June, . July, . August, July & Aug July & Aug Aug. & Sept August, June, . July, . June, . June, . June, July, June, . Wild or cultv'd. wild. Place of growth. cultiv'i wild. wild and cultiv'd, wild, cultiv'd, u wild, cultiv'd, wild, cultiv'd, wild. cultiv'd, wUd, cultiv'd. Dry sandy woods. Sandy fields, pine barrets^ Banks of streams. Brackish marshes. Salt marches, beaches Sea coasti Dry sands on the coast. Fields and pastures. Moist woods. Wet bogs. Borders of ponds. Woods and swamps. Moist and wet mea- dows. Shallow water. Salt marshes. Fields and pastures. Dry road sides and pastures. Fields and pastures. Fields and pastures. Fields and pastures. By the sea side. Moist and muddy ditches. High rocky hills. In wet soils. In wet soils. Sandy river banks. Sandy fields, road sides. Sandy and gravelly places. Pastures. Dry sterile soils. High pastures and hills. Fields and pastures. Fields and pastures. Fields and pastures. Sandy places by the sea. Moist meadows, pas- tures. 10 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Table I. — Continued. Common Name. Botanical Name. Time of BlossorSing. Wild or cultv'd. Place of growth. Nodding Fescue, Festuca nutans, . July, . wild, ■ Rocky woods. Crested Dog's Tail, . Cynosurus cristatus, July, . cultiv'd. Fields and pastures. Wlllard's Eromus, . Bromus secahnus, June, July, . " Fields, and in grain Smooth Brome Grass, . Bromua racemosus. June, . wild. crops. Grain fields. Soft Chess, . Bromus mollis. June, . " Fields and pastures. Wild Chess, . Bromus Kalmii, . June, July, . " Dry open woods. Fringed Brome Grass, . Bromus ciliatus, . July, Aug. . " Rocky hills, woods. Meadow Brome, Bromus pratensis, . July, . " Dry arid pastures. Common Reed Grass, Perennial Rye Grass, Phragmites communis, . Lolium perenne, . September, . June, . cultiv'd. Swamps and edges of pouds. Fields and pastures. Italian Rye Grass, . Lolium Italioum, .' June, v a Fields and pastures. Bearded Darnel, Lolium temulentum, . July, . - - Grain fields. Many-flowered Darnel, . Lolium multiflorum, . June, July, . cultiv'd, Fields and pastures. Couch, or Twitch Grass, Triticum repens, . June, July, . wild. Fields and pastures. Squirrel-tall Grass, Horde um j ubatum , June, . » Salt marshes. Lyme Grass, . Elymus Virginicus, July & Aug. " Banks of rivers. Canadian Lyme Grass, . Elymus Canadensis, August, ." River banks. Slender Hairy Lyme, Elymus striatus, . July, . 11 River banks. Bottle-brush Grass, Gymnostichum Hystrix, July, . " Moist rocky woods. Wood Hair Grass, . Aira flexuosa, June, . It Dry rocky hills. Hassock Grass, Aira caespitosa, June, July, . " Marshy wet bottoms. Wild Oat Grass, Danthonia spicata. June, . u Dry pastvires. Downy Persoon, Trisetum mollis, . July, . " Rocky river banks. Downy Oat Grass, . Trisetum pubescens, July, . " Poor dry pastures. Meadow, Oat Grass, Avena pratensis, . July, . " Pastures. Yellow Oat Grass, . Avena flavescens, . July, . cultiv'd. Fields and pastures. Tall Jleadow Oat Grass, . Meadow Soft Grass, Arrhenatherum avena- ceum, Uolcus lanatus. May, June, . June, . u Fields and pastures. Fields and pastures. Creeping Soft Grass, Holcus mollis, July, Aug. . wild. Fields and pastures. Seneca Grass, . Hierochloa borealis. May, . " Wet meadows. Sweet-scented Vernal, . Anthoxanthum odoratum May, Juno, . " Fields and pastures. Reed Canary Grass, Phalaris arundinacea, . July, . " By running streams. Common Canary Grass, . Phalaris Canariensis, . July, August, cultiv'd, Gardens. Millet Grass, . MilUum effusum, . June, . wild. Damp cold woods. Hairy Slender Paspalum, Paspalum setaceum. August, (1 Sandy fields by the sea. Slender Crab Grass, Pauicum filiforme, August, " Dry sands on the coast." NATURAL HISTORY. 11 Table I. — Continued. Common Name. Botanical Name. Time of Blossoming. Wilder cultv'd. Place of growth. Smooth Crab Grass, Finger Grass, . Agrostis-llke Panic, Prolific Panic Grass, Panicum glabrum, Panicum sanguinale, . Panicum agrostoides, . Panicum proliferum, . August, Sept. Aug. to Oct. July, August, July, August, wild, II 11 u Fields and waste places. Neglected fields and gardens. Wet meadows and river banks. Brackish marshes. Hair Stalked Panic, Panicum capillars. August, Sept. " Dry sandy fields. TaU Smooth Panic, Panicum virgatum. August, 11 Moist sandy soils. Broad-leaved Panic, Panicum latifolium. June, July, . " Damp thickets. Barn Grass, . Bristly Foxtail, Panicum crus-galli, Setaria verticillata. August, Sept. July, Aug. . .1 Rich cultivated grounds. About farm-houses. Bottle Grass, . Setaria glauca. July, . " Fields & barn-yards. Green Foxtail, Setaria viridis. July, Aug. . " Cultivated fields. Bengal Grass, . Setaria Italica, July, Aug. . cultiv'd. Fields and ditches. Bur Grass, Cenchrus tribuloides, . August, wild. Sands near the coast Gama Grass, . Finger-spiked TiVood, Tripsacum dactyloides, Andropogon furcatus, . August, September, . 11 Moist places on the coa.st. Sterile, rocky hills. Purple-wood Grass, Audropogon scoparius, . July to Sept. " Sterile, sandy plains. Indian Grass, . Sorghum nutans, . August, " Dry soils. Indian Millet, Sorghum vulgare, . July, . cultiv'd. Cultivated fields. Hungarian Millet, . Panicum germanicum, . - 11 Cultivated grounds. Chinese Sugar Cane, Sorghum saccharatum, . July, . " Fields and gardens. Red Clover, Trifolium pratense. June, July, . 11 Fields and pastures. White Clover, Trifolium repens, . May to Sept. . " Fields and pastures. Lucem, .... Medicago sativa, . June, July, . II Fields and pastures. Sainfoin, .... Hedysarum onobrychis, June, July, . " Cultivated fields. Rice Grass, Cut Grass, False Rice, (Leersia orpzoides,} grows very common in wet swampy places. Stems from two to three feet high, panicle erect, spreading with rough, slender branches, leaves narrow or long, sheaths exceedingly rough and sharp to the hand, drawn from the end backward. Florets oval and white, spikelets flat. Flowers in August. Native of the Levant. Name from Leers, a German botanist. It is a beautiful grass, said to be useful at the South, where it is cultivated to some extent, and may be cut several times in a season. It is said there to make a valuable hay. Here it is regarded as a weed, and thorough draining will destroy it. The 12 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. fine specimens of this grass in the State cabinet, "were obtained at Westborough. White Geass, Yirginian Cut Grass, {Leersia virg-inica,} is rather smoother than the preceding ; panicle oblong, spiked, flowers considerably smaller — white ; found in damp woods. Flowers in August. Native of North America. Indian Rice, or Water Oats, (zizania aquatica,') is also found in swampy borders of streams, in shallow water, and on the borders of ponds, and is common. It grows from three to nine feet in height, with flat, long, lanceolate leaves. Flowers in August, and drops its seed, when ripe, at the slightest touch. This furnishes, food for water fowls, and was also used by the aborigines for food. Native of North America. Meadow Foxtail, (alopecurus pratensis.^ Generic char- acteristics : Spikelets, one flowered, glumes compressed and keeled, united at the base, lower palea awned on the back, upper palea wanting, stamens three, styles generally united, stigmas long, panicle compressed into a cjdindrical spike like the tail of a fox, from which it derives its name. Native of Great Britain. The specific characters are, an erect, smooth stem, two or three feet high, with swelling sheaths, spikes cylindrical, obtuse, equalling the sharp cone-like glumes, awn twisted and twice the length of the blossom. The spike not so long as that of Timo- thy. Flowers in May, in fields and pastures. Perennial — intro- duced. Fig. 6 shows the root, stem or culm, and spike of this grass, and Fig. 7 the blossom somewhat magnified. The meadow foxtail closely resembles Herds-grass, but may be distinguished froni it as having one palea only. The spike or head of meadow foxtail is soft, while that of Timothy or Herds-grass is rough. It flowers earlier than Timothy, and thrives on all soils' except the dryest sands and gravels. It is common in some sections of this State, as the western part of Worcester County, where it is disliked by many farmers as a field grass, being very light in proportion to its bulk. It is a valuable grass for pastures, on account of its early and rapid growth, and of its being greatly relished by stock of all kinds. The stems and leaves are too few and light to make it so desirable as a field crop. It thrives best on a rich, moist, strong soil, and the quantity of its nutritive matter when NATURAL HISTORY. 13 raised on such soils is consider- ably greater than on sandy soils. As a pasture grass, its luxuriant aftermath, being in value nearly one-fourth greater than its first spring growth, recommends it still more highly. In this respect it is superior to Timothy, the aftermath of which is generally but slight. For lands designed to be laid down to permanent pasture it will make a prominent part of the seed. Where it occurs in fields, it loses largely its nutritive value if cut in the blossom. It is regarded in Eng- land as one of the most valu- able of the native pasture grasses, forming there a very considerable portion of the sward, vegetating with great luxuriance, and start- ing up vigorously when eaten off by stock, producing seed in abun- dance, and enduring any amount of forcing and irrigation. It does not acquire its full perfection and hold of the soil until three or four years after being sown. The aftermath exceeds the flowering crop in quantity as well as in nutritive matter. The grass loses seventy per cent, of its weight in drying, and the hay contains about sixty-seven hundredths per cent, of nitrogen. The seed of meadow foxtail is covered with the husks of the flower, soft and woolly, while the larger valve is furnished with an awn. There are five pounds of seed in a bushel, and 76,000 seeds in an ounce. An insect attacks the seed while it is forming, and it is also subject to blight, and hence the seed is some- what difficult to procure and is held at a high price. We have many grasses superior to it for cultivation, but for permanent Pig. 6. Meadow Foxtail. 14 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. pastures it is superior to Timothy, which is not a suitable pasture grass. Slender Foxtail, (alopecurus ag-restis.) (Fig. 8.) This grass is rarely found here, never, indeed, except when intro- Fig. 8. Slender Foxtail. Fig. 11. Floating FoxtaU. duced in foreign seed, and therefore, scarcely deserves a detailed description. It is recognized by its long, slender panicle, taper- ing at each end, and the long awn which projects far beyond NATURAL HISTORY. 15 .the palca, (Figs. 9 and 10.) ■ It is distinguished from the common meadow foxtail, by its slender panicle, its larger spike- lets, its larger ligule and the roughness of the stem and leaves. It possesses no particular agricultural value. Flowers in July, Annual. Native of Great Britain. Floating Foxtail, -(^alopecurus genicidatus.') Stem ascend- ing, bent and forming knees at the lower joints, as shown in Fig. 1.1; awn projecting beyond the palea, (Fig. 12,) which is rather shorter than the obtuse glumes ; anthers linear, upper leaf as long as its sheath ; root perennial, fibrous, joints smooth, long and narrow, of a purple tinge ; leaves flat, sharp, roughish on both sides, serrated on the edge. Inflorescence simple panicled ; spikclets numerous, compressed, erect, with a one awned floret as large as the calyx. Floret of one palea, awn slender. Found in moist meadows, ditches, ponds and slow streams, floating on the water. It is distinguished from meadow foxtail in having the upper sheath about the length of its leaf, and by the projecting awn, while in the meadow foxtail the upper sheath is more than twice the length of its leaf. Flowers in July and August, It is a grass not much relished by stock of any kind, while it yields but a small amount of herbage. The Wild Water Foxtail, Qalopocurus aristulatus,') also grows in wet meadows, but is of no special agricultural valtie. Native of Great Britain. Timothy, or Herds-grass, (^phleum pratense.') Generic char- acters : Panicle spiked, spikelets- compressed, palea shorter than the awned glumes, the lower one truncate, usually awnless ; styles distinct, filaments hairy, spike dense, rough, or harsh. So called from an ancient Greek term signifying cat's tail, the name by which it is still most frequently known in Great Britain. Specific characteristics : Spikes cylindrical or elongated ; glumes hairy on tlie back, tipped with a bristle less than half their length leaves long, flat, rough, with long sheaths ; root fibrous, often bulbous — perennial. Grows best on moist, peaty soils. (Fig. 13.) In Fig, 14 is seen a flower somewhat magni- fied. This grass — universally known and highly valued among the farmers of New England — is said to have received its name more than a century and a half ago from one Herd, of Piscata- qua, who is said to have found it growing in a swamp there. 16 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. The name of Timothy, by which it is more generally known over the country and abroad, was obtained from Timothy Han- son, who cultivated it exten- sively, and according to some accounts, introduced it into England, from whence it is supposed to have been origi- nally brought to this country. It forms a large proportion of what is called English hay. In point of nutritive matter, Sin- clair says, the ripe crop greatly exceeds the crop at the time of flowering. If this is so, it is owing in part to the size and quantity of its mealy seeds. As many as thirty bushels, of forty- six pounds to the bushel, have been obtained to the acre. The results obtained by Prof. Way will be found on a subse- quent page in the discussion upon the nutritive values of the various grasses. It may be re- marked, in passing, that there are many considerations to de- termine the time of cutting and curing grass, besides its nutri- tive value at different stages of its growth, as its palatability at the time of blossoming, and the greater growth of aftermath which is lost by allowing the grass to ripen. This subject will form the topic of a subsequent section. As a crop to cut for hay it is probably unsurpassed by any other grass now cultivated. Though somewhat coarse and hard, — especially if allowed to ripen its seed, yet if cut in the blossom, or directly after, it is greatly relished by all kinds of stock, and especially so by horses, while it possesses a large per- Fig. 13. Timothy, or Herds-grass. NATURAL HISTORY. 17 centage of nutritive matter in comparison with other agricultural grasses. It is often sown with clover, but the best practical farmers are beginning to discontinue this practice, on account of the different times of blossoming of the two crops. Timothy- being invaribly later than clover, the former must be cut too green, before blossoming, when the loss is great by shrinkage, and when the nutritive matter is considerably less than at a little later period, or the clover must stand too long, when there is an equally serious loss of nutritious matter in that. It thrives best on moist, peaty or loamy soils of medium tenacity, and is not suited to sandy or light gravelly lands ; for though on such soils, by great care it can be made to grow and produce fair crops, some other grasses are better suited to them and more profitable. It grows very readily and yields very large crops on favorable soils. I have known instances where its yield was four tons to the acre of the best quality of hay, the Timothy constituting the bulk of the grass. It is cultivated with ease, and yields a large quantity of seed to the acre, vary- ing from ten to thirty bushels on rich soils. In one respect, perhaps, it must be admitted that this grass is inferior to meadow foxtail, and that is in the quantity of its aftermath ; for while that of the latter is very great, the after- growth of Timothy is but slight, and if allowed to stand too long and then mown in a dry time, it starts so slowly as to leave the grovmd exposed to the scorching rays of the sun, unless indeed there happens to be a rapid growth of clover to protect it. The comparative value of this grass will be referred to hereafter. It is proper to say in this connection that it is fre- quently attacked by an insect apparently just before the time of blossoming, which causes the stalk to die. The ravages of this insect seem to have increased within the last few years. My attention has been repeatedly called, by observing and practical farmers, during the last few months, to the very large number of dead Herds-grass stalks. Rush Geass, or Rough Leaved Vilfa, (yilfa aspera,) and Hidden Flowered Yilfa, (vilfa vag-in(Fflora,') are sometimes found here ; the former, rarely on dry hills and sandy fields, or pine plains ; the latter, somewhat more frequently on similar soils and situations, both flowering in September, and neither considered of any value for cultivation. The Late 3 18 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Flowering Vilpa, (yilfa serotina,') is somewhat common in sandy swamps. It is a very delicate grass, flowering at the same time with the preceding. Late Drop Seed, (sporobolus se?'otimts,^ is sometimes found in low, swampy places, with smooth, slender, flatish stems, leaves few 'and slender, panicle spreading, with hairy branches, glumes ovate, obtuse and half the length of the palea. Flowers in September. It is a delicate grass of no special agricultural value. Redtop, Finetop, Burden's Grass, Dew Grass, Herds-Grass of Pennsylvania and Southern States, (^agrostis vvlgaris,') Fig. 15. Plants of this genus have one flowered spikelets in a loose open panicle ; glumes nearly equal, the lower longer than the palege, Avhich are thin and naked ; stamens three — perennial. The specific characters are, stems erect, slender, round, smooth and polished ; roots creeping, panicle oblong, leaves linear, ligule very short, lower palea mostly awnless and three nerved. Flowers in July. Pastures and moist meadows very common — introduced. The term agrostis was the ancient Greek word for field, and was applied to all varieties of grass that grew there. This valuable grass, so common in all our cultivated fields, has been an inhabitant of our soils for more than a century. It was called simply English grass by Eliot, Deane and other early writers, and by the English, Fine Bent. Indeed, the whole genus agrostis is commonly known in England as " Bent Grass." This grass is often sown with Timothy and clover, in which case, the clover, of course, soon disappears, being biennial, when Timothy follows, after which redtop usually takes its place, and with some wild grasses forms a close sward. In Pennsylvania and States further south, it is universally known as Herds-grass — a name applied in New England and New York to phleum pratense alone. It is of somewhat slow growth, but of good or medium quality. It is suited to moist soils, though common to all. This grass is probably rather over- rated by us. It makes a profitable crop for spending, though not so large a crop is obtained as from Herds-grass. It is a good permanent grass, and consequently well suited to our pas- tures, standing our climate as well as any other grass. It should be fed close in pastures, for if allowed to grow up to NATURAL HISTORY. 19 seed the cattle refuse it ; and this fact seems to show that it is not so much relished by stock as some of the other pasture grasses. The fact that cattle eat any grass greedily in the spring, is no proof of its excel- lence or nutritious qualities ; since, then, all grasses are tender and full of juice, and many varieties of both grasses and shrubs are readily eaten, which at a more advanced stage of growth are refused. It is to be re- gretted that Prof. Way, in his val- uable investigations into the nutri- tive value of the grasses, did not include this in the list analyzed by him. At present we have no accu- rate and reliable means of compari- son of this with other species of grass. The flower of the true redtop is seen magnified in Fig. 16. This grass goes by various names, and is greatly modified by soil and cultivation. On a moist, rich soil it grows larger than on a poor, thin soil, and not only larger 3ut has a darker, purplish color, with a stem varying from eighteen inches to two feet or two and a half feet high ; while on thin, Fig. 15. Redtop. Fig. 16. poor, gravclly soils, it sel- dom grows over twelve inches, and often not over five or six inches high, while it has a lighter color. In the latter situations it goes by the name of Finetop, and is universally seen in old, dry pastures. In some sections of the State, as in Bristo County, it goes by the name of Burden's or Borden's grass, or Rhode Island Bent, and is highly esteemed. Finetop may be regarded as a variety of redtop, produced by the character of the soil. f. 20 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Dew Grass, White Top, White Bent, English Bent, Bonnet Grass, (agrostis alba.') Generic characters same as those of recltop. Specific characters : Stem erect, round, smooth, polished, having four or five leaves with roughish sheaths, striated, upper sheath longer than its leaf, crowned with a long, acute, ragged ligule ; joints smooth, branches numerous, recumbent, rooting at the lower joints where they come in contact with the ground, as in Fig. 17 ; panicle somewhat narrower than in redtop, light- ish green, or with a slight tinge of purple ; lower or inner palca one-half the length of the upper, and shorter than the glumes ; five nerved, awiiless — perennial. Native of Europe. AN^hite top may be known from redtop by the sheaths being rough to the touch from above downwards, and the ligule being long and acute, and the keel of the large glume of the calyx toothed nearly to the base. In agrostis vulgaris the sheaths are smooth, ligule short and obtuse, and the keel of the large glume toothed only on the upper part. It may be known from Brown Bent, (^agt'ostis canina,') by having an inner palea in its floret, while in brown bent the inner palea is wanting. This grass is very common on the Connecticut River meadows where it appears to be indigenous, and is there called the English bent. Fiorin, (^agrostis sto- lonifcra,') is only a variety of the white top, or agrostis alba, which gained great notoriety some years ago in Ireland and England, volumes having been written in its praise, while it received the execrations of those who found it troublesome to eradicate on account of its creeping and stoloniferous roots. This grass belongs peculiarly to moist places which are occa- sionally overflowed. Fig. 17 represents it, and Fig. 18, a mag- nified flower. This grass is often used in the manufacture of bonnets. It is called Dew grass in some sections. Brown Bent, or Dog's Bent Grass, (^agrostis canina,) another variety of agrostis, has for its specific characters, a floret of one palea, sheaths smooth, ligule long, and grows from one to two feet high, awnless. The root is perennial and creep- ing. The stem is erect, slender, leaves flat and linear. The palea shorter than the glume and furnished with a long awn on the back, bent ; spikelets at first greenish, afterwards brown or slightly purple. Meadows and pastures, and wet, peaty NATURAL HISTORY. 21 places — introduced. Flowers in June and July. It is of no special agricultural value. Hair Grass, or Fly Away Grass, Tickle Grass, (agros- tis scabra,') is another species belonging- to this genus, with a panicle very loose and spread- ing, purplish. Flowers in June and July. Mainly remarkable for the long hairy branches of its extremely loose panicle. Com- mon in old fields and drained swamps. It is of no particular agricultural value. Very com- mon at the West, in Ohio, Illi- nois, Michigan, and about Lake Superior. The large, loose pan- icles are exceedingly delicate and brittle when the plant is ripe and dry, and easily break away from the stalk when they are blown about by the wind, scattering their seeds far and wide ; and hence it is frequently called '' Fly Away Grass." This illustrates one of the admirable contriv- ances of nature for the distribution of the Fig. 17. Engush Bent. Fig. 18. sccds of grasscs aiid other plants ; sometimes by means of birds, sometimes by a sort of wing attached to the light seed, and sometimes by the force of the wind alone, as in this case, when plants start up where no seed had been sown by the hand of man, and often to our astonishment. Thin Grass, (cigrostis perennans,^ is still another variety of agrostis, with a panicle diffusely spreading, pale green ; branches short, divided and flower-bearing from or below the middle ; found in damp, shaded places. Flowers in June and July. 22 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Th3 Alpixs Brown Bent, tho Upright Flowered Bent, and many other species of agrostis might be mentioned. Of all the species of this genus, the redtop and white top are the most common as agricultural grasses among us. The FiORiN, {agrostis alba^ var. stolonifera latifolia^ or Broad Leaved Creeping Bent, has been more higlily commended in Europe than either of these. In the Wo- burn experiments which will be alluded to, this las-t was found to be inferior in nutri- tive value to orchard grass and meadow fescue, (fcs- tuca pratensis,~) and superior to meadow foxtail (^alopecu- rus prafensis.^ The Southern Bent, (^agros- ^^■ lis dispar,') (Fig. 19,) has been highly extolled in France. It is a native of the United States ; was at one time highly commended in England, but ■was very soon discarded. It furnishes a hay of rather coarse quality, yields a large produce on good, deep sands and calcareous soils. It tillers very much, and when once rooted is very vigor- ous and lasting, and consequently makes a good pasture grass. It is very similar in k appearance to some of the broad leaved varieties of agrostis vulgaris, and is said to yield a larger produce than that commonly known as redtop. It has stronger and more numerous creeping roots, Fig. 19. Southcra^Beut. NATURAL HISTORY. 23 broader leaves and more upriglit leafy stems. It is most fre- quently met with in the Southern States and in the south of France. Fig. 20 represents the flower of this grass magnified. Annual Beard Grass, (^polypogon jnonspeliensis,') is a grass which is occasionally found near the coast. It may be known by having glumes with awns more than twice their length, growing from ten to fifteen inclics high ; stem erect, round, and a little rough ; five or six leaves, flat, rather broad and acute ; panicle dense, spikclcts one flowered — introduced. It is easily distinguished from other grasses by the length of its awns or beards. Of no agricultural value. Wood Reed Grass, Indian Reed, Reedy Cinna, {cinna anindinacea,') has spikelets, one flowered, feathered; glumes lanceolate, acute, strongly keeled, paleas like the glumes, short awned — perennial ; stems erect and reed-like, three or four feet high. The spikelets are green, or of a slight purplish tinge. Moist woods and swamps, common. Flowers in July and August. Panicle large, hairy, rather dense. A large, rank grass, dificring from others in having but one stamen in each fiOwer. Of no special agricultural value. Drop Seed Grass, (^Mulilenhergia diffusa,^ is a grass which derives its generic name from Dr. Henry Muhlenberg, a dis- tinguished American botanist, pupil of tlie great Linuasus. It is connuonly known in Kentucky and Tennessee by the name of " Nimble-will," and there forms a pasture grass of some value. Its stems are diffusely branched, from ten to eighteen inches high ; panicles slender, contracted, glumes minute, awn nearly twice as long as the palea. It is sometimes found on dry hills and in woods. Flowers in August and September — perennial. Cattle eat it very readily. Not very common. Tlicre is another species of this grass, the Multlenhergia glomcrota, from one to two feet high, much more common than the preceding, with stems upright, somewhat branched ; panicle oblong, linear, contracted into an interrupted glomerate spike, with long peduncles or flower stalks and awned glumes — peren- nial. Flowers in August and September. Common in swamps and low grounds. Of no agricultural value. The Erect Muhlenbergia, or Awned Brachyelytrum, (^Mulilenbergia erecta,^ is often found in rockj woods, on the sides of Wachuset Mountain, and many other similar situations. 24 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. It is a simple, slender grass, two or three feet high; flowers few, root perennial, creeping, sheaths downy, leaves broad and flat, lanceolate, pointed. Flowers in June. The Mexican Muhlenbekgia, (Muhlenberg-ia Mexicana,) another species of this genus, has been mistaken by some for our fowl meadow. It has an erect stem, two to tln^ee feet high, much branched ; panicles lateral and contracted, branches densely spiked and clustered, green or purplish; glumes pointed, awnless and unequal. It is perennial. Flowers in August. Frequently regarded as a troublesome weed in low grounds ; somewhat common at the West and frequent here in low grounds, the borders of fields, and even in gardens, where its spreading roots are difficult to eradicate. Cattle eat it very readily, and as it blossoms late in the season, it is of some value. The Sylvan Mdhlenbergia, {Muhlenbergia si/Ivatica,') is also rather common in low, rocky woods. Its stem is ascend- ing, branched, spreading diffusely ; panicles contracted, densely flowered ; glumes nearly equal, bristle pointed, lower palea one awned, twice or three times the length of the spikelets. Flow- ers in August and September. The Awnless Muhlenbekgia, (^Muhlenhergia soboli/era,') is sometimes found in open, rocky woods, from New England to Michigan, and farther south. It grows from one to two feet high, with a simple contracted panicle, very slender ; glumes long, pointed, nearly equal, root perennial, creeping, woody, leaves pale green, sheaths open, ligule wanting. Flowers in August and September. Still another species, sometimes called Hair Grass, (^Muhlen- berg-ia capillaris,') is sometimes, though not often found on sandy soils. Willdenow's Muhlenbekgia, {Muhlenberg-ia Wi/ldenovii,') is also not uncommon in rocky woods, growing about three feet^ high, with a slender, simple stem, contracted panicle, loosely flowered, glumes sharp pointed, half as long as the lower palea, which has an awn from three to four times the length of the spikelet. None of the grasses of this American genus are of great value as agricultural grasses, except as they add considerably to the mass qf living verdure which clothes our low lands in NATURAL HISTORY. 25 beauty to delight the eye and swell the heart of the lover of nature. Blue Joint Grass, (^calamagrostis canadensis.') The gen- eric characteristics are, one flowered spikelcts, open panicle, contracted or spiked ; glumes keeled, about equal to the paleas, around which, at the base, is a thick tuft of white bristly hairs ; lower palea generally with a slender awn on the back. Specific description : Stems three to five feet high, greyish, leaves flat, panicle often purplish, the glumes acute, lanceo- late, lower palea not longer than the very fine hairs bearing an extremely delicate awn below the middle, nearly equal to the hairs. Flowers in July. The blue joint grass is very common on low grounds. It is generally considered a valuable grass. It is eaten greedily by stock in the winter, and is thought by some to be as nutritious as Timothy. • The Glaucous Small Reed, (calamagrostis coarctata,) is also somewhat common in our wet meadows, open swamps and along low river banks. Its stems are from three to five feet high, seed hairy, crowned with a bearded tuft ; lower palea shorter than the taper-pointed tips of the lanceolate glumes, almost twice the length of the hairs, with a rigid, short awn above the middle. Beach Grass, Sea Sand Reed, Mat Grass, (ammophila arun- dinacea,') grows to a height of two or three feet, with a rigid culm, from stout roots running often to the distance of twenty or thirty feet ; leaves wide, rather short, of a sea green color ; panicle contracted into a close, dense spike, from six to twelve inches long, nearly white. It is found in the sands of the sea shore where its thick, strong, creeping, perennial roots, with many tubers the size of a pea, prevent the drifting of the sand from the action of the winds and waves, thus forming a barrier against the encroachments of the sea. This grass is very generally diffused on sea coasts over the world, and is found inland on the shores of Lake Superior. It has also been cultivated by way of experiment, and with success, on the sands at Lowell, and still farther up on the banks of the Merrimack River. Though not cultivated for agricultural purposes, it is of great value in protecting sandy beaches. It is preserved in England and Scotland by act of parliament. Flowers in August. 4 26 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. In the year 1853, 1 was requested by the late T. W. Harris, to make this grass a special study in the course of my observa- tions, and since that time I have tried in every way, by personal inquiries and by correspondence, to collect whatever there might be of interest in relation to it. The town of Provincetown, once called Cape Cod, where the Pilgrims first landed, and its harbor, still called the harbor of Cape Cod, — one of the best and most important in the United States, — sufficient in depth for ships of the largest size, and in extent, to anchor three thousand vessels at once, owe their preservation to this grass. To an inhabitant of an inland country, it is difficult to conceive the extent and the violence with which the sands at the extremity of Cape Cod are thrown up from the depths of the sea, and left on the beach in thou- sands of tons l)y every driving storm. These sand hills when dried by the sun are hurled by the winds into the harbor and upon the town. A correspondent at Provincetown says : " Beach grass is said to have been cultivated here as early as 1812. Before that time, when the sand drifted down upon the dwelling-houses, — as it did whenever the beach was broken, — to save them from burial the only resort was to wheeling it off with barrows. Thus tons were removed every year from places that are now perfectly secure from the drifting of sand. Indeed, were it not for the window glass in some of the oldest houses in these localities, you would be ready to deny this statement, but the sand has been blown with such force, and so long against this glass as to make it perfectly ground. I know of some windows through which you cannot see an object, except- to remind you of that passage where men were seen ' as trees walking.' " Congress appropriated, between the years 1826 and 1839, about twenty-eight thousand dollars, which were expended in setting out beach grass back of the village, for the protection of the harbor. From the seed of this grass it is estimated that nearly as much ground has become planted with it as was cov- ered by the general government. In 1854, five thousand dol- lars were expended most wisely by the general government in adding to the work so nobly begun ; and the experience of former years was of great value to the efficiency of this latter effort. The work of fortification or protection is not yet com- NATURAL HISTORY. 27 plete. The eastern part of the harbor is much exposed to injury from the sand which now empties itself by the thousand tons every north wind, into the east harbor. Unless there is speedily another appropriation from congress, to be applied in the direction of East Harbor, it is easy to foretel the fearful con- sequences to it. " It may be proper to state," says the same writer, " that this town does much in the way of ' beach grassing ' by its ' beach grass committee,^ whose duty it is to enter any man's enclosure, summer or winter, and set out grass, if the sand is uncovered and movable. By this means we are now rid of sand storms, which were once the terror of the place, being something like snow storms, for drifts which were to be removed. Our streets are now hardened with clay which has been imported^ and instead of its being buried, as it would once have been in a few days, I notice that the surveyors have to resort to sprinkling it witli sand in wet weather, so effectually has the culture of beach grass answered its end. " The mode of culture is very simple. The grass is pulled up by hand and placed in a hole about a foot deep, and the sand pressed down about it. These holes are dug about one foot and a half apart. The spring is the usual time of planting, though many do this work in the fall or winter. The roots of the grass from which it soon covers the ground, are very long. I have noticed them ten feet, and I suppose upon high hills they extend down into wet sand." Many years ago the beach which connects Truro and Province- town was broken over, and a considerable body of it swept away. Beach grass was immediately planted, and the beach was thus raised to sufiicient height, and in some places into hills. The operation of it is like that of brush or bushes, cut and laid upon the ground, in accumulating snow in a drifting wind. The sand is collected around the grass, and as the sand rises, the grass also rises to overtop it, and will continue to grow, no matter how high the sand hill may rise, and this pro- cess goes on over the wholi^ surface of the plantation, and thus many acres have been raised far above their original level. A committee of the legislature appointed in 1852, to inquire into the means of preserving Cape Cod Harbor, in speaking of the beach between the ocean on the north, and the channel of 28 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. East Harbor, — and which is all that prevents the sea from breaking over into Cape Cod Harbor, — say : " This tract con- sists of loose sand, driven about hj every high wind, which throws it up in heaps like snow drifts. The wind, from any point from north-east to north-west, drives the sand directly from said beach into the channel of East Harbor, and is carried by a strong current into the north-east part of Cape Cod Har- bor. The ocean on the north is wasting this narrow beach away in every storm, and the current in East Harbor channel undermining and destroying it on the south. The decay of said beach has been on the increase for several years ; it has narrowed within seven or eight years, by the tide that runs tlirough East Harbor channel, from eight to ten rods ; where tlie mail stage travelled only one year since, is now the channel, with six feet of water at low tide, and from twelve to fourteen feet at high water." The first effort made by the State for the preservation of this important harbor appears to have been in 1714. The town was incorporated in 1727, and was at that time a place of some extent, but the inhabitants soon began to leave, and in less than twenty years it was reduced to two or three families. After the Revolution the place revived, and is now a thriving town. The object of the law of 1714 was to arrest the destruction of the trees and shrubbery on the province lands, and on the preservation of which it was thought the harbor depended, as tliey prevented the drifting of the sand. In 1824 commissioners were appointed by the State govern- ment to examine the subject and report what action was neces- sary to prevent the rapid destruction of the harbor. They recommended an act to prevent the destruction of beach grass, and reported that the sum of thirty-six hundred dollars would be necessary to set out that plant, make fences, &c. The legis- lature in 1826 applied to congress for that sum, and congress has, at different times, made appropriations to the amount of* about thirty-eight thousand dollars, which seems to have failed in some measure to accomplish the object intended, and East Harbor is still rapidly filling up. Many years ago it was as customary to warn the inhabitants of Truro and some other towns on the Cape every spring, to NATURAL HISTORY. 29 turn out to plant beach grass, as it was in the inland towns to turn out and mend the roads." This was required by law, with suitable penalties for its neglect, and took place in April. A farmer of much practical knowledge of this subject, says : " Since the cattle have been kept from the beaches, by the act of the legislature of 1826, the grass and shrubs have sprung up of their own accord and have, in a great measure, in the westerly part of the Cape, accomplished what was intended to be done by planting grass. It is of no use to plant grass on the high parts of the beach. Plant on the lowest parts and they will raise, while the highest places, over which the grass will spread, are levelling by the wind. To preserve the beach it must be kept as level as possible. " Beach grass is of but little value except to prevent our loose, sandy beaches from being drifted about by the wind. We have but one species, and this is fast spreading over our upland, making it useless for cultivation. Land that would produce from twenty to twenty-five bushels of Indian corn to the acre,' without any manure, twenty-five or thirty years ago, is now overrun with beach grass and will produce nothing else. If the dead grass is burnt off in the spring, it will make a pretty good pasture for cattle and horses. It keeps green longer than any other grass we have. It can be cultivated from the seed or by transplanting. Our loose, sandy beaches are the most suit- able for its growth." Beach grass seems to require the assistance of some disturb- ing causes to enable it to attain its full perfection. The driving winds in some localities, are sufficient, while in other places, where it does not thrive so well, it is probable that an iron tooth harrow would greatly improve and aid its growth. It has been extensively cultivated or propagated from the seed on many parts of Cape Cod, on Nantucket, and in fact to considerable extent all along our coast. It comes in of itself along Nan- tasket beach from seed borne by the tides, probably, from the Cape. It has been extensively used, at times, in this coun- try, for the manufacture of coarse paper, though if I am rightly informed, its manufacture has been discontinued in this State. In other countries it is manufactured into door mats and brushes, mats for pack-saddles, meal bags and hats, and into ropes for various purposes. 30 GKASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Mountain Rice, (pryzopsis melanocarpa,') is a grass common in rocky woods ; the large white grained mountain rice, (^ory- zopsis asperifolia,') common on steep and rocky hill-sides and dry woods, and the Smallest Oryzopsis, (pryzopsis canaden- sis,^ are sometimes fonnd. Tliese grasses are easily distingnished from each other. The first has an awn thrice the length of the blackish palea ; the second, an awn two or three times the length of the whitish palea ; the third, an awn short, deciduons or wanting. The first grows from two to three feet high, the sec- ond from ten to eighteen inches. Feather Grass, or Black Oat Grass, (stipa avenacea,') is som3tlm3s met with in dry, sandy woods, and is collected for vases and ornaments, but is of no agricultural value. It rises from one to two feet ; its panicle is open, leaves almost bristle form, palea blackish, nearly as long as the almost equal glumes, awn bent above, twisted below. Flowers in July. Poverty Grass, or Three Awned Grass, (aristida dicho- toma,) and Slender Three Awned Grass, (aristida g-racilis,') are found in old, sandy fields, dry, sterile hill-sides and pine barrens, but are of no value for cultivation. One or two other species of three awned plants also occur on similar soils, as the aristida pnrpurascens and the aristida tuberculosa. None of these species are of importance in agriculture. ■ Fresh Water Cord Grass, (spartina cyiiosuroidcs.^ This is found on the banks of streams and lakes, rising to the height of from two to four feet, with slender culm, narrow leaves two to four feet long, tapering to a point, and spikes of a straw color. Flowers in August. The S-;\lt Reed Grass, (spartina polyslachya,^ has a stout culm from four to nine feet high, broad leaves, roughish under- neath and on the margins ; spikes 20 to 50 in number, forming a dense, oblong, purplish cluster. It is found on the salt marshes. Rush Salt Grass, (spartina juncea,') grows from one to two feet high, stems slender, leaves narrow, rush-like, and very smooth. It is common on salt marshes, and sandy sea beaches, and flowers in August. Salt Marsh Grass, (spar Una stricta, var. glabra,^ grows from two to four feet high, has from five to twelve spikes from NATURAL HISTORY. 31 two to three inches long ; spikelets crowded and lapping over each other. It is common on the coast. Sand Grass, (tricuspis purpurea,^ is also found on dry, sandy soils, along the coast ; flowering in August and September. It is acid to the taste, grows from six inches to a foot high, and has numerous bearded joints. Orchard Grass, Rough Cocksfoot, (dactylis irhmerata.') The generic characters are, spikelets several flowered, crowded in clusters, one-sided, panicle dense at the top, branching, -^>. Fig, 21. Orchard Grasf. 32 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. glumes two, herbaceous, keeled, long-pointed. Stamens three, seed oblong, acute, free. Named from dactylus, a finger. Orchard grass flowers in dense tufts. Its stem is erect, about three feet high. I have found specimens in good soil, over five feet high. Leaves linear, flat, dark green, rough on both surfaces, which, with the fancied resemblance of its loose tufts to the foot of a barnyard fowl, have given it the common name in Eng- land of rough cocksfoot. Root perennial. Flowers in June and July. Not uncommon in fields and pastures. It is seen in Fig. 21. A magnified spikelet is shown in Fig. 22. Tliis is one of the most valuable and widely known of all the pasture grasses. It is common to every country in Europe, to the north of Africa, and to Asia as well as to America. Its culture was introduced into England from Virginia, where it had been cultivated some years previously, in 1764, It forms one of the most common grasses of English natural pastures, on rich, deep, moist soils. It became, soon after its introduc- tion into England, an object of special agricultural interest among cattle feeders, having been found to be exceedingly pala- table to stock of all kinds. Its rapidity of growth, the lux- uriance of its aftermath and its power of enduring the cropping of cattle, commend it highly to the farmer's care, especially as a pasture grass. As it blossoms earlier than Timothy, and about the time of red clover, it makes an admirable mixture with that plant, to cut in the blossom and cure for hay. As a pasture grass it should be fed close, both to prevent its forming thick tufts and to prevent its running to seed, when it loses a large proportion of its nutritive matter, and becomes hard and wiry. All kinds of stock eat it greedily when green. Judge Buel, distinguished as a man of taste, said of this grass: "I should prefer it to almost every other grass, and cows are very fond of it." Elsewhere he says : " The American Cocksfoot, or Orchard Grass, is one of the most abiding grasses we have. It is probably better adapted than any other grass to sow with clover and other seeds for permanent pasture or for hay, as it is fit to cut with clover and grows remarkably quick when cropped by cattle. Five or six days' growth in summer suffices to give a good bite. Its good properties consist in its early and rapid growth and its resistance of drouth ; Init all agree that it should be closely cropped. Sheep will pass over NATURAL HISTORY. 