>*; 15' 
 
 A 
 
 
 * .A 
 
 
 
 •^0^ :/^ - -^^ v^ - ^ ^; •>bo^ -r - ^. 
 
 
 
 cP- 
 
 "oo^- 
 
 J> '''^^. 
 
 
 
 A- *- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 \^ 
 
 1 l=i^ ' ^ -^^ 
 
 .0 
 
 
 
 
 
 .0 
 
 •x^' 
 
 
 
 
„ <fi 
 
 ,0 0. 
 
 A\ 
 
 '\ 
 
 '"^-^'^'-^ 4 -^ ': ,, ,0o. 
 
 v\^'^ 
 
 
 .^^^^. 
 
 
 Six" 
 
 o5 -^c^ 
 
 
 p ' ' C. "u^'^UA^-^. 
 
 ■0: ,,:^^'% 
 
 '•>^, 
 
 < 
 
 "^^ 
 
 >* .0' 
 
 
 
 .'\"* 
 
 

 ^- 
 
!1 
 
SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 K Practical Manual for the Breeding, Rear- 
 ing and Management of Swine, 
 
 WITH 
 
 5UGGESTI0NS AS TO THE PREVENTION AND TREATMENT OF 
 THEIR DISEASES. 
 
 By F. D. COBURN. 
 
 NEW, REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION. 
 
 ll^LU SXR ATED 
 
 Hew VorK: 
 
 Oratidc ]uda Company. 
 
 1913 
 
1V13 
 
 OOPTtUGBT, 1891, 
 
 o&ANQs juBD roMPAinr 
 
 
 Printed in U. S. A. 
 
CONTENTS. n 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 • ntroductory 9 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 Value of ftie Hog Product 14 
 
 HREEUS OF SWINE, THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND WORTH. 
 
 CHAPTER III. 
 The Poland-ChLnas 21 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 The Chester Whites 34 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 The Berkehires 42 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 ThcSuffolks 54 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 The Essex 62 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 The YorkehircR. — Cheshires, or Jefferson County Swine, of New York. 
 —Lancashires.— Victorias. — Neapolitans. — Jersey Reds. — Durocs, 69 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 Relative Merits of the Suffolk, Essex, and Berkshire. By E. W. 
 CottreU 80 
 
 RAISING AND FATTENING SWINE. 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 The Boar— How to Choose and How to Keep Him 89 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 The Sow and Her Pigs 95 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 Castrating and Spaying _. 105 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 Pasture and Summer Food 108 
 
 CHAPTER XIV. 
 Fattening 118 
 
 CHAPTER XV. 
 Cooking Food forSwine — Food Cookers 127 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 Hog Houses and Pens - .140 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 Slaughtering, Curing, and Preserving 149 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 Hog-Feeding and Pork Making 156 
 
 CHAPTER XIX. 
 The Effects of Cold Weather on Fattening Swine. — Experiments made 
 at the Kansas Slate Agricultural College Farm, by E. M. Shelton, 
 Professor of Agriculture .184 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 Feeding for Fat and Lean 193 
 
 CHAPTER XXI. 
 
 The Gradual Disappearance of White Swine from American Farms.. 207 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 Seme General Observations. — Rooting and its Prevention.— Ear Mu- 
 tilation and Ear Marks. — Sows Eating their Pigs. — Q'larrelsome 
 and Fighting Hogs. — Condition of Sows for Breeding. — Is it 
 Profitable to Cure Pork ? — Reports of Remarkable Growth. — Prize 
 Animals for Breeding. — Feeding Cooked Wheat. — Hogging-off 
 Corn Fields. — Relation between the Prices of Corn and Pork. — 
 Records and Recording. — Standards of Excellence and Scale of 
 Points.— Cost of Pig and Pork.— Stock Yards Receipts 213 
 
 DISEASES OF SWINE, PRACTICAL INFORMATION AS TO THEIR 
 CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, PREVENTION, AND CURB. 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 Diseases of Swine and Their Treatment. — Introductory. — Anthrax 
 Diseases or " Hog Cholera." 239 
 
 CHAPTER XXIV. 
 
 The So-called " Hog Cholera." By Doct. II. J. Detmars 253 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 The So-called "Hog Cholera." 273 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 Various Diseases Common to Swine. — Worms. — Trichina spiralis. — 
 Kidney Worms. — Measles. - Mange.— Lice. — Common Cough. — 
 Pneumonia. — Quinsy or Strangles.— Nasal Catarrh. — Inflamma- 
 tion of the Brain, Epilepsy or " Blind Staggers."— Apoplexy. — 
 Paroplegia. - Diarrtia^a or Scours. — Constipation. — Eversiou of 
 Rectum. — Rl.euaiatism. — Los of Tails - .289 
 
PREFACE TO THE THIRD REVISED AND 
 ENLARGED EDITION. 
 
 Once more has come from its publishers a reminder 
 that the most recent edition of Swine Husbandry has all 
 been sold, and the request that some intended revision 
 shall be speedily prepared, with a view to early supply- 
 ing the demand which has been continuous since the 
 work was tirst announced. 
 
 With an aim to having it as nearly as may be abreast 
 of the times, various changes have been introduced, and 
 additions made for this issue of facts which were only 
 recently available. The figures in the introductory 
 chai)ter have been brought down to the latest dates possi- 
 ble. The chapter (somewhat amplified in this edition) 
 of experiments by Pj'of, E. M. Shelton, at the Kansas 
 State_ Agricultural College, on *'1'he Effects of Cold 
 U})on Fattening Swine," and that by Prof. W. A. Heni;y, 
 of the Wisconsin Experiment Station, on "Feeding for 
 v^at and Lean," will be found not only especially inter- 
 esting and instructive, but also the most suggestive 
 recent additions to swine literature. For their arrange- 
 ment and careful revision especially for this volume, 
 grateful acknowledgment is hereb}^ made. To Mr. 
 Charles B. Murray, editor of the Cincinnati Price 
 Current, Hon. L. N. Bonham, and secretaries of the 
 various swine breeders' associations, the author is also 
 indebted for very valuable data furnished. 
 
 F. D. COBURN. 
 
 Kansas City, Kansas, 1897. 
 
 (6) 
 
PREFACE TO FIEST EDITION. 
 
 In preparing this work, I have acted upon the belief 
 that no one man, or any half-dozen men, know all there 
 is worth knowing on a subject so extensive and important 
 as that of Swine Husbandry ; still, there are many men 
 who know something concerning some branch of it, which 
 they have learned by long experience, careful study, and 
 close observation, and who have acquired their knowledge 
 under precisely such conditions and circumstances as to- 
 day surround many other men, who have neither experi- 
 ence nor sound advice to guide them. 
 
 It has been less my object to make an original book, 
 filled with fine theories, and the limited experiences of one 
 individual, than to condense in one small volume, from 
 all available sources, the conclusions and ideas of the 
 most practical, successful, observant men who have fol- 
 lowed the business in our own time, and in our own coun- 
 try, leaving the reader free to form his own conclusions, 
 and pursue such methods as shall, with the light before 
 him, seem most rational and profitable. 
 
 As to the choice of breeds of swine, I have mv prerer- 
 
PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION". 7 
 
 ences, which will be found freely expressed elsewhere, but 
 I can fully appreciate the fact, that a breed exactly suited 
 to the wants of farmers in one locality, might not meet 
 the needs of those in other portions of the country, who 
 make pork for different purposes, and under widely dif- 
 ferent circumstances, and for different markets. 
 
 So long as mankind differ about so many other matters, 
 it is idle to expect them to agree upon any one breed of 
 swine, or upon one manner of breeding and feeding as 
 being altogether the best. 
 
 Each breed has its champions, and each, in proper 
 hands, under favorable circumstances, with congenial 
 food and climate, has proven itself entirely satisfactory ; 
 while animals of the same breed, but with different treat- 
 ment and surroundings, would have been found m every 
 way unsatisfactory, and discarded for what their owner 
 considered positive knowledge of their worthlessness. 
 
 I am confident that each of the leading breeds has its 
 place and its merits, and for this reason I have not un- 
 dertaken to exalt any one of them over another. One 
 person, by a lucky purchase of animals of a certain breed, 
 and by proper management, attams unusual success, and 
 from that time is satisfied in his own mind, that he pos- 
 sesses a breed incomparably better than any other ; at 
 the same time, some other person, with a breed of entirely 
 different characteristics, has been even more successful, 
 and knows, at least to his own satisfaction, that he pos- 
 sesses the one breed worth having, and cares not to be 
 told that some other may also be valuable. 
 
 If this book shall serve to encourage the keeping of 
 better swine, in a better, more rational, and consequently 
 
8 vuKiACi-; vo riKST edition. 
 
 nunv pn^lltahlo way. my labors will not luivo been in 
 Viiin. 
 
 To tlio niaiiy corrt'spiMuloiils, bivodors. and friomls, who 
 prollorod tissisttinoo ami onc'oumi:;emeiit, ami to tlio nu- 
 nuu'ous journals I have «iuotoil — which 1 have ainunl (o 
 duly I'rodit — I am untlor lastiny; obligations, and anysue- 
 coss this clTort attains will bo lariroly duo to them. 
 
 From tlio Hon. -lolin M. Millikin (prrsont State Troas^ 
 nror of (>luo). osiuH'ially. nuu'h valuable information has 
 boon obtained. 
 
 F. 1), CoiUKN. 
 l\iMONA, Kansas, ApriL 1S77. 
 
SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 CIIAPTEU I. 
 
 INTRO nL'CTO It Y TO THK KKVISKO LIJITION— SOME 
 8TAT18TICS. 
 
 The United States Secretary of Agriculture, \n liis 
 Annual Report, cHtiniuted the numher of hogs in the 
 United States in ISlKi to 1)0, including pigs, 42,84$i,75!^, 
 of an average valiu; of $4.'J5 each, or a total value of 
 $lSf;,r>2;i,7irj; the highest avcrug(! valuation per head 
 heing in Rhode Island, JfcD.SO, and the hnve.st, in Florida, 
 $2.1<J. Of the total numher, there were, in the fourteen 
 States that may i»ro[)('rly he designated as the Mississippi 
 valley, viz., W'iscoMHin, Iliinnis, Indiana, Oiiio, Ken- 
 tucky, ^rennessee, Mississip|)i, Minnesota, Iowa, Ne- 
 hraska, Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas and Louisiana, 
 20,940,057 head, or nearly i'/.i per cent. 'J'he average 
 value ])er head ranged from ^(j.27 in Wisconsin, to ^2.ij:i 
 in Arkansas, the total value being ^119,150,111. In the 
 same report, the corn crop in the United States for the 
 year 1895 is figured at 2,151,138,580 bushels, worth 
 1(544,985,534, of which tiie fourteen Mississi[)pi Valley 
 States mentioned above produced 1,691,408,775 bushels, 
 the farm valuation of which, counted at 22.2 cents per 
 bushel, or 1375,309,509, represented 78.02 of the total 
 corn crop, and 09 per cent of its value for the entire 
 Union. 
 
 It is no doubt safe to say that few persons have any 
 proper conception of the immensity of the swine-produc- 
 ing interest in the United States, or are aware that 
 nearly one-half in numbers and more than one-half in 
 
 9 
 
I ' SWIXi: UUSBANDRT. 
 
 value of all the swine in tlie world, are reared and fat* 
 tened in this country. The distribution of the world's 
 supply, according to the most recent available returns, 
 is shown in the table below, which gives tlie number in 
 the United States in 1896, in the United Kingdom in 
 1896, British North American Provinces in 1894, and in 
 other countries having 100,000 or more somewhat earlier : 
 
 United States 42,842,7.59 
 
 Russia 9,242,997 
 
 (lerinanv 12,174,288 
 
 Austro-Hungary 8.3iV{,;«9 
 
 France 6,800,9,52 
 
 Spain 4,352,000 
 
 United Kingdom 2,878,801 
 
 Switzerland 6i>5,7Sl 
 
 Italy 1,800,00.) 
 
 B. N. A. Provinces 1,702,785 
 
 Roumania 920, 124 
 
 Portugal 
 
 UelgiiMU 
 
 Aiisti-alasia 
 
 l>eiunarlc 
 
 Sweden 
 
 Holland 
 
 Argentine Republic. 
 
 (^ reece 
 
 Cape Oood Hope 
 
 Norway 
 
 720,000 
 04t!,376 
 1,027.714 
 829,131 
 082,178 
 543,W)0 
 350,000 
 175.000 
 228,704 
 120,737 
 
 Total 90,023,025 
 
 Tlie gradual variation in the p. amber of swine in the 
 United States during tlie twenty-five years ])rior to and 
 including 1896, is well slu>wn in the following figures. 
 These are the estimates by the United States Department 
 of Agriculture, of the number in Januaiy of each year: 
 
 1881 30,227.003 
 
 1882 44,122.200 
 
 1883 43,270.080 
 
 1884 44.200,893 
 
 1885 45,142.lk57 
 
 1880 40,0V>2.043 
 
 1887 44,012,830 
 
 1888 44,340,525 
 
 1889 50,301 ,5i)2 
 
 ISSK) 51,0(V2.780 
 
 1891 .50,0-25.100 
 
 1892 52,398,019 
 
 1893 40,094,807 
 
 1894 45,->00,498 
 
 1895 44,105,710 
 
 1896 42,842,759 
 
 1872 31.790,300 
 
 1873 32,o;5-.',lMKl 
 
 1874 30.800,900 
 
 1875 28,002.200 
 
 1876 25,T20,8(Hl 
 
 1877 28,077, IIHI 
 
 1878 32.202,51H) 
 
 1879 34,7(«i.200 
 
 1880 34,0;i4,100 
 
 Mr. Charles B. Murray, editor of the Cinci)inati Price 
 Curroit, who is the most prominent authority on figures 
 pertaining to the subject, estimates the number of hogs 
 packed in the United States in the twelve months ending 
 March 1, 1893, 1894, 1895 and 1896, as shown below : 
 
 1895-90. 
 
 18i)4-95. 
 10.1H)3.(XX> 
 
 1,748,000 
 098.000 
 475.000 
 178,0(H) 
 
 2,517,000 
 
 1893-94. 
 ll,f05.(HH) 
 
 1..578.1XH) 
 585.0(H) 
 402.0(H) 
 13t!.0(H) 
 
 2,483,0(H) 
 
 1892-93. 
 
 Packed in the West 15.010.0(H) 
 
 Packed at B..ston 1,'25H).(H)0 
 
 Other New England packing. 077.(HH) 
 Packed at Biitlalo 4(i3,0(H) 
 
 12,390,00" 
 
 1,784.1H)0 
 
 049.(X)l> 
 
 455,IH)0 
 
 Other Eastern packing | 173,tHH) 
 
 Receipts, >'. Y., Phila., Bait. . | 2,807,000 
 
 128,000 
 2,790,000 
 
 Total 20,480,0(M) 
 
 21.619,000 
 
 10,789,000 
 
 18,196,000 
 
 
 
INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 11 
 
 These figures represent only the organized pork pack- 
 ing of the country, done in cities ; and to obtain the ag- 
 gregate number slaughtered, there should be added those 
 killed by farmers for home consumption and limited 
 neighborhood sale, in weight about two-thirds as much 
 more, and in numbers a somewhat larger 23roportion. 
 
 The exports of live hogs from the United States to 
 foreign countries are reported by the National Bureau of 
 Statistics, for each of the twenty-five years named below 
 (ending June 30th), as follows : 
 
 1871 8,770 
 
 1872 56,110 
 
 1873 99,720 
 
 1874 158,581 
 
 1875 64,979 
 
 1876 68,044 
 
 1877 65,107 
 
 1878 29,284 
 
 1879 75,129 
 
 1880 83.4»4 
 
 1881 77,456 
 
 1882 36,368 
 
 1883 16,129 
 
 1884 46,382 
 
 1885 55,025 
 
 1886 74,187 
 
 1887 75,383 
 
 1888 23,755 
 
 1889 45,128 
 
 1890 91,148 
 
 1891 95,654 
 
 1892 31,963 
 
 1893 27,375 
 
 1894 1,553 
 
 1895 7,130 
 
 The exports of bacon (including sides, hams and 
 shoulders), pork and lard, to foreign countries, as ofii- 
 cially reported by the Statistical Bureau, for each of the 
 twenty-five years ending June 30, were ; 
 
 
 
 
 
 AveiJitfeEx- 
 
 
 
 Bacon, lbs. 
 
 Pork, lbs. 
 
 Laid, lbs. 
 
 port Value, 
 CIS. per lb. 
 
 Total value. 
 
 1871 
 
 71,446,854 
 
 39,250,750 
 
 80,037,297 
 
 12.05 
 
 $22,992,025 
 
 1872 
 
 246,208,143 
 
 57,169,518 
 
 199,651,660 
 
 8.99 
 
 45.426,519 
 
 1873 
 
 395,381,737 
 
 64,147,461 
 
 230,534,207 
 
 8.88 
 
 61,274,987 
 
 1874 
 
 317,405,405 
 
 70,482,379 
 
 205,527,471 
 
 9.38 
 
 58,500,639 
 
 1875 
 
 250,286,549 
 
 56,152,331 
 
 166,869,393 
 
 12.08 
 
 57,184,630 
 
 1876 
 
 327,730,172 
 
 54,195,118 
 
 168,405,839 
 
 12.32 
 
 67,837,963 
 
 1877 
 
 460,057,146 
 
 69,671,894 
 
 231,741,233 
 
 10.64 
 
 81,371,491 
 
 ^878 
 
 592,814,351 
 
 71,889,255 
 
 342,766,254 
 
 8.60 
 
 86,687,858 
 
 1879 
 
 732,249,576 
 
 84,401,676 
 
 326,658,686 
 
 6.90 
 
 78,738,674 
 
 1880 
 
 759,773,109 
 
 95,949,780 
 
 374,979,286 
 
 6.89 
 
 84,838,242 
 
 i881 
 
 740,944,545 
 
 107,928.086 
 
 378.142.496 
 
 8.49 
 
 104,660,065 
 
 1882 
 
 468,026,640 
 
 80,447,466 
 
 250,367.740 
 
 10.37 
 
 82,852,946 
 
 1883 
 
 340,258,670 
 
 62,116,302 
 
 224,718,474 
 
 11.32 
 
 70,966,268 
 
 1884 
 
 389,499,368 
 
 60,363,313 
 
 265,094,719 
 
 9.75 
 
 69,740,456 
 
 1885 
 
 400,127,119 
 
 72.073,468 
 
 283,216,339 
 
 8.59 
 
 64,883,110 
 
 1886 
 
 419,788,796 
 
 87,267,715 
 
 293,728,019 
 
 7.13 
 
 57,125,408 
 
 1887 
 
 419.922,955 
 
 85,869,367 
 
 321,533,746 
 
 7.45 
 
 61,658,685 
 
 1888 
 
 375,439,683 
 
 58,900,153 
 
 297,740,007 
 
 8.10 
 
 59,299,852 
 
 1889 
 
 400,224,646 
 
 64,133,639 
 
 318,242,990 
 
 8.52 
 
 66,716,097 
 
 1890 
 
 608,490,956 
 
 80,068,331 
 
 471,083,598 
 
 7.35 
 
 85,281,174 
 
 1891 
 
 599,085,665 
 
 82,136,239 
 
 498,343,927 
 
 7.19 
 
 84,908,698 
 
 1892 
 
 584,776,389 
 
 80,714,227 
 
 460,045,776 
 
 7.56 
 
 85,116,566 
 
 1893 
 
 473,936,329 
 
 53,372,366 
 
 365,693,501 
 
 9.46 
 
 84,554.822 
 
 1894 
 
 503,628,148 
 
 64,744,528 
 
 447,566,867 
 
 9.19 
 
 93,433,582 
 
 1895 
 
 558,044,099 
 
 58,266,893 
 
 474,895,274 
 
 8.22 
 
 89,696,768 
 
13 
 
 SWIJTE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 The quantity and value of lard oil exported in the 
 twenty-live years subsequent to and including 1871, end- 
 ing June 30, is stated as follows : 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 147,802 
 
 Value. 
 
 Value 
 per gal. 
 l04.09~ 
 
 Year. 
 
 Gallons. 
 
 Value. 
 
 Value 
 per gal. 
 
 1871 
 
 153,850 
 
 1884 
 
 712,096 
 
 .504.218 
 
 70.75 
 
 1872 
 
 5;«,147 
 
 432,483 
 
 81.12 
 
 1885 
 
 916,157 
 
 5.55,426 
 
 00.03 
 
 1873 
 
 088.806 
 
 25)8,751 
 
 70.31 
 
 1880 
 
 973,229 
 
 500,011 
 
 51.38 
 
 1874 
 
 252,577 
 
 203,317 
 
 80.50 
 
 1887 
 
 975,103 
 
 519,274 
 
 53.25 
 
 1875 
 
 140.594 
 
 147,384 
 
 100.54 
 
 1888 
 
 930,010 
 
 509,514 
 
 54.73 
 
 187li 
 
 140,323 
 
 149.156 
 
 101.93 
 
 1S89 
 
 801,303 
 
 542,897 
 
 03.03 
 
 1877 
 
 347,305 
 
 281,551 
 
 81.07 
 
 1890 
 
 1,214,011 
 
 0<13,343 
 
 54.61 
 
 1878 
 
 1.651,048 
 
 994,440 
 
 00.21 
 
 1891 
 
 1,092,448 
 
 5<!2,986 
 
 61.53 
 
 1879 
 
 i,;h;3,208 
 
 1,087,1V23 
 
 52.87 
 
 1892 
 
 901,575 
 
 4iW,601 
 
 55.08 
 
 1880 
 
 1.507.5% 
 
 810,447 
 
 54.15 
 
 1893 
 
 480.812 
 
 330.013 
 
 69.14 
 
 1881 
 
 830,2r>5 
 
 5,58,576 
 
 6t!.79 
 
 1894 
 
 081,081 
 
 449,671 
 
 60.00 
 
 188-' 
 
 506,2.59 
 
 434,124 
 
 85.75 
 
 1895 
 
 553,421 
 
 304,093 
 
 65.00 
 
 1»8;5 
 
 379,205 
 
 353,184 
 
 93.14 
 
 
 
 
 
 The following table shows the distribution of American 
 hog products h\ exportation to the principal purchasing 
 couiUiios, and the quantities taken by each, and their 
 vahie, during the year ending June 30, 1895 : 
 
 Countries. 
 
 United Kingdom 
 
 France 
 
 Germany 
 
 Belgium 
 
 Netherlands 
 
 Denmark 
 
 Sweden and Norway. 
 
 Spain 
 
 Italy 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Havti 
 
 Porto Rieo 
 
 British West Indies. 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Brazil 
 
 Colombia 
 
 Venezuela 
 
 British Guiana 
 
 Peru 
 
 Quebec. Out., etct . . 
 
 Nova Scotia, etc 
 
 Newfoumiland, etc.. 
 All Other 
 
 Total 
 
 Value 
 
 * Hacon, lbs. 
 
 430,010,562 
 
 9 842.1HS 
 
 15,137.893 
 
 40,02(1,91.3 
 
 9,031 ,1SV2 
 
 458,019 
 
 2,618,924 
 
 tU),316 
 
 20.915 
 
 9,007.f>-29 
 
 ;«2,o;« 
 
 1,079.033 
 
 596.378 
 
 297.599 
 
 22,582,582 
 
 98,902 
 
 080,r>51 
 
 •;o;i,803 
 
 18.310 
 7,124,426 
 
 00,798 
 
 203,228 
 
 1,825,4!W 
 
 558.tH4,099 
 §48,736,800 
 
 l*ork, lbs. 
 
 14,-268,862 
 
 236,600 
 
 2,149,850 
 
 258,IK)0 
 
 491,282 
 
 107,900 
 
 402.^40 
 13.507.,ViO 
 
 :i,js,">.200 
 
 7.41:9.03;! 
 
 2,008 
 
 1,123.292 
 
 83,314 
 
 25,2(H) 
 
 2,885,190 
 
 15,100 
 
 4,757,080 
 
 1,208,443 
 
 2.020.34*> 
 
 3,849,949 
 
 58.2li0,893 
 §4,138,400 
 
 Lard, lbs. 
 
 184,251,911 
 
 34.005.800 
 
 104.121,137 
 
 38,103,335 
 
 28,456,501 
 
 0.952.407 
 
 3,357,535 
 
 70.134 
 
 62o,70« 
 
 30,672,512 
 
 3.207.05)0 
 
 3.414,7518 
 
 2.4;>0,443 
 
 1.908,076 
 
 12,.t56,491 
 
 1,5)28,235 
 
 0,754.790 
 
 395.347 
 
 89,851 
 
 2,135),740 
 
 71,112 
 
 187,081 
 
 8,415,008 
 
 "474,895.274 
 
 $36,821,506 
 
 • Includes sides, hams and shoulders. 
 
 t Includes Manitoba, Northwest Territories and British Columbia. 
 
 Below is seen the total number of hogs packed in the 
 West during winter seasons, and cost of hogs per one 
 
IIJTEODUCTOET. 
 
 13 
 
 hundred pounds gross, for fifty years, according to Cin- 
 cinnati Price Current special reports : 
 
 Season . 
 
 1895-96.. 
 1894-95. . 
 1893-94.. 
 1892-93.. 
 1891-92.. 
 1890-91.. 
 1889-90.. 
 1888-89.. 
 1887-88. . 
 18Sf>-*7.. 
 1885-86.. 
 1884-8.^. 
 1883-84.. 
 1882-83.. 
 1881-82.. 
 1880-81.. 
 1879-80.. 
 1878-79.. 
 1877-78.. 
 1876-77.. 
 1875-76.. 
 1874-75.. 
 1873-74. 
 1872-73.. 
 1871-72.. 
 1870-71.. 
 
 No. 
 
 ,815,800 
 ,191,520 
 ,884,082 
 ,()33,520 
 ,761,216 
 ,173,126 
 ,663,802 
 ,483,8.52 
 ,921,181 
 ,439,009 
 ,298,995 
 ,400,240 
 ,402,064 
 ,1.32,212 
 ,747,760 
 ,919,45<) 
 ,950,151 
 ,480,648 
 ,505,446 
 ,101 ,.-508 
 ,880,135 
 ,566,226 
 ,466,200 
 ,410,314 
 ,831, .'■..58 
 ,695,251 
 
 Cost. 
 
 |i3.68 
 4.28 
 5.26 
 6.54 
 3.91 
 3.,54 
 3.66 
 4.99 
 5.04 
 4.19 
 3.66 
 4.29 
 6.18 
 6.28 
 6.06 
 4.64 
 4.18 
 2.85 
 3.99 
 5.74 
 7.05 
 6.66 
 4. ,34 
 3.73 
 4.12 
 5.26 
 
 Season. 
 
 1869-70.. 
 
 18ii8-69.., 
 
 1867-68.. 
 
 1866-67.., 
 
 1865-66.., 
 
 1864-65 , 
 
 18().3-61.., 
 
 1862-63.. 
 
 1861-62.., 
 
 18(i0-61.. 
 
 1859-60 . . . 
 
 1858-.'J9.., 
 
 1857-58.. 
 
 185*5-57 
 
 1855-.56.. 
 
 1854-55.. 
 
 1853-54.. 
 
 1852-.^3.. 
 
 1851-52.. 
 
 1850-51.. 
 
 1849-50.. 
 
 1848-49.. 
 
 1847-48.. 
 
 1846-47.. 
 
 1845-40.. 
 
 No. 
 
 ,635,312 
 ,499,873 
 ,781,084 
 ,490,791 
 ,785,955 
 ,422,779 
 ,261,105 
 ,069,520 
 ,893,666 
 ,155,702 
 ,.3,50, S22 
 ,465,.V>2 
 ,210,778 
 ,818,468 
 ,489,502 
 ,124,404 
 ,534,770 
 ,201,110 
 ,182,846 
 ,3.32,867 
 ,652,220 
 ,560,000 
 ,710,000 
 800,000 
 900,000 
 
 Cost. 
 $9.22 
 8.18 
 6.38 
 5.78 
 9.34 
 11.46 
 5.36 
 3.36 
 2.42 
 4.57 
 4.73 
 5.02 
 3.89 
 4.75 
 4.60 
 3.37 
 3.33 
 4.81 
 3.56 
 3.00 
 2.13 
 3.75 
 2.60 
 2.85 
 3.90 
 
 The following table indicates the average gross weights 
 of hogs packed in the AVest during Avinter seasons for 
 fifteen years, the average pounds of lard yielded per hog, 
 and their cost per one hundred pounds alive. 
 
 Season. 
 
 1895-96. 
 1894-95. 
 1893-94. 
 .1892-93. 
 1891-92. 
 1890-91. 
 1889-90. 
 1888-89. 
 1887-88. 
 1886-87. 
 1885-86. 
 1884-85. 
 1883-84. 
 1882-83. 
 1881-82. 
 
 Gross Weiglit, 
 
 Lbs. of Lard, 
 
 Cost Alive, 
 
 per liog. 
 
 all kinds. 
 
 per 100 lbs. 
 
 240.71 
 
 35.53 
 
 $3.68 
 
 232.73 
 
 33.62 
 
 4.28 
 
 248.20 
 
 36.07 
 
 5.26 
 
 227.73 
 
 31.66 
 
 6.54 
 
 247.64 
 
 34.69 
 
 3.91 
 
 239.75 
 
 33.45 
 
 3.54 
 
 250.92 
 
 36.37 
 
 3.66 
 
 263.46 
 
 34.76 
 
 4.99 
 
 242.30 
 
 31.06 
 
 5.04 
 
 251.31 
 
 33.54 
 
 4.19 
 
 2.58.98 
 
 35.22 
 
 3.66 
 
 266.51 
 
 36.02 
 
 4.29 
 
 251.44 
 
 33.25 
 
 5.18 
 
 267.02 
 
 35.43 
 
 6.28 
 
 262.70 
 
 36.44 
 
 6.06 
 
 The average live weight of hogs, average cost per one 
 hundred pounds live weight, and percentage yield of 
 lard from those packed at the points named, in the win- 
 ter seasons of 1894-95 and 1895-96, is shown as follows : 
 
li 
 
 SWINE HUSBANDBT. 
 
 Chicago 
 
 Kansas Citv.. . 
 South Omaha. 
 
 St. Louis 
 
 Indianapolis . 
 
 Cincinnati 
 
 Milwaukee .. . 
 
 Cniialiy 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 St. Paul 
 
 Cedar Rapids. 
 
 Ottiiniwa 
 
 Louisville... . 
 
 Sioux City 
 
 Oeiroit 
 
 St. Joseph 
 
 Nebraska City 
 lU's Moines... . 
 
 Keokuk 
 
 Lincoln 
 
 All points 
 
 Average Weight, 
 
 1890-96. 18iH-95. 
 
 '.'48.59 
 243.53 
 268.25 
 224.73 
 213.60 
 23;!.46 
 243.91 
 239.50 
 19fl.(Hl 
 225.00 
 244.00 
 22(>.00 
 224.21 
 264.00 
 2ll.(H) 
 265.00 
 278.00 
 256.00 
 235.00 
 249.00 
 240.71 
 
 24(;.61 
 234.29 
 208.95 
 223.61 
 225.97 
 235.57 
 228.22 
 224.00 
 188.00 
 230.00 
 226.00 
 218.00 
 227.91 
 220.00 
 215.13 
 240.00 
 2;<5.00 
 222.00 
 215.00 
 215.00 
 232.73 
 
 Cost, 100 lbs. 
 
 1895-96. 
 
 1894-95. 
 
 33.81 
 
 114.36 
 
 3.57 
 
 4.16 
 
 3.55 
 
 4.13 
 
 3.68 
 
 4.28 
 
 3.62 
 
 4.34 
 
 3.71 
 
 4.;» 
 
 3.67 
 
 4.46 
 
 3.68 
 
 4.35 
 
 3.85 
 
 4.40 
 
 3.tv5 
 
 4.15 
 
 3..V2 
 
 4.15 
 
 3.50 
 
 4.15 
 
 3.67 
 
 4. .'59 
 
 3.46 
 
 4.15 
 
 3.80 
 
 4.35 
 
 3.45 
 
 4.15 
 
 3.53 
 
 4.15 
 
 3.50 
 
 4.09 
 
 3.50 
 
 4.19 
 
 3.51 
 
 4.00 
 
 3.68 
 
 4.28 
 
 Lard percent. 
 
 1895-6. 
 
 15.59 
 15.02 
 14.62 
 14.25 
 15.42 
 15.65 
 12.55 
 11.48 
 12.70 
 14.22 
 13.93 
 13.27 
 13.70 
 15.15 
 13.27 
 15.09 
 11.03 
 15.23 
 14.(H 
 13.26 
 14.76 
 
 1894-95 
 "1528 
 14.20 
 14.44 
 14.11 
 14.76 
 18.57 
 12.70 
 11.60 
 13.30 
 13.4.5 
 13.27 
 13..S0 
 11.8,-. 
 13.6.3 
 13.94 
 12.91 
 13.38 
 14.41 
 13.72 
 11.16 
 14.44 
 
COMPARATIVE VALUE OF THE HOG PRODUCT. 15 
 
 CHAPTER IL 
 
 COMPARATIVE VALUE OF THE HOG PRODUCT. 
 
 The importance and value to our people of the swine 
 grown in the United States, compared with other kinds 
 of live stock, as shown by official figures, and records 
 that are beyond question, are quite astonishing to those 
 who, for the first time, have them brought to their at- 
 tention. So long as these animals bring to the coffers 
 of Americans more money than any other single agricul- 
 tural product, unless it may be wheat or cotton, they are 
 certain to occupy a very high position in the estimation 
 of the producers. Of the money-producing value of 
 swine, as compared with cattle, Hon. John M. Millikin, 
 of Ohio, one of the most experienced and intelligent ob- 
 servers in this direction that our country has ever had, 
 several years ago made some careful estimates, based on 
 authentic data, that reveal what to many will be a con- 
 dition of affairs not before suspected. Basing his figures 
 on the United States Census for 1870, he says : "The 
 number of cattle then in the country was 23,820,508, and 
 of swine 25,703,813. In the five stock producing States 
 of Kentucky, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, and Missouri, 
 there were 6,031,819 cattle, and 10,446,198 swine, the 
 excess of the latter over the former being about or up- 
 wards of 70 per cent. In view of the above, from which 
 source do the people of the States named derive the 
 largest amount of money per annum? 
 
 "The question cannot be answered with entire accu- 
 racy, because there are no certain data by which to 
 determine the number or percentage of each kind of ani- 
 mals sold, or the price realized for each head, and yet the 
 
1^ SWINE UUSBAKDKY. 
 
 result can be closely approximated. Cattle are usually 
 sold at ages varying from three to six years ; milch cows 
 and working cattle, which constitute 4'^ per cent of the 
 entire number, as above stated, generally attain an age 
 exceeding six years before they are sold to go out of the 
 country. As cattle, including all classes, have to arrive 
 at an age above three years, it is safe to say there arc not 
 more than one-fourth the liumbcr enumerated sold in each 
 year. With hogs it is quite different. They are shipped 
 off at an average age of about fifteen months, and it is 
 therefore fair to assume that at least four-fifths of the 
 hogs enumerated in 1870 were sold within a year from 
 the time of enumeration. 
 
 " Upon these data let us make a calculation : 
 
 "Upon the hypothesis stated, that onc-foui'th of the 
 cattle enumerated would be sold during the year, there 
 would be sold 1,507,954. Estimating the average value 
 of the same as consumed upon the farm, or sold and 
 shipjied at ^'^0 per head, they would amount to the 
 sum of $45,238,620. The total number of hogs in the 
 above States being 10,446,198, four-fifths of which were 
 sold during the year, would make the number sold 
 8,356,952. Estimating these on the farm, when sold or 
 consumed, at the moderate price of 88 per head, the to- 
 tal value is $66,955,672, making the excess received per 
 annum for hogs, over amount received for cattle, in the 
 five States named, 821,717,052. 
 
 " I am aware that the above showing will be satisfac- 
 tory to only a few persons, and that it will be sharply 
 criticised by others. I have made it ujion the above data, 
 with a view to seeing what the result would be, and not 
 with a view of depreciating the value and advantages of 
 raising cattle, nor of unduly exalting the business of rais- 
 ing pork." 
 
 At the present time, Chicago is considered the greatest 
 live stock market in the world, and the statistics of the 
 
VALUE OF THE HOG PRODUCT. 1'? 
 
 live Gtock trade there, for the year 1873, disclose the 
 startling fact that swine not only brought more money 
 into the pockets of the people than any other description 
 of live stock, but more than all other kinds together, as 
 may be seen by an examination of the following table of 
 actual receipts and actual sales in the open market : 
 
 • Seceipts. SaJcs. 
 
 Cattle 761,428 $35,264,361 
 
 Sheep 291,734 875,000 
 
 Horses 20,289 2,028,902 
 
 Hogs 4,337,750 53,153,000 
 
 From these figures, it is seen that the value of the 
 hogs marketed there, exceeded that of all other live stock 
 by nearly $15, 000,000, and this does not include any part 
 of the value of the dressed hogs, lard, barrelled pork, and 
 cut meats received, the cash value of which amounted to 
 $8,444,494, in the same period, making a total value of 
 161,597,494. 
 
 Chicago also boasts of being the leading grain market 
 of the world, and during the same year (1873), her trade 
 was a prosperous one, the receipts aggregating 10,000,000 
 bushels more than in the previous year, and the estimated 
 value of this vast quantity was $63,500,000, scarcely 
 $2,000,000 more than thr ,alue of the hogs and hog pro- 
 ducts handled in the same market in that year. 
 
 The value of the hog product exported in 1872 from the 
 United States, exceeded $45,000,000, of which England 
 alone took $22,247,167, — more than the entire exporta- 
 tion of cattle products for the same year. 
 
 With our fertile, and seemingly inexhaustible soils, 
 both upon the broad prairies and countless creek and river 
 Dottoms, the great staple crop is, and ever will be, Indian 
 com — the grain above all others best adapted to the pro- 
 duction of pork ; and it is by and through these enor- 
 mous corn crops that we do and can hold the pork markets 
 of the world at command. 
 
 Those who prepare for pork-making with well defined 
 
18 SWINE HUSBANDBT. 
 
 plans, and pursue them with system and regularity, keep- 
 ing none but the best breeds and their crosses, can be 
 quite certain of realizing more satisfactory prices for their 
 corn, taking the seasons together, than by selling it at 
 ruling prices, even at their own doors ; while if hauled 
 from home, its cost is increased in proportion to the dis- 
 tance, from five to fifteen cents per bushel. 
 
 To illustrate the importance of raising the better grades 
 of hogs, we will use some figures from a circular issued by 
 the "Cincinnati Merchants' Exchange" a few years since, 
 ■which says : " Whole number of hogs packed during the 
 past season, at the principal points in the United States, 
 was 4,782,403 ; aggregate weight, 1,349,630,955 pounds, 
 or an average weight of 282' |^ pounds. The total amount 
 of money paid for same was $55,818,711." — If well bred, 
 well fed, well cared for, and properly fattened, they should 
 have averaged one hundred pounds more per head, adding 
 to the aggregate weight 478,240,300 pounds, which, at 
 four cents per pound, would have added to the wealth of 
 the producers, in a single year, the snug sum of $19,129,- 
 612. Truly no insignificant increase of one year's receipts, 
 and on the same basis amounting in twenty years to 
 $382,592,240 — money enough to lift the mortgages from 
 the farms of a large number of worthy gentlemen who 
 think that one hog is just as good as another. 
 
BREEDS OF SWINE 
 
 THEIR CHARACTERISTICS AND 
 WORTH. 
 
CHAPTER III. 
 
 THE POLAND-CHINAS. 
 
 ProbaWy no questions have been more frequently pro- 
 pounded to agricultural and live stock journals, than 
 those as to the origin, history and correct name of the 
 large spotted hogs, exceedingly popular in the Western 
 States, and which are called, by different breeders, and 
 in different localities, by a great diversity of names. 
 Among the names which have been given them, are : 
 •*Magie," "Butler County," '' Warren County," "Mi- 
 ami Valley," "Poland," "Poland and China," "Greai 
 Western," "Shaker," "Union Village," "Dick's Creek," 
 ** Gregory's Creek," "Moore," and others ; and inquiries 
 are frequent as to their characteristics, and if all the 
 hogs thus named are not the same breed, which is best? 
 The wranglings and discussions, by the breeders and 
 friends of the different strains of these hogs, as to their 
 origin, the most suitable and expressive name for the 
 breed, and who should have most credit for efforts to 
 perfect and bring them into popular favor, would, if 
 published, fill volumes. The following, pre]>ared by 
 Hon. L. N. Bon ham, who has for many years been not 
 only a citizen of Butler county, but a breeder of these 
 hogs, and who has made them and their history a long 
 study, was adojjted in 1887, by the National Swine 
 Breeders' Association, as the official history of the breed, 
 and hence it is given here as the accepted version, in 
 lieu of what has before been published on tliis great and 
 foremost family of pork makei's : 
 
 The Poland-China hog originated in the Miami valley, and 
 it is nowhere apparent that it originated from the purpose or 
 work of any one individual. The conditions of soil, climate, 
 produce, and markets of that region, all favored the business 
 
 21 
 
E-WINE HUSBANDKr. 
 
 
 'Wm 
 
 r 
 
 ^ __^ 
 
 - 
 
 
 — 
 
 — " 
 
 , ^ — 
 
THE POLAND-CHINAS. ^3 
 
 of swine growing, and, as a result, early in the history of Ohio 
 Cincinnati became, for a time, the {greatest pork-packing cen- 
 ter in the world, and made pork producing the most profitable 
 feature of farming in the surrounding country. 
 
 The farmers of Kentucky aiid Ohio were deeply interested 
 in the common effort to meet the demands of the market, and 
 secure the best possible rewards for their labor and enterprise. 
 Before the advent of improved roads, canals and railways, the 
 concentration of farm products into animals that could be 
 driven to market, induced a general improvement of not only 
 the swine, but the cattle also, of that region. Under the com- 
 mon law of selection, as well as by importation of improved 
 breeds, by the peculiarly favorable conditions of climate, feed 
 and water, by the influence of trade and fashion, the Poland- 
 China breed of swine originated and developed from the com- 
 mon hog of the Miami valley, until it has become the leading 
 breed of the State and many parts of the country. 
 
 It is greatly to be regretted that in the earliest history of 
 this breed, we had not, in Ohio and in the West, such facilities 
 for making a record of the work done and means employed by 
 the farmers of the Miami valley, as we now have in the nu- 
 merous and able stock journals and agricultural papers of this 
 day. 
 
 Prior to 1839 there was no paper in the West specially inter- 
 ested in agriculture or live-stock matters. Hence most of the 
 earliest history of the breed, and of swine raising in the West 
 prior to that date, is purely traditional. Happily, however, 
 about the time the interest in pork growing became the lead- 
 ing feature of agriculture in the Miami valley, the Western 
 Farmer was started in Cincinnati, in September, 1839. Its 
 editor, Thomas Affleck, was a man of intelligence and a lover 
 of stock. Associated with him was Charles Foster, who was 
 skillful with his pencil as well as with his pen, and left many 
 well executed cuts and descriptions of animals of southern 
 Ohio and northern Kentucky. The written testimony of these 
 two men may be accepted as the most accurate and valuable 
 of any now available. 
 
 The history of the English breeds has been better preserved 
 in the writings of Prof. Low, and earlier English writers. 
 That of the Berkshires is, perhaps, best known of any existing 
 breeds. It is valuable as a help to show how breeds originated. 
 The history of these two best known breeds illustrates forcibly 
 a principle in breeding announced by Prof. Brewei', of New 
 
24 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 Haven. It is this: "A breed oP animals is never made by 
 crossing two and only two distinct breeds, and preserving the 
 better qualities of both. I aui not aware," he says, " lliat 
 there is any such case on record, among all the countless 
 breeds of our domestic animals. But new breeds are often 
 made of several original breeds by a selection from the mon- 
 grel progeny." 
 
 Tlie evolution of llie Berkshire fronx the old English hog, 
 the Chinese, the Neapolitan, the Siamese, illustrates this prin- 
 ciple, though it has occui)ied nearly a century of time and 
 study of many indefatigable breeders, its history is full of 
 interest to all breeders of swine, because it is better under- 
 stood, being more fully recorded in the current writings of 
 this epoch than that of any other breed of swine. Now, as 
 this breed is so im|>ortant a factor in the early history of 
 swine breeding in the Miami valley, we may first consider it, 
 to better understand the part played by the several breeds em 
 ployed in the make-up of the one breed, which, following the 
 law of " survival of the fittest," has survived and superseded 
 all the others, and has become the chief in the counties and 
 State where it had its origin. 
 
 TIIK BKUKSHIRE ELEMENT. 
 
 By noting characteristics of the several breeds employed in 
 the early formation of the Berkshire breed, one may see why 
 they were used, and where the lop ears, sandy or reddish- 
 brown color, spotted with black, described by Prof. Low in 
 1842, came from. Then, by following along down a quarter 
 of a century, one will see how, by selection, these undesired 
 features were eliminated, and how, by judicious crossing and 
 selection, have been substituted the erect ear, tlie solid black- 
 color, artistically relieved by the clean white on the face and 
 feet and tip of the tail. 
 
 No artist's brush could place the colors more deftly and in 
 more complete harmony. The art of the bi-eeder is further 
 handsomely illustrated in the molding of the approved form, 
 the graceful outline, and ;n securing a harmony of colors now 
 accepted as that of the ideal standard Berkshire. But this 
 was reached only by persistent and long-continued selection 
 and use of crosses intended to eliminate or correct the unde- 
 sirable characteristics of the early specimens of this noted 
 breed. A. B. Allen says that in 1841. aged men in Berkshire, 
 England, told him tbat ^^'e breed had been known by them 
 
THE POLAND-CHINAS. 25 
 
 from earliest childhood, and yet he and they were still using 
 Siamese crosses — so persistent were the original colors and 
 traits and tendencies to reversion to the hateful characteristics 
 of the old English hog, such as slow feeding, coarseness of 
 ear, hair and form, and the mixed, uncertain colors. Prof. 
 Low tells of the use of the Chinese hoars as late as 1842, to 
 refine and improve the feeding quality of this long-known 
 breed, , 
 
 MONGRELS, OR MIXED IJREEDS, 
 
 The Bedfords, or Woburns, are spoken of in the Oenesee 
 Farmer of 1838, as having strenuous advocates in Massachu- 
 setts and near Baltimore. In Bedfordshire, England, the 
 Duke of Bedford, who was a successful breeder of Berkshires, 
 is spoken of as an advocate of the Bed''ord8 as a most prolific 
 breed. 
 
 In Massachusetts, the name of Woburn was given the breed. 
 Youatt says of them (p. 96): "Some admirable pigs were 
 sent to the great cattle shows of London. They were crosses 
 of various kinds, in which it apjieared to us the Suffolk strain 
 was prevalent." Affleck (p. 86), in his chapter on hogs in 
 Ohio and Kentucky, says : "Tlie variation in the chai'acter 
 of the half dozen different sorts of Bedfords is also great in 
 size, color and form." He believes those in America were 
 descended from an imjiortation by a Mr. Pai'kinson, an Eng- 
 lishman, wlio lived near Baltimore some eighty odd years ago. 
 These were most probably a mongrel from use of Berkshire 
 and Sussex hogs. As bred in Kentucky and Oliio in 1840, 
 Mr. Affleck says: "They varj'^ a good deal in appearance. 
 The head, neck and ears are fine, the latter somewhat rounded 
 and leaning forward and outward; the shoulder generally 
 good, thougli from close breeding there is a sinking back of 
 the shoulder in a majority of them ; the back otherwise re- 
 markably fine, slightly arched, very broad, the ribs coming 
 finely out and supporting the belly better than is common in 
 any otlier breed ; the loins slender, but high above the shoul- 
 ders to a very great degree ; the rump drooping rather sud- 
 denly ; tlie ham large, but not as thick and round as it might 
 be ; twist fair ; tlie flank in some good, in others badly tucked ; 
 the legs generally so good as to resemble tliose of a deer much 
 more than of a iiog; the bones stout and, though large, not 
 too much for an animal of their size, which is equal to 500 or 
 600 pounds af eighteen months or two years, with good keep ; 
 
26 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 the skin good and the handhng very fine; the hair long, 
 coarse and harsh ; said to fatten kindly at any age and upon a 
 less amount of food tlian any others." The celebrated Banter 
 pigs were of this breed, and fed against a pair of imported 
 Berkshires, " beat tliem a long way." 
 
 As to color, "some were white and some were sandy, with 
 numerous large black spots." The same writer says of the 
 impioved Berkshire of 1840, he fully believes " they will sur- 
 pass the Woburns on similar keep." He says : " The impi>oved 
 Berkshii'e more nearly approaches the ne lilus ultra of a per- 
 fect animal of this kind than any other. His form is perfect; 
 his legs ai'e, however, too frequently faulty, though by no 
 means always so." 
 
 The Berkshire was first introduced into the Miami valley in 
 1835, by Mr. Munson Beach and Mr. John Reed, from Albany, 
 N. Y., the former bringing a boar, Dick Johnson, and the 
 latter a sow, Superior. 
 
 BYFIELDS. 
 
 In 1838, the Oenesee Farmer speaks of a formidable rival to 
 the Bedfords as having arisen in the eastern part of Massachu- 
 setts. Essex county claims tlie honor of originating it as fol- 
 lows : " A farmer in Byfield found, accidentally, in the mar- 
 ket, a pig of remarkable appearance, and this laid him the 
 foundation of the breed known as the Byfield breed." 
 
 Mr. Affleck described them as he found them in Warren and 
 Butler counties, Ohio, in 1842, w^here then they were highly 
 esteemed as a cross with the Russian. He says: "Byfields 
 are of great size, white, with heavy lopped ears, flat-sided, 
 but of great length, and others that are beautifully white, 
 their ears small, pointing to their nose, broad back, deep chest, 
 large jowl, short nose, dished face and tliin hair." (P. 86, 
 Affleck.) Different grade crosses of these and Russian, and 
 again with the Chinas, have produced the large hog known as 
 the Warren County hog. 
 
 THE MUSH GRAZIER. 
 
 In 1839, three Irish pigs were brought to Cincinnati by the 
 father of W. W. Greer, of Oxford, Ohio. These pigs were 
 brought, as thousands of others have been before, to America 
 by emigrants from all jjarts of the world. Mr. Greer, Sr., 
 lived near the seacoast, where they raised vast quantities of 
 potatoes, on which the lu)gs were raised and fattened. Martio 
 (p. 98) says of Irish pigs: "The plan of fattening on potatoes 
 
'■^ / 
 
 TS£ foLAKD-Cflil^AS. ^7 
 
 is not calculated to do justice to the most approved breeds." 
 He further saj'S (p. 98): "Latterly the introduction of some 
 of our best breeds (from England) with which to cross the old 
 Irish swine, had been attended with decided success, although 
 there is room for further improvement. Berkshire, Suffolk, 
 Yorkshire and some Chinese boars and sows have been intro- 
 duced. ' Thus we see that the so-called Irish Grazier imported 
 into Ohifl was a mongrel. These Greer pigs went into the 
 hands of William Neff, a pork packer of Cincinnati, with 
 whom Mr. Greer was employed in cutting pork the first winter 
 of his residence in Ohio. 
 
 Mr. Neff also imported other Irish pigs and sent them into 
 Warren County, where their impress on the swine of that 
 region was marked and favorable. 
 
 Mr. Affleck, speaking of the boar. Poppet, imported by Wm. 
 Neff, said : " He would weigh about 450 or 500 pounds when 
 matured, and is a vei'y finely formed animal." Some of that 
 importation and their descendants carry their ears pricked; 
 they have fine length, a sjilendid barrel, good legs and very 
 fair hams. The hair is scant, though fine, and the skin un- 
 pleasantly scurfy but handling well. The cross of the Berk- 
 shire boar and Irish sow was called Bettys, and wa« considered, 
 by many, better stock than either. In this connection, Mr. 
 Affleck said, in 1842: "The Berkshires, Woburns and the 
 Irish Graziers seem to us the most likely to be of most use, 
 and are certainly those attracting most attention at this 
 time" (1842). 
 
 In tlie Western Stock Journal of 1870, published by J. H. 
 Sanders & Co., at Sigourney, Iowa, T. J. Conover said : "The 
 Irish Grazier is white, with a few spots of black ; upright ears, 
 light jowl, fine coating, and would fatten at any age. They 
 are the stock of hogs that gave the Poland-Chinas their fine 
 coating and symmetrical form." He also said : "JohnHark- 
 rader took an interest in the Irish Grazier and commenced an 
 improvement on that breed." 
 
 ^ THE RUSSIAN HOG. 
 
 OfJ.hisJbreed^_Cuthbert Johnsonjjn Ins Cyclopedia of Rural 
 Affairs, after describing the several fresh breeds of swine, 
 speaks of "other European breeds." Among these he names 
 the Polish and Russian breed as one and the same, and de- 
 scribes it as being "generally small, and of a reddish or yel- 
 lowish color." Albert D. Thaer, of Germauj, ia ilia great 
 
28 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 work, The Principles of Agriculture, 1810-13, in enumerating 
 and describing tlie breeds of swine in North (Jermanj, says : 
 "The breeds of swine best known in North Germany, but nev- 
 ertheless crossed in various ways, are the following: Molda- 
 vian, Wallachian and Bothnian pigs, distinguished by great 
 size, dark gray color and very large ears. 
 
 "The next class named is the Polish, or, more properly 
 speaking, Podolian pigs, also very large, but of a yellowish 
 color, and having a broad brown stripe along the spine. These 
 two races furnish very large pigs for fattening, but they re- 
 quire a proportionately large quantity of food ; besides, they 
 are not very productive ; the sows seldom have more than 
 three, four or five young ones at a birth." 
 
 We are all well aware that what Thaer has here said of this 
 Polish or Podolian pig of North (Germany has been the reliance 
 of some who have tried to argue the Russian hog out of exist 
 ence. Though the two tawny breeds agree in the stripe down 
 the back, Thaer says: "The Polish breed seldom has more 
 than three or four or five young ones at a litter," while it is 
 notorious that the Reds and their English ancestors are most 
 prolific. It is not probable that they are of similar origin. 
 That there was a large white breed, known by the farmers of 
 Ohio as much as seventy-five years ago as the Russian hog, 
 there is abundance of living and written testimony. James E. 
 Letton, of Millersburg, Ky., in 1840, wrote the following de- 
 scription of them: "Their color is generally wliite, with 
 long, coarse hair ; head long and coarsely featured ; their ears 
 are not so broad as the common variety of tbe country, yet 
 longer and narrower, and come regularly to a point, project- 
 ing forward, and they do not appear to have so much com- 
 mand of them as other breeds ; they have fine length and 
 hight, their bone is large and fine ; they stand well upon their 
 pastern joints and trackers ; quite industrious : tliey nre tlr'^k 
 through the shoulders, indifferently ribbed (or suddenly in- 
 clined down); their plate or kidney bone rather narrow and 
 ovaling than otherwise ; hams pretty good, though not so 
 good as the Irish, the Bedford or the Berkshire. Yet prefer- 
 able as is the variety, they do not grade so well as many 
 others; they want more time to bring them into market than 
 the above breeds. Give them from eighteen to twenty 
 months' age, they will make very large hogs ; they are quite 
 prolific, their usual number being from nine to twelve pigs a 
 litter. I have found their cross with the above-named breeds 
 
THE POLAND-CHINAS. 29 
 
 to be a valuable acquisition to their grazing, aptitude to fatten 
 and rapid growth at the same time." That this Russian hog 
 was extensively used as one of the earliest crosses for the im- 
 provement of the swine of Ohio and Kentucky, is evident from 
 extant writings and living testimony. 
 
 In no other description of breeds can we fnd the counter- 
 part of that back and loin wliich has cost us so much time and 
 care to correct. Mr. Letton well described it as " indillerently 
 ribbed, or suddenly inclining down, their plate or kidney bone 
 rather narrow and ovahng than otherwise." 
 
 The old Harkrader sow had this Russian back, as well as the 
 oolor, the large, fine bone, and the strong, short pasterns and 
 trackers. How this hog came to the Miami valley and Ken- 
 tucky is not known. His source and coming are indefinable, 
 but that this so-called Russian hog was highly esteemed as one 
 of the first crosses to improve the common hog of the country, 
 there can be no question. As to the color, Mr. Letton says 
 they were " generally white." 
 
 T. J. Conover said, in 1870: "The Russian hog was sandy 
 and black, with white," but, like hogs generally of that date, 
 their color seems not to have been clearly defined. 
 
 THE CHINA. 
 
 The breed which did the most for the improvement of the 
 hogs of the Miami valley, as they did for the improvement of 
 swine in England, is the China. The first introduction of this 
 breed in Ohio was in 1816, by the Shakers of Union Village. 
 They were called the "Big China hogs." They were bought 
 in Philadelphia by John Wallace, trustee of the Shaker society 
 near Lebanon. There was one boar and three sows. One sow 
 had some sandy spots on her, in which appeared some small 
 black spots. The boar and other sows were white. By their 
 use on the mongrels by the Russian, Byfield and common 
 hogs, came the Miami Valley hog. That this Shaker importa- 
 tion of Chinas was pure China stock, there is reason to doubt. 
 Nevertheless, they impressed, *in a wonderful degree, their 
 offspring with a quicker feeding quality, that seemed to be 
 the leading idea in the improvement of that period. ' 
 
 There are frequent allusions to China hogs and their value, 
 by writers in the Oenesee Farmer, The Cultivator and Western 
 Farmer, prior to 1842. They wei-e used and esteemed in the 
 East and West, and made their impress on all breeds with 
 which they were crossed. The use of the China has been ben- 
 
30 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 eficial in correcting coarseness of form, in quieting the restless 
 disposition, and increasing the tendency to fatten at any age, 
 and refine the texture and quality of flesh. 
 
 THE RED HOG, CALLED " POLAND.'* 
 
 There was another element that we cannot omit, which 
 seems not only to have been the very apple of discord among 
 some of our friends, but its impress among the hogs of Ohio 
 and the West is almost as marked as that of the noted Tam- 
 worth boar on EngUsh breeds. Their color and vigorous 
 growth seemed to attach themselves most pei'sistently to their 
 posterity, and were potent on all crosses. Whether they could 
 be called a distinct breed we will not here discuss. Affleck 
 and Millikin claim not, but that one Asher, of Chester, Butler 
 county, Ohio, a native of Poland, had red hogs which he 
 claimed to have imported from England, there is strong proof. 
 There was frequent allusion to them in the writings of that 
 day, and to tlie name Poland given to hogs of their type after 
 1838. W^e have a letter from B. G. Schenck, of Franklin, 
 Ohio, in answer to inquiry by L. N. Bonham, He says : "1 
 remember once to have spoken of the red hogs and pigs I saw 
 when a boy, at an old Polander's down near Chester. I re- 
 member to have gone with my father to this Pole's to see those 
 red pigs, and I remember now just how they looked. They 
 were of a bright, sandy color, witli small black specks all over 
 them. They resembled, in make, according to my recollection 
 of the pigs I saw there, and those raised from the pair my 
 father bought at that time, the Berkshire of to-day, except 
 that they were a little deeper in the body, had a flatter rib, 
 and were shorter in the legs. I remember tlie Polander telling 
 my father that they were the sandy Berkshires, of England, 
 and that he had imported them. I remember the old imported 
 sow and a yearling sow, a pig of hers. They both had litters 
 of pigs at the time. My father crossed them with his hogs, 
 and for years after there would be a pig with the features of 
 the Polander's hogs. I still think that the name Poland, in 
 our Poland-China hogs, came from this old Polander." 
 
 Here we have an element that has made a lasting impression 
 on the hogs of the valley and the whole country. The sandy 
 or reddish color is one that has characterized so many of the 
 breeds in their early history, that it has wonderful staying 
 qualities. It never has been a popular color. The early Eng- 
 lish breeders did not fancy or seek to perpetuate it, nor have 
 
THE POLAKD-CHINAS. 31 
 
 American breeders. Yet in the early history of swine in 
 America, when color counted but little and growth and feed- 
 ing qualities much, the law of selection did not then exclude 
 animals of sandy markings as it now does, since fashion 
 makes the old markings unfashionable. 
 
 That the law of selection, regardless of color, produces prof- 
 itable hogs, we know. The record of weights made in fatten- 
 ing establishments of an earlier day will make this clear. The 
 books <1f Wren & Bchaffer, of Middletown, Ohio, show that 
 they packed, in 1879, a lot of thirty-eight Poland-China hogs, 
 averaging six hundred and thirteen pounds gross at twenty- 
 oiie months old, all fattened by one man in Butler county. 
 From a table at hand we quote gross weights of six hundred 
 and twenty-five raised in Butler county, Ohio, and sold to 
 packers in 1870 : 
 
 One lot of SO averaged 574 pounds. 
 
 One lot <.f 10 averaged 516 pounds. 
 
 One hit of 38 averaged 570 pounds. 
 
 One lot of 48 averaged 513 pounds. 
 
 One k)t of 42 averaged 517 pounds. 
 
 One lot of '0 averaged 504 pounds. 
 
 One lot of 20 averaged 501 pounds. 
 
 One lot of 45 averaged 536 pounds. 
 
 One lot of 75 averaged 493 pounds. 
 
 One lot of tX) averaged 490 pounds. 
 
 One lot of 40 averaged 713 pounds. 
 
 One lot of 12 avcfaged 773 pounds. 
 
 To show that itis breed had. in 1870, attained unsurpassed 
 excellence in their readiness to fatten at any age, and their 
 rapid growth, we quote the weights of two lots of pigs fat- 
 tened when eleven months old : 
 
 One lot of 30 averaged, gross 3m pounds. 
 
 One lot of 10 averaged, gross 410 pounds. 
 
 One lot of 38, older, averaged, net 528.89 pounds. 
 
 One lot of 2, older, averaged, gross 719 pounds. 
 
 The net average of this last forty pigs was five hundred and 
 thirty-eight pounds. 
 
 Such a record shows not only skillful breeding, but rare 
 skill in handling and feeding. It tells, too, of the superior 
 natui'al advantages of a region where such a breed should be 
 originated and produced by an intelligent and persistent 
 application of the law of selection. 
 
32 SWIIS^E HUSBANDET. 
 
 Discussions by the Press and by individuals for nearly 
 a half century, have been the cause of searching and 
 thorough investigation into the matters connected with 
 their early history, the time and manner in which the 
 first crosses were made, and upon what foundation, 
 together with the later crosses and manner of breeding, 
 which combine to make them the leading and favorite 
 breed in many sections famous for the value, size, and 
 quality of their hogs. Owing to the great interest man- 
 ifested on these points, we have given them much care- 
 ful study and examination, for the jjurpose of getting 
 at the bottom facts for the public benefit; but it seems 
 well-nigh impossible to harmonize the conflicting state- 
 ments of those who ought to be best informed, or 
 to expect the champions of the various views to be 
 pleased with such conclusions as do not accord with 
 their own. 
 
 On many j)oints, all who have studied the question 
 closely agree, and on others (of perhaps minor impor- 
 tance to the public) some of the disputants are as far 
 apart as the poles, but we believe none dispute that the 
 main crosses towards its formation as a definite and dis- 
 tinct breed were made in that part of southwestern 
 Ohio lying between the Big Miami and Little Miami 
 rivers, mainly the counties of Butler and Warren, dur- 
 ing the years from 1835 to 1840. It is also generally 
 conceded that the groundwork was stock locally known 
 as "AVarren County" hogs, which were the result of 
 crossing togetlier the Berkshire, ''Byfield," the ''Rus- 
 sia," the "Big China," and perhaps the "Bedford" 
 breeds, all large, coarse hogs and slow to grow and fat- 
 ten, except the " Big Chinas," which possessed the very 
 opposite qualities. 
 
 Hon. John M. Millikin, who lived in Butler county 
 well-nigh seventy years, forty-five of which he was a 
 farmer, paid specia-l attention to searching out the his- 
 
THE POLAIfD-CHI^STAS. 33 
 
 tory of this breed, its material and makers, and his 
 statement to the author was tliis : 
 
 "The truth is, no one man can say he had more to do 
 in the formation of this breed than another. It was the 
 result of the labors of many. It grew out of the intro- 
 duction of the China hogs by the Shakers of Union 
 Village, the crossing with the Eussia and Byfield, and 
 the subsequent crossing with the Berkshires, and then 
 with the Irish Graziers. After 18-41, or 1842, these 
 breeds ceased to exist in either Butler or Warren coun- 
 ties, and (in 18?7) have had nothing to do whatever 
 with thic; breed for the last thirty-four years." 
 
 Controversies as to the precise crosses, and by whom 
 and under what particular circumstances they were 
 made fifty years ago, to form the breed now known as 
 Poland-Chinas, may interest a few ; but what is vastly 
 more important to millions of people, is the fact that 
 there has been produced a race of swine, now bearing 
 that name, that very many severely practical and intelli- 
 gent men consider the best pork-packing machines 
 known, — in fact, nearer what the farmers of the great 
 centra], corn-producing West need, than any other sin- 
 gle breed in existence. 
 
 Their size, color, hardiness, docility and good feeding 
 qualities make them favorites when purely bred, and 
 where more fineness of contour, quicker maturity, and 
 a little less size is demanded, we are satisfied the sows 
 bred to Berkshire boars produce the best feeding and 
 farm hogs in the world. 
 
31 SWINB HUSBANDRY. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 THE CHESTER WHITES. 
 
 Knowing Mr. Thomas Wood, of Chester county, Penn- 
 sylvania, to 1)0 one of the oldest and most reliable breed- 
 ers of the Chester Whites, atid familiar with tliem from 
 the beginning, we applied to him as a source of reliable 
 information as to tlieir origin, early history, breeding, etc. 
 
 He writes : "The Chester County White hog is a native 
 of Chester county, Pennsylvania, where the breed origi- 
 nated. The first impulse to the improvement of swine in 
 this county was induced by the introduction of a pair of 
 very fine white pigs, brought from Bedfordshire, Eng- 
 land, by C*apt;iin James Jeffries, of this county, and put 
 upon his farm on the Brandy wine Creek, near West Ches- 
 ter, the county seat, in the year 1818. Some of our more 
 enterprising farmers, seeing these finely-bred pigs, were 
 induced to commence an improvement of thoir swine by 
 a cross of these, their progeny, and others of the best 
 hogs of the county, and by continuing a careful selection 
 and judicious crossing for many years, have produced the 
 Chester White of to-day, a most desirable, Avell-formed, 
 good-sized, easily-fattened, and perhaps the best bacon 
 hog for the general farmer in this or any other country. 
 
 ''I have been paying considerable attention to the im- 
 provement of the Chester AVhites for over forty years, 
 and was among the first to disseminate the stock over the 
 Ignited States. I have shown them at numerous agriciil- 
 tural exhibitions ; at the exhibition of the TTuited States 
 Agricultural Society, held at Philadelphia, in 1850, I re- 
 ceived the Society's diploma for the best pigs ; at the 
 LTnited States Agricultural Eair, held at Kichmond, Ya., 
 iu 1858, 1 exhibited C-hesttr Whites, and they took all 
 the highest prizes offered by the Society ; I also exhibited 
 
THE CHESTER WHITES. 
 
 36 
 
 .111! 
 
 1 
 
 ' 
 
 Ill 
 
 ' i ! 
 ,1 
 
 r- ■ 
 
 - 1 
 
 !' 1 
 i : !' 
 
 li 
 
 f— 
 
 
 - 
 
 fr- 
 
 -J 
 
 r 1" 
 
 I 1 
 
 
 M^^- 
 
 y 
 
 r 
 
 
 
 > ' 
 
 ■- 
 
 t^ 
 
 ' 
 
 ':■ 
 
 L 
 
 
 \ 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 / - 
 
 r 
 
 
 : 
 
 7 
 
 _ 
 
 »*■ 
 
 V--- 
 
 - 
 
 
 . r . 
 
 _ 
 
 
 
 r - 
 
 Z 
 
 
 ) 
 
 >- 
 
 i ■ 
 
 / 
 
 •- — 
 
 !■ 
 
 "'.iiii'ii^ir * 
 
 - 
 
 . — 
 
 i.m 
 
 4:4 
 
 '^/i 
 
 -J 
 
 '•aj,:i 
 
86 BwnrE husbandry. 
 
 them at the joint fair of the States of Virginia and 
 North Carolina, held at Petersburg, taking not only the 
 highest premium awarded, but also the sweepstakes pre- 
 mium for the best sow, with considerable competition 
 with other breeds at all these exhibitions. 
 
 *' The Chester Whites have been successfully exhibited 
 at several fairs of the Maryland Agricultural Society ; 
 also at nearly every fair held by the Pennsylvania State 
 Society, as well as by many County Societies, in competi- 
 tion with most other breeds, while in many other States 
 'they have successfully competed with all the foreign and 
 home-made breeds. 
 
 "Some thirty years ago, the Berkshires were introduced 
 aito Chester county, where some of our farmers tried 
 and kept them very nice, and exhibited them at the agri- 
 cultural fairs ; but they did not seem to take well with 
 our farmers at that time, and were displaced by Chesters. 
 
 "A few years later the little Suffolks, that were making 
 quite a stir in the hog line in New England, were intro- 
 duced into our county, and afterwards the Essex, but 
 neither breed flourished here, and the Chesters quietly 
 superseded them. 
 
 " I tried them all, but found none of them superior to 
 our own breed. Some of the Chesters had been crossed 
 with the black breeds, and it took our farmers eight or 
 ten years to get rid of their spotted hogs, which was finally 
 pretty well accomplished, and the Chesters again held 
 sway over the county, and hundreds and thousands of 
 them were shipped to different parts of the United States, 
 Canada, and the West Indies. During this time, many 
 unprincipled parties shipped any kind of a white pig they 
 could pick up in the county, which they would call genu- 
 ine Chesters ; this lowered the popularity of the breed 
 wherever such pigs were sent. This caused a great falling 
 off in the demand for our pigs, and again the Berkshires 
 were introduced into this and adjoining counties, they 
 
THE CHESTER WHITES. 37 
 
 having, in the thirty years since their first introduction, 
 been much improved, and being popular abroad, some of 
 our swine breeders procured them to breed for shipping 
 purposes, and, as every generation must try the different 
 kinds of stock for themselves, many farmers bought the 
 Berkshires to see if they possessed any advantages over 
 the Chester Whites, it being said that their hams were 
 not so Fat, and would sell more readily in market. After 
 many years of trial, many farmers said that the white 
 hogs were best adapted to their wants. 
 
 " The Yorkshires have also been recently introduced 
 (in their greatly improved condition) into our county, 
 and are quite as popular as the Berkshire. 
 
 "I will here give the result of my experience with the 
 Chesters and Berkshires : I procured from a noted breed- 
 er in a neighboring State, two Berkshire pigs about ten 
 weeks old, and with them, in a pen, I jaut two Chester 
 Whites, from a litter of our own, after several of the 
 larger ones had been sold. They Avere a few days younger 
 than the Berkshires, which were masters at the trough, 
 and they remained so, knocking the Chesters about as 
 though the whites had no rights the blacks were bound 
 to respect. After feeding the four together for seven ci 
 eight months, by which time the Chesters weighed sev- 
 enty-five pounds, each, heavier than the Berkshires, we 
 killed and salted them for our own use, intending to find 
 out which made the best bacon, and we found the Berk 
 shire hams gave more lean meat, though somewhat di-y 
 and hard, Avhile that from the Chesters appeared to be 
 more soft and juicy, and was considered much the best 
 for our own eating ; but those who do not like the fat, 
 juicy ham, would prefer the Berkshire, which is also nice. 
 
 " It might seem that enough had been written and 
 published in our agricultural papers about the pure bred 
 hogs, when we evidently have no such, and the furthei 
 we have got from the old English and China type, the 
 
S8 SWINE HtJSBAlTORT. 
 
 better tlie hog. The Chester "White, made in Cliestei 
 county, Penn. ; the Poland-China, made in Bntler conn- 
 ty, Ohio, lay no claim to any infusion of foreign blood, 
 and are two of the best breeds of hogs in the United 
 States. The black hog, with Avhite feet and a white strip 
 in its face, now called the Berkshire, and the white hog, 
 with thin, curled hair, short head and very crooked face, 
 called Yorkshires, are both very well made and good 
 hogs. The Chester White breed is now the longest es- 
 tablished, unmixed with foreign crosses, of any breed 
 with which I am acquainted, and therefore comes nearest 
 a pure bred hog at the jDresent time. 
 
 " Some object to them, as being too large for the pork- 
 packers : this I cannot look upon as an objection, as the 
 Chesters will fatten readily at any age, and can furnish 
 any weights the packers may desire (from 200 to 300 lbs. ) 
 
 " I think they would be more profitable than any small 
 breed, which has to be kept over winter to attain the de- 
 sired weight, as Chesters, pigged in the spring, will 
 readily attain the desired weights by killing-time in the 
 following fall or winter, and by keeping them longer they 
 can be grown to weigh GOO, 800, or even 1,000 pounds. 
 A Chester White exhibited at the Exposition in Philadel- 
 phia was said to weigh upwards of 1,300 lbs. live weight. 
 
 *' We seldom have fatal diseases among our hogs ; many 
 of the diseases of swine, as of the sheep, enumerated' by 
 the English, I think never occur in this country. As to 
 the Chester Whites being exempt from the attacks of 
 ' cholera,' Thomas Miner, of Edinburgh, Indiana, stated 
 to me some years ago that all his hogs, seventy in num- 
 ber, were attacked with cholera, and the only pig in the 
 whole herd that recovered was a Chester sow, the only 
 one he had. I do not recollect ever hearing of a Chester 
 dying Avith the cholera, yet I see no reason why they 
 should be exempt. I think we have never had any hog 
 cholera in eastern Pennsylvania, except in a few instances, 
 
THE CHESTER WHITES. 39 
 
 where pigs were sliipj^ed from tlie West for sale to our 
 dairies." 
 
 We have said that the Essex were essentially the same 
 kind of hogs as the Suffolks, excei^t in color and the qual- 
 ity of their skins : The best of the Chester Wliites stand 
 in about the same relation to the Poland-Chinas, for if a 
 Chestej: was partially black, he would easily be mistaken 
 for a Polaud-China, and a strictly Avhite Poland-China 
 could scarcely be distinguished from a Chester White. 
 
 With many persons who sujjpose they have had the 
 Chesters in their best estate, there is much prejudice 
 against the breed, but, in many cases, we think the Ches- 
 ters receive the harshest criticisms from parties who never 
 owned one purely bred, and, in all probability, do not 
 know what they are, or how they should look. Where 
 the best specimens have been handled Avith the same care, 
 and the same judgment used in mating, breeding, and 
 feeding, that is bestowed on other well-bred, well-fed ani- 
 mals, they have been reasonably sf^tisfactory, and have 
 justly earnest advocates and admirers. 
 
 The occasion of the bitterness toward so many hogs that 
 have been called Chester Whites, is that their popularity, 
 and the consequent demand increased, while they were 
 comparatively few in numbers, faster than the supply, 
 which stimulated many unprincipled parties in eastern 
 Pennsylvania to engage in advertising and shipping any 
 white pigs they could obtain, regardless of their charac- 
 ter or breeding, and thousands of innocent purchasers of 
 these mongrel pigs supposed they had pure Chesters, and 
 the subsequent failures with them caused no little loss, 
 mortification, and deep-seated disgust Avith the very name. 
 One firm alone, that perhaps raised some of their pigs, 
 publicly proclaimed that they had shipped annually, for 
 three or four years prior to 1870, from 2,500 to 2,900 
 pigs, and the advertisements of all such parties intimated, 
 
40 swi2:i: husbandry. 
 
 indirectly, that their ability to fill orders for choice 
 selected pigs was unlimited. 
 
 A gentleman residing in Chester county, gave the New 
 York Farmers' Club some correct ideas as to the way the 
 business was conducted, as follows : 
 
 ** I live in Chester county, and know something of the operators 
 in this famous breed of pigs ; liuow something of their business, 
 its extent, and their ability to meet the demand with pure Chester 
 Whites — pigs pure enough to reproduce themselves. There are, 
 no doubt, a great many breeders who keep the stock unmixed, but 
 if you knew the enormous demand from abroad, independent of 
 the local wants, you would see how little likelihood there is of 
 meeting it with pure stock. The consequence is, every nook and 
 corner is scoured for pigs — pigs that are not black, that is all that 
 is required. 
 
 " Drovers, hucksters, and almost every other itinerant, are on 
 the lookout for pigs, until they have tripled in i)rice from what 
 they were :i few years ago. 
 
 " Last fall, a neighbor had several litters of very ordinary pigs, 
 which a farmer engaged at a very young age, to make sure of them; 
 but a hog-deuler — as they are called — (tame around in a few days, 
 bid higlier, and took the most of the lot. 
 
 " Another neighbor procured a pair of pi'j:s from one of the 
 breeders .ve liave in the county, and the tirst litter he raised from 
 them were nearly all more or less spotted with black, thus showing 
 unmistakably bad blood." 
 
 When the reaction following this set in, it was, of 
 course, severe. The graceless scamps who followed this 
 business, have given the Chester Whites a much worse 
 reputation than they deserve, and the question as to 
 whether the true Chester White is an established breed, 
 is not worth discussing with those who really know them. 
 
 They are appropriately classed with the large breeds, 
 growing, if kept, to almost any size, and hold their wliite 
 color perfectly under all circumstances. Docility and 
 cleanliness are marked characteristics witli them, and the 
 sows make an excellent foundation upon which to cross 
 boars of any of the more refined breeds, the offspring in- 
 
THE CHESTER WHITES. 41 
 
 heriting size from the sow, and early maturity and fine 
 feeding quality from the boar. 
 
 The tendency of late years has been to reduce the 
 Chester's coarseness of bone, head, ears and hair, and it 
 is a marked improvement.* Breeders in Ohio and else- 
 where have claimed to make variations in the types 
 reared by them during several generations of the stock, 
 entitling it to designation and registry in a separate rec- 
 or(r as "Improved" Chester Whites, but whether the 
 "improvement" over the best of the Cliester county 
 stock, as bred from 18U5 to 1880, is a material one, is 
 an open question. 
 
 Taking the specimens of the breed shown at the Co- 
 lumbian Exposition in 1893 as represeiuing its best, 
 there w^as little to indicate that the Chester Wliites, at 
 that time, were any improvement on their ancestry of 
 twenty-five years before, and the contrast they presented, 
 alongside many of other breeds, could scarcely impress 
 the unbiased observer as strikingly favorable. 
 
 Where farmers have large Chester sows that are too 
 coarse, a cross with a good Suffolk boar will give pigs 
 with fine points and most excellent feeding ([ualities, 
 fattening readily from the time they are weaned. 
 
 We have had considerable experience with the Ches- 
 ters, perhaps as good as Chester county afforded, and 
 their merits are many, but they were discarded, with 
 other white breeds, for their one failing in the Western 
 climate and under Western treatment, viz., liability to 
 skin diseases, especially mange. Harsh treatment and 
 exposure tell severely against the hardiest white hogs, 
 but we believe judicious management and breeding will 
 yet do much to rid them of this apparent tenderness. 
 
 ♦ The heavy lopped ears, coarse heads, long, coarse tails and hair 
 are much less characteristic of the breed now than they were in its 
 earlier days, while their coats are of silvery wliite hair of reasonable 
 tlueaess. 
 
42 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 The National Conveution adopted the following as their 
 description of the 
 
 CHARACTERISTICS AND MARKINGS OF CHESTER WHITES. 
 
 " Head short, broad between the eyes ; ears thin, pro- 
 jecting forward and lap at the point ; neck short and 
 thick ; jowl large ; body lengthy and deep, broad on back ; 
 hams full and deep ; legs short, and well set under for 
 bearing the weight ; coating thinnish white, straight, 
 and if a little wavy not objectionable ; small tail, and no 
 bristles." 
 
 C H A P T E K Y. 
 THE BERKSHIRES. 
 
 For ten years subsequent to 1831 there raged in the 
 United States what might appropriately be called " the 
 Berkshire fever," and mainly from the efforts of those 
 interested in their importation, and sale at fancy prices, 
 the breed became notorious, if not popular. Many sub- 
 stantial farmers, and others, invested in them largely, 
 and no small eiforts were made to sustain the mushrDom 
 reputation that speculators had made for them, but while 
 they were, even at that time, hogs of excellent breeding 
 and truly valuable, the careless, neglectful systems then 
 in vogue with too many farmers, were not adapted to 
 maintaining the good qualities given the breed by English 
 breeding and feeding, and deterioration followed. Fail- 
 ing to realize the expectations of those who purchased 
 them, a reaction set in, and breeders became disgusted 
 with, and so prejudiced against, the stock and its very 
 name, that they would afterwards scarcely accept of a 
 Berkshire as a present. 
 
 Much of the prejudice then engendered only ceased 
 
THE BERKSHIRES. 
 
 .-l'-^ 
 ">«• 
 
 
44 SWINB HUSBANDRY. 
 
 with its generation, and perhaps but little or none of it 
 exists at the present time. 
 
 Since about 18G5, new importations, of the finest speci- 
 mens of the improved Borkshires that Great Britain could 
 produce, have been made, and tlie stock has been widely 
 disseminated ; being now thoroughl}' kiiowu and appre 
 ciati'd, it probably stands second to none in the estima- 
 tion of intelligent pork-producers throughout the United 
 States and Canadas. 
 
 While the Berkshires of the })resent time are probably 
 much improved over those of forty years ago, the spirit of 
 improvement is still abroad, and tlie standard of perfec- 
 tion is placed high. 
 
 Prominent among the good qualities that serve to 
 nuike tliem favorites arc : 
 
 Isf. — dreat muscular power and vitality, which render 
 them less liable to disease than many other breeds. 
 
 2d. — Activity, combined with strong digestive and as- 
 siniiUiting powers ; hence they return a maximum amount 
 of flesh and fat for the food consumed. 
 
 3d. — The sows are unequalled for proHticacy, and as 
 careful nurses and good sucklers. 
 
 ■ith. — Tiie pigs are strong, smart, and active at birth, 
 and conseciueutly less liable to mishaps. 
 
 5th. — 'I'hey can bo fattened for market at any time, 
 while they may be fed to any reasonable weight desired. 
 
 0th. — Their flesh is the highest quality of pork. 
 
 7th. — Power of the boar to transmit the valuable qual- 
 ities of the breed to its progeny, when used as a cross. 
 
 Sfh. — Their unsurpassed uniformity in color, marking, 
 and quality. 
 
 It is doubtful if any hogs are nearer thoroughbred, in 
 its best sense, or more certain to reproduce themselves 
 with fidelity than the improved Berkshires. Crossed with 
 Poland-Chinas they nuike the best feeding hoys possible — > 
 in fact, there is scarcely a medium or large breed upon 
 
THE BERRSHIRES. 45 
 
 which they cannot bo crossed with advantage, owing to 
 their great vigor and hardiness. 
 
 In our own breeding and feeding operations, no breed 
 has been found so eminently satisfactory as the best Berk- 
 shires, and we breed them pure in considerable numbers 
 xor feeding purposes, having years ago discontinued the 
 raising of any others. 
 
 Tiieir reasonable size, quick growth, easy fattening, do- 
 cility, uniformity, and hardiness captivated us, and every 
 day's experience but adds to our admiration of them. 
 
 The pigs, even when coming in the most unfavorable 
 seasons, have a tenacity of hold on life that is truly won- 
 derful. 
 
 Many of the meanest hogs and those of the worst dis- 
 position that wc have known were called Bcrkshires, but 
 they sustained about the same relation to the true sort, 
 that the propagators of them did to intelligent farmers 
 and breeders. 
 
 The Berkghires having become so numerous, and their 
 excellence so generally recognized, the friends of the 
 breed organized in March, 1875, at Springfield, Illinois, 
 the "American Berkshire Association," having for its 
 object the *' collection, preservation, and dissemination 
 of reliable information on the origin, breeding, and man- 
 agement of Berkshire swine, and the publication of a 
 Herd Book, or Record of Berkshire pedigrees." 
 
 One of the first steps of the Association was to offer a 
 premium of $100 for the best approved orignal essay on 
 the origin and management of Bcrkshires. The premi- 
 um was awarded to A. B. Allen, Esq., of New York, 
 the historical and descriptive portions of whose essay are 
 presented in subsequent pages. 
 
 The entire essay appears in Vol. I of the ''American 
 Berkshire Record," and we are safe in saying that the 
 subject has not, in any other published paper, been 
 treated by any one so thoroughly familiar with it as Mr. 
 
46 SWINK ni'SUAMMn-. 
 
 AUou. and wc iiivo a ootusidorablo juutioii of it Iumv in 
 liiMi o( any atUMupt to troat tho subjoiM vnirsolvos. 
 
 Mr. AUon {uvpaivd tho ronort i>n Uorkshiros. as adopt- 
 od l»y tho *• Swino l^roodors' (.\>nvontion ;" but wo luuit 
 it. its tho ossny ooiitains tho sanio. anil innisitlorabK^ othor 
 •nfonnation. 
 
 Tho l\M\vontiou auro;>d upon tho foUowini; a.^ tho 
 
 I'n.VlJ.VOTKUlSTirS AM> MVUKlMiS i>K r.iivKsuiKt:s. 
 
 Color blaok, with whito ou foot, faoo, tip of tail, and 
 an oooasioual splash of whito ou tho arm ; whilo a small 
 spot o( whito on somo othor part of tho body doos not 
 jir^uo an impurity of blood, yot it is to bo disoiuiragod 
 to tho ond that uniformity of lolor may bo attainod by 
 bivotlors ; whito upon *mio oar, or a bron/.o in* i>oppor spot 
 on sonio part of tho body ariruos ni> impurity, but rathor 
 a ivappoaraiu'O of lU-iuinal oolors. Markings of whito 
 othor than thoso tuunod abovo aro susjMoious. and a i»iji- 
 so markoil should bo tvjootod. 
 
 Kaoo shiM't. tino. and woU dishod. broad botwoon tho 
 cvos ; oai-s gonorally abnost oroot. but somotimos in- 
 olininu: forward with advanoing ago. small, thin, soft, 
 and showing voiiis ; jowl full ; nook short and thiok ; 
 slunildor short from nook, to nuddling doop from baok 
 down ; baok broad and stniighi. or a viM-y littlo ari'hod ; 
 vibs — long ribs. woU s|M"ung. giving rotundity of boily ; 
 short ribs of gomi longth. giving bivadth and lovolnoss of 
 loins: hips good longth inmx point of hip io rump;' 
 hams thiok. nnind, and doop. htdding thoir thioknoss 
 >voll baok and down to tho hooks : tail lino and small, 
 sot. oti high up: logs sht>rt and lino, but straight ami 
 vory sti\>ng. with lu^ofs oivot. logs sot wido apart: sizo 
 modium : longth moilium. oxlivmos aiv to l>o avoidod : 
 lh>no lino anii ov>mpaot ; olTal vory light ; hair tin(> and 
 compact : skii\ pliable. 
 
