Class _^Z7-^ Book '^gy^ Copyright N'.V /J^ COPYRIGHT DEPOSrr. AN ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. AN ELEMENTARY HISTORY United States. BY CHARLES MOERIS, author of " half-hours with american history," "the aryan race," "civilization: a historical review of its elements," etc. PENNSYLVANIA EDITION. PHILADELPHIA : J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY. ^ 1913 Copyright, 1890, by J. B. Lippincott Company. Copyright, 1898, by J. B. Lippinxott Company. Copyright, 1900, by J. B. Lippincott Company. Copyright, 1907, by J. B. Lippincott Company. Copyright, 1909, by J. B. Lippincott Company. Copyright, 1912, by J. B. Lippincott Company. Copyright, 1913, by J. B. Lippincott Company. Printed by J. B. Lippincott Company The Washington Square Press, Philadelphia, U. S. A, Oni.Aa5422o PREFACE Histories of the United States of America have been many times written, and in many ways; so often, indeed, that some might deem there was nothing more to say, or no new way of saying it. Yet new histories are of yearly appearance, and the world does not seem tired of welcoming them. These are usually written for the old; but why not new histories for the young? — who can certainly find no more profitable reading than the story of the origin and development of their own country. No romance, in fact, can possess more of interest and adventure, of heroic efforts and noble deeds, than may be found in the history of the discovery and settle- ment of the American continent, and the birth and growth of the great republic of the United States. In all the annals of mankind there is little to surpass it in interest, and nothing in importance. To the youthful American, indeed, it is indispensable, and whatever else he may learn, a full and accurate acquaintance with the story of his own land should stand first in his course of study, as a requisite preliminary to the making of an American citizen. This story is too near us to appeal to our minds with that glamor of romance which often clings to the records of more remote periods. To many it seems devoid of the interest of the era of chivalry, the charm of knightly deeds and strange adventure, and takes vi PREFACE form in their minds instead as a detail of prosy incidents and matter-of-fact events. Yet suck a conception does great injustice to the true character of Amer- ican history, and to the numerous instances of heroic valor and chivalrous honor which give all the interest of romance to its pages. The deeds of our pioneers have never been surpassed in daring and the spirit of adventure, the progress of discovery and settlement in this country is a story replete with attractiveness, and there is nothing more marvellous in fiction than the extraordinary progress of civilization in the region of the United States during the few centuries since settlement was first made upon its shores. History, however, in the modern sense of the word, covers a broader space than the tale of war and advent- ure, daring migration, and pohtical progress. There is the story of the people as well as of their leaders to tell, the home life of the masses, the record of manners and customs, invention, and peaceful development in the arts and sciences. Thus we are not alone concerned with war and the rumors of war, but also with peace and the triumphs of peace; not alone with pohtical devel- opment, the formation of governments, the struggles of patriotism, and the growth of republicanism, but also with the details of every-day hfe, the description of those powerful influences which have made not only America but the Americans, and to which the citi- ■ zens of our country owe that spirit of liberty and restless energy which has made them the envy of the oppressed masses of Europe, and their country the mod- ern "wonder of the world." This inner story of the American people is here briefly set forth in a series of PREFACE vii chapters descriptive of city and country life at various periods of our colonial and national history, each a picture of the people of America as they appeared at the times indicated. The progress of invention, strik- ing developments of mechanical ability, religious con- ditions, and all that makes up the multiform life of a great people, have been described as fully as the space at command permitted, with the design of making at once a history of the American nation and of the American people, adapted in style and language to the use of the young. As such it is offered to the school public of the United States, with the hope that it may prove a welcome addition to our historical literature. C. M. CONTENTS. PART I. THE ERA 01 DISCOVERY. 1. — The Voyage of Columbus. . . .• 1 2. — Explorations and Invasions 9 3. — French and EngHsh Settlements 18 4.— The Indians. , 26 Questions for Examination = 31 PART II. THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 1.— Virginia 33 2. — The Pilgrims and the Puritans 39 3. — Indian Wars of New England 49 4 — Manners and Customs of the Puritans 54 5. —New York 60 6. — Life in New York 65 7.— Maryland, 67 8. — Pennsylvania 70 9. — Life in Pennsylvania 74 10.— The Carolinas. 77 11. — Life in Virginia and Carolina 80 12.— Georgia 85 13. — Conditions of the Colonies 91 Questions for Examination 94 PART III. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 1. — The French in America 99 2. — George Wasliington 105 3.— The War in the North Ill Questions for Examination 117 ix c CONTENTS. PART IV. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 1.— The Tyranny of England 119 2.— The Work of the Minute-Men 12G 3. — The War for Independence 137 4. — The People and the Country 146 Questions for Examination 154 PART V. THE FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC. 1. — The Making of the Government 157 2. — Washington's Administration 161 3. — John Adams's Administration 162 4. — Jefferson's Administration 164 5. — Madison's Administration 167 6.— The War with Great Britain 169 7. — Monroe's Administration 175 S. — The John Quincy Adams Administration 178 9. — The Progress of the Country 179 Questions for Examination 187 PART VI. TWENTY YEARS OF PROGRESS. 1. — Jackson's Administration 189 2. — Van Buren's Administration 192 3. — The Harrison and Tyler Administration 193 4. — Polk's Adnoinistration and War with Mexico 194 5.— The Work of the People 199 Questions for Examination 207 PART VII. THE SLAVERY CONTEST AND CIVIL WAR. 1. — The Taylor and Fillmore Administration 209 2. — The Pierce Administration 211 3. — The Buchanan Administration 212 4. — The Lincoln Administration 214 CONTENTS. . id 5.— The North and South at War 216 6.— The Final Years of the War 226 Questions for Examination „ . . . 234 PART VIII. THE NEW UNION. 1.— Results of the War 236 2. — Johnson's Administration 238 3. — Grant's Administration 242 4. — The Hayes Administration 245 5. — ^The Garfield and Arthur Administration 247 6. — Cleveland's First Administration 249 7. — Benjamin Harrison's Administration 251 8. — The Second Cleveland Administration, .- 255 9. — Mclvinley's Administration 257 10. — Roosevelt's Administration 260 11.— Taft's Administration 264 Questions for Examination 265 PART IX. RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT. Recent Stages of Development 268 Questions for Examination 283 AN ELEMENTARY HISTORY OF THE United States PART I. THE ERA OF DISCOVERY. 1. THE VOYAGE OF COLUMBUS. Four Hundred Years Ago. — The world had grown old very old, before America was discovered. Great em- pires had risen in Europe and Asia, and passed away: untold miUions of men had lived and died; but not half the earth was known. Men did not even know its shape. Most persons thought that its surface was flat, and that the ocean everywhere spread around the land. Sailors were afraid to go far out to sea, and most of them kept in sight of land, for no one knew what dangers might lie on the open ocean, where man had never been. Many thought that a ship which sailed far out on the ocean would find itself gliding down a hill of waters, up which it could never climb again. Others believed that there was a region of fogs and mists, from wiiich a ship, once lost, would never tincl its way out. Few of tl\e learned men of the time thought that a vessel could pass round the earth and return to its starting-point. . X 1 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY The Mariner's Compass. — Before this time an impor- tant discovery had been made. A kind of iron ore was found which had strange properties. It was what is now known as the loadstone, or natural magnet, and which has the power of attracting iron, and of pointing north and south. A steel needle rubbed on it acquires the same properties. Hung up by its centre, one end of the needle points towards the north. This was a dis- covery of the utmost importance to seamen. They could now, even though they were thousands of miles from land, tell by day or night in what direction they were sailing. Few things have been more useful to mankind than this little magnetic needle, known as the Mariners Compass. Marco Polo. — At the time of which we are speaking — the latter part of the fifteenth century — there was a great desire to discover new countries. Travellers had gone to far-off lands, and had come back with strange stories, which filled others with the love of adventure and discover}'. One traveller, a Venetian named Marco Polo, had been as far as China and Japan, and brought back exciting accounts of the riches and wonders of those distant lands. The ships of the Portuguese had sailed down the coast of Africa as far as the Cape of Good Hope. The bold sailors of Norway and Denmark had crossed the cold northern seas to Iceland and Green- A Ship of the Northmen. THE VOYAGE OF COLUMBUS 3 land, and had reached the shores of the American continent at a point they called Vinland (vine-land), though this fact was not known in Southern Europe. Christopher Columbus. — Among the many persons who wished to go on voyages of discovery was one whose name is known to us all, and will be remem- bered as long as America exists. He was born at Genoa, in Italy, about the year 1435, and was named Christopher Columbus. His father was a cloth weaver; but the people of Genoa were active seamen, and Columbus was sent to sea when he was but fourteen years of age, and became a skilful sailor. The World as then Known. — At that time the only region of the world that was well known to Europeans was their own country and the parts of Africa and Asia which border on the Mediterranean Sea. Of the rest of the world they knew very little. India and China were said to be rich and populous countries, and their silks and jewels and spices were brought to Europe by caravans at great expense. Columbus thought that these countries could be reached in an easier way. He believed that the earth was round, that the ocean must extend from the shores of Europe to the shores of Asia, and that if he sailed to the west across this ocean he would be sure to reach those distant lands. He did not know how far it was around the earth, but he was sure that land lay beyond the ocean. What Columbus Did. — It was not easy to make men believe this. For eighteen long years Columbus tried in vain to get the kings of Spain and Portugal to aid him in his plan. He grew sick at heart with delay and disappointment. At last Queen Isabella of Spain said THE ERA OF DISCOVERY that he should have the ships and men he asked for. If money could not be had she would lend her jewels to pay for them. And thus it was that Columbus got his ships. Three small vessels were given him, — we call them ships, but they were no larger than many of the sloops and yachts which we see moving up and down our large rivers. Two of them, the Pinta and the Niiia, had no decks except at the prow and stern. Only one of them had a complete deck, the Santa Maria, commanded by Columbus himself. This vessel was ninety feet long, and had a crew of sixty-six sailors. The Size of the Expedition.^ It seems strange to us that it took so many years to induce the rulers of a great kingdom to furnish a few small ships for a voyage across the ocean and the discovery of a new world. Many river merchants to-day could fit out a much better expedition at a day's notice. Nothing could show more clearly how the world has grown in riches and enterprise during the last four hundred years. Columbus had almost as mueli trouble to get his sailors as his ships. Men were afraid to go with him. Many of those who sailed w^ith him were forced to do so by order of the king, and went on board his ships full of fear. There were one hundred and twenty per- sons in all in the expedition which set sail from the port of Palos, in Spain, on the 3d of August, 1492, a date to be remembered in the history of the world Columbus. THE VOYAGE OF COLUMBUS The Voyage of Discovery. — Let us stop here and think of the task before our bold mariner. He had set sail on the most important voyage that had ever been undertaken. As he went onward day by day his ships left the known world farther behind them. Day by day new wonders and new terrors rose before them. The mariners sailed away into a vast ocean upon AND THE Scientists Discussing thl .-^ii OF THE Earth. which no man had ever before ventured far from land. Their fears inc'reased as they went onward. The needle of the compass no longer pointed exactly north, and this gave them great alarm, for they thought the sailor's friend was about to desert them. The winds blew them steadily westward; but these same winds might hinder them from ever coming back. They were scared b}^ the distance they had gone, though Columbus took care not to let them know how far this was. 6 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY The men demanded to be taken back; they almost broke into open mutiny, and some of them talked of throwing Columbus overboard and going back without him. Yet he was not to be turned from his purpose. He had set sail for India, and he was determined to go on. He was still sure that the continent of Asia lay beyond the seas, and that in time they would reach it. Approach to Land. — Two months of this wonderful voyage passed away. Then the hearts of the sailors grew glad as their eyes beheld welcome signs. Land birds were seen flying about the ships. One of the men picked up out of the water a branch of a tree, on which there were fresh red berries. A piece of carved wood floated past them, and also some drifting sea weed, with live crabs clinging to it. Hope now took the place of fear; all eyes looked forward in search of land. At last it appeared. During the night before the 12th of October a distant hght was seen shining across the waters. When morning came Columbus, from the deck of his little ship, gazed with joy and triumph on the green shores of the land he had so long hoped to see. There it lay before him, bright and beautiful, — a sunny island, covered with forest trees, — a scene of beauty on which the eyes of civihzed man had never before gazed. What Columbus Believed. — The voyage was over; the victory was gained. The greatest discovery in human history had been made. Yet he who made it never knew how great his work had been. To the day of his death Columbus believed that it was the coast of India he had reached, and he gave the name of Indians to the strange, red-skinned natives who crowded out of the woods to gaze with wonder on his vessels. THE VOYAGE OF COLUMBUS It was in this way that the natives of America came to be called Indians, after a country thousands of miles away. Little did Columbus dream of the great continent of America, with its plains and mountains, its lakes and forests, peopled then only by savages, but which was in time to become the seat of one of the o-reatest and noblest of nations. The Landing of Coli'mi The Landing of Columbus. — At the break of day, with waving banners and ringing music, Columbus was rowed to the shore. He was richly dressed in scarlet robes and bore in his hand the great banner of Spain, with its bright hues ot red and gold. The captains of the other vessels carried a banner designed by Colum- bus himself, in the centre of which was a green cross On reaching the shore the admiral kneeled and kissed the ground; then rising, he drew his sword, and declared that the island which he had discovered 8 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY belonged to the King and Queen of Spain. The natives looked on in wonder and admiration. They did not dream of the misery all this meant for them. New Lands Discovered. — The poor natives supposed that the white men had come from heaven. Columbus gave them glass beads, and in return they gave what they had, — parrots and balls of cotton. They wore some ornaments made of gold, and Columbus asked them by signs where gold was to be found. They pointed to the south. The sailors returned to their ships and sailed south among the beautiful islands of those seas until they reached the large island now known as Hayti. Columbus named it Hispaniola (little Spain). From there they sailed back to Spain. The Reception in Spain.— The excitement in Spain was very great when Columbus and his companions returned with their remarkable story. Men heard with wonder of lands beyond the seas, inhabited by a race of red-skinnod savages, and rich beyond their dreams. It was sail! by some that the sands of every river shone with grains of gold, that the meanest Indians wore ornaments of gold and jewels, and that the walls of the houses glittered with pearls. None of these stories was too wild for men to believe, and many grew eager to visit this New World of wealth and splendor. Columbus and his men entered the streets of Barce- lona in a grand procession to meet the king and queen of Spain. The red Indians, with their decorations of tropical feathers and golden ornaments, were looked upon with wonder. The bright-winged birds, the strange-shaped parrots, the rare plants and fruits, the unknown fabrics which were displayed in the procession, EXPLORATIONS AND INVASIONS 9 all excited admiration. Columbus rode triumphantly onward, surrounded by a brilliant cavalcade of Spanish nobles, to receive the high honors bestowed upon him by the king and queen. Europe had never seen a pro- cession like this, for never before had the wonders of a new world been shown to the eyes of the Old World, as the eastern hemisphere was afterwards called. The Misfortunes of the Discoverer. — Yet this was almost the last happy moment in the life of the great discoverer. The remainder of his life was saddened b}^ the injustice of the people, and the ingratitude of the monarch of Spain. He made three other voyages to America, and in the third voyage discovered the mainland of South America, near the mouth of the Orinoco River. From one of his voyages he was sent home in chains by his enemies. And he had not even the honor of giving his name to the continent he had discovered. The name of America was taken from Amerigo Vespucci, whose account of the New World was the first to be printed. Columbus died in 150G, of a disease brought on by his hardships, troubles, and sufferings, a victim of the ingratitude of Spain. He gave orders that the chains which had been so shame- fully fastened on his limbs should be buried with him. 2. EXPLORATIONS AND INVASIONS. The discovery of America by Columbus was the greatest event that had taken place for hundreds of years. If such a discovery should be made in our days, we may be sure that it would not be long before many vessels would be off to the new land. But in those days news spread slowly. Ships were few and small. 10 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY and neither kings nor people had much money. Most of what they had was spent in wars. Spain sent vessels from time to time to the rich islands which Columbus had discovered, but the other nations were slow to send ships. The Cabots. — England was the first to follow Spain. The town of Bristol, in England, was then a great ship- ping port. There lived in this town a merchant named John Cabot, who was born at Venice. This man wished to go on a voyage of discovery to the new lands, and got permission from the king, Henry VII., to do so. Cabot taking his son, he sailed across the ocean until he reached an unknown coast in the far north. Columbus, so far, had discovered only islands and Cabot was the first to reach the American continent. This was in 1497. Cabot's papers and maps are lost, and all we know of his voyage is that he found the country cold and barren, and saw a great many white bears. It is said that after his return he was called "The Great Admiral," and went about dressed in rich clothing and followed by crowds of people. The next year his son, Sebastian Cabot, sailed to America. He also reached land in the north, but he kept on southward until he came to the coast of Vir- ginia or Carolina. Like his father, he was received with honor on his return. Men called him "The Great Sea- man," and many years afterwards Edward VI. gave him a pension. He lived to be very old, but the time and place of his death are unknown. This was all that these men obtained for discovering a continent. Their great honor came long after they were dead. The Fishermen. ^Not long after this the daring fishermen of Europe began to make voyages across EXPLORATIONS AND INVASIONS 11 the ocean to the waters of Newfoundland, where the Cabots had found fish in vast numbers. One of them, named John Denys, sailed up the Gulf of St. Lawrence in 1506. But they were after fish, not honor, and did not trouble themselves to seek unknown lands. Verrazano. — France did not send an expedition to the New World till 1524. Then the thought came to Francis I., the French king, that he had as much right as Spain to the wealth of these distant lands. So he had a ship made ready, and gave the command of it to an Italian seaman named Verrazano, who sailed far along the coast to the harbor of what is now known as Newport, Rhode Island, where he found grape-vines growing, and began to trade with the Indians. But the red men were afraid of their visitors, and would not let them land. They lowered their goods to the boats with ropes from the tops of steep rocks. We do not know what these goods were, but they would take nothing in exchange but knives, fish-hooks, and tools for cutting. These savages knew very well what would be of use to them. The Claims of the Nations. — We may know from this what little right Spain, England, and France had to claim these new lands. They sent ships across the ocean and took a look at them from the sea, and then said that all the land they had seen belonged to them. As for the Indians, no one seemed to think that they had any right to the country. They were looked on as little better than so many flies, that might be brushed aside by any one who was strong enough to do it. Cartier's Voyages. — Francis I. now became busy in wars with his neighbors, and did not send out any 12 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY more ships for ten years. Then two ships set sail under a captain named Jacques Cartier. They entered the Gulf of St. Lawrence, where Cartier landed and set up a cross, with the king's coat of arms fastened to it. This was done to secure that region for the King of France. Cartier made two more voyages, and sailed up the great St. Lawrence River as far as where the city of Montreal now stands. He called the country Canada from the Indian word ''Kannatha," which means village, but which he thought was the Indian name for the whole countr3^ Ponce de Leon. — While the English and French were making these discoveries the Spaniards were not idle. After Columbus, other mariners crossed the ocean, making new discoveries and forming settlements. In 1512 Ponce de Leon, the governor of Porto Rico, set out on a romantic voyage. He had been told by the Indians of a magical fountain which would bring back youth to every man who bathed in its waters. As he wa^ growing old, he was eager to find this wonderful fountain, that he might bathe in it, and be young again. In his search for it he found a new country, which he called Florida. But he did not discover the fountain, and got death instead of life from his effort, for he was killed by the Indians. Balboa. — Another Spaniard, named Balboa, crossed the isthmus which connects North and South America, and looked with wonder on the waters of that great Ponce de Leon. EXPLORATIONS AND INVASIONS 13 Pacific Ocean which no white man's eyes had ever before seen. He had made a long and dangerous jour- ney over mountains and through fierce tribes of Indians, but he was paid for all his trouble when he saw, from the summit of a lofty hill, the waters o! that great ocean, brightly shining in the rays of the sun. Never had man made a more glorious discovery, or human eyes gazed on a nobler sight. An Aztec Temple. Magellan. — Three years after the death of Balboa, a Spanish fleet, under Fernando Magellan, sailed round South America, through the strait that now bears his name, and came out on the waters of the great ocean which Balboa had seen. One of Magellan's ships went on until it had sailed round the globe, and proved in this way that the earth is round. Magellan thus com- pleted the work which Columbus had set out to do. Cortez and Pizarro. — Before many years had passed the Spaniards did some bold and marvellous deeds on 14 THE ERA OI DISCOVERY the American continent. One captain, named Cortez, with a few hundred men, conquered the great empire of Mexico; and another, named Pizarro, did the same in the rich kingdom of Peru. They sent to Spain great quantities of gold and silver. But the Indians were treated by them with dreadful cruelty, and great num- bers of the red men died of inhuman treatment before the Spaniards had been many years in their land. Narvaez. — Another Spaniard, named Narvaez, landed in Florida in 1528, and went far to the north. He and his comrades were in search of gold; but instead of rich cities, like those of Mexico, they found only swamps and forests and fighting Indians, and of three hundred men only four came back alive. Hernando de Soto. — There is one more Spaniard about whom we must speak, for he was the first white man whose eyes fell upon the great Mississippi River, and his adventures were very interesting. While other nations of Europe were sending ships to look at the coast of the New World, Hernando de Soto was wandering far through its interior and making important discoveries. In 1539, De Soto landed in Florida with an army of about six hundred men, and with plenty of arms and provisions. He was a soldier who had been in Peru with Pizarro, and he wished to conquer Florida as Pizarro had conquered Peru. The whole country to the far west was then called Florida, and De Soto expected to find there great cities and much gold and silver, such as had been found in Peru and Mexico. He did not dream that he would find only tribes of poor savages, with no treasures of an}" value to him, and that he would never leave their country alive. EXPLORATIONS AND INVASIONS 15 De Soto. De Soto's Expedition. — The overland march of the Spaniards was a long and th^esome one. The men soon wanted to go back, but De Soto would not listen to them. From time to time the Indians gave him pearls, or ornaments of gold, and this kept him full of hope. He felt sure there must be rich nations ahead, and he kept march- ing on and on, seeking the gold which he never found. The Indians were angry at seeing these strangers in their country, and at the cruel manner in which the Spaniards treated them, and manj^ fierce battles took place. The Span- iards were always victorious, but numbers of them were killed, and they suffered much from the want of food. De Soto led his army along the coast lands of the Gulf of Mexico, through tribe after tribe of Indians. These men in iron armor, with their prancing horses and shining arms, their banners and music and waving plumes, must have been a strange vision to the igno- rant savages. But the natives soon found that those whom they at first took to be gods were only men, and they sought to drive them from their country. The Mississippi. — Yet De Soto kept on. In time he reached a point near where the city of Memphis now stands. Here, to his delight, he saw before him a mighty river, the great stream now known as the Mississippi. It was with proud eyes that the Spaniards gazed on this noble stream, flowing down grandly from the distant north. 16 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY They soon had to cross this river to escape the Indians, and they roamed for many miles through the countr}' on the other side. The Indians here wished to be friendly, but the Spaniards as usual treated them badly, and as a result they tried to kill the whites. Df. Soto Di.siovkring the Mississippi. The Fate of De Soto and His Men.— For three years De Soto and his men had been in the wilds of Amer- ica, and had found nothing but hard marching, fight- ing, and the pangs of hunger. At length they decided :,o return to their own country. But the bold leader did not live to sec his native land again. Worn out with his toil, he died on the banks of the great river he had discovered, and Avas buried in its waters to save his body from the fury of the Indians. He was sunk in the waves at dead of night, and his followers began to build themselves boats, for they did not dare to try to ret'irn by land. EXPLORATIONS AND INVASIOMJ 17 When their boats were ready they laanched them on the stream, and for seventeen days they floated down its waters. For fifty days more they sailed about the Gulf of Mexico, until they reached a small Spanish settlement, from which they were sent to the island of Cuba. They had gone out strong in numbers and splendid in dress and arms. They came back a few ragged and half-starved m.en, without gold to show, and with only battles and sufferings to tell of. And thus ended one of the greatest and proudest of the Spanish expeditions to America. Sir Francis Drake. — Now that we have said so much about the Spanish explorers, we must say something about a great English sailor, named Sir Francis Drake, who for nearly thirty years spent his life in fighting with the Spaniards on both sides of the ocean. Much of this was in the West Indies, but in 1572 he crossed the Isthmus of Darien, as Balboa had done man}' years before, and gazed on the waters of the Pacific Ocean. Drake in the Pacific. — The bold sailor made up his mind to sail in an English ship on that vast sea, and he went thither in 1578, saihng up the coast of Chili and Peru, and winning great treasure from the Span- ish ships and settlements. He went as far north as the coast of Oregon, and landed at Drake's Bay, nortl of San Francisco, where he claimed the country for the king of England and named it New Albion. Then he sailed across the Pacific, and around Southern Africa thus making a voyage around the earth, as one ol the ships of Magellan had done before him. 18 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY 3. FRENCH AND ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS. The Northern Country. — Many years passed away before any white men came to live in the country which is now known as the United States. The Spaniards had many towns and rich colonies in the West Indies, in Mexico, and in South America, but the northern country was still left to the Indians. No one cared to settle on its shores. No gold or silver had been found there, and people in those days seemed to think there was nothing else worth having. Since then we have learned that the soil of the United States is far more valuable than all the gold and silver that the Spaniards found in America. A French Enterprise. — It was not till 1562 that any settlers came. Then some Frenchmen crossed the ocean and built a fort at what is now Port Royal, in South Carolina. They named this country Carolina, after Charles IX., the king of France. These men w^ere known as Huguenots, or people of the Protestant religion, while the religion of France was the Catholic. They had left their country because they were badl}^ treated on account of their religious belief. Jean Ribault, who brought them, soon went back to France. After he left, the colony did not get on well. Most of the men were lazy and would not work, and the Indians, who did not like them, refused to give them food. Many of them died, and those who remained alive built a rude sort of vessel and sailed away for home. The Florida Colony. — Two j-ears afterwards another party of Frenchmen came to America and built a fort near the mouth of the St. John's River, in Florida FRENCH AND ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS 19 This colony was as idle as the other. The men spent their time in hunting for gold and fighting the Indians. They would not take the trouble to raise food from the earth, and they suffered from hunger till vessels came with food from France. Some of them turned pirates, and sailed away to rob the Spanish settlements. St. Augustine. — The Spaniards were very angry when they learned that the French had settled m Florida. They claimed this country as their own, and sent out a party to take possession and to drive out the new- comers. This party was led by a man named Menen- dez, who built a fort which he called St. Augustine. A town in time grew up there, and it is of interest to re- member that this town, laid out in 1565, is the oldest in the United States. The ruins of the old Spanish buildings may still be seen. The next oldest town is Santa Fe in New Mexico. The Massacre. — -And now began those terrible wars of white men which have shed so much blood on the soil of this land. Up to that time all the fighting had been with the Indians, but now the whites began the dreadful work of killing one another. Menendez led his men through the woods and swamps of Florida to the French settlement. There they took Fort Carolina — the French fort — by surprise, and killed all the people they found in it, except a few who escaped to the woods. The Spaniards did a more cruel deed than this. A part of the French had gone to attack St, Augustine, but their vessel was wrecked on the coast, and the men barely saved their lives. They wandered half starved through the woods till they found themselves in sight of St. Augustine. 20 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY Menendez told them that if they would come over the river into the town no harm should be done to them. But as fast as they came over he had their arms tied behind them, and he then set his soldiers on them and murdered them all. Four hundred men were slain in that awful massacre. Menendez had these words placed on the trees near by: "I do this not as to Frenchmen, but as to Lutherans." It was religious hatred that made him do this cruel deed. The Massacre Revenged. — When the news of this deed of bloodshed came to France the people were full of anger. One soldier, named Dominique de Gourgues, resolved to be revenged. He sailed for Florida with three small ships, and took Fort Carolina by surprise, as the Spaniards had before taken it from the French. There were more than three hundred men in it, most of whom were killed. Only sixty were taken prisoners. De Gourgues wrote the following words, and placed them where all could see: "I do this not to Spaniards, but to traitors, thieves, and murderers." Then he hanged all his prisoners, destroyed the fort, and sailed back to France. The murder of the Protestants had been terribly revenged. Sir Humphrey Gilbert. — It was not until after this time that the English first tried to make settlements in America. The earliest of them was Sir Humphrey Gil- bert, who came across the ocean in 1583 to found a colony. But a storm arose, and the leader and his vessel, with all on board, went to the bottom. One of his ships reached England with the news of his loss. Sir Walter Raleigh. — The next year a young man named Sir Walter Raleigh, half-brother to Gilbert, FRENCH AND ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS 21 Raleigh. sent an expedition to the New World, and in 1585 he sent out seven ships, with a hundred persons on board, to make a settlement on Roanoke Island, on the coast of North Carolina. These people soon got into trouble with the Indians, and all returned to England in an English vessel that happened to stop at the island. They took with them the first tobacco that was ever seen in England. Sir Walter Raleigh is said to have been the first man who smoked tobacco in Europe. The story is told that a servant who came into his room while he was smoking thought that he was in flames, and threw a mug of beer in his face to put out the fire. The Lost Colony. — The next summer Raleigh sent another colony to Roanoke Island. A child, named Virginia Dare, was born in this colony, — the first English child born in America. There was war then between England and Spain, and it was three years before another vessel could be sent across the ocean. When it got to Roanoke Island the colony was gone. Not a man, woman, or child could be found. There were some letters cut in the bark of a tree, only this being left to show that white men had ever been there. Raleigh sent vessel after vessel to search for his lost colony, but no trace of it could ever be found. What became of the colonists no one will ever know. If the Indians knew they would not tell, and the secret died with them. 22 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY Other Expeditions. — No other efforts were made to place colonies in the region of the United States till after the year 1600, more than a century after the dis- covery by Columbus. First among the new-comers was a captain named Bartholomew Gosnold, who brought out a colony to America in 1G02; but he took it back again, because he was short of food and the men feared they might starve. The French succeeded in founding a colony before the English. In 1604, Poutrincourt, a Frenchman, planted a colony in Nova Scotia at a place which he called Port Royal. This place, which, under the name of Annapolis, became well known in after years, is on the coast of the Bay of Fundy. It was the first permanent French colony in America. Samuel de Champlain. — Before speaking of the Eng- lish and Dutch colonies that were formed soon after- wards we must say something about the doings of a Frenchman, named Samuel de Champlain, who was the first white man that had much to do with the Indians of the north. He went up the St. Lawrence River in 1603, and came again in 1608, when he founded the city of Quebec at a lofty place on the river bank. This old city still stands on the rocky hill where he placed it. It is a quaint, old-fashioned place, with many ancient houses, and travellers like to visit it. Champlain was a bold and active man and very fond of travel and adventure. He had the hope that he might find a way across the country by the rivers and lakes, and so reach China. But there were savage Indians in his way. In what we know as the State of FRENCH AND ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS 23 New York were the Iroquois tribes of Indians, or the "Five Nations" as they were afterwards called. Far- ther north were the Hurons and other tribes of the St. Lawrence, who were enemies of the Iroquois. Discovery of Lake Champlain. — In 1G09 Champlain and some companions went in boats up the St. Law- rence and the St. John Rivers, while the Hurons and other tribes followed in their canoes. They were going to fight with their enemies, the Iroquois, and the French had promised to help them. It was not long before the boats came out on a beautiful lake which the eyes of white men had never seen before. It is called Lake Champlain, after its discoverer. Battle with the Indians. — On the shores of this lake they met the Iroc^uois, and a fierce battle began,— the first battle with the Indians in the northern part of the New World. The Iroquois were brave warriors and fought boldly, but when Champlain and the two white men who were with him stood forward and fired their muskets they were filled with terror. They had never before seen anything of the kind. The noise seemed to them like thunder. Their chiefs began to fall dead, with nothing to show what had killed them. With a yell of fear the Indians fled. They left every- thing in their fright. Some of them were killed; more were taken prisoners. These the Hurons took back with them to torture and burn at the stake, which was their cruel way of treating captives taken in war. Champlain had many other adventures among the Indians, In 1614 he went south with a war party of Hurons, and made an attack on a fort of the Iroquois. 24 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY The fight was a hard one, but the Hurons were driven off, and Champlain was twice wounded. The Revenge of the Iroquois. — The Iroquois took a terrible revenge on their enemies. Champlain, whom they were afraid of, died in 1635. In 1648 they made ^s^r^C^rT-iy^n 3 CHAMri.AlN A\l an attack on the French in Canada, and killed a great many of them. The tribe of the Hurons was broken up and destroyed. For many years afterwards the French scarcely dared leave their forts for fear of the Indians, who in time got fire-arms of their own and ceased to fear those of the whites. The Iroquois coiisisted of five tribes, the Mohawks, the Oneidas, the Onondagas, the Cayugas, and the FRENCH AND ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS 25 Senecas. Afterwards another tribe, the Tuscaroras, joined them, and they became known as the "Six Nations." They were very warhke and long after- wards took part in the wars of the colonists. Henry Hudson. — There was one other voyage of which we must speak. This was made by the Dutch, who then were a very active seafaring people, and thought they ought to have a share in the New World. So they sent across the ocean a vessel which had the odd name of the Half- Moon. Its captain was Henry Hudson, an Englishman. This was in the year 1609. The Half-Moon sailed along the coast until it reached a broad and fine bay. Up this bay it went until it came into the great river which has ever since been known as Hudson River. Here some of the Indian chiefs came on board and received a fatal present from the hands of the captain. We have told how the tobacco of the Indians was taken to Europe. In return the white men brought brandy to the Indians. Hudson gave the chiefs some of this strong hquor to drink, and they became intoxicated. This was probably the first knowledge they had of that poison which afterwards killed more of them than the rifle. The Half-Moon sailed up the river as far as it could go. On coming back the Dutch were attacked by the 5^=2^^^^- >r4.i«A«ji, The Half-Moon in the Hudson. 26 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY Indians, but some cannon were fired and the savages fled in the utmost terror. Hudson now sailed back to Europe with the story of the discovery he had made. He afterwards discovered Hudson Ba}', which was also named after him. As he wanted to go farther his discontented men set him adrift upon its waters, and the adventurer was left to perish in misery. 4. THE INDIANS. Who Owned the Land? — The Enghsh, the French, the Spanish, and the Dutch, as we have said, sent ships to America, and for a long time afterwards there were disputes and fights among them to decide who owned the land, and how it should be divided. Many good men now think that it did not belong to any of them, but to the old inhabitants of the country, and that the white men treated these very unjustly. AVho were these old inhabitants? Everywhere that the white men had landed they had found tribes of red or copper-colored men, some of whom were gentle and friendly, others fierce and warlike. Before we go on with our story we must tell something about these people. The American Natives. — The Indians, as Columbus had named them, were found in every part of North and South America, and had been there for a long time. Some of them were partly civilized, but others were savages, and lived in a very rude manner. Most of the Indians of the country which we now know as the United States were savages and were a fierce and cruel people, who spent much of their time in killing one another. Many of them dwelt in the forests, and THE INDIANS 27 lived by hunting. Others raised crops of Indian corn, and dwelt in towns and villages, and had passed from the savage into what is known as the barbarian state. The Mound=Builders. — Long ago, no one can tell how long, there dwelt in this region a people who seem to have been very active and industrious. We know this because much of their work remains. In some of the western States there are hills of earth, called by us mounds, which were made by the hands of men. Most of these are small, but some are very large. In these mounds have been found tools of stone and other substances, pots made of burnt clay, stone pipes, pieces of copper, and many other things. Some of these were made with great care and skill. The largest of the mounds must have taken years to build and required the labor of thousands of people. When white men reached the south they found mounds still in use by the Indians of that region, temples being built on some of them. Habits of the Indians. — The mound-builders belonged to an older time. When the whites first came most of the country in which we now live was covered with forests, in which savages lived and hunted. These peo- ple were of a copper color with black eyes and hair, and were divided into tribes. Some of them Hved only by hunting; others raised corn and other vegetables. Most of them dwelt in little tents covered with skin or bark, and called "wigwams," but some tribes built large houses, in which many families lived together. The Indians did not care much for their houses. They liked better to spend their time in the open air. They were very fond of roving about through the forests, hunting wild animals and fighting with one 28 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY another. They dressed in the skins of these animals, painted their faces and bodies, and ornamented them- selves with feathers and the claws of wild beasts. All the hair of their head was shaved off, except one lock, called the scalp-lock. When one of them was killed in war this lock was used to pull off his scalp, or the skin of his head. The Indians were very proud of the scalps which they took in war. They were fond of fighting, and very cruel to their prisoners. It was their custom to tie these to a stake or tree, heap wood round them, and burn them to death. And they tortured them in every cruel way they could. The Indians fought with bows and arrows, and with stone hatchets called "tomahawks." But after the whites came to America they got iron hatchets and fire-arms, and dressed themselves in blankets instead of skins as before. Some tribes built forts of timber, often in the midst of swamps. These were strong, and not easy to capture. Indian Home Life. — At home the women had to do all the work. The men were too proud to do much but hunt and fight. They were very expert in making stone pipes and weapons, and canoes of birch bark in which they paddled about the rivers. These canoes were very light. They could be carried long distances through the forests, and they floated lightly in the water. Fire was obtained by rubbing two sticks together until they became so hot as to break into a blaze.* The food of the Indians consisted of corn and a few ♦Without fire civilization could not exist, so this method of making fire may be looked upon as one of the first steps towards the hi^h riv'.Iization which wc now enjoy. THE INDIANS 29 vegetables they raised, and of the game they killed in the forests. They had tobacco, of which they were very fond, and which they soon taught the white men to smoke. In return the white men taught them to drink whisky, — a much worse gift than that of tobacco. Some writers think that whisky has killed more Indians than muskets. Indian Warriors at Rest and their Wives AT Work. Government. — The tribes of the Indians were divided into smaller bodies, wiiich may be called clans. Each clan paid great respect to some animal, which it called its totem, such as the wolf, the tortoise, the bear, etc. The clans had chiefs whom they called sachems, who ruled them in peace, and other chiefs who ruled them in war. A number of such clans formed a tribe, and several tribes joined together formed a league or confederacy. As an example of these leagues may be named the Iroquois. Religion. — The religious ideas of the Indians were very simple. Each Indian thought that he was taken 30 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY care of by the spirit of the animal that formed his totem. He had great respect for this animal, though he did not mind killing the totems of other Indians. Most of them believed in spirits of the winds and stars, and many of them thought that there was a Great Spirit, who ruled over all men and all things. Their priests they called ''medicine men," These were their doctors as well as priests, and did every- thing by charms and spells. Many of them may have been great rogues. The tribes had religious songs and dances, and many other ceremonies, some of which were strange and noisy, and some painful and cruel. For money the Indians used round pieces of sea-shells, in which they bored holes and strung them on strings. These they called wampum. They knew nothing about reading and writing, but used simple marks and signs by which they could tell one another many things. Their Sagacity. — The Indians were brave and bold and would do anything to kill those whom they hated. They had wonderful skill in tracking their enemies through the wilds and forests. Where white men could see nothing, the Indians could see the marks of footsteps on the dead leaves or the dry ground, and could follow a trail for many miles as easily as a dog can follow an animal by its scent. This made them very dangerous to the whites. They could travel very far in a day, and could go in a straight line through thick forests where the sun was not to be seen. Many white travellers were captured and killed by them. But in time some of the whites learned the Indian ways, and could follow a trail as well as these forest rovers. THE INDIANS 31 The Southern Tribes. — In the country near the Gulf of Mexico the Indians were more civihzed than in the north. They had many towns or large villages, and their chiefs had much power. The sun was their god, and some of the tribes had temples, with numbers of priests and much ceremony.- Farther west, in the Rocky Mountain region, were tribes which built great stone houses, with hundreds of rooms, large enough for a whole tribe to live in one house. Quarrels with the Whites. — The Indians at first were friendly to the whites. They gave them land and were willing to help them in any way they could. But it was not long before quarrels began. Sometimes the white men were in the wrong, and sometimes the Indians, but dreadful scenes followed. The Indians would march silently through the forests and fall on the settlements, burning the houses and killing the people, or taking them away as prisoners. The whites would attack the tribes in return, and kill all the Indians they could. But the whites were the stronger and drove the Indians back step by step, and took possession of nearly the whole country. The savages now own only a small portion of the great continent which was once all their own. But they are forced to live in peace, and they are better ofT than when most of their time was spent in war and bloodshed. PART I.— QUESTIONS FOR EXAJVIINATION. 1. "WTiat was known of the world four hundred years agol What was thought would happen to vessels that sailed out d sight of land? What is the mariner's compass? What journey did Marco Polo make? What did the Northmen discover? Who 32 THE ERA OF DISCOVERY was Christopher Columbus? How did he think Asia could be reached? AMiat troubles did he have? "UTien did he sail on his voyage of discovery? ^^^ly were the sailors afraid? WTiat made them think they were near land? On what day was land dis- covered? What were the inhabitants like? TVTiy were they called Indians? Describe the landing of Columbus. What stories were told by the sailors when they returned to Spain? How was Columbus received ? ^Vhat was his history afterwards? 2. Who was John Cabot? Describe his vo3'age. "\\1iat did Sebastian Cabot discover? ^Vhat did the fishermen do? Describe the voyage of Verrazano. What did Cartier do? Who was Ponce de Leon? ^\^lat did he discover? ^\Tiat did Balboa discover? Who made the first voyage around the globe? What conquests were made by Cortez and Pizarro? "WTiere did Narvaez go? What did De Soto seek? Where did he journey? Describe his death and burial. What was done by Sir Francis Drake? 3. Viho first settled in the United States? Describe the Florida colony. When did the Spaniards found St. Augustine? What did Menendez do at Fort Carolina? How did he treat the ship- WTccked Frenchmen? What did De Gourges do? ^\^len did Sir Humphrey Gilbert come to America? WTiere did Sir Walter Raleigh plant a colony? Tell how tobacco was first taken to Europe, ^\^lat became of Raleigh's colony? ^Vhen and where was the first permanent French colony formed? When did Cham- plain found Quebec? ^Vhat lake did he discover? Describe his battle with the Iroquois. How did the Iroquois revenge them- selves? What river did Henry Hudson discover? How did he act with the Indian chiefs? 4. What kind of people were found in America? Who were the IMound-builders? \Miat relics did they leave? What were the Indians like? How did they live? How did they treat their prisoners? How did they fight? How did they live in their homes? How were they gcverncd? What was the character of their reli- gion? What did they use for money? What is said cf their sagacity? Were the southern tribes more civilized than the north- ern? What did they worship? How did they receive the whites? How have the whites treated them? PART II. THE ENGLISH COLONIES. 1. VIRGINIA. The English Companies. — In 1606 two companies were formed in England to make settlements in America. One of these, which was called the London Company, had a grant from the king of the southern part of the country, and the other, the Plymouth Company, was granted the northern part. At that time the whole country between the French settle- ments in the north and the Spanish settlements in the south was known as Virginia, being named after Queen Elizabeth, the Virgin Queen of England. Now, only a small portion of this broad region is called Virginia. The First Colonists. — Both companies sent out colonies in 1607. One of these, sent by the Plymouth Company, settled on the coast of Maine; but the colonists were not satisfied, and went back the next year. The other, sent by the London Company, was told to land on Roanoke Island, where Raleigh's lost colony had been; but a storm drove the vessels into Chesapeake Bay. Here the colonists discovered a beautiful river, which they named the James, after the King of England. They landed at a point some distance up the river, and formed a settlement which they called Jamestown. The Jamestown Settlement. — The Jamestown colony was made up of people who did not Hke to work. Somr 3 33 34 THE ENGLISH COLONIES of the men thought they could cross the country to the Pacific Ocean. Others spent their time hunting for gold. They found a yellow substance which they thought was gold, and sent a ship-load of it to England. But it was nothing but iron pyrites, or "fool's gold," and of no value whatever; so the gold hunters, who had fancied themselves rich, soon found themselves poor again. The Landinc, at Jamestown. From an old print. Captain John Smith. — By good luck the colony had with it a man who was worth more to it than a mine of gold. This was Captain John Smith, a celebrated soldier, who had been in wars in Europe, and had gone through many strange adventures. Captain Smith was a very active man. He himself went to work and kept the colonists at work with him cutting down trees and building houses. Those who would not work were given nothing to eat. Some of them swore very much, bui he soon cured them of this. When night came he VIRGINIA 35 brought up the swearers and had a can of cold water poured down their sleeves for every time they had sworn during the day. We may imagine that laziness and swearing were quickly broken up in that colony. Captain Smith spent much of his time in exploring the bay and the country. On one of these journeys he was taken prisoner by the Indians, who killed his companions. They were about to kill him, too, but he diverted them by showing them a small compass which he had with him. The movements of the magnetic needle seemed to them the work of magic, so they let him live, and brought him before their great chief, Powdiatan. He surprised them still more by writing a letter to his friends and receiv- ing an answer from them. The Indians could not understand how a piece of paper could talk. When they found that Smith's friends understood what was on it they thought the paper must have spoken to them. Pocahontas. — But Powhatan did not like the English, and he decided that his prisoner should be put to death. Captain Smith tells us that he was laid on the ground, with his head on a stone, and that a warrior had lifted a club to dash out his brains, when a young Indian girl named Pocahontas, the daughter of the chief, rushed in and begged her father not to kill him. So his life was spared. Pocahontas afterwards married an Englishman named Rolfe, and went with him to England. She John Smith. 36 THE ENGLISH COLONIES Pocahontas. did not live long after she reached there. Captain Smith had other adventures with the Indians and much trouble with the colonists. In 1609 he was badly- hurt by the explosion of a bag of gunpowder, and went back to England. He never returned to Virginia. The Starving Time. — As soon as Captain Smith left the colony everything went wrong. Nobody would work; they ate up all their provi- sions; and the Indians, who were made angry by their acts, would not bring them any food. A terrible time fol- lowed. Tlie foolish people soon found themselves starving. There were nearly five hundred of them when Smith left, but in six months only sixty were alive. In a very brief time not a soul of them would have been hving if a vessel had not come with provisions. This period was long known as "the starving time." A new governor, Lord Delaware, came out in this vessel. He was soon followed by Governor Dale, a stern old soldier, but a man of good sense. So far no one had been given a farm of his own, but all had to work for the whole community. The new governor divided the land up into farms and distributed these among the people, and when the colonists found they could work for themselves and own the proceeds of their own labors, they soon became more industrious. VIRGINIA 37 Tobacco Culture. — In 1612 the colonists began to raise tobacco. Much of the soil was given to this new crop, and so little corn was raised that for a time there was danger again of want of food. In 1619 a Dutch ship came up the James with twenty negroes on board. These were sold to the colonists, and were the first slaves brought to America. Wives for the Settlers. — The negroes were not the onl}^ human beings that were sold to the colonists. Until this time the colony had consisted only of men; but now, young women were sent over from England and those who wanted wives paid for them. The price for a wife was one hundred and twenty pounds of tobacco. Sixty more women were sent afterwards, and the price rose to one hundred and fifty pounds of tobacco. The Indian Massacre. — Two years afterwards, in 1622, when much of the country around Jamestown had been settled, the Indians, who feared that all their land would be taken from them, formed a plan to kill all the white people in the colony. They pretended to be very friendly, and brought deer and fish and other things to sell. But suddenly they drew out their weapons and began to kill the settlers. Men, women, and children were cut to pieces, and in one morning three hundred and forty-nine persons were slain. Jamestown was warned in time, and was saved, but very few of the whites were left alive in the outer settlements. A fierce war followed. The Indians were shot down wherever they were seen. At one time the English offered peace to them, and then rushed on them when they were at work in their corn-fields, and killed a great many of them. 38 THE ENGLISH COLONIES Another Indian massacre took place in 1644, afcer which the red men were driven far back into the country, and did not give any trouble for many years. Bacon's Rebellion. — During these years, and for a long time afterwards, the people of Virginia had trouble with their governors. They were not permitted to manage their own affairs, and much bitter feeling arose. One governor, named Berkeley, was such a tyrant that the people would no longer submit to him. In 167G the Indians were again at war with the whites, and, a young man named Nathaniel Bacon raised a company and drove them away. The gov- ernor said that Bacon was a traitor, because he had raised his company without permission. This made the people so angry that they came to Bacon's help, and fighting took place. The governor was driven out of Jamestown, and the town itself was burned to the ground. Nothing of Jamestown now remains except the ruined walls of an old church. Soon after this Bacon died. Berkeley now got into power again and began to revenge himself by hanging his enemies. More than twenty of the leaders of the people were hanged. When the king heard of this he was very much displeased; he ordered Berkeley to come home, and sent out governors of a different kind to the colony. The king said, " That old fool has hung more men in that naked country than I did for the murder of my father." He reproved Berkeley so severely that the old tyrant died of a broken heart. Other troubles arose, but for the next hundred years Virginia grew and prospered, and many of its people became rich and honored. THE PILGRIMS AND THE PURITANS 39 2. THE PILGRIMS AND THE PURITANS. The Pilgrims. — At the time that Captain John Smith was having his adventures with the Indians in Virginia, and Champlain was fighting with the Iroquois in New York, some EngHsh people had found TriK Dll'ARTlKE OF THE PiLGRIMS. that they could not live in peace at home. They thought that every man ought to have a right to read the Bible for himself and form his own opinion about it. But the government said that they must believe what the Church of England taught. As they could not do this, they were treated badly by the government; so they went to Holland and lived there <^or a number of years. 40 THE ENGLISH COLONIES Then they made up their minds to cross the ocean and settle in America. They were afraid that if they stayed in Holland their children might forget their language and become in all things like the Dutch. One hundred and two of them set sail from England in a little vessel called the Mayflower. They proposed to land somewhere on the New Jersey coast, but storms made them seek shelter in the bay back of Cape Cod. The Landing of the Pilgnms. — It was then the month of December of the year 1620. The weather was cold and the ground was covered with snow, but the people were tired of the sea and they went ashore at a place which had been named Plymouth by Captain John Smith, who had explored that coast several years before. On reaching the shore they fell on their knees and thanked God for having brought them in safety to this new land. These people called themselves Pil- grims, because they had left their homes and crossed the ocean on account of their religion, like the old-time pilgrims to the Holy Land. The First Winter. — The Pilgrims were not idle, like the men of the Jamestown colony. They went to work at once to build a house to shelter them and their goods. And they formed a government of their own, in which every man was to have a vote and to be the equal of every other man. But they had great hard- ships to endure, and nearly half of them died before spring. The Plymouth Colony. — When the winter was gone the Pilgrims did not spend their time hunting for gold or wandering about the country. They kept on build- ing until they had a house for each family, and also THE PILGRIMS AND THE PURITANS 41 began to till the soil. The Indians were friendly, and showed them how to plant corn. They had with them a military man named Captain Miles Standish, but he was a very different person from Captain John Smith. He was an old soldier who had joined the colonists to do their fighting for them, if any was necessary, — a little man, very short, but of a hot temper, — and it was not long before he began to make the Indians afraid of him. He was a bold and daring warrior, and the Pil- grims were glad to have a man like Captain Standish with them. The Plymouth colony was not like any of the others formed in America. The people had not been sent out by any company, and had no masters beyond the seas. They were free to serve God and to take care of them- selves in their own way. They elected a governor and other officers, and formed a little republic of their own. They suffered from the cold and from want of food, but the fishing was good and there were plenty of clams, so they managed to live. The land was soon divided into farms, and every man worked for himself, and before long enough corn was raised to give them all food. Canonicus. — The Indians at first were friendly, but some of them became uneasy when they saw that the white men intended to stay in their country. So Canonicus, the chief of the tribe of Narragansetts, sent them a bundle of arrows with a snake-skin tied around them. This meant that if the whites did not go away the Indians would make war upon them. The governor took the snake-skin and filled it with powder and bullets; then he sent it back to Canonicus. 42 THE ENGLISH COLONIES The savages were scared when they saw what had been S(>nt them, for they knew something of what the bullets €ould do. They were afraid to receive it, and it passed from hiand to hand and finally came back to the gov- ernor at Plymouth. Thus there was no war at that time. In 1623 the Indians formed a conspiracy to murder the settlers; but Captain Standish discovered it and killed the ringleaders. After that the Indians kept quiet for years. The Massachusetts Bay Colony. — Plymouth was part of the country which the king had granted to the Plymouth Company, st) that the Pilgrims came under the charter of this company. But they continued to govern themselves in their own way, and the company let them alone, for it was glad to have a settlement on its land. Other people came out from time to time. In 1628 and 1629 a considerable number came from Eng- land and settled at a place on the shore of Massachu- setts Bay, which they called Salem. The next year eight hundred more came. There were now about a thousand persons in the colony of Massachusetts Bay, These were not all poor people, like those at Plymouth. Some of them were rich, and many of them were educated. As in the case of the Pilgrims, religious trouble had brought them over the ocean. They were called Puritans and had been badly treated because they wished to purify the Church of England, which they said had become corrupt. The Charter. — The king had given them a charter in which they were granted the right to govern them- selves They did not leave this charter in England, TH^ PILGRIMS AND THE PURITANS 43 for they did not wish to be ruled by a company in London, but they brought it across the ocean with them. This was a bold step. The reign of hbcrty in America began with that charter. These colonists had much to endure. Many of them died. But there were no idle men among them, and they planted corn instead of seeking for gold, so that they were soon comfortable. Settlements were made all around Massachusetts Bay — -Boston, Roxbury, Charlestown, and other places — following Salem. The colony grew much faster than that of Plymouth. Representative Government. — As we have said, the government was at first in the hands of all the people. They came together in the churches and elected their officers, and decided any question that came before them. But in 1634 this was no longer easy to do. The people had increased till there were more than three thousand of them. These were settled at twenty different places along the sea-shore. They could not all come together to decide questions, and found it neces- sary to choose persons to act for them. These met together at Boston, where they made laws and elected officers. The first Assembly of this kind in America had been formed in Virginia in 1619, but it did not have the power of the Boston Assembly, which made all the laws of the colony. Jamestown had a governor sent out by the king, but the Puritans were under a governor elected by themselves, not one sent from England. Other Colonists. — The Puritans continued to come across the ocean, so that by 1640 there were about twenty thousand people in New England. These were 44 THE ENGLISH COLONIES widely spread throughout the country. Some of them settled in Connecticut and there were settlements in New Hampshire and Maine. The Dutch built a fort on the bank of the Connecticut River, but they were driven away by the English. Roger Williams. — And now we have to tell of some very wrong doings of the Puritans. They had come to America because they were not allowed to worship God in peace at home; but they soon began to say that nobody should worship God in New England except in their way. One minister, named Roger WiUiams, declared that the magistrates had no right to tell a man what his religion should be. He said also that the white men had no claim to the land unless they paid the Indians for it. The Puritans thought that this was dangerous talk, and declared that no man should preach such doctrines in their churches. Williams would not be silent, so they drove him out of the colony. He went into the forests, where the Indians took care of him. At length he reached Narragansett Bay, and crossed it in an Indian canoe to a place which he called Providence. The Indians loved the young exile, and Canonicus, their chief, gave him a large tract of land. Religious Liberty. — There were other persons besides Roger Williams who could not live in peace with the Puritans. Many of these followed him. In the settle- ment which they formed every one was allowed to hold such rehgious opinions ar? he pleased. It was one of the first places in the world in which there was full religious liberty and in which no man was persecuted for his opinions. THE PILGRIMS AND THE PURITANS 45 Rhode Island. — Some of the new settlers bought an island from the Indians, which was called Rhode Island. This afterwards became the name of the State. A charter was given to the colony, and its people slowly grew in numbers. They were so afraid of tyrants that when Roger Williams refused to be gov- RoGER Williams Bringing the Charter to Providencp, ernor the colony went without one for forty years. Williams was very just and kind to the Indians, and they looked on him as their best friend. The Quakers. — But the Puritans soon did worse things than to drive Roger Williams into the wilder- ness. When it was known in England that there was a colony in America formed by people who wished to worship God in peace and freedom, others besides the Puritans made haste to come to this free land. Among these were a number of the Friends, or Quakers 46 THE ENGLISH COLONIES as people called them, who had been veiy harshly treated in England. Several of these came to Plymouth and Salem, but they soon found that they were no better off in Amer- ica than in England, They would not go to war, or pa}^ taxes, or attend the Puritan churches, and they would not go away from the colony when they were ordered to do so. Some of them grew so excited as to be half crazy, and would come into the meeting-house on Sundays, with clothes made of sackcloth, and with ashes on their heads, and would disturb the services. They did other things still more unpleasant. The Persecution. — As they would not leave the colony, the Puritans began to treat them in a cruel manner. Some of them were whipped in the streets, and others were branded with hot irons. Four of them were hanged. And not only the excitable ones, but the quiet and well-behaved ones, were treated with great severity. The Puritans have been much blamed for this cruelty. They had left England because men would not let them act in religious matters as they pleased, and now they were not willing to let others worship in their own way. But they could not drive the Quakers out by severity, and they finally had to let them alone. The Salem Witchcraft. — It was not long before the Puritans began to persecute another set of people. In those days all ignorant persons and some learned ones believed in witches. It was thought that certain people had the power to bewitch and hurt others by a sort of magic. That was the belief all over Europe, and thousands of persons were put to death as witches. THE PILGRIMS AND THE PURITANS 47 Some poor persons in Salem were accused of being witches, and a court was held to try them. Very strange things were said to have been done, and fifty of them were declared guilty. Twenty of these were hanged. The excitement spread and finally people of high standing were accused of witchcraft. This made the wiser citizens fear that there was something wrong in the public belief. When respectable per- sons were thus brought to trial, the judges said that such persons could not be witches, and set them free. The foolish notion died away as quickly as it had risen. Sensible people became very much ashamed of themselves for having believed in such folly; and they could not easily forget that they had put to death innocent persons for a crazy delu- sion. The excitement had continued from 1G88 to 1693. Connecticut. — There were other colonies in New England than those spoken of. The beautiful and fertile valley of the Connecticut River attracted settlers, a party of whom came overland in 1635 and founded Hartford and other towns, while another party came by sea and founded Saybrook, at the river's mouth. In 1638 a large colony from England settled at New Haven, and soon added other towns, which combined to form what was known as the New Haven colony. The Connecticut colony had its capital at Hartford, and in 1662 Charles II. granted it a very liberal charter, which made it almost an independent govern- ment. Towns were also founded in Maine and New Hampshire, but these were long under the control of Massachusetts. 