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 V 
 
A SHORT 
 
 HISTORY OF EDUCATION : 
 
 Being a reprint of the article 
 
 From the ninth edition of the 
 ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA. 
 
 EDITED, q 
 
 With an Introduction, Bibliography, Notes 
 and References, 
 
 BY 
 
 V/. H. PAYNE, A.M., 
 
 Professor of the Science and the Art of Teaching, ia 
 
 the University of Michigan. Author of Chapters 
 
 on School Supervision, and A Syllabus of 
 
 Lectures on the Science and t7i.e 
 
 Art of Teaching. 
 
 < 
 
 ..Ziiu^ ']■ 
 
 SYRACUSE, N. Y. : 
 
 C. W. BARDEEN, PUBLISHER. 
 
 1881. 
 

 Copyright, 1881, by W. H. Payae. 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 In this counlry, the purpose of normal 
 instruction seems to be to prepare young 
 men and women in the shortest and most 
 direct way for doing school-room work. 
 The equipment needed for this work is a 
 knowledge of subjects and an empirical 
 knowledge of methods ; and so the normal 
 schools furnish sound academic training, 
 and pupils are taught methods of instruc- 
 tion by actual practice in experimental 
 schools. In all this, the mechanical, or 
 empirical, element seems to be held upper- 
 most in thought. Pupils must be trained 
 for practical ends ; they must, so to speak, 
 be converted into instruments for doing 
 prescribed work by prescribed methods ; 
 and anything that promises to detract 
 from their value as machines, must be 
 
IV SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Studiously avoided. The artisan thus ap- 
 pears to be the ideal product of the normal 
 school. 
 
 I do not presume to say that this con- 
 ception of the purpose of normal instruc- 
 tion is wrong. J claim only the right to 
 think and to say that I hold an essentially 
 different view, and that I am attempting 
 to give professional instruction to teachers 
 on a totally different hypothesis. I believe 
 that the great bar to educational progress 
 is the mechanical teaching that is so prev- 
 alent, and that is so fostered and encour- 
 aged by normal schools. I believe that an 
 intelligent scholar, furnished with a few 
 clearly defined principles, and free to 
 throw his own personality into his 
 methods, is far more likely to grow into 
 an accomplished teacher than one who 
 goes to his work with the conviction that 
 he must follow prescribed patterns, and 
 has not that versatility that comes from an 
 extension of his intellectual horizon. The 
 value of a teacher depends upon his worth 
 as a man, rather than upon his value as an 
 instrument. Man becomes an instrument 
 
INTRODUCTION. V 
 
 only by losing worth as a man. In nor- 
 mal instruction there is need of greater 
 faith in the potency of ideas, and less faith 
 in the value of drill, imitation, and routine. 
 
 It is possible that in some grades of 
 school work a purely mechanical teaching 
 is best; that he is the best teacher who is 
 most of an artisan, — with whom teaching 
 is most of a handicraft. But I do not be- 
 lieve this. The rules that are best for 
 working on wood and stone are not the 
 best when applied to mind and character. 
 Undoubtedly, there is a mechanical ele- 
 ment in the teaching art ; but this is sub- 
 ordinate to that other element that wholly 
 escapes mechanical measurements, because 
 it has to do with the manifestations of free 
 spirit. In other words, I am persuaded 
 that a teacher is poor to the degree in 
 which he is an artisan, and good to the 
 degree in which he is an artist ; and that 
 nothing is so much needed by teachers of 
 every class as an infusion of that freedom 
 and versatility that are possible only 
 through an extension of the mental vision 
 by means of a more liberal culture. 
 
VI SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 
 
 While I may be wrong in the general hy- 
 pothesis,! feel that I am right in the follow- 
 ing particulars : There must be some teach- 
 ers who are more than mere instruments, 
 more than operatives, more than artisans ; 
 there must be some who can see processes 
 as they are related to law, — who, while 
 obedient to law, can throw their own per- 
 sonality into their methods and can make 
 such adaptations of them as varying circum- 
 stances may demand. If most teachers are 
 doomed to be the slaves of routine, there 
 must be some who have the ability to cre- 
 ate and to control. In a word, along with 
 the great multitude of mere teachers, there 
 must be a growing body of educators. I 
 cannot but think that in every normal 
 school there are men and women who would 
 love to walk upon these heights, to breathe 
 this freer air, and who would thus see in 
 teaching a fair field for the exercise of their 
 best gifts. The attention of such should 
 be drawn somewhat away from the merely 
 mechanical aspects of teaching, and fixed 
 on those professional studies that will 
 broaden the teacher's vision and give him 
 
INTRODUCTION. Vll 
 
 the consciousness of some degree of cre- 
 ative power. The studies I mean are Edu- 
 cational Science and Educational His- 
 tory. 
 
 It has been said that a teacher who is 
 wholly ignorant of the history of educa- 
 tion may still do excellent work in the 
 school-room. This does not admit ot the 
 least doubt. It is also true that men at- 
 tain long lives in complete ignorance of 
 the laws of digestion, and that they become 
 voters and office-holders while knowing 
 nothing of their country's history; but it 
 does not follow that physiology and his- 
 tory are needless studies. A fair knowl- 
 edge of the history of one's own country 
 is now thought to be an essential element 
 in good citizenship ; and I see no reason 
 why a fair knowledge of the history of ed- 
 ucational systems and doctrines should 
 not form a very desirable element in a 
 teacher's education. He may teach well 
 without this knowledge ; but having it, he 
 will feel an inspiring sense of the nobility 
 of his calling, will teach more intelligently, 
 and will give a richer quality to his work. 
 
Vlll SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 
 
 Intelligent patriotism is evoked by a vivid 
 knowledge of Plymouth Rock, of the 
 American Revolution, and of Mount Ver- 
 non ; and no teacher can think meanly of 
 his calling who has learned to trace his 
 professional ancestry through Plato, Co- 
 menius, Locke, Cousin, and Arnold. 
 
 As exhibiting the general grounds on 
 which the history of education should be 
 made a topic of instruction for at least a 
 part of the teaching class, I repeat some 
 observations made on another occasion. 
 
 " General History is a liberal study in 
 the sense that it greatly extends the hori- 
 zon of our sympathies, widens our field of 
 intellectual vision, and thus makes us cos- 
 mopolitan and catholic, — true citizens of 
 the world. Historical study has also a 
 very great practical value. It gives us 
 the benefit of collective human experience 
 as exhibited under every variety of circum- 
 stances and conditions. It relates the 
 origin, succession,and termination of all the 
 marked events in human progress. It 
 thus saves us from repeating experiments 
 already tried, forewarns us against dan- 
 
INTRODUCTION. ix 
 
 gers that ever beset the path of the inex- 
 perienced, and assures to each generation 
 the results of the real additions made to 
 the stock of human progress. 
 
 For the most part, the events recorded 
 in history are the results of the unpremed- 
 itated actions of man. Humanity at large 
 seems to be impelled onward by an irresist- 
 ible but unconscious impulse, just as a 
 glacier moves over mountains and through 
 valleys, with a silent yet irresistible might. 
 This life of mere impulse is the lower life 
 of nations and peoples, just as the period 
 of impulse marks the lower and imperfect 
 life of the individual. But in nations as well 
 as in individuals, the period of reflection 
 at last comes, and this is the period when 
 histories begin to be written and read. 
 The effect of historical study is thus to 
 check mere impulse, and to convert un- 
 conscious progress into self-conscious and 
 reflective efforts towards determinate 
 ends. 
 
 In all nations that have passed beyond 
 the period of mere barbarism, there has 
 been some degree of conscious and in- 
 
X SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 
 
 tended effort after progress, some prepar- 
 ation for the duties of citizenship, some at- 
 tempt to make the future better than the 
 past has been. This conscious effort to 
 place each generation on a vantage-ground, 
 through some deliberate training or pre- 
 paration, is, in its widest sense, education. 
 
 Now if history in general, as it records 
 the unconscious phases of human progress, 
 is a study of supreme value, that part of 
 general history which records the reflec- 
 tive efforts of men to rise superior to their 
 actual present, must teach lessons of even 
 higher value. This is emphatically an 
 educating age. The minds of the wisest 
 and the best are intent on devising means 
 whereby progress may be hastened through 
 the resources of human art. In the world 
 of educational thought, all is ferment and 
 discussion. We are passing beyond the 
 period of reckless experiment and are 
 seeking anchorage in doctrines deduced 
 from the permanent principles of human 
 nature. Educational Science is giving us 
 a glimmer of light ahead, and we do well 
 to shape our course by it. W/iat ought to 
 
INTRODUCTION. Xi 
 
 be should indeed be our pole-star; but 
 until this has been defined with more pre- 
 cision, we should also shape our course by- 
 looking back on what has been. We should 
 think of ourselves as moving through the 
 darkness or over an unknown region, with 
 a light before us and a light behind us. 
 Our two inquiries should be, Whence have 
 we come? Whither are we going? His- 
 torical progress is tortuous, but its general 
 direction is right. The history of what 
 has been must therefore contain some ele- 
 ments of truth. The past at least fore- 
 shadows the future, and we may infer the 
 direction of progress by comparing what 
 has been with 7uhat is. In education, there- 
 fore, we need to know the past, both as a 
 means of taking stock of progress, and 
 also of foreshadowing the future. We 
 should give a large place to the ideal ele- 
 ments in our courses of normal instruc- 
 tion ; but we should also make a large use 
 of the results of experience. All true 
 progress is a transition. The past has in- 
 sensibly led up to the present; let the 
 present merge into the future. Let his- 
 
Xll SHORT HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 
 
 tory foreshadow philosophy; and let phi- 
 losophy introduce its corrections and 
 ameliorations into the lessons of history." 
 
 An obstacle to the study of the history 
 of education in this country, has been the 
 lack of suitable books on this subject. In 
 English, we have only Schmidt's History 
 of Education, and the History and Progress 
 of Education by Philobiblius (^L. P. Brock- 
 ett^. At best, these are mere outlines, 
 and considered as outlines, they are very 
 imperfect and unsatisfactory. In seeking 
 for a text that I might make the basis of 
 a short course of instruction for students 
 in this University, I have found the article 
 Education in the ninth edition of the En- 
 cyclopaedia Britannica admirably adapted 
 to my purpose; and I have thought that a 
 reprint of it, under the title of A Short 
 History of Education might be acceptable to 
 the general reader, to intelligent and pro- 
 gressive teachers, and to the members of the 
 profession who are engaged in the educa- 
 tion of teachers. To make this outline 
 more useful to teachers and students, I have 
 added a select list of educational works, 
 
INTRODUCTION. ' Xlll 
 
 and have arranged a list of the more im- 
 portant topics suggested by this outline^ 
 with references to these authorities. By 
 this means the course of study may be ex- 
 tended almost at will. It may embrace 
 merely this admirable outline, and thus 
 occupy but a few days, or it may be pur- 
 sued on the seminary plan, and thus in- 
 definitely extended. I have considerably 
 multiplied my notes and references on 
 Comenius, in the hope of exciting an in- 
 terest in the study of one of the greatest 
 of the educational reformers. 
 
 For the copy for this reprint, I am in- 
 debted to the courtesy of J. M. Stod- 
 dart & Co., Philadelphia, the publishers of 
 the American reprint of the Encyclopaedia 
 Britannica. 
 
 W. H. Payne. 
 
 University of Michigan^ 
 
 January 22, 1881, 
 
A SHORT 
 
 HISTORY OF EDUCATION. 
 
SHORT 
 j4lgT0RY Of i^DUCATION, 
 
 This article is mainly concerned with 
 the history of educational theories in the 
 chief crises of their development. It has 
 not been the object of the writer to give a 
 history of the practical working of these 
 theories, and still less to sketch the out- 
 lines of the science of teaching, which may 
 be more conveniently dealt with under 
 another head. The earliest education is 
 that of the family. The child must be 
 trained not to interfere with its parents" 
 convenience, and to acquire those little 
 arts which will help in maintaining the 
 economy of the household. It was long 
 before any attempt was made to improve 
 generations as they succeeded each other. 
 The earliest schools were those of the 
 priests. As soon as an educated priesthood 
 had taken the place of the diviners and 
 jugglers who abused the credulity of the 
 earliest races, schools of the prophets be- 
 came a necessity. The training required 
 for ceremonials, the common life apart 
 
l8 ORIGIN OF EDUCATION. 
 
 from the family, the accomplishments of 
 reading and singing, afforded a nucleus for 
 the organization of culture and an oppor- 
 tunity for the efforts of a philosopher in 
 advance of his age. Covenience and grati- 
 tude confirmed the monopoly of the clergy. 
 The schools of Judea and Egypt were ec- 
 clesiastical. The Jews had but little effect 
 on the progress of science, but our obliga- 
 tions to the priests of the Nile valley are 
 great indeed. Much of their learning is 
 obscure to us, but we have reason to con- 
 clude that there is no branch of science in 
 which they did not progress at least so far 
 as observation and careful registration of 
 facts could carry them. They were a 
 source of enlightenment to surrounding 
 nations. Not only the great lawgiver of 
 the Jews, but those who were most active 
 in stimulating the nascent energies of 
 Hellas were careful to train themselves in 
 the wisdom of the Egyptians. Greece, in 
 g^iving an undying name to the literature 
 of Alexandria, was only repaying the debt 
 which she had incurred centuries before. 
 Education became secular in countries 
 where the priesthood did not exist as a 
 separate body. At Rome, until Greece 
 took her conqueror captive, a child was 
 trained for the duties of life in the forum 
 and the senate house. The Greeks were 
 the first to develop a science of education 
 
GREECE. 19 
 
 distinct from ecclesiastical training. They 
 divided their subjects of study into music 
 and gymnastics, the one comprising all 
 mental, the other all physical training. 
 Music was at first little more than the 
 study of the art of expression. But the 
 range of intellectual education which had 
 been developed by distinguished musical 
 teachers was further widened by the Soph- 
 ists, until it received a new stimulus and 
 direction from the work of Socrates. Who 
 can forget the picture left us by Plato of 
 the Athenian palaestra, in which Socrates 
 was sure to find his most ready listeners 
 and his most ardent disciples ? In the in- 
 tervals of running, wrestling, or the bath, 
 the young Phaedrus or Theaetetus discussed 
 with the philosophers who had come to 
 watch them on the good, the beautiful, and 
 the true. The lowest efforts of their teach- 
 ers were to fit them to maintain any view 
 they might adopt with acuteness, elegance, 
 readiness, and good taste. Their highest 
 efforts were to stimulate a craving for the 
 knowledge of the unknowable, to rouse a 
 dissatisfaction with received opinions, and 
 to excite a curiosity which grew stronger 
 with the revelation of each sucessive mys- 
 tery. Plato is the author of the first syste- 
 matic treatise on education. He deals with 
 the subject in his earlier dialogues, he enters 
 into it with great fulness of detail in the 
 
20 PLATO. 
 
 Republic^ and it occupies an important po- 
 sition in the Laws. The views thus ex- 
 pressed differ considerably in particulars^ 
 and it is therefore difficult to give con- 
 cisely the precepts drawn up by him for 
 our obedience. But the same spirit under- 
 lies his whole teaching. He never forgets 
 that the beautiful is undistinguishable from 
 the true, and that the mind is best fitted to 
 solve difficult problems which has been 
 trained by the enthusiatic contemplation of 
 art. Plato proposes to intrust education 
 to the state. He lays great stress on the 
 influence of race and blood. Strong and 
 worthy children are likely to spring from 
 strong and worthy parents. Music and 
 gymnastics are to develop the emotions of 
 young men during their earliest years — 
 the one to strengthen their character for 
 the contest of life, the other to excite in 
 them varying feelings of resentment or 
 tenderness. Reverence, the ornament of 
 youth, is to be called forth by well-chosen 
 fictions; a long and rigid training in sci- 
 ence is to precede discussion on more im- 
 portant subjects. At length the goal is 
 reached, and the ripest^ovisdom is ready to 
 be applied to the most important practice. 
 The great work of Quintilian, although 
 mainly a treatise on oratory, also contains 
 incidentally a complete sketch of a theo- 
 retical education. His object is to show 
 
ROME. 21 
 
 US how to form the man of practice. But 
 what a high conception of practice is his ! 
 He wrote for a race of rulers. He incul- 
 eates much which has been attributed to 
 the wisdom of a later age. He urges the 
 importance of studying individual disposi- 
 tions, and of tenderness in discipline and 
 punishment. The Romans understood no 
 systematic training except in oratory. In 
 their eyes every citizen was a born com- 
 mander, and they knew of no science of 
 government and political economy. Cic- 
 ero speaks slightingly even of jurispru- 
 dence. Any one, he says, can make him- 
 self a jurisconsult in a week; but an orator 
 is the production of a litetime. No state- 
 ment can be less true than that a perfect 
 orator is a perfect man. But wisdom and 
 philanthropy broke even through that bar- 
 rier, and the training which Quintilian ex- 
 pounds to us as intended only for the pub- 
 lic speaker would, in the language of Mil- 
 ton, fit a man to perform justly, wisely, 
 and magnanimously all the offices, both 
 public and private, of peace and war. 
 