 Tho BorkshiiYS aro lumiy. prvdilio. andoxcollont nursosj 
 
rur. liP.nKHrrmicH. /y 47 
 
 tlinir rrioiif, Ih of Huporior qualiiy, with f;d iuid ]<'.U] woll 
 
 Ah Hhowin^; IJio w(;igiif, iliaf, anirnulH of thJH brocJ will 
 utUifi at an early age, it Ih Btat/cd that .1. A. Jirown, of 
 Milton, IllinoiH, hoUI, in 1873, a lot of ii<;rkHhin; f>i;.'H of 
 an average ago of nine moniliH, an'l their averagr; wi i;;hi 
 v/;in '■>()'> pouri'lH. 
 
 Ah infiieating tliecHtiniate pluA-A-d on thin breed in I'ing- 
 larif], the leading work of that country on Hwine raiwing 
 Hayn :* 
 
 " ArnoriK thf; \)\n(k bn;<:<l-, l)y iiriivr;rH'i) f:f)nH<;nt, the Jrriprovwl 
 IkrkHhin: lioj; HfuridH at tin; liead of tin; lint,, r;itli«;r to \)r(:t;{\ pure, 
 or tf> r.rohH with idl'irir^r hreedw. * * * Th«;y are now eooHi'lered, 
 by IJcrkHhin; farrncrH, to tw; divide*! into a rrnddlf, (mediiirn hIzc) 
 and a Hriiall i(rf<d. If firflt-claHH, they Hhoiilrl \ii: wf;ll rovi-nj] with 
 long, iiiark, Hilky hair. * * * Tin; wliiff; Hiioiijd \ii: f;onfinf;d to 
 four wliitc feet, a wiiit<; Hf)f/t inXwi.i-.n the eycH, awl a ff:w white 
 hairs behind cacii Hhouidcr." 
 
 PRKMIIJM EHHAY. 
 
 Itr A. II ALI.K.N. 
 
 THK OltKilNAf. J'.ltKKlJ 01' JJKRKHIIIIlE 8WINB 
 
 " Tradition, an'] thnrarlicHt [)iibliHhf;fl aeeountHof wiiat ha« Irnij^ 
 b<;on parti'MjIarly di:-itiiitrniHho(| by tii'; nam'; of iicrkHhin; Mwine, 
 rcprewmtH th'irn, down to aboiit a contury win';';, aH amon;^ tlif; 
 largest brf;f!dH ')f Englan'J, w';i;.5hing, full g^rown, from 7(H) to 1,(X>0 
 poundn, or inon;. The * Complet'; Grazi'rr' de»<;ribeH one, in 
 1807, aH wr;i'^fi»ing lb'} Htone, ('Mi IbB.) Thi.s was exhiblU;d, wilh 
 f4herH, by Bir William (Jiirtig, at thr; eattic Bhow of Lord Soiner- 
 ^vill';. in tiiat y.-ar. JnUrmm^ jij hh ' KamuirH' En':jf:Iop3jdi.-j,' 
 'li'jnd'»n, 1842, H-iyn that thf;y weigiif;'! at that time from f,() i'<, UHi 
 HUm<: (iW to mo IbH. Tlie latt<;r of thr.-H';, doubtlcHH, wre of the 
 improvc'l breed. 
 
 " Originally, th*:y wore reprfwint^-'l an being g'rnerally of a buff, 
 Handy, or n'l'liHh-br'»wn color, npolte'I witii bbw^k, '>%:aHi'jnally 
 tawny f)r whit,/; .sftott'-'l in thr; Hamr; manner. Tli'-y were e'jarne in 
 the bone ; head ratii«:r large, witi) heavy flop ears ; brojid on the 
 
 * S|dncyV " Youau on the Pig," London, 1880. - . . • • • 
 
48 SWINB HUSBANDBT. 
 
 back ; deep in the chest ; flat-sided, and long in the body ; thick 
 and heavy in both shoulders and hams ; well let down in the twist ; 
 bristles and long curly hair, with rather short, strong legs. Their 
 meat was better marbled than that of any other breed of swine in 
 Great Britain — that is, had a greater proportion of lean freely in- 
 termixed with fine strealis of fa,t, which makes it much more 
 tender and juicy than it would otherwise be. They were conse- 
 quently, from time immemorial, preferred to all other swine there, 
 for choice hams, shoulders, and bacon. They were slow feeders, 
 and did not ordinarilj^ mature till two and a half to three years old. 
 " It is thus that I find the Berkshire hog figured and described 
 in the earliest English publications to which I have been able, 
 thus far, to obtain access. But in the second volume of the mag- 
 nificent folio edition, illustrated with colored plates, now lying 
 before me, of ' The Breeds of the Domestic Animals of the Brit- 
 ish Islands,' by Professor David Low, published in London, in 
 1843, is a portrait of a Berkshire as I have described above, except 
 being of rounder body and somewhat finer in all his points, with 
 ears like most of those of modern breeding, medium in size, and 
 erect, instead of flopping. This portrait is of a sandy or reddish- 
 brown color, spotted with black ; the feet and legs for nearly their 
 whole length, white, slightly streaked on the sides and behind, with 
 reddish-brown. It, of course, represents one of the old breed con- 
 siderably improved, and marked as I occasionally found them in 
 all my visits to Berkshire down to 1867. But the pigs which I saw 
 thus marked were of the same size and shape, and as fine in all 
 their points, as a general run of the black, slate, or plum colors of 
 the present daj'. 
 
 ** FORMATION OF THE IMPROVED BERKSHIRE SAVINE. 
 
 " Tradition tells us that this was made by across of the black, or 
 deep plum colored Siamese boar, on the old unimproved Berkshire 
 sows. Other traditions assert that the black and white spotted, 
 and even pure white Chinese boar was also sparingly used to assist 
 in the same purpose. I can well believe this ; for I often saw 
 swine in Berkshire spotted, about half and half black and white, 
 in addition to the reddish-brown, or bull' and black, and so on al- 
 most up to the pure plum color or black. The produce of the 
 above cross or crosses was next bred together, and by judicious 
 subsequent selections, the improved breed, as we now find it, be- 
 came, in due time, fixed and permanent in all its desirable points. 
 
 " Another feature, aside from the half and half black and white 
 spots hitherto occasionally found to mark the improved Berkshire 
 
THE BEKKSHIRES. 49 
 
 swine, which may be adduced in support of the supposition of a 
 Bparin<r cross with the white and light spotted Chinese, is the shape 
 of the jowls. All these which I have bred in my piggery, or im- 
 ported at different times direct from China, or have seen elsewhere, 
 had much fuller and fatter jowls than the Siamese. Some of the 
 breeders of England preferred the fat jowls, because carrying the 
 most meat ; others the leaner, as they said this gave their stock a 
 finer and higher bred look in the head. 
 
 "THE SIAMESE SWINE. 
 
 " In the same volume of Professor Low, which contains the 
 Berkshire portrait as described above, is a colored plate of a Siam- 
 ese sow. She is a dark-slate, varying to that of a rich plum color. 
 The two hind feet are white; the fore legs and feet white, shaded 
 in front with plum. The face is dished ; head line, with short erect 
 ears ; shoulders and hams extra large ; back broad, with a deep, 
 round, and longish body. The sow is represented with a sliglitly 
 swayed or hollow back, at which we need not wonder, considering 
 its length, and that she has a litter of nine great fat pigs tugging 
 away at her dugs. These, Professor Low says, were got by a half- 
 bred Chinese boar, which, I presume, from the color of the pigs, 
 was white ; for some of them were pure white, while others are 
 mixed with slate, or plum and white, and one is a bufif, with black 
 spots, like the original Berksliire. 
 
 " I will now describe the Siamese swine, such as I possessed and 
 bred for several years on my farm. They varied in color from 
 deep rich plum to dark-slate and black ; had two to three white 
 feet, but no white on the logs or other parts of the body. The 
 head was short and fine, with a dished face, and rather thin jowls; 
 ears short, .slender, and erect; shoulders and hams round, smooth, 
 and extra large ; back broad and somewhat arched, except in sows 
 heavy with pig or suckling pigs, but even then it was straight 
 rather than swayed ; body of moderate length, deep, well ribbed up, 
 and nearly as round as a barrel ; chest deer- ^nd broad ; twist well 
 let down ; legs fine and short; tail very slender and well set, with 
 a handsome curl in it near the rump ; hair soft, silky, and tLin ; no 
 bristles even on the boars; skin tiiin and of a dark hue, yet when 
 scalded, scraped white ; flesh firm, sweet, and very tender, with 
 less lean than in the Berkshire. Although so compact, round and 
 smooth in l)uild, they had a fine, high-bred, up-headed style, espe- 
 cially in their walk, which instantly attracted the attention of all 
 who called to see them. They were moderately prolific, and ag 
 3 
 
50 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 hardy as any otlior breed of swine I ever kept, the extremes of 
 heat and eold neve? iiijuriii,;; tliein. They were gentle in disposi- 
 tion, very quiet, and easily liept, ami would partially fatten on 
 a;ood pasture, or eoarse, raw vi'getables. Tliey eouLl be made fit 
 for the buteher at any age ; niaturi-il at 12 to 15 months ohl ; and 
 when fully faltenod, lienerally wei^vhed from 250 to oOO pounds, 
 oi'easit)nally goini; to i)50, or 100 pounds. They liad very fine 
 liones and light t)lVal. 
 
 " It was, doubtU>ss, with Siamesi- boars as perfei-t as 1 have de- 
 seribed, that the cross was made on tlie original lierkshire sow^s, 
 whieli has eiMitributeil so largely to the rormatio:i of the improved 
 breed, held in sueh high estimation for a full century or more past. 
 
 *MVHEN" "WAS TUK CKOSS I'lKST MADi: ? 
 "Several aged met', in ditlVrent parts of Berkshire, of whom I 
 inquired on my tirst visit to England, in It^tl, informed me that 
 they had knt>wn there improved swine of the same t3'pe as 1 then 
 found tiiem, from earliest cliildhood. But the n\ost particular, and 
 apparently reliable, account I was able to obtain, was from Mr. 
 Westbrook, of Pinekney Green, Bysham. who told me that his 
 father possessed then\ as earlj' as the year 1780, in as great perfec- 
 tion as the best then existing in the country. Thus it will be seen 
 that the improvement is now at least a century old, and more jirob- 
 ably a century and a quarter; for it would have taken some )'ears 
 back of 1780 to begin a new breed of swine, and get it up to a 
 tixcd type at that period. 
 
 " CIIAUA0TKKI8TICS OF THE BEST O^ THE IMl'KOVED 
 BEltKSHIKE iSWIXE AT THIS TIME. 
 
 " Snout and head fine and rather short, but larger in proportion 
 to the body in the n\ale tlian in the female, ami with a bolder and 
 more determiiu>d expn'ssion ; face disheil and broad between the 
 ej-es; jowls full or tl\innor, aecol'ding to the fancy of the breeder; 
 eyes bright and expressive ; ears small, thin, and upright, or inclin- 
 ing their pcnnts a little forward; neck short, rather full in the 
 throat, and harmoniously swellmg to the shouldei-s; chest broad 
 and deep ; back broad and un)deratcly arched ; rump nearly level 
 with it; wn^U let down in the twist: body of good length and 
 depth, round, with well sprung ribs, and straight along the sides 
 and under the belly ; .shouhlers, above .ad, in the boar, extra thick, 
 yet sloping smoothly to tlse body; hams broad, round, deep, and 
 so thick through from side to side, particularly in the sow and bar- 
 row, that, standing directly behind, except when pretty fat, the 
 
THE BERKKUIUES. 51 
 
 6i<lcs of Uio body arc scarcely Hcori between tliem and the shoul- 
 ders; legs fine, strong, of moderate length, and set rather wiJo 
 apart; feet small, with dear, U)ugh lioofs; tail slender and well 
 set, with a handaomcj curl near the rump ; bones fim; and of an 
 ivory-like grain and hardness; offal very light in comparison to 
 weight of carcass; hair fine, soft, and silky; no bristles, even on 
 tli(! Ijoar; skin thin and mellow, with elastic handling of the flesh 
 hcncath ; quick and spirited in movement; stylish in carriage, and, 
 in the boar, more especially, bold and imp(jsing in presence. 
 
 • "COLOIl AND MAIIKING. 
 
 " The most favorite color among the best breeders in Berkshire, 
 in 1841, was a deep rich plum, with a slight flecking on the Jjody of 
 white, or a little mingling with it of bufT; asmall blaze in the face; 
 two to four feel white, and more or less white hair in the tail. 
 The [)lum color was preferred to the black or slate, because it car- 
 ried rather higher style and finer i)oint8 with it, a superior (piality 
 of flesh, softer hair, and thinner skin. 
 
 " The above is no ideal description of choice improved Berkshire 
 Hwin(;, for I found several such in traversing the country, and pur- 
 chased and sent them home, to grace my own piggery. Nor, with 
 all these points, were fhey lacking in size; and to substantiate this 
 assertion, I will here note the dimensions of one of those I im- 
 ported at this time, which I called ' Windsor Castle,' he having 
 Ijcen bred and reared near that magnificent royal residence, stand- 
 ing in Berkshire. 
 
 " As he lay down he measured, in a direct line along the side, 
 from the tip of his nose to the end of his rump, six feet three and 
 a half inches. If measured standing up, with his head stooping 
 towards the ground, Ijy running the ta[)e line from the tip of his 
 nose over the head Ijctween the ears, and along the back to the 
 end of tJic rump, as swine are often measured, it would have made 
 upwards of seven feet long ; but I do not consider this a fair way 
 of measuring. Iliglit to top of the shoulder, two feet eleven 
 inches; bight to top of rump, three feet; girth dose ))ehind the 
 shoulders, five feet six inches. He was in rather lean condition 
 wiien I measured him, as I kept him so in order not to be too 
 heavy to serve small sows. It is well known that when a Berk- 
 shire is fully fed, in addition totheraeaton hissides.helays twoto 
 four inches more on his back. I am r-onfident if ' Windsor Castle' 
 hud been altered to a barrow, and fully fattened, he would then 
 have measured three fe<;t and two in(;lies high to top of shoulder, 
 and three feet three inches high to top of rump; vrould have 
 
53 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 girthed around the heart seven feet, and weighed, dressed, at least 
 eight hundred pounds. He was as fine in hair and all his points, and 
 as good a handler aa the choicest of those of smaller size ; and for 
 H combination of size, style, vigor, and noble presence, ho exceeded 
 anything I ever saw or ever expect to see in the genus Siia. A 
 friend of mine, who was a special nice judge and breeder of 
 horses and cattle, but who hated hogs, and would go as far to kick 
 one as the celebrated late Joba Kmdolph, of Roanoke, Virginin, 
 was in the habit of declaring lie would go to kick a sheep ; on 
 visiting my piggery and seeing ' Windsor Castle,' was so surprised 
 and delighted with his superb appearance, that he exclaimed he 
 was the only one of this sort of stock he had ever iooked upon 
 which had any poetry in him, and that for his sake i.louc he should 
 henceforth be reconciled to swine. 
 
 ''SIZE OF THE IMPROVED BERKSHIRE. 
 
 " I have heard of those, both in England and America, whose 
 dead weight, dressed, occasionally exceeded 800 lbs.; but at the 
 time I first visited the former country, the general weight, full 
 grown, was about the same as at the present time — namely, from 
 300 to 600 lbs.; according as the smaller or larger pigs were 
 selected from the litters for fattening, and as they were subse- 
 quently fed and attended. The smaller sizes matured several 
 months the quickest, and were preferred in the markets for fresh 
 pork ; and for curing also, for those who were particularly nice in 
 the choice of their meat, being rather more tender and delicate 
 than the larger animals. 
 
 ''QUALITY OF MEAT. 
 
 " The meat of the improved Berkshire, like that of the unim 
 proved, abounds in a much greater proportion of sweet, tender, 
 juicy lean, well marbled with very fine streaks of fat, than other 
 breeds of swine ; but the former is far more delicate now, than the 
 latter ever was. This renders the whole carcass the most suit- 
 able of all for smoking. The hams and shoulders are almost 
 entirely lean, a thin rim of fat covering only the outside. 
 
 " MATURITY. 
 
 " The improved Berkshire could be fattened at any age. Bar- 
 rows matured in 12 to 18 months, according as selected from the 
 litters, whether the laigest or sin.\llest, and as subseciuenlly fed 
 and treated. It took boars and sows yeserved for breeding about 
 Biz months longer to get their fullest size and weight, not being 
 
THE BERKSHIBBS. 63 
 
 pushed by liigb feed so rapidly as those destined for more imme- 
 diate slaughter. 
 
 " EAULIEST IMPORTATIONS INTO AMERICA. 
 
 " The first importation into the country, of which I find record, 
 was made in 1823, by Mr. John Brentnall, an English farmer who 
 settled in English Neighborhood, New Jersey. I became acquaint- 
 ed with his sons after their removal to Orange county, New York, 
 and purchased of them stock descended from this importation. 
 
 '"ihti next were imported in 1833, by Mr. Siday Hawes, an 
 English farmer who settled in Albany, New York. He subse- 
 quently made other importations, some of the descendants of all 
 which I added to the stock on my farm. 
 
 " I have heard that by the year 1838, a few followed into Canada 
 and some of the Western States, from England. I bought a small 
 lot that came into western New York in 1839 ; and late that year, 
 Messrs. Bagg & Wait, English farmers who had settled in Orange 
 county. New York, began their large importation, which they con- 
 tinued for several years, disposing of them mainly in Kentucky, 
 Tennessee, Missouri, and the South. In 1841 I selected in Berk- 
 shire, England, and imported into New York, upwards of forty 
 head of the choicest of the Improved Breed of swine I could find 
 there. The above have been followed by numerous other impor- 
 tations down to the present time, both into the United States and 
 Canada. Tliose curious as to the particulars of these will find 
 them pr.;tty fully recorded in the various Agricultural journals of 
 America. * * * * 
 
 "ADVANTAGE IN MAINTAINING THE BERKSHIRE BREED. 
 
 " There is a growing taste on the part of the American people, 
 coinciding with that which has been cultivated a hmg time in 
 Europe, for tender, juicy, well marbled, smoked hams, shoulders, 
 and side pieces, in preference to very fat, salt pork. This should 
 be encouraged, as the former are not only the more palatable to 
 persons in general, but are unquestionably the most healthy food. 
 Considering these facts, the Berkshire, above all others, should be 
 the favorite swine among us ; and we ought to take all possible 
 pains in breedini^, rearing, and fattening them in such a manner as 
 to make a superior quality of smoked meat, not only for the home, 
 but also for the foreign nmrket. 
 
 "Improve! methods of curing and packing should likewise be 
 adopted, so as to enable us to get as high a price in the English 
 market as the be.st Irish bacon commands. This, I find ofteo 
 quoted 20 to 30 per cent above American. 
 
04 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 " Indian corn, which in the United States grows in such abund- 
 ance, is undoubtedly superior to anythin<5 which can be produced 
 in Ireland, for making the best quality of fat pork ; but I have 
 heard this questioned as to liams and bacon. Some feeders contend 
 that fine, mealy potatoes, cooked aud mixed with barley, oats, peas, 
 or beans, or several of these, fed together, will produce a superior 
 quality of bacon. This is a matter worth inquiring into, and I 
 would suggest an earnest consideration of it on the part ol" our 
 feeders, and of those engaged also in bacon curing and packing. 
 The Irish have one advantage over the Americans, in the English 
 market ; and that is in being so much nearer to it, they can cure 
 their bacon and offer it on sale in a fresher and milder state than 
 we are able to at present. If we should, on trial, hereafter find 
 that it can be sent forward at a profit, in refrigerators, kept down 
 to a low and even temperature, we could then probably obtain as 
 high prices in the English market as do the Irish, aud thus add 
 another desirable item to the exports of America." 
 
 CHAPTEK VI. 
 
 THE SUFFOLKS. 
 
 The Suffolks are not raised pure, or used as a cross in 
 the principal pork producing States so extensively as sev- 
 eral other breeds, nor are they so well known to a major- 
 ity of farmers, who have a belief, if not positive knowl- 
 edge, that they are somewhat delicate, and difficult to 
 raise. 
 
 The objections to them are, that they are not large 
 enough, not satisfactory as breeders and nurses, and that 
 their skins are too tender, and thinly haired, to withstand 
 the exposure to which the average farmer's hogs are sub- 
 jected. 
 
 As to size, the best strains of Suffolks are large enough 
 for those who prefer to raise hogs of medium weights, 
 while for quietness, and easy keeiiing qualities, no breed 
 
THE SUFFOLKS. 
 
 55 
 
 .ftff^pmn 
 
66 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 of swine can excel them, and to those who like pets, we 
 would recommend a cleanly-kept Suffolk pig in prefer- 
 ence to any " poodle," or other diminutive canine, we 
 ever saw. The sows are not so prolific, so regular as 
 breeders, nor usually so good sucklers as others that ma- 
 ture less early, and not so predisposed to excessive fatness 
 while young. 
 
 Experience with the Suffolks has convinced many that 
 the wind, sun, and mud, make sad work with their tender, 
 papery skins, and Ave have seen them, when reasonably 
 well kept, become chapped and cracked all over, and the 
 smaller pigs so mangy and sore as to present the appear- 
 ance of a solid scab. Of course, all Suffolks are not so 
 affected, and we think that in many localities, they are 
 no more liable to suffer in this way than hogs of any other 
 white breed. The climate of some AVestern and South- 
 western States is unmistakably severe on wliite hogs, not 
 well haired, and when such are constantly exposed to 
 biting frosts, drying winds, and scorching sun, the re- 
 sults will, in most cases, be anything but satisfactory, 
 and the balance will be found on the wrong side of the 
 ledger. 
 
 As now bred, we cannot look upon them as a reason- 
 ably profitable hog for general use, but Suffolk boars can 
 be used to good advantage on many farms where white 
 hogs are preferred, and more refinement is desired. 
 
 The Hon. John Wentworth, of Cook county, Illinois, 
 having bred the Suffolks, exclusively, for upwards of 
 twenty years, owning many of the finest in the world, 
 and being, after this long experience, an enthusiastic ad- 
 mirer of them, we solicited his estimate of them as 
 a farmer's hog, and he gives the following in reply : 
 
 " After trying carefully all the other breeds, we give the prefer- 
 ence ti) the Suffolks, and we think all others will who try them as 
 long and as impartially as we have. They make the most pork with 
 the least food, and with the least bone. They are the quietest 
 
THE SUFF0LK8. 57 
 
 hogs. Give them enough to eat and they will never leave the 
 premises. They lie down and remain so until they want more 
 food. They make the least offal of any hogs, and they root about 
 the least, even when short of food. For crossing upt^i other liogs, 
 they have decidedly the preference. Their cross ui)ou the largest 
 white sows make the best of Chester Whites. Their crosses upon 
 the largest black, or speckled sows, make the equals of Berkshires, 
 Magies, Polands, Poland-Chinas, Essex, Byfield, and other dark- 
 colored breeds. 
 
 " Indeed, with a judicious crossing of the Suffolk boar upon the 
 ordinary cheap hogs of the country, you can closely imitate any 
 existing breed of hogs, or make a breed of any form you please. 
 
 " It is a remarkable fact that the Chesters, Berkshires, Magies, 
 Polands, Poland-Chinas, Essex, Byfields, etc., etc., as well as the 
 later formed breeds that have taken the most prizes, have been 
 manufactured in this way, from the Suffolks, which are the 
 oldest breed known to man. Our SuflFolks are well haired, and 
 run in our pastures and barn -yards with our cattle, sheep, 
 geese, ducks, and chickens. They are as quiet and harmless as 
 any animals we keep. As the Suffolk is not a new breed, nor re- 
 cently made up from unknown crosses, but a long-established Eng- 
 lish variety, it is therefore a true breeder. In them there is no 
 breeding back to the original common or made-up stock. Their 
 litters are not part of one kind and part of another, but they are 
 uniformly true to the Suffolk characteristics. They breed even, 
 each pig as good as another. ***** During the season of 
 grass they will keep fat without any other food. Suffolk pork 
 costs less and brings more money than any other. 
 
 " Suffolks are the most popular breed in England. The Suffolk 
 attains maturity at an early age, and may always be in a condition 
 to kill from the time they are a month old. The carcasses com- 
 mand a considerable extra price over the common hogs of the 
 country, partly on account of tlie greater weight in proportion to 
 the bone, and i)artly from the pork being of better quality and 
 flavor. It derives its well-known name, " the English nobleman'i 
 hog," from the fact that it is always in a condition to be killed, 
 however suddenly company comes. 
 
 " The object of the farmer is to get the most meat to the least 
 i)one, the most valuable matter in the Iiog upon the same food to 
 the least portion of the valueless matter. The Suffolk may be 
 small, compared with mammoth breeds, but he contains as nmch 
 that is eatable as moat hogs of double his weight, and which 
 
68 SWINK QUSBANDRY. 
 
 consume four times his food. But the Suflolk can bo made of 
 
 superior size by kccpiuu,- oil" its llcsli until tlic bouos arc proporly 
 divoloped, aud tliis development cannot take i)luce whilst tiie 
 youni;' bouos are overladen with tlesh, as those of over-fatud Suf- 
 folks are apt to be. But, owing to the.r siiort li'ns, they weigh 
 much mor(! than is generally supposed. The Suliolks never root 
 up their pastures, nor make enemies of neighbors by wandering 
 away from "homo, or by broaking into their premises. The Suliolks 
 are invariably white, oxtv pi now and t'len 0:10 will have two or 
 three bluish spots. These bluish spt)t.^, on the skin, but never in 
 the hair, unlike those found upon any other hogs, indicate purity 
 of blood and recent importation, 
 
 " We started out in 1855 with Suffolks descended from the jiens 
 of Lord Wenlock and Mr. Crisp, of England ; and we can safely 
 say that we have bred from every importation into t'jo *Uuitod 
 States aud the Provinces since ; and we intend to keep up our 
 stock by importing ourselves and availing ourselves of the impor- 
 tations of others. We have sold Sulfolks into every State and 
 Territory, the Empire of Japan, the Sindwich islands, the British 
 Provinces, and ]\Ioxico. 
 
 " The following statement will explain how persons who annu- 
 ally ship large quantities of hogs to Chicago view the character- 
 istios of the Suflfolk. AVhon wo lirst began to breed Siifiblks, and 
 there were no railroads in the country, hog raisers would only buy 
 boars and raise half-breeds to drive. As railroads approached 
 them they would raise three-quarters blooded to drive. As rail- 
 roads w^ould reach them, and they had little or no distance to 
 drive, they have bought Sutiblk sows as well as boars, and raised 
 full-bloods." 
 
 Mr. Wentworth, iu a communii^iitiou to the ''Prairie 
 
 FctDni')',"' says : 
 
 " I read, with great interest, the report of t'.ie eommitt(?e at the 
 late Swi.ie Breeders' A-^sociation upon tlie characteristic's of the 
 Sutiblk hogs. I have had them exclusively for the p :st eighteen 
 years, and my sales will average one hundred every year for the 
 jKist ten years, and I think I have had all the importations repre- 
 sented in my lu^rd. 
 
 "While I commend the general correctness of the report, 1 
 woulil state that there is one characteristic that was not only not 
 alluded to by the coramitte ', but it wa^ r.vther repudiated in the 
 lollowiug worcla, free from spots or any other color.' Now 
 
THE SIJFP0LK8. 59 
 
 tlicro is a liahility in all Siiffolks to have round bluish spots ui>on 
 tiif^ir skinH, altliou-^h cov(ti'(1 with vvhito bristlos, and tlictso s|)ois 
 scum to increase; witli age. My pnjsunt boar was selected I'or nie 
 by Mr. ilarisoii, B^er.tary of the New York Btate Agricultura: 
 Society. When lie arrived, aged about six months, he was spot 
 l;'ss, and so continued until about two years of age, and then bluish 
 spots of the size of an old-fasliioned silver Oollar commenced 
 growing upon him. iS^ow, at four years of age, he' lias about 
 twenty of tluim, although the bristles covering them are white. 
 Of coGrse, tliese spots are excepdons, not one in ten having them, 
 and very few inside (>f one year old ; yet there is a tendency to 
 llieni and no li(jg should be rcjccteJ as a pure Sud'olk on their ac- 
 count. These spots are easily detetited from black spots. 
 
 " At one of the Slate Fairs at Chicago, on<! of my boars not only 
 took the first premium as the best Suffolk, but the sweepstake prize 
 as the best boar of any age or breed upon the ground. lie had 
 several of these spots upon him at that time, although having none 
 until he was a year old. I notice ties.'j bluish spots occasionally 
 upou hogs at the stock yards, which have, in all respects, charac- 
 teristics of the Sufltolks. 
 
 " A corresjiondent of yours, whilst finding fault with the size 
 of tlie Suffolk, thinks Ihey are the best for crossing upon other 
 hogs. I have found this to be the invariable o])inion of men who 
 want a breed of hogs of their own, independent of '-verybody else. 
 AVherever they start, whatever may be their groundwork, before 
 they get through making their new breed of hogs they invariably 
 incorporate somewhere a cross of the Buffolk. 
 
 " Your paper says that tour hundred is the jirofitable size of the 
 hog. The Suflfolks can easily be made to weigh this amount, by 
 feeding them li'^iilly until tlieir legs have acquired suflicieut 
 strength to support their weight of carcass. The inferior weight 
 ullrihuted so often to SulFolks arises entirely from overfeeding 
 tliein when young." 
 
 Mr. William Smith, of Detroit, Michiguii, hus long 
 occupied a front rank as a breeder of these hogs, and is 
 familiar with them and their Ijrceding, in England, as 
 well as America, and his testimony is this : 
 
 "Having bred the SufTolks continually for over forfy years, I 
 can safely assert that tiiey are a great favorite with me. I find in 
 the improved bried nothing to condemn, and everything to com- 
 ;aeud. They uttuiu good size at an early age, and tlieir quiet. 
 
60 SWINB HUSBANDRY. 
 
 pleasant disposition, clean, snow-white appearance, antl handsome 
 form, arc very desirable features in connection witii their many 
 other gt)od ((ualities, not the least of whieli is the comparative 
 Bmaii amount of food they require. 
 
 "Tlie Siillollvs are rapiilly gainiui; in favor, and wherever intro- 
 duced nive good sati.^faelioa. T.iey are quite hanly and tiirive in 
 almost any climate tliat any of thi'ir species will, from the most 
 northern part of Canad'i to southern Missouri and California. We 
 know that tliey tlourish and give satisfaction, as hundreds of my 
 customers can ti'stify. 
 
 " Canada, Michigan, New York, parts of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, 
 Iowa, and other States, are rapidly becoming stocked with them, 
 and iu my opinion it will not be many years before they become 
 "the hog" of the country. Tliere is no possible question about 
 their being the tiery bed thoroughbred for improving the common or 
 native breeds, and for this quality alone they would be entitled to 
 a front rank in the list of valuable breeds." 
 
 The Report adopted by the " National Conveiitiou of 
 Swine Breeders" on Suffolk swine, is as follows : 
 
 ** Mr. Sidney says : Yorkshire stands iu the first rank as a pig 
 breeding county, possessing the largest white breed in England 
 as well as an excellent medium and small breed, all white, the last 
 of which, transplanted into the south, has figured and won prizes 
 under the names of divers noblemen and gentlemen, and in more 
 than one county. The Yorkshires are closely allied with the 
 Cumberland breeds, and have been so much intermi.ved that, with 
 the exeeptii>n of the very largest breeds, it is ditruult to tell where 
 the Cumberland begins and where the Yorkshire ends. It will b© 
 enougii to say, for the present, that the modern Manchester boar, 
 the improved Sutl'olk, the improved Middlesex, the Coleshill, and 
 the Frini-e Albert or Windsor, were all founded on Yorkshire- 
 C-umberlanil stock, and some of them are merely pure Yorkshires 
 transplanted and re-christened. 
 
 Speaking of pigs kept in the dairy district of Cheshire, he says, 
 ' white pigs have not found favor with the dairymen of Cheshire, 
 and the white ones most us(>d are IMinchester boars, another name 
 for the Yorkshire Cumberlaiul breed.' He says, in another place, 
 and all the authors who have followed him, down to the latest 
 publislii'd work on the subject, occupy space in describing various 
 county pi<rs, which have long ceased to possess, if ever they pos- 
 sessed, any merit worthy of the attention of the breeder. Tbua 
 
THE SUFFOLKS. 61 
 
 the Norfolk, the Suffolk, tho Bedford, the ClieHhire, have each 
 separate noticf>, not one of which, except the Huffolk, in worthy 
 of cultivation, and the Suffolk is only another name for a small 
 Yorksliirc pig. 
 
 ''CHARACTERISTICS AND MARKINGS OF SUFFOLKS. 
 
 *' Head small, very Hhort ; cliockH [)rominf;nt and full ; 
 face dished ; Knout wmail and very Khort ; jowl fine ; ears 
 short, small, thin, upright, soft, and silky ; neck very 
 shorfand thick, the head af)i)oaring almost as if set on 
 front of shoulders ; no arching of crest ; chest wide and 
 deep — elbows standing out ; brisket wide but not deep ; 
 shoulders thick, rather upright, rounding outwards from 
 top to elbow; crops wide and full; sides and flanks, 
 long ribs, well arched out from back, good length be- 
 tween ; shoulders and hams, flank well filled out, and 
 coming well down at ham ; back broad, level, and straight 
 from crest to tail, no falling off or down at tail ; hams 
 wide and full, well rounded out, twist very wide and full 
 all the way down ; legs small and very short, standing 
 wide apart, in sows just keeping belly from the ground ; 
 bone fine ; feet small, hoofs rather spreading ; tail small, 
 long, and tapering; skin thin, of a pinkish shade, free 
 from color ; hair fine and silky, not too thick ; color of 
 hair pale yellowish white, perfectly free from any spots or 
 other color ; size small to medium." 
 
 Since about 1882 several gentlemen, particularly in 
 Ivistern States, have taken much interest in what are 
 dcsigiiaLod as "Small Yorkshires." They are neat little 
 white hogs, with wondei-fiilly short, dished faces, and so 
 much like the Suffolks that some persons who raise both 
 c(»nfess they can scarcely distinguish them apart. Their 
 similarity is so great that, as a matter of fact, a Suffolk 
 makes a very good stnall Yorkshire;, and vice verm. 
 
62 SW1J!«I£ UUSUANDUY. 
 
 CHAT T K K VII. 
 
 TIIK K8SEX. 
 
 The Kssox brood of swino is coinparativoly unknown 
 ftnioiii:; I ho a;ont>riil farniors of tlu> Mississippi Viilloy, »nd 
 wo lijivo no kno\vlo(ii;o (»f tlioir hoinij^ raisoil in imy con- 
 siiloniblo niiniltors for pork. Still, in sonu" ioralilit's. 
 they iiro broil in a liniitod way nion*, porliaps, in Ken- 
 tucky, tlinu olsowhoro — and wo ha\o iio\or oncdunlvrod a 
 porson who had onoo Iriod thi>ni, who did not plaoo a 
 high ostinialo on Mioir valno as a small bro»>d, and 
 especially on tho boars to nso for crossing <ni sows of 
 larger breeds. 
 
 . 'I'hey sotMn (o be ossi'iitially (he same as tho SnlTolks, 
 except in their black color, and loss liability to skin dis- 
 eases, which would in a majority of cases make them tho 
 favorites over their white conjpetitors. 
 
 We think there is small ]>robabilily that tho Ivssox 
 swine, as now bn<d. will over bt>como tho ]>r(>vailing 
 breed, from the fact tliat tiioy are of a smaller class of 
 hogs than most farmers care to raise, or jiai'kors to buy 
 and handle, ajul we deem it improbable that the next 
 fifty or one hundred yeirs will witness the raising of 
 smaller swine, generally, than the Yorkshires, and it is 
 more than likely that, in the future, the happy nu>diuin 
 will bo an animal in size between tho best modeled sniall- 
 bouod lierkshiri' and tho coarser Poland-Chinas of the 
 present time. 
 
 Just bore, ])eriiai)s, is a tilting place to remark — and 
 wo do so after full dolibiM-ation— that tho jnirty who can 
 exhibit at tlie next Centennial Kxposition any better feed- 
 ing hogs, ov those bi>tter suiti>d for general juirposes than 
 a cn)ss between the two last-named broods, will have 
 some stock to be i>vri/ 2>f'oi'<f (>/• 
 
rnv. i;hk'''X. 
 
64 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 ^Sidney's *'Youatt on the Pig," (London, 1860), says: 
 
 " Early maturity, and an excellent quality of flesh, are among 
 the merits of the improved Essex. * * * 
 
 " The defect of the improved Essex is a certain delicacy, prob- 
 ably arising from their southern descent, and an excessive aptitude 
 to fatten, which, unless carefully counteracted by exercise and 
 diet, often diminishes the fertility of the sows, and causes diffl 
 culty in rearing the young. 
 
 "As before observed, they are invaluable as a cross, being sure 
 to give quality and early maturity to any breed, and especially 
 valuable when applied to a black breed, where porkers are required. 
 For this purpose they have been extensively and successfully used, 
 in all the black pig districts of this country, [Great Britain,] where, 
 as well as in France and Germany, and in the United States, they 
 have superseded the use of the imported Neapolitan and Chinese. 
 
 " Many attempts, on a limited scale, to perpetuate the breed pure, 
 have been unsatisfactory, because it is too pure to stand in-and-in 
 breeding. They require much care when young. 
 
 " In the sows, the paternal fattening properties are apt to over- 
 balance the milking qualities, and make them bad nurses. * * * 
 
 " The improved Ebsex are ranked amongst the small breeds, and 
 there they are most profitable ; but exceptional specimens have 
 been exhibited at agricultural shows in the classes for large 
 breeds." 
 
 Mr. AVm. Smith (before quoted under Suffolks) breeds 
 the Essex extensively, near Detroit, Mich., and writes of 
 them thus : 
 
 " This is a breed that will be appreciated in proportion as it 
 becomes known. Their characteristics are almost identical with 
 those of the Suflfolks, except that the Suffolks are a pure white, 
 while the Essex are a beautiful jet black. This is always the case, 
 and any mixture of color, in either, is inadmissible. The style, 
 form, size, disposition, and feeding qualities are similar in the im- 
 proved breeds ; and the pork of the Essex will dress as white as 
 any, if rightly managed. Although they are considered gne of the 
 oldest established breeds, yet there have been frequent and marked 
 improvements within the past fifty years, — not the least of which 
 has been reached during the present decade. 
 
 " To Lord Western, of Mark's Hall, Essex, England, is given the 
 credit for their first great improvement, or I might say, of being 
 t(hfi orj.ginator of the present type, though it was tuuch inferior to 
 
UkJ^^-^ 
 
 THE ESSEX. 65 
 
 that of the present day. This improvement was brought about 
 by the introduction into his herd of the Neapolitan pig — a small, 
 fine-boned, black breed from Italy. The late Fisher Hobbs, of the 
 same place, followed up the improvements on the Western breed, 
 until he has made a reputation for himself and breed that is world- 
 wide. 
 
 " Sir George Mumford Sexton and other noted breeders have 
 succeeded in keeping them up with the advancing times, and to-day 
 there is no animal, of any kind, that shows finer or more perfect 
 breeding. 
 
 " There are many black hogs in this country that are called 
 Essex, and which may have originated from the unimproved Essex 
 stock that was introduced a few years since, and though they may 
 represent the name, they come far short of representing the quality 
 of the improved breed ; and as a consequence many who have had 
 experience or acquaintance with the former, have but little faith 
 in the latter, from a want of the knowledge of the great difference 
 between them. 
 
 *' The improved Essex matures early and attains good size, often 
 reaching from four to five hundred weight. Their meat is excel- 
 lent, and, like the Suffolks, can be made fit for pork at any age, 
 from a month upward. They are favorites with all breeders of 
 them. In England there are many counties that scarcely know 
 any other breeds than the Suffolk or Essex. They are marketed 
 by the thousands for light family and butchers' p irk when from 
 five to eight months, and for that purpose there are none better. 
 They command a higher price than the coarser pork, and th« 
 market reports always make a distinction in the quotations, and 
 show a wide difference in tlie prices in favor of these breeds. 
 * * * I could find much to say about, and in praise of the Essex, 
 . but I will only add here, that they are hardy, healthy, and prolific." 
 
 ^ Dr. Chase, of Kansas, in bis description of the leading 
 ' breeds, ' says : ''"We must say a word for the little Es- 
 \^ sex. They are more squarely built than tlie Berkshire, 
 uiet, docile animals, that fatten almost at the sight of 
 corn, and weigh, under ordinary treatment, when full 
 grown, from 250 to 275 pounds. As a thorough-bred 
 stock, to breed to common sows, we do not believe they 
 will produce as large grade animals as the Berkshire. 
 " For the gentleman in town, or the small farmer, we 
 
 s 
 
66 SWINK HUSBANDKV. 
 
 know of none that will give better piitisfaction than Iho 
 Essex." 
 
 CIIARACTKRISTIOS AX1> MAHKINGS OF ESSK\. 
 
 The report adopted by the Conventioii of Swine 
 Broedors, of characteristics of this breed, is as f(dlows : 
 
 '* The Kssex is a blaek hog, oviginatitig in tl\e south t>f 
 England. They are of small to niediuni in size, and are 
 extensively used in England to cross on the large, coarse 
 swine, to improve their fattening qualities. 
 
 ** The best specimens may be known as follows : Color 
 blaek : t'aee short and dishing ; ears small, soft, and 
 stand ereet while young, but coming down somewhat as 
 they get age : carcass long, broad, straight, and deep ; 
 ham heavy and well let down ; bone fine ; carcass, 
 when fat, composed mostly of lard ; hair, ordinarily 
 rather thin. The fattening qualities being very superior 
 As breeders they are very prolitu\ and are fair nurses." 
 
 Since the foregoing was invpared, we have received 
 from ^Ir. E. W. "Cotl'rell, of Creenfield, 3Iich., the fob 
 lowing, under date of December l.'ith, 18T(> : 
 
 " Yes : 1 will cheerfully give you my estimate of the 
 Essex, and ■will premise by saying, that during my expe- 
 rience in breeding and managing tlu>rongh-bred pigs for 
 the past ten years, I have, some of the time, exceeded a 
 a thousand choice animals of the im]u-oved breeds, in- 
 cluding the Essex in considerable numbers, which has 
 given me an opportunity to compare and experiment upon 
 their relative merits, under the same and difTereiit treat- 
 ment, alongside of each other. I also have intimate 
 knowledge of the experience of a gentleman who has 
 bred these pigs, with others, for the past forty years, 
 both in this country aJid in England. 
 
 ** As a result of this experience, I can say that, in my 
 estinuition, they take rank among the best. 
 
 ** The Essex ai'o as distinct from all other types as it is 
 
THK E8HBX. 67 
 
 possible for ono brood to difTor from another, and still 
 possess the prinf;if);il valuiiblo features })elongin^ to tlie 
 species. In form, f|uality, and disposition, they more 
 nearly resemble the Suffolk than any other breed, and, in 
 fact, there is a similarity between them in this respect. 
 
 " In the improved breed, tho style, form, color, size, 
 disposition, and general characteristics, are very uniform. 
 Theyjire certainly a standard breed, and one of the old- 
 est established. Mr. William Smith, of Detroit, has 
 been the most extensive importer and breeder of them 
 that I know, and they have always been favorites with 
 him, both here and in England, where he has successfully 
 competed with the most noted breeders. His thorough 
 knowledge and experience has enabled him to give the 
 breed a still higher value than they possessed, even be- 
 fore. 
 
 ** They mature early, their meat is excellent, and a 
 year, at most, should suffice to feed them to the most 
 profitable condition for pork ; which is one of their mer- 
 its, and when fat, the carcass should yield a large propor- 
 tion of lard. 
 
 "They are invariably black; should have a short, 
 dished face ; soft, fine, ears when young, though with 
 age they will begin to grow heavier, and droop somewhat. 
 The body should be of medium length, broad, deep and 
 straight ; with a heavy ham, well let down, and bone fine, 
 but strong enough to suf)port the carcass in good style. 
 When in condition, the pn^portions should always be 
 symmetrical and pleasing ; medium, well-haired, with a 
 fine and comparatively soft coat. 
 
 '* They possess powers of transmitting to their progeny 
 an excess of their own good cjualitics, when crossed upon 
 common and coarser swine, and tin; first cross upcm our 
 natives will improve their fjuaiities, almost beyond recog- 
 nition. Excepting the SufTolks, there is no breed that 
 can compare with them for this purpose. 
 
68 SWINK m SJ5ANORT. 
 
 "As brtH^dors and nursotJ, thov ;uv vorv fair, though 
 not oqual to tho Horkshiivs. In fart, all thorounh-hroil 
 aiiimalv^, as thov booomo ivthuHl. ov ' iiigh biwl,' lossoii 
 thoir foi'und pro^HMisitios to a uivaior or loss oxtont ; but 
 onlinarilv, with goovi managomont. no sorious ditVioiilty 
 nood Iv oxporiouood on this point with woU brod Kssi'x. 
 It is essential, howovor, tl\at tho brood sows bo maturod. 
 and not porniittod to booonio too fat. whioh latter is i^fton 
 ajit to bo tho ease, wiiii good food and troatniont. 
 
 "Good pjistniv, with plenty of water, will koei> thoni 
 in ample eondition for breeding, thrinighout tlie whole 
 gra/.ing season. In faet, 1 have ktiown thoni to eome out 
 of a good elovoi Hold in tho fall, 'killing fat.' without 
 having had any other food. They aiv good graxiers. and 
 have the advantage over some of tho moi\> tender-skinned 
 white hogs, of being able to withstand, (at any ago. how- 
 ever youi\g.) tho hottest sni\ of July i>r Angnst, without 
 having their baoks or skin in tho least alTootoil. and they 
 aiv never known to soald or mange. 
 
 •• The young pigs of tho Essex aix> usually more doli- 
 eate than those of the eoarsor briH^ls, and will often ap- 
 pear quite inferior to the latter, at tho same age, np to 
 eight or ten wooks. w hen they will begin to shoot ahead, 
 and 'show their brooding.' This is not always the ease, 
 but often is, and 1 attribute it to tho nuMhors not being 
 suoh good milkers as some other kiuils. It seems to be 
 ihoir nature to run to fat rather than milk. 
 
 " I have no trouble in sueoossf uUy brooding my Essex, 
 and almost invariably tind piirehasers w-ell satistied, and 
 thenooforth advoeates of the bivod. 
 
 ** In my opinoin. though thov may novor booinno so 
 ]vpular as some, thov Avill still be a valuable stiiudiin.^ 
 brood." 
 
TOKKSniRBS. 
 
 C 1[ A I* T K U VIII. 
 
 YORKHIIIHIOH.— CIIKHIIIUKH, OK JKFFEKHON COUNTV 
 HVVINH, OK NKW VOItK. — LA NCASIIIIIKH.— VH;T0- 
 IlIAH. -NHAIMjLrrANH. .IKKHKY ItKDH. -DIJIKKJH. 
 
 TIjo brooijH of awliw. niunoil al>ov(! arc ko little known 
 fjy tIfR gonoral farmorH of tlio country, that hucIi moritH 
 an tli(!y liavo arc ov(!rlooko<l and uc^U'cUtil. lJiilik<! tin; 
 more ])rominont hi'oodH, the inl'ornjation to ]n: ohtained 
 roHpecting them is quite meagre. 
 
 We liavo been unable to fin«l iinytliing of fniurh irn- 
 ])ortance, or that wouM be deenje I niorit uuthcntie than 
 the reportH made to, and adofjtcd by the iS'ational (con- 
 vention of Swine Hrrtedern, held at Iridi;i,n;i.f)f>liK, Novem- 
 ber JiOth. IH7;i. 
 
 YOUKHIIIKKS. 
 
 We have never mfit in the We-:t, at fair,", or elHewliere, 
 a di.-itiiict breed of .swine known an Y<jrkHiiireH, nor have 
 we eonvcrHCid witli any otu; having any poHJtive praetieal 
 knowhidge of them, but Kubtnit the nj)ort ()i\ 1\i\h breed 
 iiA prcHcntefJ to the (Convention at JndianapoliH : 
 
 I'rofcHH.ir JonfiH, of Iowa; Jacob KcnnerJy, and I. N. Hark(;r, of 
 ImJiana, in llioir Jt'-port oti YorksliircH have tli<; following : 
 
 * * * * "TlH;ir (^)lor and cliaraclcriHticH liavo hoen traced, in a 
 t(rcat';r or Ichh d(;<.m;f;, into cvriry popular lirccd of Hwinc which 
 liaH Ixjcn rriadr; up or atl,f;rn|)tc(l to ]n', cHtahliHiicd an Ihoronj^h-hrcd, 
 cither in tin; United HtalcH or Kn>.dand ; indeed, we iniirht Hay, into 
 every hn-ed, nave tin; Khh'X, r)r Neapolitan, itnported hy T>ord WcHt- 
 crn. TliCHr; w<!re thf; f<nly pure bred hhuk Iiokh of which we have 
 any accnnnt, (lither in thin country or thr; old. And we think it 
 may Hafely he said of thcHC white hoj.^H, that tliey are the only pure 
 ami diHtinct breed of ho;.'H or |»iL'H, savr; the black, that are now 
 Jjred on iliin contin(;nt. Do not underHtarid uh aH contending that 
 all blaf:k and all while hogs are tlK^rough or pure bred ; but that 
 all breedH in thiH cfiijntry of mixed cfdorH are what their color 
 liidicutcH— ar<! mixed or croHH bred, hence not pure and dlHtinct 
 
70 
 
 SWINK UlSl?.\M>KY. 
 
 MUwM 
 
YOltKHIIIKItH. 71 
 
 hrccdH. TImt tlilH \n fiorrorf,, Ih, wo think, fiilly «!H(,ahllHlif;'l \iy tlitj 
 liiHiorv of «;iu;li p«ipul(ir l»r(!<!(l, m tr,\vi;u \>y Um; \»r(:<ul<rH tlicrii- 
 «(!lv»'H, iMi well »iH by VoimtJ,, KurriH, (irid othfTK, who have j^ivcn 
 (Jct.iih;*! accoijiilH of how <:u(:h valiiiihic hrccd huH hccn fr^riiiod, 
 N<urly or (|Mit<; all r»f thcHf! hnitidn an- iii(|(;hl<!f| for tiiuriy of (h«;lr 
 vahiahhr (pialilifH to their croHHCH with the YorkMhire and other 
 wiiite Kii/.HiHh and ('hina Iio^h. And anion^^ the hreedH ho !n- 
 ilcliterl an; tln' ( ^lnHlcr VVIiite, the 'riiin-Ilind, the lierkHhire, and 
 the Maude, or l'ohuid-( 'hina. All llnHe hnedH Hcriri If) liav<; bor- 
 rowed i^uti- of their Kocid <|ualitieH froni tlntHf; rjritNnal white ho^jM, 
 and ail are matle up from eroHWH of the white, and hiaek ho^ ; 
 Jiene': th*' eliaracter of thr; Kn^diHli or white lnnr eropH out oeea- 
 Hionally in aInio.Ht v.vcry lire(-d known in thiH country or Kn^dand. 
 Ae<:or<lin;.dy, we believe it may be Haid that they are the i)ureHt 
 bnu'd of liogH, and tins bent in thlM country or Knj^land from which 
 to make croHWiH in forming a n<'w or reliable breed. 
 
 " 'I'hc KngliHli white hr»;i;H, like other lireedH, vary much in wize, 
 from the large hog to the ( Idea jiig, ko that (be bret^dr-r «;an ( hango 
 Uie Mi/,f! of bin Mtock, or tlnr coat it wearH from a heavy coat of 
 hair to th(; Hliort and Hmoolh, to Huit hi4 fan(;y or the co;iditio/i of 
 tlie (dimate in wlncii lie liv< h. All white hojri arc yotcd for |)(jh- 
 HCHrting (jiii t diHpo-titi<»nH. 
 
 "The (Jutnberland, a middle-lin-d V<;rkHhire, Ijavr;, we think, at- 
 tained n(!ari r perfec tion than any «<thcr brer;d kn<<wn to uh. 'I'hcy 
 are not g(;neraily diHtribiiterl throughout the VVcMt, but wh(;n thor- 
 ough-bred HpecinienH liuve l)ccii iiitrodururl, they are In Id in gr(;jit 
 CHt<;um, an well for an ainmal for exhibition purpoHCH, an f(jr family 
 UH(!. Tliey are CHpecial favoritcH with pa<;kerH, who buy their 
 Htock on foot, for the reason that they yirld larger proj»ortionat<; 
 net wcigld-H tlian any rather hogH which grow large < riougli for tlieir 
 UHe. Tiny are iimall in bone, but large in lleHh, of the vf;ry bcHt 
 <|uality, everdy and jiroporlio/iatcly Hpread over the whole frame. 
 We have weighr;d and meaHurerl one of thin breerl rained in Di-ur- 
 born county, Indiana, that we think wortliy (^f Hpecial note, aH 
 poHHCHHing u Htn-ng combination of good (jualiticH typical f<f hor 
 anccHlorH. Hlie weighed in good HcmIi, but not really fat, 475 lbs.; 
 and at that weight meaHurefJ hIx feet from the root of the tail to 
 tiie to|) of the f(w:e betwi-en the earH, and the Hame nundxrr of feet 
 around the body. Hlie waH two feet ten ineln-H high, and Htoorl 
 only Mix inchcH from the ground; body nearly Htraivht behjw and 
 well arched above, Indicating grciit Htrcngti. in tlie lia*:k and loi/m; 
 legH that were leB.i than onelifth the depth of the body, and they 
 
72 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 very small, straight, and smooth, measuring below the knee but six 
 inches in circumfirenee. The surfaee of her body, jowl, and legs, 
 was smoolii, and tree from ridges and creases, and well covered 
 with a short, smooth coat of white hair. This, we think, might 
 be taken as a fair description of all thorough-bred animals of this 
 stock. It seems to be in this country, as it is saiil to be in England, 
 in almost every way a middle breed. We know of no breed of 
 hogs in this country but what might in some degree be improved 
 by crossing occasionally with the thorough-bred Yorkshire, which 
 has been bred pure in this country since 1860. We have seen whole 
 neighborhoods and districts where the swine were nearly all lop- 
 eared, rough-skinned, black, sandy, and spotted white or blue, 
 where, in a few years, by introducing a few of these pure blooded 
 white hogs, the general stock was nuxde white, given erect eara, 
 and skin made smooth. Such a result cannot be attained by Chea- 
 ter Whites alone, but it can be accomplished by the thorough-bred 
 Yorkshire. They are so thorough-bred and positive that they carry 
 their own color when crossed with almost any other breed, even if 
 it is entirely black. Hence it is diflicult to tind a breed of swine 
 in this age of their improvement, in Avhich the white York- 
 shire does not crop out in some particular. And again, the pure 
 white Yorkshire and the black Essex, or Neapolitan, may be bred 
 together in such a way as to duplicate the color of any other breed 
 of hogs to be found among us. And hence we claim the white 
 Yorkshire, as now established in this country and England, is the 
 most thorough-bred hog known. The Yorkshires are the most valu- 
 able swine to breed from or to cross with that we have ever met 
 with in this countrj- ; and for these reasons: 1. They are of a size, 
 shape, and flesh, th t are desirable for the family or the packer's 
 use. 2. They have a hardy, vigorous constitution, and a good coat 
 of hair protecting the skin so well, either in extreme cold or hot 
 weather, that it rarely freezes or blisters. 3. They are very quiet, 
 and good graziers ; they feed well and ftitteii quickly at any age. 
 4. Tliey are A-ery prolitic and good mothers, and the young never 
 vary in color, and so little in shape that their form, when matured, 
 may be determined in advance by an inspection of the sire and 
 dam. This we have learned by a practical experience of many 
 years in breeding, slaughtering, packing, and consuming. 
 
 " ' The Yorkshire medium or middle breed,' in the words of Mr. 
 Sydney, ' is a modern invention of Yorkshire pig-breeders, and 
 perhaps the most useful and the most popular of the white breeds, 
 as it unites, in a striking degree, the good qualities of the large 
 and the small. It has been produced by a cross of the large and 
 
CHESniKE, OB JEPFEBBON CO. flWIVE. 78 
 
 the Bmall York and tJi«! Cur;ibf;rland, \Tliif:li in lar/^f;r tliun tJio small 
 York. Like th<; lurii/t wfiilf;H, tli<;y oft<;n liav<; a few pal<;-hlij<; Kpots 
 on the Hkifi, lh<; Jiair on 1h<;w; hjioIs being wliite. All whifi; breed* 
 have tliew; H\)<)iH more or Ichh. and they often increaHC in number 
 aw tlj«i unimalu grow older. * ♦ * * 
 
 "The middle YorkHbire breed are about the Bame smt uh tlie 
 BerkHbire breed, but have Binaller lieadB, and are niuf;h lighter 
 in the bone. They are better breederw than the Hniall whites, but 
 not Ko good aw the large wliit<^H; in fa'rt, they occupy a jiOKition in 
 every«reHpeet between tbe two breedH. Hence their nize can be 
 Increawd or diminiwhed without croHneH with any other breed or 
 (jolor." 
 
 CIIKSIIIUE, OH JKKFHUBOX COUNTY SWINE OF NEW YOKK. 
 
 1'lie following was adopted by the Swine BreederH* 
 Convention, of 1872, as the report upon this breed : 
 
 " Tliewj hogB originaU.d in .Jefrcrnon county. New York, and It 
 Ib claimed by Home of the bncderh that they started from a pair 
 of pigH bought of Mr. Woollord, of Albany, iS'ew York, which 
 were calhd (.'lnishireH, However that may be, there in no such 
 diHlinct breed of ho"s known qb ClKBhinB, in Kngbmd, and there 
 Is no record of any bogH of tliis name having been Imported int^> 
 thiH country. 
 
 " VorliKliinB liuse been linjiorted Into .lefFerKon county from 
 time to time, and llie Ro-called CheHhIreB have been improved by 
 croKHing with their bfBt hogs bought in Canada. Mr. A. (/'. Clark, 
 of IfcnderKon, wa», for a number of yean*, a prominent breeder of 
 these p;gH, and he informeil ub tbat whenever he found a (fig bet- 
 ter tlian thoHe ho owned, he purchased it and crosned it uprm his 
 own Htrjck. In tliis way tliiH family of hogs have been produced, 
 and tljey are now known and bred in many portions of tbe United 
 Slates. Tiieir breeding in JefTerB'Mi county ha« dimiuiMhed during 
 tbe lust two or three yet.rs. 
 
 "They are pure white, with a very thin skin of pink cfdor, with 
 little hair; are not uniform in this respect, as pigs in tbe same litr 
 t^;r differ widely in the amount of hair; the snout is ofU;n long, 
 hut very t-lender and fine; tbe jowIb are plump and the ears erect, 
 •fine and thin ; the shoulders are wide, ami the hamH full; the 
 flesh of these hogs is fine-grained, and they are commended on 
 account of the extra amount of mess pork in proportion to the 
 amount o( oflal ; the tails of tbe pigB frequently dro-; off when 
 foung.'* 
 
 4 
 
«4' SWINK UUSUANDKV. 
 
 Uiulor dato of April 11th, 1870, Col. F. P. Curtis 
 (who mtulo the forogoing roiuirt) writes tho nuthor : 
 *' There is nothing to add to the report. I do not know 
 of but one breeder of these pigs in Jefferson county, 
 N. v.. at the present time, who makes their breeiling a 
 speeialty. There was never a eouneeteil effort to make 
 tiuMu uniform, and thus establish a breed, ami it was 
 ((uite I'onuuon. in our State, to I'all any eross of York- 
 shires or SutTolks by the naiuo oi' (.'heshires. 
 
 *' Mr, (Mark, as long as he bred, bred to a standard, antl 
 I think Mr. (ireen. who is the leading breeder now. is 
 trying to do the same thing." 
 
 Several breeders of tine stoek. in Kentui'ky. and some 
 of the Western States, have hogs that aiv ealled Cheshires, 
 but we are doubtful of their being breil the same as the 
 swine kni»wn by that name in New York, ami the more 
 Eastern States. 
 
 Knowing Mr. ,1. 11. Sandeis of (Miii-ago, a well-known 
 writer on live stork, had bred " ("heshires" somewhat 
 extensively, and with sueeess. in Iowa, we applied \o him 
 for some authentie information respeeting tlu'm. 
 
 lie replies : '* In my opinion, the Cheshire is simply a 
 derivative of the Yorkshire, as are also the SulVolk. Lan- 
 cashire Short-faee, Middle York. York-C^miberland, and 
 all the other Kuglish breeds of white hogs. I bred the 
 so-called Cheshires for six or seven years, and took a deep 
 intei-est in noticing the variations and changes that were 
 ])rodui'ed in that time by selection, in-breeiling, and cross- 
 ing. AVithin the space of seven years, without ijitro- 
 ducing any blood but what was supposed to be jmre. I 
 produced, all the ditVerent types of the Yorkshire, from 
 the large York, down to the Lancashire Short-fai'e. 
 
 The white color was tirmly fixed, and I never knew 
 one of my Cheshire boars to get a })ig that had a black 
 hair on it, although they wei^o bred to sows of all breeds, 
 including the purest Essex. Another peculitu"itj that I 
 
VinOKIAH. 75 
 
 watchful witli iniereHl:, wuh the froquont appf^aranrje oi 
 1)1 IK; Hpol,H in t}i(; Hkiri of the [)un!Ht and }><;Kt hro'J Hjjeci- 
 TiiCMH. This peculiarity would HometirneH disappftar for 
 orif;or twogcncrationH, and would again crop out Htronger 
 than over. 
 
 ''The type wliidi I finally succeeded in fixing upon the 
 ChesliircH, aw bred by me, waH alrnont identical, in Hize, 
 form, and (juality, with the mont a[)prove(] medium Berk- 
 Khir(!.* In(iee<i, ko marked was thin reHemblance- in ev(;ry- 
 thing but color, that they were often facetiouMly called 
 ' White BerkHhireH.' 
 
 "Ah bred )jy me, I regarded tliem uh -imong the ver' 
 l»f':-;t of white hogs. 
 
 "They vntra 'well haired., had a very delicate pink Hkin, 
 aiMJ their meat was most excellent, tender, and juicy. ^' 
 
 vino III AH. 
 
 Mr. Charles E. Ijeland, of Albany, New York, Hub- 
 mitted the following report at the Convention : 
 
 "The family of pij<H known oh Vict^mas unv^tmU'A with Col 
 Frank D. (JurtiH, Kiihy IIotii<'Ht<;;i(], (^harlton, Santt'>tra county, 
 New York. Tlxy wen? ni;nl<; l<y rnwHJng th«; Byfield hoj.;H with 
 tlu! native, in whieJi th«!re waH a, Htrain of th<; (Jrazicr. Sutjw;- 
 qij.-nt «-roHH<;H were made with tlie YorkHJiin; and .Suffolk ; the 
 renult }x;ing a purely white lifjj.^, of medium Hiw. The name 
 \inn no sij^jiheancc, unleHH it \h intended aH a compliment to the 
 KngliHli C^ueen. Thew; pij-^H, if pure bn-d, nliould have a direct 
 d(;-«;ent from a now called (Jueen Victoria, whi<;h may 1j<j Haid 
 to he the mr;ther of the family. Hh«i wjw pronounced, hy ^ood 
 i.idt^f'H, to he almoHt perfect, and waH th<; winner of a numljei 
 »f first [;rizeH. Breederw in the E;iHtern St<'it«;H have lon)< felt 
 tin- neeil of a medium-Hized white hog, with all the good ix>iutH 
 of ihe KiighHh hreedn, without their olijectionaVjle featureH — a 
 breed whi(;h would mature early, and he covered with a gf>od 
 coat of hair to protect it from the c-oirl in winter and the heat 
 in Hummer. Col. Curtin Ix^gan hre<;ding nearly twenty years 
 ago to try and meet thin want. At the fair of the New York 
 Htate Agricultural S^jciety, which wan held at Eimira, he exhih>- 
 iU3(i a HOW, Princess Alice, and bIx pigH, which was the flrbi 
 
7({ SWINK UrSUANIMiY. 
 
 tinit> iho Vit'toH.'is h!iv«> 1u>im» pn>s«>M(<>il i\t a S(;«<(> fuir for a«v<m- 
 ]><<(i(ion \vi(l» oduT swino. Tlio lirst pri/.o was u\viUil«Hl to tl»o 
 pin;«i iviul tho socotul to tlu> sow. 
 ••(Ml.VKAOrKUlSTU'S ANO MAKKINOS OK TIIK VUTOIUAS. 
 
 "Tho color is whito. with a ji'ooil coat of tiiio soft hair; 
 tho hoaii thin. Ihio, and oh>solv stM on tho shouhiors; (ho 
 fai'o sliii'htly ilishiiiu ; l\\o snout sh*»i(. ; tho oars vwri, 
 small, and vim'V Ui^ht or thin; tho shouhUM's hulyins^ and 
 doo(>; logs short an»l tlno ; tho hack hroaii. slraij;ht. and 
 h>\«*l. an»l tho hodv loni^'; tho lianis round aad swcllinn', 
 and hiii'li at. the hastM>t' (ho tail, with [tlads or folds ho- 
 twoi'u tlu' thiijhs ; tho (ail liiu'. and froi> from wrinkhvs 
 or rolls ; (\>at luM's lu* rosiMlos on (hi* haok uiv common ; 
 (ho skill is (hin. sof(. and clastic ; the th>sh (Ino-iiraiiiod 
 and lirm. with sniall hon»> and thick sid»>pork. 'Tin* 
 pigs easily k(H'|> in lutndition. and can lu> nnnio ready fiu- 
 slauuhtt'r al ai\v aii»\"' 
 
 Sinct* (ho fort\!;'oinu" was (irs( priidcd a giMdhMuan in 
 Laporto c«>unty. liuiiana. has niad(> considcrahio progress 
 in "inviMiting" and dissomii\atinu a family of swiiu> which 
 \w has also nanunl "N'ictorias"; hut they ar«> in i>V(>ry way 
 distinct fr«>m those origimi'od hy (\>1. furlis. They an> 
 moiruim-si/.od white swiiKM>f plain appt>arai\co. and in tho 
 hands of tho (U'iginator hay** hoon tpiittvsuceossful al fairs 
 and fat-stock shows. 'INiohtain them ho says ho hred lo- 
 ;ri>ther llorkshiros atul Poland-Chinas, also Chester Whites 
 atid SutTolks. and tluM\ matted tho otTspringof thost' nuxt- 
 nn\>*. whioh "has product>d tin* nuxK^l hog. guarai\ti-od to 
 ivproduco itself white ovimt time"! 
 
 N I'ACOl 1 rANS. 
 
 Wo have noyor seen a spoeimon of this brotul, and juv 
 of tho opinion that noni* of tluMu art* hnnl. at present, in 
 this ooun! ry. ni\Uvss in th»' vioinily of Now Y(»rk. Their 
 ndmi((t>il inlhuMU'o in tho improyouuMit *)f English hreods. 
 espooially (he i'lssox, in (he hands of \,o\\\ Wesd'rn and 
 Mr. Fisher llobbs, of Kssex. Kt\gland. make (hem o{ 
 interest io fanciers of highly rotinoil pigs. 
 
7)t/7 
 
 KKAfOIJTANH. 77 
 
 ('<)\<ii)<;\ M. C'. WoM, of N<!W York, Knfjrnif.Ujfl U» tti« 
 SvvHif; Hn;(!fl';rH' Con v^jn lion jj. lo/i^thy rriport/ on Ncupoli- 
 iunH, from whir;fi wc I'ijirn Uiufc Ui<! fMjMf, Hp(jf;irnonH irri- 
 porUi'l iriif) l.liiH rionrilry ciiini; from n(!ar NupJfiH, ItjiJy, 
 ;iM(l t,li,'i(, l,li(ur rrurlicHt, inl,ro<liM;l,iori whm \iy Hon. .JumoH 
 fi. King, of WcAihawk^'tt, N. .1., in uhout 1840-41, 
 
 Homo of ihcHf! Wfiro piiro block, oUxjrH Hlato-color, Homn 
 n,Hfi-(;olor(!(l, f)r a <)irty-vvliit,o, urul (;Un!rH more or IrjHH 
 Kf)ol,l.«!H. Ahoiil, 1H*>0, VVm, ('lium^iorluin, of Ii(!fl lfor>k, 
 N. Y,, imporUid Homo from Sorronto, Italy. Tlioho anrj 
 Horrif! of ihciir progony woro uniformly of n (Jurk-Hlafxj 
 oolor. Otimr fcirfioH, who IkuI i.v;yv<',](:(\ in Ft,;i,ly, ;uifj f)or;n 
 muoli f»l(!arf(!(l wifli Ux; pork of \ii\>\i;h iuid t,li<; Hnrronn<l- 
 inj( country, c'liiHfirl Km nil hIocMh of. thoHC pigH to \)i; im- 
 [ior(,ofl for Uioir owr> mho,; bul, few, if any of tfiom, woro 
 olTorod for kuIo for hroofJing [)in(>oHOH. 
 
 It JH hcli(!V(!() by Kom(!, who know Uiom woll, (txpooially 
 in Kngliinfj, thai thin hroo,(J haH lui/1 an (!xiHt(!noo in iho 
 oountry about Naplow for hnriflrodH of y^iarH. Hi^noy^ 
 Yonatt ou tli(; \'\'^ Hayn: " If, in |»robablo tho Nr!;i.f)olit,anH 
 aro doHOondantH of tho dark Ka.HUjrn Hwino imported by 
 early Italian voyaj^ofH, anrl cuJtivaf/cd to porfoction by 
 thr; favoraf»lo olima(,<! ari<l wolo,r>mo food "; alwo that they 
 aro "bl;u;k, or rathor brown, with no brintloH, arifj oon- 
 KOfjnontly dolioatc wlir;n JirKt introdiu;o,f| into fjiir norl.li- 
 orn olimato." 
 
 Af>out 1855, \)r. I'liillif)',, of MrsmphiH, 'IVifinoKHOo, ob- 
 tained Hf)m<! pigH, bnid from tho ('hamborlain imftorta- 
 \'\ot)H. IIo found thorn irtorc KatiHf}w;tory than any of tho 
 riumoroiiH brocdw ho had triod, OHpooially for UHing aH a 
 oroHH. In a lottor tr) C'ol. VVohl, ho Htatf;H that "tho only 
 objection to tlio breed in tfiat tho pigH an; doiioato, up to 
 'our or nix rfioniliH of m^a — afU^r that they oan live with 
 he eorrirnon hof.'. " 
 
 Col. Weld ban, owned them importefl rJirer;t from Italy, 
 and thinks the fa<;t tliat thcHC pigH arc alrnoat hairlcHS, 
 
78 SAVINK lirSRAXOKT. 
 
 has caiisccl their ro|Milatioii for dolioacv, and that, troato;! 
 as a liigh-broil rai'o should bo, thov arc not dolicato, but 
 quite the contrarv. thouuli ho wouUi not have thoiu far- 
 rowod in winter, or m tooohiso continoTnont. Thoir pork 
 is dosoribod by A. H. Alton as lioing liko " y^^mii^". tondor, 
 fat ohiokon." 'Phoy arc olassod witli tlio sinall broods. 
 The Convention adopted the following as the 
 
 '*CHARAOTEUlSTirS ANP MARKINGS OFTIIE NEAPOLITANS 
 
 "Head small; forehead bony and tlat : faoo slightly 
 dishing : snout rather long and very slomler ; ears small, 
 thin, standing forward nearly hori/(^ntally, and quite 
 lively; jowls very full; noi'k slu)rt, broa<l, and hoavv 
 above ; trunk long, oylindrioal. and well-ribbed baok ; 
 baok tlat, and ribs arohing, oven in low tlesh ; belly hori- 
 zontal on the lower lino ; hindquarters higher than the 
 fore, bnt not very muoh so ; logs very fine, the bones and 
 joints being smaller than those of any other breed ; hams 
 and shoulders well developed and meaty; tail tine, eurled, 
 flat at the extremity, and fringed with hair on eaoh side ; 
 general eolor slaty, or hluish-plnm eolor, with a oast of 
 coppery-red ; skin soft and tine, nearly free from hair. 
 which, when found upon the sides of the head and behind 
 the forelegs, is blaok, and soft, and rather long ; flesh 
 firm aTid elastic to the touch." 
 
 JKRSFA' REDS. 
 
 The following is from the Kojiort of the Convention : 
 "Tlie positive orijxin of tins family of Swino is xinknown. 
 They have boon brod in portions of the St.ato of Now Jersey, 
 for iipwants of tifty years, and with ninny farnioi-s aro con- 
 sidered to bo a valiial>K> varioty. Tlu\v aro of larijo size aTid 
 :?apablo of niakiTifj a hoavv growth, tivo hiindriHl and six Inm- 
 drod pounds woijiht boin?:: ot>innion. Mr. David Pottitt, of 
 Saloni county, N. ,).. has known of tlioso hogs for tlnrty yt>ars, 
 aJid Mr. D. M. Brown, of Wintlsor. for noarly tifty yoai-s. Thoy 
 aro n-'w «>xt<>nsivoIy bro(t in tho middle and soutborn pi>rliv>ns 
 of I'Jow Jei-soy. In some neighborhoods tlioy avo brod nuito 
 
DLROCB. -^^_ ^ 79 
 
 O"' y ' 
 
 uniform, bfinpf of a rlark-rofl colf)r, whilo in othor Roctionn they 
 arc iii')r(! sandy, and iAU'.n itatch«;d with whiU;. Th»^y arf, prob- 
 uhiy <lfHo<'ti<lantK frftrn tho old irn[)ortationH of IJcrkHhiroH, aw 
 there iH rif) ntc.ord of thcsjjjjjjuwortji,,. th(; n-d ho^H f)f Kn;^iand, 
 ever haviri;^ been brrjiif^ht into thiH eountry ; nor is this like!}', 
 aH \\w. Taniwortli were; not ronHidenid a valuable breed, and 
 wen? confined to a limited breeding. The Reds rewsmble the 
 old IV-rkHhircK in many reH|K^etH, but are now much r^y^xwr 
 Ihan the im[)rove(J Hwine of thiH breed. 
 
 "(;yAKAfTKiciSTir;H. — A gofKl Hpecimen of .lerHcy Iterj nhould 
 be red in color, with a nnout of inoflerati- lenj^lh, larj^e Ifip-f-arp., 
 Htnal! head in proportion to the size and len^tli f)f tJie body; 
 they Hhf)uld b<; long in Wv itody, Htanding hif^h and rangy on 
 thin legH ; Fnine f;oarHe, ; heavy tail anrl brush ; liair <v)arHe, in- 
 cluding the britttlert on thf! back. Thf!y are valuable on a<^;count 
 of their Hize and strong constitution and capacity for growth. 
 They are not subject to mange." 
 
 DUROCS. 
 
 These hogs have only it locjil reputation, and of them 
 VaA. F. D. Curtis reported to the Convention as follows : 
 
 *' There is another family of heavy hogs called Duroc, which 
 are bred in Saratoga county, New York, whif;h are finer in the 
 bone and carcass tlian the Reds. Tliey have been bred, with 
 their crosses, in this region of <x)untry, for about twenty years. 
 Tliey are very hardy, and grow to a large size." 
 
 Early in 1883 a number of breederH of Ho-ealled ''red 
 hog«" met at Elk Horn, Wiw., and formed an organiza- 
 tion to be known a.s the Duroe or Jersey Red Swine 
 (Jlub, with a view to advance the improvement of the 
 breed, and CHtabliHhing a registry of pedigrees. The 
 standard agnied upon by the Club is as follows : 
 
 "The tnie Duroc or .Jersey Red should be long, quite deep- 
 bodied, not round, but nrojwl on tlie })af;k, and liolding the 
 width wffll out to the hips and hams. Tlie Jieaxl should be 
 small, r;om|)ar«!d with ti.e body, with the <:li<;ek Ijroaxl and full, 
 with considerabl'- bn!;wlth between the c^yes. The ne,f;k sliould 
 be short and thieU, an<l the face slightly curved, with the nowi 
 rather lonj^er than in the Knglish breeds; thi; ears ratlHjr largo 
 and lo^>r)ed over the eyes and not er«(;t. Ik>ne not fine, nor yet 
 
FO swim; III sn.vNDKV. 
 
 iHwr>«t\ but motliiim. Tho loji-s modiuiu in siTio !Vt\ii KM\>j(h. but 
 not woll »ii\(l«M- tin' Innly ami woll apart, and n«>t rut up hi>:h in 
 tho tlank or aUno tl>o knoo. 'riu> liams should Ih> lnoad and 
 full Will down to tho hivk. Thoiv shi>uld Ih' a goo«l I'oat of 
 hair of niodiiun tinv>Moss, inolinin^; to bristlos at tho tt>p i>f ti\o 
 shouldoi-s ; tho tail boin^ hairv aiui tiot small ; tho hair tisuallv 
 stnvight. but in sv>Tno oasos a littlo wavv. Tho oi>lor sinnild lu' 
 nnl, varyinij fi\>ni dark, >jKissy, ohoriy nnl, and I'von bnnvnish 
 hair, to li^u:ht yellowish nnl. with oooasionally a sn»all tlook of 
 black on tho Ivlly aud lo>;-s. Tho dark»M- shailos o( iwi aiv pn^- 
 fonini by luixst l>i\HHioi's, auii this tyiv of oi>lor is tho ini>st do- 
 siniblo. In ilisiH>sitiou thoy aiv itMuarkably iniUi and y^'tdlo. 
 Whon full jjrowu thoy should dross frv>n\ four luuidtvd io tivo 
 hnndnnl pounds, and piji-s at uino months old shoidd dross from 
 two hvuidrod and lifty to thivo hiuidivd pouuils." 
 
 U A r T K R IX. 
 
 Tin: Ui:i..VTlVK MKKITS OV THE SUFFOLK, ESSEX, 
 ANP HKUKSIURE. 
 
 m K. W. OOITRKIX. 
 
 "The quostion is vory vMton nskod nio by persons who aro 
 doslrt>us of proourinjr soino t>no of tho improvod bivods of swlno. 
 whioh of tlioso throo standaixi bnvds do 1 oonsidor host for tlio 
 farmor, and it is a quostion whioh I tind ditMoult to dooido, ovon 
 now, aftor quito an oxtonsivo oxporionoo of noarly six years with 
 tho throo bivods sido by sido. I oonsidor. howovi>r. that thoro is 
 so littlo actual ditVoronoo in tho rosult, that fanoy iuii>:ht iruido tho 
 ohoioo without sorious dotrimont to ono's jiidsiiuont. Each, boinii 
 a distinct and original bivod, nuist havo its own peculiarities and 
 distinctive qualities, and tho question to decide is. which of those 
 qualities are nu>st desirable, and which o{ the biwds posi«ess and 
 oon\bine the most of then\ ? 
 
 " Fancy must decide the question of beauty and appeanuu'O, 
 and one person's judcnunt in that respoit is as -rood as another's, 
 Assooiation with either fi^r any lenjjth of tiuuMvill jienendly occa- 
 sion pn\iudico in its favor, and either breed possesses suttleient 
 beaut V to secure them hosts of admirers ; and while I admire aliko 
 
HKLATIVK MKJMT. 81 
 
 pcrff'-r.t HpftfirnnnH of f!if,h«;r hri:i;(l, I \>i;\U:v<; Uml Dio. Improved 
 BcrkHliin; (JiMpliiya a riion; rri?j.|«;Hll'; Ht,yl«; and ;^raf;<;fiil ii]i\)i:iiniiicji 
 than any oilier of t,li»! Hvvinr- n\n;(:\i;n ; ttinn; hciuih to bf; a HliiU-Ay 
 \}<:iinug Jiri'i royal inif;n, that I cannot lif:lp hut aflrnir*; an thf;y 
 move ahoijt \ln; jircmiHCH, an(J th«; f;ont,raht of th<; <;x;u;t markinga 
 ijp'Hi their heautif'iil hhw;k «;ol'»r a'l'Jn another feature of beauty. 
 
 "In rep;apl to the more ehHential qucHtion, however, of relative 
 quality and profit, I will Hay that there are Heveral thingn which 
 muHt he taken Into conHideration, and one muht cAtottHf, thoHe 
 whieh (lomhine the greatCHt nnmber of deHirahIr; rpjalitieH for liiH 
 piirjifwe; that Ih, tiie obje«;t In viewHhonld decide the qucrttion. If 
 the object i;i to prodncr: a Hujierior rpjality of (Ielif;iouH and whohj- 
 Bomc pork, beaiitifully mixed with jean and fat, that in U;mpting 
 and enjoyable fror/i almoHt any part of the anii/ial, I can Hafely 
 rf;cornme;id the HerkHhire. 'I'hey are also jirobabiy the, moi-.l hardy 
 of all the imfifoved Hwine Hj)ec,ieH; alwayH hr;alt)iy and thrifty, and 
 generally dr)cile and (juiet in their naturcH, bcHidcH being very pro- 
 lific, [icrhapH mon; ho than any other of the improved breeds. The 
 80WH an; invariably good milkerH, and good rnotherH, one of Km 
 HUfx;cHHfu!Iy rearing from eight to twelve plg». 
 
 "The Improved aJHo mature quite early, and at eight or nine 
 montliH will give from two hundred to two hundred and fifty 
 pounds of i)ork, and in many caw.H much more, with extra care. At 
 eighteen months they will riin from three hundred and fifty Ut four 
 hundred and fifty iionnds of j/ork eacli. We have had them weigh, 
 at two yriars, seven hundred and eighty pounds, and not at all coarse 
 or overgrown in style either. They are g(;neraliy very uniff>rm in 
 ev»;ry respect, though there are some families tliat attain a little 
 more size than others. They are not ravenous like the common 
 hog, but are good frrriders, anfj what they eat seerns f/) do them 
 good all over; and, in fa^it, without diw;uHHing the subject further, 
 they can be briefly summed up as a hardy, prolific, domf^stic, and 
 reasonably eaHy-keeping animal, and one that can be H«!nt to mar- 
 ket at almost any age. with prffflt to the pnHluf:er, and satisfaction 
 to the consumer. Consequently, in my judgment, one who is un- 
 decided in his choice cannot go far astray in He!ef;ting the Jierk- 
 Bhires. 
 
 " In summing up the desirable qualities which the Huffolks pos- 
 B»!Bs, however, we find therri ri'il'ss valualjle, and perhaps evr;n more 
 profitable, for some jiurposes, than those of any other breed, unlr«« 
 we excei)t the Essex. They are without fjuestion the earliest to 
 mature, take on fat more readily, and produce more net pork witk 
 
83 BwiNK msuANnuv. 
 
 tho s.nmo nmount of food than nny othor of Iho hou, kind. Thoso 
 iiiv oortiiin t;\i'ls, and vorv iJosirahlo oiios wlion oorn is \v»>rth oic,hty 
 oonis por bushol. Two pounds onoli por day Is no unooniu\on 
 !>vorai;o jiaiit through tho fot'diny: soason. ai\d I liavo known an 
 iniioaso t>l" lliroo and oni> lialf pounds pi r (lay for six \vo«ks, or i\ 
 total of ono hundrod and l\>rly sovon pounds for ono pii;- in six 
 wooks tliuo. 
 
 " And this proponsily for fattoninsi' ovists from tho linvo thoy aro 
 «uoklin,gs; thoy *'i>i» '"' fatloil as woll at six or olght months na at 
 any i>thor ajix^ ; and this is a vory doslrahlo foaturo, for spring; pii;s 
 oan bo sont. to thomarkot woighinu; two hundrod and tifty jiouiuls 
 without i\\\u\\ oxtra oxortioii, and tho piMk, riijhtly handlod, will 
 <i/»r«ij[/.< hriuii' a half-cU>llar, and porhaps jnoro, \wr hundrod than 
 will tho iiMuinonor kii\ils; and in roality it is wortli niuoh nioro to 
 tho otuisun\or (ron\ tho (iw[ of its »puility. Tho head and fool aro 
 ahuost ntMuinal appontlanos, w iiilo tho hiMios o( tho oaroass aro so 
 lino and small that tl»oy oauso but litllo loss. 
 
 " The objootion Is often raised that thoy are apt to bo too fat f«>r 
 use, eto. Of oourso this Is only from persons of siiportloial iiloas. 
 It might as well bo said that sugar is too sweet, or vinegar too 
 sour, ospooially when lard is oightoon oonts por pound, and sparo- 
 rlbs and other Irinunings worth only fmir or the oonts por pound. 
 It is tlie fat that alVords tho greatest | rotit. ami protit b(>iiig tho 
 objoot, tho anin\al whioh will produoo tl»(> most fat. with tho least 
 oxpense. is the on>> for tho purpose; and this animal is iimpiestion- 
 ably the SufVolk, for thoy do oortainly oxool in this peovdiarily, 
 partiovdarly at an early ago. Notwithstamling tho above faots. it 
 should not. bo inferred that tho pork is inferior as a meat for tlio 
 table. Tho animal may have a surplus »>f fat, but tho th>shy parts 
 alVord asdelioato and wholesome table nioat as oan be fouml among 
 tho hog kind, antl oortainly us doliohMts. The trin\n\ings froni a 
 ilrt>ssed SutVidk will average but about ten per oont. while those 
 fn>u\ tho long-logged, long nosed, thiok-skinned. ooai-so-bonod kind, 
 often make twenty per oont. The oimolusions obtained from the 
 above faots aro obvious without farther oommont, and I will now 
 make reforiMioo to some of the (>thor desirable foatuiTS whioh tho 
 SutVolk possesses, a spoeial ono lu>ing their di)oilo, «pnot disposition. 
 Thoy aro not inilinoil to stray if running loose, nor will thoy root 
 up pastures ami meadows if turned in uptui them, even if iu>t pro- 
 viiied with rings ; and they are soldou\ known to squeal or olan\or, 
 If half o:u\'d for. It is owing to this tpiiot. ilomestio nature that 
 they glow anil fatten so rapidly and ooiMionuoally. Thoy ^dso 
 
I'.KI.AMVK MKICIT. 88 
 
 Imvf a irnn<] foriHfJliiUoti, arul tire InvarluMy ficalihy with nn, when 
 pliHf, III*! Utridcr :v/r ; .'iIko aH liar'ly an atiy. A;, tuif'jn: Htatr.fJ, f,(ir;y 
 an; nut ravmoiiH, Uioii^^li ji^ood f(!(;i|«!rH, wiili a Hliarj) ap|i<til«; for 
 what they nMiiiirc When fed willi regnhirify, flirty will he on 
 hfitri at the iiHoal time with aliii'ml exae,t fironiptti<!HH, and enter 
 into the l)ijHitienH of fe,<;dln>: wilh vi^or, uft<:r wliieh they will retiro 
 U) their hedH a»id attend wholly to hiihlncHH, which, for them, \h to 
 grow and frilten. 
 