33 every other grass to feed upon it. If suffered to grow long without being cropped, it becomes coarse and harsh. Colonel Powell, (a late eminent farmer of Pennsylvania,) after growing it ten years, declares that it produces more pasturage than any other grass he has seen in America. On being fed very close, it has produced good pasture after remaining five days at rest. It is suited to all arable soils. Two bushels of seed are requi- site for an acre when sown alone, or half this quantity when sown with clover. The seed is very light, weighing not more than twelve or fourteen pounds to the bushel. It should be cut early for hay." Mr. Sanders, a well known practical farmer and cattle breeder, of Kentucky, says of it : " My observation and experience have induced me to rely mainly on orchard grass and red clover ; indeed, I now sow no other sort of grass seed. These grasses mixed, make the 'best hay of all the grasses for this climate (Kentucky ;) it is nutritious, and well adapted as food for stock. Orchard grass is ready for grazing in the spring ten or twelve days sooner than any other that affords a full bite. When grazed down and the stock turned off, it will be ready for re- grazing in less than half the time required for Kentucky blue grass. It stands a severe drought better than any other grass, keeping green and growing when other sorts are dried up ; in summer it will grow more in a day than blue grass will in a week. Orchard grass is naturally disposed to form and grow in tussocks. The best preventive is a good preparation of the ground, and a sufficiency of seed uniformly sown. The late Judge Peters of Pennsylvania, — who was at the head of agricultural improvement in that State for many years, — pre- ferred it to all other grasses." Orchard grass is less exhausting to the soil than rye grass or Timothy. It will endure considerable shade. In a porous subsoil its fibrous roots extend to a great depth. Its habit of growth unfits it for a lawn grass. Its seed weighs twelve pounds to the bushel, and to sow alone, about twenty-four pounds to the acre are required to make sure of a good crop. It should not be sown alone except for the sake of raising the seed. It is worthy of a much more extended cultivation among us. Pennsylvanian Eatonia, {Eatonia Pennsylvanica,') is a grass 6 34 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. common in moist woods. It has a loose panicle, grows two feet high, with short, flat leaves, of a pale green. Flowers in June. Rattlesnake Grass, {glyceria canadensis.') The generic characteristics of glyceria are, many flowered spikes, mostly flat- ish ; glumes two pointed, nearly equal, awnless, the lower one obtuse, seven nerved ; roots" creeping — perennial. Wet places and standing water. The name of the genus is from a Greek word signifying sweet. Rattlesnake grass has an oblong, pyramidal, spreading pani- cle, with beautifully drooping spikelets, six or eight flowered, and long, roughish leaves, which together make it an object of interest and search for bouquets and vases. It is very common in wet, boggy places, growing from two to three feet high, but possesses little or no agricultural value. Flowers in July. The Obtuse Spear Grass, (^glyceria obtusa,') has a dense, narrowly oblong panicle ; spikelets six or seven flowered, erect, swelling ; lower palea obtuse, leaves smooth, as long as the stem. This is an aquatic grass, found occasionally on the borders of ponds. Flowers in August. Of no agricultural value. Long Panicled Manna Grass, {glyceria elongata,') is a very distinct species ; stems one to three feet high, panicle branch- ing, narrowly elongated, recurving, the branches appressed, spikelets pale, erect, three to four flowered, lower palea obtuse, rather longer than the upper ; stamens two, stigmas compound, leaves very long and rough. Flourishes in wet woods and swamps. Flowers in June and July — perennial. Of no special agricultural value. Meadow Spear Grass, Nerved Manna Grass, {poa nerv- ata,') is the fowl meadow of some farmers, while the grass most commonly called fowl meadow, Qpoa serotina,') goes with them under the name of bastard fowl meadow. It has a broad, open panicle, six inches in length, with slender branches ; spikelets small, ovate, oblong, green ; leaves in two rows like a fan, a little rough ; stem a little compressed, one to three feet high. It is a native American grass, flowering late in June. The nutritive value of this grass, according to Sinclair, is equal at the time of flowering and when the seed i« ripe, while the nutri- tive matter of the lattermath is said to be greater than that of most other grasses. It is a hardy grass, grows best on wet or Fig. 23. MEADOW SPEAR GRASS, NATURAL HISTORY. 35 moist grounds, and is said also to succeed on light upland soils. It is somewhat coarse, and not particularly relished by cattle, though readily eaten in winter. It would be a valuable ingredi- ent in a mixture for moist pastures. It is not very common. It is seen in Fig. 23, while in Fig. 23 (1) is seen a magnified spikelet, and the calyx in (2.) Native of North America. The Pale Manna Grass, (^g-lt/ceria pallida,^ grows mostly in shallow water, and is very common. Panicle erect with hairy branches, spreading, rough ; spikelets few, linear, oblong, five to nine flowered; lower palea oblong, minutely ^ye toothed; leaves short, sharp pointed and pale green. Flowers in July. Culms one to three feet long, creeping at the base. One or two other species are referred to this genus, glyceria, as the Reflexed Meadow Grass, (^glyceria distans,') found in salt marshes, along the coast, and closely allied to the Sea Spear Grass, (^poa maritima,') and the Acute Fescue Grass, (^glyceria acutiflora,') rarely found in low, wet places. Of no value in agriculture. Spike Grass, (brizopyrum spicatwn,') is a salt marsh grass, with culms or stems in tufts from creeping root-stalks, from ten to eighteen inches high. Flowers in August. Green Meadow Grass, June Grass, Common Spear Grass, Kentucky Blue Grass, &c., Qpoa pratensis.') The character- istics of the genus poa, are, ovate spikelets, compressed, flowers two to ten in an open panicle, glumes shorter than the flowers, lower palea compressed, keeled, pointless, five nerved, stamens two or three, seed oblong, free, stems tufted, leaves smooth, flat and soft. Specific characters : Lower florets connected at the base by a web of long, silky filaments, holding the calyx ; outer palea, five ribbed, marginal ribs hairy, upper sheath longer than its leaf; height from ten to fifteen inches, root perennial, creeping, stem erect, smooth and round, leaves linear, flat, acute, rough- ish on the edges and inner surface ; panicle diffuse, spreading, erect. The plant is of a light green color, the spikelets fre- quently variegated with brownish purple. Introduced. Flowers in June. Fig. 24 represents this grass, and Fig. 25, a flower magnified. This is an early grass, very common on the soils of New England in pastures and fields, constituting a considerable por- 36 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. tion of the turf. It varies very much in size and appearance according to the soil on which it grows. In Kentucky it is universally known as Blue grass, and elsewhere frequent- ly called Kentucky blue grass, and still more frequently, June grass. It has been called by some, without much reason, the most valuable of all the grasses in our pastures. It comes into the soil in some parts of the country when left to itself, and grows luxuriantly on soils best suited to it, and is relished by all cattle. Its creeping root is said by some to impoverish the soil. Wher- ever it is intended for hay it is cut at the time of flowering, as if the seed is allowed to ripen, more than a fourth part of the crop is lost. In its earliness, it is equalled by some of the other grasses, and in its nutritive constit- uents by several. After being cut in summer it starts up slowly. Low says : " It is inferior to the rough stalked meadow grass, and it may be questioned whether it deserves to be reckoned among the superior pasture grasses." It produces but one flowering stem in a year, while many of the other grasses continue to shoot up flower stalks, and run to seed through the season. On this account it is recommended highly for lawns, where uniformity is desired. The produce ordinarily is small, compared with other grasses, but the herb- rig. 25. Fig. 24. June Grass. NATURAL HISTORY. 37 age is fine. It grows well in rather a dry soil, but will grow on a variety of soils, from the dryest knolls to a wet meadow. It does not withstand our severe droughts as well as some other grasses. Its reputation is far higher in this, than in its native country, where it is denied by most farmers even a place among the grasses to be recommended for cultivation. It endures the frosts of winter better, perhaps, than most other grasses ; and in Kentucky, where it attains the highest perfection as a pas- ture grass, it sometimes continues luxuriant through their mild winters. It requires at least two or three years to become well set, and it does not arrive at its perfection as a pasture grass till the sward is older than that, and hence it is not suited to alternate husbandry, or where the land is to remain in grass only two or three years and then be ploughed up. In Kentucky, the best blue grass is found in partially shaded pastures. A well known farmer of that State, in a communication to the Oliio Farmer, says : " In our climate, and soil, it is not only the most beautiful of grasses, but the most valuable of crops. It is the first deciduous plant which puts forth its leaves here ; ripens its seed about the tenth of June, and then remains green, if the summer is favorable in moisture, during the sum- mer months, growing slowly till about the last of August, when it takes a second vigorous growth until the ground is frozen by winter's cold. If the summer is dry, it dries up utterly, and will burn if set on fire ; but even then, if the spring growth has been left upon the ground, is very nutritious to all grazing stock, and especially to sheep and cattle, and all ruminating animals. When left to have all its fall growth, it makes fine winter pas- ture for all kinds of grazing animals. Cattle will not seek it through the snow, but sheep, mules and horses will paw off the snow and get plenty without any other food. When covered with snow, cattle require some other feeding ; otherwise they do well all winter upon it. " It makes also the best of hay. I have used it for that for twenty years. It should be £ut just as the seeds beg-in to ripen, well spread, and protected from the dew at night by windrowing or cocking ; the second evening stacked, with salt, or sheltered, with salt also. When properly cured, stock seem greatly to prefer it to all other hay. I would not recommend it for meadow, especially, however, because the yield is hardly equal 38 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. to Timothy and clover, and because it is more difficult to cut and cure." Tlie same writer says : " Any time in the winter, when the snow is on the ground, sow broadcast* from three to four quarts of clean seed to the acre. With the spring the seeds germinate and are very fine' in the sprouts, and delicate. No stock should be allowed for the first year, nor until the grass seeds in June, for the first time in the second year. The best plan is to turn on your stock when the seed ripens in June. Graze off the grass, then allow the fall growth and graze all winter, taking care never to feed the grass closely at any time." "Another eminent cattle breeder speaking of this grass, says : " Perennial grasses are the true basis of agriculture, in the highest condition of that best employment for man. Grasses which are not perennial, are of immense value, especially as one of the shifts in the ordinary rotation of. crops, suited to the agriculture of the great upper, or northerly portion of our con- tinent, all of it above the cotton line. But it is the grasses which are perpetual, that I chiefly allude to, and among these, emphatically the blue grass, as it is called in the regions where it flourishes most. Whoever has limestone land, has blue grass ; whoever has blue grass, has the basis of all agricultural prosr perity ; and that man, if he have not the finest horses, cattle and sheep, has no one to blame but himself. Others, in other circumstances, may do well ; he can hardly avoid doing well, if he will try." By reference to a table on a subsequent page, containing the results of the recent investigations of Prof. Way, the distin- guished chemist of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, it will be seen how inferior this grass is when green, to Timothy, for instance, in all the nutritive, flesh-forming, and especially in the fat-forming principles which contribute so largely to the development and support of the whole animal system. The reader is referred to that table, and to another following it, con- taining analyses of these plants when dried and freed from water, and to the explanatory remarks on the nutritive princi- ples of plants, which precede those tables. Blue Grass, or Wire Grass, (^poa compressa,') Stems ascending, flattened, the uppermost joint near the middle, leaves short, bluish green, panicle dense and contracted, ex- NATURAL HISTORY. 39 panding more at flowering ; short branches often in pairs, covered with four to nine flowered, flat spikelets ; flowers rather obtuse, linear, liairy below on the keel ; ligule short and blunt ; height about a foot. It is very common on dry, sandy, thin soils and banks, so hardy as to grow on the thin, hard soils covering the surface of rocks, along trodden walks, or gravelly knolls. It shoots its leaves early, but the amount of its foliage is not large, otherwise it would be one of our most valuable grasses, since it possesses a large per cent, of nutritive matter. Flowers in July. Most grazing animals eat it greedily, and it is especially relished by sheep. Its bluish green stems retain their color after the seed is ripe. It shrinks less in drying than most other grasses, and consequently makes a hay very heavy in proportion to its bulk. It is an exceedingly valuable pasture grass on dry, rocky knolls and should form a portion of a mix- ture for such soils. This should not be confounded with Ken- tucky blue grass alluded to above. Annual Spear Grass, (^poa anuria, see Fig. 1,) is, perhaps, the most common of all our grasses. Its stems are spreading, flattened, panicle often one sided, spikelets crowded, three to seven flowered, lower palea more or less hairy on the nerves below ; leaves of a light green, sword-shaped, flat, often crump- led at the margins, as appears in Fig. 1, smooth on both surfaces, rough at the edges. Florets not ivebbed, and this distinguishes it from the June grass, Qjoa pratensis,^ and its varieties. The outer or lower palea of this grass has no hairs on the lateral ribs as the poa pratensis has. This modest and beautiful grass flowers throughout the whole summer and forms a very large part of the sward of New England pastures, producing an early and sweet feed, exceedingly relished by cattle. It docs not resist the drought very well, but becomes parched up in our pastures. The Rough Stalked Meadow Grass, {poa trivialis,') though not so common as the June grass, (joofl pratensis,^ is still often met with, and is found to have webbed florets ; outer palea five ribbed, marginal ribs not hairy, ligule long and pointed, stems two to three feet high. Distinguished from June grass by hav- ing rough sheaths, while in the latter the sheaths arc smooth, the ligule obtuse and the marginal ribs of outer palea furnished with hairs. The rough stalked meadow grass has a fibrous 40 GRASSES AKD FORAGE PLANTS. .oot, that of the June grass is creeping It Ao-'-^- '" ^f f^ meadows where it flowers in July. Introduced. This grass is Ten rpTg. 26, wliile Fig. 27 represents a flower somewhat magnified. This is a valuable gras^ to cultivate in moist, sheltered soils, possess- ing very considerable nu- tritive qualities, coming to perfection at a desirable time, and being exceed- ingly relished by cattle, horses and sheep. For such soils it should form a portion of a mixture of seeds, producing, in mix- ture with other grasses which serve to shelter it, a large yield of hay, far above the average of grass usually grown on a similar soil. It should be cut when in seed and not in the flower. Seven pounds of seed to the acre will produce a good sward'. The grass loses about seventy per cent, of its weight in drying. Its hay contains about one and sixty hundredths per cent, of azote, and the nu- tritive qualities of the lat- termath exceed very con- siderably those of the crop cut in the flower or in the seed. Fig. 26. Rough Stalk Meadow Grass. Wood Meadow Grass, {poa nemoralis,-) is met with m Hamp- shire and Berkshire counties. It grows from eighteen mches to two feet high, has a perennial, creeping root, an erect stem, NATURAL HISTORY. 41 slender, smooth, the upper sheath no longer than its leaf, with a very short ligule, the base of the floret having a silky web suspend- ing the calyx, leaves, light green. It is common in moist, shady places, and appears as a tall, rank grass, with a long, iinely arched panicle. It flowers in June and ripens its seed in July. Though it has never to my knowledge been cultivated in this country, it appears to me worthy of attention for moist soils. It is certainly to be classed among the best of shaded pasture grasses, furnishing a fine, succulent and very nutritive herbage, which stock of all kinds are very fond of. Hay contains one and sixty- four one-hundredths per cent, of azote. The grass loses about fifty- five per cent, of its weight in drying. Fig. 28 represents this grass in blossom ; Fig. 29 a mag- nified flower. The Creeping Sea Meadow Grass, or Sea Spear Grass, (^poa maritima,^ referred by Gray to glyceria, is a beautiful grass which appears in and around salt marshes, growing from six to twelve inches high, and having a perennial, creeping root. Stem erect, round, smooth, leaves most- ly folded and compressed, roughish on the inner sur- face, spikelets linear, with from six to ten florets not webbed, the outer palea of lower floret terminating in Grows naturally near the Fig. 28. Wood Meadow Grass an acute point. Fig. 29. Flowers in July. sea. It is seen in Fig. 30, and its flower magnified, in Fig 31, 42 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Fig. 30. Sea Spear Grass. I"ig. 32. Common Manna Grass. The Floating Meadow Grass, or Common Manna Grass, (^poa fluitans,') referred by Gray to glyceria, differs from the other species of the poa genus in the general appearance of its slender panicle and long, linear spikelets. It grows from fifteen inches to two feet high, with a perennial, creeping root, erect, round, smooth stem, leaves large, rather long, roughish on both sides, lower ones flat, upper ones generally folded ; spikelets few, long and linear, as shown in Fig. 32, which represents the NATURAL HISTORY. 43 plant near the time of flowering. Fig. 33 shows a magnified spikelet of this grass, florets not webbed. Flowers late in June. This grass grows naturally in very moist and muddy places, in ditches, on the margins of ponds and streams, and is very common. It is capable of cultivation as a permanent pasture grass, and its yield compares l^ell with many of the other grasses. Its seeds are greedily sought by birds, and in some parts of Germany are said to be used as a delicacy in soups and gruels. The Wavy Meadow Grass, (^poa laxa,^ oc- curs rarely on high and rocky hills, but is not suf- ficiently common or val- uable to need description. The Water Spear Grass, or Reed Meadow Grass, (^poa aguatica,') grows in wet soils, in Hampshire County ; is a tall, reedy grass, four or five feet high with a pan- icle nearly a foot long, dif- fuse, with smooth, flexu- ous branches. From its large size and broad leaves it can hardly be mistaken for any of the other species of poa. Its root is perennial, creeping, stem erect, stout, smooth, joints seven, smooth, spike- lets numerous, florets not webbed. Flow- ers in August. Seen in Fig. 34, and its spikelet in Fig. 35. Fig. 34. Water Spear Grasg. Fig. 35. Tliis grass is referred 44 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. by Gray and others, to ghjceria. It is very common in wet meadows and will be easily recognized. More nutritive when in flower than when the seed is ripe. It contains a compara- tively large per cent, of sugar. Makes a valuable fodder and cattle are very fond of it. Several other species belonging to this genus, are frequently met with, as the Branching Sft]AR Grass, on dry sandy soils, a very elegant species, with a large panicle of sea-green spikel^ts ; the Hair Spear Grass, also an elegant grass growing on similar soils, with a hairy branching panicle over a foot long, leaves linear, nerved. But perhaps the most important of all is the FoAVL Meadow, or False Redtop, (j>oa serotina.^ [See Frontis- piece.] The specific characteristics of this species are two to four, sometimes five, flowered spikelets, oval, spear shaped, ligules elongated, flowers acutish, green, often tinged with purple, roots slightly creeping ; wet meadows and banks of streams, very com- mon. Flowers in July and August. In long continued moist weather the lower joints send up flowering stems. The panicle is erect and spreading when in flower, but more contracted and drooping when ripe. It is perennial. Native of Germany. ^ It early commended itself to the attention of farmers, for Jared Eliot, writing in 1749, says of it : " There are two sorts of grass which are natives of the country, wliich I would recom- mend, — these arc Herds-grass, (known in Pennsylvania by the name of Timothy-grass,) the other is Fowl Meadow, sometimes called Duck-grass, and sometimes Swamp-wire Grass. It is said that Herds-grass was first found in a swamp in Piscataqua, by one Herd, who propagated the same ; that Fowl Meadow- grass was brought into a poor piece of meadow in Dcdliam, by ducks and other wild water-fowl, and therefore called by such an odd name. It is supposed to be brought into the meadows at Hartford by the annual floods, and called there Swanip-wire grass. Of these two sorts of natural grass, the fowl-grass is much the best ; it grows tall and thick, makes a more &oft and pliable hay than Herds-grass, and consequently will bo more fit for pressing, in order to ship off with our horses ; besides it is a good grass, not in abundance inferior to English grass. It yields a good burden, three loads to the acre. It must be sowed in low, moist land, 'this grass has another good quality, which NATURAL HISTORY. 45 renders it very valuable in a country where help is so much wanting ; it will not spoil or suffer, although it stand beyond the common times for mowing. Clover will be lost, in a great measure, if it be not cut in the proper season. Spear-grass, commonly called English grass, if it stands too long, will be little better than rye straw ; if this outstand the time, it is best to let it stand till there comes up a second growth, and then it will do tolerably well ; but this fowl-grass may be mowed any time from July to October. * * * This I wondered at, but viewing some of it attentively, I think I have found the reason of it. When it is grown about three foot high it then falls down, but doth not rot like other grass when lodged ; in a little time after it is thus fallen down, at every joint it puts forth a new branch ; now to maintain this young brood of suckers there must be a plentiful course of sap conveyed up through the main stem or straw ; by this means the grass is kept green and fit for mowing all this long period." This grass grows abundantly in almost every part of New England, especially where it has been introduced and cultivated in suitable ground, such as the borders of rivers and intervals occasionally overflowed. It will not endure to be long covered with water, especially in warm weather. It is well to let a piece go to seed, save the seed and scatter it over low lands. It makes an excellent grass for oxen, cows and sheep, but is thought to be rather fine for horses. It never grows so coarse or hard but that the stalk is sweet and tender and eaten without waste. It is very easily made into hay, and is more nutritive, according to Sinclair, than either foxtail, orcliard grass, or tall meadow oat grass. Owing to its constantly sending forth flowering stems, the grass of the lattermath contains more nutritive matter than the first crop at the time of flowering, hence the names fertilis and serotina, fertile and late flowering meadow grass. It thrives best when mixed with other grasses, and deserves a place in all mixtures for rich moist pastures. The Creeping Meadow Grass, (cragrostis reptans,') is fre- quently found on the sandy banks of rivers, and is a beautiful and delicate grass. Flowering in July and August. Its leaves are short, nearly awl-shaped, spikelets smooth, long and lance shaped, flowers acute, sheaths loose, striate and a little hairy on 46 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. the margin, panicles from one to two inches long. Not a culti- vated grass. The Strong-scented Meadow Grass, (era^rostis pooeoides,^ is sometimes found in sandy fields, roadsides, cultivated grounds and waste places. Its leaves are flat and smooth, lower sheaths hairy, spikelets containing from ten to twenty florets of a lead color. It flowers in August and September. Of no importance in agriculture. A variety of this grass (the megastachpd) is found more fre- quently on similar situations ; flowering about the same time ; emitting, when fresh, a sharp and disagreeable odor, by which it may be known. The Slender Meadow Grass, {eragrostis pilosa,} the Hair- PANiCLED Meadow Grass, (eragrostis capillaris,') the Hairy Meadow Grass, (^eragrostis pectinaeea,} are found in this State," but they are of no special importance for cultivation. They all occur on sandy, dry, waste places, the last only near the coast, and all flower in August and September. Quaking Grass, (briza media,') is sometimes met with in the eastern part of the State, as in the pastures of Dorchester. Pan- icle erect, with very slender spreading branches, and large, pur- plish, tremulous spikelets from five to nine flowered, inner glume fiuely fringed, entire at the end. (Fig. 36.) In Fig. 37 is shown a magnified spikelet. It is avery beautiful, light, slender grass, about a foot high, perennial. Flowering in June and July. There is an annual, the Large Quaking Grass, (briza maxima,) with large many-flowered spikes, cultivated in gardens for ornament. Small Fescue Grass, (festuca tenella.) The generic char^ acters of this genus are oblong spikelets, somewhat compressed, from three to many flowered, two very unequal glumes, pointed, paleae roundish on the back, from three to five nerved, awn pointed or bristle shaped, stamens three, flowers harsh, often purplish, panicle nearly erect, leaves narrow, rigid, of a grayish green. The small fescue has a spike-like panicle, somewhat one-sided, from seven to nine flowered, awn of the awl-shaped palea, slen- der, leaves bristle-formed, stem slender, six to twelve inches high. It flourishes on dry and sterile soils, and is common. Flowers in July. NATURAL HISTORY. 47 Sheep's Fescue, (festuca ovina,') is known by its nar- row panicle, short, tufted, bris- tle-shaped leaves, of a grayish color, somewhat tinged with red, its two to six flowered spikelets, awn, often nearly wanting. It grows from six to ten inches high in dense perennial rooted tufts. It forms an excellent pasturage for sheep. It flowers in June and July, in dry pastures. In Fig. 38 is seen the form of this grass, and in Fig. 39 is shown a magnified spikelet of it. Fig. 36. Quaking Grass. Fig. 37 Meadow Fescue, (festuca pratensis,} is one of the most common of the fescue grasses. It is said to be the Randall grass of Virginia. Its pani- cle is nearly erect, branched, close, somewhat inclined to one side ; spikelets linear, with from five to ten cylindrical flowers ; leaves linear, of a glossy green, pointed, striated, rough on the edges ; stems round, smooth, from two to three feet high, roots, creeping, perennial. Its radical or root leaves are broader than those of the stem, while in most other species of fescue the radical leaf is generally narrower than those of the stem. Flowers in June and July, in moist pastures and near farm houses. 48 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. rig. 41. Fig. 38. Sheep's Fescue. Fig. 40. Meadow Fescue. This is an excellent pasture grass, forming a very consider- able portion of the turf of old pastures and fields, and is more extensively propagated and diffused by the fact that it ripens its seed before most other grasses are cut, and sheds them to spring up and cover the ground. Its long and tender leaves are much relished by cattle. It is never or rarely sown in this country, notwithstanding its great and acknowledged value as a NATURAL HISTORY. 49 pasture grass. If sown at all, it should be in mixture with other grasses, as orchard grass, rye grass, or common spear grass. It is of much greater value at the time of flowering than when Fig. 43. -^i rig. 45. Fig. 42. Tali Fescu* Grass. Fig. 44. Red Fescue. the seed is ripe. It is said to lose a little over fifty per cent, of its weight in drying for hay. It is shown in Fig. 40, and its magnified spikelet in Pig. 41. The Tall Fescue Grass, (festuca elatior,') is also found pretty 7 50 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. commoiilj in moist meadows and around farm houses. Its panicle is contracted, erect, or somewhat drooping, with short branches, spreading in all directions ; spikelets crowded, with five to ten flowers, rather remote, ol^long, lanceolate ; leaves flatish, linear, acute ; stems two to four feet high, root perennial, fibrous, somewhat creeping and foi'mhig large tufts. Fig. 42 shows this plant at the time of flowering, and Fig. 43 a magni- fied spikelet of the same. Flowers in June and July. ■ It is a nutritive and productive grass, growing naturally in shady woods and moist, stiff soils. Cattle are very fond of it. Said by some to be identical with the meadow fescue. The Hard Fescue Grass, (^festuca duriuscula,') is also found to some extent, though not so commonly as the meadow fescue. It is by some regarded as a variety of the sheep's fescue, taller and with a panicle more open, leaves flat, and spikelets four to eight flowered. It grows from one to two feet high. Flow- ers in June, in pastures and waste grounds. The Red Fescue, (^festuca rubra,^ by some regarded as only a variety of the preceding, is one of the largest of the varieties of fescue. Its leaves are broadish, flat, root extensively creep- ing, and throwing out lateral shoots. Found in dry pastures near the sea shore, in sandy soils. It is a grass of better quality than some of the other varieties, but never cultivated here as an agricultural product. The color of its leaves is some- what more grayish than the preceding and often tinged with red. It is shown in Fig. 44, while its spikelet is seen magnified in Fig. 45. The Slender Spiked Fescue, (^festuca loliacea,') is a species nearly allied to the tall fescue and possesses much the same qualities. It grows naturally in moist, rich meadows, forming a good permanent pasture grass, but as it is met with only very rarely, if ever, among American grasses, and is of no value for cultivation, it scarcely deserves a more extended notice. Fig. 46, a specimen of this plant in blossom. Fig. 47, a magnified flower of it. The Nodding Fescue, {festuca nutans,') is also rarely met with in rocky woods, and needs only to be mentioned. Crested Dog's Tail, {cynosiir'us cristaius.') (Fig. 48.) This grass is rarely found here, and scarcely needs description. Its spikes are simple, linear, spikelets awnless, stems one foot NATURi\JL HISTORY. 51 rig. 4G. Slender Fescue. Fig. 48. Crestea Dog's Tail. high, stiff, smooth, root perennial, fibrous and tufted. Flowers in July. It is said by some to be a valuable agricultural grass, but cattle seldom eat it, on account of its wiry stems ; but on dry, hard soils and hills pastured with sheep, it is of value as a hardy, permanent grass. It is used in the manufacture of straw plait. Fig. 49 represents a magnified spikelet of the crested dog's tail. Willard's Bromus, Chess, Cheat, (bromus aecalinus.') The oli GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. characteristics of this genus (^bi'onius') are, spikelets from five to many flowered, panicled, glumes not quite equal, shorter than the flowers, mostly keeled, — the lower, one to five, the upper, three to nine nerved, — palea3 herbaceous, lower one convex on the back, or compressed, keeled, five to nine nerved, awned or bristle pointed from below the tip, upper palea at length adhering to tlic groove of the oblong grain, fringed on the keel, stamens three, styles attached below the apex of the ovary. The grasses of this genus are coarse, with large spike- lets, somewhat drooping generally when ripe. The specific characteristics are, a spreading panicle slightly drooping, spikelets ovate, smooth, of a yellowish green tinge, showing the racliis when in seed, and holding from six to ten rather distinct flowers. In the spikelet exhibited in the cut, (Fig. 50,) seven can be distinctly counted, the eighth or ninth imper- fectly developed can often be found ; stems erect, smooth, round, from two to three feet high, bearing four or five leaves with striated sheaths ; the upper sheath crowned with an obtuse, ragged ligule, the lower sheaths soft and hairy, the hairs point- ing downwards ; joints five, slightly hairy, leaves flat, soft, linear, more downy on the upper than on the under side, points and margin rough to the touch. Summit of the large glume mid- ivay betiveen its base and the summit of the second floret, a constant mark of distinction from bromus racemosus and bromus mollis. (Fig. 50,) (b.) Fig. 51 shows the form of the spike- let a few days before coming to maturity. Flowers in June and July. It has no relation to Italian rye grass. Fig. 49. Fig. 50. Fig. 51. Distinguished from bromus arvensis in the spikelets having fewer florets, and the outer palea being rounded at the summit. Nothing more clearly illustrates the want of accurate knowl- edge of subjects intimately connected with agriculture, and immediately afiFecting the farmers' interests, than the history of NATURAL HISTORY. 53 the introduction and propagation of this worthless pest to our grain fields. It has been heralded in the papers, in connection with the names of distinguished friends of agriculture, with the earnest hope that it might receive extended trials.' Monstrous prices have been charged and paid by the unsuspecting farmer for its seed, in many cases four and five dollars a bushel, a pledge behig exacted that it should not be allowed to go to seed, for a reason, probably, which will shortly appear. Committees of agricultural societies have been invited to examine and report upon it ; and in a letter now lying before me, the disinterested propagator very kindly offers to put up ten barrels of ]jromus seed for $100, saying, that " of course the earliest applicants will be sure of obtaining till all is gone, which would scarcely give a barrel to a State. * * Years must elapse before the country can be supplied as it now is with Herds-grass and clover seed. My ofFcr invites co-operation and participation in the profits and pleasures now available " — for taking advantage of the honest credulity of the public ? A quantity of bromus seed was sent to the State Farm for the purpose of experiment, with a letter with directions to sow with clover in the spring of 1855. The crop was cut Avhile yet green, and before the grass had developed sufficiently to distinguish it with certainty. This present year (185'6) directions were given to let it stand later in the season. While engaged in the collec- tion and study of specimens in the course of the summer, I gathered samples of this grass when it was still immature, the spikelets having very much the appearance indicated in Fig. 51. Without giving it a very close examination at the time, I pronounced it the bromus arvcnsis, which at that stage of its growth it very much resembles. A few days after, I was aston- ished to see it develop into Chess (bromus secalinus.^ This was the first ripe specimen of Willard's bromus I had seen. I examined it with care with a strong magnifying glass, and to avoid the possibility of mistake, I submitted specimens of it to Prof. Gray, of Cambridge, and to Prof. Dewey, of Rochester, New York, both of whom, after examination, pronounced it genuine chess. But Mr. Willard having quoted from the report of a commit- tee of an agricultural society in which it was said that if a "jury of Gows should confirm the opinion of Mr. Willard as to the 54 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. superiority of the grass, then will the agricultural community owe him a debt of gratitude for having introduced to notice here a species of grass which is highly beneficial on light sandy soils, much supeilor to any other species, and producing most abun- dantly on land of better quality," I very recently directed this grass to be submitted to sitch a jury, empanelled and kept under the charge of Mr. L. P. Chamberlain at the State Farm, which unhesitatingly pronounced a verdict in accordance with the facts, which were as follows : — The grass which was first submitted for comparison with the bromus was the Reed Canary grass, (^phalaris arvtidinacea,') a grass of very slight nutritive and palatable qualities, as will appear by reference on a subsequent page to the careful analysis made of it at my request by Prof. E. N. Horsford, of the Law- rence Scientific School, Cambridge. The English hay used was such as commonly goes by that name among farmers, made up of Timothy and Rcdtop mainly, of fair quality. The meadow or swale hay was taken from a wet meadow, made up of coarse swale grasses, such as are common in eastern Massachusetts, and pass under the term of " meadow hay." The bromus was carefully picked out from all other grasses. The two kinds given in each trial were put into tiie same crib, but separated by a partition. First trial — Bromus and reed canary grass. There was no choice. Both were eaten alike till they were gone. Second — Bromus and English hay ; preferred English hay. ■ Third — Bromus and swale hay ; " swale. Fourth — Bromus and oat straw ; " bromus. Fifth — Canary grass and English hay ; " English hay. Sixth — Canary grass and swale ; " swale at once. Seventh — Canary grass and oat straw ; " oat straw. Eighth — Canary grass and cornstalks ; " cornstalks. Ninth — Bromus and cornstalks. Ate nearly alike of each till both were gone. ' ^ Tenth — Bromus and millet. Chose the millet and did not touch the bromus. This is a true transcript of the verdict of that intelligent jury, and it is precisely what I should havp anticipated from what I knew of the grasses. The trial by jury should be final. Bis unnecessary to say that " Cheat" is a troublesome weed NATURAL HISTORY. 55 to the farmer, especially when it appears in his grain fields. It is an early grass, but the quantity of herbage, and especially its quality, make it unfit for cultivation. Indeed, the only species of any value, or at all fit for cultivation, belonging to this large genus of grasses, is the bromus arvensis, and even that has been discarded from modern agriculture. I have been thus minute in speaking of this grass, because I have felt it my duty to disabuse the minds of farmers with regard to it, a duty in which I have recently, and since the above was written, been anticipated by my friend, Sanford Howard, Esq., author of a valuable paper on the Grasses, in the Transactions 6f the New York State Agricultural Society, for 1855. I have but little acquaintance with, and no prejudice against, Mr. Willard, but regret exceedingly that he or any one else should make a mistake so serious to the community, and take so much pains to propagate " cheat." Fortunately the plant is annual. The fact of its having been cut before it was ripe, in 1855, accounts for its growing on the same piece in 1856. Smooth Brome Grass, or Upright Chess, (bromus race- mosus,') has a panicle erect, simple, rather narrow, contracted when in fruit. Flowers closer than in the preceding, lower palea exceeding the upper, bearing an awn of its own length. Stem erect, round, more slender than in chess, sheaths slightly hairy. In other respects it is very much like Willard's bromus, but may always be distinguished from it as well as from bromus arvensis, in the summit of the large glume being half-way be- tween its base and the summit of the tliird floret, on the same side ; whereas in Willard's bromus the summit of the large glume is half-way between its base and summit of the second floret. This character is constant, and offers the surest mark of distinction. It is common in grain fields. Flowers in June. It is worthless for cultivation. Soft Chess, or Soft Brome Grass, (bromus mollis,^ is some- times found. . I procured beautiful specimens of it at Nantucket, where it was growing in the turf with other grasses on a sandy soil near the shore. Its panicle is erect, closely contracted in fruit, spikelcts conical, ovate, stems erect, more or less hairy, with the hairs pointing downwards from twelve to eighteen inches higli, joints four or five, slightly hairy, leaves flat, stri- ated, hairy on both sides, rough at the edges and points ; sum- 56 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. mit of the large glume midway between its base and the apex of the third floret, by which it is always distinguished from Willard's bromus. Flowers in June. Birds are fond of the seed, which are large and ripen early. Of no value for culti- yation. The Wild Chess, (bromns kalmii,} is another species, found often in dry, open wood-lands. It has a small, simple panicle, with the spikelets drooping on hairy peduncles, seven to twelve flowered and silky ; awn only one-third the length of the lance- shaped flower, stem slender, eighteen inches to three feet high, leaves and sheaths hairy. Flowers in June and July. Of no value for cultivation. Fringed Brome Grass, (^bromus ciliatus,') is often found in woods and on rocky hills and river banks. It has a compound panicle, very loose, nodding, spikelets seven to twelve flowered, flowers tipped with an awn half to three-fourths their length, stem three to four feet high, with large leaves. Flowers in July and August. Of no value for cultivation. The Meadow Brome Grass, (bromus pratensis,') is a peren- nial weed in the corn fields of England, and is only recom- mended in any part of Europe for dry, arid soils, where nothing better will grow. Fig. 52 represents this grass, and Fig. 53 a magnified spikelet. Not one of the brome grasses is worthy of a moment's attention as a cultivated agricultural grass, and the cleaner the farmer keeps his fields of them the better. The Common Reed Grass, (phragmites communis,^ is a very tall, broad-leaved grass, with the flower in a large terminal pani- cle. It looks at a little distance very much like broomcorn ; stem five to twelve feet high. It grows on the borders of ponds and swamps. It is said to be the largest grass in the United States. It occurs in several localities in Franklin County, and it is not uncommon in the eastern part of the State. Flowers in September. Perennial Rye Grass, common Darnel, Qolium perenne.') Generic characters — spikelets many flowered, solitary on each joint of the continuous rachis, placed edgewise. Specific charac- ters — stem erect, smooth, fifteen inches to two feet high, root pe- rennial, fibrous, joints four or five, smooth, often purplish, leaves dark green, lanceolate, acute, fiat, smooth on the outer surface NATURAL HISTORY. 57 m i Fig. 53. Fig. 55. Fig. 52. Meadow Bromo Grass. Fig. 64. Rye Grass. and roughisli on the inner, glnme much shorter than the spike- let, flowers six to nine, awnless. Flowers in June. Shown in Fig. 54. Fig. 55 represents a magnified spikelet of this plant. This grass has had the reputation in Great Britain, for many years, of being one of the most important and valuable of the cultivated grasses. It is probably much better adapted to a wet and uncertain climate, than to one subject almost annually to droughts, which often continue many weeks, parching up every 8 I 58 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. green thing. There is, perhaps, no grass, the characteristics of which vary so much from the influences of soil, chmate and cul- ture as perennial rye grass. Certain it is that this grass lias been cultivated in England since 1674, and in the south of France from time immemorial. It is admitted to be inferior in nutri- tive value to orchard grass, (dactylis glomerata^^ when green. Whenever it is cut for hay, it is necessary to take it in the blossom, or very soon after, since otherwise it becomes hard and wiry, and is not relisliod by stock of any kind ; and it changes very rapidly after blossoming, from a state in which it contains the greatest amount of. water, sugar, &c., and the least amount of woody libre — into the state in which it possesses the least amount of water, sugar, &c., and the greatest amount of woody fibre and other insoluble solid matter. A specimen analyzed about the 20th of June, and found to contain 8J|^ per cent, of water and 18| per cent, of solid matter, was found only three weeks later to contain only 69 per cent, water, and 31 per cent, solid matter. It is undoubtedly a valuable grass, and worthy of attention ; but it is not, to be compared, for the purposes of New England agriculture, to Timothy or to orchard grass. .It pro^ duces abundance of seed, soon arrives at maturity, is relished by stock, likes a variety of soils, all of which it exhausts ; lasts six or seven years, and then dies out. * Italian Rye Grass, (lolvum italicum,') has been recently introduced into this State, and is now undergoing experiment which will assist in determining its value for us. It diflers from perennial rye grass in the florets having long, slender awns, and from bearded darnel, (lolium temidentum,') in the glumes being shorter than the spikelets. This difference will be manifest on reference to Fig. 56, and Fig. 57, which repre- sents a magnified spikelet. It turfs less than the perennial rye grass, its stems are higher, its leaves are larger and of a lighter green, it gives an early, quick and successive growth till late in the fall. To say that it is, or would be, the best grass in our climate and on our soils, would be altogether premature ; but it has the credit abroad of being equally suited to all the climates of Europe, giving more abundant crops, of a better quality, and better relished by animals than the perennial rye grass. It is one of the greatest gluttons of all the grasses either cultivated NATURAL HISTORY. 59 Fig. 56. Italian Rye Grass. Fig. 59. Fig. 58. Many-flowered Darnel. or wild, and will endure any amount of forcing by irrigation or otherwise, while it is said to stand a drought remarkably well. The soils best adapted to it seem to be moist, fertile and tena- cious, or of a medium consistency ; and on such soils it is said to be one of the best grasses known to cut green for soiling, affording repeated luxuriant and nutritive crops. I have not seen enough of it to speak from personal observation or experi- ence of the comparative profit of this grass and Timothy for cultivation here, but its comparative nutritive value is well 60 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. known from the thorough and reliable analyses of Prof. "Way. By these it appears that 100 parts of Timothy grass, as taken from the field, contain 57.21 per cent, of water, 4.86 per cent, of albuminous or flesh forming principles, 1.50 per cent, of fatty matters, 22.85 per cent, of heat producing principles, such as starch, gum, sugar, &c., 11.32 per cent, of woody fibre, and 2.26 of mineral matter or ash, while 100 parts of Italian rye grass taken from the same kind of soil and in the same condi- tion, green, contained 75.61 per cent, of water, 2.45 of albu- minous or flesh forming principles, .80 of fatty matters, 14.11 of heat producing principles, starch, gum and sugar, 4,82 of woody fibre, and 2.21 of mineral matter or ash. Of these, the flesh forming principles, fatty matters, and heat producing principles, are, of course, by far the most important ; and in all these our favorite Timothy very far excels the Italian rye grass, showing a nutritive value nearly double. Nor has the Italian rye grass any advantage over Timothy or Herds-grass in the dried state, though the difference is by no means so marked, the former dried at 212° Fahrenheit containing 10.10 per cent, of flesh forming principles, the latter 11.36 ; the former containing 3.27 per cent, of fatty matter, the latter 8.55 ; the former containing 57.82 per cent, of heat forming principles, the latter 53.35. There are 432,000 seeds in a pound of Italian rye grass and from thirteen to eighteen pounds in a bushel. The Bearded Darnel, Qolium temidentum,') is sometimes found in our grain fields, with its glume equalling the five to seven flowered spikelets, and awn longer than the flower. Its grain is poisonous — almost the only instance knovrn among the grasses. The Many-Flowered Darnel, (lolkim mnltijlorwn,') is, per- haps, the most showy species of rye grass, cultivated. It is but very rarely, if ever, met with here, though it was intro- duced from France to England about thirty years ago, and is cultivated to some extent. Fig. 58 shows the appearance of this grass, and Fig. 59 a magnified spikelet. It is very nearly allied, if not identical with Italian rye grass. Couch Grass, Quitch Grass, Twitch Grass, Dog Grass, Chandler Grass, &c., (triticum repens.