 Such are the ideas which the old world 
 has left us. On one side man, beautiful, 
 active, clever, receptive, emotional, quick 
 to feel, to show his feeling, to argue, to re- 
 fine ; greedy of the pleasures of the world, 
 perhaps a little neglectful of its duties, 
 fearing restraint as an unjust stinting of 
 
22 QUINTILIAN. 
 
 the bounty of nature, inquiring eagerly 
 into every secret, strongly attached to the 
 things of this life, but elevated by an 
 unabated striving after the highest ideal ; 
 setting no value but upon faultless ab- 
 stractions, and seeing reality only in 
 heaven, on earth mere shadows, phantoms, 
 and copies of the unseen. On the other 
 side man, practical, energetic, eloquent, 
 tinged but not imbued with philosophy,, 
 trained to spare neither himself nor others, 
 reading and thinking only with an apology; 
 best engaged in defending a political prin- 
 ciple, in maintaining with gravity and 
 solemnity the conservation of ancient free- 
 dom, in leading armies through unexplored 
 deserts, establishing roads, fortresses, set- 
 tlements, the results of conquest, or in 
 ordering and superintending the slow, cer- 
 tain, and utter annihilation of some enemy 
 of Rome. Has the modern world ever 
 surpassed their type ? Can we in the 
 present day produce anything by educa- 
 tion except by combining, blending, and 
 modifying the self-culture of the Greek or 
 the self-sacrifice of the Roman ? 
 
 The literarary education of the earliest 
 generation of Christians was obtained in 
 the pagan schools, in those great imperial 
 academies which existed even down to the 
 fifth century, which flourished in Europe, 
 Asia, and Africa, and attained perhaps 
 
CHRISTIANITY, 23 
 
 their highest development and efficiency in 
 Gaul. The first attempt to provide a 
 special education for Christians was made 
 at Alexandria, and is illustrated by the 
 names of Clement and Origen. The later 
 Latin fathers took a bolder stand, and re- 
 jected the suspicious aid of heathenism. 
 Tertullian, Cyprian, and Jerome wished 
 the antagonism between Christianity and 
 Paganism to be recogized from the earliest 
 years, and even Augustine condemned with 
 harshness the culture to which he owed so 
 much of his influence. The education of 
 the Middle Ages was either that of the 
 cloister or the castle. The object of the 
 one was to form the young monk, of the 
 other the young knight. We should in- 
 deed be ungrateful if we forgot the services 
 of those illustrious monasteries, Monte 
 Cassino, Fulda, or Tours, which kept alive 
 the torch of learning throughout the dark 
 ages, but it would be equally mistaken to 
 attach an exaggerated importance to the 
 teachings which they provided. Long 
 hours were spent in the duties of the church 
 and in learning to take a part in elaborate 
 and useless ceremonies. A most impor- 
 tant part of the monastery was the writing- 
 room, where missals, psalters, and brevia- 
 ries were copied and illuminated, and too 
 often a masterpiece of classic literature was 
 effaced to make room for a treatise of 
 
24 THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 one of the fathers or the sermon of an 
 abbot. The discipline was hard; the rod 
 ruled all with indiscriminating and impar- 
 tial severity. How many generations have 
 had to suffer for the floggings of those 
 times ! Hatred ot learning, antagonism 
 between the teacher and the taught, the 
 belief that no training can be effectual 
 which is not repulsive and distasteful, that 
 no subject is proper for instruction which 
 is acquired with ease and pleasure — all 
 these idols of false education have their 
 root and origin in monkish cruelty. The 
 joy of human life would have been in dan- 
 ger of being stamped out if it had not 
 been for the warmth and color of a young 
 knight's boyhood. He was equally well 
 broken in to obedience and hardship, but 
 the obedience was the willing service of a 
 mistress whom he loved, and the hardship 
 the permission to share the dangers of a 
 leader whom he emulated. The seven arts 
 of monkish training were Grammar, Dia- 
 lectics, Rhetoric, Music, Arithmetic, 
 Geometry, Astronomy, which together 
 formed the trivium and quadrivium^ the seven 
 years' course, the divisions of which have 
 profoundly affected our modern training. 
 One of the earliest treatises based on this 
 method was that of Martianus Capella, who 
 in 470 published his Satyra, in nine books. 
 The first two were devoted to the marriage 
 
TRIVIUM AND QUADRIVIUM. 25 
 
 between Philology and Mercury, the last 
 seven were each devoted to the considera- 
 tion of one of these liberal arts. Cassio- 
 dorus, who wrote De Septe?n Disciplinis _ 
 about 500, was also largely used as a text- 
 book in the schools. Astronomy was 
 taught by the Cisio-Janus, a collection of 
 doggrel hexameters like the Propria qux 
 maribus, which contained the chief festivals 
 in each month, with a memoria technica for 
 recollecting when they occurred. The 
 seven knightly accomplishments, as histo- 
 rians tell us, were to ride, to swim, to 
 shoot with the bow, to box, to hawk, to 
 play chess, and to make verses. The 
 verses thus made were not in Latin, bald 
 imitations of Ovid or Horace, whose pagan 
 beauties were wrested into the service of 
 religion, but sonnets, ballads, and canzo- 
 nets in soft Provencal or melodious Italian. 
 'In nothing-, perhaps, is the difference be- 
 tween these two forms of education more 
 clearly shown than in their relations to 
 women. A young monk was brought up 
 to regard a woman as the worst among the 
 many temptations of St. Anthony. His 
 life knew no domestic tenderness or affec- 
 tion. He was surrounded and cared for 
 by celibates, to be himself a celibate. A 
 page was trained to receive his best reward 
 and worst punishment from the smile or 
 frown of the ladv of the castle, and as he 
 
26 MONK AND KNIGHT. 
 
 grew to manhood to cherish an absorbing 
 passion as the strongest stimulus to a 
 noble life, and the contemplation of female 
 virtue, as embodied in an Isolde or a Beat- 
 rice, as the truest earnest of future immor- 
 tality. 
 
 Both these forms of education disap- 
 peared before the Renaissance and the 
 Reformation. But we must not suppose 
 that no efforts were made to improve upon 
 the narrowness of the schoolmen or the 
 idleness of chivalry. The schools of 
 Charles the Great have lately been inves- 
 tigated by Mr. Mullinger, but we do not 
 find that they materially advanced the 
 science of education. Vincent of Beauvais 
 has left us a very complete treatise on ed- 
 ucation, written about the year 1245. He 
 was the friend and counsellor of St. Louis, 
 and we may discern his influence in the 
 instructions which were left by that sainted 
 king for the guidance of his son and daugh- 
 ter through life. The end of this period 
 was marked by the rise of universities. 
 Bologna devoted itself to law, aud num- 
 bered 12000 at the end of the 12th century. 
 Salerno adopted as its special province the 
 study of medicine, and Paris was thronged 
 with students from all parts of Europe, 
 who were anxious to devote themselves to 
 a theology which passed by indefinite gra- 
 dations into philosophy. The 14th and 
 
BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE. 27 
 
 15th centuries witnessed the rise of uni- 
 versities and academies in almost every 
 portion of Europe, Perhaps the most in- 
 teresting among these precursors of a 
 higher culture were the Brethren of the 
 Common Life, who were domiciled in the 
 rich meadows of the Yssel, in the Northern 
 Netherlands. The metropolis of their or- 
 ganization was Deventer, the best known 
 name among them that of Gerhard Groote. 
 They devoted themselves with all humility 
 and self-sacrifice to the education of chiU 
 dren. Their schools were crowded. Bois- 
 le-Duc numbered 1200 pupils, Zwolle 1500. 
 For a hundred years no part of Europe 
 shone with a brighter lustre. As the di- 
 vine comedy of Dante represents for us the 
 learning and piety of the Middle Ages in 
 Italy, so the Imitatio7i of Thomas a Kempis 
 keeps alive for us the memory of the purity 
 and sweetness of the Dutch community. 
 But they had not sufficient strength to 
 preserve their supremacy among the nec- 
 essary developments of the age. They 
 could not support the glare of the new 
 Italian learning; they obtained, and it may 
 be feared deserved, the title of obscuran- 
 tists. The EpistolcE Obscuronwi Vtrorum^ 
 the wittiest squib of the Middle Ages, 
 which was so true and so subtle in its satire 
 that it was hailed as a blow struck in de- 
 fence of the ancient learning, consists in. 
 
28 THE RENAISSANCE. 
 
 great part of the lamentations of the breth- 
 ren of Deventer over the new age, which 
 they could not either comprehend or with- 
 stand. The education of the Renaissance 
 is best represented by the name of Eras- 
 mus, that of the Reformation by the names 
 of Luther and Melanchthon. We have no 
 •space to give an account of that marvel- 
 lous resurrection of the mind and spirit of 
 Europe when touched by the dead hand of 
 an extinct civilization. The history of the 
 revival of letters belongs rather to the gen- 
 eral history of literature than to that of 
 education. But there are two names 
 whom we ought not to pass over. Vitto- 
 rino da Feltre was summoned by the Gon- 
 zagas to Mantua in 1424; he was lodged 
 in a spacious palace, with galleries, halls, 
 and colonades decorated with frescoes of 
 playing children. In person he was small, 
 quick, and lively — a born schoolmaster, 
 whose whole time was spent in devotion 
 to his pupils. We are told of the children 
 of his patron, how Prince Gonzaga recited 
 200 verses of his own composition at the 
 age of fourteen, and how Princess Cecilia 
 wrote elegant Greek at the age of ten. 
 Vittorino died in 1477. He seems to have 
 reached the highest point of excellence as 
 a practical schoolmaster of the Italian 
 Renaissance. Castiglione, on the other 
 hand has left us in his Cortigiano the sketch 
 
ERASMUS. 29 
 
 of a cultivated nobleman in those most 
 cultivated days. He shows by what pre- 
 cepts and practice the golden youths of 
 Verona and Venice were formed, who 
 live for us in the plays of Shakespeare as 
 models of knightly excellence. For our 
 instruction, it is better to have recourse to 
 the pages of Erasmus He has written the 
 most minute account of his method of 
 teaching. The child is to be formed into 
 a good Greek and Latin scholar and a 
 pious man. He fully grasps the truth that 
 improvement must be natural and gradual. 
 Letters are to be taught playing. The 
 rules of grammar are to be few and short. 
 Every means of arousing interest in the 
 work is to be fully employed. Erasmus 
 is no Ciceronian. Latin is to be taught so 
 as to be of use — a living language adapted 
 to modern wants. Children should learn 
 an art — painting, sculpture, or architec- 
 ture. Idleness is above all things to be 
 avoided. The education of girls is as nec- 
 essary and important as that of boys. Much 
 depends upon home influence ; obedience 
 must be strict, but not too severe. We 
 must take acount of individual peculiari- 
 ties, and not force children into cloisters 
 against their will. We shall obtain the 
 best results by following nature. It is 
 easy to see what a contrast this scheme 
 presented to the monkish training, — to the 
 
30 THE REFORMATION. 
 
 routine of useless technicalities enforced 
 amidst the shouts of the teachers and the 
 lamentations of the taught. 
 
 Still this culture was but for the few. 
 Luther brought the schoolmaster into the 
 cottage,and laid the foundations of the sys- 
 tem which is the chief honor and strength 
 of modern Germany, a system by which 
 the child of the humblest peasant, by slow 
 'but certain gradations, receives the best 
 education which the country can afford. 
 
 The precepts of Luther found their way 
 into the hefiarts of his countrymen in short, 
 ^pithy sentences, like the sayings of Poor 
 Richard. The purification and widening 
 of education went hand in hand with the 
 purification of religion, and these claims 
 to affection are indissolubly united in the 
 minds of his countrymen. Melanchthon, 
 from his editions of school books and his 
 practical labors in education, earned the 
 title of Praeceptor Germaniae. Aristotle 
 had been dethroned from his pre-eminence 
 in the schools, and Melanchthon attempted 
 to supply his place. He appreciated the 
 importance of Greek, the terror of the ob- 
 scurantists, and is the author of a Greek 
 grammar. He wrote elemantary books on 
 each department of the trivium — grammar, 
 dialectic, and rhetoric. He made some 
 way with the studies of the quadrivium, and 
 wrote Initia doctrincE Physicce^ a primer of 
 
LUTHER, MELANCHTHON. 5I 
 
 physical science. He lectured at the uni- 
 versity of Wittenberg, and for ten years, 
 from 15 19 to 1529, kept a schola privata in 
 his own house. Horace was his favorite 
 classic. His pupils were taught to learn 
 the whole of it by heart, ten lines at a time. 
 The tender refined lines of his well-known 
 portiaits show clearly the character of the 
 painful,accurate scholar, and contrast with 
 the burly powerful form of the genial 
 Luther. He died in 1560, racked with 
 anxiety for the church which he had helped 
 to found. If he did nut carry Protestant- 
 ism into the heart of the peasant, he at 
 least made it acceptable to the intellect of 
 the man of letters. 
 
