Glass t^ c^ \ \ — Book- -Wetf?! JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY STUDIES -Al IK Historical and Political Science HERBERT B. ADAMS, Editor •; \:\ */H> History is past Politics and Politics present 'SS&'mip^'^ee'm.Q^^^^je^f-^ TENTH SE :^IE*^|7V:)^t;uv XII CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION By JAMES A. WOODBURN, Ph. D. Professor of A mericwi History, Indiana University baltimore The Johns Hopkins Press PUBLISHED MONTHLY DECE3IBER, 1893 PRICE FIFTY CENTS JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY STUDIES IX Historical and Political Science. PUBLISHED MONTHLY. Herbert B. Adams, Editor. Neither the University nor the Editor assumes responsibility for the views of contributors. FIRST SERIES.— Local Institutions.— 1883.— $4-00. I. An Introduction to American Institutional History. By Edward A. Freeman. 25 cents. II. The Germanic Origin of New England Towns. By H. B. Adams. 50 cents. III. Local Government in Illinois. By Albert Shaw. — Local Govern- ment in Pennsylvania. By E. E. L. Gould. 30 cents. IV. Saxon Tithingmen in America. By H. B. Adams. 50 cents. V. Local Government in Michigan, and the Northwest. By E. W. BEjns. 25 cents. VI. Parish Institutions of Maryland. By Edward Ingle. 40 cents. VII. Old Maryland Manors. By John Hemsley Johnson. SO cents. VIII. Norman Constables in America. By H. B. Adams. 50 cents. IX-X. Village Communities of Cape Ann and Salem. By H. B. Adams. 50 cents. XI. The Genesis of a New England State (Connecticut). By Alexan- der Johnston. 30 cents. XII. Local Government and Free Schools in South Carolina. By B. J. RAMAC4E. 40 cents. SECOND SERIES.— Institutions and Economics.— 1884. —$4.00. I-II. Methods of Historical Study. By H. B. Adams. 50 cents. III. The Past and the Present of Political Economy. By R. T. Ely. 35 cents. IV. Samuel Adams, The Man of the Town Meeting. By James K. IIos- MER. 35 cents. V-VI. Taxation in the United States. By Henry Carter Adams. 50 cents. VII. Institutional Beginnings in a Western State. By Jesse Macy. 25 cents. VIII-IX. Indian Money as a Factor in New England Civilization. By William B. Weeden. 50 cents. X. Town and County Government in the English Colonies of North America. By Edward Channing. 50 cents. XI. Rudimentary Society among Boys. By J. Hemsley Johnson. 50 cmfe. XII. Land Laws of Mining Districts. By C. H. Shinn. 50 cejite. THIRD SERIES.— Maryland, Virginia and Washington.— 1885.— ^4.00. I. Maryland's Influence upon Land Cessions to the United States. George Wasliington's Interest in Western Lands, the Potomac Company, and a National University. By H. B. Adams. 75 cents. II-III. Virginia Local Institutions: — The Land System; Hundred; Parish; County; Town. By E. Ingle. 75 cents. IV. Recent American Socialism. By Richard T. Ely. 50 cents. V-VI-VII. Maryland Local Institutions :— The Land System; Hun- dred; County; Town. By Lewis W. Wilhelm. $1.00. VIII. The Influence of the Proprietors in Founding the State of New Jersey. By Austin Scott. 25 cents. IX-X. American Constitutions; The Relations of the Three Depart- ments as Adjusted by a Century. By Horace Davis. 50 cents. XI-XII. The City of Washington. By J. A. Porter. 50 cents. {Continued on third page 0/ cover.) XII CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLOTION i ^ JOHNS HOPKINS DNIVERSITY STUDIES IN Historical and Political Science HERBERT B. ADAMS, Editor History is past Politics aud Politics present History — Freenuin TENTH SERIES XII CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION By JAMES A. WOODBURN, Ph. D. Pru/'essur of Amcrimn History, Indiana University baltimore The Johns Hopkins Press DECE.nHKK, 1893 Copyright, 1892, by the Johns Hopkins Press. JOHN MURPHY & CO., PRINTERS, BALTIMORE. THE CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.' " When in the course of human events it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires- that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation." — Declaration of Independence. It is the purpose of this monograph to review the final and efficient causes leading to the American Revolution, involving an inquiry into the leading features of the controversy between Great Britain and her American colonies which led to the independence of the United States. The separation of the English colonies in America from all allegiance to the British Crowli was an event of the highest moment in human history. The dissolution of all political connection between those colonies and the State of Great Britain not only recorded the rise of a new nation among the nations of the world, but it marked also the dismemberment of the British Empire and thus put an end forever to the political unity of the English race. It was this event which Lord Brougham called " the most important in the history of the human species." ^ " By that revolution," says Green, " the Eno;li.sh nation was divided. It was still one race but two ^ This historical study is a University Extension lecture elaborated. — Ed, ^Political Philosophy, Vol. Ill, p. 329, cited by Frothingham. 5 6 The Causes of the American Revolution. [558 nations, an instance where to divide was to mnltiply and with that event Anglo-Saxon civilization entered upon the conquest of the world." ^ This great movement marked the beginning of colonial revolts which continued until all the American de- pendencies of European monarchies had become independent republics ; it changed the whole theory of the relation of colonies throughout the world to the mother country ;^ and it was the beginning of the first realization in history of the federal republic on an imperial scale, — a polity which presents a combination of local self-government and centralized power unprecedented in the records of political experience. The causes of revolutions, of such momentous changes, are far-reaching, as far-reaching as the history of nations. When Mr. Greely began to write the history of "The American Conflict " — meaning the Civil War between the States, from 1861 to 1865 — he began with the settlement of the country at Plymouth and Jamestown, and he deemed it important to trace the beginnings of nationality and unicm in the struggles of the Continental Congress. Mr. McCarthy in his late his- tory of the French Revolution quotes Lord Beaconsfield as saying that there have been " only two events in history, the siege of Troy and the French Revolution." The Tory Pre- mier meant, it is supposed, that all events of ancient history were the outcome of one of these, and all events of modern history were someway connected with the other. The para- doxical phrase is used to remind us that if we " trace any single event back step by step," as Mr. McCarthy says, " we will find the event of yesterday intimately and indissolubiy connected with the creation of the world." To find a starting point for the cause of a great historical movement is, more or less, an arbitrary matter. We fix the starting point for the study of the American Revolution at 1763. Here we find a turning point not only ' Green's History of the English People, Vol. IV. 'Ludlow's War of American Independence, p. 2. 559] The Causes of the American Revolution. 