} The chief generic marks of this grass are, three or several flowered spikelets, NATURAL HISTORY. 61 compressed, with the flat side towards the rachis ; glumes nearly equal and opposite, nerved, lower palea like the glumes convex on the back, awned from the tip, upper flattened, stamens three ; mostly annuals, but others are perennials, to which the couch grass belongs. The specific characters of couch grass are, roots creeping extensively, stem erect, round, smooth, from one to two or two and a half feet high, striated, having five or six flat leaves with smooth, striated sheaths ; the joints are smootli, the two uppermost very remote, leaves dark green, acute, upper one broader than the lower ones, roughish, sometimes hairy on the inner surface, smooth on the lower half. Inflorescence in spikes. Flowers in June and July. In- troduced fromEurope. (Figs. 60 and 61.) This plant is gen- erally regarded by farmers as a trouble- some weed, and ef- forts are made to get rid of it. Its long, creeping roots, branching in every direction, take complete pos- session of the soil and impoverish it. When green, however, it is very much relished by cattle, and if cut in the blossom it makes a nutritious hay. Dogs eat the leaves of this grass and those of one other species for their medici- nal qualities in exciting vomiting. I have seen acres of it on the Con- necticut River meadows, where it had taken possession and grew luxuriantly, and is called wheat grass, from its resemblance to wheat. It goes in different parts of the State by a great FiR. 61. Fig. GO. Couch, or Twitch Grass. 62 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. variety of names, as Quake grass, Quack grass, Squitch grass. It is important to destroy it if possible, and the means of doing it will be alluded to on a subsequent page. Squirrel-tail Grass, (Jwrdeum jiibatum,') is widely diffused over our salt marshes. Its specific characters are a slender stem, smooth, about two feet high, with rather short leaves, and low, lateral, abortive, neutral flowers on a short pedicel, short awned, the perfect flower bearing an extremely long awn about the length of the similar hairy glumes, all spreading. It is com- mon on moist sands and marshes on the sea shore. Flowers in June. Tlie common two-rowed barley, (Jwrdeum distichu7n,~) belongs also to the same genus as well as the common four or six-rowed barley, (Jiordeum imlgare.') Lyme Grass, Wild Rye, (elymus virginicus,^ is frequent along the banks of rivers. Its generic characteristics are two to four spikelets at each joint of the rachis, all fertile, each one to seven flowered, glumes ])oth on one side of the spikelct, paleaj two, lower one usually awned, mostly perennial, some species annual. Specific description : Spike upright, dense and thick on a short peduncle usually included in the sheath ; two or three spikelets together, two or three flowered, smooth, shortly awned, stamens three, stems stout, from two to three feet high, leaves broad and rough. Flowers in July and August. Of no special value as an agricultural grass. Canadian Lyme Grass, (elymus cayiadensis .^ Spike rather loose and curving at the extremity, spikelets mostly in pairs of three to five, long awned, rough, hairy flowers, the lance awl- shaped glumes, tipped with shorter awns, stem three to four feet high, root creeping, leaves broad, flat, linear, sheaths smooth and ligule short. Flowers in August. It is common on the banks of rivers. Slender Hairy Lyme Grass, (elymus striatus,') is sometimes found in rocky woods and on the banks of streams, as the most slender and smallest flowered species of this genus. It flowers in July, and is so rare and of so little value as an agricultural grass, as not to need further description. Upright Sea Lyme Grass, (elymus arenarius.') This grass, which much resembles beach grass, grows from two to five NATURAL HISTORY. 63 feet high, with a perennial long creeping root, stem erect, round, smooth, leaves long, narrow, hard, greyish, pointed, grooved, rolled in, smooth behind and rough on the inner surface. It flowers in July. Differs from the common beach grass in having a short obtuse ligule, and spikelets without footstalks, of three or four florets, while beach grass has a l»ng and pointed ligule, and spikelets with footstalks, and of only one floret. Sinclair calls this grass the sugar cane of Great Britain. It contains a large quantity of saccharine matter, and it is proba- ble that mixed with beach grass, as it is in Holland, it would be valuable to cut up and mix with common hay for winter feed. It is used precisely as beach grass is here, to prevent the encroachments of the sea, and to arrest the drifting of sand. It is not found growing wild in this country aS beach grass is. I have cultivated it> by way of a partial experiment, on Nahant Beach, and it has been sown in other parts of the country. Bottle-brush Grass, (.gymnostichiim hi/strix,') is found rather commonly in moist rocky woodlands, and along shaded banks of streams, and may be known by its loose upright spike and spreading spikelets, smooth sheaths and leaves, smoothisli flow- ers tipped with an awn three times their length. Flowers in July. • Wood Hair Grass, or Common Hair Grass, (^aira flexuosa,) is a common grass on our dry and rocky hills, and road sides, and high upon Wachuset Mountain. The generic name is the Greek aira, darnel, or tares, and its characteristics are, two flowered spikelets, in an open difiuse panicle ; flowers both per- fect, shorter than the glumes, hairy at the base, lower palea thr^e to five nerved, awned on the back, grain oblong, smooth. Specific characters : Stems slender, one to two feet high, nearly naked, leaves dark green, often curved, bristle-formed, branches of the panicle hairy, spreading, mostly in pairs, lower palea slightly toothed, awn starting near the base, bent in the middle, longer than the glumes, which are purplish — perennial. Flowers in June. This plant is sometimes found 3,500 feet above the level of the sea. Sheep eat it readily. Of no value for cultivation. Fig. 62 represents this grass in blossom, and Fig. 63 a magnified flower of it. It contains when dry but .03 per cent, of nitrogen. Hassock Grass, (^ah'a cccspitosa,') also belongs to tliis genus 64 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. aira. Stems erect, round, roiigli- isli, in close tufts, leaves flat, linear, acute, with roughitsh stri- ated sheaths, upper sheath longer than its leaf, panicle pyramidal or oblong, large, at firstflrooping, afterwards erect, with branches spreading in every direction ; awn barely equalling the palea, outer palea of lower floret shorter than the glumes, membranous, jagged or four-toothed on the summit, hairy at the base, with slender awn rising from a little a,bove the base, and extending scarcely above the palea. Dis- tinguished from aira flexuosa in the awn of the lower floret not protruding beyond the glumes of the calyx. In aira flexuosa the awn of the lower floret protrudes more than one-third its length beyond the glumes. It has an unsightly look in fields and pastures, on account of its growing in tvifts or clusters or has- socks. Cattle seldom touch it. Prefers stiff or marshy bottoms, where the water stands. June. Water Hair Grass, (aiVa aquatica.^ Fig. 6-1. This grass Mr. Curtis calls the sweetest of the British grasses, and equal to any foreign one. Its stems and leaves, when green, have a sweet and agreeable taste like that of liquorice. Water fowls are said to be very fond of the seeds and the fresh green shoots. Cattle also eat it very readily. It is strictly an aquatic, but can be cultivated on imperfectly drained bogs and muddy bottoms. Not common. It flowers in July. Fijr. 62. Wood Hair Grass. NATURAL HISTORY. 65 Fig. 64. Water Hair Grass Fig. 66. Downy Oat Grass. Wild Oat Grass, White Top, (danthonia spicata,') is com- mon in dry, sunny pastures, with a stem one foot high, slender, with short leaves, narrow sheaths, bearded ; panicle simple, spikelets seven flowered, lower palea broadly ovate, loosely hairy on the back, longer than its awl-shaped teeth — perennial. Flowers in June. It is called white top in some localities, but is not the grass most commonly known by that name — the agrostis alba. 9 66 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Downy Persoon, (trisetum mollis,^ is a grass with dense panicles, much contracted, oblong or linear, awn bent or diverg- ing, lower palea compressed, keeled, leaves flat and short ; found on rocky river banks and mountains, about one foot high. It flowers in July. Of no agricultural value. The Downy Oat Grass, (trisetum pubescens,') is a very hardy perennial grass, naturalized on chalky soils, and on such soils its leaves are covered with a coating of downy hairs which it loses when cultivated on better lands. It is regarded as a good permanent pasture grass on account of its hardiness and its being but a slight impoverisher of the soil, and yielding a larger per cent, of bitter extractive than other grasses grown on poor, light soils. It is therefore recommended abroad as a prominent ingredient of mixtures for pastures. It flowers early in July. Fig. 65 represents this plant as it appears in blossom. Formerly classed as avena pubescens. Meadow Oat Grass, (avena pratensis, Fig. 66,) is a peren- nial grass, native of the pastures of Great Britain, growing to the height of about eighteen inches. It furnishes a hay of medium quality. Flourishes best on dry soils. Flowers in July. Figs. 67 and 68 represent the flowers of this grass magnified. The Yellow Oat Grass, (avena Jlavescens, now generally classified as trisetum Jlavescens,') can scarcely, perhaps, be regarded as naturalized here. It is a perennial plant of slow growth and medium quality, furnishing a hay containing about 1.79 per cent, of azote or nitrogen ; suitable for dry meadows and pastures. It is sometimes regarded as a weed, growing about eighteen inches high. It fails if cultivated alone, but succeeds with other grasses, and is said to be the most useful for fodder, of the oat grasses. It grows best with the crested dog's tail and sweet scented vernal. It contains a larger pro- portion of bitter extractive than most other grasses, and for that reason is recommended by some English writers as a valuable pasture grass. It flowers in July. Fig. 69 represents this grass, and Fig. 70 a flower of it magnified. Tall Meadow Oat Grass, or Tall Oat Grass, (arrhena- therum avenaceum,') is the avena elatior of Linnceus. Specific characters : Spikelets open paniclcd, two flowered, lower flower staminate, bearing a long bent awn below the middle of the back ; leaves flat, acute, roughish on both sides, most on the" NATURilLL HISTORY. 67 Fig. 66. Mcado-w Oat Grass. Fig. 70. Fig. 69. Yellow Oat Grass. inner; panicle leaning slightly on one side, glumes very unequal ; stems from two to three feet high, root perennial, fibrous, sometimes bulbous. It is readily distinguished from other grasses by its ha^^ng two florets, the lower one having a long awn rising from a little above the base of the outer palea. Introduced. Flowers in June and July. Shown in Fig. 71. A magnified spikelet is seen in Fig. 72. This is the Ray grass of France. It produces an abundant 68 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. rig. 71. Tall Meadow Oat Grass. Fig. 75. Fig. 73. Meadow Soft Grass. supply of foliage, and is valuable either for hay or for pasture, and has been especially recommended for soiling purposes, on account of its early and luxuriant growth. It is often found on the borders of fields and hedges, woods and pastures, and some- times very plenty in mowing lands. After being mown it shoots up a very thick aftermath, and on this account, partly, is regarded as nearly equal for excellence to the common foxtail, (alopecurus pratensis.') NATURAL HISTORY. 69 It grows spontaneously on deep, sandy soils, when once naturalized. It has been cultivated to some extent in New England, and is esteemed by those who know it, mainly for its early, rapid and late growth, making it very well calculated as a permanent pasture grass. It will succeed on tenacious clover soils. Meadow Soit Grass, Velvet Grass, (Jiolcus lanatus,') has its spikelets crowded in a somewhat open panicle, and an awn with the lower part perfectly smooth. The generic characters are, two flowered spikelets jointed with the pedicels, glumes boat-shaped, membranaceous, inclosing and exceeding the flowers ; lower flower perfect, its lower palea awnless and point- less, upper flower staminate only, bearing a stout bent awn below the apex. Stamens three ; grain free, slightly grooved. This species grows from one to two feet high, stem erect, round, root perennial, fibrous, leaves four or five, with soft, downy sheaths, upper sheath much longer than its leaf, inflated, ligule obtuse, joints usually four, generally covered with soft, downy hairs the points of which are turned downwards ; leaves pale green, flat, broad, acute, soft on both sides, covered with deli- cate slender hairs. Inflorescence compound panicled, of a greenish, reddish or pinkish tinge ; hairy glumes, oblong, tipped with a mmute bristle. Florets of two paleae. Flowers in June. Introduced. In Fig. 73 is seen a drawing of this grass, and in Figs. 74 and 75, its flowers magnified. This beautiful grass grows in moist fields and peaty soils, but I have found it on dry, sandy soils on Nantucket, and specimens have been sent me from Boxford and other places where it grew on upland fields, and was cultivated with other gi-asses. It is productive and easy of cultivation. It is of but little value either for pasture or hay, cattle not being fond of it. "When once introduced it will readily spread from its light seeds which are easily dispersed by the wind. It does not merit cultivation except on poor, peaty lands, where better grasses will not suc- ceed. This grass loses about .63 of its weight in drying, and the hay contains about 1.92 per cent, of nitrogen. The Creeping Soft Grass, (Jiolcus mollis, Fig. 76,) not yet naturalized here. It is of no value, and is regarded as a troublesome weed. Distinguished from the preceding by its 70 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Fig. 77. Fig. 78. Fig. 76. Creeping Soft Grass. Fig. 81. Fig. 79. Sweot-scented Vernal. awned floret and its creeping root. The flowers of this grass are seen magnified in Figs. 77 and 78. Seneca Grass, or Vanilla Grass, (Jiierochloa borealis,') has spikelets three flowered, flowers all with two paleae, branches of the panicle smooth ; grows from twelve to eighteen inches high. Stems erect, round, smooth, panicle somewhat spreading, rather one sided, leaves short, broad, lanceolate, rough on the inner side, smooth behind ; spikelets rather large. NATURAL HISTORY. 71 Grows in wet meadows. Flowers in May. Common and gen- erally diffused, but of no value for cultivation, on account of its powerful, creeping roots and very slight spring foliage. It derived its generic name, hierochloa, holy grass, from two Greek words, signifying sacred grat from the fact that it was customary to strew it before the doors of the churches on festi- val and saint's days, in the north of Europe. In Sweden it is sold to be hung up over beds, where it is supposed to induce sleep. Sweet Scented Vernal Grass, (^anthoxaiithum odoratum.') Specific characteristics: Spikelets spreading, three flowered, lateral flowers neutral, with one palea, hairy on the outside and awned on the back ; glumes thin, acute, keeled, the upper twice as long as the lower ; seed ovate, adhering to the palea which incloses it ; root perennial. Flowers in May and June. Stems from one and a half to two feet high. Introduced from Europe. This grass is seen in Fig. 79. This is one of the earliest spring grasses, as well as one of the latest in the autumn. It is almost the only grass that is fragrant. It possesses a property peculiar to this species, or possessed by only a few others, known as coumarin. It is said to be this which not only gives it its own aromatic odor, but imparts it to other grasses with which it is cured. The green leaves when bruised give out this perfume to the fingers, and the plant may thus be known. The grass has but little value of itself, its nutritive properties being slight ; nor is it much relished by stock of any kind, but as a pasture grass on almost all soils, and with a large mixture of other grasses, it is very valuable for its early growth, and this gives it the character of a permanent pasture grass. It is not uncommon in our pastures and road sides, growing as if it were indigenous. I have found fine specimens of it on dry soils at Nantucket and elsewhere. The aftermath or fall growth of this beautiful grass is said to be richer in nutritive qualities than the growth of the spring. Though it is pretty generally diffused over the country, it is only on certain soils that it takes complete possession of the surface and forms the predominant grass in a permanent turf, as it is said to do in some sections around Philadelphia. The flavor of the spring butter sold in that city is ascribed by some 72 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. to the prevalence of this grass. There seems to be nothing inconsistent in this supposition, since it is well known that dis- agreeable flavors are often imparted to the milk and the butter by the substances taken as food by the cow, as turnips, for instance, or cabbages, or cauliflowers ; and if an objectionable flavor may be imparted by one substance, it is reasonable to sup- pose an opposite flavor may be given by another. Much, of course, depends on the manufacture ; as poor butter is found in the Philadelphia market, as in any other, while as good could be, and is found, in the Boston market as any in the world. The best butter, I learn on inquiry, is as expensive in the former city as elsewhere,, while it is true that a high price will command and obtain a good article wherever the art of butter making is at all understood. I am informed by Dr. Emerson, of Philadelphia, to whom I am indebted for valuable specimens of this grass, that he has made experiments in flavoring other grasses with a slight addition of benzoic acid in the form of an essence, previous to feeding them out to milch cows, and that the flavor of the best Philadelphia spring butter was thus imparted to the butter made from them. A curious and beautiful peculiarity is exhibited in the seeds of this grass, by which they are prevented from germinating in wet weather after approaching maturity, and thus becoming abortive. The husks of the blossom adhering to the seed when ripe, and the jointed awn by its spiral contortions, when afi'ected by the alternate moisture and dryness of the atmosphere, act like levers to separate and lift it out from the calyx even before the grass is bent or lodged and while the spike is still erect. If the hand is moistened and the seeds placed in it, they will appear to move like insects, from the uncoiling of the spiral twist of the awns attached to them. The flowers of the sweet scented vernal grass are seen in Figs. 80 and 81. There are 923,200 seeds in a pound, and eight pounds in a bushel. It cannot be said to belong to the grasses useful for general cultivation. Reed Canary Grass, (^pkalaris arundinacea.^ Generic characteristics : Spikelets crowded in a dense or spiked panicle, perfect flower flattish with two neutral rudiments of flowers, one NATURAL HISTORY. 73 on each side at its base, awnless, two shining paleae, closely- inclosing the smooth, flattened grain ; stamens three. Specific description : panicle very slightly branched, clustered, somewhat spreading when old, but not so much generally, as appears in Fig. 82 ; glumes wingless, rudimentary florets hairy, stem round, smooth, erect, from two to seven feet high, leaves five or six in number, broad, lightish green, acute, harsh, flat, ribbed, central rib the most prominent, roughish on both surfaces, edges minutely toothed, smooth, stri- ated sheaths. Flowers in July. Gix)ws on wet grounds by the sides of rivers and standing pools, best suited to somewhat tenacious soils. A beautiful variety of this species is the Ribbon or Striped Grass of the gardens, familiar to every one. The reed canary grass grows in the utmost luxuriance at the State Farm, at Westborough, and produces a large and early crop. It will bear cutting two or three times in a season, but if not cut early, the foliage is coarse. Cattle are not fond of it at any stage of its growth, but if cut early and well cured, they will eat it in the winter if they can get nothing better. For some experiments with this hay in compari- son with others, see p. 61. This grass is common in low, rich soils where the water is either stand- ing or sluggish, and is not unfrequently produced by transplanting the roots of the striped grass into suitable soils. In one instance within ipy knowledge, it came in and produced a,n exceedingly heavy crop, simply from roots of ribbon grass 10 Fig. 82. Reed Canary Grass. Fig. 83. 74 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. which had been dug up from a garden and thrown into the brook to get them out of the way. Several other instances of a smilar nature have also come to my notice. One farmer has propagated it extensively in his wet meadows by forcing the ripe seed panicles into the mud with his feet. As the stripe of the ribbon grass is only accidental, dependent on location and soil, it constitutes only a variety of the reed canary grass and loses the stripe when transferred to a wet and muddy soil. The cut, Fig. 82, was made from a specimen too far advanced to show this grass as it ordinarily appears ; the panicle or head is too spreading and not sufficiently long. I have fine speci- mens with panicles three times as long as appears in the draw- ing, and more in the shape of a spike of Timothy. To ascertain the exact nutritive qualities of this grass when cured as hay, a careful analysis has been made at my request, by Prof. E. N. Horsford, of Cambridge, with the following result : Of water, the specimen contained 10.42 per cent. ; ash, 5.31 per cent. ; nitrogen, .55 per cent. ; nitrogenous ingredi- ents, flesh forming principles, 3.53 per cent. ; woody fibre, starch, gum, sugar, &c., 80.73 per cent.* It will be seen by * The following are the details of this valuable analysis : — 1st. Of the Leaves stripped from the Culms or Stalks ; 2d. Of the Stalks from which the Leaves and Joints were removed ; and 3d. Of the Joints. Weight of different portions of the Plant. Grammes. Av. Qr's. Leaves of four Stalks, air-dried, weighed, 2.9239 1 2.8989 3,6592 .4624 " " " " " 2.8740 Four Stalks, without Joints, or Leaves, air-dried, weighed, . . 4.1107 " " " " " . . 3.2018 Joints of four Stalks, air-dried, weighed, .5161 " " " " 4088 Average Total, 7.0205 Grammes. Average weight of Stalks with Leaves and Joints, 1.7551 Grammes. Water Determination. I. Of the Leaves, .9234 grammes lost at a temperature of 212° Fah. .1014 grammes — equal to 10.98 per cent. II. Of the Stalks, 1.9836 grammes lost at 212° Fah. .1902 grammes— equal to 9. 58 per cent. III. Of the Joints. 2.4529 grammes lost at 212° Fah. .2630 grammes — equal to 10.72 per cent. Ash Determination. I. Of the Leaves, air-dried, 2.9239 grammes gave .2590 grammes Ash — equal to 8.85 per cent. II. Of the Stalks, air-dried, 4.1167 grammes gave .1475 grammes Ash — equal to 3.58 per cent. III. Of the Joints, air-dried, .5161 grammes ga e .0181 grammes Ash — equal to 3.50 per cent. NATURAL HISTORY. 75 reference to a subsequent page, containing analyses by Prof. Way, that this grass is very far inferior to many of the grasses examined by him. The panicles of this grass if allowed to stand after the time of flowering, become filled with ergot, or long, black spurs, issuing from between the glumes, and occu- None of the above ashes effervesced with acid, indicating the absence of carbonates. They gave but the faintest reaction for lime. Indeed micro- scopic, as -well as chemical examination, showed the Ash to be composed almost entirely of Silica. Nitrogen Determination. I. Of the Leaves, 1.4370 grammes, air-dried, gave .2600 grammes of Platino-Chloride of Ammo- nium — equal to 1.13 per cent, of Nitrogen, and 7.21 per cent, of Nitrogenous ingredients. n. Of the Stalks, air-dried, 1.6009 grammes gave .0205 grammes Platino-Chloride of Ammo- nium — equal to .08 per cent, of Nitrogen, and .51 per cent, of Nitrogenous ingredients. III. Of the Joints, air-dried, 2.4529 grammes gave .1789 grammes Platino-Chloride of Ammo- uium — equal to .45 per cent, of Nitrogen, and 2.87 per cent, of Nitrogenous ingredients. The preceding results, in tabular form, appear as follows : — Relative Weight of different portions. Average Leaves of four Stalks, .... 2.8989 grammes. Four Stalks, 3.6592 Joints of four Stalks, 4624 100.00 Average weight of one plant without the roots, .... 1.7551 grammes. Percentages. of one percentage. .7247 grammes. 41.29 .9148 52.12 .1156 6.59 Nitrogenous Woody Fibre, Starch, Water. Ash. Nitrogen. Ingredients.* Sugar, &c. 10.98 8.85 1.13 7.21 72.96 9.58 3.58 .08 .51 86.33 10.72 3.50 .45 2.87 82 91 Leaves, . Stalks, . Joints, . For comparison as to the relative nutritive values, there follow some deter- minations made of hay from several localities by Henneberg and Thos. Way. Ilay analyzed gave Nitrogen. Nitrogenous Ingredients. For Leaves, . . . 1.13 For Stalks, . . .08 }- 5.71 per cent.f 3.53 per cent. For Joints, ... .45 Clover, 1.57 10.01 Hay, No. 1, saline soil. 1.49 9.51 " No. 2, May, 1.39 8.87 " " June, 1.49 9.51 " " October, . 1.70 10.85 It will be seen that some of the samples contain nearly three times as much of Nitrogenous Ingredients as the sample submitted for examination, and it will be inferred from this consideration that, other things being equal, the hay at the head of the list is decidedly inferior in nutritive value. * Three parts of Nitrogen correspond with 19.16 parts of Nitrogenous Ingredients, as vegetable albumen, fibrin and casein. t Estimated according to percentages of different parts. 76 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. pying the place of grain. This, if there were no other reason, would be sufficient to determine that it should be cut at or before the time of flowering. I have never seen rye worse affected than my specimens of this grass are. The effects of this mysterious disease are well known. The noxious power it exerts on the system of animals which receive even a small portion of it, is oftentimes dreadful, producing " most hor- rible gangrenes, rotting of the extremities, internal tortures and agonizing death ; it has been known to slough and kill not a few human beings who have accidentally or inadvertently eaten grain or flour infected with it." The flower of the reed canary grass is shown in Fig. 83. The variety called striped grass, (color ata,^ is exceedingly hardy and may be propagated to any extent by dividing and transplanting the roots. In moist soil it spreads rapidly and forms a thick mass of fodder which might be repeatedly cut without injury, though it is of little value for feeding stock. The Common Canaey Gkass, {phalaris canariensis ,') is cul- tivated in gardens, and to some extent in fields and waste places for the sake of the seed for the canary bird. It has a spiked, oval panicle, glumes wing-keeled ; rudimentary flowers smooth and half the length of the perfect one. Flowers in July and August. Millet Grass, (millium effusum^ is found growing com- monly in moist, shady woods, mountain meadows, and on the borders of streams. Panicle widely diffuse, compound, glumes ovate, very obtuse, leaves broad and flat, thin, root perennial, flower oblong. Flowers in June. Introduced. Of no value for cultivation, the foliage possessing but slight nutritive quali- ties. The seeds are sought by birds. It will thrive trans- planted to open places. Hairy Slender Paspalum, (jpaspalum setaceum^ has an erect or decumbent, slender culm, from one to two feet high, leaves and sheaths hairy, spikes slender, smooth, mostly solitary on a long peduncle, spikelets narrowly two rowed. Flowers in August. It is found on sandy fields and plains near the coast, and is rather common. Slender Crab Grass, (jpanicum jiliforme^ is another -species of the subgenus digitaria, or finger grasses, and resembles the last somewhat, but the upper glume equals the flower, while the NATURAL HISTORY. 77 lower is nearly wanting, and the spikes are more erect. It flourishes on sandy, dry soils, especially near the coast. Flow- ers in August. Of no value for cultivation. Smooth Crab Grass, (^paniciim g'labrum,') resembles the last, with the spikes digitate, three to four, spreading, rachis flat and thin, spikelets ovoid. It is common in cultivated grounds, waste places, and on sandy fields. Flowers in August and September. A troublesome weed. Finger Grass, Common Crab Grass, (panicum sanguinale .') The panic grasses are widely spread and common over the State. The generic characters are, two flowered panicled spikelets, flowers with or without awns, glumes two, lower one short or minute, the upper long as the fertile flower, upi>er flower per- fect, closed, flattish, awnless, stamens three. The stems of the finger grass are from one to two feet high, erect, spreading, leaves and sheaths hairy, spikes four to fifteen, digitate, upper glume half the length of the flower, lower one small. This grass grows on waste or neglected cultivated grounds and gardens, and yards, and is generally regarded as a troublesome weed. Litroduced. Flowers from August to October. Agrostis-like Panic Grass, (panicum ag-rostoides,') differs from the preceding species in having the stems flattened, upright, two feet high, leaves long, sheaths smooth, spikelets on the spreading branches crowded and one sided, ovate, oblong, acute, purplish. It is common on wet meadows and borders of rivers. Flowers in July and August. Prolific Panic Grass, (^panicum proHferum,^ grows on brackish marshes and meadows, and is common along the coast. It sometimes appears on dry places. Cattle are fond of it. It differs from the preceding in having culms thickened, succu- lent, branched and bent, ascending from a procumbent base, and spikelets appressed, lance-oval, of a pale green color. Hair Stalked Panic Grass, (^panicum capillare,') grows in sandy soils and cultivated fields every where. Its culm is upright, often branched at the base, and forming a tuft, sheaths flattened, very hairy, panicle pyramidal, hairy, compound and very loose, spikelets scattered on long pedicels, oblong, pointed. Flowers in August and September. Tall Smooth Panic Grass, (^panicum virgatum.} Stems 78 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. upright, three to five feet high, leaves very long, flat, panicle large, loose and compound, branches spreading when grown, and drooping, spikelets scattered, oval, pointed, glumes usually purplish. Grows pretty commonly in moist, sandy soils, and flowers in August. Broad-leaved Panic Grass, (panicttm latifoHum.') This is a grass with a perennial, fibrous root, and stem from one to two feet high, and leaves broad, long, taper-pointed, smooth or slightly downy, branches of panicle spreading, spikelets long, obovate, downy. Flowers in June and July. It is common in moist thickets and woods. Of no value for cultivation. The Hidden-flowered Panic Grass, (panicum clandestinum,') the Yellow Panic Grass, (^panicum xanthopIiT/sum,') the Poly- MORPHUS Panic Grass, (^panicum dichotomum,') the Few-flow- ered Panic Grass, (^panicum depavperatum,') the Warty- flowered Panic Grass, Qpanicum veri'ucosum,') are sometimes found, the first, in low thickets and along the banks of rivers, not very common ; the second, on dry and sandy soils, pine plains, rare ; flowers in June ; the third, in dry and low grounds, not very common, flowers in June and July ; the fourth, on dry, sandy hill-sides, more common than the preceding ; the fifth, in sandy swamps, near the coast. None of these are valuable for cultivation, nor are they troublesome as some of the preceding species of panic are, on account of their places of growth. Barn Grass, or Barnyard Grass, (^panicum crus-galH,') is more common. Its spikes are alternate and in pairs, sheaths smooth, rachis bristly, stem from two to four feet high, stout, erect, or somewhat procumbent, leaves half an inch broad, panicle dense, pyramidal, glumes acute, awn variable in length and sometimes wanting, outer palea of the neutral flower, usually awncd ; one or two varieties have rough or bristly sheaths. It grows on moist, rich or manured soils and along the coast in ditches. Flowers in August, September and Oc- tober. Some experiments have been made to cultivate this common species in the place of millet, to cut for green fodder. It is rel- ished by stock and is very succulent and nutritive. Hungarian Millet, Moha de Hongrie, (panicum germani- num,^ has been cultivated to some extent in this State, from NATURAL HISTORY. 79 seed received through the Patent Office. It is an annual forage plant introduced into France in 1815, where its cultivation has become considerably extended. It germinates readily, withstands the drought remarkably, remaining green even when other vegetation is parched up, and if its development is arrested by dry weather, the least rain will restore it to vigor. It has numerous succulent leaves which furnish an abundance of green fodder, very much relished by all kinds of stock. It flourishes in somewhat light and dry soils, though it attains its greatest luxuriance in soils of medium consistency and well manured. It may be sown broadcast and cultivated precisely like other varieties of millet. This millet is thought to contain a somewhat higher percentage of nutriment than the common millet, though I am not aware that it has been analyzed. A practical farmer of Worcester county says of it : "I have raised the " Moha de Hongrie," on a small scale only. In my garden it has grown thick and fine. " As it is a leafy plant and remains green until its seeds mature, I think it may prove valuable for fodder, both green and dry. It grows and matures in about the same time as the common millet. " I have now one bushel of seed, grown on six square rods. This quantity will enable me to test it practically, another season." This plant is seen in Fig. 84, which gives a correct repre- sentation of it. The Bristly Foxtail, {setaria verticillata,') is a grass some- times, though rarely, found about farm houses. It has cylin- drical spikes two or three inches long, pale green, somewhat interrupted with whorled, short clusters, bristles single or in pairs, roughened or barbed downwards, short. Not cultivated. Bottle Grass, sometimes called Foxtail, (^seiaria g-lauca.') This is an annual with a stem from one to three feet high, leaves broad, hairy at the base, sheaths smooth, ligule bearded, spike two to three inches long, dense, cylindrical, bristles six to eleven in a cluster, rough upwards, perfect flower wrinkled. The spike is of a tawny or dull orange yellow when old. Flow- ers in July. It is common in cultivated grounds and barnyards. Introduced. The Green Foxtail, sometimes also called Bottle Grass, 80 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. It 1 (setaria viridis,') has a spike cylindri- cal, more or less compound, green, bristles few in a cluster, longer than the spikelets, flower perfect, striate lengthwise and dotted is common in cultivated grounds. The Bengal Grass, sometimes called Millet, (^setaria italica,') also belongs to this genus. It has a compound spike, thick, nodding, six to nine inches long, yellowish or purplish, bristles two or three in a cluster. Introduced from Europe. Bur Grass, or Hedgehog Grass, (cew- chrus tribuloides,^ is somewhat common on sandy soils on the coast, or ne the salt water, where the spikes are whitish. It is regarded as a troublesome weed on account of its prickly burs. Flowers in August. Gama Grass, or Sesame Grass, Qrip- sacum dactyloides,') though ' not often found in this State is one of the largest and most remarkable grasses, thougli not one that would be considered of any value where better could be had. Its stalk is from four to seven eet high, and the leaves look not very unlike those of Indian corn. Grows on moist soils near the coast. Flowers in August. ^'^- ^* Hungarian MUlet. Finger-spiked Wood Grass, (andropog-on furcatus.') Of this genus about sixty species are known to botanists. But few of these are indigenous to this* country. Its generic char- acteristics are, a neuter or staminate lower flower, glumes and paleae often wanting, upper flower perfect, glumes awnless, lower palea awned. Flowers in panicles and spikes. Specific description : Stems four feet high, leaves nearly smooth, spikes digitate or generally by threes and fours, lower NATURAL HISTORY. 81 flower awnless ; the spikelets are roiighish, downy, awn bent. Flowers in September. This grass is common on sterile soils, rocky banks and hill-sides. Not cultivated. PuEPLE Wood Grass, or Broom Grass, (^andropogon sco- parius,') and the Indian Grass, or Wood Grass, (^andropog-on nutans,') grow on sterile and dry, barren soils, and sandy plains, and are common, thongh of no value for cultivation. They flower from July to September. The Chinese Sugar Cane, (^sorghum saccharatum ? not yet finally classified.) Panicle open or spreading, spikelets two or three, the lateral ones sterile, the middle or terminal one fertile, glumes tough and hard, sometimes awnless, stamens three. Specific description : Stem from six to fifteen feet high, according to the soil on which it grows, erect, smooth, leaves linear, flexuous, gracefully curving down at the ends, resem- bling Indian corn in its early growth, and broomcorn, to which it is nearly allied, at maturity. Flowers in a panicle at the top, at first green, changing through the shades of violet to purple, when more advanced. See Fig. 85, taken from a plant somewhat over seven feet in height. This plant has lately been introduced and used both for lorage and the manufacture of sugar and molasses or sirup. In some instances it has been used for making vinegar, brandy and other liquors. As it is a true grass, and is at present exciting considerable interest throughout the country, it is proper to notice it in this connection. The genus sorghum embraces over thirty species, most of which originated in Asia, where some of them have been culti- vated time out of mind. Specimens of the sorghum sacchara- tum were introduced into France by means of the seed, about six or eight years ago, where they have been cultivated with considerable success. So far as we know, this species is the best and most valuable for cultivation for the various purposes alluded to. Most of the seeds first used in this country were obtained from France, through the efficient agency of the Patent Oflfice, at Washington, having been first cultivated in the spring of 1855. Any positive assertions with respect to the value of this plant, would, perhaps, be premature, but I have had very good 11 82 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. opportunities of observation upon it, and have met many indi- viduals from different latitudes who have cultivated it with great success, and numerous experiments upon it are still in progress, which will determine its relative value and its modes of cultivation. It is, undoubtedly, very rich in saccha- rine matter in all latitudes within the geographical range of Indian corn. It has been said that the percentage of sugar decreases somewhat in the higher latitudes ; but this does not seem to have been established as a fact, and the opposite con- clusion, will, very probably, be arrived at, even though the percentage of sugar found to be crystallizable should be greater in more tropical regions. The plant grown in Massachusetts the past year contained about twenty-three per cent, of sugar, while that grown in the District of Columbia contained but fourteen per cent. And this accords with Avhat we know of Indian corn, since it is pretty well established that the corn grown in high latitudes is richer in saccharine matter than that grown at the South. The meal of northern corn is also better, and will bring at all times a considerably higher price in the market. Of the Chinese sugar cane about seven-eighths of the whole plant consist of juice, especially when grown in a southern latitude where the juice is somewhat more abundant, the cane being more succulent there ; and we may readily credit the statement that vinegar has been made from this juice at the rate of fifteen hundred gallons to the acre. When cut for sugar the most favorable time is just after it has passed the blossom, or when the seed is " in the milk," and if raised for this purpose the time of planting should be later than that of Indian corn. The leaves are stripped off and the stalk is crushed in any convenient mills or rollers, though more suitable mills will undoubtedly be constructed. Should it be found on more careful trial to be equal to what is reported of it, it will make an entire revolution in the sugar growing interests of the country, and thus become a plant of great national importance. It is said that the crop of sugar raised in Louisiana has gradually decreased from nearly five hundred thousand hogsheads in 1853, to less than one hundred thousand, in 1856, while the price of sugar and molasses — a gi'cater amount of which is consumed in this, than in any other Fig. 85. Chinese Sugar Cane. NATURAL HISTORY. 85 country on the globe, in proportion to the population — is loudly calling the attention of farmers and planters to its production ; and the Chinese sugar cane is regarded by some as a substi- tute for the species of sugar cane most commonly cultivated there, the saccharum officinarum. But I propose to speak of it in this connection mainly as a forage plant, though it may prove perfectly practicable and profitable to cultivate it for the purpose of making sugar and molasses. Some years ago the practice of sowing Indian corn in drills for the purpose of cutting up green for fodder, was recommended by a progressive agriculturist, and though at first ridiculed, it soon came to be planted in small patches of a few rods square, by practical farmers here and there, till now it is regarded as almost an indispensable crop, not only to carry a stock of cattle through a severe summer drought, when our pastures are short and dry, but to cut and cure in large quan- tities for winter use. The weight and value of an acre of fodder is very great. Of late years there has been an inclina- tion to use sweet corn for this purpose, under the supposition that it possessed a larger quantity of saccharine matter in its stalks and leaves than the yellow varieties. When the use of sweet corn was first recommended, it was said that cattle were so much more fond of it than of yellow corn, that they would select its stalks if tied up in a bundle with the stalks of yellow corn. The same is now asserted of the Chinese sugar cane, and as it comes to me very well authenticated, I see no reason to doubt it. Of the economy of the culture of corn to feed out green in the manner alluded to, there can be no question, and no thrifty and prudent farmer thinks of neglecting it ; for if we suffer from drought, as we are liable to every season, he is sure to regret it. ^ow if a substitute of superior value can be found, of as easy and simple cultivation, every farmer will avail him- self of it. Whether this substitute will be found in the Chinese sugar cane, remains, perhaps, to be proved ; but so great has been its success thus far as to lead us to anticipate its adoption and extensive cultivation for that purpose. In one case authentically reported, nearly ten tons of fodder were raised on an acre, cut up and cured, and weighed three months after cutting. This is not at all surprising when we consider 86 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. tliat even larger yields of Indian corn have been and are fre- quently obtained, when raised, cut and cured in the same manner. When grown for fodder, two or three cuttings may be obtained from it, the first being made just before the time of blossoming, when the plant immediately starts up with a vigorous growth and renews its leaves, and sends up its flowering panicles with great rapidity. No less than five cuttings were obtained in Florida during the last year, but the seasons in more northern latitudes would not admit of so many. It is well known that Indian corn will shoot up the second time in the same manner, when once cut or eaten down while green. This plant grows best in a dry soil and hot sun, in both of whicli it can be -accommodated as far north as New England, It should be planted at or just after the time of Indian corn, and it will mature its fruit in about one hundred days from the seed. For the purposes of sugar making it is best cultivated on rather poor, warm soils, but for feeding out to fattening animals, it should be cultivated on richer ones. If raised for sugar it is better harvested somewhat late in the season, when the temperature ranges from 45° to SS'^, when it is not so apt to suffer from the acetous fermentation to which it will be liable if cut earlier. But if raised mainly for the seed, it would be well to plant it somewhat earlier in the spring, in which case it might be cut earlier in the fall. Though the seed is now exceedingly dear on account of its scarcity and the extensive demand for it, yet it is estimated that it can be raised at the price of oats, fifty and sixty bushels to the acre having been obtained without any extraordinary care. The seed can be made into bread or into a beverage resembling chocolate, or fed to poultry and other farm stock. The Chinese sugar cane, if sown with a view to obtaining its seed, or to attaining its full and perfect development, should be cultivated in hills after the manner of planting Indian corn, and hoed and cultivated in the same manner ; but if sown for fodder, it will be found to yield a more luxuriant crop in drills, as we cultivate Indian corn for tliat purpose. In the former case, one quart of seed will suffice for an acre as it tillers very much, each seed sending up several shoots or seed bearing stems ; in the latter case, a larger quantity would be required. NATURAL HISTORY. 