 " The Khm:x tin: Ho very HJtnilar t/) the fiiiffolk, in rieariy every 
 TCHfimi except eolor, that the alnive drwiription of rpialitieH can ho 
 applied to them ; pe^ll!lp;^ tliey do not maturr; quite ho early aH tho 
 fornn:r, hut they attain ne.irly as much wr;i^dit, anrl fatt^in 'r;uiteaH 
 caHy, iiavint? tli«; name (piici, dinpoHition and nature. Their Hkin. 
 frotn itH color, allordH them one iwlvanla;?e river the Hutlolkn; that 
 Ih, when the \>ii/h of the latter are ve,ry youn^, if expowjd to a 
 burning Hiin, they are vf.ry llahle, to w;ald or hliHt^ii upfm Uie h(w;k, 
 while t,hiH Ih never the eane with the JOhh«;x. Here let me Hay that 
 when Hufhdk pif^H are farrowed during the Humm<;r; or f:arly fail, 
 wiien tli«; Hun Ih Htronj/, they Hhould he prot^;eted from itji Hcaldiiig 
 rayH until five or hIx we«!kH of aj^e. The Ehhcx have aH many gO'K} 
 quuliticH an any other hrced, and dewirvedly have a threat many 
 fricndH. In fa<;t, a perHon cannot )^o fcir aHtray in H«;lectinj^ either 
 of the three ahove hreedn, and I am Hiire, in: will he HatiHfied with 
 whichever kind IiIh fancy may lea<l liim U> choo»<; after givin/{ 
 them a fair trial." 
 
 In writin;.^ of niirnfirous oxporirrifrniH rria'io hy Jiirri, in 
 crosHJng thorou;:;ii-hrcd Hvvine, Mr. (/'(jU.rcll hk-jh: 
 
 '* There Ih no quf!«tion hut the proper eroHMiri'', ot tllorou'.^l nrffilfl 
 for a H«;aHO i will jiroduee rapid and f»ro(itah)e pork-makerH, hut 
 there Hcemd to he Home diflerencf! of opinion, and a grea lack ot 
 Information in general, among farmerH and hreederH, aH to tho 
 croHWiH that produce the hr:Ht lenultK. 
 
 "The very hcHt reHultn we have evr ohtained trom any croHH ot 
 thorough-hredH, waH that of the Huflolk upon the Khhcx. Ono 
 cam;, which whh almoHt u marvel, I will give for example. V. id 
 that of a litter whif.h wan farrowed the JOth day of Marf;h, and 
 fed from the following Int of Octoher lintil the 24th of Decemher, 
 which made them nine montliH and right rlayn old when killed. 
 Tin; weir.dit rif thr; largrHt ini<: wuh 402, anrl not on«: of thern 
 weighed Ichh than .'500, The pigs run iq»on thr? farm, heing k<.|)t in 
 a growing anrl thriving conrlition until Oritoher, when we tfjrih 
 tluini up and frjrccd them along, an the rcHult ahowM. 
 
84 SWINK HUSBANDRY. 
 
 "This marked improvement upon either bleeds in the first erosa 
 is probably the result of unitius; their excellent oharaeterislies, 
 which seem to be more fully develo|H'd, and stronij,er, than ii> 
 cither oriiiinal. It is a faet, at least, that the feeding and maturinf» 
 qualities are nu)iv or less improved in the cross. Neither is the 
 style or beauty lost in the cross, tor the synunetry and proportion 
 are still retained. The color is i^enerally lilaek and white; some- 
 times one pijr will be either ail black or all white, but usuaily tliey 
 are sheeted — that is, each spread in large patches, and very distinct;. 
 (t IS very seldom that we see a 'speckled' piij anioni; thoroii;;li 
 Dred crosses; there is generallj' a foreign mixture wiien they oc 
 rur. One peculiar feature with the color ot this cross is, that»inva- 
 riabiy the black is in excess upon the hind part ot tiie animal, 
 while the white will predominate upon its lore parts, i have seen 
 them one-half pure black and the other hali pure wiiite, with tho 
 dividing line where the colors meet forming a circle around tha 
 body at tho middle. The peculiar marking makes quite an attrao 
 live contrast. 
 
 " We also found that the BorKshire and tissex make an excellent 
 cross for feeding purposes. As a principle, 1 do not consider it 
 advisable ti> cross ihe improved Berkshire witli any otiier, on their 
 own account, but prefer rather to keep tluit breed distinct and up to 
 the mark by occasionall)' renewing \vith a foreign blood c* ,tsown 
 kind. J?y foreign blood, 1 mean that ot a distant or unrelated tami 
 ly. They are a standard breed, very near perfection in themselvesj 
 possessing qualities that cannot be very much improved upon 
 without atfecting the combinavion that constitutes the BerkshirCj 
 and stnmps them with a charactev wholly their own, and which only 
 requires to be kept to the ideal of their style and pertection to sat* 
 isty the requirements ot almost every class, condition, and locality. 
 The true well bred Berkshire has the stamp of the thorough-brec?.. 
 and possesses the merits required for its purpose, and great pains 
 should be taken to perpetuate the purity of that blood. How 
 ever, when it is necessary or advisable to cross them, \\ should be 
 mi le with the Essex, whenevei practicable. The result of a sin« 
 gie cross w;ll always give satisfaction, the produce being such as 
 wil. reed quick and mature sooner than the pure bred Berk- 
 shire, and the pork is second to none that goes to market. The 
 general style and appearance of the animals will be similar, except 
 in the markings; some will be more or less sjHitted, some marked 
 like the Berkshire, some partially marked, and some nii black. 
 This cross, continued upon itself, will h>se its identity with eithei 
 breed, ami eventually will result in a lot of mongrels. 
 
RELATIVE MERIT. 85 
 
 "Upon the common kinds the Bfirkfihire will do much good, and 
 bring out a great iniproveuient, but is not equal to the Sntt'olk or 
 Essex in tliis respect. Of course, there are otlier breeds whicli will 
 improve the couimon liog, but 1 know of none to be compared to 
 tbe tiiree above mentioned, from tiie fact of their being jnire and 
 standard breeds, that liave come down in the same line tor genera- 
 tions, and established distinct qualities and ciiaracteristics that are 
 transmitted from one generation to another with as much exact- 
 ness and certainty as can be found in any class of the animal 
 kin(fe And tlie fact that they are capable of stamping upon their 
 progeny the desirabie points they possess, and reproduce tiiem- 
 Bclves, as it were, with almost a positive certainty, is what gives 
 them such great Talue as improvers of our stock. 
 
 *' I have said that 1 believe certain crosses of the thorough-breds 
 to be superior to either of the full bloods, ior feeding purposes. 
 The question may be asked, why not continue tbe breeding from 
 these crosses ? 
 
 " The fact is this, as 1 have before stated, after the first cross, 
 the identity of the breed is lost, and with it the power to transmit 
 Us particular type is correspondingly reduced, and by continuing 
 in the same iine we lose all trace of the original. By using a 
 thorough-bred upon the cross, of course, we produce equally as 
 good results each time. For teeding purposes, and by a continua- 
 tion of tliis practice, a superior class of pork-makers will always 
 be obtaincQ. 
 
 "Ana so, W one has a number of breeding sows of the common 
 sort, let him procure a tliorough-bred male, and I will guarantee 
 that the result of the first cross will pay all the cost. But brjcause 
 fc lot ot very good animals has been obtained from this course, do 
 not select your next male breeder trom them, or the good already 
 gained will be lost. But continue to use a thorough- bred male 
 upon the produce, and those that have not tried it before will 
 wonder at the .rapid improvement of their stock, and why they 
 have been so long behi;id the age of improvement and advance- 
 
JtAISma AND FATTENING 
 SWINE. 
 
THB BOAU. 68 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 THE BOAR— now TO CHOOSE, AND HOW TO KEEP 
 
 HIM. 
 
 To claim tliat hucccsh in 8wine-]>ree(ling depends upon 
 the proper Heleetion of a boar, might not be wliolly cor- 
 rect, but it is safe to say tliat many failures in the busi- 
 ness have been in a large degree due to mistakes made at 
 the beginning in the choice of breeding animals, especially 
 males. 
 
 However good the sows of a herd may be, the good 
 qualities of the stock quickly deteriorate if inferior boara 
 are used, while, on the other hand, the ofTHpring of infe- 
 rior BOWS can be rapidly improved in form and quality, 
 by using well bred boars. 
 
 It is no longer disjiuted by persons familiar witli tho 
 principles of improved breeding, that the male parent 
 mostly determines the outward form and structure, while 
 the female chiefly determines the internal structure of 
 the offspring, a somewhat striking illustration of which 
 is afforded in the breeding together of an ass and a mare, 
 the j)roduee of which ista mule, and the mule is essen- 
 tially, with slight modifications, an asu. A she ass bred 
 to a stallion, produces the hinny, which is essentially a 
 modified horse, the mule and the hinny each having tho 
 outward form, muscular structure, locomotive organs, 
 and voice of its sire. 
 
 Assuming that these premises are correct, it must bo 
 apparent to tho breeder and farmer, that the judicious 
 selection of a boar is of y)rime importance, and that suc- 
 cess is not assured in this branch of his business with- 
 out it. 
 
 Among the prominent cliaracteristics of the boar should 
 be a fine external form, which is the result of a superior 
 
90 SWINK HUSBANDRY. 
 
 iuternjil organism ; a short, broad face, with round heavy 
 under jaw, and thiok, short nock, indicate stronj; vitality 
 and a^siniilaLing powers, two functions re(|uisitc in every 
 tirst-eUiss, meat-producing animal ; width between the 
 fore legs, and large girth immediately behind them, do- 
 notes room for large and active lungs, the very foumla- 
 tion of any animal, liibs that are long and well sprung 
 outward from the back, show capacity of stomach. The 
 broad loin and well developed ham are signs of active 
 kidneys. A clean, fine, and elastic skin, covered with 
 soft, lively hair, free from bristles, denotes a healthy liver, 
 and freedom from internal fever. A fine muzzle and 
 limbs, clean, small joints, and standing square up on the 
 feet, denote solidity, strength, and tirnmess of the ani- 
 mal's framework ; while the dished, or concave face, and 
 slightly drooping ear, are unerring signs of an easy 
 keeper, and a quiet, contented disposition. 
 
 These are some of the features demanded in a good 
 boar, and such an animal in perfect condition will not be 
 sluggish and clumsy, but have a lively animated appear- 
 ance, and nuive about freely and nimbly, unless kept in 
 too close confinement on too much fattening food. 
 
 The herd, or family of hogs from which it is designed 
 to select a boar, should be closely scanned, and if the 
 animals show uniformity of breeding, good forms and 
 constitutions, with even feeding qualities, it is a safe one 
 to select breeders from : on the other hand, the weedy 
 herd, wherein no two animals are alike, should be given 
 a wide berth. 
 
 It is essential to choose a boar in some measure with 
 reference to the style of females it is desired to cross him 
 on, with a view to having deUeient points in the sows cor- 
 rected by the boar in the offspring. Should the sows be 
 light in the ham or shoulder, the boar should be especially 
 good there ; sows inclined to be razor-backed, should be 
 bred to a boar with broad back, and well sprung ribs. If 
 
THB BOAB. 91 
 
 the H0W8 are too coarse about the legs, neck, head, and 
 cur.4, attention hIiouM he paid to securing a hoar with 
 short neck, fine ear, dish face, fine bone, and heavy jowls. 
 If too ''light and airy," too far from the ground, too 
 active, too restless and uneasy, the opposite should be 
 prominent characteristics of the boar, lie should, in a 
 majority of cases, be selected from a family or strain that 
 is, and should himseli be, somewhat smaller and more 
 compac-l than animals upon which he is to be crossed, and 
 in the swine herd, as in all domestic stock, constitution 
 is of prime importance, and no animal without broad and 
 deep fore-quarters has it. 
 
 He should be pure, ot such breed as the owner may 
 deem best, for if not pure, he cannot be depended on to 
 stamp his own qualities on his offspring, as none hut 
 thorough-brods will invariably do so. The boar of mixed 
 and unknown breeding is to be shunned as a snare and a 
 delusion. If the Berkshires or a Berkshire cross is pre- 
 ferred, a pure Berkshire boar should be used. If the 
 Essex seems most desirable, use a pure Essex boar ; or il 
 the Poland-China cross promises the best results, use a 
 pure Poland-China boar. Do the same with any breed 
 that may be preferred, and success is certain ; but to use 
 a boar that is a mixture of several breeds, however pure 
 they may individually be, is to progress backward. 
 
 It is an undeniable fact, that many who pay a liberal 
 price to obtain a boar that suits them, afterward treat 
 him in such a way that they derive but small benefit from 
 the investment. One of the two most common modes of 
 mistreatment is, to confine him in a close pen, where he is 
 deprived of exercise and fed upon the richest and most 
 fattening food the establishment affords : lackot activity 
 and of virility are the results. The other mode is, to turn 
 him witii an unlimited number ot sows, gilts, and stock 
 hogs, to fight, and fret, and tease, until he becomes the 
 shabbiest, the most ungainly, unthrifty hog on the place. 
 
93 8WINK HUSBANDRY. 
 
 Eitlier of these oxtnnnos must be avoided, and a more 
 rational method pursued, or the best results eauuot bo 
 secured. While too close coutiuenuMit is bail, it is not 
 so bad jis to allow a boar to roam at will amoug the other 
 hogs of a farm, where he is as much out of place as a 
 stallion would be if turned loose with a herd of horses. 
 He should be kept in a comtortable pen, with a lot or 
 pasture adjoiuing, and supplied with a variety of nutri- 
 tious food, which means sonuHhing more than dry corn, 
 with an occasional drink of diluted dish-water, llis con- 
 dition should always be that ot thrift, and vigorous 
 health, not too fat, nor yet so lean that as a barrow he 
 would be considered unfit tor pork. If too fat, ho will 
 be clumsy, slow, and in no wise a sure getter. As tu the 
 agp at which he should begin service, we have, aftei con- 
 sidcrablo observatior and experience, come tc the conclu- 
 sion that it is unwise to permit the boar to be with a sow 
 at all uutii at least seven months old, and then only in 
 exceptional cases and very spaiingly. Immature sires 
 cannot be expected to generate vigorous progeny. At 
 a year old, nu>derate service will not injure him, and 
 properly kept, lie should bo at his best as a sire, when 
 from eighteen months to five years old, when he is matured 
 and developed, and has every advantage over a half-grown 
 imuuiture pig ; the linost, strongest litters are invariably 
 obtained from large old si)ws, bred to aged boars. 
 
 We well understand that it is of little use to recom- 
 mend farmers, who raise or purchase fine boar pigs, to 
 keep them until a year and a half or two years old. before 
 using them, iis not one in ten thousand would do so., yet 
 those who properly keep their boars that length of time, 
 will find the value of their breeding greatly enhanced. 
 Aged boars are generally looked upon as unpleasant ani- 
 mals to keep, especially if they have become vicious and 
 disposed to use their tusks — a view in which the author 
 himselt. shares somewhat — but they are certainly less dau- 
 
THE BOAR. 93 
 
 geroiiH and troublnHomo than tho fjcntloHt bull or stallion, 
 whilo, of conrKC, none of them arc desirahlo, or intended 
 for, houHehold pots or door-yard ornaments. 
 
 A pen or fence HufTiciently high and stron^j to restrain 
 the otiier ho^s of the farm, cannot he der)ended on to 
 keep the hoar in his place, and if opportnrn'ty oilers, ho 
 will soon become unruly j conKCfjuently, it is much the 
 best to keep him, from the first, in an enclosure which 
 will afTm"«! hiir no practice in the art of breaking out. 
 
 If liis quarters are isolated from thf>so of other liogs, 
 especially sows, and sow pigs — some of which are likely 
 to be in heat most of the time — he will usually be quiet 
 and gentle, — in iact, a ]>retty well behaved hog, though 
 much depends upon liis natural disposition, and more 
 upon the treatment given him. 
 
 With a tail chance, some of the first litters will enable 
 his owner to judge ot his merits as a sire, which, if satis- 
 fectory, will make it worth while to keep him for several 
 seasons. Unless certain of doing very much better, wo 
 would not hesitate to breed him to his own pigs, even 
 though we consider indiscriminate in-and-in breeding as 
 reprehensible in tho extreme. We advise even this cross, 
 only when the parent?! are both healthy, and it is desired 
 to fix and retain in the offspring certain points, or quali- 
 ties, that are of great value, and |)rominent in both boar 
 and sow. Turned with a sow in heat until one service 
 18 given, she will have as many, and as good pigs as there 
 would be if the boar was permitted to chase and worry 
 her for three days ancT nights. The most experienced 
 breeders concede this, and many will not allow but a 
 single service. 
 
 It is safe to say that the bulk of the hog crop is pro- 
 duced by farmers who breed less rather than over a dozen 
 BOWS, on an average, at any one season of the year. To 
 keep a matured boar in the best condition, is felt to be 
 quite an expense by one man who has but a few sows, and 
 
94 SWINK mSUANl^UT. 
 
 whoiT tluTO or four farmers live in proximity to each 
 other, wo tliink it miu'h llio host ami dioapost plan for 
 tl\om to jointly own and koop ono strictly jijtMxi ht)ar. in- 
 stead of otu'h koepinu:, wholly at his own expense, ono 
 that ho thinks will do, though not so good as he wonld 
 like, if the tirst eost and suhsequent expense ami tronblo 
 were less. 
 
 rro[vrly minaged, one hoar would, in m;iny eases, 
 answer every purpose as well as a half do/.en, for that 
 uumhert>f sw/all farmers, and if his eost and keep were 
 shaivii by al\, it wonld scarcely he felt, and at the same 
 time the temptation to use some numgrel. or immature 
 pig, would be ivmoved. 
 
 Among the benefits ivsul ting from this nu^tlun^ would 
 he, the use of a good boar, matunni, and tit ted for good 
 service ; an improved class of pigs, and a generous rival- 
 ry, encouraging eadi of his owners to keep a better grade 
 of sows, under improved and more protitahle conditions. 
 
 In sparsely settled neighborhoods, or where too many 
 sows were to be breii, it wouhi not be so practicable ; l)ufc 
 where possible, it would 1)0 a little of that much-talked -of 
 *' eoojx> ration among farmers,'' which, when reaily ])rae- 
 tised. as well as preached, will imleeii l>e found one of 
 the touchstones of siu'cess. 
 
 When the time arrives for him to 1)0 superseded as tlio 
 liead of the herd, and it is desired to make liim a harrow, 
 it can be doiu"' by one active man o[>erating as follows : 
 After drawing up one hind leg. and fastening it securely 
 to a post, or stake, fasten another rope aixuind tlio uppci* 
 jaw. back to the tusks, draw it tiglitly, and fasten it to 
 another stake ; in this pi>sition the animal can otter no 
 serious resistance. The cut should bo low down, and as 
 small as possible ; the low cut will atTord a i-eady moans of 
 escape for all oxtninetms matter, and allow the wound 
 to keep itself clean, there being no sack, or]HM'ki>t, left, 
 to hold the pus formed during the liealing process, h 
 
rriK HOW AND frRrc ncH. 95 
 
 is nof, boHf, io perform thiw oponition when fbo boar is 
 very fat-, or the wa-rilhar too w;irm, hh l,h(! ribk jh muclj 
 greater. If castnitod nar'y in tho noaHon, and kept on 
 '^\fm (luring the; Hiurirncir, tJic n<;.-;li, wliori fit; Ih made fat, 
 will be but little more n.nK tlian that of other liogH. Kept 
 with other hogs, if iuarrolHomc, there is danger of bis 
 doing them great injury with bin tunkK, and henee it is 
 desirable to fatten a stag fiOg by birnHelf. It \h at this 
 pcrio<l» that the old boar's fcruo proportions will show 
 tbcmsclveH, as be will take on fat very rapidly, and pre- 
 sent a greatly improved a/ pea ran fie ; but when sold, the 
 Muyer w'll quite probably lUHist on paying for the "stag" 
 only two-thirds the price of other bogs, which, in many 
 cases, wo havo considered entirely too great a deduction. 
 
 n A r T E 11 XI. 
 
 TUK HOW AND II KR PIGS. 
 
 The meaKurc of sucfjOHS attained by those who raise 
 hogs, depends in no small degree upon the judicious se- 
 lection, for breeding purposes, of sows that are best cal- 
 culated, in their form, and general make up, to give birth 
 to, iind to nourish for several weeks, a reasonable number 
 of well-ff)rmf;d, thrifty, vigorous pigs. The sow is the 
 laboratory, wherein are d<ive!o[)ed the germs of the future 
 herd, an<l, other things being (squal, it is plain that this 
 laboratory, or, if wo may so call it, this ma/;hine-Rhop, 
 must, io furnish the best results, bo as n(!ar perfection as 
 possible. She sliouM be sfdected frr»m a stf»ck, or family, 
 in which fertility i.s a charactriristif; ; for this eHK«;ntial 
 quality is beniditary, tliough lacking in nuni(;rou8 strains 
 of the various breeds. The most promising jjig at six 
 
96 SWINE HUSBANDBT. 
 
 or eight weeks, may fall far short of being so promising 
 at six or eight months ; and, for this reason, where it is 
 practicable, it is better to defer the selection of sows for 
 breeding purposes, until they have made considerable 
 growth, and exhibit prominently certain characteristics 
 which they should possess, and enable the breeder to 
 form a more nearly correct judgment as to what their 
 forms will be when they have matured. 
 
 At this time, she should appear to be of a form known 
 as "rangy," i. e., the opposite of compact, of loose and 
 open build, long, yet quite broad on the back, with 
 short neck and head, fine ear, heavy jowl — sure indica- 
 tions of an easy keeper, wide between the fore legs, deep 
 sides, and heavy hams, well let down on the gambrel 
 joint. She should be large and roomy, (in some respects 
 rather the opposite of the boar), from healthy stock, a 
 greedy feeder, and of great vitality, as indicated by large 
 /irth back of the fore legs, and a robust appearance gen- 
 erally. Coarseness' is allowable in the sow, much more 
 than in the boar, especially if she has great room for car- 
 rying a large litter, with indications of being a good 
 suckler, as shown by having at least twelve prominent, 
 well developed teats, or "dugs." The venerable Paschall 
 Morris, of Philadelphia, one of the oldest and most in- 
 telligent breeders and improvers of swine in tlie United 
 States, wrote : "I have always found that a hog with a 
 dish-face, short nose, small head, and wide between the 
 eyes, is an easy, quiet feeder. On the other hand, a 
 long, large head, indicates, in a general way, a hard, un- 
 easy feeder, and a great consumer." 
 
 Sows, well kept, will, in some cases, come in heat when 
 not more than three months old ; but, in all such cases, 
 care should be taken to keep them separated from, or out 
 of reach of, any boar pigs on the place. Eight months 
 is as young as it is judicious or proper to breed them, 
 and we would much prefer to have them a year old before 
 
THE SOW AND HER PIGS. 97 
 
 letting to the boar. In all breeds, and especially those 
 noted for early maturity, the vitality of the young animal 
 is taxed to its utmost in making a rapid and vigorous 
 growth, and to impose upon it, at the same period, the 
 further burden of production, tends to make a faihire of 
 both. The sow not being matured, it is unnatural to 
 expect the perfection in the offspring that the dam may 
 possess ; nature is, at the same time, perfecting the unde- 
 veloped mother, and promoting the growth of the young, 
 and the result is, that both are losers, and deficient at 
 maturity, and the mother can never recover from this 
 division and deficit of nature's work. 
 
 A comparison of the litters from matured sows, with 
 those of others, that were mere pigs themselves when 
 bred, will furnish a practical illustration of this ; the pigs 
 from the large old sows, will be more in number, and fre- 
 quently double the size of the others, at a month old ; 
 and with the same care, they will not unfrequently weigh 
 50 per cent, more, at nine or twelve months old. For 
 this reason, sows that have proven themselves extra valu- 
 able as breeders and sucklers, should be retained as among 
 the prized animals of the farm. 
 
 Those who pursue the plan of obtaining but one litter 
 from a sow, and then converting her into pork, can never 
 compete for size, style, and vigor, with those who raise 
 stock from vigorous sows, from eighteen months to six 
 years old. 
 
 Usually, when not with pig, or suckling, a sow will be 
 in heat about three days out of twenty-one, or once in 
 three weeks, and when she is to be bred, she should be 
 free from fever, her system cooled and cleansed by a ya- 
 riety of food and loosening slops. 
 
 There can be no doubt that many valuable sows have 
 been utterly ruined for breeding purposes, by over-feeding 
 on com and meal, which, alone, possess too much heat- 
 producing and too little bone and muscle-forming mate- 
 5 
 
98 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 rial to supply the needs of the animal economy. On this 
 account, sows should not he allowed to run with fatten- 
 ing hogs kept on corn, but in pasture, and allowed a 
 plenty of slop, made of equal parts of shorts, corn meal, 
 and wheat bran. 
 
 The main crop of pigs should come in the warm days 
 of April, and that it may be so, sows should be bred as 
 near the middle of December as may be ; though in the 
 States not too far north, and where the best of care can 
 be furnished at farrowing time, December 1st is not too 
 early for old sows, and December 10th for young sows. 
 Old sows will carry their pigs 112 or possibly 115 days, 
 and young sows will sometimes farrow their first litter in 
 from 100 to 106 days from the date of service. 
 
 It is generally believed among breeders, that a sow 
 turned to the boar on the first symptoms of heat, will 
 have mostly sow pigs, and that if she is not served until 
 the period of heat is about passed, she will have mostly 
 boar pigs. 
 
 While carrying her jjigs, plenty of exercise, generous 
 supplies of not too rich food, Avith comfortable quarters, 
 are indispensable to success, and must not be overlooked. 
 To allow sows to run among cattle, horses, or colts, ex- 
 poses them in various ways to injuries that may cause the 
 loss of valuable litters, especially if the sows are heavy 
 and awkward. 
 
 It is bad policy to have sows fat at the time of taking 
 the boar, as there are few cases in which a sow, thin in 
 flesh, approaching to leanness, at that time, does not do 
 better than one that is fat, or in what is called respecta- 
 ble show condition. After getting with pig, a sow fat- 
 tens very readily, and if fed too much strong food, is 
 likely to become pork-fat, have smaller pigs, and do badly 
 in farrowing. 
 
 As the time approaches for the pigs to appear, the sow 
 should be separated from any other hogs, and placed in a 
 
THE SOW AND HER PIGS. 99 
 
 sheltered, yet sunny pen, provided with some short hay 
 or straw, out of which she will arrange her nest. If given 
 a large quantity of bedding, she will make her nest too 
 deep, forming a sort of pit, into which the pigs will roll, 
 and surely be crushed. A shallow nest is much the best, 
 and many fine pigs, sometimes even whole litters, have 
 been lott by giving the sow a too generous supply of 
 bedding material. In warm weather, but little, if any, 
 needHbe given, and in cold weather, the nest should be 
 thoroughly protected on tlic outside, and made so com- 
 fortable that a great pile of hay or straw will not be nec- 
 essary to prevent the pigs from becoming chilled. About 
 six or eight inches from the floor, and the same distance 
 from the sides of the pen, near the nest, a scantling, rail, 
 or pole, should be fastened ; this will prevent the sow from 
 crushing the little pigs between herstlf and the wall. 
 
 A sow well fed at the time of pigging, will usually lie 
 more quietly, and endanger her pigs less by frequently get- 
 ting up and lying down, than a hungry one. Some- 
 times young or small sows appear to be in so much misery, 
 that they cannot be quiet, but if they have been petted 
 and kindly treated, they will allow an attendant to re- 
 move the pigs as fast as they come, which may be the 
 means of saving many of them that might otherwise be 
 crushed or trampled to death. 
 
 Many good farmers have been aggravated beyond meas- 
 ure, by finding a favorite brood-sow in the act of destroy- 
 ing her litter of choice pigs, and none but those who have 
 had such bitter experience, can realize how discouraging 
 it is. My ideas on this subject are so nearly identical 
 with those of "Mr. A. C. Moore, the well-known breeder 
 of Poland-Chinas, that I will use his own language to ex- 
 press them : 
 
 " The first losses of our litters are enormous. By improper care 
 of the sow, and unsuitable places and surroundings for littering, 
 many persons yearly sacrifice their gains in swine growing. Cos- 
 
U- 
 
 100 V ) / J SWIN« HUSBANDRY. 
 
 tivonoss atnl ila atlonilant ovils, arc among the impoUinj^ causes of 
 ferocity in tho sow. ' ^'olca Disciis cs; »[ Doincslic .\.itHn-ils' says it 
 is because lliey are kept from carl h, coal, aslics, etc., and advises 
 allowing them as much roi>m as posaihle, feciliuii ihem fresh eartii, 
 grass, sod, rotten wootl, chan-oal, ashes, etc., and says, after pig- 
 ging, ' feed light, on light fooil for a few days,' and 1 wish to cm- 
 pliitsizt' this last (juotation. This applies, of course, more particu- 
 larly to animals tliat have bet>n kept oi\ board lloors. I do not 
 believe that a sow will devour her young unless extremely costive, 
 amounting almost to a state of fren/.y — though having done so 
 once, she may repeat the act without being in that condition. 
 Breeding sows should not be allowed to run together in the same 
 yard when pigs are expected ; tlie taste of blood seems infectious, 
 and opportunities often Ovcur when costive animals will begin by 
 eating de id pigs, or tirst destroy part of another's litter, and aro 
 thereby led to afterwards destroy their own. 
 
 " Don't do too mwh for them just before littering, and feed 
 nothing but thin slop ft)r three or four days after. * * * With 
 quiet, proper feed, and a little care of some one at the proper time, 
 a very small per cent will be lost in breeding. Insist on every- 
 thing and everybody being quiet about your breeding pens." 
 
 Whou wo liiul a sow Uostxining lior piijs, or showing a 
 disposition to do so, we satnrato a small woolen cloth 
 with kerosene, and cjirefnlly moisten the hair of the pigs 
 with it, bnt are oantious to not get mneh of it on their 
 tender skins — and we nsnallylind that the kerosene dress- 
 ing spoils the so\v's relish for raw j)ig. 
 
 Tho feverish condition of the sow at farrowing time, 
 will oanse thirst, and a plenty of fresli water shonld be Vc\^i 
 within her reach, notAvithstanding tho fact that she is 
 being kept on sloppy food, as this will not prevent her 
 needing water, any more than a person's having sonp at 
 meal-time will prevent his wantiitg water. For making a 
 plenty of heaUliful milk, skimmed milk, wheat bran, and 
 shorts mixed, are most exeellent, and no careful breeder, 
 anxious io do the best by his litters of pigs, should neg- 
 lect to have a supply accessible for use when his sows are 
 suckling. We have had very favorable results from feed- 
 ing chopped (coarsely ground) rye, soaked from 3-t to 36 
 
THK SOW Ain> HEB PIQS. 101 
 
 hourB, but not allowed to become too sour before feeding 
 and coji.siiicr it as near perfection in tiie way of a buucu- 
 lent, nutriti(m8 me.sH, U>r a how Kucklio^ a number of 
 greedy, growing pigH. 
 
 For the first weelis of a pig's life, tlie motlier's milk is 
 its drink as well as food, and tliereforo, in earing for suck- 
 ling sows, it should be the aim i) so feed tiiem, tiiat the 
 largest possible quantity of milk, of only medium rich- 
 ness, tt'ill he furnished, instead of a limited supply of that 
 which is extremely rich, the latter being less Iiealthfui, 
 and more liable to cause fever, cough, constipation, and 
 unsatisfactory growth. 
 
 (jlrass, or other green food, is not to be <nnitted from 
 the bill of fare, and Red Clover is tiie standard green cop 
 for swine, though Ulue (jiruss {I'oa jiralenais) is by some 
 considered preferable, but, eitlier is most excellent. Jt is 
 difbcult to satisfactorily manage the pasturing of several 
 sows with jjigs in the same lieid, on account of the larger 
 pigs stealing from, and robbing the smaller ones of their 
 share of milk, causing them to become stunted and very 
 uneven in size. The only remedy is to separate them. 
 
 When pigs are three weeks old, they will usually begin 
 to eat, if suitable food is placed wliere they can get it, and 
 a small tnnigh should be placed in a ))art of tlie pen or 
 lot, inaccessible to tlie sow, and into this about three or 
 four times a day, for several days, a little sweet milk car. 
 be poured — whatever they will drink up clean, but not 
 more, incroa^in'^,' the quantity as they grow <»]df'r, Avhen 
 some shelled corn, soiik^'d in water twenty-four lioiirs,.er 
 more, should be given, and, if convenient, sour milk, 
 corn-meal mush, scalded bran with shorts, and srcli nour- 
 ishing food as will make them a /Iiealthfui variety. 
 
 Mr. Moore, before qr.otid in this chapter, has probably 
 handled with success as many pigs as any man H'ing, 
 and ffives in his Sioine Journal the following as his 
 method of feeding them : 
 
102 SWINE BUSBANDRY. 
 
 "My mode of feeding young pigs is to provide sufficient board 
 floor, sheltered from the hot suu and the storms, on which to place 
 the feed troughs. In these I feed shelled corn, soaked in barrels 
 sunk in the ground, or bins; corn is soaked from 34 to 48 hours, 
 owing to the weather. With the water that has soaked the corn, 
 I make up a slop of grouud oats and corn, mixed with bran and 
 shorts from the mill. This slop, and the corn, is distributed to all 
 the troughs, by means of buckets — those for the corn having holes 
 in the bottom, to allow escape of water. From the troughs where 
 the pigs are fed, I exclude the sows by means of bars that will let 
 the pigs pass in and out of the trough, j-ard, or pen. I feed the 
 sows on an adjoining lloor, in similar troughs. Thus, pigs that are 
 weaued, and such as are yet suckling, but large enough to take care 
 of themselves, are fed from the same troughs. Of course, my 
 younger pigs, from two to four weeks old, are fed in the stye with 
 the sow — have a separate trough if necessary, and are not turned 
 into a herd until they know their dam, and will suckle only at 
 home ; but with all the time and care we can give to the " train- 
 ing" of young pigs, there will be some thieves in the yarde- who 
 will steal from another dam when they can get a good chance. 
 
 " All feed troughs must have strips nailed across the top, to par- 
 tition off the feeding room of each pig. * * * In feeding, each pig 
 must have a fair chance for its share ; you should not pour sv.il. 
 into one end of a trough and calculate that a portion of your pigs 
 will get their supply from the other end. Notice, and j'ou will 
 see that the big ones are always near tlie spout or first end — they 
 have learned where the be^t swill is to be had, while the pigs at 
 the further end — the little ones — are compelled to take the leavings 
 as it runs to them, and are thus made themselves into " leavings." 
 Pigs should never be fed on the ground when it is dusty or muddy 
 
 " Though I have no doubt but that cooked or steamed food will 
 amply pay for the cost and labor of preparation, I have never 
 used it." 
 
 Wliile believing that they should have as much corn as 
 they will eat, it is very essential to their rapid groAvth, that 
 other and softer food be supplied, making a variety that 
 •vyill be easily digested, and assist to keep their appetites 
 sharp. 
 
 The boar pigs may be castrated when from two to eight 
 weeks old, that they may recover from its effects before 
 ureaning time, and at that age, if help is not at hand, it 
 
THE SOW AND HEIt I'UiB. 103 
 
 can easily be done by a single person after a little practice. 
 Witli the pi;^ standing on his head in a nail keg, or h-ome- 
 thinf' of similar size and shape, which confines him so 
 closely as to prevent much troublesome resistance, the 
 operation may be easily performed. If flies are trouble- 
 some, it is well to pour some kerosene into and over the 
 wound. A preparation sold in the markets as ''Frazer's 
 Axle Grease," is an excellent salve for these and similar 
 wounjjs and sores on any kind of stock, but if flies are 
 not about, we do not use even this, and never had a pig 
 die or do badly from being castrated. 
 
 Hows should be spayed when somewhat older, say at 
 three months, and there are probably a tliousand men 
 who can do a tolerable job at castrating a boar, to one that 
 is competent to properly spay a sow ; unless it can be 
 done by a person understanding it, it is risky business. 
 We have seen an ignoramus ruin a herd of Berkshire 
 shotes by spaying them in the belly in such a manner 
 that, when they healed up, t'leir belliq^ dragged on the 
 ground. 
 
 Considerable observation leads us to the conclusion, that 
 the only proper place to spay is in the side, and not there, 
 unless by an expert. "Where there is a probability of 
 doing, or having it done successfully, we think it extremely 
 desirable, as no hogs keep easier, or fatten better, than 
 sows that have been properly spayed. (The reader will 
 find this subject treated by one of the most success- 
 ful and practical veterinary surgeons in the country, in 
 the succeeding chapter.) 
 
 Weaning is a severe ordeal to many pigs, but those 
 cared for, and taught to eat some weeks before, do not, 
 as a rule, appear to have their growth noticeably checked, 
 while others, that have depended entirely on the mother's 
 milk, seem to have their growth entirely suspended, some- 
 times for many weeks. 
 
 As to the proper time for weaning, the owner must, to 
 
104 bWiNiC UUSHANUKY. 
 
 somo oxtont, bo govtM'uoil bv surromuliii'^ oiivumstanooa. 
 ISoiut'timos it is lUHOssarv to wo;iu wluMi tlicpi^s aro livo 
 or six. works old. atul in otbor oasos ihvvc may l>o no jnir- 
 tioiilar reasons for doiuy so until ton. or smuotiiuos twolvo 
 Avooks old ; but ut from sovou to ton woeks old, most pigs 
 uro tit to bo juit away h\nix the sows. If thoy cannot bo 
 suooossfuUy woanod at that auo. it is ditVu'ult to say wbou 
 thoy could bo. Souio pi^s aro roally oldor at sovon 
 weeks than othoi's at ton, and aro bottor tit tod for weanin*]:. 
 
 ^Nothing is so well oaloulatoil to make thorn grow as a 
 bountiful supply of sow's milk, and tho pigs that have a 
 plenty of other feed, with tho milk i>f a well-slopped sow, 
 for eight or ton weeks, will invariably have niueh the 
 stiU't in growth of those wi-aiiod at li\o or six weeks, no 
 matter how nuioh I'oinl ainl attontioii tho earlier weaned 
 pigs may have bad. 
 
 If from the toudonoy of a sow to get too fat. or from 
 other oauses. she is bred tho third or fourth day after 
 farnnviug, it is best to wean by I'.ie time the pigs are si.T 
 'iVooks old. in order that their longer suoking mav n^^t 
 injuriously atToot tho suooooding litter. If they have boon 
 aeeustomod to eating milk, grain, and grass, while run- 
 ning with the si>w, this oan be done without iHMvei>tibly 
 ohooking their growth ; but otherwise, tho sudden I'hange 
 not infrequently retards it for several weeks. It should 
 not be forgotten, that with swine, as with all other stoek, 
 warmth is to a eertain extent equivalent to food, for which 
 reason comfortable shelter and clean, dry bedding, have 
 a mouey value, as with those, thoy not only consumo 
 less food, but grow mui'h faster. 
 
 The sow, in most cases, will take tho bmir from the 
 second to the fourth day from farrowing, and if she is 
 not served then, or fails to get with pig, she will not, as a 
 general thing, breed again until the pigs have been weaned 
 from two to four weeks — if not too much suckled down, 
 iu about three weeks. 
 
CA8TUA'M.\{i AM> Hi'AYlNa. 105 
 
 It is not a good pltin to tako all ilio p'lifH from the bow, 
 UJiioHH owe, or I, wo <A' tli(;rn can fx; tnrrio<i with h(;r norno 
 h()\irA after, to (Jraw out tin; milk hIic will have at that 
 timo, arifJ again. Hay after a lapHe of twenty-four hours. 
 1'he way preferred hy uh is, to leave about two of tJie 
 Hmallest with her for four or five days, and after that, 
 leave only one for two or three days more, hy vvhieli time 
 the flow of milk will have been ho gradually diminished, 
 tliat no injury will result to tlie sow by keeping them 
 entirely away from her. 
 
 After weaning pigs, the pasture is a good plaef; for the 
 BOW, and if a mess of good k1o[> is given her once a day, 
 it will be fed to good advantage. When bred again, she 
 should bo so fed aixl ean-d fr^r, as to gain something in 
 flesh every day, and yet not be(;ome loaded down with fat 
 from the use of too much heating and eonf;entrated food. 
 If treated in a frietidly way, she will be friendly and well 
 disposed, and ordinarily come as near paying richly for all 
 she gets, us any animal kept on tho farm. 
 
 (J 7[ A P T i: U XI I. 
 
 CASTHATING AND SPAYINO. 
 
 The necessity of castrating the boar i)igH, for pork-mak- 
 ing j)urposes, is generally admitted, but theimjjortance of 
 spaying such sow f)igs, on the farm or in the herd, as are 
 not designed for bre(;derH, has never been af)f)reciated as 
 it should, or as it is likely to be, when the rearing of 
 Bwine i« conducted ou such businesa principles as its im- 
 portance demands. Open sows, running with other stock 
 hogs, are a source of great annoyance, and where more 
 than two or three are kept, there is Bcarcely a time when 
 
106 SNYINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 some one of their number is not in lieat, and continually 
 chasing the otliers, thus keeping them in a worried, 
 fevered condition, extremely prejudicial to growth or 
 fattening. 
 
 If all are neatly trimmed, this is avoided, the hogs are 
 quiet and restful, and nnu'h time, trouble, and feed are 
 saved. 
 
 All feeders agreo, that no animals in the swine-herd 
 feed more kinilly ami prolitably, than spayed sows, and 
 there are no buyers Avho would not as soon, or sooner, 
 have them than barrows, when they would not buy a lot 
 of open sows at any price. An open sow, when fat, of 
 the same dimensions externally as a spayod sow or bar- 
 row, generally weighs from ten to twenty pounds less. 
 
 To the feeder, the buyer, or the butcher, unspayed sows 
 are usually, in one way or another, a cheat, as they may 
 weigh more than they are worth by having a litter of ])igs 
 in them, or may be utterly destitute of inside fat, from 
 having recently suckled pigs ; in either case they are of 
 less value than their appearance wouhl indicate. Spayod 
 sows are not troublesome to their mates, are as good as 
 they look for feeding or marketing, and command in all 
 markets such prices as are paid for none but first-class 
 stock. 
 
 There is no subject connected with the live stock in- 
 terests, upon which so little has been written, or upon 
 which it seems so ditiicult to get reliable information or 
 directions, as this. In view of this want, we have had 
 the following practical and explicit directions prepared 
 by one of the most experienced and successful veterinary 
 surge ins in the country. Dr. T. C. Miles, of Charleston, 
 Illinois, whose practice in this branch of his profession 
 is very extensive. Doct. M. says : 
 
 "As to the time for castrating boars, I would say, do 
 it whenever most convenient, and the best wan ^^ ^^^^ ^^7 
 understood by every old farmer, unless the hog is rup- 
 
CASTRATING AND SPAYING. 107 
 
 ttiicd, in which case the striffen around the seed (called 
 the scrotal sack) should be taken out with the seed, and 
 the seed-string tied within the neck of the scrotal sack 
 with a small twine. When this is done, cut off the seed- 
 sack, and a51 behind the tie, and let the hog go. I do 
 not like sewing up, as large tumors sometimes result from 
 so doing. Should maggots develop in the gash where a 
 hog has been cut, apply either turpentine or butter-milk. 
 
 " TO CASTRATE A TllDGLING HOG. 
 
 " In a ridgling ]iog, the seeds are not in a scrotal sack, 
 or in their proper place, but in the body of the animal, 
 immediately behind ije kidneys. 
 
 " lie should be cut in tlie side, the same as in spaying 
 a sow, but the incision should be made of sufficient size 
 to admit the whole hanJl. when the seeds can be found 
 and easily pulled out. 
 
 **T0 <yVAY sows. 
 " One man should be in iho pen to catch, and two to 
 hold the sow, by the feet alone, flat on tiie ground on her 
 right side, and stretched out tightly. The spayer, kneel- 
 ing at the sow's back, will cut the hair off of the place 
 where the incision is to be made, (ahttle back of the last 
 lib, and about midway up and down) ; then cut a gash — 
 if on a hundred-pound shote, about lialf an inch deep 
 und three inches long, up and down ; blip the flesh back 
 (ach way, about an inch, making a round gash or wide 
 incision ; then turn the knife, and stick the blade straight 
 in, gently, deep enough to go through the peritoneal 
 lining, or inside striffen, at the upper corner of the inci- 
 sion. Then put the left fore-finger in, and with it and 
 the right fore-finger, tear the hole large enough to allow 
 working room for the fingers ; feel inside near the back, 
 with the first two fingers of the left hand, for the 'pride,' 
 a little knotty lump, which cannot be mistaken, for there 
 are no others like it within reach, but if it is not found— 
 
108 SWINK HUSBANDRY. 
 
 as is sometimes the cp,se, then feel for small guts, called 
 the 'pig-bag,' and take them out the best you can, until 
 the first ' pride ' is reached ; take this off ; follow back 
 down the pig-bed to a fork where two guts coming to- 
 gether form a larger one, as two branches running 
 together form a creek ; here take up the other branch 
 until the lower 'pride' is reached; take it off, put the 
 pig-bed back in good order, and see that it is all in the 
 belly proper, and not left at the gash. 
 
 '' Slack up the upper liind leg, so as to close the gash, 
 and sew up with two stitches, taking good hold, but going 
 only skin-deep ; one stitcli near the middle of the'gash, 
 the other above it ; draw the edges together, so as to touch 
 from the middle of the gash upward. Both stitches may 
 ba taken before tying either, and then tie the threads or 
 twine, crossing each otlier, in the form of a letter X, and 
 when the sow is let go, press the hand over the gash as 
 she starts off. 
 
 '*' For spaying purposes, the thread or twine used 
 should not be too harsh or too tightly twisted." 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 PASTURE AND SUMMER FOOD. 
 
 The necessity of providing swine with summer pasture 
 and green food, is, even in the best corn-producing dis- 
 tricts, becoming mure and more apparent, and it is, 
 unquestionably, an important factor to be taken into con- 
 sideration in connection with the economical production of 
 pork. 
 
 So much is this the case that we can safely say, that 
 no fanner is prepared to raise hogs in any considerable 
 numbers, unless provided with pasture and grass lands. 
 
PASTURE AXD SUMMER FOOt). 109 
 
 in which abundant water and sliadc arc accessible at all 
 times; with such, hogs will thrive and grow, with but lit- 
 tle or no grain, from early spring until the new crop of 
 corn is fit for use, and the process of fattening should 
 begin. 
 
 This liberty of pasture, affords the growing animals that 
 exercise necessary to health and proper development, and 
 the succulent grasses, rich in muscle and bone-forming 
 materials, are loosening and cooling to the system, tend 
 to keep it free from disease, and counteract the heating 
 and feverish properties of corn. A very important con- 
 sideration in favor of grass and forage for swine in sum- 
 mer, is its comparatively small cost ; as compared with 
 grain-feeding, the expense is merely nominal. 
 
 The loss that occurs every year to farmers, from their 
 not realizing and acting upon the fact that the hog is, in 
 in his normal condition, a grass-eating animal, is simply 
 enormous, and it is well settled in the minds of all who 
 have carefully studied the subject, that to keep swine 
 wholly upon the more concentrated and heating foods, is 
 as unnatural and unprofitable as it would be to keep 
 horses or cows in the same manner. 
 
 A very interesting experiment in feeding some pigs, 
 and one which illustrates this point, was recently made 
 by flio editor of the Ndiional Live Stock Journal. From 
 H desire to satisfy himself as to whether a portion of grass, 
 or fibrous food, fed in connection with corn meal, was 
 not more healthful and profitable than tiie meal without 
 other admixture, he made the experiment of which he 
 thus speaks : 
 
 " Takin^T a litter of six pigs, five weeks old, we divided them 
 into two lots, as nearly equal in weight and thrift as could be 
 done with the eye. This was on the 1st of June. One lot of three 
 was put into a pen, and fed upon corn meal soaked in water twelve 
 hours, ad libitum. The other lot was put into a pen alongside, and 
 fed upon green clover, cut short by a straw-cutter, and mixed with 
 corn meal. At first only one quart of this cut clover was fed each 
 
110 SWINB HUSBANDRY. 
 
 pig, with all the meal they would cat. This meal, being mixed 
 with clover, the particles were sepju-ated, and when eaten, went 
 into tlie stomach iu a spongy condition, so that the gastric juico 
 rould penetrate the mass as water a sponge. The gastric juico 
 came iu contact with every part of the mass at once, and tlie iliges- 
 tiou was soon accouiplished. This lot of pigs, with the clover and 
 meal, were always lively, always ready for their feeil ; whilst the 
 other lot, with meal alone, ate greedily for a time, then became 
 mincing and dainty for a few days, showing a feverish state of tlic 
 system, contenting Uiemselves for a few meals with water, anil by 
 fasting got over it, and went on eating again. This was repeated 
 many times during the live months that the experiment lasted. At 
 the end of the time the two lots wi're weighed. The lot fed «m; 
 meal alone, weighed 150 lbs. each; the other lot, 210 lbs. each, oi' 
 40 per cent, more for being treated as grass-eating animals. Each 
 lot consumed the same amount of meal. The clover, in this case, 
 was given in small quantity, and intended merely to furnish a 
 divisor for the n\eal. The amount never exceeded two quarts of 
 cut clover at a feed. We have*since fed pigs this way, in sum- 
 mer, giving all the cut clover they would eat. This will be found 
 the best wa^- to feed pigs where it is inconvenient to give them a 
 run in pasture. They have always been healthy under this treat- 
 ment, which we call the normal ration — grass alone, or grass and 
 grain mixed. But larger growth will be made by feeding a small 
 portion of oil meal, mingled with the corn n\cal and grass; the 
 oil meal being rich in nitrogen and phosphate of lime, to grow the 
 muscle and bone, giving a larger growth to the frame, and thus 
 making more pounds of pork in a given time. 
 
 " In order further to test this matter of feeding fibrous food Tvith 
 grain, we experimented, in winter, with two lots of pigs, two iu each 
 lot. Each lot weighed 150 lbs. at commencement of experiment, 
 - %^ul were all of the same age. The trial continued one hundred 
 !uul twenty days. One lot was fed corn meal, wet up witli hot 
 Water, and allowed to stand for a few liours. The other lot was 
 fed a little short-cut clover hay and corn meal, wet up with hot 
 water and allowed to stand. In this case, also, each lot con- 
 sumed about the same quantity of corn meal. The pigs on meal 
 alone were healthier than those in the other experiments, as they 
 were older, and the weather being eold,Avere not so feverish. This 
 lot gained 110 lbs. per head, and the lot on clover hay and meal 
 gained 143 lbs. each, or 30 per cent more. 
 
 ^Therc is, no doubt, a great loss every year, to the farmors, for 
 
PASTUIiK AND (4UMMEU FOOD. Ill 
 
 not treating the pig as a grawH-eating animal, and giving him his 
 normal ration." 
 
 U Bceuis to be ail unqucstionublo fact, tliut the reason 
 why many fail to realue what they might from their 
 Hwine herds, is that they devote their time and attention 
 jilinoKt entirely to the corn fiel<l, and utterly ignore the 
 
 ..npQCSsity for, or value of, pasture and green food in the 
 summer season. In their eagerness to secure an abundance 
 of wiriter and fattening food, they fail to encourage rapid 
 
 "growth upon iiealthful and inexpensive food in the most 
 f;ivorablc months of the year. 
 
 Various estimates and tables have Ijcen prepared Ijy 
 scientific men, to show the amount of nutritive material 
 an acre of land will produce, in cereals and grass, and a 
 fair average of their conclusions on the subject is shown 
 in the following table : The estimate of the product of 
 an acre of clover is quite low, as, when well matured, an 
 acre can, in a favorable season, be made to yield more 
 than the amount here given. The table is on the basis 
 that four pounds of the raw material will make one pound 
 of pork, except that for clover, fifteen pounds is allowed 
 for a pound of pork. 
 
 Oross Pioducl. jier acre. Pork per acre. Vdlue, at 4 
 
 No. bmh. lbs. Ihn. cU. jier lb. 
 
 Wheat 15 'Ms 225 $».00 
 
 Barley 35 1 ,080 420 16.80 
 
 Oats 40 1,S20 320 18.20 
 
 Corn 40 2,240 .560 22.4(J 
 
 Peas 25 1,500 375 15.00 
 
 Green clover 6 tons 12,000 800 32.00 
 
 Tf this is true in practice, it is evident that an acre 
 of clover is worth, for pork-making, as much as 3'/, 
 acres of average wheat, almost as much as 1'/, acre of 
 good com, and nearly as much as 2'/, acres of good 
 oats. Hogs that have made most of their growth on 
 com, have stomachs too small to be the most successful 
 grass-feeders, or make large gains on bulky food of any 
 sort. Swine that are expected lo make tlie most gain on a 
 
llXl SWINI- ni'SHANnUY. 
 
 grass diet, should previously bo allowed n porti»)i\ of fbod 
 surticiontlv bulky to properly distend their stomachs, 
 without, which they will lack carryintj room. 
 
 llou; ]>astures. in July and August, if the weather is 
 unite dry, are likely to become short of forage, and much 
 of the ground rooted over ; in this case the stock must 
 have extra attention. Proxision can be made for such 
 emergencies by sowing a I'rop of peas at (he proper sea- 
 son, and for swine in warm wcatlier, tiuMV ;;re few kiiuls 
 of food ctjual to ]>eas. Two bushels, sown broadcast on 
 ftu acre of properly-prepared land, should produce about 
 thirty bushels of shelled peas, which the hogs will liar- 
 vest, a:id if nor. to > ripe, pL\is, pods, vines, and all, will 
 bo eaton. 
 
 The value of t^ae Held pea. is not known or appreciated 
 by the western farmers as it should he, and as it is likely 
 will be, in the future ; they produce more flesh in propor- 
 tion to fat tiiau corn, and are tit for use at a. season when 
 especially needed. In Kngland, where it is impossible to 
 raise corn, farmers rely largely on peas to fatten their 
 pork: while in Canada, where very fair corn is raised, 
 they claim that more hog food can be }>rovided from an 
 aero of peas than from an acre of corn. 
 
 We are of the o}>inion that the time is near at hand, 
 wheri an important food for swine is to be furished in the 
 Jerusalem Artichoke : sometimes called the Brazilian 
 Artichoke, an inc(nTect name, as the plant is not. known 
 in Brazil. While but little information has been given 
 to the public as to the best variety, or manner of pro- 
 ducing them, they are held in high estimation by those 
 who have given them a fair trial. 
 
 Mr. A. C. Williams, of Vinton. Iowa, a very promi- 
 nent and successful breeder of Poland-Chinas, in largo 
 numbers, savt^ : 
 
 " Tlio k(H'p of my lioirs, iu warm wcalhor, is Blue grass, t'lovor, 
 and Brazilian Artichokes. Forty head of hogs, and their pigs, 
 
rXHTVUK AND HIJMMKIt FOOO. J 1 .'i 
 
 may bf, kept witliont, other food on an acrn of Artichokes, from the 
 timo froHt i» out of the ground until the first of June, and from 
 September, or Of;lober, until the ground Ih again frozen. 
 
 " To grow them, the ground Hhould be rich, plowed eight or ten 
 inches deep, tlie tubern eiit Hame as w.-cd potatoew, and planted 
 from early Hpring to June lOlh, ten to fifteen incijCH apart, in rows 
 that are three feiit apart, with Hix bushels of Heed to the aere. 
 
 "Theyejin also be pIanU;d in the fall, from October l.'ith to 
 November l^th, but the tubers should not be eut, and the ground 
 shouldjjc tlirfjughly rolled uft/T planting. 
 
 " If filanted in Kf)ring, plenty of rain in July and August will 
 make thrm large enough to turn hogs on in 8eptembf:r, otherwise 
 not until a month later. If in foul ground, they may, when three 
 or four inches high, be given a thorough working witli cultivators, 
 and when the hogs have been removed, to allow a new ciop of 
 tubers to grow, the ground should be made smooth by harrowing, 
 that the tops may be cut with a mower, as food for horses and 
 cattle. 
 
 "Enough seed will remain in the ground for anotlier crop, but 
 they can easily be eradicated by mowing ofFtlie tops and plowing 
 the ground deeply in July and the early part of August. 
 
 "The Hra/Jlian Artichoke is red,df)cs nf;t spreafi and scatter like 
 the wild, white variety, and jtr'tdiices more hog-feed to (,hf; acre 
 than any crop I am acquainted with, and the hogs will harvest the 
 crop themselves. 
 
 " Hogs taken from tlie articlioke pastures to clover and blue- 
 grass, will not root up the sod, as they arr; free, from intfistinal 
 worms, constipation, indigestion, and fever, caused by feeding com 
 in winter." 
 
 Tlic editor of Urn S'lock Journal, wntln'^oi Mr. Williams' 
 ho'^H, UH Kocn at the Iowa State Fair of 1870, Kai<l : 
 
 " Mr. Williams, of Vinton, had on exhibition one of the largest 
 displays of Poland-f/hinas we have ever seen on any fair ground 
 from a single individual. Mr. VV. captured the first prize on sows 
 over one year and under six months, and the second on a pair of 
 pigs under six months, in a ring of 2S entries, and a recommended 
 herd premium. Mr. Williams informed us that his herd was 
 taken off his pastures and artichoke fields without any previous 
 lixing up." 
 
 Consideriiif^ how the majority of premium hog.s and 
 jiigH are jjamperod and " lixed up" before tliey are taken 
 
114 SWIKK lU'SllAJSiniY. 
 
 to St^ito Fiiirs, this is a very high compliuient to Mr. 
 Williams' " kcop." A gentleman writing to iho Prairie 
 .Fanner from AVaksirusa, Kansas, sjioaks of artichokes as 
 follows : 
 
 " Tho Jorusalom Aitiohoko, in this Stnto, forms ft largo tuber, 
 (tliosi" of over a pomul in woigtit bcii)!:; iiotliiii>:; unusual), is won- 
 dorfully produrtivo, V(mv nulrilious, ami is wcli lilvod by Iho hogs, 
 ovon ill a raw stato. 
 
 " 1 planted a fow last year to raiso sooil for this season; and in 
 diiiginu; thoni 1 found that tl\(\v had t^dion ontii"* possession of tlio 
 ground, so tliat 1 hatl to ilig up all the ground between the rowa 
 as well as between tl\e hills, and the largest and tinest tubers wero 
 found deep down in tlie eoinpaet sub-soil where tbo plow had never 
 rei.ehed. 
 
 " Hero I am reminded of tJic only objection (so-called) that I havo 
 ever heard urged against the arliehoke; which is, that if they oneo 
 get into a piece of grinind they never can be eradicated. This, in- 
 stead of being a valiil ol\jection, Is really one of the strongest argu- 
 ments in favor of its use for the purpose under consideration. 
 
 " 1 thlidv that iiv seeding hog pastures to the artichoke, a ilivision 
 fence should be run through the middle, so tliatone half could rest 
 each alternate year, imd not be disturbed during the growing sea- 
 son. Enough, in any event, wouKl bo left in the ground for seed, 
 but in this way the tubers would have a better chance to n\aturo. 
 
 " In selecting a piece of ground for hog jiisture, (if intemled to 
 bo planted witli artichokes), it will bo best to take a rich, moist 
 soil, though they will grow in any soil that is suitable for pt)tatoes. 
 Having made the selection with due care and forethought, let that 
 piece be dedicated forever to the artichoke, when it will be seen that 
 the imiHv^sibility of its eradication becomes its highest reconunen- 
 dation, for no further labor will ever be required in planting, cul- 
 tivating, or digiiing; the swine will have plenty of the best of sum- 
 mer food, and they will cuUi'mU it and dig it tfivinsdiys." 
 
 The following, to the saine journal, was from an Illi- 
 nois corrospondent : 
 
 " I have raised the Jerusalem Artichoke on my place twelve 
 years. Soil the s:\me as the common pniiries of Iowa and Illin«n9, 
 and my experience proves them to bo a very valuable and useful 
 crop. All kinds of stock, horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs, and chick- 
 ens, are fond of them, I regard them as very healthy food, and 
 
PABTUKK AND HUMMKIi FOOD. 115 
 
 necr;83ary in adflition to f,'rain, in Uk: Hpririij, anrl at thifl time, are 
 fcodini^ thftii to my rriiloli cows with tlir; hf-ht n-Hults. 
 
 "(Jnc ran cotnnnnfic. nHin;^ tli»;m in H(;pt<;nih';r, and from thence 
 fo June, hut to UH(! them vvijen tli<! ground Ih frozen solid, Ihcy must 
 he <;atiiercd and heaped, and etjvercd with straw and earth, other- 
 wiHf!, whenever Die /ground ean he /j;ot Into they can he nf»ed ; 
 heinj; frozfrn in the ground tend» to make them criHp an 1 sweet.! 
 I^lenty of artichoi<e8 and a little corn hrings the hogs out fine 
 in Ihe spriu'^', and tiiey will dig them themHclveH, and will do the 
 name iii^lie fall. 
 
 "I was warned hy my neighbors, when I got them, to lor^k out 
 or they would get my farm, and take my place to its ruin, hut this 
 has not been my experience. I always consoled myself that if 
 they got the advantage of me and grew spontant;ously, th(! struggle 
 would be between them and weeds, the difference being, the arti- 
 ciiokes would have roots at the bottom, and the weeds nothing. 
 The only difficulty has been tf) keep a sutTiciency of roots beyond 
 the reach of hogs, to renew my crop with. Cultivate same as pota- 
 toes, and same amount of seed, will yield five to one of potatoes, 
 with same culture, and are much easier to cultivate;, as they have 
 a strong upright stalk. Plant in the spring; any time in April 
 will do best; I would plant in May rather than miss. Hoil cannot 
 be too rich." 
 
 The following uIho uppoured in tlio Burlinglon (Iowa) 
 ILmkeye, about the name time : 
 
 "Last spring I planted a double handful f>f small tubers, cut still 
 smaller, I think about 40 pieces, and about IW plants grew in two 
 rows about *'{.*> feet long (11 steps). A few days ago I dug them, 
 and they were over seven bushels. I threw over the Ia.st dug bushel 
 to the pigs and they eat them with avidity. I knocked the dirt off 
 a large onr;, and offered it to the hf)rse at the garden f(;nce, and he 
 eat it. Three of the best plants yielded each one-half bushel even 
 full, and the majority yielded over a peck each. They were 
 planted in good, moist ground, and hoed once. The six busfiels 
 arc now in a heap In my garden, and I intend to plant most of 
 them. In sp.ading up where my garden fence had been, I found 
 those tubers in the ground. Thf;y were there 18 years ago, when 
 we came h<!re, and how nujch longer, proliably the former owner 
 could tell. One of your correspondents is wrong about the arti- 
 choke being impossible to eradicate. I once planted some, and in 
 the autumn turned in hogs, (without knowing anything about the 
 
116 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 field), and the nest spring inclosed it in a calf pasture, and the fol- 
 lowing spring none appeared. The yield per acre would certainly 
 be enormous, and freezing does no injury. This saves much labor 
 of diggbig before frost, or digging at all for hogs." 
 
 The common method of feeding corn, alone, twelve 
 months in the year, is favorable to the production of the 
 well-known 'Mand pikes," so common on the farms of 
 the West, a few years since, and tens of thousands of 
 hogs have been lost by the so-called "hog cholera," and 
 other diseases, wholly and directly the result of defective 
 and unnatural feeding. We look upon more and better 
 grass, shade, and water, with less dry corn, fed in mud, 
 filth, and dust, as the great panaceas for the many ail- 
 ments with which such enormous numbers of hogs are 
 annually afflicted and lost. A practical and well known 
 western writer was not far from the facts, when he said, 
 in 1872 : 
 
 " With many of those who rnise hogs in the West, but little 
 attention is paid to their natures, habits, wants, or feed lots ; the 
 latter arc allowed to become a noisome pestilence, and the only 
 wonder is thit t'le whole race of swine is not exterminated by 
 cholera, blind-staggers, etc., engendered by these sink-holes of 
 iniquity." 
 
 In a series of carefully prepared articles written for the 
 Prairie Farmer, by Hon. Elmer Baldwin, of Illinois, he 
 makes the following fair statements about the desirability 
 of pasture and forage for swine : 
 
 ." The farmer who proposes to make money by raising pork, 
 must have a pasture for his swine during the season of grass. 
 AVithoul it the balance is very apt to be on the wrong side of the 
 "IclTgcr after selling his crop. 
 
 ""Clover is supposed to be the best, but Timothy is doubtless 
 equally good. Swine like it about as well, and it is more nutritious. 
 Blue-grass does well, wlien better is not to be had ; even a field of 
 weeds is better than no pristnre, as many varieties of weeds are ex- 
 cellent feed. Many a poor widow has made a good porker almost 
 solely on weeds from her garden. 
 
 *' Where a sufficient range of pasture cannot be had, soiling does 
 
PASTUEK AND SUMMER FOOD. 117 
 
 well. Cloyer or Timothy cut when green and fresh, and fed regn- 
 larly, is the next best feed to a good range of pasture. 
 
 "As soon as the grass starts in the spring, the hogs should be 
 turned in, as they like it best when short and tender. They will 
 subsist and grow well on grass alone, with a little salt occasionally. 
 Some prefer to feed a little corn dail}^; it may or may not be good 
 "policy; they will be farther advanced for fattening, but will not 
 fatten as well as if none is fed in summer, and with good pasture, 
 water, and shade, they will give satisfactory results. They will 
 not fattfen on grass, but it prepares them for fattening. 
 
 "Their systems are in a healthy state. They have no ulcerated 
 livers and stomachs, as they will have if fed on corn through the 
 hot weather. 
 
 " Thus kept, they are prepared by the first of September to com- 
 mence the fattening process, with sound teeth, good digestion, and 
 vigorous health. They will after that time promptly pay for all 
 the feed judiciously given. It may be, and doubtless is, true, that 
 a light feed of bran or light provender might be fed with profit 
 during the summer ; but it is doubtful if corn in any quantity is 
 oeneficial. 
 
 "Feeding on corn alone, during the summer, except it to be 
 send thcnn to a summer market, is bad policy ; they become un- 
 healthy, teeth sore, appetites cloyed, and they will not feed satis- 
 factorily in the fall, and the comparative expense of grass and corn 
 feeding must be drawn as to which is the best policy. The cost of 
 grass feeding, even with other light feed, is merely nominal, while 
 a hog fed on corn, from the time it is weaned from the sow until 
 butchered at eighteen months old, can seldom pay expenses. 
 
 '' The chief end of a hog is the weight and quality of his carcass. 
 His value depends upon his bein^j well fattened, and the object 
 aimed at during his whole life is to prepare him for that event. If 
 , he fails in that, his life is a failure. 
 
 " Corn is the proper food for fattening, but not for growth ; and 
 the fattening process is always, to some extent, a disease-producing 
 process, and if too long continued is always so. 
 
 " But when the animal commences fattening in vigorous health, 
 having lived for months on green vegetable and light food, his 
 health will remain firm through any reasonable time required to 
 ^Jjeco • e fat. But if fed uninterruptedly on heavy, hearty, dry 
 food for all his life, his health, if not already destroyed, is injured, 
 and will yigld to such unnatural living before there is time to fat- 
 ten, as will be shown by loss of appetite, restlessness, unnatural 
 
118 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 craving for lime, clay, bones, hen-dung, etc. A hog thus affected 
 can not be fattened more that season ; he had better be slaugh- 
 tered, (although it is doubtful if his carcass is tit for food), or turned 
 out for a year, to recuperate. 
 
 " It is a connnon practice to endeavor to counteract this tendency 
 to disease by feuding sulphur, coal, bones, clay, rotten wood, etc., 
 which may be, to some extent, beueticial ; but it is like the druga 
 jused to infuse life and health into the gouty, rheumatic, apoplectic, 
 epicurean biped. The health thus obtained is of .an inappreciable 
 amount compared with that of the hardy rustic who never had 
 gout or apoplexy. The hog is an epicurean philosopher; and as 
 Providence deals with his biped prototype, (the votary of that phi- 
 losophy), by throwing in disease at the proper time to close the 
 scene, so the butcher's knife should do for the quadruped what 
 Providence does for the biped, but a little in advance, just before 
 the disease is developed. That is, the fattening process should be 
 completed as soon as possible, (and before disease supervenes), 
 both for economy, and to insure a good, healthful quality of meat, 
 and when the proper amount of fat is laid on, the animal should 
 be slaughtered at once." 
 
 It must appear to any candid observing man that the 
 use of grasses, peas, artichokes, etc. , instead of corn, for 
 the summer diet of hogs, must be rational and profitable, 
 in producing healthier animals, affording a fairer remti- 
 neration to the raiser, and, above all, food more nearly 
 fit for the human stomach. 
 
 Pasture ; let this word be written in capitals, by every 
 man who raises swine — it is the secret of success. 
 
 II A P T E K XIV. 
 
 FATTENING. 
 
 Healthy swine, of good breed, that have been previously 
 kept in such a manner, and for such a length of timcy 
 (the latter depending largely on the breed) as to develop 
 a good-sized and properly formed frame, if put upon full, 
 but not too concentrated, feed in the early days of Sep- 
 
FATTENING. 119 
 
 tember, are expected to, and will, lay on flesli very rap- 
 idly. The quantity will vary, with different animals, 
 from half a pound to two and a half pounds per day, the 
 latter quantity, however, being quite extraordinary. 
 
 AVhatever the season of the yeaz", or the number of ani- 
 mals to be fattened, it is important that the enclosure in 
 which they are kept and fed, should have good surface 
 drainage ; if possible, there should be plenty of running 
 water, that their feed-lots may not become miry, and to 
 prevent the necessity of the animals drinking from im- 
 pure sloughs, or mud-holes. 
 
 "With the best management, it is not desirable that 
 more than about forty head should be confined to less 
 than an acre of ground ; though it is frequently the prac- 
 tice to feed that, or a greater number, in a much smaller 
 space, where they are compelled to eat, drink, and sleep 
 in their own filth ; after some months of this treatment, 
 if not carried ofE by that ever convenient scapegoat, 
 "cholera," they become a good and fair quality of — car- 
 rion. If any considerable number are to be fattened, 
 and the large, medium, and small-sized hogs can be fed 
 by themselves, in different pens or lots, it is an excellent 
 plan to do this ; and if not more than fifteen, twenty, 
 or twenty-five are kei3t together, they will be more peace- 
 able, feed better, gain faster, and be healthier, than if 
 huddled together indiscriminately, to spend their time in 
 continual turmoil and uproar. To be more precise about 
 the sjjace fattening hogs should have, we consider any 
 space sufficient in which a reasonable number are afforded 
 comfort, cleanliness, and a moderate degree of exercise ; 
 while any pen is too small, that compels any number to 
 be filthy and uncomfortable. 
 
 When taken from grass, or other bulky diet, to be fat- 
 tened, the change to a more concentrated food should be 
 gradual, as too sudden a change is sometimes attended 
 with injurious effects, if not the loss of some animals 
 
120 SWINB HUSBANDRY. 
 
 outright. They shouki, ut first, luive light feed. Bran 
 aiui other mill-stuff, made into slop, and given with their 
 grain, is good, and if the refuse from tlie orchard and 
 potato field is given thom, it will be beneficial, and espe- 
 cially so, if cooked and mixed witii bran, meal, etc. 
 
 Our own custom is, to plant early in the spring 
 a piece of good, rich ground, with some of the larger 
 kinds of sweet corn, or an early variety of field corn, 
 and with it put some pumpkin seeds in every sixth or 
 eighth hill, each way. Early in the season this corn is 
 in **roasting-ear," when we begin feeding it to the hogs, 
 stalk and all — as much as they will clean up. It seems 
 exactly suited to their appetites, and starts them along 
 in growth and fattening in a manner that is always grati- 
 fying. Cutting the early corn from the ground hastens 
 the growth of the pumpkins, which then begin ripening, 
 and are soon fit for use. 
 
 After the hogs have eaten every mouthful of the green 
 corn that they will, we give them as nuiny pumpkins 
 as they want, and usually, each grown hog will eat one 
 good-sized pumpkin, or more. Before tliey are given 
 to the hogs, the pumpkins should be chopped open, and 
 all, or most all, of the seeds removed, as in large quan- 
 tities they atfect the urinary organs very injuriously, and 
 so derange an animal's system as to make him nearly 
 worthless for any purpose. 
 
 We consider that the pork made in this way, at this 
 time of year, yields us as much clear profit as any we 
 produce. We like to cut up corn for the hogs as late in 
 the season as they wdl eat a good portion of the fodder, 
 and after this, it recpiires but a few weeks of feeding on 
 clear corn to fully ripen them for slaughter. We differ 
 from many ex])erienced feeders, in believing that the new 
 corn will fatten hogs faster than that a year or two old ; 
 but for finishing off a lot of porkers for market, we read- 
 
FATTENING. 121 
 
 ily concede that a plenty of old sound com is good enough 
 for anybody. 
 
 As to continuing the use of pumpkins, we never suc- 
 ceeded i*~ raising too many, or in keeping them into the 
 winter longer than we liked to feed them, but fattening 
 liogs should fill up with a full meal of corn before being 
 given the pumpkins, else they would eat too much pump- 
 kin in proportion to the corn, and be very slow in storing 
 up fat.* Pumpkins, like wheat bran, are useful adjuncts 
 to the more concentrated kinds of food, but alone cannot 
 be depended on for fattening purposes. 
 
 If there is soft, or poor corn to be fed out, it should 
 be used first, as, after beginning to feed, a change from 
 strong, sound feed, to that which is poor and chaffy, is 
 usually for the worse. Any change during the feeding 
 season should be from light to heavier, and more nutri- 
 tious food, and never the reverse. When, by gradually 
 increasing the quantity of fattening food, the hogs have 
 become accustomed to it, they should be given at regular 
 hours, early in the morning, at noon, and late in the 
 evening, as much corn as they will eat up clean, but no 
 more. 
 
 This caution is applicable to all other foods as well as 
 corn, though we are aware that comparatively few hogs 
 are fattened in the corn-growing regions, except upon 
 corn in the ear, and probably the time is far off when it 
 will be otherwise. 
 
 So easily and abundantly raised, it has become the prin- 
 cipal food for fatting all kinds of farm stock, and being 
 80 common, is fed in many cases without a proper knowl- 
 edge of i^s adaptability to the animal economy, as is 
 shown by the constant tendency to disease and degener- 
 acy in our domestic animals. Its exclusive use is not the 
 best economy, but being so easily produced, and in such 
 convenient form for feeding, especially in cold weather, it 
 is simply courting ridicule to protest against it ; we will, 
 6 
 
122 SWINK msUANnUY. 
 
 noYortholo!?}!, vontinv to intnnliu'o hoiv an itom omboily- 
 iuij tho viows oiuloi-soil bv nuiuv of (l\o most loarnod soi- 
 oiitistiJ : it is from tho ivpovt (soo C\\. \ \1\\), imuio iu 
 tho fall of lS7i>, to tho Missouri 8tato Ui>arvl o( Aijrioul- 
 tuiv, bv Or. l>otn\iM-s. \'. S. 'This oroutlomaii was oom- 
 missiouod bv tho Uoanl to invest igato the so-oalKnl *' lloi:^ 
 Cholora." in its varioos t\>rms and phasos, its symptoms 
 ai\d oausos. and to suggost. moans oi provontion, and ra- 
 tional troatmont, 
 
 llo writes as follows : 
 
 " Finally, I wish to sj»y i> fow words in ivsiarvi to a hygioiilo nnstako 
 ooinmittod on almost ovory farm in tho wost, I n-for to tho praotii-o 
 of footing tlio swino oxohisivoly with oorn, a praotioo whioh oor- 
 trtinly is not oalonlatod to proiUioo hoalthy anil Yiiri)rous animal:^ 
 bill whioh uooossiuily nuisi usult. ius I shall try to show, in woak- 
 oniutr tho organism, and in oroatin,>i" a pivdisposiiion to disoaso. 
 How mnoh or how littlo this pnuMioo hasoontriluitod in pi\Hluoin<; 
 tho now piwailing opi/.i>otio intUionza of s\\ ino 1 am not propand 
 to dooido. I havo, lunvovor, roasons to snpposo that this praotioo 
 has not boon without intlnonoo. Tho org;uiisn\ of a dt>nu"stio ani- 
 mal is oomposod of about tiftoon to twonly olon\onts, or undooom- 
 posjiblo oonslituonts of mattor, unitod in numorous orgjinio oom- 
 pomnls. A oonstant olnuigo of mattor is taking plaoo, and a part 
 of thoso ohntonts, in form of orgiuno compounds, is oonstanlly 
 wastiHi, and oarriod otf by the privossos of soon'tion and oxorotion. 
 Tho organism. thon'fon\ in onlor to romain hoalthy, su\d to main- 
 tain its normal composition, must roooivo, fmm timo to timo, ai» 
 a^loquato supply of thoso olomonts, oontainod in suitable or digost- 
 iblo lU'sriuiio compounds, so a' 4o oovor iho continual loss, and, if 
 tho animal is yoinig, to pmduoo growtli and dovolopmont. Tl\o 
 simplest way \o introduce thoso olomonts into tho animal organism 
 fa to give food whioh contains thom in nearly tho right jiroportions. 
 A fow of thoso olonuMits, besides hydrogvn and oxygiMi. are simuo- 
 tiu\os in the Unm of suitable compounds in limited, though very 
 seldom sntlioient, i\uantities in the water foi drinking; for in- 
 stance, calcium, iu the forn\ of lime, iron, etc. One imporlaul 
 oUnnont — oxygon — iMitors the organism, also, in largi* tpiantities, 
 thnnigh tho lungs and thri>ugh tho skin, but all othoi-s have to bo 
 intwducod wholly, or almost wholly, in tho Torm of food. Ahni»st 
 till kinds of food, however, uiilk perhaps exeepled, h»ek some iiu- 
 
FATTKNINO. 123 
 
 j)ortant clcmftntH In their compoHitlon, contain othorH in inHufUcirmt 
 f|iiHnliti'H, and Htill (>l\ii;rH in grcaUir abundance than required. 
 'J'licrcf'orc, if hucIi a kind of food iw given excluHively — corn, for 
 InHtanee — wliidi in dcHtifiite of Koine of tlie inineru! eletneutH, and 
 containH only an inHu/Iiciejit quantity of nitrogenoun < on.poundH, 
 wliicli arc of ho great importance in tlje animal organization, irreg- 
 ularilieH and diHoiderK, in the exercise of the variouH i'unctio/iH ami 
 organs, will l)e tlie unavoidable rtmaltu." 
 
 J'rof. S. A. Knu[>|), an oxtonKivc brocdnr of thorough- 
 bred *fewinc, at Vinton, Iowa, to Hatinfy hiniHcIf that too 
 much corn, witliout otJier food, wa« detrimental to the 
 health of jjigH, made Home experimentH, one of which he 
 BpeakH of a« folio wh : 
 
 "Two years since, I experimenU;d in feeding dry corn and wat^jr 
 to a tlirifty, vigorous jtig, about twelve weeks old. In three weeks 
 there were indications of fever; the fourth week he became stiff 
 in his limbs, extremely costive, witii skin dry — appetiUj yet good. 
 The fifth week there was great weakness in the hind parts swell- 
 ing of the sheath, ret/;ntion of urine, cosliveness, and fickle appf> 
 tit/;. The diet was then changed to dish-water and cooked bran 
 drinks; in three weeks the pig was apparently well." 
 
 If kept in dry lots, or fed in pens, plenty of trough 
 room Hliould he provided, and at leant twice a day the 
 hogH Hhould liave as much clean water aa they will drink, 
 and j)raetical men know that thia i« no inconaiderahle 
 quantity. 
 
 Whatever the feed may be, it Hhould be given in Kuch a 
 manner that they will be forced to eat as little filth aa 
 poHBible, and if corn can be fed on a clean floor, or ground 
 having a nod, it is an excellent jjlan. iJut when the ani^ 
 mals, to get their feed, must Bwallow a.s much mud and 
 manure as grain, but poor results can be expected. 
 
 Regularity, as to times of feeding, and quality and quan- 
 tity of feed, should be observed ; no animal should he fed 
 80 a.^ to become surfeited, and only so much food should 
 be given at once as will be entirely consamed, that all 
 may cf^me to the next meal with shaq) ajjfwjtites. Tho 
 most perfect development does not depend bo much upon 
 
134 SWINK HUSBANDRY. 
 
 the large quantity thov cim bo made to ooiisurao, as upon 
 tlio (juantitv thov |n-(>porly ili^ost and assimilate. Mext 
 togiHHl food for the appetite, a good a[>petite for the food 
 is desirable, and shouUl be earefully promoted ; the hog 
 that refuses to eat, even for a single day, is set baek in 
 his fattening for two or tiiroe days, and sometimes for u 
 fortnight. In faet, the failure of a hog's appetite denotes 
 somethijig radieally wrong with him, if not with the 
 entire herd ami its numagement. The quantity of food 
 Mill vary somewhat, and usually in frosty or freezing 
 weather, more will be eaten, to maintain iho animal heat, 
 than when the temperature is higher and the atmosphere 
 contains oonsiderable nu)isturo. tiooil feeding consists in 
 giving every particle the hogs will eat, without leaving 
 any, or losing their appetites, and to accomplish this, in- 
 telligent care aiul close observation are necessary. The 
 old saying, that the lazy farnun*, who sits on the fence 
 wati'hing his hogs until they are through eating, gener- 
 ally markets the heaviest pork, is in exemplitication of 
 the rules of proper care in feeding. Quiet and comfort 
 are imlisponsable to thrift, so dogs and boisterous boys 
 should be kept away from the feed lots ami pens. Wo 
 have always found it convenient to accustom our hogs to 
 souu^ particular call, which will bring them together, and 
 sonu^tiiuos they can thus be called into j)lacos where it 
 would be about impossible to drive them. 
 
 We salt our own hogs, by putting small quantities in 
 their swill, and sulphur is given in the same way. Bitu- 
 minous or soft coal, chan'oal, wood ashes, and rotten 
 wood, are relished by hogs as condinuuits, and we think 
 that these should be kept within their reach. 
 
 Comfortable, sheltered beds, not too deep and dusty, 
 ar.> equivalent t(» a considerable amount of food, as stock 
 su tiering fri>iu coUl cannot thrive, and to warm them 
 with grain, applied internally, is much nu)re expensive 
 than good uests and shelter, applied externally. 
 
FAITBNINO. 125 
 
 One hundred poundH of pork from ten bushelH of corn, 
 iH the usual cKtirnato rnad(; by western farmerH who feed 
 whol(; corn, hut fed in adKferent form, and in conjunc- 
 tion with other food, it will make much more, a-s has 
 been many times fully demonstrated by careful feeders, 
 both in America and Kuro[)e. The example of the farm- 
 ers in the New Kti;,dand Statris is valuable, as they are 
 noted for raising' the best of pork with small corn crops, 
 and n»" cholera." The general m(!thod pursued 
 
 '' Is to commcTicc fattening by hoilinj; potatofH, pnnnpkinB, 
 apples, or otlior vcgctabh^n, and mix a Htilo hran, shortH, or pro- 
 vnnflor, with the cooked vcgctalUcs whon liot, thus thoroughly 
 cooking the meal. It is then placed in tubs or vatH, and allowed 
 to Hli^htly ferment, when it i.s ready for uho. The amount of meal 
 18 gradn;dly inereaHed until near killing time, when meal well 
 cooked is given alone. 
 
 "The meal ii compo.sefl of oats, buckwheat, and corn, or any 
 other coarse grain, or of any two of thern, generally finishing with 
 corn meal alone. Thus treated, they fatten much faster than on 
 dry corn, and at much lens expense. It costs more labor, but at a 
 SJason when it can be well spared, and it is well recompensed. 
 
 "The En'^lish system is still more diversified. They use all 
 kinds of vegetables — potatoes, turnips, carrots, beets, peas, beans, 
 ^barley, and oats; the grain .steamed or ground; the vegetabUja 
 'cooked and mixed with slop from the house, dairy, distillery, 
 " "brewery, etc. Even grass and clover is cut and mixed with the 
 feed, and almost every substance of light cost and any nutriment, 
 is nicely prepared and finds a ready market in the maw of the om- 
 nivorous hog." 
 
 We do not wish to be understood as arming, in this 
 chapter, or in this book, that corn is not a suitable food 
 for swine, or that it is not the beai single fat-producing 
 material for the money in the world, for general use ; but 
 would enforce the fact that a variety is essential to per- 
 fect health and deveb>pment in a/? animals, and a single 
 article oi' food becomes satisfactory to none, — not even to 
 a hog. 
 
 A very satisfactory method of fattening hogs, largely 
 
126 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 practised in the west by those who "stall feed" cattle, 
 is to put shotes, of one liundred to one hundred and fifty 
 pounds weight, with the cattle whenever grain feeding is 
 begun — generally about the first of October^at the rate 
 of tifteen to twenty shotes to ten steers, the number de- 
 pending on the amount of grain used, and the manner in 
 which it is placed before the (tattle. In the fine weather 
 of fall and early winter, it is common to feed corn in the 
 fodder, or in the shuck, by tlirowing it upon the grass 
 in the pasture ; tiie favorite way is to feed in two differ- 
 ent enclosures, and each day to turn the hogs into the one 
 where the cattle were fed the day previous ; this enables 
 them to pick up the leavings of the cattle, without 
 trampling on and over the day's feed, until the cattle have 
 eaten as much of it as they wish. 
 
 When full feed is given to cattle in this way, about two 
 shotes to each steer is not too many, but when corn is 
 fed in tight boxes and troughs, so that but a small pro- 
 portion is scattered, from one shote to one and a half per 
 steer will keep the feed lots well gleaned. 
 
 If a greater number are kept, they will need to have 
 extra grain given them, in order to fatten i-ajiidly ; but if 
 simply growth is the object, three shotes will fare pretty 
 well in following each steer that is on full feed. 
 
 The grain voided whole by the cattle seems to be so 
 softened and so digestible, that hogs thrive on it amazing- 
 ly, so that the larger ones are soon in a condition for 
 market, and others can occupy their places in the feeding 
 lots. 
 
 Hogs seldom fatten more satisfactorily, rapidly, or with 
 less outlay of labor, than when handled in this way, and 
 the plan is justly held in high favor, from the fact that 
 every pound of increase from the droppings and scattered 
 corn is clear gain, none of which could be utilized with- 
 out the much-abused hog. 
 