7 in the history of America, but iu the history of the world. That memorable year is the natural eminence on which the historical student may find a point of view for looking back- ward over a century of conflict for empire in America and for looking forward over the development from dependent colo- nies of an independent republic of federated States. One great movement is closed, another begins. The year 1763 marks the close of the Seven Years War, the first of the great European Wars which found its causes in America. Some appreciation of the causes and outcome of that great war, of the great changes which it wrought in the map of the world and in the political relations of the nations of Europe, is essential to an understanding of the revolution whicli it presaged and introduced. The war marked the close of the great struggle between England and France for terri- tory in America. That long struggle was a part of another Hundred Years War between those two great nations. From the accession of William III, 1689, until Wellington sheathed his sword at Waterloo in 1815, in that period of a century and a quarter, England and France were continuously at war for sixty-four years.^ For those great wars there were three dis- tinct causes: 1. At the beginning of the period — following 1700 — England went to war to vindicate her revolution, to secure the maintenance of her ancient constitution and to resist the efforts of France to upset the balance of power in Europe. The Bourbons were seeking the Spanish throne. 2. At the end of the period — just before and following 1800 — the French revolutionary influences and the ambition of Napoleon provoked the great European wars of that age. 3. But in the long interval between these historic contests the abiding cause for that century of war was the fact that France and England were rivals in the struggle for dominion beyond Europe, and especially in America. ^ Caldecott, English Colonization and Empire, p. 34. University Extension Manuals. 8 The Causes of the American Revolution. [560 At the close of the 17th century France was at the summit of her power. She was inheriting the colonial kingdoms pre- pared for her in the age of Colbert, the great Colonizer of France. When we look to the advancement of political power, to the enlargement and glory of the state, the name of Colbert is easily first of his age in France, though his was an age and France was a land remarkable for their great array of great names. No other minister in Europe than Colbert ever made colonization so distinctively a part of his policy; no other ever evolved colonizing plans so sagacious and far-sighted. He increased the navy of France within twenty years from 30 to 176 ships; he saved from waste and corruption sixty millions of the nation's revenue. Colbert was the great organizer of peace for France, as Louvois was her great organizer of war.^ By 1690, through Colbert's influence, the French, besides their well grounded hope of Empire in India and their power in Cayenne and the West Indies, had, in North America, Canada, Acadia, Cape Breton Island, the Fishing Banks of New Foundland, the mouth of the Mississippi and inland Louisiana. France held North America by its two rivers, the Mississippi and the St. Lawrence.^ Such another age, another Colbert and another La Salle instead of the shame- ful and imbecile regime of Louis XV, and how changed might have been the history of the Western world. But ministerial government and great men were to arise upon the other side of the Channel. The humiliating age of Louis XV, in France, was also the age of Walpole and Pitt in England. When Pitt came to power in 1757, the fact moved Frederick the Great to say that " England had at last brought forth a man." It was the genius of Pitt that sustained the English colonies in America during the Seven Years War, and won for Eng- land the treaty of Paris in 1763 with its tremendous results. This was the most important Treaty in its effects upon the state life of Europe since that at Westphalia, which established ' Duruy's History of France, p. 425. * Duruy, History of France. 561] The Causes of the American Revolution. 9 the balance of power among modern nations. It marks an epoch in universal history. Three of the many victories of the War which it closed are said to have "determined for ages to come the destinies of mankind." ^ At Rossbach, in the victory of Frederick the Great, began the recreation of Germany and the long process of German unity under the leadership of Prussia. At Plassy, in the victory of Clive, the influence of Europe upon the nations of the East was brought to bear more power- fully than since the days of Alexander the Great. At Quebec, in the victory of Wolfe, began the history of the United States. Thus we are led to observe the different distinct results of the war as seen upon the four leading nations of Europe : Austria was humbled. She was compelled to accept a rival in the affairs of the German States. Tiie scene opened which closed at Sadowa and Sedan in 1866 and 1871. Prussia was advanced. In this struggle it was the office of Frederick the Great, to place in the front rank of nations the power which had first been welded into an effective force, if not created out of hand, by the Great Elector. The Hohen- zollerns became the equal rivals of the Hapsburgs and Ger- man unity began under Protestant hegemony. France was humiliated. In the Seven Years War and by the terms of the Treaty which closed it, France had lost her merchant and military marine, her hopes of Empire in India had departed, she surrendered Canada to England and Louis- iana to Spain, and retired from tiie Contijient of North America. " Dupleix and Montcalm had aimed at building up an Empire," says Green, " which would have lifted France high above her European rivals. The ruin of these hopes in the Seven Years War was the bitterest humiliation to which French ambition had ever bowed." ' Green's Hist, of the Eng. People, Vol. IV. 10 The Causes of the American Revolution. [562 England is exalted. She wins for the first time her world empire. For the first time in her national history the " drum beat of the English reveille followed the sun in his course around the world ;" for the first time the sun never set upon English dominions. The war gave to England, India, America, and the Sea. Frederick II said : " The war began over a few miserable huts ; by it England gained 2000 leagues of territory and humanity lost a million of men," But it is especially important for our purpose to observe the effect of the Treaty on territorial re-adjustment in America. As to English America the War may be said to have brought her into being. Before the War the fringe of English col- onies on the coast was like the string to a bow. The French were asserting their claims to the great inland arc. Before the War the imperial domain of France reached from the Gulf to the Arctic, from the Alleghanies to the Rockies. By the tei-ms of this great Treaty, Canada was ceded by France to England. Louisiana was ceded by France to Spain, Florida was ceded by Spain to England. In two cases France lost; in two cases England won, and there had occurred one of the greatest concessions of territory in the history of M^ar and diplomacy. The great re-adjust- ment seems to justify the remark of Dr. W. F. Poole that the Treaty of 1763 marks perhaps the most important epoch in the political and social history of North America.