87 As a fodder plant it has been found nof to increase the quantity of milk, milch cows fed upon it having fallen off very decidedly, while they rapidly increased in flesh, and the quality and richness of the milk was found to be improved. This may, therefore, be found to be an objection to its use with some, to whom the quantity is indispensable and the quality of no con- sequence ; but even such may find it desirable to cure and feed it to cows in winter. It was raised in Dorchester during the past year from seed raised there the year previous, which is conclusive proof that the seed can be ripened in this latitude so as to germinate, though for all practical purposes it is not material to us whether it will ripen here readily or not, if it is found to do so in the Middle States. As already intimated, the results of experiments have been successful, and these experiments will be carefully repeated the coming season. A farmer in the State of New York, whose communication appears in the volume of the Patent Office Report on Agricul- ture, for 1855, says : " The proper time for planting, I should say, would be the same as that of early corn, as I find it quite hardy, and stalks of it cut down the end of October made fresh shoots after two rather heavy frosts, and still were good for feed. From twenty-five plants I obtained half a bushel of ripe seed. " The mode of cultivation I would recommend, would be to sow after the ground is well manured and deeply ploughed, in drills four feet apart, the .plants two feet asunder in the drills, with not more than one plant in a place, as each sends up from four to six shoots. When the plants are well started, say a foot in height, turn over the earth on each side with a plough, after which keep them clear of weeds with the hoe. " When well cultivated and in good soil, the plant attains from ten to fourteen feet in height and produces excellent fodder- from the root to the top. I believe a heavier weight of nutri- tious feed for all kinds of cattle can be procured from it in a given space of ground, than from any other plant, and I think it will prove of great benefit to every section of the country where it is introduced, not only as a green feed during the hot months, but after being cut up and cured like the corn plant, 88 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. its stalks may be steamed during the winter, and given to horses, oxen or cows, which will commence eating at one end and not leave them till entirely consumed. The seeds, also, I have no doubt, will prove valuable as a feed for poultry, as I find they eat them with avidity. I look upon this plant as of great value as a forage crop, and possibly, it may be profitably cultivated for sugar, as the juice contains nearly ten per cent, of saccharine matter as clear as crystal, and on a very small scale, beautiful clarified sugar was produced by my friend Dr. Ray." Other statements are equally unqualified in the expression of confidence in the value of this plant. I subjoin the following practical suggestions on the cultivation of it, from a valuable little manual by Mr. Hyde, of Newton Centre, who has experi- mented with it. He says : — " Select a warm and dry soil, such as you would select for Indian corn. Prepare your ground precisely as you would for corn, either by spreading your manure, or putting in hills, — about the same distance between the hills, where the ground is rich. In planting, which should be done early, put into each hill six or eight seeds. Cover lightly with well pulverized soil, — say, three-fourths to one inch deep ; pull out all but four or five at second hoeing. If planted in drills, seed enough should be used so that after hoeing there may be a stalk to every four or five inches ; from a pound and a half to two pounds of seed should be used. Cultivate and hoe as with corn ; care should be taken that the ignorant do not hoe up the young plants, takijig them for barn-grass, which they very much resemble. When the panicles appear they should be cut off of all that swhicli is intended for sugar or sirup making. When the plant has just passed into bloom, the stalk may be »used for sirup, but will continue to grow better until the seed is in the milk-stage, or little later. The stalks should be cut close to the ground, with a bill-hook or some such tool, and stripped of their leaves, and the green, succulent top cut off, when they are ready for the mill ; the ileaves and top may be fed green to cattle, or dried. J NATURAL HISTORY. 89 The stalks should be passed through the mill twice or more, until most or all of the juice is expressed. The juice should not be allowed to stand long after being expressed, but boiled at once, if possible. A slow fire should be made under the kettle, — which should be of brass, or much bet- ter of copper, — and the juice should not be allowed to boil until the green scum has all been taken off. Lime-water may be used to aid in clarifying and to neutralize the acid ; the exact quantity is not yet determined, but to every five gallons of juice, say from one to two teaspoonfuls of powdered lime, or the same dissolved in water, and strained, before being put into the juice. When all the green scum has been removed, the fire may be increased, and the juice boiled down until nearly as thick as common molasses in hot weather, when, if intended for sirup, it should be removed from the fire, for this completes the pro- cess. If intended for sugar, it should be allowed to boil longer, and until it will ' string into threads,' or present an appearance of being sufficiently boiled to grain, when it should be thrown off into troughs, or coolers, at once. I am not able to give exact information in regard to the time it should be boiled to crystallize readily. . Further experiments will determine. If made into sugar, it should be removed from the coolers to casks with holes bored in them, so that the molasses may drain off and leave the sugar dry, as it should be. These casks are generally placed on timbers, with a cement cistern underneath to hold the drippings, or molasses. After remaining in the ' purgery ' until sufficiently drained, it comes out fit for sale, or use. If cultivated exclusively for fodder, it should be planted as early as the weather will allow, and quite as thick as stover- corn. When the panicles appear, or even before, it may be cut either for soiling or for drying, and the roots will at once throw up another crop. If it is desired, the juice may be fermented, like the juice of apples, being put into casks at the mill, and treated like cider. The begass, or waste, may be dried and used for fuel, or for making paper, or rotted (^own for manure. If the storms should blow down the seed-cane, no fears need be entertained, as it will remain weeks in that condition without 12 90 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. injury. I must here caution all persons who grow this cane against planting it in the vicinity of broomcorn, Dourah corn, or Guinea corn ; for it readily mixes with these plants, and it would render the seed worthless for planting." As already suggested, more accurate investigations are re- quired to determine the relative importance of this plant for the various economical purposes alluded to. If it should be found, on chemical analysis, that the large percentage of saccharine matter in the plant consists of what is called glucose, a sub- stance of comparatively little value, incapable of crystalliza- tion to any extent, instead of a saccharine substance capable of easy granulation, it would very materially affect the value of the plant for- the purposes of sugar making, but could hardly affect its real value as a forage plant. This point will soon be determined. If, as has been stated, it is found to be suitable for the manu- facture of alcoholic liquors, it should, perhaps, be regarded by the philanthropist as an important addition to our cultivated crops. It is well known that enormous quantities of our best grains are now withdrawn from their legitimate use as food for man, for the manufacture of these articles. Many distilleries use upwards of two thousand bushels of Indian corn or other grains, on an average, every day, and the consumption of grain for these purposes throughout the country is incredibly large. The Chinese sugar cane will probably be found to be an exhauster of land, requiring large quantities of the phosphates and silicates of the soil for the development of the hard coating of its stems. It has been estimated that nine tons of it to the acre would take from the soil fourteen hundred pounds of mineral substances. This would seem to indicate a dry, grav- elly, or a sandy soil, as best suited to supply it wants. Indian Grass, Wood Grass, (^sorghum nutans,^ is a grass sometimes found on our dry, sterile soils, with a panicle oblong, somewhat compressed, from six to ten inches long, stem from three to five feet high, leaves linear, grayish, sheaths smooth, spikelets light brown and glossy, drooping when mature, hairy at the base, awn twisted. It flowers in August. Indian Millet, (^sorghur,i vulg-are,') is a cultivated species and has several well marked varieties, one of which is the Broom- NATURAL HISTORY. 91 CORN". It is called Guinea corn in the "West Indies, Doiirah in Arabia, and Nagara in the north of China. It is sometimes nsed as a forage plant. As already intimated, more than thirty species supposed to belong to this genus arc known to have been introduced into France, though it is very probable that a more accurate classifi- cation will distribute many of them among the other genera. The tall cereal which has long been cultivated in the south of Europe and in Barbary, under the general name of sorghum, resembles Indian corn in quality, and is often called small maize. Its stems contain a pretty large per cent, of saccharine matter, and it is useful to cut green as a forage plant. Indian millet, when raised on good soil and under favorable circumstances, is said to yield a larger- quantity of seed to the acre than any other cereal grass known, not excepting even Indian corn. Its nutritive quality is nearly equal to that of wheat. The common millet is the panicum miliacemn. Indian Corn, Maize, {zea mais,') is a well known plant of American origin, a true grass, and one of the most beautiful and useful of this great family. Its value as a forage plant has already been -alluded to in speaking of the Chinese sugar cane, and need not be dwelt upon here. Subject as we are, to the severest droughts, which parch up and essentially injure our pastures, this plant has been found to be of the utmost impor- tance to cut up green, affording an abiuidant and nutritious fodder, exceedingly succulent and greatly relished by cattle of all kinds, keeping them in good condition, while without this or some similar substitute our stock would inevitably suffer. The varieties cultivated for tlie purpose of fodder should be those with the largest and most succulent leaves. Some of the varieties of sweet corn are usually preferred, but on this point farther and more accurate investigations are greatly needed. It is estimated that on an average from six to eight tons of dry fodder may be procured from an acre sown in drills and properly cultivated, and that this would be equal to about four or five tons of good hay. This is a reasonable estimate, as far larger crops are often obtained. The particular advantage of raising what are called forage plants, either to cut up green for soiling or to cure for winter use, over our ordinary mowing lands is, that they give on the 92 GEASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. same extent of land a far larger amount of nutriment for ani- mals. They give this product immediately, or at least, in a very few months from the time of sowing, while permanent mowing lands, or the perennial grasses, require a great length of time to arrive at perfection, varying from one to four or five years. The amount of fertilizing materials drawn from the air and stored away in the soil by means of the roots, and capable of benefiting the crops of the succeeding year is very consider- able, while, in the natural grasses, it remains under the turf and does not come into use till the sward is broken and sub- mitted to culture. We may choose for forage culture plants which start up early in spring and are capable of being used even before the natural grasses have attained a size to make them particularly valuable for grazing. Besides, the mass of manure which may be made from the product of an acre of land by the use of forage plants, owing to the increased yield, over and above what would be obtained from the same acre in the natural grasses, is an item too rarely taken into the account. Moreover the plants usually called forage plants, like the clovers, lucerne and green corn fodder, may have some advan- tage over root culture, their expense being generally less, their product, dried, more easily stored, and kept with less danger of mjury and decay, and the mode of feeding out to animals attended with less trouble. Red Clover, (trifolium pratense.') "We have given our whole attention, in the preceding pages, to what arc strictly and properly called the natural grasses. We now come to consider, very briefly, the artificial. Curious as it may appear, the arti- ficial grasses were cultivated first in point of time, in England, the red clover having been introduced and grown there about the year 1633 ; sainfoin, 1651 ; yellow clover in 1659, and white clover about the year 1700 ; while not one of the natural grasses was cultivated till nearly a century later, with the excep- tion of perennial rye grass, first cultivated in 1677. About the year 1759 the custom of sowing the chaff and seed dropped from the hay stack, along with the artificial grasses and rye grass began, and soon after — between 1761 and 1764 — tlie cul- tivation of Timothy and orchard grass was introduced from America. The culture of the bent grasses, the sheep's fescue NATURAL HISTORY. 93 and the crested dog's tail, began soon after. In 1766, the London Society for the Encouragement of Arts offered pre- miums for the collection of the seeds of some of the grasses then found growing wild, such as the meadow foxtail, the meadow fescue, the sweet scented vernal grass, &c., and in 1769 the same society offered additional rewards for farther investigations and experiments on the culture and comparative value of the natural grasses. But little was done, however, till the experiments undertaken by the Duke of Bedford, in 1824. In this country the extensive and practical cultivation of the natural grasses seems to have been commenced at an earlier date than in England, for Jared Eliot, writing about the year 1750, speaks of the culture of Timothy as having been adopted sometime previously. Indeed, the necessities of our rigorous climate compelled attention to this branch of husbandry soon after the establishment of the colony, in 1620. The climate of England, on the other hand, admitted a greater degree of reli- ance on the wild luxuriance of nature, and this mode of man- agement was brought over by the first settlers and attempted for some years, the few cattle they had being kept on poor and miserable swale hay, or often upon the hay obtained from the salt marshes. The death of their cattle from starvation and exposure was of very common occurrence, and not unfrequently the farmer lost his entire herd. The treatment of animals now, as they were treated during the whole of the first century of the colony, would make the owner liable to prosecution for cruelty. This treatment was, in part, owing to the poverty of the settlers, but more, probably, to the ideas and practices in which they had been early trained in a different climate. For- tunately for the poor dumb beast a more enlightened policy now governs the mass of men, and this policy has led to greater care and attention to the cultivation of the grasses. But in this country, the culture of the natural grasses takes the precedence in point of time from the causes already indi- cated, and the minds of men are so influenced by the routine of ordinary practice, that the introduction of clover in the early part of the last century met with great prejudice, which is now nearly, if not quite extinct. Red clover, though not properly included in the family of 94 GRASSES AND FORAGE PL.VNTS. grasses, is now not only extensively cultivated, but is found to be one of the most valuable and economical forage plants. It belongs to the pulse family, or legiiminoscc, which includes the larger portion of forage plants called artificial grasses, in dis- tinction from the gramineoB, the true, and often called the natural grasses. The generic name, trefoil, or trifolium, is derived from the Latin ires, three, and folium, a leaf ; and the genus can generally be very readily distinguished by the num- ber and arrangement of its leaves in three leaflets, and flowers in dense, oblong or globular heads. Specific description : Stems ascending, somewhat hairy, leaf- lets oval or obovate, often notched at the end and marked on the upper side with a pale spot, heads ovate and set directly upon the stalk instead of upon branches. This species is regarded as by far the most important of the whole genus. It has sported into a number of varieties, one of which is biennial, another perennial, the latter by long cultivation becoming biennial, while the former, — as is true of most biennial and many annual plants, — assumes, to some extent, the character of a perennial and can be made to last tliree or four years or even more, by simply preventing it from running to seed. This plant is seen in Fig. 86, its leaf is shown in Fig. 87, and its fruit magnified in Fig. 88. The introduction of clover into England, it is often said, produced an entire revolution in her agriculture, and indeed, when we consider how important a part it plays in our own system of farming, we can with difficulty imagine how our ancestors ever got on at all in farming without it. Re this as it may, it is certain that it led to many of the most important improvements in the rotation of crops. Clover is very properly regarded as a fertilizer of the soil. The action of its long and powerful tap roots is not only mechanical, — loosening the soil and admitting the air, — but also chemical, serving to fix the gases important to enrich the earth, and when these roots decay they add largely to that black mass of matter we call the soil. It serves, also, by its luxuriant foliage, to destroy annual weeds which would spring up on newly seeded land, especially after imperfect cultivation. Rut one of the most valuable uses of it, and one too often overlooked, is to shade the surface and thereby increase its fertility. NATURAL HISTORY. 95 rig. 86. Bed Clover. Fig. 87. Clover is emphatically a lime plant, and the soils best adapted to it are tenacious or-stiff loams. The careful analysis of Prof. Way found no less than 35.39 per cent, of lime in the inorganic constituents of red clover, and that of Boussingault 32.80 per cent., while intelligent practice has arrived so nearly at the same conclusion, that the term " clover soils " is now almost universally used to indicate a tenacious loam, containing more or less of lime in its composition. Another great advantage in favor of the cultivation of clover, consists in its rapid growth. But a few months elapse from the sowing of the seed before it yields, ordinarily, an abundant and nutritious crop, relished by cattle of all kinds. Clover seed should always be sown in the spring of the year, in the climate of New England. It is often sown upon the late snows of March or April and soon finds its way down to the soil, where, aided by the moisture of early spring it quickly germi- nates and rapidly shoots up its leaf stalks. An accurate and valuable analysis of this plant, both in its green and dry state, will be found in a tabular form on a sub- sequent page, while a more extended notice of its culture and 96 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. the mode of curing it, with the results of practical experience as to its value, will also be given in their proper place. White Clover, Dutch Clover, Honeysuckle, (irifolimn repens,') is equally common with the red, and often forms a very considerable portion of the sward or turf of pastures and fields of a tenacious and moist soil. Specific description : Stems spreading, slender and creeping, leaves inversely heart-shaped, flower heads small, white, pods four seeded, root perennial. Flowers from May to September. Fig. 89. A magnified flower is seen Fig. 90. White clover is widely diffused over this country and all the countries of Europe. It is indigenous probably both to England and America. When first cultivated from seed collected from wild plants, at the beginning of the last century, it was recorded of a farmer that he had " sowed the wild white clover v^diich holds the ground and decays not." Its chief value is as a pas- ture grass, and it is as valual^le for that purpose as the red clover is for hay or for soiling, though there arc some who place a low estimate upon it. It easily accommodates itself to a gi'eat variety of soils, but grows most luxuriantly in moist grounds and moist or wet seasons. Indeed, it depends so much upon a general distribution of rains through the season, that when they are sufficiently abundant it comes in profusely even where it was not observed in other years, and hence such sea- sons pass under the term of " clover years." It is not appar- ently so much relished by stock as from its sweetness we should be led to expect, but it is, on the whole, to be cherished for permanent pastures, and improved, as it undoubtedly may be, by a proper selection and culture of varieties. For an accurate analysis of this plant the reader is referred to a subsequent page. Lucerne, Alfalfa, (medica^o sativa, Fig. 91.) This genus of leguminous plants has been known and cultivated from time immemorial. This particular species, lucerne, was brought from Media to Greece in the time of Darius, about five hundred years l)efore Christ, and its cultivation afterwards extended among the Romans, and through them to the south of France, where it has ever since continued to be a favorite forage plant. It does not endure a climate as severe as red clover, requiring greater heat and sunlight ; but in a latitude equally suited to NATURAL HISTORY. 97 both plants it would be somewhat difficult to say which should have the preference. In some respects it is decidedly superior, as in being perennial, and consequently remaining long in the soil. I have seen fine specimens of it in South Boston, where the seed was sown in 1824, still maintaining its vigorous hold White Clover. Fig. 90. of the soil and growing with remarkable lusuriance. The crop of lucerne is as abundant as red clover, and is equally well relished by cattle, both green and dry. Its yield of green fodder continues later in the season than that of red clover. Lucerne sends down its tap roots in mellow soils, to enor- mous depths, having been found in sandy soils thirteen feet in length. The leaflets are in threes, obovate, oblong, toothed, the flowers pale blue, violet, or purple, shaped as in Fig. 92, the fruit in downy pods, having two or three twirls, as in Fig. 93. Lucerne is cultivated in Chili and grows wild in the utmost luxuriance in the pampas of Buenos Ayres, where it is called rig. 92. alfalfa, which is simply the com- mon lucerne, slightly modified by climate, and may be regarded as a variety. The cultivation of lucerne is Lucerne. somewhat more difficult than 13 98 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. that of clover for the first year, requiring a soil thoroughly mellowed and prepared by clean and careful tillage ; and the want of proper attention to this point has led to partial fail- ures in the attempts to raise it in this country. It suffers and languishes in compact clay soils, and does not flourish in light soils lying over an impermeable subsoil, wliich prevents the water from running off. It will never succeed well on thin soils. But in a permeable subsoil, consisting of loam, or sand or gravel, its roots can penetrate to great depths, and being nearly destitute of lateral shoots, provided with numerous fibrous rootlets, or radical off-shoots, imbibe their moisture and nutri- ment in layers of soil far below the average of other plants. In this respect it differs materially from clover. For lucerne, a suitable subsoil is of the utmost consequence. For the short lived red clover, a suitable surface soil is more important ; a want of care and deep tillage, especially a neglect to break through and loosen up the hard-pan wherever it exists, will inevitably lead to failure with lucerne. But when the soil is suitable, it will produce good and very profitable crops for from five to ten or twelve years, and, of course, it does not belong in the system of short rotations. But notwithstanding the large quantity of succulent and nutritious forage it produces, its effect is to ameliorate and improve the soil rather than to exhaust it. This apparent anomaly is explained by the fact that all leguminous, broad leaved plants derive a large proportion of their nutritive mate- rials from the atmosphere, and that a vast quantity of roots are left to decay in the soil when it is at last broken up, varying, of course, with the length of time the plant continues in the soil, while the luxuriant foliage serves to shade the soil and thus to increase its fertility. Much of this rich foliage is scattered and left to decay, as is the case with all similar plants at the time of harvesting, and the growth of the aftermath is also usually very considerable. The fact that it actually increases the fertility of the soil for other plants, has often been proved and may be regarded as fully established. A soil which would bear onlv a medium crop of wheat at first, produced a greatly increased quantity after being laid down to lucerne a few years till its roots had enriched the soil. Lucerne should not follow immediately after having been NATURAL HISTORY. 99 grown a few years on the same soil, and then broken up, but after the land on which it lias been grown has been cultivated with some other crop or laid down to the natural grasses a length of time equal to that during which it had previously remained in lucerne, it can safely be sown again with it. The seed of lucerne, when fresh and good, is yellow, glossy and heavy. If the seeds are white, it is an indication that they are not ripe. If they are brown, we may infer that they have been subjected to too strong a heat to separate them from their husks. In either of these cases, it is not safe to purchase or to rely upon them. The same may be said of clover, and it is desirable to try them by a simple method which will be indi- cated hereafter in speaking of the selection of seed. As the seeds of lucerne are somewhat larger than clover seed and the plant tillers less, it is necessary to sow a larger quantity per acre. It may be sown in the spring along with grain crops, as clover often is, and not a very large crop should be expected the first year. Lucerne should be cut as soon as it begins to flower, or even earlier. If cut much earlier it is apt to be too watery and less nutritious and cures with greater difficulty ; if later, it becomes coarse and hard with woody fibre, and is less relished by cattle. It may be cut and fed green and is an exceedingly, valuable plant for soiling cattle, or it may be cut and cured and used like clover hay ; but in either case, it must be cut before blossoming. It is thought by many, that lucerne will not endure the climate of New England, but I do not think it satisfactorily proved, and I have been somewhat minute in speaking of it, in the hope of inducing more careful experiments on a scale and under circumstances sufficient to determine its relative value for us. I am the more anxious on this point from the fact that I am convinced, after much study and observation of our climate, that we should direct our labors in farming more with reference to the frequent droughts of summer to which we are liable every year, and from which there is no immediate and practicable escape except in thorough drainage and deep tillage, which most farmers are unwilling to undertake at pres- ent. " When properly managed, the number of cattle which can be kept in good condition on an acre of kicerne, during 100 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. the whole season, exceeds belief. It is no sooner mown than it pushes out fresh shoots ; and wonderful as the growth of clover sometimes is, in a field that has been lately mown, that of lucerne is far more rapid. Lucerne will last for many years, shooting its roots — tough and fibrous almost as those of liquorice — downwards for nourishment, till they are altogether out of the reach of drought. In the dryest and most sultry weather, when every blade of grass droops for want of moisture, lucerne holds up its stem, fresh and green, as in the genial spring." I am convinced, also, that the failures of attempts to culti- vate lucerne with us may be ascribed, in nearly every instance, to an improper selection of soils, and am inclined to think that a more accurate knowledge of the plant and a more careful observation of its habits of growth would lead to its more gen- eral adoption as an economical forage plant. I have procured fine specimens of lucerne in various parts of this State, where it is very successfully cultivated, but on too lim- ited a scale to determine its comparative value as a farm crop. Sainfoin, (Jiedysarum ono- brychis,') differs from lucerne in many important particu- lars. It is a leguminous plant with many stems from two to three feet long, strag- gling, tapering, smooth, leaves in- pairs of pointed, oblong leaflets, slightly hairy on the under side, flower stalks high- er than the leaves, ending in a spike of crimson or varie- gated flowers, succeeded by flat, hard pods, toothed on the edges and prickly on the sides, root perennial, and hard and woody. Flowers in July. Fig. 94. The flower is shown in Fig. 95, and the fruit in Fig. 96. Experiments have been made in introducing and cultivating it in this State, but without success. It requires a calcareous soil. Fig 95. Fig. 94. Sainfoin. NATURAL HISTORY. 101 In the south of France, where it flourishes best, it is considered an indispensable forage plant, improving the quality and in- creasing the quantity of milk when fed to milch cows, to which it may be given without producing the " hoove," to which they are subjected when allowed to feed freely on green clover and lucerne. Its stalks do not become ligneous if allowed to stand till blossoming, as those of lucerne do. The amount of fodder obtained from it is less than that from clover or lucerne, but its quality, where it can be successfully grown, is better. Its fruit or seed is said to be far more nutritious than oats. They are eagerly sought by fowls, and cause them to lay. Sainfoin, when green and young, will not endure a severe winter, but after the second or third year will endure a con- siderable degree of cold. It will succeed in very dry soils, sands and gravels. It is grown with great success in some of the southern counties of England. Its seeds have been gen- erally distributed over the country through the agency of the Patent Office, but, so far as I know, they have been followed by no marked success in the way of crops in New England. The arrow grasses form a limited family consisting of only three species found in New England. They are arranged in the following table : — Table II. List of Arrow Grasses. ( Juncaginecz. ) Commou Name. Systematic Name. Time of Flowering. Place of growth. Marsh Arrow Grass. Sea-«ide Arrow Grass, . Tall Arrow Grass, . Triglocliin palustre, Triglochin maritimum, Triglochin elatum. August, July, Aug. . June, July, . Marshes, both salt and fresh. Salt marshes. Swamps in Bridgewater The second of these, the sea arrow grass, is common in our salt marshes, having rush-like leaves of a sweetish taste, relished by cattle, and forming a very good fodder when well cured. Many of the rushes or grass-like plants so common along the borders of ou.r ponds, and called grasses in popular language, are readily eaten in the spring while green and full of juice. They are arranged in the following table : — 102 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Table III. List of Grass-like Rushes. (JuncacecB.) Common Name. Systematic Name. Time of Flowering. Place of growth. Common Wood Hush, . Luzula campestris, April, May, . Fields and dry woods. Broad-leaved Hairy Wood Rush, .... Luzula pilosa. May, . Open woods, river banks Small-flowered Wood Rush, . Luzula parviflora. July, . Mountains, West. Mass. Soft Rush, . . . . Juncus effusus, . June, . Swampy grounds : com- Slender Rush, Juncus filiformis. July, . Wet banks and shores. Baltic Rush, . Juncus balticus, . July, . Sandy shores. Smaller Round-headed Rush, Many-headed Rush, Juncus nodosus, . Juncus polycephalus, . July, . . July, . Borders of rivers and ponds. Wet places. Sharp-fruited Rush, Juncus acuminatus, . August, Boggy swamps. Brownish-fruited Bush, Juncus articulatus, - Wet places. Conrad's Rush, Toad Rush, . . . . Juncus Conradi, . Juncus bufonius, July, Aug. . June, Aug. . Borders of ponds in sandy soil. Low grounds, roadsides Slender Rush, Juncus tenuis, June, Aug. . Low grounds, fields. Greene's Bush, Juncvis Greenei, . July, . Sandy borders of salt marshes. Black Grass, .... Juncus bulbosus, August, Borders of salt marshes Grass-leaved Rush, Juncus marginatus, . July, . Moist, sandy swamps. Long-fruited Rush, Junous Stygius, . - Peat swamps. Three-leaved Rush, Juncus trifidus, . July, . Mountain summits. The most prominent and valuable of these plants is the Black Grass, (^juncus bulbosus, var. gerardi,^ an inhabitant of salt marshes. This plant has a simple, slender stem, some- what flattened, from one to two feet high. It is considered the best product of the salt marshes and grows most luxuriantly, along their borders which are only occasionally overflowed by the tides, often working its way to the uplands where the seed is scattered, in large quantities, in curing. It should be cut early, and when well cured is thought to be nearly equal in value to good English hay. Though not of itself equal in value, weight for weight, to " goose grass," (;>oa niaritima, p. 49, Fig. 30,) yet the product per acre is so much larger as to make it a more desirable crop. Most of the salt marsh plants have already been described in the natural history of tlie true grasses. The " Goose Grass," one of the most valuable of them, was mentioned under its synonym, Sea Spear Grass, Fig. 30, p. 49, NATURAL HISTORY. 103 the name " goose grass," by which it is more generally known along the shores of Essex county and Cape Cod, having been inadvertently omitted. It is generally considered one of the best products of the salt marsh when it grows in mixture with other species of plants, as the black grass, for instance, and deserves a more extended notice. It is very well known that large tracts of salt marsh are nearly barren. Sometimes close cutting in the early morning, while the dew is on the grass and when it cuts comparatively easy, kills it out, and from that cause the marsh becomes bar- ren. More often, however, excess of water, either upon the surface or in the soil, from the proximity of ponds which have no outlet, causes barrenness. On all such tracts goose grass springs up and dots the whole surface with circular patches of green, which in shape are very like ringworms on the human skin. This grass is seldom found alone except on these barren tracts, and upon them it grows so short and thin as seldom to be worth cutting. One will therefore never see any goose grass hay except mixed with other kinds, and' generally with black grass. When these tracts begin to improve, either from draining or from any other cause, other grasses make their appearance, and the goose grass grows mupli more vigorous and becomes valuable. This will continue to be the case for several years, until the roots of the other grasses have taken entire possession of the soil, when the goose grass disappears almost entirely and bides its time, ready to appear again whenever from any cause its intrusive competitors cease to exist. The hay made from the mixture of goose and other grasses — among which black grass generally predominates — is a most valuable fodder. The goose grass is so weighty that it takes but a small quantity, comparatively, for a ton, and cattle eat it with almost as much avidity as oats or any other grain. In fact, no hay is more valuable than black grass with a large admixture of goose grass, when properly cured. The curing process requires care and time, for goose grass is as full of sap as possible, and requires a much longer expos- ure than black grass, while a very little wet when it is partially cured, materially injures the black grass. We may judge of the properties of goose grass from the 104 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. fact, that in several instances within my own knowledge, cattle have died of hoove from eating it early in the spring. It resembles in the shape of its leaves, and somewhat in its cluster-like growth, that species of garlic which used formerly to be grown in kitchen gardens called cives, or more properly chives. Its seed stalks and seeds are almost precisely like the seed stalks and seeds of the common plantain. It grows both on high and low marshes, but is very seldom worth cutting on those tracts where it grows by itself and without the admixture of other grasses. It is proper to state in this connection that experiments have been made to introduce this valuable grass into our fresh wet meadows, and with good success. Most of the superior salt marsh grasses are greatly improved by ditching, while the poorer and comparatively worthless plants found there very soon die out after this operation and give place to more valuable species. It may be safely asserted that, on an average, the value of the marsh is nearly doubled by it, while the vegetable, peaty matter taken from it is sufficient, if properly used, to pay a considerable portion of the outlay. There is also a small family of plants called the yellow eyed grasses, or the star grasses, consisting of onjy two species, the first of which is the Yellow Eyed Grass, (xyris bulbosa,') flowering in July, August and September, growing on sandy and peaty soils, and bogs near the coast ; and the second, the Common Yellow Eyed Grass, Qajris caroliniana,') flowering in August, on sandy swamps. These are beautiful grasses, of no special agricultural value. There is still another great family of plants which, though of no agricultural value in point of nutritive properties as com- pared with the true grasses, is, nevertheless, extensively used in New England for forage purposes, and consequently deserves a passing mention. I refer to the sedges, and plants constituting the coarse and innutritions herbage properly included in the term, carex, a largo and prominent genus of grass-like plants, consisting in all of about four hundred and fifty species known to botanists, extensively diffused over all the damp parts of the globe, and in popular language called grasses. A few species NATURAL HISTORY. 105 of carex grow on sandy hills and along the sea shore, but most inhabit marshes, wet meadows, swamps, and the low, wet banks of streams and ditches, and moist woods. Somewhat over a hundred species are found in New England. None of them are of any real agricultural yalue, though they constitute mainly what we term " meadow hay," or more properly swale hay, in eastern Massachusetts. They are nearly destitute of mealy and saccharine principles in which many of the true grasses abound, and are eaten by cattle only when compelled by hunger, in the want of better grasses. It not unfrequently happens, however, that there is an admixture of the higher grasses among the carices or sedges, such as the fowl meadow, the bastard fowl meadow, the white top or some of the other species possessing higher nutritive qualities, and then, of course, the hay made from the swale is proportionably improved, and may thus become of considerable value for winter fodder. The Sedges arc arranged in the following table : — Table TV. List of Carices or Sedges, ( Cyperacece.') Common Name. Systematic Name- Time of Flowering. Place of growth. Diandrus Sedge, . Cyperus diandrus, Aug., Sept., Wet grounds. Nuttall's Sedge, . Cyperus Nuttallii, . , August, Salt marshes. Bristle-spiked Galingale, Cyperus strigosus, July to Sept., Swamps and low lands. Gray's Galingale, . Cyperus Grayii, . August, Barren, sandy soils. Tootlied Galingale, Cyperus dentatus, August, Sandy swamps. Dwarf Odorous Galingale, . Schweinitz's Galingale, . Cyperus inflexus, . » Cyperus Schweinitzii, . July to Sept., August, Banks of rivers and brooks. Shores of lakes. Common Spike-rush, . Eleocharis palustris, . August, Swamps and low lands Olive-fruited Spike-rush, Eleoeharis olivacea, August, Wet, sandy places. Braked Spike-rush, Eleocharis rostellata, . - Marshes. Intermediate Spike-rush, Eleocharis intermedia, August, Wet places. Obtuse-headed Spike-rush, . Large-tubercled Spike-rush, Eleocharis obtusa, Eleocharis tuberculosa, June. July, August, Bogs, borders of mud- dy ponds and rivers. Sandy swamps. Hair Club-rush, . . . Eleocharis acicularis, . June, July, Muddy borders of ponds Horsetail Eush, Eleocharis equisetoides. - Shallow water. Robbins's Club-rush, . Eleocharis Robbinsii, . July, . Ponds and ditches. Slender Club-rush, Eleocharis tenuis. June, July, Common in wet places. Black-fruited Club-rush, Eleocharis Melanocarpa, - Wet sand. Dwarf Spike-rush, Eleocharis pygmaea, August, Salt marshes. 14 106 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Table IV. — Continued. Common Name. Systematic Name. Time of Flowering. Place of growth. Scaly-stalked Club-rush, Scirpus csespitosus. July, . Wet mountains. riat-leaved Club-rush, . Scirpus planifolius, June, Woods, and in bogs. Floating Club-rush, Scirpus subterminalis, August, Sluggish streams : rare. Chair-bottom Rush, Olney's Rush, Scirpus pungens, Scirpus Olneyi, . July, Aug. July, . Borders of salt marshes and fresh ponds. Salt marshes. Torrey's Rush, Scirpus Torreyi, . July, Aug. Borders of ponds. Bulrush, .... Weak-stemmed Rush, . Scirpus lacustris, . Scirpus debilis, . July, . August, Borders of muddy rivers and ponds. Borders of sandy rivers and lakes. Sea Bulrush, . . , Scirpus maritimus, August, Salt marshes and salt River Rush, .... Wood Rush, .... Scirpus fluviatilis, Scirpus sylvaticus. July, Aug. July, . springs. Borders of lakes and large streams. Wet meadows. Cluster-head Rush, Porter's Rush, Scirpus polyphyllus, . Scirpus lineatus, . July, . July, . Swamps, shady borders of ponds. Bogs in western Mass. Wool Grass, .... Scirpus Erjophorum, . July to Sept. Wet meadows, swamps. Cotton Grass, Eriophorum Alpinum, May, June, Peat swamps. Harestail, .... Eriophorum vaginatum. June, . Mossy swamps and high mountains. Rusty Cotton Grass, Eriophorum Virginicum, July, Aug. Common in swamps. Broad-leaved Cotton Grass, . Eriophorum polystachyon, . June, July, Boggy meadows. Narrow-leaved Cotton Grass, Eriophorum gracile, . June to Aug. Wet mossy swamps. Tall Fimbristylis, . Fimbristylis spadicea, . July to Sept. Salt marshes : rare. Tufted Funbristylis, Fimbristylis autumalis. Aug. to Oct. Low grounds. Hair-like Fimbristylis, . Fimbristylis capillaris. Aug., Sept. Common on sandy fields. Umbrella Grass, . Fuirena squarrosa, ' . August, Sandy, wet places. Bald Rush, .... Psilocarya scirpoides, . July, . Inundated swamps. Horned Rush, Ceratoscfioenus macrostachya - Borders of ponds : rare. Dwarf Hemicarpha, Hemicarpha subsquarrosa, . July, . Sandy borders of rivers and lakes. White Beak-rush, . Rhynchospora alba. July, Aug. Mossy swamps, com- Small Beak-rush, . Rhynchospora capillacea, . July, . Swamps and marshes. Brown Beak-rush, Rhynchospora fusca, . July, . Low wet grounds : rare. Tall, Slender Beak-rush, Rhynchospora gracilenta, . - Low grounds. Common Beak-rush, Rhynchospora glomerata, . July, Aug. Boggy grounds. Round-head Beak-rush, Rhynchospora cephalantha. August, Sandy swamps. Smooth Twig-rush, Cladium mariscoides, . July, . Borders of ponds, bog meadows. Sandy swamps and bor- ders of ponds. Sandy swamps. Sessile-spiked Nut-rush, Scleria reticularis, August, Loose-flowered Nut-rush, Scleria laxa. August, Three-clustered Nut-rush, or Whip-grass, . Scleria triglomerata, . July, . . Swamps and moist thickets. Few-flowered Nut-rush, Scleria pauciflora, July, . Swamps and hills. NATURAL HISTORY. 107 Table IV. — Continued. Common Name. Systematic Name. Time of Flowering. Place of growth. Dwarf Verticillate Nut-rush, Scleria verticillata, June, . Swamps. Slender Sedge, Carex exilis, June, July, . Marshes in Danvers. Few-flowered Sedge, Carex paucifiora, . - Peat swamps. Bristle-stalked Sedge, . Carex polytrichoides, . May, . . . Low grounds & woods. WUldenow's Sedge, Carex WiUdenovii, May, Moist, shady places. Back's Sedge, Carex Backii, - Mount Tom and rocky hills. Two-seeded Sedge, Carex disperma, . June, . Mossy swamps and mountains. Long-rooted Sedge, Carex cherelorhiga, May, . Mossy swamps. Oral-headed Sedge, Carex cephalophora, . May, . Hill-sides and fields Muhlenberg's Sedge, . Carex Muhlenbergii, . April, . Rocky hill-sides and mountains. Dry-spiked Sedge, . Carex siccata. - Sandy plains. Rose Sedge, .... Carex rosea, .... May, . Moist woods and low Retroflexed Sedge, Carex retroflexa, . May, grounds. Open woods and moist meadows. Bur-reed Sedge, . Carex sparganioides, . May, Low swampy grounds. Awl-fruited Sedge, Carex stipata, April, . Swamps, low grounds. Fox Sedge, .... Carex vulpinoidea, May, Low grounds : common Bristly-spiked Sedge, . Carex setacea. June, . Wet meadows. Bromus-like Sedge, Carex bromoides, . May, . Wet swamps. Foxtail Sedge, Carex alopecoidea. - Woods. Sartwell's Sedge, . Carex Sartwellii, . - - lesser-panicled Sedge, . Carex teretiuscula, June, Swamps : common. Large-panicled Sedge, . Carex decomposita. - Swamps. Three-seeded Sedge, Carex trisperma, . June, . Peat swamps, wet mountain woods. Dewey's Sedge, Carex Deweyana, . June, . Moist woods. White Carex, Carex canescens, . May, . Wet meadows. little Prickly Sedge, . Carex stellulata, . May, Wet meadows. Slender Cluster-spiked Sedge, Carex tenuiflora, . June, Mossy swamps. J Broom-like Sedge, . Carex scoparia. _ Wet meadows and Straw-colored Sedge, Carex straminea, . May, June, . swamps. Borders of woods and fields. Rocky hills and dry woods. Long-stalked Sedge, Carex pedunculata. April, . Square-headed Sedge, . Carex squarrosa, . May, . Low meadows, thickets Buxbaum's Sedge, Carex Buxbaumii, May, . Mossy swamps. Three-headed pubescent Sedge Carex triceps. May, . Woods and meadows. Green- spiked pubescent Sedge Carex virescens, . May, . Woods and hill-sides. Slender Nodding Sedge, Carex graeillima, . June, . Moist grounds. Showy Sedge, Carex formosa, May, Wet meadows. Davis's Sedge, Carex Davisii, May, Swamps, river banks. Rigid Sedge, .... Carex rigida, July, . Mountain summits. 108 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Tabxe IV. — Continued. Common Name. Systematic Name. Time of Flowering. Place of growth. Large Bog Sedge, . Carex augustata, . May, . . Swamps : common. SmaUer Bog Sedge, Water Sedge, Golden-fruited Sedge, . Carex cfespitosa, . Carex aquatilis, . Carex aurea. May, . June, July, . May, June, . Swamps and banks of streams. Borders of lakes and rivers. Borders of swamps and DrOOKB. Fringed Sedge, Carex crinita. May, June, . Swamps, river banks. Few-fruited Sedge, Inflated Sedge, Carex oligosperma, Carex buUata, June, May, . Mountains, borders of swamps. Swamps: not common. Cylindrical-spiked Sedge, Carex cylindrica, . - Swamps : commen. Bladder-fruited Sedge, . Carex utriculata, . May, Wet swamps. Awl-fruited Sedge, Carex subulata, . May, . Cedar swamps. Tall YeUow Sedge, Carex folliculata, . June, . Swamps, peat bogs. Swollen-fruited Sedge, . Hop Sedge, .... Rough-fruited Sedge, . Carex intumescens, Carex lupulina, . Carex scabrata, . June, . June, . May, . Wet grounds and open woods. Swamps and borders of ponds. Borders of brooks. Schweitnitz's Sedge, Carex Schweinitzii, May, . Swamps. Late-fruited Sedge, Long-pointed Sedge, Carex retrorsa, Carex tentaculata, May, . May, Borders of ponds and streams. Swamps. Porcupine Sedge, . Carex hystricina, . June, . Swamps: common. Cyperus-like Sedge, Long-beaked Sedge, Carex Pseudo-Cyperus, Carex longirostris. June, . June, . Swamps and sluggish streams. Shady, rocky places. Hairy-fruited Sedge, Carex tricbocarpa, June, . Marshes and lakes. Awned Sedge, Carex aristata. - Lake shores. Umbel-spiked Sedge, Carex umbellata, . May, . Rocky hill-sides. Pennsylvanian Sedge, . Carex Pennsylvanica, . April, . Dry woods and hill-sides New England Sedge, Slender-leaved Sedge, . Carex Novse-AngliiE, . Carex filiformis, . June, . May, . Woody hills and moun- tains. Peat swamps. Woolly-fruited Sedge, . Short Woolly-spiked Sedgo, . Carex lanuginosa, Carex vestita, May, . May, . Swamps and borders of ponds. Moist, sandy soils. Pubescent Sedge, . Carex pubescens, . May, . Woods and swamps. Mud Sedge, .... Carex limosa, June, . Mossy swamps. Livid Sedge, .... Carex livida, June, . Mossy swamps. Large Yellow Carex, Carex flava, . . ' . May, . Swamps. (Eder's Sedge, Carex (Ederi, May, . Wet limestone rocks. Pale Pubescent Sedge, . Carex pallescens, .. May, . Swamps. Torrey'e Sedge, Carex Torreyi, - Northward. Striated Sedge, Carex striata. May, . . Swamps. Granular-spiked Sedge, Carex granulans, May, . IVct swamps : common. Loose-flowered Sedgo, . Carex laxiflora, . May, . Swamps & moist woods. NATURAL HISTORY. 