48 THE ENGLISH COLONIES Mode of Government. — All the New England colo- nies followed Massachusetts in their mode of govern- ment. The English kings had left the colonists to act as they pleased, and there was no one in England that had any right to interfere with them, so the people were as free as if they had had no connection with England. In the other colonies there were governors sent out by the king, the companies, or the proprietors; but the people of New England chose their own gov- ernors and made their own laws. A League of Colonies. — We have already told what their government was like. But in 1G43 a new step in political conditions was made. There were then five colonies — Plymouth, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Haven — and all of these except Rhode Island joined themselves into a league, or con- federacy, each colony choosing men to represent it. This was something like the present government of the United States, the meeting of deputies from the col- onies being like a little Congress. New England had become like a free republic at that early date. The Charters Revoked. — But the people of New Eng- land were not left at ease after Charles 11. became king. He did not wish them to have so much liberty, and he declared that the charter of Massachusetts no longer held good. Soon afterwards he died, but the next king, James II., was still more severe. He said that all the New England colonies were his, that he would make the laws and levy the taxes, and that the people should have no voice in the government. He sent out Sir Edmund Andros as royal governor, and demanded that all the charters should be given up. INDIAN WARS OF NEW ENGLAND 49 The Lost Charter. — But the new governor did not succeed very well in this purpose. When he came to Hartford the Assembly met to decide whether they should obey his order and give up their charter. This important paper was laid on the table. It was even- ing and candles were lighted. Suddenly the candles all went out and the room was left in darkness. When they were relighted the charter was gone. It is said that one of the members flung his cloak over the candles and in the darkness carried off the charter, which he hid in a hollow tree. This tree was long known as the Charter Oak. A Change of Kings. — While the governor was in Boston news reached there that the people of England had risen against the king and driven him from the throne. So the governor was imprisoned, the charter was brought out again, and the people took the gov- ernment once more into their own hands. But it was not long before the new king sent them a new governor, and they lost much of their old freedom. 3. INDIAN WARS OF NEW ENGLAND. English and Indians. — In time ^he settlers of New England began to have trouble with the Indians, Shortly after the Pilgrims landed a chief had come to them, with the words, "Welcome, Englishmen." He had learned these words from some of those people who had crossed the ocean in search of fish. But before long this fricndl}' feeling passed away. The English did not treat the Indians well. Captain Standish was very stern and severe with them, and killed several of them. The settlers went farther and farther into 50 THE ENGLISH COLONIES the land, and new ones came over the ocean in such numbers that the red men began to fear that all their country would be taken from them. The Pequot War. — Yet it was not in Massachusetts, but in Connecticut, in 1637, that the first fighting took place. Here there was a fierce and warlike tribe called the Pequots, who became very angry on seeing the white men settling on their lands. They began to kill the whites whenever they found them alone. The Enghsh killed some of them in return, and then a deadly war began. No white man could leave the fort without danger of being murdered by the savages. The settlers soon decided to put an end to this. So they got together a party of soldiers and sent them against the Pequot fort. There were ninety white men and several hundred friendly Indians, led by Captain INDIAN WARS OF NEW ENGLAND 51 John Mason. The Indian fort was near where the town of Stonington is now built. It was made of trunks of trees, about twelve feet high, set close together in the ground. The Indian allies were left outside while the English forced their way into the fort and set fire to the wigwams of the Pequots. Then the fight began in the smoke and flame, and nearly all the Pequots were killed, while only two white men were slain. There were some Pequots outside the fort, but these were sought for and the most of them killed. This bat- tle so frightened the Indians that there was very little trouble with them in New England for nearly forty years afterwards. King Philip's War. — The next war with the Indians began in 1675. The tribe of the Wampanoags had always been friendly with the whites; but the old sachem died and his son, named Philip, became sachem. He hated the whites, and got some of the other tribes to join him in a war against them. One of these tribes was the Narragansett, of Rhode Island, which until now had been kept friendly by Roger Willianjs. The war that followed was a terrible one. The Indians were no longer afraid to touch powder and bullets. They had thrown aside the bow and arrow and taken the musket for their weapon, and they now attacked the settlements in all directions. They drove off the cattle, destroyed the crops, and burned the houses, and many of the white people were murdered. Several towns were taken by the Indians and burned, and the whole country was thrown into a state of terror 52 THE ENGLISH COLONIES Defeat of the Narragansetts. — But the killing of a few hundred persons could not drive the white people from the country, for by this time there were about sixty thousand of them in New England. They made up their minds to punish the Indians and put an end to the war. So a force of fifteen hundred men was sent against the Narragansetts, who had a strong fort in the centre of a great swamp. They thought they were safe there; but the soldiers got into their, fort, killed a thousand of them, and forced the others to flee for their lives. This was in the winter, and many more of the savages died from cold and hunger, as they had no place of shelter and very little to eat. Death of Philip. — This dreadful affair broke the power of the Indians; but parties of them wandered about the settlements, and killed men, women, and children wherever they could. The people grew furi- ous at this, and hunted the savages like wild beasts. Philip and his followers were chased from place to place. In August, 1676, they went to Mount Hope, Rhode Island, and here they were surprised by a party of soldiers and of Indians who had joined the whites. Philip started up to flee for his life, but he was shot by an Indian and fell dead. This ended the war. All danger from the Indians was at an end, except in Maine and New Hampshire, where the settlements were weak. The whites had suffered terribly. About six hundred o'f them had been murdered. Twelve or thirteen towns, with about six hundred houses, had been burned. But the tribes were broken up, and many of the Indians were sent to the West Indies to be sold as slaves. INDIAN WARS OF NEW ENGLAND 53 The First French and Indian Wars. — The next troubles in New England were stirred up by the French, who began a war in Europe with the English in 1689, and another in 1702. The French and English in America were not satisfied to let all the fighting be done on the other side of the ocean, but thought that they must do what they could to kill one another, though the war did not concern them in any way. Many of the northern Indians took the side of the French, and came down from Canada to attack the English settle- ments. Farm-houses and villages were burned, and hundreds of the people were killed or carried off as prisoners. The whole country was kept in a state of terror for years. Mrs. Dustin's Escape. — We must tell the story of one of these prisoners. This was a brave woman named Mrs. Dustin, who was carried off from the town of Haverhill, in Massachusetts, with her baby, her nurse, and a young boy. The Indians soon killed the baby, but they took the others for many miles through the forest. Mrs. Dustin found out that the Indians were going to torture and kill them at the end of their journey, so she resolved to try to escape. They were now on an island in the Merrimac River, and that night the Indians lay down to sleep, not dreaming that they were in any danger from their prisoners. There were twelve of these Indians, and they had no fear of two women and a boy. But Mrs. Dustin told her companions what she wanted them to do, and while the savages lay asleep the three prisoners took possession of their tomahawks and began killing them. They worked so quickly that ten of the Indians were 54 THE ENGLISH COLONIES killed. The other two, a woman and a boy, ran for their lives into the forest. The brave woman took their canoe and floated down the river till she got safely to her home again. There is a statue of Mrs. Dustin now in Haverhill, and a monument on the Mer- rimac River at the point where the Indians were slain. The People of Deerfield.^There were many more horrible events in these wars. Some large villages, such as Schenectady in New York, and Deerfield in Massachusetts, were taken and burned, and the people murdered or carried off as prisoners. It was a terribly cold winter, yet many of the people of Deerfield were made to walk through the woods to Canada with very httle clothing and scarcely anything to eat. There they were sold to the French as slaves. Pioneer Life. — The pioneers of America, as may be seen, led a life of great danger and terror, very differ- ent from anything that is known here to-day. The men worked in the fields with their rifles by their sides, and each house w^as built like a strong fort, for no one knew at what moment the savages might burst with a yell from the woods and fall on them with mus- ket and tomahawk. These were times such as can never come again in this peaceful country. 4. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE PURITANS. To tell what laws a people made, what wars they fought, and what things they did is not to tell their whole story. To tell how they lived, what their houses and churches were like, what work they per- formed, and how they enjoyed themselves is quite as important and interesting. So it is our purpose iMANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE PURITANS 55 now to say something about the manners and cus- toms of the people of New England. Puritan Houses. — In the early period of this country there were none of the great and beautiful buildings we see to-day. Most of the houses were log huts, only one story high, with very steep roofs which were cov- ered with thatch. But there were a few houses raade of wood and brick and some of stone, two stories high. As time went on the houses became larger, but the largest of them would seem small to us. In these houses were large fireplaces, built of stone, in some of which logs four feet long could be burned. The chimneys at first were made of boards, or of sticks smeared with clay. There was very little glass for the windows, and oiled paper was much used instead. When glass was used it was made in small and thick diamond-shaped panes, which were set in frames of lead. Furniture was not plentiful, and was very rude in shape and finish, with none of the beauty and art of modern furniture. There were few clocks, and most people had to tell the time from the sun. For this pur- pose the houses were built so as to face exactly south. When the sun shone squarely into the rooms the people knew that it was noon and time for dinner. Dress. — ^The Puritans dressed very differently from what we do now. The men wore knee-breeches and short cloaks, with ruffs about their necks, and steeple- crowned hats; the v/ealthy ones had rich belts, gold and silver buttons, and high boots rolled over at the top for great occasions. The women wore dresses of plain homespun during the week, and silk hoods, lace neckerchiefs, and other finery on Sunday. 56 THE ENGLISH COLONIES But the law required that everybody should dress to suit his or her station in hfe. Workingmen wore breeches of leather or coarse goods, and red or green baize jackets, with somewhat finer clothes for Sunday; while the gentleman wore his robe of silk or velvet, with lace ruffles at his wrists and gold lace on his cloak. A gold-headed cane and a gold or silver snuff-box were thought necessary to a gentleman. But those who wore fine clothes could be punished unless they could prove that they were rich enough to afford them. Titles and Luxuries. — The titles of Mr. and Mrs. were not so common as they are to-day. They were used only for clergymen and magistrates, and for people of very high position. Everybody else, except a servant, was called Good-man, or Good-wife. Much respect was shown to persons of education. As the colonies grew richer great display was made by wealthy people. Fine houses were built, elegant furniture and clothing were imported, and there was much show among people of wealth. Food and Amusements. — Food was by no means to be had in as great variety as it is now. There was no way to bring fruits from other parts of the world, and no one knew how to preserve vegetables and meats for the winter in the way that this is now done. Corn meal and milk, or pork and beans, were common food, while bread was generally made of rye and Indian meal. Tea and coffee were not used, but much beer and cider were drunk. Amusements were very simple. No one was allowed to dance, or to play cards, and there was not much music, while such a thing as a theatre was unknown. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE PURITANS 57 ^ Laws and Penalties. — ^Thc laws were very severe. There were whipping-posts, where men and women were often whipped in pubHc for doing things which are now not considered crimes. There were also stocks, or wooden frames which could be locked around the neck or the ankles, in which offend- ers were fastened and left to the scorn of the public. A woman who was a common scold might be punished by being ducked in a stream or pond, or by having a split stick fastened on her tongue or a gag put into her mouth. In some cases the offender was made to stand on a stool in the church with the name of his offence written on a paper which was pinned on his breast. Town Meetings. — The people, as we have already said, made their own laws. To do this they came together in town meetings and talked over public affairs. If a vote had to be taken, corn and beans were used to vote with. A grain of corn meant a vote in favor of the measure; a bean was a vote against it. The town meetings were Intended only to discuss local affairs; those of the whole colony were settled by the governor and the Assembly. Church=Qoing. — In religious matters the Puritans were very strict. Everybody was expected to attend church, and those who failed to do so were punished. On Sunday morning the sound of a drum, or perhaps Stocks, Whippixg-Post, and PiLLOBT. 58 THE ENGLISH COLONIES the blowing of a horn or ringhig of a bell, would call the people to worship. The meeting-house was like a small fort, as it had a fence of strong stakes driven into the ground around it. Often a cannon or two would be placed near the church, or perhaps on its roof, while the men walked to church with their guns over their shoulders, and kept them within easy reach during the service. Puritans Going to Church. Fear of the Indians. — It was fear of the Indians that made the people so cautious. No one knew at what moment the dreadful war-whoop might sound, and a troop of blood-thirsty savages rush into the town. In such a case the meeting-house could be turned at once into a fort, where the men might fight for the lives of themselves and their famihes. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE PURITANS 59 Within the Church. — The worshipers did not sit together as now, but the old people occupied one part of the church, the young men another, and the young women a third. The boys sat on the steps of the pulpit and in the galler3^ No one was allowed to go to sleep in those old Puritan churches. The constable was always on hand to keep them awake. He carried a staff that had the foot of a hare on one end and a hare's tail on the other. If a woman went to sleep, the hare's tail was brushed gently over her face: but if a boy was caught nodding, the hare's foot came down on his pate with a sharp rap. Yet it must have been hard to keep awake, for the sermons were sometimes three or four hours long, and no doubt often very dry and tiresome. Industries. — The people of New England lived on what they could raise from the soil. But there were some things manufactured, such as hats, paper, shoes, furniture, and farming tools. Most people dressed in homespun goods, and the spinning-wheel was kept busy in the houses. Money was scarce, and for a while bullets were used for farthings. The wampum of the Indians and beaver skins and corn were also used for money; but the colonists began to make silver coins in 1652. Vessels. — Many vessels were built. The first of those built in Massachusetts was called The Blessing of the Bay. In time the New England people had a large trade along the coast, and sent vessels for whales into the icy seas of the north. Military Customs. — Every man and boy past the age of sixteen had to act as a soldier, and they were obliged 60 THE ENGLISH COLONIES to meet together and go through military exercises at certain periods. The danger from the Indians was so great that this was necessary, and in the frontier settlements no farmer went into his field, or travelled along the road, without his musket. The houses were built like forts. Some of the soldiers carried long pikes. Others carried guns called matchlocks. These guns were fired with a slow-match, or a piece of substance that burns very slowly. It was long before they began to use flint and steel to make a spark and set fire to the powder in the gun, and still later before the gun-caps which are now used were invented. Each soldier car- ried a rest, or iron fork, which he stuck into the ground to rest the end of his heavy musket on while he took aim. Swords were carried by the officers, and some of the soldiers wore iron helmets and breast-plates. Others wore coats quilted with cotton wool, through which an Indian arrow could not pass. Modes of Travel. — The usual mode of travel was on foot or horseback, but many went in vessels along the coast. That is the way Benjamin Franklin came from Boston to New York, as he tells us in his own story of his life. From New York to Philadelphia he came part of the way by land and part by boat on the Dela- ware River, and found it a long and difficult journey. Now one may make the same journey in two hours in a parlor car. 5. NEW YORK. The Purposes of the Colonists. — The people who came to America did so for various purposes. The Sjjanish came in search of gold and silver. The French of NEW YORK 61 Canada wished to trade for furs with the Indians. The EngHsh of Virginia at first sought for gold, and soon after began to cultivate tobacco and send it to England. The Puritans were the first who began to till the soil as a business, and who had no other objects in view. They were the first, also, who made the New World truly their home, and took care of themselves without any help from Europe. The Dutch. — Other people than the French came to America to trade with the Indians. After Henry Hudson got back to Europe and told of the great river he had sailed up in the Half Moon, the Dutch claimed all the territory he had visited, and called it "New Netherlands. " The First Settlement.— A Dutch sailor named Adrian Block came there in 1614, and loaded his ship with bear skins. But when he was just ready to set sail for home his ship, which was called the Tiger, was found to be on fire. It could not be saved, so the sailors had to hurry ashore and leave their vessel to the flames. They built themselves log huts, and spent the winter on Manhattan Island, where the great city of New York now stands. They called the place New Amster- dam. In the spring they built a vessel called the Onrust (which means Unrest), and sailed back to Holland. The Land Purchased. — After this the Dutch contin- ued to come, and they formed trading posts at differ- ent places along the Hudson River. They were the first settlers who acted as if they believed that the Indians had a right to the lands they Hved on, and who were wiUing to pay for them. But they did not pay a 62 THE ENGLISH COLONIES very high price. They bought the whole of Manhat- tan Island for goods worth about twenty-four dollars. Other tracts of land were bought, and they kept up a thriving trade with the Indians for the skins of bears, beavers, and other animals. For these they were will- ing to sell the Indians guns, and powder and shot, and in this way the natives came to possess these new weapons. The Claim to Connecticut. — The Dutch were not content with Manhattan Island, but claimed that they owned the whole coast as far north as Cape Cod, and sent a vessel to the Connecticut River, on the banks of which a fort was built. They were not there long before an English vessel from Plymouth sailed up the stream. The Dutch threatened to fire on them if they went farther up, but the Plymouth men were not easily frightened and sailed past the fort in spite of its guns. They stopped at a place near the river which they called Windsor, and built a house to trade with the Indians. This took place in 1633, and soon afterwards other settlements were made on the river and along the coast. The Dutch talked of driving them out, but the English were soon too strong to be safely attacked and Connecticut was lost to the Dutch. The Delaware. — Another Dutch vessel, under Cap- tain Mey, sailed into Delaware Bay and River. There was fine country on both sides, and he declared that all this land should belong to Holland. A fort was built on the Delaware River, but it was soon allowed to go to ruin, and the Dutch acted as if they did not care for the country. NEW YORK 63 The Swedes. — About twenty years afterwards a colony came from Sweden, led by Peter Minuit, a former Dutch governor of New York, but now in the service of Sweden, and settled on the banks of Dela- ware Bay and River. This made the Dutch suddenly decide that they wanted the country very badly. They said that the Swedes had settled on land belong- ing to them, and sent ships and soldiers who attacked them and took possession of their forts. The Swedes were not driven away, but they had to accept the Dutch as their masters. Dutch Settlements. — The Dutch were soon at war with the Indians, but their colony grew in size and they formed many settlements along the Hudson River. Yet the people of the colony were not satisfied, for some of their governors acted like tyrants, and they thought they ought to have the same right to govern themselves as the people of New England had. The Duke of York.— In 1664 the Duke of York, King Charles's brother, sent three armed ships from England, and Stuyvesant, the Dutch governor, was ordered to give up the country. This act was based on the voyages of the Cabots, which the English claimed gave them the right to all this country. Stuy- vesant wanted to fight, but the people would not help him. The}^ did not like the way he had treated them, and thought they would be better off under the Eng- lish. So the island was given up to the English, and the name of the town changed to New York. This was the beginning of the great city of that name. Leisler's Revolt. — There is not much more to telJ about the colony of New York. The people did not 64 THE ENGLISH COLONIES find the English rule any easier than the Dutch. The governors sent out by the Duke of York were very severe. In the end the people rose against one of these governors and drove him away, and chose a merchant named Jacob Leisler ^o take his place. But a new governor was sent over from England, who arrested Leisler for treason. This governor, who was named Sloughter, did not want to do anything more to Leisler, who had n t been much to blame; but he had the fault 01 drinking, and some of Leisler's enemies got him to sign a death-warrant while he was drunk. They took care to hang Leisler before the governor got sober again. There was never any stronger proof than this of the folly and wickedness of intemperance. Captain Kidd. — Other governors came who were no better than Sloughter. One of them was said to be a partner of the pirates, of whom there were many on the coast. A vessel was sent against them, commanded by a mariner named Captain Kidd; but he ran away with the vessel and turned pirate himself. He was afterwards taken and hanged. How the Negroes were Treated.— At this period there were many negro slaves in New York. In time one- fifth of all the inhabitants were slaves. The people grew afraid of them, and passed severe laws to keep them in subjection. At length, in 1741, the story was started that the negroes had formed a plot to murder their masters. This caused great fear among the New Yorkers, and many of the negroes were arrested. Some of these were hanged, others were burned at the stake, and others transported. Some white men were hanged also. LIFE IN NEW YORK 65 It is very doubtful if there was any real plot. The people were so frightened that they hardly knew what they were doing, and there is no doubt that many innocent persons were put to death. Fear makes men do many cruel and unjust things. 6. LIFE IN NEW YORK. Dutch Houses. — The Dutch settlers of New York had modes of life very different from those of New England and the South. They built houses like those of Holland, These were of wood, or of small black and yellow bricks, and had their gable ends facing the street. There were weather-cocks on the roofs, and the houses had many doors and windows, with great brass knock- ers on the front doors. They were kept very clean, as houses were in Holland. DOTCH INTEKIOR. 66 THE ENGLISH COLONIES The women spent much time in sweeping and scrub- bing. They had no carpets, but they covered the floors with white sand, which was made into Hnes and pat- terns with the broom. They had great open fire- places, with tiles of different colors and figures. The furniture was plain and solid, and there was much old silver and china in the cupboards. Every house had its spinning-wheel and a great chest full of linen which the women had woveft. Modes of Life. — The Dutch did not work very hard. They took life easy, and spent much of their time sitting on the porches with long pipes in their mouths. They liked good eating and drinking, and enjoyed telling stories and playing at various games. Many things and habits we now have came from the Dutch. Our "Santa Claus" came from them, and also the custom of New Year visits, and of colored eggs at Easter. The Dutch cooks of New Amsterdam were the first in this country to make doughnuts and crullers. The people were not very fond of church-going, but they had great respect for their ministers, or "domi- nies," as they called them. When money was scarce they paid the dominies in beaver skins or wampum. The Dutch Dress. — The Hollanders had their own ideas about dress. The men wore several pairs of knee- breeches, one over the other, which made them look very baggy. They wore large buckles at the knees and on the shoes, while their coats had great buttons of brass or silver. The women wore a great many short and bright-colored petticoats, with stockings of various colors and high-heeled shoes. On their heads they wore white muslin caps. MARYLAND 67 Industries. — There were people of several different nations in New York, but Dutch was the ordinary lan- guage, even long after the country had been taken by the English. Most of the people were engaged in trading with the Indians for furs, which they sent to Europe, along with timber, tar, tobacco, and other things. They built their own vessels, and gave them such queer names as King Solomon and The Angel Gabriel. The Patroons. — The country was settled in a way unlike that of any other colony. Rich persons came from Holland, where they had bought the right to take up in America tracts of land running sixteen miles along a stream and as far back into the country as they pleased. They were told that they must pay the Indians for the land, and bring out a colony of fifty persons within four years. These great land-owners were called ''Patroons." They owned all the best land, and the farmers were only tenants. Thus New York was very different from New England; which was divided into small farms owned by the farmers. The patroon system was not changed by the English, and many of these great estates continued until recent times. The rents were low, but about 1844 most of the tenants refused to pay rent any longer. After some trouble, nearly all the farmers bought their lands, and the great estates of the patroons were broken up. 7. MARYLAND. Lord Baltimore. — The Catholics of England were treated more harshly than the Puritans, and when they saw how well the Puritans got along in America, they 68 THE ENGLISH COLONIES thought that if they should cross the ocean they might be able to live like them in peace and comfort. So a Catholic nobleman, named Lord Baltimore, got King Charles I. to give him a charter for a colony. The land he chose was on Chesapeake Bay, where a settlement was made in 1634 at a place called St. Mary's. The country was named Maryland, after the wife of the king, whose name was Henrietta Maria. The charter which the king gave to Lord Baltimore was a very liberal one. He was permitted to govern the country in his own way, without any interference from England, and the king promised not to tax the colon}^ if the governor would send him one-fifth of any gold or silver he might find and two Indian arrows every year as a sort of tribute. Religious Liberty. — Lord Baltimore was a wise and just man, and he declared that no one should suffer in his colony on account of religion. Most of the first settlers were Roman Catholics, but he said that all Christian people should have the same rights in Mary- land as the Catholics. So for a time there were no rehgious disputes in that colony, though it was not long before other troubles began. Clayborne's Rebellion. — Many persons came from Virginia and settled in Maryland and Puritans also came from New England, but none of these got along well with the CathoHcs. A Virginian named Clayborne had been there before Lord Baltimore, and claimed to own a part of the country. Disputes began, and before many years there was war in the colony. Clay- borne was at the head of the rebellious forces and in the end he drove out the governor and took possession MARYLAND 69 of the country. But the fighting began once more, and he was defeated and had to flee for his hfe. Thus Lord Baltimore got possession of his colony again. Religious Troubles. — But other Protestants kept coming into the country, who were not willing to live in peace with the Catholics, even under their fair laws. Quarrels arose, and when the Protestants became strong enough they passed a law that no Cptholic should have a vote. In this way religious freedom came to an end in Maryland. A Royal Governor. — In 1691 King William of Eng- land, a strong Protestant, took the province away from Lord Baltimore and placed it under a royal governor. He declared that the Church of England should be the church of the colony, and the people were no longer allowed to worship in their own way. For twenty years this state of affairs continued. Then George I., a new king, restored the colony to a descendant of Lord Baltimore, who was a Protestant. After that time no one was persecuted in Maryland on account of his religion. Life in Maryland. — Most of the people of Maryland lived on plantations and raised tobacco as was done in Virginia. They paid for everything they wanted with this plant, which served them instead of money. Lord Baltimore had bought land from the Indians, and the people had very little trouble with them. After the religious disputes were settled, Maryland became a happy and prosperous colony, and affairs went on well there for many years. 70 THE ENGLISH COLONIES 8. PENNSYLVANIA. Religious Persecution. — We have seen that religious persecution made many of the people of Europe come to America. It was this that brought the French Protestants to Florida, the Puritans to New England, and the Catholics to Maryland. The same cause sent another colony over the ocean. In those days each of the great nations of Europe had one religion which it said was the only true one, and they declared that any person who had a different belief was a bad man, and should be punished. The Quakers. — -There were many of these "heretics," as they called them, in England. One sect of them called themselves Friends, but their enemies named them Quakers. They did not believe in war, nor in fine clothes, nor that one man is better than another. They would not take off their hats before a king. They had no fine churches and no paid ministers, and their ideas were so different from those of the Church of England that the government tried to make them change their belief, and in so doing treated them cruelly. We have told already how badly the Puritans treated them, William Penn. — Among the Quakers was one rich and edu- cated man, named William Penn. His father had been an admiral in the English navy, and when he died Charles II. owed him a large sum of money. William Penn. PENNSYLVANIA 71 William Penn had been in prison for being a Quaker, and he thought that he would like to make a home for himself and his friends where they could live in peace. So he asked King Charles to give him some land in America to pay the debt owed to his father. The king was glad to do this, for he had more land than money. He told Penn that he might have the land on the west of the Delaware River. This had belonged first to the Indians, then to the Swedes, and afterwards to the Dutch, but when the English took New Amsterdam from the Dutch they took this also. It was covered with forests, and Penn wished to call it Sylvania, from the Latin word Sylva, which means forest. But the king said it should be called Penn- sylvania, or Penn's forest-land. Philadelphia. — William Penn came to America in the year 1682, in the good ship Welcome. There were Swedes and Dutch in his new province before him, as we know, and also some English, whom he had sent out the year before. Several of the Swedes lived where the great city of Philadelphia now stands; but Penn bought the ground from them, and laid out a city which he called Philadelphia, or "brotherly love." Penn's Treaty with the Indians. — He soon asked the Indians to meet him and have a friendly talk. We are told that many of the chiefs came, and they met together under a great elm-tree, on the banks of the Delaware. The white men had no guns, as the peo- ple elsewhere had, and they gave presents to the Indians and promised to buy the land from them, instead of cheating and shooting them as had been done in other places. The Indians were glad to hear this, 72 THE ENGLISH COLONIES and said that they would live "in love with the children of William Penn while the sun and moon shall shine." This promise was kept for many years. The Quakers were a peaceful and just people, who never did any harm to the savages, and the Indians always looked on them as their friends. All the troubles with the red men in Pennsylvania came from other people. The Laws. — William Penn staj^ed only two years in America, and then went back to England, where he remained for many years. Instead of trying to govern the people, he called them together and let them make their own laws, and the colony at once became free and happy. Every man who paid a tax was given the right to vote, no mat- ter what religious belief he held, and the people con- tinued to choose their own officers and make their own laws. Nearly the only power which William Penn kept was that of appointing the governor.- The Population. — People came over very fast to the Quaker settlement. Some of those who came first lived in holes dug in the river bank, but houses were soon built, and in two years Philadelphia had three hundred houses and twenty-five hundred inhabitants. Penn did not come back until 1699, at which time there Penn Treaty Moncment. I-ENNSYLVANIA 73 were seven hundred houses. The city was very pros- perous, but Penn did not get much money from his colony. The people forgot how much they owed to him, and let him die poor after all he had done to make them rich and happy. Delaware. — And now we must say something about the provinces of Delaware and New Jersey. One of the early governors of Virginia, named Lord de la Ware, had made a voj^age along the coast, and entered a beautiful river, which was called Delaware after his name. Then the Swedes and the Dutch came, and afterwards the English, and the country which is now called Delaware was for a time part of Penn- sylvania. In 1703 it was made a separate colony, under its present name. New Jersey. — -The Dutch were the first to settle in New Jersey. But when the Duke of York robbed the Dutch of their settlements, he gave this province to two English noblemen, who named it after the island of Jersey, in the English Channel. Among the people who came there were some Quak- ers, and William Penn soon bought part of the land and invited others to come. Afterwards the rest of the province was bought by the Quakers, and it was thrown open to the persecuted people of all religions. In 1702 a royal governor was appointed who ruled over New York and New Jersey, and it was not till 1738 that New Jersey got a governor of its own. But the lands settled b}' the Quakers long continued among the most peaceful, freest, and happiest of all the settlements in America. 74 THE ENGLISH COLONIES 9. LIFE IN PENNSYLVANIA. The People of Pennsylvania. — Pennsylvania was settled by people of different nations, and several languages were spoken there. Among these settlers were English and Swedes, Dutch and Germans, Scotch r and Irish. There were no important towns besides Philadelphia, but that was the greatest city in America till after the Revolution. Philadelphia. — William Penn laid out his city with streets crossing each other at right angles, like those of ancient Babylon. It had many handsome build- ings, the streets were lined with trees, and there were gardens and orchards about the houses, so that it was LIFE IN PENNSYLVANIA 75 a "fair greene country town," as Penn wished it to be. The sidewalks in time were paved with flag-stones, which at that period could be found in few cities. In 1740 the city had about twelve thousand inhabitants, and was a very thriving place. Modes of Life. — ^Philadelphia was noted for the abun- dance of its fruit. A German traveller said, in 1748, that the peaches were so plentiful that the people fed their pigs on them. The people in Europe, he said, cared more for their turnips than the people in Philadelphia did for their finest fruits. The shops of the city were only the ordinary houses, with something hung over the door to show what was for sale inside. Now you would see a basket, now a beehive, or perhaps a wooden anchor, or something else to serve as a sign. The people were very quiet and sober, and did not care much for amusements. There was not much travelling about the country, for the roads were very bad. Dealings with the Indians. — While William Penn lived his colony had no trouble with the Indians. It has been said that no drop of Quaker blood was ever shed by an Indian. This is not quite true, yet they and the Quakers were long the best of friends. But one of William Ppnn's descendants treated the Indians ;badly, and made them very angry. , The Indians had sold the whites as much land as a man could walk over in a day and a half. They sup- posed that this land would be walked over in the usual way; but instead of that an easy route, was chosen and some fast walkers were trained, who went over a very long distance in the day and a half. The Indians said 76 THE ENGLISH COLONIES that this was not fair. But Indians were brought from New Yoi'k who were enemies of the tribe of the Delawares, and who drove them from their lands. This was not the way that WiUiam Penn would have acted, and the Indians never again felt as they had done towards the white men. Benjamin Franklin. — In 1723 there came to Phila- delphia a very remarkable man. This was the cele- brated Benjamin Franklin, who was born in Boston, but came to Philadelphia while he was young. His brother had printed a newspaper in Boston, and Franklin soon started one in Philadelphia, which became one of the best in the country. He did many other things. He kept a stationer's shop; he bound books; he made ink; he sold rags, soap, and coffee. He was not ashamed to do anything honest, and would wheel the papers he sold along the streets in a wheelbarrow, which many poorer and less worthy men were too proud to do. He was one of the wisest men of the period in which he lived. While he was working he was always studjing, and it was he who proved that lightning is the same thing as electricity. He brought the lightning down from the clouds along the string of a kite, and got an electric shock from it. Franklin did much for the progress of Philadelphia. He started a university, a hospital, a library, and other pubhc institutions. He worked also for the good of Benjamin Feanklin. THE CAROLINAS the whole country. No man did more to help Amer- ica to become free from England, and he was one of those who prepared the Constitution of the United '*''**y. Fhanklin Brought the Lightning Down fhom the Clouds. States, that great document which first made a nation of this country. Franklin was one of the noblest men the world has ever known, and America will never cease to be proud of him. 10. THE CAROLINAS. The Gift of Carolina. — We have seen how freely King Charles II. gave away land in America. He gave New York to one person and Pennsjdvania to another, and a large region, known as Carolina, was given by him to 78 - THE ENGLISH COLONIES eight persons, most of whom were noblemen of his court and none of whom had ever seen America. Settlers had come to Carolina before this, some from Virginia, and others from New England and elsewhere. Several settlements had been made before 1663, when diese noblemen became the owners of the land. These eight persons decided to have a different kind of gov- ernment from that of the other colonies. The}^ did not believe in freedom, and thought that the people were not fit to take care of themselves, as they were trying to do in New England. So they concluded to have a strong government, in which the people w^ould have nothing to do but to obey the laws that were made for them. The Grand Model Government. — The proprietors of Carolina went to a celebrated philosopher, named John Locke, and asked him to draw up a system of govern- ment for them. He did so, forming a plan which he called the "Grand Model." There were to be earls and barons in Carolina as there were in Europe. These were to own all the land, and to have all the power, and the people were to be little better than slaves, since they could not leave the plantations on which they worked. What the People Did. — This plan might have done very well for the Spanish or French colonies, but it would not do for the English. The people in Carolina had come from other parts of the country, where the settlers owned the land and made the laws. They did not understand the Grand Model, and paid no atten- tion to it, but went on in their own way and took all the land they wanted, caring nothing about the plans of the distant owners. THE CAROLINAS 79 The earls and barons stayed at home and the pro- prietors stayed with them, while the people decided for themselves what was best to do, and did it. Settlers came from different parts of Europe, among them some French Protestants, who had the same behef as those who had come to America a hundred years before under Joan Ribault. The colony soon became prosperous. The Pirates. — Everybody was not honest and law- abiding, for pirates, or sea-robbers, soon appeared along the coast and for years they made much trouble for the com- merce of the colonies. They would hide with their vessels in the ba5^s and rivers of the coast, and suddenly sail out and attack passing ships. It is said that some of the settlers helped them. They sunk many vessels and murdered many people before they were driven away or captured b> armed ships, and it took a long time to Industries A PlHATF. AtTATK. bring this piracy to an end. Rice was first brought into the colony by a vessel from Madagascar. The grains were planted and it became a very valuable crop in the southern part of Carohna. In the northern part the people made tar and turpentine out of the sap of the pine-trees, and hunted for bear and beaver skins. 80 THE ENGLISH COLONIES Spanish and Indian Wars. — Later on there were wars with the Spaniards and the Indians. The people of Carolina sent some war vessels against St. Augustine, the Spanish settlement in Florida. In return the Spaniards stirred up the Indians to make war on the settlements. But in the end the Tuscarora Indians, with whom they had the most trouble, were driven out of the colony and forced to go to New York, where they joined the Iroquois, or Five Nations. Division of the Colony. — The proprietors still tried to govern the people, but these ])r(>fi>rred to govern themselves, so they drove out of the colony one of the governors sent to them and put his secretary into prison. In the end the proprietors got tired of quar- relling with the people and asked the king to buy the province from them. He did so, and divided it into two parts, which he called North Carolina and South Carolina. This was done in 1729. The people now chose their own law-makers, though they did not like the governors sent them by the king any more than they had done their old ones. But this did not keep other people from coming, and the country in time grew rich and prosperous. n. LIFE IN VIRGINIA AND CAROLINA. The Settlers of Virginia. — The people who settled Virginia were of a very different class from those of the Northern colonies. Many of them were English gentle- men, with more pride than money, who did not know how to work, and who hoped to get rich by finding mines of gold and silver, or in some other easy wa, v . LIFE IN VIRGINIA AND CAROLINA 81 Afterwards criminals were sent across the ocean and made to work for a certain number of years on the plantations. No doubt many of them were of little use. In time the planters became the rich men of Virginia, and these servants the poor men. In the Early Days. — Captain Smith, as we have already said, made everybody work, but he did not stay very long. At first, as he says, all the shelter the colonists had was an awning made from an old sail, nailed to trees. Then they built some rough log houses, with seats and tables made of planks cut with an axe. This was very different from the way people after- wards lived in Virginia. When slaves were brought to the colony and the people began to raise tobacco they soon grew more comfortable. Their tobacco was sent to England, and goods were sent to them in return. For a long time tobacco was used for money. One pound of tobacco was worth from two to twelve cents of our money, but at that time this could buy five or six times as much as the same amount of money can now. Modes of Life. — The settlers soon began to build vessels for themselves, and carried on a good trade with England. They lived in a different way from the people of the North. In travelling you would find few tov/ns or villages, but the land was divided up into large plantations, where tobacco was the principal crop. Each house stood far from any others, and there were a great many negro slaves. The slaves who worked in the fields lived in little villages of their own. Nearly everything that was used on the plantations was made by the slaves, who were 82 THE ENGLISH COLONIES taught different trades. There were mills to grind corn and wheat, and large sheds to cure tobacco. This tobacco was packed in great hogsheads and sent to the coast to be loaded on vessels and shipped to England. They had a curious way of sending it to the coast. An axle was run through the hogshead of tobacco, and shafts fixed to it. Then horses or oxen would drag it over the roads, the hogshead rolling along like a great wheel. The Planters. — As time went on there came to be great differences in riches. There were more very rich men and more very poor ones in the South than in the North. The great planters lived like lords. They kept packs of hunting dogs and many racing horses, and rode to church or town in fine coaches, each drawn by six horses and attended by riders on horse-back. The Houses of the Planters.— The houses, which were built of wood, or of bricks brought from England, were often large and grand, having broad stairways and mantels and wainscots of solid mahogany, which was richly carved. Gold and silverware could be seen in abundance on the sideboards, and the furni- ture was rich and showy. The planters were very hospitable. Strangers were received with a warm wel- come, and everything was done to make their visits pleasant and agreeable. Government. — The planters spent much of their time attending to political matters. They carried on the government of the colony and became skilful in the art of politics. There were among them men of high education and fine character, and afterwards many LIFE IN VIRGINIA AND CAROLINA 83 of the leading statesmen of America came from Vir- ginia. The governors of the colony were sent from England, and at first the laws were made in that country. Afterwards the people were allowed to make their own laws. Punishments. — The early laws were very severe. Every man who stayed away from church was pun- ished. At first the law said that a man who stayed IxTi.RioR OF A Virginia IIoMrsTEAD. away from church three times should be put to death. Afterwards the punishment for this offence was to be made a slave for a year and a day. There were severe laws against swearing and scolding. Both men and women might be whipped in public, or placed in the stocks. Or they might be made to stand in church with white sheets over them, or with the name of their offence pinned on their breasts. Such laws, however, did not last long, and were not often carried out. 84 THE ENGLISH COLONIES Religious Persecution. — The Church of England was the estabhshed church of Virginia, and members of other churches were treated with much severity. The laws forbade Quakers and Catholics to come into the colony. All those who came were punished. This made many go to Maryland and Carolina, where religion was free; so that the severe laws of Virginia helped to fill up these other colonies. Education. — In 1671, Governor Berkeley, of Vir- ginia, wrote, "I thank God there are no free schools nor printing-presses here, and I hope we shall not have them these hundred years." Another governor taxed school-masters twenty shillings each. So education did not make much progress, and there was no news- paper in Virginia till 1736. But William and Mary College, of Virginia, founded in 1693, was the second in the country; Harvard College, of Massachusetts, being the first. North Carolina. — The mode of life all through the South was much the same as in Virginia, the land often being divided into great plantations, worked by slaves, while the country was not so thickly set- tled as in the North. In North Carolina the people lived in different ways. Great pine woods lay all along the coast region, and the people there got tar and turpentine from the trees. Farther back the country was more open, and farms were cultivated, while many persons spent their time in hunting. The settlers lived far apart, and the only roads they had through the woods were paths, with notches cut on the trees to guide travellers. This they called "blazing their way." GEORGIA 85 South Carolina.— South Carolina was much more like Virginia. Here great plantations were formed, but rice was raised instead of tobacco. Afterwards indigo was cultivated. The planters of South Carolina grew very rich from rice and indigo. At a later time cotton took the place of these. Farther back, near the moun- tains, the people were poor, the land was divided into small farms, and there were many hunters. Schools and Churches. — There were few schools except in Charleston, but the rich planters sent their sons to England to be educated. The Church of England became the established church of the colony, but there were no severe laws against people of other beliefs, as in Virginia. The difference in the crops and in the climate had much to do with the difference in mode of life of the Southern and Northern colonies. 12. GEORGIA. Tyranny in Europe.— Is it not interesting to find that nearly all the English colonies in America were formed as places of refuge for the poor and ill-treated people of Europe? In our happy days and our free country it is hard for us to understand the way men lived and acted in Europe a few hundred years ago. People not only could not do as they wished to do, but were not even allowed to think as they wished to think. To-day there are many different ideas about God and heaven and religious matters, but then the govern- ments tried to make everybody think the same way about these matters This they could not do. People never can be made to think the same way about any- thing Then the governments tried to force them to do so 86 THE ENGLISH COLONIES by ill-treatment, and thousands of men and women came to America to get away from those who oppressed them. Oglethorpe. ^We have told the story of a number of colonies that were formed in this way. There is one more to speak of, the colony of Georgia. This was formed by an Englishman named Oglethorpe, one of those warm-hearted men who spend their lives in trying to do good to their fellow-men. The English Prisons. — In those days persons in England who failed in business, and could not pay their debts, were put into prison, where they were often kept for many years. Thu prisons of old times were filthy dens, where the prison- ers were crowded together and treated with great cruelty, and Oglethorpe. r ^ i tic j. i many of them died or want and disease. It was these poor debtors whom Oglethorpe wished to help; but he said that all who were poor and unfortunate, and all who were ill-treated on account of their religion, might have a home in his colony. The Settlement of Georgia. — The king, George II. gave him a charter to the land that lay between Caro- lina and Florida, which he called Georgia, after the king's name. He brought over a number of the poor debtors, whom the king set free at his desire. They made a settlement where the city of Savannah now stands. It was a warm climate and for a whole year Oglethorpe lived in a tent, set up under four pine- trees. The king had given him the land; but, like William Penn and some others, he thought that the GEORGIA 87 Indians had the best right to it, so he paid them for it. After that they were always friendly to him. Oglethorpe's Colonists. — People came to Georgia from all parts of Europe. These were the poor of Europe, who hoped to live in comfort in America. Among them were many Moravians from Austria, — people who had been persecuted on account of their religion. Oglethorpe would not let any slaves be brought into Georgia. He also would not let any per- son bring rum into the colony. He looked on slavery and intemperance as two great evils. The Colony Prospers. — Houses were built, and a fort was erected to defend the colonists, while the land was divided up into farms and given to the settlers. Sa- vannah soon became a town of considerable size and importance. The people were on good terms with the Indians, and all went well with them. No colony in America ever began with better prospects. But they were soon to have their share of trouble. The Claims of Spain. — The country which the king of England had given to Oglethorpe was part of that which Spain claimed under the name of Florida. It was the same region which Narvaez and De Soto had trav- elled over two hundred years before. So if discovery gave any rights, this land belonged to Spain rather than to England. But the Spanish had not settled it, and the English had, and they were not likely to give it up to please Spain. Those who had possession did not trouble themselves much about an old claim on paper. War with Florida. — The Spaniards grew angry on finding the English coming into a country which they said was theirs. After some years war broke out 88 THE ENGLISH COLONIES between England and Spain, and then the people of the colonies began the cruel work of trying to kill one another. In the year 1740 Oglethorpe, who was an old soldier, got together an army of one thousand white men and many Indians, and marched into Florida to capture the Spanish city of St. Augustine. But he did not succeed and had to march back again, with his men very much the worse for their journey. Oglethorpe Defeats the Spaniards.— Two years after- wards the Spaniards tried to take Georgia from the English. They sailed northward with three thousand men and a great many vessels, and landed on St. Simon's Island. Oglethorpe met them with a much smaller force, but by a shrewd plot he threw the Spaniards into a panic of terror and they ran for their ships. They sailed away in all haste and the colony was saved. Many years passed before Georgia had any more troubles from war. After the War. — Some time after this Oglethorpe went back to England. The people were not satisfied with the laws, some of which were severe and vexa- tious, and they made so many complaints that in time the charter was given back to the king, and Georgia became a royal province. Oglethorpe never returned to America. He lived to be a very old man, and was one of the best men that had anything to do with the settlement of America. The Laws. — One of the laws of which the people com- plained stated that no man should own a farm beyond a fixed size. Another stated that no woman should have land left to her by will. Every man who held land was bound to serve as a soldier when called upon. GEORGIA 89 and this was why women were not allowed to own it. Everybody was to have the rights of an Englishman, and all religions were free except the Roman Catholic. Industries of the Colony. — The people soon said that they could not work their lands in so warm a climate without slaves, so after seven years the planters were allowed to have them. And rum, which Oglethorpe had forbidden, soon made its way into the colony. The people cleared the forests and tilled the land with the help of their slaves, and after a while much silk was made in the colony. Silk-worms had been sent from England, with people who understood silk mak- ing, and this business was kept up until the time of the Revolution. General Oglethorpe took some of the first silk that was produced to England, and a silk dress was made of it for the queen. Visitors. — Among the people of Georgia was a settle- ment of the Highlanders of Scotland, and whenever Ogle- thorpe visited them he wore the Highland dress, which gave them great pleasure. Soon after Georgia was settled some celebrated English preachers came there. These were John and Charles Wesley, the men who started the Methodist doctrine in England. George Whitefield, another celebrated Methodist preacher, also came over. From the money which he received for his preaching he founded an "Orphan 'House " in Savannah. Dealings with the Indians. — As we have said, Ogle- thorpe, like William Penn in Pennsylvania, Lord Baltimore in Maryland, and the Dutch in New York, paid the Indians for their land. In consequence these colonies had much less trouble with the Indians than those which took the land without paying for it. 90 THE ENGLISH COLONIES The Indians of Georgia were called Creeks, because there were so many creeks, or small streams, in their country. They formed a league of several tribes, and were more civihzed than the Indians of the North. V\S,. -^r Oglethorpe and the Chiefs. The Chiefs' Gift. — Some of the chiefs gave Ogle- thorpe a buffalo skin, on the inside of which was a painting of the head and feathers of an eagle. They said to him, ''The feathers of the eagle are soft, which signifies love; the skin is warm, and is the emblem of protection; the/efore love and protect our little families." And they lived up to this. All the trouble the Georgia people had with the Indians was with those o'" Florida, whom the Spanish stirred up against them. CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES 91 13. CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES. The English Colonies. — We have now told the story of the settlement of the English colonies from New- Hampshire to Georgia. Maine at that time was part of Massachusetts, and New Hampshire was the most northerly colony. The whole coast land between the French province of Canada and the Spanish province of Florida was occupied by English settlements. Each of the English colonies claimed the country from the settlements on the coast all the way to the Pacific Ocean. But the French also had a claim to the back country^ where they had made settlements, and it took some hard fighting later on to decide who should own it. Growth of the Colonies. — The colonies grew very rapidly. In less than one hundred and fifty years after the first settlement was made there were a million and a quarter of people in the country. These were divided among the New England, the Middle, and the Southern colonies, there being nearly the same number in each. The South had more than the others, but not more white people. Industries. — The people of the colonies were very industrious. They raised tobacco, rice, indigo, grain, and other crops, much of which was sent to England to pay for manufactured goods. Rice served for money in South Carohna, as tobacco did in Virginia. The colonies in time grew so rich that they were able to help the king of England, in his wars, with money and ships. 92 THE ENGLISH COLONIES The Colonies Isolated. — At first the colonies on the coast were a long distance apart. Great forests spread between them, and it was not easy for a man to get from one to another except by ships. So they had not much to do with one another. The New England An Old Grist Mill. colonics were the only ones that were close together, but each of the other colonies has a history of its own, as if it were a separate country. Growing Together. — The country between the colo- nies in time filled up with people, the timber was cut down, and farms were laid out all along the coast and some distance into the interior. By 1750 the settle- ments had grown together so that men might travel CONDITIONS OF THE COLONIES 93 by land along the whole coast and find white men at short distances apart. America was now fast becoming one country, instead of a number of separate colonies. Land Travelling. — But a land journey in America in colonial times was not an easy task. It was not till long afterwards that railroads and steamboats came into use. The roads were bad, and many of the streams had no bridges, or very poor ones, so it was not easy nor pleasant to travel on horseback or by carriage. There were stage-lines in some places, but the stages moved very slowly. Much of the travel continued to be in vessels along the coast. Difference in Customs. — The people of New England were settled more closely than those of the South. Their land was broken up into small farms, and more goods were made in workshops. In the South there was more land, and most of it was divided into large plantations, so that the people lived at a distance apart, and there was less social intercourse than in the North. Negro slaves were kept in the whole country, but there were more of them in the South than in the North, for the great plantations in the South could not be worked without them, while there was much less use for them on the smaller farms of the North. The warm chmate of the South also was better suited to them. Government. — Each of the colonies had a legisla- ture, or law-making body, of its own, but only New England elected its own governors. Elsewhere the governors were appointed by the proprietors or the king, so that the people had less +o do with public affairs. 94 THE ENGLISH COLONIES Restrictive Laws. — England wanted to keep all the trade of the colonies for itself. The people were for- bidden to send their vessels and goods to any other country than England, or to let the ships of any other country come into their ports. And the English wanted to manufacture their goods for them also, and to keep the people of America at farming. They forbade them to make iron, paper, hats, leather, and other things. These laws were not well carried out. The people often disobeyed them, sending ships where they pleased and making many things for themselves. In after years England tried to enforce the laws, and the people grew angry and rebeUious. This was one of the things that led to the Revolution. PART II.— QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 1. Name the two companies formed to make settlements !n America. When did they send out colonies? Where did the South- ern colony settle? How did the colonists act? How did Captain John Smith make them work? How did Pocahontas save Captam Smith's life? "What became of Smith? Describe "the starvmg time." What plant did the colonists begin to raise? WTien were slaves first brought to America? How did the colonists get wives? Describe the Indian massacre. What caused Bacon's rebellion? What followed it? 2. Why did the Pilgrims leave England for Holland? \Vhy did they decide to go to America? What was the name of their vessel? Where did they land, and when? Why were they called Pilgrims? Who was Captain Miles Standish? What did Canonicus, the Indian chief, do? What new settlement was made? What were these colonists called? What was done with the charter? What kind of government was established? What other colonies were formed? How came Roger Williams to found Rhode Island? Ho\T Avere religious opinions treated there? How did the Quakers QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION 95 act in Massachusetts? How did the Puritans treat them? What is meant by witchcraft? Describe the Salem witchcraft. Wliat advance was made in government? Tell what was done about the Connecticut charter. How did the people get rid of royai governors? 3. How did the English treat the Indians? Wliat did the Pequots do? Describe the attack on the Pequot fort. What effect had this on the Indians? Who was King Philip and what did he do? Describe the attack on the Narragansetts. When and how was Philip killed? What were the results of the war? Why did the French stir up the Indians to attack the English? What was the result? How did I\Irs. Dustin escape from the Indians? What was done at Schenectady and Deerfield? How did the people protect themselves from the Indians? 4. WTiat were the houses of the Puritans like? How were they arranged and furnished? How was the sun made to tell the time of day? How did the Puritans dress? What titles were used? Wliat did they have for food? "Wliat were their ideas about amuse- ments? What punishments did they inflict? How were votes taken at the town meetings? What were their rules about church- going? How were the churches protected? How were the people kept awake in the churches? What industries had the Puritans? What did they use for money? What were their vessels used for? Who had to act as soldiers and how were they armed? What was the mode of travel? How did Benjamin Franklin come to Phila- delphia? 5. For what purposes did people come to America? What region did the Dutch claim? How came Adrian Block to spend the winter on Manhattan Island? Where did the Dutch settle? How did they act towards the Indians? How were they driven out of Con- necticut? What peoples settled along Delaware Bay? How did the Dutch act towards the Swedes? What did the. Duke of York do? What name did the English give to the Dutch town of New Amsterdam? How was the English rule liked? Describe Leisler's revolt. What proportion of the people of New York were slaves? What story was started about them and how were they treated? 