 One common defect in this method of managing hogg 
 
COOKING FOOD 1"0K SWINB. 127 
 
 is, that thoy are not generally provided with suitable 
 sleeping quartons, where they ean bo comfortable, without 
 crowding, and out of danger of being trampled and 
 horned by the cattle. 
 
 Autumn, with it.s mild weather, is the profitable season 
 for making [)ork and lard, and hogs not fed with cattle, 
 should be far along in their fattening before severe winter 
 weather sets in. When hogs become ho fat as to get up 
 and aboflt with difficulty, it is a loss to feed them longer, 
 and the packer and the barrel should take them in. 
 
 In feeding soft or cooked food, a kerosene barrel 
 mounted on wheels will answer, but where something not 
 quite so high, and less circum8c;ril)ed at the top can bo 
 constructed, it will be found more convenient. 
 
 n A P T E R XV. 
 COOKING FOOD FOR SWINE.— FOOD COOKERS. 
 
 ^riic question as to the economy and general desirability 
 of cooking food for swine, has long been a subject of dis- 
 cussion and speculation, yet there jn'obably is quite as 
 much diversity of opinion, among farmers in general at 
 the present day, as at any previous time. 
 
 The surrounding conditions and circumstances, have 
 much to do in deciding the question of economy ; and 
 while one farmer, under certain circumstances, could feed 
 a considerable portion of cooked grain and secure satis- 
 factory returns therefor, another, differently situated, 
 though perhaps in the same neighborhood, and raising 
 the same class of swine, might be unable to do so without 
 actual loss. 
 
 Under favoral)le circumstances many have, by careful 
 experiments, thoroughly satisfied themselves that tho 
 
128 SWINK HUSRANDBY. 
 
 practice of cookinij: is larticly [irofitablc, and others, from 
 experiments fully as careful and tliorough, have arrived 
 at oonehisions directly the reverse. 
 
 There can scarcely be a doubt that cookini:; hard, dry 
 corn, renders it more easy of digestion, enablini; the ani- 
 mal to extract the maximum of nutritive material it con- 
 tains, and that, ordinarily, fed in this form and of the 
 proper consistency, it atTords a larger percentage oi iiesh 
 and fat, than if fed in the raw state. A large majority, 
 we think, of those who have given attention to the sub- 
 ject, admit this ; at the same time, a respectable and in- 
 telligent minority, vi)tc //a//. That it is j>ractically profit- 
 able, on a majority of farms, to pursue a system of cook- 
 ing the food for largo stocks of swine, is not generally 
 conceded. 
 
 Among the reasons for regarding cooking as impracti- 
 cable, are, the scarcity of timber for fuel, the extra labor 
 involved, and the general lack of fixtures and facilities 
 for cooking, and feeding the food in its cooked state. 
 
 Vast numbers oi those whose farms are located in the 
 best corn-growing regions, would, by the single item of 
 fuel, be deterred from nndertaking it, even if convinced 
 that cooking would give, from the cooked food, a con- 
 siderable increase of llesh and fat over that consumed raw. 
 
 Others, with fuel convenient and abundant, and fully 
 satisfied of the importance and economy of fceiling cooked 
 grain, are practically jnvvcnteil from carrying out tiieir 
 convictions, by the scarcity and expense of reliable, intel- 
 ligent help. There arc others still, with so much wood 
 and timber, that it is a burden, and who have help to 
 spare, yet having no very decided views for or against 
 cooking, suppose that sonic hundre«ls of dollars would 
 have to be expended in buying, fitting up, and learning 
 to use the very simplest apparatus that Wiuild possibly 
 answer. AVe shall try to disabusi> the minds of this last 
 mentioned classs further on in this chapter. 
 
COOKING FOOD FOB SWINE. 129 
 
 The Messrs. II. M. & \V. P. Sisson, of Galcsburg, Illi- 
 nois, in a pre-criiiriorifcly pniiric country, arc uncommonly • 
 successful l>rec(l(;r,s of .swine in lar^e numbers, and, at 
 some seasons of t.i ; year, use a considerable quantity of 
 cooked food. Knowing' them to be practical men, pursu- 
 in<j their business for profit, rather than for the purpose 
 of demonstrating any preconceived theories, we Bol.'citcd 
 of them a statc^rnent of their conclusions, from experience, 
 as to iJhe j)rofit and desirability (jf cooking food for swine, 
 on a small, medium, and large scale. In their reply, they 
 express views so nearly identical with those entertained 
 by us, that we cheerfully present their conclusions in lieu 
 of our own. They write : 
 
 " We have been cooking food for hogs, mf)reorle8S, for 
 the last six or eight years, and we state as the result of our 
 experience and observation, that in the great hog and 
 C(jrn i)ro(lucing States, cooking food for hogs, generally, 
 will not pay ; still, there are times and circumstances 
 which will make cooking, to a limited extent, profitable. 
 
 "We do w)i think it profitable to cook corn, or meal, 
 for hogs, whenever they can have access to good, tender 
 grass, and the temperature is such that corn can be soaked 
 in water. Soaking will then answer every purpose, but 
 in winter, when there is no grass, and dry corn is the 
 principal food, is the time that cooking will pay, if ever. 
 
 " Hogs need something besides dry corn, (it is too con- 
 centrated), something with more bulk ; and to meet this 
 requirement, Ave do some cooking. If a slop is made of 
 corn and oat meal, middlings and bran, and finished up 
 with potatoes, pumpkins, or squashes, all Avell cooked, 
 and fed in connection with dry com, we think the advan- 
 tage will be very apparent. 
 
 ** It is not absolutely necessary that this should be fed 
 more than once a day, but pi(jfi, especially, should have 
 enough, once a day, to fill up and properly distend the 
 
130 SWINB HUSBANDRY. 
 
 stomach. In speaking of pigs, we mean those six months 
 old, or more. 
 
 '* It is our opinion, that the disease known as hog chol- 
 era, is very largely occasioned by the almost exclusive use 
 of corn. Hogs should have a variety of food ; they need 
 something besides corn ; oats, bran, potatoes, etc., fed 
 for a change, and for variety, are very beneficial. 
 
 " We use a simple pan, or boiler, that has an iron bot- 
 tom and ends, with plank sides, so that the contents can 
 be drawn off into a vat. The boiler has a light cover, 
 and is about eight feet long, three feet wide, and fifteen 
 inches deep. Such an arrangement is cheap, and can be 
 made profitable, principally in winter. 
 
 *' We will say, in conclusion, that we do not believe 
 that it will pay, either on a small, medium, or large scale, 
 to generally substitute cooked for uncooked food, for 
 hogs in the great hog and corn-producing regions of the 
 West." 
 
 Mr. Thomas Wood, the successful breeder of Chester 
 Whites, mentioned in another chapter, writes us : 
 
 *' For the last eight or ten years, I have cooked feed 
 for my hogs, and with the steamer that I have fixed up 
 
 1 can make one or two hogsheads of mush at a time. I 
 cook food as a matter of economy, believing that about 
 one-fourth the grain is saved thereby. I generally feed of 
 corn two parts, and oats one part, ground together, and 
 with this I feed considerable whole corn, particularly in 
 the fall before it gets hard and dry. Feed, when cooked, 
 should be allowed to get nearly cold before it is given to 
 the hogs. 
 
 " A few days ago, I weighed and put in separate pens, 
 two sows, in every way the same, and of the same litter. 
 No. 1 weighed 293 lbs., and No. 2 weighed 280 lbs. I 
 fed No. 1 for 17 days on unground corn, cooked; she con- 
 sumed 2 bushels and 21 quarts, and gained 36 lbs. No. 
 
 2 I fed the same length of time, on whole corn, raw, of 
 
COOKING FOOD FOB &WINB. 13V 
 
 which she consumed 3 bushels and 13 quarts, and gained 
 30 lbs. 
 
 *' The summer before the above experiment was made, 
 I fed eight shotes with corn and oats, (one part oats, and 
 two parts corn), ground, and made it into well-cooked 
 mush, and frequently weighed them, in order to see if it 
 would pay to make pork at the then ruling prices of corn 
 (55c.), oats (40c.), and pork (7c.). The result was that 
 the pork paid nearly two prices, for the corn and oats, 
 while the manure paid for the labor." 
 
 U. H. Stowe, of Indiana, had four pigs of a litter, 
 which weighed 2-45 lbs. each, and four of another litter 
 that weighed 170 lbs. each. He took one of each litter, 
 and put in a pen by itself, and the other six in another 
 pen, and gave both an equal chance, allowing both as 
 much good, sound corn as they could eat, for six weeks. 
 Tho corn fed to the six was thoroughly cooked whole, 
 and that fed to the two w^as raw, and fed in the usual way. 
 
 The hogs on the raw corn gained ten pounds to the 
 bushel, and those fed on the cooked corn gained just fif- 
 teen pounds to the bushel consumed. 
 
 Prof. Wilkinson, of Baltimore, says: ''I conducted 
 an agricultural school and exjierimental farm for eight 
 years, and experimented with feeding cooked food of 
 every description used for cows, horses, swine, working 
 and fattening cattle, and poultry, and carefully noted the 
 results. These were in all cases very remunerative ; so 
 much so, that even with the defective, inconvenient, and 
 expensive apparatus used — for want of better — in steam- 
 ing, manipulating, and feeding, I found there was an 
 average profit of fully 25 per cent." 
 
 THE EXPERIMENTS OF S. H. CLAY. 
 
 Readers of agricultural papers have, no doubt, fre- 
 quently seen allusions to experiments made by Mr. S. H 
 Clay, of Paris, Ky., in cooking food for swine. 
 
132 SWINB HUv^BANPRY. 
 
 Mr. Clay was an oxlonsivc btvodor of l^orkshires, being 
 tho gontloiuau to whom was uwanlod the i:;rand prize of 
 #1,000, for the tinost display of swino at tho I^atiouul 
 Swino Exposition, in Chicago, 8optombor, 1871. He 
 niaiio (hoso oxporiinonis to sodlo, in his own mind, (lie 
 »Hiostii>n as to what extont, and nndor what circum- 
 stanoes. cooking loud could bo j)rolitably followed. 
 
 'Phe cxpcvinuM\(s were begun .luly Kith, wiih six bar- 
 rows, eai'h abi>ut twelve months old, at which time they 
 weighed as l't>llows : 
 
 No. 1 2,V) pounds. 
 
 " a '-V5 
 
 " 3 'MO " 
 
 " 4 )1H) •' 
 
 " 5 ':(^r^ " 
 
 •' 'Mh " 
 
 They were fcil together for twelve days on cooked corn 
 meal, rciluced to sui-h a coi\sistency that the animals 
 ci>uld readily drink if. At the end of twelve days, they 
 "were separated, when each pig weighed as follows: 
 
 No. 1, '^H nouiuls, liiiviiiii i^aiiuvl 89 pounds. 
 
 " a, r.is " •• ■ " 38 
 
 •' 3, 2SH) •' " " no " 
 
 " 4, rC* " " " 8«) " 
 
 •' 5. 2(K) " " " eT) " 
 
 " «, -JSJ '• •' " 37 " 
 
 Nop. 1 and '^Mvere put in a jhmi together, and for 30 days 
 fed oil boiled corn, cont<uiniiig ;>'.>0 pounds, or six bnsh- 
 els and r»l jiounds. upoit which No. 1 gained 50 pounds, 
 and No. *J gained r>'..' pounds, or together, 10*2 pounds. 
 
 For the same }ieriod, >><»s. ;> and 4 were fed together, 
 in a ]KMi, on meal, boiled aiul reduced to a thin slop, con- 
 suming *2rvl pounds, or four bushels and 4() pounds, upon 
 which No. 3 gained 30 pounds, and No. 4 gaiiu^d bO 
 ]iounds, or together, 80 ]H>unds. 
 
 Xos. and (> were for the same ]>eriod fed on dry 
 corn, consuming 405 pounds, or seven bushels and 13 
 pon!uls. I"''pon this. No. 5 gained 10 pounds, and No. 
 6 gained 3v pounds, or together, 4*v pounds. 
 
COOKING FOOD FOIl BWINE. 
 
 188 
 
 The following will illuatratc the foregoing in tabular 
 form : 
 
 Connumed 
 
 (inlii 111 30(luy« 
 
 I'orK to 1 IjiiKlid com. 
 
 Com jjcr liUHhel 
 
 CohI of pork per lb. . . 
 
 AoH. 1 and H. 
 JMled^ C'l/rri. 
 
 m.i IbH. 
 
 ll-'/.oolbH. 
 
 ;iK ocntfj. 
 
 1c. UUllllM. 
 
 No». 3 and 4. [Aon. 5 and 6, 
 
 JMl etl Meal. 
 T l7u. 4« Ibu. 
 
 m ibM. 
 
 !»' "' A 00 IbH. 
 
 .'ib ceiitB. 
 Ic. 6 miilH. 
 
 i>ry Com. 
 7bu. 13 lbs. 
 
 42 IbH. 
 •""'""/lOo IbH. 
 ii8 CCIlU). 
 
 4c. BmillM. 
 
 At tiu; end of the 30 duy.s, a change was made, and the 
 lio;^'H frid ii.H r<jll(iWH : NoH. 5 and 0, that had h<;en led on 
 dry corn, were for the next 2<J dayw given cooked meal ; 
 they consumed 'Z'M pounds of meal, equal to 4 buHhels 
 and 10 Ih.s. of shelled corn, upon which No. 5 gained 40 
 Ihs., and N(j. gained Hi lbs., or together 74 Ibw. 
 
 No.s. '.i and 4, that had been fed on cooked meal, were 
 fiMJ for the same period of 20 days, on dry com ; theycon- 
 Huni(;d 304 lb.s.,or 0'/,^ bu,-ih."l.s, u|)'>n whir;h No, '} gained 
 31 lb.-!., and No. 4 gained 10 Ib.s., or together 44 lbs. 
 
 NoH. I and 2 were still kept on the diet of boiled corn, 
 with about tlie same results as in the former trial. The 
 following table shows the results of the 20 days' trial : 
 
 CoiiHUincd 
 
 G^iii ill ;>ft flays 
 
 Pork to ! liiishd corn. 
 
 C'jrii |)i;r biiHhi;! 
 
 CoMt of |»ork jior lb. . . 
 
 NdH. r> and 0. 
 
 4 bu. 10 i\M~ 
 7* Ibu. 
 17'V,„„ lb8. 
 '.!H ccritH. 
 1 front .') riilllfi. 
 
 Dqi (Join. 
 NoH. iJ ami 4, 
 6 bu. -M lbs. "^ 
 41 IbH. 
 «"/i..o lbs. 
 2S ccntH. 
 4 centH 1 mill. 
 
 it appears that, during the twelve days, when the hogs 
 were fir.st put up together and fed cooked meal, No. 5 
 gained 2r> poundn, but when they were separated, and fed 
 thirty days on dry corn, the same hog gained but 10 lbs., 
 while it consumed 202'/, lbs. of corn. With corn at 28 
 cents per bushel, each pound of pork produced would 
 co.st in this case 10 cents and 1 mill ; but when in the 
 second trial the hog is again fed on boiled meal, it con- 
 sumes but 117 lbs. in 'i^'ulayfi, WQ^gains forty pounds, 
 _^iiil gives the pork gained at a coat of one cent and four 
 mills pe r jpguml. 
 
134 SWINK HUSBANDRY. 
 
 lu the first period of twelve days. No. 4 made a gain 
 of f/iirfif-six pouiuls, or tlnvo })ound8 per day, on the, 
 cookoii meal, ami being eontiiiiuHl on the same food fur 
 the thirty days following, consumed but 1.55 lbs. of 
 meal, and gained thereon Jifti/ pounils, at a ccJst of one 
 cent and three mills for each pouud of gain. But the 
 same hog, when fed on dry corn in the second trial, con- 
 sumed 18'v lbs. in ticcnfi/-iiLc days, and made a gain of 
 only ten pounds, at a cost per pound of tiine cents and 
 one miU. 
 
 In his experiment, Mr. Clay obtained from one bushel 
 of corn, fed in the form of cooked meal, about the same 
 quantity of pork that ho did from tlirce bushels, fed with- 
 out cooking or grinding. In other words, he found one 
 hundred bushels of dry corn made him less pork than did 
 forty bushels of corn, when ground and cooked. By 
 cooking the feed, he was also enableil to make one hog 
 gain lit'ty ])ounds. while another hog, (c(iual in all re- 
 spects), gained on dry corn but ten in)niuls in the same 
 length t)f time. 
 
 That those gentlenum who believe whole or raw corn 
 will make as much or more ]>ork than when cooked, or 
 ground, are not without reasons for the faith that is in 
 them, we arc certain, and the following cx})criments — 
 which we must assume were made as carefully as the 
 others — will not lessen it. The first experiment was made 
 on the farm of the Iowa Agrii'ultural College, by Mr. M. 
 Stalker, tlie Superintendent, and as some, to whom the 
 results were displeasing, have ridiculed it, and sneered at 
 Its author, as a "book farmer," ''theorist," and "col- 
 l»?ge professor," it is fair to remark that those who know 
 him, say he is a gentleman pre-eminently distinguished 
 for his strong common sense, with a thorough practical 
 knowledge of the every-day business of farm life. 
 
 He reports : 
 
 ** On the first day of July, (1875), au experiment was com' 
 
COOKING FOOD FOK SWINE. 
 
 135 
 
 raenced, for testing the comparative value of different kinds of 
 food for pii^s. The food used was dry corn, soaked corn, cooked 
 corn, dry meal, and cooked meal. Five lots of pigs were selected, 
 as nearly uniform as could be taken from a lot of fifty. Three 
 pigs were put in each pen. 
 
 " The pigs were all of Berksiiire blood. They were placed in 
 floored pens, and given nothing but their regular allowance of 
 food, with all the water they would drink. 
 
 "The corn was all shelled . nd weighed. During the months of 
 July and August, each lot consumed fifteen bushels of corn, or the 
 same amount ground into meal. The jngs were carefully weighed 
 each week, and a complete record of the results taken. 
 
 " During the last week in August, when the weather was ex- 
 tremely warm, pens No. 4 and 5 sustained a small loss, while Nos. 
 2 and 3 made a slight gain. 
 
 *' Below are given the results. 
 
 
 =:ii 
 
 Wei^'hedJuly 1 I 4»1| 
 
 Weighed September 1 1 67;jI 
 
 (Jain .TTTTTT. . . .V. I 184 
 
 Gain per bushel I 12.26\ 
 
 Bni No. 2, 
 fed on soak- 
 ed com. 
 
 1-^ 
 
 
 
 ?>m. 468, 503 
 tKJO' 6181 678 
 
 519 
 
 676 
 
 157 
 
 10.46 
 
 140 
 9.33 
 
 150 
 10.00 
 
 175 
 11.66 
 
 "On the 1st day of September the pigs were all put upon full 
 feed, each pen receiving the same kind of food as during the first 
 two months. 
 
 " The experiment was concluded for each pen when fifteen 
 bushels had been consumed, except No. 2, which had consumed 
 but 13$^ bushels up to October 25th." 
 
 
 Weighed September 1. 
 Weighed October 23.. 
 Weinbed October 25.. 
 Weighed Oc tober 28.. 
 Gain 
 
 675 
 870 
 
 :2's 
 
 660 
 '800 
 
 618 
 
 Gain per bushel . 
 
 780 
 1621 
 
 ^1 
 
 . o 
 
 678 
 880 
 
 676 
 
 'sis 
 
 1951 1401 1621 2021 142 
 13.00| 10.341 10.801 13.461 9.46 
 
136 SWINE HUSBAKDBT. 
 
 " Mr. R. L. Bingham, ot Bloomington, Grant county, Wisconsin, 
 states that, after purchasing au Anderson steamer, lie commenced, 
 February 15th, an experiment in feeding nineteen pigs, about nine- 
 teen weeks old, a cross of Berkshire with common stock. Prior to 
 the experiment, the pigs had the run of the farm, and had been fed 
 as much raw corn as ttiey would eat. Then for a period of twenty- 
 eight days, they were fed as before, with corn in the ear and ali 
 the water tney could drink. At the clos^' of this period, the totai 
 gain in weight was 667 lbs., made from feeding 55 busliels ot corn 
 — a gain of 12 lbs. for each bushel of corn. rh:y were then fed 
 with thick mush, made by bringing the water to a boiling heat, and 
 then stirriug in the meal ground fine, with the steam still on, allow- 
 ing the meal to cook five to ten minutes, and adding salt; this was 
 fed to them warm, three times a day, as much as they wouid eat 
 clean. At the end of twenty-eight days they were again weighed, 
 showing a gain of 676 lbs., made on 75 bushels ot corn, less toil— 
 a gain of 9 lbs. for each bushel ot corn consumed. He then put 
 11 of the pigs on raw corn again, continuing to teed the others with 
 cooked meal. May 25, after a trial ot six weeks, those on raw corn 
 averaged a gain of 44 Jibs, each, and the others an average gain of 
 37 lbs." 
 
 Prof. Henry, of the Wisconsin Expeiiment .Statioiuhus 
 surnnuirized all the most carefully made experiments at 
 educational institutions in America, including those by 
 himcelf, on a varioty of foods, and as a whole they afford 
 a wonderfully strong showing against the practice and 
 ])rolit of cooking for swine. The showing is this : 
 
 AfirlcuUiiral E':yjcriment Station, Wisconsin. 
 
 Cookei] barley meal (4 tii;ils) was to uncooked as 93.7 to 100 
 
 Cooked eorn meal (2 ti ials; was to uncooketl as 81.0 to 100 
 
 Cooked corn meal and sh irts (2 trials) was to uncooked as.. 1)6.1 to 100 
 
 Cooked whole coi-u and shorts (2 trials) was to uncooked as. . 85.8 to ioo 
 
 Ontario Agricultural College. 
 
 Cooked peas (2 trials) were to uncooked as 84.9 to 100 
 
 Miclngan Agricidtural College. 
 
 Scalded corn and oatmeal was to wet meal as 101.7 to 100 
 
 Kansas Agricjiltural College. 
 
 Cooked shelled corn was to uncooked corn as 84.0 to 100 
 
 Iowa Agricultural College. 
 
 Cooked shelled com (2 trials) was to uncooked as 82.3 to 'OC 
 
 Cooked corn meal (2 trials) was to uncooked as 79.3 to IOC 
 
 Maine Agricultural College. 
 Cooked corn meal (9 trials) was to uncooked as 82.9 to 100 
 
 " It will be noted," observes Prof. Henry, " that in every in- 
 stance but one, that at the Michigan Agricultural College, thera 
 
COOKING FOOD FOR SWINE. 137 
 
 is a loss resulting from cooking ; in the exception the gain is 
 very slight, being less than two per cent. Even in this case tho 
 meal was not really cooked, but scalded by boiling water being 
 poured on to the meal in a pail and covered up, while the other 
 meal was fed wet with water," 
 
 Many other experiments and a vast fund of valuable 
 information have been collated and very lucidly presented 
 in the elaborate article (Chap. XVIII.) prepared by Mr. 
 Joseph Sullivant, of the Ohio State Board of Agriculture. 
 Iligli'autJiority in such matters has said: ''No man en- 
 gaged in pork-raising can afford to pursue his business, 
 without giving Mr. Sullivant's paper careful investiga- 
 tion. He will find there embodied, in a reasonable space, 
 a carefully prepared and full statement of the experiences 
 of many, that it would require him days and perhaps 
 weeks of study and research to obtain." 
 
 A FOOD COOKER. 
 
 Much money has been wasted in the purchase of vari- 
 ous steamers, boilers, cookers, and similar apparatus, 
 patented, high-priced, and highly extolled, at least by 
 patentees, makers, and venders. Not a few credulous 
 persons have been almost persuaded that, if possessed of 
 one of these wonderful inventions, they could raise hogs 
 on so near no grain at all, that a fortune was inevitable, 
 if the business was well followed. 
 
 While the apparatus of each different make has some 
 point to recommend it, no great number of meritorious 
 features are combined in any one that is simple and 
 cheap, and we have observed that those who invest in this 
 class of merchandise, sooner or later permit it to get out 
 of repair, fall into disuse, and if not left out in the 
 weather, it is stored in some out-building, or corner of 
 the barn, while, in time, the room it occupies is looked 
 upon as being worth more than the old " contraption " 
 itself. 
 
 The royalty to the inventor, the manufacturer's profits, 
 the margins to retailers, together with the considerable 
 
138 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 freights on such heavy wares, make them high in price 
 to the farmers, and the results obtained from them are, 
 in many cases, and from various causes, so unsatisfactory, 
 that tlie entire experiment is regarded as an expensive 
 faihire. 
 
 For successful operation, and simplicity and economy 
 in construction, we regard an apparatus made and used 
 
 Flir. 7. — MK. L'l-\\ > iOOVf COOKER, 
 
 by the late S. H. Clay, of Paris, Ky. , as about as good, 
 if not superior to, any patented cooker that could be 
 bought for two or three times the cost of this. It con- 
 sists of a box two feet wide, and six or eight feet long, 
 and 18 to 24 inches deep, made of two-inch hard-wood 
 plank, and is somewbat Avider at the top than at the bot- 
 tom. The bottom is of heavy sheet iron, nailed firmly 
 to the sides and ends. The box rests on brick or stone 
 walls, high enough to give a plenty of fire-room under- 
 neath. A trench in the ground might do in lieu of walls. 
 The front of the fire-place has a door of sheet or cast 
 iron, with a damper, by which to regulate the fire. The 
 
COOKIHTG FOOD FOR SWINK. 139 
 
 door is of sufficient size to permit the use of refuse knots, 
 and the clmnks found about the farm or wood-pile. 
 
 At the rear end, a cliimney, or suitable escape for 
 smoke, is constructed ; for this purpose large sized stove- 
 pipe answers well. In making the box, thick white lead 
 should be carefully spread on the bottom edges, before 
 nailing on the iron bottom ; this will make it less likely 
 to leak. 
 
 After setting the box on the walls, earth is banked up 
 against them ; the earth should extend up against the 
 sides of the box somewhat, to prevent the escape of 
 smoke and sparks through the walls. 
 
 For drawing off the contents of the box, a sliding gate, 
 with a tin spout under it, is arranged in the front end. 
 A cover, made of inch pine, or other boards, cut on a 
 bevel with the flaring sides of the box, should fit inside 
 of it, instead of on the top, and have some sort of han- 
 dles at each end for convenience in lifting it, 
 
 A few strips of wood, at intervals, on the bottom, and 
 upon them a false bottom, with numerous small perfora- 
 tions, is desirable, as it will prevent meal, or other line 
 food, from burning at the bottom. 
 
 Whenever the box is emptied, it should be cleaned out 
 ander the false bottom, and if emptied of food when 
 ihere is a fire below, some water should be poured in at 
 once, to prevent injury to the pan. 
 
 With such an arrangement as this for boiling corn, 
 Bhelled or in the ear, potatoes, turnips, pumpkins, beets, 
 etc. , with cheap fuel, and feeding the mass when cold, 
 or but moderately Avarm, we believe that almost any 
 farmer can secure a fair compensation for the time and 
 labor expended in cooking a goodly portion of the food 
 for his hogs, and if he cannot do this, surely cooking 
 must be unprofitable. 
 
 When it is more suitable to soak the corn than to cook 
 it, the box will be useful for this purpose, and for heat- 
 
140 SWINB HUSBANDRY. 
 
 ing water and scalding hogs, at butcheriug time, it will 
 indeed be found "• a good thing to have in the family/' 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 HOG HOUSES AND PENS. 
 
 We have seen but few expensive buildings, erected for 
 the use of swine, tluit were in any great degree satisfac- 
 tory ; the more elaborate and expensive these were, the 
 less desirable and practically valuable they seemed to be. 
 
 Large hog houses, Msually bring too many animals 
 together, where lack of room, ventilation, and exercise, 
 favor disease and vermin ; besides, they increase the diffi- 
 culty of making suitable arrangements for pasturing, 
 and fail to afford sufficient sunlight, and general comfort. 
 
 On most farms, a small or large number of swine can 
 be provided with comfortable housing from such material, 
 and of such construction, as will readily suggest them- 
 selves to almost any man fit to be entrusted Avith the care 
 of stock. 
 
 Sleeping apartments should be enclosed on the north- 
 east, and on the west, with a tight wall of stone, boards, 
 logs, or even hay or straw, covered well ; in lieu of some- 
 thing better, hay or straw makes a very good roof. The 
 apartments should be open, and front the south, to admit 
 light and warmth from the sun, and should be provided 
 with fresh bedding. Such house will, perhaps, answer as 
 well as one constructed after the elaborate plans of an 
 architect. Reasonable protection from cold and storm, 
 dry, clean bedding, and fresh air are requisite in sleeping 
 
HOG HOUSES AND PENS. 141 
 
 apartments for swine, and the farms are few where these 
 cannot be secured at a merely nominal cost. 
 A well-known western Ijreeder says : 
 
 " The common plan of erecting large buildings for the rearing 
 and keeping of swine, is objectionable, upon the ground that, 
 during tlic season of the year when a pen is particularly required, 
 such buildings arc usually cold, dull, and dark, receiving the rays 
 of the sun only a few hours each day. 
 
 " Lig^it, air, and sunshine appear to be especially agreeable to 
 the animuls, particularly during the fall, winter, and spring months, 
 and are unquestionably conducive to health and growth. Hence, 
 in erecting buildings, or pens, for hogs, these things should be 
 especially looked after, as a cheerful pen will be likely to give you 
 a cheerful pig." 
 
 For those desiring a breeding house that is somewhat 
 elaborate, we present the one shown on pages 142 and 143, 
 it having probably had as much careful thought given it, 
 by a practical breeder and farmer, as any similar establish- 
 ment in the country, and it is not without many useful 
 features to recommend it. 
 
 It was planned and erected by a gentleman of prac- 
 tical experience for his farm in Wyandotte County, 
 Kansas, 
 
 The building (fig. 8) is 100 feet long by 30 feet wide, 
 built of first quality of pine, upon stone foundations, and 
 arranged with a view to the utmost economy of time and 
 labor in feeding and care of the stock. 
 
 By reference to the ground plan (fig. 9), it will be 
 seen that there are fourteen pens on each side. These 
 are divided by movable partitions, so that one or more 
 pens can at any time be thrown together as one. Each 
 pen is furnished with a fender, to prevent the young pigs 
 from being overlaid and smothered by the sow. 
 
 Through the centre of the building is a drive-way, 12 
 feet wide, through which runs a wooden track and truck- 
 car, for carrying barrels of feed from the steamer and 
 feed rooms. Each of the troughs extends through the 
 
112 
 
 GTTINE atJSBANDBY. 
 
HOG HOUSES AND PEXS. 
 
 143 
 
 
 la 
 
 "3iW3lI' 
 
 liiiizt 
 
 STEAMER 
 
144 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 partition between the pens and the drive-way, so that 
 feed can be poured into them from the outside, without 
 interference from the animals within. 
 
 All of the pens open into outside lots, (it was found 
 impracticable to show them all in the view), the gates 
 between them forming, when open, an alley, through 
 which animals can be readily moved from one portion to 
 another, and manure wheeled out to the compost heap. 
 
 Fresh spring water runs through all the out-lots on 
 cither side of the building, and extensive clover pastures 
 are accessible from the north, east, and south. 
 
 Its owner raised hogs by the hundred, and claims 
 for this establishment that it economizes labor, and affords 
 excellent care and protection to a large number of ani- 
 mals, giving warmth in winter, and shelter and ventila- 
 tion in summer. 
 
 By opening the large doors at each end of the building, 
 and the fourteen small doors on each side, the freest ven- 
 tilation is secured in both directions ; the interior walls 
 of the pens are, of course, but a few feet high, and the 
 space above them open. 
 
 In its owner's opinion, the abundant clover pastures 
 adjacent, and the strong, never-failing springs, constantly 
 supplying an abundance of the purest water, are amonj 
 the chief recommendations of this structure, and thcv 
 are prime necessities to the success of any other swine- 
 breeding establishment. 
 
 Mr. Charles Suoad, Secretary of the National Associa- 
 tion of Swine Breeders, contributes to the Prairie Farmer 
 Annual the plan of an inexpensive house for swine, a 
 view of which is given in figure 10, and a plan in figure 
 11. Of this cnilding Mr. Snoad says : 
 
 "The plan S'lbraitted is one I have just adopted, and, as will be 
 observed, it is so simplj'- constructed, that it can be built by almost 
 any farmer. 
 
 " The importance of a southern exposure, for the continued good 
 
HOG HOUSES AND PENS. 
 
 145 
 
 health and comfort of all animals during the fall, winter, and 
 spring months, will iiardly be questioned. In erecting hirge build- 
 ings on the usual plan, these advantages are almost wholly lost 
 sight of. This building is 70 feet in leugth, and 16 feet in width, 
 
 Fig. 10.— VIEW OF MK. snoab's piggbbt. 
 
 including front piriform. The cost of it will not exceed $100, 
 with lumber from $17 lo $21 per thousand. 
 
 " The roof is of stock boards, witli a groove cut in each edge, 
 and battened. For cooking or preparing food for the stock, or for 
 the storage of grain, a portion of the building may be appro- 
 
 D f D D- 
 
 ROOM 
 21 X 14 
 
 A 
 
 8;; 14 
 
 Fig. 11.— PLAN OF MR. SNOAD'S PIGGERT. 
 
 {Tfie gash doors are designed to swing in, and the gales to siring back over the 
 
 (roughs, while putting in food.) A, A, Pens, 9>y.\i feet ; B, B, Feed Troughs; 
 
 t\ Platform in front, two feet wide ; D, I). D, Doors. 
 
 prialed, adding to the hight, length, or width, to suit the conveni- 
 ence of the proprietor. Such changes in the division of pens 
 may also be made as may be deemed best. 
 " The most important features claimed are : warmth, light, air, 
 
 7 
 
146 SWINB HUSBANDRY. 
 
 anil sunshine. It may be considered an objection, to be obliged to 
 feed from the outside of the building, but it is believed that the 
 comfort and thrift of the animals, will more than compensate for 
 this apparent additional trouble. Many a cold, cutting day, may 
 be made one of comfort and warmth, by taking advantage of the 
 sunshine. 
 
 " In locating the storage and cooking room, the point best 
 adapted to the demands of the case, should be selected. If it is 
 more convenient to do the cooking near the residence, I should 
 have it done there, in pi-eference to using a part of the piggery. 
 
 "Many of the steamers or boilers now in use, can be placed in a 
 very small room, and frequently in the dwelling house, conducting 
 the steam to the point desired for cooking the food, through iron 
 gas pipe. 
 
 " Modifications and changes are necessary in almost all plans, to 
 adapt them to the wants of different individuals and locations." 
 
 An Illinois feeder gives in the Stoch Journal, Feb., 
 1877, the plan of a good feeding floor and pen, as follows: 
 
 " A floor 30 X 30 feet will give room enough to feed 100 to 120 
 hogs, and may be made to do twice that service, by feeding a sec- 
 ond lot after the first have had lime to eat, as I have frequently 
 done for months at a time, and with good satisfaction. The floor 
 should be divided, leaving each part 30 x 15 feet, and each accom- 
 modating from 50 to 60 hogs at once, which, I think, is as many as 
 ought to be fed together. The lumber necessary for such floor is 
 about as follows : 
 
 3 pieces 6x8, for sills, 30 feet long 360 feet. 
 
 16 " 3x8, " loists, 16 " 330 " 
 
 16 " 2x8, "' " 14 " 280 " 
 
 1,800 feet 2x6, "floor 1,800 " 
 
 Common lumber, to enclose (5 feet high) 600 " 
 
 Total 3,360 " 
 
 except posts, which may be set upon the sill or into the ground, 
 and will not add materially to the expense — if on the sill, then 28 
 pieces 4 x 4, 5 feet long, 175 feet, and lumber for division, 100 feet; 
 lumber, all told, 3,635 feet, costing here $13 per thousand, or 
 $47.25 for the whole. Tlie floor might be made of inch lumber, 
 instead of two inch, as in the bill, Init is not so good, nor is it 
 cheaper in the end. 
 
 " The sleeping place I prefer, should not be less than 30 or 40 feet 
 from the feed floor, as less manure will be taken there, and it will 
 
HOG HOUSES AND PENS. 147 
 
 seldom be wet, .as is sure to be the case if adjoining. The sleep- 
 ing house site, as well as the intervening space, should be raised 
 or filled up several inches higher than the surrounding ground, to 
 prevent surf ice water from running in, and also to afford drainage. 
 Set the house on this : 14x 32 feet, [mine is], high side 9 feet, low 
 side 6 feet, shed roof, of common boards ; requiring in all — for 
 siding, roofs, and division — about 1,400 feet of common lumber, 
 and a few pieces of scantling or straight hard wood poles to nail 
 to and support the roof; then add six or eight inches of sand or 
 sawdu^ to the floor and the intervening space, and you will have 
 no mud." 
 
 When but few pigs are kept, or it is desired to keep up 
 a small number for some particular purj)ose, they can in 
 spring, summer, and early fall in many cases, be kept ad- 
 vantageously in small portable pens, which can be moved a 
 few feet every day or two ; by doing this the pigs can have 
 the benefit of fresh clean earth and grass continually. 
 
 For easy handling, such pens should be light, and are 
 best made of pine lumber, the size of the pens varying 
 according to the length of the boards used, from 10 to 
 1 6 feet, and these may be 4, 5 or 6 inches wide — the lat- 
 ter being much the best for strengt::. 
 
 Instead of nailing the lumber to small comer posts, 
 we find it better to make four separate panels, nailing 
 the lumber firmly with wrought nails, to cross-pieces or 
 cleats, of good ©-inch boards, as long as the pen is to be 
 high, three to each panel, and when set up, keeping se- 
 cured by some sort of flexible fastening. 
 
 When nailed together at the corners, the frequent 
 moving of the pen wrenches and breaks the nailed cor- 
 ners loose, and the ]oen becomes a wreck, a result which 
 cannot occur when the parts are jointed. 
 
 If a pen 14 or 16 feet square is built, it is sometimes 
 convenient to have an extra panel, which will fit down in 
 the middle of it, between cleats, which will at once con- 
 vert the one pen into two of lutlf its size. 
 
 These pens should be provided with a convenient 
 
148 SWINK HUSBANDRY. 
 
 trough, and some sort of temporary roof, over one end 
 or corner, at least sufficient to afford a good shade at all 
 times of the day, which, with j^lenty of water, is indis- 
 pensable. 
 
 Wo have found a movable pen or two, quite a necessity 
 in the summer season, but cannot recommend any pen, 
 that is so light and airy as this, for cold weather. 
 
 It frequently happens, on a farm where machinery is 
 used, that four wheels maybe found, from to 24 inches 
 in diameter, that may be fastened to the corners of the 
 movable pen, on which it may be moved with facility 
 from place to place, without much effort, or, suitable 
 wooden wheels, of any size or number, can be made of 
 the transverse sections of a solid hard-wood log, and at- 
 tached to the pen, to enable it to be moved with ease. 
 
 On nearly every farm, one or more well constructed 
 movable pens, will be found a good investment, as a few 
 pigs can be kept clean and healthy in these, if moved 
 often on solid ground, with less trouble than in any other 
 way ; the farmer who tries them will not readily re-adopt 
 the old-time four-rail-squaro pen, that stood in the same 
 place for a dozen or more years. 
 
 In whatever style the pen may be built, we would 
 impress on the builder the convenience and importance 
 of having the troughs level, with cross-slats on top, six 
 or eight inches apart, and arranged so that feed can be 
 po;;red into their entire length from the outside of the pen. 
 These assist in the more eipuil distribution of the feed, 
 enable each animal to secure its share, prevent the 
 stronger from monopolizing and fouling the trough, by 
 standing lengthwise in it, and also enable the attendant 
 to feed without being jostled, or charged upon, by the 
 always importunate swine. 
 
 Feeding a dozen or more hogs, by pouring slops into 
 one end of a long open trougli, is excellent for two or 
 tliree of the strongest animals, but the others usually have 
 
SLAUGHTERING, CURING, AND PRBSERVING. 149 
 
 to stand back, and be content with so much, or so little, 
 of the feed as their more powerful companions reluctant- 
 ly leave, for want of more capacious stomachs. 
 
 Troughs are much more durable if made of good sound 
 oak, or other hard wood, than of pine, as hogs some- 
 times get into a habit of gnawing them for the taste of 
 something that has soaked into the wood, and a piny 
 i;rough is, iu this way, soon destroyed. 
 
 OHAPTEK XVII. 
 SLAUGHTERING, CURING, AND PRESERVING. 
 
 Every experiment we know of, that has been made 
 to ascertain wiiether it was more profitable to the pro- 
 ducer to sell his hogs alive, or kill, and cure the pork 
 on the farm, and then market it, indicates that, in most 
 years, the farmer may realize more profitable returns 
 by marketing the cured product. In fact, we have seen 
 but few iutcilligcnt farmers who did not admit tliis, but 
 as they generally need the money represented in the year's 
 hog crop, by the time the hogs are ready for market, they 
 prefer to realize on them at once, rather than assume the 
 risk and wait the longer time necessary to successful 
 curing, especially with the poor facilities many of them 
 possess for this branch of the business. 
 
 A lot of uniform, well fattened hogs represent cash, 
 any day in the year, at any point in the country ; hence 
 the temptation to dispose of them as soon as the proper 
 condition is reached, is exceedingly strong. This, no 
 doul^t, accounts in a large degree for the fact, that the 
 bulk of the hog crop raised, is sold on foot to drovers and 
 shippers, to be slaughtered at the immense packing estab- 
 
150 SWINB HUSBANDRY. 
 
 lisliinents near large cities, and only so many are killotl 
 ou the farm as are needed for homo consumption. 
 
 In this, we tind the probable reason, why no more at- 
 tention has been paid to finding out and practising meth- 
 ods in killing and curing of pork, somewhat improved 
 over those of former generations. 
 
 We are not a^yare of anything having been written, 
 nor have we seen practised anything, from which we could 
 infer that the farmers of the present time slaughter and 
 dress their swine in a better way than did their forefath- 
 ers. The old method of knocking down, cutting into • 
 the neck to sever the jugular vein, and pierce the heart, 
 scalding in water not quite boiling, into Avhich a quart of 
 ashes has been thrown " to make the hair slip," scraping 
 with knives, hoes, and iron candlesticks, and then lift- 
 ing by main strength, the luiked, slippery hog to the 
 pole or fixture, from which he is to hang for gutting aiul 
 cooling, is yet in vogue on neai'ly every fai'm. 
 
 Those who raise the best of hogs, too often have few 
 conveniences for butchering, and those hurriedly and 
 awkwardly made, generally by the hired man, while the 
 water is heating in the morning. A small expenditure of 
 labor and money would secure such facilities as would 
 render butehering-day much less disagreeable. 
 
 After the hog is secured for sticking, either by being 
 caught, knocked or shot doAAii, it should be turned square 
 on its back, and no twist allowed in its neck, so that the 
 sticker will be sure to sever its main arteries, withi)ut 
 allowing the knife to penetrate, or injure, either shoulder. 
 "V\'o do not deem it best, or even desirable, to pierce the 
 Iviart, but pivfer to let the animal die from loss of blood, 
 which it should do in the space of live minutes, or even 
 U-ss, if the knife has been properly used. When properly 
 j?tuck, the blood should leap from the gash, in a stream 
 us large as the gash itself, while, or before, the sticker 
 removes the knife. 
 
SLAUGHTERING, CURING, AND PRESERVING. 151 
 
 A barrel or cask is, for many reasons, a poor vessel in 
 which to scald a lutg, and any farmer who annually 
 butchers a half dozen good-sized porkers, should provide 
 himself with something less circumscribed and inconveni- 
 ent, to say nothing of the difficulty of keeping a suffi- 
 ciency of water at anything like the proper temperature 
 in it. 
 
 For farm use, the best scalding vessel we have seen, is 
 a heavy box, G or 7 feet long, 30 inches wide at the bot- 
 tom, and 20 or 24 inches deep, with sides somewhat flaring. 
 
 This should have a sheet-iron bottom, well supported 
 on the under side, and be set over a stone or brick founda- 
 tion, in which there is a convenient chamber for making 
 sufficient fire to readily heat the water in tlie vessel 
 above, and by which it can be kept thoroughly heated for 
 the length of time required by any number of hogs. At 
 its rear end should be a pipe, or chimney, for smoke, and 
 the sides may be banked up with earth. The description 
 and engraving of the food cooker in Chap. XV. will afford 
 some useful suggestions for the construction of a vat for 
 scalding. The top of the vat should be about 2 '/, feet 
 above the level of the ground. On a level with the top, 
 on one side, there should be built a strong platform, 
 about G feet wide, and 8 feet long, from which to scald 
 the hogs, and upon Avhich they are to be cleaned, after 
 scalding. At the rear end of this, the ground should be 
 graded up even with the platform, or a sloping platform 
 built, to facilitate getting the hogs on to the main plat- 
 form, after they have been killed. For convenience in 
 lowering the hogs into, and lifting out of the scalding 
 water, two or more ropes, 8 or 10 feet long, sliould be 
 secured to the side of the platform next the water, and 
 resting on these, the carcass can be lowered or raised 
 with comparative ease, by two or three men. On the 
 bottom of tiie vat, there should be some wooden strijis or 
 a slatted frame, to prevent the hog from lying directly 
 
153 SWINE nUSBANDRT. 
 
 on the iron bottom, as with much fire in the furnace, the 
 skin would soon cook or burn. 
 
 The animal is immersed for a few seconds, and then, 
 by means of the rope, raised out of the water, to allow the 
 air to strike it thoroughly, and then immersed again. 
 
 When the hair readily leaves the skin, especially on the 
 head, legs and feet, the hog should be removed from the 
 water as soon as possible, and speedily stripped of every 
 hair. When this is done, the hind legs should be freely 
 cut into, below the gambrel joint, to reach both main 
 cords, under which the gambrel should be entered. The 
 jrambrel should be of strong wood— hiokory or oak is best 
 — and from '^4: to 30 inches in length, according to the 
 size of the hogs, and should be slightly notched on the up- 
 per side of each end, to prevent the legs from slipping off. 
 
 Posts or forks should be so set, that a strong pole rest- 
 ing on them, will be in part over the platform, about six 
 feet from the ground, and on this the hogs can be hung, 
 and slipped along toward either end, out of the way, after 
 they have been thorougly scraped and rinsed down. 
 
 Opening the hogs should be done by some one familiar 
 with such Avork, and no directions here would be of practi- 
 cal value. 
 
 After removing the intestines, the mouth sliould be 
 propped open with something, and all blood carefully 
 rinsed out of the lower jiart of the body and neck. The 
 next jwint, and a most important one, is, to let the car- 
 cass, well spread on the gambrel, hang until thoroughly 
 cooled in all its parts ; unless this is observed, the pork 
 cannot be cured or preserved in good condition, however 
 much pains may be taken with it. 
 
 CL'lilXG AND PRESEllViya. 
 
 To cure meat of any kind, it is desirable to have it from 
 animals that, before slaughter, were in a considerable de- 
 gree matured, or had attained their natural growth. 
 After dressing, as before intimated, the lirst requisite is 
 
BLAXJGHTERmO, CURING, AND PBESEBVING. 153 
 
 to thoroughly cool the carcass, and for this it should hang 
 in a low temperature, for thirty-six or more hours, but on 
 no account should it freeze, especially not after being 
 dressed ; freezing its outer surface, surrounds the interior 
 of the flesh Avith a wall, through which the animal heat, 
 still remaining in and around the bones, cannot escape, 
 and the result will be souring and speedy decay at the 
 centre of hams, shoulders, etc., that outwardly appear in 
 good ©ondition. 
 
 Having so large a per cent of fat, side-pork does not 
 readily become over salt, and there is really no danger of 
 injury to any but the leaner portions of the carcass by 
 too much salt ; yet where salt is dear, economy would 
 dictate that only so much be used as is actually neces- 
 sary as a preservative. 
 
 Salting with and without brine, are both popular 
 methods, and both are so satisfactory, that we deem one 
 as good as the other. 
 
 If brine or *' pickle "is used, no danger is apprehended 
 from insects during the pickling process ; the brine ex- 
 tracts the blood and other juices from the meat, which 
 rise to the surface, (more rapidly in warm weather), and 
 there decomposing, are likely to contaminate the entire 
 contents of the cask, unless given occasional attention. 
 
 The preventive of trouble in this direction is, to occa- 
 sionally subject the brine to boiling ; tlie impurities will 
 rise to the top, and are to be skimmed off ; in this way, 
 the brine may be kept pure, and its strength undimin- 
 ished, for any desired length of time. 
 
 In **dry salting," or salting in barrels, boxes, or piles, 
 without the addition of water to form a brine, it is of the 
 utmost importance that no chance be afforded for flies to 
 deposit eggs, or maggots, or to even come in contact with 
 the meat. If flies have had access to the pork, it cannot 
 then be saved, unless at once put into brine, or kept in a 
 
154 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 temperiitiire so low tlie eggs cannot, hatch, the latter he- 
 ing not often practicable. 
 
 The season of the year, in which meats may be cured 
 on the farm with the best success, is from December 15th 
 to February 15th, tiie interval between these dates atfonl- 
 ing two indispensable conditions, viz. : cool weatiier and 
 immunity from insects and pests. 
 
 Pork is cut to suit the demands of the different mar- 
 kets in which it is sold, and tiie various uses for which it 
 is intended, but the aim shouLl, in all cases, be to have 
 it in such form as to i)ack snugly, and we repeat, never 
 pack doiun tmtil thoroughly cooled throuyhout. 
 
 Where it is intended to use brine, the meat may be 
 packed in layers ; salt, at the rate of eight pounds to 
 each hundred pounds of pork, is to be sprinkled evenly 
 over and around each layer, until the cask is full ; then 
 clean rain or other pure water, is poured in, until all 
 the interstices are filled and tlie meat thoroughly covered. 
 I^one t)f the meat should, at any time, be allowed to re- 
 main above the brine, and in open casks, or tubs, some 
 attention will be necessary to keep weights so arranged 
 as to hold it under. 
 
 Many persons prefer to prepare the brine by adding to the 
 salt some sugar, or molasses, and saltpetre, dissolving these 
 in the water, and pouring the pickle over the packed meat. 
 A very good recipe is as follows : For 100 pounds of pt)rk 
 take 4: ounces saltpetre, 3 })ints common molasses, or '} 
 pounds brown sugar, and 7 pounds clean salt ; when thor 
 oughly dissolved, pour over the meat, which it will cover, 
 if properly packed. Many boil the pickle befoi-e using it, 
 as the impurities from the salt, sugar, etc., will rise, and 
 can be skimmed off ; when this is done, the brine should 
 6e thoroughly cool, befoiv ailding it to the meat. 
 
 Hams and shoulders, to keep well afterwanls, shoulu 
 be in pickle from one to two months ; the length of tim< 
 depending on their thickness. For curing them with- 
 
SLAUGHTERING, CURING, AND PRESERVING. 155 
 
 oiil, brine, ii i'uvorito recipe is : 12 pounds fine salt, 2 
 quarts molasses, y, pound powdered saltpetre; when these 
 are well mixed, they will have about the consistency and 
 appearance ol' dam}) brown sugar, and will be sufficient 
 for 150 ])oun(ls of meat. Uuh hams and shoulders thor- 
 oughly with the mixture, and lay singly on a 2:>latform in 
 a cool, dry place. At the end of the first, and of the sec- 
 ond week, rub them again as at first, and then expose to 
 continuous smoke for ten days. 
 
 A simpler way, in which any portion, or all, of the hog's 
 carcass can be cured, is to put a layer of, say, half an inch 
 of salt on a platform, floor, or the bottom of a large box, 
 or cask, then a layer of meat, on this a liberal sprinkling 
 of salt, and so on, until all is packed and the top well 
 covered with salt. 
 
 Such portions as are not to be smoked, should be stored in 
 brine before insects appear, and the smoked meat may, like- 
 the hams of commerce, be covered securely with canvas, 
 and whitewashed, or packed well in bran, dry ashes, oats, 
 or shelled corn. For considera))le quantities, packing in 
 tight Ijarrels is a good plan, and for family use, a swing- 
 ing shelf, with sides and ends covered with wire cloth, in- 
 side of which the pieces are hung, is convenient, and is 
 also secure aga,inst rats and mice, as well as insects. 
 
 The room where any kind of cured meat is to be kept, 
 should be dry and cool, and the darker the better. 
 
 The juvservative ]n-inciple of smoke is known as creosote. 
 ymoke made by burning corn-cobs is highly esteemed, 
 but those engaged in curing meats on a large scale, con- 
 sider that the purest, sweetest smoke is obtained from dry 
 hickory sap-wood, stripped of its bark. If the smoking 
 ])rocess is too much hurried, the creosote will not have 
 time to penetrate the entire substance of the meat, l)iit 
 ten days steady smoking is, in all cases, sufficient, unless 
 the pieces are unusually large and very thick. 
 
156 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 LA.RD. 
 
 Lard is almost a pure oil, of quite a permament com- 
 position, for which water has no affinity, ami nioisturo 
 and air have but little effect on it. In the rendering of 
 lard from the tissues in whicii it is contained. rnii::menls 
 of membrane and particles o( animal tibreare intermixed, 
 which would, if exposed to the air, vieUl to decay ; but 
 being surrounded by oil ami wholly enclosed, they are 
 kept inactive. Yet, after some time, if abundant, they 
 may become changed and give an odor and taste of decay. 
 
 Care should be exercised as to the purity of lard that 
 is designed to be kept, as well as to the exclusion of the 
 air from the vessel. Stone-ware jars (not earthcji) are the 
 most desirable vessels for storing lard, whicli should al- 
 ways be kept in a cool, dry atmosphere. 
 
 CIIAPTEU XVIII. 
 
 HOG-FEEDING AND PORK-MAKING. 
 
 A great deal of theoretical matter has been published 
 on the subject of feeding aninuds. Chemical analyses 
 of various feeding stuffs, valuable as they are in show- 
 ing their nutritive constituents, are not always con- 
 clusive evidence of their practical value. There are 
 facts connected with digestion and assimilation whii'li 
 can not be arrived at by tlirmical analysis. AVe 
 therefore give a chajder which embodies practical ex- 
 })erience based upon scientitic knowledge. No one 
 familiar with the agriculture of Ohio need be told of 
 the high position which is occupied by the Snllivants; 
 whether as men of science or as practical agriculturists, 
 
HOG-FEEDINfi AND PORK-MAKING. 157 
 
 Avhooe farming operations have been conducted on a scale 
 
 uncqiiuUeil, iit leu.st on this side of the continent. 
 
 The C8say whicii forms this cliaptcr, is by Joseph Sul- 
 livant, Esq., whoso wide experience and thoroughness as 
 an investigator, joined to his liigh schohirly attaJMmeiits, 
 are well knowo to the jwoplc ot Ohio, where he has long 
 been prominent as an oHicer of the State Board of Agri- 
 culture. 
 
 Th (ft ssay appeared in the ** Ohio Agricultural Report" 
 for 18*59. Its value as a coiitri})uti<)u to agricultural liter- 
 ature, and tiic desire to make it more widely known, are 
 sufficient reasons forgiving it a })lace in the present work. 
 
 Having had occasion to inquire concerning the conditions neces- 
 sary to make iiog-iecding protitable, 1 was somewliat surprised 
 and puzzled at all the discordant answers, and therefore undertook 
 to investigate this sulyeet for myself, and propose here to give the 
 results arrived at, and the basis of my conclusions. In this way 
 my labor may at least become valuable by eliciting tAie truth from 
 others, who may be induced to enlarge, confirm, or disprove my 
 work. 
 
 As to my sources of information, suffice it to say, my materials 
 have been collected and elaborated from various chemical works, 
 agricultural books, reports and transactions of societies, news- 
 papers and periodicals devoted to rural affairs, and conversations 
 with intelligent and practical farmers, and from my own expert 
 ence. 
 
 When we come to know the diverse and varying circumstances 
 under whicli pork has been made, we no longer wonder at the dis- 
 crepant opinions and resulls, and clearly perceive they are owing to 
 the different methods pursued, in which, oftentimes, tradition and 
 caprice have governed rather tlian an intelligent understanding of 
 the end in view, and the best and most economical means of 
 obtaining it. 
 
 The farmer who pens his hogs without shelter from the weather 
 and without bedding, or a dry feeding place, and leaves them to 
 wallow and waddle IxiUy deep in tlie mire, where the ears of corn 
 Bink out of sight, and where the hog has literally to root for his 
 living, cannot expect him to fatten quickly and economically. 
 
 Nor can tiie resulls be fairly compared to those obtained where 
 attention has been paid to warmth and protection from the weather, 
 
158 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 a dry feeding place and clean food. And these differing circum« 
 stances probably make all tlie ditference of a fair remuneration 
 for food and labor iu the one case, or little or no profit in the other. 
 
 If we could always command circumstances, we might then 
 reasonably hope for a greater uniformity and reliability of results. 
 
 The discoveries in animal physiology, as well as in agricultural 
 chemistry, throw much light on our subject, and point us to the 
 proper path to be pursued, and the direction in which we must 
 look for a rational explanation of the most successful practices 
 already pursued by intelligent breeders and feeders 
 
 The thorough understanding of the data and principles so 
 acquired, and the proper application of them, will eventually lead 
 us to valuable results. 
 
 We may undoubtedly anticipate much benefit from a more 
 thorough diffusion and understanding of the important principles 
 mvolved in animal physiology and agricultural chemistry, bearing 
 as they do directly on some ot the most vital questions in agricul- 
 ture. There is yet, however, a wide gulf separating theory from 
 practice, although all successful practice is but the right application 
 )f scientific principles, whether we recognize and apply them, or 
 practice in ignorance of them. 
 
 There is one subject oi paramount importance so intimately 
 connected with the question of the best and most economical 
 methods ot rearing and fattening animals on the farm, as to de- 
 mand the most serious consideration; 1 allude to the manure pro- 
 duced and its value in arresting the decreasing fertility of our 
 soils, which is made evident by the gradual, but certain, diminu- 
 tion of the product of our crops, and of which the lessened yield 
 of wheat, in regions formerly productiAC, is a striking example. 
 
 The deterioration of our cultivated lands may be easily account- 
 ed for in the fact that for sixty years we have constantly taken 
 from the ground, and, during this long period, returned litUe or 
 nothing to it. If this condition of things is to be changed, we 
 must alter our methods of farming, and by systematic rotation of 
 crops and by manuring, or by both, endeavor to restore, or, at 
 least, keep in present condition our severely cropped lands, for 
 only by returning some portions of the organic and inorganic 
 matter removed by the crops, can we keep our soil in a fertile 
 state, for, no matter how rich orij;inally or at present, it will, 
 sooner or later, become exhausted unless fed in proportion to the 
 yield required from it. Owing, however, to the great original 
 fertility of our soil, it still jields a fair remuneration for the labor 
 bestowed upon it, and we have not yet reached the point where 
 
HOG-FEEDING AND PORK-MAKING. 159 
 
 manure becomes indispensable to the growing crop, as in many 
 places in Europe, where the question is, not hov>' much meat, but 
 how much manure is produced on the farm ? And where the 
 profit of feeding consists simply in the value of the manure pro- 
 duced by the animal. 
 
 Manure is most valuable in proportion to the nitrogen it con- 
 tains; and as we propose to feed our hogs on a £;rain containing 
 twelve (13) per cent of nitrogenized material, the maiuire should 
 be valuable to us when preserved and applied to our lands. Still, 
 fortunately for us, owing to the cheap production of Indian corn, 
 so far as the profits of feeding are concerned, we may leave the 
 manure so produced entirely out of consideration, and I proceed 
 to the main object of the investigation. 
 
 WILL IT PAY TO FATTEN HOGS ON CORN ? 
 
 In answering this question, the first and most important con- 
 sideration is that of food ; and the value of eqval weights of the 
 different kin.ls used for fattening purposes will depend upon the 
 proportion of nutritive material in each, and the cost of pro- 
 duction. 
 
 Without going into detail as to the ultimate elements, we shall 
 content ourselves with adopting the classification of the proximate 
 principles of food into 
 
 NITROGENOUS AND NON-NITROGENOUS. 
 
 The first representing the plastic material or flesh formers, and 
 the last the heat and fat givers ; classing these last together be- 
 cause the surplus carbon not required for maintaining animal heat 
 an I respiration is stored up in the tissues in the form of fat. 
 
 It h is been proven by direct experiment, that both the nitrogen- 
 ized and non-nitrogenized elements must exist iu due proportion 
 in the food to maintain any animal in a healthy and growing con- 
 dition, and if it were fed exclusively on one or the other it would 
 pine and die. 
 
 However, it is highly probable that if the nitrogenous elements 
 Kisted in many articles of food in less quantities than is actually 
 found to be the case, they would still be sufficient for the wants 
 of the animal organism ; for a very considerable porti<m of the 
 nitrogen ingested in the food passes away in the excreta without 
 assimilation, but at the same time adds additional value to tiie 
 manure. 
 
 Til" following table gives the proportion of this necessary ( le- 
 ment in one hundred (100) pounds of the dtfiereut substances thct 
 
too 
 
 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 are or may bo used in the fattening process, and also the non-nitro- 
 genized or fat giving principles, and the lolal amount of carhon: 
 
 TABLK NO. 1. 
 
 Table oftlie Clvemicul Composition of some Principal Articles of Food. 
 Explanation.— The column of "Heat and Fat Givers " signifies— I. 
 Starch ; II. Sugar ; III. Fat or Oil. 
 
 Name. 
 
 Barley 
 
 Beans 
 
 Buckwheat Seed. 
 
 Cabbage 
 
 Mesh I/,,,/ „.„, ,■„, liiQiiip- \Jtiiier- 
 Water | form- "'"fJH^t -^"^ \olenf. of al wat- 
 larch 
 
 Vo.l 
 13.0 
 
 80.43 
 
 Carrots 80. 5 
 
 Clover (Red) 
 
 Clover (White) 
 
 Cottonseed Cake. . 
 
 (Decorticatetl.) 
 
 Indian Corn 
 
 Linseed Cake. 
 
 M.mKo'.d-wurzel. 
 Milk (New) 
 
 Milk 
 
 (Skimmed.) 
 
 Oats. 
 Peas (Dry). 
 Farsnips . . . 
 
 Poa Pratensis •. . \ 
 
 Timothy.) \ 
 Potatoes 
 
 Rye (grain) 
 
 Turnips 
 
 Buttermilk . 
 
 Lucern 
 
 Bread, 
 
 81.01 
 711.71 
 9.28 
 13.0 
 10.0'> 
 
 Dry. 
 
 87:3 
 
 8S.6 
 
 13.3 
 
 15.0 
 
 85.1 
 
 67.14 
 
 75.0 
 
 1-..0 
 
 1)1.1 
 SJ.l 
 
 C!).<.;.- 
 
 48.8 
 
 8.0 
 36.0 
 10.7 
 
 1.45 
 1.3 
 
 4.37 
 
 3.8 
 
 41.35 
 
 13.0 
 
 33.14 
 
 3.0 
 4.0 
 
 4.0 
 
 IS.O 
 
 33.6 
 
 1.4 
 
 3.41 
 
 1.1 
 
 8.8 
 
 1.3 
 4.0 
 
 8.3 
 
 giva's. 
 
 I. 74.0 ) 
 
 III. 3.0 \ 
 
 I. 57.0 I 
 
 III. 3.0 \ 
 
 I. .53.3 
 
 II. 8.3 
 
 III. 0.4 
 
 I. 7.01 
 
 III. O.OS \ 
 
 I. 0.3 
 
 II. 5.0 
 
 III. 0.15 
 
 I. 8.45 1 
 
 III. 0.6<>( 
 
 1. 8.14 1 
 
 III. 0.69$ 
 
 I. 16.45 / 
 
 III. 10.05 I 
 
 I. 68.5 ) 
 
 III. 7.0 \ 
 
 I. 39.1 ) 
 
 II. 11.93 f 
 
 II. 73.0 
 
 II. 4.6 1 
 
 III. 3.5 \ 
 
 II. 4.6 
 
 III. 3.0 \ 
 
 I. 53.5 \ 
 
 III. 6.5 S 
 
 I. 58.5 i 
 
 III. 3.0 ( 
 
 I. 10.0 i 
 
 II. 3.5 S 
 
 I. 14.15 ( 
 
 III. 0.86 1 
 
 I. 33.5 \ 
 
 III. 0.1 ) 
 
 I. 63.7 
 
 IT. 3.5 )■ 
 
 111. 3.0 ) 
 
 I. 3.3 \ 
 
 II. 3.0 1 
 
 ir. 4.6 I 
 
 III. 1.5 ) 
 
 1. 13.63 1 
 
 ni. o.r:i 
 
 I. 44.5 i 
 
 III. 1.0 ( 
 
 78.8 
 61.8 
 
 58.48 
 
 7.3 
 11.3 
 
 10.1 
 
 10.37 
 
 54.4 
 
 85.3 
 
 67.1 
 
 69.0 
 
 13.5 
 
 8.8 
 68.6 
 63.3 
 13.4 
 16.31 
 33.7 
 71.3 
 
 0.3 
 
 7.6 
 15.58 
 46.0 
 
 0.9 
 3.0 
 1.4 
 
 0.13 
 0.80 
 
 1.33 
 
 3.08 
 
 8.05 
 
 1.5 
 
 7.35 
 
 6.3 
 0.7 
 
 0.77 
 
 3.54 
 
 3.5 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.95 
 
 1.0 
 
 1.36 
 
 1.5 
 0.7: 
 3.0' 
 1.5 
 
 'mat 
 carbon. 
 
 38.60 
 40.84 
 31.74 
 
 3.89 
 6.11 
 
 6.785 
 
 6.607 
 
 46.0 
 
 41.73 
 
 41.7 
 
 3" ** 
 ^687 
 
 6.583 
 
 46.8 
 
 89.35 
 
 6.345 
 
 8.93 
 
 11.468 
 
 39.9 
 
 8.39 
 5.147 
 
 8.98 
 36.93 
 
HOG-FEBDING AND PORK-MAKING, IGl 
 
 The farmer has here a wide range from which to choose, and 
 knowing the cost of production or market price per one hundred 
 (100) pounds of eacl), can determine wliicli to select as the most 
 advantageous for his purpose. 
 
 If the plastic material, or flesh-formers, he assumed as the hasis 
 of value, then equal weights of tiie grain and seed foods will stand 
 in the following order : Cotton-seed cake (decorticated,) beans, 
 linseed cake, peas, oats, Indian corn, rye, buckwheat, barley; but 
 on the basis of fat and heat givers, they stand, first : Barley, Indian 
 corn, ry*, peas, oats, beans, buckwheat, linseed cake, cotton-seed 
 cake. Taking the whole of nutritive matter, they range in the 
 following order: Indian corn, barley, beans, peas, rye, oats, buck- 
 wheat, linseed cake, cotton-seed cake, potatoes. Estimated accord- 
 ing to the total amount of nutritive material, there is not much 
 difference in the theoretical value of several of these substances, 
 but Indian corn heads tho list, and, containing in itself all essenti.d 
 elements for the growth ;in<l fattening of animals, we shall adopt 
 it as our standard of value and comparison. 
 
 Measured, then, by the theoretic value, one hundred (100) pounds 
 of corn arc equal to the weights, as exhibited in the following 
 table : 
 
 TABI.E NO. 3. 
 In feeding value 100 pounds of corn equals- 
 
 Parley lOT 
 
 Beans lO-i 
 
 Rve 117 
 
 Oats 118 
 
 Buckwheat 1 ' i 
 
 Cotton cake 117 
 
 Linseed cake 11.) 
 
 TV.1S 100 
 
 I'otaloi'fi 300 
 
 Mangold-wurzel 66.5 
 
 Parsnips 61H 
 
 Carrots 721 
 
 I'.uttermilk SOS 
 
 Fresh milk SHr, 
 
 Red Clover 66.5 
 
 White Clover 665 
 
 Timothy grass.... 2M8 
 
 Lncern 598 
 
 Cabbage 1018 
 
 [Murnrafcd milk 721 
 
 Turnips 1236 
 
 Althouf^h it appears from the first talile that cotton cake, beans, 
 peas, and linseed cake, contain more of flesh givers than corn, and 
 might very advantageously be fed to young and growing animals, 
 yet, upon the whole, Indian corn stands pre-eminent as the 
 cheapest material accessible to our farmers, and the question now 
 arises — 
 
 now MUCH PORK IN A BtJSHEL OF CORN ? 
 
 In determining this we shall first consider the composition of 
 corn from a theoretic and chemical view, and then, taking results 
 obtained from the vital processes occurring in the human subject, 
 apply them by analogy to the hog, which, of all our domestic 
 animals, most nearly resembles man in his digestive apparatus. 
 
 Looking only at the chemical composition of corn, and separat- 
 
162^ "^^ '^ SWINE HUSBAXDRT. 
 
 o^e:!^ 
 
 \ag it into flesh formers and heat and fat givers, at twelve (12\ 
 per cent of the first and forty-one (41) per cent of the latter, 
 there vvoiUd appear to be nearly tuiny (30) in the bushel of corn, to 
 bo transformed into an equal quantity of pork, through the organ- 
 ism of tlie hog. But I shall presently show that, whatever the 
 value of corn by the chemical standard, it is not all transformed 
 into pork, and therel'ore there is not thirty (30) pounds to be ob- 
 tained from a bushel of corn. 
 
 It has been lU'tcrnuned by competent observers and experiment- 
 ers who have carefully investigated tlie subject, that a certain 
 amount of nitrogenized and non-nilrogenized matter, or flesh 
 formers and heat and fat givers, representing the carbonaceous 
 material, is required to keep an adult man of one hundred and 
 fifty (150) pounds weight in good condition ; that is, neither in- 
 creasing nor diininisliin'5 in weight, under moderate labor, vital, 
 physical, or mental. As the hog performs no brain work, and is 
 supposed to be almost i i a state of rest while fattening, he will 
 certainly require no more of the above elements than does the 
 man, and most probably less. But assuming for him the same 
 amount, it will be amply sufficient to keep a hog of the weight of 
 150 pounds in as good con.lition as the man. But if the hog is to 
 f itten likewise, he must have an additional amount of food, over 
 aid above that which is merely sufficient to furnish the material 
 consumed in respiration, animal heat, and the restoration of all 
 waste produced by the vital processes. 
 
 Before demonstrating what this amount of extra food must be, 
 I premise that the hog is to be sent to market at 300 lbs. weight. 
 
 As he increases from to 300, it is evident his mean weight is 
 150 lbs. ; and if we can determine how much corn is required at 
 this weight, not only to restore the daily waste, but to fatten him 
 o;ie pound per diem in addition, we will have solved the problem 
 of tlie number of pounds of pork in a bushel of com. 
 
 Dr. Edward Smith, an eminent writer and experimenter, is a 
 high authority on vital statistics, and was employed by the English 
 Government to examine and report upon the foods of the laboring 
 classes. 
 
 He states that the actual quantity of carbon contained in the 
 food of English work-people, according to the severity of the 
 exertion, is from 30 to 38 grains per pound of body weight. He 
 also says that 28 grains of carbon to each pound of body weight 
 gives the measure which, when united with the proper amount of 
 flesh formers, is sufficient to keep a man of 150 lbs. in ffood con' 
 ditiou under moderate exertion. 
 
HOG-FBEDING AND PORK-MAKING. 163 
 
 Now, as has already been said, the hog, increasing from to 
 300 lbs., his mean weight is 150, and the amount of carbon neces- 
 sary at this weight will give the mean or average amount required 
 daily for his whole life of oOO days. 
 
 Then 150, the mean weight of the hog, multiplied by 28, the 
 number of grains of carbon daily required, gives 4,200 grains, or 
 9 ounces of carbon, to supply the waste, and keep him in condition ; 
 and 32 ounces, or a litllo less than one and one-half pounds of 
 corn, will furnish the necessary elements. 
 
 But to fatten the hog a pound a day, he will require, in addition, 
 16 ounces flesh and fat material, which will be furnished by two 
 pounds of corn. Thus, 2 lbs. or 32 ounces, contain 12 per cent of 
 flesh formers, and gives 3'*Vioo ounces of this material, and the 
 same 2 lbs. containing 41 per cent of carbon, furnish 13'Vioo 
 ounces, and 3.84x13.12=16.96 ounces, or material for a little more 
 than one pound of pork ; and therefore 54 ounces, or 3 lbs. and 6 
 ounces of corn, is the average daily ration while making three 
 hundred pounds of pork in three hundred days. 
 
 As 3 lbs. and 6 ounces are contained in 56 lbs., or one bushel, 16 
 'Vioo times, there are consequently 16.59 lbs. of pork in one bushel 
 of corn, according to the data here given. 
 
 And if the amount assumed to restore the waste in the hog and 
 keep him in condition be orrect, then there cannot be made more 
 than the 16.59 lbs., because the elements would be wanting. The 
 amount assigned for waste is certainly high enough, most probably 
 too high ; and if we take the amount of carbon and flesh formers 
 simply to keep a man of 150 lbs. in condition when in a stat3 of 
 rest, and modify our statement, the result would be 2^ ounces of 
 flesh formers and 7 ounces of carbon derived from 14 ounces of 
 corn ; but two pounds, or 32 ounces, beimr still required for the 
 fattening process, we have, altog^t'ier, 43 ounces contained in 896 
 ounces, the weight of a bushel of corn 19^- times; equal to 19| 
 lbs. of pork. 
 
 I have found from a careful examination of experiments in 
 feeding, but not herein set forth, that usually not more than on*"- 
 third of the food is returned in the form of flesh, even in well 
 conducted experiments; and 3 into 56 lbs., or one bushel, gives 
 I8V3, and the mean of 16.59, 19.50, and 18.63 gives such a close 
 agreement of theory with the best prictice, that I conclude it is 
 very nearly correct, and that chemistrv and physiology have 
 answered our question satisfactorily, or at least fixed alimitbeyond 
 which it is not likely we will be able to piss, unless under excep- 
 tional circumstances, and the pork from a bushel of corn will not 
 
164 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 exceed twenty pounds, and will approach or recede from this 
 according to circumstances. 
 
 Shelling, grinding, and cooking, the corn cannot increase the 
 existing amount of elements, and hns for effect only to render the 
 matter more soluble and digestible, and make the approach to the 
 figures given more probable, than if the corn was fed in tlic whole 
 and raw state. 
 
 But it lias been well observed, " in every case in which life is 
 concerned, it is not at once to be concluded that, so much material 
 being consumed, there will be uniformly and necessarily so much 
 product." There are so many modifying circumstances to vary 
 our results, that it is not probable our practice will ever give con- 
 stant uniformity or perfect coincidence with theory, or the 
 chemical constituents of the food we employ in slock feeding. 
 And, although we may to a great extent master the circumstances 
 under our own control, there still remain unexplained difficulties, 
 arising from the inherent differences belonging to special breeds 
 and constitutions of the animals we liave to deal with, as well as 
 the anomalies we have to encounter whenever we attempt to apply 
 theory and chemical principles to living organisms and vital func- 
 tions, which perhaps, for a longtime to come, will continue to baffle 
 our best endeavors and prevent uniform and constant results. 
 
 However tliis may be, the conclusions drawn from the scientific 
 principles I believe to be entirely trustworthy, and are satisfactory, 
 to myself at least, as determining, not only the possibilities, but 
 the high probabilities, and it now only remains to see how far our 
 chemical view is confirmed or substantiated by the average results 
 jn actual practice, obtained from a great number of experiments 
 and records; for it would not be safe to draw general conclusions 
 from one experiment alone, however successful. 
 
 We proceed to determine, as well as we can, what answer prac- 
 tice and experiment returns to our question : 
 
 HOW MUCH PORK CAN BE OBTAINED FROM A BUSHEL OF 
 CORN ? 
 
 This is so important a question, bearing so immediately and 
 directly upon the value of com, that we might suppose it had been 
 settled long ago, beyond all controversy. If such be the fact we 
 find no record of it, and it is here our real difficulty commences ; 
 for, as we said in the beginning of this paper, the answers are dis- 
 cordant and apparentlv contradictory. 
 
 I find plenty of opinions and guesses, with loose assertions, but 
 
HOO-FEBDING AND PORK-MAKING. 1G5 
 
 comparatively a very few results based upon actual, reliable, and 
 recorded experiments; and, after a somewhat minute research, I 
 propose now to give the condensed results of my examinations, 
 without going into much detail, remarking, however, that, although 
 finding many records of experiments, 1 have been obliged to re- 
 ject most of them, on account of irregularity and want of pre- 
 cision. In most of them the corn has been fed in a mixed state 
 with roots, milk, potatoes, and other substances, as well as, some- 
 times, whole and raw for part of the time, and then in the form of 
 meal, cooked, and raw ; and I retain those only which give precise 
 results on the heads we have selected for examination. 
 
 RAW COUN FED IN THE EAR. 
 
 Taking the experiment of Clay, of Kentucky, for what it is 
 worth, I remark that I am certain there must have been some 
 error or local circumstance vitiating the result ; for 5f lbs. of pork 
 from a bushel of corn is much the least I l^ave found recorded in 
 any experiment, and much le.ss than was obtained by Reiiick and 
 Buckingiiam, whose hogs roanjed at will through a cornfield, 
 wasting corn, and from the very fact of exercise and labor in get- 
 ting their own food, making far less return than if tlje same corn 
 ha 1 been fed them in a pen. 
 
 Buckingiiam also tried the experiment of feeding corn in the 
 ear to liogs in a pen, and got a return of 8^ lbs. of i)ork from a 
 bushel of corn. 
 
 Thomas I. Edge, of Chester county. Pa., fed 5 pigs, of the same 
 litter, five bushels of shelled corn, and received 47J ^bs. of pork, 
 or O'/s lbs. from the bushel. 
 
 B. P. Kirk fed 49'/,» bushels, and had a return of over 12 lbs. 
 of pork per bushel. 
 
 An experiment at North Chatham, Columbia county. N. Y., 
 gave a fraction less than 12 lbs of pork from a bushel of corn. 
 
 Mr. Ellsworth, of Indiana, had 12 lbs. of pork per bushel from 
 corn fed in the ear. 
 
 Marcus E. Merwin, of Litchfield, Conn., fed 95 days, and made 
 9f lbs. of pork from a bushel of corn. 
 
 A. S. Proctor, of Illinois, fed 61 days, and gained 10 lbs. of pork 
 per bushel. 
 
 Wiseman E. Nichols, Morrow county, Ohio, fed 100 bushels of 
 corn in 63 days, and made from it 1,180 lbs. of pork, or n-V.op 
 lbs. per bushel. This corn, liowever, was simply soaked two days 
 in water. 
 
IGO SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 Mr. Van Loon, of 111., fed 20 days, and made a fraction over 
 9 lbs. of pork from a bushel of corn. 
 
 Mr. Behnier, of Columbus, Ohio, made lOi lbs. from one bushel 
 of corn. 
 
 Even including Clay's experiment, which, I think, ought to be 
 excluded from any comparison of results, the eleven records here 
 presented give an average of over ten pounds of pork from one 
 bushel of corn, fed in the ear and upon the ground. 
 
 An experiment, partly of corn in the ear, which was made at 
 Duncan's Falls, Ohio, in 1859, and communicated to the Ohio 
 Farmer, is so instructive in several particulars, that I insert it here 
 in a condensed form. 
 
 " Last fall, (1859), I turned my hogs into the cornfield on the 
 10th of Septeniber, after having weighed them all ; they were 
 taken out October 3od, weighed and placed in a small lot. During 
 this time, from Sejitember lOlh to October 23d, they ate down 40 
 acres of corn, and, estimating it at 40 bushels per acre, the in- 
 creased weiglit of the hogs, at 4 cents per pound, just jiaid 40 cents 
 per bushel for the corn they had eaten. Two days after, or 25th 
 of October, I selected of the lot one hundred hogs, averaging 200 
 lbs. each ; they were placed in large covered pens, with plank 
 floors and troughs, and fed as follows: The corn was ground up, 
 cob and all, in one of the ' Little Giant' mills, steamed and fed 
 five times a day all they could eat, and in exactly one week they 
 were weighed again, the corn they had eaten being weighed also, 
 and calling 70 lbs. a bushel of corn, and pork as before 4 cents 
 gross, it was equal to 80 cents a bushel for corn. The weather 
 was quite warm for the season of the year. The first week in 
 November I tried tlie same experiment on the same lot of hogs, 
 and the corn only brought 03 cents i)er bushel, the weather being 
 colder." " Third Aveok, same month, same lot of hogs, and corn 
 fed in the same way, brought 40 cents per bushel, the weather 
 getting still colder." " Fourth week in November, Aveather still 
 colder, fed as above, and the corn bronglit 25 cents a bushel. This 
 lot of hogs was now sold and another lot put up, which had been 
 fed in the lot on corn on the cob. This lot was weighed and fed 
 as the last for five weeks in December, and the corn averaged 25 
 cents; the weather being about tlie same as in November." " This 
 lot was weighed again in the midille of January, and the corn fed 
 during that week averaged 5 cents per bushel, the thermometer 
 being down to zero. Again the lot was weighed, and they jxist 
 hJd their own; the temperature bemg below zero from one to ten 
 
HOG-FKEDING AND POIlK-MAKING. lOT' 
 
 degrees." And from the above the writer concludes it will not, as 
 a general thing, i)ay to feed after November. 
 
 An analysis of this experiment shows that the hogs made 10 lbs. 
 of pork to the bushel of corn while hogging it down, September 
 lOtli to October 25th. 
 
 The first \<'eek they were fed on ground corn and cob-meal, 
 stijamed, they made the extraordinary amount of 20 lbs. of pork 
 to one bushel of corn. Second week, weatiier colder, l^i ll)S. ; 
 tiiird week, still colder, 10 lbs.; fourth week, weather colder yet, 
 (ii lbs. of pork to one bushel of corn, and the first lot was sold. 
 
 The second lot of hogs was fed five weeks in December, on the 
 same f^od and in the same way as the first lot, tlie weather being 
 same as in the last week of November, and the corn averaged but 
 0^ lbs. of pork to the bushel. In January, the weather being very 
 cold, the corn returned but 1^^ lbs. of pork per bushel ; and when 
 the; temperature sank to zero and below, the corn returned nothing 
 at all ! Certainly a most instructive cxamph;, showing how the 
 product ran down from 20 lbs. to the bushel to nothing, from the 
 influence of cold alone, and •demonstrating beyond all doubt the 
 a Ivantage and the necessity of warmth and shelter. 
 
 Although ii regular, I will here also insert a remarkable experi- 
 mi;nt by S. M. Wherry, Shippensburg, Pa., and comnmnicaled to 
 th'3 Pnictlc d Fanner, December, 18(J!i. Ilore the oliject was 
 groioth, not fat; and this practical experiment is valuable in several 
 particulars. Ten pigs of one litter, Berkshire breed, were fed in 
 pairs, having been equalized as near as possible. They were 
 twelve weeks and four days old at the commencement of the ex- 
 periment, which continued eiglit weeks, or fifty-six days. 
 
 The first pair gained from five bushels of old shelled corn at the 
 rate of "/loo lbs. per day, making 94 lbs. of pork, or ISVt lbs, 
 from one bushel of corn. 
 
 The second pair ate 280 pounds, (or 5 bushels), of old corn, 
 ground into meal and cooked, gaining 91 lbs., or IB'/a lbs. of pork 
 from one bushel, but less than from the whole and raw corn ! 
 
 The third pair consumed 140 lbs. of meal and 280 lbs. of pota- 
 toes, and gained 93 lbs. 
 
 Tlie fourth pair, fed on 560 lbs. of cooked potatoes, made a gain 
 of 89 lbs.; showing that cooked potatoes, fed alone, have a little 
 less than half the value of corn. 
 
 The fifth pair, fed green corn in the ear, 350 lbs., or 5 bushels, 
 reckoning 70 lbs. to the bushel, and they gained the very extra- 
 ordinary amount of 100 lbs., or 20 lbs. of pork to the bushel. 
 
 During all this experiment, each pig consumed but 2J 11)9 of 
 
1G8 SVVliVE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 corn per diem, or the supposed equivalent in potatoes or green com. 
 This experiment alone, without being supplemented and con- 
 firmed by others, is insutfijieut from which do draw a general 
 application ; but, as tue writer observes, i^Vcry suggestive, iadicat- 
 ing that pigs not pushed, but steadily and moJerately fed, makt 
 flesh instead of fat, at the rate of "^/loo lbs. daily, and thai, bci.ig 
 6o fed, they can do tacir owngiindingaud cooliing with advaaljge. 
 It is evident that the greater the number and the loiigvr the 
 lime experiments are continued, the higher is the probability tuat 
 ihey approach to a reliable and constant average, and if we aJmit 
 that the thirteen experiments here set forth, were made oa adequate 
 numbers and continued a suflicient length of time, they should 
 have great weight in establishing a general rule, which, in this 
 case, would be that one bushel of corn, (or 56 lbs. of corn), fed on 
 th? ear, returns, under ordinary circumstances, ten pounds of pork. 
 But, intending to be cautious and modente, we shall assume, for 
 comparison and calculation, that one bushel raw and whole corn 
 malves 9 lbs. of pork. 
 
 RAW MEAL 
 
 is supposed to increase in value over raw corn to the extent of 33 
 per cent ; this is the opinion and statement of the Shakers of Leb- 
 anon, New York, after a trial of thirty years. If this increase 
 be true, then, according to our basis of 9 lbs. of pork to one bushel 
 of corn, the corn, when ground, should make 13 lbs. of pork. 
 This agrees with an experiment of Mr. Thomas Edge, making 
 60 lbs. of pork from five bushels of meal. 
 
 And this rate of return coincides with two elaborate and extend- 
 ed experiments — one in England and one in this country. 
 
 I give here the result of these experiments by Prof. Miles, or 
 the Michigan Agricultur il College, and by Mr. Lawes, of Rotham- 
 stead, England; and a fall account of these very initeresting and 
 instructive experiments by Prof. Miles may be found in the " Ohio 
 Agricultural Report for 1868," and that of Mr. Lawes in the " Jour- 
 nal Royal Agricultural Society of England," vol. xiv. 
 
 The experiment of Prof. Miles commenced May 2d, and ended 
 December 15th, embracing a period of 203 days, or 29 weeks, and 
 was made on six grade Essex pi^rs, two weeks old, and from the 
 same litter, and were divided into two pens of three pigs each. 
 During the first few we^ks they were fed on a mixed diet of milk, 
 meal, and a portion of roots, and therefore we select the last 
 period of 20 weeks, during which they were fed exclusively on 
 corn meal. The three best pigs, one from pen A and two from 
 
HOG-FEEDlKG AND PORiC-MAKING. l69 
 
 pen B, were killed December 15th, and averaged 145 lbs. each ; and, 
 deducting the original weight at the eommencement of the experi- 
 ment, each gained in the total period of 203 days 141 lbs, or 69Vi„» 
 lbs. per diem — during a part of this time, (8 weeks), being fed on 
 a mixed diet. One of the pigs from pen B having died, the other 
 two were fed for 20 weeks on corn meal, and in 140 days gained 
 205i lbs., or 98^Vioo lbs., each pig, over their original weight, and 
 at the rate of 73'/ioo per diem for this period. In the 20 weeks 
 935i lbs. of meal were consumed, equal to 16'/] o bushels of corn, 
 and giving a return of 12Vio lbs. of pork for each bushel, and re- 
 quiring 4^ lbs. of meal to make one ot pork. 
 