109 Table IV. — Continued. Common Name. Systematic Name. Time of Flowering. Place of growth. Conical-fruited Sedge, . Carex conoidea, . May, . Wet swampf. Slender Wood Sedge, . Carex digitalis, May, . Woods and hill-sides. Hitchcock's Sedge, Carex Hitchcockiana, . May, . Woods, hiU-sides. Small Few-fruited Sedge, Carex oligocarpa. May, . Woods. Crooked-necked Sedge, . Two-edged Sedge, . Carex tetanica, Carex anceps, May, . May, . Margin of lakes and rivers. Woods. Pale, Smooth Sedge, Crawe's Sedge, Carex blanda, Carex Crawei, May, . Swamps and dry open woods. Banks of rivers. Plantain-leaved Sedge, . Carex plantaginea. April, May, . Shady, rocky ravines. Carey's Sedge, Carex Careyana, . May, Shady, dry woods. Bristled-leaved White Sedge, Carex eburnea, May, . Limestone hills. Fringed Sedge, Carex flexilis, June, . Moist, shady places. Short-beaked Woody Sedge, . Carex arctata. May, . Moist woods, swamps. Weak Sedge, .... Carex debUis, May, . Moist woods, swamps. MUlet-Uke Sedge, . Carex miUacea, . May, . . Wet swamps. Lake Sedge, .... Tuckerman's Sedge, Carex lucustris, . Carex Tuckermani, June, . Deep swamps, borders of lakes. Wet swamps. Washington's Sedge, Gray's Sedge, Bog Sedge, . . . . Carex Washingtoniana, Carex Qrayii, Carex acuta. July, . Near summit of Mount Washington. Swamps and river bor- ders. In dense bogs in swamps Sea Carex, .... Carex arenaria, . June, July, . Sandy sea shores. This table includes all the species of carex known and described as inhabitants of our low lands, and is thought to be very complete. As already intimated, none of these coarse sedges are rich in nutritive elements, and none are worthy of cultivation. The farmer's care should be to eradicate them and supply their places with the higher and more nutritious grasses. This may be done by thorough draining, an opera- tion which lies at the foundation of all successful management of low lands, and without which they are comparatively worth- less, while, if properly reclaimed, they are among the best and most productive lands on the farm. The roots of the sedges are perennial, and for the most part creeping, a few being tufted and fibrous. The stems are simple and free from joints or nodes. The leaves are linear, flat, pointed, roughish on the surface and sharp on the edges. 110 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. The grasses whose natural history has been stated in the pre- ceding pages, might be separated into four or five distinct groups, which would facilitate the study of them ; for it must have been observed that many of them possess marked peculiari- ties of growth. I. We find first the bush or jungle grasses, or such as are not inclined to grow with other species, and form a close, matted turf or sward. Of these we have as examples the Tufted Hair Grass, (^aira ccespitosa.^ Meadow Oat Grass, (avena pratensis.) Tall Fescue Grass, (^festuca elatior.^ A few others, if sown alone, will assume somewhat the same form, in tufts or cushions, as Sheep's Fescue, (^festuca ovina.^ Hard Fescue, Qfestuca duriuscula.') Orchard Grass, (daclylis glomerata.') This peculiarity in the growth of the last three grasses is prevented by close pasturing, rolling and proper cultivation. These operations improve upon nature, since if left to them- selves they would far more certainly assume the jungle growth, such as is often seen on poor, thin pasture soils, especially in the south-eastern parts of the State, where on the sandy soils this mode of growth is every where observable — a close, fine, matted sward being attained only by careful cultivation. II. The aquatic or water grasses form another distinct group, and among these are the Reed Canary Grass, Qphalaris arundinacea,') Common Reed Grass, (arundo plirag-mites.') Water Spear Grass, (^poa aquatica.') Common Manna Grass, (^poa fluitans.') Rice Grass, (^Leersia oryzoides.^ Floating Foxtail, (alopecurus geniculatus.^ Wild Rice, (zizania aquatica.^ These grasses grow mostly in water and are not cultivated with us as agricultural grasses with the exception, perhaps, of NATURAL HISTORY. Ill the first. Wild rice grass is sometimes cultivated and yields large crops at the South, and floating foxtail in Europe. III. Marsh or Salt Grasses, among which we have Salt Reed Grass, (^spartina polystachya.') Rush Salt Grass, (^spartina juncea.} Salt Marsh Grass, (^spartina stricta.y Black Grass, (^juncus hulbosus.') Beach Grass, (ammophila arundinacea.') Goose Grass, (^poa maritima.^ IV. Field or Pasture Grasses. Under this head may be included a very large number of species, all of which have been described above. These grasses might be subdivided according to the soils and situations which they naturally affect; for though a grass may sometimes be found or placed in a soil which is not naturally fitted for it, yet no species will arrive at its most perfect development on a soil not well adapted to it. Among these might be mentioned as examples Timothy, (^phleum pratense.^ Meadow Foxtail, (alopecurus pratensis.^ Common Spear Grass, (^poa pratensis.') Orchard Grass, (dactylis g-lomerata.') Perennial Rye Grass, (lolium perenne.') Italian Rye Grass, (lolium italicum.^ Redtop, (^agroslis vulgaris.^ Whitetop, (agrostis albaS) Downy Oat Grass, (avena pnbescens.') Meadow Soft Grass, (liolcus lanatus.^ Meadow Fescue, (festuca pratensis.') Field Barley Grass, (Jiordeum pratense.') Tall Oat Grass, (arrhenatherum avenaceum.) V. Annual Weeds, which, though proper grasses, are often very troublesome in cultivated grounds, either on account of their creeping, underground stems, or their rapid and luxuriant growth. Thrifty farming is a ceaseless struggle against these pests, and the farmer is generally careful to keep as clear as possible of them. Among these may be named 112 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. WillarcL's Bromiis, (bromus secalinus.') Soft Brome Grass, (bromus mollis.') Slender Foxtail, (alopecurus agrestis.') Creeping Bent Grass, (agrostis stolonifera.) Couch, or Twitch Grass, (triticum repens.) Rough Stalked Meadow Grass, (poa trivialis.') Annual Meadow Grass, (poa annua.) Blue, or Wire Grass, (poa compressa.) Of these, the last four are not always considered as weeds, since they are sometimes sown as pasture grasses ; but when they appear in cultivated grounds, in gravel walks and avenues, they are exceedingly troublesome and difficult to eradicate. Each of the groups indicated above may be considerably enlarged by a study of the natural history of the grasses pre- sented in the foregoing pages. Many of the grasses which have been described, possess but little value for the purposes of cultivation, it is true, but it should not be forgotten that they all have their uses, and these uses in the grand economy of nature are exceedingly impor- tant, however they may appear to our short sighted vision. No plant comes up to the sunlight or expands its beautiful leaves, that does not derive its support in part from the atmosphere, and even though its life be short, it adds materially in its decay to the vast mass of vegetable mould which covers the surface of the globe and forms the richness of the soil. This surface mould has been accumulating for ages in many localities ; every plant that grew in ages past bringing down to us in a tangible form the riches with which the air that surrounded it was stored, which now lie waiting the farmers' use in meadows of exhaustless fertility, in swamps and bogs of vast, increasing utility in our agriculture, and in beds of peat, the value of which we have scarcely begun to appreciate. Thus, the grasses which are not cultivated for their direct nutritive qualities, are not without their value, and they deserve our careful study and attention. NUTRITIVE VALUE. 113 NUTRITIVE VALUE OF THE GRASSES. We have seen that the various species of grass differ very materially in nutritive value ; that some contain the greatest quantity of nutritive matter when green or in the flower ; others when the seed is ripe and the plant mature ; that some yield a luxuriant aftermath, while others can scarcely be said to pro- duce any at all ; that some flourish in elevated situations and are best suited to the grazing of sheep, while others grow most luxuriantly on the low lands and in the marshes, and sustain the richest dairies ; and that no soil is so sterile, no plain so barren but that a grass can be found adapted to it. Some varieties, indeed, will not endure a soil even of medium fertility, nor the application of any stimulating manure, but cling with astonish- ing tenacity to the drifting sands, while others prefer the heaviest clays or revel in the hot beds of -ammonia ; some are gregarious in their habits, requiring to be sown with other species, and if sown alone will linger along till the wild grasses spring up to their support ; others are solitary, and if mixed with different species will either extirpate them, usurping to themselves the entire soil, or die and disappear. Nearly every species is distinguished for some peculiar quality, and most are deficient in some, comparatively few combining all the qualities desired by us in alternate field crops, for pastures or permanent mowing, to such an extent as to justify a general cultivation. It is important, therefore, to learn the comparative nutritive value of each species thought to be worth cultivating. This study is naturally attended with gi-eat difficulties. It is but recently that accurate researches have been made with a view of arriving at such positive results as would be entitled to full confidence.* It is now very well established that the nutritive value of the food of an animal depends chiefly upon the proportion of nitro- genous substances contained in it. Without doubt, the sugar * In 1824, a very laudable attempt was made in England by the Duke of Bedford, at Woburn Abbey, to ascertain the comparative value of most of the grasses which could then be obtained, and the results of the experiments, 15 114 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. which is found to be an ingredient of most vegetable substances at some periods of their growth, in some degree contributes to it also. The nitrogenous constituents of any substance, as grass or hay, for instance, may be determined with little diffi- culty and with great exactness, since it has been found by abundant research, that, when present, they are of nearly the same constitution, and do not vary in their combinations. The determination of the sugar is somewhat more difficult. The constituents of plants may be divided into two classes, one class embracing all those substances of which nitrogen or azote forms a part, and the other consisting of non-nitrogenous bodies. Gluten, albumen, gelatine, casein, legumen and fibrin, belong to the former class, being nitrogenous substances, while starch, gum, sugar, woody fibre, mucilage, &c., are destitute of nitrogen, or non-nitrogenous. Only a small quantity of nitrogen is found in vegetable sub- stances, and it is derived, in part, at least, from the atmosphere in the form of ammonia. On the other hand, nitrogenous sub- stances form a large "proportion of the constituents of the blood of animals and appear in their whole system. As there is a con- stant waste in the animal and a continual formation of new tissues, — as the whole body is constantly renewed through the agency of the blood which is converted into flesh and muscle, — there must be a never failing supply of nourishment, and this nourishment for the higher animals is found, as already inti- mated, in the nitrogenous elements of plants. conducted by liis gardener, George Sinclair, were detailed in a volume under the title of " Hortus Gramineiis Woburne7isis." This work, which was the first treatise worthy of mention on this subject, became the text-book on the grasses, and has been followed by most subsequent writers, down to the present time. But these experiments must be regarded as very unsatisfactory, both on account of the imperfections of the methods of arriving at the results, (though they were the best then known, and suggested by Sir Humphrey Davy,) and because each species or variety was cultivated only to a very limited extent. The produce per acre, for instance, was calculated, in most cases, from the yield of four square feet. Besides this, very great discrepancies occur in the volume which can with difficulty bo accounted for. The analyses recently made by Prof Way, the distinguished chemist of the Royal Agricultural Society, are more reliable, in my estimation, than any which can be found, and no treatise on the grasses would be complete without giving the valuable results to which he has arrived. NUTRITIVE VALUE. 115 For every ounce of nitrogen which the animal requires to sustain life and health, he must take into the stomach, in the shape of food, such a quantity of vegetable substances as will furnish him with an ounce of nitrogen. If we suppose one kind of hay to contain one ounce of nitrogen to the pound, and another to have only half as much, or only an ounce in two pounds, the pound which contains the ounce of nitrogen would go as far to nourish the animal — other things being equal — as the two pounds which contain only the same quantity of nitrogen. The importance of woody fibre to act mechanically in giving bulk to the food, is not, of course, to be overlooked. Nor is this a mere deduction of theory. The experiment has frequently been made, and it is now fully established both by science and experience, that the greater the proportion of nitro- gen which any vegetable contains, the smaller will be the quan- tity of that vegetable required to nourish the animal body, and the less nitrogen any vegetable contains, the greater will be the quantity of it required. Muscle and flesh are composed of nitrogenous principles, while fat is made up of non-nitrogenous matter. Every keeper of stock knows that to feed an animal on oil cake alone, for instance, which is but slightly nitroge- nous, might fatten him, but it would not give him strength of muscle or size ; while if the same animal be kept on the cereal grains, as wheat or Indian. corn, alone, his size rapidly increases, his muscular system develops, and he gains flesh without increasing his fat in proportion. It was with reference to these facts that Boussingault formed his tables of nutritive equiva- lents, and they agree very tlosely with the results of practical observation. The non-nitrogenous substances are necessary for the pro- duction of fat and to supply the animal body with heat, and thus they meet a want in the animal economy, although they do not contribute so directly to nourish and sustain the system. They are, therefore, important in the analyses of articles of food, though not so essential in determining merely their nutri- tive values. From what has been said, the reader will very readily understand the following tables containing the results of the investigations of Prof. Way. The specimens of the various grasses on which his researches were made, were analyzed both 116 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. in their green state as taken from the field, and after being dried at a temperature of 212° Fahr., a point at which the moisture is fonndto be entirely expelled and evaporation ceases, and the importance of both determinations mnst be obvious on a moment's reflection. The names of the natural grasses and the dates of their collection are arranged in the following table : — Table V. Natural Grasses. Name, and Date of Collection. Common Name. Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, . Meadow Foxtail Grass, Tall Oat Grass, .... Yellow Oat Grass, Downy Oat Grass, Common Quaking Grass, . Upright Brome Grass, Soft Brome Grass, Crested Dog's-tail Grass, . Orchard Grass, .... Orchard Grass, seeds ripe, Hard Fescue Grass, . Meadow Soft Grass, . • . Barley Grass, .... Perennial Rye Grass, Italian Rye Grass, . Timothy, Annual Spear Grass, June Grass, .... Kough-stalked Meadow Grass, . Grass from a watered or irrigated meadow, . . . . Grass from a watered or irrigated meadow, . . . . Annual Rye Grass, . Botanic Name. Anthoxanthum odoratum, Alopecurus pratensis, Arrhenatherum avenaceum, Avena flavescens, Trisetum pubescens, Briza media, . Bromus erectus, Bromus mollis, Cynosurus cristatus, Dactylis glomerata, Dactylis glomerata, Festuca duriuscula, Holcus lanatus, Hordeum pratense, Lolium perenne, Lolium italicum, Phleum pratense, Poa annua, Poa pratensis, . Poa triyialis, . First Crop, Second Crop, . Date of collection. May 25, June 1, July 17, June 29, July 11, June 29, June 23, May 8, June 21, June 13, July 19, June 13, June 29, July 11, June 8, June 13, June 13, May 28, June 11, June 18, April 30, June 26, June 8, Character of the Soil. Calcareous loam. Calcareous loam, gray- elly subsoil. Forest marble loam. Forest marble loam. Dry calcareous loam. Forest marble. Calcareous loam. Stiff loam. Calcareous loam. Calcareous loam on gravel. Calcareous loam. Dry calcareous loam. Calcareous loam. Calcareous loam on gravel. Calcareous rubbly loam Forest marble loam. Forest marble loam. Loam, with gravelly subsoil. Dry calcareous loam. Calcareous loam. Calcareous loam. Calcareous loam. Calcareous rubbly loam In the same manner, the name and date of collection of each specimen of artificial grass, analyzed, are arranged in table VI. NUTRITIVE VALUE. 117 Table VI. Artificial Grasses. Name, and Date of Collection. Common Name. Botanic Name. Date of collection. Character of Soil. Bed CloTer, .... Trifolium pratense, June 7, Tenacious loam. Perennial Clover, . Trifolium perenno. June 4, Calcareous loam. Crimson Clover, . Trifolium incarnatum. June 4, Calcareous loam . Cow Grass, Tiifolium medium, June 7, Tenacious loam. Cow Grass, 2a lot. Trifolium medium. June 21, Calcareous loam. Hop trefoil, .... Trifolium procumbens, June 13, Calcareous loam. White Clover, Trifolium repens. June 18, Forest loam. Common vetch. Vicia sativa, June 13, Forest loam. Sainfoin, .... Onobrychis sativa, June 8, Dry loam. Lucerne, or Alfalfa, Medicago sativa, . June 16, - Black Medick, or Nonsuch, . Medicago lupulina, June 6, Calcareous loam. The inquiries of Prof. Way Avere directed to ascertain 1. Tlic proportion of water in each grass as taken from the field. 2. The proportion of albuminous or flesh-forming substances, including, without distinction, all the nitrogenous principles. 3. The proportion of oily or fatty matters which may be called fat-forming' principles. 4. The proportion of elements of respiration, or heat pro- ducing principles, among which are included starch, gum, sugar, pectic acid, &c. ; all the non-nitrogenous substances indeed, except fatty matters and woody fibre. 5. The proportion of woody fibre. 6. The amount of mineral matter or ash. The specimens were picked out, plant by plant, each specimen by itself, from fields in which they were growing naturally, or mixed in the ordinary mode of cultivation, and were not raised expressly for analysis. These tables of analyses, containing as they do the results of profound investigation, and forming as they do one of the most important contributions recently made to the science of agri- culture, are worthy of careful study and will be found to be full of the most valuable practical suggestions. The results of the analysis of the natural grasses in the green state, are arranged in table VII. as follows : — 118 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Table VII. Analysis of Natural Grasses. (100 parts as taken green from the field.) Name of Grass. 1 .s K a M a ^H ty 1 03 Heat -producing principle s — starch, gum, sugar, etc. £ >> o u B a II a u go Sweet-scented Vernal, 80.35 2.05 ■ .67 8.54 7.15 1.24 Meadow Foxtail, 80.20 2.44 .52 8.59 6.70 1.55 TaU Oat Grass, . 72.65 3.54 .87 11.21 9.37 2.36 Yellow Oat Grass, 60.40 2.93 1.04 18.66 14.22 2.72 Downy Oat Grass, 61.50 3.07 .92 19.16 13.34 2.01 Quaking Grass, . 51.85 2.93 1.45 22.60 17.00 4.17 Upright Brome Grass, 59.57 3.78 1.35 3319 2.11 Soft Brome Grass, 76.62 4.05 .47 9.04 8.46 1.36 Crested Dog's-tail, 62.73 4.13 1.32 19.64 9.80 2.33 Orchard Grass, . 70.00 4.06 .94 13.30 10.11 1.59 Orchard Grass, seeds ripe. 52.57 10.93 .74 12.61 20.54 2.61 Hard Fescue Grass, 69.33 3.70 1.02 12.46 11.83 1.66 Meadow Soft Grass, . 69.70 3.49 1.02 11.92 11.94 1.93 Barley Grass, 58.85 4.59 .94 20.05 13.03 2.54 Perennial Rye Grass, . 71.43 3 37 .91 12.08 10.06 2.15 ItaUan Rye Grass, 75.61 2.45 .80 14.11 4.82 2.21 Timothy Grass, . 57.21 4.86 1.50 22.85 11.32 2.26 Annual Spear Grass, . 79.14 2.47 .71 10.79 6.30 .59 June Grass, 67.14 3.41 .86 14.15 12.49 1.95 Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, 73.60 2.58 .97 10.54 10.11 2.20 Grass from Irrigated Meadow, 87.58 3.22 .81 3.93 3.13 1.28 Grass from Irrigated Meadow, 2d crop. 74.53 2.78 .52 11.17 8.76 2.24 Annual Rye Grass, .... 69.00 2.96 .69 12.89 12.47 1.99 A glance at the first column of table VII. will show a striking difference in the percentage of water, it being as high as 80 in some instances, while it falls as low as 60, and in one instance to 51, without considering the second specimen of orchard grass — in which the seed was allowed to ripen, when, of course, the amount of water would be much less than at the period of flowering — or the irrigated grasses. It will be noticed that those grasses which come earliest into flower are generally the most succulent, though this is not uni- formly the case. NUTRITIVE VALUE. 119 It will be seen that the sweet-scented vernal grass and the meadow foxtail contain but 20 parts in 100, of dry, solid mat- ter, while the yellow oat and the downy oat grasses contain nearly double, or about 40 per cent. This difference^ though of no great importance in itself, is of some interest in showing that to judge of the quantity of hay a given burden of grass will produce, it is necessary to consider the species of grass which mainly composes the meadow, since it is evident that a given weight of one variety might make double the quantity of the same weight of another. But the chief interest of the table is to be found in columns three, four and five. The albuminous or flesh forming princi- ples will be found to be double in some instances what they are in others ; and in accordance with the principles laid down in the explanatory remarks which precede the tables, some would appear to be more than twice as nutritive as others, but it should be borne in mind that these differences depend in part on the variations in the quantity of water, and that the real differences will appear more apparent in the dried specimens. A glance at table VIII. will show that the percentage of water in the artificial grasses as taken from the field, is greater than that of the natural grasses under the same circumstances. The percentage of albuminous or flesh forming principles is generally, though by no means uniformly, less than that of our best grasses. Compare red clover, for instance, with Timothy, and the first striking peculiarity is the difference in the amount of water, in the one case exceeding 81 per cent., leaving but 19 per cent, of solid matter from which the flesh forming and other nutritive substances must be drawn, while in Timothy the water amounts to only little over 57 per cent., leaving 43 per cent, of solid substances containing nutritive principles. This is an important difference to begin with. The percentage of flesh forming principles of the two plants does not, at first sight, appear to differ very materially, the clover containing 4.27 the Timothy 4.86 ; but a little consideration of the exceed- ing value of this constituent, will show that the latter has an important advantage in this respect over the clover. In fat- forming principles, the Timothy is more than twice as rich as clover, while in heat-producing principles — also very valuable — Timothy far surpasses clover, the one producing 22.85 percent., 120 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. and the other only 8.45 per cent. Of waste and useless matter in the sliape of woody fibre, Timothy contains the largest per cent., while the larger quantity of mineral matter shows it also to be a greater exhauster of the soil. The most valuable i>rac- tical deductions of a similar nature may be made by comparing these tables. Table VIII. Analysis of Ariificial Grasses, taken from the field). (100 parts, as Name of Plant. 1 ifl sis 3 a; S .Ota p, < a 1 Ileat -producing principle s — starch, gum, sugar, etc. -a Mineral matter, or ash. Red Clover, 81.01 4.27 .09 8.45 3.76 1.82 Perennial Clover, 81.05 3.64 .78 8.04 4.91 1.58. Crimson Clover, . 82.14 2.96 .07 6.70 5.78 1.75 Cow Grass, . 74.10 6.30 .92 9.42 6.25 3.01 Cow Grass, 2d specimen, 77.57 4.22 1.07 11.14 4.23 1.77 Hop Trefoil, 83.48 3.39 .77 7.25 3.74 1.37 White Clover, . 79.71 3.80 .89 8.14 5.38 2.08 Common Vetch, . 82.90 4.04 .52 6.75 4.68 1.11 Sainfoin, 76.64 4.32 .70 10.73 5-77 1.84 Lucerne, or Alfalfa, . 69.95 3.83 .82 13.62 8.74 3.04 Black Medick, or Nonsuch, 76.80 5.70 .94 7.73 6.32 2.51 It will be seen in table IX. that in the case of orchard grass and the irrigated meadow, the seeds were ripened, and they should not, therefore, be compared with other grasses taken in the blossom, without considering this fact. It will be seen, too, that the specimens analyzed were in the dry state, much drier than they could be made by the ordinary process of hay making ; for however perfectly the hay is cured it will still contain a very considerable percentage of water, and if artificially dried, as in the trials given above, and then exposed to the air, it will absorb from 10 to 15 per cent, of water, showing that no hay is abso- lutely dry by any ordinary processes. In England, the percent- age of Avater in well made hay is about 16, and hay artificially dried Avill absorb tliat amount if exposed again to the air. I do not think the percentage here would be so large, for obvious reasons. In the analysis of the hay of the reed canary grass, NUTRITIVE VALUE. 121 made by Prof. Horsford and given on a preceding page, the percentage was but 10.24. That was a well-cured specimen, taken after it had passed the period of blossoming, and the amount of water is, perhaps, slightly below the average. ■ Table IX. Analysis of Natural Grasses. {100 parts of the gratis dried at 212° Fahr.) Name of Grase. Albuminous, or flesh - forming principles. U4 a 'a ..J Heat -producing principles — i starch, sugar, gum. 1 il Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, 10.43 3.41 48.48 36.36 6.32 Ueadow Foxtail, . 12.32 2.92 43.12 33.83 7.81 Tall Oat Grass, . 12.95 3.19 38.03 34.24 11.59 Yellow Oat Grass, 7.48 2.61 47.08 35.95 6.88 Downy Oat Grass, • 7.97 2.39 49.78 34.64 6.22 Quaking Grass, . 6.08 3.01 46.95 35.30 8.66 Upright Brome Grass, 9.44 3.33 8202 5.21 Soft Brome Grass, 17.29 2.11 38.66 36.12 5.82 Crested Dog's-tail, 11.08 3.54 52.64 26.36 6.38 Orchard Grass, 13.53 3.14 44.32 33.70 5.31 Orchard Grass, seeds ripe. 23.08 1.56 26.53 43.32 5.51 Hard Fescue Grass, 12.10 3.34 40.43 38.71 5.42 Meadow Soft Grass, 11.52 3.56 39.25 39.30 6.37 Meadow Barley Grass, 11.17 2.30 46.68 31.67 6.18 Perennial Rye Grass, . 11.85 3.17 42.24 35.20 7.54 Italian Kye Grass, 10.10 3.27 57.82 19.76 9.05 Timothy, 11.36 3.55 53.35 26.46 5.28 Annual Spear Grass, . 11.83 3.42 51.70 30.22 2.83 June Grass, 10.35 2.63 43.06 38.02 5.94 Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, 9.80 3.67 40.17 38.03 8.33 Grass from irrigated meadow, 25.91 6.53 32.05 25.14 10.37 Grass from irrigated meadow, 2d crop. 10.92 2.06 43.90 34.30 8.82 It will be seen that a great difference exists in the valuable constituents of the grasses analyzed in this table, ranging as follows : — Lowest. Flesh-forming principles, . . 6.08 Fat-producing principles, . . 2.11 Heat-giving principles, . . 38.03 16 Highest. 17.29 3.67 57.82 Average. 11.68 2.89 47.92 122 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Table X. Analysis of Artificial Grasses. {In 100 parts of the grass dried at 212'^ Fahr.) Kame of Plant. c , .2" si 2 ^ 1 «-" = i 3 s * =< « ?.r"^-^ J3 ■a d t- J 3 ^ U OS a o Red Clover, Perennial Clover, Crimson Clover, . Cove Grass, . Cow Gra53, 2d specimen, Hop Trefoil, White Clover, Common Vetch, . Sainfoin, Lucerne, or Alfalfa, Black Medick, 22.55 19.18 16.60 24.33 18.77 20.48 18.76 23.61 18.45 12.76 24.60 3.67 4.09 3.73 3.57 4.77 4.67 4.38 3.06 3.01 2.76 4.06 44.47 19.75 42.42 25.96 37.50 32.39 36.38 24.14 49.65 18.84 43.86 22.66 40.04 26.53 39.45 27.38 45.98 24.71 40.16 34.21 33.31 27.19 9.56 8.35 9.78 11.60 7.97 8.33 10.29 6.50 7.87 lO.U 10.84 A glance at this table will show that the different principles in the artificial grasses vary to a great extent, as follows : — Flesh-forming principles, . Fat-proclucing principles, . Heat-giving principles, Lowest. 12.76 2.76 33.31 Highest. 24.60 4.77 49.65 Average. 18.68 3.76 41.48 The difference in composition exhibited in the natural grasses of table IX. are very marked, and of course, the value of the grasses as compared with each other must vary greatly. Still, the practical value of a grass depends somewhat upon circum- stances which cannot be analyzed, such as the period at which it arrives at maturity, and the particular soil and location of the farmer. It might happen that a grass not in itself so rich in nutritive qualities as another, would be preferred on account of its coming to maturity just at the time when the farmer most needed it. But the particular value of this table is, that it shows the comparative nutritive qualities of the grasses, since all the specimens were collected and investigated in the same manner, at the same period of growth, — or as nearly as possi- ble, — when in the flower, so that whatever sources of error NUTRITIVE VALUE. 12B might exist to modify the results, they would naturally apply to all alike. The grasses from the irrigated meadow consisted jDrincipally of June, or Kentucky blue grass, rough stalked meadow grass, perennial rye grass, meadow soft grass, barley grass, meadow oat grass and a few other species, and it will be noticed that in combination they abound in flesh and fat-forming principles to a greater extent than we should be led to suppose from the composition of any one of them alone. Our favorite Timothy compares very favorably with the other grasses, containing a less percentage of useless matter as woody fibre, than any other, except Italian rye grass and crested dog's- tail, a grass not common with us, and the irrigated grasses. la point of soluble, heat-producing principles, sugar, gum and starch, it is surpassed by the Italian rye grass, but by no others. The analyses of this grass in its green and dry states in tables VII. and IX., fully justify the preference which we have long shown for the use of Timothy ; for, as taken from the field at the time of blossoming, it will be found to contain less water, (table VII.,) a greater percentage of flesh and fat-forming principles, and less useless matter in the shape of woody fibre, than most of the other grasses. The deductions of science certainly correspond, in this case, with the results of practice. A comparison of tables VII. and IX. with tables VIII. and X. will show the comparative advantages of the use of the artificial grasses, in point of albuminous or flesh-forming principles and fatty matters. The carbonaceous or heat-producing principles remain nearly the same throughout, while the percentage of waste matter or woody fibre is less than in the natural grasses. This is an important fact, worthy of the careful consideration of the farmer. In the sixth column of table IX. will be found the percentage of ash of each of the grasses analyzed. Table XL contains a still further analysis of this ash, which gives all the inorganic constituents which the plant derives from the soil and the manures furnished to it. It is important and suggestive to one who will examine it carefully, as indicating the kind of manure which in many cases it may be desirable to apply. The first peculiarity which plainly appears from a glance at the ash analyses, is the very large percentage of silicates and 124 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Table XL Analysis of the Ash of some of the Natural and Artificial Grasses. Common Name. -2 i il 8-0 ■So <1 c3 ."2 < o si &4 < "3 02 ■3 < i 1 3 (3 1 a 1 a o u o 2 S' 1 o o . VI a ■ .■2 8 S.2 Meadow Foxtail, .... 7.8138.75 6.25 2.16 .65 3.90 1.28 .47 37.03 - 9.60 - Sweet-scented Vernal, 6.32,28.36 10.09 1 3.39 1.26 9.21 2.53 1 1.18 32.03 j - 7.03 4.90 Downy Oat Grass, 6.22 36.28 10.82 1 3.37 - 4.72 3.17 1 .72 31.21 1 - 4.05 5.66 Upright Brome Grass, 5.2138.48 7.53 5.46 .56 10.38|4.99 .26 20.33 1 - 10.63 1.38 Soft Brone Grass, 5.82 33.34 9.62 4.91 9.07 6.64 2.60 .28 30.09 1 .33 - 3.11 Crested Dog's-tail, 6.38 40.11 7.24 3.20 - 10.16 2.43 .18 24.99 - 11.60 - Orchard Grass, .... 5.3126.65 8.60 3.62 2.09 6.82 2.22 .59 29.52 - 17.86 3.09 Orchard Grass, with seeds ripe, . 6.5132.18 6.41 3.98 2.88 8.14 3.47 .23 33.06 - 4.87 4.76 Hard Fescue Grass, 5.42 28.53 12.07 3.45 1.38 10.312.83 .78 31.84 - 8.17 .62 Meadow Soft Grass, 6.37 28.31 8.02 4.41 1.82 8.31 3.41 .31 34.83 - 3.91 6.66 Meadow Barley Grass, 6.67(56.23 6.04 4.29 - 6.04 2.42 1 .66 20.26 3.40 - 1.66 Perennial Rye Grass, . 7.5427.13 8.73 5.20 .49 9.642.85 .21 24.67 1 13.80 7.25 Annual Spear Grass, . 2.83 16.03 9.11 10.18 3.29 11.69 2.44 1.57 41.88 - .47' 3.35 June Grass, .... 6.94 32.93 10.02 4.26 .40 5.63 2.71 1 .28 31.17 1 - 11.25 1.31 Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, . 8.3337.50 9.13 4.47 .29 8.80 3.22 .29 29.40 - 6.90 - Timothy, 6.29 31.09 11.29 4.86 4.02 14.94 6.30 .27 24.25 1 - .70 3.24 Annual Rye Grass, 6.45 41.79^10.07 3.46 - 6.822-59 .28 28.99 1 .87 - 5.11 Yellow Oat Grass, 5.28 35.20 9.31 4.00 - 7.98 3.07 2.40 36.06 1 .73 - 1.25 Red Clover, 9.56 .59 6.71 1.85 23.47 1 22.624.08 .26 33.45 1 - 2.39 1.53 White Clover, .... - 3.68 11.53 7 21,18.03 26.418.15 1 1.96 14.33 1 3.72 - 4.96 Sainfoin in flower, 6.37 3.22 9.35 3.28 15 20 24.30|5.03 .61 31.90 1 - 6.24 .78 Sainfoin in seed, . . . . 6.50 3.49 7.97 2.33 17.36 29.674.59 .58 29.61 1.25 - 3.12 Italian Rye Grass In flower, 6.97 59.18 6.34 2.82 - 9.952.23 .78 12.45 1 3.98 - 2.27 Italian Rye Grass in seed, . 6.40 60 62 J 6.32 1.31 - 12.29 2.64 .3010.77 .13 - 6.68 potash contained in the natural grasses, and the very small comparative percentage of silica in the artificial grasses, the red and white clovers. The large percentage of lime and carbonic acid attract our attention in the latter. This table is exceedingly valuable as suggesting the proper course of manur- ing for the most successful cultivation of the various crops con- tained in it. If now we cast our eye at the analysis of some of our com- NUTRITIVE VALUE. 125 Table XII. Analysis of Specimens of Weeds, as taken from the field, and ii-hen dried. Name of Plant. a .2 "o o P o ■S.a ■< U s to .9 n u o Ox-eye Daisy, ( Cnjsanthemum leucanthemum.) June 23, 71.85 2.12 .999 12.64 10.51 1.8G Yellow Buttercup, (ivajiuncK^ui acm,) . June 13, 8S.15 1.18 .507 6.26 3.00 .91 SoTTeX, {Riimrx acetosa,) July 4, 75.37 1.90 .545 7.62 13.04 1.51 Dried Specimens of the same. Ox-eye Daisy, - - - 7.53 3.49 45.02 37.33 6.63 Buttercup, - - - 9.93 4.28 52.69 25.34 7.71 Sorrel, - - 7.71 2.19 46.82 37.16 6.12 mon weeds, we shall see how far superior the cultivated grasses are in nitrogenous or nutritive principles. The albuminous principles are very much less than in either the natural or the artificial grasses. A line of investigation, both scientific and practical, equally interesting and valuable with the foregoing, would lead into the comparative nutritive equivalents of hay and other feeding sub- stances. This is not the place to discuss that subject in full, the line of our present inquiry embracing only the compara- tive nutritive values of the grasses themselves. For convenience of reference, however, I subjoin the following table, (XIII.,) embracing the results of the profoundest researches of many distinguished chemists and practical men, both in the labora- tory and the barn. Boussingault and others in France, and Fresenius, Thaer and others in Germany, have devoted to these and similar investigations the best part of their lives. It is necessary to remark that tables of nutritive equivalents are liable to imperfections, on account of sources of error which must exist in the nature of things, as difference of soil, climate, season, imperfection of methods of analysis, &c. ; but making all allowance for these, and admitting that the table cannot be absolutely, and literally correct or perfect, it possesses great practical value and interest as giving a good general idea of the relative value for feeding purposes, of various agricultural products. 126 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. In regard to the nutritive value, as based on the amount of nitrogen or nitrogenous compounds, it may be remarked that the latest and most careful experiments, conducted by most experienced and competent experimenters, tend to show that tliis basis is correct, so far as it can be applied to substances so analogous in composition that tliey can be included in one group ; as for example, the different root crops possess a nutri- tive value in proportion to the amount of nitrogen they contain, but the nutritive value of a root ought not to be compared with a succulent vegetable, like clover, for instance, by the propor- tion of nitrogen in each, merely, without taking into considera- tion other properties. In other words, roots may be compared with cacli other on that basis merely, and grasses with each other, and leguminous plants with each other, but not root crops and grasses. This fact is alluded to as a possible source of error in some of the earlier researches of Boussingault, and not as materially affecting the practical value of the table. The mode of using table XIII. is very simple. Good upland meadow hay, — or what would be called in New England, good English hay, — is taken as a standard of comparison. Now if we wished to produce the same results with carrots as with one hundred pounds of good, average English hay, we must use, according to Boussingault's column of equivalents, 382 pounds of carrots, or for each pound of hay, 3.82 pounds of carrots, and according to the practical experiments mentioned, 366 pounds, 250 pounds, 225 pounds, 300 pounds, and so on, to each 100 pounds of hay. According to the theoretical values of Boussingault, 100 pounds of hay are equal in feeding qualities to 65 pounds of bar- ley, 60 pounds of oats, 58 pounds of rye, or 55 pounds of wheat. While, according to the experiments of Thaer, 100 pounds of hay produced the same effect as 76 pounds of barley, 86 pounds of oats, 71 pounds of rye, 64 pounds of wheat. With regard to the analyses of tables VII., VIII., IX. and X., some allowance should undoubtedly be made for difference of climate, since it is well known that grasses, as well as other plants, grown rapidly in a hot sun, which we usually have in the months of May, June and July, contain a much larger amount of nutritive and saccharine matter than those grown slower and in a greater amount of available moisture both in NUTRITIVE VALUE. 127 IX";^ I Sg3^Mtoooooao5M l-i to bo CO CO CO CO !*»■ o> o to Oa O !*»■ X^ O O O 00 t i-tcOCOhSOCnCOh-' to O^C^OlOiCT^ItOJO Co CO CO Ci tOOt&OOTOiO-4COCOOlOCO C» O 1 ~' CO CO -I — • -1 CSCnCoOMCnCOO Nitrofccn in 100 parts of dried substance. Nitrogen in 100 parts of undried substaucc. Nutritive equi- valent. f- 1^ lf> o> oi to to ^ n 01 l-l oo 00 en OT I 1 rs IS- I o 1 I 00 00 03 I CO I I en -^ I ' It- 1 O O 1 o O 1 o o r o o o , ^ 2 or 1 CO 1 1 oo g 1 l-i to en l Schweitzer. o a 128 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. the atmosphere and the soil, which is ordinarily present in the climate of England. Every observing farmer knows that grasses grown on our low, reclaimed swamp lands, for instance, make less milk, and less flesh and fat in animals, than the same species grown on our dry, upland soils. The same difference must exist, to some extent, between our grasses and the grasses grown in a comparatively moist climate, where they have the advantage of more frequent rains, which push them to a more complete development and give them greater luxuriance, in- creasing, of course, the quantity of their produce, while their quality cannot be improved in the points alluded to. This sub- ject will come more properly under discussion in treating of the INFLUENCE OF THE SEASONS. We now come to consider the influence which the season or the climate has upon the quantity and nutritive quality of grass. Before entering upon this topic, it is proper to remark, that in order to bring together the practical wisdom and judgment of some of the best farmers in the State, as well as to be able to present some statistical information in regard to the product of grass and hay for the past season, I directed the following circular to one or more farmers in eyery town in Massachusetts, asking for replies from each. BoAKD OF Ageicultuke, State House, ) Boston, Sept. 1, 1856, ) Dear Sir : — Will you have the goodness to reply to the following inquiries in reference to the grass and hay crop of your town, accord- ing to the best of your judgment and experience ? If circumstances prevent your giving it personal attention, will you be kind enough to put it into the hands of some one interested in the subject in your neighborhood, who will do me the favor to answer it ? 1. What was the estimated yield of grass and hay in your town this season, as compared with others ? If above or below the aver- age, how much ? 2. What, in your opinion, is the effect of a wet or a dry season on the quality of grass and hay ? Is grass grown in the shade as good as that grown in the sun, and what is the diiference ? [This question embraces the intrinsic value of hay this season as compared with the crops of 1854 and 1855, both comparatively dry seasons, while this has been unusually wet in most parts of the State.] INFLUENCE OP THE SEASONS. 129 3. In what month do you prsfer to seed down land designed for mowing, and what is the reason of jour preference? 4. What varieties of grass seed do you usually sow for mowing, and what for permanent pasturage, and in what quantities and pro- portions, per acre r 5. Do you prefer to sow grass seed alone in either case, or Avith some variety of grain? If the latter, why, and with what grain? 6. Have you cultivated or raised orchard, fowl meadow, or blue joint grasses, and Avith what result as compared with the yield and value of other grasses ? 7. At what stage of growth do you prefer to cut grass to make into English and into swale hay, and what is the reason for your preference ? 8. What is the best mode of making hay from Timothy, from red- top, and from wet meadow grass, and at what state of dryness do you consider it made, or fit to get into the born? [This question embraces, to some extent, the time taken to make it under ordinary circum- Btances of good weather, &c. This, of course, varies greatly, but some farmers would dry grass cut in the blossom two good hay days, while others would prefer to cure it less, and get it in on the day it was cut.] 9. W^U you state in detail how you make or cure clover, and how, when so cured, it compares in value with other kinds of hay to feed out to farm stock ? 10. Have you usad hay caps, and if so, with what result, in point of economy ? How were they made and at what cost ? 11. Have jou used a mowing machine, and if so, what patent, with what power, and with what advantage ? 12. At what height from the ground do you prefer to have your grass cut, and why? 13. Have you used a horse-rake, and if so, what patent, and with what advantage ? 14. Do you feed off the after growth of your mowing lands in the fall ? Do you think it an injury or a benefit to the field to feed it ofi"? 15. Do you top-dress your mowing or pasture lands, and if so, what manure do you prefer to use, at what time, and in what quantities do you apply it ? 16. "What is the best mode of renovating old worn out pasture lands ? 17. If you have any experience in ditching and draining wet meadow, or ditching or diking salt marsh, will you state the result, and the comparative value of the grass before and after the operation? 18. ^V'hat are the most valuable varieties of salt marsh grasses, and how does the hay made from them cjmpare in value with good English hay ? 17 130 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 19. Have you any experience in irrigating mowing or pasture lands, and if so, what is the result ? 20. Do you prefer to salt your hay when putting into the barn, and if so, Avhat quantity do you use, per ton ? 21. What do you consider the best mode of destroying couch or twitch grass ? 22. What is the best mode of destroying the white weed or ox-eye daisy ? 23. Will you give any other details not suggested by the above, which, in your opinion, may be considered important, in regard to this crop, and particularly if you have experimented Avith any varieties of grass not in general cultivation, such as lucerne or alfalfa, rye grass, brome grass, Kentucky blue grass, &c., will you state the results as fully as possible ? If you have any varieties of grass found to be valuable but not in general cultivation, the names of which are not known to you, Avill you send them to this office where the names will be given ? Very respectfully, your obedient servant, CHARLES L. FLINT, Secretary of the Board of Agriculture. I am indebted to the kindness of many enterprising and intelligent farmers for fnll and valuable answers froi^ more than two hundred towns in the State, and these alone would make a valuable volume of themselves. I can, of course, do no more than extract from them as freely as space will permit, which I shall do at greater length in the subsequent sections. No crop, perhaps, is more dependent on the seasons than the grasses. Every farmer knows that a moist spring, with rains evenly distributed over the months of April, May and June, will insure him the most luxuriant crops of grass and hay ; and he know^s, also, that a dry, cold spring is fatal to their rapid and healthy development, and that he must, in such a spring, expect a comparatively small crop. These and many similar facts are familiar to the commonest practical observation. It has also been found by observation that the grasses will vegetate when the temperature of the air is above the freezing point of water, 32° Fahrenheit, provided the temperature of the soil ranges from 35° to 40,° while a lower temperature checks their growth. Vegetation, at temperatures higher than these, depends much on the amount of moisture and heat, both INFLUENCE OF THE SEASONS. 