6. What kind of houses did the Dutch build? How were they furnished? Did the Dutch work hard? What were some of their 96 THE ENGLISH COLONIES customs? How did they treat their ministers? How were the men and women dressed? What did they send to Europe? How was the country settled? What were the great land-owners called? Did the farmers own their land? How were the estates of the patroons broken up? 7. How were the Catholics treated in England? What did Lord Baltimore do? What did he name the land granted him? What did he declare about religion? Describe Clayborne 's rebel- lion. What did the Protestants do? What happened after the king took control of the colony? Was it given back to Lord Baltimore again? How did the people of Maryland live? What did they use as money? 8. What beliefs and customs did the Quakers have? How were they treated in England? Who was William Penn? How came he to ask the king for land in America? What land did the king give him? What did its name mean? When did William Penn come to America? What city did he lay out? Describe Penn's treaty with the Indians. How did the Quakers and the Indians get on together? What power did Penn give the people? How fast did the city of Philadelphia grow? How was Penn treated by xhe colonists? After whom was the Delaware River named? When was the colony of Delaware separated from Pennsylvania? Who first settled New Jersey? Who bought the land? When did New Jersey get a governor of its own? 9. From what nations came the settlers of Pennsylvania? How was Philadelphia laid out? How were the streets paved? How many inhabitants were there in 1740? What is said about fruit? How were the shops arranged? What was the character of the people? How were the Indians treated? What trick was played to rob them of their land? What celebrated man came to Philadelphia in 1723? How did he do business? How did he prove that lightning and electricity are the same? What did he do for Philadelphia? What service did he perform for the whole country? 10. To whom did Charles IT. give the province of Carolina? What ideas did the proprietors have about the people? Whom did they ask to draw up a plan of government? What was this i)lan called? How were the people to be governed? How did the people act? QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION 97 What class of law-breakers was there along the coast? In what part of Carolina was the rice plant grown? Wliat did the people do in the northern part? Describe the wars with the Spaniards and Indians. What became of the Tuscarora Indians? What troubles took place between the people and the governor? What did the proprietors ask the king to do? How did the king divide the Carohnas? 11. What class of people came to Virginia? What other kind were sent there? How did they become divided? How did the people hve at first? Wliat was used as money? What was it worth? How did the people live afterwards? What work did the slaves do on the plantations? How were the tobacco hogsheads sent to the coast? How did the great planters live in later years? What were their houses like? How were strangers treated? What kind of government had they? What punishments were inflicted by the early laws? What was the established religion of Virginia? How did the government act towards other religions? For what did a governor of Virginia thank God? Which were the first two colleges in America? How was the land divided in the South? What did the people of North Carolina produce? How did they make their wa}' through the woods? What was South Carolina like? "What crops were raised? How was education provided for? 12. How were the debtors of England treated a few centui'ies ago? For what purpose was the colony of Georgia founded? Who was its founder? How did Oglethorpe treat the Indians? What classes of people came to Georgia? Wliat did Oglethorpe do about slaves and rum? What claim was made by Spain? What did Ogle- thorpe do? What was the fate of the Spanish expedition? What kind of man was Oglethorpe? What were the laws that the people complained of? When were the planters allowed to have slaves? Wliat important industry was started? Wliat was done with some of the first silk? What celebrated English preachers came to Georgia? Were the Indians paid for their land? Why were they called Creeks? What did the chiefs give Oglethorpe? Was there any trouble with the Indians? 13. How far back from the coast did the English colonies claim the country? AVhat other people claimed the back country? How rapidlj did the colonies grow? How was the population 98 THE ENGLISH COLONIES divided? What crops were raised? How rich did the colonies grow? Was it easy to get from one colony to another? "Why not? Which colonies were close together? What had happened by 1750? Why were land journeys difficult? Why was there more social intercourse in Xew England than in the South? ^Vhere were negro slaves kept? Why were they most useful in the South? How were the governors appointed? "What did England do about trade? What were the people forbidden to make? What was the result of these laws? PART III. THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR. 1. THE FRENCH IN AMERICA. The English Colonies. — We have told the story of how the Enghsh came to America and settled along the coast of what is now the United States. The colonies they formed were not very large. They did not go far back from the coast, but, as we have already said, their people laid claim to the land across the whole country as far as the Pacific Ocean. These claims were only on paper, for they had not taken possession of much of the land. Most of the country to the west was still in the hands of the Indians; but part of it was held by other white men, people of another nation, who had settled on it, and were not likely to give it up without a fight. The French Settlements. — These people were the French. They had forts and settlements along the line of the great lakes and down the Mississippi River as far as the Gulf of Mexico. These were at long distances apart, but France claimed all this country and also that between the lakes and the Ohio River. Thus it seemed as if the Enghsh would in time be confined to their settlements along the coast, and the western country would belong to the French. But before we tell the story of what followed we must go back to the early French settlers, and relate what they were doing while the English were forming their colonies. 99 100 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR Enterprise of the French. — The French had been more active than the Enghsh in exploring the country. We have already told how Champlain made his way far into the country of the Iroquois. He also sailed <)ver some of the great lakes. Later on there were two things that took the French through the country. These were trade and religion. The French began early to trade with the Indians, and they travelled long distances in search of furs, and built trading-houses and forts far away from Quebec. Among them were many priests who belonged to the religious society known as the Jesuits. These priests wished to make Christians of the Indians, and made long journeys for that purpose, though they knew that they might be put to death by the savages. Marquette's Discovery. — One of these priests was named Marquette. He had spent years among the Indians, and knew their languages, and had often heard them speak of a mighty western river that ran far to the south. He wanted to see this river, and so in the year 1673 he crossed Lake Michigan and made his way partly by land and partly in Indian canoes along little lakes and streams, until he reached the Wisconsin River. He had with him a friend named Joliet and several others. For seven days they floated in canoes down the Wisconsin, and then, to their joy, they found them- selves on the great river of the West, the mighty Mississippi. De Soto had discovered this river one hundred and thirty years before, and had followed it as far north as the State of Missouri. Marquette floated down it until he reached the mouth of the THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 101 Arkansas River. Then he and his friends turned and paddled their canoes up the stream again to the point from which they had started. To What Marquette Owed His Success. — This was a remarkable journey for that early period. To see a few bold and daring men, hundreds of miles away from their countrymen, alone among tribes of fierce Indians, toiling through the forests of the West, and paddling in frail canoes along unknown and mighty lakes and streams, was to behold what has not often been seen in the history of the world. These men had no weapons in their hands. They had only the 3ible. But their Christian love and charity made them safer among the savages than if they had carried swords and muskets and been clothed from head to foot in armor of steel. La Salle's Purpose. — The next person to reach the Mississippi was a French gentleman, the Chevalier de La Salle. He knew that the English and the Spanish were fast taking possession of the New W^orld, and he made up his mind that the French should own the great western country. So he got together a body of men, and began to explore the land beyond Lake Michigan, and to build forts and leave soldiers in them. He had many battles v/ith the Indians, but he was not to be turned from his purpose. A Wonderful Journey. — At last he started on the great journey which he had long had in mind. With a party of French and Indians he crossed the country, paddling along the streams and carrying the canoes through the forests, until he reached the Mississippi. 102 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR It was then the year 1G82, more than two and a quarter centuries ago. Down the great stream they went, among tribes which had never before seen a white man. Everywhere La Salle took possession of the country for the king of France. In time they reached the mouth of the Mississippi, and there La Salle laid claim to all the vast country drained by that great stream and the streams that ran into it. This country he named Louisiana, and declared that it belonged to France, and to the king, Louis XIV. La Salle's Later Life.— The bold travellers then went up the river again until they reached their starting- point. La Salle now returned to France, where every one looked on him as a hero. The king gave him ships and men to plant a colony at the mouth of the Missis- sippi, and the adventurers sailed joyfully away. But their journey ended very sadly. They could not find the entrance to the Mississippi, and landed at a place in Texas. Here La Salle built a fort, and then started with part of the men towards the Mississippi. The journey was a terrible one. The river was reached, and La Salle tried to make his way to Can- ada for help, but on the way he was killed by some of his men. And so ended the life of one of the greatest of American explorers. The End of the Colony. — Some of the men reached Canada and told their story, and a party was sent to Texas to save those in the fort. But when the}' got there the men were dead and the fort was a ruin. The Spaniards, who claimed Texas as theirs, had found them and put them all to death. This was the sad end of La Salle's great enterprise. THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 103 Succeeding Events. — But the French were not dis- couraged. Another colony was sent in 1699 which made a settlement near the mouth of the Mississippi, and before many years New Orleans and other towns were laid out. These towns were very far away from the French settlements on the St. Lawrence River. Thousands of miles of land and water lay between them. Yet nearly the whole distance might be travelled by water along the great lakes of the North, the Missis- sippi River, and the streams which ran into it. The active French traders were not afraid to make long journeys, and many of them went in boats the whole way from Quebec to New Orleans. These explorers established military posts at many points along the great water-way. Traders settled around the forts and priests built churches near by, so that in time there was a little settlement at each fort. English and French in America. — All this went on for fifty years. Cities now stand where many of the French forts were built. But at that time there were not many French in America. In 1750 there were fifteen times as many English as French in the New World. In the country east of the Mississippi and south of the great lakes there were only about seven thousand five hundred Frenchmen, who were thinly spread over a great territory. The Ohio Valley. — The English were now making their way to the West. A company was formed, called the Ohio Company, to buy up land and get settlers to move westward. The lands of this com- pany lay in Western Pennsylvania. When the French saw what was bemg done they were alarmed. They 104 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR were afraid they would lose the country if they did not make haste. They began by building a strong fort on Lake Erie, where the city of Erie now stands. It became clear that before long they would have forts and soldiers along the Ohio River unless the English prevented them. Danger in the Air. — It was plain now that trouble would soon come. The great rivals had advanced till they were near together. Both of them claimed to own the valley of the Ohio. They were beginning a race to see who should first get possession of it, and that race could not go on very long before the dreadful work of war would begin. Whether the French or the English should own the great basin of the Ohio and the Mississippi was soon to be settled by the sword and the cannon, and by the death of thousands of men. The Old Owners of the Land. — At this time neither of the rival peoples had any settlements in the valley of the Ohio, the only whites west of the mountain range being a few daring trappers and pioneers, until the sparsely peopled posts of the French on the Mississippi and in the region of the Great Lakes was reached. In this vast territory the red men dwelt supreme, their homes uninvaded and the land their own. Not a dream had come to them of peril from the white-faced strangers who had descended like a swarm of locusts upon the eastern lands. The primitive state of affairs which had lasted for thousands of years still prevailed, with little to show that within half a century more the locust-like swarm of strangers would spread over these wide plains, and the homes which the Indians so long had known would be theirs no more. GEORGE WASHINGTON 105 2. GEORGE WASHINGTON. Early Wars. — There had been fighting in America between the Enghsh and French two or three times before. Every time a war broke out in Europe between these nations the settlers in America began to kill one another. In these wars most of the fighting was done by the Indians. We have already told how they attacked the settlements in New England and New York and murdered the people. The Action of Virginia. — But now a war was to have its beginning in America. The French and English stood face to face, like two dogs ready to fly at each other's throats. It was not long before the struggle began. Virginia claimed the country to which the French were sending their pioneers, and the governor of Virginia thought it was time to ask them what they proposed to do, and to tell them that the land they were taking belonged to his colony. George Washington. — Governor Dinwiddle soon picked out a messenger for this duty. This was a young man named George Washington, who was then only a little over twenty-one years old. He had been born in 1732, and it w^as now 1753. But he was known to be active and prudent. He had been a land sur- veyor in the wilderness, and was used to hardship. So Washington was chosen to go to the West and ask the French what they intended to do, and to warn them that they were on English land, for they had now built forts south of Lake Erie. George Washington was born to be a great man, and he had shown this while he was still a boy. Among 106 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR his school-mates he was the same as he was among his countrymen afterwards. He settled all their disputes, and he would not let anything take place that was not just and fair. Whatever he had to do he did well. The books of exercises which he wrote at school are remarkable for their neatness and carefulness. When he was older he became a land surveyor, and his surveys are among the most accurate ever made. Later in life he managed his own lands, packed and shipped his own tobacco and flour, and kept his own books. His books may still be seen. They were wonderfully well kept. Both as boy and man Washington was strictly hon- est and truthful. When his flour came into foreign ports the government agents did not inspect it. His name on the barrel was enough. It was well known that there was no lie in the Washington stamp. It would be well for the country if all public men would stamp their characters with the Washington stamp. This young man was destined to do a great work for America. We have now the first part of his public life to describe, but his name will often again come into our book. Washington's Journey. — The journey from Virginia to the French forts was a difficult one, for the country was wild and without roads, and it was the cold winter season. Washington went up the Potomac River till he reached the streams that flow into the Ohio. He followed these till he came to the forts and met the French commander. The Frenchman treated him very politely, but would not promise to leave the countr3^ This was the word that Washington brought back ta Virginia. GEORGE WASHINGTON 107 The journey homeward was terrible; much of it lay through the wild wintry forest. The rivers were full of broken ice, and had to be crossed on rafts. In cross- ing the Alleghany River, Washington was thrown into the water, and had to spend the night on an island, wet through and nearly frozen. At last he got back home with the answer of the French commander. Fort Du Quesne. — Both sides saw that no time was to be lost. The French were now on the Alleghany River not far from the Ohio. The Ohio Company decided to build a fort at a point which Washington had selected for this purpose. This was where the two rivers that form the Ohio come together, and where the city of Pittsburg now stands. The governor of Virginia sent to this point a party who began to build. But the French, who had come in canoes down the Alleghany, saw what was being done and drove the English workmen away, finishing the fort themselves. They gave it the name of Fort Du Quesne. That was the first step towards the war that followed. Fort Necessity. — At this time Washington was march- ing towards the place with about four hundred men who had been enlisted in Virginia. On the way they met a party of French soldiers, and there was a fight in which Washington was victorious. But he was in a dangerous position, for many French soldiers were now in that country, so he built a small fort which he called Fort Necessity. The fort was soon sur- rounded by a large body of French and Indians, and the Virginians had to surrender. This took place on July 4, 1754, Though Washington had surrendered to a much larger force, he did so on the honorable 108 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR terms that he and his men should keep their arms and effects and go home unmolested. His skill and prud- ence in this affair gave much pleasure to the people of Virginia, and the governor made him commander of all the Virginia soldiers. A Night Council at Fort Necessity. England and France. — During this time the English and French were at peace in other lands. The first part of the war was fought by the people of America only. But soon England and France were at war in Europe also and began to send soldiers across the ocean to help the colonists. An English army was sent to Virginia, under an officer named General Braddock. General Braddock. — Braddock knew very well how to carry on war in Europe, but he knew nothing at all about fighting with the Indians, and he was too proud to let any one tell him. So he and his army, with some Virginians under Washington, set out to drive the French from Fort Du Quesne, marching slowly through the woods, making roads as they went, and wasting a great deal of time. GEORGE WASHINGTON 109 By the time they got near the French fort several months had passed. Yet there were not many French there, and the Indians were not in a very good humor for fighting: so if Braddock had acted with common prudence he might soon have had the fort. But he knew too much to hsten to anybody, and thus he got his army into trouble. Braddock's Defeat. — Washington wanted to go ahead with his Virginians and drive the Indians from the woods; but Braddock would not let him, and he marched on, with banners flying and drums beating, until his army was in a deep ravine with steep banks and thick woods on each side. These woods were full of French and Indians in ambush. Suddenly the hidden enemy began to fire. The soldiers were taken completely by surprise, and fell dead and wounded on every side. The Virginians under Washington knew what they were about, and got behind trees to fight; but Braddock would not let his soldiers do the same thing, but kept them in their ranks and made them stand still to be killed. They fired blindly into the woods, but did no harm to their foes, while hundreds of them were slain. When they could stand this no longer they turned and fled for their lives. Washington with his Virginians kept back the enemy, or many more of the British soldiers would have been slaughtered. It was the worst defeat in the early history of America. The Result of the Battle. — The battle had lasted three hours, and seven hundred out of twelve hundred men were killed. Braddock was mortally wounded, and all his officers werp killed or wounded. Washington was 110 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR the only officer that was not hurt, and he had two horses shot under him, while four bullets went through his coat. Long afterwards an old Indian chief said that he had fired many times at Washington during the battle, but that the young American brave bore a charmed life and could not be touched by his bullets. The Indian Raids.— This defeat was a serious one for the colonies. The Ohio region was left to the French, while the Indians, who thought the English cowards, began to attack the settlements and murder all they could. All through the western part of Vir- ginia the people had to flee for safety; their houses were burned, and the rifle and the tomahawk brought death to many of them. Washington was kept busy in fighting with the savage foes, and did this with great skill and courage, but he had a difficult task. The Fort Captured. — ^Three years afterwards another expedition was sent to take Fort Du Qucsnc, Washing- ton being with it. By this time the French had got the worst of the war, and did not feel able to hold the fort. But the English commander had lost so much time on the way that he was about to march back without coming near the fort, when Washington asked if he might go ahead with his Virginians. When told he might do so he hurried forward, but the French did not wait for him. They set fire to the fort and fled down the river in their canoes. The contest for the Valley of the Ohio thus ended in victory for the English. The French gave it up to their opponents, and never laid claim to it again. It was during tliis time that Washington learned the art of war, of which he was soon to make such excellent use. THE WAR IN THE NORTH 111 3. THE WAR IN THE NORTH. The Capture of Louisburg. — The war which had begun on the Ohio soon spread to other parts of the- country, and we must tell what took place elsewhere. There was much hard fighting in the north between New York and New England and the French settle- ments in Canada. The British fleet also took part in the war. The French had a very strong fortress at the town of Louisburg, on the island of Cape Breton. They thought that no force could capture it, but they were mistaken in this. It had been captured in 1745^ in an earlier war, by a body of New England soldiers. At the end of that war it was given back to the French, but in 1758 it was again attacked by a strong English fleet and forced to surrender. The English never gave it up again. Acadia. — The country which we now know as Nova Scotia and New Brunswick was called Acadia by the French. It was settled by people of French descent, many of whom had fine farms, and others lived by hunting and trapping. The peninsula of Nova Scotia had been taken from the French by the English in 1710, and was still held by them; but it had very few English settlers, and its people did not like to be under English rule. The French Forts Taken. — The northern part of Acadia was still held by the French, and when the war began they built several forts on the Bay of Fundy, and got ready to try to drive the Enghsh from the country. But the Enghsh attacked these forts and took all of them. While the fighting was going on many 112 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR of the Acadians helped the French, The EngHsh did not like this. They said that they would not have spies and enemies in their own land, and that the people must take the oath of allegiance to England, and be ready to fight in the English armies if they should be needed. Expulsion of the Acadians. This the Acadians would not do. All their feehngs were with the French, and they would not help the English. Then the English said that they should be all sent out of the country, since they would not sub- mit to the government. The Acadians Expelled. — Most of the Acadians were quiet and good citizens, but very many of them were seized and marched to the sea-shore, where they were THE WAR IN THE NORTH 113 put on board ships and sent away to the different English colonies. Some of them fought with the English and drove them away, but several thousand were taken from their homes and sent to live among strangers. Their houses were burned and their farms ruined to keep them from coming back. This was a very cruel act. The English had reason to be angry with those Acadians who acted as spies and enemies; but most of the people were quiet and industrious, and all their crime was that they would not take an oath to bear arms against their countrymen. In time many of those who had been sent away returned and took the oath of allegiance to England; but others suffered many hardships, and died in foreign lands. It is not easy to believe that this cruelty was necessary. From Canada to New York. — We have spoken in a former chapter of the great water-way by which the French could get from Canada to the Gulf of Mexico. There is another water-way, that which leads from the St. Lawrence River to Lake Champlain and Lake George, and by way of the Hudson River to New York Bay. It was this route that Champlain had taken when he first set out to fight the Indians, and it was along these bodies of water that the remainder of the fighting in the present war took place. The French Defences. — The French had built forts along the Niagara River and Lake Ontario, and also at Crown Point, on the western side of Lake Cham- plain, and at Ticonderoga, at the northern end of Lake George. From these points they could easily send soldiers into New York and New England, so the English decided to try to take the forts. 114 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR The Battle of Lake George.— The English army in New York was led by General Johnson, a man who had much influence with the Indians. Many of these joined his arm}", for the Iroquois tribes had hated the French ever since they had fought with Champlain. While Johnson was marching north the French were marching south, and the two armies met at the south- ern end of Lake George. Here a battle took place in which the French were badly defeated. Hundreds of them were killed and the rest driven back. Johnson did not go on to capture the French forts, but staj^ed where he was, and built a stronghold which he called Fort William Henry. The French Successes. — During the next two or three years the French were everywhere successful. They captured Fort William Henry in 1757, and a terrible event took place there. The Enghsh were promised their Hves if they would give up the fort, but as soon as they marched out the Indians fell upon them with tomahawk and scalping-knife and mur- dered many of them in cold blood. Attack on Ticonderoga. — The next year General Abercrombie attacked Fort Ticonderoga with a strong army. But the French defended themselves bravely, and the English were forced to retreat in haste, after they had lost two thousand men. The Turning of the Tide. — The war had now lasted for four years, and the French had been successful at nearly every point. They had held their forts on Lake Champlain and Lake George, and on the Ohio, and had defeated the English in nearly every battle. The English were much the stronger in numbers, and all THE WAR IN THE NORTH 115 they needed was good leaders. With these they would be sure to gain the victory. In the year 1758 the tide turned. The English took several ot the French forts, and in 1759 took several others. Fort Du Quesne was taken, as we have told, and also Ticonderoga and Crown Point and the forts on Lake Ontario and the Niagara River. The French were driven out of what the English claimed as their territory, and were confined to Canada. The Enghsh next made up their minds to try to drive the French from Canada. The Siege of Quebec. — Canada had two important cities, Montreal and Quebec. Quebec was not easy to capture. It was built on the top of a high and steep hill, and was surrounded with strong walls, behind which were more than eight thousand men, com- manded by the Marquis de Montcalm. General Wolfe, a brave young Enghsh officer, was sent with an army of eight thousand men against this city, and for two or three months tried to take it, but he could not even get to the top of the hill on which it was built. At length he learned that there was a nar- row path up the face of the bluff. One dark night he took his men in boats down the St. Lawrence River, and by the break of day they had climbed up this steep path and dragged their cannon to the top of the hill. The Capture of the City. — Montcalm was astonished when he saw the English army before the walls of the city. If he had stayed behind these walls they might not have been able to take it. But he hastily led his men out, thinking he could drive the English over the precipice before they all got up the hill. He was sadly 116 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR mistaken. In the battle that followed the English gained a complete victory and Quebec fell into their hands. General Wolfe received a mortal wound, and as he lay dying he heard loud cries of "They fly! they fly!" "Who fly?" he asked. "The French," was the answer. "God be praised!" he replied, "I die happy." Mont- The Siege of Quebec. calm also fell, and when told that he must die, he said, "So much the better; I shall not live to see the sur- render of Quebec." The End of the War. — Montreal was taken the next year, and soon the war came to an end. A treaty was made in 1763, by which France gave up to England all the country held by it east of the Mississippi River, and to Spain all the country west of this river. This was a great event for the English colonies. North America now belonged to two nations only, England and Spain. QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION 117 Pontiac's Rebellion. — But there were many French in Canada and they made some further trouble. There was a bold and brave Indian chief named Pontiac, who wished to drive the English back from the Ohio and the lakes, and perhaps from the whole country. The French secretly incited him to attempt this. He formed a league among several tribes, and a sudden attack was made on the English forts. They took one fort by the trick of playing a game of ball before it. When the ball fell near the gate of the fort they rushed after it and into the open gate, near which sat their squaws, with tomahawks hidden under their blankets. These the warriors seized and killed nearly all the soldiers. The fort at Detroit was besieged for five months, and then the Indians gave up the siege. Several other forts were taken, but in the end the Indians were everywhere defeated. Thus ended the long struggle between the English and the French, which had continued, at intervals, for sev- enty-five years. The English were everywhere victorious, and were now to have a few years of rest from war. PART III.— QUESTIONS FOR EXMIINATION. 1. How far back from the coast did the English colonies extend? How far did their claims extend? Who held the back country? Where had the French forts and settlements? What two things induced the French to explore the country? For what purpose did the traders travel? For what purpose the Jesuits? Describe Mar- quette 's journey. Who else sought to explore the Mississippi? In what year did he reach the Mississippi? Describe his journey. How was La Salle received in France? Where did his colony land? What was his fate and that of his colony? Where did the French 118 THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR make a settlement in 1699? How could the French get from Quebec to New Orleans? How were settlements formed along the route? How many more English than French w^ere in America in 1750? V.Tiat was the purpose of the Ohio Company? Where did the French build a fort? What did the rival peoples claim? 2. What did the Governor of Virginia decide to do? Whom did he select as messenger? How old was Washington then? Why was he chosen? WTiat can we say about the school-life of Washing- ton? What did he do in older life? How were his books kept? How was his flour received in foreign lands? Describe Washington's journey. How did the French commander receive him? What did the Ohio Company decide to do? What action did the French take? How did the first fight take place? Wh^ did Washington build Fort Necessity? What followed? What general did England send to America? Describe his march. How did Braddock lead his army on? Describe the battle and defeat. What did an old Indian chief say about Washington? "WTiat followed this defeat? How was Fort Du Quesne taken? What did this war teach Washington? 3. When was Louisburg captured the first time? When the second time? What was the country of Nova Scotia and New Brunsv/ick called by the French? What part of it was taken by the English in 1710? What part was still held by the French? What did the English ask the Acadians to do? Why did the Acadians refuse? Tell how the Acadians were expelled. What water-way leads from Canada to New York? Where did the French build forts? What was the result of the battle of Lake George? "What fort did General Johnson build? What terrible event took place when this fort was captured by the French? Describe Abercrombie 's attack on Ticonderoga. How long were the French successful? When did the tide of success turn? What victories had the English? Which were the two important cities of Canada? Who led an army against Quebec? How did he get his men to the summit of the bluff? What did Montcalm do? W^o gained the victory? What were Wolfe's last words? What were Montcalm's last words? Wniat did England gain by the treaty of peace? W'hat did Pontiac hope to do? Describe his attacks on the forts. PART IV. THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION. 1. THE TYRANNY OF ENGLAND. The Story of the Revolution. — The story we have now to tell is one that every American should hear with pride. It is the story of how the people of America were ill treated by England, and how they declared they would not submit to be made slaves of, and fought bravely until they gained their liberty. They suffered dreadfully, and thousands of them lost their lives, but they would not yield, and struggled on and on until England was forced to give up the war and sign a treaty of peace with free America. This is what is known as the American Revolution. How the Americans were Treated. — What was the character of this bad treatment of the Americans? That is what we have next to tell. They were ill-used in a good many ways. Governors were sent to them from England, some of whom acted as if they were kings and the people slaves. But what made the Americans most angry was that they were not allowed to trade where they pleased or make the articles they needed for their own use. The Navigation Laws. — -The colonists had built many ships, and for a while they sent out their goods to foreign countries and got other goods in return. But the merchants of England did not like this. They wanted all this trade for themselves. So they had 119 120 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION laws passed which said that the Americans should not trade with any countr}' but England. All their rice, tobacco, and other products must be sent there and whatever they wanted in return must be brought from there. But the English would not pay as much for these goods as would other countries, so the Ameri- cans lost much of their profit. Then another law was made which said that no goods should be carried to or from England in American ships. All trade with England must be done in English ships. The American ships might rot at their wharves. Even the trade from one colony to another was partly stopped. Restriction of Manufactures. — At the same time the people of America were not allowed to make anything for themselves. There was much iron dug from the mines, but it must all be sent to England, and pay a tax for going there. Then it was made into useful articles and sent back, and had to pay another tax. It was the same with other goods than those made of iron. The laws became so severe that a farmer could not even cut down a tree large enough for a ship mast on his own land without permission from the officers of the king. At first the laws were not so strict as this. But as time went on, and the English merchants and manu- facturers saw that the Americans were growing rich, they had the laws made more severe, until the Ameri- cans were allowed to do very little besides farming, and had to get everything but their food from England, \n English ships. The Laws Evaded. — All this was hard to bear. When men have a chance to grow rich they do not like to THE TYRANNY OF ENGLAND 121 work hard to make other men rich, while they stay poor. Many of the people of America refused to sub- mit to the English laws. Some of them made and sold goods in spite of the laws. Others who owned ships sent them to foreign countries, and brought back goods on which no tax or duty was paid to the government. Writs of Assistance. — This is what is called smug- gling. The officers of the government tried to put a stop to it. A law was passed which said that the king's officers might enter and search any house in which they thought smuggled goods might be hidden. The papers authorizing this were called "Writs of Assist- ance." Nothing could have made the people more angry than this. They said that "every man's house is his castle," and that no officer had a right to enter a dwelling-house On mere suspicion. Thus, as every one may see, there was getting to be very bad feel- ing between the Americans and the English. The Right of Taxation. — But the resistance of the people only made the English government more severe. As the merchants and manufacturers of Eno;- land were growing rich from the labor of the Ameri- cans, the government thought it also ought to have more American money than it was receiving. The French and Indian War had cost England a great deal of money, and the English government claimed that as this money had been spent for the good of the colo- nies, they should help to pay it back. The colonies were paying much money to it already in the way of the duty on all goods sent by ships into or out of the country. This was an indirect tax, but the govern- ment claimed the right to lay a direct tax also. 122 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION The American Reply. — The people of the colonies answered that they were willing to tax themselves and pay such money as they thought reasonable to the government, but that no one else had the right to tax them. They would not pay taxes levied by the English Parliament, because they had no one to speak for them in that Parliament. If the government wanted to tax them it should let them send repre- sentatives to look after their interests. The Principle of Taxation. — All this was right and just. Every Englishman at home claimed that privi- lege, and the Americans thought they ought to have it too. But the government would not listen to them. It was bent on forcing- them to pay such taxes as it chose to levy without giving them a voice in the making of the laws. The rulers of England did not know to what this was likely to lead. They had no idea how indignant the Americans were becoming. The Stamp Act. — The first direct tax law was passed in 17G5. It was called the "Stamp Act," and declared that all legal papers drawn in America, such as deeds, bills, contracts, and the like, must be made on stamped paper, which paper was to be sold by the tax collec- tors. There was nothing very wrong in this. Laws of this kind have long existed in England. We have had them in the United States, and have paid the tax cheerfully. It was the way the law was passed that made all the trouble. It was as if England had said, "We intend to tax you when and how we please, and you shall have nothing to do with it except to pay the taxes." This was the beginning of the dispute which in ten years was to bring the country into war. THE TYRANNY OF ENGLAND 123 The whole people grew angry when they heard of this law. They said that they had had nothing to do with making it and that they would not submit to it. Patrick Henry, a great orator of Virginia, declared that the people, and only the people, had a right to tax the people. They would vote taxes in their own Assembhcs, if they were asked to, but no other body of law-makers had the right to vote taxes for them to pay. Repeal of the Stamp Act. — The stamps were sent to Amer- ica, but the people would not use them. In some places they burned them. In others they /. 1 J 1 J /r> 1 Patrick Henry's Chair. lorced the stamp oihcers to resign, or made images of them and burned these images before their doors. They declared that till the act was repealed they would not use English goods, but would make their owm. They would all wear homespun clothes, and would eat no mutton, so that they could have more wool to weave into cloth. Agents were sent to London to try to have the Stamp Act repealed. Benjamin Franklin was one of these. He did much to let the members of Parlia- ment know how the American people felt. In 1766 the Stamp Act was repealed, because it was clear that it could not be enforced. No American would buy a sheet of the stamped paper. Soldiers Sent to America. — The English king and government were not ready to admit that they had no 124 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION right to tax the Americans. Taxes were laid in 1767 on teas, glass, paints, and some other articles, and the dangerous step was taken of sending soldiers to Amer- ica as an aid in carrying out the laws. The Americans were told they must pay for the support of these soldiers. They answered that this was not just. They did not want to be treated like a nation that had been conquered in war. Their protest made the king very angry, and he sent two regiments of soldiers to Boston to support the tax officers. This was done because the people of Boston were very violent against the new taxes. The Boston Massacre. — The presence of the soldiers made the Bostonians more angry still, and disputes and quarrels arose between the people and the soldiers. One day, in 1770, a fight took place between some soldiers and a party of the citizens of Boston. The soldiers fired and several persons were killed. This added much to the indignation of the people. They called this affair the ''Boston Massacre," and as the news of it spread over the country the colonists every- where began to think of fighting for their rights. The Tax on Tea. — For several years things went on in this way, the people growing constantly more angry with the English government. As they would not pay the taxes. Parliament tried another plan. They took off all the taxes except a small one on tea. This was such a trifle that they thought no one would object to it. They did not perceive that it was not the money that the Americans cared for, but the principle. As soon as the tax was laid the colonists refused to buy tea, though they had before used a great deal of it. THE TYRANNY OF ENGLAND 125 The Boston Tea=Party. — The king, George III., made up his mind to force them to take the tea. He wanted to let them see that his word was law and that he was their lord and master. Ship-loads of tea were sent to the American ports. But the people, who were then using the leaves of various plants to make tea of, would not have the English tea. In New York and Philadelphia the cap- tains were ordered to take their tea back again to England. In Charleston the tea was stored in damp ware- houses, where it soon moulded and became useless. In Annapolis the tea was burned. In Boston the governor refused to send back the tea, but the people would not let it be unloaded. In the end a party of young men dressed like Indians ran to the wharves, rushed on board the ves- sels, broke open the chests, and emp- tied all the tea into the harbor. This is what has been called the ''Boston Tea-Party." It put an end to the effort of Parliament to tax the Americans. The Boston Port Bill. — When the news of what had been done reached England the king was furious and Parliament decided that Boston should be severely punished. So a bill was passed called the "Boston Port Bill," It forbade any vessel to enter or leave Boston, except those with wood or provisions, and even these had trouble to get in. The whole trade of the port was cut off, and the people suffered severely. Boston Tea-Partt. 126 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION Threats of War. — This law took effect on June 1, 1774. It made the people of the whole country very indignant. Provisions and money were sent to Boston from all the colonies. Instead of the Americans being frightened, they were more determined than ever. They had long been thinking of fighting for their rights, and they now got their arms ready and formed companies prepared to march at a minute's warning. These were called "minute-men." In September, 1774, the colonies sent delegates to Philadelphia, to meet and talk over their troubles. This assembly was called the First Continental Congress. It sent an address to the king, and advised the people to stop all trade with England till the tax laws were repealed. It declared that the people of America had the right to govern and to tax themselves, and that they would not sub- mit to force, but would defend themselves against oppression. Such was the state of the country at the beginning of the year 1775. 2. THE WORK OF THE MINUTE-MEN. Growth of the Colonies. — We have next to describe the greatest event in American history, that by which the people of the English settlements in America became free, and began their growth from a group of weak colonies into one of the noblest nations on the face of the earth. It was now a little more than a hundred and fifty years since the English had first settled in America. In that century and a half the colonies had grown to be strong and were becoming united. There were more than two millions of people in them, and they were fast THE WORK OF THE MINUTE-MEN 127 growing rich and prosperous. Since the close of the French and Indian War they had made great progress. Ten Years of Tyranny. — In 1765 very few people in America thought of becoming free from England. In 1775 most of the people of the country wanted to become free. That was what England had done in ten j^ears by trying to make slaves of the Americans. The Feeling of the People. — At the opening of the eventful year 1775, Boston was the centre of the hostile feeling. The king had ruined its business, taken from many of its people the means of living, and filled it with soldiers. But all through New England the people were getting ready to fight, drill- ing as soldiers, and collecting arms, gunpowder, and other warlike articles in convenient places. The whole country was like a barrel of gunpowder, ready to explode if fire touched it. We have now to tell how the English applied the fire. The Stores at Concord. — The Americans had collected some military stores at the town of Concord, near Boston. General Gage, who commanded the soldiers in Boston, determined to destroy these. So one night he sent out a body of troops to march secretly to Con- cord and destroy them before the people could know what was being done. He did not understand the spirit of the people he was dealing with. It is very easy to throw a stone into a hornet's nest, but it is not so easy to get away from the stings of the hornets. This General Gage was soon to find out. Paul Revere's Ride. — The people of Boston were watching the soldiers. They had some idea of the plans of the British, and were ready for them. As 128 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION soon as the troops began to move a signal light was hung in a church window. On the other side of the river a man named Paul Revere was w^atching for this light. The moment he saw it he mounted his horse and rode at full speed through the country. At every house and village he woke the people and told them the British were com- ing. At once the men seized their rifles and powder- horns and hastened to the appointed place of meeting. By daybreak a party of them were collected in the vil- lage of Lexington, on the road to Concord. Samuel Adams and John Hancock, tw^o of the patriot leaders, were at Lexington, and the British officers had orders to arrest them. But they were warned by Revere and made their escape before the troops arrived. The Fight at Lexington. — The soldiers reached Lex- ington about four o'clock in the morning of April 19. 1775. There were two or three hundred of them, and Paul Kevkri/.s Ride. THE WORK OF THE MINUTE-MEN 129 they found about sixty armed farmers drawn up on the green. " Disperse, ye rebels/' cried the Enghsh officer. ''Lay down your arms and disperse." As they did not disperse the soldiers fired, and seven of the Americans fell dead. Others were wounded. That was the first blood shed in the Revolutionary War. With that fire of musketr}" began the war that was to set America free. Battle of Lexington. The Retreat from Concord. — The soldiers hurried on to Concord, where they destroyed all the supplies they could find. But the Americans had been busy during the night carrying their stores to the woods. A strong force of minute-men had gathered at Concord. The British fired on these and the Americans fired back. Several of the soldiers were killed and wounded, and the others retreated in disorder. The Americans were too strong for them. But it was when the soldiers began to march back to Boston that they found the hornets were out of 9 130 THE AiSIERICAN REVOLUTION their nest and ready to sting them. They had sixteen miles to go, and all along this distance the minute- men were gathered behind trees and stone walls, firing on them at every step. The British fell like dead leaves. At last they ran in a panic. Few or none of them would have got back, only that news of this trouble had been received and another strong force of soldiers marched out and met them at Lexington. There were eighteen hundred of them now,, but the farmers fired on them all the way to Boston, and they were glad enough to get Fight ON Concord Br,d:.. ^j^^j^j. gl^dter of the guns of their ships of war. They had been saying to themselves that the Americans were cowards and would not fight. They were not likely to say that again. The People in Arms. — The day before April 19 the country had been at peace. The day after it was at war. The story of the fight went like wildfire through the land. Everywhere the farmers left their ploughs and seized their rifles. In hundreds and thousands they hurried towards Boston. Soon there were twenty thousand men around that city. The British had made their last march out of Boston by land. When they went again they would have to go as they hart come, in their ships by sea. Capture of Ticonderoga. — The bold fellows who lived in the hill country of ^^crmont, who were known as "Green Mountain Boys, " were quick to move. Ethan THE WORK OF THE MINUTE-MEN 131 Allen, one of their leaders, gathered a strong party of them and led them to Fort Ticonderoga, on Lake Champlain, which they captured, May 10, without fir- ing a gun. The fort at Crown Point was taken by another Vermonter, and many cannon were captured. Breed's Hill Fortified. — Such were the opening events of the war. Now we must tell of its first great battle. One dark night the Americans set out to build a fort of earth on Bunker Hill, near Boston; but they found that Breed's Hill was still nearer, so they built their fort on that. When day broke, June 17, the British saw that there was a long wall of earth where none had been visible the night before. Behind this wall lay men with rifles in their hands. There was only one thing to be done: they must drive the Americans out of these earthworks or they would themselves be driven out of Boston. The Battle of Bunker Hill. — The ships began firing, but the Americans went on with their work. Then three thousand soldiers crossed the river in boats and began to march up the hill. The American militia, under General Putnam and Colonel Pres- cott, lay behind their bank of earth and saw these soldiers— some of the best trained in the world — marching steadily upward. No one had dreamed that raw volunteers could „ Putnam. stand before such veteran troops, yet the Amei leans did not flinch. ''Aim low. Don't fire till you can see the whites of their eyes," said the American general. So they waited till the soldiers 132 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION were close to the works and then fired. Every shot told. Down went dozens of men. No living beings could stand such a fire, and the soldiers turned and ran hastily down the hill. They had found out to their sorrow what American marksmen could do. They came on once more and were met with a second terrible volley. Down the hill again they ran in a panic. Their officers had great trouble to get them to face a third time the American fire. But the Ameri- cans were now nearly out of powder. They fired once more, and then used their guns as clubs to drive back the soldiers. When the British found that the firing had stopped, they came on with the bayonet, while the ships fired cannon-balls into the works. The Americans now had to retreat. They were followed by the furious soldiers and many of them were killed in the retreat. But they had killed more than twice as many as they lost, and had taught the world that American militia were not afraid to fight British regulars. This first great conflict has become famous as ''The Battle of Bunker Hill." The Action of Congress. — We must tell more rapidly what followed. Another Congress, known as the Second Continental Congress, met at Philadelphia in May, 1775. There was much to be done now, for the country was at war. Laws had to be passed for the whole country, and preparations made to carry on the war, since the people were determined that it should go on. General Washington was made commander in chief of the army and money was voted for the purposes of the war. The people were willing enough to pay taxes to their own Congress, though they had THE WORK OF THE MINUTE-MEN 133 refused to do so to the English Parhament. Their feel- ing was like that afterwards expressed in these words: "Millions for defence; not one cent for tribute." Evacuation of Boston. — Now there was war in earnest. "Washington drilled the army at Boston and did his best to make soldiers out of farmers. It took a long time to do this, and it was the spring of the next year before he was ready. Then one night he built strong earthworks on Dorchester Heights, south of Boston. The British general looked at these works and quickly saw that he could not take them without losing many of his men, and that he could not stay in Boston if he did not take them. He remembered what had happened at Bunker Hill and decided to leave. On March 17, 1776, his men were marched on board the vessels, which set sail for Halifax, never to return to Boston. The same day the Americans took possession of the city which they had so long besieged. The Attack of Quebec. — While this was going on the Americans tried to take Canada. Two armies were sent there, one under General Montgomery and one under General Arnold. Montreal was captured and the army marched to Quebec. This city proved too strong. General Montgomery was killed and General Arnold, who now took command, stayed there during the winter, but had to retreat the next spring. The British followed him down Lake Champlain and had a naval battle with him on that lake. The Americans had fancied that the Canadians would join them, but they refused to do so, and- Canada remained a British province. Fort Moultrie Defended. — There is one more event of importance that took place at this time. The English 134 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION govornment thought that it ought to make sure of the southern colonics. So in June a fleet was sent to Charleston, South Carolina. But it was soon found that the Southerners were as determined not to be slaves as the Northerners. Fort Moultrie, at the mouth of the harbor, was built of logs of the soft palmetto wood. The balls from the ships sunk in these and did little harm. Those from the fort did great damage to the ships. In the end the fleet had to turn and sail away. Brave Sergeant Jasper. — During this battle some- thing took place that is well worth telling. The flag- staff on the fort was cut by a ball, and the flag fell on the sand at the foot of the wall. A bold young sergeant, named Jasper, sprang down where the bullets were coming in like hail, seized the flag, and soon had it floating proudly again on the fort. This has always been looked upon as one of the bravest deeds of the whole war. Footsteps of Freedom. — And now we must finish this part of our story by telling what turned the war from a rebellion into a revolution. When the Americans began to fight, it was done to teach the king and his government that they would not pay taxes if they were not allowed to help make the laws. But many of them thought that America ought to be free, and as the war went on this feeling spread widely among the people. They quit fighting for their rights under the British government, and began to fight for freedom from that government. The Continental Congress was still in session at Philadelphia, and the desire for freedom grew as strong THE WORK OF THE MINUTE-MEN 135 among the delegates as it was among the people. The first motion for liberty was made on June 7, 1776, by Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia He moved that the colonies, one and all, *' of right ought to be free and independent States." The Declaration of Independence. — Five men were then appointed as a committee to draw up a Declara- tion of Independence. On this committee were such well-known men as Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Thomas Jefferson. Jefferson wrote the Declaration, which was imme- diately brought before Congress, and adopted by it on the 4th of July, 1776. All the members signed it, and this valuable old paper still exists, with their signatures to it. There is a legend that as soon as it had passed there rang out stirring peals from the bell of the old State-House, on which was the inscription, " Proclaim liberty throughout the land to all the inhabitants thereof." The news had been told to the old bell-ringer, and he pulled at the rope with all his might, while every stroke of the bell seemed to send the word ''Liberty" ringing over the land. Some say that this is not true, but at any rate it is a pretty story. Everywhere the people rejoiced to learn that they had been declared free. The statue of King George, in New York, was thrown into the dirt of the streets, and the arms of England were torn down from the public buildings oi the cities and burned in the streets, while the flag 136 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION of Great Britain ceased to float anywhere in the new republic, for at that time there was probably not a British soldier on American soil. It was a grand declaration that had been made, and all lovers of liberty throughout the world heard of it with gladness. It said that a new nation was born Liberty Bell at IndepivNdence Hall, Philadelphia. upon the earth, and that the people of America were no longer fighting for the right to tax themselves, but for the right to govern themselves. But many dark days were to pass before they could gain the privilege of doing so in peace.* * The first Declaration of Independence in America was made by a convention of delegates in Mecklenburg County, North Caro- lina in May, 1775. They were chosen by the militia of that county, MAP OF THE REVOIiUTIONARY WAR SCALE OF MILES THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 137 3. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE. The Meaning of the Declaration. — The people of America had declared that they were free and inde- pendent, but that did not make them so. They were to have years of hard fighting and great suffering before they could really become free. But now they had something of value to fight for. They were no longer troubled about paying taxes at the command of the English Parliament. They had declared that in future they would make their own laws, lay their own taxes, and carry on their own affairs, and that no other nation should rule them. That is what was meant by the Declaration of Independence, adopted on the 4th of July, 1776; and that is what has made the 4th of July ever since a day to be celebrated. It is the greatest day in the history of America. The Loss of New York. — After the Declaration the war went on more fiercely than before. The British had been driven out of Boston, so they decided to take New York. Washington tried to defend it, but he did not have men enough, and after a hard battle on Long Island he had to retreat and give up the city. The British army held New York from that time till the end of the war. The Retreat Across New Jersey. — The country was now in a sad state. Washington's army was not half and were in session when the news of the battle of Lexington was received. They at once passed resolutions which declared the colo- nies to be free from English rule and entitled to govern themselves This action was well received throughout Western North Carolina, and a copy of the resolutions was sent to Congress at Philadelphia. 138 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION SO strong as that of his enemies. Very few of the men were trained soldiers. They were short of powder, guns, provisions, and all that an army needs. It was now the autumn of 177G. Washington found that he could not hold his own against the British, so he had to retreat. He marched his poor, ragged, hungry men south across New Jersey, and as he went he burnt the bridges to keep the British back. "When he got to the Delaware River, he took possession of all the boats that could be found, and had his army rowed across. The British quickly came up, but Washington's army was safe. There was a river between them and no boats that the British eould use. The Feeling of the People. — The British were full of hope and joy, for they thought the fighting was nearly at an end, and settled down to pass the winter in peace. All through Europe it was believed that the American cause was ruined, and that the colonists would have to submit. Many of the Americans thought so too. They saw their army growing smaller every day, and knew that most of the men would go home on the 1st of January, as the time for which they had enlisted would end then. They had joined the army only for the year, and not many new men were coming to take their places. The people everywhere were disheart- ened, and many thought there was no chance of success. Washington Crosses the Delaware. — But there was one man who did not think so, and that man was George Washington. He waited till Christmas, and then led his men across the Delaware into New Jersey. It was a terrible crossing ; the weather was very cold, and the river full of cakes of floating ice. Yet he got the army across THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 139 and marched all night towards Trenton, where a British force was feasting and frolicking without the thought of an enemy. This force was made up of Hessians, — - soldiers from Germany who had been hired from their rulers and sent over by England to fight the Americans. Trenton and Princeton. — It was early in the morn- ing when Washington reached the town. The Hessians were taken by surprise, many of them were killed and wounded, and a thousand taken prisoners. A few days afterwards Washington met another British force near Princeton and defeated them. These victories caused the British to draw back, and Washington remained in possession. They had a wonderful effect upon the Americans. Those who had been in despair now became full of hope. In Europe the feeling changed. It began to be thought that America would win, and everybody spoke of George Washington as the great hero of the age. Philadelphia Captured. — The year 1777 was an important year of the war. In the Middle States the Ameri- cans lost ground, but farther north they gained a great victory. The British left New York, with a strong fleet and a large army, and sailed up Chesapeake Bay. Washington hastened to meet them, and a severe battle was fought on the Brandywine Creek, below Philadelphia, at which the Marquis de Lafayette, a distinguished French officer, an aide to General Washington, was severely wounded. The Americans were defeated and had to fall back, and the British army marched into Philadelphia. 140 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION The Winter al Valley Forge. — Some other fighting took place, and there was a severe battle at German- town, near Philadelphia. But the British could not be driven from that city, and when winter came on the American army went into winter quarters at a place called Valley Forge, northwest of Philadelphia. \\'i\ri R ('\Mr AT \'ali.i:y Foanp:. This winter was the most terrible one of the whole war. The weather was very cold, and the men were nearly destitute of clothes and blankets to keep them warm and food to keep them alive. Some of them had to walk through the snow barefoot, their bleed- ing feet staining the snow red as they marched. When spring came many of the men were dead. Cold and hunger and sickness had been more fatal to them than the guns of the enemy. Yet those that lived were THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 141 good patriots still, and as ready to fight for their country as before; and Washington never despaired. Burgoyne's March. — In the north, as we have said, the Americans had gained a great victory, and this gave spirit to the suffering army in Pennsylvania. A powerful British army had marched down from Canada by the old route of the French, that of Lake Champlain and Lake George. They thought they could cut ofT New England from New York, and thus divide the colonies into two parts. They took all the old forts, — Ticonderoga, Crown Point, and others. Another army was expected lo come up the Hudson to meet them, a.nd everything looked bad for the Americans. The Battle of Bennington. — But the men of that region were everywhere marching, rifle in hand, to defend their country. The Iroquois Indians had joined the British, but these were scared off and gave up the fight. The parties of the British sent out to collect food were attacked by the Americans. One of these parties w^as met at Bennington, Vermont, by General Stark, with his "Green Mountain Boys,'^ and badly defeated. When the battle began Stark called out to his men, "There are the red-coats. Before night they are ours, or Betty Stark is a widow. '^ And he meant what he said; before night he had six hundred prisoners and the rest of the British were retreating in dismaj^ Surrender of Burgoyne. — It was not long before Burgoyne, the British commander, found that he had led his men into a trap from which he could not escape. He had gone so far south that he could 142 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION not return, nor could ho march any farther forward. The Americans were everywhere around him. His army was short of food, and he did not dare to send out parties in search of it, for fear they would be captured. He made two fierce attacks on the American earthworks, but could not take them. Finally he had to surrender his whole army to the Americans. This took place at Saratoga, October 17, 1777. It was one of the most important events of the war, and had a wonderful efTect on the spirits of the Americans and on the feelings of the people of Europe. It was, in fact, the turning-point of the war. The Treaty with France. — The surrender of Burgoyne led France to make a treaty with America and send over a large fleet to help in the war. This fleet did little in the way of service, but it gave hope to the Americans, while its presence discouraged the English. Their government now offered to do away with all the laws to which the Americans objected, if they would lay down their arms and surrender. This offer came too late. The Americans had determined to be free, and nothing less would satisfy them now. The Retreat from Philadelphia.— In 1778 the British in Philadelphia began to fear that if they stayed any longer they might be caught in as bad a trap as that which caught Burgoyne. The Americans were gather- ing around them, and there was danger that the Dela- ware might be closed against their ships. So they started on a hasty march across New Jersey to New York. Washington followed them, fought with them at Monmouth, and was prevented from defeating them by the uncalled for retreat of General Charles Lee. THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 143 Mad Anthony Wayne. — During 1778 and 1779 there was not much done. A British fleet sailed south and took the city of Savannah. This was the first victory the British had gained in the southern States. In the north the Americans were victorious in one important fight. General Wayne, or "Mad Anthony Wayne, '^ as he was afterwards called, made a sudden attack on Stony Point, a fort on the Hudson River. He took it with the bayonet, without firing a shot, and captured some very valuable stores. The Massacre of Wyoming. — One of the most dreadful events of the war took place in the summer of 1778. A band of Indians, British, and Tories made an attack on the beautiful valley of Wyoming, in northern Pennsyl- vania. They took the fort, which had in it only old men, women, and children, and killed them all without mercy. The whole settlement was destroyed, and few of the inhabitants escaped the cruel tomahawk. Captain Paul Jones. — One great battle took place on the sea. Paul Jones, a brave American captain, sailed with a few ships all round the coast of England, and kept the whole island in alarm. At length he met a British war vessel, the Serapis. His ship w^as called the Bonhomme Richard. The fight that followed was one of the most desperate that ever took place on the sea. The Bonhomme Richard was set on fire, and was so full of cannon-ball holes that it began to Anthony Wayne. 