 The experiment of Mr. Lawes, of England, commenced Febru- 
 ary 2d, 1850, with 36 selected pigs in twelve pens, and were fed 
 on several prescribed dietaries. The pigs were 9 to 10 months 
 old, and at the time of selection differed among themselves but a 
 pound or two, and when the experiment began averaged 143^ lbs., 
 but a fraction less than those of Prof. Miles when his were killed, 
 and the two might be considered in the light of a continuous ex- 
 periment — Lawes beginning were Miles ended. 
 
 We select for investigation and comparison pen No. 5, contain- 
 ing three pigs, averaging 143V lbs., because they were fed exclus- 
 ively on corn meal. 
 
 The experiment lastoil 8 weeks, or 56 days, during which time 
 each pig consumed 362 lbs., or 6^*/oo bushels of meal, and e^/ioo 
 lbs. dally, and gaining 79'^''/io.' lbs. of weight, or l"/ioo lbs. per 
 diem, and at the rate of 12 lbs. per bushel; a very remarkable 
 aTjreenient betwixt Edge, Miles, and Lawes. 
 
 An analysis of the experiments, both of Miles and Lawes, shows 
 very clearly a rapid decrease in the rate of consumption of food to 
 a given weight of animal as it fattens ; and, although less food is 
 eaten, it takes more of it to produce one pound of increase, so 
 that, as the animal approaches his maturity of fatness, or, as it is 
 termed in England, " ripeness," he may reach a point where the 
 return in pork will not pay for the corn consumed. This point 
 should be watched for and the pig at once sent to market. 
 
 At the conclusion of Miles' experiment, the pigs increased less 
 than two per cent in a week. 
 
 Prof. Miles remarks of his experiments : 
 
 " In the manufacture of pork the best return of tlie food con- 
 sumed will undoubtedly be obtained by liberal feeding during the 
 early stages of growth ; and we cannot reasonably avoid the con- 
 clusion that the same rule is applicable to all animals reared for 
 the purpose of the butcher. 
 
170 
 
 SWINE HUSBANDEY. 
 
 •' As animals are employed to convert the vegetable products of 
 the tarm into animal products of greater value, the greatest profit 
 in fattening may reasonably 1)3 expected from liberal feeding dur- 
 ing the period of growth, in which the organs of nutrition are 
 capable of converting the largest amount of material into animal 
 tissues in a given time." 
 
 And Mr. Lawes established by his experiment " that the larger 
 the proportion of nitrogenous compounds in the food, the greater 
 the tendency to increase in frame and flesh; but that the maturing 
 or ripening of the animal — in fact its fattening — depended very 
 much more on the amount, in the food, of certain digestible non- 
 nitrogenous constituents." 
 
 And this accords perfectly, I believe, with all experience. 
 STEAMED OR BOILED CORN. 
 
 I find a number of experiments in which steamed or boiled corn 
 entered as part of the fool, for longer or shorter times, and mixed 
 with other things, and only three experiments conducted wholly on 
 boiled corn ; one by Clay, gaining 14 lbs. 7 oz. of pork from a 
 bushel; one by Van Loon, of Illinois, who obtained 18 lbs.; and 
 the other from Montgomery county, Indiana, giving a fraction 
 less than 13 lbs. of porli to the bushel of corn ; and all three give 
 an average of a little less than 15 lbs. 
 
 Tlie Indiana experiment has most of tlie elements of time and 
 numbers to make it reliable, and I give some analysis of it. 
 
 Eight pigs from one litter wore put in a pen when one week old 
 and fed nine months, consuming 320i bushels of corn, and gain- 
 injr 2,644 lbs. of pork, averaging a gain of 330t lbs. each pig, or 
 I'/s lbs. each per day for the whole period; and the following 
 tabular statement shows the amount of corn fed during each 
 month, the gain in weight, the number of pounds of pork made 
 to one bushel, and the amount of corn required to make one 
 pound of pork : ^___ 
 
 No. of JHonth. 
 
 Amount 
 
 consumed. 
 
 Total gain. 
 
 Ist month 
 
 2d " 
 3d 
 
 4th " 
 
 5th " 
 
 6th " 
 
 7th ♦' 
 
 8th " 
 
 9th " 
 
 Bushels. 
 15 
 34 
 26i 
 27 
 29i 
 27 
 26i 
 26 
 21 
 
 Pounds. 
 168 
 224 
 272 
 316 
 352 
 360 
 350 
 327 
 275 
 
 Average. 
 
 Pounds of. iPounds 
 pork per ■corn to om 
 bus/iel. poundpork 
 
 11.85 I 4.77 
 
HOG-FEEDING AND PORK-MAKING. 171 
 
 Observe how regular is the increase in weight up to the eighth 
 month of their age, when they averaged 241|^ lbs — a regular de- 
 crease in the amount of food from the sixth month of feeding, 
 and a diminished quantity of corn to make one pound of pork, 
 instead of an increase, as in Miles' and Lawes' experiments, which 
 goes to corroborate what we have already said, that we meet with 
 some unaccountable anomalies which, as yet, we are unable to 
 reduce to any uniform rule. Perhaps these pi^s had not yet 
 reached their full capacity of fatness. 
 
 I add here two extracts, one from " Evening Discussions " at the 
 recent New York State Fair, 1867 ; subject : " Cooking Food for 
 Doiflestic Animals." 
 
 Hon. G. Geddes. of Syracuse, New York, said : " He had thor- 
 oughly proved, years ago, that cooking, independent of grinding^ 
 at least doubled the vahie of food.''^ 
 
 " George A. Moore, of Erie county, New York, said he had fully 
 s.itisfied himself that the value of food was tr'pled by cooking.^'' 
 
 I quote from " Transactions of the Americrin Institute, 1864." 
 Prof. Mapes snys : " Tbe experiment often tried has proved that 
 18 or 19 lbs. of cooked corn is equil to 50 lbs. of raw com for 
 hog feed, and that Mr. Mason, of New Jersey, found that pork fed 
 with raw grain cost 13^ cents per pound, and that from cooked 
 corn 4i cents." 
 
 COOKED MEAL. 
 
 I find here, as in other cases, much of assertion, but backed by 
 more of experiment ; some claiming, oii apparently good grounds, 
 that grinding and cooking the meal thoroughly, doubles the value 
 of the raw corn. 
 
 Rejecting here, as elsewhere, the many mixed and irregular ex- 
 porunents, we find that Clay obtained 17| lbs. of pork from a 
 b isiiel of corn so prepared ; Marsh, of Glen's Falls, New York, 
 10} lbs. ; A. G. Perry, 18 lb?.; Thomas I. Edge, Chester county, 
 Pa., I6V5 lbs. ; Nathan G. Morgan, New York, 20 lbs. ; Bucking- 
 ham of Illinois, 20 lbs. ; Jonathan Talcott, Rome, New York, 
 17.'Vioo lbs.; Robert Thatcher, Darby, Pa., made two experiments — 
 one on five very or Unary pigs, getting 16yio lbs. ; the other on five 
 superior Chester pigs, and gained 17''Vioo lbs. from a bushel of 
 cooked meal, and remarks : " The surprising gain for food con- 
 S'lmed was the result of very careful feeding, clean and warm bed- 
 din t, and a tight house." 
 
 The average of all these experiments is 17**/ioo lbs. per bushel. 
 
 David Anthony, of Union Springs, New York, convinced him- 
 
173 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 self by experiment, that when corn fed in the ear was worth 62 
 cents, ground into meal it was worth 87 cents, and ground into 
 meal aud cooked, one hundred and eighteen (118) cents, the last 
 being 91 per cent better than raw corn. 
 
 Fro.n an examination of the records at my command, I think 
 that, taking the return of pork from a bushel of corn at nine 
 p juuds, there can be no doubt that corn ground into meal and fed, 
 increases in value about 33 per cent over corn fed in the ear. That 
 thoroughly steaming or cooking the whole; corn, raises its value to 
 but little less than that of cooked meal, which I estimate at 66 
 per cent over raw corn fed in the ear. 
 
 I arrive at this conclusion, not only from the experiments! have 
 herein set forth, but from an examination of quite a number not 
 here given, on account of their mixed and irregular methods. It 
 Is true that grinding, steaming, or cooking the corn can in no wise 
 add a single atom to the elements already existing, and raises its 
 value only by rendering the whole nutritive matter available by 
 Viaking it more soluble and of easier digestion, so that the maxi- 
 ^lum of nutrition is more readily and certainly obtained. 
 
 I conclude that nine pounds of pork from a bushel of raw corn 
 fed in the ear, twelve pounds from raw meal, thirteen and a half 
 pounds from boiled corn, and sixteen and a half pounds from 
 cooked meal, is no more than a moderate average the feeder may 
 expect to realize from a bushel of corn under ordinary circum- 
 stances of weather, with dry and clean feeding pens, All this is 
 within the amounts we have shown to be probable and attainable 
 upon our chemical basis. 
 
 Higher percentages have been frequently obtained in practice 
 than any we shall now assume as our basis in making practical 
 application of our researches. And if it be true that what has 
 once been done can be done again, there is great encouragemc nt 
 for the feeder to study and master the circumstances that will give 
 the higher results. And in this connection, it is important to con- 
 sider that animals live constantly in a medium colder than them- 
 selves for the greater part of th ■ year, and that the lower temper- 
 ature continually abstracts and wastes animal heat which, in the 
 fattening process, must be maintained in proportion to the temper- 
 ature in which they Vive, and that this heat is obtained from the 
 food which, under other circumstances, would be transformed into 
 fat and stored up in the tissues. 
 
 And we can readily perceive that warmth and shelter from the 
 vicissitudes of the weather is not only important, but almost in- 
 
HOG-FEEDING AND PORK-MAKING. 173 
 
 dispeflsab\e, and without them we cannot expect the highest return 
 for the food consumed ; and of the truth of this the Duncan's 
 Falls experiment is a most striking and instructive example. 
 
 Having established the fact from chemical elements, that 16 to 
 19 lbs. of pork are possible, and tliat 18 and 30 lbs. are not unfre- 
 quent in actual practice, under the circumstances indicated, we 
 shall not be deemed extravagant if we take 15 lbs. per bushel ns 
 the basis of our calculations in ascertaining per pound tbr 
 
 CO.-iC OF PORK, 
 
 whioh, it is obvious, must depend upon the cost of corn and feed- 
 ing; and in ascertaining this, we intend assuming such a scale of 
 wages as would in any part ot the country secure the necessary 
 labor, supposing, as we do, that it is all to be hired, and that the 
 laborers board themselves ; ana if our estimates are too high, or if 
 the farmer, with his own labor and teams, can reduce the cost 
 below what we state, it will be easy to correct our tables and make 
 them conform to the reduction, wnich would only increase the 
 farmer's margin for profit. 
 
 We assume the wages of a hired man at $3 per day, and two 
 horses with plow or wagon to be worth the same, or four dollars 
 a day for the whole 
 
 TABLE NO. 3. 
 
 Showing ihe cost of raising an acre of corn ; one man and team 
 plowing two acres per day : 
 
 One acre plowed costs $2.00 
 
 Harrowing 8 acres a day, 1 acre costs 50 
 
 Planting with machine 8 acres, 1 acre costs 50 
 
 Seed for 1 acre 30 
 
 Double shovel plowing, or cultivating 6 acres — 1 acre costs 66'/3 
 
 cents, or cultivating one acre three times 2.00 
 
 Deeper plowing, hoeing, extra labor, or rent, as the farmer 
 
 chooses, or as the season demands 3.00 
 
 Total $8.30 
 
 whether raising 35 or 60 bushels to the acre, the labor being the 
 samr — that is, the farmer is obliged to bestow upon his crop dur- 
 ing the season a certain amount of labor. 
 
 Whatever difference of opinion about the distribution of the 
 items here, the sum total for raising t'ae crop I believe to be ample 
 and ought to command a return of 60 bushels. 
 
174 
 
 BWINB HtJSBANDBY. 
 
 TABLE NO. 4 
 Cost qf Gathering and Feeding. 
 
 Husking 33* bushels per day to the hand, at $2.00 6 cts. per bu 
 
 Wages of man and team, at $4.00 per day, hauling and 
 
 cribbing 150 bushels 2.6 cts. per bu, 
 
 One man with steam power will shell, grind, steam, and 
 feed 75 bushels per day, wages $2.00 ; fifteen bushels 
 coal at 15 cents per bushel, $2.25 5.6() cts. per bu. 
 
 14.36 
 Or say H'Vioo cts. per bu. 
 
 which we will take for our future tables. 
 
 TABLE NO. 5. 
 
 Shows cost of corn per bushel at 
 to 60 bushels per acre : 
 
 35 bushels 2Si cents. 
 
 45 " m " 
 
 55 " 15 " 
 
 1.30 per acre, and raising 35 
 
 40 bushels 20i cents. 
 
 50 " 161 " 
 
 GO " 13» " 
 
 By adding Ihe coat of grinding, steaming, and feeding, to that of 
 raising and cribbing, avc have the total cost of the corn in 
 
 TABLE NO. 6. 
 
 3"> bushels per acre cost 37.50 cents per bushel. 
 
 40 
 to 
 50 
 
 60 
 
 TABLE NO. 7. 
 
 34.83 
 31.66 
 30.00 
 29.00 
 28.00 
 
 Showing the gross value of a bushel of corn when fed on the 
 cob, or in the form of raw meal, boiled corn and cooked meal, 
 rating the return of pork per buslicl at 9, 13, 13f, 15 lbs., and sel- 
 ling from 4 to 10 cents per pound : 
 
 Pounds of pork from 1 
 bushel of corn. 
 
 Value of pork from 4 to 10 
 cents per pound. 
 
 On the car 
 
 Raw meal 12 
 
 Boiled corn 13i 
 
 Cooked meal 15 
 
 45 
 60 
 67* 
 75 
 
 54 
 
 9 I 10 
 
 63, 72 81 j rO, ■) Gross value 
 84 96 108 120 ( of a bushel 
 94 108 1214 13.^ cf"?--! JJl 
 lOo 1-0. lo5 \ 150 J ^-fcut*. 
 
H0a-FKBI3ING AND POUK-MAKINQ. 
 
 175 
 
 TABLE NO. 8. 
 
 Showing cost per pound of pork, the number of bushels of corn 
 per acre, cost per busshel of raising and feeding, and return in 
 pork — being given according to our calculations: 
 
 Bushels per acre. . 
 
 a5 
 
 40 
 
 45 1 50 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 Cost per bushel. .. 
 
 87.50 
 
 34.83 
 
 31.66 :jo.oo 
 
 29.00 
 
 28 
 
 CentP. 
 
 Pounds of r 
 pork return- J 
 c(l per 
 bushel. 1 
 
 ^ M. .. 
 
 12 
 
 4.16 
 :il2 
 
 3.87 
 2.'.K) 
 2.58 
 2.37 
 
 3.51 
 2.64 
 
 2.34 
 2.07 
 
 3.33 
 
 2. .00 
 2.22 
 2.00 
 
 3.22 
 2.42 
 2.15 
 1.W3 
 
 3.11 
 
 2.33 
 2.07 
 
 1.87 
 
 Cost of pork in 
 |- cents, and '/loo 
 of a cent. 
 
 TABLE NO. 9. 
 
 Showing the total amount of pork per acre, the number of 
 bushels of corn and return of pork per bushel, being given accord- 
 ins to our calculations : 
 
 Pounds of pork from| """^"'^ "^ '^°''" P^*" ^"'•^- 
 one bushei of corn. 35 40 45 .50 I .55 | 60 
 
 On the ear I 9 815 
 
 Raw meal 12 4-0 
 
 Boiled com Hi! 472 
 
 Cooked meal 'ir> I 5'}") 
 
 lifiO 
 480 
 .040 
 600 
 
 405 
 .040 
 007 
 675 
 
 4.50 405 
 
 600 660 
 
 675 742 
 
 7.50 825 
 
 540 
 720 
 810 
 900 
 
 Total pounds of 
 pork f)cr acre. 
 
 If we find tlie price per pound of pork in Table No. 8 cor- 
 responding to any particular yield of corn per acre and pork per 
 bushel, and deduct it from the market price at any given time, and 
 multiply by this difff'rence the nnml)erof pounds of pork obtained 
 from the bushel, we have the net profit on a bushel of corn. Tlius, 
 at ^tTt bushels per acre and 1.3^ ll)s. per bushel, we find the cost of 
 pork per pound to be 2.M cents. Supposing pork to be selling at 
 cents per pound, the difference is .3.66 cents; multiplying \^\ lbs. 
 (tiie yield per bushel), by which we get 49.4 cents as the profit per 
 bushel of corn. If, as before, we find the price of pork in Table 
 No. 8, and deduct from market price, and multiply by this differ- 
 ence the number of pounds of pork per acre, as found in Table 
 No. 9, corresponding to any given yield of corn per acre, and 
 pork per bushel, we have the net profit per acre from i)ork. Thus, 
 we find by table No. 9, at 45 bushels per acre and 1.3i lbs. per bushel, 
 the amount of pork per acre to be 607 lbs. Multiplying this number 
 of pounds by 3.66 cents the difference between cost and selling 
 price, we have $23.21 as the profit per acre of corn. 
 
 We have already satisfactorily shown from chemical data above 
 
176 
 
 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 that, aftci allowing a sufflciency of the elements to restore the 
 daily waste and keep a hog in good condition, there is enough in 
 the corn to bring him from to 300 lbs., at the rate of 15 lbs. of 
 pork per bushel of corn. And practice has shown that there is 
 more than we have assumed in our calculations, and adhering to 
 our maximum of 15 lbs. as one we believe to be easily attainable, 
 and supposing also that the feeder will strive for the higlier fsult, 
 we have prepared a table to show what profit he maye.vpect for 
 his corn with good cultivation, and getting a return of 15 lbs. of 
 pork from one bushel of corn. 
 
 TABLE KG. 10. 
 
 j Whole cost of corn per bushel according to product 
 per acre, at — 
 
 SelUntr price of 
 
 pork per pound iu 
 
 cents. 
 
 9. 
 10. 
 
 S5 ! 40 45 
 
 50 
 
 55 
 
 60 
 
 Bushels. 
 
 Cents. 
 
 
 
 
 Cost per 
 
 3.. .50 34.88 31.66 
 
 30.00 
 
 29.00 
 
 28.00 
 
 bushel. 
 
 2::.m 25.17 
 
 28.84 30.00 
 
 3100 
 
 32.00 
 
 1 
 
 37.50, 40.17 
 
 42.34 45.001 46.001 47.001 
 
 1 
 
 /2.50' 55.17 
 
 58.34 60.00; 61.00 62.00 
 
 Net pro- 
 
 67. .50, 70.17 
 
 73.34| 75.0()| 76.00 77.00 
 
 \ fit per 
 
 b2.50| &5.17 
 
 88.34 90.00, 91.00: 92.00 
 
 bushel. 
 
 97.50; 100.17 
 
 103.34' 105.00 106.00 107.00 
 
 
 110.50i 115.17 
 
 118.34 
 
 120.00 
 
 121.00 
 
 122.001 
 
 _ 
 
 It appears from our first and second tables, given in a former 
 part of this paper, that, from the chemical elements, there is but 
 little difference in the fattening value of several of the foods there 
 given, bnt, in so far as they contain more of the phosphates and 
 flesh formers than corn, they could be very advantageously fed lo 
 young and growing aninnds; but the cost of producing equal 
 weights of these must, after all, determine their economic value 
 in the fattening process. 
 
 And now, having satisfactorily to ourselves, at least, set forth 
 and established the close agreement of theory with the best prac- 
 tice, not by guesses and loose opinions, but by solid facts and ex- 
 periments we might here leave the subject for each one to secure 
 the results we have shown to be attainable by the methods best 
 suited to his own circumstances and according to his own notions. 
 But, in consequence of important questions which now arise, we 
 must pursue the subject a little farther, even if it lead us, for the 
 moment, from all well-established facts iotothe field of hypothesis 
 and conjecture, for we have not liere any recorded experiments to 
 assist us in determining a question of much practical importance — 
 
HOG-FEEDING AND POUK-MAKING. IT? 
 
 THE RIGHT AGE AT WHICH TO FATTEN A HOG ? 
 
 Whether it is better to keep him as a store or stock animal, in 
 moderate order and growinj; condition, on grass and clover with 
 a little corn during winter, until he is matured in growth, at 12, 
 18, or 20 months old, and then in three or four months feed him 
 up to 400 or 500 pounds, or to winter him only and fatten him in 
 the spring ; or is it best to push the pigs from birth and feed them 
 up to 300 lbs. at nine or ten months old? 
 
 In order, if possible, to get some light on this point of our in- 
 vestigation, let us take two pigs from the same litter, as near alike 
 as possible, subject them to the same treatment and the same food, 
 terminating one experiment at nine montlis and the other at 
 eighteen. ^Then with pigs littered, say April 1st, let them run 
 with their mother on grass and clover until October 1st, a period 
 of six months, or 183 days. It will be reasonable to assume they 
 will make three-fourths of a pound of daily growtii and increase 
 for that period, or weigh 138 lbs. each. 
 
 We will now take pig A and put him up to fatten, and, as three 
 months or thirteen weeks are amply sufficient to ripen a hog, we 
 will full feed him that length of time, or 92 days. We also desire 
 to bring him up to 300 lbs.; and, as he already weighs 138 lbs., 
 there remain 162 to be added, and, if our estimate of 15 lbs. of 
 pork from one bushel of corn ground into meal and boiled be cor- 
 rect, he must eat 10 Vs bushels of corn and get a daily increase of 
 one and three- fourths (If) pounds, and so, having arrived at 300 
 lbs., we dispose of him. 
 
 Pig B, also, at the end of six months, or the firpt of October, 
 weighs 138 lbs., same as pig A, but, instead of being put to fatten, 
 we wish to continue him to May first, or 212 days, and, gaining at 
 the same rate as before — that is, three-fourths pounds daily -as 
 from April to October. During this period, from October to May, 
 he consumes 11^ bushels of corn, gains 159, and then weighs 297 
 lbs. Again, he pastures from May to October, gaining, as before, 
 138 lbs., and now, at Octobe;- first, when lie is put up to fatten, 
 weighs 435 lbs., and, being fed for the same period as was A, or 92 
 days, and making the same increase, he now weighs 594 lbs., and 
 has eaten altogether a little over 22 bushels of corn and twelve 
 months of pasture. Pig A, for six months pasturage and 10 Vs 
 bushels of corn, returns 300 lbs. of pork, while pig B, for twelve 
 months pasturage and 22 busliels of corn, returns but 594 lbs. of 
 pork — being a difference of six (6) pounds of pork and one-fifth 
 of a bushel of corn in favor of feeding two hogs like A rather 
 
178 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 than one as B, making the same amount of pork and returning 
 the money invested in one-half the time. 
 
 From the fact that both Lawes and Miles found, as the hog ap- 
 proached ripeness, or full maturity of fatness, the quantity of corn 
 to make a pound of pork increases, and the time also, it may be 
 that our suppositious cases are very near the truth ; I think they 
 are, and that it will take Jess food to make 600 lbs. of pork from 
 two animals than from one. And the rates of increase and total 
 wi'ights given of the animals is rather strengthened and corroborated 
 by the fact that from an examination of the weights given of 
 several hundred extra heavy hogs (upwards of 350,) of the age of 
 20 and 33 months, very few reached 600 lbs., and none made an 
 increase of one pound a day for that whole period. 
 
 There are many experiments proving that hogs of 18 to 83 
 months frequently increase during the fattening process at the rate 
 of 2.V to 3 lbs. a day, and even more ; and that young hogs are very 
 often made to weigh 300 lbs. and over at the age of 9 to 10 months. 
 
 There is no doubt a certain proportion betwixt muscle and fat 
 while feeding, which will be found to give the most advantageous 
 results ; but it is so apparent that, to obtain great weight in any 
 animal, we ought to have a good supply of bones and muscle to 
 begin with, and a sufficient frame-work on which to build and lay 
 the fat, that I think it would be advisable to devote the first few 
 mouths of the pig's life to growth rather than for fat-mak'n{/, and 
 to this end S. M. "Wherry's experiment, on page 183 furnishes a 
 good example. And it will be well to remember that Miles' pigs, 
 with an insufficient frame-work to carry more, were ripe at seven 
 months old, with a weight of 145 only pounds, having been pushed 
 from the start. 
 
 Having shown how miich pork is to be expected from a bushel 
 of corn, prepared and fed in various ways, we will devote a brief 
 space to considering the expense of preparation. It will be ob- 
 served that in estimating the lowest cost price of pork, we assumed 
 15 lbs. as our maximum return from a bushel of corn. 
 
 But in obtaining this result we have shelled, ground and cooked 
 our corn meal with steam power, and it may be said, with truth, 
 perliaps, that this can only be applied economically on a large 
 scale — say to feeding upwards, of 350 head — to feed less would 
 hardly justify the necessary outlay for machinery and apparatus, 
 and we must try some other plan more suitable for smaller opera- 
 tions. 
 
 From an examination I am satisfied it will cost upon an average 
 15 cents to have corn shelled and ground, including toll and trana- 
 
HOG-FEKDING AND PORK-MAKING, 17'J 
 
 portation to and from the mill. That is to say, taking our yield 
 of nine pounds of pork from raw corn, and 12 from raw meal, we ^ 
 must get 15 cents from tlie three additional pounds, or five cents 
 per pound for the pork, to pay the cost of grinding. 
 
 It is obvious that this pork must sell at some price greater than 
 this to afford any profit on the three pounds so produced, and to 
 gain even five cents per buishel above the product, and nine pounds 
 per bushel, we must get Gjf cents per pound for the pork. But 
 now, having our corn ground into meal, let us proceed to cook it, 
 which 1 estimate will cost seven cents per bushel on a moderate 
 scale, with simple apparatus ; and 15 cents, the cost of grinding, 
 added t^ seven cents, the cost of cooking, equals 22 cents. 
 
 From corn so prepared, we expect a return of 15 lbs. of pork 
 per bushel of corn, and a gain of six pounds over raw corn, pro- 
 ducing but nine pounds. These six pounds have cost 22 cents, or 
 3J cents per pound, and it is evident that, for every cent per pound 
 above tliis cost that the pork brings, we gain six (6) cents more 
 than when getting but nine pounds per bushel. Then, at 6'^ cents 
 for pork, our prcfit would be 18 cents for these six additional 
 pounds per bushel. 
 
 Suppose now, instead of incurring the expense of grinding, that 
 we steam or cook the whole grains of com, at the same cost as 
 the meal — seven cents per bushel — and gain thereby 4^ lbs. over 
 tlie product of raw corn (to wit : nine pounds,) then, at 6| cents 
 per pound for pork, our profit would be 23 cents per bushel for 
 these 4i additional pounds, and in like proportion for any higher 
 selling price for pork. 
 
 In all calculations of expense throughout this paper, we have 
 intended to make ample and liberal estimates. 
 
 It is plain, from a comparison of the above statements, that, 
 although getting but 13^ lbs. of pork from a bushel of boiled or 
 cooked corn, it is yet the most economical method of preparing 
 the corn on a moderate scale, and affords not only a possibility, but 
 a high probability, of a larger return than we have given. 
 
 And, fortunately the apparatus required is simple and inexpen- 
 sive, for any vessel with a capacity to turn into steam 26 gallons of 
 water per hour is sufficient, if we assume that com has the same 
 capacity for heat as water, to raise 10 bushels of corn to the boil- 
 ing point in one hour and keep it there, and furnish a daily ration 
 for 00 hogs. But it is evident the corn must l)e kept some time at 
 the temperature indicated to cook it. No doubt on many farais 
 there already exist the pans and brick arches used in the making 
 of sorghum molasses; ^nd these pans, with some alterations and 
 
180 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 inexpensive additions, would, no doubt, answer an admirable pur- 
 pose. So, also, will a l.ira;e kottle set in an arch, answer to cook 
 corn for 10 to 30 hogs. Tlie corn, whether cooked in the pans or 
 kcttlo, should be shelled and placed in trays with stout wire bot- 
 toms just close enough to hold the grains of corn; and, placing 
 these trays, if need be, one on top of the otlier, just above tlie 
 water in the pan or kettle, let dU be covered and steam away. I 
 think that for about 75 or 80 dollars, an apparatus on this principle 
 c:m bo made, sufficient for 150 hogs. In any apparatus for cooking 
 or steaming tlie food, one square foot of pan or kettle exposed to 
 the fire, is tlie minimum space capable of evaporating one gallon 
 per hour — 1^ feet is better. 
 
 It is propable the corn could be ground on the farm with horse- 
 power, cheaper than we have estimated, if the feeder will invest 
 in a mill and necessary power. 
 
 Opinions differ as to any real value in feeding the cob ground 
 with the meal; some attaching great value to the method, others 
 rejecting it altogether. 
 
 Chemical analysis of the corn-cob gives six to ten per cent of 
 matter that may be rendered, by long maceration and boiling, 
 capihle of assimilation by the animal. 
 
 I myself believe there is not nutriment enough in the cob to pay 
 f ,ir getting it out ; but an occasional feed of cob meal would be 
 of service, for in the fattening process, a certain amount of inert 
 matter seems not only to be beneficial, but to be absoluteh' re- 
 quired by the hog, and it is, no doubt, this instinctive want and 
 necessity, that induces the hog to eat coal, rotten wood, and even 
 clay and dirt. 
 
 Having now considered the various methods of preparing and 
 feeding corn, there yet remains one subject to be discussed which 
 is of too great importance to be ignored or overlooked in any 
 scheme of pork-making , I allude to 
 
 THE VALUE OF GRASS AND CLOVER. 
 
 We liuve already mentioned it ; but, in the absence of any care- 
 fully conducted experiments on this point, it is somewhat difficult 
 to determine the pork-making valuo of grass and clover, as com- 
 pared with corn. I find great differences of opinion as to the 
 number of hogs an acre of good grass or clover will support during 
 the seas )•) ; the number varying from three to six — the higher 
 number being assigned to an acre of good cloivr. 
 
 Of course the number must depend upon the quantity of grass 
 or clover, whether it be thick or thin, and also a good, moderate, 
 
HOG-FKKDING AND PORK-MAKING. 181 
 
 or poor crop. In this dilemma let us see if theoretic statements 
 will help us in the solution of this question. 
 
 We will assume, to bej^in with, that one acre, with a good set 
 of timothy and clover, occupying tlie ground in equal proportions, 
 will give a product of 12,000 lbs. during the season. We think 
 this a moderate estimate, for the reason that it requires less than 
 one ounce of green food per month from each square foot during 
 live months of pasturage. Suppose the average of the hogs, 
 when turned cm to grass, to be 125 lbs., and that it be the fact, as 
 has been frequently stated, that an animal requires three per cent 
 daily of his live weight in dry food, or its equivalent in green 
 food, to keep him in a growing and fattening condition, then li 
 lbs. of grass and clover will be consumed by one hog daily from 
 May to October, or 153 days, or 1,146^ lbs. during this wliole period. 
 Tlien it is evident the acre of grass and clover will support as 
 many hogs as 1,146J is contained in 12,000 lbs. (the product of one 
 acre,) or 10^^ hogs, nearly ! But we prefer to base our calculations 
 on tiie data given in a previous part of this paper, that it requires 
 one and one-third pounds of corn to maint lin a hog of 150 lbs. in 
 condition merely, and of course requires a corresponding portion 
 of green food to do tlie same thing; and if, according to oui 
 Table No. 2, it takes 6.75 lbs. of clover to equal one of corn, then 
 1.3;J lbs. of corn, (the amount to keep the hog in condition), re- 
 quires nine pounds of green clover, or an equivalent, to supply 
 the daily waste in the animal organism, and of course an additional 
 amount is necessary to increase the hog in weight ; and if we take 
 the increase at one-half pound daily, then 6.75 lbs. more of clover 
 is needed, or 15.75 altogether ; but as timothy (of which an equal 
 portion of our green food consists), is in value to clover as 298 to 
 675, a less amount, or eleven pounds, will suflBce than if feeding 
 clover alone. But as some .s wasted and trampled down, we 
 think a daily allowance of fifteen pounds to each hog is none too 
 much. 
 
 Fifteen pounds of green food, which we have determined as the 
 ration to sustain the hog and fatten him onc-ijalf pound daily, is 
 contained in 13,000 lbs., (the product of one acre), 800 times, and 
 woidd support one bog for 800 days, or 5'/5 hogs one hundred and 
 fifty-three days, or five months, from May to October, tlie period 
 of pasturage. Omitting the fraction, our five hogs increasi' g one- 
 half pound daily for 153 days, we have a total return in pork of 
 382^ lbs. from one acre of timothy and clover, and its value can 
 be compared with the amount of pork produced from an acre of 
 corn in Table No. 9. 
 
183 . SWINK HUSBANDRY. 
 
 I estimate the OOst of getting a good sot of clover and timothy 
 at four dollars (,|4) per acre, and that we will have two seasons of 
 pasturage fron\ it ; and dividing this cost into two years it will be 
 but two dollars for our oS'-)^ lbs. of pork, or a fraction over half a 
 cent per pound ; or, assigning to our grass and clover pork the 
 lowest selling price in our tables, or 4 cents per pound, it gives us 
 383^ X •i=$15.30 — and, deducting the cost of the grass and clover, 
 leaves us a net profit of $13.30 for one acre of our pasture. Of 
 course all this is hypothetical, and each one must determine for 
 himself how nearly these calculations are correct. I believe they 
 are within the truth, and will be exceeded in actual practice. 
 
 If any one takes the tronble to compare tlie values of p.^rk and 
 corn on our data of D, l',\ 13^ and 15 lbs. of pork from a bushel of 
 corn, it will be found that, at nine pounds, one pound of pork 
 must bring six and two ninths (G'^ ^) times as much as one pound 
 of corn to make the pork equal in value to the corn — at 13 lbs. per 
 bushel one pound of pt)rk must bring 4^ times i\s much as one 
 pound of corn — at 13^ lbs. per bushel the pound of pork must 
 bring 4' u. times the price of the corn, and at 15 lbs. per bushel 
 the pork requires to be 3^ s times the value of one pound of corn. 
 
 Finally, after a careful and somewhat extcnsi\e examination 
 tmd analysis of quite a number of experiments, regular and 
 irregular, of all the various methods of feeding corn, including a 
 ■wide range of country and seasons, I lind, upon the whole, that, 
 sunidst the ai>iiarently discirpant and contrailictory statements, 
 •quite uniform and accordant results have been obtained under 
 similar circumstances. And, notwithstanding the subth' influences 
 of life and the vital processes may continue to evade us, and may 
 never be brought entirely under our control, and nuide subservient 
 to our purposes, yet, aside from all this, we have the power of 
 perfect command over many of those circumstances, which do un- 
 doubtedly exercise a most important influence over the young and 
 growing animal — sut-h as foods in various quantities, forms, and 
 proportions, rt\i;ular feeding, cleanliness, warmth, and shelter from 
 the weather; and last, but not least, a judicious selection of the 
 breeds and aptitudes best suited to our wants. 
 
 And I conclude, upon a review of the whole subject, that it will 
 pay to fatten hogs on corn alone, when properly prepared, and it 
 will be easier and cheaper if a portion of the pork be made on 
 grass and clover. 
 
 Where the farmer prepares for pork-making, and pursues it with 
 system and reguhu-ity, 1 believe it will pay him better than to sell 
 
HOG-FEEDING AND PORK-RAISING. Ifi3 
 
 his corn, (no matter what be the market price), CTCn at his own 
 door. And especially I think will this he found true by thoHe ho 
 flituatcd as to be obligtid to haul tlieir corn any diHtance to market, 
 which increases the cost of the corn 5 to 15 cents, according to the 
 distance to be traveled. 
 
 My investigations have led me to some unexpected conclusions, 
 but, having no theory to begin witli, I liave simply followed where 
 truth seemed to lead, determincid to collect and tabulate facts and 
 be guided by thcin alone, avoiding all mere opinions and a.SHertionH. 
 
 If we have proved anything, it is, that it is pussihle and com- 
 paratively easy to get 50 pvr cent more for corn than we now do 
 for atl the millions of b\ishels fed to hogs in the process of pork- 
 making. Sustainini^ in tins industry alone a loss of millions of 
 dollars annually, t!\e question of how much pork in a buslml of 
 corn is not an insignificant one. 
 
 It strikes me that the different State Agricultural Societies could 
 engage in no more beneficial work than to arrest the enormous 
 losses of our wasteful feeding processes, by the dissemination of 
 correct information, and by a scries of well-conducted experiments 
 lend their powerful aid to elucidate so important a subject. 
 
1^4 S.VINL llUSiiAKDKY. 
 
 CilAPTIlli XIX. 
 THE EFFECTS OF COLD ON FATTENINO SWINE. 
 
 VXrUKlMKNTS MAUB AT THE KANSAS STATU AUKU'lILTUKAL COLLKQB 
 KAKM, BY K. M. SUELTON, I'KOKKSSOK OV AUKICULTUKK. 
 
 In the Wost, Ji very larue ])r()itortion of jill jiiilnials 
 kept for their ilesh, are ftitteiieil during the most ineleni- 
 ent season of the year, and they receive protection that 
 is rarely sutlioient to hreak the force of the wintry bhists. 
 In some cases, tlie corrals, or iV'ed-lots, are k)cated in a 
 belt of timber, a ravine, or a sink in the i)rairie, hut tiie 
 shelter is rarely sutlicient to affect the temperature of the 
 enclosure. 
 
 This western phiti of feeding lias often been condemned 
 on sentimental grtuuuls, but the i'acls that stock has gen- 
 erally fed well under this plan, and the business of feed- 
 ing has been proiital)le to the feeder, have prevented 
 these objections from having very great intlucnce. With 
 the object of establishing some facts bearing on this point, 
 and having a relation to profit and loss, the experiments 
 herein detailed were nndertaken. 
 
 In the winter oi 18S()-1, and again in the winter of 
 188'^-3, ten pure-bred Berkshire i)igs of good pedigree 
 were selected. 'Phe ages of those employed in the ex- 
 periment of 1880-1 were as follows : 
 
 Pen No. l..Fam)wea April V2, 187'.» 
 Feu No. 5.. " " 1:3, lS7t> 
 
 Pen No. 7.. " " I'J, 1879 
 
 Pen No. \i.. " Julv 4, 1S79 
 
 Pen No. 3.. " "" 4, ISTlt 
 
 Pen No. 4.. Furrowed July 4, 1879 
 Pen No. (i. . " " 4, 18T9 
 
 Pen No. 8. . " " 4, 1879 
 
 Pen No. it. . " " 4, 1879 
 
 Pen No. 10. " March ^0, 1879 
 
 The tlirec dales represent three different litters. 
 
 The ten subjected to experiment in the winter of 1882-3 
 were of three different litters, all farrowed iu November, 
 
EPFECTS OF COLD ON FATTETSTIlTa SWIKB. 185 
 
 1881, and so closely relatod on the side of sire and dam, 
 as to be practically idoii(.i(!;tI in hlood. The pigs employed 
 in both experiments, during ihe summer j)receding, and 
 up to the time the experiment began, were kept in a large 
 pasture-field — mostly prairie grass, but containing a small 
 proportion of orchard grass and alfalfa (lucerne) — receiv- 
 ing two cars of corn per pig each day. The })igs were a 
 remarkably uniform lot, and of very excellent quality. 
 
 In both experiments, the pens numbering 1 to 5, in- 
 clusi^, were arranged in the basement of a warm stone 
 barn, and j)ens G to 10, inclusive, in an open yard on the 
 south side of a close board fence, five feet high, but with- 
 out other protection, except straw "nests," which were 
 furnished botli sets as needed. A single pig occupied 
 each pen, an arrangement necessary to the proper appor- 
 tionment of feed, and distribution of the results of the 
 experiment. It is safe to say, that the slielter afforded to 
 the pigs kept in o}K'n yai'ds was greatly superior to that 
 ordinarily given to fattening pigs in the West. 
 
 In the first of these experiments, that of 1880-1, in 
 pens 1, 2, 5, G, 7 and 10, shelled corn was excilusively fed ; 
 in pens 3, 4, 8 and ii, a ration of bran, in addition to the 
 corn, was fed, the amount varying but little from two 
 pounds per day. The bran was fed dry, or mixed with 
 water, to suit the tastes of the different pigs. At first 
 this was eaten with apparent relish, but as the ]>igs in- 
 creased in j'ipeness tiiey se(uned to care less for the bran, 
 finally refusing it altogether, and about the eightii and 
 ninth weeks, tlic j)ran ration was discontinued. 
 
 In the experiment of lHH:l-:i, shelled corn alone was 
 fed in all of the pens. In ;iil the ])ens of each experi- 
 ment the animals were fed ull the corn they would eat, 
 great care being taken that none was left over in the 
 troughs and wasted, and equal care was taken that none 
 should be insufficiently supplied. The pigs were fed 
 twice daily, at 8 a. m. and at 4 p. m., the feed being 
 
18G 
 
 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 weighed out accurately to each pig at every feeding. If 
 at the time of feeding the previous feed had not been con- 
 sumed, the surphis was removed, and a proportionate re- 
 duction made in the amount of the next feed. All of the 
 pigs received Avhatever water they required. 
 
 In order to see the effects of variations in temperature, 
 the readings of Fahrenheit's tliermometer, in the barn 
 and at the pens in open yards, were recorded every morn- 
 ing at 8 o'clock in both experiments. 
 
 All of the pigs were weighed at the close of each week, 
 a little before the time of the first feeding of the week 
 following. 
 
 In table No. 1 is shown in pounds and decimals of a 
 pound the weight of each pig at the beginning of the ex- 
 periment, the total gain, the total gain per cwt., and the 
 average gain per cwt. in the experiment made in 1880-1. 
 
 TABLE NO. 1, 
 
 SHOWINO THB WEIGHT OP EACH PIG AT THE BEGINXTNG OP THE EXPERIMENT, 
 
 AND AT THE CLOSE OP EACH WEEK, THE TOTAL GAIN, THE TOTAL 
 
 GAIN PER CWT. OP EACH PIG, AND OP THE TWO SETS. 
 
 
 
 Fig» kept in warm peru 
 
 JHgs hept in open pens in 
 
 
 
 
 in 
 
 tM barn. 
 
 
 
 the yard 
 
 
 
 Week of 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Jhxt*. 
 
 Expert- 
 
 ^ 
 
 •fl 
 
 ►fl 
 
 ►0 
 
 ^ 
 
 ►tJ 
 
 *v 
 
 *^ , 
 
 ►fl 
 
 'B 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 (D 
 
 
 
 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 a 
 
 s 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 
 a 
 
 D 
 
 
 
 ." 
 
 *0 
 
 GO 
 
 >u 
 
 en 
 
 p» 
 
 • 
 
 S" 1 
 
 so 
 
 p 
 
 Nov. 1, '80 
 
 Begin' ing 
 ofExper't 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 272 
 
 240 
 
 258 
 
 275 
 
 226 
 
 244 
 
 229 
 
 249 
 
 m 
 
 285 
 
 Nov. 8, -80 
 
 First 
 
 281 
 
 2.^7 
 
 2R7 
 
 294 
 
 238 
 
 253 
 
 239 
 
 260 
 
 259 
 
 292 
 
 Nov. 1.5, '8<) 
 
 Second... 
 
 2% 
 
 2«6 
 
 285 
 
 309 
 
 251 
 
 263 
 
 245 
 
 269 
 
 278 
 
 813 
 
 Nov. 22, '80 
 
 Third .... 
 
 313 
 
 282 
 
 297 
 
 325 
 
 273 
 
 287 
 
 259 
 
 292 
 
 293 
 
 330 
 
 Nov. 29, '80 
 
 Fourth... 
 
 :«! 
 
 304 
 
 319 
 
 ;«8 
 
 2K9 
 
 304 
 
 275 
 
 310 
 
 :i08 
 
 352 
 
 Dec. 6, 'SO 
 
 Fifth. . 
 
 349 
 
 328 
 
 :«ti 
 
 a57 
 
 305 
 
 323 
 
 288 
 
 317 
 
 :^20 
 
 3<i2 
 
 Dec. 13, '80 
 
 Sixth .... 
 
 .S«.T 
 
 3;« 
 
 ;i56 
 
 376 
 
 321 
 
 347 
 
 306 
 
 3..1 
 
 338 
 
 .387 
 
 Dec. 20, '80 
 
 Seventh.. 
 
 389 
 
 a59 
 
 373 
 
 .39«i 
 
 340 
 
 356 
 
 321 
 
 339 
 
 346 392 
 
 Dec. 27, '80 Eighth... 
 
 400 
 
 371 
 
 390 
 
 409 
 
 351 
 
 373 
 
 3:i6 
 
 34 ■< 
 
 3551 403 
 
 Jan. 3, '81 Ninth . . 
 
 413 
 
 ;«i 
 
 399 
 
 422 
 
 359 
 
 382 
 
 346 
 
 357 
 
 356, 398 
 
 Jan. 10, '81 Tenth. . . 
 
 424 
 
 394 
 
 410 
 
 429 
 
 :i74 
 
 384 
 
 357 
 
 366 
 
 3561 407 
 
 Jan. 17, '81 
 
 Eleventh. 
 
 435 
 
 404 
 
 424 
 
 439 
 
 3S2 
 
 401 
 
 366 
 
 372 
 
 369| 409 
 
 Total gain. 
 Total gain 
 
 
 163 
 
 164 
 
 166 
 
 164 
 
 1.56 
 
 157 
 
 .37 
 
 123 
 
 117 124 
 
 
 
 
 
 50.90 
 
 68.30 
 
 64.30 
 
 59.60 
 
 69.0U 
 
 fri.30 
 
 5i,.80 
 
 49.30 4 
 
 5.40 43.50 
 
 
 
 
 Ave'ge gain 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 per cwt.. 
 
 
 
 
 63.90 
 
 
 
 
 
 58.20 
 
 
EFFECTS OF COLD ON FATTENING SWINE. 
 
 187 
 
 The remarkable uniformity of this lot is strikingly 
 shown by the "total gain" in both sets, in table No. 1, 
 but particularly in the case of the five pens in the barn, 
 the difference between the greatest and least gain being 
 only ten pounds. 
 
 In Table No. 2 the general results of this experiment 
 (1880-1) are given. 
 
 TABLE NO. 2. 
 
 Feed, corn. 
 
 'Pens 1, 2, and 5 in 
 
 the barn 
 
 Pens (i, 7, and 10 in 
 t open yard 
 
 {Pens 3 and 4 in the 
 burn 
 Pens 8 and 9 in open 
 yard 
 
 2| 
 
 ,0 to 
 
 483.00 2,487.50 22.03 
 
 418.00 8,291.00 21.64'. . 
 
 I ! 
 
 330.00 1.589.00 232.00 21.09; 4.13 
 
 I 
 240 00 l,38fi.50 200.00 19.82, 4.14 
 
 ^§ Ip h^ l^a 
 
 g§s i§s §"^ =|i 
 
 5.15 
 
 6.48 
 
 4.81 ! 0.70 
 5.771 83 
 
 A good general view of the results of this experiment 
 may be had by taking as the standard of comparison the 
 cost of 100 lbs. of increase in the two lots of both series, 
 receiving different feed : 
 
 100 lbs. of increase, in pens 1, 2, and 5 cost, 515.02 lbs. of com, 
 
 100 lbs. of increase, in pens G, 7, and 10 cost, 548. OS lbs. of com. 
 
 This gives to the three outside pens, in which corn was 
 exclusively fed, a loss of 33. OG lbs. of corn per cvvt. of 
 increase, as compared with pens in which the same feed 
 was use! in the barn, and in the 418 lbs. of increase in 
 pens G, 7, and 10, a loss of 138.27 lbs. of corn, or about 
 six {(')) per cent, of the 2,291 lbs. of com fed in these pens. 
 
 100 lbs. of increase, in pens 3 and 4, cost 481.51 lbs of corn and 70.30 lbs. of bran. 
 100 lbs. of increase, in pens 8 and 9, cost .577.70 lbs. of corn and 83.33 lbs. of bran. 
 
 This gives to the two outside pens in which corn and 
 bran were fed, a loss of 96.19 lbs. of corn and 13.03 of 
 
188 8WINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 bran per cwt. of increase ; and in the total of 240 lbs. of 
 incroase made in those pens, a loss of 330.85 lbs. of corn 
 and 31.32 lbs. of bran, amounting to about IG per cent, of 
 all the corn and 15 per cent, of all the bran fed in pens 8 
 and 9 in the open yard. 
 
 It will be observed that the pigs fed outside, besides 
 giving much smaller returns for the feed consumed, in all 
 cases gave less "total gain," and much less "gain per 
 cwt.,'" as shown in table Xo. 1, and consumed much less 
 feed than those fed in the barn. 
 
 The total loss from feeding in the open yards was quite 
 marked tliroughout, and the variation in individual cases 
 was considerable. It was noticeable that the quietest 
 animals, the best feeders of those fed outside, endured 
 the severe weather the best, and gave the largest returns 
 for food consumed. These, during the severe weather 
 which prevailed during the sixth, ninth, and tenth weeks, 
 passed much of the time in a condition closely resembling 
 hibernation ; they came to their feed during severe 
 weather with great apparent reluctance, and rarely 
 oftener than once each day, during the remainder of the 
 time lying very still, the vital functions manifestly mov- 
 ing at the slowest pace. 
 
 The importance of a ration of bran or other coarse feed 
 in connection with corn, for fattening pigs, is frequently 
 urged by writers, on theoretical grounds. It was chiefly 
 to test this question that bran was used with corn in the 
 proportion before detailed, in two of the pens of each of 
 the two series. The value of the bran fed in this experi 
 ment may be shown in a brief summary and comparison 
 of the results obtained. In pens 1, 2, 5, G, 7, and 10, in 
 which corn was exclusively fed, 901'/.^ lbs. of increase 
 cost 4,778.5 lbs. of corn, and in pons 3, 4, 8, and 9, in 
 which corn and bran were fed, 570 lbs. of increase cost 
 2,975 lbs. of ';orn and 432 lbs. of bran. That is. 
 
EFFECTS OF COI.D ON FATTENING SWINE. 
 
 189 
 
 100 lbs. of increase, in pens 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, and 10. .cost 6.'30.3.'i lbs. of corn. 
 
 100 lbs. of increase, in pens 3, 4, 8, and 9 cost 521.93 lbs. of corn and 75.78 
 
 lbs. of bran. 
 
 Or 8.42 lbs. of corn had, in this experiment, a feeding 
 value equal to that of 75.78 lbs. of bran — a fact which 
 seems to show that corn alone can be more profitably used 
 for fattening hogs than a mixed feed consisting of corn 
 and bran. 
 
 In table No. 3 is given the weight of each pig at the 
 beginning of the experiment and at the close of each 
 week* the total gain, the total gain per cwt. of each pig, 
 of the two sets in the experiment of 1882-3. 
 
 TABLE NO. 3. 
 
 Nov. 27, '82 
 
 Dec. 4, 
 Dec. 11, 
 Dec. 18, 
 Dec. 25, 
 Jan. 1, 
 Jan. S, 
 Jwn. 15, 
 Jan. 22, 
 Jan. 29, 
 Feb. 5, 
 
 Total gain. 
 
 Total gain 
 
 per cwt.. 
 
 Ave'ge gain 
 per cwt.. 
 
 Week of 
 JCxpeH' 
 jnent. 
 
 Begin 'Ine 
 ofExperl 
 
 '82 First 
 
 '8--' Stcond. .. 
 82 Third... 
 '82 Fourth . . . 
 
 '8.S Fifth 
 
 '83 Sixth 
 'm Soventh.. 
 •83 Eighth... 
 '83 Ninth.... 
 '83 Tenth... 
 
 Pigs kfpt in warm pens 
 in the bam. 
 
 252 211 
 
 2(19 
 275 
 293 
 309 
 315 
 321 
 313 
 31ti 
 3.56 
 373 
 
 y?2 
 
 211 
 
 2,V! 
 271 
 
 223 
 
 2.35 
 2.57 
 2fi8 
 285 
 291 
 
 ■iH-i .305 
 
 301 319 
 
 308 1 
 
 317i 
 
 330 
 337 
 330 1 347 
 
 121 119, 124 
 
 18.00 ,56.40 55.60 61.68 50.40 
 
 228 
 
 253 
 262 
 2T5 
 
 214 
 
 118 
 251 
 258 
 295 
 285 277 
 290, 287 
 311 296 
 322, .301 
 3.34 316 
 346 .322 
 
 132 108 
 
 54.20 
 
 Pigs kept in open pens 
 i/n, the yards. 
 
 200 
 
 218 
 2.34 
 244 
 2.531 
 263 
 262, 
 2:8: 
 283! 
 283 
 288 
 
 
 a 
 
 ;-l 
 
 as 
 
 227 
 
 196 
 
 251 
 
 216 
 
 270 
 
 236 
 
 278 249: 
 289 2411 
 
 299 
 295 
 
 2:,9 
 •.'69 
 
 319 276 
 
 323 272 
 
 334 289 
 
 337 283 
 
 88 110 87 
 
 257 
 271 
 28S 
 299 
 315 
 .321 
 ■338 
 344 
 360 
 363 
 
 126 
 
 44 00 48.40 44.40 .53.12 .38.20 
 
 204 
 
 209 
 232 
 246 
 242 
 261 
 266 
 270 
 275 
 286 
 282 
 
 ~78 
 
 45.90 
 
 Table No. 4 shows for each week of the experiment, 
 the average temperature, total feed, the feed for each 100 
 lbs. of live weight of animal, the total gain, and tlie 
 number of pounds of feed retjuired for one pound of gain 
 in the two phases of the experiment. 
 
11)0 
 
 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 
 
 TABLE 
 
 NO. 4. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Atvrnift^ 
 
 
 Fcfil for 
 100 ih. 
 
 
 
 
 
 nWkiy 
 
 
 
 Lbs. of 
 Fmt Jot 
 
 
 
 Tciiipcr- 
 
 Total 
 
 of lire 
 
 Total 
 
 
 
 tituir. 
 
 Ff,\l, 
 
 wt. of 
 
 Gain, 
 
 1 lb. of 
 
 
 
 Fahr. 
 
 /fe. 
 
 Animal. 
 
 Ibti. 
 
 Gain. 
 
 ' 
 
 let Wei'k... 
 
 38° 
 
 228 
 
 19 8 
 
 08 
 
 3.30 
 
 •Jil " .... 
 
 3.1° 
 
 293 
 
 24.2 
 
 98 
 
 2.98 
 
 
 M •' ... 
 
 36" 
 
 329 
 
 24.8 
 
 CA 
 
 6.10 
 
 Pi^ kept 
 
 4tli " . . 
 
 42"" 
 
 334 
 
 24.2 
 
 81 
 
 4.13 
 
 i'.\ wurm 
 
 r>th •' . 
 
 32° 
 
 312 
 
 21.5 
 
 1*3 
 
 9.76 
 
 I>cns in "> 
 
 f.th " 
 
 21° 
 
 277 
 
 18. S 
 
 41 
 
 6.80 
 
 the barn. 
 
 7th " ... 
 
 •»9° 
 
 2m 
 
 18.9 
 
 82 
 
 3.58 
 
 1 
 
 sth " ... 
 
 10° 
 
 272 
 
 17 1 
 
 :i7 
 
 7.33 
 
 
 Mh " .. 
 
 27° 
 
 2(3;? 
 
 U).t 
 
 53 
 
 4.W 
 
 I 
 
 lOUi " --.. 
 
 20° 
 
 274 
 
 16.8 
 
 58 
 
 4.72 
 
 ri-s kept 
 ill pens in 
 ("lieiiyanl. 
 
 1st Week. 
 
 2d " . 
 
 3a " . 
 
 4th " . 
 
 5th " . 
 
 Oth " . 
 
 7th " . 
 
 8th " . 
 
 9th " . 
 
 10th " . 
 
 81° 
 
 21° 
 39° 
 15° 
 5° 
 18° 
 12* 
 15° 
 
 243 
 
 :i27 
 341 
 3« 
 3. '2 
 274 
 27i) 
 24S 
 249 
 2-26 
 
 31.9 
 26.9 
 26.0 
 25.3 
 11.8 
 19 
 19.3 
 16.6 
 16.3 
 14.4 
 
 87.0 
 82.0 
 62.0 
 19.0 
 73.0 
 16.0 
 68.0 
 16.0 
 S.'S.O 
 1.0 
 
 2.80 
 3.98 
 5.50 
 
 17.55 
 4.41 
 
 17.50 
 4.11 
 
 15.46 
 
 4.61 
 
 326.00 
 
 From the table No. 4 it will bo sooti that : 
 
 In pens 1. 2, 3. 4, and 5, in the barn. 2,878 Ib-^. of corn g.ive 604 lbs. of pork, and 
 " *' 6, 7, 8, !>. nud 10. outsiilo 3.844 " " " 479" " Or. 
 
 In the warm pens, 1 lb. of pork cost 4'*/,i,o lbs. of corn, whilo 
 lu tlie outside " 1 '• " " S'Vioo " " 
 
 Agiiin— In pens 1, 2, %, 4, and 5, in the barn, one linsliel of corn produced 
 
 ll'«,',„„ lbs. of pork. 
 In nninber.-i ti, 7, 8, 9, and 10, outside, the same quality of corn product>d 9*Vioo 
 lbs. of pork. 
 
 Or, in other words : of every bushel of corn fed in the 
 five ojHMi }>ens, an amount snflieient to make 3"/,^^ lbs. 
 of pork was used up in keepinc^ the animal warm. 
 
 The elTect of very cold weather upon fattening pigs is 
 still more strikingly shown by comparing the results ob- 
 tained in tlie two sets — barn and outside — during the four 
 weeks of lowest temperature, uamely, the sixth, eighth, 
 ninth, and tenth weeks of the experiment, as follows: 
 
 In th« warm barn, 1.08()| lbs. of corn gave 190 pounds of pork. 
 Ip the open pens oqtside, i>97 lbs. of corn gave 88 lbs. of pork. 
 
EFFECTS OF COLD ON FATTENING SWINE. 191 
 
 Or, In the warm ham, during tho ncvorest wnalher, 1 lb. of pork coet 5.71 HiB. 
 
 of corn. 
 Wliilc uiitBidi;, during the HcvercBt wcaiher, 1 lb. of pork cost II. .32 lbs. of corn. 
 
 It is found that during the period of highest tempera- 
 ture, when mild winter weiither jrevailod (the average 
 temperature in the barn was thirty-seven degrees, outside 
 twenty-six degrees), the pigs in the barn made a much 
 larger increase in weight (thirty-one pounds) than those 
 ill open yards, upon less corn (sixty-one pounds), giving 
 a pound of increase for about four-fifths of the corn 
 rerjiiired by the pigs in the exposed pens. In the period 
 of greatest cold this variation is much more marked, 
 as shown above, except in the total corn consumed, the 
 pigs in the barn consuming eighty-nine and a half 
 pounds more of corn than those kept outside. The 
 small amount of feed consumed outside, during this 
 period,' is safely attributable to the severe weather that 
 prevailed during the time referred to. 
 
 The principal results of this experiment may be shown 
 in a few brief comprehensive statements : — 
 
 (1.) In the warm barn, 2,877'/, pounds of corn gave 
 604 jiounds increase in the weight of the pigs, while in 
 the open yards 2,844 pounds of corn gave 479 pounds of 
 increase. 
 
 Or, in the exposed pens, the cost of one pound of 
 increase was almost twenty-five per cent greater than the 
 cost of one pound of increase in the warm barn. 
 
 {'i.) Besides giving less of "total gain" and "gain 
 per cwt." in every pen, during every week of the experi- 
 ment, the pigs fe<l outside gave much smaller returns for 
 feed consumed, but this was especially marked during 
 the weeks of lowest temperature. 
 
 Thus, during the three weeks of greatest cold, the pigs 
 in open yards re(|uire(l 17.50, 1.5. 4G, and 220 pounds of 
 corn for each pound of increase, while in the warm barn, 
 during the same three weeks, 6.80, 7.32, and 4.7? 
 
19;J SWINE HLSBANDRY. 
 
 pounds of corn respectively were expended for one pound 
 of inoreaso. 
 
 (;>.) In this, as in tlie experiment made two years ago. 
 I have observed that the quietest pigs, tlie*' bcstfeedcrs," 
 sutToioil least from coki, ate the best, and gave the largest 
 returns for feed consumed. 
 
 (1.) The lluetuations in tlie weekly gain were very 
 much greater in the pens in the open yards ; but, as 
 shown in Table No. IV., whenever little gain or a 
 positive loss was sustained — as in the pens 8 and 10, 
 during the fourth week, and pens G and 7, during 
 the sixth week — an enormous gain was made during the 
 week following, even though the temperature continued 
 low, as though the animals Avere making a determined 
 effort to recover lost ground. 
 
 (5.) The fluctuations in -the total feed consumed, or in 
 the amount of feed consumed for each 100 pounds of 
 live weight of animal, were not great in the different 
 pens, or in ditlerent weeks of each pen, although these 
 fluctuations were greatest in the *' outside " pens, the 
 smallest amount of feed being consumed during the 
 coldest weather. It is worthy of remark, liowever, that 
 in the weeks following, those sliowing the least gain in 
 flesh or the greatest loss, when the largest increase was 
 made, as stated above, the increase in the amount of 
 feed was inconsiderable : in some cases nothing. Thus 
 in pens (> and 7, in the sixth week, and in pen 8 in 
 fourth and eighth weeks, the pigs lost 1, 4, 8 and 4 
 pounds respectively, while in same order consuming 
 55'/,, 48, 01 and 43'/, pounds of corn. During the 
 week following, when the same pigs gained in weight, 
 16, 24, 18, and 17 pounds, the enormous gain was made 
 at a cost of 55'/,, 53, GO and 4G'/, pounds, respectively, 
 of corn. 
 
 Surely these facts can loud to but one conclusion, that 
 it will pay to give pigs warm (piarters during the feeding 
 
FEEDING FOU FAT AND LEAN". 193 
 
 period. May wo not reasonably infer from these same 
 facts, that all chisscs of (hjniosticatod animals, for what- 
 ever puijioscs they are kept, will give the largest profits 
 when well housed and made comfortable ? 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 • FEEDING FOR FAT AND LEAN. 
 
 It can scarcely bo doniofl that during the period of say 
 thirty years in which general attention has been paid to 
 improving and hirgcly rearing improved breeds of swine, 
 the tendency has constantly been towards producing 
 animals that yichled a maxirtium quantity of fat or lard 
 with only a miiiinium of lean meat or muscle. This is 
 easily traceable to the fact that the princijjal food of the 
 swine in the regions where they are most raised is Indian 
 com, which is a fat-former unequaled by any other grain 
 grown or used on American farms. Among other results 
 oi feeding almost exclusively generation after generation 
 of animals a food so ill balanced or imi)erfcctly adapted 
 for a general maintenance ration, arc an impaired vitality, 
 a weakened bony structure, decreased fecundity, and in 
 the matured carcass a ratio of fat to lean meat much 
 greater than the average consumer finds profitable to buy 
 or palatable to eat. Among the subjects that the better 
 class of hog-raisers are now coming to consider as of im- 
 portance are the treatment and foods, or ccmbinations of 
 foods, best adapted to economically produce pork with 
 such an increased percentage of lean, or judicious ad- 
 mixture of lean with fat, as shall be most healthful, 
 most palatable, and most eagerly sought by those upon 
 whom their market depends, and best for their families. 
 Helping to the solution of suc'.i [)roblems has already 
 
101 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 become recognized as a part of the legitimate work at 
 tlie different State Experiment Stations and Agrinnltnral 
 Colleges, and a valnable beginning in that particular 
 line has been made by Prof. J. W. Sanborn, at the 
 Missouri Agricultural College, and by Prof. W . A. 
 Henry, director of the Agricultural ENperimeut Station 
 at the l^niversity of Wisconsin. The cxitcrinients of 
 each produced a great simihirity in results and are very 
 interesting. In making a condensed report of his effort 
 in that direction for this volume, for which he will have 
 the thanks of the reader as well as the author. Prof. 
 Henry says : 
 
 " Once knowing that foods of different compositions 
 do affect the frame and flesh of animals differently, and 
 how and why, we are in position to go ahead and build 
 up a better system of swine husbandry than we now have. 
 Knowing corn to be a universal hog food and often used 
 almost exclusively by many of our farmers, and further 
 knowing that chemistry shows that corn is excessively 
 rich in the carbohydrates or heat and fat-formers, while 
 it is low or poor in protein and ash elements which go to 
 make up bone and muscle, we thought to feed it exclu- 
 sively to one lot of hogs that wo might see the effects it 
 produces. To another lot it was thought best to feed a 
 ration excessively rich in protein, which makes it the 
 opposite of the first ration. To this end we made up a 
 ration of shorts, sweet skim milk and a little dried blood. 
 Dried blood is not often used as a food, but is wonder- 
 fully rich as may be supposed in the same elements as 
 dried beef. Pried blood, skim milk and shorts are each 
 comparatively rich in protein, so it will be seen our feed 
 for the second lot was rich in muscle-making food, and 
 if there is anything in what chemists tell us about foods, 
 our pigs, having such widely different rations, should 
 sliow it in their bodies, if the character of the food makes 
 any difference. 
 
PEEDING FOR FAT AND LEAlt. 105 
 
 "Out of a litfof of cipht pigs, six wore Bclected, even in 
 iize and form, for tlic trial, when they were 100 days old. 
 Up to the hegitming the pigs were all fed alike, from the 
 same trough, a mixture oonsiHting of shorts, corn meal, 
 skim milk and buttermilk. The pigs were crr«8-bred 
 Jersey Reds and Poland-Chinas. At the beginning of 
 th(! trial the six were divided into two lots of three each, 
 ;tiiil to Lot A was fed a ration consisting of one part of 
 dried blood, six parts of shorts, and fourteen parts 
 of swe^t skim milk by weight. To Lot B was fed all the 
 fine ground corn meal they could j)roperly consumo. 
 Water was freely provided for each lot, and each had the 
 run of a small yard back of the feeding pen in which 
 exercise could be taken ; all went on with remarkable 
 uniformity from first to last, with no accident of anv 
 kind during the whole period of L36 days. 'JMie follow- 
 ing shows in a condensed form the amount of food con- 
 sumed by the two lots during the trial of L36 days : 
 
 LOT A, FED rOR LEAN. 
 
 Amount of sweet Bkim milk consumed 3,;J02 lh«. 
 
 Amount of shorts consurned l,415'/7 lbs. 
 
 Amount of dried blood consumed 2;j5'/7 lbs. 
 
 LOT B, FED FOB FAT. 
 
 Amount of corn meal consumed l,6901bR. 
 
 "The digestible matter in the food fed to the two lotp 
 
 was as follows: 
 
 Protein. Carbohydrates. 
 
 Total digestible matter fed to Lot A 428 lbs airnbs. 
 
 Total digestible matter fed to Lot B 153 lbs 1,193 lbs. 
 
 " It will be seen that each lot received about the same 
 number of pounds of actual food, but that the propor- 
 tion of the protein to the carbohydrates varied greatly. 
 Protein goes to make muscle, though it may be used for 
 heat and fat in the body. The carbohydrates (starch, 
 Bugrir, etc.) cannot make muscle in the body of an 
 animal, though they may save it from waste and decay, 
 but are used for maintaining the bodily bi^at and for 
 
lOG SWINE HUSBANDP.T, 
 
 making fat. Our corn-fed liogs then were fed a very 
 fattening food, while the other lot were given a large 
 amount of muscle- (or lean meat) making material. 
 Here we have our feeds so widely different in character 
 that the effect should be very evident in the carcasse? of 
 
 FED FOK LEAN. Lot A, No. 1, PlOtcill fcd. 
 
 the hogs, if the character of the food affects the compo- 
 sition of the body. 
 
 ''The hogs were slaughtered Nov. 8, 1886, a skilled 
 butcher assisting, every operation being conducted Avith 
 great care and precision. After taking the live weight 
 of each animal, it was killed by slow bleeding, and the 
 blood caught and weighed. The viscera were taken out 
 
FEEDING FOR FAT AND LEAN. 197 
 
 aid each organ weighed and the dressed hogs hung up 
 to cool and stiffen. 
 
 " Upon being taken to the block each dressed hog was 
 
 * laid on his back, and first the head was severed, next the 
 
 body was cut square across between the fifth and sixth 
 
 Fig. 13. — FED FOR FAT. Lot B, No. 1, Carbohydrate fed. 
 
 Figs. 12 and 13 show in cross section the proportional size of the muscles 
 
 (lean meat) in the necks of hogs of each lot. 
 
 ribs, and again at the loin or small of the back. A 
 painter was employed to sketch the appearance and dis- 
 position of the fat and lean meat as exposed by the cuts. 
 Fearing the painter was not exact enough, a photogra- 
 piier was employed for the same isurpose, and we were 
 
19S SWINE HUSBAXDKY. 
 
 thus enabled to preserve for future reference and study 
 that which would have otherwise soon been lost. 
 
 "The illustrations which are herewith presented show 
 the proportion and disposition of the fat and lean in 
 some of the cuts. We present six, three of each lot. 
 
 Fig. 14.— FED FOB LEAN. Lot A, No. 2, Protein fed. 
 
 The first two show what we found on severing the heads 
 of the first hog of each lot. The second two show in 
 the same way the cuts made between the fifth and sixth 
 ribs of the hogs numbered "two" in each lot ; while the 
 last two engravings show the loin cut of the hogs num- 
 bered "three" of each lot. In each of the engravings 
 
FEEDING FOR FAT A3fD LEAIif. 
 
 199 
 
 the dark shaded parts represent lean meat or muscle, 
 •while the fat is shown by the white parts. As in cutting 
 across the body at the three places named we cut square 
 across most of the muscles, the reader can see the rela- 
 tive size of each muscle in cross section in two hogs of 
 
 Fig. 15.— FED FOB FAT. Lot B, No. 2, Carbohydrate fed. 
 
 £^ga. 14 and 15 show in cross section the proportional size of the muscles 
 {lean meat) over the heart of hogs of each lot. 
 
 each lot. The illustrations are made from the dressed 
 hogs lying on their backs. 
 
 "The reader is asked to give these illustrations more 
 than a passing glance — to study each. It will be seen 
 in each case the muscles (red or lean meat) of the proteiu 
 
200 
 
 SWIJSTE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 fed hogs are larger than the same muscles of those fed 
 the ration rich in carbohydrates. Even the muscles of 
 
 Fig. 16.— FED FOR LEAN. Lot A, No. 3, Protein feil. 
 
 E^^^^^^d«^ 
 
 Fig. 17.— FED FOR FAT. Lot B, No. 3, Carbohydrate fed. 
 
 Figs. 16 and 17 show in cross section the proportional size of the muscles 
 
 {lean hieat) of the hogs of each lot cut through the small of the back. 
 
 the neck are stronger, as shown in the first two cuts. 
 On the back over the heart, the muscles of Lot A show 
 
FEEDING FOR FAT AND LEAN. 201 
 
 far less fat between them than of Lot B. The most re« 
 markable difference, thougli, is in the small of the back, 
 where it will be noted that Lot A has about twice as 
 much muscle as Lot B. 
 
 " The viscera of each lot was carefully dissected out 
 and weighed and some most remarkable differences be- 
 tween the two lots were found. The hair was saved 
 and weighed. Each hog was carefully skinned and the 
 skins weighed. The large muscle of the back, also 
 the tenderloin muscles, were dissected and weighed. 
 The bones were freed from tendons and flesh by boiling 
 and the thigh bones were broken on a testing machine, 
 to determine the strength of each. Each bone was laid 
 on two iron edges about a quarter of an inch thick, set 
 four inches apart; a similar iron edge was brought down 
 from above just midway between the two edges below. 
 This plate was crowded down by a lever until the bone 
 broke. In this way Ave broke five tliigh bones of Lot A, 
 and the same of Lot B. We found that the aggregate 
 pi'essure required to break five thigh bones with the pro- 
 tein fed hogs was 4,550 pounds, or an average of over 
 909 pounds per each bone ; against 2,855 pounds, or 571 
 poun Is per each bone, witli the corn fed hogs. Here 
 was a weakening of the bones of over 300 pounds each 
 in 136 days. 
 
 "IMPORTANT CONTRASTS IN WEIGHTS. 
 
 " The following table gives the most important facts in 
 
 the case, the weights being of three hogs in each lot. 
 
 Lot a. Lot B. 
 
 Fed for lean. Fed for Fat. 
 
 lbs. lbs. 
 
 Total live weight 669V4--- Sei'A 
 
 Total dressed weight.- Siiy^ 451 
 
 Total external fat 150 ..- 156 
 
 Total lean meat 344 178'/a 
 
 Total weiiilit of kidneys .- 27 19 
 
 Total wei2,ht of spleens 16 12 
 
 Total weight of livers 146'A lOG'/j 
 
 Total weight of blood 296 186 
 
 Breaking "strain 5 thigh bones 4550 2855 
 
i32 
 
 SWIHE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 ''But figures placed in this way are largely lost to the 
 general reader, so I will take the liberty of placing them 
 in a different form : 
 
 I. The live weight of Lot A (fed for lean) is 19 per cent greater than 
 Lot B, fed for fat. 
 
 '3. The dressed weight of Lot A is 21 per cent greater than Lot B. 
 These differences should be borne in mind in considering what follows. 
 
 3. The kidneys of Lot A weighed 42 per cent more than those of 
 LotB. 
 
 4. The spleens of Lot A weighed 3? per cent more than those of Lot B. 
 
 5. The livers of Lot A weighed 32 per cent more than those of Lot B. 
 
 6. The blood (caught on killing) of Lot A weighed 59 per cent more 
 than that of Lot B. 
 
 7. The hair on Lot A weighed 36 ])er cent more than that of Lot B. 
 
 8. The skin of Lot A weighed 36 per cent more than that uf Lot B. 
 
 9. The lartif muscl.s of the back {llio s^m(f?(s) of Lot A weighed 64 
 per cent more than th(jse of Lot B. 
 
 10. The two teiideiioiii nuiscles {Fsoas magiius) of Lot A weighed 18 
 j>er cent more tlian those of Lot B. 
 
 II. Thirty-eight i>er ct-nt of all the meat that could be cut from the 
 carcasses of Lot A was fat, while the fat of Lot B was 46 per cent of all 
 that could be separated. 
 
 12. The lioues of Lot A Mere 23 per cent heavier than those of Lot B. 
 1 ;. The tlUKh bones of Lot A were 6i) perceut stronger with the test- 
 ing machine than those of Lot B. 
 
 " In testing the strength of the bones another remark- 
 able exhibition of the ditference in the lots was obtained. 
 By the table it will be seen that the number of pounds 
 pressure required to break the thigh bones of the hog 
 was as follows : 
 
 
 Pounds Strain 
 
 Required to 
 
 Break. 
 
 
 
 First 
 Bone. 
 
 Second 
 Bone. 
 
 
 Lot a. 
 
 1030 
 840 
 800 
 
 1090 
 790 
 * 
 
 
 
 
 Number 3 
 
 
 Total for lot 
 
 
 
 4550 
 
 
 
 
 
 Lot B. 
 Number 1 
 
 645 
 600 
 450 
 
 580 
 580 
 * 
 
 
 Number 2 
 
 
 Number 3. - 
 
 
 Total for lot 
 
 
 
 2855 
 
 * a ham from a hog of each lot was cut across to examine the meat, 
 and in this way one thigh bone was spoiled for this test. 
 
FEEDIIsG FOE FAT AJfD LEAK. 203 
 
 "We observe an excess in weight of most of the Impor- 
 tant organs of the interior cavity in the hogs fed for lean 
 over those fed for fat. These differences cannot be acci- 
 dental, as they are the average of the lots in each case, 
 and the work was too carefully done to have errors 
 sufficient to cover such differences. It will be noted 
 that the liver, kidneys and spleen are all considerably 
 larger with Lot A than with Lot B. A most strik- 
 ing difference is seen in the blood obtained upon 
 killnig the hogs. From the three hogs fed for lean 
 we got 18 pounds, 8 ounces of blood, while ^rom the 
 three fed for fat only 11 pounds, 10 ounces. While 
 the blood thus obtained is not by any nieuns all that 
 is in the body of the hog, it is rennirkablo that we 
 should get so much more from one lot than from 
 the other. 
 
 "Before making any deductions we wish to make plain, 
 if possible, that which seems a most important consider- 
 ation, and one that must be clearly understood before we 
 can use these experiments as we should. All through 
 this discussion, we have carried the impression that we 
 could put lean meat or fat on the hog at will ; but car. 
 we ? Is it not true that in every animal there is a 
 certain limitation to muscular development beyond which 
 it cannot go ? The blacksmith or the baseball player 
 develops a large amount of muscle, but the limit is not 
 very high, after all, with them, and probably a man 
 weighing 175 pounds cannot add, either by what he eats 
 or the exercise he takes, over a very few pounds of real 
 meat or muscle to his body; indeed when men "go into 
 training " they reduce their weight as a rule instead of 
 increasing it, getting rid of fat and water in the body. 
 On the other hand, when men have a tendency to laying 
 on fat, the limit they may reach may double their nor- 
 mal weight. We may say, then, that the possible mus- 
 cular development of an animal has a narrow limit 
 
204 SWINE IIUSHANDUY. 
 
 comparatively, while the possible fatty development has 
 a Miiich wider range. 
 
 "We slioiild liold, it would seem, that our hogs which 
 show the best muscular development are only normall)' 
 developed, or at least have not departed far from the 
 nurnud, and that whatever we find in them is a con- 
 dition to bo held as a standard, while our hogs which 
 have grown fat and show a vaiiatiun from the lean hogs 
 are abnormal. 
 
 "Having assumed the above as correct we can make 
 a much clearer statement of the deductions which may 
 be drawn from the experiments. The experiments show 
 that when we feed to our hogs a ration rich in carbo- 
 hydrates but lacking in protein, like corn meal, we will 
 Ijnd: 
 
 *' 1. That there is an excessive development of fat not 
 only on the outside of the muscles and beneath the skin 
 but also among the muscles. 2. Tliat the muscles of the 
 body fail to develop to their normal size, especially some 
 of the most important ones, as those along the back. 
 3. That an abnormally small amount of hair and a thin 
 skin results. 4. That while tlie brain, heart and luiiga 
 do not seem to change in weight, tlie spleen, liver ail 
 kidneys are unusually small. 5. ^Fhe amount of blood in 
 the body is greatly reduced from the normal. G. The 
 strength of the bones may be reduced one-half. 
 
 '■'AVe may conclude that a system of feeding which robs 
 the hog of half its blood and half the natural strength of 
 its bones, and produces other violent changes, is a most 
 unnatural one, and must, if persisted in, end in giving 
 us a race of animals unsatisfactory to all concerned. 
 From parents thus weakened must come descendants 
 that will fall easy victims to disease and disaster. 
 Knowing the facts as here set forth, can we any longer 
 wonder that our hogs are weak in constitution and 
 easily break down wlien attacked by disease ? Nor is 
 
FEEDING FOR FAT AND LEAN. 205 
 
 this all ; the meat from such animals can hardly be of 
 flavor and composition satisfactor}' to the consumer. 
 
 "If even a part of what has been set forth is correct, 
 is it not high time we turned our energies toward 
 better methods ? To do this calls for higher thought 
 and better care, but I fully believe no extra outlay of 
 money; rather, I believe, we can feed hogs more profit- 
 ably by rational methods than by the unscientific and 
 shiifless ways now only too common. First of all, we 
 must»see to it that breeding sows are fed a proper ration 
 in which protein compounds form a liberal sliarc. The 
 young pigs must likewise have a goodly allowance of 
 protein, while the mature hogs, when fattening, can be 
 fed a large proportion of carbohydrates, especially if wo 
 wish to make a large proportion of lard. The food 
 articles at our command which arc rich in protein are 
 skim milk, buttermilk, shorts, bran, peas, green clover, 
 and the like. No farmer can afford to manage his farm 
 with a minimum of tlicse muscle-making foods ; they 
 should be supplied abundantly and at a reasonable cost 
 if we will only study to do so. 
 
 "Shall we raise less corn, then? Not at all. The corn 
 crop is the best of all we raise, and let the Avord be 
 "more," ratlicr than. less. We need it all, but we mur;t 
 not forget that protein is somewhat lacking in the corn. 
 We may compare our corn to the bricks which go into a 
 building, and the protein food to <he mortar which 
 cements the bricks together. He who would lay up 
 bricks without mortar builds foolishly, and his house 
 will tumble. Should he find out his mistake, such a 
 man should not from that date neglect the bricks and 
 turn his whole attention to the mortar. Plenty of good 
 strong mortar and an abundance of bricks are what he 
 needs. "We do not want less corn, but we want more 
 clover, more shorts, more bran, more peas, more skim 
 milk, and more clover to bring the highest results. 
 
2J6 SWINE HLSBANDRY. 
 
 Without attempting to give any exact rules for guidanct, 
 t!ic following statements may not be out of place : Dur- 
 ing gestation, breeding sows should have only a small 
 allowance of corn, the feed being mainly that which will 
 go to give her young good sound bodies. Such feed 
 would be shorts (middlings or ship-stuff), bran, skim 
 milk, buttermilk and clover. When suckling her young, 
 of course milk is one of the best articles at our command. 
 Wiien weaned, the pigs may get say two parts of milk by 
 weight, one part of shorts and one part of corn meal. A 
 run on good clover would go far to make a good frame. 
 When ncaring maturity the ration can be changed more 
 and more to the carbonaceous, and for the last two 
 months, when fattening, the feed can be largely corn, if 
 one desires fat pork, but if lean juicy meat is desired 
 the muscle-making foods must be continued." 
 
 In writing of some further experiments ho made with 
 other lots of hogs, to see if the results confirmed those 
 }ireviously made. Prof. Henry says that " in general 
 they did." To one of these lots corn meal was fed ; to 
 another skimmed milk and corn meal, and shorts and 
 corn meal to a third. His conclusions from what he has 
 g.^cn are that ''skimmed milk and corn make the largest 
 hog with the strongest bones ; that corn alone makes the 
 next largest hog with the weakest bones ; that two-thirds 
 shorts and one-third corn meal make the smallest hog 
 with the most muscle, most blood, and bones very much 
 stronirer than the corn alone." 
 
 In the experiment by Prof. Sanborn there was fed to 
 one lot of pigs a ration of four parts of ship-stuff 
 (shorts or middlings) to one part of dried blood, this 
 forming a ration excessively rich in protein; to the other 
 lot was fed a ration of corn meal which, as before stated, 
 is excessively rich in carbohydrates. Two hogs of each 
 
GRADUAL DISAPPEARANCE OF WHITE SWINE. 20? 
 
 lot were killed and examined upon reaching maturity, 
 with the results shown in the following table; 
 
 Live weight of pig 
 
 Heart 
 
 Lungs 
 
 Liver 
 
 Siileen 
 
 Kidnejii 
 
 Leaf 
 
 Pannch 
 
 Intestines 
 
 P^at of intestines 
 
 Brains 
 
 Fat of body _ 
 
 Lean and bone 
 
 Hair -- 
 
 Blood and loss in cooling . 
 
 Lot I — Fed for Lean. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 lbs. 
 138 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 6i 
 74 
 9i 
 3 
 
 ;.'* 
 
 8i 
 
 2 
 
 4 
 10 
 10 
 4i 
 14 
 
 11 
 15i 
 
 lbs. 
 170 
 
 oz. 
 41 
 
 8i 
 1.5* 
 
 3i 
 8i 
 
 10 \ 
 14 
 \2\ 
 l?i 
 
 4i 
 3 
 
 13 1 
 
 11 i 
 
 Lot II— Fed for Fat. 
 No. 1. No. 2. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 oz. 
 
 lbs. 
 
 139 
 
 1.5 
 
 7 
 
 170 
 
 1 
 
 15i 
 
 1 
 
 2 
 
 54 
 2i 
 4i 
 
 2 
 
 5 
 
 41 
 
 7 
 
 5 
 
 4 
 
 7 
 
 10 
 
 8 
 
 11 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 31 
 
 4 
 
 46 
 
 4 
 
 70 
 
 58 
 
 4 
 9i 
 
 67 
 
 4 
 
 U 
 
 6 
 
 14 
 10 
 131 
 
 9 
 
 3 
 
 51 
 1.3* 
 
 8 
 
 Ai 
 U 
 
 11 
 
 11 
 
 CHAPTER XXL 
 
 THE GRADUAL DISAPPEARANCE OF WHITE SWINE 
 FROM AMERICAN FARMS. 
 
 Most of those who were familiar with hog-ralsing in 
 the United States twenty years ago, are aware that white 
 swine were much the most numerous, and that in many 
 localities those of any other color were so rare as to be 
 regarded almost as curiosities. Since that time, or per- 
 haps more particularly since about 1865-6, the black oi 
 black-spotted swine liave grown rapidly in popular favor; 
 so much so, in many sections, as to practically displace 
 all others. 
 
 Our attention was incidentally called to tliis fact many 
 limes during the year 1881, and in November of that 
 year mention of it was made in a prominent publication 
 devoted to live stock, only to be vigorously combated as 
 a mischievous and exaggerated statement. The vigor of 
 
208 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 these contradictions caused us to make some effort to 
 ascertain whether the position, as to the disappearance 
 of the white hogs, was or was not really wt-11 taken, our 
 own personal observation having been made more espe- 
 cially in Kansas. As to the swine- displayed at the two 
 (virtually) State fairs there in 1881, we found that at 
 the exhibition at Lawrence there were about 300 speci- 
 mens, but one of which was white ; that one was a Ches- 
 ter hoar shoat, brought by some Illinois breeders, with 
 their display of twenty-four black hogs, in hopes of find- 
 ing some one in the State who would buy him. At the 
 State fair held at Topeka, the Secretary informed iis that 
 there were entered in the Berkshire rings, 368; Poland- 
 China, 350; Essex, 23; Jersey Bed, 18; Chester White, 
 1 ; total number of entries, 7G0. 
 