^ As to the immediate effect of the Treaty on the colonies, we see that France had departed from their north side and Spain had departed from their south side. The colonists were no longer between the upper and the nether millstone. " America was English " 2 says Lecky. Thus the Seven Years War furnished the opportunity and prepared the way for the American Rev- olution, The War at once closed one g-reat movement and ^ Winsor's Narrative and Critical Hist., Vol. VI, p. 685. ^History of England in the 18th Century, Vol. Ill, ch. on America. 563] The Causes of the American Revolution. 11 made straight the path of another. In consigned America to English civilization ; it laid the foundation for an independent sovereignty in America. " By removing an enemy," says Green, "■ whose dread had knit the colonists to the Mother country, and by breaking through the line with which France had barred them from the basin of the Mississippi, Pitt laid the foundation of the great republic of the West." The War and its results had prepared the colonies for the Revolution and for independence by the martial training which it afforded, by revealing to them the necessity of union, by releasing them from the dread of the French and by thus breaking their feelings of dependence. It also opened to their minds the possibility of a westward movement. The subsequent attempt of the Eno;lish Board of Trade to confine the western extent of settlement to such a short distance from the sea as would be convenient for English commerce, thus restraining the natural interior expansion of the colonies, was one of the in- cidental causes of irritation and separation.^ \/ Before entering upon the merits of the controversy by which the separation of the colonies from the Mother coun- try occurred let us notice, in connection with the results of the Seven Years War, that independence and separation were not an unexpected political event. The language of Choiseul, the French minister, after the Treaty of 1763, is familiar. Speaking of the relation of the colonies to England, he said, "They stand no longer in need of her protection. She will call on them to contribute towards the burdens which they have helped to bring on her, and they will answer by throw- ing off all dependence." Higginson says this observation was probably an after thought upon the part of Choiseul ; it was not uttered until ten years after the Treaty." But Choiseul 'See Proclamation of George III, October 7, 1763, and Report of Lord Commissioners for Trade and Plantations, 1772. Winsor's Narrative and Cintical History, Vol. VI, p. 687. * Higginson's History of the United Stales. 12 The Causes of the American Revolution. [564 was not alone in his predictions of independence. Kahn, a Swedish traveller, said as early as 1748 : " The presence of the French in Canada, making the English colonists depend for security on the mother country is the main cause of the sub- mission of the colonies," Montesquieu the French political philosopher said, as early as 1730, in speaking of the restric- tive measures of the English commercial code, "England will be the first nation abandoned by her colonies." Turgot, the great statesman and economist of France had also remarked, that the colonies were like fruit, " When they are ripe they will drop from the stem. When the colonists are ready they will do as Carthage did, set up for themselves." It has been supposed, therefore, from the point of view of these expressions, that it was the manifest destiny of the col- onies, when the fulness of time had come, to become an inde- pendent nation ; though there had been no overt causes to precipitate the change, the natural and assured development of the colonies in the course of human events would have been sufficient. Of that we do not know. The patriotic loyalty to the Empire at present observed among the English dependencies throughout the world ; what history tells us of the devotion to the mother country among the American colonies before our revolution; the present commercial policy of England and the liberal administration of her colonial aifairs to-day — these do not indicate that the dismemberment of 1776 would have occurred in any usual order of events. It is expected of the historical student of this period, and it is the next purpose of this essay, to consider the direct and immediate causes of the revolution, those peculiar to the time and situation of the colonies, which account for the separation. Incidental to this study it is important to understand the fundamental idea in the modern colony. Colony is an ambiguous term. " The Phoenician Colonies," says Prof. Goldwin Smith, " were factories ; the Roman colonies were garrisons, the Spanish colonies were gold mines worked by slaves ; and the Greek cities founded new cities but the 565] The Causes of the American Revolution. 13 counterparts of themselves." ^ Professor Seeley in his valuable book '^ The Expansion of England " has called attention very pertinently to the distinct ideas or the basis of colonies among three great historic colonizing nations, the Greeks, the Romans and the English.^ The Greek idea in the first place was that a colony was a commonwealth. To the Greek the state — the 'polis, the city state — was essentially small. It could grow territorially only by the formation of new states. Therefore to form a new colony was to form a new state. The colony might be attached to the mother-stem, might be allied with it, might have affection for it, but did not belong to it and was not controlled by it. Corcyra was a colony and Corinth was a mother city, but Corcyra was one state and Corinth was another. The tie between them was only a sentimental one. To assert control over a colony, as Athens did over certain colonies in the Delian Confederacy, was to destroy autonomy and to be guilty of tyranny and usurpation. It was this extreme tendency toward state sovereignty in the city which prevented the discovery to the Greek of the modern American principle of the Federal Republic. As Prof. Seeley has rep- resented it, these Greek colonies wore like grown up children who have married and settled in another homestead. A new Greek colony brought the world a new Greek State. Contrast with this the Roman idea of a colony. In the Roman conception — a conception which prevailed during me- diaeval times — the colony was a province to be ruled. It was an investment for the sake of gain ; it was a piece of property to be worked for the benefit of the investor. The theory subordinated the privileges and interests of the colonists to those of the mother country. The colony is to be held and administered for what can be made out of it ; its land is to be tilled, or developed, or colonized, or sold, or taxed, or drained of its wealth, as the interest of the home state mav Lectures on the Study of Hidory, p. 185. ' Seeley's Expansion of England, ch. on the "Old Colonial System." 