 We now come to the names of three the- 
 oretical and practical teachers who have 
 exercised and are still exercising a pro- 
 found effect over education. The so-called 
 Latin school, the parent of the gymnasium 
 and the lycee, had spread all over Europe, 
 and was especially flourishing in Germany. 
 The programmes and time tables in use in 
 these establishments have come down to 
 us, and we possess notices of the lives 
 and labors of many of the earliest teachers. 
 It is not difficult to trace a picture of the 
 education which the Reformation offered 
 to the middle classes of Europe. Ample 
 material exists in German histories of ed- 
 ucation. We must confine ourselves to 
 
32 STRASBURG. 
 
 those moments which were of vital influ- 
 ence in the development of the science. 
 One school stands pre-eminently before 
 the rest, situated in that border city on the 
 debatable land between France and Ger- 
 many, which has known how to combine 
 and reconcile the peculiarities of French 
 and German culture. Strasbur^, besides 
 a school of theology which unites the 
 depth of Germany to the clearness and vi- 
 vacity of France, educated the gilded youth 
 of the i6th century under Sturm, as it 
 trained the statesmen and diplomatists of 
 the i8th under Koch. John Sturm of 
 Strasburg was the friend of Ascham, the 
 author of the Bcholemaster^ and thc- 
 tutor of Queen Elizabeth. It was Ascham 
 who found Lady Jane Gray alone in her 
 room at Bradgate bending her neck over 
 the page of Plato when all the rest of her 
 family were following the chase. Sturm 
 was the first great head-master, the pro- 
 genitor of Busbys if not of Arnolds. He 
 lived and worked till the age of eighty- 
 two. He was a friend of all the most dis. 
 tinguished men of his age, the chosen rep- 
 resentative of the Protestant cause in 
 Europe, the ambassador to foreign powers. 
 He was believed to be better informed 
 than any man of his time of the complica- 
 tions of foreign politics. Rarely did aft 
 envoy pass from France to Germany with- 
 
JOHN STURM. 33 
 
 out turning aside to profit by his experi- 
 ence. But the chief energies of his life 
 were devoted to teaching. He drew his 
 scholars from the whole of Europe; Por- 
 tugal, Poland, England sent their contin- 
 gent to his halls. In 1578, his school 
 numbered several thousand students; he 
 supplied at once the place of the cloister 
 and the castle. What he most insisted up- 
 on was the teaching of Latin, not the con- 
 versational li?igua frajica of Erasmus, but 
 pure, elegant Ciceronian Latinity. He 
 may be called the introducer of scholar- 
 ship into the schools, a scholarship which 
 as yet took little account of Greek. His 
 pupils would write elegant letters, deliver 
 elegant Latin speeches, be familiar, if not 
 with the thoughts, at least with the lan- 
 guage of the ancients, would be scholars 
 in order that they might be gentlemen. 
 Our space will not permit us to trace the 
 whole course of his influence, but he is in 
 all probability as much answerable as any 
 one for the euphuistic refinement which 
 overspread Europe in the 16th century, 
 and which went far to ruin and corrupt its 
 literatures. Nowhere perhaps had he more 
 effect than in England. Our older public 
 schools, on breaking with the ancient faith, 
 looked to Sturm as their model of Protes- 
 tant education. His name and example 
 became familiar to us by the exertions of 
 3 
 
34 WOLFGANG RATKE. 
 
 his friend Ascham. Westminster, under 
 the long reign of Busby, received a form 
 wliich was generally accepted as the type 
 of a gentleman's education. The Public 
 School Commission of 1862, found that the 
 lines laid down by the great citizen of 
 Strasburg, and copied by his admirers, had 
 remained unchanged until within the mem- 
 ory of the present generation. Wolfgang 
 Ratke or Ratichius was born in Holstein 
 in 1571. He anticipated some of the best 
 improvements in the method of teaching 
 which have been made in modern times. 
 He was like many of those who have tried 
 to improve existing methods in advance 
 of his age, and he was rewarded for his 
 labors at Augsburg, Weimar, and Kothen 
 by persecution and imprisonment. Can 
 we wonder that education has improved 
 so slowly when so much pains has been 
 taken to silence and extinguish those who 
 have devoted themselves to its improve- 
 ment ? His chief rules were as follows : 
 1. Begin everything with prayer. 2. Do 
 everything in order, following the course 
 of nature. 3, Onejthing at a time. 4. Of- 
 ten repeat the same thing. 5. Teach 
 everything first in the mother tongue. 6. 
 Proceed from the mother tongue to other 
 languages. 7. Teach w^ithout compulsion. 
 Do not beat children to make them learn. 
 Pupils must love their masters, not hate 
 
RATKE S CHIEF RULES. 35 
 
 them. Nothing should be learnt by heart. 
 Sufficient time should be given to play and 
 recreation. Learn one thing before going 
 on to another. Do not teach for two hours 
 consecutively. 8. Uniformity in teach- 
 ing, also in school-books, especially gram- 
 mars, which may with advantage be made 
 comparative. 9. Teach a thing first, and 
 then the reason of it. Give no rules be- 
 fore you have given the examples. Teach 
 no language out of the grammar, but out 
 of authors. 10. Let everything be taught 
 by induction and experiment. Most of 
 these precepts are accepted by all good 
 teachers in the present day; all of them 
 are full of wisdom. Unfortunately their 
 author saw the faults of the teaching of 
 his time more clearly than the means to 
 remove them, and he was more successful 
 in forming precepts than in carrying them 
 out. Notwithstanding these drawbacks, 
 he deserves an honorable place among the 
 forerunners of a rational education. 
 
 John Amos Comenius was the antithesis 
 to Sturm, and a greater man than Ratke. 
 Born a Moravian, he passed a wandering 
 lite, among the troubles of the Thirty 
 Years' War, in poverty and obscurity. But 
 his ideas were accepted by the most ad- 
 vanced thinkers of the age, notably in 
 many respects by our own Milton, and by 
 Oxenstiern, the chancellor of Sweden. 
 
36 JOHN AMOS COMENIUS. 
 
 His school books were spread throughout 
 Europe. The 'yanua Li?igua?-um Reservata 
 was translated into twelve European and 
 several Asiatic languages. His works, 
 especially the Didascalia magna^ an encyc- 
 lopaedia of the science of education, are 
 constantly reprinted at the present day ; 
 and the system which he sketched will be 
 found to foreshadow the education of the 
 future. He was repelled and disgusted by 
 the long delays and pedantries of the 
 schools. His ardent mind conceived that 
 if teachers would but follow nature instead 
 of forcing it against its bent, take full ad- 
 vantage of the innate desire for activity 
 and growth, all men might be able to learn 
 all things. Languages should be taught 
 as the mother tongue is taught, by conver- 
 sations on ordinary topics; pictures, ob- 
 ject lessons, should be freely used ; teach- 
 ing should go hand in hand with a cheer- 
 ful elegant, and happy life. Comenius in- 
 cluded in his course the teaching of the 
 mother tongue, singing, economy, and pol- 
 itics, the history of the world, physical 
 geog^raphy, and a knowledge of arts and 
 handicrafts. But the principle on which 
 he most insisted, which forms a special 
 point of his teaching, and in which he is 
 followed by Milton, is that the teaching of 
 words and things must go together hand 
 in hand. When we consider how much 
 
THE FORE-RUNNER OF PESTALOZZI. 37 
 
 time is spent over new languages, what 
 waste of energy is lavished on mere prep- 
 aration, how it takes so long to lay a 
 foundation that there is no time to rear a 
 building upon it, we must conclude that it 
 is in the acceptance and development of 
 this principle that the improvement of ed- 
 ucation will in the future consist. Any 
 one who attempts to inculcate this great 
 reform will find that its first principles are 
 contained in the writings of Comenius. 
 But this is not the whole of his claim upon 
 our gratitude. He was one of the first ad- 
 vocates of the teaching of science in 
 schools. His kindness, gentleness, and 
 sympathy make him the forerunner of 
 Pestalozzi. His general principles of edu- 
 cation would not sound strange in the 
 treatise of Herbert Spencer. 
 
 The Protestant schools were now the 
 best in Europe, and the monkish institu- 
 tions were left to decay. Catholics would 
 have remained behind in the race if it had 
 not been for the Jesuits. Ignatius Loyola 
 gave this direction to the order which he 
 founded, and the programme of studies, 
 which dates from the end of the sixteenth 
 century, is in use, with certain modifica- 
 tions, in English Jesuit schools at the 
 present day. In 1 550 the first Jesuit school 
 was opened in Germany ; in 1700 the order 
 possessed 612 colleges, 157 normal schools, 
 
38 THE JESUITS, 
 
 59 noviciates, 340 residences, 2co missions, 
 29 professed homes, and 24 universities. 
 The college of Clermont had 3000 students 
 in 1695. Every Jesuit college was divided 
 into two parts, the one for higher the 
 other for lower education, — the stndiasupe- 
 riora, and the studia inferiora. The sUidia 
 ijiferiora^ answering to the modern gym- 
 nasium, was divided into five classes. The 
 first three were classes of grammar (^rudi- 
 mentSy), grammar f accidence^, and syntax, 
 the last two humanity and rhetoric. The 
 motto of the schools was lege^ scribe^ loquere^ 
 — you must learn not only to read and 
 write a dead language, but to talk. Purism 
 was even more exaggerated that by Sturm. 
 No word might be used which did not rest 
 upon a special authority. The composi- 
 tion of Latin verses was strongly encour- 
 aged, and the performance of Latin plays. 
 Greek was studied to some extent ; math- 
 ematics, geography, music, and the mother 
 tongues were neglected. The studia supe- 
 riora began with a philosophical course of 
 two or three years. In the first year logic 
 was taught, in the second the books of 
 Aristotle, de cceIo^ the first book de ge7iera' 
 tiofie, and the Meteorologica. In the third 
 year the second book de generatione. the 
 books de anima, a n d t h e Metaphysics . A f t e r 
 the completion of the philosophical course 
 the pupil studied theojogy for four years. 
 
WHEREIN THEY EXCELLED. 39 
 
 The Jesuits used to the full the great en- 
 gine of emulation. Their classes were di- 
 vided into two parts, Romans and Cartha- 
 ginians; swords, shields, and lances hung 
 on the walls, and were carried off in tri- 
 umph as either party claimed the victory 
 by a fortunate answer. It would be unfair 
 to deny the merits of the education of the 
 Jesuits. Bacon speaks of them in more 
 than one passage as the revivers of this 
 most important art. Quiim talis sis iitinam 
 noster esses, Descartes approved of their 
 system ; Chateaubriand regarded their sup- 
 pression as a calamity to civilization and 
 enlightenment. They were probably the 
 first to bring the teacher into close con- 
 nection with the taught. According to 
 their ideal the teacher was neither inclosed 
 in a cloister, secluded from his pupils, nor 
 did he keep order by stamping, raving, and 
 flogging. He was encouraged to apply 
 his mind and soul to the mind and soul of 
 his pupil ; to study the nature, the dispo- 
 sition, the parents of his scholars ; to fol- 
 low nature as far as possible, or rather to 
 lie in wait for it and discover its weak 
 points, and where it could be most easily 
 attacked. Doubtless the Jesuits have 
 shown a love, devotion, and self-sacrifice 
 in education, which is worthy of the high- 
 est praise ; no teacher w^ho would compete 
 with them can dare do less. On the other 
 
40 WHEREIN THEY FAILED. 
 
 hand, they are open to grave accusation. 
 Their watchful care degenerated into sur- 
 veillance, which lay-schools have borrowed 
 from them ; their study of nature has led 
 them to confession and direction. They 
 have tracked out the soul to its recesses, 
 that they might slay it there, and generate 
 another in its place ; they educated each 
 mind according to its powers, that it might 
 be a more subservient tool to their own 
 purposes. They taught the accomplish- 
 ments which' the world loves, but their 
 chief object was to amuse the mind 
 and stifle inquiry; they engaged Latin 
 verses, because they were a convenient 
 plaything on which powers might be exer- 
 cised which could have been better em- 
 ployed in understanding and discussing 
 higher subjects ; they were the patrons of 
 school plays, of public prizes, declamations, 
 examinations, and other exhibitions, in 
 which the parents were more considered 
 than the boys; they regarded the claims 
 of education, not as a desire to be encour- 
 aged, but as a demand to be played with 
 and propitiated ; they gave the best educa- 
 tion of their time in order to acquire con- 
 fidence, but they became the chief obstacle 
 to the improvement of education ; they 
 did not care for enlightenment, but only 
 for the influence which they could derive 
 from a supposed regard for enlightenment. 
 
MONTAIGNE. 4I 
 
 Whatever may have been the service of 
 Jesuits in past times, we have little to hope 
 for them in the improvement of education 
 at present. Governments have, on the 
 whole, acted wisely by checking and sup- 
 pressing their colleges. The ratio studio- 
 ru?n is antiquated and difficult to reform. 
 In 1831 it was brought more into accord- 
 ance with modern ideas by Roothaan, the 
 general of the order. Beckx, his succes- 
 sor, has, if anything, pursued a policy of 
 retrogression. The Italian Government, 
 in taking possession of Rome, found that 
 the pupils of the CoUegio Romano were 
 far below the level of modern require- 
 ments. 
 
 It may be imagined that, by this organi- 
 zation both Catholic and Protestant were 
 apt to degenerate into pedantry, both in 
 name and purpose. The schoolmaster had 
 a great deal too much the best of it. The 
 Latin school was tabulated and organized 
 until every half hour of a boy's time was 
 occupied; the Jesuit school took posses- 
 sion of the pupil body and soul. It was, 
 therefore, to be expected that a stand 
 should be made for common sense in the 
 direction of practice rather than theory, 
 ot wisdom instead of learning. Montaigne 
 has left us the most delightful utterances 
 about education. He says that the faults 
 of the education of his day consist in over- 
 
42 JOHN LOCKE. 
 
 estimating the intellect and rejecting uior- 
 rlity, in exaggerating memory and depre- 
 ciating useful knowledge. He recom- 
 mends a tutor who should draw out the 
 pupil's own power and originality, to 
 teach how to live well and to die well, to 
 enforce a lesson by practice, to put the 
 mother tongue before foreign tongues, to 
 teach all manly exercises, to educate the 
 perfect man. Away with force and com- 
 pulsion, with severity and the rod! John 
 Locke, more than a hundred years after- 
 wards, made a more powerful and system- 
 atic attack upon useless knowledge. His 
 theory of the origin of ideas led him to as- 
 sign great importance to education, while 
 his knowledge of the operations of the 
 human mind lends a special value to his 
 advice. His treatise has received in Eng- 
 land more attention than it deserves, partly 
 because we have so few books written up- 
 on the subject on which he treats. Part of 
 his advice is useless at the present day; 
 part it would be well to follow, or at any 
 rate to consider seriously, especially his 
 condemnation of repetition by heart as a 
 means of strengthening the memory, and 
 of Latin verses and themes. He sets be- 
 fore himself the production of the man, 
 a sound mind in a sound body. His 
 knowledge of medicine gives great value 
 to his advice on the earliest education, 
 
FEATURES OF HIS TREATISE. 43: 
 
 although he probably exaggerates the ben- 
 efits of enforced hardships. He recom- 
 mends home education without harshness 
 or severity of discipline. Emulation is to 
 be the chief spring of action; knowledge 
 is, far less valuable than a well-trained 
 mind. He prizes that knowledge most 
 which fits a man for the duties of the 
 world, speaking languages, accounts, his- 
 tory, law, logic, rhetoric, natural philoso- 
 phy. He inculcates the importance of 
 drawing, dancing, riding, fencing, and 
 trades. The part of his advice which made 
 the most impression upon his contempo- 
 raries was the teaching of reading and 
 arithmetic by well-considered games, the 
 discouragement of an undue compulsion 
 and punishment, and the teaching of lan- 
 guage without the drudgery of grammar. 
 In these respects he has undoubtedly an- 
 ticipated modern discoveries. He is a 
 strong advocate for home education under 
 a private tutor, and his bitterness against 
 public schools is as vehement as that ot 
 Cowper. 
 