144 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION The Bonhomme Richard and the Serapis. sink, but Paul Jones fought on. In the end the British surrendered. Captain Jones placed his men on board the Serapis and sailed away in triumph, leaving his own vessel to sink. There was no sur- render in Captain Paul Jones, and he is looked upon as one of the bravest men that ever sailed the seas. The Treason of Arnold.— In 1780 the war was nearly all in the south. Only one important event took place in the north. Benedict Arnold, an American general of great skill and courage, but of a sullen tem- per, became angry because he thought that he had not been fairly treated, and that other men had received the honor which he believed to be due to him. His discontent became so great in the end that he determined to turn traitor to his country. So he asked Washington to give him command of West Point, a strong fort on the Hudson River. As soon as he got hold of it he laid plans to surrender it to the British. The Capture of Andre. — Major Andre, a young British officer, was sent to consult with him. On his way back to New York, in disguise, Andre was taken prisoner by some Americans. They searched him, and in his stocking they found papers which told what his business had been. Arnold escaped in a boat to a British war vessel in the river, but he did THE WAR FOR INDEPENDENCE 145 The Arrest of Andre. their in to Marion fight not succeed in giving the fort to the British. Every one felt pity for Major Andre, who was a fine young man; but he had been taken as a spy, and he was hanged as a spy. The South Carolina Partisans. — During 1780 and 1781 the war was mostly in the south. The British captured Charleston, and soon had all South Carolina and Georgia hands. For a while there was no army them; but some brave and bold men — Silmter, and others — got small bodies of soldiers together, and gave the British no end of trouble. They hid in the swamps, and attacked every small body of British soldiers they met. Marion was called the "Swamp Fox, " The British thought it was very cowardly in him that he would not come out into the open field "to fight like an officer and a gentle- man." But he fought bravely enough in his own way. Generals Greene and Cornwallis. — In 1781, General Greene took command of the army in the south. He was a very skilful officer, fought the British at every opportunity, and even when he was beaten he managed so that they got no good from their victory. At last General Cornwallis, who commanded the British army in the south, marched north to Virginia. Benedict Arnold, the traitor, was there with a British force, doing all the damage he could. 10 146 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION The Surrender of Cornwallis. — Cornwallis made Yorktown his head-quarters. Here he threw up earth- works, and waited for help from New York. But a French fleet sailed into York River and closed it against any British ships that might come from New York. Washington, who since 1778 had been watching the British in New York, now saw his opportunity, and marched south to Yorktown with the greatest speed. Very soon Cornwallis found that his army was sur- rounded, while cannon-balls were battering his works to pieces. He made an attempt to escape, but did not succeed, and was forced to surrender. This event took place on the 19th of October, 1781. The Treaty of Peace. — It was the last event of the war. There was no more fighting, and America was free. Two years afterwards a treaty of peace was signed, in which England acknowledged the freedom of America. From that time forward the American people took their place among the nations, under the title of "The United States of America," — a title which now belongs to one of the greatest nations upon the earth. 4. THE PEOPLE AND THE COUNTRY. The People and Their Ways. — What kind of nation was it that was made by the Declaration of Indepen- dence? How many people were there, and what were their modes of life? That is what we have next to consider. At the time of the Revolution, America was very different from what it had been a hundred years before, and very different from what it became a hundred years after. So this is a good resting-point, THE PEOPLE AND THE COUNTRY 147 where we can stop and take a look at the people, and see how they lived and what they were doing. The Population of America.— We cannot state just how many people there were in America at that time, but there were more than two millions, possibly two and a half millions. This was a small population for a country of such size, extending fifteen hundred miles along the sea-coast and a considerable distance back into the interior. But this territory was very thinly settled. Even near the sea-coast the greater part of it was a wilderness, mostly covered with forest trees. The towns were small and far apart, and the largest cities had not more than twenty thousand inhabitants. The people in those days thought New York and Philadelphia were important cities, but now we would look on them as only good-sized country towns. The State of the Interior. — Few of the settlements extended far back from the sea-coast, or from the great rivers. In New York most of the settlers kept near to the Hudson; in Pennsylvania they did not go far from the Delaware. The back country was yet in great part covered by forests, and was the home of the Indians and of white hunters, though in places there were a good many pioneer settlers. In Virginia and the Carolinas the people had gone much farther back from the coast. Daniel Boone, a bold and daring hunter, had led a party over the mountains into Ken- tucky. Some others had gone to Tennessee. But these men had to live with rifle in hand, for their lives were every minute in danger. Daniel Boone had many adventures with the Indians, but he escaped all peril and lived to be an old man. 148 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION Whence the People Came. — -The people of America had come from many countries of Europe. There were Germans in Pennsylvania and Dutch in New York. Along the Delaware there were Swedes, and in parts of the south there were settlements of French and of Highlanders from Scotland. There were also many from the north of Ireland, known as Scotch-Irish. But most of the people were of English descent, and the others by degrees took up the language and the ways of the English, so that in time all these unlike people grew together into one nation. The Farming Population. — Most of the people of America were farmers. In those days there were none of the great factories and workshops which we now see almost everywhere. The soil was rich and gave plentiful crops, and there might be seen fine farm- houses, large barns full of corn, wheat, and hay, and great flocks of sheep and cattle in the fields. New England and the Middle Colonies were famous for sheep and corn. Home Work. — Nearly everything was done at home. While the men worked in the fields, the women spun wool and flax and made most of the clothing for the family. This was known as homespun cloth. The farmer had to be a mechanic also. He made most of the things he used. Even the nails he needed were hammered out by him during the winter. The children were kept busy, too, though there were schools where they could get some little education. Agriculture of the South. — In the south agriculture was the principal business of the people. Here the land was divided into great plantations, and large THE PEOPLE AND THE COUNTRY 149 crops of tobacco, rice, sugar, etc., were raised. Much tar and pitch were made in North CaroHna. These were sent to Europe and sold or exchanged for other goods, and the people of that section grew rich. We have already told how the planters and their slaves lived on these great plantations. Spixning-Wheel, Reel, and Bed-Warmer. New England Commerce. — But the people of America were not all farmers. Many of them built ships and engaged in commerce. Long before the war the cities of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia had a large trade. Many ships came and went between these cities and England, and some went to France and Spain to bring back cargoes of wine and silks. This was against the English law, but the people thought this law unjust and did not hesitate to break it. Ves- 150 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION sels were built in Boston and sent to the "West Indies, where they were traded off for rum and sugar, for which articles there was much demand in those days. Many more were sent to England and sold there. As early as 1763, New England owned a thousand trading ships, besides the vessels of the hardy fishermen of the coast. Many of these ships were sent in search of whales, which were then far more plentiful than now. Fi.ax-Hrake. Manufacturing Industry. — There was not much manufacturing done in America. The laws of Eng- land had forbidden the people to make goods for themselves. They were watched closel}-, yet they managed to make some things. In New England there were a few mills for working iron. Hats were made of furs. In Pennsylvania very good leather was made. But the merchants of England did all they could THE PEOPLE AND THE COUNTRY 151 to put a stop to this, and to make the Americans buy everything from them. Of course they had to build their own houses, and to do many things which could not be done for them across the ocean. And after the Revolution they quickly began to do many other things for themselves, so that the commerce and manufactures of America increased very rapidly. There were several newspapers printed, but they were very small compared with those Stage-Coach from Baltimore to Washington. w^e see to-day. The first newspaper in America was The News Letter, which was started in Boston in 1704. In 1775 each of the cities of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia had four newspapers. Cities and Travel. — ^Not much can be said for the cities of that period. Many of the great cities of to-day were then villages, or their sites were forest land. Boston had less than eighteen thousand people, New 152 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION York over twenty thousand, and Philadelphia over thirty thousand. Baltimore and Charleston Avere much the largest cities in the south, their popula- tions being from twelve to fifteen thousand each. To travel from city to city was no easy task. There were some good roads in the north, but in the south the roads were very poor. In winter and spring most of the roads were little more than a series of mud-holes. The fastest stage-coach between New York and Philadelphia took two days for the trip, and it was a long and tiresome journey from Bo'ston to New York. Therefore the people of the different colonies had very little to do with one another. There is more travel in a day now than there was in a year then. The Condition of the Cities. — There were some hand- some houses in the cities, but not many. In New York trees were planted before the houses, and there were railings on the roofs, so that people could sit there on summer evenings to enjoy the cool air. There were lamps in the streets. Broadway was thought a splen- did avenue, though it was not very long and soon ended in the open country. Philadelphia was then the most important city in the country. It had been laid out by William Penn with broad and regular streets, while those of New York and Boston were crooked and narrow. Yet, much as it was spoken of in that day, it was a mere dwarf of a city compared with the present Philadelphia, and extended but a short distance back from the banks of the Delaware. Equality and Habits of the People. — There were no men of great riches in those days. Very few men in THE PEOPLE AND THE COUNTRY 153 the country had ten thousand dollars a year to spend. Most of the people were nearly equal in wealth. There was little poverty and little riches. The people were simple in their manners, and did not live expensively. One of their worst faults was their fondness for liquor. They drank much more than people do now, and drunkenness was very common. Extent of the United States. — The country which the people had won for themselves by their hard fight with England was much smaller than the United States of our present maps. Canada was held by England. Its people had shown no wish to be free. In the south, Florida belonged to Spain; but Florida then reached farther north than it does now, and had a strip of land fifty miles wide extending along the Gulf of Mexico to the Mississippi River, so that it cut off the United States from the Gulf. And all the vast country that lay west of this river belonged to Spain. The United States of that day lay between the Mississippi River on the west and the Atlantic Ocean on the east, and between Canada on the north and Florida on the south. It was a great country then. It has grown to be a much greater country since. The States of the Union. — ^This country was divided into thirteen States. These were the same as the States which now lie along or near the Atlantic, except Maine and Vermont, which did not become States till afterwards, and Florida, which was added much later. They were called the United States of America, but they were not very closely united. Each of them was almost like a separate nation, for Congress had very little power over them. They sent some of their 154 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION wisest men to Philadelphia to form part of the Congress which met there, but they did not give them much power or authority. They had to gain their freedom first. There would be time enough afterwards to form a strong nation out of the several colonies. PART IV.— QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 1. In what ways were the Americans ill used by the English? What laws were passed about their trade? What was done about American ships? Were Americans allowed to make goods for them- selves? What did the English want them to do? Did the Americans obey the new laws? What law was passed to stop smuggling? Why did the EngHsh government wish to tax the Americans? What reply did the Americans make? What was the character of the Stamp Act? What did Patrick Henry declare? How did the people receive the Stamp Act? Who was sent to London to get the Stamp Act repealed? What was done to make the people pay the taxes? Why were soldiers sent to Boston? What is meant by the "Boston Massacre "? Why were the Americans not willing to pay the tax on tea? What was done at Boston? What was the Boston Port Bill? When and where did the '' First Continental Congress " meet? What action did it take? 2. What was the population of the colonies at the time of the disputes with England? What had England done in ten years? What city was the centre of the rebellious feeling? Where had the people collected stores? Describe Paul Revere 's ride. What did the soldiers do at Lexington? What was done at Concord? De- scribe the retreat from Concord. How did the people of New England receive the news of this fight? What did Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys do? Where did the Americans seek to build a fort? Describe the Bunker Hill battle. When did the Second Continental Congress meet? Who was made commander-in-chief of the army? How were the British forced to leave Boston? What did the Americans attempt in Canada, and with what result? What city was attacked by the British fleet? Describe Sergeant Jasper'? QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION 155 brave action. What was the purpose of the colonists in the war? What member of Congress first declared that the colonies ought to be free? Who \vTote the Declaration of Independence? When was it adopted? What effect did it have on the people? 3. What did the Declaration of Independence signify to the people? Why is the 4th of July kept as a national holiday? What happened at New York? Describe Washington's retreat. How did the people feel? What did Washington do on Christmas Eve, 1776? What took place at Trenton? At Princeton? What was the effect of these victories in America and Europe? Where did the British sail to in 1777? What was the effect of the battle of the Brand>T\ane? Where did Washington's army pass the winter? What condition were the men in? What other expedition did the British attempt? Describe the battle of Bennington. What sort of a trap did Burgoyne fall into? Where and when did he surrender his army? What country made a treaty with America in 1778? What did the English now offer to do? How did the Americans receive their offer? "What did the British army in Philadelphia do in 1778 and with what result? What fort did Anthony Wayne attack? What happened in the valley of Wyoming? Describe the great exploit of Captain Paul Jones. Where did the fighting take place in 1780? What did General Arnold seek to do? What happened to Major Andre? What southern city did the British capture? What leaders fought them in South Carolina? Who took command of the southern army in 1781? Who commanded the British army? ^Vhat success did General Greene have? Where did Cornwallis go? "Wliat happened to the army of Cornwallis? Was there any more fighting? When was the treaty of peace signed? What was the new nation named? 4. WTiat was the population of America after the Revolution? How large was the country? How thickly was it settled? What was the size of the largest cities? Where did the settlers mostly live? What was the condition of the interior? What was the state of the southern population? What great hunter had gone to Ken- tucky? What was the character of his life there? From what countries had the people of America come? In what business were most of them engaged? ^Vhat crops were raised? What did the women do? What was raised in the south? Describe the shipping 156 THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION trade of the colonies. How many ships had New England in 17G3? Wliat were these used for? Was there much manufacturing? What things were made? What was the name of the first newspaper? How many newspapers were there in the principal cities in 1775? Tell the sizes of the different cities. Wliat is said about travelling? What kind of a city was New York? What was Philadelphia like? What was the condition of the people? What bad habit had they? What was the extent of the United States? What were its boun- daries? How many States were there? Were they closely united? Did Congress then have much power? PART V. THE FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC. 1. THE MAKING OF THE GOVERNMENT. A Time of Distress. — At the end of the Revolution the people of America were in a condition of poverty and misery. Business was at a stand-still, there was very little money, and not much of anything else useful. The country owed a great debt and had little to pay it with. The paper money with which the soldiers had been paid had lost its value, and nobody would take it for goods. The people were very poor, with their farms ruined and many of their towns destroyed. Some of them were so desperate that they declared they would pay no debts or taxes. Two thousand such men in Massachusetts, led by a man named Daniel Shays, marched out with their arms and defied the government. The State had some trouble to make them submit. Yet this distress could not long continue. The country needed only a little time to be all right again. It still had its soil, its mines, its ships, and its indus- trious inhabitants, and these were enough to make any country rich. England could no longer tell the people where they should trade or what they should make, or order them to pay taxes to support her government. They were free now to work for and to govern themselves, and this was worth all it had cost. 157 158 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC The Patriotism of Washington. — Washington was looked upon by eVery one as the great man of the country. The soldiers almost worshipped him. He could not go anywhere without crowds gathering to see him. He might have made himself a king if he had done what some of his friends wished. But he was too great a lover of his country for that, and would not take from America the liberty which he had done so much to gain for it. He went back to his home at Mount Vernon, in Virginia and became a simple farmer again. This was a noble act. Few men in Washington's position would have given up the power which was in his hands. All the world has praised him since as one of the greatest of patriots. The Condition of the Country. — There was one work of great im- portance to be done before the country could prosper. Congress had scarcely any power. It was made up of delegates from the States, but these States kept most of the power in their own hands. Congress could pass laws, but the States need not obey them unless they chose. Each State soon began to act as if it was an independent nation. Money \ras asked for by Congress to pay the interest on the debt, but very little of it was given, and hardly anything was done for the support of the government. A change of some kind had to be made, or the Union of the States would be broken, and there would be thirteen nations instead of one. ,]/•/ W.^HINGTON. THE MAKING OF THE GOVERNMENT 159 The Constitutional Convention. — This was seen by all the wise men of the country, — by Washington, Hamil- ton, Franklin, and others, — and steps were taken for a convention of delegates, which met at Philadelphia, in May, 1787, to try and form a stronger government. Among these delegates were many learned and able men. For four months they talked over the condition of the country, and con- ' "1 sidered what had best be done, and at the end of that time they had formed a plan of govern- ment very well suited to the needs of t he country. This plan is what we have in the Constitution of the United States, that great document which forms the foun- dation of our govern- ment, and which has done so much to make the United States a great and powerful nation. The New Government. — When the Convention had finished its work, what had it done? Let us see. There were still thirteen States, each of which had the right to take care of its own affairs; but they were now combined under one general government, which had much power given to it. This government had the right to form an army and navy for its defence, to make treaties with other nations, and to declare war if necessary. Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia, Whehk THE First Continental Congress Met. 160 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC It could coin the money of the country, manage the post-offices, lay taxes on the people, regulate com- merce with foreign countries, and make laws for the good of the whole nation. No State had any longer the power to do these things for itself, though each could make laws for its own people if they did not interfere with the rights of the people of any other State or of the government of the United States. The Legislative Body. — The new government was to consist of three bodies; one to make the laws, one to de- cide if they agreed with the Constitution, and one to see that they were put into effect. The first of these — the law-making body — is called the Congress of the United States. It is divided into two parts, — the House of Representatives, whose members are elected by the people, and the Senate whose members are elected by the State governments. The first of these is expected to look after the good of the whole people; the second, to attend to the interests of the States. But the interests of the people and of the States are very much the same, and there is little difference between the duties of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Supreme Court. — The second body of the gov- ernment is called the Supreme Court. It is made up of a number of learned judges, whose duty it is to examine, if necessary, all the laws passed in the country, and decide if they agree with the Constitu- tion. If they do not agree they cease to be laws. Every law, either of Congress or of the States, must agree with the Constitution of the United States. The Powers of the President. — The third body of the government consists of a President, with a Vice- WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION 161 President to take his place if he should die, and cer- tain officers known as cabinet officers, with whom he can consult. It is the duty of the President to execute, or put into force, the laws passed by Congress. If he does not approve of these acts of Congress he can veto them, or refuse to sign them. They cannot become laws if he does not sign them, unless two-thirds of the members of Congress vote for them again. The Presi- dent takes the place of the kings and emperors of foreign countries, but he has less power than some of them. He can only carry out the laws. He has nothing to do with making them, except that he need not approve any law which he does not think a good one. 2. WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. From 1789 to 1797. Washington as President. — As soon as the Constitu- tion was formed and adopted by the States a Presi- dent had to be chosen. Washington was the only man thought of for this high office. He became Presi- dent in 1789. It was decided that New York should be the seat of government, and Congress was asked to meet there on the 4th of March of that year. But travel was so difficult that the members did not all get there until April 30, on which date Washington was inaugurated as President. The next year the seat of government was removed to Philadelphia. The Work of the Government. — There was much to be done. There was a heavy debt to be paid, many laws to be passed, courts to be set up, taxes to be assessed, and the people had to gain confidence in the government before business could go on properly. 11 162 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC All this was done, everybody went to work, and it was not long before America was richer and happier than it had ever been before. There were troubles, it is true. A tax had been laid on whiskey, and a mob in western Pennsylvania refused to pay it. But Washington called out an army, and taught these people that the government intended to carry out its laws. There were difficulties also with England, Spain, and France, but they were all settled without going to war. The Seat of Government. — Washington was President for eight years. The seat of government was removed from New York to Philadelphia in 1790, and in 1800 to the new city of Washington, which has since then grown to be one of the most beautiful of cities. Affairs in the West. — The people of the old States were now moving rapidly to the west. They no longer felt it necessary to keep near to the sea-coast, and they drove back the Indians as they went, and settled in the country west of the mountains. Vermont, Ken- tucky, and Tennessee soon became States. The set- tlers in Ohio had great trouble with the Indians, and much fighting took place; but the hostile tribes were at last defeated by General Wayne, and after that they continued peaceful for many years. 3. JOHN ADAMS'S ADMLXISTRATION. From 1797 to 1801. Adams Elected President. — In 1796 Washington, who had been President for eight years, declined to be a candidate for a third term, and John Adams, who had been Vice-President under him, was elected President. JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 163 Thomas Jefferson was elected Vice-President, and they were inaugurated into their high offices on March 4, 1797. A Period of Prosperity. — It was a time of prosperity. The state of the country was very difTerent from what it had been ten years before. Much of the debt of that time had been paid ofT and the people were quite willing to let the rest stand and accept interest for it. Duties had been laid on goods imported into the country and these supplied money enough for all the needs of the government and some over towards paying the debt. Business also was growing better, and workshops were being started in which goods could be made at home, instead of having to be bought abroad. The Indians were quiet and the people had become con- tented. In the south a great business in cotton rais- ing had begun, for the cotton gin, by the use of which cotton could be produced very cheaply, had been invented a few years before. Political Parties. — The people had now become divided into two political parties, the Republican and the Federalist, the former in favor of greater rights to the States, the latter in favor of a strong central government. Thomas Jefferson was the leader of the Republicans, or the Democrats as they were called in later years. Hostile Relations with France. — At that time a great revolution was going on in France. The people had risen against the king and his nobles and had cut ofT the head of their king. The new French government was very angry with the Americans for electing Adams Presi- dent, instead of Jefferson, who was friendly towards 164 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC them. They therefore ordered the American minister to leave the country and began a kind of war by send- ing out cruisers to capture American vessels, of which hundreds were taken. A Naval Warfare. — This was more than the Ameri- can government was ready to bear, and its naval vessels were ordered to attack the French war-ships. After two of these had been captured, the French found that others could fight besides themselves, and asked for peace. As America did not want war, but only wished to protect its merchant ships, a treaty was made and the naval war came to an end. The Death of Washington. — In December, 1799, died George Washington, the great American hero. He had got wet in a storm and a severe cold came on. From this a fever came and on the night of December 14 the noble patriot passed away. He was justly entitled: "First in war, first in peace, and first in the hearts of his countrymen," and the whole country joined in paying honor to his memory. His home and tomb at Mount Vernon, near the city of Wash- ington, are places which Americans are glad to visit, for he is looked upon as our greatest man. 4. JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION. From 1801 to 1809. The Election of Jefferson. — In 1800 Thomas Jeffer- son, the writer of the Declaration of Independence and the leader of the Republican party, was elected President, and took his seat on March 4, 1801. During the preceding ten years Philadelphia had been the capital of the United States, but now a new city on JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTRATION 165 the Potomac River, named Washington, was made the capital. It has been the capital ever since and has now grown into a large and very handsome city. Louisiana Purchased. — -At this time the United States was bounded on the west by the Mississippi River. On the other side of that river was a great region reaching to the Rocky Mountains and inhabited Tin: Capitol at Washington. only by Indians. It had been claimed by France up to 17G3, when it was given over to Spain, In 1800 France got possession of it again. But Napoleon, the great French conqueror, was then at war with England, and was afraid that Louisiana, as this country was called, would be taken from him, so in 1803 he sold it to the United States for fifteen million dollars. After that time the United States extended from the Atlantic Ocean to the Rocky Mountains, and the land thus 166 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC bought by Jefferson has since then increased wonder- fully in value. War with Tripoli. — About this time war broke out with Tripoli, a country in the north of Africa. The people of that country were not civilized, and many of them were pirates, who spent their time in capturing the vessels of other nations. Merchant ships and their cargoes were taken by the pirates and all on board were sold as slaves. Some of the nations of Europe paid the Tripolitans to let their ships alone. The United States did this too for a while, but when Jefferson became President he decided that this payment must stop. So a fleet of war vessels was sent out to punish the pirates of the Mediterranean. The Loss of the Philadelphia. — One of these war- ships, the Philadelphia, ran aground and was seized by the Tripolitans. A brave young officer. Lieutenant Decatur, determined that they should not keep her; so he sailed into the harbor in a little vessel with some American sailors, most of whom were hidden from sight. The people on the frigate thought it was one of their own vessels, till it ran against the Philadel- phia, when the sailors sprang on board, attacked the pirates, drove them into the sea, and set the frigate on fire, as there was no time to get her under sail. Then the gallant Decatur sailed away without heed to the cannon-balls which the forts were firing at him. After four years of war the ruler of Tripoli was glad to agree to let the merchant vessels of the United States alone. Interference with American Commerce. — The people of Tripoli were not the only ones that interfered with American commerce. England and France were then MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION 167 at war and England wanted all the sailors she could get for her war-ships. So she claimed the right to stop any vessel at sea and take from it any man who had been born in England. A good many were thus taken who had never seen England, but were born in Amer- ica. And each of these countries also said that no foreign ships should carry goods to the other, and they seized every merchant ship they found engaged in this trade. In this way many American ships were taken and our merchants w^ere robbed of millions of dollars. The Embargo Act. — To put a stop to this state of affairs Congress passed what was called the Embargo Act, which forbade any American ship to leave port with goods for foreign countries. It was thought that this would so injure France and England, who needed American goods, that they would consent to let our vessels alone. It did injure them, but it injured the United States still more. No ocean business at all was done and there was so much distress in consequence that the law had to be repealed. A Non-Intercourse Act was then passed which gave our merchants rights to trade with all countries but England and France, 5. MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION. From 1809 to 1817. James Madison made President. — Jefferson was Pres- ident for eight years, then James Madison, an able and active statesman, was elected to take his place. But he was a man who was not fond of war, and it looked as if war would soon come. British and French war- vessels were everywhere on the ocean and no American merchant ship was safe. And the British war-vessels 168 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC kept on taking sailors from American ships. It is said that in all more than six thousand men were thus taken, and that between 1803 and 1812 more than nine hundred American vessels were seized by British cruisers. All over the country went up the war-cry of "Free trade and sailor's rights." No country could bear being treated in this way, and war could not long be avoided, though President Madison wished to pre- vent it. Indian Hostilities. — In 1811 an Indian war broke out. A famous chief named Tecumseh tried to com- bine all the tribes against the whites. General Harri- son was sent against them, and when his camp near the Tippecanoe River was attacked at night he de- feated and killed many of the savage warriors. Tnis made the people more angry still against England, for they believed that British agents from Canada had stirred up the Indians to this war. The Country Unprepared. — The United States was not at all prepared to go to war. Its army was small, its soldiers were not trained, it had no generals who had ever been on a battle field, except against the Indians. And its navy was very poor, there being only twelve vessels against a thousand in the British navy, more than a hundred of them being large and powerful ships. But when people feel that they have been wronged and insulted they do not stop to think of all these things, and on June 18, 1812, Congress declared war against Great Britain. THE WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 169 6. THE WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN. The Seat of War. — The war continued for nearly three years. It was fought in America and on the ocean. The United States could not send soldiers to England, but north of this country lay Canada, which belonged to England, and an effort was made to take possession of this country, which would have been a great loss to the enemy. Thus the greater part of the land war took place along the border line between the United States and Canada. On Lake Erie. — For over a year armies were sent into Canada, but nothing was gained, while the British Perry's Fleet on Lake Erie. got possession of Michigan, and Ohio was in danger. There was a British fleet on Lake Erie, and it was feared that it would be used to land soldiers on the American shores of that lake. An active young oflficer> Captain Oliver Perry, was sent to Lake Erie to see what could be done to prevent this. He at once went 170 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC to work to cut down trees, hew them into shape and tuild ships. In a short time he had a fleet of small vessels, and sailed out to meet the British ships. Perry's Victory. — The two fleets met on the 10th of September, 1813. A fierce battle followed, in which both sides fought with great courage, but the British were beaten and forced to surrender. During the fight the ship which Captain Perry commanded was shot so full of holes that it was ready to sink. So the gallant young officer took his flag and rowed in an open boat to another ship. The British vessels fired at him as he went, but he escaped unharmed. After the victory he sent to General Harrison this brief dis- patch: "We have met the enemy, and they are ours." American Victories. — As soon as General Harrison received this dispatch he marched towards the enemy, and came up with them on the River Thames, in Canada. Here the British were defeated and most of them taken prisoners, while Tecumseh, the celebrated Indian chief, was killed. This victory drove the British out of Michigan. The next year General Win- field Scott won two victories in Canada, and in the same year there was a naval battle on Lake Cham- plain, where the English had a strong fleet. Com- modore McDonough commanded the American fleet and gained a complete victory. After that the British made no effort to invade the United States from Canada, while the Americans did not again invade Canada. The Work of the Navy. — It was on the ocean that the Americans showed their best fighting powers. They were victorious in nearl}- every engagement. The first THE WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 171 battle was between the American ship Constitution and the British ship Guerriere. They fought for two hours, at the end of which time the Guerriere was so full of cannon-ball holes that she was sinking and had to surrender. This victory made a great sensation in Europe and America. The British had long been masters of the ocean, and it was thought their ships could not be beaten. Before the end of the war American ships had gained many other brilliant victories over the war vessels of Great Britain. They had shown to the world that England was no longer ''mistress of the seas." All Europe was surprised to see the little American fleet doing such wonderful work. The Burning of Washington. — In 1814 the British army did a disgraceful thing. There was a fleet which had done much damage along the coast, and this sailed up Chesapeake Bay and landed an army which marched on Washington. The city was very poorly defended, and the British took possession of it. They burned the Capitol and other public buildings, and many private houses, and then marched out again. This has always been looked on as a shameful act. The same fleet made an attack on Baltimore, but was driven off. Jackson at New Orleans. — The next effort of the British was made against the city of New Orleans. A strong army was landed and marched to attack that city, which was defended by a few Americans. But there was a brave and skilful officer, General Andrew Jackson, and he soon raised himself an army. He had been fighting with the Crp^k Indians in Alabama, who 172 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC had made war on the whites. These savages he com- pletely defeated. When he saw wliat the British intended he collected all the men he could. Most of them had never seen a battle, but they all knew how to use a rifle, and many of them were old hunters and skilful marksmen. A Hard=Fought Battle. — Both armies built breast- works. Those of the British were made of sugar hogs- Battle of New Orleans. heads, and those of the Americans of cotton bales. But these were soon battered down and set on fire by the cannon-shot, and then Jackson built earthworks out of the black mud of the river. For some time they fought at a distance with cannon, and then the British deter- mined to take the American works by storm. They had a large army of veteran soldiers, while the Americans were militia; but these backwoods riflemen wasted no bullets. Every time that a rifle was fired an enemy fell; and the men were well protected by their mud walls. THE WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 173 The British Defeated. — On the 8th of January, 1815, the British advanced to the attack. They came on boldly, but could not stand the terrible fire of the American riflemen and soon were forced to retreat. Again they advanced, and once more thej^ fell dead by hundreds. This was enough. The battle had lasted only half an hour when the British army was in full retreat, having lost its commander, General Paken- ham, and more than two thousand men, while only eight of the Americans were killed. The Treaty of Peace. — The war was at an end before this battle was fought, though the armies at New Orleans did not know it. A treaty of peace had been signed; but those were not the days of railroads and telegraphs, and it took as many weeks as it does sec- onds now to get news from New York to New Orleans. So those two thousand men lost their lives for nothing. The Necessity for Peace. — The war did not end any too soon. There was nothing to fight for any longer, and America was greatly suffering. England had ended the war which had been kept up for many years with France and wanted no more sailors or goods from American ships. There was an immense army, a great fleet and abundance of money to use against this country, which was .poor, and in debt. Its trade was gone, and heavy taxes were laid on its people. Some of the States refused to supply any more men and money for a war which there was no longer any use for. So a treaty of peace was made with the English government. Industry Re= Established. — When the news of the treaty reached America the whole country was glad. 174 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC "Peace! peace!" was the shout in the streets. Some of the cities were illuminated. At once business started up. Before night of that day shipwrights were at work on the merchant ships, making them ready for sea. Sailors were engaged, cargoes loaded, and very soon American sails were spread again upon the seas, while at home the joyful soldiers dropped the sword and the musket and seized the plough-handle and the hammer, and the cheerful sounds of industry were heard once more throughout the land. The Barbary States. — After the war affairs in Amer- ica went on very quietly for many years. There was some more trouble with the pirates of Northern Africa, who again interfered with American commerce. But Commodore Decatur, the brave soldier who had burnt the Philadelphia, went out with a fleet and very soon frightened the piratical states. These were the coun- tries of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli, known as the Barbary States. They have never interfered with American vessels since that time. Business Activity. — Business grew active again as soon as the war was at an end. The farmers sold their crops for good prices, the ships found plenty to do, and all the people were busy except the mechanics. During the war many factories had been built in America, but after the treaty of peace English goods were sent to this country in great quantities, and sold so low that the American factories had to sell at a loss or stop working. This set people to talking about a tariff, or a tax on foreign goods, so that they could not be sold lower than American goods. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 175 7. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. From 1817 to 1825. The Era of Good Feeling. — In 1810 James Monroe, a statesman of Virginia, was elected President, and held the office for the eight years from 1817 to 1825. After the war the political feeling in America had died away^ and soon there was but one political party. People- ceased to vote for the old Federal party, and only the- party which had been known as the Democratic- Republican was left. This party was afterwards gen- erally called the Democratic. The period that followed has been called ''the era of good feel- ing," because the people all thought much the same way in politics, and there were no political disputes. Florida Invaded.— While Monroe was President there were some troubles ^"'^^^ with the Indians of Florida, and these led to important results. Florida still belonged to Spain, and the Spaniards stirred up the Seminole Indians to make attacks on the people of Georgia and Alabama. General Jackson then commanded the army in the South. He was of a hasty temper, and he quickly marched his men into Florida and took possession of the Spanish town of Pensacola. He also hung two^ Englishmen who, he said, led the Indians. Jackson was blamed for this, but Spain saw that she could not keep Florida, so she asked the United States. to buy it. The price asked for it was five million dollars, which was much less than a war would have 176 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC cost. The United States was quite willing to pay this sum, and became owner of Florida in 1S21. New States Admitted. — The country along the Missis- sippi was now filling up with people, and seven new States were formed between 1812 and 1821. These were Louisiana, Indiana, Mississippi, Illinois, Alabama, Maine, and Missouri. Ohio had become a State in 1802. These, with the thirteen original States, and Vermont, Tennessee, and Kentucky, which had been admitted before 1800, made the total number twenty-four. The Slavery Question. — There was a dispute in Con- gress when Missouri asked to be made a State. This dispute was on the question of slavery. As this was to become a very important question in later years we must say something about it here. In the early days of America there were slaves in all the colonies; but in 1820 very few slaves were left in the States north of Virginia. They were still kept in the south on account of their use in the cotton, rice, and tobacco plantations; but a law had been passed in 1787 pro- viding that there should be no slaves in the territory north of the Ohio River. The Missouri Compromise. — When Missouri asked to be made a State there were many slaves there already, and a debate arose whether it should be a slave or a free State. This was settled by what is called "The Missouri Compromise." A law was passed which said that Missouri might come into the Union as a slave State, but that there should be no more slave States in the Western country north of the latitude of the southern boundary of Missouri. This settled all trouble about slave States for twenty-five years. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION 177 The Monroe Doctrine. — ^At that time the Spanish colonies of America were fighting for freedom and most of them had won their liberty. Some of the nations of Europe now proposed to help Spain win them back, hoping to be able to get part of them for themselves. In 1823 President Monroe sent a message to Congress in which he said that the United States would not approve of any new colonies being formed in America, and would not consent to any foreign power taking possession of or invading those new nations. This is known as the "Monroe Doctrine." It is stiU an important part of the American policy and has gone far to keep America for the Americans. Internal Improvement. — As the country was filling up so fast with people, something had to be done to make it easier to travel and carry goods from one place to another. There were steamboats on the rivers, but there were no railroads, and the carriage roads, were very bad. So Congress began to make good roads in different directions. Canals were also made to carry goods cheaply. The greatest of these was the Erie Canal of New York. -This was begun in 1817 and finished in 1825. It runs across the State from Albany to Buffalo, a distance of tiiree hundred and sixty-three miles, and is of great use in bringing goods and grain from the West to the Hudson River and New York City. The Tariff Question. — ^Another great question arose in Congress during this period. This was about a tariff on foreign goods. Americans were trying to start factories and workshops and to make articles for their own use ; but they had to pay high wages to mechanics, and found that they could not sell as low 12 178 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC as the English. A Law was passed in ISIG laying a tax or duty on manufactured foreign goods, to protect the American makers from foreign competition. It proved very useful, and the workshops of America quickly becams busy, and have continued so from that time to the present. But the question of the tariff has never been settled to please all parties, and it is one of the great political questions of the present day. 8. THE JOHN QUINCY ADAMS ADMINISTRATION From 1825 to 1829. Whigs and Democrats. — In J824 John Quincy Adams w^as elected President by the party which had been know^n by the two names of Republican and Democratic. There was no other party at that time, for the Republican party which we now have was not formed till long afterwards. But while Adams was President the one party became divided into two, which were afterwards known as the Democratic and the Whig parties. It was the tariff and some other questions that divided the old party. The Whigs were in favor of high tariff and the Democrats of low tariff. The Whigs were strongest in the north, where there were the most factories, and the Democrats in the south, where low-priced goods were wanted. Thus the *'Era of Good Feeling" was brought to an end. A Higher Tariff. — One of the principal things done by Congress in the new administration was to pass a tariff which laid much higher duties on several kinds of goods, it was bitterly opposed in the South, where low duties were desired, and its enemies called it the "tariff of abominations.'' It led to much trouble a few years later. THE PitOGRESS OF THE COUNTRY 179 The Creek Indians Removed. — Another important event was the removal of the Creek Indians of Georgia from their old home to a tract of land west of the Mississippi River, known as the Indian Territory. They earnestly objected to this but they were forced to go, and at a later date the Cherokee Indians were also removed. This is one example of the injustice with which the native inhabitants of our country have been treated. The Cause of Temperance. — The drinking of intoxi- cating liquor had become so great an evil that a strong feeling was aroused against it at this time. Drunkenness had grown so common that it affected all classes of society, the rich and poor alike. The first successful temperance society was founded in 1826, and in the years that followed thousands of people took the pledge not to drink liquors of any kind. Though this did not do away with drunken- ness in this country, it has never since been so bad and it is steadily becoming less of an evil. The Election of 1828. — In 1828 John Quincy Adams and Andrew Jackson were the candidates for the Presidency. Jackson was a popular military hero, while Adams was not very well liked, the result being that Jackson was elected by a large majority. John C Calhoun, of South Carolina, was elected Vice-President. 9. THE PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY. Changes in Life and Customs. — During the half cen- tury with which we have here dealt many changes of importance had occurred in the country. The people were gaining new ideas; new ways of doing things 180 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC were coming into use, and much of importance aside from political events was taking place. These things do not belong to political history, but are of great importance in social history. Growth of Population. — In the first census of the United States, taken in 1790, there were found to be nearly four millions of people in the country. In the fourth census, that of 1830, there were nearly thirteen millions, more than three times as many. This great increase of people had done much to fill up the new States in the west. In 1780 the west was still a wilderness. Daniel Boone had led some settlers into Kentucky and others had gone to Tennessee, but else- where the people had not moved far back from the sea-coast. There were great hardships to be borne by those who went West, and much danger from the Indians, and those who loved comfort and safety kept in the old settlements along the coast. The Pioneers of the North. — ^But there were many who loved adventure more than they did peace and comfort, and hundreds of these went out as pioneers into the wilderness. In the region of New England and New York these travelled with emigrant wagons, making roads through the woods as they went. They would clear off the trees and cultivate a piece of land for a year or two, and then, as others settled near them, they would set out again for a new home in the wilder- ness. It was like a great army slowly marching for- ward and sending pioneers in advance, while the main body held on to every foot of land that was occupied. The Indians retreated step by step before them. They could not repel this army of emigrants. THE PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY 181 Emigration along the Ohio. — Along the Ohio the emigrants went in a different way. They loaded their goods and families on boats and floated down the river till they found a good place to settle. It was a dangerous journey. The Indians would fire on them from the woods on the river bank, and many were killed or captured. Afterwards the boats were made stronger so that bullets would not pass through them, and in some cases they carried small cannon to drive off the foe. But for many years the journey down the Ohio was a dangerous one. The Home of the Pioneer. Settlements in the West. — No dangers could keep back the people, and they made many settlements along the Ohio River. Louisville was founded in 1778, and the first houses were built at Cincinnati in 1788. The Indians fought with the settlers, but they were driven back, and soon there were great numbers of people along the Ohio and Mississippi, and States began to be formed where not many years before all had been a wilderness, the home of the red man and of wild beasts. 182 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC How People Lived. — In those days things were very different from what they are now, even in the largest cities. The streets were dirty and poorly paved, while at night they were lighted only by a few oil lamps. There were no gas and no matches such as we have A ('(II.OXIAL KlTCHKN. now, but a piece of flint and steel and some tinder w'ere used to make a light. Water had to be carried from the pump, and wood was used for fires, so that houses were not warmed all through as they now are, and most of the rooms had no fires to warm them. In winter people slei)t in freezing cold rooms. THE PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY 183 Most of the people lived on farms, for there were fewer workshops to bring them into the cities. Life on the farm was very hard. There were none of the excellent machines which farmers have now, and the work required great labor, while most of the things that were used had to be made at home. There were very few amusements in the country, and not many books and newspapers, while there was little time for anything except hard work. In the houses there were great open fireplaces, where logs of wood were burned. Tallow candles were used to light the rooms, while most of the people wore clothes of homespun, — that is, of cloth made at home from thread spun on the spinning-wheel and woven on the hand-loom. Hunting and fishing were the principal amusements of the men, and the gun and the fishing-rod could be seen in every house. Customs of the Rich. — But the rich people in the cities lived much better than the farmers and made a great deal more display. This class of people dressed more showily than they do now. The gentlemen wore white satin vests and white silk stockings, with velvet or broadcloth coats; while the ladies wore beautiful silks and satins, and had their hair dressed with powder and pomatum and raised like a tower above the head. All gentlemen took snuff, and to offer the snufT-box was considered an act of politeness. Fine balls were given at which there was much formality, and also musical concerts, but the theatre had made no great progress. There was much pomp and show at President Washington's receptions: the kings of Europe made little more display. But this 184 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC came to an end after Jefferson was made President. He dressed plainly and did away with all ceremony. Cotton in the South. — There was one thing that hap- pened at this time of which we must speak. Among the plants which had been early planted in the Southern colonies was the cotton-plant. This plant has its seeds covered with a fine white down, or fibre, which can be spun into thread and made into cloth. Cotton grew in other parts of the world and was used for this purpose. The people of the south raised some of the plants, but it took so much time and trouble to get the seeds out of the cotton that they could not make it pay. The Cotton Gin. — In 1792 a young man from Massa- chusetts, named Eli Whitney, went to Georgia to teach while he studied law. One day he was asked if he could not make a machine that would separate the cotton seeds from the fibre faster than the old way of picking them out by hand. He began to experiment, and soon invented a machine which did this work very well. It was called the cotton-gin. It worked so well that it was soon in use wherever the plant was raised, and before many years the cultivation of cotton became a great industry. American cotton came into use in. all parts of the civilized world, and the South grew very rich from the vast quantities of this useful product that were raised and sold. The Steamboat Invented. — -Other inventions were made, one of the most important being the steamboat. Several persons tried this. There was one built by James Rumsey in 1784, and another afterwards by John Fitch, which ran for some time on the Delaware. But the first successful steamboat was built by Robert THE PROGRESS OF THE COUNTRY 185 Fulton in 1807. This was tried on the Hudson, and when people saw it moving at five miles an hour against wind and tide they knew that a great invention had been made. As it went up the river to Albany the sailors on other vessels were scared to see this monster sending clouds of smoke and showers of sparks into the air, and making a great noise with its paddles and machinery. Some of them hid below the deck, and other fell on their knees and prayed for safety. But before long steamboats were run- ning on all the rivers and proved of the greatest use. On the Western Riv- ers. — Before the time of steamboats it was not easy to travel on the western rivers. Boats would float down the Ohio and Mississippi to New Orleans, but it was hard work to row them back against the strong current. So they were broken up and sold for lumber, and the sailors walked or rode back along the river banks. But after steamboats were put on the rivers there was no trouble in moving up as well as down. In 1819 the first steamship crossed the Atlantic. It was named the Savannah. The Railroad Introduced. — There was another great invention soon to come into use. This was the rail- road. The first railroad in America is said to have Fulton's Steamboat. (The Clermont.) 186 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC been one built in 1S27 at Quincy, Massachusetts. It was only three miles long, and the cars were drawn by horses, and carried stone from the quarries to the wharves. But about this time the locomotive was invented in England by George Stephenson. In 1828 the locomotive was tried in America. Farm- ers did not like it at first. They thought it would scare their animals, and that the wool of the sheep would be made black by the smoke, so that it could not be sold. But none of those things happened, and A MoDKUN SrFAMSHIP. soon railroads were being built in various directions. Nothing else has done so much to make a great country of America. A Period of Prosperity.— After the war with Great Britain the country found itself in a state of great poverty and with a heavy debt to pay. But business became so good that there was soon more riches in the country than there had been before. Tobacco and cotton sold at high prices; the ships had plenty to do; soon gold watches began to take the place of silver, silk goods took the place of cotton, better furniture was seen in the houses, and people lived in more comfort than of old. QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION 187 Coal and Gas. — Up to this time only wood, or soft coal, had been burned. The hard coal, or anthracite coal, of Pennsylvania was discovered in 1791, but it was long before people learned how to burn it, and it was not generally used before 1830. Since then it has made our houses much more comfortable. Gas was first used for lighting in 1822, and soon became com- mon. It proved a very useful invention. PART v.— QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 1. WTiat was the condition of the people after the Revolution? What was thought of Washington? Why did Congress have httle power? When and where did the Constitutional Convention meet? What great document did it prepare? What were to be the powers of the new government? Of what three bodies was it composed? Of what two bodies is Congress made up? What are their duties? What is the duty of the Supreme Court? What is the duty of the President? 2. Who was the first President, and when elected? What city was made the seat of government? What troubles took place in Western Pennsylvania? To what place was the seat of government removed in 1790? To what place in 1800? What three States were formed about this time? What took place in Ohio? 3. Who was the second President? Why had the country grown more prosperous? What two political parties arose? What led to a naval war with France? When did Washington die and how was he spoken of? 4. Who was elected President in 1800? What great purchase was made in 1803? How far did the United States extend before that time? How far after? What was the character of the people of Tripoli? How did they act toward American commerce? What did President Jefferson do? Describe the fate of the frigate Phila- delphia. What claim was made by England? How did the French and English war affect American trade? What act was passed by Congress? What was its purpose? What country did it hurt most? 5. Who was the fourth President? How did England injure this country? What took place among the Western Indians? When was war declared? 188 FIRST HALF CENTURY OF THE REPUBLIC 6. Where was the chief seat of the war? What American officer was sent to Lake Erie? What was the result of the battle of Lake Erie? ^Vhat other victories did the Americans win? Between what ships was the first naval battle? What success had the Americans on the ocean? What city did the British attack in 1814? WTiat other city did they attack? Who commanded the Americans at New Orleans? What was the result of the British attack? Why was it important to end the war? What effect had the treaty of peace on the people and on business? 7. Wlio was elected President in 1816? Why was this period called "the era of good feeling"? What was done in Florida and with what result? How many States were there in 1821? What dispute arose when Missouri asked to be made a State? Why were slaves kept in the south longer than in the north? What was the "Missouri Compromise "? What is meant by the Monroe Doctrine? What did Congress do to make travelling easier? WTiat great work of public improvement was done in New York? Why was a tariff wanted? What effect did it have? 8. "Who was elected President in 1824? What new parties arose during his term of office and what were their principles? How was the tariff of 1828 received? WTiat was the effect of the temper- ance agitation? Who was elected President in 1828? 9. When was the first census of the United States taken? What was the population? What increase had taken place by 1830? What was the condition of the Western country in 1780? How was emigration westward conducted in New York and New England? How along the Ohio? How did people five in those days? How were houses warmed? What was the character of farm-life? What kind of clothes were worn? What amusements did the people have? What were President Washington's receptions like? What President did away with ceremony? What was the most important Southern plant? Who invented the "cotton-gin"? What eff'ect did it have on the South? Who invented the first useful steamboat? How did people travel on the western rivers before steamboats were used? When did the first steamship cross the Atlantic? When and where was the first railroad built in America? How were the cars drawn? Who invented the locomotive? When was it first tried in America? What was the condition of business after the war with Great Britain? When was anthracite coal first dis- covered in Pennsylvania? When was gas first used for lighting? PART VI. TWENTY YEARS OF PROGRESS. 1. JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION, From 1829 to 1837. Andrew Jackson as President. — General Andrew Jackson was inaugurated as President, March 4, 1829. He was a very popular man, for the people did not forget how well he had fought at New Orleans ; so he was elected twice and was President for eight years, from 1829 to 1837. Yet he was a man without education, and was rough in his manners and obstinate in his opinions. What he thought it right to do he did, without caring what any one else thought. But men who act in that way are apt to make mischief, for it takes more than one to tell what it is best to do when great questions arise. The South Carolina Trouble. — The first difficulty that arose was about the tariff. The people of South Carolina strongly opposed the tariff of 1828 and passed a law saying that foreign goods would be admitted into that State without paying duties. This was against the Constitution, which said that only Congress could pass laws of that kind. But the law-makers of South Carolina declared that if Congress interfered with what they had done the State would secede or with- draw from the Union, and become a separate nation. What the President Did. — President Jackson was a Democrat, and therefore belonged to the party that was in favor of low tariff. But it was his duty to carry 189 190 TWENTY YEARS OF PROGRESS out the laws, and this he determined to do. He said that South Carolina should pay the duties, and sent war-ships to Charleston to enforce the law. Every- body knew that Jackson meant what he said, and that he would force the State to remain in the Union and to obey the laws made by Congress, if he had to do it with an army. But about this time Congress passed a law to lower the tariff, a part of which was to be taken off every year for ten years. This settled the trouble. South Carolina withdrew her "Ordinance of Secession," and there was no more talk of leaving the Union. The Bank Question. — The next question was about the United States Bank. This bank had been started in 1816, and was to continue for twenty years. Its charter would run out in 1836, and Congress was asked for a new one. A bill was passed to give it a charter, but the President was opposed to the bank and would not sign it, so it did not become a law. He also took the government money from the bank. This proved to be a serious matter, and helped to bring the country into great trouble. When it was found that the United States Bank must stop. State banks started up all over the country, and these lent money freely to speculators. But this was only paper money, and the banks had very little gold and silver to make it good. The Panic of 1837. — ^At that time there was much speculation in western lands, and much also in foreign goods. Business was brisk, and every one thought the country was prosi)erous. But nearly all this busi- ness was done on the paper money of the State banks and on credit. It ended in one of the greatest panics in business the country has ever known. The Presi- JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION 191 dent said that gold and silver must be paid for gov- ernment lands, and this brought on the panic. All over the States the banks ceased the payment of coin, merchants were ruined, factories closed, and business came nearly to an end. There were failures for millions of dollars, and many thousands of people could get no work to do and little food to eat. This began in 1837 and continued for a year, but it was several years before the effects of it were over. JTrom Winoughb3''s "Across the Everglades." The Everglades of Florida. Indian Wars. — Several wars with the Indians took place during Jackson's term. As the white people pushed farther into the country they met new tribes of Indians, who were often treated unjustly, many of 192 TWENTY YEARS OF TROGRESS these pioneers being rough and brutal men. The Indians defended themselves and thus wars began. One broke out in 1832 with the Sac and Fox Indians, who were led by a chief named Black Hawk. They fought hard but were forced to submit. A more serious war began in 1835 with the Seminole Indians of Florida. These lived in the great swamp regions of that State and it took years and cost the government thirty millions of dollars to overcome them. They were sent to the Indian Territory, where the Creeks and Cherokees had been sent before, but some of the Seminoles remained in Florida in places where the soldiers could not find them, and their descendents still live there. 2. VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION. From 1837 to 1841. Martin Van Buren. — In 1836 Martin Van Buren, who had been Vice-President in Jackson's second term, was elected President and took his seat March 4, 1837. It was during his administration that the panic of which we have spoken took place, though President Jackson's policy in regard to the banks had much to do with its development. Wild Cat Banks. — Many of the State banks which succeeded the United States bank had little capital and did business in such a way that they were called "wild cat" banks. In some of these Jackson had deposited the government money taken from the Uni- ted States Bank. The "pet banks," as these were named, loaned this public money freely to speculators and much of it was lost after the panic began. HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATION 193 The paper money issued by the banks then came back in quantities, and as few of them had enough gold and silver in their vaults to redeem it, they failed on all sides. Everywhere also the merchants and speculators were in trouble, the failures in New York City alone within two months reaching the great sum of one hundred million dollars. State Failures. — The finances of the country were in such a condition that some of the States, which had borrowed large sums of money from Europe for public improvements, were not able to pay interest on their debts and one State refused to pay either principal or interest. This was a serious blow to American credit. The Treasury and Sub-Treasury System. — As it was seen to be unsafe to deposit the public money in the banks, a law was passed establishing a government treasury, this being a place of deposit for the public funds in Washington City. Branches called sub- treasuries were also established in other cities. This system is still in existence. 3. THE HARRISON AND TYLER ADMINISTRATION. From 1841 to 1845. A Whig President Elected.— From 1800 up to 1840 all the Presidents had been Democratic, but in 1840 General William Henry Harrison, a Whig, was elected. He was the hero of the battle of Tippecanoe, and as it was said that he lived in a log cabin and drank hard cider, log cabins and cider were the great features of the campaign. But he was an old man and not strong enough to bear the worry of office seekers and he died April 4, 1841, just one month after taking his seat. 13 194 TWENTY YEARS OF PROGRESb John Tyler as President. — John Tyler, of Virginia, had been elected Vice-President and the death of Harrison made him President. He had been elected on the Whig ticket, but was more a Democrat than a Whig, and he greatly displeased the party which had elected him by vetoing a number of its bills. One of these was to establish another United States Bank. The War for Freedom in Texas. — The most impor- tant event which occurred while Tyler was President was the request of Texas to be made part of the United States. Texas had been held by Spain since the time La Salle's colony was destroyed by the Spaniards, and when Mexico gained its freedom from Spain Texas became part of it. But many Americans had settled in that country, and they did not like the way in which they were treated by the Mexican government. So they rebelled and began a war for freedom. This war began in 1835, and in 1836 the Mexicans were defeated and forced to leave the country. Texas became independent. But after some years it asked to be made a part of the United States. The Northern people were opposed to this, for they knew that it would be a slave State; but finally, in 1845, it was accepted as a State. This was a large addition to the United States, for Texas is an extensive country. 4. POLK'S ADMINISTRATION AND WAR WTTH MEXICO. From 1845 to 1849. The Election of 1844. — In 1844 Henry Clay, a great and popular orator, was nominated by the Whig party, and James K. Polk, by the Democratic. They were both Southern men, but Polk was little known, while POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 195 Clay was a public favorite and everybody expected him to be elected. But he lost favor in some of the States by concealing his true sentiments about the annexation of Texas. This was not manly, and it lost him the elec- tion, New York going against him by a small majority,. Hostilities with Mexico. — There was a great show of indignation in Mexico when Texas was made a part of the United States, for it was claimed that it still belonged to Mexico. War was likely to come, and it was desired in the South, where the planters hoped to conquer still more territory from Mexico and thus make room for new slave States. There was also a dispute about the boundary. Mexico claimed that the western boundary of Texas was the Nueces River, while the United States claimed that it was the Rio Grande, a hundred miles farther west. Both countries sent armies into this disputed territory, and as soon as they met they began to fight. Two battles were fought. The Americans were vic- torious in each, and the Mexicans had to retreat. The Advance into Mexico. — General Taylor was in command of the American army. He now crossed the Rio Grande and took possession of Matamoras, a Mexican town. When the news of this was received there was great excitement. Many of the people did not want to go to war, but others did, and Congress voted in favor of war. Many volunteers joined General Taylor's army, and he marched into the country and captured the strong city of Monterey, where there were ten thousand Mexican troops. The Battle of Buena Vista. — General Taylor pushed on into the mountain region. He had only five thou- 196 TWENTY YEARS OF PROGRESS sand men, and the Mexican general, Santa Anna, was marching against him with more than twenty thousand. They met on February 22, 1847, at a place called Buena Vista. General Taylor was in great danger, for most of his men were volunteers, while the Mexicans were trained soldiers. But he took possession of a narrow pass through the mountains. All day long the Mexi- cans tried to drive the American army out of this pass, but they could not do it, and at night they retreated in great haste and disorder. The Capture of Vera Cruz. — There was no more fighting in the north of Mexico. It had been decided to carry the war to the south, and General Scott was sent with a fleet and army to attack the city of Vera Cruz, the principal sea-port of Mexico. There was a very strong fortress at Vera Cruz, but it was soon forced to surrender. The Mexicans could not stand the cannon-balls that were poured like hail -stones into their fort. The March to the City of Mexico. — The road from Vera Cruz to the City of Mexico is over a mountainous country, and the passes in these mountains were held by the Mexicans. Their army was much stronger than that of General Scott, but he marched on and drove them back wherever he met them. When the Americans got near the city there were many battles to fight, but every one of them ended in a victory for General Scott's army. The most important battle was at Chapultepec. This was a strong fort on the top of a very steep hill. The Americans had to climb up the hill and get into the fort by ladders, while musket- and cannon-balls POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 197 came clown on them like hail; but they fought their way up the hill and got into the fort, from which they drove the Mexicans. The next day, September 14, 1847, the Americans marched into the City of Mexico, and took possession. That was the last battle of the .war, and Santa Anna, the Mexican President, asked for peace. General Scott's Kntry into the City of Mexico. The War Elsewhere. — But this is not the whole story of the war. While the fighting we have described was taking place, an army under General Kearney had marched into New Mexico and taken possession of it. Captain John C. Fremont, with sixty men, was at this time in California. He had been sent there to explore the country, but as soon as he heard that war was going on he got the American settlers to join him, and began to drive out the Mexican soldiers. He was 198 TWENTY YEARS OF PROGRESS helped in this by an American fleet, and b}^ General Kearney, and soon all California was held by the United States. New Territory Acquired.— At the end of the war the American arm}^ had full possession of New Mexico and California, and when the treaty of peace was signed Mexico was obliged to give up this territory, though the United States agreed to pay for it fifteen million dollars. Thus a great district, containing more than half a million square miles, was added to the United States. This district now contains the States of California, Nevada, Utah, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming, with the Territories of Arizona and New Mexico. No one dreamed at that time how valuable this would prove to be. Some thought that the money paid for it was more than it was worth. It was thinly settled by Mexicans, with a few American settlers. Little gold had been found in it by the Mexicans, though they had been looking for gold for many years. So they did not think the country of much value, and were willing to give it up to the United States for the money paid. The Discovery of Gold. — But a year or two later they would have given ten times as much to have it back again, for the Americans were not long there before gold was found. A workman who was building a mill-dam in the Sacramento Valley found shining yellow particles in the gravel. He eagerly gathered some of this mineral, took it to his employer and had it tested. It proved to be gold. At once everybody quit working and went on the hunt for gold. Plenty THE WORK OF THE PEOPLE 199 of it was found, and when the news was heard by the people of the east they began to emigrate in great num- bers to the west, every one eager to make his fortune. There proved to be gold in very many parts of the territory. It was found in the sand, in the river-beds, in the rock; in dust, and in lumps. The stories told of the finding of gold were like fairy tales, and thou- sands of people hurried to California, eager for wealth. Silver mines were also discovered, and since that time an immense amount of gold and silver has been taken from that country, though at first it was thought of so little value. But California would be rich if it had no gold or silver. Its soil is very fertile, and every year great quantities of grain and fruits are raised. The timber on its mountains is also of high value. The Mexicans got nothing from it in three hundred years, but the Americans have made it a rich and populous State in much less than one hundred years. 5 THE WORK OF THE PEOPLE. Increase of Territory. — In the period which we have just considered the country had made great progress. Let us stop here and take, a look back at what had been done. First, it is important to consider the size of the United States. We have told how it had gained a great territory from Mexico. But other territory had come to it of which we must now tell the story. Lewis and Clark's Expedition. — When France sold the country west of the Mississippi to the United States no one knew how large that country was, or what might be found in it. So two men, Captains Lewis 200 TWENTY YEARS OF PROGRESS and Clark, were sent out to see what it was like. There were thirty men with them, and they left St. Louis in 1804 and were more than two years in a wilderness where no white man had ever set foot before. They went up the Missouri River as far as they could, and then, crossing the Rocky Mountains, went down the Columbia River till they reached the Pacific Ocean. When they came back, they had wonderful stories to tell of the tribes they had seen and the adventures they had met with. They were probably the first white men that beheld the vast multitudes of buffalo on the western plains. They had seen herds of them a mile wide crossing the rivers like a great army. The Fur Trade. — These explorers found that the Indians of the Pacific coast had furs to sell, and a New York merchant named John Jacob Astor sent men there to trade for furs. He grew very rich in this business. His trading post was afterwards sold to a British fur company, and on this account the British wished to lay claim to the territory about the Columbia River. The Story of Oregon. — In 1792 Captain Robert Gray, the first to carry the American flag around the world in his ship, the Columbia, discovered a great river of on the Pacific coast, to v;hich he gave the name his vessel. In later years the Hudson's Bay Company, which controlled the fur trade of British America, extended its business into Oregon, and an agreement was made in 1818 by which the people of the United States and Great Britain were permitted to fish, hunt, and trade there for ten years. This was afterwards renewed from year to year. THE WORK OF THE PEOPLE 201 American Settlers. — In 1832 the American fur traders in Oregon were followed there by a party of settlers, and others succeeded until by 1846 there were several thousand Americans in the country. There had arisen a question between England and the United States as to the proper boundary between their western possessions. England's claim extended southward to the Columbia River; the Americans' claim extended northward to 54° 40', the southern boundary of Russian America, now known as Alaska. Oregon Treaty. — In 1846 the dispute was settled by a compromise, a treaty being made with England which decided that the parallel of 49° should be the boundary. This parallel already formed the boundary east of the Rocky Mountains. Thus the country which we now know as the States of Oregon, Washington, and Idaho, with parts of Montana and Wyoming west of the main range of the mountains, became part of the United States. Growth of the Country. — The great republic had made a wonderful growth in fifty years. In 1800 the United States was bounded on the west by the Missis- sippi River, and on the south by Florida. It did not reach to the Gulf of Mexico, for Florida had a strip of land fifty miles wide along the Gulf coast. By 1850 it had gained Florida and the whole vast country between the Mississippi River and the Pacific Ocean, together with Texas and the whole of Northern Mexico. In fifty years it had grown to three times its original size, and had become one of the greatest countries on the earth. We may well call this a wonderful progress. Population. — The population was growing as fast as the country. Many steamships now crossed the ocean. 202 TWENTY YEARS OF PROGRESS and immigrants were coming in by thousands. Most of these settled in the East, but great numbers of the Eastern people went west. This was not difficult to do. Every river had its steamboats, and railroads were being built in all parts of the country, so that it was becoming an easy matter to travel long distances. New cities started up in the West. In 1830 there was only a fort at Chicago. Now it is one of the largest cities in the country. In other places where there are large cities now there was only the wilderness then. Emigration West. — But there were no railroads or steamboats to carry emigrants across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific coast. Those who went there had to travel in wagons drawn by oxen or horses. It was a journey of great hardships and danger. The emigrants were often attacked and murdered by the Indians. Sometimes they were smothered in the snows, or died of starvation. The road was marked by the bones of dead animals. Yet large numbers crossed that way, and the Western country rapidly filled up. The Mormons. — It was the desire for gold and silver that took most of these emigrants across the mountains. Others went to settle on farms or to do business in cities. But some of them went for a different purpose. These were the Mormons, a religious sect which had been started by a man named Joseph Smith, who said he had found a book of religious teachings written on gold plates that were buried in the earth. He called this the "Book of Mormon." The Mormons first settled in the region near the Mississippi River, but the people did not like their doings, and mobs drove THE WORK OF THE PEOPLE 20? them away. So in the end they crossed the mountains and settled in the country since known as Utah, and which was made a Territory of the United States in 1850. Increase of Wealth. — The country was fast growing rich. In 1850 it contained over twenty-three milHon people and workshops and factories were being built Old and New Types of Locomotives. in all directions. One could hear the rattle of machinery all over the land. America no longer depended on England for goods. Goods were made here in great variety, but much also came across the ocean, and the shops were filled with costly articles. Mines and Forests. — Among the riches of America must be named the products of the mines. Pennsyl- 204 TWENTY YEARS OF PROGRESS vania brought great quantities of coal and iron into the market. In New York there were mines of salt. Lead mines were worked in Illinois and Iowa, and rich copper mines in Michigan. Since that time these substances have been found in other places, while gold and silver have been found in many parts of the Rocky Mountains. The forests of America proved also of very great value, and every year immense quanti- ties of timber are cut, to be made into ships, houses, furniture, and very many other things. Valuable Inventions. — During this period there were many inventions, some of which became very valu- able. Among these is the electric telegraph, which is almost as important as the railroad. Samuel F. B. Morse was the American inventor of this. His first patent was taken out in 1837, but people could not be made to believe in the telegraph, and it was not tried, except for short distances, till 1844. Then a line was established from Baltimore to Washington. It proved a great success, and there are now nearly three hundred thousand miles of telegraph lines in the United States. Other inventions of great value were made. One of these was the reaping-machine, which has been a very great help to farmers. Another was the friction- match. It is so easy now to strike a light and make a fire that it seems strange how people ever got along without matches. Another great invention was that of vulcanized rubber. Before then india-rubber was soft and of little use; but by mixing sulphur with it it was made hard and firm, and it came into use for a great many purposes. The sewing-machine, which was invented in 184G, was quite as useful. Before that THE WORK OF THE PEOPLE 205 time all sewing had to be clone by hand, and the labor was very great. Besides these there were hundreds of other inventions, all of which have helped people to live better, and to do more work with less labor. The Prisons. — In old times the prisons were very badly managed and those confined in them were treated cruelly. Most of the States whipped their prisoners and ill-treated them in other ways. One State kept its criminals in an old copper-mine. Men were sent to prison for debt. All this is now done away with, and prisoners in most of the States are well treated. They are made to work, but they have clean and healthful rooms and good food. Education. — E d u c a - tion had also very much improved. Public schools had been estab- lished in nearly all the "^^^ ^"-^ ^"^^^^^ ^«^"- States, and many more of the people were educated than in the past. But the methods of teaching and the school-books used were still poor, and they have been improving ever since. In the early days of the country there had been little time for study or amusement; most of the time was taken to make a living. But now people had more time to themselves and they paid much more attention to public affairs and to education. Newspapers and Books. — Most of the people had learned how to read, and newspapers were now pub- 206 TWENTY YEARS OF PROGRESS lished in all the cities and spread throughout the country. These papers were much larger and had much more in them than those of the past, though they were not so large as those we have now. Books were also far more plentiful and much cheaper. Those who at one time did not know how to spend their time now had no trouble. There were many innocent amuse- ments, and it was not necessary to go for pleasure to drinking-places or other localities where bad habits might be learned. A Modern Printing-Press. Authors and Orators. — Many Americans were now writing books which were read all over the civilized world. At one time the English had laughed at the idea of any one reading an American book, but they now began to read works by American authors them- selves. And it was admitted that America had some of the greatest statesmen of the world. Daniel Webster was one of the ablest orators that had ever lived, and there were many other men of great ability in the American Congress. QUESTIONS FOR EXAMIxNATION 207 Thus it may be seen that the United States had made wonderful progress in every way. It was a very different country from what it had been at the time of the Revolution. It was then one of the small and poor countries of the world; now it was becoming one of the great and rich nations. But it had a terrible trial to go through yet, in which all its wealth and power were to be strained to the utmost. The story of this great trial we have next to tell. PART VI.— QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 1. Who became President in 1829? Why was he popular? What was his character? What difficulty arose with South Carolina? What did that State do? What did Jackson do? How long did the United States Bank have to run? ^Vhat did Jackson do about the bank charter bill? What effect did it have? What Indians went to war? 2. What was meant by wild cat and pet banks? Describe the panic of 1837. What caused injury to American credit? What is the sub-treasury system? 3. "WTio became President in 1840? What happened to him? Wlio succeeded him? What important affair took place while Tyler was President? How did the Texan war end? When was Texas accepted as a State of the Union? 4. Who was made President in 1844? What claim was made by Mexico about Texas? What took place in the disputed region? ^\^lat did General Taylor do? Where did he meet Santa Anna's army? What was the result of the battle? What Mexican city was attacked by General Scott? To what point did he march from Vera Cruz? What was the result of his battles with the Mexicans? When was the city of Mexico taken? What did Fremont do in California? \^'Tiat new territorj' did the United States acquire by the treaty of peace? AVhat present States and Territories does it comprise? "WTiat was thought then of the value of this terri- 208 TWENTY YEARS OF PROGRESS tory? Describe the finding of gold in California. What othei- precious metal was found? What other value has California? What effect did the discovery of gold have upon emigration? 5. Who was the first to explore the Western territory of the United States? ^Vllat is said of the fur trade on the Pacific? When was Oregon discovered? How many people were there in 1840? By what treaty was Oregon acquired? What were the boundaries of the United States in 1800? What had it gained by 1850? How was emigration made easier? How did emigrants cross the Rocky Mountain region? Tell the story of the ]\Iormons. What was the population in 1850? What was the progress in industry? What is said about the mines of America? Who invented the American electric telegraph? In what year was the first line built? How many miles of telegraph are there now in the United States? What other important inventions were made? How was india-rubber made useful? When was the sewing-machine invented? How were the prisons managed in old times? How are they now? How were schools then? How are they now? What is said about newspapers and books? What did the English think about Ameri- can books? What do they think now? Who was the greatest American orator? PART VII. THE SLAVERY CONTEST AND CIVIL WAR. 1. THE TAYLOR AND FILLMORE ADMINISTRATION. From 1849 to 1853. An Exciting Question. — The ten years between 1850 and 1860 were years of intense excitement and much bitter feeUng in this country. The question of the extension of slavery to new States, which had been settled for thirty years by the Missouri Compromise, was opened again and led to angry controversy in Congress, while there was a large party in the North which claimed that all slavery was wrong and that it should be done away with in the States where it had long existed. It was a controversy that in ten years was to lead to a terrible war. The Election of 1848.— In 1848 the Whig party selected General Zachary Taylor, the popular hero of the Mexican War, for its candidate and was successful in electing him. Millard Fillmore was elected Vice- President. But the Whigs met with the same mis- fortune in this as in their former victory, for once more their President died in office. The death of President Taylor came on the 9th of July, 1850, Vice- President Fillmore succeeding him. Before the term of the latter ended some of his party blamed him almost as much as they had formerly blamed President Tyler. The Sources of Controversy. — The people of the South wished to have slavery introduced into the new 14 209 210 SLAVERY CONTEST AND THE CIVIL WAR territory that had been acquired from Mexico. This was strongly opposed by the Anti-slavery party of the North, and though Texas became a slave State, slavery was never admitted to the remainder of this territory. Objection was also made in the North to the existence of the slave trade within the city of Washington, and in the South to the aid given run- away slaves by Northern sympathizers. This made the Southern people very indignant, for they felt that they were being unjustly deprived of their property. The Compromise of 1850. — The debate on these sub- jects grew violent in Congress, but the trouble was finally settled for the time by Henry Clay, the author of the Missouri Compromise. He now brought for- ward a new compromise bill, which was passed and which it was hoped would end the controversy. It covered these points: California was to be admitted as a free State, the slave-trade in Washington was prohibited, and stringent provisions were made for the return of runaway slaves to their owners. The Fugitive Slave Law. — -The law for the return of fugitive slaves included the following points. To aid a slave to escape was made a serious crime, and all persons called upon by the officers of the law were required to aid in arresting fugitives. President Fill- more signed this law and it was this for which the anti-slavery people blamed him. The Underground Railroad. — As it turned out, very few persons in the North were willing to aid in arrest- ing fugitive slaves. Many aided in the escape of slaves, this being done by secret methods which became known as the ''Underground Railroad." Slaves who THE PIERCE ADMINISTRATION 211 had been seized were rescued. Hundreds were helped to escape to Canada. In some places riots broke out. The law added much to the strength of the Anti- Slavery party, and the opposition to it greatly increased the feeling of anger and indignation in the South. 2. THE PIERCE ADMINISTRATION. From 1853 to 1857. The Election of 1852. — In 1852 came another Presi- dential election, and in this the Democratic party was successful, Franklin Pierce, their candidate, being elected. He w^as born in New Hampshire and was one of the pro-slavery Democrats of whom there were still very many in the North. The Kansas=Nebraska Bill. — In 1854 a bill was passed in Congress which opened an old question that had long been closed. This was intended for the formation of two new Territories in the region west of Missouri, to be called Kansas and Nebraska. These lay north of the parallel of 36° 30', and according to the existing law slaves could not be admitted within them. But the new law said that they should be open to slavery if their inhabitants desired it. The Effect of the Law. — This law caused much angry and bitter feeling. It set aside the Missouri Comprom- ise and opened the whole difficulty again. People began to hurry into Kansas. The South wanted to get the most men there, so that when it came to a vote they could vote for slavery. The North tried to do the same thing, so that they could vote against slavery. Very soon these men of different opinions began to fight. Towns were burned and people were 2 I 2 SLAVERY CONTEST AND THE CIVIL WAR killed in Kansas. Votes were taken and both parties claimed to have won. One party tried to organize a slave State and the other a free State, and the people of the Territory for a long time were at war. The New Parties. — While these things were going on political changes were taking place. The old Whig party ceased to exist, and there came up a new one called the Free Soil Party. It was opposed to the making of any more slave States. In 185G the Free Soil and the old Whig parties became part of a new party, the Republican. After this the people were divided into the two leading political sections which we still have, the Republican and the Democratic parties. These have now several points of difference, but the principal one at that time was slavery. 3. THE BUCHAXAX ADMINISTRATION. From 1857 to 1861. The Election of 1856. — In 1856 the Democrats and the new party of Republicans had candidates in the field, but the Democrats were successful, James Bu- chanan of Pennsylvania being elected President. The Republican party opposed the extension of slavery to new territory, but in it were many abolitionists, those who wanted slavery to be done away with everywhere. Yet there were many in the North who sympathized with the South and who were in favor of letting slav- ery alone and strongly opposed the anti-slavery agitation. The Dred Scott Case. — About this time a decision was given in the Supreme Court that startled the North. A slave named Dred Scott had been taken by THE BUCHANAN ADMINISTRATION 213 his master to a Northern State. After living there for some years he was taken South again. He now demanded his freedom, saying that his long residence on free soil had made him a freeman. The court decided against this, saying that slave-owners had the right to take their slaves where they pleased and keep them there as they could keep any other piece of property. This seemed to open up the whole North to slavery. Under the decision slave-owners might live in any State they pleased and keep there as many slaves as they chose. It did much to increase the growing opposition to the slave-holding system. The John Brown Raid. — -An event which took place in 1859 added much to the stress of public feeling. There was an old man, named John Brown, who had been very active in Kansas, and had fought fiercely against the Southern party there. He was so bitter against slavery that he thought it was his duty to stir up the slaves to rebel a»gainst their masters and make themselves free by force. So he led a party to Harper's Ferry, in Virginia, where there was an arsenal belonging to the govern- ment. He took possession of this. It was his purpose to get the slaves together, give them arms from the arsenal, and lead them to fight for their freedom. But no slaves came to help him, and very soon he and his party were taken prisoners by a force of United States soldiers. John Brown was given up to the authorities of Virginia, who tried him for treason. He was found guilty and hanged. 214 SLAVERY CONTEST AND THE CIVIL WAR Election of Lincoln. — This event stirred up the feel- ings of the people more than ever. Even man}' of those who thought that John Brown was wrong felt sym- pathy for him, and when the time came for the next Presidential election, in 1860, the two parties were very bitter against each other, while the Republican party had grown much stronger. When the votes were counted it proved that the Republicans had elected their candidate. This was Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, who took his seat as President of the United States on the 4th of March, 1861. When he was elected the country was at peace, and most of the people had no idea that war would follow. W^hen he took his seat the country was on the verge of war. We have now to tell how this cha-nge came about. 4. THE LINCOLN ADMINISTRATION. From 1861 to 1865. The State Rights Doctrine. t— The election was no sooner over than trouble began. The political leaders in South Carolina had said that their State would secede if Lincoln was elected President. What did they mean by this? Let us see. The United States, as we know, is made up of a number of States which have joined together to form one country. Some people believed that each State had the right to with- draw again if it wished, and carry on its government alone. This is known as the "State Rights" doctrine. Others believed that the States had no right to with- draw, and that they had given up all such rights when they came into the LTnion. THE LINCOLN ADMINISTRATIOxN 215 Abraham Lincoln. This was the question that was now before the people, — whether the United States was strong enough to hold together as a single nation, or so weak that the States could leave the Union at their will. This problem was to be settled in the next four years. Seven States secede. — As soon as it was known that Lincoln had been elected, the leaders in South Carolina determined to keep their word. A convention of delegates met', and on December 20, 1860, it was declared to the world that this State was no longer a part of the United States, but an independent nation, that it could not be kept in the Union against its will, and that in future it intended to govern itself. Very soon afterwards all the States that border on the Gulf of Mexico did the same thing. Seven States in all declared that they were out of the Union. The Confederacy formed. — These States then formed a new Union which they called the Confederate States of America. Jefferson Davis was elected President, and Alex- ander H. Stephens Vice-President, and Montgomery, Alabama, was selected as the capital of the new Confederacy. These States seized the forts and the war material in their territory, for they felt sure that they would not be allowed to go in peace. But some forts were held by Jefferson Davis. 216 SLAVERY CONTEST AND THE CIVIL WAR United States officers and soldiers who would not give them up. One of these was Fort Sumter, in Charleston harbor, which was held by Major Robert Anderson. Fort Sumter bombarded. — It was thus that matters stood when Abraham Lincoln took his seat as Presi- dent, on the 4th of March, 1861. The Confederate authorities at Charleston had determined that Fort Sumter should be theirs, and had built batteries on the shores of the bay near it. On the 12th of April, 1861, they began to fire on the fort. Major Anderson fired back. This continued for two days. At the end of that time the fort was much injured, its barracks were on fire, and nearly all its powder was gone. So Major Anderson consented to give it up, as he could defend it no longer. 5. THE NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR. The Call for Volunteers. — When the news that the American flag had been fired on at Fort Sumter reached the North there was intense excitement. It was looked upon as an insult to the national banner and all hope of peace passed away. Everybody saw that there must be war if the country was to be kept together. The President called for volunteers, and great numbers offered. In the South four more States seceded, — Virginia, North Carolina, Arkansas, and Tennessee. Everywhere men were gathering, drilling, and marching. It was clear that before many days they would meet in deadly conflict. The Battle of Bull Run. — Thousands of volunteers hurried to Washington to save that city from danger. A Southern army collected in Virginia, just south of THE NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 217 Washington. On the 21st of July these two armies met near Bull Run, a small stream a few miles from Tashington. Here the first important battle of the war was fought. There were about thirty thou- sand men on each side. They were all new troops but they fought well. For a while it looked as if the Union army would win; but just then a fresh force joined the Confederates, and on seeing this the Union ranks broke into dis- order, and the sol- diers fled in a panic to Washington. The Southern army had gained the victory. This battle had a great effect. The people of the South were full of joy. Some of them thought that this one victory would end the war; but it only made the North more determined. Congress called for half a million of men and voted to borrow five hundred million dollars. On every side volunteers flocked to the camps. Large armies were soon in the field on both sides. The War that followed. — And now we have to tell the story of a time that was full of important events. Many great battles were fought and hundreds of small ones. It would need a large book to describe them, and then we would only be telling how thousands of men were killed and wounded, how millions of dollars' worth of property was destroyed, and how for years Stone Bridge at Bull Run. 218 SLAVERY CONTEST AND THE CIVIL WAR terror and ruin hung over the whole country. It would be of no advantage to tell all this, and we shall simply give an outline of what took place. During the remainder of 1861 there was not much fighting, both sides being busy in raising and drilling their forces, collecting arms, and making all the preparation they could for the struggle before them. Then, at the opening of 1862, both armies took the field. The Contest in the West. — The fighting took place in three regions, — in the West, in Virginia, and on the ocean. In the West the United States wanted to get control of the rivers that ran south. The Confederate States tried to pre- vent this, and built two strong forts on the Tennessee and Cum- berland Rivers, in Kentucky, and also powerful works on the Mis- sissippi. The Unionists had cov- ered some steamboats with iron plates and sent them down these rivers as gun-boats. An army marched overland at the same time. This was commanded by General Ulysses S. Grant, who was afterwards to become famous. Battle of Pittsburg Landing. — The two forts we have named were soon taken, with many prisoners, and the Confederate army retreated to Tennessee. General Grant followed, and made his camp at Shiloh, or Pittsburg Landing, on the Tennessee River. Here there took place one of the most desperate battles of the war. Grant's army was attacked by a strong army under General Albert Sydney Johnston. The U. S. Grant. THE NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 219 fighting continued with great fury for two days. On the first day the Union army was driven back in much confusion and with great loss of life, but in the night a fresh force came up, and the next day Grant's army drove back the Confederates and held the field. Both sides had fought hard and lost many men, but the battle ended in favor of the Northern army. Murfreesborough. — Much other fighting took place in the West during the year, and a great battle was fought at Murfreesborough, in Tennessee, on the last day of 1862. The two armies fought all day, and three days later there was another battle. Then Bragg, the Confederate general, withdrew his army and fell back to Chattanooga. The end of the year's fighting left the Union army in possession of all Kentucky and Tennessee. On the Mississippi.— While this was going on there was a severe struggle along the Mississippi River. The Union gun-boats and armies had gone down this river and captured all the forts of the Confederates, till they came to the city of Vicksburg, where very strong forts had been built. At the same time a fleet, commanded by Admiral Farragut, had sailed to the mouth of the Mississippi. There were several forts along this part of the river, but the fleet fought its way past them and kept on until it reached the city of New Orleans, which was forced to surrender. This took place on April 25, 1862. Vicksburg. — Then the fleet went on up the river and captured other places. It ran past the batteries at Vicksburg and joined the fleet above. Thus nearly the whole of the great river of the West was held by the North. But the Confederates had two strong places, 220 SLAVERY CONTEST AND THE CIVIL WAR Vicksburg and Port Hudson, and held control of the river between them, so that they could get supplies from Texas and the other States west of the Mississippi. It was the purpose of the Union leaders to capture these places and get control of the whole river, and thus cut the Confederacy in two. The Fleet Running the Batteries at Vicksburg. The War in Virginia. — It will be seen that in the West the Union army had gained great successes. They held Kentucky and Tennessee and part of Mississippi, and had won nearly the whole of the Mississippi River. In Virginia, on the contrary, the Confederates had been successful, and had gained several important victories, in which the Union armies met with great loss. THE NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 221 As soon as Virginia seceded the city of Richmond was made the capital of the Confederacy, and Jefferson Davis, the President, with the rest of the Confederate government, went there. So a great part of the war took place between the two capital cities, Washington and Richmond. Efforts were made to capture both these cities, but neither of them was taken until Richmond fell at the end of the war. Siege of Richmond. — Early in 1862, General McClel- lan, who commanded the Union army, moved south to Yorktown, the place where the army of Cornwallis had been cap- tured eighty years before. After some fighting there he marched towards Richmond and built lines of earthworks near that city. A battle was fought at a place called Fair Oaks, where General Joseph Johnston, who commanded the Con- federate army, was badly wounded. General Robert E. Lee took Johnston's place as Con- federate commander. This was an excellent choice for the Confederates, for General Lee proved himself to be one of the greatest soldiers of modern times. Stonewall Jackson. — ^While these events were taking place. General Jackson, one of the boldest and most skilful of the Confederate commanders, was winning victories in the Shenandoah Valley, which lies to the north-west of Richmond. He was usually called "Stonewall" Jackson, because he was said to have held his troops "like a stone wall" in the battle of Bull Run. Robert E. Lee. 222 SLAVERY CONTEST AND THE CIVIL WAR The Seven Days' Fight. — General Lee now decided to make an attack on McClellan. He sent for Stonewall Jackson to help him, and on June 2G made an assault on the Union lines. A series of dreadful battles fol- lowed. Each army had nearly one hundred thousand men, but the Union army suffered a severe defeat, and McClellan began to retreat towards the James River. Lee's army followed, and the fighting was kept up for seven days, there being a desperate battle every day. In some of these one side, in some the other, was successful, but the retreat con- tinued till the James River was reached. Here McClellan built strong lines of earthworks and was safe from further attack. Thous- ands had been killed and wounded on each side and the siege of Richmond had to be given up. Second Battle of Bull Run. — stonew.^l Jackson. Auothcr Union army had now col- lected in Virginia, under General Pope, and was sta- tioned in the region south of Washington. In August, General Lee marched suddenly to the north and made an attack on this army. The battle took place near the old battle-ground of Bull Run. It was one of terrible slaughter and in the end the Union army was defeated and forced back towards the capital city. Antietam. — Then General Lee led his army across the Potomac into Maryland, where he hoped that many volunteers would join him. General McClellan, who had brought his army back from Richmond, followed in great haste. The two armies met on Sep- ^¥ THE NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 223 tember 17, at Antietam Creek, in the west of Mary- land. The battle that followed was one of the most desperate of the war. While neither side could claim a victory, Lee's movement north was checked and he soon after crossed the Potomac again and marched back into Virginia. Fredericksburg. — There was one more terrible battle in Virginia during the year. This was at the town of Fredericksburg. General Lee had his army on the hills back of that town. General Burnside, who now com- manded the Union army, crossed the river and attacked him. The slaughter that followed was dreadful. The Union army was completely defeated, and had about twelve thousand men killed and wounded. This ended the fighting in Virginia for that year. The Blockade Runners.— While these things were taking place there were some important operations of the fleet, of which we must now speak. Both sides had been busy building vessels of war, and a Union fleet was sent down the coast which took possession of large districts in North and South Carolina, and others in Georgia and Florida. These were held till the end of the war; but the sea-ports of Charleston, Savannah^ and Wilmington were kept by the Confederates. They were blockaded by the Union fleet, but in spitft of the fleet a great many vessels got into them. These were called "blockade runners." They took out cotton, rice, tobacco, and other articles and brought back things needed in the South, much of the cargo being war material. The Work of the Merrimac. — A United States war- vessel called the Merrimac had been sunk in the harbor 224 SLAVERY CONTEST AND THE CIVIL WAR of Norfolk to keep it from being taken by the Con- federates. This was raised by some of the mechanics of the South and covered with plates of iron. Then it steamed out and attacked the wooden war-vessels of a fleet that lay in Hampton Roads. These fired on it, but the heavy cannon-balls glanced off from the iron hull as if they had been hail-stones. One of the wooden vessels was sunk, and great fear was felt as to what this iron monster would do. It looked as if it might destroy the Union fleet and attack the cities of the North. The Monitor and the Merrimac. — But the Union side had been building iron vessels too. One of these was of very strange shape. It had a flat deck that came just above the water; on this was a round tower of iron in which were two very heavy cannon. People called it a "cheese-box on a raft," and that was what it looked like. It was sent down to Hampton Roads, and reached there the night after the fight we have just described. The Merrimac was coming out to attack the other vessels, when this strange-looking craft, which was called the Monitor, came gliding towards it. A tre- mendous battle followed. The two iron ships battered each other with cannon-balls for four hours. Neither hurt the other much, but the Merrimac got the worst of it. In the end it turned and hurried back to Norfolk. Soon afterwards the Union forces captured Norfolk, but the Merrimac was destroyed to prevent its falling into their possession. This was the first fight that ever took place between two iron-clad ships. When the news got to Europe THE NORTH AND SOUTH AT WAR 225 every one saw that the days of wooden war-ships were over. Since that time many iron-clad ships have been built, and the war-ships of the world are now covered with thick plates of steel. The Emancipation Proclamation. — The year 1862 ended with a very important event. For a long time during the war slavery was not interfered with, and the President said that the object of the war was merely to bring back the seceded States into the Union. But in time he saw that the South was getting great help from the slaves, who were kept at work on the plantations and helped to build forts and do other work. It would weaken the Confederates very much if the slaves were taken from them. The President therefore announced that the slaves would be liberated on the 1st of January, 1863. On that day there was sent out what is known as the "Proclamation of Emancipation." It declared that all slaves within the area of the war were free and should be free forever after. The Freedom of the Slaves. — This proclamation had a great effect. From this time on the war was fought not only to bring back the seceded States, but to liberate the slaves. Many negro regiments were formed, and everything was done that could make the negroes useful to the North and deprive the South of their help. The Confederacy was very much weakened by this proclamation. As fast as the armies went South the slaves were set free, till in the end they all gained their freedom. Since the war there has not been a slave in the United States. 226 SLAVERY CONTEST AND THE CIVIL WAR 6. THE FINAL YEARS OF THE WAR. Battle of Chancellorsville. — During the year 18G3 the war went on with great activity. In the East there was not so much fighting as there had been the year before, but two great battles took place. One of these was at a place called Chancellorsville, in a very rough and wild country known as the Wilderness. General Hooker now had command of the Union army. He did not think it safe to attack General Lee at Fred- ericksburg, as General Burnside had done; so he led his army across the Rappahannock and Rapidan Rivers at a point above that city. General Lee hastened in the same direction, and the two armies met in the wild country of the Wilderness. A fierce battle took place in a place where the trees and bushes were so thick that the soldiers could hardly see each other. General Stonewall Jackson led a strong force to the left through the woods, and made a sud- den attack on the right wing of the Union army. It was a complete surprise and this part of the army was driven back. The battle continued all the next day, and in the end Hooker was forced to retreat and to cross the river again. But Stonewall Jackson was wounded and died, which was a great loss to the Confederate side. Lee marches North. — The battle of Chancellorsville took place on the 2(1 and 3d of May, 1863. In the latter part of June, General Lee left Fredericksburg and marched at great speed to the north. It was thought he wished to take the city of Washington, and the Union army hastened to protect it. But Lee kept on north till he reached Maryland, and then went on into Pennsylvania. THE FINAL YEARS OF THE WAR 227 What he intended to do no one knew. Many feared he was going to march on Philadelphia and talce pos- session of that rich city. The Union army followed him as fast as it could. The two armies came together near the small town of Gettysburg, in Southern Pennsylvania. General Hooker had now given up the command and General Meade had taken his place. He had brought the army north as fast as the soldiers could march. Tin-: Rattle of Gettysbuf The Battle of Gettysburg. — The advance ranks of the two armies came together on the 1st of July, and a severe fight took place. The Confederates were the stronger, and the Union line fell back to the top of a long line of low hills called Cemetery Ridge, which the men quickly fortified, while the remainder of the army was hurried up. Here there was fought the greatest battle of the war. On July 2, General Lee made a desperate attack on the Union lines. Terrible fighting took place, and many thousands were killed and wounded, but at the end of the day the Union army still held Cemetery Ridge. 228 SLAVERY CONTEST AND THE CIVIL WAR The next day General Lee sent a very strong force against one point of the Union lines. If the lines had been broken he would have gained the victory, but the charging force met with dreadful slaughter and was completely defeated. Most of those who were not killed were taken prisoners. Very few got back. This ended the battle. General Lee led his men back to Virginia. He had suffered a great defeat. Many look on the battle of Gettysburg as the tu ning-point of the war. The Siege of Vicksburg.— While this was taking place in the East the Union army was gaining another great success in the West. General Grant had made up his mind to capture Vicksburg and open the Mississippi River. General Sherman had attacked this town the year before, but had lost many men and been driven back. In the spring Grant moved his army to a posi- tion south of the town, and marched up and began to besiege it. There were two Confederate armies, one in the town and one outside of it. The one outside was defeated and forced to retreat, and the one inside was closed in by long hues of earthworks that reached the river both below and above the town. A terrible fire was kept up by the forts upon the city, and the gun-boats on the river threw in bomb-shells and cannon-balls from the other side. There was dreadful distress within the cit}'. None could get out of it, and hundreds were being killed within it. To make it worse, the food gave out. Mules and horses were killed and eaten. Soon there was a famine in Vicksburg. There was much sickness also, and the storm of cannon-balls never ceased. THE FINAL YEARS OF THE WAR 229 Vicksburg Surrenders. — This could not continue. On the 4th of July, the same day that Lee retreated from Gettysburg, Vicksburg surrendered. Twenty- seven thousand prisoners fell into General Grant's hands. This was a most important 4th of July for the people of the United States, for with it ended nearly all chance of success for the South. They fought on bravely, but it was a losing game from that time. Chattanooga. — Port Hudson surrendered three days afterwards, and the whole length of the Mississippi was open now to the Union gun-boats. The rest of the fighting in the West for that year took place near the town of Chattanooga, in Tennessee. A severe battle was fought in September, in which the Union army was defeated. It retreated to Chattanooga, while the Confederate army took possession of the mountains around the city, and shut the Union army in so closely that it became very short of food. General Grant was now made commander of all the Western armies. He came to Chattanooga and took charge there. General Bragg, the Confederate com- mander, held strong positions on Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, each of which was nearly half a mile high and defended by strong forts. Yet the Union army charged up the hills through all the fire of these forts. It was a desperate attempt, but the forts were taken and Bragg's army was driven out with great loss. This has always been considered one of the most brilliant victories of the war. Grant Commander=in=Chief. — In 18G4, General Grant was made commander-in-chief of all the military forces of the United States. He at once laid plans to have the 230 SLAVERY CONTEST AND THE CIVIL WAR armies of the country work together and bring the war to an end as quickly as possible. General Sherman was left in command of the Western army, while Grant came to Virginia and took control of General Meade's soldiers. Grant's Advance. — ^The grand advance of all the forces began early in May. In Virginia, Grant led his army across the Rapidan River into the thicket of the Wilderness. Here the battle between Hooker and Lee had taken place just a year before. Another desperate battle was now fought, in which neither army was victorious. Then General Grant marched towards Richmond and Lee followed him. Several severe battles took place, the last of them at Cold Harbor near Richmond. This was a terrible encounter. Lee's army was behind strong earthworks, which the Union soldiers could not enter on account of the terrible fire of the Confederates. Grant lost ten thousand men killed and wounded, and Lee not more than a thou- sand. But Grant moved south again, crossed the James River, and began a siege of Richmond and Petersburg. This siege lasted nine months. Sheridan's Ride. — In July, Lee sent General Early up the Shenandoah Valley to Maryland. What he wished to do was to weaken Grant's army. Early marched along the Potomac, and for a time Washington was in danger. But General Sheridan, a very able cavalry commander, was sent against him and defeated him in several battles. In one of these the striking event known as "Sheridan's Ride" took place. Early made a night attack on Sheridan's army at Cedar Creek, and drove it back in great confusion. Sheridan THE FINAL YEARS OF THE WAR 231 was then at Winchester, twenty miles away. But he heard the distant roar of the battle, sprang to his horse, and rode at furious speed to the scene of conflict. Here he put himself at the head of his men, led them forward, and drove back the victorious Confederates in a com- plete rout. Defeat was turned into victory almost in a moment, and Sheridan became a famous general. Sherman's March to the Sea. — In the West, General Sherman did some remarkable work. He- marched against the Confederate army, and battle after battle took place. At the end of every battle Sher- man moved farther into Georgia, until he had taken the important city of Atlanta, which was a great railroad centre. General Hood, who now commanded the Confederate army, marched north, thinking that Sherman would follow him. But instead of that Sherman sent some help to General Thomas, who had command in Ten- nessee, and then started on a march through Georgia, destroying the railroads as he went. This was Sher- man's famous '^ March to the Sea." He kept on until he reached the coast at Savannah, and took that city. Sheridan's Ride. 232 SLAVERY CONTEST AND THE CIVIL WAR Hood's Defeat at Nashville. — Meanwhile General Hood had marched into Tennessee and brought his army in front of Nashville, where General Thomas was in command. For two weeks he besieged that town, and then Thomas made a sudden assault on him. In the battle that followed Hood's army was terribly defeated, and so broken to pieces that it never came together again. This victory ended the war in all that portion of the South. Naval Victories. — During the year 1864 there were some important naval victories. There were several Confederate cruisers, built in England, which had done much harm to American shipping. One of these, the Alabama, had taken sixty-five vessels. On June 19 the Alabama was met by the frigate Kearsarge, near the coast of France. A battle was fought, and at the end of two hours the Alabama was sunk. Another battle took place in Mobile Bay, which was defended by strong forts and an iron-plated vessel, but Admiral Farragut sailed in with a fleet of wooden ships and several vessels like the Monitor. He sailed past the forts, standing in the rigging of his ship, spy-glass in hand, without seeming to care for the terrible danger which he ran. This bold action gave great fame to the brave admiral. Sherman's March North. — AYith the opening of the year 1865 it was clear to everybody that the end of the war was near at hand. The South was in a desperate condition. General Sherman had left Savannah and was marching north. He marched into South Carolina and took possession of Charleston, and then continued until he reached North Carolina. THE FINAL YEARS OF THE WAR 2S'6 Lee's Retreat. — At the same time General Grant wa& pressing more and more strongly on Lee. Immense lines of earthworks had been built around Petersburg, but Grant's army kept moving southward until, on the 1st of April, it made an attack on the lower end of Lee's works, and won a victory at a place called Five Forks. General Lee then saw that he could hold on to Richmond no longer, and began a ha&ty march westward towards the mountains. The End of the War. — Grant followed him with the utmost speed, sending Sheridan with his cavalry in advance, and soon Lee found himself surrounded by a much stronger army than his own. He could fight no longer, and on the 9th of April he surrendered to General Grant at Appomattox Court-House, Virginia. This surrender brought the war to an end. As soon as news of it spread through the South all the forces in the field laid down their arms and the long and terrible civil war was over. Assassination of Lincoln. — Yet one dreadful event followed. On April 14, five days after General Lee's surrender, President Lincoln was murdered. He was shot by an actor, named John Wilkes Booth, in a theatre at Washington, This terrible deed filled the whole country with horror, and threw a deep shado»v on the joy that had been felt at the close of the war. No more shocking event had ever taken place in America. It was as great a misfortune for the South as for the North, for it roused the passions of men and made it more difficult to bring the two sections of the country together in harmony. 234 SLAVERY CONTEST AND THE CIVIL WAR PART VII.— QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 1. What great question disturbed the nation before 1860? Who became President in 1849? What happened to him? Who became President in his place? What great questions arose and how were they settled? How did the Fugitive Slave Law operate? What is meant by the Underground Railroad? 2. WTio was elected President in 1852? WTiat important law was made in 1854? Wliat effect had it on the slavery question? What took place in Kansas? WTiat new party was organized in 1856? What policy did it support? 3. Who was elected President in 1856? What was the state of party opinion in the North? WTiat was the effect in the Dred Scott decision? WTiat was done by John Brown and how did it end? Which of the parties won in the Presidential election of 1860? Who was chosen for President? 4. What is meant by seceding? Explain the State Rights doctrine. WTiat was done in South Carolina? WTiat other States followed this example? What did these States call themselves? Whom did they elect as President and Vice-President? What was done in Charleston harbor? WTiat effect did this have on the country? 5. What other States seceded? How many did that make in all? Where and when was the first battle fought? WTiat was the result? What was the principal work done in 1861? In what three regions did fighting take place in 1862? What forts were captured by General Grant? Where did a great battle take place? Describe the battle. What battle was fought on the last day of 1862? What was done by Admiral Farragut's fleet? WTiat successes had the Union army gained in the West? What city had been made the capital of the Confederate States? Who was placed in command of the Union army? To what region did he lead it? WTiat able general was placed in command of the Confederate army? WTiy was the Confederate general Jackson called "Stonewall" Jackson? Where did he win victories? Describe the seven days' fight. Where did a battle take place between Lee and Pope? Where did Lee then lead his army? W^hat was the result of the battle of Antietam? QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION 235 WTiat was the result of the battle of Fredericksburg? What was being done on the coast? "V^^lat did the blockade runners do? How was the ^lerrimac strengthened? What did it do to the wooden fleet in Norfolk harbor? When did the Monitor reach Norfolk harbor? Describe the fight with the Merrimac. What did this battle of iron-clad ships prove? With what important event did 1862 end? What was the first object of the war? ^Vhy did the President wish to free the slaves? On what day were they declared free? What was the proclamation called? What was its effect? 6. What great battle was fought in Virginia in 1863? In what way did Stonewall Jackson surprise Hooker's army? What was the result of the battle? What did General Lee do in Jtme? Where did the armies meet? On what three days was the battle of Gettys- burg fought? What was the result of the battle? What was General Grant doing in the West? How did he enclose the Con- federate army in Vicksburg? On what day did Vicksburg surrender? What was the effect of the ^-ictories at Gettysburg and Vicksburg on the Southern cause? Where did the rest of the fighting in the West take place in 1863? Who was made commander of all the Western armies? What great battles were fought at Chattanooga? What position was given to General Grant in 1864? What plans did he form? Who was left in command of the Western army? When did the general advance of the armies begin? Where did Grant lead the Army of Virginia? What battle took place? What was the result of the battle at Cold Harbor? How long did the siege of Petersburg last? What events took place in the Shenandoah Valley? Describe "Sheridan's Ride." ^Vhat did General Sherman do in the West? Where did he march after taking Atlanta? What did General Hood do? What happened to Hood's army? What important naval battles took place in 1864? What did Sherman do in 1865? On what day did General Grant break through General Lee's lines? "V^Tiere and when did Lee's surrender take placer What effect did this have? What dreadful event happened soon after? PART VIII. THE NEW UNION. 1. RESULTS OF THE WAR. The Evil of the War. — The great war was at an end. What had been its cost to the country and what good and evil had come of it? In the first place a vast multitude of men had been taken from their homes to live the life of soldiers and bear the perils and hard- ships of warfare. On the Union side more than two and a half millions of men had been in the army. At the end of the war there were still more than a million in the ranks. We do not know how many there were on the Confederate side. There were not nearly so many as on the Union, side, probably not more than half the number. In the Union armies more than three hundred thousand men were killed, or died of wounds and disease, and the losses of the Confederate armies are supposed to have been as great. This was a frightful slaughter, and to it must be added all those who died after the war from wounds, or other effects of the dangerous life of a soldier. The money cost of the war was also very great. At the end of the war the United States had a debt of $2,750,000,- 000. The States and the cities also had heavy debts. We do not know how much the Confederate States had spent, but they must have used a very large amount of money and materials. And this money loss was only part of the cost of the struggle. There was 236 RESULTS OF THE WAR 237 not much damage done in the North, for nearly all the fighting had been in the Southern States. But in the South there was ruin everywhere. Railroads had been destroyed, towns burned, and much other dam- age done. It would take years to make up the losses of the war. Everybody in the South had become poor and they had lost all their slaves, who were valued at a great sum of money. But in the North scarcely any harm had been done to city or country, business of every kind had been good, and many had grown rich during the war. The South was in a dreadful condi- tion, but the North showed hardly any signs of injury from the great conflict. The Good of the War. — Great courage and skill had been shown on both sides. It was made clear that the Americans north and south are a brave people. This both sides had learned and they knew and respected each other more than ever before. The war, as we have said, was not fought to abolish slavery, but to preserve the Union. Its purpose was to keep the nation together, and in this it had succeeded. It will be long before any State again tries to secede. Slavery was abolished, but this had not been done until it became necessary as an act of war, to help the North to conquer in the great contest. Yet it was an act that could not be undone. The slaves had been set free, and free they must continue while America remains a nation. The South would not have them as slaves again if it could. The people there have found that they are better off without slavery. Thus the great question which so long divided the nation was set at rest forever. This was the greatest good 238 THE NEW UNION that came of the war. The civilization of America stands to-day at a higher level than it did before the Civil War. Reconstruction. — Let us go on to see what followed the war. We have told how President Lincoln was assassinated. Nothing ever took place in this country that caused more grief and horror. The people of the North had come to look on Abraham Lincoln as a man as great and noble as George Washington, and it was a terrible shock to them that he should be killed at the end of his great work. Few things ever happened in the country that caused so much excitement and angry feeling, and the murder of Lincoln made the difficult questions that followed the war much harder to settle. It did harm to North and South alike. 2. JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. From 1865 to 1869. Johnson becomes President. — President Lincoln had been re-elected in 1864 for a second term, with Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, for Vice-President. His death raised Johnson to the post of President, one for which he was not well fitted under the conditions of that time. The government had serious work before it. The war was over, but it had left everything in dis- order. Eleven States had declared themselves out of the Union. They were to be brought back again, and a new Union to be made. How was this to be done? Amendments to the Constitution. — The slaves were now free in all the States. An amendment to the Consti- tution had been adopted on April 8, 1864, setting free all slaves within the United States. This is known JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION 239 as the Thirteenth Amendment. The seceded States had to agree to it before they could come back. An- other amendment, the Fourteenth, was offered, and was adopted in July, 1868. This gave negroes all the rights of white people, except the right to vote. The seceded States had to agree to this also. The President Impeached. — President Johnson ob- jected to these amendments, and to a number of other laws passed by Congress. He vetoed them all. This- made much bitter feeling between him and Congress, and in the end he was impeached for doing some- things which the Constitution did not give him the right to do. That is, he was accused of going beyond the powers of his office, and was tried before the Senate, which acted as a court. The trial caused great excitement in the country. The Senate heard all that was to be said on both sides, and decided that the President had not acted contrary to his oath of office, and therefore was not guilty of the charges against him. This was the only time an American President has been tried for break- ing the laws of the land. The Problem before Congress. — It was a very diffi- cult problem which lay before Congress. The Union of the States had been brought into the greatest danger, and now that the seceded States were to be restored to their old position, it was not easy to decide on the best way of doing this. The President wished to do it in the most direct manner possible, by simply declaring them back in the Union, but this did not please Congress, many of whose numbers thought that the leaders of the Confederacy should be severely 240 THE NEW UNION punished and that the States should not be permitted to come back except under new and strict conditions. It was this difference of opinion that made the trouble between Congress and the President. Military governments were placed over all the States except Tennessee, which had been taken back in 18G6, but six others were admitted in 1868, leaving four which would not accept the terms of settlement offered by Congress and therefore remained out of the Union. Carpet=Bag Governments. — Under the new laws the Confederate leaders were not allowed to vote or hold office, while the negroes who had so recently been freed from slavery were given the right of suffrage, and formed the majority of voters in several of the States. Adventurers from the North, who were called "carpet-baggers," because it was said that all they owned could be put in a carpet-bag, went South and ;Solicited the negro vote and many of them were elected to office. Many of the late slaves were sent to the legislatures. The result was very serious and much of the money of the States was wasted or stolen. On ■Christmas, 1868, President Johnson issued a procla- mation of full pardon for all those who had fought against the government. But this did not restore their political rights, which could be done only by Congress. The Atlantic Telegraph. — Some other things of importance took place at this time. One of these was the laying of a new ocean telegraph. This was done in 1866, two cables being laid under the Atlantic, both of which worked admirably. So little power was needed that a battery made in a gun cap has sent a telegraph message from America to England. JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION 241 Alaska. — In 1867 another addition was made to the territory of the United States. The region known as Alaska was bought from Russia. It is a large country, but most of it is of little use, on account of the cold- ness of the climate. Yet many furs come from there, and on some islands near the coast the valuable fur Travel Across the Plains. seals are found in great numbers. The fisheries and forests are also of great value. Rich deposits of gold have been found there, and mines opened, and in many respects Alaska is an important addition to the coun- try. The gold mines have taken so many people to Alaska that it now has a considerable population and is found to be valuable in many ways not thought of formerly. 