14 The Causes of the American Revolution. [566 dictate. This ooiiditicni the colonists would endure only because they could not cure. Compare with these conceptions the modern or English idea of a colony, which is merely an extension of the mother state; it is the state enlarged. It is a recognized part of the original body politic. It is a part of a common empire and its people enjoy all the rights, ])rivileges, immunities, and liberties per- taining thereto. This has been the happy condition of all English colonies since the American Revclution, — since but not before. Now, it is to be remembered in this connection, that while the American colonists enjoyed all the rights, privileges, im- munities and liberties of Englishmen, while they were treated as a mere extension of the mother state, while the true modern English theory of the colony was a[)plied to them, they were loyal subjects of the Crown. But to the degree that they were treated as a province to be ruled externally, as a piece of property to be worked for investors, in as far as the Roman or mediffival theory of the colonies was applied to them, to that degree they tended to separation. To see the truth of this, and its application to the state of the colonies, it is only necessary to consider a few facts which are usually and very properly regarded as indirect causes of the war. 1. The attempts of the royal governors at arbitrary rule in America and the contest and irritation arising over the ques- tion of the royal prerogative. 2. The commercial restrictions by the English Navigation Acts and Laws of Trade, together with their effects upon colonial interests. It is considered that the contest over the prerogative of the royal governors in America and the attempts of these gov- ernors, on occasions, to exercise arbitrary rule, were long standing and efficient causes of the alienation of the colonies from the mother country. The policy of arbitrary govern- ment and enlarged prerogative sprang from the purpose of making the colonies serviceable to England. This, in the 567] The Causes of the American Revolution. 15 mind of the Englishman, was the only pnrpose for which the colonies existed.' But this service from the colonies was to be secured in disregard of the interests of the colonies. Notice as illustrative evidence of this the government of Andros in New England. In 1685, Andros came to America with the intention of depriving certain colonies of their charters ; he came to consolidate New England, not for the benefit of New England, but directly in opposition to her desires, and rather for the benefit of Old England, that the colonies might more easily be governed and ruled in the interest of English trade. The colonies resisted, and they resisted on the same ground which their sons maintained nearly one hundred years later, claiming for themselves the ancient and inalienable rights of Englishmen, that these were guaranteed by their charters, and denying the right of the mother country to interfere in the internal affairs of the colonies. If there had been 2,000,000 people in America in 1685 instead of 200,000 it has been thought reasonable to say that the American Revo- lution would have occurred a hundred years sooner. The significance of the conduct of Andros is that it was in large measure representative. For a hundred years before the outbreak of the Revolution there were contests, more or less important, between the power of the royal governors and the popular colonial party in the Assemblies. On the question of prerogative and anti-prerogative came the first political contest of the Revolution.^ From this period, 1683, says Minot, " we may date the origin of the two parties, — the patriot and pre- rogative men — between whom controversy scarcely intermitted and was never ended until the separation of the tw^o countries." ^ It is not pertinent at this point in our consideration of our subject to enter into the controversy over the extent of the ' Burke's speecli on Conciliation with Anurica, p. 190, Vol. I, Works. ' The Revolution Impendincj, Mellen Chamberlain in Winsor's Narrative and Critical Hist, of the U. S., Vol. VI, p. 3. ^Minot's History of Mass., I, 51, cited by Frothingham. 16 The Causes of the American Revolution. [568 prerogative of the King or of the power of Parliament in the colonies. We shall consider the legal relation between the two countries in a later aspect of the controversy. It is how^- ever worth noticing here that one of the remarkable defects of the early charters was, that they did not clearly define the limit of rights between the local government and the Crown. The Constitution of the colonies invited abuse on the one hand and aggressions upon the other. The abuses of which the colo- nists complained were the repeated attempts, on the part of royal authority, to revoke or override their charters ; the frequent efforts at remodelling their local governments with a view to checking popular power; enlarging the powers of the Board of Trade; the assertion that representative government in the col- onies was a privilege, not a right, to be retained only at the dis- cretion of the royal authority which had conferred it; and the persistent policy of the home government toward rendering the colonial governors and judges independent of the Colonial Assemblies.^ It is not probable in the contests continually arising, that the governors were ah^ays wrong and the Assem- blies were always right. The notable fact is that the steady aim of the governors was to check the growth of popular powers, and that the purpose of the Assemblies was to stand for what they deemed their constitutional rights. The im- portant fact to be noticed is that the prerogative and power of the King and their gubernatorial assertion were a continual source of restiveness and irritation to the colonies. The char- acter\of their governors, as a rule, made them unacceptable to the Americans. The colonists looked upon the governors, as Franklin represented, not like rulers whose posterity have an inheritance in the government oi'a nation, and therefore an interest in its prosperity ; they were generally strangers to the provinces they were sent to govern ; had no estate, natural ' See Frotliinghain's Rise of the Republic, ch. IV, for a valuable considera- tion of tiie causes of the conflicts between the royal governors and the colonists in the desire of the latter for local self-government. 569] The Causes of the American Revolution. 17 connection or relation there, to give them an affection for the country ; they came only to make money as fast as they could ; they were sometimes even of vicious characters and broken fortunes, sent by a minister merely to get them out of the way ; as they intended staying in the country no longer than their government continued, and purposed to leave no family behind them, they were apt to be regardless of the good will of the people, and they cared not what was said or thought of them after they were gone/ This is what the Americans said of their governors. They were governors neither of the people nor for the people whom they were sent to govern ; and when the first crisis of the Revolution came, it is not sur- prising that the conviction was found firmly imbedded in the minds of the Americans, that if duties were to be forced upon them to support these goveruors and their governments, with- out the intervention of their Assemblies, the Assemblies would soon be looked upon as useless. Therefore, in resisting the uncoustitutional interference of the King and his governors, or in their invasions on the prerogative, if one chooses so to call it; in their effort to keep their governors and judges de- pendent on popular favor and support and thus keep the real power in administration in the hands of the people — in this contention the colonists felt that they were standing for their dearest and most essential rights. The right to a representa- tive government was in issue. It was this party conflict and the antagonisms which it aroused, which account for many of the indictments against the King in the Declaration of Inde- pendence : " When a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw oif such government, and to provide new guards for their future security." For specifications the signers of the Declaration recited that the King had refused his assent to laws the most wholesome for the public good ; he had for- ' FVanklin's Causes of American Discontents, Works IV, pp. 247-8. 