 Far more important in the literature of 
 this subject than the treatise of Locke is 
 the Tractate of Education by Milton, "the 
 few observations," as he tells us, "which 
 flowered off, and are, as it were, the bur- 
 nishings of many studious and contempla- 
 tive years spent in the search for civil and 
 
44 MILTON s "tractate. 
 
 religious knowledge." This essay is ad- 
 dressed to Samuel Hartlib, a great friend 
 of Comenius, and probably refers to a 
 project of establishing a university in 
 London. "I will point you out," Milton 
 says, "the right path of a virtuous and 
 noble education, — laborious, indeed, at first 
 ascent, but else so smooth and green and 
 full of goodly prospects and melodious 
 sounds on every side, that the harp of Or- 
 pheus is not more charming. This is to 
 be done between twelve and one-and- 
 twenty, in an academy containing about a 
 hundred and thirty scholars, which shall 
 be at once school and university, — not 
 needing a remove to any other nouse of 
 scholarship except it be some peculiar 
 college of law and physics, where they 
 mean to be practitioners." The important 
 truth enunciated is quite in the spirit of 
 Comenius that the learning of things and 
 words is to go hand in hand. The curri- 
 culum is very large. Latin, Greek, arith- 
 metic, geometry, agriculture, geography, 
 physiology, physics, trigonometry, forti- 
 fication, architecture, engineering, naviga- 
 tion, anatomy, medicine, poetry, Italian, 
 law both Roman and English, Hebrew, 
 with Chaldee and Syriac, history, oratory, 
 poetics. But the scholars are not to be 
 book-worms. They are to be trained for 
 war, both on foot and on horseback, to be 
 
A NOBLE IDEAL, 45 
 
 practised '*in all the locks and gripes of 
 wrestling," they are to "recreate and com- 
 pose their travailed spirits with the divine 
 harmonies of music heard or learnt " "In 
 those vernal seasons of the year when the 
 air is calm and pleasant, it were an injury 
 and a sullenness against Nature not to go 
 out and see her riches, and partake in her 
 rejoicing with heaven and earth. I should 
 not then be a persuader to them of study- 
 ing much then, after two or three years 
 that they have well laid their grounds, 
 but to ride out in companies with prudent 
 and staid guides to all the quarters of the 
 land." The whole treatise is full of wis- 
 dom, and deserves to studied again and 
 again. Visionary as it may appear to^some 
 at first sight, if translated into the lan- 
 guage of our own day, it will be found to 
 abound with sound, practical advice, 
 "Only," Milton says in conclusion, "I 
 believe that this is not a bow for every 
 man to shoot who counts himself a teacher, 
 but will require sinews almost equal to 
 those which Homer gave Ulysses; yet I am 
 persuaded that it may prove much more 
 easy in the essay than it now seems at a 
 distance, and much more illustrious if 
 God have so decided and this age have 
 spirit and capacity enough to apprehend." 
 Almost while Milton was writing this 
 treatise, he might have seen an attempt to 
 
46 THE JANSENISTS. 
 
 realize something of his ideal in Port 
 Royal. What a charm does this name 
 awaken ! Yet how few of us have made a 
 pilgrimage to that secluded valley ! Here 
 we find, for the first time in the modern 
 world, the highest gifts of the greatest 
 men of a country applied to the business 
 of education. Arnauld, Lancelot, Nicole 
 did not commence by being educational 
 philosophers. They began with a small 
 school, and developed their method as 
 they proceeded. Their success has seldom 
 been surpassed. But a more lasting 
 memorial than their pupils are the books 
 which they sent out, which bear the name 
 ■of their cloister. The Poi't Royal Logic, 
 Gtne7'al Grammar^ Greek, Latin, Italian, and 
 Spanish Grammars, the Garde?i of Greek 
 Roots which taught Greek to Gibbon, the 
 Port Royal Geometry, and their translations 
 of the classics held the first place among 
 school books for more than a century. 
 The success of the Jansenists was too 
 much for the jealousy of the Jesuits. 
 Neither piety, nor wit, nor virtue could 
 save them. A light was quenched which 
 would have given an entirely different 
 direction to the education of France and 
 of Europe. No one can visit without 
 emotion that retired nook which lies hid- 
 den among the forests of Versailles, 
 •where the old brick dove-cot, the pillars 
 
AUGUST HERMANN FRANCKE. 47 
 
 of the church, the trees of the desert 
 alone remain to speak to us of Pascal, 
 Racine, and the Mere Angelique. The 
 principles of Port Royal found some sup- 
 porters in a later time, in the better days 
 of French education before monarchism 
 and militarism had crushed the life out of 
 the nation. Rollin is never mentioned 
 without the epithet bon^ a testimony to his 
 wisdom, virtue and simplicity. Fenelon 
 may be reckoned as belonging to the same 
 school, but he was more fitted to mix and 
 grapple with mankind. 
 
 No history of education would be com- 
 plete without the name of August Her- 
 mann Francke, the founder ot the school 
 of Pietists, and of a number of institutions 
 which now form almost a suburb in the 
 town of Halle to which his labors were 
 devoted. The first scenes of his activity 
 were Leipzig and Dresden; but in 1692, 
 at the age of 29, he was made pastor of 
 Glancha near Halle, and professor in the 
 newly established university. Three years 
 later he commenced his poor school with 
 a capital of seven guelders which he found 
 in the poor box of his house. At his death 
 in 1727 he left behind him the following 
 institutions: — a paedagogium, or training 
 college, with eighty-two scholars and sev- 
 enty teachers receiving education, and 
 attendants ; the Latin school of the orphan 
 
48 HALLE. 
 
 asylum, with three inspectors, thirty-two 
 teachers, four hundred scholars, and ten 
 servants; the German town schools, with 
 four inspectors, ninety-eight teachers, 
 eight female teachers, and one thousand 
 seven hundred and twenty-five boys and 
 girls. The establishment for orphan chil- 
 dren contained one hundred boys, thirty- 
 four girls, and ten attendants. A cheap 
 public dining-table was attended by two 
 hundred and fifty-five students and three 
 hundred and sixty poor scholars, and be- 
 sides this there was an apothecary's and a 
 bookseller's shop. Francke's principles 
 of education were strictly religious. He- 
 brew was included in his curriculum, but 
 the heathen classics were treated with 
 slight respect. The Hojnilies of Macarius 
 were read in the place of Thucydides. As 
 might be expected, the rules laid down for 
 discipline and moral training breathed a 
 spirit of deep affection and symathy, 
 Francke's great merit, however, is to have 
 left us a model of institutions by which 
 children of all ranks may receive an edu- 
 cation to fit them for any position in life. 
 The Franckesche Stiftungen are still, next 
 to the university, the centre of the intel- 
 lectual life of Halle, and the different 
 schools which they contain give instruc- 
 tion to 3,500 children. 
 
 We now come to the book which has 
 
ROUSSEAU S EMILE. 49 
 
 had moie influence than any other on the 
 education of later times. The Emile of 
 Rousseau was published in 1762. It pro- 
 duced an astounding: effect throughout 
 Europe. Those were days when the whole 
 cultivated world vibrated to any touch of 
 new philosophy. French had superseded 
 Latin as the general medium of thought, 
 French learning stood in the same rela- 
 tion to the rest of Europe as German learn- 
 ing does now : and any discovery of 
 D'Alembert, Rousseau, or Maupertuis 
 travelled with inconceivable speed from 
 Versailles to Schonbrunn, from the Spree 
 to the Neva. Kant in his distant home of 
 Konigsberg broke for one day through his 
 habitS; more regular than the town clock, 
 and stayed at home to study the new rev- 
 elation. The burthen of Rousseau's mes- 
 sage was nature, such a nature as never did 
 and never will exist, but still a name for an 
 ideal worthy of our struggles. He revolted 
 against the false civilization which he saw 
 around him ; he was penetrated with sor- 
 row at the shams of government and 
 society, at the misery of the poor existing 
 side by side with the heartlessness of the 
 rich. The child should be the pupil of 
 nature. He lays great stress on the earliest 
 education. The first year of life is in 
 every respect the most important. Nature 
 must be closely followed. The child's 
 4 
 
50 ROUSSEAU. 
 
 tears are petitions which should be grant- 
 ed. The naughtiness of children comes 
 from weakness ; make the child strong and 
 he will be good. Children's destructive- 
 ness is a form of activity. Do not be too 
 anxious to make children talk; be satisfied 
 with a small vocabulary. Lay aside all 
 padded caps and baby jumpers. Let chil- 
 dren learn to walk by learning that it hurts 
 them to fall. Do not insist too much on 
 the duty of obedience as on the necessity 
 of submission to natural laws. Do not 
 argue too much with children ; educate the 
 heart to wish for right actions ; before ail 
 things study nature. The chief moral 
 principle is do no one harm, Emile is to be 
 taught by the real things of life, by obser- 
 vation and experience. At twelve years 
 old he is scarcely to know what a book is; 
 to be able to read and write at fifteen is 
 quite enough. We must first make him a 
 man, and that chiefly by athletic exercises. 
 Educate his sight to measure, count, and 
 weigh accurately ; teach him to draw ; tune 
 his ear to time and harmony; give him 
 simple food, but let him eat as much as he 
 likes. Thus at twelve years old Emile is 
 a real child of nature. His carriage and 
 bearing are fair and confident, his nature 
 open and candid, his speech simple and to 
 the point ; his ideas are few but clear; he 
 knows nothing by learning, much by ex- 
 
EMILE. 51 
 
 perience. He has read deeply in the book 
 of nature. His mind is not on his tongue 
 but in his head. He speaks only one lan- 
 guage, but knows what he is saying, and 
 can do what he cannot describe. Routine 
 and custom are unknown to him; authority 
 and example affect him not : he does what 
 he thinks right. He understands nothing 
 of duty and obedience, but he will do what 
 you ask him, and will expect a similar ser- 
 vice of vou in return. His strength and 
 body are fully developed; he is first-rate 
 at running, jumping, and judging dis- 
 tances Should he die at this age he will 
 so far have lived his life. From twelve to 
 fifteen Emile's practical education is to 
 continue. He is still to avoid books which 
 teach not learning itself but to appear 
 learned. He is to be taught and to prac- 
 tise some handicraft. Half the value of 
 education is to waste time wisely, to tide 
 over dangerous years with safety, until 
 the character is better able to stand temp- 
 tation. At fifteen a new epoch commences. 
 The passions are awakened ; the care of 
 the teacher should now redouble; he should 
 never leave the helm. Emile having grad- 
 ually acquired the love of himself and of 
 those immediately about him, will begin 
 to love his kind. Now is the time to 
 teach him history, and the machinery of 
 society, the world as it is and as it might 
 
52 ROUSSEAU. 
 
 be. Still an encumbrance of useless and 
 burdensome knowledge is to be avoided. 
 Between this age and manhood Emile 
 learns all that it is necessary for him to 
 know„ It is, perhaps, strange that a book 
 in many respects so wild and fantastic 
 should have produced so great a practical 
 effect. In pursuance of its precepts, chil- 
 dren went about naked, were not allowed 
 to read, and when they grew up wore the 
 simplest clothes, and cared for little learn- 
 ing except the siudy of nature and Plu- 
 tarch. The catastrophe of the French 
 Revolution has made the importance of 
 Emile less apparent to us. Much of the 
 heroism of that time is doubtless due to 
 the exaltation produced by the sweeping 
 away of abuses, and the approach of a 
 brighter age. But we must not forget that 
 the first generation of Emile was just 
 thirty years old in 1792; that many of the 
 Girondins, the Marseillais, the soldiers and 
 generals of Carnot and Napoleon had been 
 bred in that hardy school. There is no 
 more interesting chapter in the history of 
 education than the tracing back of epochs 
 of special activity to the obscure source 
 from which they arose. Thus the Whigs 
 of the Reform Bill sprang from the wits 
 of Edinburgh, the heroes of the Rebellion 
 from the divines who translated the Bible, 
 the martyrs of the Revovution from the 
 philosophers of the Encyclopaedia. 
 
BASEDOW. 53 
 
 The teaching of Rousseau found its 
 practical expression in the philanthropin of 
 Dessau, a school founded by Basedow, the 
 friend of Goethe and Lavater, one of the 
 two prophets between whom the world- 
 child sat bodkin in that memorable post- 
 chaise journey of which Goethe has left us 
 an account. The principles of the teach- 
 ing given in this establishment were very 
 much those of Comenius, the combination 
 of words and things. An amusing ac- 
 count of the instruction given in this 
 school, which at this time consisted of 
 only thirteen pupils, has come down to us, 
 a translation of which is given in the ex- 
 cellent work of Mr. Quick on educational 
 reformers. The little ones have gone 
 through the oddest performances. They 
 play at "word of command." Eight or ten 
 stand in a line like soldiers, and Herr 
 Wolke is officer. He gives the word 
 in Latin, and they must do whatever he 
 says. For instance when he says "clau- 
 ditc oculos," they all shut their eyes ; 
 when he says" circumspicite," they look 
 about them; " imitamini sutorem," they 
 draw the waxed thread like cobblers. 
 Herr Wolke gives a thousand different 
 commands in the drollest fashion. An- 
 other game, "the hiding game," may also 
 be described. Some one writes a name 
 and hides it from the children, the name 
 
54 BASEDOW. 
 
 of some part of the body, or of a plant or 
 animal, or metal, and the children guess 
 what it is. Whoever guesses right gets an 
 apple or a piece of cake ; one of the visit- 
 ors wrote " intestina," and told the chil- 
 dren it was part of the body. Then the 
 guessing began, one guessed caput, another 
 nasus, another os, another manus, pes^ 
 digiti, pectus, and so forth for a longtime, 
 but one of them hits it at last. Next Herr 
 Wolke wrote the name of a beast or quad- 
 ruped, then came the guesses, leo, ursus, 
 camelus, elephas, and so on, till one guess- 
 ed right it was mus. Then a town was 
 written, and they guessed Lisbon, Madrid, 
 Paris, London, till a child won with St. 
 Petersburg. They had another game 
 which was this. Herr Wolke gave the 
 command in Latin, and they imitated the 
 noises of different animals, and made the 
 visitors laugh till they were tired. They 
 roared like lions, crowed like cocks, mew- 
 ed like cats, just as they were bid. Yet 
 Kant found a great deal to praise in this 
 school, and spoke of its influence as one 
 of the best hopes of the future, and as "the 
 .only school where the teachers had liberty 
 to act according to their own methods and 
 schemes, and where they were in free 
 communication both among themselves 
 and with all learned men throughout 
 Germany." 
 
SALZMANN, PESTALOZZI. 55 
 
 A more successful laborer in the same 
 school was Salzmann, who bought the 
 property of Schnepfenthal, near Gotha, in 
 1784, and established a school there, which 
 still exists as a flourishing institution. He 
 gave full scope to the doctrines of the phil- 
 anthropists; the limits of learning were 
 enlarged; study became a pleasure instead 
 of a pain ; scope was given for healthy ex- 
 ercise ; the school became light, airy, and 
 cheerful. A charge of superficiality and 
 weakness was brought against this method 
 of instruction; but the gratitude which our 
 generation of teachers owes to the un- 
 bounded love and faith of these devoted 
 men cannot be denied or refused. The 
 end of the i8th century saw a great devel- 
 opment given to classical studies. The 
 names ot Cellarius, Gesner, Ernesti, and 
 Fleyne are perhaps more celebrated as 
 scholars than as schoolmasters. To them 
 we owe the great importance attached to 
 the study of the classics, both on the Con- 
 tinent and in England. They brought in- 
 to the schools the philology which F. A. 
 Wolf had organized for the universities. 
 Pestalozzi, on the other hand, was com- 
 pletely and entirely devoted to education. 
 His greatest merit is that he set an ex- 
 ample of absolute self-abnegation, that he 
 lived with his pupils, played, starved, and 
 suffered with them, and clung to their 
 
56 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 minds and hearts with an aftectionate sym- 
 pathy which revealed to him every minute 
 difference of character and disposition. 
 Pestalozzi was born at Zurich in 1746. 
 His father died when he was young, and he 
 was brought up by his mother. His earli- 
 est years were spent in schemes for im- 
 proving the condition of the people. The 
 death of his friend Bluntschli turned him 
 from political schemes, and induced him to 
 devote himself to education. He married 
 at 23, and bought a piece of waste land in 
 Aargau, where he attempted the cultivation 
 of madder. Pestalozzi knew nothing of 
 business, and the plan failed. Before this 
 he had opened his farm-house as a school ; 
 but in 1780 he had to give this up also. 
 His first book published at this time was 
 The Evenijig Hours of a Hermit^ a series of 
 aphorisms and reflections. This was fol- 
 lowed by his masterpiece, Leo7iard and Ger- 
 trude^ an account of the gradual reforma- 
 tion, first of a household, and then of a 
 whole village, by the efforts of a good and 
 devoted woman. It was read with avidity 
 in Germany, and the name of Pestalozzi 
 was rescued from obscurity. His attempts 
 to follow up this first literary success were 
 failures. The French invasion of Switzer- 
 land in 1798 brought into relief his truly 
 heroic character. A number of children 
 were left in Canton Unterwalden on the 
 