16 242 THE NEW UNIOIN 3. GRANT'S ADAnNISTRATION. From 1869 to 1877. General Grant made President. — In 1868 Ulysses S. Grant, the great Northern leader in the Civil "War, was elected President, and the severe struggle between President and Congress came to an end. He took his seat on the 4th of March, 1869, and remained Presi- dent for eight years. During that time several impor- tant events happened. The Suffrage Amendment. — In 1870 another amend- ment to the Constitution was adopted. It is known as the Fifteenth Amendment. It gave to negroes, both those who had lately been slaves and those who had always been free, the right to vote. Under this law every American of the proper age, except women and Indians not taxed, can vote. One by one the seceded States agreed to these amendments, and were taken back into the Union. Georgia, Virginia, Missis- sippi, and Texas were the last. These came back in 1870. The Chicago Fire.— Another serious event was the Chicago fire, the greatest conflagration that has ever been known in America. It is doubtful if any fire in any other city of the world ever destroyed so much property. It began on October 8, 1871, and burned for three days. The part of the city burned was four and a half miles long and a mile wide. One hundred thou- sand people were left without homes, and two hundred were killed. The money loss was about two hundred million dollars. In the same year great forest fires broke out in the neighboring States. In Wisconsin many vil- lages were burned and fifteen hundred people perished. GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 243 In November of the next year a terrible fire broke out in Boston, which destroyed property valued at seventy-five million dollars. Yet so great was the activity of the people that in a few years both those cities were built up again, and very little trace of the fires remained. The Alabama Claims. — The greatest political occur- rence while Grant was President was the settlement of the ''Alabama claims." We must explain what this means. In the last chapter we told how the Confederate privateer, the Alabama, had sailed from England, and captured and burned many American merchant vessels on the ocean. For this the United States blamed England. The Alabama was built in England, and it was said that the British government had no right to let it set sail, and that England ought to pay for all the damage that this vessel had done. The dispute might have brought on a war between America and England, but both nations agreed to let it be settled by a commission of men chosen by the two countries. This was done, and the commission found that England was in the wrong, and must pay damages to the United States. The amount was six- teen million two hundred and fifty thousand dollars. This was the first great question between nations that was settled in this way. Such questions are generally decided by war, but it would be far better and cheaper to decide them all in a peaceful manner. The Business Panic.^In 1873 a great business panic began. It was brought on in the same way as that of 1837 had been. There was wild speculation every- where, many families lived in great luxury, many more 244 THE NEW IMON railroads were built than the country needed, and every man in business fancied that he was growing rich. Suddenly some great business houses proved unable to pay their debts, and this quickly brought others into the same trouble. The difficulty rapidly spread over the whole country. Banks failed, fac- tories stopped running, the building of railroads came to an end, money was not to be had, and thousands of people who had believed themselves in the way to grow rich found themselves poor. For the working people there was very little to do. It was the worst business trouble the country had ever seen, for there were many more to feel it than in the past. Five or six years elapsed before all the effects of the panic passed away and business became as good as it had been before 1873. The Centennial Exhibition. — There was one more interesting event while Grant was President. In 1876 it would be just one hundred years from the date in which America had declared herself free, and the peo- ple determined to celebrate this event in a grand way. So it was decided to hold a great exhibition in Phila- delphia, where the Declaration of Independence had been signed. Large buildings were prepared for a World's Fair, and goods were sent from every part of the country and from every foreign nation. Millions of people visited it, some of them coming from distant parts of the earth. Nothing of the kind had ever been seen in America, and it was a great lesson to the people of this country. They learned there in what things America was superior to Europe and in what Europe was superior to America. Every one saw that in THE HAYES ADMINISTRATION 245 machinery no other country could surpass the United States, but that in art Europe was far in advance. But this is not so much the case to-day. Great progress Memorial, Hall, Centennial Exhibition, Philadelphia has been made in American art since that time; her people have been wise enough to profit by the lesson of the Centennial Exhibition. 4. THE HAYES ADMINISTRATION. From 1877 to 1881. The Election of 1876, — In November, 1876, there was an election for President that caused much feel- ing. The Republican candidate was Rutherford B. Hayes, the Democratic, Samuel J. Tilden. The elec- tion was so close that there was a dispute as to who had been elected. Congress was not able to settle this, so a commission of fifteen men was chosen from the members of Congress and the judges of the Supreme Court. This commission decided that Hayes was 246 THE NEW UNION elected President, and he took his seat on the 4th of March, 1877. But the Democrats said the decision was an unjust one, and there was much bitter feeling. Gold Payments Resumed. — Several things of impor- tance took place during Hayes's term of office. While the war w^as going on gold had become of more value than paper money. From the beginning of 1SG2 it had not been used as money, and all the business of the country was done with bank-notes. This continued until 1879. On the 1st of January of that year the government began to pay out gold to its creditors, and since then paper money has been worth as much as gold. The Great Railroad Strike. — In 1877 a great strike began on account of the lowering of wages of railroad men and for two weeks nearly all movement of rail- road trains ceased. Rioting followed and in the fights with the soldiers many men were killed. In Pitts- burg railroad buildings and trains of cars were burned, the loss being more than three millions of dollars. The coal miners of Pennsylvania also joined the strike, and very many thousands of men stopped work. Yellow Fever in the South. — In 1878 3'ellow fever broke out in many of the cities of the South, and raged so fiercely that thousands of the people died. Busi- ness could not be carried on, so there was much suffer- ing from this cause also. The fever appeared again the next year. The people of the North did much to help the sufferers in the South during this terrible period. Mone}^, food, and other necessaries were given in large amounts, doctors and nurses wont South at the peril of their lives, and the warm feeling of sj^mpathy that GARFIELD AND ARTHUR ADMINISTRATION 247 was shown did much to hasten the growing good feeling between the two sections of the country. The Mississippi Jetties. — The Mississippi River had long been growing shallow near its mouth from the great quantity of mud brought down the stream and deposited there. It was getting so that no large vessels could reach New Orleans. To overcome this Captain James Eads built jetties, or walls of wicker- work filled with earth, along the stream, so as to make it narrower. This was a great success. The narrow stream swept away the mud from its bottom and became so deep that the largest vessels could make their way up its channel. 5. THE GARFIELD AND ARTHUR ADMINISTRATION. From 1881 to 1885. Garfield's Election. — When the time came for the next Presidential election (1880) the Republicans nominated General James A. Garfield, the Democrats, General W. S. Hancock. Garfield was elected. The new President soon showed that hfe was going to do what he thought was for the good of the country. When men asked for offices he did not trouble himself to know what they had done for the party, but was careful to find out if they knew anything about the work of the office, and could be trusted to do their duty The Assassination of Garfield. — This gave great offence to some persons who wanted offices, but were not fit to do the work required. One of these men, named Charles J. Guiteau, became so angry that he resolved to kill the President. On the 2d of July, 1881, four months after Garfield was inaugurated, this man 248 THE ^E^Y UNION came up behind him in the raih'oad depot at Washing- ton, drew a pistol, and shot him in the back. The President fell, severed wounded. The news spread rapidly over the country, and caused as much horror and excitement as had been occasioned by the death of Lincoln. Garfield did not die at once. He lay sick for more than three months. During this interval every one felt the greatest sympathy for him, and when he died, on the 19th of September, it was as if every family in the land had lost one of its dearest members. The wounded President had been so brave and patient in his suffering that the people of all parties had grown to love him. The whole people of the coun- try seemed watching by his bedside, for the telegraph brought them news almost as quickly as if they had been there, and nothing has ever shown more clearly the won- derful character of the telegraphic service than the way in which the story of the dying President was laid every morning before the anxious and sympathetic nation. Arthur takes Office. — The death of Garfield left the Vice-President, Chester A. Arthur, to succeed him. As Garfield had been so short a time in office, Arthur was President nearly three and a half years. During this time there were no great political occurrences,, but some things of interest took place. The Washington Monument. — One of the events of this time was the completion of the great monument to Washington, which had been building at AVashington city since 1848 and was not finished until 1885. It is a great shaft of white marble five hundred and fifty- five feet high, which rises above the city and can be seen for long distances awav. CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION 249 Standard Time. — Another thing of importance was the adoption of standard time for the convenience of the great railroads running east and west. This took place in 1883, the country being divided into four sections, within each of which a fixed time was to be used, while the time would vary one hour in going frorp one section to another. Thus when it is twelve o'clock at New York, it is eleven at Chicago, ten at Denver, and nine at San Francisco. The same is the case all through these sections. Travellers going east or west need to change their watches one hour on going from one section to another, and thus they can always have the correct time. Industrial Exhibitions. — While Arthur was President several exhibitions of industry took place in the South. One was held at Atlanta and another at Louisville. But the most important was one held at New Orleans in 1884, called "The World's Cotton Centennial Exposition." It showed the great progress the South had made since the war, and the immense develop- ment of the cotton industry since 1784. In that year eight bags — equal to about one bale of cotton — was exported. In 1884 eight million bales were exported. This was certainly a grand advance. 6. CLEVELAND'S FIRST ADMINISTRATION. From 1885 to 1889. Election of Cleveland. — On March 4, 1885, Grover Cleveland took his seat as President to succeed Presi- dent Arthur. He was elected as the candidate of the Democratic party, and was the first Democratic Presi- dent since 1856. 1 250 THE NEW UNION The Charleston Earthquake. — In 1886 there occurred an event that was in some respects more terrible than the Chicago fire. A great earthquake took place. The centre of its force was in South Carohna, and the city of Charleston was so shaken that a great part of it fell in ruins to the ground. A single minute turned a happy and prosperous city into a distressed and ruined one. The people ran in terror from their falling houses, but many were killed in the houses and in the streets. The earth cracked open here and there, and mud and stones were thrown into the air. The people of Charles- ton lost ten million dollars by this earthquake shock, besides all the suffering they endured. The Chicago Anarchists. — For a number of years there had been much trouble in this country between working people and their employers. The working people had joined into strong societies, and there were many great strikes for wages. In Chicago, on May 1, 188G, there was a strike in favor of making eight hours the time of a day's work. This led to an awful scene of murder. There was a large party of foreigners in Chicago who wanted to do away with all law and order, and declared that no man had a right to be richer than other men, but that all ought to be alike in this respect. During the eight-hour strike there was held a meet- ing of these anarchists, as they were called, which the police tried to break up, but while they were attempt- ing to do so some one in the crowd threw among them a bomb charged with dynamite. Dynamite is an explosive substance which is much more violent in its action than gun-powder. The bomb burst in their midst and did terrible damage. Six of the policemen were BENJAMIN HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 251 killed and sixty-one wounded. The police drew their pistols and fired on the mob, and many of the anar- chists, in their turn, were killed and wounded. Seven were arrested and found guilty of murder. Of these one killed himself, four were hanged, and the others sent to prison for life. The Chinese Exclusion Law. — For years many Chinese workmen had been makmg their way into this country, until there were many more than one hundred thou- sand of them here. This roused much opposition among the working people, who said that the Chinese did not intend to stay in the country and become citizens, and that they worked for such low wages as to cut down the wages of Americans. As a result a law was passed preventing any more Chinese from coming into the country. This law still holds good. 7. BENJAMIN HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION. From 1889 to 1893. The Election of 1888. — In the Presidential election of 1888 Benjamin Harrison was nominated by the Republican and Grover Cleveland by the Democratic party. Harrison was elected and the Republicans came into power again. The new President was the grandson of General William Henry Harrison, who had been elected President in 1840. The Johnstown Disaster. — A great disaster took place in the first year of Harrison's term of office. On May 31, 1889, during a severe rain-storm, a dam gave way on a branch of the Conemaugh River, in Western Pennsylvania. The whole valley of the river was swept by a destructive flood, and the city of Johnstown and 252 THE NEW UNION several smaller places were carried away on the raging waters. Five or six thousand people were drowned and many millions of dollars' worth of property destroyed. No accident so dreadful in loss of life had ever happened in America before. Much food and clothing and great sums of money were given by charitable people to aid Thk Johnstown Disaster. the sufferers, but the terrible loss of life no money could repay, and the Johnstown flood will long be remembered in the history of destructive events. The Pan=American Congress. — In the latter part of 1889 and the early part of 1890 a very important meet- ing was held in the city of Washington. Delegates from all the nations of North and South America came together, to see what could be done to aid commerce and harmony between these nations, and to do away with war. It was decided to try and settle all quarrels between them by peaceful means, to take measures for the improvement of trade, and to do other things for the benefit of the American people. BENJAMIN HARRISON'S ADMINISTRATION 253 The McKinley Tariff.— In 1890 a tariff bill was passed by Congress, which put a higher tax or duty on many articles brought from other countries. It was known as the McKinley tariff, because it was offered by Mr. McKinley, of Ohio. It was hoped that it would be a great help to manufactures in America, by keep- ing out foreign goods from this country, but there is a wide difference of opinion about this, for many say that the American people would be better off with a low tariff. This is to-day the great question in American politics. New States. — In 1889 four new States were added to the Union. The large Territory of Dakota was divided into two States, named North Dakota and South Dakota, and the Territories of Washington and Montana were made States. In 1890 two other States were added, Idaho and Wyoming. The Census of 1890. — Another important event of 1890 was the United States Census. The count of the population showed that there were in this country sixty-two millions six hundred and twenty-two thou- sand two hundred and fifty people, an increase of more than twelve millions since 1880 and of about fifty-nine millions since the first census in 1790, a century before. Copyright Bill. — In 1891 Congress passed an impor- tant bill, known as the Copyright Bill. Ever since the country was established the writers of books had had no protection in foreign lands. Any Englishman could publish and sell an American book, and any American could do the same with an English book, and pay the author nothing. The Copyright Bill put an end to this and gave protection to authors. 254 THE NEW UNION The Pension List. — Among the changes made in this period was a great increase in the pension list, both in the number of persons receiving pensions, and the amount paid them. The annual sum paid for pensions for many years was about one hundred and forty million dollars, much the greatest sum ever paid for this purpose. Changes were also made in the immi- gration laws, so as to keep out of this country all persons not likely to make good and useful citizens. Alaskan Seal Fisuekies. Alaskan Seal Fisheries. — For a number of years there had been a dispute between the United States and England, on account of Canadian fishing-vessels killing the fur seals which make their homes on the islands of Bering Sea, in Alaska, and which the United States claim as their own " property. After many vessels had been seized, and there had been much bitter feeling, the question was given over to arbi- trators to settle, both nations agreeing to accept the decision of the court of arbitration, whose members were chosen from several nations. The arbitrators decided that the United States did not own the seals THE SECOND CLEVELAND ADMINISTRATION 255 when found far from the islands, though they laid down a set of rules for the protection of these animals. But it is found that these rules do not work very well, and if something else is not done to save the seals they will soon be all killed. 8. THE SECOND CLEVELAND ADMINISTRATION. From 1893 to 1897. The Presidential Election of 1892.— In 1892 the Republicans nominated for the next term of office Benjamin Harrison, who was then President. The Democrats nominated Grover Cleveland, who had been President from 1885 to 1889. Cleveland was elected for a second term of office, and the Democratic party gained a majority in both houses of Congress, for the first time in many years. The World's Columbian Exposition. — One of the most important events of this period was a great World's Fair, held in Chicago in 1893 in honor of the discovery of America by Columbus four hundred years before. The buildings were dedicated in October, 1892, the anniversary of the discovery. But the Fair was not opened until the spring of 1893. It was one of great splendor and magnificent proportions, there being more than one hundred and fifty buildings, of which the largest covered more than thirty acres. The exhibits were very attractive and numerous and the Fair a great success. It surpassed in beauty and extent any held before that time. A Great Business Depression. — The second adminis- tration of President Cleveland was marked by a great falling off in the business of the country, which began 256 THE NEW UNION in 1893 and continued for more than four years. A vast number of people were thrown out of employ- ment and the business losses were very great. The distress of the people was extreme, equalling that of the panics of 1837 and 1873. After it passed away a period of great business activity prevailed. Utah made a State. — Utah had been settled by the Mormons, a people whose religious belief permitted them to have more than one wife. This was against the laws of the country, and Congress passed an act to prevent it in 1882. In 1890 the Mormons consented to give up polygamy, as the custom was called. There were many people in Utah who were not Mormons, and who wished it to be made a State. As the laws had been obeyed, this was now granted, an Act being passed for this purpose in 1893. On January 4, 1896, President Cleveland proclaimed the admission of Utah as the forty-fifth State of the Union. Civil Service Reform. — The civil service reform, which for ten years had been the policy of the govern- ment, was greatly advanced by President Cleveland during his second term, very many office-holders being brought under its rules. This has been continued until now the old system of the choosing of office-holders by politicians has nearly ceased, the great majority of these being chosen by examinations into their fitness for the various positions. It is also known as the merit system, under the principle that only those who merit the positions receive them, without regard to their political opinions. They are kept in office as long as they do their duty, no matter who is elected President. McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 257 9. McKINLEY'S ADMINISTRATION. From 1897 to 1901. The Election of 1896. — In 1896 the Republicans nominated William McKinley, of Ohio, for the Presi- dency. The Democrats and the Populists (a new party) nominated William J. Bryan, of Nebraska. The Populist and Democratic parties advocated the "free and unlimited coinage of silver and gold at the legal ratio of 16 to 1;" the Republicans opposed the unlimited coinage of silver. McKinley was the choice of the majority, and became President March 4, 1897. The Cuban Rebellion. — During President McKinley's term of office war broke out and this was its cause. The island of Cuba, lying south of Florida, had long been a colony of Spain, but its people were so badly treated that in 1895 they broke out in rebellion, as the Americans had done in 1775. A large army was sent from Spain, but it was not able to put down the rebellion, and fighting went on for three years. The Sinking of the Maine. — In January, 1898, the American battle-ship Maine was sent to the harbor of Havana, the capital of Cuba. Here a dreadful event took place. On the night of February 15 the ship was blown up with dynamite, and nearly all on board were killed. No less than two hundred and sixty-six persons lost their lives, and the ship sank to the bottom of the harbor. This terrible affair greatly excited the people of the United States, many of whom were eager to go to war with Spain. On April 21, Congress demanded that Spain should take her soldiers and ships from Cuba. This Spain would not do, and war was declared. 17 258 THE NEW UNION Naval Events. — The war began with a blockade of the Cuban coast by American war-ships. A fleet was also sent to the bay of Manila, the capital of the Philippine Islands, a colony of Spain in the Pacific Ocean. The Spanish fleet here was attacked on May 1, and all its ships were burned or sunk. The American ships were not injured, and only a few of the sailors were wounded. Commodore Dewey, who gained this great victory, was made a rear-admiral, and received the thanks of Congress. He was afterwards given the high rank of Admiral and raised to the head of the navy. The Battle of Santiago. — Another Spanish fleet crossed the Atlantic Ocean and entered the harbor of Santiago de Cuba, where it was blocked up by a strong squadron of American ships. An army was sent to Santiago, and a battle took place there on the 1st and 2d of July. Both armies fought bravely, and many were killed and wounded on each side; but the Ameri- cans gained the victory and the Spanish army was driven back into the city. The Sinking of the Ships. — On the 3d of July the Spanish fleet, under Admiral Cervera, tried to escape from the harbor. The ships came out at full speed and fled along the coast, followed by the American ships. Both sides fired furiously, but the Spanish guns were poorly aimed, while nearly every American shot reached its mark. All the Spanish ships were sunk and many of their sailors killed; but the American ships were little injured, and only one man was killed. Surrender of the Army. — This victory was soon fol- lowed by a surrender of the Spanish army at Santiago, the United States government agreeing to transport McKlNLEY'S ADMINISTRATION 259 all the soldiers back to Spain. The island of Porto Rico was also invaded and surrendered, and the city of Manila, the capital of the Philippine Islands, was captured by the army and fleet. Hawaii Annexed. — During the war with Spain the Hawaiian Islands, which lie in the Pacific Ocean between America and Asia, were annexed to the United States and in 1900 were made a Territory of r^"" '^^'^^. •^ ^nm^^gsm ^f^^H| ■■ K--A-^¥gafc ,- - ^ ^ ^ ^^ ^^B i^.y:t^:pi^ Ihir . ■Hw J - j-tAA» & , fc.'-.; \ 1 t3^ L - ^. M The Sinking of the Spanish Ships. this country, under the name of Hawaii. They are a group of fertile islands, on which are the most wonderful volcanoes of the earth. Results of the War. — A treaty of peace with Spain was signed December 12, 1898, in which Spain gave up its claims on Cuba and yielded to the United States the Philippine Islands and the islands of Guam in the Pacific and Porto Rico in the West Indies. But the people of the Philippines were not satisfied with this and went to war against the United States and it was two years before they were subdued. Since then thej^ have been prosperous and well satisfied, being given much more liberty than thej^ had under the rule of Spain. 260 THE NEW UNION McKinley and Roosevelt. — In 1900 President Mc- Kinlcy was again elected, having a large majority over William J. Bryan, who was once more the Democratic candidate. The Vice-President was Theodore Roose- velt, who had fought bravely in the war with Spain and was then Governor of New York. In the same year a census of the people was taken and the popu- lation of the United States found to be 70,303,387 — much more than that of any nation in Europe except Russia. Murder of the President. — Like Lincoln and Gar- field, President McKinley was killed by an assassin- He went to Buffalo, New York, in September, 1901, to witness a great exhibition of the products of the American nations, and on the Gth, while giving a reception to the people, was shot by one of those who came to shake hands with him. The murderer belonged to the society called Anarchists, who seek to kill all kings and rulers. The President died on September 14, all the people of the country being filled with grief at his death. Vice-President Roosevelt succeeded him as President. 10. ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION. From 1901 to 1909. The Republic of Cuba. — After the close of the Spanish War the United States took charge of the Island of Cuba until 1902, when that country adopted a constitution, elected a President, and began its career as an American republic. The United States troops were withdrawn on the 20th of May, and Cuba was left to govern itself. ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 261 A New Department. — A new department was added to the government in February, 1903, under the name of the Department of Commerce and Labor, its pur- pose being to take charge of the interests of American commerce and industry. The Departments now con- sist of those of State, War, and the Treasury, formed in 1789; the Post-OfRce, in 1794; the Navy, in 1798; Justice, in 1820; the Interior, in 1849; Agriculture, in 1889, and Commerce and Labor, in 1903. The heads of these Departments form the members of the Presi- dent's Cabinet. The Panama Canal. — For many years a French com- pany had been trying to excavate a ship-canal from the Atlantic to the Pacific, across the Isthmus of Panama. In 1902 the United States bought the partly-dug canal from the company for $40,000,000 and undertook to finish the canal. It purchased the right of way from the republic of Panama and a large force of men is now at W'Ork on the canal, which is being very rapidly excavated, its completion being promised by 1915. The Election of 1904.— In 1904 President Roosevelt was nominated by the Republicans and was elected President of the United States by a very large majority over Alton B. Parker, the Democratic candidate. Charles W. Fairbanks was elected Vice-President. Expositions of Industry. — A World's Fair was held at St. Louis in 1904 in honor of the purchase from France in 1803 of the great region originally known as Louisiana. The display was a splendid one, the grounds were beautifully decorated, and the buildings filled with objects of interest. In the following year the Lewis 262 THE NEW UNION and Clark expedition (see page 199) was celebrated by an attractive Exposition at Portland, Oregon, and in 1907 the settlement at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1G07, was commemorated by an Exposition near Norfolk, at which a splendid display was made of the warships of the United States and other countries. The State of Oklahoma. — In 1889 the western half of Indian Territory, known as Oklahoma, which the Indians had not occupied, was opened to white settlers and soon had a large population. This grew so rapidly during the following years that the people asked to have it changed from a Territory into a State. In 1906 Congress passed a bill for this purpose, under which the Indian and Oklahoma Territories were to be com- bined into a State to be known as Oklahoma. This was completed in 1907, when the constitution of the new State was accepted by the President. The San Francisco Disaster. — In 1906 took place the most serious disaster ever known in this country. An earthquake of great severity shook the coast region of California on April 18, causing wide-spread damage, especially in the large and flourishing city of San Francisco. Many of its finest buildings were ruin- ed, hundreds of people killed, and a dreadful fire destroyed a great part of the city, inflicting a loss of more than S300,000,000. So great was the suffering that the charitable people of the country gave millions of dollars to buy food and provide shelter for the homeless citizens. With wonderful courage they soon set to work to rebuild their ruined city. Irrigation of the Arid West. — One of the most impor- tant Acts of Congress during Poosevelt's first term ROOSEVELT'S ADMINISTRATION 263 U'as designed for the making of great reservoirs in the mountains of the West, for the purpose of carrying the waters of the mountain streams by canals to the rainless regions of that section. On these mountains much snow falls in winter, and when this melts the streams are full, while many of them are nearly dry during much of the year. Great dams are now being built to hold this water in reservoirs so that it may be given out slowly during the farming season and spread over the fertile plains below. In this way millions of acres are now being watered and vast quantities of produce being raised on land that for- merly was of no use. Natural Resources. — The government is engaged in other useful work besides that of saving the waters for the dry fields. The woodlands of the United States have been greatly wasted by fire and reckless cutting, and earnest efforts are being made to prevent this. Many acres of the forest land have been set aside as government reservations, and lands on which the timber has been destroyed are being replanted. There are other natural resources of the country which the government is seeking to preserve, an important one being the fisheries, which were fast becoming exhausted. Millions of young fish are now raised and planted in the streams and the fish harvest is again growing large and valuable. The Roosevelt Policy. — President Roosevelt proved himself an earnest reformer and a man of great activity and energy in various ways. He succeeded in having bills passed preventing the paying back of rebates on freight charges by the railroad companies and for- 264 THE NEW UNION bidding the sale of adulterated foods and medicines. He also had law suits brought against some of the great business corporations which were believed to have broken the laws and injured other business men. The Portsmouth Peace Conference. — In 1905 Roose- velt did much towards bringing to an end the terrible war between Russia and Japan. He induced them to hold a Peace Conference, which met at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and decided on terms of peace between those nations. This gave the President great credit abroad and the Nobel peace prize was awarded to him in 190G. This is given every year to the man who has done most towards aiding the cause of peace. 11. TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION From 1909 to 1913. The Election of 1908. — President Roosevelt had made himself so popular that many wished him to run again for the Presidency in 1908. But he dechned to do so, and William H. Taft, of Ohio, who had been Secretary of War in the Roosevelt Cabinet, was nomi- nated by the Republican Convention, with James S. Sherman, of New York, for Vice-President. William J. Bryan was a third time nominated by the Democratic Convention and was again defeated, the Republicans being successful in the election. Tariff Revision. — The platform of the Republican party promised to revise the tariff for the best interest of the people, and a committee was appointed to con- sider the subject, while the President called an extra session of Congress in the spring of 1909 for the pur- pose of passing a new and more satisfactory tariff bill. QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION 265 Some change seemed needed, for a serious decline in business had taken place in the fall of 1907, which many- believed to be due in part to the high duties on imported goods. A new tariff bill was passed in July, 1909. While many of the rates on goods were lowered, it did not give satisfaction, the feeling of the people being shown in the election of 1910, in which so many Demo- crats were chosen as to give them a majority in the House of Representatives. Other Events. — Shortly after the inauguration of President Taft a great honor came to the United States through the discovery of the North Pole, on April 6, 1909, and the planting of the American flag on its site, by the famous explorer. Commander Robert E. Peary, of the United States Navy. In 1911 Presi- dent Taft called an extra session of Congress by which a bill was passed to establish low tariff rates between the United States and Canada, and free trade in a num- ber of articles. Canada, however, voted against this measure, and it failed to be adopted. The census of the United States taken in 1910 showed a population of 91,972,267. Two new states, Arizona and New Mexico, w^ere admitted to the Union in 1912. The Election of 1912. — In the Presidential campaign of 1912 President Taft was nominated by the Re- publican party, and Woodrow Wilson, Governor of New Jersey, by the Democratic party. Ex-President Roosevelt was also a candidate, and a new party, named the Progressive, was formed to support him. The Democrats were successful and Wilson was elected Presi- dent by a large majority, receiving 435 electoral votes, w^hile Roosevelt received 88, and Taft only 8. The votes of the people, however, did not show this great difference. 266 THE NEW IMO.N PART VITL-QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. 1 . How many soldiers were in the Union army during the war? How many were there at the end of the war? About how many Confederate soldiers were there? How many were lost on each side? What was the United States debt at the end of the war? Where was the most damage done? What was the condition of the South after the war? "Wliat of the North? What good was accom- plished by the war? ^\^lat is now thought of slavery in the South? What did the people think of Abraham Lincoln? 2. Who succeeded Lincoln as President? What was done by the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution? What by the Fourteenth? How did President Johnson deal with the laws passed by Congress on the subject of reconstruction? What did Congress do in consequence? What is meant by impeachment of a President? Before what court was President Johnson tried? 'Wliat was the result of the trial? "WTiat problem lay before Congress? ^Miat kinds of government were established in the South? Of what advantage has Alaska been to the United States. 3. V/ho was made President in 1868? "What was the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution? How did the seceded States act towards these amendments? When did the last of them come back into the Union? WTiat great fire took place in 1S71? What was the money loss? Where did great forest fires take place in the same year? In what other city did a great fire break out the next year? Wliat is meant by the "Alabama claims?" ^Vhy did America blame England? How was the dispute settled? What sum was England required to pay? How have disputes between nations usually been settled? What was the cause of the business panic of 1873? "What effect did it have upon the country? How long did it take for business to recover from the panic? AVhere was a great exhibition held in 1876? ^\^lat did this exhibition teach our people? In what has great progress taken place since that time? 4. Who were the candidates in the Presidential election of 1876? How was the dispute about the election settled? Wlio became President? When did gold come into use again as money? In what year was yellow fever an epidemic in the South? How did the North act? What effect had this on the feeling of the two sections? What great strike took place and with what resultf How was the channel of the Mississippi River deepened? QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION 267 5. Who was elected President in 1880? What did he do about appointing men to office? What happened to the President? What was the feehng of the people? Wlio became President after Garfield's death? Wnat is the Washington Monument? What is meant by standard time? Where were exhibitions held? S. Who became President in 1885? By what party was he elected? Of what party were all the Presidents between 1861 and 1885? What terrible event happened in the South in 1886? What have the working people done of recent years? When did the eight-hour strike take place in Chicago? What was done by the anarchists? What is meant by Chinese exclusion? 7. Who was made President in 1888? Describe the disaster at Johnstown, Pennsylvania. What was the purpose of the Pan- American Congress? What was the McKinley tariff? What new States were admitted in 1889 and 1890? What was the population of the United States in 1890? What is meant by the Copyright law? What changes were made in the pension list? What in the immigration laws? What trouble arose about the seal fisheries? 8. Who were nominated for the Presidency in 1892? Who was elected President? Describe the Columbian World's Fair? When did another business depression take place? What new State was admitted in 1896? What progress was made in Civil Service Reform? 9. Who became President in 1896? What dreadful event took place? Describe the events of the war with Spain, What resulted from the war? What territory in the Pacific was annexed? Describe the murder of President McKinley. 10. What West India island became a free republic? What are the Departments of the government and who constitute the Presi- dent's Cabinet? What is said of the Panama canal? Who was elected President in 1904? Where was a great World's Fair held? What new State was admitted in 1907? What is said about irri- gation and natural resources? What was the Portsmouth Peace Conference? 11. Who was elected President in 1908 ? Why did he call an extra session of Congress ? What great discovery was made in 1909 ? Who was elected President in 1912 ? PART IX. RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT. The Disbanding of the Armies. — When the Civil War ended there were more than a milhon of men in the armies of the North. These were trained soldiers who knew all about the art of war, but had long been re- moved from the arts of peace. In old times such an army would have set up a kingdom and put their leader on the throne. Their generals would have become nobles, and spent a life of pride and idleness while making the people work for them, as was the case. in France, about sixty years before, when Napoleon Bonaparte made himself emperor. What did the army of America do? As fast as the soldiers were paid off they laid down their arms and returned home, where they at once went to work to make a peaceful living. They became farmers, me- chanics, merchants, etc., as they had been before the war. The generals began to make their living in the same quiet way as the men from the ranks. Even General Grant and General Lee were not too proud to work to earn a living. In a year or two after the war the armies had disappeared. Only the few soldiers were left that were needed to act as police for the nation. This was a remarkable result. In the countries of Europe to-day there are millions of soldiers, though these countries are at peace. Twenty-five thousand soldiers were enough to answer all the purposes of the 268 RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 269 United States until 1898, when the wars in Cuba and the Philippines caused an increase of the army to be made. The people of America are not forced to give part of their wages to keep up great and useless armies, and this is one reason why American workmen are so much better off than those of Europe. The Electric Cable. — It is in the arts of peace that America is now winning its victories. Let us see what some of these have been. One of the victories of peace came just after the war, when an electric wire, or cable, was laid under the ocean from America to Europe and people began to send messages to one another under two thousand miles of sea. Since that time other cables have been laid between Europe and America, and every day now our papers print long accounts of what is taking place in Europe. They get their news from that great distance more quickly than they could have got news from a place ten miles away in the last century. Telegraph Extension. — In the United States tele- graph wires now spread everywhere, and everything of importance that takes place is told in the newspapers of the whole country a few hours afterwards. There are more than two hundred and fifty thousand miles of telegraph lines, nearly three times as much as in any other country, and enough to go ten times around the earth. On these iron or copper wires are used, but telegraphing without wires is now growing common, the electric current passing through the air and reach- ing ships far out at sea and even taking news from America to Europe. Signal Service. — One of the great benefits of the telegraph is its use in the signal service. Every day 270 RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT the state of the weather in all parts of the country is telegraphed to Washington. The reports thus received are carefully studied, and the kind of weather that is likely to come is made out and telegraphed in all directions. Warnings of storms thus sent arc of great use to sea-captains and farmers, and there is no one who does not take interest in them. Along the coast there arc life-saving stations, for the rescue of sailors and passengers from wrecked ships. These have proved of great service, and many lives have been saved by their brave crews. Electrical Discoveries. — Electricity had been made useful in many other ways. The streets of many of our cities and towns are brightly lighted with it, and stores and houses also use it for this purpose. It is used to run machinery and locomotives. By the invention of the telephone men are able to talk with one another over many miles of distance in the same tones they use in talking face to face. And they are even learning how to telephone without the use of wires. All this is very wonderful. It seems the work of magic. Yet it is as true as wonderful, and is the result of thought and industry, not the work of magic. It is interesting to know that vessels in peril at sea can make their danger known by wireless telegraphy. In this way, when a great steamship, full of passengers, was run into in 1908 and was ready to sink, telegraph messages were sent over the waters and other vessels came up, so that the lives of all those on board were saved. In former times such a thing could not have been done and all these people would have perished. RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 271 Railroad Extension. — The railroads have made as great progress as the telegraphs. The greatest feat in railroad building that the world had known up to that time was finished in 1869. This included the Union and Central Pacific Railroads, from Omaha, across the great plains and the Rocky Mountains, to San Fran- cisco. The last spike of this railroad system was Driving the Last Sp'ke uonnecting the Union and Central Pacific Kailroad driven in May, near Qgden, in the Territory of Utah. This spike was connected with the telegraph wires, so that, as the blows of the hammer fell on it, they were heard in the telegraph offices of the principal cities of the East. This was another great triumph of the telegraph, for these offices were thousands of miles away from where the spike was being driven. Since then four other Pacific railroads, two in the North and two in the South, have been built. A traveller can now go irom New York to San Francisco, a dis- 272 RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT tance of three thousand three hundred miles, in five days. He can cross the ocean to Europe in as short a time in the fast steamships which now start at frequent intervals. There are now more than two hundred and forty thousand miles of railroad in the United States, — more than in all Europe, and nearly as much as in all the world outside of this country. These railroads have been a wonderful aid to travel. Sixty years ago it took a person half a year to go from the State of Oregon to Washington City; now he can do it in a few days. Thousands of persons travel to-day for every one who did so a century ago. Then a man would make his will if he were going from New York to Boston; now he would hardly think of doing so if he were going to China. Railroads are also of the greatest use in carrying goods of all kinds from one part of the country to another. Without them it would be impossible for the great cities of America to exist, for they could not get the food their people need. The Postal Service. — For a long time the govern- ment had been carrying letters for the people; but at first very few were carried, and these went very slowly, Benjamin Franklin was the first Postmaster- General. The cost of the postal service then was great. But the railroads made the expense small, while the speed became much greater. Before 1850 it cost ten cents to send a letter from Philadelphia to Boston. The next year it was reduced to three cents for the distance of three thousand miles and in 18G3 the price was made three cents to all parts of the country. In 1883 postage was reduced to two cents, and a letter RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 273 can now be sent for two cents to England and Ger- many and to the Philippine Islands. A Parcels Post system was established January 1, 1913, under which packages up to 11 pounds weight are carried at low rates. It is not only by the postal service that news is now carried over the United States. The electric telegraph, of which we have just spoken, is used by millions of people to send messages, not only over land, but under the seas, so that every morning the newspapers tell us of what took place in all parts of the world the day before. Not only messages, but pictures, can be sent by telegraph; and by the aid of the wonderful tele- phone men can hear the voices of their friends hun- dreds of miles away. Electric Cars. — For many years the people of our cities rode through the streets in cars drawn by horses. Electricity has now taken the place of horses for this purpose, and cars filled with passengers may be seen darting along in a way that seems magical,, for no eye can behold the power that makes them move. These trolley cars, as they are called, run also far into the country and from city to city, and in some places large engines are moved by electric power. Many think that the travel of the future will be largely done in electric cars and that the steam locomotive will pass away. Automobiles. — The horse is of much less use now than of old. Not only have cars moved by electric power taken the place of this useful animal, but carriages to run without horses are coming into use. These are moved by small motors, worked by electricity, steam, and other sources of power, and are known as auto- 18 274 RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT mobiles. First used largeh' in France, they have come into common use in this country, and there are thou- sands of them in our cities. Those who cannot afford an automobile may ride about on bicycles, a two- wheeled vehicle in which the power is usually supplied by the muscles of the rider. The New Navy. — In the past battle-ships were built of wood and high masts, with a great sweep of sail. 1 tiiiyriglit I'.tO", by Underwood and Underwood, New iorK. Modern Battle-Ships. At present war-vessels are covered with thick plates of steel, and are moved by powerful steam-engines. The fleets that once proudly swept the seas woultl soon be sent to the bottom by the great rifled cannons now in use. The nations of Europe have built them- selves large navies of this kind. The United States long had the old-fashioned monitors of the Civil War, but now possesses a new navy, some of whose vessels are among the swiftest and strongest in the world. New RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 275 vessels are added every year, and the navy of the United States now ranks next to that of Great Britain among the navies of the nations. In 1908 its power was shown by the voyage of a great fleet of American battle-ships around the world. Increase of Population. — -The population of the United States in 1790, when the first census was taken, was less than four millions. In the year 1910 it was nearly ninety-two millions, an addition of more than eighty-eight millions in little over a century. This is a great increase. If this rate of growth continues the United States will soon have the greatest population of any enlightened nation of the earth. The people of Europe are coming here in great mul- titudes every year; at present they number more than a million in each year. These spread over all parts of the country, and are very useful as farmers, laborers, and mechanics. Many of them, however, are very ignorant and do not make good citizens. There are laws to prevent paupers and some other classes from entering the country, and it is proposed to keep out all who cannot read or write. Other restrictions will, no doul)t, in time be made, so that only the more desirable classes of immigrants can be admitted. The Indians. — -The Indians, who once had possession of the whole country, are now collected on reservations in the "West. They are so few in number that these reservations are very thinly peopled. There has been no fighting for many years with the Indians, and there is not likely to be any more. They arc provided with food by the government, but many of them are work- ins for themselves. Some of the tribes of the former 276 RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Indian Territory are becoming civilized. They long held their lands in common; but these are now being divided among some tribes into farms, so that each Indian family may have its own farm. It is thought that they will become more contented and industrious when this is completed. One of the great means taken to civiHze the Indians is by education. Schools have been started at various points, in which Indian children are taught the ele- ments of knowledge, the use of tools, and the benefits of industr3\ These schools are proving ver}^ useful, and many young Indians are going back to their tribes with trained hands and cultivated minds. In a few years these young men will become leaders in the tribes and do much to bring them into habits of civilization. The days of the wild Indians of this country are nearly over. In the future we shall have working and thinking Indians to take their place. Increase of Wealth.— In the years that have passed since the close of the war the United States has grown greatly in riches. In 1880, Great Britain was the only country in the world that had more wealth. By 1900 the United States had become the richest country on the earth. Part of this wealth comes from the product of the American mines. The mines of the West yield a large value in gold and silver yearly; but the iron, coal, copper, and other mines of the country are still more valuable. And of much greater value is the soil, which yields more food than all the people of the United States can consume. Manufacturing Industries. — Another great source of this wealth is the manufacturing industry of the RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 277 United States, which produces thousands of milUons of dollars' worth of goods yearly. In former times most of the articles used in this country were brought from Europe, but now many things are sent from here to Europe. American watches are the cheapest in the world, and no better are made anywhere. Many other things came from abroad, such as glassware, fine furniture, soap, writing-paper, perfumery, carriages, and numerous other articles; now we make more than we can use of these goods, and send many of them to other countries. At one time all our fine knive,s, tools, and other articles made of steel came from Sheffield, in Eng- land, and only coarse cutlery and tools were made here; now American cutlery is sent to Sheffield and sold there. Years ago nearly all our carpets were brought from England; but now the city of Phila- delphia is the greatest carpet manufacturing city in the world. The same could be said of many other things. The United States sends to other countries to-day great quantities of manufactured goods, meat, and grain. We produce so much more than we can use that there is plenty left to sell to other countries. Invention of Machinery. — This great progress is due to the remarkable inventive power of the Americans. In machinery for saving labor the United States is in advance of all other nations. Our inventors are so active that more than twenty-two thousand patents have been granted in a single year. Machines are made to do all kinds of work. Farmers do not have to work half so hard as they once did, and yet they pro- duce much more. The same may be said of every 278 RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT kind of manufacturing business. A hundred years ago the printing-press could only print two hundred and fifty sheets on one side in an hour; now forty thousand sheets can be printed on both sides in the same time. Progress of the South. — This progress is not confined to the North and West. The South is making great progress also. At the end of the war the Southern States were in a condition of ruin. Only their soil was left, and much of that had been so overworked that it was of no value. The slaves on whom they had depended to do their work were free. It looked as if it would take a century to recover from the ruin of the war. Yet the South to-day is richer and better off than it ever was. Free labor has proved more profitable than slave labor, and the crops of cotton and other produce are greater than ever. And the white population has gone to work nobly and cheerfully. The country is now being developed everywhere. Iron and coal mines are now being opened and worked, and work- shops and factories are being built in many parts of the South. Great exhibitions have been held at New Orleans, Atlanta, and Charleston, in which the prog- ress of the South was shown. In the time to come the whole country will be one great hive of industry, and all parts will work together for the good of the whole. The Pacific States. — While there has been great progress in the older parts of the country, the same may be said of the far West. There are no more pro- ductive States in the Union than those that border on the Pacific. For manv miles inland from the ocean RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 279 the land is very fertile and the crops are large, fruits being especially fine and plentiful. The orchards of Oregon and Washington and the vineyards and orange groves of California are nowhere surpassed. In the mountain regions of the West little rain falls and much of the country is a desert. But the water of the rivers and mountain streams is carried to the fields in long canals, from which many small ditches convey it to the soil. This system is called irrigation, and large crops are raised by its aid. Great herds of cattle and sheep are also kept, and the mountains are covered with forests of valuable timber, many of the trees being of immense size. Mining. — But the great value of the Sierra Nevada and Rocky Mountains lies in their mines of the preci- ous metals and other valuable minerals. Gold, silver, lead, and copper are abundant, and rich deposits of many other minerals are found. No part of the world has yielded more gold than California, but Colorado is now the greatest producer of gold. Nevada and Colorado have proved very rich in silver; others of the Western States have mines of gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, etc. Gold in Alaska. — ^For a number of years men had been mining gold in Alaska, and in the summer of 1897 the news came that rich deposits of placer gold had been found on the Klondike, a branch of the great Yukon River. The region was cold and barren, and very difficult to reach; but thousands of miners went there, though there was danger that they might starve fr6m lack of food. It is now easy to get there by railroad and steamboat. 280 RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Gold has been found since in great abundance at Cape Nome, on the coast of Alaska. In placer deposits the gold is found in the sands and gravels along the rivers, having been washed from the quartz veins in the mountains. To obtain it the earth is dug up and the sand and dirt washed from the gold by run- GoLD Miners in Alaska. ning water. In Alaska the ground is frozen, and must be softened by fires before the gold-bearing soil can be obtained. This is done in the winter, and the earth is washed when the streams begin to flow in the summer. Petroleum and Natural Gas. — Another great source of wealth in this country is its vast supply of petro- leum, or rock oil, which is found far below the surface. It is reached by boring deep wells, from which the oil RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 281 flows or is pumped up. Petroleum is abundant in Pennsylvania and some other States, and is much used for burning and other purposes. Many of these wells also yield large quantities of what is known as natural gas, which burns with a bright flame and great heat. It is used for lighting and warming houses and in factories, and is conveyed from the wells in pipes to distant towns and cities, where it takes the place of coal in manufactories. Fish Culture. — The lakes and rivers of the United States, and the waters of the neighboring oceans, are rich in fishes, many of which are very valuable as food. But fishing has been so active and reckless that the supply is growing small, and there has long been danger that this great source of wealth would fail. This is prevented by what is known as fish culture. Every year many millions of fish-eggs are hatched out by artificial means and the young fish cared for until they are able to care for themselves. They are then placed in the open waters, and in a few years are large enough to catch. In this way the supply of fish is likely to be kept up, no matter how many may be caught in the fishermen's nets. Commerce. — The grain and cotton grown and the goods made in the United States are sent to all parts of the earth and other goods are brought back. This ocean commerce has increased rapidly in recent years, the total value of these goods being now over $3,500,- 000,000 3'early. And the goods sent out are worth several hundreds of millions of dollars more than those received, so that we have a large balance of trade in our favor, which we receive in money. 282 RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Education. — If wo look for the causes of this great progress we shall find that one of the most important is education. The people of the United States are among the best educated on the face of the earth. In 1900 there were a great multitude of public schools in the country, with over sixteen million pupils. There are now many more than this. Besides these, there are more than four hundred colleges and a very con- siderable number of private schools. Our people spend more for the support of their public schools than the people of all Europe. In this way we are being taught to use our brains as well as our hands, and it is this brain-work which keeps the country so active in every direction. School-life is not ended when the school-term of the boy or girl is over. We go to school all our lives, and our education is all the time increasing. Newspapers and books constantly add to the learning gained in the school-house. There are now over twenty thousand newspapers and magazines in the United States, there being enough newspapers printed every week to give one to every man, woman, and child in the country. Books are also printed in such numbers that every one can have all the reading he needs for very little money. A century ago many of the people could not get one new book a year. Many now get a new one almost every day. Every city has its libraries, its art galleries, and other means for the higher education of the people. Educa- tion is spreading in new directions. Instruction in industry is one of the new ideas of the times. Children are being taught to draw and to use tools, and are thus QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION 283 being made fit for the business of life; for in life the body has to be used as well as the brain, and to make the best kind of a man the body and the brain of the child need to be educated together. Benevolence. — Of one more thing we may speak. The people of the United States are developing in charity as well as in other directions. Everywhere we see hospitals, asylums, and homes which have been started by the money of rich people. Whenever a great fire takes place, or a great storm destroys farms and villages, the people give money freely to help the destitute. This is the best kind of progress. It is progress in that love for all mankind which was taught by Christ. Let us hope that it will grow and spread in this country, for in that way the people of America may be made the noblest and the happiest of all the people of the earth. PART IX.— QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION. How many soldiers were in arms at the end of the war? What would such an army have done in old times? What did the Ameri- can army do? What advantage do we get from the Atlantic cables? How many miles of telegraph line are there in the United States? How does this compare with the telegraphs of other countries? What is the purpose of the signal service? To whom is it of great use? In what ways is electricity used? What does the telephone enable men to do? What great feat in railroad building was finished in 1869? Describe the event of driving the last spike. What other Pacific railroads are there? How long does it take to go from New York to San Francisco? How long to Europe? How many miles of railroad are there in the United States? How does this compare with Europe and the world? How has it affected travel? In what oth ^r ways are the railroads useful? How many post- 284 RECENT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT offices were there in the United States in 1790? How many are there now? How much faster are letters carried now than then? What was the rate of postage then? What is it now? What can you say about the electric street-cars? What about the use of bicycles and of motor carriages? "WTiat changes have taken place in our navy? What has been the increase in population? How many persons come here from Europe? How are the Indians cared for? What means are taken to civilize them? In what way are the Indian schools iiseful? ^Vhich is the richest country in the world? What are important sources of the wealth of America? What kinds of goods did we formerly get from abroad? What do we now send abroad? To what do we owe our great progress in manufacturing? How many patents have been granted in a single year? Do people have to work as hard as they did? What advance has been made in the art of printing? What changes have taken place in the South? What is said of the Pacific States? What ot the products of the mines? Of the gold of Alaska? What other great source of natural wealth can you name? Tell what you know about fish culture. About the commerce of this country. What progress has been made in education? How many newspapers and magazines are there at the present time? How have the num- ber of books increased in this countr}'? What other means of edu- cation have the cities? What new idea is there in education? What is said about benevolence in America? In what ways do people give money freely? What effect is progress in this direction likely to have upon the American people? Table of states and Territories. Name. Delaware . . Pennsylvania New Jersey . . Georgia . . . Connecticut . Massachusetts Maryland . . South Carolina . New Hampshire Virginia .... New York . . . North Carolina . Rhode Island . Vermont . Kentucky Tennessee Ohio . . . Louisiana Indiana . Mississippi Illinois . . Alabama . Maine Missouri . Arkansas. Michigan Florida . . Texas . . Iowa . . . Wisconsin Origin of Name. California .... Minnesota .... Oregon , Kansas West Virginia . , Nevada Nebraska . . . , Colorado .... North Dakota . , South Dakota . , Montana .... Washington . . Idaho Wyoming . . . Utah Oklahoma . . . New Mexico . . Arizona .... District of Columbia Alaska Hawaii .... In honor of Lord Delaware . . Penn's woodland From the Island of Jersey . . In honor of George II Indian — long river Indian — at the great hill . . . In honor of Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I In honor of Charles II From Hampshire, England . . In honor of Queen Elizabeth . In honor of the Duke of York In honor of Charles II Dutch— Rood (Red) Island, or, from the Isle of Rhodes . . . French— green mountains . . Indian — probably hunting land Indian— crooked river .... Indian— beautiful river .... In honor of Louis XIV. . . . From the word " Indian" . . Indian — great river From name of river and In- dian confederacy Indian — here we rest The main land Indian— muddy river Indian— after its main river . Indian — great sea Spanish— flowery Indian — name of a tribe or confederacy Indian— meaning doubtful . . Indian — probably gathering waters Spanish — from an old romance Indian — cloudy water .... Meaning doubtful Indian— meaning doubtful . . From Virginia Spanish — snowy mountains . Indian — shallow water . . . Spanish— red or ruddy . . . . Indian— the allies ...... Indian— the allies Spanish — movtava, a mountain In honor of Washington . . . Indian — gem of the mountains Indian— broad plains Indian — mountain home . . . Indian — fine country .... From Mexico Meaning doubtful From Colinnbus Indian — great, or main land . Given bv the Natives .... 1787 1787 1787 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1788 1789 ,1790 1791 1792 1796 1803 1812 1816 1817 1818 1819 1820 1821 1836 1837 1845 1845 1846 1848 1850 1858 1859 1861 1863 1864 1867 1876 1889 1889 1889 1889 1890 1890 1896 1907 1912 1912 s a 2,050 45,215 7,815 59,475 4,990 8,315 12,210 30,570 9,305 42,450 49,170 52,250 1,250 9,565 40,400 42,050 41,060 48,720 36,350 46,810 56,650 52,250 33,040 69,415 53,850 58,915 58,680 265,780 56,025 56,040 1,58,360 83,365 96,030 82,080 24,780 110,700 77,510 103,925 70,795 77,650 146,080 09.180 84.800 97,890 84,970 70,430 122,580 113,020 70 577,390 6,740 202,322 7,665,111 2,537,167 2,609,121 1,114,756 3,366,416 1,295,.346 1,515,400 430,. 572 2,061,612 9,113,279 2,206,287 542,610 355,956 2,289,905 2,184,789 4,767,121 1,656,388 2,700,876 1,797,114 5,638,.591 2,138,093 742,.371 3,293,335 1,574,449 2,810.173 751,139 3,896,542 2,224,771 2,333,860 2,377,549 2,075,708 672,765 1,690,949 1,221.119 81,875 1,192,214 799,024 577,056 583,888 376,053 1,141,990 325,594 145,965 373,351 1,657,155 327,301 204,354 331,069 64,356 191,909 s •■^ ^ JH ^ 1- '" c* zs — -- 111! fax. n. Vhee rthu 1 = i 3 Is |l cS''<; ~rr^-S^S;S erC Wil m A r A. 