2 18 The Causes of the American Revolution. [570 bidden governors to pass laws of pressing importance ; he bad refused other laws for the accommodation of the people unless the people would relinquish their right of representation; he had repeatedly dissolved Representative Houses for opposing royal invasions on popular rights, and he had attempted to make governors and judges dependent on his will alone for their tenures and their salaries." ^ The advocates of the American cause in the issue between prerogative and popular rights were not confined to America, and it is therefore true, in a measure, that it was a conflict not between two peoples but rather between two parties.^ When the occasion arose in the contest over taxation, after the col- onists had grown strong and deemed that important material interests were at stake, it became the part of the Americans to make a new assertion and a wider interpretation of the princi- ples of the party opposed to the prerogative — an interpretation which they made convenient to their circumstances and the necessities of their cause. This they could do because they were found possessed with a political faith which had come as the result of a political experience. This faith was the basis for their resistance, and thus it was that the experience of the colonists in their contests over the prerogative and in their resistance to arbitrary rule were a cause and a preparation for the Revolution. They were ready with a constitutional defense for their resistance to an innovation. The second indirect cause of the war which we have named, was the commercial restrictions upon the colonies. In these, says Lecky, the great historian of England in the Eighteenth Century, the colonists had a '' real and genuine grievance." Cromwell by the Navigation Laws began, in 1651, the estab- lishment of the English empire of the sea. It was these laws, combined with Colbert's tarifiB against the Dutch, which de- ^ Declaration of Independence. * Chamberlain, The Revolution Impending, Winsor's Nai-ralii-e and Critical Hist., Vol. VI. 571] Ihe Causes of the American devolution. 19 stroyed the carrying trade of Holland, and gave England in commerce the first i)lace among the nations of the world. The colonial policy of the century following Cromwell was one of restriction. The spirit of Mercantilism was dominant in the public mind. This economic theory taught that wealth was identical with money, and that every nation should so conduct its business as to import little and export much, that economic success depended upon attracting and holding as much as pos- sible of the precious metals ; that the Minister should secure for the state, at the price of high duties, prohibitions, subsidies and bounties, if need be, the " balance of trade " between nations.^ It was an age of great national competition. The mercantile spirit was dictating the conduct of every nation in Europe towards its colonies. Every European power which had colonies in the western world, confined the trade of the colonies to the mother country.^ This practice became, within the century, a recognized principle of conduct among the nations. By the International Rule of 1756 the doctrine was formally announced that trade with colonies was the exclusive privilege of the subjects of the mother country.^ This England enforced in colonial times, allowing neither the colonies nor any other nation the benefits of gains from American trade. It was English adherence to this rule which brought on the commercial complaints preceding the War of 1812. Its appli- cation was tolerable, at least it was tolerated, in the 18th century, before the new age of modern neutrality and before the light which Adam Smith furnished to Economic philosophy had been given to the world. But as applied by England to her colonies it may properly be called a reversion to the Roman theory of colonization, the use of colonies, at whatever com- mercial injury to them, for the profit of the home government. ' Ingram's History of Political Economy, "Mercantilists." ^ Tucker's Four Tracts, p. 133, cited by Lecky, Eng. in ISth Century, Vol. Ill, p. 327; see also Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations, Book IV, ch. VII. ^>Sir Henry Maine, liectures on Inlernntional Law. 20 The Causes of the American Revolution. [572 It gave over the colonies to the use of a few Englishmen incorporated in the trade companies of the realm. It is well enough to mention the "fact that England, in this policy, was acting in harmony with the prevalent economic opinion of the day and in harmony with the commercial policy of other nations. Whatever of apology or palliation is to be found in this should have ample consideration, as Lecky urges. But as this great historian asserts, " when every allowance has been made, it is undoubtedly true that the commercial policy of England had established a real opposition of interest between the mother country and her colonies ; and, if the policy which was the proximate cause of the American Revolution was chiefly due to the King and to the landed gentry, the ultimate cause may be mainly traced to the great influence which the commercial classes possessed in British legislation. The expulsion of the French from Canada made it possible for the Americans to do without English protection. The commercial restrictions alone made it their interest to do so. If the ' Wealth of Nations ' had been published a century earlier, and if its principles had passed into legislation, it is quite possible that the separation of England and her colonies might have been indefinitely adjourned." It is not necessary to trace in detail the trade restrictions by which the colonists were embarrassed. But from Cromwell, 1651, to Grenville, 1763, we find a constant and persistent series of measures restricting the trade of the colonies : The colonists were confined to the British dominion for their market. Their tobacco, cotton, silk, coffee, indigo, skins, sugar, and rice, were cut off from all natural course to foreign nations. The English planters interested in their sugar colonies wanted a monopoly of the American market for their sugar and molasses. But thev were not willino- to take in exchange the timber and other natural products which the Americans had to sell. The merchants expected the cash. The French West Indies, were oifering both a supply of sugar and molasses, and a market for New Eny:land lumber. 