PESTALOZZI. 57 
 
 shores of the Lake of Luzerne without 
 parents, home, food, or shelter. Pestaloz- 
 zi collected a number of them into a de- 
 serted convent, and spent his energies in 
 reclaiming them. " I was," he says, "from 
 morning till evening, almost alone in their 
 midst. Everything which was done for 
 their body or soul proceeded from my 
 hand. Every assistance, every help in time 
 of need, every teaching which they re- 
 ceived came immediately from me. My 
 hand lay in their hand, my eye rested on 
 their eye, my tears flowed with theirs, and 
 my laughter accompanied theirs. They 
 were out of the world, they were out of 
 Stanz ; they were with me, and I was 
 with them. Their soup was mine ; their 
 drink was mine. I had nothing; I 
 had no housekeeper, no friend, no 
 servants around me ; I had them alone. 
 Were they well, I stood in their midst ; 
 were they ill, I was at their side. I slept 
 in the middle of them. I was the last who 
 went to bed at night, the first who rose in 
 the morning. Even in bed I prayed and 
 taught with them until they were asleep, — 
 they wished it to be so." Thus he passed 
 the winter; but in June, 1799, the building 
 was required by the French for a hospital, 
 and the children were dispersed. We 
 have dwelt especially on this episode ot 
 Pestalozzi's life, because in this devotion 
 
58 PESTALOZZI. 
 
 lay his strength. In 1801 he gave an ex- 
 position of his ideas on education in the 
 book How Gertrude teaches her Children. 
 His method is to proceed from the easier 
 to the more difficult — to begin with ob- 
 servation, to pass from observation to con- 
 sciousness, trom consciousness to speech. 
 Then come measuring, drawing, writing, 
 numbers, and so reckoning. In 1799 he 
 had been enabled to establish a school at 
 Burgdorf, where he remained till 1804. In 
 1802, he went as deputy to Paris, and did 
 his best to interest Napoleon in a scheme 
 of national education ; but the great con- 
 queror said that he could not trouble him- 
 self with the alphabet. In 1805 he removed 
 to Yverdun on the Lake of Neufchatel, and 
 for twenty years worked steadily at his 
 task. He was visited by all who took in- 
 terest in education — Talleyrand, Capo 
 d'Istria, and Madame de Stael. He was 
 praised by Wilhelm von Humboldt and by 
 Fichte. His pupils included Ramsauer, 
 Delbru, Blochmann, Carl Ritter, Froebel, 
 and Zeller. About 1815 dissensions broke 
 out among the teachers of the school, and 
 Pestalozzi's last ten years were chequered 
 by weariness and sorrow. In 1825 he re- 
 tired to Neuhof, the home of his youth; 
 and after writing the adventures of his 
 life, and his last work, the Swa^i's Song, he 
 did in 1827. As he said himself, the real 
 
EDUCATION AS A SCIENCE. 59 
 
 work of his life did not lie in Burgdorf or 
 in Yverdun, the products rather of his 
 weakness than of his strength. It lay in 
 the principles of education which he prac- 
 tised, the development of his observation, 
 the training of the whole man, the sympa- 
 thetic application of the teacher to the 
 taught, of which he left an example in his 
 six months' labors at Stanz. He showed 
 what truth there was in the principles of 
 Comenius and Rousseau, in the union of 
 training with information, and the sub- 
 missive following of nature ; he has had 
 the deepest effect on all branches of edu- 
 cation since his time, and his influence is 
 far from being exhausted. 
 
 The Emile of Rousseau was the point of 
 departure for an awakened interest in edu- 
 cational theories which has continued unto 
 the present day. Few thinkers of emi- 
 nence during the last hundred years have 
 failed to offer their contributions more or 
 less directly on this subject. Poets like 
 Richter, Herder and Goeihe, philosophers 
 such as Kant, Fichte, Hegel, Schleier- 
 macher and Schopenhauer, psychologists 
 such as Herbart and Beneke, have left 
 directions for our guidance. Indeed, dur- 
 ing this time the science of education, or 
 paedagogics, as the Germans call it, may 
 have been said to have come into existence. 
 It has attracted but little attention in Eng- 
 
€o JEAN PAUL, GOETHE, CARLYLE. 
 
 land ; but it is an important subject of 
 study at all German universities, and we 
 may hope that the example given by the 
 •establishment of chairs of education in the 
 Scotch universities may soon be followed 
 by the other great centres of instruction 
 in Great Britain. Jean Paul called his 
 book Levana, after the Roman goddess to 
 whom the father dedicated his new-born 
 -child, in token that he intended to rear it 
 to manhood. He lays great stress on the 
 preservation of individuality of character, 
 •a merit which he possessed himself in so 
 high a degree. The second part of Wil- 
 helm Meister is in the main a treatise upon 
 •education. The essays of Carlyle have 
 made us familiar with the mysteries of the 
 paedagogic province, the solemn gestures 
 of the three reverences, the long cloisters 
 which contain the history of God's deal- 
 ings with the human race. The most 
 characteristic passage is that which de- 
 scribes the father's return to the country 
 of education after a year's absence. As he 
 is riding alone, .wondering in what guise 
 •he will meet his son, a multitude of horses 
 rush by at full gallop. " The monstrous 
 hurly-burly whirls past the wanderer; a 
 fair boy among the keepers looks at him 
 in surprise, pulls in, leaps down, and 
 embraces his father." He then learns that 
 an agricultural lite had npt suited his son, 
 
JACOTOT. 6r 
 
 that the superiors had discovered that he 
 was fond of animals, and had set him to 
 that occupation for which nature had 
 destined him. 
 
 The system of Jacotot has aroused great 
 interest in this country. Its author was 
 born at Dijon in 1770. In 1815 he retired 
 to Louvain and became professor there, 
 and director of the Belgian military 
 school. He died in 1840. His method of 
 teaching is based on three principles : 
 
 1. All men liave an equal intelligence. 
 
 2. Every man has received from God the 
 faculty of being able to instruct himself. 
 
 3. Every thing is in everything. 
 
 The first of these principles is certainly 
 wrong, although Jacotot tried to explain 
 it by asserting that, although men had the 
 same intelligence, they differed widely in 
 the will to make use of it. Still it is im- 
 portant to assert that nearly all men are 
 capable of receiving some intellectual edu- 
 cation, provided the studies to which they 
 are directed are wide enough to engage 
 their faculties, and the means taken to in- 
 terest them are sufficiently ingenious. 
 The second principle lays down that it is 
 more necessary to stimulate the pupil to 
 learn for himself, than to teach him didac- 
 tically. The third principle explains the 
 process which Jacotot adopted. To one 
 
62 BELL, LANCASTER. 
 
 learning a language for the first time he 
 would give a short passage of a few lines, 
 and encourage the pupil to study first the 
 words, then the letters, then the grammar, 
 then the full meaning of the expressions, 
 until by iteration and accretion a single 
 paragraph took the place of an entire 
 literature. Much may be effected by this 
 method in the hands of a skilful teacher, 
 but a charlatan might make it an excuse 
 for ignorance and neglect. 
 
 Among those who have improved the 
 methods of teaching, w^e must mention 
 Bell and Lancaster, the joint-discoverers 
 of the method of mutual instruction, which, 
 if it has not effected everything which its 
 founders expected of it, has produced the 
 system of pupil-teachers which is common 
 in our schools. Froebel also deserves an 
 honorable place as the founder of the Kin- 
 dergarten, a means of teaching young 
 children by playing and amusement. His 
 plans, which have a far wider significance 
 than this limited development of them, are 
 likely to be fruitful of results to future 
 workers. 
 
 The last English writers on education 
 are Mr. Herbert Spencer and Mr. Alexan- 
 der Bain, the study of whose writings will 
 land us in those regions ot pedagogics 
 which have been most recently explored. 
 We need not follow Mr. Spencer into his 
 
HERBERT SPENCER. 6;^ 
 
 defence of science as the worthiest object 
 of study, or in his rules for moral and 
 physical training, except to say that they 
 are sound and practical. In writing of 
 intellectual education, he insists that we 
 shall attain the best results by closely 
 studying the development of the mind, and 
 availing ourselves of the whole amount of 
 force which nature puts at our disposal. 
 The mind of every being is naturally act- 
 ive and vigorous, indeed it is never at rest. 
 But for its healthy growth it must have 
 something to work upon, and, therefore, 
 the teacher must watch its movements 
 with the most sympathetic care, in order 
 to supply exactly that food which it re- 
 quires at any particular time. In this 
 way a much larger cycle of attainments 
 can be compassed than by the adoption of 
 any programme or curriculum, however 
 carefully drawn up. It is no good to teach 
 what is not remembered ; the strength of 
 memory depends on attention, and atten- 
 tion depends upon interest. To teach with- 
 out interest is to work like Sisyphus and 
 the Danaides. Arouse interest if you can, 
 rather by high means than by low means. 
 But it is a saving of power to make use of 
 interest which you have already existing:, 
 and which, unless dried up or distorted by 
 injudicious violence, will naturally lead 
 the mind into all the knowledge which it 
 
64 ALEXANDER BAIN. 
 
 is capable of receiving. Therefore, never 
 from the first force a child's attention ; 
 leave off a study the moment it becomes 
 wearisome, never let a child do what it 
 does not like, only take care that when its 
 liking is in activity a choice of good as 
 well as evil shall be given to it. 
 
 Mr. Bain's writings on education, which 
 are contained in some articles in the Fort- 
 nightly Revieiv, and in two articles in Mind 
 (^Nos. V. and vii.^ are extremely valuable. 
 Perhaps the most interesting part of them 
 consists in his showing how what may be 
 called the " correlation of forces in man " 
 helps us to a right education. From this 
 we learn that emotion may be transformed 
 into intellect, that sensation may exhaust 
 the brain as much as thought, and we may 
 infer that the chief duty ot the schoolmas- 
 ter is to stimulate the powers of each brain 
 under his charge to the fullest activity, and 
 to apportion them in that ratio which will 
 best conduce to the most complete and 
 harmonious development of the individual. 
 
 It seems to follow from this sketch of 
 the history of education that, in spite of 
 the great advances which have been made 
 of late years, the science of education is 
 still far in advance of the art. Schoolmas- 
 ters are still spending their best energies 
 in teaching subjects which have been uni- 
 versally condemned by educational reform- 
 
LITERATURE OF EDUCATION. 65 
 
 ers for the last two hundred years. The ed- 
 ucation of every public school is a farrago 
 of rules, principles, and customs derived 
 from every age of teaching, from the most 
 modern to the most remote. It is plain 
 that the science and art of teaching will 
 never be established on a firm basis until 
 it is organized on the model of the sister 
 art of medicine. We must pursue the 
 patient methods of induction by which 
 other sciences have reached the stature of 
 maturity ; we must discover some means 
 of registering and tabulating results ; we 
 must invent a phraseology and nomencla- 
 ture which will enable results to be accu- 
 rately recorded; we must place education 
 in its proper position among the sciences 
 of observation. A philosopher who should 
 succeed in doing this would be venerated 
 by future ages as the creator of the art of 
 teaching. 
 
 It only remains now to give some ac- 
 count of the very large literature of the 
 subject. 
 
 The history of education was not inves- 
 tigated till the beginning of the present 
 century, and since then little original re- 
 search has been made except by Germans. 
 Whilst acknowedging our great obliga- 
 tions to the German historians, we cannot 
 but regret that all the investigations have 
 belonged to the same nation. For in- 
 5 
 
66 VALUABLE WORKS. 
 
 Stance, one of the best treatises on educa- 
 tion written in the i6th century is Mul- 
 caster's Positions^ which has never been re- 
 printed, and is now a literary curiosity. 
 
 Mangelsdorf and Ruhkopf attempted 
 histories of e.-\ication at the end of the 
 last century, but the first work of note 
 was F. H. Ch. Schwarz's Gesehichte d. Er- 
 ziehung (i^iT,). A. H, Niemeyer, a very 
 influential writer, was one of the first to 
 insist on the importance of making use of 
 all that has been handed down to us, and 
 with this practical object in view he has 
 given us an Ueberblick der allgemeiiien Ges- 
 ehichte der Erziehiing. Other writers fol- 
 lowed ; but from the time of its appearance 
 till within the last few years, by far the 
 most readable and the most read work on 
 the history of education was that of Karl 
 von Raumer. Raumer, however, is too 
 chatty and too religious to pass for "wis- 
 senschaftlich," and the standard history is 
 now that of Karl Schmidt. The Roman 
 Catholics have not been content to adopt 
 the works of Protestants, but have histo- 
 ries of their own. These are the very 
 pleasing sketches of L. Kellner and the 
 somewhat larger history by Stoeckl. 
 When we come to writers who have pro- 
 duced sketches or shorter histories, we v 
 find the list in Germany a very long one. 
 Among the best books of this kind are 
 
LITERATURE OF EDUCATION. 67 
 
 Fried. Dittes's Geschichte and D rose's Pad- 
 agogische Characterbilder. An account of 
 this literature will be found in J. Chr. G. 
 Schumann's paper among the Padagogische 
 Studien, edited by Dr. Reiss, For biogra- 
 phies the paedagogic cyclopaedias may be 
 consulted, of which the first is the Encyk- 
 lopadie des gesammten E7'ziehungswesens of 
 K. A. Schmidt, a great work in ii or 12 
 vols, not yet completed, although the sec- 
 ond edition of the early vols, are already 
 announced. The Roman Catholics have 
 also begun a large encyclopaedia edited by 
 Rolfus and Pfister. No similar work has 
 been published in France, but a Cyclopcedia 
 of Education in one volume has lately been 
 issued in New York (^Steiger, — the editors 
 are Kiddle and SchemJ, and in this there 
 are articles by English as well as Ameri- 
 can writers. In French the Esguisse d'un 
 systeme complet d' Education^ by Th. Fritz, 
 fStrasburg, 1841 J, has a sketch of the his- 
 tory, which as a sketch is worth notice. 
 Jules Paroz has written a useful little His- 
 toire which would have been more valuable 
 if it had been longer. 
 
 In English, though we have no investi- 
 gators of the history of education, we have 
 a fairly large literature on the subject, but 
 it belongs almost exclusively to the United 
 States. The great work of Henry Barn- 
 ard, the American yournal of Education^ in 
 
68 LITERATURE OF EDUCATION. 
 
 25 vols., has valuable papers on almost 
 every part of our subject, many of them 
 translated from the German, but there are 
 also original papers on our old English 
 educational writers and extracts from their 
 works. This is by far the most valuable 
 work in our language on the history of 
 education. The small volumes published 
 in America with the title of *' History of 
 Education " do not deserve notice. In 
 England may be mentioned the article on 
 education by Mi. James Mill, published in 
 the early editions of the Eticyclopoidia Bri- 
 tannica^ and Mr. R. H. Quick's most excel- 
 lent Essays o?i Educational Reformers^ pub- 
 lished in 1868. Since then Mr. Leitch of 
 Glasgow has issued a volume called Prac- 
 tical Educationists^ which deals with English 
 and Scotch reformers, as well as with Co- 
 menius and Pestalozzi. Now that profes- 
 sorships of education have been established 
 we may hope for some original research. 
 The first professor appointed was the late 
 Joseph Payne, a name well-known to those 
 among us who have studied the theory of 
 education. The professorship was started 
 by the College of Preceptors. At Edin- 
 burgh and at St. Andrews professors have 
 since been elected by the Bell Trustees. 
 