 From the Secretary of the Illinois Board of Agricul- 
 ture and his reports, we learned that at their State fair in 
 1877, there were 84:3 entries of swine, and all but 18t of 
 them were entries of Poland- Chinas, Berkshires, or Es- 
 sex; in 1878, he reported 684 entries, all Poland-Chinas, 
 Berkshires or Essex, but 223;- in 1879, he reported 516 
 entries, 74 of them Chesters, 66 Suffolks, and 376 Po- 
 land-Chinas, Berkshires, or Essex; in 1880, he reported 
 437 entries, of which 269 were Poland-Chinas, Berk- 
 shires, or Essex. Secretary Fisher wrote, that in 1881 
 the entries were, Poland-Chinas, 117; Berkshires, 141; 
 Essex, 57; total black, 315, against 112 entries of Ches- 
 ters and Small Yorkshires. The Reports of the Indiana 
 Board of Agriculture stated that at the State fair of 1879 
 there were 297 entries of swine, of which 25 were large 
 white breeds, 28 ''Essex and Suffolk," and 4 *'Red," 
 against 240 Poland-Chinas and Berkshires; in 1880, there 
 were 314 hogs entered, and 287 were of other than white 
 breeds. Under date of December 8th, ult., the Secre- 
 tary of the Ohio Board of Agriculture wrote: "Of the 
 hogs exhibited at our fairs for two or three years past. 
 
GRADUAL DISAPPEARANCE OF WHITE SWINE, 209 
 
 about 70 per cent, were of the dark breeds; the white 
 breeds seem to be rapidly on the decrease." 
 
 Prof. L. N. Bonham, of Ohio, a gentleman who knows 
 much of the swine interests of his section, wrote us 
 Decernber 7th: 
 
 " In Southern Ohio, I think, white hogs arc not so numerous 
 as ten years ago. OccasionaJly, some farmer, with more enter- 
 prise than good management, concludes his swine are not so 
 good, do not make as wonderful growth as some breeders claim 
 in thgir advertisements of white or red hogs, and accordingly 
 invests in a Chester Wbi*i«? or Jersey Red boar. We have had a 
 few such cas(>s in this c-ounty, but they do no better than our 
 Butler County Poland-China swine, and the buyers do not con- 
 tinue in the use of tk>em. These new purchases only add to 
 the number of monijrels, of off-color. They are not better feed- 
 ers nor are they cbo/era proof, as one breeder claims for his red 
 hogs. So rare arn white hogs here, that they are a curiosity." 
 
 Of the more iccent State fairs in Iowa, Secretary John 
 R. ShafEer wrote : 
 
 " The nur<iber of entries of dark breeds of hogs at our Stata 
 Fair of J880, was 236 ; of white breeds, 104. Fair of 1881, 
 there were of the dark breeds, 253 ; white breeds, 110. This 
 would indicate about one-half ; but our white hogs, I do not 
 think, would exceed 20 per cent. Poland-Chinas and Berk- 
 shires are the predominant breeds, with the Polands in the 
 lead." 
 
 As to the great fairs of the North-west, held at Min- 
 neapolis, Minn., we wrote to the Secretary, Mr. Charles 
 N. Clarke, who replied: 
 
 " The ratio of white to dark hogs exhibited at our fairs the 
 past three years, has been about 2^ to 72, or about 25 per cent, 
 white to 75 per cent. dark. I judge from observation and ex- 
 perience, that while the white hogs are not to disanpear alto- 
 gether in or from the Western States for many years, they will 
 be bred only in comparatively small numbers. I think while 
 the old, large-boned white hogs are running out, small-boned 
 breeds will work in." 
 
 Mr. E. C. Judson, Secr<jtary of the Minnesota State 
 
:;)10 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 Agricultural Society, in answer to inquiries, said, De» 
 I'ombcr 0th: 
 
 " I solid yoii the entries cf swine as they appear on my 
 books. Of Betkshires, there were 6 exhibitors; of Poland- 
 Chinas. 8 ; of E.s?ex, 3 ; of SutTolks. 1 ; and of Chester Wliites. 
 2 — or, all told, 18 oxliibitoi-s of dark hogs, and 3 of whites. As 
 to the number of animals, there were 21 Berkshires, 2 Sutfolks. 
 2(5 Poland-Chinas, 3 Cliester Whites, luid 5 Essex, or a total of 
 58 dark, and 6 white hogs." 
 
 Kansas City, Mo., has been for years i'anied for its An- 
 nual Exposition and Agricultural Fair, where breeders of 
 the most approved kinds of live stock liavo boon at great 
 pains to oxiiibit roprcsentativos innn tlieir herds and 
 flocks. For several years, Mr. Wni. Epperson has been 
 the Snperintondont of the Swine Department of the Ex- 
 position, and ho makes the statement that the percentage 
 of dark-colored hogs shown there lias been about as fol- 
 lows: In 18T6, 00 per cent.; in 1877, 85 per cent.; in 
 1878, 00 per cent.; in 1870, 85 per cent.; in 1880, all 
 were black ; in 1881, all were black. 
 
 Statements froni the St. Louis and other leading fairs 
 showed, relatively, about the same conditions as to num- 
 bers as the foregoing, but the stock markets, and not the 
 fairs, are the jilaces wliere it is practicable to form really 
 correct estimates of tlie color, quality, and numbers of 
 the hogs that are raised from year to year. The fact 
 tiiat a good many white hogs appear at the fairs may in- 
 dicate that their owners are either men of superior 
 energy and enterprise, or, to dispose of the stock, they 
 have realized the need of such advertising as fair-going 
 affords them. Kansas Oity is no mean hog market, and 
 tlun-e were liandled at its stock yards, in 1881, about 
 1,000,000 head. At our iv(iuest, the Superintendent of 
 the Stock Yards, Mr. II. P. ChiUl, made some observa- 
 tions for us, and, Dec. 7th, wrote: 
 
 "Fortunately, for my plan, we had quite a heavy run thia 
 
GRADUAL DISAPPEARANCE OF WHITE SWINE. 211 
 
 raorninpj ; and, taking advantage of it, I went tl lotigh our 
 pens, and counted all the hogs that were from two-thirds to all 
 wliite, and at the same time tallied the car-loafls. In this man- 
 ner, I found 4!)t white hogs scattered through 110 car-loads. 
 Our run for the month jiiHt passed wa'( 1,678 rars, and 113,132 
 hogs, an averagi: of over 07 per car. Assuming thfse to be in 
 the same ratio, give- us 7,330 for the 110 cars. This gives the 
 j)rof)ortion at f5.66 white;, and 93 34 black hogs in every 100 
 head — a larger f)roportion than I estimated, my guess being 
 about two to the car, while this shows nearly four. This I con- 
 Bid(!r a very correct estimate and criterion to gauge by, as the 
 hogs tTlat I lookfid over were received from all points and roarJs 
 that feed our market. I had not time, or really opportunity, 
 to make separate estimates on localities, hut I could see that 
 tliey varied considerably, in that some few cars were very 
 Jargely white, as high as 40 hea/1 in one car, and from 20 to 30 
 in several others, while on the other hand I would pass load 
 after load without a white hog in them. This is, of course, for 
 the current year. I liave no means of arriving at an estimate 
 on preceding years, other than personal recollection, which 
 would place the percentage in 1871 and 1872 at about half of 
 each, decreasing to about 20 per cent, white in 1874, and a 
 graflual decrease to the present proportion from that time to 
 1881." 
 
 Most of our readers do not need to be told of the 
 amount of business done at the Chicago tnion Stoek 
 Vards, or of the milhons and millions of hogs that pass 
 through them. We asked John B. Sherman, the long- 
 time superintendent of those yards, to give his estimate 
 of tlie ratio of white to black or dark hogs that had 
 been handled at the yards in 1879, 18S0, and 1881, and 
 liis statement is this: 
 
 "For the years mentioned, I will say, about 90 per cent, of 
 hogs received at the Union Stock Yards were dark colored." 
 
 With a disposition to ascertain if the same great ratio 
 of dark hogs would be shown by a later and more ex- 
 tended counting at the Kansas CAty yards, Superintfui- 
 d(int Child, on tlie HLh of February of this year (lH8;j), 
 instructed his employes at the several scales to keep an 
 
212 SWINE HUSLANDET. 
 
 accurate and separate account of all hogs weighed, in 
 which the white or red color predominated, and report 
 to him each evening. These numbers, deducted from 
 the total, gave the number of black or dark hogs; the 
 weighing included all the hogs received up to the night 
 of March 7th — one month — and aggregated 108,086 
 head, of which 5,364 were white, and 737 red, the per- 
 centage being 94.36 black, 4.96 white, and .68 red. 
 
 In speaking of the matter, Mr. Child said: " My re- 
 port in 1881 made no account of red hogs, and all that 
 were here at the time were classed with the blacks, so 
 that to show just how much farther the black breeds 
 have crowded out the white now than then, we must add 
 the red to the black again, which gives us 95.04 against 
 4.96 per cent., or a gain for the black hogs in the year 
 and a half of about one and seven-tenths per cent. I 
 am not able to report, except in a general way, as to the 
 difference in districts or on the several lines of railroad 
 centering here, though the Northern part of Kansas and 
 Southern Nebraska will run somewhat lighter in white 
 than the above, and have very few red hogs, and my 
 judgment is that over half of the latter come from 
 Western Missouri." 
 
 That Mr. Child's estimates are substantially correct, 
 we have many times been satisfied by viewing in the 
 yards of the great packing houses at Kansas City, where, 
 in the large droves, amounting to thousands of head, 
 purchased by them almost daily, it is oftentimes diffi- 
 cult to find as many as half a dozen on which the black 
 docs not predominate. At the same time, the red or 
 sandy- colored swine, so rare in the West a few years ago, 
 arc becoming slightly more commdn and more favorably 
 considered. 
 
 [Personal observation convinces us that ])racticHl]y 
 the same state of affairs exists at this writing — 1888. 
 The AuTHOii.] 
 
SOME GENERAL OBSEEVATIONS. 213 
 
 CHAPTER XXII. 
 
 SOME GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 ROOTING AND ITS PREVENTION. 
 
 Nothing seems more natural to the porcine family 
 than to spend a part of their time in rooting in the 
 ground, and in this way they sometimes do great injury 
 to pastures and meadows where they are kept or allowed 
 to roam. Some way of preventing this has heen found 
 a necessity and has been the means of introducing nu- 
 merous patented articles in the way of " Hog Rings," 
 " Rmgers," " Hog Tongs," " Hog Tamers," etc. 
 
 The patented rings are usually sold at prices not unrea^ 
 sonably high, but buyers of rings are impressed with the 
 idea that, to use them succesiiully, tongs, ringers, etc., 
 must be bought also, and for these outrageous prices 
 are charged, which, altogether, makes the ring invest- 
 ment like the little parties that are sometimes made, 
 where it costs one five or ten cents to get in, and as 
 many dollars to get out. 
 
 A heavy mattress needle, in a stout handle, or the 
 small blade of a good sharp pocket knife, answers every 
 purpose for making the holes in the animal's nose, and 
 new horseshoe nails, or common No. 13 wire, make 
 rings as good as those covered by patents. If nails are 
 used, they should be hammered into a circular form, 
 preparatory to inserting, and when in, they can be 
 closed with a pair of pincers. 
 
 If wire is used, it should be cut into pieces of proper 
 length, put in, and ine ends iwistedwith tlie pincers, on 
 tlie awl near t'ne handle. The ends should be well 
 twisted toge'.nor, and project half or three-quarters of 
 an inch, h'i the ring will stay in better, and be more 
 of an obhcacle in the way of the hog in rooting. 
 
214 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 Mr. A. C. Moore describes three ways of preventing 
 swine from rooting: 
 
 " 1st. Place salt and wood ashes in some considerable quantity , 
 at certain places on the ground, so that the earth will become 
 saturated with the salt and lye. It will be found that the hogs 
 will frequent these spots and work out some holes, but thereby 
 satisfy their rooting desires, and the sod will be left undistuijaed. 
 
 "2(i. Cut the rim of the snout with your pocket knife, slant- 
 ing, as to the end and top of the nose, and leave both ends 
 attached, so that the rim will slip up and down when the hog 
 attempts to root. This method, in my experience, is less liable 
 to allow the rim growing fast again, than when the cutting is 
 done by a " hog tamer," provided it is done correctly. 
 
 " 3d. Put two rings in the snout. Buy common iron rings, 
 such as are used by tinners, one inch in diameter, and when 
 the rings are opened sufficiently, and the animal is secured 
 with the usual cord loop on his nose, take a clip punch and 
 make a hole on each side of the center and in the rim of the 
 snout, insert the rings, and force the ends straight." 
 
 EAR MUTILATION AND EAR MARKING. 
 
 We wish to enter our protest against the practice so 
 common with many farmers, of cutting and disfiguring 
 the ears of their hogs in a brutal manner, under the plea 
 that without it they could not distinguish their own hogs. 
 
 It is desirable to have some mark by which the owner 
 may know his own, and a small hole or slit, in some cer- 
 tain place in one ear, need not disfigure it, and yet be 
 just as reliable for identification as the horrible carving 
 and mutilation of both ears. 
 
 Well bred hogs have, naturally, fine ears, which add 
 much to their appearance of uniformity and quality, and 
 it seems to a lover of good stock almost like sacrilege to 
 have them mangled, as is sometimes done by savage dogs 
 and more savage men. 
 
 I 
 
 sows EATING THBIR PIGS. 
 
 No one but the breeder who has had the misfortune to 
 see a fine litter oi pigs destroyed, by their dam — herself 
 
SOME GENERAL OBSEKVATIOXS. 215 
 
 perhaps the best sow he has — can have a sense of the 
 annoyance and bitter disappointment such an occurrence 
 involves. 
 
 Of such cases a monthly Report of the Department of 
 Agriculture says : 
 
 " It is well known that sows not unfrequently attack and destroy 
 their young; or, if prevented from this, will not let down their 
 milk, so that the young ])igs necessarily die from want of nourish- 
 ment. When this condition of things is not caused by a diseased 
 condition of the uterus, it is said that the sow can be brought to 
 terms by pouring a mixture of ten to twenty grams of spirits of 
 camphor, with one to three of tincture of opium, into the ear. The 
 sow will immediately lie down on the side to whicli the applica- 
 tion was made, and remain quiet in this position for several hours, 
 •without interfering with her pigs ; and on recovery from the stu- 
 por, will have lost her irritability in regard to them. The experi- 
 ment has been tried in Germany hundreds of times, according to 
 one of the agricultural journals, without any injurious effects. It 
 is also said that the eating of pigs by the parent sow can be readily 
 prevented by rubbing them all over with brandy, and making the 
 same application about the nose of the sow herself." 
 
 John Boynton, of Stephenson Co., Illinois, describes 
 the way in which he saved a litter of pigs from a vicious 
 sow, as follows : 
 
 "I have a fine Chester White sow that has devoured several 
 pigs of other sows, and as she was heavy with pig herself, I ex- 
 pected tliat when she littered, she would eat them as fast as she 
 could get to them, I watched her closely ; she walked up to the 
 first pig and very deliberately opened her mouth wide to take it in. 
 I screamed at her, and she then turned upon me. I continued to 
 menace her until she had to lay down to have another pig ; I then 
 got quietly into the pen, and as she was naturally very gentle, I 
 succeeded in getting the pig to her teats, and so I stayed with her 
 constantly, all the while petting the sow, and as fast as the pigs 
 came, would divest them of their entanglements and place them 
 at the teats, which they took right hold of, and before the sow 
 was aware of it, a maternal affection was enkindled in her heart 
 for her offspring. She had, and saved, eight of the finest pigs I 
 ever saw. They are now over two weeks old, and the mother feels 
 all the aflfection necessary for them. It is well to treat sows gently 
 
216 6WINB HUSBANDRY. 
 
 at all times ; then at " littering " time you can do what you please 
 with them." 
 
 QUARRELSOME AND FIGHTING HOGS. 
 
 When a considerable number of hogs are penned to- 
 
 gether fo~f fattening, the owner is sometimes much an- 
 ""noyed by finding them disposed to chase and bite one 
 "Another, and occasioiially. To such an extent, that those 
 "least able to defend themselves, are chased and worried 
 
 to death. 
 *" We have not been troubled in this way with our own 
 
 hogs, but as suggestive to those who are, we present the 
 ' following from " Berkshire," (a most intelligent breeder, 
 
 withal), of Ridge Farm, Ills. : 
 
 ''Fifteen years ago, I began feedinsj a large number of hogs on 
 _flbo reTpeus, arouiul a tluuriiig mill, aiul they commenced biting 
 ^eac"n~oriier; One hog would give another a bite, when he would' 
 '"^n and squeal, and each hog he passed near would give him a bite, 
 "and thus they kept the poor animal going, until he died. I would 
 go to the pen and stop them, but they would soon commence again. 
 " I concluded they were feverish, which caused them to be rest- 
 less, and that they bit each other for the want of something to 
 cool their fever. 
 
 "I tried a variety of remedies, and at length fed them some 
 stone coal, which effected a complete cure. I have continued, ever 
 since, to feed my hog? all the coal they would eat, and have never 
 had any more trouble with their biting each other." -^^ ■>**=«««■=» 
 
 THE CONDITION" OF SOWS FOR BREEDING. 
 
 In our efforts, in years past , t_Q- p ;et all the information 
 
 pnRaiTjfi^fliuvnj^yinfi, s\x\(\ j^^jr ^anagement, we "vrere al- 
 
 ways confronted with the statement tnat, a sow tolerably 
 
 ~Iat at the time of taking the boar, would have but few 
 
 "jiigs, and they of such inferior quality as to bs worthless, 
 
 "^while it was more than likely that the sow and pigs both 
 
 "would be lost. 
 
 Hearing this so much, we concluded that what eyerj; 
 body said, must be near the truth. 
 
 We are not so positive about this as we were* 
 
SOME GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 21? 
 
 jrw (XDeiglibor s_raise some model Berkshires, and run- 
 ning a flo uring mill^Have an abundance of the best of 
 feed, which they use liberally with their breeding sows, 
 keeping them in pretty good bacon order all the time. 
 "We use d to feel that we were doing a good stroke of mis- 
 sionary work, when we cautioned them about keeping 
 their sows in so much. flesh, and that barrenness and fail- 
 ure were sure to follow. They accepted the advice kindly, 
 Tfut continued to feed their sows liberally, and in spite of 
 it all, raised a plenty of good pigs. 
 
 Two s ows th at thev thought very highly of, were kept 
 uncommonly fat, und we selected these two as the ones 
 ^ to illustrate our argument,, and show by their non-breed- 
 ~ ing that they had been entirely too well kept. 
 
 When the sows farrowed, one had fourteen, and the 
 other fifteen strong pigs, and since then we have labored 
 but very little to convince these gentlemen that ''a fat 
 sow won't breed." It has been their turn to laugh. 
 
 We cannot doubt that hogs kept and fed at flouring 
 mills, get much nearer a perfect food, than those kept on 
 corn exclusively, and especially is this true of brood-sows 
 and pigs. 
 
 see*"' •*• '-' 
 
 IS IT PROFITABLE TO CURE PORK ? 
 
 Mr. Thomas Wood furnishes us an account of an inter- 
 esting experiment made by him, as follows : 
 
 " A few years ago I made an experiment or two, in order 
 to find out whether it was most profitable to sell my 
 pork or to make bacon of it, and tlien sell at the prevail- 
 ing prices. 
 
 " I killed a Chester White hog that weighed, dressed, 
 
 MO lbs. pork, worth 7c. per lb. — 130.80. When cut up 
 
 for salting, the different jDarts weighed as follows : 
 
 Hams .116 lbs. 
 
 Shoulders 140 " 
 
 Sides 81 " 
 
 Jowl 161 " 
 
 S531 lbs. 
 
218 SWINE HUSBAXDRT. 
 
 " Leaving 86'/, lbs. weight of Lird, chine, or hack bone, 
 ribs, face, feet, and other trimmings, worth 5c. ^cr lb. — 
 
 *' The meat, wiien cured, was huug in a smoke-house for 
 six weeks, then sold and weighed, as follows : 
 
 Hams, ICGlbs., at 14c $14.84 
 
 Shoulders, 1^0 " at lie 14.30 
 
 Sides, 75 " at 10c 7.50 
 
 Jowl, 15 " at 6e 90 
 
 3J0]bs. average llic. $37.54 
 
 Value of bacon sold $37.54 
 
 Value of trimmings 4.32 
 
 Total $41.86 
 
 Value of the pork at market price 30. tO 
 
 Profit on making the pork into bacon $11.08 
 
 **This hog Avas about fifteen months old, and the 
 shrinkage in weight in making bacon was 27 lbs. 
 
 "At the same time I killed a pig five or six mouths old, 
 in order to ascertain the difference in shrinkage. 
 
 The pig weighed dressed 140 lbs. 
 
 When cut up, the hams, shoulders, sides, and Jowl weighed HI " 
 
 Leaving the weight of lard, chine, face, feet, aud trimmings •..;9 lbs. 
 
 *'The meat weighed just the same when taken out as 
 when put in tlie salt tub ; when dried and smoked the 
 same length of time as the otlier hog, the weight was as 
 follows : 
 
 Hams, 31 lbs., sold at 14c. per lb $4.34 
 
 Shoulders, 28 " " lie. " 3.08 
 
 Sides, 30 " " 10c. " 3.U0 
 
 Jowl, 6 " " Cc. " 36 
 
 9^) lbs. averafre lUc. " $10.78 
 
 Trimmings, 29 lbs., at 5c. per lb 1.45 
 
 $12.23 
 The pork, 140 lbs., at 7c. per lb., was worth 9.80 
 
 Profit on making pork into bacon $ 2.43 
 
 ''From this it appears that the shrinkage is proportion- 
 ately much greater in the pig pork, than in the pork of 
 
SOME GENEHAL OBSERVATIONS. ?19 
 
 the older and more mature hog, also that there is a greato* 
 jiroportional weight of trimming." 
 
 IlEl'OUTS Oli" IIEMAKKAIJLE GIIOVVTII. 
 
 In the January (1876) Number of the National Livfi 
 Stuck Journal, a correspondent published an item stating 
 that Mr. A. Messer, of Maukato, Minn., had just butch- 
 ered a thorough-bred Berkshire i>ig, live months and 
 twenty-three days old, that weighed, when dressed, 323 Ibs- 
 ^ Tl^s was such a marvelous story that we were incredu- 
 lous enough to doubt it, and took early occasion to calJ 
 through tlie same journal, for some further proof than 
 the ex parte statement of one (possibly very much inter- 
 ested) individual. Other bi'eeders also insisted that, if 
 such a feat had been accomplished, the parties cognizant 
 of it sliould certify to, and make public Avhat they knew. 
 This elicited an aflidavit from the man Avho bited the 
 pig, as to its age, one from Mr. Messer, who raised and 
 fed it, as to its identity, and another from^the butcher 
 who dressed it, as to its weighing the 3;i3 lbs-, net, all 
 ^ three of which substantiated, in effect, the original state- 
 ment. After this, the breeders of fine Berkshires through- 
 out the country, who had never rais'ed a i)ig to half tliat 
 weight at the same age, demanded to know how such 
 rapid and enormous growth had been produced, and in 
 course of some months it was published to tlic world in 
 the following' Xixn^xxa'TQ. : 
 
 " He was kept in a lot 15 x 20 feet, with a few boards laid over 
 3ne corner, to form a shelter, and under this shelter was a good 
 bed of straw. The pig was kept in these quarters until the weather 
 Deoame cool, when a comfortable little sty was built in one corner, 
 6 -< 6 feet. The pig was fed on the swill from the house, with corn 
 meal stirred in ; hnt had no cooked food whatever, except pieces 
 of bread from the table, which were thrown into the sw'.ll. 
 
 "He was fed regularly three times a day, and had all he would 
 eat. He would eat all he could, then go grunting to his bed of 
 straw — lie down, and continue to grunt. In fact, the most of tha 
 pig's time was spent in grunting, eating, and growing." 
 
220 SWINB HUSBANDRY. 
 
 Although accompanied by proof, this statement sur- 
 passes our belief, as it seems bcyoiul tlie range of human 
 possibiHties that such extraordinary pigs can bo protlucod 
 by any such ordinary means, and we take the responsibility 
 of advising our farmer friends, when looking around for 
 extr« good pigs to breed from, to discount such stories as 
 the foregoing at least 50 per cent. 
 
 PRIZE ANIMALS FOR BUEEDIXG. 
 
 It is a very common practice with farmers and breeders 
 to attend the County, State, and Inter-state Fairs, for the 
 purpose of selecting, from those on exhibition, swine for 
 breeders, and it is considered quite an achievement to 
 attend one or more of the prominent expositions and take 
 home to the farm the pig, or jiair of pigs, decorated with 
 the blue ribbon. They look fine, and are fine, but not 
 fine enough to offset the disappointment and chagrin of 
 the credulous buyer, who, after patient effort, fails in 
 nine cases out of ten, to ever produce from them any 
 stock that looks as those did at the fair. 
 
 The show-yard may be the best place to see and buy 
 stock for shotv purposes, but not for breeding. 
 
 Only the initiated know the various and peculiar meth- 
 ods employed, in fitting up those animals to which were 
 awarded premiums, over such strong competition as they 
 encounter at leading fairs. We recently conversed with 
 a breeder, Avhose greatest triumph in life had consisted 
 in having premiums awarded to two of his pigs, at one 
 of the great St. Louis fairs. 
 
 He said he ''scooped" all competitors, and gave the 
 following as some of the methods used to produce such 
 meritorious(?) animals: 
 
 " They were fed on beefsteak, cut into small bits, and 
 dropped into new warm milk, as much, and as often as 
 they would eat. They had daily a bath of warm, soft 
 water and castile soap, after which their hair was dressed 
 with olive, or sweet oil." 
 
80MK GBNBRAL OnSERVATIONfl, 221 
 
 ^^Prcmium pigs, produced by such treatment, afterwards 
 getting only common faro, do but poorly indeed, and to 
 expect them to reproduce a family of show pigs, is to 
 cherisli a dream that will fail of realization. 
 
 _^Breeders of fine swine, as of fine cattle, frequently sac- 
 rifice their best animals for show purposes, and their pre- 
 paration for this, in a niiijority of cases, unfits them for 
 thereafter successfully reproducing their kind. 
 
 FEEDING COOKED WHEAT. 
 
 m 
 
 The following statement, of remarkably rapid gain in 
 weight from feeding hogs on cooked wheat, is given by a 
 correspondent of the (JinrAnnali GazeAle: 
 
 " On the 4tli of August, 1870, I put up 15 hogs, weighing 3,400 
 lbs., and fed them 5^ bushels cooked wheat the first week. On 
 the 11th their weigiit was 3,600 lbs. ; gain, 200 lbs., or a gain of 
 V,]\ 11)8. to the ho;j, being nearly 2 lbs. a day. The next week I 
 fed them G bushf^ls of tlie cooked wheat, producing an increase of 
 215 ll)s., or \i\ lbs. to tlie hog, being again of over 2 lbs. per head 
 a day. The third week I fed them 10 bushels of cooked wheat, 
 resulting in a gain of 260 lbs., or 17J^ lbs. a head, or 2"'|qi a day. 
 The fourth week I fed tliem 11^ bushels of cooked wheat, the 
 gain being ^30 IIjs, or 21|^ lbs. a head, or a fraction over 3 lbs. a day 
 each. The hogs were tlien sold and taken away. They gained in 
 four weeks 995 lbs. on .'53^^ biisliels of wheat. In this manner of 
 feeding I received a good price for the wheat, as the hogs were 
 sold at $8.25 per 100 lbs." 
 
 noGGINa OFF CORN FIELDS. 
 
 The lion. J. M. Millikin, in the National Live Slock 
 Journal, writes as follows : 
 
 " I am aware that the people who reside in the East, where grain 
 is high, will be greatly shocked to think that any one would pre- 
 sume to say anything in behalf of such a ' lazy, wasteful, and un- 
 tidy ' mode of using a crop of corn. Indeed, western men can bo 
 found wlio will denounce the unfarmer-like proceeding in unmeas- 
 ured terms. But let us see if something cannot be said in support 
 of what some may regard as a very objectionable practi<:e. 
 
 " In managing our farming operations, there are two things that 
 should not be lost sight of : 
 
222 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 " Mrst. — We shouM aim to so manage our affairs as to realize a 
 good profit on our labors and investment; and 
 
 ^^ Secondly. — To so cultivate our land as to maintain, if not to 
 increase, its productiveness. 
 
 " If you have a field of corn of a size suited to the number of 
 hogs you intend to fatten, supplied with water, there is no plan 
 you can adopt of feeding said corn to your hogs tliat will produce 
 better results tlian by turning your hogs into the field, where they 
 can eat at their pleasure. As a rule, the weather is generally good 
 in September and October. If so, there will be no loss of grain, 
 while the saccharine juice of the stalks will contribute somewhat 
 to the improvement of the hogs. The expense saved in gathering 
 the corn, and in giving constant attention in feeding, is quite an 
 important item to any man who has other pressing work to per- 
 form. Besides, hogs turned into a field for fifty or sixty days are 
 likely to do better than they will do under other ordinary circum- 
 stances. 
 
 " There is no plan of using the products of a corn field better 
 calculated to maintain its fertility than the bogging-off" process. 
 Everything produced off" the ground is returned to it ; and if the 
 proper mode is adopted of plowing everything under in the fall, 
 the soil will be improved rather than impoverished. This is my 
 theory upon the subject, which is sustained by my experience and 
 observation, and which I have occasionally urged on the attention 
 of others. 
 
 " A very few days since I was in conversation with some farm- 
 ers upon this subject, when a very reliable, careful, and excellent 
 farmer gave this account of his own experience, which I give, with 
 the remark that his statements are entitled to the fullest confi- 
 dence. He said : ' I have cultivated one field eleven successive years 
 in corn, and every fall turned in my fattening hogs, and fed it off. 
 My crops of corn rather increased than diminished. In the spring, 
 after feeding oflF the corn for eleven years, I sowed the field in 
 spring barley. I had a crop of forty bushels per acre. I plowed 
 the barley stubble under, and sowed the same field in wheat. 
 The next harvest I had a crop of wheat of forty-two and a half 
 bushels per acre.' 
 
 " Thus you have the theory, the practice, and the result, of the 
 hogging-off process." 
 
 THE KELATION BETWEEN THE PRICES OF CORN AND PORK. 
 
 While it is perhaps true, that the bulk of the com fed 
 to hogs does not give a return of ten pounds of pork. 
 
SOME GBNERAL OBSERVATIONS. 223 
 
 live weight, to the bushel, it is established that a bushel 
 of corn will make that much, and more, if properly han- 
 dled, and where it does, the following will serve as a basis 
 for careful calculations : 
 
 We present it for what it is worth, and think it maybe 
 approximatively correct. 
 
 ' Feeding corn worth 12'/, cents per bushel, makes pork 
 costing 1'/, cent per pound. 
 
 Feeding corn worth 17 cents per bushel, makes pork 
 costing'2 cents per pound. 
 
 Feeding corn worth 25 cents per bushel, makes pork 
 costing 2'/, cents per pound. 
 
 Feeding corn worth from 33 to 40 cents per bushel, 
 makes pork costing 4 cents per pound. 
 
 Feeding corn worth 50 cents per bushel, makes pork 
 costing 5 cents per pound. / 
 
 Or : pork at 5 cents per pound, gross, gives 50 cents 
 per bushel for corn. 
 
 At 4 cents per pound, gross, gives from 33 to 40 cents 
 per bushel for corn. 
 
 At 2'/, to 3 cents per pound, gross, gives from 25 to 
 30 cents per bushel for corn. 
 
 RECORDS AND RECORDING. 
 
 Beginning with the organization at Springfield, Illinois, 
 in 1875, of the American Berkshire Association, great 
 attention has been paid in America to recording pedi- 
 grees of thoroughbred breeding swine. The value and 
 importance of this are not only quite generally conceded 
 here but also iu England, where the British Berkshire 
 Association, following tlie Yankee example, has already 
 issued ten volumes of hc-dbooks. 
 
 At this writing (January, 1897) there have been issued 
 
224 
 
 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 fourteen volumes of the American Berkshire Record, 
 containing pedigrees as follows. The table also shows 
 the number of pedigrees in the editor's hands for entiy 
 in Volume XV : 
 
 Volume I 
 
 II 
 
 " III 
 
 " IV 
 
 " V 
 
 " VI 
 
 " VII 
 
 •• VIII 
 
 •• IX 
 
 " X 
 
 " XI 
 
 " XII 
 
 •« XIII 
 
 " XIV 
 
 " XV 
 
 Total in fifteen volumes. 
 
 Boars. 
 
 235 
 623 
 480 
 420 
 390 
 457 
 693 
 676 
 ,155 
 ,042 
 ,167 
 ,077 
 ,289 
 ,582 
 903 
 
 12,089 
 
 Sows. 
 
 541 
 
 1,272 
 
 870 
 
 735 
 
 780 
 
 815 
 
 1,307 
 
 1,324 
 
 1,845 
 
 1,958 
 
 1,833 
 
 1,923 
 
 2,711 
 
 3,418 
 
 2,118 
 
 23,450 
 
 Total. 
 
 776 
 1,795 
 1,350 
 1,155 
 1,170 
 1,212 
 2,000 
 2,000 
 3,000 
 3,000 
 3,000 
 3,000 
 4,000 
 5,000 
 3,021 
 35,539 
 
 The National Berkshire Eecord, an offshoot of the 
 American, has issued two volumes, containiug pedigrees 
 of 535 boars and 1050 sows. In the ten volumes of the 
 British Berkshire Herdbook, so far received, pedigrees 
 have been recorded as below : 
 
 
 Boars. 
 
 Sows. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 156 
 143 
 147 
 129 
 139 
 164 
 170 
 144 
 138 
 145 
 
 384 
 297 
 358 
 3;55 
 300 
 359 
 428 
 285 
 322 
 352 
 
 540 
 
 •• I[ 
 
 440 
 
 " III 
 
 505 
 
 » IV 
 
 464 
 
 " V 
 
 439 
 
 «• VI 
 
 523 
 
 «• VII 
 
 59S 
 
 " VIII 
 
 429 
 
 " IX 
 
 460 
 
 X 
 
 497 
 
 Total in ten volumes 
 
 1,475 
 
 3,420 
 
 4,895 
 
 Poland-China breeders have established four separate 
 Eecords, with different rules, editors and management, 
 instead of cooperating and making one Record and one 
 system of rules, as would seem desirable for any breed. 
 The "Ohio Poland-Cliina Record," having headquarters 
 at Dayton, 0., and begun in 1877, has issued already 
 seventeen volumes, with pedigrees of 64,000 animals. 
 
 One designated us the "American Poland-China 
 
SOME GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 225 
 
 Record," and thus far published in Iowa, has sent out 
 sixteen volumes since 1878, recording 63,000 pedigrees. 
 
 A third, known as the *' Central Poland-China Kec- 
 ord," had its beginning in Indiana in 1880, and its six- 
 teen issues contain nearly 27,000 pedigrees. 
 
 The ''Northwestern Poland-China Eecord," estab- 
 lished in Kansas in 1881, bat since susjiended, issued 
 three volumes. 
 
 The fifth and latest established (1886) of these Poland- 
 China E.ecords is named the "Standard," published in 
 Missouri, and its nine volumes are made up of 45,000 
 pedigrees. 
 
 Two Eecords for Chester Whites have been established 
 —the ''Standard" and the "American." The record- 
 ing done in the " Standard's" five volumes is as follows : 
 
 Total. 
 
 Vrolume I 
 
 " 11 
 
 " III 
 
 IV 
 
 » V 
 
 Total in five volumes 
 
 Boars. 
 
 Soifs. 
 
 2,64-2 
 
 2,812 
 
 245 
 
 275 
 
 152 
 
 2(50 
 
 224 
 
 400 
 
 218 
 
 412 
 
 3,481 
 
 4,159 
 
 6,454 
 520 
 412 
 624 
 630 
 
 7.640 
 
 The "American" — originally founded as a "Eecord 
 of Todd's Improved Chester Whites," which were a com- 
 bination of the Pennsylvania Chester Whites with other 
 white hogs in Ohio, of previously mixed or miscellane- 
 ous breeding, since 1865-G7 — has also published five Tol- 
 umes, made up as here shown : 
 
 
 Boars. 
 
 Sows. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 190 
 191 
 310 
 
 265 
 496 
 
 389 
 363 
 571 
 408 
 834 
 
 679 
 
 " 11 
 
 554 
 
 " III 
 
 881 
 
 '• IV 
 
 673 
 
 " V 
 
 1,330 
 
 
 Total in five volumes 
 
 1,452 
 
 2,565 
 
 4,017 
 
 
 The red, or rather sandy, hogs common in America, 
 are by their breeders now designated as Duroc-Jerseys, 
 and two different Eecords of their pedigrees are now 
 published. 
 
226 
 
 feWINE HUSBANDET. 
 
 The American Duroc- Jersey Swine Breeders* Associa- 
 tion has issued five volumes of its pedigree records, with 
 numbers as below : 
 
 
 Boars. 
 
 Sows. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 300 
 400 
 430 
 483 
 475 
 
 1,000 
 1,000 
 1,000 
 1,000 
 1,000 
 
 1,300 
 1,400 
 1,430 
 1,483 
 1,475 
 
 '• II 
 
 «« III 
 
 " IV 
 
 " V 
 
 Total In five volumes 
 
 2,088 
 
 5,000 
 
 7,088 
 
 The National Duroc-Jersey Association has issued two 
 volumes of a record containing : 
 
 
 Boars, 
 
 Sotvs. 
 
 Total. 
 
 Volume I 
 
 " II 
 
 175 
 450 
 
 450 
 850 
 
 625 
 1,300 
 
 
 
 Total in two volumes 
 
 625 1 1.300 
 
 1,925 
 
 Two volumes of a Eecord for the "Victorias," origi- 
 nating in Indiana, have been published, and a third is 
 well towards completion at the time this is written. 
 The following shows the number of pedigrees in each of 
 the two volumes : 
 
 Volume 
 
 Total in two volumes 
 
 Hoars. 
 
 Sous. 
 
 Total. 
 
 34 
 360 
 
 69 
 566 
 
 103 
 926 
 
 394 
 
 &i5 
 
 1,029 
 
 An association of Suffolk breeders is expecting to issue 
 the first volume of a Eecord containing about 350 
 pedigrees. 
 
 Tlie American Essex Association has two volumes 
 with this showine : 
 
 
 Boars. 
 
 Sows. 
 
 Total. 
 
 
 118 
 150 
 
 233 
 
 257 
 
 351 
 
 " II 
 
 407 
 
 
 
 
 268 
 
 490 
 
 768 
 
 
 
SOME GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 227 
 
 Of the popularity of these various Records, no better 
 evidence is needed than the fact that they are well sus- 
 tained, and financially prosperous. The prices of the 
 volumes range from $2.00 to $5.00 each, and we believe 
 the fee for recording in any of them is ordinarily $1.00 
 for each pedigree, except that some of the Eecord Asso- 
 ciations make a special rate of one-half to their share- 
 holders. 
 
 STANIfARDS OF EXCELLENCE AND SCALE OF POINTS. 
 
 Associations of those representing or interested in each 
 of the improved breeds of swine have formulated a stand- 
 ard of excellence or scale of points for their favorites, with 
 about twenty divisions, aggregating one hundred in an 
 animal estimated as perfect in all its points, and it is by 
 these standards that they desire their swine judged at 
 exhibitions. 
 
 Below is the standard adopted for Berkshires by the 
 American Berkshire Association, the figures represeating 
 the comparative value of each point when perfect: 
 
 CoLOK— Black, with white on feet, face, tip of tail, and an occasional 
 
 splash on the arm — --- 4 
 
 Face and Snout— Short; the former fine and well dished, and broad 
 
 between the eyes 7 
 
 Ete — Very clear, rather large, dark hazel or gray... 2 
 
 Eak — Generally almost erect, but sometimes inclined forward with 
 
 advancing age ; medium size ; thin and soft 4 
 
 Jowl — Full and heavy, running well back on neck 4 
 
 Neck — Short and broad on top 4 
 
 Hair — Fine and soft ; medium thickness 3 
 
 Skin— Smooth and pliable.. - 4 
 
 Shoulder — Thick and even, broad on top, and deep through 
 
 chest 7 
 
 Back — Broad, short and straight; ribs well sprung, coupling close up 
 
 to hips - 8 
 
 Side — Deep and well let down ; straight on bottom lines.. 6 
 
 Flank — Well back, and low down on leg, making nearly a straight 
 
 line with lower part of side 5 
 
 Loin— Full and wide 9 
 
228 &W1NE HUSBANDET. 
 
 Ham— Deep and thick, extending well up on back, and holding 
 
 thickness well down to hock 10 
 
 Tail — Well Bet up on back ; tapering and not coarse 2 
 
 Leos — Short, straight and strong ; set wide apart, with hoofs erect, 
 
 and capable of holding good weight.. 5 
 
 Symmetry — Well proportioned throughout, depending largely on 
 
 condition 6 
 
 Condition— In a good, healthy, growing state ; not overfed 5 
 
 Style — Attractive, spirited, indicative of thorough breeding and 
 
 constitutional vigor 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The following was recommended by the National and 
 has been adopted by the various other Poland-China 
 Associations for that breed : 
 
 Color — Dark spotted or black 3 
 
 Head — Small, broad, face slightly dished 5 
 
 Ears — Fine and drooping 2 
 
 Jowl— Neat and fuU 2 
 
 Neck — Short, full, slightly arched 3 
 
 Brisket— FuU 3 
 
 Shoulder — Broad and deep 6 
 
 Girth around Heart 10 
 
 Back — Straight and broad 7 
 
 Sides— Deep and full 6 
 
 Ribs — Well sprung 7 
 
 Loin — Broad and strong.. 7 
 
 Belly — Wide and straight. 4 
 
 Flank — Well let down 3 
 
 Ham — Broad, full, and deep 10 
 
 Taxi., — Tapering, and not coarse 2 
 
 Limbs— Strong, straight, and tapering 7 
 
 Coat— Thick and soft. 3 
 
 Action — Prompt, easy and graceful 5 
 
 Symmetry — Adaptation of the several parts to each other.. 5 
 
 Total 100 
 
 The Chester "White Association (Todd's) uses the fol. 
 lowing : 
 
 Head — Small, broad, slightly dished. 7 
 
 Ear— Thin, fine, drooping- 2 
 
 Jowl — Neat and full 4 
 
SOME GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 229 
 
 Neck — Short, full, well arched- 3 
 
 Bkisket — Full and deep -- - - 3 
 
 Shoulder — Broadand deep - 6 
 
 Girth around Heart --- - 9 
 
 Back— Straight and broad - 6 
 
 Sides— De.p auJ lull 7 
 
 Ribs— Well spruuo - 6 
 
 Loin — Broadand strong 7 
 
 Belly — Wile and straight 5 
 
 Flank- Well let down 3 
 
 Ham— Broad, full, and deep 10 
 
 LiMB!< — Strong, straight, and neat - 6 
 
 T*iL — Tapering, and not coarse - 3 
 
 Coat — Fine and thick - --- 3 
 
 CoLOK— White - -- 3 
 
 Symmetry - - - S 
 
 Total ..-.ICO 
 
 'riio as'-oeiatio;i df breeders ol rod swine, "svliieh tlir » 
 have oftiei:illy designated and now recoivl as Duroc Jerj 
 sey.s, lias adopted the following scale : 
 
 Coi.oit -Cherry red with .ut other admixture 5 
 
 Head— Nose fine and short ; face slightly dished, wide be- 
 tween eyes - 10 
 
 Ears— Aledium size ; not erect no)- too drooping 5 
 
 Cheeks— Large, full and well rounded 5 
 
 Neck— Short ; evenly' deep from iJoU to shoulders 5 
 
 Shoulders— Broad, smooth and nearly level on top 5 
 
 Chest— Deep; filled level behind shoulders.--' 10 
 
 Back— Broad ; straight or slightly arching, carrying even 
 
 width to hips - - - 10 
 
 Sides — Deep ; medium length level between shoulders and 
 
 hips - - ^.. 10 
 
 Belly — Straight underline ; not paunchy - — - - - 5 
 
 Hams— Large, full, well rounded; extending well to bock 
 
 joint 10 
 
 Legs— Medium bone ; short, straight, well up on toes 5 
 
 Tail — Set medium high ; nicely tapering from base 5 
 
 Hair — Fine, soft, straight; moderately thick 5 
 
 Action — Vigorous, animated, sprightly 5 
 
 Total --. 100 
 
 Viewing the accompanying diagram will suggest the 
 
230 
 
 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 points and method of applying the standard, approxi- 
 mately, to swine of almost any breed : 
 
 K 
 
 
 
 
 •a 
 
 br 
 
 fl 
 
 
 p 
 
 (— i 
 
 o 
 
 
 
 to 
 
 
 tH 
 
 .a 
 
 .r- 
 
 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 O H 
 
SOME GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 231 
 
 COST OF PIG AND PORK. 
 
 In recent issues of the Breeder^s Gazette three differ- 
 ent swine-raisers presented statements, each from his own 
 experience, intended to show tlie cost of young pigs, and 
 also their cost when matured to marketable porkers, 
 Tlie first one, Mr. A. G. , makes his figures like this : 
 
 " Ten sows, four months old, cost - $100 
 
 Interest on the investment, 10 per cent 10 
 
 Keep of same one year, 2b bushels of corn each at 30c 75 
 
 Keep, interest on cost and shrinkago on boar 10 
 
 Extra feed for pigs up to two months old 15 
 
 Loss on sows, 80 per cent 20 
 
 Cost of pens, $50— interest and repairs, 20 per cent 10 
 
 Total .^ $240 
 
 "Allowing fifty pigs from tlie ten sows, and a loss of 
 thirty per cent up to two months old, and we have 
 thirty-five pigs, costing 1140, or $4 each. Allowing a 
 pig ut two months to weigii thirty pounds, and nine 
 jiouiids of pork to a bushel of corn, we will feed him 
 thirty bushels of corn to make iiim v/eigh 300 pounds. 
 
 "Then we have cost of pit? -- $4 
 
 Thirty bushels of corn at 30 cents - - 9 
 
 Total - --$13 
 
 "If we add twenty per cent to this to cover the items 
 of labor, taxes, interest and risk after two months old, 
 we have the cost of the 300-pound hog when fit for 
 market, $15. GO, or five and a quarter cents a pound, 
 nearly. 
 
 " From above calculations pork will cost as follows, 
 nearly : 
 
 "Corn at 15 cents, pork will cost 3 cents per lb. 
 
 Com at 20 cents, pork will cost 31 " " 
 
 Corn at 25 cents, pork will cost 4i " " 
 
 Com at ;50 cents, pork will cost. --5i " " 
 
 Corn at 35 cents, pork will cost 6 " " * 
 
2oi SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 Swine-raiscr number two responds in this way: 
 " Foriunutoly, ten sows, the number Mr. A. G. hag 
 given in liis estimate, is tl)e exact number I kept for 
 several years; but [ succeeded in raising to maturity just 
 double his number of pigs to each litter. I usually 
 "aise two litters each year, one to come in February and 
 he other in July. My February ])igs I fatten the fol- 
 lowing autumn, and those tiiat come in July are kept 
 through the winter and fed for market the next summer 
 and fall. I think his estimate for the cost of sows — llO 
 at four months old — is pretty steep for three cent pork. 
 I can always buy sows at that age, suitable for raising 
 pigs, for less than half tliat amount on a basis of tiiree 
 cent pork, and can raise them cheaper than I can buy. 
 For the sake of comparison I will give the items of ex- 
 ])ense incurred in raising the little pig: 
 
 "Ten sow pigs, four months old. ..- 1550.00 
 
 Interest on tlie investment 4 00 
 
 Keei) of sows 9 montlis, 15 bushels eoru each, 30c 40.50 
 
 To pasturing ou grass three months 7.50 
 
 Interest on cost and keej) of boar - 8.00 
 
 Extra keep of pigs to three months old 30.00 
 
 Total--- $140.00 
 
 " Allowing seventy pigs to ten sows we have the cost 
 of pigs $140, at $3 ai)iece at three months old. ItemizeO 
 the account will stand thus : 
 
 "Cost of pig at three mouths - $2.00 
 
 Keep for six mouths, seven bushels corn, at 30c 2.10 
 
 Two month's run on clover 50 
 
 Fifteen bushels corn to prepare for market.. 4.50 
 
 Total -- .-- -. $9.10 
 
 " Tluis it will be seen we have the pig ready for 
 market at fourteen months old, and he will weigh 300 
 pounds — a cost of a fraction over three cents per pound 
 
SOME GENERAL OBSERTATIONS. 233 
 
 for pork. I have made no allowance for the loss of pigs; 
 but I have only counted one litter to each sow in a year, 
 and given the other litter, which will more than make up 
 for all losses uf pigs and sows, and interest on cost of 
 pens ; although I have no extra expense for pens, as my 
 hogs have access to the fields the year around with other 
 stock. I regard the manure from the hogs that have the 
 run uf the pastures throughout the year as more than 
 equivalent to any pickings that they may get while being 
 fed «orn." 
 
 Respondent number three presents the results of his 
 experience as follows : 
 
 " My experience is that I can buy ten sows, eight 
 months old, at $10 each, and four months later have ten 
 litters averaging seven pigs, or seventy pigs in all. Al- 
 lowing a loss of thirty i)er cent up to two months old, at 
 which age I wean them, I liave forty-nine pigs to fatten. 
 Now how much have these pigs cost me ? I figure it 
 this way: 
 
 " Interest on the investment, at 10 per cent 10.00 
 
 Keep of ten sows one year -. 60.00 
 
 Keep and interest on boar 10.00 
 
 Extra feed on young pigs up to two months ..- 10.00 
 
 Loss on sows. (This is eounterbalauced by the fact that 
 
 they will be in pig again.) 
 
 Interest, repairs and labor.. 20.00 
 
 Total $110.00 
 
 **At these figures my young pigs cost me almost 
 xactly $3.25 each. For the next two months I feed 
 these pigs a slop of oats, bran and middlings, costing : 
 
 "Feed for two months $30.00 
 
 Labor, etc 20.00 
 
 Total $50.00 
 
•Jo4 S>\VlNb: III SH-VNOKY. 
 
 *' Now I hare forty-nine pigs, four months olil, areis 
 aging sovonty-tivo pounds, and costing mo about $3.55 
 eacli. From this timo on I food tliom oorn, twonty-tive 
 bushels eaoh. on which they gain >"^5 pounds, and at 
 a year old they average oOO pounds, and ai tlio fol- 
 lowing cost : 
 
 Tost per bead at four mouths - iJi.'iS 
 
 Tweuty-tive bushels of eoru at t-HJc 5.00 
 
 Labor, eto., per heuil 1.63 
 
 Total *V».SS 
 
 *' Nine dollars and eighty-eight cents is the total cost 
 of mr 300-pound hog. I can sell him at our IocjU 
 market at 5^4. •A> (present prices) per 100 pounds, or 
 ir^.oO not. 1 ilo not feed my brood sows corn in any 
 large tpiautity. preferring a slop of oats, bran and mid- 
 dlings and an occasional nioal of nH>ts. 1 tind this loss 
 exj>ensive than corn and 1 bolit^vo loss injurious. I pay 
 but twenty cents for corn, ai.d save something in not 
 feeding it to my sows. As I have tiguroii in my esti- 
 mate the interest and cost of koe})ing my sows and boar 
 for one year, the second litter will cost only labor and 
 ftvd for the two months, which amounts to $30 for tiie 
 forty-nine little pigs, or sixty-one cents each. My tirst 
 litter cost me $'v*.*^o each at two months old. and this 
 will bring the average cost of all my little pigs, at two 
 months old. down to #1.43. To prove that T am approx- 
 imately correct, two-months-old pigs can readily be 
 bought in our nei2:hborhoi>d for I'-J each." 
 
 STOCK YARDS RECEllT^. 
 
 The table on the next page shows the annual j\nd 
 total rtveipts of hogs at the two greatest live stock 
 markets in the world — the Union Stock Yards, at 
 
BOMB OENEBAL OBSERVATIONS. 
 
 235 
 
 Chicago, Illinois, and the Kansas City, Kansas, Stock 
 Yards, since their establinhment : 
 
 C'hU:a!/o, 111, Kwntat City, Kum, 
 
 1865, Ave days 17,704 
 
 V»K 961,74« 
 
 18C7 \,m;,rM 
 
 18«« l,7W,T>5,i 
 
 warn \,i%\,i^;'i 
 
 1870 1,(J1<3,1.0« 
 
 1871 2,;j8«,0«3 4i.orj6 
 
 1872 •6;ini,i/a VA,i:j/i 
 
 1873 4,4a7,7.Vi 'I2l,>il(, 
 
 1874 4,l«i8,379. 'n'l,Ki2 
 
 1876 3,912,110 »a,:j«) 
 
 J«7(J 4,190,006 163,777 
 
 1877 4,026,970 192,646 
 
 1878 6,;J39,654 427,777 
 
 1879 6,448,1'JO 68>i,9(i8 
 
 18«0 7,069,:i66 67t;,477 
 
 1881 6,474,844 I,014,.i04 
 
 18«2 6^17,6<J4 9«a,0'J6 
 
 18«;< 6,64<J,626 l,.'m,4<Jl 
 
 1884 6,361,9<}7 1,72.^,586 
 
 1886 6,937,6.'» 2,368,718 
 
 1886 6,718,761 2,2<>4,4n4 
 
 1887 0,470,862 2/t2i.2<;2 
 
 1IM(8 4,921,712 2,008,9*44 
 
 1889 6,998,626 2,073,910 
 
 1890 7,6«;i,82tf 2,8«/.,171 
 
 1891 8,600,806 2/>99,l<« 
 
 1892 7,714,436 2,397,477 
 
 1893 6,067,278 1,948,373 
 
 1894 T/MCV-Sfl* 2//47,077 
 
 1896 7,886,283 2.467,tW 
 
 1896 7,669,472 2,606/>75 
 
 Total 160,438,972. 
 
 .36,313,120 
 
 Chicago, III. 
 
 Larf^eHt r<5(-elptH in one 
 day, Feb. 11, 1895 74,651 
 
 LarnuHl- recdptM In one 
 week, ending Nov. 20, 
 18«0 3<XJ,488 
 
 LargeHt receiptH In one 
 month, Nov., 1880 1,111,997 
 
 Lart^eHt receipts lii one 
 year. 1891 8,600,806 
 
 Kan»a» CUy, Kai. 
 
 Lartcent ref;elpl« In one 
 <lay, .July M, 1890 26,408 
 
 LargeHt re<-elpl8 In one 
 ^week, ending July 31, 
 189<J 165,fJ44 
 
 Largest receipt** In One 
 niontli, July, 1890 347,469 
 
 Lari^eHt receiptti In one 
 year, 1890 2,860,171 
 
236 
 
 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 WHEN TO EXPECT THE PIOS. 
 
 Tke period of a sow's gestation being, as a rule, six- 
 teen weeks, the following table is presented as showing 
 exactly when sixteen weeks expires from any day in the 
 year that she may be bred: 
 
 C -; 
 
 9 : 
 
 1? K 
 
 2 ^ 
 
 ^ i 
 
 ■o E. 
 2. *< 
 
 September.. 
 
 June 
 
 August 
 
 May 
 
 f o 
 
 a 
 
 1 
 
 November.. 
 August 
 
 December.. 
 September.. 
 
 9 ^ 
 
 O" IS 
 
 = 1 
 
 i 3 
 
 3 p 
 
 s 9 
 
 i I 
 
 a" '. 
 
 1..2-2 
 
 1..23 1..20 1..21 
 
 1..20 1 20 
 
 1..20 
 
 1..20 
 
 1..21 
 
 1 20 
 
 1..20 
 
 TT^ 
 
 2..« 
 
 2.. 24 2.. 21; 2.. 22 
 
 2. .21 2. .21 
 
 2.. 21 
 
 2.. 21 
 
 2.. 28 
 
 2. .21 
 
 2.. 21 
 
 2.. 23 
 
 S..W 
 
 J1..26 3.. 22 
 
 3.. 2:1 
 
 3.. 22 3.. 22 
 
 3.. 22 
 
 3.. 22 
 
 3.. 28 
 
 3.. 22 
 
 3.. 22 
 
 3.. 24 
 
 4..->5 
 
 4. 26 4.. 23 
 
 4.. 24 
 
 4 i3 4.. 23 
 
 4.. 23 
 
 4.. 23 
 
 4. .24 
 
 4.. 23 
 
 4.. 23 
 
 4.. 25 
 
 6 at; 
 
 5.. 27 5.. 24 
 
 5.. 25 
 
 5.. 24 5.. 24 
 
 5.. 24 
 
 5.. 24 
 
 5.. 25 
 
 5.. 24 
 
 5. .24 
 
 5 26 
 
 6..-i7 
 
 6. 28 6.. 25 
 
 6.. 26 
 
 6. 2.") 6.. 25 
 
 6.. 25 
 
 6.. 25 
 
 6.. 26 
 
 6.. 25 
 
 6.. 25 
 
 6.. 27 
 
 7.. as 
 
 ',..29 7.. 26 
 
 7.. 27 7. 26 7.. 26 7.. 26 
 
 7.. 26 
 
 7 .27 
 
 7.. 26 7.. 26 
 
 7.-28 
 
 8..2M, 8.. 30 8.. 27 
 
 8. .28 8. .27 8. .27; 8. .271 8. .27 
 
 8.. 28 
 
 8.. 27 8.. 27 
 
 8.. 29 
 
 9..:10 
 
 9..:il 9. 28 
 
 9. .29 9. 28 9. .28 9. .23' 9..2S 
 
 9..29 
 
 9.. 28 9.. 28 
 
 9.. 30 
 
 Mar 
 
 Juuel0..29 
 
 10.. 30 10.. 29 10.. 29 10.. 29 10.. 29 
 
 10.. 31) 10.. 29 Mar. 
 
 10.. 31 
 
 10. 1 
 
 10. 1 11. 30 
 
 11..31 11..30 11..30 11. 30 11. .30 
 
 11. .31 
 
 11. .MO 10.. 1 Apl. 
 
 a.. V 
 
 11.. 2 July 
 
 Aug. 12. ..31 Oct. 12.. 31 1 Doc. 
 
 Jan. 
 
 12.. 31 11.. 2 11.. 1 
 
 12.. 3 
 
 12.. 3 12.. 1 
 
 12.. 1 Sept. 12.. l| Nov. 12 . 1 
 
 12.. 1 
 
 Feb. 13.. 3 12.. 2 
 
 13.. 4 
 
 13.. 4 13.. 2 
 
 13.. 2 13.. 1 13.. 2 13.. 1 1.5.. 2 
 
 13.. 2 13.. 1 13.. 4!13.. 3 
 
 14.. 5 
 
 14.. 514 . 3 
 
 14.. 3 U.. 2 14.. 3 14.. 2 14.. 3 
 
 14.. 3 14.. 2 14.. 5 14. 4 
 
 15.. t 
 
 15.. 615.. 4 
 
 15.. 4 15.. 3 15.. 4 15.. 3 15.. 4 
 
 15.. 4 15.. 3 15.. 6 15.. 6 
 
 16.. 7 
 
 16.. 716.. 6 
 
 16.. 5 If... 4 16.. 5 16.. 4 16.. 5 
 
 16.. 5 16.. 4 It!.. 7 16.. 6 
 
 17.. 8 
 
 17.. 8 17.. 6 
 
 17.. 6 17.. 517.. 6 17.. 517.. 6 
 
 17.. 6 17.. 617.. 8 17.. 7 
 
 18.. H 
 
 18.. 9 18.. 7 
 
 18.. 7|18.. 6 18.. 7il8.. 6 18.. 7 
 
 18.. 7 IS.. 6 18.. 9 
 
 18 . 3 
 
 19. .10 
 
 19. .10,19.. 8 
 
 19.. 8 19.. 7 19.. S 19.. 7 19.. 8 
 
 19.. 8 19.. 7 19. 10 
 
 19.. 9 
 
 20.. n 
 
 20.. 11 20.. 9 
 
 20.. 9 'JO.. 8 20.. 9 20.. 8 20.. 9 
 
 20.. 9 20.. 8 20.. 11 
 
 20.. 10 
 
 21. 12 
 
 21. 12 21.. 10 
 
 21. .1021. 921. .1021.. 921. .1(1 
 
 21.. 10 21.. 9 21.. 12 
 
 21.. 11 
 
 32.. 13 
 
 22.. 13 22.. 11 
 
 22. 11 22.. 10 22. 11 22. .10 22. .11 
 
 22.. 11 22. 10 22.. 13 
 
 22. 12 
 
 23. 14 
 
 23.. 14 23.. 12 
 
 23. .1223. .11 23. .12 2;J. . 11 23. 12 23..12 23.. 11 23. .14 
 
 23.. 13 
 
 24.. 15 
 
 24. .1524. .13 
 
 24. 13 24. 12 24. 13 24. .12 24.. 13 24 .13 24..12W..15 
 
 24.. U 
 
 2.5.. 16 
 
 25.. 16 25. 14 
 
 25..14 25..13 25. 14 2.-.. 13 25. .14 25.. 14 25 .1325.. 16 
 
 25. 15 
 
 26.. 17 
 
 26. 17 26. 15 
 
 26. .15211 14 26.. 15 26. 14 26 15 26. .15 26. .14 26. . 17 
 
 26 .16 
 
 27.. 18 
 
 27.. 18 27.. 16 
 
 27.. 16 27. .15 27. .16 27. .15 27. .16 27. .16 27. .15 27. .18 
 
 27.. 17 
 
 28. .19 
 
 28.. 19,28. 17 
 
 28.. 17(28.. 16 28.. 17 28. .16 28. .17 28. .17 28 .16 28.. 19 
 
 2b.. 18 
 
 29.. 20 
 
 29..2o|29..18 
 
 29. . 18:29. . 17 29. . 18 29. . 17 29. . 18 29. .18 29. . 17 29. .20 
 
 29.. 19 
 
 30.. 21 
 
 130. .19 
 
 30.. 19 80. 18 30.. 19 30 18 30.. 19 30 .1930.. 18 30.. 21 
 
 80 .20 
 
 31. 22 
 
 
 31. .20 
 
 
 31..1»| 
 
 31. .19 
 
 81.. 20 
 
 
 31. 19 
 
 
 31.. 21 
 
DISEASES OP SWINE. 
 
 PRACTICAL INFORMATION AS TO 
 THEIR CAUSES, SYMPTOMS, PRE- 
 VENTION, AND CURE. 
 
DISEASES t)F SWINK. 239 
 
 CHAPTER XXIII. 
 
 DISEASES OF SWINE AND THEIR TREATMENT. 
 INTRODUCTORY. 
 
 We desire to preface this portion of our volume by say- 
 ing that we are not a hog doctor, and have but little faith 
 in sick hogs, or in giving them medicines. 
 
 A sick hog is, as a rule, very poor property, and he who 
 permits this class of stock to become diseased through 
 negligence or mistreatment, under the impression that 
 " anybody knows enough to doctor a hog," is boldly court- 
 ing disaster. 
 
 The hog has an appetite beyond his powers of diges- 
 tion ; if he is allowed to gorge himself on unsuitable 
 foods, is made to live in filth and mire, from first to last, 
 and is also exposed to burning sun and biting frosts, it 
 can be but small wonder if he becomes the prey of disease. 
 
 Prevention, by rational, decent treatment, should be 
 the watch- word ; but, if an animal appears ailing, note 
 carefully all the symptoms. 
 
 Physicians say that the internal organs of a hog are 
 located much as are those of a man, and that in a major- 
 ity of cases it will be safe to treat a sick hog, so far as 
 practicable, in the same manner as a sick man should be 
 treated. Medicines ought never to be given without well 
 defined ideas as to what they are expected to accomplish 
 — remembering that **the catalogue of medicine fur- 
 nishes few, if any specifics, that is, medicines thut will 
 always cure certain diseases." 
 
 There are, however, a great number of medicines that 
 appear to be specifics for certain symptoms. 
 
 The only really successful way of administering medi- 
 cine to hogs is, to mix it in their feed or drink, as they 
 
an^ jio obstii\ato and unnvauai;oablo that ilronohiniir is usn 
 ally unji{Uist"aotorv ai\d ahvuvs ilanirorv>us. If toi» far goiie* 
 to oat or drink a littlo. tho oa^o may bo oonjfiiilorvd ijuito 
 hojvlosi!. Thoy {shvniUl bo n\ado as comfortablo a*: po;j- 
 siblo. and if thoy will oat. jjivo tl\on\ food that iis liirht. 
 and oaj>y to ili^v^t. not t h> inni.'h i:trong ntodioino, ami 
 trust to good oaro. to timo. atid to natmv, to ofloet a euro. 
 Tho votorjMi Klnior Haldwin says : 
 
 " In wintor. I would iiopanitr tho siok fi>Mn tl>o honl ; srivo thi-m 
 a civhI wsjrui sty and aavss to water, and in sinnnior wouM tnru 
 thorn whor\^ thoy wouUi havo wator for both drinkinjr ami Ivithinj;, 
 wiih a ilonso iv>ol shado, and whon' thoy would not bo disturbovl, 
 withhold th-Mr l\vd, and lot tluMu tako thoir ohanoos, Suoh a a>»>rso 
 I haw o\iT foa'\d mort> suon^jissful than anv inodioino. 
 
 "Prxn-ontion is boltor than oun^; for a honl of swino pn^porly 
 fed and oannl fv>r will soldon\ bo siok. if thoy an^ nalivo; thoir 
 own viial powor must our\^ thorn ; man oannot. 
 
 " If thoy havo b;vn im{>r\>porly fovl, until disoaso h.is boon dovol- 
 opiHl. tho host tv>n<Hly is ti> ohanco tho diot tv> a pn^por oi\o. 
 
 " If thoy l»avo booi\ kopt in a olvvso jvn. oxiHvsod to tho boat of 
 summor. turn thon\ into a fnsh pastutv wlu-n> thoy oan havo wator, 
 cxorviso, and sha^lo. 
 
 "If thoy havo boot\ kopt in a ilirty. muddy |H>n until thoy havo 
 sourf and mansrt\ olo u\ tho skiu, and givo thom a oloao, oomfort- 
 *blo pon to livo in. Hut, bottor still, j:i\i> th«vso InMtor i\M»ditio:is 
 boforv> tho ditWoulty iHvurs. Oan^ for thom in advjuuw both as a 
 manor of lUity and pivtit. And as in «non»ls. tho ^vath of duty is 
 tho ivHth of happinoss and s,afoty. so in tho trt\'Wmont »^f our domos- 
 tio animals.j^^norvnis, kind, and hum.ano tivatmont brinj::s the mv>sl 
 wonoy." 
 
 Nothiitg is nioiv naturjil than that thoso who havo oapi- 
 tal invostod in swino should, if disoaso apivai-s. dov^iiv to 
 inako sonio otT<>rt toarivst its pr\\sriYss. Apptvoiatin-; tho 
 importaitoo of this, wo pn^sont hoiv ivoipos that havo 
 Invn triod, rtH\>tninondod. aitd ondorsod by pnjotioal tnott, 
 who have fouitd thotn valnablo ; at\d wo biMiovo thom to 
 bo mon> noarly adaptod to tho wjutts of swino-btvodora 
 than ai\y ooUootion hoivtofoiv inado. 
 
 Thoy jut) not iwommoudod a^ iufalliblo, and wo would 
 
DISEASES OF 6WINK. 241 
 
 again impress it upon our readers and fellow-breeders, 
 that the treatment of diseased swine is very uncertain in 
 its results, for when it is so often impossible to ascertain 
 the precise character or location of the ailment, it is in- 
 deed difficult to prescribe and administer eiflcacious reme- 
 dies. Hence the " ounce of prevention " is all-important. 
 The iuformation given of the disease or diseases known 
 as Hog Cholera, is unquestionably the best and most 
 thorough that the ablest scientific authorities in the 
 counfry have as yet arrived at. 
 
 ANTHRAX* DISEASES IN SWINE. 
 
 The obscure diseases in swine generally — but quite im- 
 properly — designated by farmers as ** Hog Cholera," have 
 created such fearful ravages in the principal hog-raising 
 districts as to prove the main obstacle to profitable pork 
 production. 
 
 There has been witnessed annually, for a generation 
 past, the loss, by epidemic diseases, of millions of dollars 
 worth of swine in this C(nintry, at a time of year when 
 they were of maximum value. 
 
 It is to be regretted that a scourge so prevalent, carry- 
 ing disaster and financial ruin to such numbers of our 
 people, has not been made the subject of thorough scien- 
 tific investigation by a commission, composed of men 
 eminent for their scientific and practical knowledge. 
 
 We believe a portion of the appropriation to our Na- 
 tional Bureau of Agriculture could, and should, have 
 been used, years ago, to assist in researches to wrest from 
 nature the secret causes of the wide-spread destruction, 
 which, in such numerous instances, makes hog-raising, 
 as a business, so precarious. 
 
 If the active pursuit of knowledge so valuable as this 
 does nt)t coaie within the ]>rovinc" of the T)(']);irtnient of 
 Agriculture, of State Agricultural Boards and Societies, 
 
 • ArMrass ia tUc GrcuU word for carbunclo, or virulent iUcc5 
 
243 SWINE HUSBANDBTr 
 
 and the richly endowed and richly officered Agricultural 
 Colleges, organized ostensibly in the interests of the pro- 
 ducing classes, by whom they are largely maintained, we 
 have failed to comprehend their mission, or importance. 
 While such ruinous devastation is abroad in the land, and 
 millions of dollars worth of swine sometimes die in a sin- 
 gle month from diseases scarcely understood at all, it is 
 small comfort to the tax-ridden Western farmers to read, 
 in its voluminous reports, that the Department of Agri- 
 culture is engaged in investigating the Cranberry-rot in 
 New Jersey, or the Orange-blight in Florida, or that the 
 MusGaohusetts Agricultural College is making elaborate 
 experiments to test the lifting powers of a Squash, which 
 has, at considerable expense, been properly harnessed for 
 that purpose. 
 
 No investigation that does not extend through several 
 States, and include thousands of cases, as found under 
 varying and widely different circumstances, and is not 
 made with a liberal and faithfully continued expenditure 
 of time, labor, and some money, can be satisfactory. The 
 necessary expense precludes private investigations from 
 being sufficiently extended, and if properly conducted, 
 the results obtained would be of such general interest 
 that the General Government should lead in the under- 
 taking and bear the expense. Managing our own hogs, 
 on the theory that the *' ounce of prevention" was of 
 paramount importance, we have never lost even a single 
 animal by any disease we could call cholera, and as it 
 comprehends conditions and causes regarding which the 
 most learned scientists are as yet groping in comparative 
 darkness, we shall not weary the reader with mere sur- 
 mises of our own. 
 
 Fortunately some two or three of the leading veterina- 
 rians in the country have devoted much attention to it, 
 and while none of them claim to have at all solved the 
 mystery in which epidemic diseases arc enshrouded, we 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE. 243 
 
 are able to present, in this and the succeeding chapters, 
 the latest conclusions to which their labors have brought 
 them. 
 
 From our standpoint, we consider "hog cholera" as 
 caused by a putrid poison in the blood, induced by unwhole 
 some foods, drink, and surroundings productive of disease, 
 essentially a contagious fever, of which inflammation of 
 the lungs, diarrhoea, vomiting, abscesses, and similar feat- 
 ures, are simply complications. Law, and others, do not 
 hesitate to pronounce it as having been known in the Old 
 AVorld, as well as this country, and all authorities encoun- 
 tered by us agree that the unwholesome conditions of life 
 contribute largely to its diffusion, if not its development 
 anew. 
 
 Every farmer should realize the necessity of pretention, 
 and grasp the fact that the great *' cure-all" will never 
 be found, and that trusting to any remedies, specifics, or 
 patent nostrums, is more than likely to result in a disas- 
 trous failure, to avert which too much care cannot be 
 taken in securing the best sanitary conditions of life for 
 this class of domestic animals. 
 
 Dr. H. J. Detmers, a distinguished veterinarian, who 
 has devoted much research to diseases peculiar to swme 
 in the Mississippi Valley, prepared for and publislied in 
 the Rural World, (St. Louis, April, 1876,) an extended 
 article on Anthrax Diseases in Swine, of which the 
 following is a synopsis : 
 
 " Although I have had considerable experience, not only when 
 practising as veterinary surgeon in Europe, but also during the 
 seven years which I have resided in the State of Illinois, I write 
 with some reluctance, because I know that a good deal of what I 
 shall have to say will conflict with some long-cherished notions and 
 prejudices of a great many readers. In the first place, I wish to 
 banish the name of 
 
 'HOG CHOLERA,* 
 
 which is ilj-chosen, entirely without meaning, and leads to confu- 
 sion, as it naturally conveys the impression that the disease, or dis- 
 
244 SWINE HUSBiLNDBT, 
 
 eases so named, are similar to, or identical with the Asiatic cho]<;ra, 
 or cholera of men, which is not the case. In fact, what our farmers 
 and swine-breeders are used to call ' hog cholera,' is not a single 
 or separate disease, but rather a group of several kindred diseases, 
 similar to each other in regard to causes, morbid process, conta- 
 giousness, and final termination, but differing very much as to symp- 
 toms, seat of morbid process, course, and duration. Hence, the 
 proper name, 
 
 ANTHRAX DISEASES, 
 
 which is understood everywhere, is much preferable to the mis- 
 nomer 'hog cholera.' 
 
 " All anthrax diseases — and those of swine not excepted — make 
 their appearance usually as enzootic diseases. They spread over 
 large districts, and attack a large number of animals of the same 
 kind, and in some cases of different kinds, at once, or in quick suc- 
 cession. Only in comparatively rare cases, one or the other form 
 of anthrax presents itself as a sporadic disease — that is, attacks 
 only a few animals, or remains limited to a farm, a pasture, or a 
 stable, or a yard. This, however, is but natural : in the first place, 
 ihe presence of the pernicious agencies or influences which consti- 
 tute the causes is seldom limited to a farm, a pasture, a stable, or a 
 yard, but extends usually over whole districts; and secondly, all 
 anthrax diseases develop a more or less intense contagion, able to 
 communicate the morbid process to other healthy animals, which 
 have not been exposed to the causes, and in severe cases even to 
 men. The morbid process in all anthrax diseases consists in a 
 peculiar decomposition of the blood and of the animal tissues ; con- 
 sequently, everything that is able to introduce or to promote such 
 a decomposition must be considered as a mediate cause. 
 
 " CAUSES. 
 
 " The causes of the anthrax diseases of swine are essentially the 
 same as those of the anthrax diseases of other domesticated ani- 
 mals. The same proceed, to a great extent, from certain peculiari- 
 ties of the soil and of the weather, and have their source also — par- 
 tially at least — in the mode and manner in which the animals are 
 kept. It is possible, according to the scientific investigations and 
 experiments which have been carried on with great zeal during the 
 last decade, that various cryptogamic parasites, the baderii, v.'bn- 
 oneSy and others, found in the blood and in other fluids of anthrax 
 patients, act either directly or indirectly like a ferment upon the 
 blood, effect a decomposition of that fluid, act in that way as a 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE. 245 
 
 causal agency, or a cause, of the morbid process and its usually 
 fatal termiuation. 
 
 " Tlie experience of our present age, as well as the earliest 
 observations on record, show that anthrax diseases are apt to occur 
 wherever large quantities of stagnant water, surcharged with de- 
 composing vegetable substances, are evaporating. Hence, anthrax 
 diseases may be expected on naturally wet or low land, in a drj 
 season, and on naturally high and dry land, provided the soil is 
 rich in humus, in very wet seasons. The various forms of anthrax, 
 therefore, make their appearance especially as epizootic, or rather 
 enzootic, diseases, in all localities or districts in which the lop soil 
 is rich in humus and decomposing vegetable matter, and the sub- 
 soil impervious to water, at the end of a wet season, or after an 
 inundation ; and in localities or districts in which swamps, sloughs, 
 and pools of stagnant water are numerous and extensive during a 
 hot and dry season, particularly if the animals are compelled to 
 drink foul or stagnant water containing a considerable quantity of 
 decomposing vegetable substances. The water of ponds in which 
 flax has been rotted, must be regarded as extremely dangerous, for 
 this reason. 
 
 " Pastures and stubble fields, rich in sulphates, or manured with 
 mineral fertilizers, which eflFect a more rapid decomposition of the 
 vegetable substances, are also more dangerous than others. 
 
 "The weather, too, is not altogether without influence. Weather 
 that is too hot and too sultry for the season of the year, or that is 
 very changeable, (for instance, very warm during the day, and cold 
 at night), seems to promote the outbreak of anthrax diseases. The 
 climate, or the average temperature ut a country, is without any 
 consequence, for anthrax makes its appearance as well in the polar 
 regions as in the temperate and in the torrid zones. 
 
 " As to the keeping of the animals, it has been observed that sties 
 or pens, full of dung and rotting vegetable substances — clover, 
 weeds, etc. — especially if the latter are wet and exposed to the rays 
 of the sun, have a decidedly bad influence, and are able to act as 
 a cause. Further, certain kinds of food, that contain an abund- 
 ance of nitrogenous compounds, and are diflBcult to digest, or very 
 juicy, and of rank and rapid growth, have a great tendency to pro- 
 mote the development of anthrax diseases. As such kinds of food 
 — though some of them are scarcely ever fed to swine — may be 
 named : aftermath clover, the grasses and weeds grown on stubbla 
 fields in a wet and warm season, green rye, and green wheat, 
 distillers' mash, moldy hay, spoiled or moldy garden vegetables, 
 
24G SWINE HtJSBANDKT. 
 
 musty and moldy grain, and especially grain that contains a great 
 deal of smut. It has been stated time and again, that grasses 
 grown on places or spots wliere animals diseased with anthrax 
 had died, or had been buried, are able to produce anthrax in living 
 animals. Whether this is true or not, I am unable to decide ; I 
 uive the statement for what it is worth. Still, it seems that scarcely 
 any one of these more or less injuiious kinds of food is able to pro- 
 duce anthrax by itself, but, if acting combined with the influences 
 of evaporating stagnant water, surcharged with decomposing vege- 
 table substances, the same may become very pernicious. 
 
 " A great and dangerous predisposition to anthrax diseases is 
 originated, also, by a sudden increase of very nutritious food, caus- 
 ing a rapid improvement of the condition of the animal from poor 
 to good, or fro;n middling good to very good, by accelerating and 
 augmenting rather excessively the organic change of material, or 
 process of wasting and repairing, that is constantly going on in 
 every living organism. If the change of matter is increased too 
 suddenly, or to such an extent that the organs (lymphatics, kitl- 
 neys, skin, in testin3s, etc. ,) which have the office of disposing of 
 the waste material, and excreting the same, but have been accus- 
 tomed to only an ordinary quantity of water, cannot absorb and 
 carry off the extraordinary amount that is produced, in conse- 
 quence of the rapidly-promoted change of matter — a quantity of 
 wasted material, consisting of nitrogenous (urea, for instance,) and 
 carbonaceous compounds, will be retained, and will accumulate in 
 the system, but especially in the blood, where they are apt to 
 become a source of decomposition. 
 
 "The predisposing influence of a very rapid growth and im 
 provement in condition, explains why, in every anthrax epizooty, 
 or enzooty, just the most thrifty and fastest improving animals 
 become the victims, and contract, almost invariably, the disease in 
 its most acute and most malignant forms; while the poorest ani- 
 nals in a herd remain either exempted, or take the disease in a less 
 acute, or comparatively mild form. A.ge and sex seem to be with- 
 out influence. 
 
 ^'THE CONTAGION". 
 
 " A verj' important source of the spreading of the disease con- 
 stitutes the contagion. The same is of a fixed, rather than of a 
 volatile nature, and all parts of the animal body (but especially 
 l!ie blood and the fluid products of the morbid process), must be 
 looked upon as its bearei-s. The vitality of the contagion, and the 
 resistance of the same against external influences, is very great ; it 
 
DISEASES OP SWINB. 247 
 
 is not easily destroyed by exposure to the air, to warmth, cold, 
 moisture, etc. Its intensity, however, is not always the same, but 
 differs according to the form anil malignancy of the disease, and 
 the genus of the animal ; for it has been repeatedly observed, that 
 contagion in neat cattle, is usually more effective than that devel- 
 oped in horses, or in hogs. It is destroyed most effectually by 
 chemical agencies — for instance, by carbolic acid, chloride of 
 lime, etc. 
 
 " The fact that carbolic acid, a most deadly poison to all parasite 
 growth, (vegetable, as well as animal,) destroys also, quicker and 
 more thoroughly than anything else, the efficiency of the conta- 
 gioa.developed in anthrax, and in other contagious diseases, may 
 be looked upon as a strong support of the theory which assigns to 
 the cryptogamic parasites, found in the blood and in several other 
 fluids of patients diseased with anthrax, or with any other conta- 
 gious diseases, a close connection with the contagion. 
 
 "The period of incubation (that is, the time which elapses be- 
 tween the exposure to the influence of the contagion and the out- 
 break of the disease resulting from it), is not always the same, 
 but extends fi-om a few hours to about two weeks. The form of 
 the disease resulting from a contagious infection, is not always 
 identical with the form of anthrax which produced the contagion, 
 but depends upon the seat of the morbid process ; and the latter 
 usually localizes itself in the same parts of the body which have 
 been the principal recipients of the contagion. 
 
 " Anthrax in swine, as well as in all other domesticated animals, 
 makes its aiDpearance in different forms, which maybe divided into 
 two groups — one without any localization of the morbid process, 
 and another one, in which a localization is taking place. The 
 forms belonging to the first group, are characterized by their ex- 
 tremely acrte course, and great malignancy. The morbid process 
 affects the whole organism, and has no time to localize itself, ba^ 
 destroys life usually within a few hours, and in some cases even 
 within a few minutes. The forms of anthrax belonging to the 
 second group, are less acute in their course ; they last from several 
 hours to several days, and the morbid process, too, is less violent, 
 and has time to effect a localization in one or another part or orgao 
 of the animal's body. 
 
 " GANGRENOUS ERYSIPELAS. 
 
 " Gangrenous, malignant, or contagious erysipelas — St. Antho- 
 ny's fire, or Wild-fire — must be considered as the most frequent an- 
 thrax disease of swine. Its outbreak is usually preceded by some 
 
948 SWINB HUSBANDRY. 
 
 more or leas plainly dovoloped precnrsory symptoms, ■which, how- 
 over, often reniMJn un()l)9erved. The animal, a short time before 
 the cviilent outbreak of the disease, appears to be dull and weak. 
 It fuses iti, food, lias an unsteaily gait, lies down ii ;;reat deal, roots 
 in its bedding-, and shows a tendency to bury its head (or, if the 
 litter is abundant, its whole body), in the straw. The temper- 
 ature of the body is changeable, cold shiverinj^s and feverish heat 
 alternate with each other in quick succession ; pulse and respira- 
 tion are accelerated ; the bowels are ct)nstipatcd, or the excrements 
 that are voided are hard and dark i^olored ; in some cases, the pa- 
 tients make efforts to vomit. In about twelve or twenty-four 
 hours, the symptoms become more c]iaracteri.stic. Ued spots, 
 which soon become conlluent, make their appearance on the inside 
 of the logs, on the lower jnirt of the abdomen, on the breast, and 
 neck, and soon present an erysipelatous swelling of (at first) a 
 blood-red or crimson, afterwards a purple, and finally (if the ter- 
 mination is to be fatal) a bluish-black color. In some cases, small 
 pustules, with gangrenous, corrosive contents, make their appear- 
 ance on some parts of the swelled surface ; the fever increases iu 
 intensity ; the mucous membranes jjresent a purple, or lead-gray 
 color; the breathing becomes very laborious; the temperature of 
 the body, at first considerably imreased, is much reduced ; the 
 hind quarters of the animal become paralyzeil, convulsions set in, 
 and the sick animal dies, sometimes within six or twelve hours, 
 but usually on the second or third day after the outbreak of the 
 disease. In tliose cases in wliii'h the animal rirovers, the red spots 
 either remain limited, or become less continent ; the fever does not 
 reach so higli a degree of intensity, ami the other morbid condi- 
 tions abate, if not before, on the second or third day. Still, some 
 morl)id changes, such as partial paralysis in the hind quarters, in- 
 sufiicient appetite (the animals frequently cannot be induced to cat 
 any more than the least amount necessary to kiep them alive), de- 
 fective digestion, etc., often remain, and the recovery is seldom a 
 perfei't one. 
 
 " The treatment has to be essentially the same as in gangrenous 
 angina. At i rst an efiective emetic, and afterwards calomel, or 
 Bulpliate of soda, and if the latter is chosi'u, diluted acids, espe- 
 cially diluted carliolic acid (one i)art of the crystallized acid to two 
 parts of glycerine, or alcohol, and one hundred jvirts of water), to 
 be given with extreme care, with a spoon, and in repeated doses, 
 often have a favorable result, provided the treatment is begun 
 before the morbid process has made too much jirogress. Exter- 
 nally, subcutaneous injections into the swelled parts, of diluted 
 
DISEASES OF SWINE. 249 
 
 carbolic acid (2 J or 3 parts to 100 of water), have also proved to be 
 of some benefit, and may at least counteract, to a great extent, the 
 septic process. 
 
 *' MALIGNANT OR GANGRENOUS ANGINA. 
 
 " Malignant, or gangrenous, angina is one of the most frequent 
 forms of anthrax, at any rate, more frequent in swine than either 
 apoplectic or gloss anthrax. It usually presents itself as an eu- 
 zooty, and is therefore often complicated witL otlier forms, espe- 
 cially with malignant erysipelas, su-called St. Authony's hre, or 
 Wild fire. The morbid process has its principal seat in the throat, 
 in the ^uucous membranes of the larynx and of the windpipe, and 
 in adjoining parts, but is, in some cases rather concentrated in, or 
 limited to, a certain part — the larynx, for instance — and in other 
 cases more diffused. Consequently, some patients present more 
 outside swelling, or show greater distress and difficulty of breath- 
 ing than others, although the disease is the same. 
 
 " The principal symptoms, though not all of them are alike con- 
 spicuous in every patient, consist in wheezing and laborious breath- 
 ing, hoarse grunting, great heat, and dryness of the snout, swelling 
 of the tongue, a brown-red color of the mucous membranes of the 
 mouth, difficulty in swallowing the food, and attempts to vomit. 
 In the larynx region, and along the windpipe, appears a hot, hard, 
 and painful swelling, which not seldom extends downward and 
 backward to the forelegs, or even to the lower surface of the chest 
 and abdomen. Tlie swelled parts present, at first, a saturated red 
 or crimson, afterwards, often, a reddish lead-gray, and finally a 
 purple color, and an cedematous character. The fever is usually 
 very high ; the sick animals breathe with increasing difficulty, and 
 either lie down, or sit on their iiaunches, like a dog. Finally, the 
 difficulty of breathing becomes so great, that desperate attempts 
 have to be made to catch a little air by opening the mouth, and 
 protruding the livid-colored and swelled tongue. The mucous 
 membrane of the mouth, at first red-brown, changes its color to 
 lead-gray ; the temperature of the body, at first considerably 
 higher than in a healthy animal, decreases below the normal de- 
 gree, and the patients either die of suffocation, or in consequence 
 of the spreading gangrene, within one or two days. In those 
 cases in which the morbid process has concentrated itself in the 
 larynx, the patients suffocate a great deal sooner, and die, some- 
 times, within an hour after the appearance of the morbid symp- 
 toms. 
 