131 of the soil and the atmosphere. Grass will not vegetate when the temperature of the air is higher than QQ° unless the soil is very moist. When the vapor of the air is at its maximum, or when the air is saturated with moisture, vegetation advances with the greatest rapidity, and this most frequently happens with us in the earlier growing months, April, May and June. But when the moisture in the atmosphere is slight, and the soil becomes dry, and the subsoil is porous, the turf of our iields and pastures suffers from the drought, and scarcely a year passes over us when this does not happen. A writer in the Journal of the Royal Agricultural Society, (quoted in the Farmers' Magazine, Yol. ix., No. 5, Third Series,) after many careful observations, comes to the conclusion, First. That the growth of grass is always proportionate to the heat of the air, if a sufficiency of moisture be present in the atmosphere. Second. That in the climate of England the moisture present is rarely sufficient to allow the temperature to have full effect, when that tjn perature exceeds 56°, but that if moisture be artificially supplied, as by irrigation, to catch water meadows, that then vegetation will still proceed in proportion to the heat. Third. That when the temperature of the air is between 36° and 41°, the grass will only vegetate with a fifth part of the force that it will when the temperature is 56°. Thus the land that will keep ten sheep per acre in the latter case, will only k^ep two in he forme i'. That from 41° to 46° its growth is two-fifths, or double that of its growth when the temperature is under 41°, and it will then keop four sheep instead of two. Again, from 46° to 5j°, its growth will rite to seven-'": nths, or it will keep on the same ground from five to seven sheep, and from 50° to (jQ°, i: gener-ll — unless assisted by an artificial addition of moisture — arrives at its maximum ; but if the month of June be very moist, it will continue to grow with an increase of force up to 60°. Our climate is very different from that of England. The evaporation from the soil is ordinarily very much more rapid, and the actual amount of moisture in the air is greater, since it is well established that the evaporation is in proportion to the height of the temperature and the extent of water or land sur- face ; that in the temperate zones it amounts to about thirty- seven inches a year, while in the tropics it rises to from ninety 132 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. to one hundred inches, and that the atmosphere when at the freezing point contains about a two-hundredth part of its weight of water, while at 52° it contains a liundredth part, or twice as much ; at 74°, a fiftieth part, or four times as much, and at 98°, a twenty-fifth part, or eight times as mucli, and so on in that ratio. Now although the mean annual temperature of the two countries is about the same, — it being near London about 48° 5', and at Boston 48° 9', — yet the temperature of the growing months of the two countries presents a marked difference, the mean temperature of every one being with us much higher. But the climate of England is proverbially moist, notwithstand- ing that the mean annual fall of rain near London is only little over twenty-five inches, while the quantity which falls at Boston is over forty-two inches. The amount of sensible moisture of the atmosphere is greater in England than here, though the actual amount existing in our atmosphere must excee i that of the atmosphere even in the eastern part of England. Our soil is consequently dryer, and unless we have frequent rains vegetation suffers sooner, and the growth of grass is liable to be checked for the want of moisture. This actually happens more or less nearly every year. But the spring of the past year was an exception, for the quantity of rain in most parts of the State was no only somewhat larger than usual, but it was well dis- tributed over the spring months ; that is, it fell frequently and in small quantities. This, as is usually the case, caused an early and remarkably luxuriant growth of grass, while the quality was not generally considered so good as the average. It may be laid down as a well-fixed principle, that the grass crop is better from large quantities of rain falling at once and at longer intervih — lovided it does not come in torrents to prostrate the crop, and that the intervals are not so long as to produce droughts, which are always attended with deleterious effects, — than from smaller quantities falling with greater fre- quenc ;. The quantity in the latter case will not ordinarily be so great as in the former, but it is more than compensated, it is thought, by the increased value. More accurate statistics will throw light on this subject. As a means of comparison, the following table of the mean monthly temperature and rain at the observatory at Cambridge, during the growing months of 1854, '55 and '56, will be found INFLUENCE OF THE SEASONS. 133 convenient. The observations were made four times a day, at sunrise, 9 A. M., 3 and 9 P. M. The latitude being 42° 22' 48", the longitude 71° 1'. Months. Mean Temp, in 1854. Kain in 1854. Mean Temp, in 1855. Kain in 1855. BIoanTcmp. in 1856. Kain ia law. March, . . . 33°.l 2.9-19 32°.31 Inches. 1.159 26°.98 Inches. 0.970 April, . . • 42°.9 4.842 44°.08 3.990 45°.82 3.732 May, .... 57°.7 5.453 53°.40 1.501 52°.55 6.732 June, . . . 65°.9 3.585 65°.48 3.581 6S°.08 2.869 July, .... 72°.9 3.239 72°.24 4.845 72°.76 4.243 August, . . . 68°.6 0.351 67°.31 2.270 67°.31 14.981 September, . . 61°."4 4.36 61°.45 1.21G 62°.98 - The mean temperature and the rain at Amlierst, during the growing months of 1856, was as follows : — Temperature. Fahr. March, 25°.88 April, 46°.44 May, 55°.58 June, 68°.6G July, 72°.93 August, 66°.19 September, .... 60°.79 Amount of Rain. Inches. March, 1.118 April, 2.510 May, 5.313 June, 1.920 July, 1.955 August, 12.132 September, .... 3.472 Average of 18 years. Inches. 3.05 3.27 3.91 3.22 4.05 4.40 3.26 The first of these places represents the eastern section of the State, the second, the western ; and observations made at Boston, at Bradford, at Salem and elsewhere in the eastern part, do not materially differ fro.n those at Cambridge, while the observa- 134 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. tions at Williamstown and at Albany, N. Y., do not differ materially, so far as practical deductions are concerned, from those at Amherst. The amount of rain at Worcester, in the central section, in 1854, '65 and '56, was as follows : — 1855. Average for 15 years. March, . April, May, . . June, . . July, . . August, . September, Inches. 3.45 6.69 6.78 3.05 5.68 .35 5.53 Inches. .23 5.39 1.64 4.19 9.40 4.06 .20 Inches. 1.69 3.34 6.55 1.44 2.68 13.14 3.39 Inches. 3.29 3.98 4.36 2.93 3.70 5.58 3.47 The amount of rain at Providence, R. I., on our southern border, was as follows : — Months. For 1858. Average of 25 years. April, . Inches. 2.80 Inches. 3.57 • May, . 4.10 3.33 June, 2.47 2.95 July, . 4.20 2.91 August, . 5.75 3.70 19.32 16.46 The amount of rain which fell at Bradford, in Essex county, in the month of August alone, was sixteen inches, the greatest, probably, ever known in one month in New England, while at Nantucket it was but a fraction over one inch ; so that while INFLUENCE OF THE SEASONS. 135 the vicinity of Boston and the eastern part of the State, gen- erally, was abundantly supplied, the wet meadows being flooded, and thousands of tons of swale hay ruined, the island of Nan- tucket and some parts of Barnstable and Plymouth counties were suftering severely from drouglit, vegetation being entirely parched up. So great is the dependence of the grasses upon heat and moisture combined, that, knowing the results of observations of the thermometer and the rain gauge in any section, during the three growing months of April, May and June, one might pre- dict with great certainty the results of the harvest in that section ; and, on the other hand, the returns of practical farm- ers in different sections of the State, indicate so clearly and uniformly the excess above the average, or the partial failure of the crop, that a meteorological map of the State might be con- structed from them. As might be expected, therefore, from what has already been said, the yield of grass and hay throughout most parts of this State during the past year, has been somewhat above the average, the best judges estimating the excess variously from one-eighth to one-half, and it has, doubtless, in some localities, reached this latter estimate, though the general average was not, probably, over an eighth above that of other years. It may be inferred, also, from wdiat has been said, that the quality was not quite equal to the average, and this was unques- tionably the case, where the excess in quantity was due to the excess of moisture and the rains. The remarks of an experienced, practical farmer of Ken- tucky, express very well the general estimate made by our farmers in reply to the second question proposed in the above circular. " Just so far," says he, " as there is shade, is the grass-deficient in saccharine and nutritious qualities ; that grass which is most exposed to the sun being best. Woodland pas- tures will keep young stock growing and old ones on foot, but will not fatten them. A three-year old Durham will get ' stall fat' in a year on open blue grass." And so a farmer of Plamp- shire county, says : " Grass grown in the shade is lighter and does not contain so much nutriment. Wet seasons increase the weight and bulk of the crop, but the same weight does not contain the amount of nutritive matter of hay raised in a dry 136 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. season. And another of Worcester county: " Hay grown in a dry season contains more nutriment. This is particularly noticeable in the condition of cattle in the spring following a dry season. I do not consider grass grown in a dense shade worth over half price ;" while a farmer of great observation, in Middlesex county, says : " From an experience of fifty years in making hay, and thirty-five in feeding it out and selling it, I should say that in a wet season I never found any thing like so much heart or nutriment in hay as in a dry one. Grass grown under a thick, shady tree is not worth one-half as much as that grown in the sun. The grass this year in this town was well set in the spring and grew very quick when tlie warm weather came on, but still we had much good, warm sun to bring it to maturity, and I think it will spend pretty well, but probably not quite as Avell as the same bulk last year. Since the fifth of September we cut our salt hay in this town and never found it cleaner or better, and I think it will spend well." And another practical farmer remarks : " I think grass and hay are not so good in a wet season. We lose about one-third in the quality of what we gain in the quantity. Grass grown in the shade is not worth more than two-thirds as much as that grown in the sun." It is not necessary to multiply the authorities of practical farmers on this point, since they uniformly coincide with the testimony given above, and it may be regarded as fully estab- lished as the result both of scientific investigations and of prac- tical experience, that both the quantity and the quality of grass are in proportion to the heat or sunlight and the moisture in which it is grown. What has been said will explain the suggestion in the last section with respect to the allowance which it may be proper to make in the analyses of grass grown in a climate of less heat and less sunshine than our own. It will also lead to the conclu- sion that our own grasses grown on low, moist lands, are neither so sweet nor so nutritious as the same species grown on higher and dryer soils ; and it is a fact which has fallen under the observation of practical farmers, that the grasses on low lands do not produce so much nor so good a quality of milk, nor so much fat in animals as the same species of grass grown on up- land soils. TIME OF SOWING. 13T Closely connected with the influence of the seasons is the TIME FOR SOWING GRASS SEED. More than sixty years ago careful experiments were made in this State, in the hope of obtaining such information as would settle the question as to the best time of sowing grass seed, and the practice of seeding down in the fall was then commenced by a few individuals. At and before that time, the practice of sowing in the spring was universal, and the same custom has generally prevailed till w^ithin a very few years. Both the practice and the opinion of the best practical farmers among us have changed to a considerable extent, and it is now commonly thoijght best to sow grass seed in the fall, early in Septem- ber, if possible, mixing no grain or any thing else with it, though there are, and always will be, some cases where the practice of sowing in the spring with grain is^ convenient and judicious. There can be no doubt that it is, in most cases, an injury to both crops to sow them together. The following state- ment of an experienced and successful farmer will enable us to comprehend how the change was brought about, though otliers had tried the same experiment long before him. " More than twenty years ago we had several dry summers, in the springs of which I had sown grass seed with rye, barley and sometimes wheat and lost most of my seed by the drought. I could scrape it up, the plants being dead and dry, when small. Since that time I have universally ploughed after haying and sowed Timothy grass and redtop." Other farmers probably experienced the same difficulty and came to the same conclusion. Our seasons differ greatly to be sure, but it is now w'ell understood that we must calculate on a drought in some part of the summer, and grass will suffer more from drought than from frost. Hence the propriety of fall lowing. There are some localities, undoubtedly, where spring sowing with grain is best, on the whole, as in the south-eastern sections of the State, along the coast, where on account of the proximity of the sea, the ground is often but slightly covered and protected with snow ; yet even there, some farmers say it is better to seed in August and September. Few general rules 18 138 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. are of universal application in agriculture, and the farmer must constantly exercise sound judgment and common sense. One practical farmer of Essex, in answer to the circular, says : " I prefer August, because I think it less liable to winter-kill than summer-kill. And another greater reason is, that in fall seeding I get rid of a crop of weeds, while in spring seeding my ground is seeded with them." An experienced farmer of Hampshire county, writes : " I rather prefer the last week in August for sceduig down land. The reason is, that we fre- quently have a summer drought which kills out the young grass." One of the best farmers of Middlesex, says: " When sown alone I prefer from the 20th of August to the 20th of September, If sown sooner, the summer droughts are apt to injure the young blades ; if later, they do not have a chance to expand and arrive at that degree of maturity necessary ^for a good crop the ensuing season." He says, also, that if in any case it is found necessary to sow with grain, it should be in the spring and not hi the fall. An experienced practical farmer of Essex county, recommends " The latter part of August and the month of September for seeding down laud to grass for mowing, unless that season should be very dry ; in that case, sow so soon after a rain as may be. I do not think it advisable to sow grass seed when the earth is very dry, as some of it may, by the moisture brought up in preparing the land, sprout, but not having continued moisture to support it, will wither away, •while some of the lighter seeds will, perhaps, swell by moisture, but fail to sprout for a lack of nourishment, and consequently perish, while others will be blown away by the winds. The plant from seed sown in August or September, if the season is moist, will take deep root and be prepared to withstand the changes of winter. Grass seed sown witli grain in the spring is liable to be killed in the hot days of July and August, about the time of cutting the grain, particularly on light, sandy or gravelly lands. Clover should be sown in the spring as soon as convenient after the frost is out of the ground, on laifd seeded down the preceding autumn, probably, rather than Booner, in the autumn, as the winter is often too severe for the tender roots." A farmer of Worcester county, says : " On moist land I pre- fer to turn over the green sward after haying, with a Michigan TIME OF SOWING. 130 plough, and seed in August, after spreading on a coat of manure to give the grass an early start." A farmer of Franklin county, writes : " I consider the month of August as the best time to seed down land for mowing, with the exception of clover, and that I sow early in spring." Another from Hampden : " I think August or the early part of September is the best time to seed down grass land, as in the fall of the year it will get root and not be burned up by the sun, as it would be in spring." Another says : " I sow from the middle of August to the middle of September. If sown in spring with oats or other grain, the young grass is liable to be summer-killed, either choked by the ranker growth of the grain, or scorched by the hot sun when the grain is taken off. If sown in spring without grain there is one season lost." A farmer on the Connecticut River states, that " If the sea- son is not too dry, August is a good month to seed for mowing. Have had very good success in seeding with turnips, or grass seed alone, in August or September, to mow the next year ; but the usual practice here is to seed with wheat or rye in Septem- ber or October. Some seed in spring with oats, but generally it does not do well. Clover is more often sown in the spring, because it winter-kills." Another, writing from the northern part of Worcester county, says: "There is a difference of' opinion among farmers in this region on this subject; some prefer to sow the grass seed with the spring grain in May, while others prefer to sow in August. The latter, no doubt, is the best practice, if the ground is sufficiently moist." A very successful farmer of Berkshire, ad\'iscs, " August or September. I have sown in the month of October with good success. Seed sown in August obtains more root than when sown later, and consequently, is not as liable to winter-kill. It also starts earlier the succeeding spring, thereby keeping down the weeds. Much of our moist meadow lands, — too wet for hoed crops, and producing but light crops of grass, and that of an inferior quality, — may be made to produce well by plough- ing and seeding. Let them be ploughed deep in August or September, the surface well-harrowed and covered with a light coat of compost, ashes or barnyard manure, and seeded, and the next year the crop will repay all expense." But on the other hand, a practical farmer on the island of Martha's Vine- 140 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. yard, Duke's county, says : "I prefer seeding down land de- signed for mowing, in April, for the reason that if sown in March the ground becomes so compact from the effects of heavy rains that the seed does not come up well, and if sown in August or September the grass does not attain that degree of maturity to enable it to withstand the frequent freezing and thawing of the succeeding winter. We usually have but little snow to protect the young grass on this island. The ol)jcction to sowing grass seed after English harvest will not probably apply to those places where the winters are less changeable." Another says : " I have sown grass seed in the months of March, April, May, August, September and October. On a rich, compact, retentive soil, seed has done well sown in April or May, but I prefer to seed my land of any description in August, or on a light snow in March. My reason is, that when I have seeded my ground in the spring I have sown rye or oats with the grass seed generally ; if not, a crop of weeds would come up and usurp the place of the grasses and choke them out, and a hot and dry July and August would exterminate what escaped the oats and weeds." Thus, the opinions and practice of farmers is divided on this question, each one being influenced in part by the character of his land and his crops. But it will be found that no season is without its exposure to loss, for if we sow in autumn and have an open and severe winter with frequent changes from compara- tively warm and thawing weather to excessive cold, the young grass will be likely to suffer, while if we sow in spring with some kind of grain, as oats, barley or rye, and have a drought in spring or summer, as we generally do, the grass may be injured and may be entirely killed. No invariable rule for all soils and seasons can be given. But the weight of authority seems to fix upon early autumn as the best season to sow grass seed ; sowing it alone without a grain crop, and the losses from proper seeding down, at that season are probably considerably less, in an average of years, than those which arise from spring sowing with grain. But whatever time may be chosen for sowing, it is very important that the seed bed should have been thoroughly tilled and properly prepared and manured. But instances have fallen under my immediate observation where land which had become SELECTION OF SEED. 141 "hide-bound" and worn out, producing but a light crop of grass, was very much benefited by being turned over m Sep- tember and having a dressing of compost harrowed m, grass seed being then sown alone. The crop even of the next year was much greater than that of previous years and nearly paid for the labor of ploughing and seeding by its nicrease. No rule in regard to the time of seeding down land, which should be found to work best in one latitude, would necessarily apply in a different climate, and uhder different circumstances After having determined upon the time of sowing, the next question in the farmer's mind is as to the SELECTION OF SEED. In -eneral, too little attention is paid to the selection of seeds.'not only of the grasses, but of other cultivated plants. The farmer cannot be sure that he has good seed unless he raises it for himself or uses that raised in his neighborhood. He too often takes that which has passed through several hands, and wliose origin he cannot trace. Bad or old seed may thus be bouoht, in the belief that it is good and new, and the seller himself^iay not know any thing to the contrary. The buyer, in such cases, often introduces weeds which are very difficult to eradicate. The temptation to mix seeds left over from previous years with newer seed, is very great, and there can be no doubt that it is often done on a large scale. In such cases the buyer has no remedy. He cannot return the worthless article and the repayment of the purchase money, even if he could enforce it would be but poor compensation for the loss of a crop. The s4ds of some plants retain their vitality much longer than others Those of the turnip, for instance, will germinate as well or nearly as well, at the age of four or five years as when only one or two years old. But the seeds of most of the grasses are of very little value when they have been kept two or three years, and hence the importance of procuring new and fresh seeds, and guarding against any mixture of the old and worthless with the new, as carefully as possible. It is easy to tell whether the germinative power of grass or any other seed still remains, by the following simple method, 142 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. and if the buyer should be wilHng to try it, he might purchase only a small quantity at first, and afterwards obtain his full supply with more confidence if the trial showed it to be good. Take two pieces of thick clotli, moisten them with water and place them one upon the other in the bottom of a saucer. Place any number of seeds which it is desired to try, upon the cloth, spreading thin, so as not to allow them to cover or touch each other. Cover them over with a tbird piece of cloth similar to the others and moistened in the same manner. Then place the saucer in a moderately warm place. Sufficient water must be turned on from time to time to keep the three thicknesses of cloth moist, but great care must be taken not to use too much water, as tliis would destroy the seed. There should be only enough to moisten the cloths, and not enough to allow any to stand in the saucer. Danger from this source may be avoided in a great measure, however, by tipping up the saucer so as to permit any superfluous water in the saucer to drain off. The cloth used for covering may be gently raised each day to w^atch the progress of the swelling or the moulding of the seeds. The good seed will be found to swell gradually, while the old or poor seed, which has lost its germinating power, will become mouldy in a very few days. In this way, also, any one can judge whether old seed is mixed with new. The latter will germi- nate much more quickly than the former. He can judge, besides, of the quantity which he must sow, since he can tell whether a half, or three-fourths, or the whole will be likely to germinate, and can regulate his sowing accordingly. The seeds of the clovers, if they are new and fresh, will show their germs on the third or fourth day ; other seeds will take a little longer, but till they become coated with mould there is hope of their germinating. As soon as the mould appears it is decisive, and the seed that moulds is worthless. MIXTURES OF GRASS SEED. It is difficult to overestimate the importance to the farmer of a good selection and proper mixture of grass seeds for tlie vari- ous purposes of cultivation, for mowing, for soiling, for perma- nent pasturage, or for an alternate crop. MIXTURES OF SEED. 143 Doubtless the varieties of seed usually sown in this State, consisting almost exclusively of Timothy and redtop, with a mixture of red clover, are among the best for our purposes, and their exclusive use is, in a measure, sanctioned by the expe- rience and practice of our best farmers ; yet, it would seem very strange indeed, if this vast family of plants, consisting of thousands of species and varieties, and occupying, as already intimated, nearly a sixth part of the whole vegetable kingdom, could furnish no more than two or three truly valuable species. When we consider also, that some species are best adapted to one locality, and others to another, some reaching their fullest and most perfect development on clay soils and some on lighter loams and sands, we cannot but wonder that the practice of sowing only Timothy and redtop on nearly all soils, clays, loams and sands indiscriminately, both on high and low land, should have become so prevalent.- It is equally remarkable that while but very few of our grasses, and these for the most part species peculiar to sterile soils, flourish alone, but nearly all do best with a mixture of several species, it should so con- stantly have been thought judicious to attempt to grow only two prominent species together with merely an occasional addi- tion of an anniial or a biennial clover, which soon dies out. When this course is pursued, unless the soil is rich and in good heart, the grass is likely to grow thin and far between, produc- ing but half or two-thirds of a crop, whereas the addition in the mixture of a larger number of species, would have secured a heavier burden of a better quality. These considerations, it seems to me, indicate the true direction in which the farmer who wishes to " make two spires of grass grow where one grew before" without impoverishing the soil, should turn his at- tention. I hold this proposition to be indisputable, that any soil will yield a larger and more nutritious crop if sown with several kinds of nutritious grasses, than when sown with only one or two species. Indeed, it is a fact well establislied by careful experiment, that a mixture of only two or three species of grasses and clover, will produce a less amount of hay than can be obtained by sowing a larger number of species together. There may be some exceptions to this rule, as in cases where the yield of Timothy and redtop, owing to the peculiar fitness 144 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. of the soil for these grasses, is as great as can stand on the ground covered by them. But it is nevertheless true, that if we sow but one kind of grass, however abundantly the seed may be scattered, or on whatever soil it may be, or under however favorable influences, yet only a part of the plants will flourish ; vacant spaces will occur throughout the piece which will be filled up after a time by grasses of an inferior quality, weeds or mosses. This is the case in some degree also, where only two, or a small number of species are sown ; while if a mixture made up of a larger num- ber of kinds of seed is used, the plants will cover the entire surface and produce a far better quality of herbage. In sowing such a mixture of several different species, we do but follow nature, who after all, will generally be found to be the best teacher, for wherever we cast our eyes over an old, rich, permanent pasture, we ordinarily see from fifteen to twenty species of grass or forage plants growing in social profusion. If the soil be very poor, as a cold, hard clay, or a barren sand, perhaps two or three varieties will suffice, but on good soils a larger number will be found to be far more profitable. Espe- cially is this the case where the land is to be left in grass for some years and eventually be pastured, as is frequently done in New England, for it is then desirable to have grasses that reach their maturity at different times, as a constant succession of good feed throughovit the season may thus more surely be obtained. It is well known that there is no month of spring or summer in which some one of the grasses does not attain to its perfection, if we except the month of March. For .good soils, eight or ten species of the grasses or six or eight of the grasses proper and one or more of other herbage plants would probably be found to be profitable. I am aware that the prevailing practice is decidedly against the use of any thing but Timothy, redtop and clover, and that very large crops of these grasses are often raised, but it is nev- ertheless true that we obtain on an average less than a ton to the acre, while with the same culture and a larger number of species we ought to get double that quantity. Before proceeding to consider the proportions in which the different species should be mixed, it may be well to refer to the mode generally adopted for estimating the quantities of seeds MIXTURES OF SEED. 146 their relative weigiit. And I may remark here that the pre- vailing practice of buying and sowing grass seeds by measure rather than by weight, seems injudicious to say the least. It is well known that old or poor seed weighs less than that which is fresh and new. Now if a farmer buys by weight, even if he does get an old or inferior quality of seed, he gets a much larger number of seeds, and this larger quantity of seed which he receives for his money, may make up for the inferior quality, and he will have a larger number of seeds capable of germina- tion than he would have if he bought by measure. It is to be regretted that it has become so nearly universal to purchase by measure, thouglt as this course is for the seller's advantage, it may be difficult to change the custom. The following table, containing the weight per bushel of the- seeds of the most important agricultural grasses, has been pre- pared chiefly from a valuable treatise on the grasses by the Messrs. Lawson, of Edinburgh, who have paid much atten- tion to this subject, and whose experience and observation in the practical culture of the grasses has probably been larger and more extensive than those of any other seedsmen. This table will bo found to be exceedingly valuable for reference. Column 1 contains the common names of the grasses. Column 2, the average number of pounds in a bushel of the seeds. Column 3, the average number of seeds in an ounce. Column 4 shows the depth of soil in inches and fractions of an inch at which the greatest number of seeds germinate. Column 5 shows the depth of soil in inches and fractions of an inch at which only one-half the seeds germinated. Column 6 shows the least depth of soil in inches or frac- tions of an inch at which none of the seeds germinated. Column 7 shows the average percentage of loss in the weight of the grass in making into hay, when cut in the time of flov;cring. The weight of seeds varies, of course, somewhat, from that stated in the above table, according to their qnality. Those given in the table are the average weights of good, merchant- able seed. In some States, as in Wisconsin, for instance, the legal weight of Timothy seed is forty-six pounds to the bushel. The weight of a busliel will depend in part, also, upon the 19 146 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. thoroughness "wnth which it is cleaned. The seeds of the differ- ent varieties of rye grass differ in weight, varying from twenty to thirty pounds per bushel ; but the average is about twenty- six pounds. Table XIV. Weight of Gi'ass Seeds, and depth of Covering. 1. 5. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. VVhitetop, . . . 13 500,000 Otoi •J to 3 1 .05 Itodtop, 12 425,000 - - - .63 Hassock Grass, . 14 132,000 to J -2 to 1 2i .65 Meadow Foxtail, . 5 70,000 to f 1 toli 2i .57 Sweet-scenteJ Vernal, 6 71,000 to } 1 tolj 2 .45 Tall Oat Grass, . 7 21,000 Uos IJ to 13 4 - Slender Wheat Grass, . 10 15,500 to| h to i 2 - Crested Dog's-tail, 26 28,000 - - - - Orchard Grass, . 12 40,000 Oto J 1 tol 2i .29 Hard Fescue, 10 89,000 to i 3 tol 2-1- - 'fall Fescue, 14 20,500 Otoj 1 toll 03 .52 Sheep's Fescue, . 14 04,000 to,' 3 tol 2 .65 Meadow Fescue, . 14 26,000 to A J to 1 2'r .60 Slender, or Spiked Fescue, 15 24,700 - - - - Red Fescue, 10 39,000 - - - - Reed Meadow Grass, . 13 58,000 i to i J tol 2J .30 Common Blauna Grass, 15 33,000 ~ - - .35 Meadow Soft Grass, . 7 95,000 i to i J to 1 ^ .73 Italian Rye Grass, 15 27,000 Oto J 1 toll 3j- - Perennial Rje Grass, . 13 to 30 15,000 i to^ li to 13 3} .50 Millet Grass, 25 80,000 i to i 1 to ;f 23 .38 Reed Canary Gra^s, . 43 42,000 - - - .32 Timothy, 44 74,000 to i I tol 2 .50 Wood Meadow Grass, . 15 173,000 - - ~ .31 Jime, or Spear Grass, 13 243,000 - .57 Rough-stalked Meadow Gra ss, . 15 217,000 to 1 i to ■; 1.^ .72 Beach Grass, 15 10.000 i to 1 li to 1' 4 - Yellow Oat Grass, 5S 118,000 Oto.i 1 tol 2 - Red Clover, . 64 16,000 Oto A 1.] to l_i 2 - Perennial Clover, 64 16,000 Oto I li to 1| 2 - White Clover, C5 32,000 OtO;[ itO 3 la' - r.ucerne, 60 12,600 - - - - Sainfoin, 26 1,280 |tol 2 to2i 4| - MIXTURES OF SEED. 147 The number of seeds of each species in a pound, may be found, of course, by multiplying the numbers in column tliroe by sixteen, tlie number of ounces in a pound. It is obvious, however, that these numbers must vary, like the number of pounds in a bushel, for it is evident that the lighter the seed, the greater will be the number of seeds in a pound. The numbers stated are the average obtained by careful and repeated trials. The results obtained in columns 4, 5 and G, were obtained by careful experiment, and will be found to be very suggestive. The fact that the soil used in the experiments to ascertain the proper depth of covering was kept moist during the process of germination, though freely exposed to the light, accounts for the large number of seeds germinated without any covering whatever. In ordinary field culture some slight covering is desirable ; but the figures in column 6 sliow the important fact that in our modes of sowing and covering there must be a great loss of seed from burying too deep, though the depth should be governed somewhat by the nature of the soil, as its usual moisture or dryness. I have already expressed my opinion that we limit our mix- tures to too i'ew species, thus failing to arrive at the most profit- able results, and have said that, in a piece of land seeded with one or two favorite grasses only, small vacant spaces will be found, which, in the aggregate will diminish very considerably the yield of an acre, even though they may be so small as not to be perceived. It might be thought that this could be avoided by putting into the ground a very large number of seeds. But a knowledge of the quantities of seed ordinarily used in this State for sowing, and an inquiry as to the number of plants necessary to cover the ground with a thick coating of grass, will show that this is not the case. I have in my posses- sion letters from some of the best farmers in Berkshire, Plymouth and other counties of the Commonwealth, in which they state it to be the prevailing practice to sow a bushel of redtop, a half bushel of Timothy, and from four to six pounds of red clover to the acre. Some of them vary the proportions a little, as by the use of one peck of Timothy and a larger quantity of clover, but the general practice is to use nearly the quantities stated, some even using a considerable larger quantity. Now if we ex- amine the table we shall find that in an ounce of redtop seed there 148 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. are 425,000 grains. In a pound there are 6,800,000 seeds: in a bushel, or twelve pounds, there are 81,000,000 seeds. Now take only one peck of Timotliy seed to mix v/ith it. In an ounce of Timothy grass seed there are 74,000 grains. In a pound there are 1,204,000 grains. In eleven pounds, or a peck, there are 13,244,000 seeds, and if we take but four pounds of clover, which is below the average quantity used, we shall find by the same process that we have 1,024,000 seeds. If now we add these sums together, we shall find that we have put upon the acre no less than 95,868,000 seeds ! This gives over 15 seeds to the square inch, or about 2,200 seeds to the square foot ! Again, one of the most intelligent farmers of Middlesex county, a practical man, uses five pecks of redtop and twelve quarts of Timothy seed per acre, for mowing lands, and an addition of five pounds of white clover for pastures, making no less than 124,426,000 seeds per acre. There must be, evidently, an enormous waste of seed, or an extensive destruction of plants, for if we take nature for our guide, we shall not find- any thing like that amount of plants on an inch or a foot of our grass lands. Now let us see from a very careful trial how many plants and how many species are to be found in a square foot. Table XV. Average number of Plants and Species to the square foot of Sward. CHARACTER OF THE TURF. A square foot tp.ken from the richest natural pasture, capable of fattening one large ox or three sheep to the aero, vras found to contain . . 2. Rich old pasture, capable of fattening one large os and three sheep, per acre, 3. Another old pasture contained 4. An old pasture of a damp, moist, and mossy surface, 5. A good pasture, two years old, laid down to rye grass and white clover, 6. A sod of narrow-leaved meadow grass, (poa angustifolia,) six years old, . . 7. A sod of meadow foxtail by itself, sis years old, .... 8. live Grass by itself, same age, 9. Meadow, irrigated and carefully managed, MIXTURES OF SEED. 149 These plants in eacli instance were counted with the utmost care by a farmer now living in this State, then in the employ of Mr. Sinclair, and the correctness of liis results may be relied on. Now it is a well known fact that the sward of a rich old pas- ture is closely packed, filled up, or interwoven with plants and no vacant spaces occur. Yet, in a closely crowded turf of such a pasture, only one thousand distinctly rooted plants were found on a square foot, and these were made up of twenty different species. The soil should be supplied with a proper number of plants, else a loss of labor, time and space will be incurred ; but however heavily seeded a piece may be with one or two favorite grasses, small vacant spaces will occur, wliicli, though they may not seem important in themselves, when taken in the aggregate, will be found to diminish very considerably the yield of an acre, even if they are so small as not to be perceived. And undoubtedly some allowance should be made for the seeds and young plants destroyed by insects, birds and various acci- dental causes ; but even after all deductions for these, we see that in this State, at least, there is no deficiency in the quanti- ties of seed used, and the imperfectly covered ground cannot be explained in this way. The above table is also important as an illustration of the truth of my general proposition. It shows that in those pas- tures where few species wore found together, whether in old, natural pastures or in artificial meadows, the number of plants on a given space was proportionably small. Sinclair, too, who had observed carefully and extensively, writes on this point in regard to the practice of overseeding, as follows : " When an excess of grass seed is sown, the seeds, in general, all vegetate, but the plants make little, if any progress, until from the want of nourishment to the roots, and the confined space for the growth of the foliage, a certain number decay, and give the requisite room to the proper number of plants ; and that will be according as there are a greater or less variety of different species of grasses combined in the sward." It is proper to make some allowance for bad seed, it is true, but our practice is defective and uneconomical. In the exami- nation of the rich and productive pasture turf, from twelve to twenty species were found closely mixed together, and there were six or seven plants to the square inch. We sow seed 150 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. enough, frequently, for fifteen plants to the inch, but rarely ob- tain above two or three, and very frequently even less than that. The difficulty of procuring the seed, and its expense, have been the strongest objections to the use of many species. A demand for these species, however, would soon remove this difficulty, and varieties would be kept for sale in Boston at a reasonable price. When it is considered that the additional expense of sowing a field or permanent pasture with a greater number of species will be, comparatively, very small, while the additional yield will be proportionably largo, — if the result is as favorable as the opinion of many who have made the trial would lead us to expect, — every farmer must admit that it is for his interest to try the experiment, on a small scale, at least. It will he evident, after a moment's reflection, that very dif- ferent mixtures, both as regards the species and the relative quantities of each, will be desirable for different soils ; that dis- similar mixtures would be required for alternate cropping or laying down land for only a year or two, and for permanent pasture. In our pratice it is most common to seed down for some years, and not unfrequently this is done with the design of cutting the grass for hay for a few years and then pasturing the field, in which case our seeding down assumes the charac- ter of laying down for permanent pasturage. Equally good, but very different mixtures might be made, also, for the same soils by different individuals who had different objects in view, some desiring a very early crop, some wishing to select species which resist the access of profitless weeds, and others to cultivate those varieties which exhaust the soil the least. Each of these mixtures may be best adapted to the specific object of the farmer who makes it, and if composed of a sufficient number of species, may be good and truly economical. The practice with many in New England has already been alluded to as consisting usually of one bushel, or twelve pounds of redtop, a half a bushel, or twenty-two pounds of Timothy, and from four to six or eight pounds of clover. The practice of good farmers varies but little from this mixture. The following tables are recommended by Lawson & Son, of Edinburgh. Only a few of the mixtures have been sufficiently tried in this country, and they may need some modification to meet the exigencies of our severe droughts. It may be proper MIXTURES OF SEED. 151 to remark here that the climate of Scotland, in some respects, does not differ much from our own. The latitude of Edinburgh is 55° 57', that of Boston, 42° 21' ; while the mean annual tem- perature of the former is 47°. 1 Fahr., that of the latter, 48°. 9, showing a very slight difference. But our summers are hotter, and we are annually liable to the most severe and parching droughts, such as are not often felt in Scotland. The quantities are stated in pounds. If any one is desirous of reducing them to measures he may easily do so by the use of table XIY., which gives the weight per bushel of each species. Table XVI. For Permanent Pasture. Meadow Foxtail, 2 pounds. Orchard Grass, 6 Hard Fescue, 2 Tall Fescue, 2 Meadow Fescue, 2 Italian Rye Grass, ........ 6 Perennial Rye Grass, 6 Timothy, 4 Iledtop, 2 Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, 3 Red Clover, 2 Perennial Clover, ......... 3 White Clover, 5—15 Here we have a considerable number of species, and accord- ing to table XIV., over 45,500,000 seeds. Thus, though we use less than half as many seeds as our farmers generally do, we still allow more than seven seeds to the square inch, or over 1,000 seeds to the square foot, a number larger than the number of plants found in the rich and closely woven sward of an old pasture, as seen in table XV. These, it will be seen, even if we make a large allowance for bad se«ds, will produce as many 152 GRASSES J^D FORAGE PLANTS. plants as will grow well, while we still have by far tlie largest number of stalks of redtop from no less than 3,600,000 seeds, though the weight of the redtop seed is but two pounds. This mixture is designed for one acre sown without grain in the fall. A mixtnre like the above would answer very well, and is less expensive than the following, though it is prol^able that the greater original outlay for the seeds recommended in the follow- ing table will be more than returned in the additional yield. Table XVII. For Permane7it Pasture. Meadow Foxtail, . Orchard Grass, Hard Fescue, TaU Fescue, .... Meadow Fescue, . Redtop, June Grass, .... Italian Rye Grass, Perennial Rye Grass, . Timothy, .... Wood Meadow Grass, . Rough-stalked I\Ieadow Grass, Yellow Oat Grass, Perennial Clover, . White Clover, 2 pounds. 4 2 2 2 o 3 2 2 1 2 5—45 If the cultivator desires to produce a close, matted sv/ard as soon as possible, no broad-leaved clover sliould be used, and the above mixture will be quite sufficient without the perennial clover. If the object be to make a permanent lawn, as is frequently desirable around or in sight of the farm house, something like the following mixture v/ill be found to be on the whole the best. MIXTURES OF SEED. 163 Table XVIII. Permanent Laivn Grasses in Mixture. Meadow Foxtail, Sweet-scented Verntol Grass, . Redtop, Ilard Fescue, .... Sheep's Fescue, Mftadow Fescue, Red Fescue, .... Italian Rye Grass, . Perennial Rye Grass, Timothy, June, or Common Spear Grass, Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, Yellow Oat Grass, . Perennial Clover, . Red Clover, .... White Clover, 1 pound. 1 2 3 1 4 2 6 8 1 2 2 1 2 2 6—44 This mixture will resist the effects of our severe droughts better than those commonly used for lawns. If any thing is omitted from it, the red and perennial clovers, the yellow oat grass and a part of the rye grass could best be spared. If the farmer wishes to seed down for only a year or two and then to break up again, the following is a good mixture. [Table XIX.] If the soil be moist or peaty two or three pounds of fowl meadow, {poa serotina,^ should be added. Some would prefer another mixture for permanent lawn pastures, as found in table XX. If a fine lawn is wanted where extra attention will be paid to rolling and mowing, the mixture given in table XXI. will do well. A mixture is often wanted for orchards or shaded fields similar to that recommended in table XXII. 20 154 GRASSES AND FOUAGE PLANTS. Table XIX. Mixture for Moioing in the Rotation. NAMK OF GRASS. Redtop, Italian Ilye Grass, . Perennial liye Grass, Orchard Grass, Timothy, . Red Clover, Perennial Clover, White Clover, . 3 3 6 6 3 3 4 6 11 9 8 i 4 - 2 2 ^l 37 37 37 Table XX. Permanent Laion Pastures. Meadow Foxtail, Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, . Orchard Grass, Hard Fescue, . . . . Sheep's Fescue, Meadow Fescue, Italian Rye Grass, . Perennial Rye Grass, Timothy, . . . . Redtop, . . . . Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, Yellow Oat Grass, . Red Clover, . . . . Perennial Red Clover, . White Clover, 1 pound. 1 3 6 4 7 3 3 1 2 2 4— 4S MIXTURES OF SEED. Table XXI. Fine Lawns frequently Mown. 155 Crested Dog's-tail, . Hard Fescue, . . . . Slender-leaf Sheep's Fescue, . Perennial Rye Gi'ass, Wood Meadow Grass, Rou^-stalked Meadow Grass, Yellow Oat Grass, . June Grass, . . . . White Clover, 10 pounds. 4 2 10 2 1 1 8 8—46 Table XXII. Hay and Pasture in Orchards and Shaded Places. Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, . Orchard Grass, Hard Fescue, . . . . Tall Fescue, . . . . Italian Rye Grass, . Perennial Rye Grass, Timothy, . . . . Wood Meadow Grass, Rough-stalked Meadow Grass , June Grass, . . . . Perennial Rod Clover, . White Clover, 1 pound. 6 2 2 4 4 6 4 2 4 3 4^42 For very sandy, dry pastures and heathy moors, the follow- ing. [Table XXIII.] For reclaimed swamps, after draining, designed to be kept in gi-ass for hay, the mixture stated in table XXIV. is good. 156 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. Table XXIII. Mixture for Mowing on Light Sands. Tall Meadow Oat Grass, Orchard Grass, Hard Fescue, . Meadow Soft Grass, Italian Rye Grass, . Perennial Rye Grass, Timothy, Perennial Red Clover, . White Clover, 3 pounds. 