'J'homas A. Levi P. M( Adlai E St( (Jarret A. } Theodore 1 Charles W. James S. SI Thomas R. 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The Natives. — When white men first came to the region now known as Pennsylvania, they found it occupied by several tribes of Indians. In the eastern part was a tribe which they named Delawares, from the name given to the river on which they dwelt. Their native title was Lenni Lenape. Farther west, in the mountain country along the Susquehanna River, dwelt the Monseys or Wolf tribes, and in the north, extend- ing into New York, were a number of tribes known to the natives as Mingoes, but called Iroquois by the French and the Five Nations by the English. The Delawares were not warlike. They had been conquered by the Mingoes, and cou]d not go to war or make treaties without their consent. Thus the first whites had a peaceful people to deal with. The Dutch Arrive. — In 1G09, Captain Henry Hudson, sent by the Dutch to this country, sailed a short dis- tance into Delaware Bay. From there he sailed to the Hudson River. The Dutch called this the North River and the Delaware the South River, and claimed as their own all the territory between them. In 1G23, Captain Mey, whose name was given to Cape May (though time has made a change in the spelling), sailed up the South River and built a fort a few miles below the site of Philadelphia, near the present city of Glou- cester, New Jersey. This fort was soon abandoned, 285 286 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA but in 103 1 a Dutch settlcmont was made near the present site of Lewes, Delaware. It did not last long, however, its people quarrelling with the Indians, who killed them all within a year. The Swedes. — The Dutch had at this time a thriving settlement at the mouth of the Hudson, and the king of Sweden thought that he would also like to possess a colony in America, so he sent out in 1G38 two ship-loads of colonists. These crossed the ocean to the South River, up which they sailed, the Swedes being so pleased with the appearance of the surrounding country that they called it Paradise. Some of them settled near Brandywine Creek, others near Chester and Darby Creeks, and in 1(542 Governor Printz built himself a mansion on Tinicum Island and made this the seat of government. A town was afterwards laid out on Chester Creek and named Upland (now Chester). Other Swedes soon came and settled at various points along the river, some of them as far north as the site of Philadeli)hia. For defence against the Indians they built log forts or block-houses. But they were friendly and honest in their dealings with the natives and kept on good terms with them, so that there were no quarrels and the forts were not needed. The Dutch Conquest. — The Dutch of New Amster- dam were not pleased with the coming of the Swedes. They claimed all the land along the South River as their own, and it was not long before they made war on the new settlers. In 1655 a Dutch fleet filled with soldiers sailed up the river, and all the Swedish forts were taken. But the private rights of the Swedes were not inter- fered with, and they remained on the land, though it THE PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT 287 was governed by the Dutch. A Swedish ship filled with colonists sailed up the river the next year. The Dutch tried to stop it, but the Indians interfered in behalf of their friends the Swedes, and the ship was permitted to proceed. In it were the pioneer settlers on the site of Philadelphia. The English Come. — Nine years after the Dutch the English asserted their prior claim to the land. They took possession of New Amsterdam and named it New York, and in 1664 they sailed up the Delaware and captured the Dutch fort at New Castle. That was the last of Dutch rule in North America, except in the years 1673 and 1674, when, during a war between England and Holland, the latter country took and held for a time its old possessions. But the Dutch and Swedish settlers lived happily enough under English rule. Naming the River. — The South River, as the Dutch called it, was named by the Swedes the New Swedeland River. The English, on gaining possession, called the river and bay by the name of Delaware, after Lord De la AVare, governor of Virginia, who had visited the bay many years before. The Friends. — The religious sect known as the Friends, or Quakers, who had been cruelly treated in England, began about this time to look upon America as a place of refuge, and a number of them came over and settled in western New Jersey, where William Penn and others had bought lands. George Fox, the founder of the society, visited them here in 1673. In 1675 some of them crossed the Delaware and settled near Upland. A few years afterwards, when they heard that William Penn had been granted the land 288 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA west of the river, others crossed and sought homes and farms in the country near Upland. William Penn. — The sect of Friends was at first made up of poor people of England, but some persons of higher station soon joined it. Among them was the William Penn above mentioned, who was the son of Admiral Penn of the British navy. The young convert was a friend of the king, Charles II., and of his brother, the Duke of York, and had great influence at court, which he used for the benefit of the suffer- ing Friends. His father had left him a large claim against the English gov- ernment, and, as the king could not pay him the money, he asked for a grant of that tract of land in America which lay west of the Delaware River and between the provinces of Maryland and New York. Penn's Grant. — This the king was very willing to give him. The patent for the grant was carefully written on parchment, and is still preserved, being kept in the executive chamber at Harrisburg. The land granted to Penn was to extend westward through five degrees of longitude, to be bounded on the east by the Delaware River, on the north by the forty-third degree of north WiLLiAM Penn's Desk. THE PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT 289 latitude, and on the south by the arc of a circle begin- ning on the river twelve miles north of New Castle and drawn westward to the fortieth degree of north lati- tude, which it was to follow to the western boundary. The Southern Boundary. — The terms of this grant afterwards led to a dispute with Lord Baltimore. The curved line drawn twelve miles from New Castle was found to lie a number of miles south of the fortieth parallel of latitude, which runs near Philadelphia. Penn claimed that the fortieth degree began as soon as the thirty-ninth was passed. Lord Baltimore claimed that his grant extended to the fortieth parallel. The one claim wqulcl have placed Philadelphia on the southern bor- der of the StatC; the other would have placed the border nearly sev- enty miles south of that city, as far south as Baltimore. The dis- pute was not settled till 1761, when the English courts fixed the line midway between the thirty-ninth and fortieth parallels. Two English engineers, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, then surveyed and marked out the boundary Tne. It is still known as Mason and Dixon's line and some of the stones they set up to mark its course may still be seen where they placed them. The Coming of the People. — The grant was signed by Charles II. on March 4, 1681, the new province Stone, SHOWING Arms OF Lord Baltimore, mark- ing THE Mason and Dixon Line.* * Illustration from photograph of the original in possession of the Maryland Historical Society. 19 290 mSTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA being named by him Pennsylvania, or Penn's Wood- land. "William Markham, Penn's cousin, was made deputy-governor, and reached Pennsylvania in June, 1G81. A court was held at Upland in September, one of its first acts being to forbid the sale of intoxicating liquors to the Indians. It was known that such sale was likely to cause trouble and perhaps lead to blood- shed. Three ships loaded with emigrants left England that year, in one of which came the commissioners who were to examine the land and the river and choose a suitable spot for the city which Pcnn proposed to found. He gave orders that the houses of this city should be built in the middle of large plots, 'Hhat there may be ground on each side for gardens, or orchards, or fields, that it may be a green country towu which will never be burnt and always wholesome." The Site of Philadelphia. — Pcnn also sent messages of good-will to the Indians, which they received with joy, for they wished to dwell in peace with the whites. In 1682, there were about two thousand white people in the province, mostly Swedes. At Wicaco, on the site of Philadelphia, was a Swedish church, which had been built as a block-house in 1009. There was a Friends' meeting-house at Shackamaxon (afterwards Kensing- ton). These buildings were on the ground which the commissioners selected for the new city, its location, between the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers, seeming to them very suitable for the purpose. For this city Penn had chosen the name of Philadelphia, or "Broth- erly love," hoping to make it a home of kindly feeling. honor, and justice. THE PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT 291 Penn's Arrival.— On the 30th of August, 1682, William Pcnn left England in the ship Welcome, and reached the town of New Castle on October 27. About one hundred emigrants sailed with him, but thirty of thein died of small-pox on the voyage. He reached Upland probably on the 2Sth. It is said that on see- ing it he turned to his friend Pearson and asked, "What wilt thou that I should call this place?" Pearson answered, "Chester," the name of the Eng- Penn's Laxdini; at I-^^sskx IL - ter. lish town from which he had come. Some writers say that this story is doubtful, but it is certain that Penn named the place Chester, its good old name of Upland being lost. The new owner of the province at once called a court, to meet at New Castle on November 2. Here the claims of the people to their lands were made good, and they were told that they should be governed by laws of their own making. It is proper to state that the terri- tory now known as the State of Delaware, claimed by 292 fflSTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA the Duke of York, the brother of the king, had been granted by him to Penn, who thus owned the land on the west as far south as the mouth of Delaware Bay. It is not known on what day Penn went to Philadelphia. There is a tradition that he went there from Chester in an open boat with some friends. We know that he was there on the 8th of November, 1682. Treaty with the Indians. — We are told that the pro- prietor made himself very friendly to the Indians, walking and sitting with them and eating some of their roasted acorns and hominy. When they began to show how they could hop and jump, he won their respect by showing them that he could do better than the best of them at this exercise. Soon after he made an agree- ment or treaty with them, to which the different tribes are said to have sent delegates, and in which it was agreed that ''The Indians and the English will live in love as long as the sun and moon shall endure." Tradi- tion says that this was done under a great elm-tree at Shackamaxon, which was blown down by a storm in 1810. There is now a monument on the spot, with a small park around it, though it is doubtful if any formal treaty took place. The City and Province. — The new city was laid out in 1083, with streets crossing at right angles, those running north and south being named Front, Second, etc., those running westward from the Delaware being named Chestnut, Walnut, Spruce, etc., after the forest- trees. Midway between the rivers ran a wide street named Broad Street, and midway in the other direction a wide street named High (now Market) Street. Where these two streets crossed a public square was laid out. THE PERIOD OF SETTLEMENT 293 It was known as Centre, and afterwards as Penn, Square, but is now occupied by the Philadelphia City Hall. The province was divided into three counties, Philadelphia, Chester, and Bucks. The territory of Delaware was also laid out in three counties. Several Swedes had farms on the site of Philadelphia, but Penn paid them for their lands, as he also paid the Indians for all lands taken from them. No land was occupied by him without the consent of the owners. The First Assembly. — The new proprietor did not think he had the right to make lav/s for the people. He had promised them a free government by their own representatives, and at once ordered an election to take place. The delegates elected met at Chester on Decem- ber 4, 1682, and formed there the first legislative assem- bly of Pennsylvania. This assembly was in session three days, in which it passed "The Great Law," a system of government which Penn had carefully pre- pared. This gave the people the right to make their own laws, all who believed in the Deity the right to worship as they pleased, and all tax-payers the right to vote and hold office, and forbade swearing, blas- phemy, gambling, play-acting, and drunkenness under penalty of fine and imprisonment. Prisons were de- clared to be work-houses, where felons were to be reformed and taught some useful trade. This was a great improvement on the English prisons of that time. Courts were provided for and also a council to assist the governor in the discharge of his duties. The council had no share in the making of the laws, its powers being confined to putting them in force. Pennsylvania thus 294 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA had a single law-making body, while each of the other colonies had a double one. At the first session of the council, in March, 1683, it tried a woman for witchcraft, the only case of this kind ever tried in Pennsylvania. The accused was declared not guilty. Merion Meeting House, Where William Pemn Attended a Meeting. New Settlers Arrive. — In August, 1683, Penn wrote home that there were about eighty houses already in the city. In October a colony of Germans arrived and founded the village of Germantown, six miles from Philadelphia. Some of these lived for a time in caves which the first settlers had dug for homes along the river bank. A Welsh settlement had been made in 1682. The Welsh were not liked by the English and were not welcomed in Philadelphia. They went back into the wilderness and founded the townships of THE DEVELOPMExNT OF THE PROVINCE 295 Merion and Haverford, now parts of Montgomery and Chester Counties. Many Friends came from England and settled at Philadelphia, Chester, Darby, and along the Delaware River as far up as the falls. The Growth of the Colony. — When Penn set out for home, which was on the 12th of August, 1684, the province is said to have had about seven thousand inhabitants, of whom twenty-five hundred were in Philadelphia, which was then a city of over three hun- dred houses and with many ships sailing to foreign ports. The people were made up of Swedes, Finns, Dutch, English, Welsh, and Germans, to whom were soon added Scotch, Irish, and French. The last named were Huguenots, or Protestants, who had fled from religious persecution at home, as had also many of the Germans. A large body of Swiss Mennonites came in 1709, also on account of religious persecution. They settled at first in Germantown, but in 1712 formed a settlement at Pequea, in the later organized Lancaster County. This was a beautiful and fertile valley, and many Germans afterwards settled there. Before 1727 there were nearly fifty thousand settlers in Pennsylvania, very many of whom were Germans, and the settlements extended as far west as the Susquehanna and its tributaries. 2. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROVINCE. Disputes in the Assembly. — After Penn went home disputes arose between the assembly and the council. The members from Delaware (then known as the Territories) also quarrelled with those from the prov- ince, and in 1691 they withdrew and the people of the 296 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA Territories elected an assembly of their own. Penn gave them a separate governor, so that there were now two assemblies and two deputy-governors. They were united again by Governor Fletcher in 1G93, but finally separated in 1702, Delaware then becoming an inde- pendent province, though both remained under one governor until 1776. Penn Arrested. — Meanwhile, there were troublous times in England. King Charles died in 1685, and the Duke of York became king as James II., but he proved so great a tyrant that the people rebelled and drove him from the kingdom in 1688, and William, Prince of Orange, became king. William Penn had been a friend of King James, and in consequence was arrested for treason in 1692 and his province taken from him and placed under Governor Fletcher of New York. This governor acted like a tyrant, and the people were very glad when they heard in 1694 that Penn had been cleared of the charge of treason and his province restored to him. The Proprietor Returns. — It was not until 1699 that the proprietor was able to return to his province. He had been detained by difficulties and misfortunes in England, and came back to find the people in trouble and dismay. That dreadful scourge, the yellow fever, had broken out, and many of them had died. But they were cheered by the coming among them of their true friend, and the assembly was at once called to meet in Philadelphia and revise the laws of which complaints had been made. Slave=Holding. — One question to be dealt with was that of slavery. Penn had found slaves in the province THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROVINCE 297 in 1(382, and made no objection to their presence. The Germans of Germantown protested against slave- holding in 1688, but it was not until 169(3 that the Friends took any steps to check it. A bill for the aboli- tion of slavery was brought before the assembly in 1699, but the only action taken was to give the slaves the benefit of a legal trial when charged with wrong- doing. An ef1"ort was made to stop the sale of liquor to the Indians, but the frontiersmen could not be controlled and the sale went on. Penn's Return to England. — Penn now proposed to make Pennsylvania his future home, a mansion having been built for him at Pennsbury on the Delaware, about twenty-five miles above Philadelphia. He moved thither in 1700. But news came from England that there was a bill before Parliament for the purpose of doing away with proprietary governments in America and placing all the provinces under the king. He felt it necessary to go back to defend his rights, and did so in 1701, leaving a governor and granting a new con- stitution, which gave the people an increase of power. The new charter made Philadelphia a corporate city, Edward Shippen being chosen as its first mayor. War Troubles; Governor Evans's Scheme. — The next event of importance in the history of Pennsylvania arose from what is known as Queen Anne's War, in which the French and Indians of Canada made attacks upon the English colonics. There were two parties now in the province, the Friends and some sects of Germans who were opposed to war, and those of other beliefs who thought that money and men should be provided for defence against the enemy. 298 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA The peace party was the strongest in the assembly and council, but the governor was opposed to it and raised a company of soldiers. Governor Hamilton died in 1703 and was succeeded by John Evans, who also favored war, but who turned the people against him by playing a trick upon them. On the day of the annual fair in Philadelphia, when the streets were filled with people from the country, a messenger came in great haste from New Castle and said that Spanish ships were in the river and would soon attack the city. Governor Evans now mounted his horse and rode at full speed through the streets, sword in hand, calling on the people to arm for defence. His action threw the city into panic and confusion, the shipping was hurried away up the river, articles of value were hidden, and for some hours everybody was in dismay. Then word came that the report was false, and the people grew as angry as they had been frightened. The gov- ernor and his friends for a time were in danger. The alarm did not disturb the Friends, who were gathered for worsliip in their meeting-house, and went on with their religious exercises as if nothing out of the usual course was taking place. The quarrel with the gov- ernor continued until 1709, when William Penn felt it necessary to remove him and appoint another in his place. The Quarrel Ended. — The war continued, and the new governor demanded means of defence. War-ships of the enemy had appeared at the mouth of Delaware Bay, but the Indians were friendly and the assembly could not be moved from the policy of peace and good- will held by William Penn and the Friends. No soldiers THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROVINCE 299' were provided, but two thousand pounds were voted for the use of the queen in defence of the province, to be raised by a tax on the people. This act restored harmony, and for a time the disputes between the gov- ernor and the assembly ceased. Acts of the Law=Makers. — In 1712 the assembljy passed an act seeking to put an end to the trade 'n slaves. Bills were also passed laying heavy duties on rum, whisky, and other spirits, fixing the value of" coin, and establishing courts of justice. All these acts, were declared of no effect by the English government, much to the displeasure of the colonists, who felt that, they w^ere being deprived of theii rights and privileges. Other difficulties soon arose. Queen Anne died ia 1714, and a new king, George I., was crowned. At once an old law was revived which forbade Quakers to give evidence in criminal cases, to serve on juries, or to hold any office of profit. An attempt was made to apply this to Pennsylvania, where all the offices were filled by people of that sect. A strong protest was made by the assembly, and a contest began which was kept up. for ten years. At length, in 1725, the law was with- drawm so far as regarded Pennsylvania, through an act passed by the assembly and accepted by the king. A Friendly Governor. — The colonists were greatly pleased to have won this victory over their enemies. They were also much pleased with a new governor, Sir William Keith, who came to Philadelphia in 1717 and showed himself to be the friend of the people. For almost the first time since William Penn had gone home, the assembly, council, and governor ceased to- quarrei with one another. 300 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA Death of Penn. — William Penn had never been able to return to his colony, and his returns from it were so small that he grew very poor, and for a time was imprisoned for debt. He died in 1718. The news of his death was received with deep sorrow in the prov- ince, and the Indians also showed grief at the loss of the "great and good Onas." Mrs. Penn acted as pro- prietor for her sons, all of whom were under age, while Governor Keith continued at the head of affairs. Har- mony prevailed in the government, the people devoted themselves to trade and to the improvement of their farms, and for years all went happily on. Increase of Population. — The province of Pennsyl- vania had now become the most popular and prosperous of the American colonies, and new immigrants came in such numbers, mostly from Germany, that the Friends became alarmed. They feared that Pennsyl- vania would have so many "foreigners" that it would cease to be an English colony. Acts were passed to refuse these strangers the rights of citizens and to lay a special tax on them, and it was long before these unwise discriminations were removed. Benjamin Franklin. — In 1723, near the end of Gov- ernor Keith's administration, Benjamin Franklin came from Boston to Philadelphia. He was then a boy of seventeen, but was in the future to become the ablest ,and most useful citizen of his new place of residence. A New County Formed. — There were still only three counties in the province. The farmers beyond the Conestoga and along the Susquehanna were in Chester County, and had to go to the court-house at Chester, THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROVINCE 301 nearly a hundred miles away, for jury and other duties. On this account a new county was formed in 1729, which was named Lancaster. The town o,f Lancaster was laid out in 1730. The people in this section were largely Germans, though there were also English, Scotch, Irish, and Welsh. Nearly all had been perse- cuted at home for their religious faith, and were strong- ly in favor of freedom of conscience in their new homes. Some alarm was caused by the building of a Roman Catholic chapel in Philadelphia in 1733, but the Catho- lics were not disturbed in their religious worship. A Border War.^The dispute which had long existed concerning the boundary line between Pennsylvania and Maryland led in 1736 to acts of violence. The Germans who had taken up land beyond the Susque- hanna at first believed that their farms were in Mary- land. About this time they changed their opinion and declared themselves to be citizens of Pennsylvania. As a result the sheriff of Baltimore County marched with three hundred men to drive them out. But the sheriff of Lancaster County called out a strong force to resist this invasion, and the Marylanders thought it wise to retire. Shortly afterwards a lawless band crossed the border from Maryland with the purpose of driving away the Germans and seizing their lands. The sheriff of Lan- caster met them with a force of citizens, and a sharp fight took place, one man being killed, and Thomas Cressap, the leader of the invaders, wounded and taken prisoner. The petty war was kept up for about a year; a num- ber of Germans were seized and taken to Baltimore as 302 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA hostages for Cressap, and citizens of both sides were wounded and captured in the conflicts that took place. Finally, in 1737, an order came from the king that the governors should keep peace on the border until the boundary line had been fixed. The First Centennial.— The hundredth anniversary of the settlement of the Swedes on the Delaware came Old Swedes Church at Philadelphia. in 1738. The colony of William Penn was then fifty- seven years old. It had more white inhabitants than any other province except Maryland, Virginia, and Massachusetts. Its capital city was next to Boston in population, and soon after became the largest In the colonies. The fertility of the soil, the mildness of the climate the liberality of the laws, had brought THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROVINCE 303 settlers in large numbers from various countries. The just treatment of the Indians had kept them friendly, and there were no fears of savage massacres. Peace and prosperity prevailed, and for years all went well with Pennsylvania and its people. The trade of Phila- delphia grew until its shipping amounted to six thou- sand tons, the produce of the farm, dairy, orchard, and forest being exported in large quantities. Thomas and John Penn, two of William's sons, came to Pennsylvania in 1732, and were gladly welcomed by the people. John soon returned, but Thomas remained until 1741. The Walking Purchase. — In 1737 a great fraud upon the Indians was consummated, which made many of them enemies of the whites. An old deed provided for a purchase of land from the tribes to be measured by a line starting at Wrightstown — a few mJles back from the Delaware above Trenton — and running northwest parallel with the river as far as a man could walk in a day and a half. From the end of the walk a line was to be drawn to the Delaware, the purchase to include all the land between these lines and the river. The Indians did not look for anything but an ordinary walk, but the governor had the line surveyed in advance and the trees marked so that the walkers could follow a straight line without losing time, and selected some of the best walkers in the province for the task. The Indians who came as watchers had to run to keep up with them, and near the end of the first day they with- drew in disgust, finding that they w^ere being cheated. They understood that the Lehigh River would be the limit of the walk, but it extended thirty miles beyond that river, and the line drawn to the Delaware 304 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA was not made direct, but was slanted upward for a long distance, so as to include the valuable Minisink country. It was this country that the governor was trying to secure. The Indians refused to leave the ■\Iinisink lands, and deputies from the Iroquois of New York, to whom they were vassal's, were called in to make them leave. They did so when ordered by their conquerors, but from this time on they hated the English, and when the war with the French broke out they revenged themselves on the settlers. Hatred had made them warriors again. The fraud was probably due to Thomas Penn, who w^as then in the country, and who afterwards showed a grasping spirit in his dealings with the settlers.* Threats of War. — ^The peaceful condition of the province came to an end in 1739. War was declared between England and Spain, and the colonies were required to put themselves in a state of defence. Governor Thomas, who had been appointed in 1738, was ignorant of the kind of people he had to deal with, and ordered them to prepare for possible war. The Friends, who formed the majority of the assembly, refused, and a bitter dispute arose between the gov- *It is stated that this walking purchase was the completion of a purchase made by Wilham INIarkham in 1682, providing for a tract extending as far as a man could walk in three days, the line to begin at the mouth of the Neshaminy and extend northwestward. It is said that Penn, with some of his friends and a number of chiefs, began this walk, and continued it leisurely for a day and a half, proceeding for a distance of about thirty miles, when Penn stopped, saying that he had all the land he then wanted. At its completion in 1737 the walk covered eighty-six miles. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROVINCE 305 ernor and the legislators. Finally the governor asked for money instead of soldiers, and this was at once granted. The Redemptioners. — Governor Thomas now organ- ized seven companies of militia. Among his recruits were many of those known as "Redemptioners," — poor per- sons whose passage across the ocean had been paid for them, and who had agreed to work a certain number of years for their benefactors. Those who enlisted did so under promise of being set free from these labor contracts. The assembly asked the governor to pay the farmers who had in this way lost their servants for the time still due. This he unjustly refused to do. The result was one of the most violent party contests ever known in Pennsylvania. Political Disputes. — Two parties arose, one taking the side of the governor, the other that of the assem- bly. The governor refused to approve the bills passed by the assembly, which, in return, refused to order the payment of his salary. Finally the quarrel became so severe that the assembly adjourned without having passed any of the necessary bills. Governor Thomas then, in revenge, removed from office all the judges, sheriffs, etc., who were on the side of his opponents. The Parties. — The term of service of the members of the assembly had expired, and a new election was ordered. A bitter contest was expected. The "Gentle- men's party," which supported the governor, had its chief strength in the city. The other, which was strongest in the country, was known as the "Quaker, or Country, party." Both parties tried to win the 20 300 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA favor of the Germans, who formed an important sec- tion of the farming population near the city. The Election Riot. — On the morning of October 1, 1739, members of both parties gathered about the polls, which were opened for the whole city and county of Philadelphia at the court-house on Market Street. The farming people were present in force, and were evidently on the side of the assembly. On the other side appeared a gang of sailors from the ships in the harbor, who had been engaged by the governor's party to drive their opponents from the polls. A disgraceful riot now took place. The sailors marched through the streets and attacked the country people with clubs, knocking down all who did not run away. Even the magistrates who tried to check the riot were attacked. This done, the sailors went away, but they came back as soon as the polls were opened, stationed themselves on the stairs leading to the ballot- box, and drove away all of the other party who came to vote. This did not last long. Though the Friends would not fight, the German farmers soon got tired of being knocked down, seized what weapons they could find, and made a fierce attack upon the sailors, whom they drove from the stairs. Fifty of them were captured and put in jail. The others fled to their ships, and took care not to show themselves in the streets again that day. End of the Quarrel. — Thus ended the first election riot in Pennsylvania. At the polls the Country party won, and the members of the old assembly were re- elected. Governor Thomas, finding himself defeated, offered a compromise, which was accepted. The THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PROVINCE 307 masters were paid for the loss of their servants, and the assembly voted a donation of about six thousand pounds towards the expenses of the war. The Militia Called Out. — In 1744 a new war broke out, this time with the French. Benjamin Franklin wrote and published a pamphlet calbd "Plain Truth," in which lie showed the need of union and discipline. The governor commanded all able-bodied men to pro- vide arms and train as militia, and in a short time ten thousand men were organized and armed. Franklin was chosen as colonel of the Philadelphia regiment, but declined the honor, as he thought that he would be of more use as a private citizen. Other Measures for Defence. — In order to provide funds to build a battery below the city Franklin de- vised a lottery, for which he obtained contributions from many of the Friends, who, while not willing to fight, did not object to measures of self-defence. The Indians on the border had been roused to anger by the acts of traders, who made them drunk and then cheated them out of the true value of their furs. They also remembered how they had been wronged in the walking purchase, and showed signs of hostility, but they were quieted by the efforts of the governors of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, who gave them valuable presents and promised them protection. The king had determined on an invasion of Canada, and the colonies were called upon for aid. The Penn- sylvania assembly voted five thousand pounds, with which two companies were organized and sent to Albany, where they were kept guarding the frontier for a year and a half. Peace was signed in 1748. 308 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA New Counties. — Up to 1749 there were but four counties in Pennsylvania, Lancaster County includ- ing all the western part of the province. But there was now a considerable population west of the Susque- hanna, made up of English, German, and Scotch-Irish people, and in 1749 a new county, named York, was formed. In 1750 Cumberland County was laid out, and from that time on new counties were added with some frequency as the population increased. Captain Jack. — In Cumberland County dwelt a noted character called Captain Jack, the "wild hunter of the Juniata." His family had been murdered by Indians, after which he lived in a cave and devoted himself to revenge upon the savages. In time he formed a band of hunters, who spent their time in protecting the frontier. He offered the services of his band to Gen- eral Braddock, saying that they were "regardless of heat and cold. They require no shelter for the night; they ask no pay." Braddock declined their aid. He had no faith in colonial soldiers. New Settlements. — The town of Easton was laid out about 1738, York in 1741. Reading in 1748, and Carlisle about 1750. The Christian Indian settle- ments of Nazareth and Bethlehem were established about 1740, under the care of Moravian missionaries. Settlements were extending widely over the west and north, following the river valleys, in which the pioneers often took possession of Indian lands which had not yet been purchased. This, added to the other acts of deceit we have named, went far to break the good relations which had so far existed with the natives. WAR WITH THE FRENCH AND INDIANS 309 Indian Councils. — Councils with the Indians were often held, in which their favor was obtained by valu- able presents. Easton became a common place for these councils after 1754, there being sometimes present from two hundred to five hundred chiefs and many of the leading men of the province. Frequent complaints were made by the natives, in order that they might have new councils and new presents, and this in time became so expensive that the people asked the proprietors to share part of the cost. The Penns refused and a strong party grew up against them, Benjamin Franklin being one of their opponents. It is well to state at this point that the sons of William Penn were not Friends like their father, but had joined the Church of England. 3. WAR WITH THE FRENCH AND INDIANS. In 1754 war broke out between the French and English colonists in America. The general events of that war in Pennsylvania are described in the preced- ing "History of the United States." Here we need to speak only of some particular incidents. Franklin's Services. — Benjamin Franklin took an active part in the war. In 1754 he drew up a plan for a union of the colonies. This was offered to a conven- tion at Albany, but was not accepted by the country or the king. When General Braddock came to America with his troops there was much surprise that he did not land at Philadelphia. In Virginia he was able to obtain only twenty-five wagons, but Franklin told him that Pennsylvania would supply him with all he needed and in icss than two weeks he had ready for 3iO HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA him one hundred and fifty wagons and two hundred and fifty horses. In paying for these he gave two hundred pounds of his own money, and gave his bond to pay the full value of any horses that might be lost. The farmers did not care to trust the British general, but were quite ready to trust Franklin. The Indian Raids. — The defeat of Braddock that followed was a serious event for the frontier settlers. No sooner had the army retreated than the savage allies of the French attacked the farmers in the border Braddoi'k's March. settlements. Many of them were killed, others taken prisoners, their cattle and grain taken away or de- stroyed, and their dwellings burned. Several thriving settlements were ruined, and in some places the whole country was laid waste. Political Quarrels. — This terrible state of affairs was partly due to a quarrel between the governor and the assembly. The governor W'Ould not sign the bill to WAR WITH THE FRENCH AND INDIANS 311 provide money for the defence of the colonieS; because it laid a share of the tax on the land of the proprie- taries. For weeks they kept up the quarrel, while the savage foe was murdering the inhabitants. The people at length grew so indignant that a body of about four hundred Germans marched into Phila- delphia and demanded that the assembly and the governor should act at once for the public relief. About the same time the proprietaries sent an order that five thousand pounds should be appropriated on their account to the use of the colony. This stopped the quarrel for the time, a liberal sum being voted by the assembly and a bill passed for the enlistment of soldiers. Franklin on the Frontier. — The government asked Franklin to take charge of the protection of the frontier, and he at once went to work for that purpose. There were no experienced military men in Pennsyl- vania, but it was thought that Franklin could do everything well. Five hundred men were collected at Bethlehem, where the Moravians built a strong stock- ade and gathered a supply of arms. They even carried stones into their houses for the women to throw upon the heads of enemies. A military post was built farther up the Lehigh, and in the freezing January weather Franklin began to erect forts and block- houses along the Kittatinny Mountains. This chain of forts, beginning on the Delaware, was drawn during 1756 around the edge of the settled country towards the border of Maryland. It was not of much use in keeping back the enemy, who slipped between the forts and massacred people fifty miles within their line. 312 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA Franklin was engaged about two months in this ser- vice, when he gave up his command to Colonel Clap- ham, a New England officer who knew the art of fighting Indians, and returned to Philadelphia, where he was elected colonel of a new regiment. The Friends Seek Peace. — While the Indian massacres were going on, the leading Friends were seeking to restore peace with the natives. Some friendly Indians were sent to the hostile tribes to tell them that the brethren of Penn, their great friend, were anxious that they should live together in peace and harmony as of old. This many of the Delawares and Shawanese* agreed to, and peace was established with them. The Hostile Indians. — But some of the chiefs of the Delawares were bitterly hostile, and would not join their tribe in its treaty of peace with the whites. They took part with the western Indians, who were under the influence of the French, and were stirred up by them to deeds of bloodshed. From their station at Kittanning, on the Alleghany River, these Indians destroyed settlements numbering many thousand inhabitants, the people being killed, captured, or driven across the Susquehanna. The Assault on Kittanning. — Governor Morris deter- mined to destroy the Kittanning stronghold, and sent against it a force of three hundred men, under Colonel Armstrong. They succeeded in approaching the village without being observed, and came within sight of it on the morning of September 8, 175G. The warriors had been engaged in a war-dance, and many of them *Shawanese Indians from Carolina had settled along the Sus' quehanna in 169S WAR WITH THE FRENCH AND INDIANS 313 had laid down to sleep in a cornfield near by. They were suddenly aroused by rifle-shots, by which part of them were killed, and the rest put to flight. The village was next attacked, and here the natives defended themselves desperately, firing upon their assailants from the shelter of their wigwams. Colonel Armstrong ordered his men to set fire to these, and the village was soon in a sheet of flame, while the powder- barrels in the wigwams frequently exploded, throwing the bodies of their defenders into the air. Soon the village was in ashes and all that lived of its defenders were in full flight. This severe lesson put an end for a considerable time to the Indian raids, and many of the settlers returned to their farms. March of General Forbes. — The end of the war in Pennsylvania came in 1758, General Forbes being sent against Fort Duquesne with an army of about eight thousand men. Colonel Bouquet led the advance, and sustained a fierce attack from the French and Indians. But they had not now a Braddock to deal with, and were driven back with great loss. General Forbes, however, marched so slowly, wast- ing time in cutting new roads through the mountain passes, that winter was close at hand before he came near the fort, and he would have given up the expe- dition had not Washington, who was with him, in- duced him to go on. Some scouts who had been cap- tured had revealed the fact that the fort was poorly defended, and Washington pushed forward rapidly with his regiment, reaching it on November 25. He found that the French had set it on fire and fled down the Ohio. 314 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA Building of Fort Pitt. — Orders were given to rebuild the fort and make it stronger than before. It was named Fort Pitt, after the great English statesman who had managed the war during its later years. The city of Pittsburg afterwards arose at the locality, and in time became the second city in population and manufactures in the State. Franklin Serves the People. — In 1756 a new gov- ernor, William Denny, was sent to Pennsylvania. The assembly was glad to get rid of Governor Morris, but soon found Governor Denny as hard to deal with. In fact, the governor^ were only agents for the Penns, and could not act as they wished. Dennj^ had orders to veto all laws to tax the estates of the proprietaries or in any way to reduce their power and privileges. His effort to carry out these orders soon brought on the old quarrel, and in 1758 Franklin was sent to London as the agent of the people. After much trouble he succeeded in showing the king's ministers the truft state of affairs, and had a bill passed allowing the taxation of the estates of the Penns and confirming all that the assembly claimed to be the just rights of the people of the province. The Pontiac War. — For a brief period after the build- ing of Fort Pitt the country was at peace and the Indians were quiet. But in 1703 a new war broke out under the Indian chief Pontiac. The frontiers of Pennsylvania were again wasted with fire and sword, several forts were taken and their garrisons murdered, and the greatest suffering prevailed. Fort Pitt was besieged by a host of savages, who cut it off from the settlem.ents. WAR WITH THE FRENCH AND INDIANS 315 Colonel Bouquet's Victory. — Troops were soon in the field and marching to the West. Colonel Armstrong, the hero of Kittanning, again attacked and destroyed an Indian village. But the decisive battle of the war was fought by Colonel Bouquet, who was attacked by the savages while on his way to relieve Fort Pitt. His road led through a narrow and dangerous ravine, several miles along. This he proposed to pass in the night, but just before reaching it he was met by a large body of Indians and a desperate struggle began. The savages had left Fort Pitt for the attack, hoping to repeat their experience with Braddock. Until sunset the soldiers fought against a concealed enemy, and the next morning the assault was renewed. The soldiers, drawn up in a circle, defended themselves bravely, but they were suffering from thirst and were in immi- nent danger of defeat and destruction. Fortunately, the colonel was an old Indian fighter. Two of his companies were withdrawn from his small force and ordered to make a show of retreat. The Indians were deceived. Fancying that a real retreat had begun, they set up their yell of triumph, broke from the woods, and rushed upon the weakened line. Suddenly they were met with a sharp fire upon their flank. The retreating companies had wheeled round the circle of the troops and made a sharp attack. The Indians gave way, and as they fled were assailed by two other companies, which had slipped out from the other side of the circle. The whole force now rushed upon the enemy with such vigor as to scatter them in defeat through the woods. Fort Pitt was relieved, the savages not returning to the siege. 316 fflSTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA The Lancaster Outrage. — A sad event soon after took place. There had been some murders in Lan- caster County, and certain people fancied that these had been done by the Christian Indians near the town of Lancaster. The Indian settlement was at- tacked by a party calling themselves Paxton Rangers, and the six people found there were brutally mur- dered. The people of Lancaster placed the others in the prison for safety, but the rangers rode into the town on Sunday morning, while the people were at church, broke into the jail, and killed the Indians, fourteen in all. A proclamation was issued by the governor for the arrest of the murderers, but none of them were brought to justice, they being supported by public sentiment. The March upon Philadelphia. — In fact, a party of their sympathizers soon after broke into insurrection and marched upon Philadelphia, whither one hundred and forty Christian Indians had been brought from the Moravian settlements for safety. The alarmed authorities sent those Indians to New York, but the governor of that province would not receive them, and the governor of New Jersey refused them a refuge in his province, so that they had to be brought back to Philadelphia. The backwoodsmen, who had set out in January, 1764, from five hundred to fifteen hundred strong, as variously estimated, at length reached Germantown, where they encamped. They found the people of Philadelphia ready for them, and did not think it wise to venture farther. The city was guarded by soldiers and artillery, and the quarters of the Indians were THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 317 fortified with earthworks and cannon. Commissioners were sent to meet the invaders, Franklin among them, and they were easily induced to withdraw. Only one of their requests was granted, that a bounty should be offered for Indian scalps. This was not a very humane end to Penn's Indian policy of good-will. 4. THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION. The close of the war with the French and Indians was quickly followed by troubles with the British government, leading to war and independence. In these events, which affected the entire country, Penn- sylvania took a prominent part. The Stamp Act. — As soon as news came of the passage of the Stamp Act, in 1705, the assembly passed resolu- tions declaring that none but their own representatives had the right to tax Americans, and making a strong protest against taxation by the British Parliament. On the 5th of October the stamps were brought in a ship to Philadelphia. At once all flags were put at half- mast, bells were muffled, and the , . . . . Stamp Act Stamp. City seemed to go mto mournmg. Meetings were held at which business men resolved not to use stamps and to do no business with England until the law should be repealed. The Stamp Act was to go into effect November 1, 1765. On the preceding day all the newspapers ap- peared with heavy black lines, as if in mourning, and no more papers were issued for twenty-one days. All the public offices were closed, and no business was 318 fflSTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA done in them till the next May, when word came that the law was repealed. The loss of business had made it a costly experiment to Great Britain. Joy at the Repeal. — The news of the repeal was greeted with joy in Philadelphia. The city was illu- minated, bonfires were kindled, and a gold laced hat was presented to the captain of the vessel that brought the good tidings. The king's birthday was celebrated by a public dinner on the banks of the Schuylkill. During this period John Penn, grandson of William Penn, was governor of Pennsylvania. The Tax on Tea. — The joy of the people did not last long. A tax was soon after laid by Parliament on tea, glass, paper, and some other articles.* But, as the people would not use these articles, all the taxes were removed in 1770, except a small one on tea. Ships laden with tea were sent to America, but no city would receive it. The ships which came to the Dela- ware were warned not to try to land their cargoes, and therefore returned to England. In Boston the tea was thrown overboard. First Continental Congress. — This refusal of his tea made King George so angry that he took steps *It was at this time that John Dickinson, of Philadelphia, wrote his famous "Farmer's Letters," which first awoke the people to the fnll meaning of the acts of Parliament. He professed to have a small farm on the Delaware, and to be content with his lot, though he feared that British taxation would soon afTect his fortunes. He went on to tell his readers Avhat a loss of their liberty would follow the tax on paper and glass, if they submitted to it. Some years afterwards (in 177.")) another stirring work came from Philaflelphia, Thomas Paine 's "Common Sense," which went far to convert the people's minds from insurrection to revolution. These were the two great appeals to the people of the Revolutionary period. THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 319 which were sure to lead to war. Large meetings were held in Philadelphia to sympathize with Boston, whose business the king had ruined,* and a convention met July 15, 1774, which passed a resolution to call a con- gress of the colonies, declaring that the rights of the people were in danger. Other colonies took similar action, and the First Continental Congress met in Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia, September 5, 1774. f Enlistments. — As soon as the news of the battle of Lexington reached Philadelphia, a meeting was held and steps were taken to enlist soldiers. It was not long before a large force was under arms. John Penn, the governor, who was on the side of the king, lost his authority, a "Committee of Safety" being appointed by the assembly to control all public affairs. Friends and Mennonltes. — ^The authorities had a delicate task to perform. Both the Friends and the German Mennonites were forbidden by their religion to bear arms. The Mennonites were willing to pay taxes "'to feed the hungry and give the thirsty drink," but the Friends said that they could not do anything in aid of war. They were, however, induced to contrib- ute money for the public defence. Pennsylvania a State. — In July, 1776, a convention was held which declared Pennsylvania to be free from *In May, 1774, Paul Revere rode from Boston to Philadelphia, sent thither by the leaders to persuade the Pennsylvanians to take part in the resistance to British oppression. He was well received, and returned with messages of encouragement. fFor the acts of this Congress, and of the Second Continental Congress, which met in the State House at Philadelphia, ]\Iay 10, 1775, see the preceding "History of the United States." 320 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA the power of kings and proprietors and to be an inde- pendent State. At that time it had a population of over three hundred thousand, of whom more than ten thousand were in the field as soldiers, while every county had its militia force. There was a navy of fifteen ships and a number of smaller vessels. The iron foundries of the State were casting cannon and balls for the army, and forts and floating batteries were provided for the defence of the capital city of the new commonwx^alth. Washington's Retreat. — The war, which began at Boston and then came to New York, reached Penn- sylvania in December, 1776, when Washington's small army crossed the Delaware and stationed itself along the river to protect the State from the enemy. There were less than three thousand men in the army; they were suffering from cold and hunger; all hope was gone; Conf;ress left hastily for Baltimore, in fear that Philadelphia would be taken; the revolution was at its lowest ebb. Aid to the Army. — But the people of Pennsylvania came nobly to Washington's aid. The farmers brought food, the townsmen brought clothing and medicines to the camp. Fifteen hundred men joined the army, making it strong enough for Washington's great Christmas night exploit, when he crossed the Dela- ware and captured the British force at Trenton. Pennsylvania Invaded. — The invasion of Pennsyl- vania, thus averted, took place in 1777, when the British army was transported on ships from New York to Chesapeake Bay, landed at Elkton, Maryland, and marched north with the purpose of capturing Phila- THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 321 delphia. Washington tried to stop the march of the British, and a severe battle was fought on Brandy wine Creek, but the enemy was too strong, and the patriot army was defeated. Movements of the Armies. — The army retreated, a part of it resting at Chester for the night, the main body crossing the Schuylkill and camping at German- town. The British established their camp at Village Green, in Delaware Count}^ the farms and houses of that fertile district being widely plundered. Four days after the battle of Brandy wine, Wash- ington left his camp and marched towards the enemy. He proposed to fight another battle for the safety of Philadelphia. On the morning of September 16 the two armies faced each other. The skirmishers had begun firing, when there came up a violent storm of rain, so wetting the powder of the soldiers that it could not be used. Washington was therefore obliged to withdraw. The Surprise at Paoli. — On the 20th, General Wayne, who was encamped at Paoli, was attacked at night by a strong force of British led by Tories of the neighbor- hood. After a desperate fight, Wayne managed to withdraw his men, though with a loss of about two hundred. This event was afterwards known as the "Massacre of Paoli." A monument now marks the battle-field. Philadelphia Occupied. — ^On September 23 the Brit- ish army crossed the Schuylkill at Swedes' Ford, having deceived Washington by a pretence of crossing higher up. On the 25th it marched to Germantown, and entered Philadelphia on the 26th. Congress had 21 322 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA again loft, this time for Lancaster, Pennsylvania, where a one-day session was held September 27. An extended session began at York, Pennsylvania, Sep- tember 30. The Defence of the Delaware. — The British found it no easy matter to get their fleet up the Delaware to Philadelphia. The Americans held Fort Mifflin on the Pennsylvania side and Fort Mercer on the New Jersey side, and it took the enemy two months to capture these forts. Fort Mercer was assaulted by a strong force of Hessian soldiers on October 22, but they were driven away with heavy loss. At the same time the war- vessels in the river fired on the forts, but they were attacked and defeated by the little Pennsylvania fleet. The Forts Evacuated. — Finally the British general surrounded the forts with batteries of cannon, which fired upon them day and night. Yet the brave garri- sons kept up the defence for nearly a month longer. Then, the forts being in ruins, they escaped with their cannon and stores. The little fleet was lost in an at- tempt to sail up past the city, and the British ships at length reached the wharves. The Battle of the Kegs. — An amusing incident fol- lowed the success of the British fleet. On the 7th of January, 1778, a number of kegs were seen floating on the river past the city. The British watched them with alarm, thinking that the Americans had devised a plot to blow up their ships. They imagined that the kegs were filled with powder, to be in some way ex- ploded if they should touch a ship. So the guns were turned on them, and the innocent kegs were battered with cannon-balls. Francis Hopkinson, a poet of that THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 323 time, wrote a humorous ballad upon this incident, calling it "The Battle of the Kegs." Qermantown and Whitemarsh. — The Americans were as active on land as on the water. On October 4, Washington's army attacked the British in their camp at Germantown. The enemy was taken by surprise, and probably would have been defeated but for a fog Washington Pkatixg at Valley Forge. that interfered with the American movements. On December 4, General Howe similarly tried to take Washington by surprise in his camp at Whitemarsh. But the Americans had been secretly warned and were ready for them, and the British marched back with- out firing a shot. It is said that a woman named Lydia Darrach had heard the British officers talking of their plans and had managed to carry the news to the Americans. Valley Forge.— On December 11 the American army went into winter quarters at Valley Forge. It was a 324 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA terrible winter the soldiers spent there. The cold was severe; the men had little clothing, and many of them had no shoes; food was very scarce; numbers of them died. Washington did all he could for them, but he had much to contend with. A Quaker one day saw the general on his knees in the woods praying to God for help. On going home he said to his wife, "If there is any one man on earth to whom the Lord will listen, it is George Washington." The British in Philadelphia. — Meanwhile, the British were passing a pleasant winter in Philadelphia, enjoy- ing theatrical entertainments, feasts, and other pleas- ures. In May, 1778, they gave a grand fete to General Howe, who had been superseded by Sir Henry Clin- ton. It was called the Meschianza, or "medley," and was made, up of a showy river procession, a tourna- ment, fireworks, and a banquet. In the midst of it Captain McLane, a dashing cavalry officer in Washing- ton's army, crept with his men up to the British redoubts, covered everything they could with tar, and set fire to it. A frightful uproar followed in the city, drums were beat and cannon roared, but the unwel- come visitors all escaped to boast of their exploit. Lafayette Attacked. — On the next day a strong British force left the city, in the hope of surprising Lafayette, who was encamped on Barren Hill, above Germantown. They expected to surround and cut him off, but he discovered them in time and slipped away, leaving the disgusted British only an empty camp. Aid from the French. — About the same time welcome news came to Washington's army. Benjamin Franklin THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 325 had induced the King of France to recognize the independence of the American States and to send a fleet and an army to their aid. The news of this gave the British as much fear as it gave joy to the Americans. General Howe was afraid of «being blockaded in the Delaware by a French fleet, and sent his own ships hastily to New York. On the 18th of June the British army left Philadelphia, to the great joy of all patriotic citizens, and started on a march to New York. Wash- ington at once broke camp and followed, bringing the enemy to battle at Monmouth, New Jersey. Thus ended the invasion of Pennsylvania. The Stars and Stripes. — At this point it may be well to say something about the United States flag. Flags of several kinds were used in the opening years of the war, but the "Star-Spangled Banner" came into exist- ence in Philadelphia in 1777. A resolution was offered in Congress on June 14 to the effect that the flag should have thirteen stripes, alternately red and white, and the union thirteen white stars in a blue field. The number thirteen indicated the thirteen original States. The first flag is said to have been made under the direction of Washington, aided by a committee of Congress, by Mrs. Betsy Ross, at her house. No. 239 Arch Street, Philadelphia. This house has become a place for pilgrimage for Philadelphia school-children on "Flag-Day," June 15, and has been purchased for future preservation. The Settlement of Wyoming. — In the year 1778 a dreadful event took place in the beautiful valley of Wyoming, in Northeastern Pennsylvania. This valley was first visited in 1742 by Count Zinzendorf, a Mora- 326 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA vian missionary from Germany. In 1762 a settlement was made there of people from Connecticut, who claimed that it belonged to that colony; but the Indians broke up the settlement, and the people had to flee for their lives. • In 1709 it was settled by Pennsylvanians. Other people soon came from Connecticut, and disputes began, followed by fights, in which a number of per- sons were killed. This strife was kept up until the war of the Revolution, when the people had to join hands against a new enemy. In 1776 there were about five thousand people in the valley. Wyoming Invaded. — In the summer of 1778 a party of British, Indians, and Tories, under Colonel John Butler, invaded the valley. Many of its fighting men were in the army, but a small force was hastily raised and marched against the enemy. The invaders proved too strong: the patriot army was defeated, and many of the fugitives were killed by the Indians. Two days afterwards, July 5, the fort, to which many of the people had fled, was surrendered, on promise of protection. Little protection was given. The Indians swarmed through the vallej^, burning and murdering, and the people were forced to flee to the forests and marshes, where many of them perished. The Indians Punished. — The massacre at Wyoming was followed by Indian raids elsewhere in the northern part of the State. These kept up till August, 1779, when General Sullivan marched with a strong force into the Indian country, destroyed the villages and stores of food, and punished the savages so severely that they were obliged to cease their raids. THE PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION 327 March to Yorktown. — This massacre was the last event of the war in Pennsylvania. In 1781 the Amer- ican and French armies marched through Philadelphia on their way to Yorktown, Virginia, where the sur- render of General Cornwallis brought the long and terrible struggle to an end. The Revolt of the Soldiers. — The close of the war filled the people with joy, but the soldiers were suffer- ing for food and clothing, and had long been without pay. Congress made promises, but did nothing, and on the 1st of January, 1782, a body of Pennsylvania troops left the camp at Morristown, New Jersey, to march to Philadelphia and demand justice from their Representatives. General Wayne, their commander, hurried after them, and tried to persuade them to return to camp. In the end he drew his pistol and threatened to shoot the leaders if they did not turn back. The men at once raised their muskets, telling him that they loved and respected him, but that if he fired his pistol they would kill him. How the Pennsylvanians Acted. — They showed him their ragged clothing, told him of their sufferings for food, and insisted on going to demand justice from Congress. As they would not turn back, Wayne went with them. At Princeton they were met by a commit- tee of Congress, who promised that their demands should be granted. Those whose time was up were allowed to go home; the others went back to camp. The British commander at New Y^ork, hearing of this revolt, sent secret agents to the soldiers to induce them to desert. He did not know the Pennsylvanians. They 328 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA seized the agents and handed them over to General Wayne, by whom they were tried and hung as spies. 5. THE PROGRESS OF THE STATE. The Constitutional Convention. ^Philadelphia, then the largest city in the country, and the capital not only of Pennsylvania but of tho United States, became the scene of a very important event in the period following the war. A convention met there in 1787 to adopt a new system of government and form a constitution for the United States. This convention was held in the State-House, now known as Independence Hall; Washington was its president, and its members in- cluded Benjamin Franklin, Robert Morris, and other eminent citizens of the State. Philadelphia the National Capital. — The story of the Constitution belongs to the history of the United States. It will suffice to say here that Philadelphia continued to be the capital of the country from 1774 to 1789, and again, under the new constitution, from 1790 to 1800, when the capital was removed to Wash- ington, District of Columbia. Pennsylvania a State. — Benjamin Franklin was pres- ident of the convention which met on July 15, 177G, and declared Pennsylvania a State. On the 2Gth of September the old assembly of the province, which had existed nearly a hundred years, ceased to meet, and the authority of the Penns* came to an end. Two *The loss of political control by the Penns did not affect their title to their landed estate in Pennsylvania, though the most of this was afterwards confiscated. Though William Ponn obtained little money from his province, and had to go to prison for debt, THE PROGRESS OF THE STATE 329 days afterwards the new constitution was signed, and the independent government of Pennsylvania began. The State Constitution. ^Under the constitution an Assembly of Delegates made the laws and a Supreme Executive Council administered them. The President of the Council was the chief magistrate of the State. A second convention was held in 1790 and a revised constitution was adopted. This constitution was based on that of the United States. It provided for two law-making bodies, — a Senate and a House of Representatives. A Governor took the place of the President of the Supreme Council. The first governor was Thomas Mifflin. The new government came into existence on December 21, 1790. The State Capital. — In 1799 the seat of government of the State was removed from Philadelphia to Lan- caster, as a more central place. But as the western section of the State grew more populous, Lancaster ceased to be central, and in 1812 Harrisburg was it became very valuable to his sons and grandsons, who lived in affluence on the product of their quit-rents and their sales of land. It is estimated that their property in Pennsylvania in 1759 was worth four million pounds and yielded an annual income of ten thousand pounds. This sum at that time had about four times the value it would have now. In 1779, during the Revolution, the Pennsylvania assembly gave the Penns one hundred and thirty thousand pounds in payment for their confiscated lands, and ex- pressed then- regret that they could not give more. The heirs retained all their manors and some private estates and quit-rents, and some of these are still held by the family. The British govern- ment gave them to repay their losses in the Revolution, an annuity of four thousand pounds a year, which was commuted in 1SS4 by a grant of sixty-seven thousand pounds. 