 " If the disease does not termiuaite la death, which is but seldom 
 
250 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 the case, unless the patients are subjected to a rational treatment 
 during the very tirst stages of the disease, the morbid symptoms 
 are gradually rodiicod. In such a case, the respiration becomes 
 freer and less laborious; the wheezing disappears; the difficulty 
 lu swallowing food and water abates, and the external swelling 
 coases to sproa i, and finally decreases gradually in size. Malig- 
 u.iul angina, as well as other forms of anthrax, has either an idio- 
 'jiathic origin, or is the consetiuence of an infection brought about, 
 in most cases, by eating meat, blood, etc., of animals that have 
 died of anthrax. 
 
 " A treatment, to be of any avail, must be instituted during the 
 very first stages of the disease. It is bjst to commencj by giving 
 a good emetic, consisting of two to twenty grains (according to 
 the age and size of the patient) of powdered White Hellebore ( Veru- 
 trum album), or of Tartar Emetic. The former, however, is more 
 reliable, and therefore to be preferred. Both medicines must be 
 given, either with a little milk — if the patient will take them vol- 
 untarily — or, mixed with a pinch of flour and a little water, or a 
 piece of boiled potato, in form of pills — if force is necessary, but 
 under no circumstances in the shape of a drench. If the animal 
 should not vomit freely within twenty minutes, the dose has to be 
 repeated. Afterwards, the so-called antiphlogistic salts — sulphate 
 of soda, sulphate of potash, sulphate of magnesia, saltpetre, or cal- 
 omel, ma}' be given to some advantage. Diluted acids, vegetable 
 as well as mineral, but es|)eiially dihited carbolic acid (1 to 100 of 
 water), and subcutaneous injections of dihited carbolic acid (2J or 
 3 parts of the acid, 5 parts of glyceriuL', and 95 i)arts of water), made 
 into the swelled parts at various places, have been used to advau 
 Jage, and havo given, in many cases, at least, much better satis- 
 factio.i taan anything else. Some authors have advised to draw 
 setons or rowels, to fix tlie swelled parts with a red-hot iron, or to 
 apply cold water douches, but if the nature of the disease is taken 
 into consideration, it is difficult to see what good such remedies 
 can do. Blood-letting, too, has been recommended, but if resorted 
 to, it nmst be done during the very first, or incipient, stage of the 
 diseasi^ otherwise it will only accelerate the fatal termination. 
 
 "As preventive remedies, diluted acid, sour buttermilk, unripe 
 Bour apples, once a week a dose of sulphate of soda, and especially, 
 now and then, a little carbolic acid in the water for drinking, have 
 proved of some value. 
 
 ''ANTHHAX CAUBrXCLE, OR WHITE BUISTLE. 
 
 "Real anthrax carbuncle is of comparatively rare occurrence in 
 hogs. Its outbreak is always attended with very severe fever, and 
 
DISEASES OP SWINE. 251 
 
 the carbiinculons swelling usually makes its appearance on the 
 neck, in close proximity to tli(! larynx, and is extremely painful. 
 Tiic bristii's, or liair, on such a carbuncle, become bleached, liiml, 
 and britllc, and stand on end, therefore the name " white liristle." 
 Finally, great difficulty of breathing, groaning, gnashing and grat- 
 mg of the teeth, and convulsions, constitute the last symptoms 
 and the precursors of death, which ensues usually within a few 
 days. 
 
 " The local treatment consists in destroying, or cauterizing, the 
 carbuncles as soon as possible, by means of a red-hot iron, or with 
 a concentrated acid. The general treatment has to be the same 
 as iuacualiguaut angina. 
 
 "apoplectic anthrax. 
 
 " The apoplectic form of anthrax, the most acute of all, is not so 
 frequent in hogs as in cattle and sheep, but wherever it occurs, it 
 usually terminates within so short a time, that the owner of the 
 smitten animals will either tind them dead, or will just come in time 
 to see them break down and die, before he even suspected them of 
 being sick. Death is almost instantaneous, and treatment, there- 
 fore, is out of the questio.i. Some twelve or fourteen years ago, 
 one of my own pigs, a nice, thrifty animal of common stock, died 
 of this form of anthrax. It stepped back from the trough, turned 
 around.squealed, tumbled down, and died in less than half a minute. 
 In some — though still rarer — cases the termination is not quite so 
 rapid; the diseased animals manifest sickness, by showing symp- 
 toms of distress; their gait becomes unsteady and swaggering; the 
 visible mucous membranes appear very much reddened ; the tem- 
 perature of the body changes from feverish heat to cold shiver- 
 ings, which follow each other in rapid succession. After this 
 stage, the sick animals frequently vomit a bloody or discolored 
 fluid, and usuallj' die ver}'^ soon, under convulsions. In some cases, 
 carbuncles or erysipelatous swellings make their appearance a short 
 time before death, indicating a tendency of the morbid process to 
 localize itself. 
 
 '•'THE MOUTH, GUM, OR GLOSS ANTHRAX, 
 
 or malignant pustule of hogs, is one of the most acute forms of the 
 second group, and a comparatively rare disease. 
 
 ■• Restlessness, loss of appetite, a distressful and staring expres- 
 sion of the eyes, abnormal heat in the mucous membranes of the 
 mouth, gnashing the teeth, and slavering, constitute the first mor- 
 bid symptoms, and the first indications of the presence of disease 
 
X>53 SWINK nUSB^VNDKY. 
 
 and hlK^ fovor. Vory soon, howovor, (tit anj- rate within an hour 
 or two), on(> or inon', but st-Ulom many, pusiiih>s, o;»cli tho si/.o of 
 H poa, or a boan, n\ako tlu>ir appoaranro on thr («>ns:iu\ the ijiuns, 
 and in otht r pans of ilio n\outh. Tln'so pustuU's, snrroiuuh'd at 
 thoir basi> by an orysipolatous swollinir, aiv tirst yollowish-whito, 
 but ohaiisro tlu'ir color vory soon io brown, and linally to bhick, 
 aoi'ordin^ to iho obangos wl\iih thiit tluid oontenlis aro nudorgoiug. 
 The fovor, at vho sauio timo, has boi-onio vory sovoiv. Thoso pus- 
 tulos, if not oarly onough rtuuovod and dostroyod, togother with 
 their i\>ntonts, will soon broak auil disohar_>ix' thoir irauirronoua 
 tluid, whioh will ouuso niorlilloation in overy tissuo with whioh it 
 conios in oontaou In snoh a oaso tho animal will ilie, usually with- 
 in a few hours, but at any r.ito within a fow days. As a geuoral 
 rulo in this, as well as all othor forms of anthrax, the better the 
 condition of tlio patient, the sooner does it torniiuate in death. 
 Tho tri'atnu'ut, on aooount of the very acute course, and of the 
 peculiar seat of tho ilisoase, is ditlUnilt. The pustules have to be 
 opened, and emptioil of their contents, liy nutans of a small spoon 
 with somewhat sharp or thin edi):os, (one made of tin will answer 
 best), and the romainini:; soivs have to be cautoriicd, with either 
 sulphuric, hydro-chloric, nitric, or carbolic acid. The opening and 
 destroyinii: of tho pustules, and the application of the acid, are 
 attended with sou\o danger io the i>perator, unless he is very care- 
 ful not to soil his hands with the contents of the pustules. A per- 
 son with sores on his hands should never undertake it. The whole 
 oponition, howovor, is useless, unless the pustules are opened in a 
 very dexterous manner, atul their contents removed at once, so as 
 to pri'vont the animal from swallowing them. The jj^enonil treat- 
 ment has to be the sanu' as that of the foregoing tonus of authnii. 
 
 ** riiEVENTlON, 
 
 " As to prevention, rt>ally not much remains to bo said. Remov- 
 ing the causes, and, as the disease is contagious, separating the 
 healthy animals from the sick ones, and destroying the contagion 
 wherever it exists, by means of crude carbolic acid or with chloride 
 of lime — I'onstitute the principal and most important measures of 
 prevention. Besides this, care must be taken, wherever it is in- 
 tended to improve the coniHtion of an animal, to do so gradually — 
 to food r»>gularly at all times, and give n<)thing bvU what is healthy 
 and sound. That pun', clean water for drinking, is absolutely 
 neces>ary, and that troughs, sties, or pous. and yards, have to l>e 
 kept as clean and dry as possible — need to lie specially mentiouoil. 
 In those sections of the couutrv, in which the natural eouditiou of 
 
SO-CALLED HOG OHOLKRA. 253 
 
 the soil is stioh as to invite a (ic^vrlopinonl. of anthrax disrasos, 
 ■whore, in other words, the top soil consist.s of u rich huintis, and 
 the subsoil of an impervious clay, or where sloughs and swamps 
 arc extensive and iuiinen)us, or wliero ti»e country is sul»ject to 
 ii\undations — proper draininj;, tlioroty(|i cultivation, drying of 
 tlie swamps and wet places, and building dykes t)r levees, or 
 digging canals, to jtrevent the inundations, constitute the only pre- 
 ventives tiial can l)e applied. Medicines, in sueii cases, an^ of no 
 avail ; they can be used to advantage only where it becomes neces- 
 sary to assist the organism in ejecting waste material. Hence, the 
 feeding of eoi>p(>ras, charcoal, sulpliur, .salt|)el re, salt, ashes, and all 
 tlie hundred and one oilier things, that have been recommended, ie> 
 perfectly useless, if not injurious, and has never prevented a soli- 
 tary ease of antluax, or so-called hog cholera. 1 am sure my own 
 Berkshiresare as healthy and thrifty animals as can be found any- 
 where, and they never receive anything of tluit kind; but they are 
 regularly fed, have good sties, spacious yards, and, what is most 
 important, plenty of jnire spring water to clriuk, aud to take a bath 
 in, whenever they foci like it." 
 
 CHAPTEU XXIV. 
 
 THE SO-CALLED " HOG CHOLERA." 
 
 TIIR REPORT OF DR. H. J. DKTMPHIS. 
 
 During the year 1875, Jiiul for tlio groaior part of 1876, 
 thoro prevailed, in Missouri, a disease among swine, to an 
 alarming extent, whieh was ealled by tiio farmers "hog 
 cholera." The same disease, or one closely resembling it, 
 was exceedingly destructive in Illinois, and other hog- 
 producing States. The Missouri State Board of Agricul- 
 ture, recognizing the fact that a disease must bo under- 
 stood before ])r()per curative, or even preventive means 
 could bo eniployed, assigned to Dr. II. J. Detmers, l*ro- 
 fossor of Veterinary Science in the State Agricultural 
 College, the duty of investigating the disease in its vari' 
 
254 SWINE HtrSBANDRY. 
 
 ous forms and in all its stages. His examinations were 
 made in different parts of the State, on both living and 
 dead animals, and animals with the disease in various 
 degrees of development were killed, to allow of post- 
 mortem examinations, careful inspections w:ere made of 
 localities in which the disease was most prevalent, etc. 
 The resalts of his labors are embodied in a Keport to the 
 Board, dated Sept. 8, 1876, This Report, with the ex- 
 ception of a few unimportant paragraphs, is here given : 
 
 "THE NATURE OF THE DISEASE. 
 
 " The morbid process presents itself in a majority of cases as a 
 catarrhal rheumatic, and in others as a gastric rhevmntic or billious 
 r/ieumatic affection, a,nd exhibited always more or less plainly, a 
 decidedly typhoid character. As a catarrhal rheumatic affection it 
 has its principal seat in the mucous membranes of the respiratory 
 passages, in the substance of the lungs, in the pulmonal pleura or 
 serous membrane coating the external surface of the lobes of the 
 lungs, in the cost d pleura or serous lining of the internal surface of 
 the chest, in the diaphragm, and in the pericardium, or serous bag 
 enveloping the heart. As a gastric-rheumatic affection, the prin- 
 cipal seat of the disease is found in the abdominal cavity, but 
 especially in the liver, iu the spleen or milt, in the large and small 
 intestines, in the kidneys and ureters, and in the peritoneum or 
 serous membrane lining the interior surface of the abdominal cav- 
 ity, and constituting the sxternal coat of most of the organs situ- 
 ated in that part of the body. Hence, the name Hog Cholera is an 
 ill-chosen one ; it tends to convey the idea that the disease in ques- 
 tion is similar to, or identical with, the cholera of men, which is 
 not the case ; therefore the application ' hog cholera,' which has 
 already led to a great many mistakes in rcg.ird to treatment and 
 measures of prevention, should be abolished at once, and a more 
 appropriate name should take its place. As such a one I wish to 
 propose ' Epizootic Influenza of Swine,' ior two reasons: First, the 
 disease in question bears, in all its morbid features, and especially 
 in the diversity of its forms, produced by the differences in the seat 
 of the morbid process, a striking resemblance to the yet well- 
 remembered epizootic influenza of horses, which swept the whole 
 country a few years ago from the Atlantic to the Pacific ; second, 
 I admit it might be more convenient to select a name derived from 
 a conspicuous aad characteristic symptom, or from an important 
 
SO-CALLED HOG CHOLERA. 255 
 
 and constant morbid change— pleuro-pneumonia of swine, for 
 instance — if the main seat of the morbid process was always in the 
 respiratory organs, or invariably the same in every patient. But as 
 this is not the case, as the seat of the disease is found not only in 
 the respiratory apparatus, but also, in a large number of cases, in 
 the parts and organs connected with the digestive process, and, in 
 some cases, even in the centres of the nervous system, a name had 
 to be chosen that is comprehensive enough in its meanings to cover 
 all the diflFerent forms under which the disease is able to make its 
 appearance, and, at the same time, sufficiently distinct to prevent 
 any diagnostic confusion. As such a name I cannot think of any 
 that would answer better than that of Epizootic Influenza of Swine, 
 which, therefore, I recommend for a general adoption. 
 
 "SYMPTOMS AND MORBID CHANGES. 
 
 " As the morbid process has its seat in various organs or parts of 
 the body, the disease presents itself in diflFerent forms, and mani- 
 fests its presence by diflferent symptoms, so that, at any rate, besides 
 other complications, two principal, and two subordinate, forms or 
 varieties must be discriminated. 
 
 1. The Catarrhal Rheumatic Forms. — This is the most frequent 
 of the two principal forms. The morbid process has its main seat 
 in the respiratory organs ; the disease presents the features of a 
 respiratory disorder, and either the catarrhal or the rheumatic 
 character predominates, or both are equally developed. If the lat- 
 ter is the case, the whole respiratory apparatus may be found dis- 
 eased. If the catarrhal character is the one that is most devel- 
 oped, the principal seat of the disease -will be found in the larynx, 
 in the windpipe, in the bronchial tubes, and, to a larger or smaller 
 extent, in the substance of the lungs ; and if the rheumatic form is 
 the predominating one, the principal morbid changes occur in the 
 serous membranes of the chest, (the costal and ptdmonal pleura and 
 the pericardium), and also, to some extent, in the tissue of the 
 lungs. In most cases, however, the catarrhal and the rheumatic 
 character are blended with each other, and the respiratory pas^ 
 sages, the tissue of the lungs, and the serous membranes, or parts 
 of them, are more or less diseased. 
 
 " Animals afflicted with the catarrhal rheumatic form indicate 
 the presence of the disease by a short, more or less hoarse, hacking 
 cough — generally one of the first symptoms — by difficulty of 
 breathing, a panting or drawing motion of the flanks at each 
 breath, by holding the head in a peculiar, stretched, and somewhat 
 drooping position, by a slow and undecided gait, a peculiar hoarse- 
 
256 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 ness -when caused to squeal, etc. The attending fever is severe 
 enough to announce its presence by unmistakable symptoms, such 
 as accelerated pulsation, changeable temperature, etc. Some of 
 tne sick animals show at the beginning of the disease a tendency to 
 vomit, and have diarrhoea, while others arc more or less constipated 
 from the tii-st, and remain constipated till the disease is ready to 
 tcrmin.ite in death. If the catarrhal character is the most prevail- 
 ing, but especially if the morbid process has developed itself prin- 
 cipally in the throat and in the windpipe, more or less swelling 
 (quinsy) will make its appearance. 
 
 "At the post mortenv examination some important morbid 
 changes will invariably be found in the lungs. Portions of the same 
 have become impervious to air by being gorged with exudation. The 
 diseased tissue has lost its spongy feature, has become heavier, and 
 more solid, similar in appearance and consistency to a piece of liver 
 —a condition called hepatization. In some cases the diseased or 
 bepatized parts of the lungs present a uniform red or reddish-brown 
 color, and indicate that the exudation has been produced, and been 
 deposited in the tissue of all the diseased lobules, at the same time, 
 or without interruption. In other cases, the single lobules in the 
 distvised portions of the lungs present difiFerent colors ; some are 
 red, some brown, and others gray or yellowish-gray, which gives 
 the whole hopatizod part a somewhat marbled appearance, and 
 shows that the exudation has been produced and been deposited at 
 different periods. The gray hepatization, which is the oldest, and 
 the brown, which comes next in age, contain frequently a few 
 • tubercles, or even here and there a small ulcer interspersed. Other- 
 wise T\either ulceration nor sujipr.ration has been observed. Im- 
 portant morbid changes are usually fviuml also in the serous mem- 
 branes of the thorax. Tl\e same consist in a more or less firm coales- 
 cence between parts of the pulmonal pleura and the correspond- 
 ing parts of the costal pleura, and in an accumulation of a larger or 
 •mailer quantity of straw-colored water or serum in the chest. In 
 other cases, those in w'.uch the rheumatic character has been pre- 
 dominating, the morbid products of the diseased serous mem- 
 branes are frequentlj very copions; t':e adhesion between the pul- 
 monal and costal pleura, or between the external surface of the 
 lungs and the internal surface of the walls of the thorax, is usually 
 very extensive ; and in somu^ cases parts of the posterior surface of 
 one or both lungs are foinul tirnily united witli the corresponding 
 parts of the diaphragm or membraneous jnirtition which separates 
 the chest from the abdt)minal cavity. The quantity of serous ex- 
 udation, or straw-coloreil water deposited in tlie ehest is often 
 
RO-OALLEP HOG CIIOLKRA. 257 
 
 very lar<;o, and the poricanlium, too, contains in most cases a larger 
 or sniallrr (inantity, sonictimca enough to interfere seriously with 
 the lunetions of the heart, and to eonstitute tliereby tiio imme- 
 diate eause of death. Tiie blood is found to be thin ami watery 
 in every ease, and eoajrulates rapidly to a uniform, but somewhat 
 pale-red elot and of loose ti"xture. Its quantity is always very small. 
 
 " 3. The Ouatr'o li/itum it:c Form. — This form presents itself 
 not quite so often as the catarrhal rlieumatie, but is fully as malig- 
 nuit, and constitutes the seeonil main form which the disease is 
 found to assume. The nn>rbid proi-css has its principal seat, and 
 produces the most imiH)itant morbid changes, in some of tJie or- 
 gans situated in the abdominal cavity, but especially in the liver, 
 in the spleen or milt, in tlie kiihieys, the ureters, in the intestines 
 or guts, anil almost invariably in the peritoneum or serous mem- 
 brane, which lines the interii)r surface of the abdoujinal cavity, 
 and constitutes the external coat of nearly every intestine. 
 
 '' The symptoms which ])resent themselves while the animal is 
 living, ditVi T not very essentially from those observed in the catarr- 
 hal rheumatic form. The short, hacking cough, characteristic of 
 the latter, is more or less wanting; the difficulty of breathing is 
 less plain ; the weakness in the hind quarters, and the staggering or 
 unsteady gait, observed only in limited degrees in the catarrhal 
 rheumatic form, is more conspiiuous, and the fever is fully as 
 high in one form as in the other. 
 
 " In severe eases, the atlected anin\als arch their backs, or rather 
 the lumbal portion of the same to a very high degree, so that tho 
 outline of the back resembles somewhat the shape of an cc. I ob- 
 served this especially in those cases iu which the morbid process 
 has established itself in the kidneys and in the uretei-s, and in 
 which a large quantity of serous exudation, or straw-colored water, 
 had accumulated ii» the abdiMuinal cavity. 
 
 "Animals atlected. with the gastric form, show usually more or 
 less costiveness of the bowels. Tho dung is of the consistency of 
 shoenuiker's wax, and is voided in small, irregular shaped balls, 
 whii'li arc usually coated with a layer of grayish or discolored mu- 
 cus. Still, if the disease is near its fatal termination, the consti- 
 pation, in many cases, gives way to u profuse and fetid diarrhoea, 
 which may be looked upon, in every instance, as a very fatal sign, 
 and a forerunner of death. 
 
 " The principal morbiil changes, as I have found them, are as 
 follows : 1. Degeneration of the liver, brought about by a copiims 
 exudation infiltrated into the tissue of that organ. Such a degen- 
 
258 ^ SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 eration, althougli not a constant morbid change, is found quite 
 often. In some, not very frequent cases, a few tubercles, and in 
 others, still less frequent, even a few very small abscesses, have 
 been found imbedded in the diseased sabstance of the liver. 2. 
 Morbid enlargement of the spleen or milt. I found this change in 
 nearly every case. In some cases, the enlargement was not very 
 conspicuous, but in others the spleen was more than three times its 
 natural size, was perfectly gorged with blood, presented a dark 
 black-brown color, and was so soft that very slight pressure with 
 a finger was sufficient to sever its tissue. 3. In quite a large num- 
 ber of them I found one or both kidneys diseased, enlarged, and 
 presenting an inflamed appearance. In one case, both kidneys and 
 both ureters exhibited a high degree of inflammation, and consid- 
 erable gangrenous destruction. The latter, however, was probably 
 not a consequence of the disease ; the animal had been drenched 
 repeatedly with oil of turpentine, and was the only one in which 
 I found any gangrene. In another animal, which, by the way, was 
 already convalescent, and was killed by bleeding, I found one kid- 
 ney enlarged to three times its natural size, its pelvis veiy much 
 distended, and its funnel-shaped ureter dilated to such an extent, 
 where it proceeds from the kidney, as to present a diameter nearly 
 one inch and a half. The walls of the ureter were very thick and 
 callous, especially at the anterior, funnel-shaped end, and the lat- 
 ter contained in its interior a semi-solid, fibrous substance, which 
 occupied the whole cavity, and extended even into the kidney. 4 
 In some cases, I found the membranes of the intestines, or guts, 
 but especially those of the jejunum or small intestine, of the coecum 
 and colon, or larger intestines, and also the rectum, in a more or 
 less inflamed and degenerated condition. In two cases, a whole 
 convolution of the jejunum had united to an almost solid bunch. 
 On opening the latter, I found, in each case, all three membranes, 
 but particularly the external or serous membrane, and the internal 
 or mucous membrane, very much swelled and degenerated, the 
 passage nearly closed, and in a small cavity in the centre of the 
 bunch, one or two large round worms (EcMnorhynchus gfgas) im- 
 bedded. In another case I found, besides other morbid changes, 
 a few roundworms in tbe stomach, and in the mucous membrane 
 of the guts or intestines, a large number of callous scars, such as 
 are usually left behind where the gigantic EcMnorhynchus, or hook- 
 beaded worm, had been fastening itself. These three cases just 
 mentioned, are the only ones in which I have found any entozoa, 
 or worms, in the digestive canal. 5. In almost every case, I found 
 larger or smaller portions of the peritoneum or serous membrane 
 
SO-CALLED HOG CHOLERA. 259 
 
 which lines the inner surface of the walls of the abdominal cavity, 
 and the external surface of nearly every intestine, swelled and 
 more or less inflamed, and mobility changed. In some cases, even 
 a coalescence between parts of the intestines, especially the jejunum 
 and rectum, and the walls of the abdominal cavity had been 
 effected ; in case, a part of the jejunum had become tirmly united 
 to the lower border of the right lobe of the liver, and in another 
 the whole rectum adhered so firmly to the upper wall of the pelvis 
 and of the posterior part of the abdominal cavity that it required 
 the use of a knife to aiiect a separation. G. I found in every ani- 
 mal that had been aflfected with the gastric rheumatic form of the 
 disca^, a larger or smaller quantity of the straw-colored water or 
 serum, and small lumps and flakes of coagulated fibrine in the ab- 
 domLial cavity ; in some cases, the quantity was quite a large one, 
 and in others the quantity was comparatively small. 
 
 " Two cases must be-considered as subordinate forms, in which 
 either one of the principal forms — the catarrhal rheumatic and 
 gastric rheumatic — is essentially modified by being complicated 
 with an affection of the brain and its membranes, or with a seri- 
 ous disorder of the lymphatic system. Hence, two subordinate 
 forms have to be added. 
 
 " The perspiration — perceptible and imperceptible perspiration — 
 can be interrupted, or in other words, the skin can be disqualified 
 to perform its functions by several means ; for instance, by a dis- 
 turbance or partial interruption of the circulation of the blood in 
 its capillary vessels, by congestion, inflammation or degeneration 
 of its tissue, or of a part of its tissue, by a closing of its pores by 
 mechanical means, etc. This granted, it remains 'to ascertain, if 
 those hogs and pigs which have been, or which are yet, afiected 
 with the epizootic influenza of swine (erroneously hog cholera), 
 have been subjected to one or more of those just named influences, 
 or agencies, able to cause an interruption or partial cessation of 
 the perspiration. Taking these facts just as they have presented 
 themselves, that question must be answered in the affirmative. My 
 investigations and my inquiries have convinced me that in ail 
 those hogs or pigs which have suffered from, or died of, that dis- 
 ease, one or more of those influences or agencies have been at 
 work, as I shall try to show. 
 
 " 1. All animals affected with that disease — at any rate, all those 
 which I have seen, and I have seen a very large number — were 
 exceedingly lousy. Lice irritate the skin, keeping it in a semi- 
 inflamed condition, cause swelling, and finally a gradual dsgenera^ 
 
260 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 tion of its external layer, and constitute, therefore, beyond a doubt, 
 a cause disturbing to some extent the normal perspiration. 
 
 " 2. All the hogs and pigs which have contracted the disease, 
 have been exposed, night and day, to all the sudden changes of 
 temperature and weather so frequent in our Western States. Some 
 of tae animals have been kept in small, wet, and dirty yards, or 
 inclosurcs, without a roof to protect them ; tliey had to suffer 
 during the day from the rays of the sun, and from the heat which 
 naturally accumulated in a small space, or lot, walled in by a tight 
 fence, and is constantly increased by the wet manure and other or- 
 ganic substances. During the night, the same animals were ex- 
 posed to the chilling iutiucuceof the cold night air, and frequently 
 very heavy dews, not to mention the effects of severe rains and 
 thunder storms. Further, after each heavy rain, the animals thus 
 kept had a chance tu get their whole body covered with mud, and 
 t -J pores of their skin thoroughly closed, but an opportunity to 
 gjt ri.l of the mud by taking a bath in clean water, was never 
 given. Such influences, evidently, are very apt to cause irregular- 
 ities in the circulation of their blood in the cap.Uarj^ vessels of the 
 skin, and, in consequence, an interruption of the perspiration. 
 Otlicr animals have been kept in comparatively large herds, and 
 h.ivc been allowed to run at large in the barnyard, in a so-called 
 hog-lot, in the woods, etc. These, too, were exposed more or less 
 to the burning rays of the sun during the day, but during the 
 night, the same, in most cases, found shelter under a corn-crib, un- 
 der an old stable, or an old barn, or, at any rate, in the closest and 
 dirtiest places, where they lacked room, and -where they were often 
 crowded on top of each other when retiring to sleep. As a con- 
 sequence, the animals became heated and perspiring; and took 
 cold and became chilled when they rose in the morning from this 
 common lair. A sudden cooling, however, or a sudden reduction 
 of temperature of the surface of the body, is apt to effect a con- 
 traction of the capillary vessels of the skin, hence diminished sup» 
 ply of blood, and, in consequence, a decrease or partial interruption 
 of the functions of tlie skin. The animals, thus suddenly cooled 
 by the cool morning air and the wet dew, become, in the course of 
 tlie forenoon, again exposed to the rays of the sun and the heat of 
 the day, which induces them to go into the first pool of water 
 — if one was accessible — to take a bath. This is all right and well 
 enough, because, in the summer, a hog should have access to water, 
 and an opportunity to take a bath as often as it desires. In all 
 those places, however, in which the disease has made its appear- 
 ance, I have found the water to wMch the hog had access, almost 
 
SO-CALLED HOG CHOLERA. 261 
 
 invariably so shallow, and of such a limited quantity, that the 
 bathing and wallowing of one of a few animals was sufficient to 
 convert the same into a sticky, semi-fluid mud. Consequently, if 
 the herd was a large one, only a few animals— and tliese invariably 
 the stronger and most active ones— had now and then a chance to 
 find clean water, and to reap real benefit from taking a bath. All 
 others, but especially the younger and smaller animals (shotes), 
 were compelled to wait till the first comers were through with 
 their bathing, aud had changed the watjr U mud ; the former, 
 therefore, had scarcely ever an opportunity to clean themselves 
 from the mud of the precedini^ d ly, aud to open the pores of the 
 skin Wy taking a bath in cleaa water. If they wish to take a little 
 cooliug, they hive to be satisfied with a mud-bath, and as every 
 new bath is a mud-bath again, the pores of the skin, as a conse- 
 quence, instead of being opened, will become closed more and 
 more efl"ectually from day to da}', until finally the perspiration wiL 
 be thoroughly interrupted, and the result, disease, will make its 
 appearance. It is diflfjrent if the herd is a small one, for then 
 nearly every animal will liavo, sometimes, a chance lo open the 
 por3s of its skin by a bath in tolerably clean water, and tlie per- 
 spiration will not be seriously interrupted. That these directions 
 must be correct, can be prove 1 by my observations, which show 
 that in aluiost every large herd, nearly all the younger aud weaker 
 anim lis (sliotes), have become a prey to the disease, while the large 
 and stronger, or most active animals, which are usually the firs^ 
 ones to go to the water in the morning, when the same is yet tol- 
 erably clean, aud wliich usually secure at night the best places in 
 tlie common lair, have either remained exempt, or have had the 
 disease in a milder form, and have mostly recovered. Finally, 
 small lierds have either suffered fewer losses, have been less se- 
 verely attacked, or have remained exempt altogether. 
 
 " 3. Agencies which interfere d.'reci'.i/ xcith the process of breatJiing, 
 and foreign substances which enter the respiratory passages. Theso, 
 too, as already indicated, are of a different character. When I 
 first commenced my investigation, it struck me that all these swine 
 — pigs, shotes, and grown hogs, of every age and description — ■ 
 which run at large in the streets and thoroughfares of Kansas City, 
 Westport, Independence, Lexington, and other places, and lead the 
 most independent life possible, but do not congregate, go home in 
 the evening, and belong to parties who own but one, two, or may 
 be three animals, as also all those swine which are kept by them- 
 selves, either one by one, or onlj' a f'W together, and, finally, all 
 those which are kept in comparatively small herds, in pastures, 
 
*iG'2 SWINE HUSBANDET. 
 
 orchards, or woods, coated everj-where with grass, and perfectly 
 destitute of dusty, bare ground, and of old manure heaps, are, re- 
 main, and have been, with rare exceptions, perfectly healthy. 1 
 say, with rare exceptions, for it has been i-eported to me that a few 
 of these swine running at large in the streets have died, but 1 have 
 not been able to ascertain with certainty the causes of their death. 
 On the other hand, all those animals which have been kept in 
 yards, pastures, or tields, etc., which consist part Lilly or wholly of 
 bare, dusty ground, or which contain heaps and accumulations of 
 old manure, have sutfered, and are sutfering severely, and the more 
 so the larger the herd, and the worse the dust of soil and ma- 
 nure. In large herds, composed of 100 head or more, the mortal- 
 ity has been as high as from 70 to 90 per cent ; in smiUler herds, 
 the same has been from 25 to CO per cent, and where only a few 
 animals have been kept together, and consequently each animal 
 was compelled to inhale only the dust kicked up by itself, and oc- 
 casionalh', by one or two others, the mortality has been very low, 
 has seldom exccedetl 10 per cent, or no fatal cases have occuiTcd 
 at all. Further, in all those cases, in which the hoga or pigs have 
 been compelled to inhale, with each breath, a large quantity of 
 soil and manure, ground to a fine powder bj' the rays of the sun, 
 and by heat, rain, wind, tramping, and rooting, all the pi^st mortem 
 examinations — and I have made a large number during the last 
 four weeks — have revealed as principal morbid changes a morbi I 
 atTectiou of the eyes, iullammation of the respiratory passages 
 (th oat, wind-pipe, bronchial tubes), hepatization of the lungs in 
 various stages of development, and, in some cases, even some 
 tubercles, or a few small abscesses in the pulmonal tissue, wiiile 
 the serous membrane (pulmonal and costal pleura, pericardium, 
 and peritoneum) presented themselves in a comparatively healthy 
 condition, except in those cases in which the causes described un- 
 der 1 had acted with those nnder discussion. 
 
 "If these facts just related are duly taken into consideration, 
 scarcely any doubt can remain that the constant inhalation of 
 powdered soil and manure constitutes one of the principal causes 
 of the epizootic influenza of swine. 
 
 " As another noxious influence, injuring the organs of respira- 
 tion, may be considered the effluvia emanating from old, decom- 
 posing manure heaps, or farm accumulations of filth, and dirt in 
 pig-sties or hog-yards ; but as these are only of subordinate import- 
 ance, I do not deem it necessasy to enter into further details. 
 
 " 3. The auxiliary, or aggravating, and predisposing causes. As 
 such, I have to consider all the injurious agencies, or noxioua in- 
 
80-CALLED HOG CHOLERA. 263 
 
 fluences, which are calculated to promote or to develop the typhoid 
 character of the disease, to weakeu the constitution of the animal, 
 or to produce a predisposition. As belonging to this class, I have 
 to mention lirst, as having a very injurious etiect upon the animal 
 system, an impure, foul, or filthy condition of the water for drink- 
 ing; and secondly, the filth and manure which the animals are 
 obliged to consume wiih their food. On most farms, the swine 
 are fed with corn in the ear, which, on a great many farms is 
 thrown to them with great carelessness, in the veiy filthiest and 
 dirtiest places, so that scarcely a kernel of corn can be picked up 
 free from dirt or manure. That such a wholesale consumption 
 of dirt and excrements must finally undermine the constitution 
 of even the healthiest and most vigorous animal, and must give 
 to any disease that may happen to affect the same some typhoid 
 character, is too evident to need much explanation. 
 
 " 3. Th^ Cerebro-Eheumatic Form. — The same, though always 
 blended with, and in a certain degree subordinate to, one of the 
 two principal forms, has been observed in a large number of sick 
 animals. The latter, besides exhibiting all the symptoms of one or 
 another of the principal (catarrhal-rheumatic or bilious-rheumatic) 
 forms, show also plain indications of morbid affection of the 
 brain. These indications consist principally in partial or perfect 
 blindness, a verj^ staggering gait, and aimless movements in general. 
 
 " On opening the skull, I found, invariably, more or less swell- 
 ing in the membranes enveloping the brain, a larger or smaller 
 quantity of serum deposited inside of the hard membrane (dura 
 -iaUr\ the substance of the brain more or less softened, and the 
 imall cavities or ventricles of the latter organ filled with serum. 
 The other morbid changes found at the post mortem examinations 
 are the same that have been described under the head of their re- 
 spective form. 
 
 " 4. Tlie Lymphatic-Rheumatic Form.—l^he same, too, has t^eir 
 observed quite often, but always as a complication of one of tho 
 principal forms, described under 1 and 2. The whole morbid pro- 
 cess presents a somewhat scrofulous character. The lymphatic 
 system is plainly affected ; tumors and ulcers showing a scrofulous 
 character, are found in various parts of the body, but especially 
 on the gums. Hence there can be no doubt that such cases, al- 
 though complicated and blended invariably to such an exlent with 
 one or another of the main or Drincinal forms, as t£> make it impossi- 
 ble to draw distinct lines, have to be J^okeq upoo as a ?»jbordinate 
 form, with a lymphatic character. 
 
264 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 " I have been informed repeatecll}', by reliable persons, that In 
 some of the sick animals cutaneous eruptions have constituted one 
 of the most conspicuous symptoms of the disease. If this is a 
 fact, it is possible that yet a fifth (erysipelatous) form has been 
 added. Still, I have had no chance to examine such a patient, 
 notwithstanding that I have seen a large number of sick animals, 
 exceeding, I should judge, one thousand; I am, therefore, not pre- 
 pared to decide whether the cutaneous eruption is a product of 
 the same morbid process which is at the bottom of the other mor- 
 bid changes, or whether the same is an independent disease, and 
 merely an accidental complication. 
 
 " It is probably not necessary to mention that the morbid changes 
 which have been described as the products or attendants of a certain 
 form, are but seldom found as a total in one aad the same animal, 
 as one or more of them are usually missing, or but little developed. 
 Neither will it be essential to state that even the two principal 
 forms of epizootic influenza of swine — leaving the subordinate 
 forms out of consideration — are scarcely ever observed entirely 
 independent of each other, or without being complicated in the 
 least with any other form ; that, on the contrary, the gastric rheu 
 matic and the catarrhal rheumatic are, in many instances, blended 
 and complicated with each other to such an extent as to make it 
 impossible to decide which one has to be considered as the most 
 predominating. In such cases, the symptoms, too, are blended 
 with each other, and morbid changes, frequently of equal import- 
 ance, are found in both large cavities in the chest and in the ab- 
 domen. These facts are easily understood by any one who is at 
 all familiar with pathology and with morbid anatomy. The main 
 or fundamental character of epizootic influenza of swine is always 
 rheumatic, and principal seat is the system of the serous mem- 
 branes, abounding in every large cavity of the animal body. 
 Serous membranes not only line the interior of those cavities, but 
 constitute, also, the external coat of nearly everv internal organ. 
 Hence it is but natural that sucli disease should localize in many 
 diS"erent parts of the animal organism, to produce, in consequence, 
 different morbid symptoms, and to cause diff'erent forms of disease. 
 It is true, that, in some cases, the disease exhibits a prevailing 
 catarrhal character ; but if it is taken into consideration that the 
 causes of rheumatic affection and of catarrhal diseases are often 
 essentially the same, and that the seat or character of a disorder 
 depend, frequently, upon an individual predisposition of the ani- 
 mal, a further explanation will not be needed. 
 
SO-CAIXKD HOa CHOLERA. 265 
 
 *'THE CAUSES. 
 
 "To ascertain the causes has been my principal object. It was, 
 therefore, necessary to observe a large number of cases, and to 
 investigate the disease in ditferent localities. This I have done, 
 and have come to the conclusion that some of the causes — and 
 I think I am not mistalien if I say the most important ones — 
 are of such a nature as to admit removal, notwithstanding that 
 they are diverse and numerous, and have their source, to a certain 
 extent, in the manner of farming and stock raising in tlie West. 
 Although I will not deny the possibility of an existence of certain 
 agencjps of a so-called cosmic or telluric character, calculated to 
 act as a cause or to contribute to producing the disease, I must 
 confess I have not been able to discover anything in the whole 
 morbid process, or any morbid change that cannot be the product 
 of those noxious influences which I consider as the main, if not 
 the exclusive, causes of the disease, and which, in my opinion, are 
 well able to produce every one of those morbid changes, which I 
 had an opportunity to observe. Those injurious influences, or 
 agencies, which I am obliged to consider as tlie principal causes, 
 act in different ways, for a bettor survey, may be divided into two 
 classes. 
 
 " As belonging to the first cL;ss, I look ujion everything that is 
 apt to cause an interruption of the perspiration, and in the second 
 class 1 place all sucli noxious intluv-nees as are able to interfere, 
 directly, with the process of respiration, and all such foreign sub- 
 stances us enter the respiratory passages, and cause, thereby, con- 
 gestion and inflammation of the respiratory mucous membranes 
 and of the tissue of the lungs. There are, also, as I have already 
 mentioned, some other minor causes or agencies which contribute, 
 in one case more, in another less, to the development of the dis- 
 ease, or which are able to cause the character of the same to be 
 more typhoid. These I will discuss under the head of aggravating 
 or auxiliary causes, after I shall have disposed of the main or prin- 
 cipal causes. 
 
 " 1. Injurious influences which act as a cause of the disease, by 
 producing an interruption or partial cessation of the perspiration. 
 These influences are numerous, and of much greater importance 
 than one, who looks at them superficially, may be inclined to sup- 
 pose. The skin of an animal is a very important organ ; it not 
 only serves as a protecting tegument, but has also other vital oflSces 
 which are scarcely of less consequence to the welfare of the ani- 
 mal organism than those of the lungs. The skin discharges, 
 
'^66 iSWlXE nUSBANDRT. 
 
 through its pores, a large amount of wasted material, gaseous and 
 fluid, and absorbs ieriform and fluid substances from the outside 
 •world. Consequently, it may be looked upon as an organ whose 
 duty it is to supplement the functions of several other organs, but 
 especially those of the lungs and of the kidneys. To ascertain 
 the ctfeot of a total interruption of the functions of the skin upon 
 the animal organism, interesting experiments have been made by 
 Bouloy, Magendie, Gerlach, and othei-s. A complete interruption 
 was brought about by covering the skin of vai'ious animals with 
 an air-tight coat of varnish, greaso, or tar, and the results, accord- 
 ing to Gerlach, have been as follows : ' Accelerated pulsation, extra- 
 ordinary fullness of the arteries until an increased discharge of 
 urine made its appearance, somewhat accelerated breathing, trem- 
 bling of the whole body, rapid emaciation, great debility, aug- 
 mented secretion of an albuminous urine of gall (bilifulvin and 
 bitiverdin), and a decrease of the animal temperature. The latter, 
 however, became not ver}- conspicuous before the animal had be- 
 come emaciated and was near dying. The animals (horses) so 
 treated died in three to ten days.' Pi>rs coated all over with 
 grease, for the purpose of killing lice, died within a week, and 
 showed the same symptoms. 
 
 " 2. The office of the skin, at least so far as the processes of eli- 
 mination and absorption are concerned, boars also a ver}' close rela- 
 tion to the functions of the divereo serous and nuicous membranes. 
 It is true, if the skin is disqualified to perform its allotted duties, 
 or if the latter are interrupted by some means, the same will par- 
 tially be performed, but partially only, by those organs named, the 
 lungs and the kidneys, which, in such a case, will make extraordi- 
 nary elforts to maintain the equilibrium in the organic change of 
 material, as indispensable to the preservation of health. Still, as 
 I have said, thesj organs, in addition to their own duties, can only 
 p;irtially perform the functions of the skin ; certain parts of the 
 wasted material, constantly produced, will not be discharged, but 
 wUl remain in the organism. The lungs, the kidneys, the serous 
 and the mucous membranes, if I may use the expression, wiir be 
 overburdened, and the consequence will be that just those organs 
 will be the first ones that become diseased, or that will have to 
 suffer from over-exertion, and from the injurious effects necessa- 
 rily produced by a retention of wasted material in the organism, 
 and by a constant loss of organic compounds that cannot be spared. 
 That such a loss is taking place, if the perspiration is interrupted, 
 has been proved by the experiments of Professor Gerlach, which 
 shows that the urine, in such a case, carries off albumen. Fur 
 
SO-CAtXED HOG CHOLEBA. 2(3? 
 
 ther, that suck an interruption must necessarily produce a disturb- 
 ance in tlie circulation of the blood, which results in an extraordi- 
 nary flow of blood to those organs — lungs, kidneys, etc. — burdened 
 witli increased functions, and constitutes in that way a cause of 
 congestion and subsequent inflammation, is too evident to need 
 any further explanation. At any rate, these facts will be very plain 
 to any one who has ever suffered from any cold. 
 
 " Finally, I wish to say a few words in regard to a hygienic mis- 
 take comniitteil on almost every farm in the West. I refer to the 
 l)ra*tice of feeding the swine almost exclusively with corn, a prac- 
 tice which certainly is not calculated to produce healtliy and vig- 
 orous Animals, but which necessarily must result, as I shall try to 
 sliow, in weakening the organism, and in creating a predisposition 
 to disease. How much or how little this practice has contributed 
 to produce the now-prevailing epizootic influenza of swine, I am 
 not prepared to decide. I have, however, reasons to suppose that 
 this practice has not been without influence. The organism of a do- 
 mestic animal is composed of about fifteen or twenty elements, or 
 undecomposable constituents of matter, united to numerous organ- 
 ic compounds. A constant change of matter is taking place, and 
 a part of these elements, in the form of organic compounds, is 
 constantly wasted, and carried off" by the various processes of se- 
 cretion and excretion. The organism, therefore, in order to remain 
 healthy, and maintain its normal composition, must receive, from 
 time to time, an adequate supply of those elements, contained in 
 suitable or digestible organic compounds, so as to cover the con- 
 tinual loss, and, if the animal is young, to i)roduce growth and 
 development. The simplest way to introduce the elements into 
 the animal organism is to give food which contains them in nearly 
 the right proportions. A few of these elements besides hydrogen 
 and oxygen, are sometimes in the form of suitable compounds, 
 contained in limited, though very seldom sufficient, quantities in 
 tlie water for drinking ; for instance, calcium (in the form of lime), 
 iron, etc. One important element — oxygen — enters the organism, 
 also, in large quantities through the lungs and through the skin, 
 but all others have to be introduced wholly, or almost wholly, 
 in the form of food. Almost all kinds of fluid, however, milk 
 lieiiiaps excepted, lack some important elements of their composi- 
 tion, contain others in insufficient quantities, and still others in 
 greater abundance than required. Therefore, if such a kind of 
 food is given exclusively — corn, for instance, — which is destitute 
 of some of the mineral elements, and contains only an insuflQcient 
 quantity of nitrogenous compounds, which are of so great an im- 
 
268 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 portance in the animal organization, irregularities and disorders in 
 the exercise of the various functions, antl imperfect development 
 of certain parts and organs, will be the unavoidable results. 
 
 " One may ask, if the causes of the diseases are of such an ordi- 
 nary character, how can it be possible that it has become such an 
 extensive epizooty ? — The answer is not very difficult, and an ex- 
 planation is easily given. At lirst, notwithstanding the most 
 diligent search and patient inquiry, I have not been able to dis- 
 cover any injurious influences or agencies of a general character 
 besides those enumerated, which, possibly, might have acted as a 
 cause. Secondl}^ the treatment or the keeping of the swine is es- 
 sentiall}^ everywhere the same in all the Western States. The 
 causes mentioned are, therefore, of a sufficiently universal charac- 
 ter to produce an epizootic disease. Our western farmer, as a gen- 
 eral rule, careless enough, if possible, in his treatment and care of 
 his horses and cattle, usually thinks a hog is only a "7iog;" can 
 get along with ^' hoggish^' treatment, delights in nastiness, filth, 
 and dirt of any description ; does not need a dry, comfortable, 
 and clean resting place during the night, nor clean aud fresh water 
 for drinking and bathing; nor shade and shelter against the burn- 
 ing rays of a western sun, against cold dews of the morning, or 
 the sudden changes of weather and temperature in general. 
 
 " Somebody may object, and may say, if the principal causes of 
 the disease have their sources in the manner in which the swine 
 are raised and provided for, which does not ditler essentially from 
 what has been since the country was first settled, how then does it 
 happen, or how can it be explained, that the disease did make its 
 appearance as an epizooty only a few years ago, and not immedi- 
 ately among the swine of the first settlers, or while the country 
 was yet new, and is now increasing in violence from year to year? 
 This question is not difficult to answer. "While the conntr}' was 
 new, pig-sties, hog-yards, hog-lots, and pastures, and the places 
 which contained the water for drinking and bathing were not yet 
 contaminated and impregnated to such an extent as they are now 
 with filth and excrement ; bare and dusty ground was less abund- 
 ant, and the number uf swine kept together, on one dry place, as a 
 general rule, was a great deal smaller. The disease will increase 
 in malignancy and spread in the same proportion in which dung 
 aud dirt is allowed to accumulate, and iu which the size of the 
 herds is increased. 
 
 " A great many farmers believe, nay, hold themselves convinced, 
 that the epizootic influenza of swine is a contagious disease, and 
 they have kindly furnished me facts which, I admit, point very 
 
SO-CALLED HOG CHOLERA. 269 
 
 Strongly that way. To tell the truth, I am not yet prepared to 
 deckle that question, because such a decision requires numerous 
 experiments, and these I have not been able to make. Still I am 
 inclined to think the epizootic character, or the fearful spreading 
 of the disease, can be explained satisfactorily without the existence 
 of a contagion. The fact that the hogs and pigs running at large 
 in the streets of the cities, with a few exceptions, are healthy, and 
 remain exempted from the disease, goes far to show that the latter 
 is not communicated by a contagion, as animals leading such a 
 vagabond life are, as a general rule, much more exposed to the 
 influence of contagions than any others. 
 
 ''duration of the morbid TROCESS. 
 
 " In some cases the disease has had a fatal termination within 
 two days after the first plain symptoms of sickness have made their 
 appearance, and a few cases have been reported to me, in which the 
 animals have died within six or twelve hours ; but I am inclined 
 to think the first symptoms have escaped observation — a very com- 
 mon occurrence in diseases of swine. The average duration of 
 the disease may be sot down as from five to fifteen days. Still some 
 animals have been sick from three to six weeks, but most of them 
 have recovered, and then a part of that time belongs to the stage 
 of convalescence. Or if the patients have died, the duration of 
 the disease has been protracted by relapses. 
 
 '' PREVENTION. 
 
 " The measures of prevention consist in removing the causes as 
 enumerated above. If this is done, no other special treatment will 
 be required to ward oflT the disease, and no medicine will be needed. 
 To give medicine to a healthy animal is, under all circumstances, a 
 bad practice, fraught with injurj', and should not be done, unless 
 it is intended to destroy injurious influences. To use medicine for 
 the purpose of strengthening the constitution of an animal, is simply 
 folly, as just the opposite will be the result. But to the point: I 
 am confident the epizootic influenza of swine, or the disease im- 
 properly called hog cholera, will cease to make its appearance, or, at 
 any rate, will become a very rare occurrence, and will lose its epi- 
 zootic character, if, first, every large herd of swine is divided into 
 several small herds, or lots, each containing about three or four 
 animals; if, secondly, each lot is provided with a comfortable pen 
 or place to sleep in, whicli is free from filth, dust, and manure, is 
 well ventilated, and provided with a good roof ; if, thirdly, every 
 hog or pig has access, several times a day, or as often as tempera- 
 
270 SWINB HUSBANDRY. 
 
 ture, weather, and circumstances require, to fresh and clean water 
 for drinking and hathinc;, either in a hirge trough or in a brook, 
 creek, or streamU^t ; if, fourthly, no tilth, manure, or dirt, is allowed 
 to accumulate in any of the sties, yards, hog-lots, or pastures, in 
 which the hogs or pigs are kept ; and if, finally, hogs and pigs 
 receive alwaj^s a suitable variety of sound healthy food, which is 
 not soiled with dirt or manure. I know very well some farmers 
 will be dissatisfied witli my advice, and would have preferred to be 
 sent to the drug store for medicines. Others would think to com- 
 ply with my prescription will be too much trouble altogether, and 
 some of them may say : ' If we can not keep our hogs any more in 
 the old ' hogijish' fashiou, but must treat tucm like animals ought 
 to be treated, we prefer to keep no hogs at all.' Very well, if they 
 do not keep any hogs, they certainly will not lose any, and their 
 neighbors, who continue to raise swine, and take proper care of 
 them, will be the gainers in a two-fold respect. At first the}' will 
 reap the benefit from the scarcity of hogs thus produced, and, 
 secondly, they will be amply repaid by their swine for the caro 
 bestowed upon them. At any rate, it will pay much better for any 
 one to raise, for instance, fifty hogs, to keep tliem well in every 
 respect, to lose none, and to develop them to first-class animals, 
 (so-called ' Philadelphia' hogs), than to raise 100 oriOO head, to keep 
 them 'hoggish,' to lose more than fifty to seventy per cent, and to 
 produce animals that figure as ' scalawags' in the market reports. 
 3Ioreover, the amount of food tluit is needed to produce 200 pounds 
 of inferior, and frequently unhealtliy, pork — if the pig is kept on a 
 manure heap in the barn-yard, or in any nasty hog-lot, and in the 
 old common way and careless fashiou — will produce 300 pounds of 
 good healthy, and palatable pork, if the keeping of the animal is 
 always in strict accordance with hygienic laws. If the latter are 
 never violated, the epizootic influenza of swine, I am sure, will not 
 make its appearance; but if the mode of keeping swine is not 
 changed the disease will increase in frequency and iu malignancy 
 from year to year. 
 
 "treatment. 
 
 "The treatment may be divided into two parts— a hygienic and 
 a iredical treatment. The fcuiner includes a removing of causes, 
 and is alike in many, or even in most, diseases, of the greatest im- 
 portance. The sick animal must be separated fr<Mn the herd, and 
 must be provided with a clean, dry, and well ventilated resting 
 place, which is not exposed to dnifts of air, and which aflfords 
 otherwise sufficient protection against heat, cold, iiud wet. The 
 
SO-CALLED HOG CHOLERA. 271 
 
 samf , further, rrnist have, besides pure air to breathe, clean vrater 
 to drink, and healthy and easily digestible food to eat. If the sick 
 animals are, thus treated, and the causes promptly removed, a grea' 
 many sick animals (provided, of course, they are not too far gone) 
 will be saved by proper medical treatment; but if these directions 
 are not complied with, even the best medical treatment will be of 
 very little avail. As to the use of medicines, 1 would recommend 
 to give to eaoh patient at the beginning of the disease a good 
 emetic, composed cither of powtlered White Hellebore {Vtrntrum 
 (rlbuin), or of Tartar Emetic in a dose of about one grain for eaih 
 month the sick animal is old, if the same is of fair size, but not 
 cxceei^ng sixteen to twenty grains, even if the animal is fuU- 
 giMwn or several years old. The emetic is easily administrated by 
 mixing it with a piece of boiled potato, or, if White Hellebore is 
 chosen, (which I consider as preferable), by sprinkling it on the 
 surface of a small quantity of milk. Boiled potato or milk will 
 not be refused by any hog unless the patient is already very sick, 
 or far gone, and in that case it will be too late to give an emetic. 
 After the medicine has taken effect, the animal will appear to bo 
 very sick, and will try to hide itself in a dark corner, but in about 
 two or three hours will make its appearance again, and will be will- 
 ing, in most cases at least, to accept a little choice food, for instance, 
 a boiled potato, a little milk, etc. At that time it will be advisable 
 to give again a small dose of medicine, consisting either of a few 
 grains (two or three, to a full-grown animal, and to a pig in pro- 
 portion) of Tartar Emetic, or of the same amount of Calomel, also 
 mixed with a piece of boiled potato ; or, if appetite should not have 
 returned, mixed with a pinch of flour and a few drops of water, 
 and formed into small round pills. A sick hog, I will remark here, 
 should not be drenched with medicine under any circumstances, 
 for a drench given by force is very apt to pass down the windpipe 
 into the lungs as soon as the animal squeals, and fi;equently causes 
 instant death. The Tartar Emetic is to be preferred, if the disease 
 has its principal seat in the respiratory organs, or presents itself 
 in Us catarrhal rheumatic form ; and the Calomel deserves prefer- 
 ence if the gastric , or bilious rheumatic form is prevailing, and 
 especially if tlie liver is seriously atfected. Either medicine may 
 be given in such doses as have been mentioned, two or three 
 times a da}', for several days in succession, or till a change for the 
 better will be plainly visible. It may also be advisable (but par- 
 ticularly if the typhoid character of t'le disease is very manifested) 
 to mix for each hog or pig, now and tlien, a few drops of Carbolic 
 Acid with the water for drinking, or with the slop. Animals that 
 
2T2 SWINB HUSBANDRY. ^ 
 
 are convalescent, and have been reduced very much by the disease, 
 aud arc yot weak, should rooeivo, mixed with their food, small 
 doses of Sulphate of Iron, ^coppenis), say from tive to tweuty grains, 
 accordiui:; to aire luid size, but the use of irou must be discontinued 
 if the patient l>ocomiseonfitipatod,or if the excrements turn black. 
 Those convalescents in which the mv>rbid process lias pnninced 
 considerable ivcpati/.ation of the lungs, will be benelited bv liiving 
 them repeatedly small doses ^froni leu to tifty grains) of puritied 
 Carbonate of Potash, for the puijiose of promoting the absorption 
 of the exudation deposited in the tissue of the lungs. 
 
 " Externally, a good counter-irritant, or blister, applied on both 
 sides of the chest, and composed of Cantharides or Spanish flies 
 and Oil (one ounce of the former to four ounces of the latter con- 
 stitutes the proportion), boiled together over a moderate fire for 
 half an hour, or in a water-bath for half an hmir, will produce a 
 very benetlcial result, especially in those cases in which the serous 
 membranes of the chest constitute the principal seat of the morbid 
 process. In nu>st cases <uie application will be suthcient. provide*.! 
 the oil is thoronghly rubbed in aud the disease has not made pro- 
 gress too far. If the first application should fail to raise a good 
 blister (swelling and exudation"), a second one maybe made the 
 next day. In those cases, however, in which the morbid process 
 has made too much headway, or has wrought too nuich destruc- 
 tion of tissue to admit recovery, the counter-irritant will produce 
 no blister aud no swelling whatever, a fact which constitutes a 
 valuable prognostic symptom, for it indicates that the vitality of 
 tlic animal is already very low, and that a further treatment will 
 be of no avail. Foutanelles or Setons have nearly the same effei t 
 as a vesicatory or fly-blister, but act slower, and are less reliable, 
 and may otherwise cause some damage, on account of the typhoid 
 character of the disease, by weakening the constitution of the 
 animal." 
 
 Ill a cominunication froiii Pr. l^otiiiei's, dated Novem- 
 ber 30th, ISTt), he sajs : 
 
 *'* Calling every disease of swine * hog cholera,' has 
 eaused a great deal of inisehief. aiul the sooner that naino 
 can be abolished the better. 
 
 **' Anthrax diseases are entirely different from what I 
 found in Missouri.'' [described in foregoing report]. 
 
 "There is nothing iu common but the epizootic char- 
 acter." 
 
SO-CALLED HOG CHOLEIU. ''iiO 
 
 CHAPTER XXV. 
 
 SO-CALLED "HOG CHOLERA." 
 
 Dr. N. i'l. Piiaren, late State Veterinarian of Illinois, 
 in refeieuce to aceonnts of fearfnl ravages of *' Hog 
 (Cholera " in Missonri and Illinois, writes as follows iu 
 regard to this mnoh dreaded scourge : 
 
 " « * *The diflferent forms iu which anthrax fever develops itself, 
 manifest ditlorcnt symptoms, among which the following are some 
 of the most prevalent : The animals suddenly appear dull, sepa- 
 rating themselves from the herd ; and totally refusing food and 
 water, tl\ey seek dark places, or dig themselves beneath the litter, 
 or into the ground. Symptoms of colic and a tlispt>sition to rest 
 on the belly are amongst the signs indicating abdominal pain. 
 Diarrho?a soon sets in ; also occasional violent retching and vomit- 
 ing. The animal is not able to move freely, on account of weak- 
 ness in the hind quarters — it staggers, and at last, paralyzed, it can- 
 not move. Deglutition is interfered with, and the breathing is 
 difficult. Painful swellings occur around the throat, extending 
 downwards to the chest, which swelling is hard, hot, and painful. 
 There is also frothing at the mouth and a painful cough, and ap- 
 pearance of boils. Sometime before death a discoloration of the 
 skin appears on the neck, the cars, the back, under the bellj', or 
 the inside of the hind extremities, which discoloration, from being 
 at the beginning of a bright-red or purple color, at the last stages 
 of the disease attiiins a dark-bluish or black color. The visible 
 membranes of the mouth and nose attain a dark livid color, and 
 the mucous membranes of the eyelids and the white front of the 
 eye become dark-red. Death occurs often very suddenly, and in 
 most cases within twelve hours to two or three days. Recovery 
 is seldom, and generally very slow, if ever complete. 
 
 " Post-niord'tn examinations reveal, in all cases, the most im- 
 mistakable signs of the true nature of this disease. Putrefaction 
 sets in very quickly. The membranes of the nose, month, and 
 re^Huni, are of a dark color. Dark bloody fluid is often observed 
 to ooze from the nose and the rectum. The capillaries and small 
 veins of the skin, as also the tissue under the skin, are of a dark 
 color, and overlilled with dark blood. The bacon, diminished La 
 
0*4 SWIXK UrSlUNPKT. 
 
 quantity, is soft, somotimos of :» yellowish wlor, and Mood-staim\i 
 In arimals that die suddenly, the brain and the spinal coni are 
 found overtilUxi with bUxxi. On oivning the alnionunal cavity, a 
 mojit disagreeable and fetid ixior esoajvs; the stomaeh, the in- 
 testines, the liver, , and the spKvn. ari^ overtilUxi with bUnxl ,and 
 yellow serum. The spleen, esixvially, is largt\ soft, of a dark 
 ci->lor, and overtilUxl with blood ; and the orpins of the cht^t .an^ 
 eoi\iit^sttHl or studded with blood s^H^ts. The bUxxl is in a state of 
 dissolution, is of a very dark iH^lor, and'does not ^vagulate perftvtly. 
 
 The causes of the disease arr^ olv?eure ; but as it is mor\" preva- 
 lent in low and undraimxl Ux\>ilitie^ thjui on high and well-dnunal 
 soil, it is considenxl to be duo mainly to miasmatic and malarimis 
 emanations. Contiaomenl in filthy sties, impun^ drinking water, 
 and want of changt^ in food, etc., arc also amongst tlio causes, 
 "Wo ar<» convinooil that many animals of this class .sre annually 
 Uvst fr\im the et^tvts of imprv'>{x^r foovl, or fn->m living in .an atmi\<- 
 phero surv-hargvHi with jxiisonous etlluvi.a, the pnxUict of animal 
 or vogxnablo deoompi^ition. D^wm^xviing substances, both animal 
 and vegetable, corn that has undergone a change frvnn long keei>- 
 ing or ex{x>sun" to damp, and which is lo.aded, ix^rhaiv-:. with the 
 •iporules of iX>isonous fungi, brine from the meat tul> — these .and 
 other similar substances are often given to pigs :is fixxl, and in 
 many instances have Ixhmi known to cause very grt\at U\>ses. 
 Much that Tse have seen convinces us of the ntwssity of morv 
 attention Wing jviid to the quality of the fvxxl of tht\so .animals 
 than is generally IxMng done, and also to the naturt> of their Kxlg 
 ings, as well as the .-ur they breathe. 
 
 " The treatment is mo>t unsatisfactory, owing to the acute nature 
 of the dise.ase; in fact, all rtnnetlii^is are nseU^ss when not admin- 
 istortxi as six^n as the :\rst s^ymptoms ap|x\ar. When the disease 
 brvaks out in a hervl, the animals sliouhl Ix^ kept on low diet, have 
 plenty of exeriMse and fnsh air. In the early st.agv of the disease 
 cold water sluicings. often reix\att\l, have pr\>ved IxMieticial, and, 
 so has the method of burying in the earth in a cix^l and dark 
 place. For this purpoiJC a hole is dug, sntliciet\tly largo and dtvp 
 to admit Mr. Pork sidewise, ithe legs IxMng prtnivnisly tied with a 
 soft straw Kand^; the body is then iwen\l with a sutllcient quanti- 
 ty of earth and grtuss turf, leaving the head fr*v; and in orvler t»> 
 sup^x^rt the head, a gniss turf is laid uuvler the snout. Bet\>r»' 
 burial, several injtH^tions, consisting of cold water w ith vineg:>r, 
 ar\' tlirvnvn inti> the r<vtum. In orvler tv> ktvp the sumnmd'ng 
 earth constantly imoI, cold water is, every half hour, to Ih» let i«n 
 it. The .auimai wuiaius thus burieil until it r^\>vers, which, iu 
 
SOh Al.l.KP HOC, OHOLKR.V. VT,> 
 
 suocessful oa^oii, b»ppcns within six, twolvo, or cisihtoon houi-s. 
 Hoi: cholorti is troalod in many ditt'ort^nt ways, oaoh bavinc its 
 a.lviHvUos; some pooplo have soon good otUvts fmm blooding in 
 tho oarliost stagos of this disoaso. Kniotios and pnrgjUivos, in 
 oonnootion with lukowarin injootionsof salt wator witii vinogar, 
 aiv von stiiMigly ivooniniondod. In tho boginning of tho disoaso, 
 suoooss has nlsi> altondod tho administration of an omotio. snoli as 
 Whito HollobiMvand lp<raouanl»:», of oaoh two p:irts; Tartar Kniolio 
 ono pari ; mix and givo a small pig a soruplo, and a largor ono 
 half a draol\m, thrown dry upon tho root of tho tongno; this to 
 bo foilowod up by purgativos anil olystoi-s. Purgativo to oonsist 
 of K|i«rm Splits, ono. two or throo ounoos, aooording to tho sizo, 
 and ago of tho at\in»al. administon\i in broth or swill fnun a 
 bottlo. Exoroiso, frosh air, and sluioing tho animal ovor witli 
 oohl wjitor aro moasuivs to bo rcoommondod. Animals that ro- 
 oovor, nnloss woll tn\atod, oontinuo to sutler fixnu partial pandysis. 
 or from rhoumatio intlammi\tion of tho joints. 
 
 "As 'anounooof pivvontion is worth moro than a pound of 
 curi\' a fow rtMuarks oonoorning this may not bo out of plaoo. 
 First of all, avoid, as far as possiblo, all oansos of this n\alady. 
 Novor koop siok and sound animals togothor ; adopt ronioto 
 soparatiiMi and oloso watohing. Kooj> tho animals on spaiv allow - 
 anoo of woll-oookod animal food, wholosomo diot. fn^sh and oloar 
 waior, frv^sh air and good littor; in faot, oloanlinoss in ovory ro- 
 spool is tho host provontivo agaii\st tho disoaso. A fow largo 
 piooos of n>ok sjdt, as woll as oharooal, should bo kopt in tho hog 
 jH-n. Lot tho h(\>i-s havo plonty of frosh wator, but novor run 
 thom to and from watoring. DiMi't oompol your hogs to drink 
 snow water, if bettor wator is proourablo. In hot summertime, 
 keep the hogs imdor shelter during tho hottest houi-s of the day, 
 ospivially if hog eholom is pn^vailing ; tluring whieh houi-s, if 
 praetioablo. and after the hogs jvre eoolod otV, give them a good 
 sluioing with eold water, whieh ivpeat before lotting them out in 
 the afternoon. Unripe fruit and sour milk and wator is a good 
 diot in hot weather, but tho hogs should not bo given nu>iY than 
 tliey ean oat at one meal. Besides this, it is advisable, whore and 
 when hog eholera exists, to givo an oeeasional emetie. During an 
 existing epidemie, let thom vomit every eight d;;ys. Tho best 
 emetie for fiie hog is Whito Hellebore, of whieh give earh hog, 
 aooording to its size, fmm ten to twenty grains tinely powdoroil. 
 It is best given in the morning, early, before feeding. Mix the 
 doses for eaeh hog in a buekel, witii son\e sour milk, and let him 
 drink iu During that day keep tlio hogs at Lome, under shelter. 
 
276 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 aud feed sparinsriy with some sour milk or iinripc fruit. As it is % 
 matter of jrreat importance to keep the bowels in good order, sive 
 occasionally some Saltpetre in the drinking water during the fol- 
 lowing seven days ; and— let us repeat it— the hogs must have 
 pleutv of fresh and clean water. Prevention by cleanliness and 
 comfort, release from restraint of pens, ami the use of salt, tar, 
 coal, ashes, sulphur, etc., have numerous testimonials of etHcaoy. 
 " When a destructive disease threatens the animals, and, through 
 them, the most valuable section of our u.ti ).ial wealth, it should 
 be the duty of all concerned to obey the ilictates of science and 
 experience in order to avert danger .-ind loss. But it must l)e con- 
 fessed that to obtain successful results individual ellorts go for 
 little. It is on the strict observance of sanitary laws, and to Mie 
 wise measures prescribed by authority, that reliance must be 
 placed. In the words oi an eminent meilical writer, ' The day has 
 gone past for an isolatCvl individual or craft to avert j^cstilencc, as 
 Empedodes did when he shut out the sirocco by stoppiu^J a moun- 
 tain-gap, and removed intermittent fevers by changing the course 
 of the river Hypsa.' These large and beneficicnt operations are 
 in our day reserved for Governments; and our duty is to urge 
 upon Uovcriunent, by means of our governing bodies, the necessity 
 of undertaking the prevention of epidemic diseases, Itoth among 
 men and animals, to point out the best modes of securing this 
 prevention, and to see that these measures, when become law, are 
 propn'ly carrieil out. Tlie prevention of epizootic diseases among 
 our domestic animals should be reg-irded as a jioliticr.l question, 
 involving more or less the well-being of the whole community; 
 not merely aflecting those who own or who endeavor to derive 
 protit from rearing animals, but also atTecting the public at large, 
 as regards health, the supply of food, and other essentials. In the 
 extension of a disease of this kind, not only is there loss to the 
 in.lividuals who possess the animals, but also to the public, who 
 have not only a diminished quantity or more expensive supply of 
 food, but also often incur the risk of obtaining it of an inferior or 
 injurious quality, or arc otherwise inconvenienced. 
 
 Almost all the diseases of swine seem to be popularly resolved 
 into ' hog cholera.' Of all diseases of domestic animals, those of 
 this genus are evidently less thoroughly understood than those of 
 any other farm stock. Ideas on the subject arc in a singular state 
 of confusion, and remedies are countless in number, anil most in- 
 congruous in character. If the symptoms were accurately noted, 
 it would probably be found that several kinds of 'hojj cholera* 
 
SO-CALLED HOG CHOLERA. 277 
 
 — OR ovorj' prevalent disease of the hog appears to be called — are 
 uuilinii in the inisclnt't producTd. 
 
 Afrric'ultural stock sutlVrs serious neglect. We venture to assert 
 that ninety per cent of the domestic animals of tlic farm which 
 sutler from lUsease througlioul the United States annually, are 
 never seen by Veterinary Surgeons. It is most singular tliat the 
 Americans, who have manifested tlu' greatest activity in the pro- 
 motion of science and the useful arts, have never been able to 
 found a thoroughly ethcient V'eteriiuiry College. We number 
 among ourselves but few Veterinarians ; and most of them — we 
 may say nearly all — have been induced to leave Europe. Is it to 
 be wondered at that our live stock are cut down by disease in a 
 most disastrous manner ? Is it to be wondered at that we are now 
 asking how we may remedy an evil which is found to be of far 
 greater importance than we ever before imagined ? 
 
 Indeed, the ignorance of those Avho hold foremost positions 
 amongst us on the subject of the amount of disease in the country 
 — the Department of Agricultur.>, especially — can only be expl in- 
 ed by the fact that if we do not search for information regarding 
 mortality amongst stock, we are not ia the way of gleaning it at 
 all. Disc'aso is raring frightfully without intermission. Truth 
 must prevail in the end, and no better conformation of what we 
 have said can be obtained than that derived from the state of 
 anxiety and alarm which now exists throughout many portions of 
 our country, where mortality amongst stock is among the daily 
 records of our newspapers the whole year round. 
 
 Examples and estimates, after all, give but a slender idea of the 
 devastation, misery, embarrassment and loss that has been, and is 
 due, in very great measure, to the ignorance, apathy and neglect 
 shown by those in authoritj'. We speak but the sentiment of the 
 stock owners and breeders of tlic country, when we express our 
 earnest regret that the Department of Agriculture pays so littlo 
 attention to the investigation of the causes and character of the 
 diseases of our domestic animals, in whicli the interests of all 
 classes of agriculturists are so largely concerned. In view of the 
 great importance of this matter, the great interests at stake, and 
 the jirevalence of epidemic diseases among our domestic animals 
 throughout this vast country, it is simply astonishing that the 
 Department of Agriculture contents itself with gathering in the 
 statistics of mortality, utterly neglecting tlie most important ob- 
 ject of recommending or providing remedial means, or institute 
 proper scientific investigations for the benefit of the sufferers and 
 the public at large." 
 
?7S SWINR nUSBANDRT. 
 
 Jainos Law, Professor of Veterinary science in Cornell 
 University, gives the following as the causes. syni|Uonis, 
 antl treatment of hog cholera. 
 
 "Tho poriod of iiunibiUion is from sovon to fourteen days, but 
 is le&$ iu ii hot climate. 
 
 "(7<iHa«?4. — Contitgion, privation, starvation, (.•ontinoiuent, tilth, oto. 
 
 " Si^miitom^. — Gonoral ill hoalth, shivering, fovor. great dullmss, 
 prostrating fovor. hiilos umlor litter, lios on belly, weakness of 
 hind limbs, and later of the fore limbs, rapid, wesik pulse, dry 
 snout etnered by blood-staiued spots, whieh alst> eover the skin, 
 eyes, etc., often a luml eough, little or no appetite, intense thirst, 
 teuder abdomen. After death, blood-siaiuiug inliUnitious into 
 luugs and bowels, ulcei-s ou bowels. 
 
 TiYjim^nt. — Give eooling. aeid drinks. Buttermilk, Sulphuric 
 Aeid, etc. ; fwd soft, mueilaginous food, sueh as (.)il-eake. Ad- 
 minister twenty dwpsof Peivhloride of Iron twiee a day. Blister 
 the abdomen by means of Mustaixl and Turpeutiue; stinudate if 
 very pn.)stnUe. 
 
 " PirtYntioiL — Avoid all debilitating conditions, poor or spoiled 
 food ; keep auiujals constantly thriving. Feed Tliaivoal or Ashes, 
 alsoT;u"or Carbolic Acid. Avoid contact with disease. Burn in- 
 fected piggeries and remove to a now place." 
 
 In further eoinnionts oi\ the ilisoase Vrot. L{\w says : 
 
 " E\an\ples, which might be very greatly extended, in\ply that 
 a sound mixed diet is of givat importance iu mamtaininga healthy 
 activity of the various organic funetions. and a vigor to a l;;rge 
 extent anta-ronistic to this and other diseases, and that a somewhat 
 similar imtuunity niay be secuivd by the us.' of tonics, antiseep- 
 tiis. and gently stimulating agents. But if we rest our faith upon 
 any or all of these as sure cures or pn>ventives, we shall only pave 
 the way for ilisapptMutment whenever the dise:ise takes on an un- 
 usually malignant type. Thus, in spite of the protective power 
 of a partially milk diet, as above mentioned, how often does the 
 disease ptvvail most disastnnisly in the henls of cheese and butter 
 factories, and. notwithstanding the good etFects of au oix^isional 
 meal of flesh, we tind the most extensive losses among pigs that 
 aiv largely c;irnivon>us, tflesh eatiu«r\ in their habits. 
 
 '" Keep your hogs clean is gv>od advice. Pmtect them fmm the 
 hot. ii>eking bed v»f manure and close sleeping place, where the 
 emauatious from decomposing dung, urine, straw and other org:»uio 
 
SO-(^AI-LKl) hoc; OIIOKKUA. 279 
 
 matter arc added to those of their own skins and hmga when 
 liudtlh'd toj^etluT in ^^vciii numbers. Bee that both food and water 
 are eh^an, in the sense of beini:; free from disease }:;ern»s, anil from 
 tiie mi(^roseopie partieh>s of (U'composiiii:; oriianie matter, which, 
 witliin tlie system as well as outside of it, furnish ap])ropriale food 
 for tlie disease, poison, and favor its inereasc, w Idle they depress 
 the vital powers and lessen tiie chances of the virus beini:; thrown 
 ott". No less important is the purity of the air, since the delicate 
 membrane of the hinjis, perlnii)s more than any other, furnishes 
 an easy modi' of entrance for any injurious external matter. Final- 
 ly, purity of the blood can only be maintained by a healthy 
 fnncUonal activity of all the vital organs, which insures the per- 
 fect elaboration of every plastic constituent of the blood, and the 
 excretion of all waste matters that have already served their pur- 
 pose in tiie system. By perfect cleanliness, the poison, even if gen- 
 erated or intiochiced, will be virtually starved out as surelj^ as an 
 army in a closely besieged fortress. But it will be observed that 
 this implies tiie separation of sound from diseased animals, and the 
 free use of disinfi'ctants, (solutions of sulphate of iron and chloride 
 of lime, fumes of burning snlpiiur, etc.), to purify tlic air and other 
 BurrouudiuLi objects, as well as tiie simple dearinii' away of tilth. And 
 it is here that (he pork-raisers are most frequently at fault. Fifty 
 or a hundred i)ius are allowed to crowd together in a tilthy manure 
 heap, a rotten straw stack, or under a barn subjected to the drop- 
 pings of other animals, as well as their own pniducls. Their 
 feeding troughs and drinking water are so supplied that they can 
 get into them with their lilthy feet, and they nnist devour the 
 most obnoxious matter or starve. If, under this abuse, disease is 
 developed, the liealthy are left witii the sick, as 'they will all have 
 it any way,' and the result is usually a clean sweep. When hog 
 cholera exists, tli(> sink should be placed by themselves under a 
 specid attendant, and under the free use of disinfectants ; the 
 healthy should be carefully watched, and on the first sign of ill- 
 ness, as increased temperature, to be ascertained by the introduc- 
 tion of a clinical tixMinometer into the rectum, they slionld be at 
 once taken from tlie herd and carefully si'cluded. This, with 
 active disinfection, will enable the owner to cut short an outbreak. 
 and save perhaps the great majority of an already infected herd, 
 Again, the sale of aninuds from' an infected stock, to be removed 
 from the in-(>mises alive, should be severely punished, and the dis- 
 infection of the buildings where the sick have been, should be 
 matle imperative. We shall obtain the greatest success with this 
 disease when we treat it as a contagious malady, aud whenever it 
 
380 SWINK HUSBANDRY. 
 
 is foui\d to exist, give our miiin attontion tTv p»-rvont tlio furthol 
 generation and dissemination of the poison." 
 
 The following is oollatod from the convi^poudouoo of 
 tlio Prairit^ Fanner, uud coming direct from men em* 
 phatieally pnieticrtl, it is well worthy consideration. Mr. 
 John S. Bowles, of Hamilton. Ohio, writing to that 
 jonrnal in November, ISTv, for information abont Hog 
 Cholera, says ; 
 
 "I will now dosoribe the disease of whieh my hogs an> dying, 
 and of whioh a groat portion of the hogs iu this vieinity an> also 
 dying. 
 
 '* The lirst synipton\ is a dullness or sleepiness in the actions of 
 the hog. He walks to his food instead of running. He holds his 
 head down within two or throe inches of the ground, and should 
 he ndso it, he holds it slightly to one side. He eats his foo<.l as 
 though he had no apyu'tito for it. Ho does not lie down with his 
 follow hogs, but mopes about, lying by himself, often in the sun 
 instead of the shade. After the disease progix>ssos a Utile, the hog 
 refuses to eat altogether. His oars swell. Sometimes a little pur- 
 ple-eolored blood will run from his nose. Sometimes, but not in 
 the niiyoiity of cases, he will have a diarrhavu If he is a white 
 hog, his ears and the lower part of his throat and between his 
 foiY legs turn to a purple hue. Sometimes he dies in two days, and 
 sometimes he lingers for two weeks. The latter part of his illness 
 he heaves at his llanks, having what is oalled the ' Thumps.' He 
 is also very weak iu his hind qnartei-s. AVhon he is driven up he 
 starts with a squeal, as tho'^.gh muoh frightened, and runs otl' reel- 
 ing on his hind legs, with his nose nearly down to the grv^und. 
 
 " This season is the tirst one I have ever been troubled with hog 
 cholera, tmd I have every reason to believe the disease originated 
 on n»y own farm. 
 
 "There wore diseased hogs all through the neighborhood for 
 two months previous to mine taking the disease, but I do not think 
 mine had any oontaot with any of them, or in faet with any hogs 
 but their fellows. 
 
 "The disease broke out in my hogs in a tiold whioh has a stream 
 of spring water running through it. It is an olil sugjir eamp, nine- 
 tenths oloarod, but the hogs eould bo iu the shade all the time if 
 they wished. 
 
 " The rest of the tiold, whoR> there wore no sugar trees, is a clover 
 
BO-CALT-lCr> HOG OnOLERA. 281 
 
 pafltiiro. Thoro wiis no (Utliy IhhIh, or im'us, or bail water in tlio 
 cusd — on IIh! (lonliiiry, (|iiiU! l\u' rcverHc. 
 
 " At tlu' aani(! tinii! 1 had 44 lioijs taken from the sanio lot as 
 tlu'He store hofjM, tliat were in tlircio hoard pens, siile by Hide. Tiiese 
 Iki^ts wi're hein;;' fed all the old eorn they would eat, and hud been 
 up about three weeks when tlu^ others took the; cholera. Altliougli 
 they lay eonsiderably in their own tilth, and had a larj^ti manure 
 heap on one side of them, none of them took thi^ cholera ; for four 
 weeks it broko out amoiiu^ their adjoininj? fellows, antl until 18 
 of them had died. Now o.ie (ordy), of the fattening hogs is sick. 
 
 "The hogs in which the disi^asj broke out had been on clover 
 pasture alone, during the early part of the summer. As I had 
 more hog4 t!ian clover, I soon fed them three ears of corn per day, 
 each. After harvest, I turned the hogs on the wheat and barley 
 Blubble, and (jiit feeding them com. When the stubble gave out, 
 I eommeneeil feciling the ho'i,s three stalks of grain corn per day 
 eaeli, corn being just out of tlu! milk. 
 
 " Tliere was then abundance of clover pasture as all my stub- 
 bles wen^ sown with elovi'r. I wante 1, however, lo keep my hogs 
 in the same condition they wi're until my new crop of corn was 
 sullii'iently ri|)eiied to feed them for fattening. 
 
 " In about two weeks they commenced dying, and out of about 
 D9, averagiug IGU lo 170 pounds, 1 have lost I'J, and several more 
 are sick. Thinking the green corn had something to do with the 
 disease, I sold 41 of the healthiest to u neighboring distillery, and 
 went to feeding the remainder with dry old corn. They seem to 
 do better since I changed their diet — that is, they do not die so fast. 
 
 " I have an idea that green corn, second growth clover, etc., have 
 a teudi'uej' lo excite the disease, thougii I think the primary cause 
 is something similar to malaria. 
 
 "Can you give me any in formation on the subject ? 
 
 "N. B.— Hesides the 19 lio.!>s, averaging 100 lbs., 1 have lost 
 about liO spring pigs, and 30 odd sucking pigs." 
 
 Ill a Utor issue, "A. M. AV,," of Odin, Illinois, says : 
 
 " In your issue of last Saturday is a communication asking the 
 oxperienci' ami advice of other farmers as to hog cholera. I have 
 been kee|)ing hogs ever since tlie disease lirst began to be heard of 
 in the Wi'st, have been cleaned out several times by it, and there- 
 f>:re gladly comnmnicate something of what 1 know about it. The 
 symptoms he describes are exactly the same that I understand to 
 indicate hog cholera. My hogs have taken it when they bad 
 free access to the woods and hazle-brush, and ull (with the excep- 
 
282 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 tion of a few old brood sows) bave gradually died oflf. Tben again 
 thev bave bad tiie disease wben conliued to tbe fields, not clover, 
 but stubble and tiinotby meadows, and it bus generally commenced 
 its attack soon after barvest, and was tbe most fatal about tbe time 
 tbe most green corn was fed, tbongb 1 don't tbiuk tbe lorn bad 
 anytbing to do witb it. 
 
 " Now for tbe remedies. I bave been clear of it for several 
 years, and for two years before tbat time, I stopped its ravages at 
 once by administering a jirescription tbat was publisbed in your 
 paper. After stopping tbe disease witb tbat medicine tbe second 
 time, I saw again in The Farmera prescription recommended as a 
 preventive, and bave usjd tbat since according to directions, and 
 bave bad no symptoms of bog cbolera in my berd. I don't atfirm 
 that either is a specific, but such, as related, were tbe results; 
 hence, of course, I bave great faith in tbe medicine, and bave no 
 fears of cholera now in raising bogs. There may be others of your 
 readers who have had experience witb those medicines. If they 
 have failed or otherwise, they would certainly do their brother 
 farmers a favor by communicating tbe fact. I bave tbe recipe for 
 the cure in my scrap book, cut from The Pvdirie Farmer at the 
 time, to date. It is : Sulphur, 2 lbs. ; Copperas, 3 lbs. ; Madder, 3 
 lbs.; Black Antimony, i lb. ; Saltpetre, i lb. ; Arsenic, 2 oz. The 
 quantity is suliicieut for 100 hogs, and is mixed witb slop enough 
 for a few doses all round — a pint to each hog. Each time I tried 
 this, I bad about 50 head, and not one died tbat was able to walk 
 to the trough and had enough life left to drink. 
 
 " Tbe preventive was publisbed by Prof. J. B. Turner, in 1863, 
 in The Prairie Farmer, and then again two years or more ag») he 
 sent you tbe same recipe witb some characteristic remarks, affirm- 
 ing bis continued reliance on its efficacy, which you publisbed at 
 tbe time. The paper was mislaid, and I wrote to Mr. T.,and here 
 is his 
 
 Recipe. — One peck of Wood-ashes, four pounds Salt, one pound 
 Black Antimony, one pound Copperas, one pound Sulphur, quarter- 
 pound Saltpetre. Pound and mix thoroughly; moisten enough to 
 prevent waste; put in a trough in a dry place where tbe bogs can 
 at all times .^ut just as much as they please of it. If predisposed 
 to cholera, they will eat it very freely, and it will make something 
 of an item of expense, for a time ; at other times they will eat 
 less, or perhaps none at all." 
 
 Some time after the appeariiuee of the above letter, Mr. 
 Johu G. Dutrich, of Normal, Illinois, wrote : 
 
SO-CALLED HOG CHOLERA. 283 
 
 " In The Farmer of December 14, 1872, there was an article on 
 hog cholera, written and sent to you by A. M. W., of Odin, HI. 
 It came to luc just in time to save my lot of one hundred sholes 
 and hogs, and a nicer lot of the former could not have been foaml 
 in the country a week before the article reached me. But that 
 week took out about fifteen of the choice ones. I will only say 
 that I used the remedy as soon as I could get it, and have only lost 
 one by cholera since, and that one would not drink." 
 
 Respecting the preventive, the venerable Prof. Turner 
 himself, says : 
 
 " laknow of no one who has had any hog cholera of account 
 from that day, (1863), who has persistently made use of it in 
 advance of the appearance of disease. I have heard of hogs being 
 actually cured, after disease sets in, by being scrubbed all over 
 daily with Copperas water moderately strong. 
 