'Here was a natural avenue for a 573] The Causes of the American Revolution. 21 beneficial trade. But the English Navigation Act of 1733 imposed a prohibitory duty on sugar and molasses, imported into any of the British plantations from any foreign colonies. Nothing was left to the Americans but ruin, or smuggling violations of the law. The colonists could carry no goods from Europe to America which had not first been landed in England. The whole American ]ieople were forbidden to import directly any wine, oil, or fruit, from Portugal-, To obtain these goods the Americans had to take them loaded with the expense of a voyage three thousand miles around, having to be landed first in England to be reshipped for America, expenses which added at least 30 per cent, to their cost ; and all this merely that a few Portuguese merchants in London may gain a com- mission on those goods passing through their hands. ^ All forms of colonial manufactures which could possibly compete with England were crushed. In the interest of the English woolen manufactures, the colonists were not allowed to carry woolens to any foreign country, nor from colony to colony. In the interest of English sugar plantere, as we have seen, the importation of sugar and molasses and rum from the French West Indies was forbidden. For the sake of a few merchants carrying on trade with Virginia, the colonies were drained of their gold and silver coin by their remittance to England, and then were forbidden the use of paper money made necessary by their internal commerce.^ South Carolina and New Hampshire attempted to restrict the slave trade for the sake of the social welfare, and their acts were overruled by the Crown, — a representative veto in- dicating that every act of a colonial legislature curtailing any branch of Eno-Hsh trade was to be overruled. ^ Franklin's American Discontents, Works, IV, p. 250. ^Ibid. 22 The Causes of the American Revolution. [574 Thus " the interest of a small body of British tradesmen or artificers," says Franklin, " has been found to outweigh that of all the King's subjects in the colonies." There cannot be a stronger natural right than that of a man's making the best profit he can of the natural produce of his hands, provided he does not thereby hurt the state in general. Iron is to be found everywhere in America, and the beaver furs are the natural produce of that country. Hats and nails and steel are wanted there as well as here. It is of no importance to the common welfare of the Empire, whether a subject of the King obtains his living by making hats on this or on that side of the water. Yet the hatters of England have prevailed to obtain an act in their own favor, restraining that manufacture in America in order to oblige the Americans to send their beaver to England to be manufactured, and to purchase back the hats loaded with the charges of a double transportation. In the same manner have a few nail makers, and a still smaller body of steel makers prevailed totally to forbid by an act of Parliament, the erection of slitting mills or steel furnaces in America, tliat the Americans may be obliged to take all their nails for their buildings and steel for their tools from these artificers under the same disadvantages.^ In view of these things it does not seem unreasonable to say that to release labor and trade from their restrictions was the object of the Revolution. So important has this appeared to writers on this chapter of our history that it has been said . that " but for the policy which oppressed the commerce and inhibited the use of the waterfalls of New England, the dis- pute would have been left to posterity."^ Webster said a half century later, " Whoever has looked deeply into the causes which produced our Revolution has found the original prin- ciple far back in this claim on the part of England to monopo- lize our trade and a continued effort on the part of the colonies ' Franklin's Causes of American Discontent, Works, Vol. IV, p. 251. * Sabine's Royalists of the Revolution. 575] The Causes of the American Revolution. 23 to resist or evade that monopoly."^ In this cause we can easily account for the fact that the revolutionary spirit, the opposition to the home government, was stronger in New England than in the South. That discontent was more general in the North was in consequence of the greater trade of New England. It appears very evident, then, from the character of the people in the colonies, from their situation far distant from the seat of government, from the ignorance of Englishmen of colonial interests and aflFairs, from the jealousy of the colonies of their political and constitutional rights, from their repeated and irritating conflicts against the prerogative of their royal governors, and, especially, from the burdens of the commercial system, — from consideration of all these it is clear that not much was needed in the way of a fresh quarrel to excite serious danger of resistance to authority.. If while the colonies were growing stronger their grievances grew heavier, if any act, or policy, of government should occur to provoke serious opposi- tion among the Americans, it is easy to see that a strain would be put upon the attachment of the colonies to the mother country beyond what loyalty to the empire would endure. The need of the hour in England was a statesman in control, with tact enough to know how far government might safely go. A little more, and self-interest would get the better of English patriotism within the colonies. This is exactly what happened. To the subject of this new quarrel, which lack of statesmanship provoked, and which seemed a very little thing in the beginning to the ruling Englishmen of that day, we come now to give attention. It may be said that the restrictive legislation of the com- mercial code was enacted but not enforced. Measurably so. That may be said to be true until the historic epoch of 1763. The increased importance of America to the mother country led to increased interest of the ministry in American affairs, ' Speech on Early Settlement of New England. 24 The Causes of the American Revolution. [576 and, consequently, to a change of policy in the Trade laws affecting the colonies. It is said that Grenville lost the colonies because he read the American dispatches, which no minister before him had ever done. Previous ministers are reported to have sent out letters addressed, " To the Governor of the Island of New England."