330 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA chosen as the State capital. The building of a State- house began there in 1819 and was completed in 1821. Purchases of Land. — And now, having spoken of these political changes, we must say something about the settlement of the State. It must not be supposed that the people took possession of the land just as they pleased, without regard to the rights of the Indians. We have told the story of the "walking purchase" made in 1737. Five other purchases of land, of a more honorable character, were made by the Penns, the last and greatest being in 17G8. In 1785 a purchase was made by the State authorities which put an end to all Indian claims and gave the whole State to the whites. A Lake Port. — But Pennsylvania had no access to Lake Erie, from which it was cut off by a small tract of land, of triangular shape, belonging to the L'f'nitcd States. This was bought by the State in 1788. It gave Pennsylvania a valuable lake harbor, now the city of Erie. The State, as thus completed, is 302 miles 104 perches in its greatest length, 175 miles 192 -perches in its greatest width. Its average length is 280.39 miles; average width, 158.05 miles. The Perils of the Settlers. — The settlements were steadily pushed farther and farther west, large counties being first formed, which in time were broken up into smaller counties. After the outbreak of war with the French the settlers were long in danger from the Indians. Each little community had its central fort, to wliich the people ran for safety whenever the sav- ages appeared. The farmer went to his work with his musket swung at his side. The mechanic kept his THE PROGRESS OF THE STATE 331 riile within reach of his hand. When a party of men met for any purpose, they stacked their arms within easy reach and placed a sentinel to watch for danger. Men were often obliged to fight their dusky foes as they ran in haste to the fort, perhaps with their wives and children before them. The Attack on Rice's Fort. — In 1782 one of these little settlements, on Buffalo Creek, was attacked by a party of Indians who had been defeated in an as- sault on Wheeling, Virginia. In the settlement was a block-house called Rice's Fort. The people, warned just in time of the danger, fled in haste to this strong- hold, and were not long there before the savages burst with war-whoops from the woods, expecting to take the fort by storm. There were only ^ix men within, but they were skilful riflemen, and soon drove their foes to the shelter of trees and logs. For nearly four hours the fi^ht was kept up. The savages cried, "Give up; too many Indian; Indian too big. No kill." But the frontiersmen did not trust their treacherous enemies. One of them was killed, but the remaining five continued to fight against more than a hundred foes. Finally, hearing the approach of reinforcements, the savages fled, after burning the dwellings and killing all the cattle, sheep, and hogs of the inhabitants. The Wedding Party. — Many other stories of the perils of the settlers might be told. In one instance a wedding party was attacked by the savages when at the height of its enjoyment. The bride and groom and nearly all the others were taken prisoners, loaded with the plunder of the savages, and carried off into a cruel captivity. 332 fflSTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA The people living near by fled to the nearest settle- ment. One man who had his aged mother and a cliild to save was pursued so closely that he had to desert the child in order to save his mother. On his return the next day, to his heartfelt joy the child was found asleep in its bed, the only being left alive by the sav- age foe. A Western Industry. — There w^as one difficulty which the Western settlers had to meet. They raised more grain than they needed for food. There were then no railroads nor canals, and they had no easy way to send this grain to the towns of the East, while there was little demand for it in the West. As it was not needed for food, they made whisky from it, great quantities of corn and rye being thus used. It was easier to carry the whisky to market than the grain, for a small quantity of whisky represented many bushels of grain. The Whisky War. — In 1790 Congress laid a tax on all distilled spirits. This law was violently opposed by the people of Western Pennsylvania, who declared that they would not pay the tax. Meetings were held, the officers of the law were resisted, and the excitement in time grew so great that several persons were tarred and feathered and the lives of the officials were not safe. The government tried to quiet the people and induce them to obey the law, but in vain. At length, in 1791, President Washington was obliged to call out the militia of Pennsylvania and the neighboring States to put down the rebellion. Fifteen thousand men were gathered and marched across the mountains towards the locality of the revolt. The coming of the soldiers soon settled the difficulty. A THE PROGRESS OF THE STATE 333 few of the loaders were held for trial, but no one was punished, and the ''Whisky War," as it was called, came quietly to an end. New Markets. — It was not long before the farmers began to find a market for their grain in the West, while the great national highway known as the Cum- berland Road, from Cumberland, Maryland, across the mountains to Wheeling, Virginia, which was begun in 1806, made a new avenue of transporation to the East. The Hot Water Rebellion.— The ''Whisky War" was the work of the excitable Scotch-Irish of Western Pennsylvania. Soon afterwards the Germans in the east of the State became disturbed by a law laying a tax on houses. An outbreak took place, which was called the "Hot Water Rebellion," from the fact that a woman poured hot water on an assessor who was measuring her house for taxation. An auctioneer named Fries was the leader in the disturbance, and in March, 1799, he made his way at the head of a hundred armed men to Bethlehem and set free some prisoners who had been taken there. A force was now sent by the governor, and the revolt came to an end. Fries hid in a swamp, but w^as taken prisoner and condemned to death. He was pardoned by President ildams. Yellow Fever. — Philadelphia has at various times been the seat of violent epidemics of yellow fever. The first of these was in 1699. In 1762 the fever raged terribly in the city, and also with great violence in 1793 and 1797. In 1793, Stephen Girard, the cele- brated Philadelphia merchant, showed the greatest !eeling for the sick, whom he nursed in the hospital 334 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA at imminent risk to his own life. The new ideas about cleanliness and the sanitary methods now in use have removed all danger of further outbreaks of this dreaded disease. Growth of Pittsburg. — Fort Pitt, the strongest fort west of the Alleghanies, in time became a place for traders to meet and settlers to locate. A few log huts were first built; then a small village grew up; finally a city developed. The Penn famil}' owned the land about the forks of the rivers until 1784, when it was divided into lots and offered for sale. At that time Pittsburg was but a small place, trading by wagons and pack-horses with Baltimore and Philadelphia. In 1786 its people numbered nearly five hundred, and the Pittsburg Gazette, the first newspaper west of the mountains, was started. Industries of Pittsburg and Alleghany City. — In 1816 Pittsburg became a city. The borough of Alleghany, on the opposite side of the Alleghany River, also in time was made a city, and the two were combined i» 1907 into one city and now form one great centre o\ trade and manufacture. In the production of iron and steel this city has no equal in the country, whi^p its trade, which has long been largely by way of the Ohio, has been immensely extended by the aid of canals and railroads. The City of Erie. — In 1795, when the town of Erie, on the shore of Lake Erie, was laid out, there were only four families in what is now Erie County. Thia county was formed in 1800, having at that time nearly fifteen hundred inhabitants. Highways were laid out one connecting with Pittsburg by way of the AUe THE PROGRESS OF THE STATE 335 ghany River, and a large trade sprang up by the avenue of the roads and the lake. Iron- and glass- ware, flour and grain, salt, whisky, and bacon, were some of the principal articles of trade. The Lakes in the War of 1812.— The town of Erie became a point of importance in 1812, after the second war with Great Britain began. The great lakes were at first in full possession of the enemy, and all the settlements along their shores were in danger. To change this state of affairs the government decided that a fleet should be built, and Erie was selected as the place of building. Building a Fleet. — In the summer of 1812 a naval officer named Daniel Dobbins was sent to Erie with orders to build vessels, and by winter he had a small fleet well under way. Captain Oliver H. Perry was sent there in March, 1813, to command the fleet. He found much still to be done, and set to work with energy to do it. Trees w^ere cut in the forest, and in a short time their timber formed part of ships. The iron for the vessels was brought from Pittsburg by boat and wagon, and cannon and balls were transported from the same place. Perry's Victory. — In August the fleet was ready for action, and Perr}^ set sail in search of the enemy. On the 10th of September the two fleets met and fought, and by four o'clock in the afternoon every vessel in the British fleet had surrendered. Before sunset Perry sent to General Harrison his famous despatch, "We have met the enemy, and they arc ours." Philadelphia Defended. — Pennsylvania had little more to do in this war. British war-ships entered the 336 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA Delaware and Chesapeake Bays in the summer of 1814, and volunteers were called out. Earthworks were thrown up on the roads leading to Philadelphia, and a large number of men were soon under arms. The enemy did not enter Pennsylvania, but several thousand men were kept in the camps along the Delaware until the close of the year, when all danger was at an end. Slavery in Pennsylvania. — We may conclude this review of political affairs by stating what was done on Pkrry on Lake Erie the subject of slavery. Negro slaves were kept in Penn- sylvania from its origin until the close of the Revolution. This was against the wish of many of the people. The Friends and the German religious societies protested against the system, but it was kept up by British power until the war brought that power to an end. The trade in slaves was too valuable to the merchants of Great Britain to be given up. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 337 Abolition of Slavery. — A law was passed on March 1, 1780, for the gradual abolition of slavery in Penn- sylvania. The slaves then held were to continue such until their death, but all the children of slaves born after that date were to become free at the age of twenty- eight. The number of slaves soon began to decrease. In 1790 there were 3737; in 1810, 795; in 1830, 67. In the census of 1850 one name still remained on the roll. Those slaves who had grown old in bondage were con- tent to end their lives in the service of their masters. 6. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT. Steamboat Inventors. — So far we have paid attention mainly to political matters. Now something needs to, be said about the great industrial development of the State. It is of interest to know that the first experi- ments in America with steamboats were made on the Delaware. John Fitch placed a small steamboat on this river in 1787, and in 1790 had a passenger-boat running on the river at the speed of seven miles an hour. It was a crude kind of boat, moved by oar-like paddles. Robert Fulton, who invented the first suc- cessful steamboat, was born in Pennsylvania, and Oliver Evans made himself famous by his experiments on steam-wagons, one of which, intended for a steam dredge, he ran througli the streets of Philadelphia many years before the days of the railroad locomotive. Canals. — Pennsylvania was one of the first States to consider the making of canals. In 1769 a survey for a canal between the Delaware and Chesapeake Rays was ordered by the American Philosophical Society of Philadelphia. About the s-ame time the assembly of 22 338 HISTORY OF PEXNSYLVAMA the province had a survey made for a canal from the Delaware River to Pittsburg and Eric, a distance of five hundred and eighty-two miles. This canal project was strongly approved by the .governor, but was beyond the power of the province to carry out. At that time Europe had no canal of such a length. Still earlier, in 1762, a survey for a canal from the Schuylkill to the Susquehanna had been made. This was the line after- wards followed by the Union Canal, begun in 1791 and completed in 1827. Various other canals were begun at a later date, the Schuylkill in 1810, the Lehigh in 1818, the Conestoga in 1825, and the Pennsylvania in 1827. This last-named canal, which stretched far across the State, and was in conformity with the project entertained over fifty years before, was four hundred and twenty-six miles in the total length of its several sections. In 1840 there were twelve hundred and eighty miles of canal in the State. Railroads. — The progress of canals was checked by that of railroads, which began shortly before 1830. The first railroad constructed in this country was a short road with wooden rails, built in 1806 in a quarry near Chester, Pennsylvania. In 1827 a railroad nine miles long was constructed from Mauch Chunk to the coal- mines in its vicinity. The next railroad in the State was the Carbondale road, extending from the Delaware and Hudson Canal to the mines, and on this was placed in 1829 the first locomotive ever used in this country, the "Stourbridge Lion," imported from England. By the end of 1835 the railroads of Pennsylvania mostly built to transport coal, were three hundred and eighteen miles in length. At that time there were INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 339 but one thousand miles in the whole country. The Philadelphia and Columbia Railroad (eighty-two miles) and the Portage Railroad (thirty-six miles) were opened in 1834. These, with the canals, fojmed a continuous line extending from Philadelphia to Pittsburg. This was superseded by the Pennsylvania Central Railroad, completed in 1854. By that date railroads were widely extended through the State. Anthracite Coal. — The early development of canals and railroads in Pennsylvania was due to its mines of coal and iron, and of these something must here be said. This State is remarkable for its great deposits of anthracite coal, which are far richer than any in Europe or elsewhere in America. This kind of coal, "stone coal" it has been called, is much harder than bituminous coal and not so easily burned, so that it took many years to bring it into general use. Coal Discoveries.— Anthracite coal was discovered in the Wyoming Valley in 1768, and was first used by two blacksmiths who had set up a forge in that section. The coal of the Lehigh region was found in 1791 by a hunter named Philip Ginter, who, while hunting on Bear Mountain, nine miles west of Mauch Chunk, struck his foot against a black stone and saw pieces of the same substance in the earth about the roots of a fallen tree. He had heard of the stone coal of Wyoming Vallej^ and took a piece of this home with him. It proved to be pure anthracite coal. In 1793 the LehigK Coal-Mine Company was formed, but it took years to bring its coal into use. The Schuylkill coal was also discovered by a huntei. This man, Nicho Allen, camped one night in 1790 under 340 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA a ledge of rocks, building his fire on some pieces of black stone which had fallen from above. He woke in the night and found them red-hot, and burning. Five years afterwards the blacksmiths of that region were using this black rock in their furnaces. The Burning of Coal.— In 1803 the Lehigh Coal-Mine Company sent some boat-loads of coal to Philadelphia. It was hard to find a purchaser, but the city at length bought it to use at the water-works. No one there knew how to burn it, and in the end it was broken up and spread on the public foot-walks. William Morris took a wagon-load of Schuylkill coal to Philadelphia in 1810, but no one was willing to buy it. In 1812 Colonel Shoemaker took nine loads to the city. Some of these were sold to blacksmiths, and one to the Fair mount Nail and Wire Works. Here an earnest effort was made to burn it. A good fire was built in the furnace and the coal thrown in. For half a day the men spent time in "poking and raking and stirring and blowing," but the coal would not burn. At dinner-time, worn out and disgusted, they slammed the doors of the furnace shut and went home to their meals. When they came back, to their astonishment, the furnace was red-hot and the coal at a white heat. All it had wanted was a draught from below. It was the hottest fire they had ever seen, and from that time there was no trouble in selling anthracite coal. Some from the Lehigh region, which was brought to the city in 1814, was sold to the wire-mill at twenty- one dollars a ton. Bituminous Coal. — The use of bituminous coal, which is very abundant in the western part of the State, INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 341 began soon after settlers reached there. It was first burned by the blacksmiths, and afterwards in furnaces, and later great quantities of it were sent down the Ohio and Mississippi Rivers to the towns of the West and South. Iron= Works. — The working of iron from the iron- mines of the State began at Coventry Forge in Chester County, in 1720. There were four blast-furnaces in operation in 1728, and others were rapidly added. It was not until 1839 that anthracite coal was successfully used to reduce iron ores, and from that time the pro- duction of iron very rapidly increased. Oil on the Water. — There is one other great natural product of Pennsylvania of which something must be said. When the whites first reached the western part of the State they found that the Seneca Indians had long been in the habit of visiting certain streams in that section to perform religious ceremonies. An oily scum covered the surface of these streams, and it was the custom of the Indians to set fire to this. As it flamed upward, the savages ran along the banks of the stream, dancing and singing. Oil from the Earth. — The white settlers first obtained this oil by dipping blankets into the water and then pressing out the oil. It was also found to exude from the earth, and finally, about 1860, men began to sink artesian wells, in the hope of finding oil deep in the earth. They were very successful in this, and the pro- duction and refining of petroleum or rock oil have grown into immense industries. From some of the wells came up great quantities of gas which could be burned, and this was conducted in pipes to Pittsburg 342 fflSTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA and other cities, where it was long used in houses anA workshops in place of coal. Manufacturing Cities. — The abundance of iron, coal, oil, and other products of nature had much to do with the industrial history of Pennsylvania, which has taken a leading position among the manufacturijng States of the Union. Its largest cities, Philadelphia and Pitts- burg, rank high among the centres of industry of the Oil Derricks at M |)..\ ,i :■, 1'a. world, while Scranton, Reading, Pottsville, and other cities of the coal and iron regions are active in manu- facturing industries. Colonial Production. — During the colonial period activity in manufacture was prevented by British laws, only some simple articles for home use being made. There were saw and grist-mills, linen and woollen goods were woven at home, and many vessels were built in Ihe ship-yards on the Delaware, but' it was not until after the Revolution that production became active. INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 343 The abundance of iron ore was early discovered, but the manufacture of iron was held in check by the laws of Great Britain, and little could be clone until the province had become a State and its people were free to make for themselves the goods they needed. Mines and Workshops. — During the period of its existence as a State the progress of Pennsylvania in mining and manufactures has been very great. The yield of its mines of coal and iron has been enormous, its oil-wells have supplied the world with a valuable product, and its workshops have developed until they have no superiors in the world. In the workshops of Pittsburg everything that can be made from iron is produced, while Philadelphia is celebrated throughout the world for the variety, abundance, and value of its manufactured goods. The Industries of Philadelphia. — In its early history Philadelphia was noted for its active shipping interests, in which it surpassed any other city of the New World. This supremacy it has not held. New York and Boston being far better situated for commerce. But in manu- factures it has grown to be one of the greatest cities of the world, having an enormous ship-building establish- ment, immense workshops for the manufacture of locomotives and other fabrics of iron and steel, woollen and cotton goods, carpets, refined sugar, and many other products, so that from end to end it is a great hive of industry and a home of comfort and abundance. Book=Publishing. — For a long period after the Revo- lution Philadelphia was the great book-publishing centre of the country. There were all the great publish- ing houses, and there the leading magazines were issued. 344 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA To these most of the able young writers of the country contributed. Charles Brockden Brown, the first suc- cessful American novelist, was a Philadelphian. It was long thought that no magazine could succeed unless published in Philadelphia. Of late years, however, Philadelphia has lost its eminence in this direction, though it is still an active publishing centre. Early Schools. — The people of Pennsylvania have ever been the warm friends and advocates of education, and in the early years of the colony provision was made for the instruction of its youth. Under a law enacted in the first year of the province, a school was opened at Philadelphia in 1683. This school was taught by Enoch Flowers, and in 1689 the Friends opened a school at Philadelphia, for which William Penn selected the motto, "Good instruction is better than riches." This school still exists as the William Penn Charter School. Higher Education. — In 1736 the "Log College," a classical school, was established in Bucks County, and thirteen years later a similar school was opened at New London, Chester County. The first school exclusively for the education of girls was established at Bethlehem, in 1749, by the Moravians, who also opened a boy's school, called Nazareth Hall, at Nazareth, in 1785. To the German Baptists, usually known as Bunkers, belongs the credit of having opened at Ephrata, Lan- caster County, in 1740, the first Sabbath-school in America. Free Schools. — The State Constitution of 1790 made it the duty of the Legislature to provide schools for the free instruction of the children of the poor, but no INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENT 345 law establishing schools for the free education of all classes was passed until 1834. In the following year a vigorous effort was made by the enemies of this system for the repeal of the law. In this crisis Mr. Thaddeus Stevens, a member of the Legislature, came to the rescue, making speeches throughout the State and rousing the press to the support of the free-school system. His efforts were successful, and common-school education has since that time existed in Pennsylvania. The system of supervision by county superintendents was adopted in 1854, and the first State normal school was founded in 1857. At present Pennsylvania has thirteen normal and more than twenty-eight thousand common schools, while the pupils on the school rolls number more than one million two hundred thousand. Banking Institutions. — In the financial development of the country Pennsylvania long held a leading place. The Bank of North America, the first bank in the United States, was founded at Philadelphia in 1781. It was due to the genius of Robert Morris^ the great financier of the Revolution. Ten years afterwards, in 1791, the first Bank of the United States was incor- porated at Philadelphia. In the following year the United States Mint was established in that city, and the coinage of money began. The first United States bank closed in 1811, and a second one was chartered in 181G to run for twenty years. In 1832 a new charter was applied for, but President Jackson vetoed the bill, and the bank went out of existence in 183G. The handsome edifice of white marble, of Grecian architecture, built for it in 346 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA 1819-24, is now used as the United States Custom- Hoiise and also as the Sub-Treasury at Philadelphia. The Bank of North America, the oldest banking insti- ll. S. Bank, now tul riiiLAutLi'HiA CusTOM-Horss, tution in the New AVorld, is still actively e»^.g?gcd in business. 7. RECENT HISTORY. Since the war of 1812-15 Pennsylvania has g'own rapidly in wealth and population, its record presenting few of those striking evc^nts which attract the attention of the historian, but being marked by the steady suc- cession of those steps of industrial and social progress upon which the comfort and happiness of mankind depend. Mob Rule. — For years during this period the city of Philadelphia sank to a low level as a place of peaceful . RECENT HISTORY 347 residence, being at the mercy of mobs and organized bands of rioters. This state of affairs continued for a long time, its worst phase being reached between the years 1840 and 1850. The Fire Companies. — Before 1825 the fire companies had been composed of respectable people, but after that date men of rough character made their way into them, and for many years they were centres of riot and disorder. Fights between rival companies were com- mon, and buildings were often set on fire to furnish an opportunity for a fight. Dwellings would be allowed to burn while rival firemen were fighting for the posses- sion of a fire-plug, goods were ruined by water thrown without discretion, and houses were plundered by thieves in the dress of firemen. Dangerous Rioters. — In addition to the fire com- panies and their lawless retainers there were other gangs of rioters, calling themselves Schuylkill Rangers and other names, who made certain districts unsafe to live in. It was dangerous to be out at night, as these gangs indulged in desperate fights with one another, and even the boys imitated them by stone fights, which made the streets unsafe. The police force was weak and inefficient, and it was not until after the Civil War that respect for law and order began to prevail. The Negroes Attacked. — During this period the negroes of the city were frequently attacked by mobs of the ignorant and brutal classes. On one of these occasions, in 1835, the negroes were hunted for two nights, their houses burned, many of them injured, and most of them driven away from the city. In 1838, Pennsylvania Hall, where some women were holding 348 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA an anti-slavery meeting, was set on fire and burned to the ground. A church and a shelter for colored children were also burned. There were similar riots in 1842 and 1849, in which halls and churches were burned, the authorities making no effort to protect the perse- cuted negroes. The Native American Riots. — The worst riots of the city were those of 1844, when the ''Native Americans" — a society opposed to the immigration of foreigners — attacked the Irish Catholic population of the city. These riots continued at intervals for several months, and were attended with frequent and destructive street- fights. The militia were called out, but were fought by the mob, who had obtained cannon, which they dragged with muffled wheels through the dark streets to fire on the soldiers. Before the outbreak ended many lives had been lost, while thirty houses, three churches, and a convent were burned. The District System. — This state of affairs was partly due to the division of the city into districts and bor- oughs, each with its own laws and officials. The city itself occupied a small area, extending from Vine to South Street and from the Delaware to the Schuylkill, — two miles long by one mile wide. Around it were the districts of South wark, Northern Liberties, Moyamen- sing, Spring Garden, etc., and various boroughs and townships, there being twenty-nine divisions in all. Consolidation. — This state of affairs continued until 1854, when a consolidation act was passed which did away with the older system, and brought all the divisions within the city, which was extended to the limits of the county. Since then it has been much more RECENT HISTORY 349 easy to govern it, and the period of riot and disorder has passed away. A Pennsylvania President. — In 1856, James Buchan- an, a native of Franklin County, Pennsylvania, was elec- ted President of the United States. The country was at peace, though in a state of great excitement over the slavery question, when he took his seat. When he retired, March 4, 1861, it was on the verge of war. The Call for Troops. — On the 15th of April President Lincoln issued his first call for troops. At once, in every part of the State, men hastened to enlist, and on the morning of the 18th five companies from Pennsyl- vania marched into Washington, being the first of the volunteers to reach the National capital, which at that time was thought to be in great danger. In ten days after the date of the President's proclamation twenty- five Pennsylvania regiments, num- bering more than twenty-five thou- sand men, were ready to take part in the war. Some Leading Pennsylvanians. — Simon Cameron, Secretary of War, a native of Pennsylvania, advised the President to call out half a million of men and use every effort to overthrow the rebellion at the start. Thaddeus Stevens, a member of Congress from Penn- sylvania, urged the calling out of a million of men. They both held that it would be wise to set free and arm the slaves, that they might be used in the war. Andrew Curtin, the governor of the State, was one of Thaddeus Stevens. 350 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA the most active of the Northern governors in supplying the government with men and materials for the war. The Reserve Corps. — On the 15th of May a bill was passed by the Legislature providing for the enlistment of a body of troops known afterwards as the Pennsyl- vania Reserves. They numbered fifteen regiments, and were called into the field immediately after the battle of Bull Run, when AVashington was again in danger from the enemy. They served with distin- guished gallantry in the fiercest battles of the war. At the head of the Reserves was Major-General McCall; its brigadiers were Generals Meade, Reynolds, and Ord, all of whom became famous in the war. The Refreshment Saloons. — Philadelphia did a noble service in the great struggle by feeding the weary and hungry regiments who passed through that city on their way to AVashington. On the 27th of May, 1801, the Union Volunteer Refreshment Saloon was opened, and the Cooper Shop Volunteer Refreshment Com- mittee was soon after organized. Each regiment found awaiting it water for washing and bathing, clean towels, an abundance of well-cooked food, and numbers of patriotic attendants. These saloons were kept open during the war, and fed more than a million of men. A hospital for the sick was also established, and the generous people of Phila- delphia won the warm thanks of the President and of the governors of the Eastern and Northern States for their aid to the soldiers. Chambersburg Raided. — The first invasion of Pennsyl- vania took place on the 10th of October, 1802, shortly after the battle of Antietam, when a party of Confederate RECENT HISTORY 351 cavalry, under General Stuart, made a raid through Franklin County, burning the railroad buildings at Chambersburg and destroying a large amount of war material. Battle of Gettysburg. — In the following summer the wholp Confederate army of Virginia invaded the State, within whose limits was fought one of the greatest battles of modern times. This was the famous battle of Gettysburg, the turning-point in the great struggle for the existence of the nation. What took place at Gettysburg belongs to our general history. For an account of the battle, see the preceding "History of the United States." General Lee's hope was to defeat the army of the North and occupy the rich city of Philadelphia, which would have been a terrible disaster to the Union cause. Small parties of Confederate cavalry seized on Carlisle, York, and other places, burned railway bridges, and did other damage. To prevent them from crossing the Sus- quehanna, the great railway bridge at Columbia was burned by Union troops. But the defeat at Gettysburg put an end to General Lee's hopes and plans, and on the night of the 3d of July what was left of his army retreated in haste to- wards the Potomac. More than thirty thousand of his soldiers had been kined, wounded, or remained as captives. The Burning of Chambersburg. — A third invasion of Pennsylvania took place in July, 1864, when a party of cavalry from General Early's army made a rapid raid through the western part of the State, the town of Chambersburg being again entered. The people were 352 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA ordered to pay two hundred thousand dollars in gold or half a million in paper money if they would save their town from ruin. This they were not able to do, and the town was set on fire, no time being allowed for the removal of the sick or infirm. The flames destroyed two-thirds of the houses., the loss to the people being estimated at two million dollars. The Sanitary Fair. — On June 7, 1864, there was opened at Philadelphia a great fair for the benefit of the Sanitary Commission of the army. The buildings were erected on Logan Scjuare, which they completely covered, and a large sum of money was raised for the use of that noble work of benevolence. Soldiers' Orphans. — Governor Curtin had early pledged the State to take care of the children of volun- teer soldiers who might fall in the war, and the Legis- lature passed a law for this purpose in 1864 In con- sequence soldiers' orphans' schools were established in difTerent parts of the State, where the children of fallen patriots were taken care of and educated, and at the age of sixteen were put in positions to learn trades or were given business situations. Pennsylvania in the War. — Dur- ing the four years of the war Penn- sylvania sent to the field two hundred and seventy regiments and several companies, the whole numbering three hundred and eighty-seven thousand two hundred and eighty-four men. In addition to the generals in command of the Reserve Corps, already Gen. George G- Meade. RECENT HISTORY 353 named, Pennsylvania supplied several other officers who became of great prominence in the army. Of these may be named Generals George B. McClellan and Winfield S. Hancock, both of whom afterwards became candidates for the office of President of the United States, General Meade, who was in command at the battle of Gettysburg, General Reynolds, who died on the field in that desperate struggle, and General Geary, w^ho was elected Governor of Pennsylvania in 1866. The State Constitution. — In 1701 the Assembly of the province of Pennsylvania adopted a constitution, to which William Penn gave his assent. In it the prin- ciples of American liberty were clearly outlined, some of its provisions being similar to those of the Constitu- tion of the United States. In 1776, shortly after the Declaration of Independence, a State constitution was formed, as already stated, and another in 1790, based in a measure on that just before formulated for the United States. This held good until 1838, when a new constitution was adopted, which was amended in the years 1850, 1857, and 1864. In 1873 a constitutional convention was held, in which the present constitution of the State was prepared and adopted. The Centennial Exposition. — As the years moved on and the hundredth anniversary of American independ- ence came near, it was resolved to celebrate this im- portant anniversary by a great World's Fair; and as the Declaration of Independence had been made and signed in Philadelphia, that city was selected as the proper site for the celebration. Three years before, in 1873, a large banking-house in Philadelphia had 23 354 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA failed, and a business panic begun from which the country was still suffering. This interfered in part with the success of the fair, but it proved to be one of the largest and most important exhibitions of the work of human art and industry ever held. The buildings were erected in Fairmount Park, and covered a great extent of ground, the Main Hall cover- ing twcnt}^ acres. Many millions of persons visited the fair, and many valuable lessons were learned from it. One of these was that America was far behind Europe in art work. Since then there has been a great development in American art, which had its origin in the art display at the Centennial Exposition. But it was found that in machinery and invention America had nothing to learn from Europe, but much to teach it. The Railroad Strike. — In 1877, the year after the Centennial Fair, great strikes broke out in Pennsyl- vania. The business depression which began in 1873 had been felt by workmen in a lowering of wages. In 1877 several railroad companies reduced the wages of their men. The strike that followed extended through most of the Northern States, and for two weeks the trains were prevented by the strikers from moving. A strike of the coal-miners of Pennsylvania also took place, and in all about one hundred and fifty thousand men stopped work. Rioting followed, much proj)erty was destroyed, and a nund)er of lives were lost. The Riot at Pittsburg. — The worst of the riots was at Pittsburg. Here the State militia were attacked by a furious mob, and great numbers of freight cars were plundered and burned. The railroad buildings were RECENT HISTORY 355 set on fire, the total loss being nearly three millions or dollars. Finally United States troops had to be sent to Pittsburg to suppress the riot. During the outbreak nearly one hundred persons were killed. The Homestead Strike. — We have one more serious trike to speak of,— that which took place at the steel- works at Homestead, near Pittsburg, in 1892. Detec- tives were hired by the proprietors to protect their works, and these were fired upon and taken prisoners by the strikers, men being killed on both sides. The militia of the State had to be called out, and the works guarded for several weeks, before order was restored. The loss was great to the owners and the workmen, and the State was put to a large expense. Johnstown Flood. — The most terrible disaster ever known in the United States took place at Johnstown, a busy manufacturing city in the central region of the State, on May 31, 1889. The Conemaugh River was flooded by the bursting of a large dam several miles above the city, which was completely destroyed by the rushing torrent. More than two thousand persons were drowned and ten million dollars' worth of property were destroyed. Everywhere throughout the State the people gave freely for the aid of the sufferers, and for months charity and sympathy seemed to be their only thoughts. Anniversary Occajions. — The centennial celebration of 187G was soon followed by other important celebra- tions. In 1882 came the two-hundredth anniversary of the landing of William Penn, and this was celebrated at Philadelphia with suitable ceremonies. In 1887 arrived the hundredth anniversary of the adoption o-;' 356 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA the Constitution of the United States, which was made a great occasion at Philadelphia, being celebrated by a series of grand processions, military and industrial. Electrical Exhibition. — In 1884 an International Electrical Exhibition was held in Philadelphia, in which all the discoveries in this art made up to that time were displayed. It was the most important ex- hibit of electrical inventions that had been held up to that date. Washington Monument. — In 1897 a grand equestrian statue of George Washington was erected at the en- trance of Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, by the Society of the Cincinnati. The dedication was made the occa- sion of grand military and bicycle processions, presided over by President McKinley. The monument is one of the finest and most artistic in the United States. The State Capitol Burned. — The State Capitol at Harrisburg, the corner-stone of which was laid May 31, 1819, and the main building completed in 1821, caught fire on February 2, 1897, and was burned to the ground. Fortunately, the most valuable of the public records were saved. A strong effort was made to have the State capital removed to Philadelphia, but it was decided to make no change, but to erect a new Capitol on the ground which had been occupied by the old one. This has since been done, a very handsome building being erected. Restoration of Independence Hall. — The anniversary celebrations mentioned were followed by a desire to restore Independence Hall to the condition in which it existed during the Revolution. This restoration was completed by 1900, all the later buildings being RECENT HISTORY 357 removed and the rooms brought back to their old state, and supplied^ as far as possible^ with their old furniture. Liberty Bell. — In this hall is carefully preserved the most valuable historical relic alike of Pennsylvania and of the United States, the old bell which rang out to the world the story of American independence in 1776. This bell, received in Philadelphia in 1752, bears the strikingly significant inscription, "Proclaim liberty throughout all the land, to all the inhabitants thereof." It was last rung on the morning of July 8, Independence Hall. 1835, when it cracked while being tolled in memory of Chief Justice Marshall. Since then the bell has several times left the city, having been sent to the exhibitions at New Orleans, Chicago, Atlanta, Charleston, and St. Louis, at which places it formed a principal centre of attraction. Many Philadelphians object to its being again permitted to leave its resting place in Independ- ence Hall, they fearing that some accident might befall it. 358 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA The Commercial Museums. — On June 1, 1897, an important event took place at Philadelphia, in the opening of the Commercial Museums, a collection of industrial products from all parts of the world obtained from the Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893, and from many other sources. This institution was the first of its kind in the world, and has proved of the utmost advantage to the merchants of Philadelphia and other localities. The National Export Exposition. — Several large build- ings were erected for the Commercial Museums in 1899, on the west bank of the Schuylkill, and there was held in them, during the autumn of that year, a National Export Exposition, which was visited by more than a million people, and made an imposing display of the products of American manufacturers. Commercial and Political Conventions. — ^During the exposition there was held in its hall a Commercial Congress, attended by delegates from all parts of the world, and of high commercial advantage. The great auditorium of these buildings was used in June, 1900, by the National Republican Convention, for the nomi- nation of candidates for President and Vice-President, the first convention of this kind that had been held in the East for many years. On this occasion William McKinlcy and Theodore Roosevelt were nominated. Political Conditions. — The activity of manufacturing industries in Pennsylvania and the favor in which the principle of high tariff was held gave the Republican party a large majority in that State, and thus favored the growth of political dominance in the party leaders. This was especially the case from the date of the elec- RECENT HISTORY 359 tion of Matthew S. Quay to the United States Senate in 1887 to his death in 1904. What is called the "politi- cal machine" reached its highest development in the hands of Quay, who ruled the party like an autocrat, though many charges of corrupt dealing were made against him. A Popular Revolt. — After the death of Quay his suc- cessors sought to keep up the system of "Boss rule" and to control the elections and the legislature, but the people rose in revolt against them, and in the November election of 1905 the cause of reform won an important victory. The popular feeling grew so strong that Governor Pennypacker called an extra session of the legislature to meet in January, 1906. As a result a number of important reform bills were passed, de- signed especially to promote honesty in elections. These included the registration of voters, direct voting for candidates at primary elections, etc. The Civil Service principle was adopted for cities of the first class. Corruption in Philadelphia. — The revolt above men- tioned had its origin in Philadelphia, corruption in awarding contracts and granting privileges having grown so flagrant that this city came to be looked upon as the worst governed in the world. Reform move- ments seemed hopeless until the spring of 1905, when John Weaver, the Mayor, refused to sanction a corrupt deal with the company leasing the gas-works. The people rose to his support and in a few weeks' time the power of the "machine" was overthrown. In the fall election the reform party won a notable victory, but the party formerly in control regained its suprem- acy in the spring election of 1907. 360 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA The New State Capitol. ^The most striking example of dishonesty in public affairs had to do with the new State Capitol, at Harrisburg, which was built at a cost of $4,000,000, while about $9,000,000 was expended in its furnishing and decorations. When this enormous waste of the public funds became known there was a general feeling of indignation, and the legislature appointed a committee to make a stringent investiga- tion. Evidence of fraud and immense overcharge was found in all parts of the building, and in a legal prose- cution of the men chiefly concerned they were found guilty and sentenced to fine and imprisonment. Development in Philadelphia. — The "Quaker City," as Philadelphia is often called, has grown with great rapidity and for many years w^as the largest city in the United States. With more than a million inhabitants at the census of 1900, it has gained the name of the "city of homes," from its great number of comfortable dwellings for families of moderate means. The city is well lighted, has an excellent system of electric cars, and in Fairmount Park has the finest public park in the country. It is now being" improved by handsome boulevards and a magnificent Parkway, from the City Hall to the Park, to be bordered by splendid buildings and decorated with trees and shrubbery. Population of State and Large Cities. — In 1910, Penn- sylvania ranked second among the States, having a population of 7,665,111. The population of its larger cities was : Philadelphia, 1,549,008 ; Pittsburg (includ- ing Allegheny), 533,905 ; Scranton, 129,867 ; Reading, 96,071 ; Wilkesbarre, 67,105 ; Harrisburg, 04,186 ; Johnstown, 55,482 ; and Altoona, 52,127. COUNTIES IN PENNSYLVANIA 361 COUNTIES IN PENNSYLVANIA. Counties. Chester Bucks Philadelphia. . . . Lancaster York Cumberland. . . . Berks Northampton. . . Bedford Northumberland Westmoreland. . Washington. . . . Fayette Franldin Montgomery. . . . Dauphin Luzerne Huntingdon. . . . Alleghany Delaware Mifflin Somerset Lycoming Greene Waj^ne Armstrong Adams Butler Beaver Centre Crawford Erie Mercer Venango Warren Indiana Jeffer.son McKean Potter Tioga When formed . 16S2 1682 1682 1729 1749 1750 1752 1752 1771 1772 1773 1781 1783 1784 1784 1785 1786 1787 1788 1789 1789 1795 1796 1796 1796 1800 1800 1800 1800 1800 1800 1800 ;800 1800 1800 1803 1804 1804 1804 1804 County towns. West Chester. Doylestown. . . Philadelphia. . Lancaster. . . . York Carlisle Reading Easton Bedford Sunbury Greensburg. . . Washington. . Uniontown. . . Chambersburg Norristown. . . Harrisburg. . . Wilkesbarre. . Huntingdon. . Pitt.sburg Media... Lewistown . . . Somerset Williamsport . Waynesburg. . Honesdale. . . . Kittanning. . . Gettysburg. . . . Butler Beaver Belief onte Meadville Erie Mercer Franklin Warren Indiana Brookville. Smethport. . . . Coudersport. . Wellsborough. When laid out. 1786 1778 1682 1730 1741 1751 1748 1738 1766 1772 1782 1782 1767 1764 1784 1785 1783 1767 1765 1849 1790 1795 1796 1796 1826 1804 1787 1803 1791 1795 1795 1795 1803 1795 1795 1805 1830 1807 1807 1806 362 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA COUNTIES IN PENNSYLVANIA (Continued). Counties. When formed. County towns When laid out. Cambria 1804 Clearfield Bradford Susquehanna. Schuylkill. . . . Lehigh Lebanon Columbia Union Pike Perry Juniata Monroe Clarion Chnton Wyoming. . . . Carbon Elk Blair Sullivan Forest Fulton Lawrence Montour Snyder Cameron Lackawanna. . 1804 1810 1810 1811 1812 1813 1813 1813 1814 1820 1831 1836 1839 1839 1842 1843 1843 1846 1847 1848 1850 1850 1850 1855 1860 1878 Ebensburg Clearfield Towanda Montrose Pottsville Allentown Lebanon Bloomsburg. . . . Lewisburg Milford New Bloom fiekl Mifflintown Stroudsburg. . . . Clarion Lookhaven Tunkhannock. . Mauch Chunk. . Ridgway Holliday.sburg. . Laporte Tionesta McConnelLsburg New Castle . . . . Danville Middleburg. . . . Emporium Scranton 1805 1805 1812 1811 1816 1751 1750 1802 1785 1800 1822 1791 1806 1840 1833 1790 1815 1843 1820 1850 1852 1796 1802 1790 1800 1861 1840 GOVERNORS OF THE SWEDISH AND DUTCH COLONIES ON THE DELAWARE, OF THE ENGLISH PROVINCE AND OF THE STATE OF PENNSYLVANIA. 1638-41. Peter Minuit. 1641-43. Peter Hollender. 1643-53. John Printz. DUTCH. 1655-57. John Paul Jacquct. 1658-63. 1657-59. Jacob Alrichs* (city). SWEDISH. 1653-54. .John Pappegoya. 1654-55. John Claude Rysingh. William Beekman (Company "> . *Colony divided into city and company, 1657. GOVERNORS 363 1659-63. Alexander d'Hinoy- 1663-64. Alexander d'Hinoy- ossa (city). ossa.* 1657-58. Goeran Van Dyck (company) . ENGLISH. 1664-67. Richard NichoUs. 1667-73. Francis Lovelace, DUTCH. 1673-74. Peter Alrichs, Deputy Governor. ENaiJSH. 1674-81. Sir Edmund Andros. WILLIAM PENN, PROPRIETOR. 1681-82. William Markham, 1695-99. William Markham (un- Deputy Governor. der restored pro- 1682-84. William Penn. prietorship). 1684-86. The Council (Thomas Deputy Governor.. Lloyd, President). 1699-1 701. William Penn. 1686-88. Five Commissioners 1701-03. Andrew Hamilton. appointed by Penn. Lieutenant Governor. 1688-90. John Blackwell, 1703-04. The Council (Edward. Deputy Governor. Shippeu, President) . 1690-91. The Council (Thomas 1704r-09. John Evans, Lloyd, President). Lieutenant Governor.. 1691-92. Thomas Lloyd, 1709-17. Charles Gookin, Deputy Governor: Lieutenant Governor. 1693-95. Benjamin Fletcher, 1717-18. Sir William Keith, Royal Governor of New York. Lieutenant Governor. JOHN, RICHARD, AND THOMAS PENN, PROPRIETORS. 1718-26. Sir William Keith, 1736-38. The Council (James Lieutenant Governor. Logan, President). 1726-36. Patrick Gordon, 1738-47. George Thomas, Lieutenant Governor. Lieutenant Governor. *Colony united, 1663. 364 HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA JOHN PENX D. 1746. RICHARD AND THOMAS, PROPRIETORS. 1747-48. The Council (Anthony 1756-50. William Denny, Palmer, President) . 1748-54. James Hamilton, 1759-63. Lieutenant Governor. 1754-56. Robert H. Morris, 1763-71. Deputy Governor. Lieutenant Governor. James Hamilton, Lieutenant Governor. John Penn, son of Richard, Lieutenant Governor. RICHARD PENN D. 1771. JOHN AND THOMAS, PROPRIETORS. 1771. The Council (James Ham- 1773-76. John Penn, ilton. President). 1771-73. Richard Penn, brother of John, Lieutenant Governor. Lieutenant Governor. UNDER FIRST STATE CONSTITUTION. 1776-77. Committee of Safety (Benjamin Franklin, Chairman) . 1777-78. Thomas Wharton, Jr., President of Sup. Ex. Council. 1778-George Bryan, vice Whar- ton, deceased. 1778-81. Joseph Reed, President of Sup. Ex. Council. 1781-82. William Moore. President of Sup. Ex. Council. 1782-85. John Dickinson, President of Sup. Ex. Council. 1785-88. Benjamin Franklin, President of Sup. Ex. Council. 1788-90. Thomas Mifflin, President of Sup. Ex. Council. UNDER CONSTITUTION OF 1790. 1790-99. Thomas Mifflin. 1799-1808. Thomas McKean. 1808-17. Simon Snyder. 1817-20. William Findlay. 1820-23. .Joseph Hiester. 1823-29. John A. Shulze. 1829-35. George Wolf. 1835-39. Joseph Ritner. UNDER CONSTITUTION OF 1838. 1839-45. David R. Porter. 1855-58. James Pollock. 1845-48. Francis R. Shunk. 18.58-61. William F. Packer. 1848-52. WiUiam F. Johnston, 1861-67. Andrew G. Curtin. vice Shunk, resigned. 1867-73. John W. Geary. 1852-55 William Bigler. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 365 UNDER CONSTITUTION OF 1873. 1873-79. John F. Ilartranft. 1895-99. Daniel H. Hastings. 1879-83. Henry M. Hoyt. 1899-1903. William A. Stone. 1883-87. Robert E. Pattison. 1903-07. S. W. Pennypacker. 1887-91. James A. Beaver. 1907-11. Edwin S. Stuart. 1891-95. Robert E. Pattison. 1911-15. John K. Tener. CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE OF INTERESTING EVENTS NOT MENTIONED IN THE PRECEDING HISTORY. 1642. Lutheran catechism translatevn as "The Blizzard," began March 11, 1891. The Academy of Natural Sciences' expedition to North Greenland, under Lienteuant Peary, made important discoveries. Drexel Institute of Art, Science, and Indus- try dedicated. 1895. The Philadelphia Commercial Bourse opened. 374 . HISTORY OF PENNSYLVANIA 1897. The Commercial Section of the Philadelphia Museum opened. Strikers in the coal region fired on by sheriff's deputies; many killed and wounded. State Capitol burned at Harrisburg. Washington Monument erected at Phila- delphia by the Society of the Cincinnati. 1898. The National Guard of Pennsylvania called out b}' the National government to assist in the war with Spain. 1900. The National Republican Convention for the nomination of candidates for President and Mce-President of the United States held at Philadelphia. 1901. A new United States ]\Iint building erected in Philadelphia. Work begun on the filtration system for supplying Phila- delphia with pure water. 1903. A subway for Electric cars under IMarket Street begun; to connect with elevated roads in West Philadelphia. 1905. Great uprising of the people against corrupt party rule. 1906. An extra session of the Legislature passed many reform bills. The new State Capitol completed. 1907. A broad parkway from the City Hall to Fairmount Park begun in Philadelphia. Pittsburg and Alleghany consoli- dated into one city. 1908. The Philadelphia Market Street subway completed. 1909. The filtration system completed and all of Philadelphia supplied with pure water. 1910. Arrests and convictions of councilmen and bankers of Pittsburg for graft and bribery. Convictions and im- prisonment for fraud in furnishing the State C-apitol. 1911. The new State Capitol adorned by splendid groups of statuary and mural paintings. The great electrical power dam at McCall's Ferry, on the Susquehanna, completed. The tovm of Austin swept away by water from bursting reservoir. INDEX. A. /^cadians, home of the, 111; ex- pulsion of the, by the EngUsh, 112. Adams, John, on the Declaration of Independence Committee, 135; elected President, 162. Adams, John Quincy, President, 178. Agriculture, 91, 148, 279. Alabama and Kearsarge, the, 232. Alabama claims, settlement of the, 243. Alaska, purchased from Russia, 241; seal fisheries of, 254; gold discoveries in, 279-80. Allen, Ethan, capture of Ticon- deroga by, 131. Amendments to the Constitution, 238, 242. America discovered by Columbus, 6; how named, 9; native inhab- itants of, 26. American commerce, interference with, 166. American discontent, causes of, 119-125. Anderson, Major, at Fort Sumter, 210. Andre, Major, capture and execu- tion of, 144. Andros, Sir Edmund, 49. Antietam, battle of, 222. Arbitration, of the Alabama claims, 243; of the seal fisher- ies, 244. Armies, disbanding of the, 268. Arnold, Benedict, attack on Que- bec by, 133; treason of, 144. Arthur, Chester A., becomes President, 248. Automobiles, 273, B. Bacon, Nathaniel, rebellion of, 38. Balboa discovers the Pacific, 12. Barbary States, war with the, 174. Benevolence, progress of, 280. Bennington, battle of, 141. Berkeley, Governor, revenge of, 38. Bicycle, the, 274. Blockade runners, the, 223. Boone, Daniel, in Kentucky, 147, 180. Boston, the English besieged in, 131; evacuation of, 133. Boston massacre, 124; tea-party, 125; port bill, 125; fire, 243. Braddock, General, character of, 108; defeat of, 109. Brandywine, battle of the, 139. Buchanan, James, elected Presi- dent, 212. Buena Vista, battle of, 196. Bull Run, first battle of, 217; second battle of, 222. Bunker Hiil, battle of, 131-2. Burgoyne, march of, 141; sur- render of, 142. C. Cabots, voyages of the, 10. California, capture of, by Fremont, 197; value of, 199. Canada, discovery of, 12. Canonicus, story of, 41. Carolinas, the, settled by the French, 18; colonization of, 77; war of, with Florida, 81; divis- ion of, 81; life in, 84-5. Cartier, Jacques, voyages of, 12. Census of 1890, the, 253; of 1900, 260; 1910, 265, 275. 11 INDEX Centennial Exhibition, the, 244. Cervera, Admiral, defeat of, at Santiago, 259. Champlain, Samuel de, story of, 22-24. Chancellorsville, battle of, 226. Charleston, capture of, in the Revolutionary war, 145; bom- bardment of Fort Sumter at, 216; earthquake at, 249. Charter, the Boston, 42. Charter Oak, the, 49. Claims of the nations, 11. Charter troubles, the, 48. Chattanooga, the battles around, 229. Chicago fire, the, 242; anarchists, the, 249. Chicago, the World's Fair at, 261. Chinese exclusion, 251. Cities of Revolutionary times, the, 151-2. City life after the Revolution, 182. Civil Service Reform, 256. Civil war, description of the, 216- 33. Clay, Henry, 194, 210. Clayborne's rebellion, 68. Cleveland, Grover, elected Presi- dent, 249, 255. Coal, 187. Colonies, growth of, 91; industries of, 91; isolation of, 91; travel in, 93; government and laws of, 93. Columbus, Christopher, story of, 3-9. Commerce, Department of, 261. Commerce, interference with American, 93, 167. Commerce of New England, 149; of the United States, 281. Concord, stores at, 127; English expedition against, 127-9. Confederacy, the New England, 48; the Southern, 215. Congress, the first Continental, 126, the second Continental, 132; after the Revolution, 158; the Constitutional, 159; Pan- American, 251. Connecticut, Dutch and English in. 62. Constitution and Guerriere, battle between the, 171. Constitution of the United States, formation of the, 159; character of the, 160; amend- ments to the, 238, 242. Constitutional Convention, the, 159. Continental Congress, the first, 126; the second, 132. Copyright Bill, the, 253. Cornwallis, surrender of, 146. Cortez and Pizarro, 13. Cotton cultivation in the South, 184. Cotton-gin, invention of the, 184. Creek Indians, the, 90, 192. Cuba, war in, 257; republic of, 260. Customs of the Puritans, 54-60; of the Dutch, 65-7; of the Pennsylvanians, 74-7; of the Virginians and Carolinians, 80- 5; of the Georgians, 89; of the United States people, 182^. D. Davis, Jefferson, President of the Confederacy, 215, 221. Decatur, Lieutenant, exploits of, 166, 174. Declaration of Independence, 135- 7. Delaware, Lord, comes to Virginia, 36. Delaware settled by tne Swedes, 63; how named, 73; separated from Pennsylvania, 73. Delaware River, the, 62. Democratic party, the, 175, 178, 202. Denys, John, discovery by, 11. De Soto, expedition of, 14-17. Departments, U. S. Government, 261. Dewey, Admiral, victory of, at Manila, 258. Drake, Sir Francis, exploits of, 17. Dred Scott Case, the, 212. Duke of York, the, 63. INDEX m Dutch in Connecticut, the, 44; in New York, 61; Swedish settle- ment captured by the, 63; houses of the, 66; dress and industries of tlie, 66. Dutch settlement taken by the English, 63. E. Education, in Virginia, 84; prog- ress of, in the United States, 205, 280. Electric cable, laying of the, 269. Electric cars, 273. Electricity, discoveries in, 270. Emancipation of the slaves, 225. Embargo Act, the, 167. Emigration along the Ohio, 181. England, first exploration from, 10, restrictive laws of, 93; oppressive edicts of, 119-204; troubles with, 167; military strength of, 168. English colonies, the first, 20; claims of the, 99. English companies, the, 33; pris- ons, the, 86. English sokhers sent to America, 123. Escape of Mrs. Dustin, 53. Exhibitions, industrial, 249, 255, 261, 265. F. Farm life in America, 183. Farming industries, 148. Farragut, Admiral, on the Missis- sippi, 219; in Mobile Bay, 232. Fillmore, Millard, becomes Presi- dent, 209. Fish culture, 280. Florida discovered, 12; war of, with Carolina, 80; with Geor- gia, 87; with the United States, 175; purchase of, 175. Fort Du Quesne, buikhng of, 107, 108; expedition against, 108; capture of, 110. Fort Moultrie, defence of, 133. Fort Necessity, 107. Fort Sumter, bombardment of , 216. Fort Ticonderoga, 113, 114. France, expedition from, 11; treaty with, 142. Franklin, Benjamin, sketch of life, 76-7; sent to London, 123; on the Declaration of Indepen- dence Committee, 135; in the Constitutional Convention, 159. Fredericksburg, battle of, 223. Free Soil party, the, 212. Fremont, General, takes Cali- fornia, 197. French and Indian war, the, 107- 116. French and Indians, wars with the, 53-4. French, colonies of, in America, 18, 22; settlements of, in the West, 97; enterprise of, 100; forts of, on the Mississippi, 103; claims of, to the Ohio country, 104. Fugitive slave law, the, 210. Fulton, Robert, the steamboat invented by, 184. Fur trade, the, 200. Q. Garfield, James A., elected Presi- dent, 247; assassination of, 248. Georgia, settlement of, 86; war of, with Florida, 87; laws and industries of, 88. Germantown, battle of, 140. Gettysburg, battle of, 227. Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, voyage of, 20. Gold, discovered in California, 198, results of the discovery of, 199; specie payments of, resumed, 241; in Alaska, 275, 279. Good feeling, the era of, 175. Gosnold, Bartholomew, 22. Gourgues, Dominique de, revenge of, 20. Government, "Grand Model," the 78. Government of the Puritans, 41- 43; of New England, 48; of the Carolinas, 78; of Virginia, 82^3; of the United States, 159-62. IV INDEX Grant, General, in civil war, 208; at Vicksburg, 228 ; commander- in-chief, 229; advance of, on Richmond, 230; elected Presi- dent, 242, 243. Greene, General, campaign of, 145. Growth of the colonies, 91, 126; of the population, 180; of the country, 201. H. Habits of the people, 152. Harper's P'erry, the raid on, 213. Harrison, Benjamin, elected Presi- dent, 251; second nomination of, 255. Harrison, General, defeats Tecum- seh, 168; victory of, on the Thames, 170; elected President, 193.. Hawaii, annexation of, 260. Hayes, Rutherford B., elected President, 244. Henry, Patrick, opposes the Eng- lish taxation, 123. Hood, General, defeat of, at Nash- ville, 231-2. Hooker, General, 226. Hudson, Henry, discoveries of, 2.5-6. I. Immigration, 202, 275. Independence, Declaration of, 135 meaning of the, 137. Indian raids in Virginia, 110. Indian Territory, the, 192, 262. Indians, named by Columbus, 7; first battle with the, 23; descrip- tion of the, 26-31; of Virginia, the, 34; of New England, 41 ; dis- posal and education of the, 275. Indians, the Quakers and the, 71, 75. Indians, wars with the, 49-53, 117, 162, 168, 191. Industries of the Puritans, 59; of the Carolinas, 79; of Georgia, 89; of the colonies, 91. Industry, restoration of, 174. Internal improvements, 177. Invention, acti\'ity of Americans in, 204; progress of, 277. Iroquois, defeat of, by Champlain, 23; revenge of, 24-29. Irrigation in the West, 262. J. Jackson, General, at New Orleans, 171; in Florida, 175; elected President, 187; character of, 187; dealings of, with South Carolina, 188; with the United States Bank, 188. Jackson, Stonewall, exploits of, 221; death of, 226. James River, colony on the, 33. Jamestown, 33, 37. Jasper, Sergeant, daring of, 133. Jefferson, Thomas, writes the Declaration of Independence, 135; elected President, 163—4. John Brown raid, the, 203. Johnson, Andrew, becomes Presi- dent, 238; impeachment of, 239. Johnstown disaster, the, 251. Jones, Captain Paul, story of, 143. K. Kansas, the troubles in, 211. Ividd, Captain, 54. Kng Philip, war with, 50; death of, 52. L. Lafayette, General, 139. Lake Champlain, battle of, 170. Lake Erie, battle of, 170. Lake George, battle of, 114. Landing of Columbus, the, 7. La Salle, story of, 101-2. Laws, of Georgia, 88; English colo» nial, 94, 120; evasion of, 120. Lee, General, made Confederate conunander, 221; advances north, 222, 226; in the Wilder- ness, 226, 230; at Gettysburg, 227; defends Richmond, 230; surrender of, 233. INDEX Lee, Richard Henry, motion for liberty of the colonies made by, 135. Leisler's revolt, 64. Lewis and Clark, expedition of, 199. Lexington, battle of, 12S-9. Lincoln, Abraham, elected Presi- dent, 214; emancipates the slaves, 225; assassination of, 233. Locke, John, plan of government of, 78. Lookout Mountain, battle of, 229. Lord Baltimore, 68-9. Louisburg, capture of. 111. Louisiana, named by La Salle, 102; purchase of, 165. M. McClellan, General, besieges Rich- mond, 221; retreat of, 222; at Antietam, 222. McKinley, William, elected Presi- dent, 257, 260; murder of, 260. Macliinery, invention of, 277. ]\Iadison, James, elected Presi- dent, 167. Magellan sails round the globe, 13. Maine, the sinking of the, 257. Manhattan Island bought by the Dutch, 61. ]\Ianila, naval victory at, 259. Manufactures in America, 120, 150, 203, 276. ]\Iarco Polo, travels of, 2. Mariner's compass, discovery of the, 2. Marion, General, 145. Marquette discovers the Missis- sippi, 100. Maryland, settlement of, 67-9. ]\Iassachusetts Bay settlement, 42-4. Massacre of the French colonists, 19; at Fort William Henry, 114; of Wyoming, 143. Massacres, Indian, in Virginia, 37; in New England, 53—4. Meade, General; 227. Meiiendez, massacre by, 19-20. Mexican war, the, 194-7. Mineral wealth of the United States, 276, 279. Mines, value of, 203, 279. Minute-men, the, 126, 129. Mississippi, jetties of the, 247. Mississippi River discovered by De Soto, 15; discovered by Marquette, 100; explored by La Salle, 102; opening of the, 210, 219. Missouri Compromise, the, 126, 211. Monitor and Merrimac, the, 22.3—4. Monroe, James, elected President, 175. Monroe Doctrine, the, 177. Montcalm, Marquis de, in com- mand at Quebec, 115; death of, 116. Montreal, 116. Mormons, the, 202. Morse's telegraph, 204. Mound-builders, the, 26. Murfreesborough, battle of, 219. N. Narragansetts, defeat of the, 51-2. Narvaez, adventures of, 14. Nashville, Hood's defeat at, 232. Natural gas, 280. Natural resources of the United States, 263. Navy, the new, 274. Negro plot in New York, 64, Negroes first brought to America, 37. New England, settlement of, 41-3; warlike feeling in, 127; inarms, 129. New Jersey, settlement of, 78. New Mexico, capture of, 197-8. New Orleans, founding of, 103; battle of, 172; surrender of, 219. New York, discovery of, 25; set- tled by the Dutch, 61; taken by the English; 63; life in, 65-6; captured in the Revolutionary War, 137. Newspapers and books, increafje of, 151, 205. Norsemen, the, 2. VI INDEX O. Oglethorpe, character of, 86; colony of, in Georgia, 86; later life of, 88; gift to, from the Indians, 90. Ohio Company, the, 104. Ohio River, claims to the valley of the, 104. Oklahoma, 262. Oregon, acquirement of, 200-1. P. Pacific States, progress of the, 278. Panama Canal, the, 261. Pan-American Congress, the, 251. Panic, of 1837, 190; 192; of 1873, 243; of 1893, 255. Parties, in the United States, 175- 78; new political, 212. Patroons, the Dutch, 67. Penn, William, story of, 70-72; treaty of, with the Indians, 71. Pennsylvania, settlement of, 71-3; life in, 74-6. Pension list, the, 254. People, modes of life of American, 146-8, 180; prosperity of the 186. Pequot war, the, 50-1. Perry, Captain, victory of, on Lake Erie, 170. Petroleum, 280. Pliiladelphia, founding of, 71; de- scription of, 74-5; taken by the British, 139; evacuated by the British, 142. Philippine Islands, naval victory at the, 258; annexation of the, 259; war in the, 259. Pierce, Franklin, elected Presi- dent, 211. Pilgrims, settlement of the, 39-42. Pioneers of the South, 147; of the North, 180. Pirates of the CaroUnas, the, 67, 79. Pittsburg Landing, battle of, 218. Pizarro in Peru, 13. Plantations, life on the, 81. Plymouth Company, 40-2. Pocahontas, the storv of, 34. Political parties, 163, 178. Polk, James K., elected President, 194. Ponce de Leon's expedition to Florida, 12. Pontiac, Indian war of, 117. Population, of the colonies, 147; increase of, 180, 201, 253, 275. Populist party, the, 257. Porto Rico, invasion of, 259. Postal service, the, 272. Prisons, improvement in, 205. Progress of the South, 277. Proprietors of the Carolinas, the 78. Punishments in New England, 57; in Virginia, 83. Puritan colony, the, 42-5. Puritans, Ufe among the, 42-6. Q. Quakers, persecution of the, 45; description of, 70; in Pennsyl- vania, 72; in New Jersey, 72; dealings with the Indians, 75. Quebec, founding of, 22; capture of, by Wolfe, 115-6; repulse from, 133. R. Railroad, introduction of the, 185-6. Railroads, in the United States, 271; usefulness of the, 272. Raleigh, Sir Walter, colonies of, 20-1. Reconstruction of the Union, 238. Religious liberty in Rliode Island, 44; in Maryhind, 68; in Penn- sylvania, 73. Religious persecution in the colon- ies, 45-6, 69, 84. Republican-Democratic party, the 145. 178. Republican party, the, 178, 212. Revere, Paul, ride of, 127-8. Revolution, war of the, 128-46. Rhode Island, settlement of, 45. Ribault's colony, 18. INDEX vu Rice introduced into America, 79. Richmond made the Confederate States capital, 221; besieged by McClellan, 221; Grant's advance on, 230; Lee's retreat from, 233. Roosevelt, Theodore, elected Vice- President, 260; becomes Presi- dent, 261; elected President, 264. S. St. Augustine, founding of, 18. Salem witchcraft, the, 46. San Francisco earthquake, the, 262. Santiago, surrender of, 259. Scott, General, victories of, in Canada, 170; campaign of, in Mexico, 196. Seal fisheries of Alaska, 254. Secession of the Southern States, 215, 216. Serapis, capture of the, by the Bonhomme Richard, 143. Settlements in the interior, 147, 181. Seven days' fight, the, 222. Shays's rebellion, 157. Sheridan's ride, 230. Sherman, General, attacks Vicks- bvirg, 228; in command of Western army, 230; marches through Georgia, 221; advances north, 232. Signal service, the, 269. Slave law, fugitive, 210, Slavery in the colonies, 93; diffi- culties about, 176, 209. Slaves, emancipation of the, 225. Smith, Captain John, story of, 34-6. Smith, progress of the, 277. South Carolina, the Revolutionary war in, 145; tariff troubles in, 89; secession of, 214; invaded by Sherman, 232. Spain, Columbus aided by, 4; reception of Columbus in, 8; cruelty of, in Cuba, 257; war of, with United States, 258-9. Stamp Act, the, 122; repeal of, 123, Standard time, 249. Standish, Captain Miles, 41, 42. Stark, General, at Bennington, 141. State Rights doctrine, the, 214. States, the original, 153, forma* tion of new, 163, 176. Steamboat, invention of the, 185 Steamship, the first ocean, 185. Strikes of workmen, 246. Swedes, settlement of, on the Delaware River, 63; Dutch capture of, 63. Taft, William H., elected Presi- dent, 264. Tecumseh, 168, 170. Tariff question, the, 177, 253, 264. 234. Tax on tea, the, 124-5. Taxation, the dispute about, 121, 124. Taylor, General, advance of, into Mexico, 195; victory of, at Buena Vista, 195; elected Presi- dent, 196, 209. Tea, the tax on, 124-25; the refusal to receive, 125. Telegraph, the electric, 204; length of, in the United States, 269. Telegraphy, wireless, 270. Temperance reform, the, 179. Territory, acquisition of, from Mexico, 198; increase of, 199. Texas, La Salle's colony in, 103; independence of, 194; annexed by the United States, 194; result of its annexation, 195. Thames, battle of the, 170. Thomas, General, victory of, at Nashville, 231. Ticonderoga, English repulse at, 113; capture of, 130, 141. Tobacco, intro