 " Hogs should at all times be supplied with stone coal, as they 
 ■will then eat less of the above mix*ure, and be less expense." 
 
 Mr. A. C. Moore, the eminent Illinois breeder of 
 Poland-Chinas, says, in his Swine Journal: 
 
 " Of this disease, which has proved so fatal, at different times 
 within the last twelve years, in nearly every locality, especially in 
 the Mississippi Valley, much has been said, and much written. 
 Many believe the inciting causes are to be found in the want of 
 some mineral elements in the soil of this great, once-submerged 
 valley ; but there are many theories as to its causes, and all of them 
 are more or less substantiated by facts. It stems to present itself 
 at different times and places, under varying symptoms. The first 
 indications differ. 
 
 *' Though I have never had a case of this scourge among my hogs, 
 I have carefullj' examined the first appearances on several occa- 
 sions when it has visited neighboring yards and farms. The first 
 symptoms tliat I have seen, in cases considered to be cholera, were 
 these : the eyes looked hollow, and deep set in the head ; the hair 
 seemed to raise, or rough up ; there was a gathering of a dark- 
 looking substance in the inner corner of the eye ; these were fol- 
 lowed by the skin looking rough and scaly, and of a dark-red color; 
 then came vomiting and diarrhoea, more or less frequent, according 
 to the violence of tbe attack. In many cases, there is a short and 
 very difficult breathing, the head droops or is held to one side, and 
 a cough shows itself ; the cough being peculiar in this — that the 
 animal stops to cough, and puts his nose quite near to the ground, 
 
284 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 in fact, it seems as though he could not cough while walking, as 
 is usually done with a common cough. The bog seems indisposed 
 to move, is stilf and ' drawn up.' There are other morbid condi- 
 tions whicb are ascribed to cholera, but the truth seems to be that 
 these conditions vr.r}' so much, and the indications or first symptoms 
 are so different, tliat I am compcllid to believe tlaat there are many 
 ailments culled cliolera that arc not cholera. It is therefore that 
 so many quack nostrums can get certificates of cure from farmers, 
 whose stock has perhaps been cured, but cured from what ? They 
 believe it cholera, and so certify, but when the same remedy is 
 given to a herd tLiat actually have that disease, then it fails; such 
 failure is not usually reported beyond the immediate neighborhood. 
 
 " I know it does not matter to the loser what the disease may be 
 called that takes away his herd, so far as his loss is concerned, but 
 until the observing and scientific world have more agreement as to 
 the causes and conditions of this dread disease, it may be in vain 
 that we proclaim any remedy to be a specific cure. In case of ac- 
 tual attack from this disea.^e. (having no experience,) I should at 
 once conclude that, so far as the diseased animal was concerned, the 
 preventives and conditions hereinafter named, had not reached the 
 individual case, either from my neglect to provide them at all, or 
 in sufficient quantities, and 1 would apply them at once, wnth thor- 
 oughness. I would also give an ounce of C'irboUc Acid, well dis- 
 solved, and mixed in slop for every twenty-five head of my herd, 
 and repeat this dos3 eveiy two or three days, carefully noting 
 conditions and changes. Above all things, remove an affected hog 
 at the first positive symptoms, to a yard or pen, if not by himself, 
 at least entirely separated from the well hogs. Dispose of every 
 carcass at once, and remove ail filth of an infectious nature. If it 
 be true, as claimed by some, that there is no specific remedy for this 
 disease, it certainly follows that the ' ounce of prevention ' must 
 be thorou^^hly applied. 
 
 " For all general purposes of health, and as a preventive from dis- 
 ease, I have, for manv years, used the following mixture with uni- 
 form and marked benefit. Take 1 bushel Charcoal, small pieces ; 3 
 bushels Wood-ashes; i bushel slacked Lime; i bushel Salt; 2 lbs. 
 Spanish brown ; 5 lbs. Sulphur ; I lb. Saltpetre ; f lb. Copperas. Pul- 
 verize the last two thoroug-hly ; mix all in a bin, box, or barrel, and 
 keep in an open trough, wher? t'le hogs can have free access to it, 
 and keep well moistened with good swill, or milk. If your herd is 
 not large, or you lack a sufficient amount of some of the ingredients, 
 mix smaller amounts of each in the same proportion. Aim to keep 
 these articles on hand at all times, and do not neglect their use ; 
 
SO-CALLED HOG CHOLBRA. 286 
 
 they contain certain chemical elements which are wanting in every 
 hog predisposed to disease. You will soon observe, by careful 
 watching, that the animal that looks the worst, and with which, 
 as you say, ' there seems to be something the matter,' these are the 
 ones that will call on you to till this trough the ottenest, and they 
 will usually visit it, either as they go to or return from their feed. 
 " A disease called tbe cholera sometimes manifests itself by a 
 short and quick, difficult breathing; tbe head droops, the back is 
 raised, no disposition to move, eyes look bad, a slight cough, of 
 course no appetite ; often diarrhoea attends the last stage, in which 
 many animals die. In such symptoms, I would try the Oil of Pep- 
 permint, prepared as an essence, but one-third strowjer. Put this 
 Into warm water, sweet-^'ncd with sugar, and give two tablespoon- 
 fuls to each of your hogs sick, or subject to attack. A customer, 
 in whose word and observation I have perfect confidence, writes 
 me that he used this remedy in nineteen cases that were affected 
 as above, and not one died, though every hog was lost on the 
 adjoining farm that was attacked, though many other remedies 
 were used." 
 
 A correspondent of the Louisville Courier-Journal fur- 
 nishes the following as an " infallible remedy" for Hog 
 Cholera : 
 
 " Dissolve thoroughly one pound of Copperas in three gallons 
 of warm water, and apply the wash about milk-warm to the 
 affected animal, bj' dipping into the solution or rubbing upon it 
 until the skin is thoroughly wet. Whenever the skin of the hog 
 begins to look rough and scaly, or of a dark-red color, apply the 
 wash immediately. Do not wait until the more alarming symp- 
 tems (vomiting and purging) set in. Apply the wash every day, 
 until the scales are removed." 
 
 Seeing accounts in the agricultural press, of the suc- 
 cess of the Messrs. R. Kimberly & Son, breeders of Ches- 
 ter Whites, at Green River, Henry county, Illinois, in 
 preventing diseases in their swine, by a simple — and, as 
 they believe, infallible — remedy, we applied to them for 
 particulars. 
 
 Under date of March 1st, 1877, they write : 
 " We have reports from every quarter, of cholera among swine, 
 to an extent that is truly alarming. When we go to a market 
 town, we see load after load of hogs that have died of cholera, 
 
286 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 and we know that it is raging on every hand, while at the same 
 time, our own herd continues healthy. 
 
 "Common ' Smart-weed' tea has prevented, and we believe will 
 prevent— if used judiciously and in season — not only cholera, but 
 the many diseases known by that name. 
 
 " In its green state, we pound the Smart weed in an iron kettle, 
 press out the juice and uii.x it, in small quantities, with good swill. 
 
 " When we discover want of appetite in a hog (that is the first 
 symptom in nearly all diseases of swine), we feed them enotigh of 
 this to make them cough and sneeze greatly, and it has never failed, 
 with us, to bring them around all right. 
 
 " We most fully believe that this remedy will not only prevent 
 all cholera, but promote health and thrift. 
 
 " For use through the year the herb should be gathered when in 
 bloom, tied in saiall bundles, and hung in a sheltered, dry place, 
 and when wanted for use, make a tea of it, by boiling. There arc 
 two kinds of Smart- weed, and the smallest, with the narrowest 
 leaves, is the one we use. 
 
 " We would not part with this remedy for any that has yet been 
 discovered, or is likely to be, for the next twenty years, especially 
 as a preventive and general corrective. 
 
 " Disease, however, will continue to carry off a portion of the 
 hogs in the country, so long as they are permitted to pile together 
 in large numbers, in manure henps, under some old barn or shed, 
 until in a more than fever heat, out of wliich they rush into a zero 
 atmosphere at feeding time." 
 
 Milton Briggs, author of The Western Farmer and 
 Stnch Groiver, and widely known as a successful grower 
 of cattle and ho'::s on a large scale in Iowa, Avritcs : 
 
 "I supply all my hogs with a compound of Bituminous Coal, 
 Wood-ashes, or Lime and Salt. I place in a bin or box, open, so that 
 ho;;s can dig out at bottom, and not run on to their feed. I place 
 this bin so they can have access to it at all times. Five tons of 
 what is called Slack Coal, with four or five bushels of Lime, or three 
 to four barrels of Wood-ashes and one barrel of Salt, all mixed. 
 Tliis quantity will feed 100 head of hogs about four months. All 
 hogs having aecess to this feed, will keep free from disease, even 
 if 'exposed to hogs having the cholera. I have purchnsed hogs that 
 were distased, having cholera in its first stages, and turned in with 
 well hogs wliere there were large nundiers running together. All 
 symptoms of disease would soon disappear under this mode of 
 
SO-CALLED HOG CHOLERA. 2?.7 
 
 treatment. The cholera hogs would soon begin to cast off th«ir 
 mange or scales from the skm, and assume a htaltliy appearance. 
 A composition of Carbonate of Soda, Sulphur, Sulphate of Iron, 
 and Carbolic Acid, -will arrest the spread of cholera, in its worst 
 
 Ezra Stetson, of Neponset, Illinois, a practitioner of 
 medicine for twenty years, and for the twenty years prior 
 to 1876, a farmer and hog raiser on a large scale, by 
 request of the editor presented his views and extended 
 observations on the so-called Hog Cholera in a series of 
 papers carefully prepjared for the National Live Stock 
 Journal, and he is confident the disease is of the same 
 nature and origin as typhus fever in man, and belongs to 
 a class of diseases caused by what he terms " crowd poison." 
 
 He has never known nor heard of an outbreak of this 
 disease, except where large numbers of swine were kept 
 together, unless communicated by contagion. 
 
 '' It is only when the herd reaches into hundreds that 
 the disease assumes its most malignant form and carries 
 death and destruction in its path like a whirlwind." 
 Extreme heat and cold are favorable periods for it ; but it 
 is prevalent all the year, and few animals escape that are 
 exposed to its contagion. Dogs, wolves, and all rapacious 
 animals or birds spread it, and to effectually prevent this, 
 the dead hogs should be wholly consumed by burning. 
 
 Dr. Stetson thinks prevention is the only hope, and this 
 must be accomplished by giving hogs proper accommoda- 
 tions, preventing their piling together, insuring them 
 ventilation, shelter from sun, and protection from cold. 
 *' Medicines, as such, should never be given them. No 
 specific for this sty fever in swine, or typhus in man, has 
 yet been discovered. 
 
 ''Disinfectants are the nearest approach to safety from 
 crowd poison that we yet possess. The most valuable is 
 Carbolic Acid, and since using this— eight or ten years — 
 in my own herd, I have suffered no loss from this dis- 
 ease. The crude acid, a dark, tarry liquid, costing about 
 
*,i^8 SWINK UUSBANDRT. 
 
 ouo dollar per gallon, is used at the rato of a pint to a 
 bucket of water, and with this the nests and woodwork 
 about them are sprinkled at least once a week. An ounce 
 of the acid is occasionally put in a barrel of swill or water 
 for the hogs to drink." 
 
 At a meeting of stock-breeders and farmers of Iowa, 
 held at West Liberty, during three ilays in February, 18TT, 
 there wjis an extended discussion on swine management. 
 Mr. J. S. Long, of Jasper county, referring to hog chol- 
 era, said he could give some experience that he thought 
 would be of value to all. Years ago he lost thousiuuls of 
 dollars' worth, of hogs, but for the last six years he had 
 not lost any, and he had a remedy, if any one would try, 
 he would warrant they would lv>se no more hogs, provided 
 they did exactly as he said, and the hogs were not past 
 drinkiu.;-, so they could not take the medicine, lie had 
 tried it in tliousands of cases, and never had a failure ; 
 was now engaged in buying lots of hogs where cholera 
 prevailed ; bought "^oO recently, and found no trouble in 
 curing them. His remedy wsis this : " Make Concen- 
 tnited Lye into good soap by the usual rule ; take one pail 
 of the S >ap to fifty hogs ; put it in a kettle, add water 
 and two p ninds of Copperas, boil it, then add dish-water 
 and milk (or anything to make it taste good) till you have 
 about what the fifty hogs will drink. Place enough of 
 the mixture, while warm, for twenty-tive hogs to drink, in 
 troughs, in a separate lot. Just as you are i"eady to let 
 the hogs in, scatter two pounds of Soda in the troughs, 
 the object is to have it foaming as the hogs come to drink. 
 He sure that every hog drinks, and if he will not drink, 
 put him in the hosintal. and if you cannot get him to 
 drink then, knock him in the head, for he will give the 
 cholera to the rest. After twenty-tive have had all tliey 
 will, drink let in twenty-tive more, and continue till the 
 whole are treated. The next dr.y I go through with the 
 same operation. After the second day skip a day, then 
 
VARIOUS DISEASES. 380 
 
 give for two days, and you may turn them out cured. I 
 generally give the same dose once a week to my hogs. An 
 important point is to make the hog drink, and, if he 
 will not take it any other way, add new milk, or put in 
 sugar." 
 
 As evidence of his entire faith in his remedy and mode 
 of administering it, Mr. Long offered " to pay ton cents 
 a pound for every hog he could not cure, provided the hog 
 was not past drinking. " 
 
 CHAPTER XXVI. 
 
 VARIOUS DISEASES COMMON TO SWINE. 
 
 While in the great pork-producing States the disease, 
 or diseases, known as '' Hog Cholera," overshadows in 
 importance all other ailments of swine, there are numer- 
 ous other diseases to which these animals are more or less 
 subject. Some of these, such as Trichina and Measles, 
 are of greater importance, from their effects upon man 
 than for their injury to the swine themselves, and on this 
 account call for vigilance in preventing them — as cure is 
 out of the question. The leading diseases are here enu- 
 merated, and those remedies that have been found most 
 useful are prescribed. 
 
 WORMS. 
 
 There is perhaps no animated existence that is troubled 
 to so great an extent, or with so many varieties of worms, 
 as the hog. Although savoring, somewhat, of quackery 
 in principle, it is yet almost safe to say that, when your 
 hog is sick, and you cannot tell what is the matter, doc- 
 tor for worms. 
 
 " The principal symptom is a gormandizing appetite, without 
 corresponding improvement in flesh, with an excessive itching, 
 causing the animal to rub, especially the hind parts. 
 
290 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 *' One, known as the round worm, is usually the size of a small 
 goose-quill, and six or seven inches in length, of a brownish color, 
 and somewhat corrugated. 
 
 " Probably the most effectual remedy that can be used is Santo- 
 nin. This is the active principle of a plant called Worm-^ee.l, 
 and is the base of many uf the vermifuges. It is in small white 
 crystals, is usually very prompt in its action, and may be given 
 in doses of one-third of a teaspoonful morning and evening, for 
 two or three days, and following with a brisk cathartic, such as 
 Calomel, in teaspoonful doses. 
 
 " Two other worms inhabit the lower bowels, or large intestines, 
 generally near the anus, and may be frequently seen coming from 
 the animal. One is a white slender worm, about three inches long, 
 and as large as a knitting-needle ; the other a little white worm, 
 shaped somewhat like a tadpole, and half or three-quarters of an 
 inch long. 
 
 " Occasionally, these may be removed by giving one and a half 
 tablespoonfuls of Barbadoes Aloes, with one teappoonful of Cop- 
 peras, each morning, for a week. 
 
 " If this fails to discharge them, after taking three or four days, 
 an injection may be given, as follows; Tincture of Assafoetida, one 
 tablespoonfu! ; Salt, one teaspoonful ; Water, half a pint ; mix all 
 together, warm slightly, and inject. 
 
 " Such treatment as this may not be appreciated by the reader. 
 But in these days, when a choice breeding animal may cost two or 
 three hundred dollars, we certainly should know all the remedies 
 that may be required to save life or restore health."— (Dr CJiase.) 
 
 Mr. Moore says : 
 
 " To swine that are troubled with worms, mix Wood-ashes with 
 Soap-suds, and feed once a week with their slops." 
 
 TKICHINA SPIRALIS. 
 
 This is a minute worm scarcely visible to the naked eye, 
 that infests the flesh and muscles of man, the hog, and 
 several other animals, such as dogs, cats, rats, and mice, 
 and it was estimated by Leuckart that a single ounce of 
 cat flesh, observed by him, must have harbored more than 
 300,000 of these parasites, which shows that under favor- 
 able conditions they accumulate in immense numbers. 
 
 Tbey vary in length from y,a to y^ of an inch, have a 
 
VAEIOUS DISEASES. 
 
 291 
 
 Fig. 13. — TRICHINA IN 
 
 MVSCLE.—Jfagmfled. 
 
 rounded slender body, with the head very narrow and 
 sharply pointed, and although so diminutive, are among 
 the most deadly worms known. 
 
 The mature and fertile worm lives in the intestines of 
 animals, the immature in minute 
 cysts (sacks or pouches) in the 
 muscles, (see fig. 13), and these 
 cysts only reach maturity and re- 
 produce their kind when the ani- 
 mal they infest is devoured by an- 
 other, ^nd they are set free by the 
 processes of digestion. Swine per- 
 mitted to eat the offal from 
 slaughter - houses, carrion, rats, 
 mice, and decaying animal mat- 
 ter of any kind, are usually more 
 or less infested with trichina, and 
 its dangerous nature is a powerful 
 argument in favor of supplying them with food that is 
 sound and wholesome. 
 
 In about two days from the time the trichina is taken 
 into the stomach, it reaches the adult condition, and 
 aboiit the seventh day the female brings forth a numer- 
 ous brood of minute hair-like larvae which soon begin 
 piercing the intestinal walls, whence they proceed through 
 the system, until they reach and penetrate the muscles. 
 Their borings cause violent muscular pains, like rheu- 
 matism, for which in man it is often mistaken ; also stiff- 
 ness, some fever, with diarrhoea, and much irritation for 
 the first fortnight. The duration of an attack is from 
 four to eight weeks, and the period of recovery as much 
 longer. If the patient survives six weeks, recovery may 
 be looked for, as irritation ceases when the worms have 
 become encysted in the muscle. 
 
 An attack of trichiniasis where not at first suspected, 
 is liable to be mistaken for typhoid fever. 
 
iJ5^ UP 
 
 293 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 (^6^ 
 
 We have no knowledge of an instance where swine have 
 been lost by being infested with trichina, and the treat- 
 ment of human subjects so affected has been by the most 
 skilled physicians considered far from satisfactory. Those 
 most familiar with the symptoms recommend, especially 
 at first, catliartics and vermifuges ; Castor Oil, Glycerine, 
 Benzine, Alcohol, and Picric Acid are named. 
 
 Ilogs that run at large, or are treated with neglect, are 
 always liable to have trichina, and the flesh of such can 
 only be eaten with safety after it is thoroughly cooked, and 
 we have seen it authoritatively stated that these disgust- 
 ing parasites will survive 140 degrees Fahrenheit. 
 
 Partially cooked ham, sausage, and similar meats, such 
 as are kept on sale at cheap restaurants, eating stalls, 
 booths, etc., should especially be avoided. 
 
 KIDHEY WORMS. 
 
 Symptoms : Imperfect use of hind legs, inclination to lie down, 
 a seeming paralysis of hind parts, inability to raise on the hind feet. 
 
 Dr.- Qhase^ in his wox k,-i' The Ho^its_J^§ases^^ajnd_ 
 
 Treatment," says : 
 
 " This worm infests hogs to an alarming extent, and though not 
 fatal in its effects, is a frequent cause of disease. 
 
 " When full-grown, it is as large as a small wheat-straw, and 
 nearly two inches in length. It inhabits the leaf -lard, in the neigh- 
 borhood of the kidneys, and we have sometimes seen scores of 
 them in the same hog. It is nearly black along the back, and of a 
 brown color on the belly. It burrows along through the fat, and 
 is a frequent cause of weak loins, and sometimes produces a slight 
 inflammation of the kidneys. Turpentine is the only remedy we 
 have ever found to be of benefit, and conclude that its rapid absorp- 
 tion into the circulation and through the kidneys, has the effect of 
 driving the worm further away from those organs, when the irrita- 
 tion ceases. There is no way of expelling the worm from the sys- 
 tem that we are aware of." 
 
 Dr. Paaren says in the Prairie Farmer : 
 
 " Kidney worm is not a common disease in hogs. Occasionally 
 one or two in a number of hogs may suffer from the presence of 
 
a-^ 
 
 VARIOUS DISEASES. 293 
 
 one or more worms in the kidneys ; but the ailment is not often 
 fatal, and becomes so only after a longer time of suffering, and 
 consequent disease or degeneration of one or both kidneys. When 
 we are told that a number of pigs simultaneously refuse their food, 
 lie down, become partly paralyzed, or suffer from spasmodic 
 twitchings, we are inclined to conclude that they are affected with 
 some other ailment thai! kidney worms." 
 
 An old farmer, of La Salle county, Illinois, writes : 
 " I lately saw inquirief about kidney worms in hogs, indicated 
 by the k)ss of the use of 1J\3 hind legs, etc. This disease lias pre- 
 vailed very extensively heie. but we now have a certain cure, viz: 
 One tablespoonful of TurpcuHne poured on across the loins or 
 small of the back, every day, fo^ three days. I have never known 
 it to fail, even when the hogs had beou down for weeks unable to 
 rise." 
 
 " H. D. Court, the well-known breeder of Chester White swine 
 at Battle Creek, Mich., writes that b*> has for-nd a teaspoonful of 
 pulverized Copperas, mixed with an equal quantity of Sulphur, fed 
 in the night's meal, for three days, effective in this disease. Some- 
 times a longer treatment is necessary." 
 
 Corn soaked in lye made from wood-ashes, is a cor'veni- 
 ent preventive, and is used with success when signs of the 
 complaint first appear. Prof. Law says its presence 'n 
 the kidney may sometimes be recognized by the existence 
 of microscopic eggs in the urine. The same results from 
 another worm — Eustrongylus gigas. But without ob- 
 servation of such eggs, weakness of the hind jjarts cannot 
 be ascribed to kidney worm. 
 
 MEASLES. 
 
 Prof. Law, in his " Farmer's Veterinary Adviser," says : 
 
 "The bladder- worm of pork {Cystkercus cellulosce) is the imma- 
 ture form of a tape- worm in man, {Tce- 
 nia solium), and is only caused by pigs 
 having access to human excrement, or 
 to places near privies, etc., from which 
 the segments of the human tape-worm 
 Fig. 13.— Ctsticbrcus may travel. The cysts, respectively about 
 CELLULOSE. ^j^^ g.^^ ^^ a grain of barley, are found in 
 
 the muscles, in the loose connective tissue, and under the skin, in 
 
r.>94 
 
 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 the serous membranes, in the eye, under the tongue, etc., of swine. 
 [Pig. 13 shows a separate cyst, enlarged ; fig. 14, gives the cysts of 
 the natural size as they appear in luoasly pork.] 
 
 "Thoy are also found in this undeveloped form in the muscles, 
 brain, etc., of man, causing disease and death. To man, the para- 
 
 Fig. 14. — CYSTS OP MEASLES IN PORK. 
 
 site is usually conveyed by eating under-done pork, or in the cystic 
 form he receives it as the egg in his food (salads, "♦^c.,) and water. 
 
 "Symptoms. — In pigs, the cj-sts can usually be seen inuler the 
 tongue, or in the eye. In man, there are the general symptoms of 
 intestinal worms, and the passage of the ripe segments. 
 
 " Other symptoms may attend the presence of the cysts, accord- 
 
 Fiff. 15.— HEAD OF TJENIA SOLUM. 
 
 ing to the organ which they invade. Thus, when passing into the 
 muscles, there are pains and stitiuess, resembling rheumatism ; 
 when into the brain, coma, stupor, imbecility, delirium, but when 
 they have once become encysted, they may continue thus indeli- 
 nitel}', without further injury. 
 
 " Treatmext.— The cysts scattered through the body are beyond 
 the reach of medicine. 
 
 '' Prevention. — Human beings harboring tape-worms should 
 be compelled to take the measures to expel them. Theii- stools 
 should be burned, or treated with strong muural acids. Swine 
 shouUl be kept far apart from all human excrement ; no such ma- 
 nure should be used as a top-dressing on pastures open to swine, 
 or on lands devoted to the raising of vegetables to be eaten raw. 
 
 "Avoid raw meat, especially pork, even if salted and smoked, 
 and under-done meat and sausages, also well water, from gravelly 
 soils, in the vicinity of habitations." 
 
VAKIOUS DISEASES. 295 
 
 MANGE. 
 
 " Man^e, itch, or scab, in the lower animals is a skin disease of a 
 purely local nature, due to an insect, whiQh induces irritation, 
 ulceration, suppuration, and incrustation on the surface of tlie body 
 generally. It is a contagious disease, never originating spontane- 
 ously, and requiring for its development the passage of th(! p:irasite8 
 or their eggs from diseased to healthy animals. In man, this dis- 
 ease is termed ' the itch,' and in the lower ai;imals it is usually 
 alluded to as ' mange,' and in sheep it is well known as a fearfully 
 destructive disease, under the name of 'scab.' 
 
 " Tli/ere are some important points in the history of scabies which 
 apply to this disease, as it affects the animal kingdom generally. 
 There is no species in the class mammalia that is not attacked with 
 an insect inducing such a disease, if we perhaps except those that 
 live mostly in water. It has been ascertained that though the weak, 
 dirty, and ill nourished condition of some animals renders them 
 very liable to the disease, they only become affected when diseased 
 animals accidentally come in contact with them. A most import- 
 ant point, very clearly establislied, is, that although any animal may 
 aeciiientally be the carrier of a contagion between other two, such 
 as a cat or a dog carrying disease from one horse to another, that 
 it is essL'ntial for the development of a real scabies on any animal, 
 that the insect should be pro{)er to that animal. Thus human be- 
 ings, engaged around mangy horses, carr}^ t.ie malady from one 
 animal to another, and sulFer but very slightly, and only for a very 
 short time, themselves. The parasite which lives on the horse does 
 not live on man, and the parasite that lives on the sheep does not 
 contaminate the shepherd's dog, though the latter may, like the 
 shepherd, or the many rubbing-places on driftways, be the means 
 whereby the malady spreads. 
 
 " The mange of the pig is due to the presence of a burrowing 
 sarcoptes. Surcoptes suis is much like the human sarcoptes and 
 the horse sarcoptes. Itch and mange are known to be essentially 
 skin diseases, curable alone by topical remedies; and the medi- 
 cines used are valuable almost in proportion to the rapidity with 
 which they destroy the life of the parasites which give rise to 
 the irritation and other morbid appearances. 
 
 " In treating the mange, we should first cover the body with 
 soft soap, and wash it off some time afterwards with warm water, 
 and have the animal well brushed ; or a wash may be used, con- 
 sisting of one part of Caustic Potash to fifty parts of water ; or one 
 part of Creosote to forty parts of oil, well mixed ; or Sulphuret o£ 
 
296 swms hitsbandrt.- 
 
 Potassium in water, in the proportion of one to ten parts ; or a 
 decoction of Tobacco, in the ratio of one to twenty-five ; or lastly, 
 concentrated Vinegar. One or two days after the thorough ap- 
 plication of either one of these preparations, wash the body well 
 with soap and water or potash lye. Whenever scabies is treated, 
 it is essential to purify all objects with which animals can come 
 in contact. Thus, all rubbing-places and sties should have a cov- 
 ering of lime, or chloride of lime. The sties should be cleaned 
 out entirely, or the pigs removed for a few months to a new pen." 
 {Br. Paaren, V. S.) 
 
 Recipe for Mange Ointment. — Melt half a pound of common 
 Turpentine with a pound and a half of Lard. Stir well therein a 
 pound of Flowers of Sulphur, and when cool, rub doAvn upon a 
 marble slab, two ounces of strong Mercurial Ointment with these. 
 
 LICE. 
 
 "Lice are a sad torment to poverty-stricken and badly-kept 
 stock, appearing by myriads, and causing excessive itching and 
 irritation. They will effectually prevent an animal from laying on 
 fat or doing well, as long as their presence is permitted. Various 
 remedies and dressings are recommended for lice, and some are 
 excessively dangerous, especially the preparations of mercury and 
 arsenic, — the skin of most animals being extremely sensitive to the 
 action of these agents. We have frequently recommended the 
 following formula, as being both safe and destructive to lice: 
 Stavesacre seed, four ounces ; White Hellebore, one ounce ; boiled 
 in a gallon of water until only two quarts remain. Apply with a 
 brush to the parts where lice are seen. A decoction of Tobacco 
 may also be tried. On no account should mercurial or arsenical 
 preparations be employed in these cases, as, from the great ex- 
 tent of surface it is often necessary to apply the dressing to, death 
 has frequently resulted." — [Paaren.) 
 
 " We have used the following remedy, which will clean off the 
 lice in two days : Put about one gill of kerosene oil in any old dish, 
 and with a paint brush or old woolen rag rub the oil up and down 
 the back of the animal, and behind the fore leg, and on the flank. 
 Be particular about the last two places, for it is where the lice 
 deposit their eggs, which, if not destroyed, will hatch out in about 
 five days. If it be a black hog, these eggs can be plainly seen, 
 being about the size of timothy seed, and laying close to the skin 
 fast to the hair. No one need fear to use the oil freely, as it will 
 not injure the hog in the least." 
 
VABtOtJS DISEASES. 297 
 
 " A Tennessee Agricultural paper says : ' W. S. Swann informs 
 us that he has an infallible remedy for ridding hogs of lice, simple 
 and easy of application ; which is to take buttermilk and pour it 
 along the hog's back and neck, and after two or three applications, 
 not a louse will be seen. He has tried, and seen it tried, in several 
 cases, with the same success in every instance. Mr. Swann being 
 a reliable man, and the remedy very simple, we recommend its 
 trial to our farmer friends whose hogs are troubled with lice.' " 
 
 " A . C. Moore says : ' Take two parts of Kerosene and one part 
 of Lard-oil, mix, and apply to the hair and skin with a sponge or 
 cloth ; rub it well over all the parts where nits are liable to be 
 found, and you have a certain cure. Two or three applications, if 
 thoroughly done, will not fail. Be careful to cover the skin behind 
 the ears and fore arms — here are the nits, and these are the places 
 to attack.' " 
 
 "B. T. S., Mount Pleasant, Iowa, writes: 'Scotch snufF and 
 hog's lard will destroy lice on hogs. One-fourth pound of SnutF 
 and one and a fourth pound of Lard is sufficient for twenty head. 
 Rub the mixture along the back of the hog with the hand.' " 
 
 PNEUMONIA. 
 
 This disease is sometimes spoken of as *' Thumps," 
 but is more severe and rapidly fatal. Designating it as 
 Inflammation of the Lungs gives a better idea of its seat 
 and nature. 
 
 Its symptoms are loss of appetite, shivering, labored 
 breathing, and severe cough. For treatment give the 
 animals warm, comfortable quarters, free access to fresh, 
 cool water, and every morning two drachms Saltpetre, or 
 half an ounce of Hyposulphite of Soda in a small mess of 
 gruel. 
 
 In this, as ether diseases, feeding much dry corn is det- 
 rimental to recovery. 
 
 COMMON COUGH. 
 
 This is known to many farmers as rising of the lights. 
 It is sometimes quite troublesome, if not fatal. The 
 prominent indications of the disease are loss of appetite, 
 incessant and distressing cough, apd heaviiig at the flanks. 
 
298 SWINE HUSBANDBT. 
 
 As soon as the first symptoms are perceived, the animal 
 should be bled ; the palate is the best place ; purgatives 
 must then be given, but cautiously. Epsom Salts and 
 Sulphur will be best, administered in a dose of from two 
 to four drachms each, according to the size of the animal ; 
 afterwards give a sedative, composed of Digitalis two 
 grains, Pulvis Antimonialis six grains. Nitre half drachm. 
 Cleanliness, warmth, and wholesome, cooling, nutritious 
 food, are likewise valuable aids in combating this disease. 
 
 E. W. Bryant, of Illinois, breeder of Poland-Chinas, 
 says, '*my remedy for cough in pigs is oats. Feed once 
 or twice a week all they Avill eat. The cough is caused 
 by costiveness ; the oats will loosen their bowels and the 
 cough will disappear." 
 
 Of Thumps or Heaves, A. C. Moore says : 
 
 " I have never seen a case but it was preceded by a cough, which 
 was generally worse in the morning, or wiien the pig first came 
 from its bed. My ordinary remedy is to place a small amount of 
 Tar, the bulk of an egg, well down in the mouth. This can readily 
 be done, by the use of a wooden pa Idle, and should be done for 
 two or three successive mornings. If the disease does not yield to 
 three doses, I wouLl dissolve one pint of Tar in a gaUon of Water, 
 and use one quart as a drench, repeating the dose every morning if 
 required. I do not believe there is a better remedy, though some 
 recommend Tartar Emetic in small doses, mixed with the milk or 
 water given as a drink, and continued from five to ten days. A 
 reliable customer writes me, he has used Tartar-emetic in three 
 cases with perfect success. Another says that two to three spoons- 
 ful of Salt, put well down in the throat, is a sure cure. 
 
 QUINSY, OR ** STRANGLES." 
 
 This disease is of frequent occurrence, and rapid in its 
 progress, and generally fatal, and mostly confined to fat 
 hogs, or those fed highly. The first symptoms are : 
 Swelling of glands under the throat, followed by rapid 
 and difficult breathing and difficulty in swallowing ; the 
 neck swells and gangrenes, the tongue protrudes from the 
 mouth, and is covered with slaver. 
 
r {^_^ vy ^^ VARIOUS DISEASES. 299 
 
 In the beginning of the disease, give an active emetic, 
 such as the following ; Potassio-tartrate of Antimony 
 (Tartar-emetic) four grains ; Ipecacuanha, six grains ; 
 White Hellebore, six grains. Mix and give in food, or 
 throw into the mouth. If the animal will drink any- 
 thing or eat a little, a purgative powder, consisting of 
 two or three drachms of Castor Oil seeds should he given. 
 When difficulty of breathing is great, apply an active 
 blister over the throat, and give injections frequently. If 
 the animal can swallow, and will drink water, some Sal- 
 ammoniac and Nitre should be dissolved in it. 
 
 The recip f> h(^]o^y, f"T Q"'"^Yi ^'^ ^'''^^^ dolman's Rural 
 
 " When tlie animal has the disease in a bad form, split the neck 
 on each side of the throat so that it will bleed freely ; swab the 
 throat well with Turpentine ; make it swallow one or two tea- 
 spoonfuls of it ; if the subject will drink, this can be given in 
 ' swill ' Enough Turpentine poured on corn to make it oily, is a 
 preventive." 
 
 NASAL CATARRH, OR *^ BULL NOSE." 
 
 " First symptoms : Unusual discharge from the nose, the inflam- 
 mation gradually extending to the pharyn^, gullet, and larynx. 
 The animal sniffles, coughs some, mucous membrane swells, the 
 nose thickens, and becomes twiste:! and distorted and ill-shaped, 
 and when exercised a little, the discharge from the nose becomes 
 bloody, or is pure blood. The animal still eats reasonably well, 
 b'lt will not fatten nor grow, but gradually dwindles away, and 
 dies. 
 
 " There is little encouragement in trying to cure this, and it is 
 considered by some as being of the same nature as glanders in 
 horses. Animals discovered with the disease should be destroyed, 
 and removed from the farm." 
 
 INFLAMMATION OF THE BRAIN, EPILEPSY, OR *^ BLIND 
 STAGGERS." 
 
 This disease frequently attacks swine, especially when 
 changed to rich, abundant food, or exposed to stormy, 
 changeable weather. At first the animal appears dull, 
 
300 SWINK HUSBANDBT. 
 
 stupid, and disinclined to move. The eyes become red 
 and inflamed, the bowels constipated, the pulse hard and 
 quick. In a short time, if not relieved, the animal runs 
 wildly about, usually in a circle, seems blind, will run 
 against objects, the breathing becomes rapid and labo- 
 rious. 
 
 Tkeatment. — Give, at once, a teaspoonful of Calomel, 
 cut a slit in the skin on the head above the eyes, cut it 
 clear to the skull. In this cut put Salt and Pepper to get 
 up a counter-irritation. If this does not succeed, make 
 a liniment as follows : Take a four-ounce vial, into it put 
 one ounce Spirits Turpentine, one ounce Capsicum, one 
 ounce Aqua Ammonia, half ounce Tincture of Arnica, 
 quarter ounce Chloroform ; shake well before using, and 
 rub it pn, around upper part of the head of the patient, 
 and between the base of the ears and around them. 
 
 Professor Law recommends, when a hog is attacked, to 
 dash bucketsful of cold water over the body, and throw 
 into the rectum a purgative injection, composed of six 
 ounces of Sulphate of Soda and one or two teaspoonsfuls of 
 Spirits of Turpentine in ten ounces of Water. Setons satur- 
 ated with the Turpentine may be inserted under the skin 
 behind the ears ; or the back of the neck may be blis- 
 tered by actively rubbing in the following mixture : Spir- 
 its of Turpentine and liquid Ammonia, one ounce of each ; 
 powdered Cantharides, two drachms. When it occurs in 
 summer, or in hot weather, its severity can be greatly 
 modified by providing shelter in a shed, where they can 
 be in the shade during the heat of the day ; but at the 
 same time a free circulation of air should be secured. 
 Water, too, should be constantly within the reach of the 
 animals, and, if possible, a pool of it provided in which 
 they can lie at will. 
 
 Dr. Chase says partial recovery will soon occur after 
 securing a free evacuation of the bowels. A teaspoonful 
 
VARIOUS DISEASES. 301 
 
 of Copperas may be given twice a day, for two weeks, 
 abating the feed somewhat. Also, to never bleed in this 
 disease, as there is a poverty of blood already. 
 
 The North-British Agriculturist says the disease which 
 is popularly termed staggers, in medical parlance is called 
 epilepsy. It depends usually upon imperfect nutrition 
 of the brain and nervous system. In pigs, as well as in 
 other animals, epilepsy is often hereditary. Frequently 
 it is developed by breeding in-and-in. 
 
 APOPLEXY. 
 
 Apoplexy only occurs in fat hogs, being caused by a 
 too plethoric condition of the system. It demands 
 prompt treatment, and is indicated by the stupid move- 
 ments of the animal for perhaps several hours preceding 
 its dropping, as if struck heavily on the head with a sledge- 
 hammer, when the limbs straighten, and but for its heavy 
 breathing, it would be supposed dead. 
 
 Dr. Chase says : 
 
 "Bleed quickly, by tying a cord tightly around the fore-leg, 
 above the knee, when the brachial vein will be seen to fill up, and 
 may readily be opened with a lancet or sharp pointed knife. The 
 vein is oa the inside of the leg, and should be opened about an 
 inch above the knee. 
 
 " If possible take a pint and a half of blood, or even more. If 
 this vein does not yield a sufficient amount, some of the veins on 
 the inside of the ear may be opened by turning the ear back and 
 pressing with the thumb firmly on the base. Never cut off an car 
 or tail for the purpose of drawing blood. 
 
 " If the animal recovers from a first attack, at the earliest pos- 
 sible moment give a quarter of a pound of Salts, and repeat it every 
 three hours, until the bowels move freely. Feed lightly for a few 
 days, giving occasional doses of salts, and the probabilities are 
 that it will permanently recover.* * * 
 
 " Epilepsy, or blind staggers, is the only disease likely to be con- 
 founded with apoplexy." 
 
 PARAPLEGIA. 
 
 Paralysis of the muscles of the loins in swine is of fre- 
 
302 SWINK HUSBANDRY. 
 
 quent occurrence, but usually does not seem to interfere 
 with tlio appetite or general health of the animal. 
 
 It is sometimes caused by a severe strain of the back, 
 or blows on the back or loins, producing concussion of 
 the spinal marrow. If such is known to be the cause, 
 cold applications may be tried, for a few days, on the 
 loins and back. If the cause is unknown, and no fever 
 is present in the back, a liniment, composed of equal 
 parts of Cantharides (Spanish Flies), Olive Oil, and Spirits 
 Turpentine, may be applied, or, a seton may be inserted 
 lengthwise under the skin over the loins. The animal 
 should be given comfortable quarters, with freedom from 
 disturbance by others, fed on sloppy, soft food and sour 
 milk, and if costive, frequent injections of warm water 
 should be used. 
 
 DIARRHCExV, Oil SCOURS. 
 
 Young pigs are frequently troubled with diarrhoea. The 
 discharges are of a Avhitish color, and pigs of sows that 
 have a cold or catarrh are liable to be severely troubled. 
 It rarely attacks old hogs, but is often fatal to young 
 pigs, if not attended to in time. Too much grass or 
 clover, given to a sow when her pigs are quite young, fre- 
 quently causes this disease. It can generally be checked 
 by shutting the sow up and feeding dry corn for a few 
 days. Skimmed sAvcet milk fed the sow is also good. If 
 pigs are large enough to cat, give them dry, raw flour, or 
 corn, rye, or wheat, whole. 
 
 If too young to eat, a lump of Alum, the size of a wal- 
 nut, may be dissolved in a quart of water, and a tea- 
 spoonful given morning and evening, to pigs a week or 
 so old. 
 
 Dr. ^Mulford says, in the American Siuine and Poultry 
 Journal : ~"' 
 
 " Many of our swine breeders in the West sustain considerable 
 loss annually by their pigs dying from the efiFects of wh.it is 
 commonly called scours, caused by the bad quality of the sow's 
 
VARIOUS DISEASES. 303 
 
 milk. The disease is more apt to make its appearance when the 
 sow has been fed upon dry corn or musty food. It generally 
 attacks them within one or two days after their birth, and seldom 
 after eight or ten days. I have never failed to cure this disease by 
 giving the sow as much Sulphur of the third decimal trltumtion as 
 will stand on a nickel five-cent piece, once a day. It may be given 
 in a little sweet milk, or upon a small piece of bread, and should 
 be given one hour before feeding. The medicine can be procured 
 of any Homoeopathic physician. I have cured many cases with 
 common sulphur, but prefer the above." 
 
 .Mr^ Joseph Harris, in his invaluable work on "The 
 
 JPig," justly uses the following language : 
 
 " The most common complaints of little pigs are diarrhoea and 
 colds. The former is caused by giving the sow improper food, or 
 a too sudden a change of diet, or by irregular feeding, or from 
 want of pure water and fresh air. We once had a few cooked 
 beans that were left in the stcam-barrcl until they decomposed. 
 They were thrown on to the manure heap, and a sow, which was 
 sucking pigs, ate some of them. Two days afterwards, the whole 
 litter was seized with violent diarrhoea, and one of them died in 
 the course of two or three days. It was the worst case of the kind 
 we ever had, and the diarrhoea continued for four or five days, and 
 was not stopped until we gave the pigs two or three drops of Laud- 
 anum each, at night, in some fresh cream, with a teaspoon, and 
 repeated the dose the next morning. This effected a cure, but the 
 pigs did not regain their thrifty growth for a week or ten days. 
 "We should add that the sow continued perfectly well, and mani- 
 fested no symptoms of the complaint. As a general rule, no medi- 
 cine will be required. Change the fond of the mother, and let her 
 go out into the air, but let the little pigs remain in the pen, and 
 see that they are warm and comfortable. The less they are dis- 
 turbed, and the more they sleep, the sooner will they recover. It 
 is also very important to keep the pen clean and well ventilated. 
 Nothing can be worse than to leave the evacuations in tne pen. 
 Scatter some dry earth about the pen to absorb the oifensive gases. 
 Let the feeding apartment also be dusted over with dry earth, or 
 soil of any kind that can be obtained, and then scraped, and swept, 
 and washed, and a little dry straw, or chaff, or sawdust, be spread 
 on it, to prevent dampness. Scald the pig troughs <vith boiling 
 water, and make them sweet and clean. Let this be done every 
 day. The attendant should understand that the scours are an evi- 
 dence of carel ssness or negligence." 
 
304 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 CONSTIPATION. 
 
 If swine are discovered voiding hard, dry dung in com- 
 pact, ball-like masses, it denotes fever ; they require a 
 change to more loosening, cooling diet. Green and any 
 kind of soft, easily digested food is good, and bran mashes 
 prepared with hot water, or if possible, with flax-seed tea 
 are excellent. 
 
 In obstinate cases, an ounce of Epsom Salts may be 
 given, in an injection of warm soap suds. 
 
 There are few surer indications of something radically 
 wrong in the swine-yard than continued constipation. 
 
 EVERSION (turning OUT) OF THE RECTUM. 
 
 Poorly kept and neglected pigs are liable to protrusion 
 of the rectum, and it may be caused also by straining in 
 parturition, (pig birth), constipation, and diarrhoea. 
 
 The protruding part should be emptied, cleaned with 
 warm water, moistened with Laudanum if at hand, gently 
 returned and pushed up with the oiled finger a short 
 distance, inside the anus. In treating this ailment, as 
 well as most others, attention to diet and comfort is all- 
 important. 
 
 RHEUMATISM. 
 
 Symptoms. — Dullness, languor, or indisposition to move, 
 followed by extreme lameness in one or more limbs, and 
 heat, swelling, or tenderness of a joint, tendon, or group 
 of muscles, the tenderness perhaps shifting from joint to 
 joint. 
 
 Treatment. — A tablespoonful of Cod-liver Oil should 
 be given to each pig once or twice a day in its food. A 
 larger daily allowance than two tablespoonfuls to pigs 
 three or four months old, while the oil is expensive, does 
 not appear to hasten the cure in like ratio. The cod-liver 
 oil, besides curing the rheumatism, both acute and chronic, 
 also improves the condition wonderfully. Provide well- 
 
^^=^ VARIOUS DISEASES. 305 
 
 littered, warm housing, from which the pigs can emerge 
 to the yards at will. Give boiled or steamed food, and 
 sour milk. 
 
 PIGS LOSING THEIR TAILS. 
 
 Pigs sometimes have their tails frozen, which causes 
 them to drop off, but aside from this cause, it frequently 
 results from an hereditary tendency to a disease of the 
 skin which attacks the young pig at that particular point, 
 the circulation is interfered with, and the member per- 
 ishes and drops off. 
 
 If the disease appears, apply Carbolic Soap to the 
 affected part, or wash clean, and apply Glycerine, Sweet 
 Oil, or a little fresh Lard. 
 
 The most effectual preventive is to keep pigs clean, dry, 
 and abundantly nourished. 
 
 CANKER OR SORE MOUTH. 
 
 Mr. S. M. jShe^ard^_in _his ex cellent hook ''The Hog 
 jn,^,^jiifiiii2a," thmEs this is usually the result of un- 
 healthful milk from the sow or from poison on her teats 
 obtained by contact with poisonous vines or wet grass. 
 He says: "The first symptoms are lumps on the sow's 
 udder, and sometimes sores ; next will be noticed blisters 
 on the lip, tongue and mouth of the pig ; the tongue 
 and lips become swollen and the roof and sides of the 
 mouth inflamed and covered with deep red or white 
 blister spots. Treatment : Catch the pig and swab its 
 mouth out thoroughly with a solution of carbolic acid 
 and water sufficiently strong to make the flesh upon the 
 arm tingle. Apply with a rag or small piece of sponge 
 tied on a stick. Strong sage tea applied in the same 
 way is good, and in addition blow powdered sulphur 
 through a straw into the pig's mouth. Bathe the sow's 
 teats and udder with a weak solution of carbolic f^ci^, 
 and keep afflicted litters away from other pigs," 
 
o06 
 
 SWl>sE HISBA^'DKY. 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Allen, A. B, Essay on Berkshires 47 
 
 Am. Berkshire Association 45 
 
 Artichokes, Jerusalem or Bra- 
 zilian ir>116 
 
 Bat on, Kxport of 11 
 
 BaUiwiu, Hon. Elmer, on Dis- 
 
 ea.-ioJ Swine 340 
 
 On Pastnnwre 116 
 
 Berksbires 42-54 
 
 Allen. \. B., Essay on 47 
 
 Berkshire Association 45 
 
 Characteristics and Mark- 
 
 incs - 46 
 
 Cross with Essex 84 
 
 Cit^ss with Poland-China.. 63 
 
 Earliest Importations 53 
 
 Herd Book 45 
 
 Introduction into Warren 
 
 Co .Ohio 34 
 
 Record of 234 
 
 Kelative Merits, compared 
 with SutTolk and Essex. 80-85 
 
 Their (iood Qualities 44 
 
 "Windsor Castle".. 51 
 
 Biusihaui, K. 1.., on Cixikina: 
 
 Food 136 
 
 Boar. Castration of Old «.H 
 
 How to Choose 81) 
 
 Importance of Pure Breed.- 91 
 
 lu-aud-in Hrecdinsr 9;^ 
 
 .loint C>wneiship of tH 
 
 Keepinsr t*3 
 
 Proper Asre of for Service . 93 
 Bowles, John S., on Hose Chol- 
 era .280 
 
 Bovnton, John, on Sow Eatina: 
 
 heroes .315 
 
 Brazilian Artichokes 113 
 
 BiYcdiutf. Prize Animals for 33l* 
 Bivcds-^Mervly mentioned and 
 synonyms; the other breeds in 
 the reiular alphabetical oaxler: 
 
 Bedford -. 33 
 
 Bia. China ^i 
 
 Butler County 31 
 
 Breeds— Bvfield 28 
 
 Chester County Whites 34 
 
 Chinese 4$ 
 
 Dick's Creek 21 
 
 Dnrocs 80 
 
 Great Western 31 
 
 Gregory's Creek 31 
 
 Irish Grar.ier 34 
 
 JetTerson County (of N.Y.). 73 
 
 Jersey Reds 79 
 
 Lancashires 75 
 
 Magie 21 
 
 Miami Valley 21 
 
 Mooiv 21 
 
 Poland 21-31 
 
 Poland and China 21 
 
 Russia 23 
 
 Shaker 21 
 
 Siauu'so 49 
 
 SutTolk. Berkshire, and Es- 
 sex , Compared 80-85 
 
 Union Vill.aire 31 
 
 Warren County 31-33 
 
 Bricsrs. Milt on. ou Poland-Chinas 3:3 
 ' On 1 log Cholera .386 
 
 Brown. Charles, on Poland and 
 Poland-Chinas 39 
 
 Bryant. E. W., on Cousrh 293 
 
 Biiriiitgton JJawkeye on Arti- 
 chokes 115 
 
 Butcheriuir Hogs 150 
 
 Castrating HoaW 94, 106 
 
 Uidgling Hogs 107 
 
 Young IMgs .". 103 
 
 Cattle and Swine, Valwe com- 
 l^ared 14 
 
 Cattle, Swine running with 136 
 
 Chase. Dr. A. G., on Apoplexy.. 801 
 
 On Essex 65 
 
 On Intlanmiatiou of the 
 
 Brain 300 
 
 On Kidiiev Worms 39Q 
 
 On PolamVChin.HS 38 
 
 ChemiciU (.'ompositiou of Arti- 
 cles of Food IW 
 
INDFA. 
 
 307 
 
 Cht^ehiro, or JofTcrson County 73-75 
 ('urtis?, Col. V. 1>,, on ... 74 
 National Convontit>n's Re- 
 port on . 7;< 
 
 Sanilors, J. 11., on 74 
 
 Choslor Wliitos 84-42 
 
 (Icirailoristu'sof 42 
 
 Intpiiro Stock sold !%) 
 
 WiMsihts of as 
 
 riiioajio, Live-stock Sales in 
 lS7;t 16 
 
 I'lav. S. H., Experiments on 
 
 C'ookiim Kooil l;il-in4 
 
 lli.i kood-i'ooker 1118 
 
 riovor. Value as Food Ill 
 
 ("oim^amtive Vahio of Articles 
 of Food 161 
 
 Contner, llionias, on Polaud- 
 
 ciiiuft art 
 
 Cookins; Food for Swine. . .127-140 
 
 Apparatus for ia7-14<) 
 
 Hinuhaiu, K. L., on A'M 
 
 Clay, S. H., Experiments 
 
 on isi-iai 
 
 Cooked Meal 187 
 
 Cook od W h oat 22 1 
 
 Honrv, Trof,, on 13(3 
 
 11. M". I*;: \V. P. Sisson's Ex- 
 
 perimouls on 129 
 
 Maine Aixricultural College 
 
 Experiments on i;^6 
 
 Stalker, M., Experiments 
 
 on KM-ia^ 
 
 Steamed or Roiled Corn. . ITO 
 
 Slon.'. 11. 11.. on i;U 
 
 Wilkinson, Prof., on I'M 
 
 Wood, Thomas, on ISO 
 
 Corn — Sec Indian Corn. 
 Cottrell. K. W., Essay on tlic 
 IJolative Merits of the Suf- 
 folks, Uerkshiros, and Es- 
 sex 80-85 
 
 On Essex 6(1 
 
 (^niuff P'-rk. Is it Profitable ?. 101 
 Curtis, Col. F. D., on Cheshire 
 
 or .lelTorson County 74 
 
 Department of AgricuUnre, lu- 
 
 elVu'i(MU'y of /. 241 
 
 Dctniers, Ur. II. J., on "Hoe; 
 
 Cholera" ':243 
 
 Keport on, to the Missouri 
 State Board of Asjrieul- 
 
 (ure . 24T-2?J 
 
 Diseasesof Swine, Introductory 2;W 
 Anitiua, Malignant or Can- 
 
 urcnous , 245) 
 
 Anthrax, A poplectie 251 
 
 CarlMincle 250 
 
 Mouth, cium, or Gloss. 251 
 
 Diseases of Swine (<y)nUnur<i). 
 
 Anthrax Diseases 241 
 
 Causes of .. 244 
 
 Detmers, Dr. H,.T., on. 24a 
 JS'anie preferable to Hop 
 
 Cholera 244 
 
 Paaren, Dr. N. H., on 273 
 
 Till" Contasjion of 246 
 
 Apoplectic Anthrax .251 
 
 Apoplexy 301 
 
 Rlad.ler-worm 293 
 
 HIind St^vU"2:i'>'6 299 
 
 Hull Nose 2?10 
 
 Hrain, Inllammation of .2",)0 
 
 Canker or Sore Mouth 306 
 
 Catarrh, Nasal 299 
 
 I'onstipation 304 
 
 Couuh .297 
 
 Crowd Poison 287 
 
 ( ^/sticrrfiis cdluUKOt 293 
 
 Diarrhoea 302 
 
 Epilepsy 290 
 
 Epi/.ooticlnfluenzftof Swine 
 iimore accurate Namethan 
 
 '•lloff Cholera" 254 
 
 Catarrhal - Kheunnitic 
 
 Form of 255 
 
 Causes of 265 
 
 Cerchro - 1\ h e n m a t i e 
 
 Formof 263 
 
 Dr. 11. ,1. Detmers on. 25:1 
 
 Duration of. 2(50 
 
 Castric - U li e u m a t i c 
 
 Form of 257 
 
 Lvmphatic - Kheumatic 
 
 'I'orm of 263 
 
 Prevention of 2(59 
 
 Treatment of 270 
 
 Erysipelas, (iangrenous 247 
 
 Kiistroii<ji/his (jiifiix ~!13 
 
 Eversion of Ucctum '.'0\ 
 
 (laniiicnous Erysipelas 247 
 
 Heaves 298 
 
 Iloir Cholera, So-called. 241-288 
 ' "A. M. W.," Odin, 111., 
 
 on 281 
 
 Anthrax Diseases pro- 
 posed 244 
 
 Bowles, John, on 280 
 
 Brisrsrs', Milton, Renie- 
 
 dVfor 286 
 
 Dr.'ll. J. Detmers on .243 
 Dr. 11. ,1. Dctmcr.s' Ke- 
 iH)rt to the Missouri 
 
 Hoard (. 2.'i3 
 
 Dr. N. 11. Paaren on .273 
 " Infallible Remedy," 
 from the Loidsville 
 Courier JounuU 285 
 
30S 
 
 SWINE HISBAXPRT. 
 
 Diseases of Swine (rontinufd). 
 Epizootic Influenza of 
 Swine proposed as the 
 
 Name .254 
 
 Kimberly. R.. »& Sons, 
 
 Treatment for -So 
 
 Loni;*s, J. S., Experi- 
 ence with 288 
 
 Moore's. A. C, Treat- 
 ment of 283 
 
 Name Incorrect 243 
 
 Js'csrlect of the Depart- 
 ment of AirricuUure-24'3 
 Prof. James Law on . ,278 
 Prof. J. B. Turner's Ucc- 
 
 ipe for - '282 
 
 " Smart- weed ' ' recom- 
 mended as a Preven- 
 tive '2S;5 
 
 Stetson. Ezra, on -87 
 
 The Extent of its Rav- 
 ages '241 
 
 The Missouri State 
 Board of Airriculture 
 
 investigates 253 
 
 Inflammation of Brain 299 
 
 Itch ill Swine '295 
 
 Kidney Worms 292 
 
 Lice on Swine '296 
 
 "Lights. Rising of" 297 
 
 Lungs. Inflammation of '297 
 
 Malignant Pustule 251 
 
 Manse of Swine '295 
 
 Measles 393-'2m 
 
 Na-al Catarrh 299 
 
 Paralysis of Loins oCl 
 
 Paraplegia 1^1 
 
 Pneumonia '297 
 
 Quinsy '21 8 
 
 " Rising of the Lights" '297 
 
 Kectuin. Turning out of -..304 
 
 Rheuniai ism . . ' ?(ft 
 
 St. Anthony's Fire "247 
 
 >«(l»^■(>/>/t■s *M»s 295 
 
 Scab m Swine "295 
 
 Sioiu^ 3(>2 
 
 Stagger* 399 
 
 Strangles '298 
 
 Tim Ui fioliwn '293 
 
 Taj'ie-worm 29;^ 
 
 Thumps in Swine '298 
 
 I'richiiiii sfnnilis a9(>-29"2 
 
 Trichiiniv<is 'JiU 
 
 White Bristle '25i) | 
 
 Wild-tiiv iM7 
 
 Worm, Bladder '29.i 
 
 Wonn. Taj>e . '2y-> 
 
 Worms 289 j 
 
 Worms, Ki<.lney 2iW • 
 
 Putrich, John G.. on Hog Chol- 
 era 2i^3 
 
 Ear Mutilation ; Ear-Marks. - iH 
 
 Essex 63-68 
 
 Characteristics and Mark- 
 ings tie 
 
 Chase. Pr., of Kansas, on. 65 
 
 Cottrdl. E. W.on 66 
 
 Crossed with Suffolk 83 
 
 Cross with Berkshire . . 84 
 Relative Merits, compared 
 V. ith Berkshires and Suf- 
 
 folks ...80-85 
 
 Sidney on 64 
 
 Smith. William, on 64 
 
 Experiments. Prof. Henry's 193-'206 
 
 Pix>f . Sanborn's 206 
 
 Fattening 118-127 
 
 Bv Hoeffinc; off Com Fields 165 
 
 Cooked Fixjd for 127- 140 
 
 Cooked Wheat for 165 
 
 ElTectsof Cold in 184 
 
 Exclusive Use of Com T21 
 
 Green Com for 120 
 
 New and Old Com for 120 
 
 New Endaud Method 125 
 
 On Raw' Cora 165-167 
 
 Pumpkins for 1'20 
 
 Salt and Condiments 124 
 
 The Risrht Asre for ...177 
 
 With Fattening Cattle 126 
 
 Feeding Flix>r . . 146 
 
 Feeding for Fat and Lean. . 19(^206 
 
 Feeding in Summer 108-118 
 
 Feed Cooker 137-140 
 
 Food. Artichokts as 113-1 !6 
 
 Chemical Comjx^ition of. 160 
 
 Comparative Value of 111 
 
 Ctxikina: 1J7-1-10 
 
 Feeding Valueof other Food 
 as CompartHl with Com . 161 
 
 Gi-ass and Clover for 196 
 
 Pasture and Summer Food 
 
 ^See Indian Cora). .108-118 
 Raw CiTu Fed in the Far lt"5 
 Steamed or Boiled Com Pfi 
 
 Value of Teas 112 
 
 Gestation. Period of 98-236 
 
 Grades with Common Stock 85 
 
 Grass and Clover. Value of. 180-181 
 Grav. Hon. Alfred, on Chester 
 
 W*hites 41 
 
 GiMwth. Reports of Remark- 
 able - '219 
 
 Hams. Coring and Smoking 154-155 
 Harris, Joseph, on Piarrhiva -;^ 
 Henry, Pr\>f , on CiK>king FikkI K* 
 
 llenl-BiK^k of Berkshires 45 
 
 Berkshire. Britist '234 
 
INDEX. 
 
 509 
 
 ITotr-Feedlne: and Pork Afakinsr 
 
 Jos. Sullivant on . . 1;V>-1S3 
 
 " Uoircinii olfConi Fields "J^t 
 lloirlfousosand IVns . l-llV-HU 
 lloir Produi-tj:, Aiuorican, Dls- 
 
 tiilmtioii of 1'2 
 
 Kxportod, Value 11 
 
 Export in ton Years 13 
 
 Woii Kiii'is, TouiTs aiul Tiirnei'S 213 
 lU>srs, Cost per Oue Huudi-ed 
 
 Pounds umss . . 14 
 
 Total !^uinber Packed 14 
 
 Weiiiht of I'aeked - Id 
 
 Holloway. Cephas, on Poland- 
 
 Chiuai- 23 
 
 Houses for Swine 14l)-14i) 
 
 Charles Snoads 144-140 
 
 For Breeding 141 
 
 Kansas 141-144 
 
 Lai-ge Objectionable 141 
 
 How Much Pork in a Bushel of 
 
 Corn* . IGl-HH) 
 
 Indian Corn and Pork, Relative 
 
 Prices 175-17(5. JO-J 
 
 Cost of Raising .1 r.?-175 
 
 £xperiuieuts ^iu Cooking 
 
 127-140 
 
 Fed in the Far lt>5-U57 
 
 Feeding New and Old 1.0 
 
 How Much Pork in a Bushel 
 
 of? 161 
 
 How Much Pork to an Acre 
 
 of? 175-170 
 
 Not to be Fed Eveliisively PJl 
 Other Articles of Food c\)ui- 
 
 pareil with UU 
 
 Steamed or Boiled 170 
 
 Jersey Reds 7l>-80 
 
 Chaiticteristicsof . 79 
 
 Jerusalem Artichokes . 112-116 
 Kimberly, K., it Sou, on Hog 
 
 Cholera 285 
 
 Lard - 156 
 
 F.xport of 11 
 
 Percent aire of 13 
 
 Lard Oil Exported in Eighteen 
 
 Years 12 
 
 Lawes. J. B., Experiments iu 
 
 Feeding 169 
 
 Law, Prof. James, on Hog Chol- 
 era --- 27S 
 
 On Int1amm:)tiou of Bi-aiu. .Sl^ 
 
 On Measles .293 
 
 Lelauil. Charles E., on Victorias 76 
 l.ontj. J S.. on Hog Cholera ..288 
 Maine Ag'l College, Fxperimeut 
 
 w ii h Cooked Food U)6 
 
 Maire— ^See Indian Corn). 
 Magie, D. M., on Poland-China VO 
 
 Marking TToffS 214 
 
 Meal, Feeding Cooked 171 
 
 Raw . ' nw 
 
 Medicines, Mode of Adminis- 
 
 tt^ing 2;«> 
 
 Messer, A., Report of Unusual 
 
 Crowth .219 
 
 Miles, Pixif. M,, Experiments in 
 
 Feedinsr 184 
 
 MiHikin,Tlon John M., on the 
 "Hosriiiuii- otV of Corn Fields 221 
 On the Value of the Hot^ 
 
 Product of the U.S. 14 
 
 Report on the Poland-Chinas ol 
 Millikiu, Stephen, on Poland and 
 
 Poland-Chiua . 31 
 
 Missouri State Boanl of Agri- 
 euUuro Investigation on Hosr 
 
 Cholera \ ^253 
 
 Mooi-e, A. C, on Feeding Theuj. 101 
 
 On Hos; Cholera 283 
 
 On Lice ... 261 
 
 (.)n Saving i'ouug Pitrs 99 
 
 On the Prevention of^oot- 
 
 in-r 213 
 
 On 'thumps or Heaves 298 
 
 ]^(nlford. Dr., on Diarrhiea 302 
 
 Neapolitans . .77-79 
 
 Characteristics and Mark- 
 
 iuiis of 7> 
 
 Phillips, Dr., on 78 
 
 Weld, Col. M.l'.. on 77 
 
 New Kiraland Method of Fat- 
 tening 125 
 
 Paaren," Dr. N. IL, on Hog Chol- 
 era ...273-277 
 
 On K iduey-Worms 300 
 
 On Lice S04 
 
 On Mansve 30,1 
 
 Pasture for ^wine 108-1 18 
 
 Hon. F. Baldwin on 116 
 
 Peas. ValiK' as Food . 113 
 
 Pens and Houses 140-149 
 
 Pens. Purtable 147 
 
 IMckle for Pork AM 
 
 Pi«- and Pork, Cost of 2^>1 
 
 Piggeries 141-1 44 
 
 l*ig-pens 147 
 
 Pigs, A. C. Moore on Raising . 101 
 
 Castrating Young , 102 
 
 Feeding Young ". . 101 
 
 Pivventinu: from being 
 
 Crushed 99 
 
 Spayiuu- Young Sows 103 
 
 Suumier Feediuu of 109 
 
 The Sow and her 95 
 
 To Pi-cveul Sow from Eat- 
 ing ...100. 214 
 
 Weaning 103-105 
 
310 
 
 SWINE HUSBANDRY. 
 
 Points, Diasji-am of 230 
 
 Si-alo oif - . .227 
 
 Poland-China 21-33 
 
 Characteristics of 27 
 
 C(ni vent ion of Swine Breed- 
 ers, lu'iHirt ou - . - 26 
 
 Ilolloway, Cephas, Account 
 
 of ...". 28 
 
 Weights of 33 
 
 Porii Products, Exportation of, 
 
 in 1872 16 
 
 Price of, as Related to that 
 
 of Indian Corn 222 
 
 Porlc. Cost of Raisinir -173 
 
 Curing in Brine. .154 
 
 Danirer of Eating Imper- 
 fectly Cooked - - .292 
 
 Dry salting 153 
 
 Export of 11 
 
 How Much in a Bushel of 
 
 Corn"? 177-iyO 
 
 How Much from an Acre of 
 
 Corn? 175-176 
 
 Is it Prolitable to Cure ? 217 
 
 Pickle for 154 
 
 Relation of Prices of, to 
 
 those of Corn .223 
 
 Portable Pig-pens 147 
 
 Prices of Pork and Corn, their 
 
 Relation 223 
 
 Prize Animals for Breeding 220 
 
 Pumpkins for Feeding I'^O 
 
 Quarrelsome and Fighting Hogs216 
 Record. American Berkshire.. .224 
 
 Chester White 226 
 
 Duroc-.Iersey 226 
 
 Poland-China 224 
 
 American 225 
 
 Central . 225 
 
 Northwestern 225 
 
 Standard 226 
 
 Records and Recording. 223 
 
 Relative Merits of SuJTolks, 
 
 Berkshire, and Essex St)-S5 
 
 Report of the Department of 
 Agriculture on Sows Eating 
 
 Pigs .215 
 
 Reports of HemarkahleOrn\vth-219 
 
 Ridgliug Hogs, To Castrate 107 
 
 Ringing Hogs 213 
 
 Rootiuff, its Prevention 213 
 
 Salt for Swine 12-t 
 
 Sanders, J. H.. on Cheshires... 74 
 
 Scaliiing, Apparatus for 151 
 
 Scale of Points for Judging 
 
 Swine .227 
 
 Shoulders, Curing and Smoking 
 
 154-155 
 
 Sidney ou Essex .^ 04 
 
 Sisson, H. M. & W. P., on Cook- 
 ing Food 129 
 
 Slaughtering, Curing, and Pre- 
 serving Pork ': 14'.l-ir.6 
 
 Small Yorkshires 61 
 
 Smith, William, on Essex 64 
 
 on SulVolks 59 
 
 Smokinir Meats 1 55 
 
 Snoad, Charles, House for Swine 
 
 144-14e 
 
 Sow, at Weaning 105 
 
 Condition of, for Breeding 216 
 Feed for, at FarrowiugTiuie '.00 
 
 Feeding while with Pig 98 
 
 How t o Choose 95 
 
 Pen for, and Nest 99 
 
 Period of Gestation in 98 
 
 Spaying 107 
 
 Time to Breed 96 
 
 To Prevent fiom Eating her 
 
 Pigs 99-100,214 
 
 When in Heat... 97 
 
 Spaying Sow-pigs 10;? 
 
 Sows r. 107 
 
 Stalker, :M. , on Cooked Food 1 34-1:^5 
 Stetson, Ezra, on Hog Cholera . 287 
 
 Sties t 141-147 
 
 iStock Jouriiaf, on Feeding Fluor 
 
 and Pen 146 
 
 Stock Yards Receipts .3;U 
 
 Stow, N. IL, ou Cooked Food. .131 
 
 Suffolks.... 54-61 
 
 Cross with Essex 83 
 
 Cliaracteristics and Mark- 
 ings of 61 
 
 RehUive ^lerits Compared 
 with Berkshire and Es- 
 sex 80-85 
 
 Report of Convention on . . 60 
 
 Smith. William, on 59 
 
 Went worth, Hon. J., on .. 56 
 Sullivaut, Joseiih, Essay on Hog 
 Feeding and I'ork Making 15(5-18:^ 
 
 Summer "Food .^ 108-1 18 
 
 Sweet Corn for Swine .120 
 
 Swine, I'lassifying and Judging 
 
 at Fairs ...■...' .227 
 
 Dist libutiou of World'sSup- 
 
 ply 16 
 
 Export of Live..- .- 11 
 
 Number of. Gradual Growth 
 
 in U. S. 10 
 
 Packed in Twelve Months. . 10 
 
 Quarrelsome 216 
 
 Scale of Pt)ints for Judging. 227 
 Their Value as Compared 
 
 with Cattle 15 
 
 The Numberof, intheU. S. 9 
 White, Disappeiuauc* of. . .207 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Turner, Prof. J. B., on Hog 
 
 Cholera .282-283 
 
 Victorias 76 
 
 Characteristics and Mark- 
 
 inpjs of 76 
 
 Leland, Charles E., on 70 
 
 Weaning Pigs. 103-105 
 
 Weights, Important Contrasts .201 
 Weld, Col. M. C, on Neapoli- 
 tans - 77 
 
 Weutworth, Hon. John, on Suf- 
 lolki 56 
 
 Wheat, Feeding Cooked 221 
 
 Wilkinson, Prof., on Cooking 
 
 Food 131 
 
 Williams, A. C, on Artichokes. 112 
 Wood, Thomas, on Chester 
 
 Whites 34 
 
 on Cooked Food 130 
 
 on the Profit of Curing Pork 21 7 
 
 Yorkshires 69-73 
 
 Report of National Conven- 
 tion on 69 
 
 Small 61 
 
STANDARD BOOKS 
 
 PUBLISHED BY 
 
 ORANGE JUDD COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK CHICAGO 
 
 Ashland Building People's Gas Building 
 
 315-321 Fourth Avenue ISO Michigan Avenue 
 
 An}f of these booJis rvill be sent b\f mail, postpaid, to 
 an}f part of the jvorld, on receipt of catalog price. We are 
 alnfaifs happy) to correspond with our patrons, and cordially 
 invite them to address us on an]) matter pertaining to rural 
 books. Send for our large illustrated catalog, free on app/i- 
 cation. 
 
 First Principles of Soil Fertility 
 
 By Alfred Vivian. There is no subject of more vital 
 importance to the farmer than that of the best method 
 of maintaining the fertility of the soil. The very evident 
 decrease in the fertility of those soils which have been 
 under cultivation for a number of years, combined with 
 the increased competition and the advanced price of labor, 
 have convinced the intelligent farmer that the agriculture 
 of the future must be based upon more rational practices 
 than those which have been followed in the past. We 
 have felt for some time that there was a place for a 
 brief, and at the same time comprehensive, treatise on 
 this important subject of Soil Fertility. Professor Vivian's 
 experience as a teacher in the short winter courses has 
 admirably fitted him to present this matter in a popular 
 style. In this little book he has given the gist of the 
 subject in plain language, practically devoid of technical 
 and scientific terms. It is pre-eminently a "First Book," 
 and will be found especially valuable to those who desire 
 an introduction to the subject, and who intend to do subse- 
 quent reading. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 265 pages. Cloth. 
 
 Net, $1.00 
 
 The Study of Corn 
 
 By Prof. V. M. Shoesmith. A most helpful book to all 
 farmers and students interested in the selection and im- 
 provement of corn. It is profusely illustrated from photo- 
 graphs, all of which carry their own story and contribute 
 their part in making pictures and text matter a clear, con- 
 cise and interesting study of corn. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 
 100 pages. Cloth- .•_--.■-..•. Net, $0.50 
 
 ax 
 
The Management and Feeding of Cattle 
 
 By Prof. Thomas Shaw. The place for this book will 
 be at once apparent when it is stated that it is tlie first 
 book that has ever been written which discusses the man- 
 agement and feeding of cattle, from the birth of the calf 
 until it has fulfilled its mission in life, whether on the 
 block or at the pail. The book is handsomely printed on 
 fine paper, from large, clear type. Fully illustrated. SJjxS 
 inches. 496 pages. Cloth. Net, $2.00 
 
 The Farmer's Veterinarian 
 
 By CuARLFS William Burkett. This book abounds in 
 helpful suggestions and valuable information for the most 
 successful treatment of ills and accidents, and disease 
 troubles. A practical treatise on the diseases of farm 
 stock; containing brief and popular advice on the nature, 
 cause and treatment of disease, the common ailments and 
 the care and management of stock when sick. It is 
 profusely illustrated, containing a number of halftone 
 illustrations, and a great manj- drawings picturing diseases, 
 their symptoms and familiar attitudes assumed by farm 
 animals when affected with disease, and presents, for the 
 first time, a plain, practical and satisfactory guide for 
 farmers who are interested in the common diseases of the 
 farm. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 288 pages. Cloth. Net, $1.50. 
 
 First Lessons in Dairying 
 
 By Hl'bert E. Van Norman. This splendid little book 
 has been written from a practical point of view, to fill 
 a place in dairy literature long needed. It is designed 
 primarily as a practical guide to successful dairying, an 
 elementary text-book for colleges and for use especially 
 in short-course classes. It embodies underlying principle! 
 involved in the handling of milk, delivery to factory, ship- 
 ping station, and the manufacture of butter on the farm. 
 It is written in a simple, popular way, being free from tech- 
 nical terms, and is easily understood by the average farm 
 boy. The book is just the thing for the every-day dairy- 
 man, and should be in the hands of every farmer in the 
 country. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 100 pages. Cloth. Net, $0.50. 
 
 A Dairy Laboratory Guide 
 
 By H. E. Ross. While the book is intended primarily 
 for use in the laboratory, it should be of value to the 
 practical dairyman. The time has come when the suc- 
 cessful dairyman must study his business from a purely 
 scientific point of view, and in this book the scientific 
 principles, upon which dairy industry is based, are stated 
 clearly and simply, and wherever it is possible, these prin- 
 ciples are illustrated by practical problems and examples. 
 90 pages. 5\7 inches Cloth Net, $0.50 
 
 C2) 
 
Profitable Stock Raising 
 
 By Clarence A. Shamel. This book covers fully the 
 principles of breeding and feeding for both fat stock and 
 dairying type. It tells of sheep und mutton raising, hot 
 house lambs, the swine industry and the horse market. 
 Finally, he tells of the preparation of stock for the market 
 and how to prepare it so that it will bring a high market 
 price. Live stock is the most important feature of farm 
 life, and statistics show a production far short of the 
 actual requirements. There are many problems to be 
 faced in the profitable production of stock, and these are 
 fully and comprehensively covered in Mr. Shamel's new 
 book. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 288 pages. Cloth. 
 
 Net, $1.50 
 
 The Business of Dairying 
 
 By C. B. Lane. The author of this practical little book 
 is to be congratulated on the successful manner in which 
 he has treated so important a subject. It has been pre- 
 pared for the use of dairy students, producers and handlers 
 of milk, and all who make dairying a business. Its pur- 
 pose is to present in a clear and concise manner various 
 business methods and sj'stems which will help the dairy- 
 man to reap greater profits. This book meets the needs 
 of the average dairy farmer, and if carefully followed will 
 lead to successful dairying. It may also be used as an 
 elementary textbook for colleges, and especially in short- 
 course classes. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 300 pages. Cloth. 
 
 Net, $1.25 
 
 Questions and Answws on Buttermaking 
 
 By Chas a. Publow. This book is entirely different 
 from the usual type of dairy books, and is undoubtedly in 
 a class by itself. The entire subject of butter-making in 
 all its branches has been most thoroughly treated, and 
 many new and important features have been added. The 
 tests for moisture, salt and acid have received special 
 attention, as have also the questions on cream separa- 
 tion, pasteurization, commercial starters, cream ripening^ 
 cream overrun, marketing of butter, and creamery man- 
 agement. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 100 pages. Cloth, 
 
 Net, $0.50 
 
 Questions and Answers on Milk and Milk Testing 
 
 By Chas. A. Publow, and Hugh C. Troy. A book that 
 no student in the dairy industry can afford to be without. 
 No other treatise of its kind is available, and no book of 
 its size gives so much practical and useful information in 
 the study of milk and milk products. Illustrated. 5x7 
 inches. 100 pages. Cloth Net, $0.50 
 
 <3) 
 
Soils 
 
 By Charles William Burkett, Director Kansas Agri- 
 cultural Experiment Station. The most complete and 
 popular work of the kind ever published. As a rule, a 
 book of this sort is dry and uninteresting, but in this case 
 it reads like a novel. The author has put into it his in- 
 dividuality. The story of the properties of the soils, their 
 improvement and management, as well as a discussion of 
 the problems of crop growing and crop feeding, make this 
 book equally valuable to the farmer, student and teacher. 
 Illustrated. 303 pages. 5i/2x8 inches. Cloth. . Net, $1.25 
 
 Weeds of the Farm Garden 
 
 By L. H. Pammel. The enormous losses, amounting 
 to several hundred million dollars annually in the United 
 States, caused by weeds stimulate us to adopt a better 
 system of agriculture. The weed question is, therefore 
 a most important and vital one for American farmeri 
 This treatise will enable the farmer to treat his field to 
 remove weeds. The book is profusely illustrated by photo- 
 graphs and drawings made expressly for this work, and 
 will prove invaluable to every farmer, land owner, gar- 
 dener and park superintendent. 5x7 inches. 300 pages. 
 Cloth Net, $1.50 
 
 Farm Machinery and Farm Motors 
 
 By J. B. Davidson and L. W. Chase. Farm Machinery 
 and Farm Motors is the first American book published 
 on the subject of Farm Machinery since that written by 
 J. J. Thomas in 1867. This was before the development 
 of many of the more important farm machines, and the 
 general application of power to the work of the farm. 
 Modern farm machinery is indispensable in present-day 
 farming operations, and a practical book like Farm Ma- 
 chinery and Farm Motors will fill a much-felt need. The 
 book has been written from lectures used by the authors 
 before their classes for several years, and which were pre- 
 pared from practical experience and a thorough review of 
 the literature pertaining to the subject. Although written 
 /primarily as a text-book, it is equally useful for the prac- 
 tical farmer. Profusely illustrated. SJ^xS inches. 520 
 pages. Cloth Net, $2.00 
 
 The Book of Wheat 
 
 By P. T. DoNDLiNGER. This book comprises a complete 
 study of everything pertaining to wheat. It is the work 
 of a student of economic as well as agricultural condi- 
 tions, well fitted by the broad experience in both practical 
 and theoretical lines to tell the whole story in a condensed 
 form. It is designed for the farmer, the teacher, and the 
 student as well. Illustrated. S>^x8 inches. 370 pages. 
 Cloth. ... ...... Net, $2.00 
 
 i4) 
 
The Cereals in America 
 
 By Thomas F. Hunt, M.S., D.Agri., Professor of Agroti' 
 omy, Cornell University. If you raise five acres of any kind 
 of grain you cannot afford to be without this book. It is in 
 ©very way the best book on the subject that has ever been 
 written. It treats of the cultivation and improvement of every 
 grain crop raised in America in a thoroughly practical and 
 accurate manner. The subject-matter includes a comprehen- 
 sive and succinct treatise of wheat, maize, oats, barley, rye, 
 rice, sorghum (kafir corn) and buckwheat, as related particu- 
 larly to American conditions. First-hand knowledge has been 
 the policy of the author in his work, and every crop treated is 
 presented in the light of individual study of the plant. If you 
 have this book you have the latest and best that has been 
 written. upon the subject. Illustrated. 450 pages. 5J^x8 
 inches. Cloth $1-75 
 
 The Forage and Fiber Crops in America 
 
 By Thomas F. Hunt. This book is exactly what its title 
 indicates. It is indispensable to the farmer, student and 
 teacher who wishes all the latest and most important informa- 
 tion on the subject of forage and fiber crops. Like its famous 
 companion, "The Cereals in America," by the same author, it 
 treats of the cultivation and improvement of every one of the 
 forage and fiber crops. With this book in hand, you have 
 the latest and most up-to-date information available. Illus- 
 trated. 428 pages. 53^x8 inches. Cloth $1-75 
 
 The Book of Alfalfa 
 
 History, Cultivation and Merits. Its Uses as a Forage 
 and Fertilizer. The appearance of the Hon. F. D. Coburn's 
 little book on Alfalfa a few years ago has been a profit revela- 
 tion to thousands of farmers throughout the country, and the 
 increasing demand for still more information on the subject 
 has induced the author to prepare the present volume, which 
 is by far the most authoritative, complete and valuable work 
 on this forage crop published anywhere. It is printed on fine 
 paper and illustrated with many full-page photographs that 
 were taken with the especial view of their relation to the text. 
 '336 pages. 6/^ x 9 inches. Bound in cloth, with gold stamp- 
 ing. It is unquestionably the handsomest agricultural refer- 
 ence book that has ever been issued. Price, postpaid, . $2.00 
 
 Clean Milk 
 
 By S. D. Belcher, M.D. In this book the author sets forth 
 practical methods for the exclusion of bacteria from milk, 
 and how to prevent contamination of milk from the stable 
 to the consumer. Illustrated. 5x7 inches. 146 pages. 
 Cloth ,...;.,.. $1.00 
 
 . - (5) 
 
Bean Culture 
 
 By Glenn C. Sevey, B.S. A practical treatise on the pro« 
 duction and marketing of beans. It includes the manner ol 
 growth, soils and fertilizers adapted, best varieties, seed selec- 
 tion and breeding, planting, harvesting, insects and fungous 
 pests, composition and feeding value ; with a special chapter 
 on markets by Albert W. Fulton. A practical book for the 
 grower and student alike. Illustrated. 144 pages. 5x7 
 inches. Cloth $0.50 
 
 Celery Culture 
 
 By W. R. Beattie. A practical guide for beginners and a 
 standard reference of great interest to persons already en- 
 gaged in celery growing. It contains many illustrations giving 
 a clear conception of the practical side of celery culture. The 
 work is complete in every detail, from sowing a few seeds in 
 a window-box in the house for early plants, to the handling 
 and marketing of celery in carload lots. Fully illustrated. 
 150 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth $0.50 
 
 Tomato Culture 
 
 By Will W. Tracy. The author has rounded up in this 
 book the most copiplete account of tomato culture in all its 
 phases that has ever been gotten togetiicr. It is no seconf"*- 
 hand work of reference, but a complete story of the practice 
 experiences of the best-posted expert on tomatoes in the 
 world. No gardener or farmer can afford to be without the 
 book. Whether grown for home use or commercial purposes, 
 the reader has here suggestions and information nowhere else 
 available. Illustrated. 150 pages. 5 x 7 inches. Cloth. $0.50 
 
 The Potato 
 
 By Samuel Fraser. This book is destined to rank as a 
 standard work upon Potato Culture. While the practical side 
 has been emphasized, the scientific part has not been neglected, 
 and the information given is of value, both to the growej and 
 to the student. Taken all in all, it is the most complete, reliable 
 and authoritative book on the potato ever published in Amer- 
 ica. Illustrated. 200 pages. 5x7 inches. Cloth. . . $0.75 
 
 Dwarf Fruit Trees 
 
 By F. A. Waugh. This interesting book describes in detail 
 the several varieties of dwarf fruit trees, their propagation, 
 planting, pruning, care and general management. Where 
 there is a limited amount of ground to be devoted to orchard 
 purposes, and where quick results are desired, this book will 
 meet with a warm welcome. Illustrated. 112 pages. 5x7 
 inches. Cloth $0.50 
 
 (6) 
 
.^' 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 % 
 
 ■^-^Pv^ 
 
 .0 o 
 
 > 
 
 
 
 
 
 a"* ^ 
 
 ■X^^'"^^.- 
 
 : \^ ■''^- 
 
 ,\^^^ 
 
 -'<-' 
 
 
 .^^ '''t 
 
 "< 
 
 <- ^-r-. 
 
 
 , V 1 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 ^"^^^^,^% -^^^ 
 
 ^cl_ 
 
 ^^^ / 
 
 ^°^. 
 
 \ 
 
 
 
 ^,0^ 
 ,0*^ .-^" 
 
 ■<r <i 
 
 o » >. 
 
 
 
 
 0^ 
 
 
 '<?■ 
 
 
 
 // > 
 
 A"* 
 
 o'^ 
 
 
 .^^ 
 
 aV 
 
 
 ■'^■. 
 
 
 
 4" 
 
 o5 '^ci-, - %. 
 
 nO<=^. 
 
 ■^ ;<• 
 
 A-J^'- 
 
 \' 
 
 
 -y 
 
 
^ o « ^ r* 
 
 
 
 \ 1 « 
 
 
 
 
 -0 
 
 
 
 >^ %, 
 
 
 * .'\ 
 
 ^^^ v^' 
 
 X ' J 
 
 
 
 
 
 -\-<- 
 
 '■'■\% 
 
 x^^^. 
 
 
 
 ^c^. 
 
 
 .0-' 
 
 .•V 
 
 •V 
 
 ".^^s^-/- 
 
 ^, 
 
 -*,/-'- 
 
 
 %-; 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 , \ 1 B 
 
 
 '•^.^ 
 
 
 
 c> 
 
 
 
 
 
 "p. 
 
 
 ... -. Nv s««, ^-. *"^° r 
 
 -4 . '-^ 
 
 ^A « ' "* V s ' ' / ' - 
 
 A- - .1 . " -p 
 
 
 .'^ 
 
 
 '. ■>, /^ 
 
 .-^