^ But this ignorance of the colonies could not con- tinue. By the increased importance which came to them by the territorial readjustment of 1763, they were now to be looked to as an important source of revenue. England could no longer neglect them nor the ministry be ignorant of them. It was then that Grenville fatuously determined upon three distinct measures which, Lecky says, produced the American Revolution : 1. To enforce the Trade Laws. 2. To quarter in America^ part of the British Army. 3. To raise by Parliamentary taxation of America a part of the money necessary for the army's support. Toward the first of these measures, the enforcement of the Trade laws, the customs officers were ordered to greater vigi- lance. Smuggling was to be suppressed. It was in this effort to suppress smuggling that the custom house officers in 1761 raised the question in the courts of Massachusetts as to the memorable Writs of Assistance, These writs were to be applied for by the collector of customs to enable him, his '' tide waiters, land waiters, and all, to command all sheriffs and constables to attend and aid them in breaking open houses, stores, shops, cellars, ships, trunks, and packages of all sorts to search for goods which had been imported without paying the taxes im- posed by certain acts of Parliament called the acts of Trade." ^ These acts, says John Adams, had been " procured from time to time for a century before by a combination of selfish in- trigues between West India planters and North American ' Higginson's History of U. S., ch. on " British Yoke." *John Adams' " Letter to William Tudor," Niles Register, Vol. 14, p. 139. 577] The Causes of the American Revolution. 25 royal governors. They never had been executed as revenue laws and there never had been a time when they would have been, or could have been, obeyed as such." ^ It was in plead- ing before the court in opposition to these writs that Otis won his fame, appearing as Adams says, like " a flame of fire," Otis objected to the writs that they were general and not special, and that they were perpetual and not returnable. By a special writ, the only kind that was legal according to the opinion of Otis, the warrant allowed a search of such and such houses specially named by the complainant under oath, with reasons for his suspicions. Every man's house is his castle. But by general writs every man's house became subject to in- spection ; the writs allowed the invasion of any citizen's house by any petty officer or by any one who might wish to use the writ as a means of private annoyance. The writs were per- petual in that they were negotiable; they were not temporary to be returned after the supposed occasion for their issue was passed, but might be transmitted by an officer to his successor or to his subordinates. John Adams conceived that the policy which called these writs into use was begun by the British Ministry with the design of " subjecting the colonies to the un- limited authority of Parliament," and he asserts that American independence was born on the day of Otis' eloquent and fiery resistance.^ In speaking, a half century later, of Otis' speech on this occasion John Adams said, " Then and there was the first scene in the first act of opposition to the arbitrary claims of Great Britain. Then and there the child Indepen- dence was born." In addition to this very questionable method of enforcing obsolete and obnoxious laws the ministry determined upon the renewal of the hateful Sugar Act of 1733, which, if enforced, would have been the most ruinous to the American trade of any part of the commercial code. They also imposed new duties upon many articles. There were some compensations in the ^ John Adams' Letter to Tudor. ^ Niles JRegister, Vol. 14, p. 140. 26 The Causes of the American Revolution. [578 new revenue laws, but the stringent measures provided for enforcement were calculated to make the colonists feel that, whereas the fathers had chastised them with whips the min- istry were now disposed to chastise them with scorpions. A heavy tax easily avoided was not so irritating as a lighter tax vigorously enforced. The attempt to enforce the Trade laws could but call the attention of the colonists to the discrimina- tions against them, and it was evident that enforcement could be carried only at the expense of a struggle resulting in alien- ation. Older statesmen than Grenville, men like Pitt or Wal- pole, would have counseled more wisely. Rehoboam preferred the counsel of the young and foolish, and the tribes rebelled. The policy of quartering troops in America, the second immediate cause of the war, although objectionable to the Americans had many considerations in its favor. It was reasonable to suppose that the possessions so newly acquired, required defense against the French who were anxious to recover, or against an insurrection of the French colonists who might prove easily dissatisfied with their new masters. The country was very large and thousands of miles of frontier were open to the attacks of the Indians ; the late formidable conspiracy of Pontiac was not reassuring ; and experience had shown that the colonies were slow and reluctant to contribute to the common defense when they happened to be remote from the scene of immediate attack- and danger. Defense against the Indians in Virginia or the Carolinas would receive very little attention and support from New York or Massachusetts. Imperial interests were to be maintained against the rest of the world, the borders of British America were to be enlarged or secured, and these ends seemed to require the presence of an imperial army. On the other hand, it may be urged very properly, it had not been shown that the colonists were unwilling to raise troops for their own defense in time of danger. No scheme for a common contribution by the colonies toward such defense had ever been earnestly urged by the home government. The L^ 579] ' The Causes of the American Revolution. 27 colonists had always defended themselves from the Indians and now that the French arms had been expelled from Canada there was less dang-er from that source than before. Under these circumstances the colonists suspected that the ministerial policy of sending trooi)S to America, to be beyond colonial con- trol, was designetl to . strengthen the royal executive against the Assemblies and to enforce the obnoxious regulations of the revenue laws. These considerations, combined with the natural and long standing dislike of the English people to a standing army in time of peace, — a dislike especially notice- able among the descendants of those who had resisted the Stuart tyranny, — these considerations account for the resistance aroused by the quartering policy. Taxation without Representation. None of these influences wiiich we have named, nor all of them together, would have caused the revolution. The attempt of England to restrict the operations of the colonial govern- ment and extend the royal prerogative, the Navigation Laws and Acts of Trade, the demand for provision for tiie support of royal govern|ors and judges, the quartering policy, the general fact that England regarded the colonies as so much lucrative property to be administered for her own benefit and not for theirs, — all of th(!se grievances were long standing. Yet, they had brought forth no decisive tendencies to inde- pendence, nor had they provoked any serious evidences of disloyalty. It was only after the Seven Years War when England asserted the right of domestic taxation by Parliament that the Americans began to revolve these grievances in their minds, which, " from their respect and love to England they had long borne and seemed almost willing to forget.'" There is abundant evidence of the loyalty of the colonies to England in 1763. In the English diplomacy of that year the colonial ' Franklin's Causes of American Discontents, Works, Vol. IV, p. 250. 