 Valuable reports as to the state of edu- 
 cation in the various countries that pos- 
 sess a national system were presented to 
 
PUBLIC EDUCATION. 69 
 
 the English Schools Inquiry Commission 
 in 1867 and 1868, by inspectors specially 
 appointed to investigate the subject. The 
 reports on the Common School System of 
 the United States and Canada, by the Rev. 
 James Fraser, on the Burgh Schools in 
 Scotland by D. R. Fearon, and on Sec- 
 ondary Education in France, Germany, 
 Switzerland and Italy, by Matthew Arnold, 
 are included in Parliamentary Papers 
 [3857], 1867, and [3966 V.]. 1868. fo^Bj 
 
 Law Relating to Education. 
 To the foregoing historical statement 
 may be added some account of the different 
 systems of education administed by statute 
 in the United Kingdom : — 
 
 England. — Until quite recently there was 
 no public provision for education in Eng- 
 land, and even now it is only the elemen- 
 tary education of the people that can be 
 said to be regulated by law. Parliament 
 has indeed taken cognizance of the institu- 
 tions founded for the higher education. 
 The universities and the endowed schools 
 have been enabled by various statutes to 
 adapt themselves more completely to the 
 wants of the times ; but they still retain 
 their character ot local, and one might 
 almost say private, corporations. Their 
 administration is subject to the control of 
 no state authority, and in districts where 
 
7© PUBLIC EDUCATION. 
 
 such institutions do not exist there is no 
 public provision for supplementing the 
 deficiency. Elementary education, until 
 the Act of 1870, was in the same way de- 
 pendent on voluntary enterprise or casual 
 endowment. 
 
 The first approach to a public system of 
 education was by means of grants in aid of 
 private schools, administered by a com- 
 mittee of Privy Council. This system is 
 not superseded by the Education Act of 
 1870, but means are taken to ensure the 
 existence in every school district of a 
 " sufficient amount of accommodation in 
 public elementary schools." The school 
 district is the borough or parish, except 
 in the case of London and Oxford. When 
 the amount of school accommodation in a 
 district is insufficient, and the deficiency 
 is not supplied as required by the Act, a 
 school board shall be formed and shall 
 supply such deficiency. Every elementary 
 school is a public school in the sense of 
 the Act if it is conducted according to the 
 regulations in section 7, which in sub- 
 stance are : — 
 
 1. It shall not be required, as a condition of any 
 child being admitted into, or continuing in the 
 school, that he shall attend or abstain from attend- 
 ing any Sunday School or any place of religious 
 worship, or that he shall attend any religious ob- 
 servance or any instruction in religious subjects, in' 
 the school or elsewhere, from which observance oir 
 
ENGLAND. 7I 
 
 instruction he may be witlidrawn by his parents, or 
 that he shall, it withdrawn by his parents, attend the 
 school on any day set apart tor religious observance 
 by the religious body to which his parents belong. 
 
 2. Time for religious observance or instruction in 
 the school must be at the beginning or end of school 
 meeting, and mnst be shown in a time table con- 
 spicuously posted in the school. 
 
 3. School must be open to inspection, except that 
 the inspector is not to inquire into religious knowl- 
 edge. 
 
 4. School must be conducted in accordance with 
 the conditions required to obtain a parliamentary 
 grant. 
 
 When the Education Department are 
 satisfied after inquiry that the supply of 
 public elementary schools as thus defined 
 is in any district insufficient, they may 
 cause a school board to be formed as thev 
 may also (ij when application is made to 
 them to that effect ,by the persons who 
 would be the electors if there were a 
 school board (^in a borough by councily),. 
 and (2) when they are satisfied that the 
 managers of an elementary school are un- 
 willing or unable to maintain it, and by its 
 discontinuance the supply for the district 
 will become insufficient. The body of the 
 Act describes the constitution, powers,, 
 duties, and revenues of school boards, as 
 in the following brief summary : — 
 
 1. Gonsiihition. — The school board is a corporation 
 with perpetual succession and common seal, and 
 m)wer to hold land without license in mortmain. It 
 
72 PUBLIC EDUCATION. 
 
 is elected by the burgesses in a borough, and by the 
 rate-payers in a parish, each voter having a number 
 of voles equal to the number of vacancies, having 
 the right to give all or any number of such votes to 
 any one candidate, and to distribute them as he 
 pleases. The number of members varies from 5 to 
 15 as may be determined. The London school 
 board is elected under special regulations. 
 
 3. Pozvers and Duties. — Every school board, for 
 the purpose of providing sufficient public school ac- 
 commodation for their district, may provide or im- 
 prove school-houses and supply school apparatus, 
 etc., and purchase or take on lease any land or any 
 right over land. Section 20 contains regulations 
 under which the compulsory purchase of sites may 
 be made. The schools provided by the board must 
 comply with the following conditions: — CS.) They 
 must be public elementary schools, in the sense 
 defined above; C^.) No religious catechism or re- 
 ligious formulary, which is distinctive of any par- 
 ticular denomination, shall be taught in the schools. 
 The board may delegate their powers (^except that 
 of raising money^ to managers. Any breach oi 
 these regulations may subject the board to being de- 
 clared in default by the Education Department, who 
 will thereupon nominate a new board. The fees of 
 children attending board schools are to be fixed by 
 the board, with the consent of the Department, but 
 the board may remit fees on account of poverty for 
 a renewable period not exceeding six months, and 
 it is expressly declared that '' such remission shall 
 not be deemed to be parochial relief" given to the 
 parent. Further, free schools mav be established 
 where the Education Department are satisfied that 
 the poverty of the inhabitants is such as to render 
 them necessary. Section 25 enables the board to 
 pay the fees of poor children attending any public- 
 elementary school, but " no such payment shall be. 
 made or refused on condition of the child attending 
 
ENGLAND. 73 
 
 any public elementary school other than such as 
 may be selected by the parent (sic), and such pay- 
 ment shall not be deemed to be parochial relief." 
 This clause, which excited a vast amount of opposi- ; 
 tion in Parliament, was repealed by 39 and 40 Vict. ' 
 c 59 ^see infra). 
 
 3. Revenues. — The expenses of the board are to be 
 paid from a fund called the school fund, constituted 
 primarily by the fees of the children, moneys pro- 
 vided by Parliament, or raised by loan, or received 
 in any other way, and supplemented by the rates, to 
 be levied by the rating ruthority. In providing 
 buildings, etc., the board may borrow money so as 
 to spread the payment over several years, not ex- 
 ceeding fifty. (^See, as to this power, Elementary 
 Education Act 1873, Sec. 10^. 
 
 School boards may by a by-law require the parents 
 of all children between five and thirteen to attend 
 school, and it is a reasonable excuse (\) that the 
 child is receiving efficient instruction in some other 
 manner, or (%) is prevented by sickness, or (Z) that 
 there is no public elementary school within such 
 distance not exceeding three miles as the by-laws 
 may prescribe. Breaches of any such by-law may 
 be recovered in a summary manner, but the penalty 
 shall not exceed five shilings including costs. 
 
 Finally, it is provided that in future no parliament- 
 ary grant shall be made to any school which does not 
 come within the definition of " public elementary 
 school in the Act."^ Such grant shall not be made in 
 respect of religious instruction, and shall not exceed 
 in any case the income of the school from other 
 sources. No connection with a religious denomi- 
 nation is necessar}', and no preference is to be given . 
 — — — — ^— . ^ 
 
 ^ " Elementary school " is defined to be one in 
 which elementary education is the principal part of 
 the education there given, and at which the fees do , 
 not exceed ninepence per week. 
 
74 PUBLIC EDUCATION. 
 
 to a school on account of its being or not being a 
 board school. Otherwise the minutes of the Com- 
 mittee of Council govern the administration of the 
 grant, such minutes to lie one month on the table of 
 both Houses of Parliament before coming into force. 
 The Elementary Education Act, 1873, amends the 
 Act of 1870 in several particulars not necessary to 
 be specified here. 
 
 The Elementary Education Act, 1876, 
 which came into operation on the first of 
 January, 1877, declares that it shall be the 
 duty of the parent of every child (^meaning 
 thereby a child between the ages of five 
 and fourteen^ to cause such child to re- 
 ceive efficient elementary instruction in 
 reading, writing, and arithmetic, — the duty 
 to be enforced by the orders and penalties 
 specified in the Act. The employment of 
 children under the age of ten, or over that 
 age without a certificate of proficiency or 
 of previous due attendance at a certified 
 efficient school, is prohibited unless the 
 child is attending school in accordance 
 with the Factory Acts, or by by-law under 
 the Education Acts. Section 10 substi- 
 tutes for section 25 of the Act of 1870 the 
 following : — 
 
 "The parent, not being a pauper, of any child 
 who is unable by reason of poverty to pay the ordi- 
 nary fee for such child at a public elementary school 
 or any part of such fee, may apply to the guardians 
 having jurisdiction in the parish in which he resides ; 
 and it shall be the duty of such guardians, if satisfied 
 of such inability, to pay the said fee, not exceeding 
 
SCOTLAND. 75 
 
 threepence per week, or such part thereof as he is,, 
 in the opinion ol the guardians, so unable to pay." 
 
 This payment subjects the parent to no 
 disqualification or disability, and he is en- 
 titled to select the school. The following 
 new regulations are made as to the parlia- 
 mentary grant. A child obtaining before 
 the age ot eleven a certificate of proficiency 
 and of due attendance, as in the Act men- 
 tioned, may have his school fees for the 
 next three years paid for him by the Edu- 
 cation Department — such school fees to be 
 calculated as school-pence. ' The grant is 
 no longer to be reduced by its excess 
 above the income of the school, unless it 
 exceeds 17s. 6d. per child in average at- 
 tendance, but shall not exceed that amount 
 except by the same sum by which the in- 
 come of the school, other than the grant, 
 exceeds it. Special grants may be made 
 to places in which the population is small. 
 Other clauses relate to industrial schools,, 
 administrative provisions, etc. 
 
 Scotland. — Previous to the Education 
 (^Scotlandj Act of 1872, the public ele- 
 mentary education rested on the old paro- 
 chial system, supplemented in more recent 
 times by the parliamentary grants from 
 the Committee of Council on Education. 
 Under the old law the heritors in every> 
 parish were bound to provide a school- 
 house, and to contribute the schoolmaster's. 
 
76 PUBLIC EDUCATION. 
 
 salary, half of which, however, was legally 
 chargeable on tenants.^ 
 
 The Education Act of 1872 establishes 
 for a limited number of years a Board of 
 Education for Scotland, to be responsible 
 to the Scotch Education Department of 
 the Privy Council, on which its functions 
 are ultimately to devolve. The board 
 makes an annual report to the department. 
 
 A school board must be elected in every 
 parish and burgh as defined in the Act. 
 The number Qf members (^between five 
 and fifteen^ is fixed by the Board of Edu- 
 cation, and no teacher in a public school 
 is eligible. The election is by cumulative 
 vote, and disputed elections are to be 
 settled by the sheriff. The school board 
 is a body corporate. Existing parish, 
 burgh, and other schools, established under 
 former Acts, are to be handed over to the 
 school board. 
 
 The school board, acting under the 
 Board of Education, shall provide a suffi- 
 cient supply of school accommodation, 
 and in determining what additional 
 amount is necessary, existing efficient 
 schools are to be taken into account, 
 
 ^ The following are the Acts relating to educathDn 
 in Scotland recited in the Education Act of 1870 : — 
 Act of Scots Parliament. 1696, (1st of King William) ; 
 43 Geo. III. c. 54 ; 1 and 2 Vict. c. 87. and 24 and 
 25 Vict. c. 107. 
 
SCOTLAND. 77 
 
 whether public or not. Provision is made 
 for the transference of existing schools to 
 the school board. 
 
 The clauses as to the school tund, and the 
 power of the board to impose rates and to 
 borrow money, are similar to those in the 
 English Acts, and it is declared that sunk 
 lunds for behoof of burgh or parish 
 schools shall be administered by the 
 board, and that the board shall be at liberty 
 to receive any property or funds to be em- 
 ployed in promoting education. School- 
 masters in office at the passing of the Act 
 are not to be prejudiced in any of their 
 rights, but all future appointments shall 
 be during the pleasure of the board, who 
 shall assign such salaries and emoluments 
 as they think fit. 
 
 Sections 56-59 relate to the qualifications of teach- 
 ers, A principal teacher in a public school must 
 possess a certificate of competency or an equivalent 
 as defined in the Act. 
 
 Section 62 contains provisions for the maintenance 
 by the school board of higher class public schools 
 in burghs, which are as far as practicable to be re- 
 leased from the necessity of giving elementary in- 
 struction, so that the funds may be applied more 
 exclusively to the instruction on the higher branches. 
 And when by reason of an endowment or otherwise 
 a parish school is in a condition to give instruction 
 in the higher branches, it may be deemed to be a 
 higher class school and managed accordingly. 
 
 Parliamentary grants are to be made flj to school 
 boards, f2J to the managers of any school which is 
 efficiently contributmg to secular education. No 
 
yS PUBLIC EDUCATION. 
 
 grant shall be made in respect of fij religious in- 
 struction, f2J new schools, not being public schools, 
 unless it appears that they are required, regard be- 
 ing had to the religious belief of the parents of the 
 children for whom ihey are intended, or other special 
 circumstances of the locality. Section 68 is the con- 
 science clause, and it may be mentioned that the 
 preamble of the Act states that it is expedient that 
 managers of public schools should be at liberty to 
 continue the custom of giving "instruction in re- 
 ligion to children whose parents did not object, 
 with liberty to parents, without forfeiting any of the 
 other advantages of the schools, to elect that their 
 children should not receive such instruction.' Sec- 
 tion 69 imposes on parents the duty of providing 
 elementary instruction for children between five and 
 thirteen, and the parochial board shall pay the fee 
 for poor parents. Defaulters may be prosecuted ; 
 and persons receiving children into their houses or 
 workshops shall be deemed to have undertaken the 
 duties of parents with reference to the education of 
 children. A certificate of the child's proficiency by 
 an inspector protects the parent or employer from 
 proceedings under the Act. Other clauses relate to^ 
 the non educational duties imposed by various Acts 
 on Fchoolmasters (now transferred to registrars), and 
 to the "Schoolmasters' Widows' Fund," to which 
 new masters are not required to contribute. 
 
 The Education Board, continued by Order in 
 'Council to 6th August, 1877, has been further con- 
 tinued by statute to 6th August, 1878. 
 
 Ireland. — The public elementary school 
 system depends on grants made to the 
 lord-lieutenant, to be expended under the 
 direction of commissioners nominated by 
 the Crown, and named "The Commission- 
 ers of National education." The com- 
 missioners were incorporated by this 
 
IRELAND. 79 
 
 name in 1845, with power to hold land to 
 the yearly value of ^40,000, The follow- 
 ing statement, taken from the rules and 
 regulations of the commissioners ap- 
 pended to their report for 1873, exhibits 
 the leading points of the system as con- 
 trasted with that now established in Eng- 
 land and Scotland. 
 
 "The object of the system of national education is 
 to afford combined literary' and moral and separate 
 religious instruction to children of all persuasions, 
 as far as possible in the same school, upon the fun- 
 damental principle that no attempt shall be made to 
 interfere with the peculiar religious tenets of any 
 description of Christian pupils. It is an earnest 
 wish of her Majesty's Government and of the com- 
 missioners that the clergy and laity of the different 
 religious denominations should co-operate in con- 
 ducting national schools." 
 
 The commissioners grant aid either to 
 vested schools (i. e., schools vested in 
 themselves, or in local trustees to be 
 maintained by them as national schools^ 
 or to non-vested (i. e.^ private schools^, 
 and the grant may be towards payment of 
 salary or supply of books, or, in the case 
 of vested schools, towards providing 
 buildings. 
 
 The local government of the national 
 schools is vested in the local patrons or 
 managers thereof, and the local patron is 
 the person who applies in the first instance 
 to place the school in connection with the 
 board, unless otherwise specified. The 
 
8o PUBLIC EDUCATION. 
 
 patron may manage the school by himself 
 or by a deputy. If the school is controlled 
 by a committee or vested in trustees, they 
 are the patrons. A patron may nominate 
 his successor, and in case of death, his 
 legal representative if he was a layman, and 
 his successor in office if he was a clerical 
 patron, will be recognized by the commis- 
 sioners. The local patrons have the 
 power of appointing and removing teach- 
 ers, subject to a rule requiring three 
 months' notice to the teacher. Every 
 national school must be visited three times 
 a year by inspectors. 
 