4 4 10 • 3 3 4—40 Table XXIV. Mixture for Reclaimed Peaty Lands. Whitetop, variety called Florin, Redtop, Meadow Foxtail, Fowl Meadow, Italian Rye Grass, . Perennial Rye Grass, Reed Canary Grass, Timothy, .... Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, White Clover, 2 pounds. 2 2 4 4 5 4 10 3 4—40 • If a reclaimed meadow is subject to occasional overflows of fresh water, the addition of two or three pounds of the manna grass, (^lyceria fluitans,') if it can be had, will be an improve- ment. On such soils Fiorin, a variety of whitetop, does remark- ably well, and the rough stalked meadow is indispensable. A mixture especially adapted to such situations would be some- thing like the following : — MIXTURES OP SEED. 15T ' Table XXV. Marshy Grounds, liable to be occasionally overjlowed with fresh water. NAME OF GRASS. Alluvial Soils. Florin, ..... Tall Fescue, .... Manna Grass, Reed Canary Grass, Timothy, .... Rough-stalked Meadow Grass, Fowl Meadow Grass, . White Clover, o pounds. 4 5 4 4 3 5 4—32 If it be desired to cover rocky and gravelly hills and soils of a very poor quality with grass, the mixture in the following table will be most serviceable. Table XXVI. Mixture for Rocky Hills Redtop, . Tall Oat, Crested Dog's-tail, Orchar 1 Grass, Red Fescue, . Meadow Soft Grass, Perennial Rye Grass, Timothy, Wood Meadow Grass, Common Spear Grass, Rough-stalked Meadow, White Clover, 2 pounds. 2 3 3 4 2 6 6 3 2 2 8—43 158 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. If the soil be very dry, the wood meadow grass and the Thuothy may bo omitted from tlic above mixture, and a larger quantity of June grass used. The following mixture is well adapted to dry, gravelly soils, which are difficult to turf over. Tabxe XXVII. Mixture for Brtj Gravels. Redtop, . Tall Oat Grass, Red Fescue, . Meadow Soft Grass, Soft Brome Grass, . Perennial Rye Grass, June Grass, White Clover, . 3 pounds. 8 4 4 4 5 4 4— 3G For protecting banks of rivers and streams from washing and wearing away, the reed canary grass and the reed meadow grass will be found very effectual. For preventing the drifting of light sand, beach grass, (^a^nmophila artmdhiacea,') is one of the best. It is extensively used for this purpose at Provincetown and . various other places along the coast. I have sown the seeds of other species in such situations, but know of none equal to beach grass for the purpose of fixing moving sands. As already seen, the general practice in New England is in strong contrast with the foregoing tables of mixtures, for of the two hundred towns heard from, all appear to raise the same species, but no two recommend the same quantities for mixture, and not one reports the use of more than two species of grass mixed with one or sometimes two species of clover, as at all common. As examples of the general practice as reported to me, and with which I have been familiar for many years, the following might be st.ited. I. ^ bushel (0 lbs.) redtop, 1 peck (11 lbs.) Timothy, 5 lbs. red clover. II. 1 1 ushel (12 lbs.) redtop, 1 peck Timothy, 8 lbs. red clover. TIT. 1| bushels (18 lbs.) redtop, 4 qts. (5^ lbs.) Timothy, 3 fe. red clover. MIXTURES OF SEED. 159 IV. 3 pecks (9 lbs) redtop, G quarts Timothy, G lbs. clover. V. 1 bushel (12 lbs.) redtop, 1 bushel (44 lbs.) Tim'y, 10 to 15 lbs. clover. VI. 1 peck (3 lbs.) redtop, 1 peck (11 lbs.) Thiiothy, 8 lbs. clover. VII. 4 quarts (11 lbs.) redtop, 1 peck (11 lbs.) Timothy, 2 quarts red clover, 1 pint white clover. Vm. 16 quarts, (6 lbs.) redtop, 12 q'ts (161 lbs.) Timothy, 6 lbs. clover. IX. 12 quarts (161 lbs.) Timothy, 4 lbs. clover. X. 1 bushel (12 lbs.) redtop, ^ bushel (22 lbs.) Timothy, 10 lbs. clover. XI. 1 peck redtop, 3 pecks Timothy, 6 lbs. clover. Xn. 3 pecks redtop, 1 peck Timothy, 5 lbs. clover. XIII. 1 bushel finetop, 1 peck Timothy, 8 lbs. clover. XIV. 1 bushal redtop, 1 peck Timothy, 12 lbs. clover. XV. 16 quarts redtop, 10 quarts Timothy, 6 lbs. clover. XVI. 1 bushel redtop, -J- bushel Timothy, 10 lbs. clover. XVII. 5 packs redtop, ^ bushel Timothy, 4 lbs. clover. XVin. 1 bushel redtop, 1 peck Timothy, 8 lbs. clover. XIX. 1 peck redtop, 1 peck Timothy, 10 lbs. clover. XX. 3 pecks redtop, 8 to 10 quarts Timothy, 6 to 8 lbs. clover. These mixtures are sufficient to show the exceeding diversity in our practice. A little attention to the weight of the different seeds recom- mended in the above tables will explain why one particular quantity which may appear small at first sight, is sufficient in some cases, as it will show a vast diiierence in their weight ; a given number of pounds of some species containing many more seeds, and therefore producing a far larger number of plants, than an equal weight of others. There are few points in our practice, it seems to me, where greater improvements could be made than in the selection and mixture of our grass seeds. If the money which is now literally thrown away by over-seeding with one or two species were expended in procuring other species and improving our mixtures, there is but little doubt that the aggregate profit on our grass crop would be much greater than it now is. Some maintain that one or two species are sufficient, because certain grasses arc -'natural," as they say, to their land, and come in of themselves. This may, in some cases, be true to some extent, for such grasses will come in, in time, but we are 160 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. liable to lose sight of the fact that the loss of a full yield, in the meantime, is often very serious. But the inference which farmers draw from this fact is not a legitimate one, for they say that it proves that the grasses that come in " naturally," that is, the wild grasses, are best adapted to the soil, and will produce more largely than others in that locality. But this, if carried out to its natural consequences, would lead to the conclusion that new species of plants should never be introduced into any soil, because those best suited to it grow there " naturally " — a principle which no man will assert. On the contrary, one great object of all intelligent farming is to improve upon nature, and to increase the natural capacities both of the soil and of the plants which grow on it ; and the introduction of new species and varieties is one of the most eifectual means of accomplishing this end. Particular species of plants do not always spring up in particular places because they are peculiarly adapted to the soil, but often from mere accident. Seeds are carried by the wind or by animals or birds, and being dropped, produce plants on the spot where they fall. These plants again produce seeds which fall and in their turn produce other plants. Thus a particular species of grass or any plant may be introduced into, and fixed in a locality where it has no special adaptation to the soil there, and the most common plants or varieties of plants will be most likely to spread in this way. Hence the mere fact that a certain species is very generally diffused in a certain district, does not by any means prove that it is better suited to the soil of that district than any other species, nor that it will be sure to come in if omitted in a mixture of grasses designed for such a locality. As already said, the mixture of grass seeds in imitation of nature for the purpose of forming good permanent fields or pastures, is of comparatively modern origin. It was, for a long time after this practice commenced, thought to require a great while to form a thick and good sward or turf, by any artificial means. The use of a large and judiciously selected number of species, has been found to accomplish this object most quickly. Though I have expressed myself with some degree of confi- dence on this subject, I would still refer to the importance of careful experiment. The outlay is small, when compared with the losses now sustained in over-seeding with too few TIME OF CUTTING. 161 species, and from small or medium crops ; and the farmer can soon satisfy himself as to the profit of more attention to the mixtures of grasses. TIME TO CUT GRASS FOR HAY. Having carefully selected and judiciously mixed and sown his grass seed at a proper season, the farmer may confidently hope to have an abundant crop of grass the following year, when there will naturally arise one of the most important ques- tions in the economy of the farm, and that is, when to cut grass to make into hay, or at what stage of its growth it is most valuable for that purpose. This is a point on which even experi- enced farmers diff"er, but the weight of authority will be found strongly for cutting at the time of flowering. Most practical farmers, in answer to this question say that hay is sweeter, and possesses more nutriment when cut in full blossom than at any other stage. One of the most intelligent farmers of Middlesex county says : "I prefer to cut grass when in blossom, because it will make more milk and more fat, and cattle prefer it to that standing later. It keeps them loose and healthy. I have no doubt liay of the same bulk weighs more if it stands in the field till the seed forms, and for this reason some who sell most of their hay let it stand." A farmer of Worcester county says : " When designed for milch cows, store, or fattening ani- mals, I prefer to cut in the blossom, because it makes more milk, more growth and more beef. For working cattle and horses I cut about six days after the pollen has fallen, because it does not scour or loosen the animal so much as when cut in the blossom." A farmer of Hampshire county says : " Next to sweet, fresh grass, we think that rowen will make cows, work- ing cattle or horses thrive better than any other feed, unless in the case of cattle hard at work. We conclude, therefore, that all hay is best cut early. Coarse hay will keep stock tolerably well, cut early, which if allowed to mature would not be eaten at all." A farmer of Hampden county says : " We cut after the blossoms begin to fall, and before they have all fallen. It has more substance and weight cut at that time than if cut sooner, more sweetness and juice than if cut later." A farmer of Berkshire county says : " Our rule is to cut hay in the blos- som, as it is then in the best state for feeding, less woody and 21 162 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. much sweeter than later, and leaves the roots in better state for a second, or another annual crop." Another very intelligent, practical farmer says : " We cut in blossom, because it is then most palatable to stock. If allowed to stand much longer there is a draft upon the soil for the growth of the seed, which is not repaid by the additional value of the hay, if, indeed, it is increased in value at all. My opinion, derived from my own experience, is, that the grasses will sooner die out if allowed to stand later." A farmer who prefers to cut all other grasses when in blossom, says : " It will not do to cut blue joint or fowl meadow till some of the seeds fall, as it will soon run them out." An intelligent farmer of Norfolk county says : " When English grass is in full blossom it has all the good qualities it can have. From that time I think it loses in value in propor- tion to the time which it stands. Swale hay should be cut rather green. If fully ripe it is hard and dry." Another says: " We cut about the time the blossom falls. The grass is then at its full growth. If it stands much longer the leaves begin to die at the bottom and the grass grows tough and hard, and I think the longer it stands the less it will weigh when dried. If it is cut much earlier it will shrink and dry up and does not seem to have so much nutriment in it, and I have noticed cattle will eat more in bulk than when cut at the right time." Another says : " The time of cutting depends very much upon the use you wish to make of it. If for working oxen aiid horses, I would let it stand till a little out of the blossom, but if to feed out to new milch cows in the winter, I would prefer to cut it very green. It is then worth for the making of milk in the winter, almost double that cut later." One other extract will suffice. A farmer of Middlesex county says : " I cut my red clover before the heads begin to turn brown. When the clover js quite heavy I cut it when only one-half the heads have blos- somed, because then cattle will eat all the stems. Clover is injured more by half when it stands long after blossoming than any other kind. I find my clover hay in the barn much heavier when cut quite early." These extracts, taken at random from a large number of let- ters from practical farmers all over the Slate, indicate very cle'arly the prevailing practice. The replies from about one Jiuudred and fifty towns are, that farmers prefer to cut the TIME OF CUTTING. 163 principal grasses, Timothy and redtop, when in full blossom ; red clover when about half the heads are in blossom, and swale grass before it is ripe, and generally before blossoming, if possi- ble, so as to prevent it from becoming hard and wiry. This practice is unquestionably founded on a correct princi- ple, the object of the farmer being to secure his hay so as to make it most like grass in its perfect condition. From princi- ples stated in another place, it has been seen that the nutritive substances of grass are those, which are, for the most part, soluble in water, such as sugar, gluten, and other compounds. Now it is evident that if this is so, the grass should be cut at the time when it contains the largest amount of these princi- ples. In its early stages of growth it contains a very large percentage of water. From its earliest growth the sugar and other soluble substances gradually increase till they reach their maximum percentage in the blossom, or when the seed is fully formed in the cell. From this period the saccharine matter constantly diminishes, and the woody fibre, perfectly insoluble in water, and innutritions, increases till after the seeds have matured, when the plant begins to decay. Of course, if the plant is not cut in the flower, a great part of the nutriment of its stems and leaves is wasted. There are some exceptions to this rule in the natural grasses, as already seen in considering their nutritive qualities, and m the analyses at different periods of their growth. Thus, in case of the orchard grass, Sinclair found the nutritive matter at the time the seed was ripe and at the time of flowering, as seven to five, and the stems of Timothy were found to contain more nutritive matter when the plant was ripe, than at the time of flowering, though it was found that the loss of aftermath which would have formed had the plant been cut in blos- som, more than balanced the gain of nutritive matter in the ripening of the seed. Most of the grasses, too, make a greater quantity of hay when cut at the time of blossoming, though the crested dog's tail has been found to be an exception to this rule. Fowl meadow, also, contains an equal quantity of pro- duce at the time of ripening the seed and at the time of blos- soming, and the nutritive matter at both periods is about the same. It will be found in practice generally to be better to be a little too early than too late, for the gain is in two directions, in 164 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. a greater nutritive substance at the time of blossoming, which is certainly a sufficient consideration of itself, and in the larger growth of the lattermath which will spring up on good land and in a good season. We might also reason from analogy in other plants, for it is a well known fact that the best vegetable extracts for medicinal and other purposes, are procured from plants when in blossom. Prof. Kirtland, of Ohio, states that an observing, practical farmer of his neighborhood, after many careful observations on the growth of Timothy, has arrived at these propositions : — 1. That Timothy grass is a perennial plant, which renews itself by an annual formation of " bulbs," or perhaps, more correctly speaking, tubers, in which the vitality of the plant is concen- trated during the winter. These form in whatever locality the plant is selected, without reference to dryness or moisture. From these proceed the stalks which support the leaves and head, and from the same source spread out the numerous fibres forming the true roots. 2. To insure a perfect development of tubers, a certain amount of nutrition must be assimilated in the leaves, and returned to the base of the plant, through the stalk. 3. As soon as the process of nutrition is completed, it becomes manifest by the appearance of a state of desiccation, or dryness, always commencing at a point directly above either the first or second joint of the stem near the crown of the tuber. From this point the desiccation gradually progresses upwards, and the last portion of the stalk that yields up its freshness is that adjoining the head. Coincident with the be- ginning of this process, is the full development of the seeds, and with its progress they mature. Its earliest appearance is evi- dence that both the tubers and seeds have received their requi- site supplies of nutrition, and that neither the stalk nor the leaves are longer necessary to aid them in completing their maturity. A similar process occurs in the union just above the crown of the bulb, indicating the maturity of that organ. Fig. 97 represents the bulb fully developed and mature, from which the stalk was cut, after the nutritive process was com- pleted, above the point where drying or desiccation had begun. 4. If the stalk be cut from the tubers before this evidence of maturity has appeared, the necessary supplies of nutrition will TIME OF CUTTING. 165 be arrested, their proper growth will cease, and an effort will be made to repair the injury by sending out small, lateral tubers, from which weak and unhealthy stalks will proceed, at the expense of the original tubers. This is seen in Fig. 98. All will ultimately perish either by the droughts of autumn or the cold of winter. 'Ml Fig. 97. 5. The tubers, together with one or two of the lower joints of the stalk, remain fresh and green during the winter, if left to take their natural course, but if, by any means, this green portion be severed, at any season of the year, the result will be the death of the plant, when it will appear as in Fig. 99. 166 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. From these five propositions the following conclusions are drawn : — 1. That Timothy grass cannot, under any circumstances, be adapted for pasture ; as the close nipping of horses and sheep is fatal to the tubers whicli are also extensively destroyed by swine if allowed to run in the pasture. 2. That the proper time for mowing Timothy is at any time after the process of desiccation has commenced on the stalk, as noted in the third proposition. It is not very essential whether it is performed a week earlier or later, provided it be postponed till that evidence of maturity has become manifest. 3. All attempts at close shaving the sward should be avoided, while using the scythe, and in gauging mowing machines, care should be taken to run them so high that they will not cut the Timothy below the second joint above the tuber. I have frequently, during the past autumn, pulled up the bulbous roots of Timothy, from the stubble from which a heavy crop had been cut with the scythe, while in flower, for the pur- pose of studying the changes which were taking place in tliese tubers, and have found them very similar to those represented in Figs. 97 and 98, not only on moist, damjj*soils, but also on soils comparatively dry. Any farmer can satisfy himself of the correctness of these representations by a little observation in his own fields ; and as the point is of practical importance, it is worthy of careful attention. The facts above alluded to have fallen under the observation of a practical farmer of Middlesex county, who says : " The proper time to cut Herds-grass or Timothy, is after the seed is formed and is full in the milk. It will then give about twenty per cent, more weight than when it is just coming into the blossom, and the cattle will eat twenty per cent, less and keep on their flesh. And I prefer also to cut it at that stage of its growth on account of the roots being better able to withstand the drought. It should be cut four inches from the ground, as most of the Timothy is killed by mowhig close and early before it has come to maturity. I have kept Timothy thick and strong in the land six years, by following this method. I have noticed that most of it has died out by once or twice close and early mowing before the grass has come to maturity ; if it is dry weather it is sure to die when so cut. I lost a whole MODES OF CUTTING. 167 field of it by mowing too close and early, and I consider the four inches at the bottom of coarse Timothy of little value." If the seed is allowed to ripen it exhausts the soil far more tlian if cut in the blossom. MOWING MACHINES. We now come to the methods of cutting grass. As this crop is one of the most important and valuable in the whole range of farming products, any practicable means offered to facilitate its harvesting in the best manner, and at the least expense, will naturally excite the interest of the progressive farmer. The ordinary method of cutting by the hand scythe is already too familiar to every one in New England to need a moment's notice in this connection, and I propose only to allude to a com- paratively new method of mowing by horse or ox power, and chiefly to the success which has attended the use of macbinery during the past season as indicated in the returns to the circu- lar already given, and in reply to the second question, " Have you used a mowing machine, if so, what patent, witli^what power, and with what advantage ?" The inducements held out by the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture, by an offer of a premium of $1300, in the year 1855, to the one who should make the most successful experiments in cutting grass by machinery, and of |1,000, to be awarded in 1856, to the inventor or manufacturer of the best mowing machine, very naturally led our farmers to hesitate in procuring machines till the results of these trials were known. The number of affirmative answers to the above question was, notwithstanding, very considerable, and generally wherever used, the testimony is strongly in favor of the use of machinery. In speaking on this subject I shall state simply the facts which have been returned to me by practical farmers, without expressing any personal preferences for any particular patent. By so doing, I shall give the farmer who designs to purchase a machine the means of forming his own judgment without the necessity of any bias from mine. I will simply state that my observation of these machines and their work has been exten- sive during the two past seasons, and that the improvements 168 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. during that time have been very great in nearly all the patents which have fallen under my notice. A practical and experienced farmei of Hampden county, in answer to the circular says : " I use Manny's Patent Mower, manufactured in Worcester, by J. P. Adriance & Co., and have cut more than one hundred acres in the two last seasons, without breaking a tooth or the point of a knife. The whole expense of repairs has not exceeded three dollars, and it is now in fine order for years to come. The power is the same as common ploughing. If the horses are permitted to stop but a short time, and that often, in hot weather, as when ploughing, I would as soon let my horses mow a day as plough." A farmer of Worcester county says : " I have used Ketchum's and Manny's mowing machines. I prefer Manny's to Ketchum's. It draws much easier, and is easier to manage. I worked them both with the same horses. My mowing lots are small. Farmers with large lots can use the machine to greater advantage than I can, but on my small lots it saves nearly two-thirds the cost of mowing, and all the cost of spreading." Another in the same«county says : " In July, 1854, I used Ketchum's Patent Mower, with which, after many failures and repeated discourage- ments, I succeeded in cutting the crop of grass, and made con- siderable saving in the cost of getting the crop, but was of the opinion that great improvements were necessary. In 1855 I used the same patent altered, but not improved, by an iron frame and cutter bar. The present, season I have used the Manny patent, manufactured in Worcester, and can say that it is a labor-saving machine for the farmer. The Manny is far superior to the Ketchum, for lightness of draught and the slow- ness of speed required in iineven places ; the lever by which the cutter bar is raised or lowered at pleasure, — the perfect arrange- ment of the knives that could not be clogged or stopped in more than fifty acres, — the convenience of transporting it on its own wheels from one lot to another, and last, not least, com- bining, as it does, the reaper, renders it one of the most perfect machines that has come under my notice. In regard to the profit of mowing by machinery, it has cost to secure the hay on this place, on an average, about |100 a year for extra labor. This year but |34, allowing nothing for the labor of horses." A practical farmer of Berkshire county says : " I have used MODES OF CUTTING. 169 Manny's combined machine for the two past seasons, having cut all my hay and grain with two horses. The first great advan- tage is that I cut my hay on the day it is^^ for cutting ; second, I get more hay, as it is all cut up alike — no pointing out to be seen when the snow is a foot deep — and third, it don't make a public house of my home during haying and harvesting, for day laborers. The common farm hands with a Manny machine will do the haying with all ease, and at half the expense." An- other in Franklin county says : " I have used Ketchum's patent with two horses, for three seasons. Think I save from the 22 170 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. expense of mowing and spreading by hand, together with the advantage derived from being able to cut all I wish to after the dew is off, one dollar per ton." An experienced farmer of Norfolk county says : " I have used Allen's patent, moved by liorse-power, with great advantage. Horses move slowly, as in ploughing — are less fatigued than by ploughing all day. I have mowed twelve acres per day, and can mow easily and smoothly any grass, even heavy and lodged clover, and on any surface where a scythe can be used. I regard it as of great use, saving much time and hard labor. It cuts clean and smooth, spreads the grass evenly, and requires only the labor of one man in the largest field, until the grass needs to be turned or raked up." Another in Hampshire county says : " We have used a mowing machine for the four last seasons, of Ketchum's patent. There are ten others of the same patent, and three of other kinds in town, all of which are in active use. They are all worked with horses, two on each. As to the advantage gained by the use of the mowing machine, I hardly know what to say or how to reckon it. There are a number of points to be considered, some of which would be called an advantage by some, which with others might not be so considered. But, the gain in cutting the grass must be apparent to all who have land smooth enough to work a machine on ; and in this connection it may be best to speak of the horse-rake with the mower, as one naturally follows the other. Our way of getting hay when the weather is good, is this : To cut and rake it into the windrow the first day. The next, open and turn it, if necessary, then rake it and cart it. Now one man with a machine and horses, in the forenoon, and one horse and rake three hours after dinner, can put five or six acres of grass into the windrow every day if he chooses, which is as much as ordinary farmers in this vicinity wish to do, as our hay has to be carted from one to two miles, and that takes time. How many men will it take to do the same work ? Any one can answer this to his own satisfaction, and as labor differs in price in almost every section of the State, the actual cost would vary somewhat. But here it would take from five to ten men to do the same work, varying as the burden of grass does per acre ; for in lodged grass ten would hardly do. "Then the advantage of having it done in good weather and cutting the grass when he chooses, whether in blossom or after MODES OF CUTTING. 171 it is fully ripe ; I think this can be safely put down at ten per cent., and some call it as high as twenty per cent." A farmer in another town in the same county says : " Have not used any. There are a number of machines in the town. Allen's patent has done the best work this season. Ketchum's improved machine does pretty well. I think they are coming into use more and more." The following extract is from the statement of Dr. Loring, made to the Essex Society during the past season. " The ground upon which my machine (Ketchum's) was operated, furnished a very severe test of its power. Most part of it is clayey, heavy soil, very wet in wet seasons and stiff and rough in dry ones. No special care has been taken in laying it 172 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. down. And I am confident that no machine but the strongest, could endure the wear and tear to which it is subjected on such a surface. " No difficulty has been experienced in the varieties of grass which I have cut. The heaviest and the lightest have fallen equally well, and no trouble has been met in turning the corn- ers or in driving the machine so as to avoid clogging. " The experience of this season has convinced me that on ordinary, rough New England farms, the Ketchum machine works almost to perfection. I do not mean to say it has no equal, for I have not experience to warrant such a statement. But in all varieties of work, light grass and heavy, lodged clover and upright Timothy, rough land and smooth, I find that I can rely on its operations, without particular effort to secure for it any advantages. Its draught is no trouble to such horses as a farmer ought to own. And it does its work without any extra and ingenious appliances. " Of the economy of mowing machines, it seems to me there can be no question. I have found that the machine operated on the Pickman farm would cut grass enough in four or five hours in the morning to keep the laborers busy during the day, and as much as could be cured and got in with ease. The two seasons during which I have witnessed the working of the machine, I have made it, in my mind, an absolute necessity, in all economical management of the farm, to which purpose alone I have had it applied." But the great trial in this State the past year, was in compe- tition for the premium of $1,000 already alluded to, for the best mowing machine. Three farmers of well known good judg- ment were appointed to act as a committee. They gave all the machines entered a very thorough and careful examination, saw the work of each, and made a report which has been re- turned to me in manuscript, and will shortly be published in full. In this report, after speaking of several machines, which, after a preliminary examination or trial, were ruled out for palpable defects, they say : — The four other machines were tried upon another lot of grass, on patches of equal dimensions, each in succession, both when the grass was wet and dry. This was a heavy crop of clover, Timothy and MODES (f^ CUTTING. 173 redtop mixed, some of which was lodged. Portions of the lot were rolling, and the surface generally quite as far from level as our ordi- nary grass fields, so that upon the whole, it was an excellent lot to test the machines. They were also tried on a meadow bottom which had never been ploughed, where various wild grasses, both coarse and fine, were intermixed. The trial, you will thus perceive, was a thorough one, and by it we were able to form a satisfactory judgment of the merits of the differ- ent machines. The remaining machines, and between which we were to judge, were patented or known as Ketchum's, Manny's, Heath's and the Allen machine, entered by E.. L. Allen. The owners of the Ketchum machine allege that Mr. Allen has infringed upon their, patent, and has no right to build or sell his machine except within the limits prescribed in a license procured from them, and that Massa- chusetts is not within those limits. However that may be, is of no consequence so f;ir as our report is concerned, for we did not regard the consideration of that question as within our province, and it there- fore had no weight with us. The Ketchum machine, entered by Nourse, Mason & Co., has probably been in use longer in this State and is more generally known than either pf the others. The one which they entered for premium differs from those which have been built by them in years past, in having a driving wheel of comparatively small size, wrought iron substituted for castings wherever it was deemed practicable, and every thing about the machine so made as to reduce weight. In this they have succeeded, their machine with pole and whifiletrees attached weighing only about 460 pounds. The price of the machine has also been reduced from $100 or upwards, to $75. We think that in this, they have made no mistake, but that the reduc- tion in weight is a great mistake. The difference in the amount of draft required to operate a machine of 400 pounds weight and another of 700 pounds weight, other things being equal, would probably be almost imperceptible, except by very accurate dynamical tests ; and may it not be that the difference would then be found to be in favor of the heavier machine ? Without entering into any speculation upon the matter, we think that it was a fact apparent to every careful observer that this light Ketchum machine actually required more power of draft when in operation than either of the four, and that the one which required the least power of draft was almost twice as heavy. So light, indeed, was it, that with the weight of the driver superadded, and driven at a rate of speed sufficient to cut the grass well, — which, by the way, is a little higher than that required by the 174 GRASSES AND FcfetAGE PLANTS. other machines, — inequalities in the surface, even slight ones, caused it to bound in such a manner as to throw up the extreme end of the finger bar several inches above its true cutting level, leaving the stubble uneven and wavy. Allen's machine required less power of draft than the Ketchum machine. Its weight -with pole and whiiRetrees is about 600 pounds. No machine that we have seen is so readily thrown in and out of gear as is this. It has a wooden instead of an iron finger bar. In our opinion an iron finger bar is preferable. The weather cannot affect it as of necessity it must a wooden one, and the grass which falls upon it leaves it a little more readily. Outside of the driving wheel is a MODES OF CUTTING. 175 light wheel which runs on a spring axle, and is claimed to be advan- tageous in turning and in working the machine on a side hill. The Manny machine also requires less power of draft than did the Ketchum machine. In this respect, the diflference between it and the Allen machine was almost imperceptible. It has a wheel at the end of the knife bar, which greatly assists in turning and backing, and makes it much more comfortable to transport from one field to another. We think that, other things being equal, a machine with a wheel at the end of the finger bar, has an advantage over a machine Avithout it. Although very difierent in construction, we regard the Allen and the Manny machines as very nearly alike in point of merit, and if it had so happened that it was necessary for us to decide between those two machines, our judgment would have been made up cautiously and with much hesitation, for each has points of excellence which the other does not possess. Both these machines did their work gen- erally well, but not so well as the work done by the Heath machine. This, like the Manny machine, has a wheel at the end of the finger bar. Like that, too, it has a reel which may or may not be used, as circumstances require. But its cutting arrangement differs entirely from either of the other machines. They each have a single knife with the blades riveted to the plate and operating through cast iron fingers or guards, which, especially when the knife is dull, may be liable to get filled up and thus clog the blades. Instead of these, this machine has virtually a double set of cutters, the under set being, stationary, projecting an inch beyond the upper, and thereby acting in the double capacity of guard and cutter. These, as well as the upper blades are each independent of the other, and each attached to its bar by a screw bolt. The upper set of blades is held down by a spring pressure bar, so that the operation is similar to that of shears, the grass being cut between two sharp edges, and the machine work- ing nearly as well at one rate of speed as another. In ease of acci- dent, therefore, a blade can be removed by any body and another sub- stituted in an instant of time. Both the upper and lower cutters are made like the best edge tools in use, of the best cast steel with wrought iron backs. The iron furnishing strength, the steel can be made as hard as desirable without so much danger of breaking by use, and being made hard do not require to be so often ground. The lower cutter or guard, as yoii may please to call it, is half an inch thick and one and one- fourth inches wide. The upper blades are about twice as thick as those used on any other machine. This machine very evidently required less power of draft than either of the others, and did its work the best. The Manny machine weighed about 600 176 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. pounds. Th,s wghed about 800 pounds. I„ it, cutting apparatus which .perhaps the most important feature of a mowi„Vmaeh ne we regard .t as very much superior to either of the others. 'in is eaje of draft, perhaps the next most important feature, ,ve regard it ■■•'"'vA',',/'/ III'' ' superior. We regard it also as less liable to doer fl„„ «th Angers or guard. like those of Ketchurl \ lyaLTur lusher .mportaut features it is equal to the other machfnes We therefore unhesitatingly, confidently and unanimously express MODES OF CUTTING. 169 Manny's combined machine for the two past seasons, having cut all my hay and grain with two horses. The first great advan- tage is that I cut my hay on the day it is, fit for cutting ; second, I get more hay, as it is all cut up alike — no pointing out to be seen when the snow is a foot deep — and third, it don't make a public house of my home during haying and liarvesting, for day laborers. The common farm hands with a Manny machine will do the haying with all ease, and at half the expense." An- other in Franklin county says : " I have used Ketchum's patent with two horses, for three seasons. Think I save from the 22 170 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. expense of mowing and spreading by hand, together with the advantage derived from being able to cut all I wish to after the dew is off, one dollar per ton." An experienced farmer of Norfolk county , says : " I have used Allen's patent, moved by horse-power, with great advantage. Horses move slowly, as in ploughing — are less fatigued than by ploughing all day. I have mowed twelve acres per day, and can mow easily and smoothly any grass, even heavy and lodged clover, and on any surface where a scythe can be used. I regard it as of great use, saving much time and hard labor. It cuts clean and smooth, spreads the grass evenly, and requires only the labor of one man in the largest field, until the grass needs to be turned or raked up." Another in Hampshire county says ; " We have used a mowing machine for the four last seasons, of Ketchum's patent. There are ten others of the same patent, and three of other kinds in town, all of which are in active use. They are all worked with horses, two on each. As to the advantage gained by the use of the mowing machine, I hardly know what to say or how to reckon it. There are a number of points to be considered, some of which would be called an advantage by some, which with others might not be so considered. But, the gain in cutting the grass must be apparent to all who have land smooth enough to work a machine on ; and in this connection it may be best to speak of the horse-rake with the mower, as one naturally follows the other. Our way of getting hay when the weather is good, is this : To cut and rake it into the windrow the first day. The next, open and turn it, if necessary, then rake it and cart it. Now one man with a machine and horses, in the forenoon, and one horse and rake three hours after dinner, can put five or six acres of grass into the windrow every day if he chooses, which is as much as ordinary farmers in this vicinity wish to do, as our hay has to be carted from one to two miles, and that takes time. How many men will it take to do the same work ? Any one can answer this to his own satisfaction, and as labor differs in price in almost every section of the State, the actual cost would vary somewhat. But here it would take from five to ten men to do the same work, varying as the burden of grass does per acre ; for in lodged grass ten would hardly do. " Then the advantage of having it done in good weather and cutting the grass when he chooses, whether in blossom or after MODES OF CUTTING. 171 it is fully ripe ; I think this can be safely put down at ten per cent., and some call it as high as twenty per cent." A farmer in another town in the same county says : " Have not used any. There arc a number of machines in the town. Allen's patent has done the best work this season. Ketchum's improved machine does pretty well. I think they are coming into use more and more." Tlie following extract is from the statement of Dr. Loring, made to the Essex Society during the past season. " The ground upon which my machine (Ketchum's) was operated, furnished a very severe test of its power. Most part of it is clayey, heavy soil, very wet in wet seasons and stiff and rough in dry ones. No special care has been taken in laying it 172 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. down. And I am confident that no machine but the strongest, could endure the wear and tear to which it is subjected on such a surface. " No difficulty has been experienced in the varieties of grass which I have cut. The heaviest and the , lightest have fallen equally well, and no trouble has been met in turning the corn- ers or in driving the machine so as to avoid clogging. " The experience of this season has convinced me that on ordinary, rough New England farms, the Ketchum machine works almost to perfection. I do not mean to say it has no equal, for I have not experience to warrant such a statement. But in all varieties of work, light grass and heavy, lodged clover and upright Timothy, rough land and smooth, I find that I can rely on its operations, without particular effort to secure for it any advantages. Its draught is no trouble to such horseg as a farmer ought to own. And it does its work without any extra and ingenious appliances. " Of the economy of mowing machines, it seems to me there can be no question. I have found that the machine operated on the Pickman farm would cut grass enough in four or five hours in the morning to keep the laborers busy during the day, and as much as could be cured and got in with ease. The two seasons during which I have witnessed the working of the machine, I have made it, in my mind, an absolute necessity, in all economical management of the farm, to which purpose alone I have had it applied." But the great trial in this State the past year, was in compe- tition for the premium of 11,000 already alluded to, for the best mowing machine. Three farmers of well known good judg- ment were appointed to act as a committee. They gave all the machines entered a very thorough and careful examination, saw the work of each, and made a report which has been re- turned to me in manuscript, and will shortly be published in full. In this report, after speaking of several macliines, which, after a preliminary examination or trial, were ruled out for palpable defects, they say : — The four other machines were tried upon another lot of grass, on patches of equal dimensions, each in succession, both when the grass was wet and dry. This was a heavy crop of clover, Timothy and MODES OF CUTTING. 173 redtop mixed, some of Avhicli was lodged. Portions of the lot were rolling, and the surface generally quite as far from level as our ordi- nary grass fields, so that upon the Avhole, it was an excellent lot to test the machines. They were also tried on a meadow bottom which had never been ploughed, where various wild grasses, both coarse and fine, were intermixed. The trial, you will thus perceive, was a thorough one, and by it we were able to form a satisfactory judgment of the merits of the differ- ent machines. The remaining machines, and between which we were to judge, were patented or known as Ketchum's, Manny's, Heath's and the Allen machine, entered by R.. L. Allen. The owners of the Ketchum machine allege that Mr. Allen has infringed upon their patent, and has no right to build or sell his machine except within the limits prescribed in a license procured from them, and that Massa- chusetts is not within those limits. However that may be, is of no consequence so far as our report is concerned, for we did not regard the consideration of that question as within our province, and it there- fore had no weight with us. The Ketchum machine, entered by Nourse, Mason & Co., has probably been in use longer in this State and is more generally known than either of the others. The one which they entered for premium differs from those which have been built by them in years past, in having a driving Avheel of comparatively small size, wrought iron substituted for castings wherever it was deemed practicable, and every thing about the machine so made as to reduce weight. In this they have succeeded, their machine with pole and whiffletrees attached weighing only about 460 pounds. The price of the machine has also been reduced from $100 or upwards, to $75. "We think that in this, they have made no mistake, but that the reduc- tion in weight is a great mistake. The difference in the amount of draft required to operate a machine of 400 pounds weight and another of 700 pounds weight, other things being equal, would probably be almost imperceptible, except by very accurate dynamical tests ; and may it not be that the difference would then be found to be in favor of the heavier machine ? Without entering into any speculation upon the matter, we think that it was a fact apparent to every careful observer that this light Ketchum machine actually required more power of draft when in operation than either of the four, and that the one which required the least power of draft was almost twice as heavy. So light, indeed, was it, that with the weight of the driver superadded, and driven at a rate of speed sufficient to cut the grass well, — which, by the way, is a little higher than that required by the 174 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. other machines, — inequalities in the surface, even slight ones, caused it to bound in such a manner as to throw up the extreme end of the finger bar several inches above its true cutting level, leaving the stubble uneven and wavy. Allen's machine required less power of draft than the Ketchum machine. Its weight with pole and whiffletrees is about 600 pounds. No machine that we have seen is so readily thrown in and out of gear as is this. It has a wooden instead of an iron finger bar. In our opinion an iron finger bar is preferable. The weather cannot afi"ect it as of necessity it must a wooden one, and the grass which falls upon it leaves it a little more readily. Outside of the driving wheel is a MODES OF CUTTING. 