 In non-vested schools, the commission- 
 ers do not in general make any conditions 
 as to the use of the building after school 
 hours ; but no national school-house shall 
 be employed at any time, even temporarily, 
 as the stated place of divine worship of 
 any religious community, and no grant 
 will be made to a school held in a place 
 ot worship. In all national schools there 
 must be secular instruction four hours a 
 day upon five days in the week. Religious 
 instruction must be so arranged that each 
 school shall be open to the children of all 
 communions, that due regard be had to 
 parental right and authority, and that ac- 
 cordingly no child shall receive or be 
 present at any religious instruction of 
 which his parents or guardians disapprove. 
 
IRELAND. »I 
 
 In non-vested schools it is for the patrons 
 and local managers to determine whether 
 any and what religious instruction shall 
 be given. In all national schools, the 
 patrons have the right to permit the Scrip- 
 tures to be read ; and in all vested schools 
 they must afford opportunities for the 
 same, if the parents or guardians require 
 it. [e. r.] 
 
A SELECT LIST 
 
 OF 
 
 EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 
 
 NOTES AND REFERENCES. 
 
A Select List of Educational Works. 
 
 Any of the following works will be sent postpaid on 
 receipt of tlie price by C. W. Bardeen, Syracuse, 
 N. T. Unless otherwise specified all bindings are in 
 cloth. 
 
 Abbott, Jacob — Gentle Measures in the Manage- 
 ment and Training of the Young. 12 mo., 
 $1.75. New York. 
 
 The Teacher. Moral Influences Employed 
 
 in the Instruction and Government of the 
 Young. 12 mo., $1.75. New York, 
 
 Adams, F.— The Free School System of the United 
 States. 8 vo.. 13.60. London. 
 
 Arnold, Matthew — Higher Schools and Universities 
 in Germany. Cr. 8 vo., $2.40. London. 
 
 AscHAM, Roger — The Schoolmaster. 12 mo., $2.40. 
 London. (Mayor's edition). 
 
 Bain, Alexander — Education as a Science, 12 mo., 
 $1.75. New York. 
 
 Bardeen. C.W. — Common School Law. 16 mo., 
 $0.50. Syracuse. 
 
 Barnard, Henry — Normal Schools. 8 vo., $5.50. 
 Hartford. 
 
 English Teachers, Schools, and Educational 
 
 Reformers. 8vo., $3.50. 
 
 German Teachers and Educational Re- 
 
 formers. 8vo.,$3.50. 
 
 French Teachers, Schools, and Pedagogy. 
 
 8 vo., $3.50. 
 American Teachers, Educators, and Ben- 
 efactors of Education. 5 vols., 8 vo., $17.50. 
 
 Pestalozzi and Swiss Pedagogy. 8 vo,, 
 
 $3.50. 
 
86 APPENDIX. 
 
 Blackie, John Stuart. — On Self Culture. 16 mo., 
 $1.00. New York. 
 
 Bristed, Charles Astor — Five Years in an English 
 University. 12 mo., $2.25. New York. 
 
 BuissON, F. — Dictionnaire de Pedagogic et d'lnstruc- 
 tion Primaire. 8 vo. Paris. 
 
 Calderwood, H. — On Teaching: Its Ends and 
 Means. 16 mo., $i. 25. New York. 
 
 Calkins, N. A. — Primary Object Lessons. 12 mo., 
 $1.50.. New York. 
 
 Carpenter, W. B. — Principles of Mental Physiolo- 
 gy. 12 mo., 13.00. New York. 
 
 Clarke, E. H. — The Building of a Brain. 16 mo., 
 $1.25.. Boston. 
 
 Sex in Education. 16 mo,, $1,25. 
 
 Compayre, G. — Histoire Critique des Doctrines de 
 L'Education en France, depuis le seizidme 
 siecle. 2 vols., 16 mo. , paper.. $2.25. Paris. 
 
 CuRRiE, James — The Principles and Practice of 
 Common School Education. 12 mo,, $3.00. 
 London, 
 
 Davies, Emilv — The Higher Education of Women. 
 12 mo. ,'$1.50. London. 
 
 De Graff, E. V.— The School-Room Guide, 16 
 mo., $1.50. Syracuse. 
 
 Edgeworth, Maria and R. L. — Essays on Practical 
 Education. 2 vols,, 8 vo,, calf, $4.00. Lon- 
 don. 
 
 Everett, W, — On the Cam. Lectures on the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge, in England. 12 mo., 
 Cambridge, 
 
 Farr^r, F. W.-^On Some Defects in Public School 
 Education, 16 mo,, paper. London. 
 
 Essays on a Liberal Education. 8 vo., 
 
 $3,00, London, 
 
 Fitch, J. G. — Lectures on Teaching, delivered in the 
 University of Cambridge. 8 vo., $1,75, Lon- 
 don. 
 
EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 87 
 
 Gow, A. M. — Good Morals and Gentle Manners. 
 12 mo., $1.50. Cincinnati. 
 
 Hailmann, W. N. — Kindergarten Culture. A com- 
 plete sketch of Froebel's System of early 
 training. 12 mo., $0.75. Cincinnati. 
 
 Four Lectures on Early Child Culture. 16 
 
 mo.. $0.40. Milwaukee. 
 
 Twelve Lectures on the History of Peda- 
 
 gogy. 12 mo., $0.75. Cincinnati 
 Hamerton, p. G. — The Intellectual Life. 8 vo., 
 
 $2.00. Boston. 
 Hamilton, W. — Lectures on Metaphysics. 8 vo., 
 
 $2.88. New York. 
 Discussions on Philosophy and Literature, 
 
 Education and University Pteform. 8 vo., 
 
 .$2.00. New York. 
 Hart, J. M. — German Universities. 12 mo., $1.75. 
 
 New York. 
 Hill, Thomas -The True Order of Studies. 12 mo., 
 
 .$1.25. New York. 
 HiPPEAU, C.—flJ L' Instruction Publique en Ang- 
 
 leterre ; f2J dans Suede, Norvege, Danemark ; 
 
 fSJ en Allemagne ; f4:J aux fitats Unis ; 
 
 f5J en Italie. 5 vols., 12 mo. Paris. 
 HiTTELL, John S. — A Brief History of Culture. 12 
 
 mo., $1.50. New York. 
 HooSE, J. H. — On the Province of Methods in Teach- 
 ing. 12 mo., $1.00. Syracuse. 
 Hughes, Thomas — School Days at Rugby. 12 mo., 
 
 $1.00. Boston. 
 Huntington, F. D. — Unconscious Tuition. 16 mo., 
 
 $0.15. Syracuse. 
 Jardine, G. — Outlines of Philosophical Education. 
 
 8 vo. Glasgow. 
 Jewell, F. S. — School Government. 12 mo., $1.50. 
 
 New York. 
 Kennedy, John— The School and The Family. 16 
 
 mo., $1.00. New York. 
 
88 APPENDIX. 
 
 Kiddle AND Schem — The Cyclopaedia of Education. 
 8vo.,$5.00. New York. 
 
 KiNGSLEY, C— Health and Education. 12 mo., 
 $1.75. New York. 
 
 Krusi, H. — Pestalozzi : His Life, Work, and In- 
 fluence. 8 vo., $2.25. Cincinnati. 
 
 Laurie, S. S. — On Primary Instruction in Relation 
 to Education. 12 mo., $2.00. London. 
 
 Lavelaye, E.—L' Instruction du Peuple. 8 vo. 
 Paris. 
 
 Leitch, James — Practical Educationists and their 
 Systems of Teaching. 12 mo., $3.00. Glas- 
 gow. 
 
 Lincoln, D, F. — School and Industrial Hygiene. 
 12 mo., 10.50. Philadelphia. 
 
 Locke, John — Some Thoughts concerning Educa- 
 tion. Edited by R. H. Quick. 12mo.,$1.25. 
 London. 
 
 Maclaren, a. — A System of Physical Education. 
 
 12 mo., $2.60. Oxford. 
 Mann, Horace — Annual Reports on Education from 
 
 1839 to 1848. 8 vo., $3.00. Boston. 
 Lectures and Annual Reports on Educa- 
 tion. 8 vo., 13.00. Boston. 
 Mann, Mrs Horace — The Life of Horace Mann. 8 
 
 vo.,|3.00. Boston. 
 Marcel, C. — On the Study of Languages. 12 mo., 
 
 $1,25, ^paper $0.15;, New Yoik. 
 Marenholz-Buelow — Reminiscences of Frederic 
 
 Froebel. 12 mo., $1.50. Boston. 
 Miller, Hugh— My Schools and Schoolmasters. 12 
 
 mo., $1.50. New York. 
 Moss, J. F.— Handbook of the New Code, 1880. 8 
 
 vo , $0.80. London. 
 Newman, John Henry — Idea of a University. 8 vo., 
 
 $2.80. London. 
 Page, D. P. — Theory and Practice of Teaching. 12 
 
 mo., $1.50. New York. 
 
EDUCATIONAL WORKS. 8^ 
 
 Paroz, Jules— Histoire Universelle de la Pedagogic. 
 
 16 mo., paper, |1, 50. Paris. 
 Payne, Joseph — Lectures on the Science and Art of 
 
 Education. Introduction by the Rev, R. H. 
 
 Quick. 8 vo. London. $3.50. 
 A Visit to German Schools. 16 mo., 
 
 |L80, London. 
 Porter, N. — The American Colleges and the 
 
 American Pub'ic. (second edition) 12 mo., 
 
 $1.50. New York. 
 Quick, R. H. — Essays on Educational Reformers. 
 
 12 mo., $2.00. Cincinnati. - 
 Randall, S. S. — History of the Common School 
 
 System of the State of New York. 8 vo., 
 
 $3.00. New York. 
 Raumer, Karl von — Geschichte der Padagogik, 
 
 4 vols., 8 vo., $10.50. Stuttgart. 
 RosENKRANZ, C. — The Science of Education. 8 vo., 
 
 paper, $1.00,, St. Louis, 
 Rousseau, J. J. — Emile, ou de I'Education. (^Ex- 
 traits Choisisy*. Avecdeux Introductions par 
 
 Paul fSouquet. 12 mo., paper, $0.75. Paris. 
 
 The complete works translated, 4 vols., calf, 
 
 $5.00. Dublin. 
 Schmidt, H. I. — History of Education, Ancient 
 
 and Modern. 18 mo,', 10.75. New York. 
 Schmidt, Karl — Geschichte der Padagogik. 4 vols., 
 
 8 vo. Cothen. 
 Shirreff, Emily — Intellectual Education and its 
 
 Influence on the Character and Happiness of 
 
 Women. 12 mo., $2.40. London. 
 Shuttleworth, J, K. -Four Periods of Public 
 
 Education. ,8 vo., $5.60. London, 
 Souquet, Paul — Ecrivains Pedagogues du XVIe 
 
 Si^cle. Extraits des CEuvres de. 12 mo , 
 
 $0.60. Paris. 
 Spencer. H. — Education: Intellectual, Moral, and 
 
 Physical. 12 mo., $1,25, (paper $0.50,) New 
 
 York, 
 
90 APPENDIX. 
 
 Stanley, A. P. — Life and Correspondence of 
 Thomas Arnold. 12 mo., $2.50. New York. 
 
 Staunton, H.— The Great Schools of England. 
 . 8 vo., $2.50. London. 
 
 Steffens, H. — German University Life. 12 mo., 
 $1.25. Philadelphia. 
 
 Stetson, C. B.— Technical Education. 16 mo., 
 $1.25. Boston. 
 
 SwETT, John— Methods of Teaching. 12 mo., 
 $L50. New York. 
 
 Thomson, W. — An Outline of the Necessary Laws 
 of Thought. 12 mo., $1.50. New York. 
 
 Watson, J. M. — Handbook of Calisthenics and 
 Gymnastics. 8 vo., $2.00. New York. 
 
 WiCKERSHAM, J. P. — Methods of Instruction. 12^ 
 mo., $1.75. Philadelphia. 
 
 School Economy. 12 mo., $1.75. Phila- 
 delphia. 
 
Notes and Reterences. 
 
 General Sources of Information. 
 
 Schmidt and Raumer are the great authorities on 
 the history of education. Copious translations from 
 Raumer are contained in Barnard's Amefican Joilv- 
 nal of Educaiion, a.nd the portions relating to Ger- 
 man education are collected in Barnard's German 
 Teachers and Educators. 
 
 Paroz's Histoire Universelle is elegantly written, 
 and contains, within a moderate compass, an admir- 
 able summary of educational history. 
 
 For the study of special topics, Mr. Quick's Edu- 
 cational Reformers cannot be too highly commended. 
 Mr. Leitch writes with much less critical discern- 
 ment, and some of his subjects are of minor impor- 
 tance, but his work may be read with great profit. 
 
 As a critical history of educational doctrines, the 
 v/ork of Compayreis of incomparable value. Though 
 he is occupied chiefly with French pedagogy, he dis- 
 cusses almost every aspect of the educational prob- 
 lem, and always with great penetration and clear- 
 ness. 
 
■92 APPENDIX. 
 
 The Reform in Education. 
 
 The Reformation marks the further limit of the 
 modern period of educational history ; and these be- 
 ginnings of educational reform deserve very careful 
 study. The compilation of Souquet, and particular- 
 ly his introduction, will be found very helpful. 
 Schmidt, Raumer, Compayre, and Paroz will supply 
 an abundance of material bearing on this topic. For 
 a study of the recognized educational reformers, the 
 works of Mr. Quick and Mr. Barnard are invaluable. 
 
 Rousseau and his Emile. 
 
 With the progress of educational science, the in- 
 fluence of Rousseau is perceptibly and steadily 
 growing, and a careful study of the Emile is be- 
 coming imperative. This study may now be conven- 
 iently prosecuted at first hand through the compila- 
 tion just made by Souquet. The fairest estimate of 
 Rousseau that I have yet seen, is contained in the 
 second volume of Compayre. 
 
 Joseph Payne. 
 
 By far the most valuable of recent contributions 
 to educational literature from English sources, is 
 Joseph Payne's Lectures, edited by his son, and con- 
 taining an introduction by Mr. Quick. Mr. Payne 
 was a disciple of Jacotot. and -in this volume he 
 gives an admirable exposition of his master's sys- 
 tem. Outside of England, the doctrines of Jacotot 
 enjoy but little consideration ; but there are very 
 few modern writers on education who are more 
 worthy of serious study. Each of his paradoxes em- 
 <bodies a doctrine worth the knowing. 
 
NOTES AND REFERENCES. 93. 
 
 The Old Education and the New, 
 
 In studying the later developments of educa- 
 tional thought, it is essential to keep in mind 
 the fact that they embody a reaction against 
 antagonistic doctrines ; and the further fact that " the 
 suppression of an error is commonly followed by 
 the temporary ascendancy of a contrary one." There 
 are sharp points of contrast between the old educa- 
 tion and the new. Each has a measure of truth and 
 a measure of error ; each is right in what it admits 
 and wrong in what it denies ; and so each is in a 
 great degree the complement of the other. The 
 truth will be found to lie somewhere between the 
 two extremes. 
 
 Pestalozzi. 
 
 No just and adequate estimate of Pestalozzi's 
 influence can be formed unless his doctrines are 
 contrasted with those that he sought to supplant. 
 We are living in the midst of transformations that 
 have been wrought through the influence of Pes- 
 talozzianism ; and so the present does not furnish 
 the criteria by which to estimate the importance of 
 this innovation in educational thought. 
 
 Every new Phase in Education embodies 
 AN Idea. 
 
 No new movement in education can be adequately 
 interpreted without taking into account the cognate 
 phases of thought, social, political, philosophical, 
 and religious, with which it co-existed. Some dom- 
 inant idea will be found to underlie every system of 
 educational doctrine. When the principal of au- 
 thority was dominant in church and state, it was 
 also dominent in the schools, and prescribed its 
 methods of discipline and ol instruction ; and the 
 decline of authority in church and state has induced 
 a corresponding change in the methods of the school. 
 
94 APPENDIX. 
 
 The philosophical idea that is dominant in the new 
 education is that of development ; and in this 
 country when the professional teacher must count 
 with his constituents, there is the concurrent and 
 modifying idea of utility. 
 
 Need of a General History of Educational 
 Doctrines. 
 
 The construction of a general history of education, 
 for the express purpose of tracing the rise and prog- 
 ress of all the marked phases of educational 
 thought, and characterized by the critical discern- 
 ment that gives such charm and value to the work 
 of Compayre, is a thing greatly to be desired at this 
 time when questions of school policy are beginning 
 to be discussed on a scientific basis. 
 
 Buisson's Dictionnaiye de la Pedagogic. 
 
 Buisson's Dictionnaire de la Pedagogie, now in 
 process of publication, is on all accounts the most 
 valuable book of reference that can be commended 
 to the professional teacher. Scarcely any other 
 book will be required to supplement this short 
 history of education, so complete is its treat- 
 ment of historical and biographical subjects. 
 
COMENIUS. 
 
COMENIUS. 
 
 Comparative Table of Dates. 
 
 Erasmus 1467-1536 Rousseau 1712-1778 
 
 Luther ...1483-1546 Diderot 1713-1784 
 
 Sturm 1507-1589 Condillac 1715-1780 
 
 Ascham 1515-1568 Basedow 1723-1790 
 
 Ramus 1515-1572 Kant 1724-1804 
 
 Montaigne. .. .1533-1592 Pestalozzi . . . 1746-1827 
 
 Bacon 1561-1626 [acotot 1770-1840 
 
 Ratke 1571-1635 Fellenberg. ...1771-1844 
 
 CoMENius 1592-1671 Froebel 1782-1852 
 
 Descartes .. .1596-1650 Diesterweg. . .1790-1866 
 
 Milton 1608-1674 Cousin 1792-1867 
 
 Locke 1632-1704 Beneke. 1798-1856 
 
 Francke 1663-1727 Spencer 1820 
 
 Outline Biograjjliy. 
 
 1592. Born at Nivnitz, a village of Moravia, on the 
 confines of Hungary ; early an orphan ; began 
 his education at the age of 16. 
 i 1610. Went to the Universities of Herborn and Hei- 
 delberg; then traveled for ten years in Hol- 
 land and perhaps in England. 
 
 1614. Returned to Bohemia and became director of 
 the school in Prerau, where he published his 
 first work, Gj avwiaticae Facilioris Pmecepta, 
 
 1618. Became pastor of the Bohemian Brethren in 
 Fulneck. 
 
 1621. By the sack of Fulneck, lost his property, 
 books and MS. ; and for several years was a 
 refugee from religious persecution. 
 
98 APPENDIX. 
 
 1637. By the Edict of July 31, followed the Mora- 
 vians into permanent banishment and took 
 refuge in Lissa Poland, where he wrote his 
 yamia Linguarum Reserata. 
 
 1641. Went to London by the invitation of Parlia- 
 ment, at the instance of Samuel Hartlib, (the 
 friend of Milton) who, in 1631, had published 
 at Oxford a part of the Didactica Magna, 
 
 1642. Went on an educational mission into Sweden, 
 and thence to Elbing, Prussia. 
 
 1648. Made Bishop of the Moravians and took up 
 his residence again in Lissa. 
 
 1650. Went to Patak, Hungary, to establish a model 
 school on the principles of his Pansophia. 
 While in Patak he wrote the most popular of 
 his works, the Orhis Sensuallum Pictus. On 
 leaving Patak he returned to Lissa. 
 
 1656. On the burning of Lissa by the Polish Catho- 
 lics, took refuge in Amsterdam. 
 
 1671. November 15, died at Amsterdam. 
 
 Appreciation. 
 
 "The system which he sketched will be found to 
 foreshadow the education of the future." 
 
 " He was one of the first advocates of the teaching 
 of science in schools." 
 
 *' His kindness, gentleness, and sympathy, make 
 him the forerunner of Pestalozzi." — Encycl. Brit. 
 
 " Comenius founded nothing durable and distinc- 
 tive ; he was but an admirable precursor. His work 
 had to be again taken up, continued and perfected, 
 by the educators of the following century, the most 
 pf whom did not know him — so soon was he forgot- 
 
COMENIUS. 99 
 
 ten — and who followed in his foot-steps, like Rous- 
 seau and Pestalozzi, without suspecting it." — Buis- 
 son. 
 
 " A Protestant grammarian and theologian ; was 
 a mad-man, but from this mad man we have a book 
 entit'ed yajiua Lingnarum Reserata, which was 
 translated not only into twelve European languages, 
 but a'so into the principal languages of Asia." — 
 Enc Meihodique. 
 
 '• Of boundless generosity and intelligence, he 
 embraced all knowledge and every nationality. 
 Through every country — Poland, Hungary, Sweden, 
 England, Holland — he went teaching, first Peace, 
 and then the means of peace — Universal Fraternity. 
 He wrote a hundred works, taught in a hundred 
 cities. Sooner or later, the scattered members of 
 this great man, that he left upon every route, will be 
 reu n i ted ." — Michelet. 
 
 " As a school reformer he was the forerunner of 
 Rousseau, Basedow, and Pestalozzi, suggested a 
 mode of instruction which renders learning attract- 
 ive to children by pictures and illustrations, and 
 wrote the first pictorial school-book." — New Am. 
 Cycl. 
 
 "Comeniusis a grand and venerable figure of 
 sorrow. Wandering, persecuted, and homeless, 
 during the terrible and desolating thirty years' war, 
 he never despaired ; but with enduring and faithful 
 truth, labored unweariedlv to prepare youth, by a 
 better education, for a better future. His undes- 
 pairing aspirations seem to have lifted up, in a large 
 part of Europe, many good men, prostrated bv the 
 terrors of the times, and to have inspired them with 
 the hope that by a pi 'us and wise system of educa- 
 tion, there would be reared up a race of men more 
 pleasing to God." — Raume'r. 
 
lOO APPENDIX, 
 
 Bibliography. 
 
 I. 
 
 Sources of Information. 
 
 1. Cyclopaedia of Education. E. Steiger, New 
 York: 1877. 
 
 2. Dictionnaire de Pedagogic et d'Instruclion 
 Primaire. Ire Partie. 
 
 3. Quick's Essays on Educational Reformers, 
 Chapter III. (Cincinnati: 1879. 
 
 4. Histoire Critique des Doctrines de L'Educa- 
 tion en France. Par G. Compayre. Paris: 1879. 
 Tome Premier, pp. 256-263. 
 
 5. Michelet. Nos Fils. Paris : 1877. 
 
 6. Jules Paroz. Histoire Universelle de la Peda- 
 gogic. Paris, pp. 203-216. 
 
 7. Karl Schmidt. Geschichte der Padagogik. Co- 
 then : 1873 -1876. pp. 366-398, Dritter Band. 
 
 8. Karl von Raumer, Geschichte der Padagogik, 
 Stuttgart: 1857. pp. 48-100, Zweiter Theil. 
 
 9. Barnard's American Journal of Education. 
 Vol. v., pp. 257-298. [A translation of No. 8.] Also 
 Vol. VI, p. 585. [On the Orbis Pichcs.'] 
 
 10. Bayle's Historical and Critical Dictionary. 
 London: 1735. 
 
 11. Carpzov. Religionsuntersuchung der Boh- 
 mischen und Milhrischen Briider, 
 
 12. Gindely. Ueber des J. A. Comenius' Leben 
 und Wirksamkeit in der Fremde. (In the proceed- 
 ings of the Vienna Academy of Science: Vienna, 
 1855.) 
 
COMENIUS, lOI 
 
 13. Leutbecher. Johann Amos Comenius, Lehr- 
 kunst: Leipzig, 1853. 
 
 14. Dr. Eugen Pappenheim. Amos Comenius, 
 der BcLTunder der neuen Padagogik. Berlin: 1871. 
 
 15 K. A. Schmid. Padagogisches Handbuch fur 
 Schu'e und Haus. Gotha : 1877. 
 
 16. Sej-fFarth, L. W. J, A. Comenius, nach sein- 
 em Leben und seiner padagogischen Bedeutung. 
 Leipzig: 1871. 
 
 17. Beitriige zur Piidagogik. Ueber die histor- 
 iscbe Darstellung der padagogischen Jdeen mit be- 
 sonderer Beziehung auf Rousseau und Comenius. 
 Lowenberg: 1875. 
 
 18. Comenius Amos. Die Mutterschule. Aufs 
 Neue hrsg. v. Herm. Schroter. Weissenfels: 1864. 
 
 19. Hoffmeister, Herra. Comenius und Pestaloz- 
 zi als Begriinder der Volksschule, wissenschaftlich 
 dargestellt. 8 vo. Berlin : 1877. 
 
 Note — ''We are assured that France will soon 
 have two works upon Comenius, which, we hope, 
 will be only a prelude to important studies relating 
 to this eminent educator; one by M. Rieder and the 
 other by M. Diog. Bertrand." — Die. de Pcdag. 
 
 IL 
 Works. 
 
 1. Didactica Opera Omnia ab anno 1627 ad 1657 
 continuata. Amstelodamus, Chr. Conradus et Gabr. 
 a Roy: 1657. 4 part, in-fol., avec portr , 482,462, 
 1064 et 110 coX—Bmnet. 
 
 This edition contains the collected works of Co- 
 menius, edited by himself, and published by the 
 munificence of his Patron, Lorenzo de Geer. 
 
 2. Orbis Sensualium Pictus, denuo auctus et 
 nova cura emendatus. Noribergge : 1769. 
 
I02 APPENDIX. 
 
 3. Comeiiius, Johann Amos. Ausgewahl'e Schrif- 
 ten: Mutterschule, Pansophia, Pftngnosie, etc. Ue- 
 bersetzt und mit Erliiuterungen versehen von Ju. 
 Beeger uni Johann Leutbecher. 8 vo. Leipzig 
 
 4 Comenius's (John Amos) Visible World ; or a 
 Nomenclature and Pictures, of all the chief things 
 that are in the World, etc , illustrated with 150 curi- 
 ous rude woodcuts, 12 mo. 1777. 
 
 5 Karl Richter. Piidagogische Bibliothek . Eine 
 Sammlung der wichtigsten piidagogischen Schriften 
 alter und neuerer Zeit. Leipzig. 
 
 Volume third contains the Didactlca Magna, an 
 appreciation ol it, a Life of Comenius, an^t notes. 
 Edited by Julius Beeger and Franz Zoubek. 
 
 6. Dr, Th, Lion. Bibliothek piidagogischer Clas- 
 siker. Langensalza: 1875. Contains German tran- 
 slations of the pedagogical works of Comenius. 
 
 7. Johann Amos Comenius. Grosse Unteriechts- 
 lehre {Didaciica Magna), mit einer Einleitung von 
 Gustav Adolf Linder. Wien:1877. 
 
 The Three Great Pedagogical Works 
 of Comenius. 
 
 Comenius was a very prolific writer, being the 
 author of more than eighty publications, written in 
 Slavic (Czechic), Latin, and German; but he owes 
 his fame to the three following works. 
 
 L DiDACTiCA Magna, seu OxMnes omnia docendt 
 Ariificium. 
 
 This great work was begun in 1627, while Co 
 menius was living in exile at Sloupna. It was fin- 
 ished in 1632, but remained in manuscript till 1849, 
 when it was published in the original language 
 (Czechic). 
 
COMENIUS. 103 
 
 A translation of a part of the Didactica Magna^ un- 
 der the title of Prod)oinus Pansophiae^ was published 
 in London in 1639, through the mediation of Samuel 
 Hartlib, by whose influence Parliament invited 
 Comenius to England to organize a reform in public 
 education. Buisson, in his Dictionnaire de Pedagogic. 
 pronounces the Didactica Magna " one of (he most 
 remarkable treatises that have been written on the 
 science of education," 
 
 II. JaNUA LlNGUARUM ReSERATA. 
 
 This work, published at Lissa in 1631, was sug- 
 gested by a book bearing the same tit'e, wr tten by 
 an Irish Jesuit named Batty, who was connected 
 with the Jesuit College at Salamanca. It was trans- 
 lated, as Comenius himself tells us, into Greek, Bo 
 hemian, Polish, Swedish, Belgian, English, French, 
 Spanish, Italian, Hungarian, Turkish, Arabic, 
 Persian, and even Mongolic. The general plan of 
 the Janua may be seen from the following quotation: 
 " Comenius believed that the knowledge of words 
 should serve at the same time to acquire a knowl- 
 edge of things. He therefore resolved to classify in 
 methodical order all created things, with their Latin 
 names, and a translation, in parallel columns ; and 
 to make of this general vocabulary a universal 
 repertory of information, where the pupil might at 
 the same time learn Latin and general science. He 
 collected eight thousand words, with which he con 
 structed one thousand sentences, and these he dis- 
 tributed into one hundred chapters." 
 
 III. Orbis Sensualium Pictus, hoc est, omnium fun- 
 damentalixiini in mundo reium^ et in vita acitonum, 
 pictura et nomerulattcra. 
 
 The first edition of this famous book was pub- 
 lished at Nuremberg in 1657 ; and soon after a trans- 
 lation was made into English by Charles Hoole. 
 The last English edition appeared in 1777, and this 
 
104 APPENDIX. 
 
 was reprinted in America in 1812. This was the 
 first illustrated school-book, and was the first at- 
 tempt at what now passes under the name of ''object 
 lessons." 
 
 "The 'Orbis' was, in substance, the same as the 
 'Janua,' though abbreviated, but it had this dis- 
 tinctive feature, that each subject was illustrated by 
 a small engraving, in which everything named in the 
 letter press below was marked with a number, and 
 its name was found connected with the same number 
 in the text." — Quick. 
 
 Educational Principles of Comenius. 
 
 (Arranged from Paroz's Histoire Universelle de la 
 Pedagogie.) 
 
 1. Instruction is easy in proportion as it follows 
 the course of nature. 
 
 2. Instruction ouijht to be progressive and adapted 
 to the growing vigor of the intellectual faculties. 
 
 3. It is a fundamental error to begin instruction 
 with languages and terminate it with things — math- 
 ematics, natural history, etc. ; for things are the sub- 
 stance, the body, while words are the accident, the 
 dress. These two portions of knowledge should be 
 united, but we should begin with things, which are 
 the objects of thought and of speech. 
 
 4. It is also an error to begin the study of lan- 
 guage with grammar. We should first present the 
 subject matter in an author or a well-arranged 
 vocabulary. The form, i e. the grammar, does not 
 come till afterwards. 
 
 5. Wc should first exercise the senses (perception), 
 then the memory, then the intelligence, and lastly 
 the judgment (reasoning). For science begins with 
 the observation ; the impressions received are then 
 imprinted upon the memory and the imagination ; 
 the intelligence next seizes upon the notions held 
 
COMENIUS. 105 
 
 in store in the memory and from tiiem deduces gen- 
 eral ideas ; finally, the reason draws conclusions 
 from the things sufficiently known and co-ordinated 
 in the intelligence. 
 
 6. It is not sufficient, merely to make the pupil 
 comprehend ; he should also learn to express and 
 to apply what he has comprehended. 
 
 7. It is not the shadow of things which impresses 
 the senses and the imagination, but the things them- 
 selves. It is then by a real intuition that instruction 
 should begin, and not by a verbal description of 
 things. 
 
 8. By observation, the pupil should first gain a 
 general notion of an object, and should then observe 
 each part by itself and in its relation to the whole. 
 
 9. Talent is developed by exercise. We leirn to 
 write by writing, to sing by singing, etc. 
 
 10. The study of languages ought to commence 
 with the mother tongue . A language is learned bet- 
 ter by use, by the ear, by writing, etc., than by rules, 
 which should follow use in order to give it greater 
 exactness. 
 
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