1T5 light wheel which runs on a spring axle, and is claimed to be advan- tageous in turning and in Avorking the machine on a side hill. The Manny machine also requires less poM-er of draft than did the Ketchum machine. In this respect, the difference between it and the Allen machine was almost imperceptible. It has a wheel at the end of the knife bar, which greatly assists in turning and backing, and makes it much more comfortable to transport from one field to another. We think that, other things being equal, a machine with a wheel at the end of the finger bar, has an advantage over a machine without it. Although very difierent in construction, we regard the Allen and the Manny machines as very nearly alike in point of merit, and if it had so happened that it was necessary for us to decide between those two machines, our judgment would have been made up cautiously and with much hesitation, for each has points of excellence which the other does not possess. Both these machines did their work gen- erally well, but not so well as the work done by the Heath machine. This, like the Manny machine, has a wheel at the end of the finger bar. Like that, too, it has a reel which may or may not be used, as circumstances require. But its cutting arrangement differs entirely from either of the other machines. They each have a single knife with the blades riveted to the plate and operating through cast iron fingers or guards, which, especially when the knife is dull, may be liable to get filled up and thus clog the blades. Instead of these, this machine has virtually a double set of cutters, the under set being stationary, projecting an inch beyond the upper, and thereby acting in the double capacity of guard and cutter. These, as well as the upper blades are each independent of the other, and each attached to its bar by a screw bolt. The upper set of blades is held down by a spring pressure bar, so that the operation is similar to that of shears, the grass being cut between two sharp edges, and the machine work- ing nearly as well at one rate of speed as another. In case of acci- dent, therefore, a blade can be removed by any body and another sub- stituted in an instant of time. Both the upper and lower cutters are made like the best edge tools in use, of the best cast steel with wrought iron backs. The iron furnishing strength, the steel can be made as hard as desirable without so much danger of breaking by use, and being made hard do not require to be so often ground. The lower cutter or guard, as you may please to call it, is half an inch thick and one and one-fourth inches wide. The upper blades are about twice as thick as those used on any other machine. This machine very evidently required less power of draft than either of the others, and did its work the best. The Manny machine weighed about 600 176 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. pounds. This weighed about 800 pounds. In its cutting apparatus, which is perhaps the most important feature of a mowing machine, we regard it as very much superior to either of the others. In its ease of draft, perhaps the next most important feature, we regard it as superior. We regard it also as less liable to clog than any machine with fingers or guards, like those of Ketchum, Manny and Allen. In other important features it is equal to the other machines. We therefore unhesitatingly, confidently and unanimously express METHODS OF CURING. 185 make cows give more and better milk and butter, will put more fat on animals for the slaughter, with four quarts of meal per day, than eight quarts of meal with hay well secured from the first of July to the first of August. That w^ill give the second crop, if you wish, time to grow, and it may be cut tlie last week in August or the first week in September; there will then be a crop of fall feed, which most farmers prize very highly. If you do not wish a second crop, the feed by early mowing is very valuable. On the other hand, if the grass is cut late, the hay is not only poor but the feed is mere nothing. Every farmer of my acquaintance admits that the hay cut early is far superior to that cut late, unless it be those that are in tke habit of selling hay ; even that class must lose in the weight of their crop by late cutting. Many buyers have not yet learned the difference between early and late cut hay, when the real differ- ence is, oftentimes, from four to six dollars per ton. Working horses and oxen will keep in better condition with half the grain when fed upon early cut hay ; will look sleek and their eyes will be bright." A farmer of Hampshire county says : " My method is to cut with the mowing machine, which leaves the grass perfectly spread. It is turned over between one and two o'clock in the afternoon, and while still warm and before the evening dew falls it is put into cocks. It is spread and turned the next morning, and at one o'clock is ready for the barn. I cannot tell on paper, the precise point of dryness at which hay should be housed, but with my hands, eyes and nose, I can judge when it is dry enough not to hurt in the mow, and not so dry as to crumble or to have lost any more of its virtues than necessary. The less drying the better, if it does not injure in the mow." Another practical farmer says : " I prefer two days, but want to have it lay thick together and stirred often the first day and but little the second. In this way the hay retains more of the juices, smells sweeter, looks greener and the cattle like it much better. Hay should be cured so that it will not heat in the mow and no more." Another says : " Hay may generally be dried enough in one good hay day with proper care, to be left over night in the cock and carried to the barn the next after- noon without spreading. Hay may be dried too much as well as too little." " Timothy and redtop," says a farmer of Berk- 24 186 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. sliire county, " carefully spread as soon as the ground between the swaths is dry, and, if heavy, turned about noon, will dry sufficiently in one day, if si clear one, to be put into the barn before sunset. I believe many dry their hay too much. Never dry it so as to make it brittle when twisted in the hand." These, and many other extracts of a similar import which might be given, did space permit, indicate with sufficient dis- tinctness the prevailing practice among the best farmers, but as constantly intimated, it is very common to find hay dried far too much. Every farmer is aware of the importance of keep- ing his grass and hay as free from dew and water as possible. An exposure to rain washes out much of the soluble constitu- ents of the grass, leaving a useless, brittle, woody fibre. Grass and hay are greatly injured by remaining too long under a hot sun without being turned. A somewhat different method is adopted for Clover. — The natural grasses when cut for hay are generally spread and dried as rapidly as possible, in order to secure them in the best manner. Experience has proved that the same method is not applicable to the clover crops. It requires a longer time to cure it properly, and if exposed to the scprching sun it is injured even more than the natural grasses, since its succulent leaves and tender blossoms are quickly browned and lose their sweetness in a measure, and are themselves liable to be wasted in handling over. Most good farmers, therefore, prefer to cure it in the cock. A practical farmer of long experience in Worcester county says : " I prefer to mow clover when it is dry, free from dew ; let it wilt, and the same day it is mown fork it into cocks which will weigh from forty to fifty weight when fit for the barn. Do not rake and roll it, that process will compress it too much. " According to the weather and my convenience I let it stand — it will settle and turn the rain very well, and will answer to put into the mow while the heads and stalks are yet green and fresh. When fit to cart, the stalks although green, will be found to be destitute, or nearly so, of sap — the sap has candied and the clover will keep. On the day of carting turn the cocks over, expose the bottom to the sun an hour or so, and to a ton of hay add four to six quarts of salt in the mow. " Good clover — not rank — cured in this way, I consider to METHODS OF CURING. 187 be worth nearly or quite as much as clear Timothy, to feed to a stock of cattle ; and for milch cows, I consider it to be by far preferable to Timothy. Good clover hay will keep up the quantity of milk, while Timothy will diminish it." Another practical farmer of the same county, in one of the best farming towns in the State, says : " My method of curing clover is this : what is mown in the morning I leave in the swath, to be turned over early in the afternoon. At about four o'clock, or while it is still warm, I put it into small cocks with a fork, and if the weather is favorable it may be housed on the fourth or fifth day, the cocks being turned over on the morning of the day it is to be carted. By so doing, all the heads and leaves are saved, and these are worth more than the stems. This has been my method for the last ten years. For new milch cows in the winter, I think there is nothing better. It will make them give as great a flow of milk as any hay, unless it be good rowen. For working oxen and horses its value is about one-quarter less than Timothy." A practical farmer of Hampshire county says : "I can hardly state my own opinion of curing clover. When the weat|jer bids fair to be good, I mow it after the dew is off, and cock it up after being wilted, using the fork instead of rolling with the rake, and let it remain several days, when it is fit to put into the barn." Another in the same county says : " I mow my clover in the forenoon, and towards night of the same day I take forks and pitch it into cocks and let it stand till it cures. The day I cart it I turn the cocks over so as to air the lower part. I then put it into the mow with all the leaves and heads on, and it is as nice and green as green tea. I think it worth for milch cows and sheep as much per ton as English hay." A farmer of Middlesex county says : " I have found no better hay for farm stock than good clover, cut in season. For milch cows it is much better than Timothy. It keeps horses that are not worked hard better than any hay. And small clover, as the rowen crop, is better than any other kind for calves. Clover is not good market hay, as it wastes in removal from the barn. Stable keepers give much more for coarse Timothy that cannot easily be drawn through a rack." A farmer of Barnstable county says : " We mow clover in the forenoon and let it lie in the swath and put it into small cocks in the afternoon. If the 188 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. weatlier be fair on the third day, open it to the air and siin for two or three hours and then put it into the barn. I have found clover cured in this way keep sweet and free from mould, and of equal value with other hay." Another says: "I have tried three different ways of curing clover. One was, to make it in the same manner of other grasses ; another, to dry it one day in the swath till wilted and then pitch it into cocks to stand some days, according to circumstances; and the third was, to give it one good day's sun, turning it over and getting out the water, and mixing it in the barn with old hay or straw. I managed in tliis way a year ago, the weather being very ' catching,' cut and dried it as much as possible in one day and carted it into the barn the same afternoon. I mixed it with some old swale hay that had been left over, placing a layer of old hay then a layer of clover, building it up in a square mow. My neighbors laughed at me and said I should burn my barn down by put- ting in that ' green stuff.' But I must say I never had better clover hay than that. The cattle would eat all the meadow, or swale hay, as well as the clover. There was not a particle of smoke about it on feeding it out. When cured in this way or by the second method, in the cock, I think clover hay is worth two-thirds as much as good English hay to feed out to farm stock." From what has been said in these extracts, which might be multiplied, did space permit, it appears evident that good farm- ers appreciate the importance of so curing clover as to preserve its tender and succulent foliage. They are careful not to over- dry it, for fear of loss of the blossoms and the leaves. But it is not uncommon among thiiftless farmers, to handle it in such a way that the best parts of it are shaken off and destroyed. The method detailed in the last extract, of mixing clover with a poor quality of hay or straw, has sometimes been adopted with great success, the clover imparting its fragrant odor to the hay with which it is brought in contact, greatly improving its quality, while its own value is preserved without injury. It is not only a matter of convenience oftentimes, to have the clover so secured in catching weather, but on careful experiment may be found worthy of being more generally practiced. The general testimony of practical farmers as to the value of clover hay as compared with that of Timothy and redtop, METHODS OF CURING. 189 our prevailing natural grasses, varies exceedingly, some making it of equal value, others estimating it at one-half and from that to two-thirds and three-fourths. Corn Fodder. — The practice of raising Indian corn to cut and feed out green by way of partial soiling, is very common in New England, as already intimated, in speaking of the natural history of the grasses. This culture has been carried still farther by many farmers, and many acres are raised in various parts of the State for the purpose of cutting and curing for winter use. And now that great hopes are enter- tained by many of the utility of the culture and use of the Chinese sugar cane, which, it is thought may be raised, cut and cured in the same way and for the same purpose, it is impor- tant to allude to the most approved methods of curing, though they may already be familiar to most practical farmers. The common practice with regard to this crop, and which has been already partially stated, is to sow in drills from two and a half to three feet apart, on land well tilled and thoroughly manured, making the drills from six to ten inches wide, with the plougli, manuring in the furrow, dropping the corn about two inches apart and covering with the hoe. In this mode of culture the cultivator may be used between the rows when the corn is from six to twelve inches high, and unless the ground is very weedy no other after culture is generally needed. The first sowing usually takes place about the 20th of May, and this is succeeded by other sowings at intervals of a week or ten days, till July, in order to have a succession of green fodder. But if it is designed to cut it up to cure for winter use, an early sowing is generally preferred, in order to be able to cure it in warm weather, in August or early in September. Sown in this way, about three or four bushels of corn are required for an acre, since if sown thickly, the fodder is better, the stalks smaller, and the waste less. The chief difficulty in curing corn cultivated for this pur- pose and after the methods spoken of, arises mainly from the fact that it comes at a season when the weather is often colder, the days shorter, and the dews heavier than when the curing of hay takes place. Nor is the curing of corn cut up green, so easy and simple as that of drying the stalks of Indian corn cut above the ear, as in our common practice of topping, since then the 190 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. plant is riper, less juicy, and cures more readily. The method sometimes adopted is to cut and tie into small bundles, after it is somewhat wilted, and stook upon the ground, where it is allowed to stand, subject to all the changes of the weather, with only tlie protection of the stook itself. The stooks consist of bunches of stalks first bound in small bundles, and are made sufficiently large to prevent the wind from blowing them over. The arms are thrown around the tops to bring them together as closely as possible, when the tops are broken over or twisted together, or otherwise fastened in order to make the stook " shed the rain " as well as possible. In this condition they stand out till sufficiently dried to put into the barn. But Indian corn stooked in. this way often becomes musty or covered with dust, while the rains often soak it thoroughly and wash out much of its soluble matter, and its nutritive value is in a great measure lost. Besides, every one knows that to cut up a green plant, as a willow or any other thriftily grow- ing plant or shrub, and set it up with the cut end resting upon the ground where it can still derive moisture from the soil, will prevent its drying. There can be no doubt, also, that the exposure to the sun, wind and rain, greatly injures it by removing much of its sweetness, or changing it to woody fibre, while it takes from it its beautiful fresh green color. To avoid the losses necessarily attending these modes of cur- ing, some have suggested kiln drying as far preferable, and, on the whole, as economical. I have known the experiment tried in one or two instances with complete success, the fodder com- ing out with its fresh green color, and apparently better relished by cattle than that dried in the ordinary way. This method appears to me to be worthy of much more extended and careful experiment. The kiln need not be elaborately or expensively contrived. The process of drying would be short and the labor slight. Another mode which has been suggested is to hang it up in sheds open to the air, precisely as tobacco is cured in the west- ern part of the State. This process would be longer, but the nutritive qualities of the plant would probably be better pre- served than if cured in the open air with the exposure to the frequent changes of the weather. It is hardly necessary to say that if it is proposed to cure in this way, it should be hung METHODS OF CURING. 191 up thinly and the air should be allowed to circulate through it. After being well dried it is taken down and stowed away in the barn for use. This method avoids the trouble of stooking and the liability to injury from rains and dews, which blacken the stalks, though it requires considerable room, and is, of course, attended with some additional labor. THE HORSERAKE. This implement has come into universal use, and no farmer of any extent would be without one. It met with great oppo- sition and encountered great ridicule on its first introduction, but has survived it all and become indispensable in all thrifty and economical farming. I shall do no more than give the authority of practical farmers in answer to the thirteenth ques- tion of the -circular, " Have you used a horserake, if so, what patent, and with ivhat advantage .^" To this, an experienced farmer of Middlesex thus replies : " I have used various horserakes for fifteen years. Much labor is saved by the use of any kind of horserake that has been introduced within that time. " Horserakes are on a footing different from mowing machines. Grass may be cut in the morning, in the evening, or in a cloudy day. But hay must be raked at the very right time, or it may be entirely spoiled. It is, therefore, quite important to do work quick when the time for doing it comes. With a good rake a man and horse will gather more hay in half an hour than a laborer with a handrake usually gathers in a long afternoon — that is, one acre ; this is considered a half day's rakhig by handrake. " The independent rake operates quite well. The old revolv- ing rake (Fig. 105) costs about the same. " The spring-tooth rake is patented, as I am informed. One objection to this is, that the wire teeth scratch up too much earth. This is seen in Fig. 106. " Buckminster's patent was obtained about sixteen years ago. His rake is quite simple in form and will gather more hay than either of the other kinds, in an hour. But the operator must walk, and a boy is wanted on the horse. The price is 192 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. four to five dollars, as any carpenter or wheelwright can make them." A practical farmer of Worcester county says : " I have used what is called the independent horserake, Delano's patent, I believe, and with great advantage. I have also used the revolv- ing and the spring-tooth rake. I prefer the independent. In short, it is my opinion, that no modern invention of agricultu- ral implements has made so great a saving over the old method of performing farm work, as the independent horserake." Fig. 105. Revolving Horserake. Fig. 106. Spring-tooth Horserake. A farmer of Norfolk county says : " I have used Delano's independent rake for several years. I regard it as a valuable implement, saving tfiirty per cent, at least, of labor and time. This rake ought to be made of better materials and with more care, or it will be given up for some other." This rake is seen in Fig. 107. The complaint that it is very badly made and constantly liable to get out of order in consequence, is very general. A practical farmer of Franklin county says : " I have used a revolver ever since I commenced working on a farm, and would METHODS OF CURING. 193 as soon think of haying without a pitchfork as without a horse- rake." Another experienced, practical farmer of Worcester county says : "I used an iron-toothed rake three seasons, and I thought with profit, but I bought one of Delano's independent rakes, and I think it is worth three times as much as any iron- toothed one, as it does not make the hay so dusty as the others. It is also a great saving in time and labor, as a boy twelve years Fig. 107. Independent Horserake. old will rake as much with Delano's patent, as a man and boy with any other kind I have ever seen, and do it better. I have used one of this kind for four seasons, and it has not cost me twenty-five cents a year for repairs, although my farm is rough and rocky." Another says : " The horserake is a great labor-saving imple- ment. For several successive years I used the revolving horse- rake to good advantage. There was labor in it, but it is a 25 194 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. good rake. Delano's patent — the independent tooth horse- rake — has taken the place of the revolver with me ; it is man- aged with much more ease, the teeth each one acting independ- ent of all others, at all times laying on the surface, whether even or otherwise, will rake cleaner than the revolver, and will not get so much dirt on the hay as will the spring-tooth." And another : " I use the wire-tooth. The independent, or wheel rake is used some ; both are good. I cut about sixty tons of hay, and my rake I have no doubt saves me $20 every year. First in labor, and second, in quality of hay — every thing being raked at night." Another says : " We have used the revolv- ing horserake for the last ten years or more, and my opinion is, that could I have my choice between six men or a horse and rake, after dinner, with a quantity of hay to secure, I should take the latter." A very successful farmer of Essex county says : " Wg formerly used the revolver with good success ; but for the last four or five years we have used Delano's independent horserake and like it better than the revolver, as it is easier for the horse, easier for the person who uses it, and rakes better on uneven land. ' The great difficulty with the independent rake is, that it is so wretchedly made, that our farmers cannot depend upon it, and they complain of its getting out of order at times when they most need it. They are compelled to resort to the use of other patents which are not so convenient, on account of their being better constructed." Another in Hamp- den county says: "I have used the independent horserake for seven years, and find it a great labor-saving machine. It has not cost me a dollar to keep in repair and it is now as g-ood as new, though most farmers who use it say it is liable to get out of order from being very badly manufactured. This, if true, is enough to condemn any farm implement, because farmers are not generally so situated as to be able to afford such frequent mishaps." Still another patent, which promises to be a great addition to our present facilities for raking hay, has been introduced under the name of " Carpenter's Improved Horserake." This rake is seen in Fig. 108. It was patented in August last, and the par- ties interested claim for it very important advantages over the horserakes now in common use. The driver rides upon the METHODS OF CURING. 195 rake comfortably seated, and by means of a lever, which he can move at will, and without changing his position, frees the hay gathered in the teeth of the rake. It is a double rake, made for both smooth and rough ground. On smooth ground the wheels may be used, while on rough ground the driver may walk behind and manage it with ease, and adapt it without difficulty to inequalities of surface. It is simply constructed, and is manufactured by Nourse, Mason & Co., of Boston. As it is a new implement, and has never been used, to my knowledge, in this State, I cannot speak of it from personal observation or experience. 196 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. HAY CAPS. The frequent losses to which farmers are subject in making hay, has suggested the use of hay caps, made to cover the cocks and protect them from the weather. It is but recently that their use was introduced, and like most novelties, it has met with objections from some, on the score of economy, while their use is as strongly approved by others, on the same ground. I have often seen them used, and the time taken to cover an acre of grass or hay in cock partially cured, is less than most would naturally suppose. Where they are to be used, less care is needed for " trimming down " the cock and putting it in a con- dition to shed the rain in the 1)est possible manner. An experienced, practical farmer of Worcester county says : " I have used hay caps with good results. I have one hundred made of cotton sheeting two yards square, with pins attached to the four corners with strong twine ; the hundred cost me just forty dollars ; I think they have saved me twenty dollars this year. I had at one time this season one hundred and thirty cocks standing out in a six days' storm. One lumdred were covered, and not having caps enough, thirty were left uncovered. The uncovered was worth but little, while the covered was passable hay. I stooked some oats which I capped — they stood a two days' rain without injury." And another : '^' Our caps are made of heavy five-fourths cotton cloth, cut .square with four little loops through which we run a slim •wooden pin into the hay cock ; the pins hold it better than weights in the corner. Ours cost twenty-one cents apiece — liave saved the cost in one storm this season." A practical farmer of Hampshire county says : — " In reply to your question as to the utility of hay caps, it gives me pleasure to say, that, after using them constantly, for the last seven years, I consider them of the first importance in the most critical l^ranch of farming. " I can safely affirm, that my hay has been intrinsically worth, on the average, one or two dollars a ton more than my neigh- bors', which has been proved by the remarkable health of my animals. METHODS OF CURING. 19T " My horses have not been sick an hour, and the heaves are unknown in my stable, which may fairly be attributed to the fact that no musty hay ever enters my barn ; and, it is probable, that the milk of cows may be as unhealthy, if they eat badly cured hay, as if fed on what is called swill in the cities. " Having these covers always at hand, it has been my practice to mow my grass when it was ready, ivithout consulting the almanac, or ivaiting for a change of the moon; and the result has been, that I have had more than my share of good luck in this important branch of business. " They are also very useful as a protection against heavy dews ; and as a cover for coarse clover and Timothy I consider them indispensable. " After long experience, I have found the most approved method of making hay covers, which may be used for wheat and other grain crops with great advantage, is to take stout, unbleached cotton sheeting, of a suitable width, say from thirty-seveii to forty-five inches wide — the latter is the best — cut it into squares, and attach to each corner, by a string, or otherwise, a pin made of wood, twelve or fifteen inches long, cut off smooth at one end and rounded over at the other, which completes the afi'air. The size of the pin should be about an inch in diameter. " Hemming the selvages is a matter of fancy, as they would do very well without it ; and if a tannery is near by, it would greatly improve them by plunging them into a vat for two or three days ; this would thicken up the cloth an inch or two, and make it more durable, as well as much more effectual. A decoction of bark, with alum, or some other astringent, would probably answer equally as well, but this is not necessary, to make an excellent hay cover. Like a cotton umbrella, the first dash of a heavy shower would cause it to spatter through for a moment, but would do little or no harm. I doubt whether a larger size than forty-five inches square, or forty-five by fifty, would be desirable, — mine have been not much over thirty-six inches square. " At the suggestion of several practical farmers of this State, the Messrs. Chases &, Fay, of Boston, are now establishing an extensive manufactory for the purpose of furnishing the agri- cultural community, throughout the country, with a ready 198 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. made article at the lowest possible price ; but, judging from the extensive use of the covers last year, in consequence of articles published in agricultural journals in the United States, as well as Canada, it is doubtful whether they Avill be able to supply a quarter part of the demand. The article made by them is shown in Fig. 109." A farmer of Norfolk says : " I have never used them myself, but they are used in the neighborhood to good advantage. A neighbor of mine who has used them for three years says they have been worth to him this year the whole cost, as with them he has been able to get all his hay in in good order, while a large quantity, where they were not used, was made nearly worthless by the long continued wet weather," But on the other hand, a farmer of Middlesex county says : " I have never used hay caps, not having faith enough in them to give them a trial. My objections are, that they cannot be of any use as a permanent shelter, but only in a sudden shower — and then we have no time to put them on. We can save more hay by putting it in cocks and trimming well than by covering with canvas cloth. In fair weather the cap would be decidedly injurious, as it would prevent the escape of vapor or steam. Cocks of hay that are left to stand in the field over the Sabbath are often dried enough in the upper half. But in case caps were put on for Saturday night the drying would not advance on Sunday unless you should make it a business to remove them on Sunday forenoon." A permanent structure for covering and protecting hay stacks is described by a farmer of Bristol county as follows : " I have a structure called a hay cap, which, if farmers have not suf- ficient barn room, I think would be economical, as hay can be more rapidly secured than in the common stack, obviates the necessity of fencing, and prevents the hay from becoming wet while the stack is open for feeding. This cap is twelve feet square and consists of two sills fourteen feet in length and eight inches square, four posts five inches square and seventeen feet long framed into the sills one foot from the end of the same. The sills are held together l^y two girts framed into the post just above the sill. The posts are held firmly by girts placed five feet eight inches above the sills, to which height the box part of the structure is boarded. The posts above the box FEEDING IN THE FALL. 201 are perforated with holes one foot apart for the insertion of pins to sustain the cap or cover. This (in form of a pyra- mid) should be made as light as possible, so that it may be readily raised by placing the shoulder under the corner. The frame of three by four joists, must be large enough to fall outside the posts and admit of some play. The rafters are small joists nine feet in length, the feet resting upon short pieces of joist placed across the corner of the frame, thereby forming openings for the posts to pass. The tops of the rafters are nailed together over the centre of the frame. Girts should be placed half way from the eaves to the point of the roof to nail covering boards to. These shoiild be good half-inch stuff, and run from the eaves to the rafters. The top of the post should be kept from spreading by stay lathing them. A hay cap of the dimensions given, will hold five tons of hay. The cost I do not know, as this was on the place at the time of my coming on to it." FALL FEEDING. This is the term applied to feeding off the aftermath of mow- ing lands. This practice is very prevalent, and is justified by experienced farmers rather on the plea of necessity than any other, since most farmers, of careful observation, admit that it is, on the whole, injurious. A large proportion of those who are in the habit of fall-feeding, speak like the following, from a practical farmer of Middlesex, who says : "I feed off slightly, although it would probably be better for the next crop if I did not. My cows, however, like it, and as they pay me well at the milk pail, I like to see them enjoy themselves." Another, in answer to the questions, " Do you feed off the after-growth of your mowing lands in the fall ? Do you think it an injury or a benefit to the field to feed it off? " says : " I do generally, but consider it an injury to the field." Another says : " I do feed off, moderately, the after-growth of my mowing fields, and believe the grass worth much more so fed than if left on the ground to rot. A dense mass of dead grass is also much in the way of the scythe and the rake the next year." A practical farmer of Worcester county says : " I feed off the after-growth of mowing lands only when I am compelled to do so in dry seasons for want 26 202 GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. of pasture. I think it an injury to feed off, unless there is a large growtli, which is better to be fed off, so that it will not fall down and heat the roots and kill thjni." Another says : " I feed my mowing lands in the fall and think it is a benefit to the field in all cases where a top-dressing is used, and of no injury to an old field that is ploughed once in three or four years. Where a large growtli of after-feed remains on the land it is like mulching trees, kills the grass roots and makes a graiid shelter in winter for mice." A farmer of Ilamps-hire county says: " I feed it off and then top-dress it, and think it a benefit to the land, but should con- sider it an injury if I did not top-dress." An experienced, practical farmer says : " I feed it off, but think it an injury to the field to do so, and I should much prefer not to feed mowing lands at all. The grass holds in longer and is of better quality. I feed it off liccause it is necessary to eke out a comfortable support for my stock." And another: " To some extent. I do not think it beneficial to the land to feed much every year, nor very injurious to feed some ; but to feed close, I deem highly injurious." A very experienced farmer of large observation, in Plymouth county, says: "To some extent, I feed it off, not from choice but convenience. The treading of the cattle is soin3 injury, and they feed on the best kinds of grass and leave the wild grasses to extend the area of their growth. In my experience, mowing grounds are kept in the best condition by taking off the first and second crops with the scythe, and Inennially dress- ing Mdth compost manures." This accords with the experience of another practical farmer who says : " My practice is to feed the after-growth or mow it. To take all from the soil without returning an equivalent, would be injurious. My custom is to top-dress my mowing grounds with good compost manure, about fifteen cart loads to the acre, once in two or three years — a portion of lots in one year and a portion the next. Where the ground is not liable to wash — carry the manure off — 1 prefer spreading the manure in the autumn ; it is dissolved l»y the fall rains and winter snows, and the grass is benefited in the early spring." An experienced farmer of E^scx county says: "Farmers here are in the habit of feeding oft" their mowing lands in the fall, FEEDING IN THE FALL. 203 but have no doubt that the crop of grass would be better the next season, not to feed them. Some think the injury not so great as the value of tlie feed of the after-growth." A practical farmer of Franlvlin county says : "I have had considerable experience in both ways,, and do not think fall feeding is any injury if it is not fed too close ; prefer feeding to mowing the second crop, and prefer feeding with sheep than cattle." And another : " The feeding of dry mowing injures it by causing it to run out, leaving the roots exposed to the winter, while moist land is injured by the cattle's feet much more than the value of the feed, in both cases taking all off and leaving nothing to renovate the land another season." An experienced farmer in the same county, and one of the best grazing towns in the State, says : " It is now more than twenty years since I have allowed any kind of domestic animal to feed upon our mown lands, and my opinion previously has been fully confirmed by my experience. It is a decided benefit to let the after-growth remain upon the land ; it is a protection from summer's drought and winter's cold. Some of ' pratensis. 47, 48, 111 " aquatica, . 64 " elatior, . 49, 111) Alopecurus pratensis, . 8, 12. 68, 111, 116 " duriuscula, . 50, 110 " agrestis, . . 8,14.112 " rubra, . 50 " geniculatus. 8, 14, 15, 110 " loliacea. 50 " aristulatus, 8,15 " nutans, 50 Ammophila arundinacca, . 8, 25, 111, 158 Glyceria Canadensis, . . 34 Avena pratensis, . . 66, 110 " obtusa, . 34 " flavescens, . 66 " distans. . 35 Aristida dichotoma, . 30 " elongata, 34 " gracilis, . . 30 '• nervata, . 34 . . 35 Arrhenatherum ayenaceum, . 66, 111 " pallida, Briza media, 46, 47 " acutiflora, . . 35 " maxima, . . 46 Gymnostichum Hystrix, . 63 Brizopyrum spicatum. . 35 Hedysarum onobrychis, . 100, 117 Bromus secaliniis, 51, 53, 112 Hierocliloa borealis, . . 70 " racemosiis, 52, 55 IIolcus lanatus, . . 59, 111, 116 " mollis, . 52, 55, 112, 116 Holcus mollis. . 69 •' Kalmii, . . 56 Hordeum jubatum, . . 62 " ciliatus, . . 56 " distichum, . . 62 " pratensis, . 56 " Tulgare, . 62 . 101 Calamagrostis canadensis, , 8, 25 Juncaginese, " coarctata, . 8, 25 Juncaceaj, . 102 Cinnaa rundinacea, . 23 Leersia oryzoides, . 8, 11, 110 Cynosurus cristatus, . 50, 51, 116 " Virginica, », la Cyperacea>, .... . 105 Lolium perenne, . 56, 59, 111 Cenchrus tribuloides. . 80 " Itivlicum. 58, 59, 111 DantUonia spicata. . 65 " temulentum, . 58, 60 Dactylis glomerata, 5, 31, 58, 110, 111, 116 " multiflorum, . 59, 60 Eatonia Pennsylvanica, . 33 Medicago sativa, ye, 11/ 230 INDEX. Page. Page. Millium effusum, 76 Poa compressa, 9,33,112 Muhlenbergia diffusa, 8, 23 " annua . 5, 9, 39, 112 " crecta, . 8, 23 " trivialis, 9, 39, 40, 112 " glomcrata, 8, 23 " nemoralis. . 9,40,41 " Mexicana, 8, 24 " tiuitaua. 42, 110 " fiylTatica, 8, 24 " laxa. 9,43 " sobolifera. 8, 24 " aquatica. 43, 110 " WillJenovii, 8^24 Polypogon monspeliensis, 8,23 " capillaris, 8, 24 Sctaria verticillata, . 79 Moha de Hongrie, . 78 " Glauca, . 79 Oryzopsis mclanocarpa, 8, 30 Sotaria viridis, 80 '' asferifolia, . . 30 Setaria Italica, 80 " Caoader.sia, . . 30 Sorghum saccharatum, 81 Panicum filiforme, 10, 76 " nutans, 90 " glabrum, 11, 77 " Tulgare, 90 " sanguinale, . 11, 77 Spartina cynosuroides. 30 " agrostoides, 11, 77 " polystacliya. 30, 111 " proliferum, . 11, 77 " juncea, . 30, 111 " capillare, 11, 77 " Btricta, . 80, 111 " Tirgatuui, . 11, 77 Sporobolus serotinus, . . 18 " latifolium, . 11, 78 Stipa avenacea, . . 80 " clandestuium, 11, 78 Tricuspis purpurea. . 31 " xanthophysum, 11, 78 Trifolium pratense, 92, 117 " crus-galli, . . 78 " repens, 96, 117 " germanicum, 78, 79 Trisetum mollis, . . 66 Paspalum setaceum, . . 76 " pubescens, . . 60 Phalaris arundinacea, 54, 72, 73, 110 Triticum repens. 60, Gl, 112 " Canariensis, . . 76 Trips.acum dactyloides, .■ 80 Phleum pratense, 5, 8, 15, 16, 17, 18, 111, 116, Vilfa aspera, . 17 118, 121 " Taginasflora, . 17 Phragmites communis, . . .56, 110 '• serotina, . 18 Poa nervata, 9, 34 Xyris bulbosa, . 104 " serotina. . 9, 34, 44, 153 " caroliniana, . 104 " pratensis, 9, 35, 36, 39, 111 Zea mais. . 91 " maritima, 9. 35,4 1, 102, 111 Zizania aquatica , 12, 110 GENEEAL INDEX. Aftermath, growth of, Alfalfa, . Allen's MoAver, Ammonia, importance of, Analysis of the Grasses, Annual Beard Grass, Annual Spear Grass, Arrow Grasses, list of, Ash of the Grasses, analy Ashes, use of, as manure, sis of. Barn Grass, Beach Grass, " " culture of, Bearded Darnel, . Bengal Grass, Black Grass, Blue Grass, Blue-joint Grass, . Bones, value of, as manure, Borden's Grass, Bottle-brush Grass,. Bottle Grass, Brown Bent, Bristly Foxtail, Bur Grass, Canadian Lyme Grass, Chandler Grass, . Chess, Chinese Sugar Cane, Cii'cular Letter, . Climate — its effect on vegetation. Clover Seed, time of sowing, 17, 113, 201, 203 . 96, 97, 99 170, 174, 175 217, 218, 223 74, 118, 121, 124 . 23 35, 39, 112, IIG, 118, 121 . 101 . 124 214, 216 25, 26, 28, 130, . 78 111, 146, 158 26, 28, 29 . 60 . 80 102, 111 38, 112 . 25 . 219 18, 19 . 63 . 79 . 20 . 79 . 80 . 62 60,61 51, 53, 112 81, S3, 85, 90 . 123 131, 132, 136 . 139 232 INDEX. Clover, mode of curing, . Common Reed Grass, Common Manna Grass, . Common Canary Grass, . Common Spear Grass, Compost, modes of forming, Corn Fodder, curing of, . Couch Grass, Creeping Meadow Grass, . Creeping Soft Grass, Crested Dog's Tail, Curing, methods of, Darnel, Drainage, importance of, . Dew Grass, Downy Persoon, . Downy Oat Grass, English Bent, Fall Feeding, practice of, Fall Seeding, False Redtop, False Rice, Feather Grass, Field Barley Grass, Floating Meadow Grass, Floating Foxtail, Flyaway Grass, Finger-spiked Wood Grass, Finger Grass, Fiorin, Food of Animals, . Forest Trees, culture of, Fowl Meadow Grass, Fresh Water Cord Grass, Fringed Brome Grass, Finetop, . Fowl Meadow Grass, Gama Grass, Goose Grass, Grasses, growth in sun and shade, " effect of soil and seasons on, •' nutritive value of the, " mixtures of, " list of the, 50, 51, 116, . 20 201, 203 137, 139, 140 . 44 . 11 . 30 . Ill . 42 14, 15, 110 . 21 . 80 . 77 20, 22 1, 113, 114 208, 209, 224 . 44 . 30 . 56 . 18 . 44 . 80 41, 42, 102, 103, 111 131, 135, 137, 128 2, 113, 128, 130 112, 113, 118, 119, 121, 122, 161, 126 118, 142, 144, 147, 151, 158, 160 8, 110, 111, 116 186, 188 56, 110 42, 110 76 35, 37, 38 220, 221, 223 189, 190 60, 61, 112 . 45 . 69 118, 121, 146 185, 187 56 204, 225 18 ,20 66 65, 66, 111 INDEX. 233 Grasses, importance of the, " classification of, . " description or natural history of, " technical terms applied to the, " flowers of the, " time of cutting, . " analysis of the, . " time of sowing, . Grass Lands, treatment of " " top-dressing of, " " drainage of. Grass Seed, mode of buying, " " weight of, " " germination of, " " time of sowing, " " selection of, . " " depth of covering, Green Foxtail, Green Meadow Grass, Guano as a top-dressing, . Hassock Grass, Hairy Slender Paspalum, . Hair Panided Meadow Grass, Hair Grass, Hair Stalked Panic Grass, Hairy Meadow Grass, Hay, nutritive value of, . " curing of, . ' Hay Caps, use of, . " " permanent. Hard Fescue Grass, Heath's Mower, . Hoove in Cattle, . Horserake, use of, Hungarian Millet, Indian Corn, Indian ^lillet, Indian Rice, Indian Grass, Irrigation, effect of, Italian Rye Grass, June Grass, Kentucky Blue Grass, Ketchum's Mower, 30 1, 6, 112 . 2, 5, 7, 8, 110, 113 . 2, 5, 7, 11 to 112 . 2, 5, 6, 7 3, 5, 7 . 161, 162, 164, 166 54, 118, 120, 121, 122 . 137 . 204, 207, 208, 224 . 210 . 204 141, 145 . 145, 146, 148, 159 6, 131, 142, 146, 147 137, 140 141, 142- . 146 . 79 . 35, 37, 38 205, 222 . 63, 110, 146 . • . .76 . 46 . 21 . 77 . 46 103, 104, 109, 126, 127 181, 183 196, 199 200, 201 50, 110, 116, 118, 121, 146 175, 176, 177 101, 104 191, 193, 195 78, 80 6, 91, 92, 115, 189, 190 . 90 . 12 . 90 118, 121, 123, 226, 226 58, 59, 60, 111, 118, 121, 123, 146 35, 37, 38, 118, 121, 146 . 35, 37, 38 171, 173 234 INDEX. Late Drop Seed, . Lawn Grasses, mixture of, Long Panicled Manna Grass, Lucerne, culture of, " nutritive value of, Lyme Grass, Manny's Mower, . Manures for Grass Lands, Meadow Fescue Gi'ass, Meadow Brome Grass, Meadow or Swale Hay, . Meadow Spear Grass, Meadow Soft Grass, Meadow Oat Grass, Meadow Foxtail, . Millet Grass, Mixtures of Grass Seed, . Mountain Rice, Mowing, height of. Mowing Machines, use of, " " premiums for, Nitrogen, importance of, in food. Nutritive Value of Grasses, Nutritive Equivalents, tables of, Nerved Manna Grass, Nitrogen, value of, in plants, Nodding Fescue Grass, Oil Cake, effect of, as food. Orchard Grass, Over-seeding with few species, Pasture Grasses, . Pastures, turf of old, " renovation of, Perennial Rye Grass, Poverty Grass, Prolific Panic Grass, Quaking Grass, Quitch Grass, Rattlesnake Grass, Redtop, Red Clover, " " curing of, 5,31 12, . 18 153, 154 . 34 96, 97, 99, 146 120, 122 . 62 168, 169, 175 205, 210, 214, 219, 222 47, 48, 111, 146 56, 57 103, 104, 109 . 34, 118, 121 68, 69, 111, 118, 121, 146 66, 110 13, 17, 68, 111, 116, 118, 121 76, 146 142, 144, 151, 153, 158, 160 . 30 179, 181 . 167 . 167 114, 115 118, 119, 120, 121, 126, 163 125, 127 . 34 . 114 . 50 . 115 110, 111, 116, 118, 121, 146 . 159 148, 151, 152, 166 148, 149 205, 209, 210, 224 56, 57, 110, 146 . 30 . . 77 46, 47, 118, 121 60, 61 . 34 5, 18, 111, 116, 118, 121, 146, 148 92, 93, 95, 119, 120, 122, 146, 148 186, 188 112, 114 32,58 INDEX. 235 Reed Canary Grass, . 72,73,74,76,110 " " " nutritive value of, . 54 Red Fescue Grass, . 49, 50, 146 Rhode Island Bent, . 19 Ribbon Grass, .... . 73 Rice Grass, . . ... 11, 110 Roots of Timothy Grass, . 164, 165, 166 Rough Stalked Meadow Grass, . 39, 40, 112, 118, 121 Rush-like Grasses, list of. 101, 102 Rush Grass, .... . 17 Rush Salt Grass, . . . 30, 111 Salt Marshes, ditching of, .104 Salt Marsh Grass, 30, 110 Salt Reed Grass, .30, 111 Sand Grass, .... . 31 Sainfoin, . . . . . . 100, 120, 122, 146 Sea Spear Grass, 41, 42, 102, 103 Seasons, influence of, . . 128, 130, 132, 137 Sedges, list of, . . 105 Seed, selection of, ... 141, 142 Seneca Grass, .... . 70 Shade — its effect on the quality of grass, . 128, 135, 136 Sheeps' Fescue Grass, 47, 48, 110, 146 Slender Crab Grass, . 76 Slender Foxtail, . 14 Slender Spiked Fescue, . . 50, 51, 146 Slender Meadow Grass, . . 46 Slender Hairy Lyme Grass, . 62 Small Fescue Grass, . 46 Smooth Crab Grass, . . . . . 77 Soil — its effect on the grasses. 2, 19, 113, 144 Soils, mixture of, ... 211, 223 Soft Brome Grass, .112 Squirrel-tail Grass, . 62 Star Grasses, list of, . . 104 Starch, transformation into woody fibre, . 163, 179 Striped Grass, .... . 73 Stooking of Corn, practice of. . 190 Sugar, manufacture of, . . 81, 82, 89 Swale Grass, .... . 104, 105, 109, 112 Sweet-scented Vernal Grass, 71, 116, 118, 121, 146 Swale Hay, value of, . 54, 105, 162 Tall Fescue Grass, . , . . 49, 110, 146 Tall Smooth Panic Grass; . 77 Tall Oat Grass, . . . . 6( 5, 68, 111, 146, 116, 118, 121 Time of cutting grass for hay, 161, 163, 164 236 INDEX. Timothy, . . 5, 12, 15, 16, 17, 60, 116 " sown witli Clover, " time of cutting, Tickle Grass, Top-dressing of grass lands, TVeatment of grass lands, Tufted Hair Grass, Twitch Grass, Upright Sea Lyme Grass, Vanilla Gi-ass, Vegetation, conditions of. Velvet Grass. Water Hair Grass, Water Spear Grass, Wavy Meadow Grass, Weather — its effect on vegetation Weeds, analysis of. White Clover, White Grass, White Top, Wild Oat Grass, . Willard's Bromus, Wire Grass, Wild Chess, Wild nice, Wild Water Foxtail, Wild Rye, Woburn Experiments, Wood Hair Grass, Wood Meadow Grass, Wood Reed Gjass, Yellow Oat Grass, Yellow-eyed Grassas, list of. 118, 121, 123, 143, 163, 164 17, 144, 148 . 106 . 21 210, 212, 221 204, 207, 209, 224 63, 110, 146 . 60, 61, 112 . 62 70 130, 131 69, 146 64 ,65 43, 110 43 2, 128, 131, 135, 136 125 06, 97, 120, 122, 146 12 20 ,65, 111, 146 65 51, 112 38, 112 56 12, 110 15 62 113, 114 63,64 40 • 23 66, 118 121, 146 104 Erratum.— On p. 102, sixth line from tbfi buttorn, for p. 49, Fig. 30, read p. 41, Fig. 30. Th« 8ame occurs ia the In-st line on the s.ame page. 'J«E.!^