28 The Causes of the American Revolution. [680 interests had been safely guarded and for the Treaty of Paris the Americans had great reasons to rejoice. Otis, voicing the sentiment of the colonies, acknowledged the love of all English- men in America for the mother country, their pride in the power and glory of the English name, and he asserted that " what God in his providence had united together, no man should dare pull asunder." ^ Franklin testified before the House of Commons in 1766 that the temper of America toward Great Britain at the close of the Seven Years War in 1763, was the best in the world. They submitted willhigly to the government of the Crown and paid, in their courts, obedience to the acts of Parliament. The colonies cost nothing in forts, citadels, garrisons, or armies to keep them in subjection. They had not only a respect but an affection for Great Britain, for its laws, its customs and manners and even a fondness for its fashions that greatly increased the English commerce.^ America was loyal. It was the new taxing measure of Parliament, the minis- terial policy on colonial taxation, which alienated the colonists and led directly to the independence of America. The Stamp Act. To understand the merits of the controversy over the Stamp Act is to understand the merits of the American Revolution. "The Stamp Act," says Lecky, "when its ultimate conse- quences are considered must be deemed one of the most momentous pieces of legislation in the history of mankind."^ Yet it is well known that this " momentous piece of legisla- tion " passed the English House of Commons without exciting there even a passing interest. It was introduced into an almost empty House. Burke says he never heard a more languid ^ Speech, Boston Town Meeting. *" Examination of Franklin in House of Commons," Works, Vol. IV, p. 169. ^England in Eighteenth Century, Vol. Ill, p. 351. 581] I'he Causes of the American Revolution. 29 debate in the Commons than the one on this measnre. " The affair passed with so very, very little noise that in town they scarcely knew the nature of what you were doing," he says. What was this remarkable act? Was there anything in itself to indicate that its results would be so momentous ? It provided that all bills, bonds, leases, insurance policies, news- papers and legal documents of all kinds, should be written upon stamped paper, to be sold by public officers at prices fixed by law. The proceeds were to go into the King's treasury to be applied by Parliament exclusively to the protection and defense of the colonies. Offenses against the act were to be tried in courts of admiralty without the cognizance of a jury. As a revenue measure, barring its denial of a jury trial, it was not unusual or unreasonable. It may be said to be a fair and simple proposition of a sovereign power to tax its subjects. To declare war and peace, to make treaties, to coin money, to ad- minister justice, and to tax, — these are the few fundamental prerogatives of sovereignty. A denial of one of them on the part of the subject is a denial of sovereignty to the nation. Why should loyal subjects of the Crown have denied the sovereign power of taxation to the supreme legislature of England ? It was not jjroposed by any English statesman to tax the colonies for English purposes. All the money raised in the colonies was to be expended in the colonies. In fact the colonists were only asked to contribute one-third of the burden which they imposed upon the Empire. The Stamp Act was not expected to produce more than .$500,000 annual revenue while the English army for the defense of America was costing every year nearly a million and a half. Was America to receive all the benefit and England to pay all tiie bills? Further, we are called upon to consider that an English navy was defending the American coasts and an English debt had accumulated in defense of American interests. Before the war the English public debt was about 350 millions sterling ; after tiie war it was about 700 millions. The debt had been doubled in defense of the colonies. In 1748 at the Treaty 30 The Causes of the American Revolution. [582 of-:A:ix 4a-01}a|)eH« the civil and military establishment in America was costing only about £70,000 a year. In 1763 after the colonies had been delivered from foreign danger, and in order to secure them against attack from the Indian, the Spaniard, and the French, the same civil and military expenses were costing £350,000./ England had made it her chief object to guard the interests of the colonists in the Peace of Paris, and she found her colonial expenses had been multiplied by five. Was it not reasonable, then, that Anaericans should be asked to bear part of these expenses? Were not the colonists under obligations of honor and law to help bear the burden of their defense and supjKirt ? Was the demand of the mother country not moderate and equitable ? It rests upon us, also, to remember that as a taxing measure it was never claimed that the Stamp Act was burdensome. Probably no scheme of taxation could have been devised at the time which would have been easier or evener. When Grenville declared his intention of taxing the colonies in 1764, he asked the colonial agents in London to say to the colonies that if they could not agree among themselves upon raising a revenue by their own assemblies yet, if they disliked stamped duties and would propose any other sort of tax which would carry the appearance of equal efficacy, he would adopt it. There is no reason to believe that Grenville had any desire or intention whatever to subject the colonies to tyranny and oppression. Nor is there reason to doubt his willingness to accommodate himself to any tax which would have been most agreeable to the colonies. He did not wish to treat them harshly nor deprive them of any of their rights and liberties. What he was concerned about was to provide in his bill for a reasonable colonial revenue and to make sure of getting it. Was this not the business of the office with which Grenville was charged? It was his duty to manage the revenue. He regretted that his action would excite opposition and resent- ment in America, but he felt that the colonies could and ought to pay something to the public cause, and he knew of no better 583] The Causes of the American Revolution. 31 way — he coukl find no better way by inquiring of tlie colonists — for raising the revenue. He was aware that the Americans, like all men, wished not to be taxed ; but was that a reason why they should be relieved? Was Grenville not justifiable in using wiiatever just means he found necessary for making sure of a revenue ? It is also evident that a Parliamentary measure was the only means by which he could make sure. In the year 1764 the colonies were informed through their agents in England that a revenue would be required of them, towards defraying the charge of the troops kept among them. In harmony with this information a resolution was adopted in the House of Commons that for the purpose of raising such a revenue a stamp duty might be necessary.^ This proposition was not original with Grenville. Nor was it the first time such a proposition had been seriously urged. It was the out- come of hardy experience. In 1739 it had been proposed to Walpole that a stamp tax should be levied in the colonies to raise revenue for defending the western frontier. Walpole rejected the proposition, although there were evident the ag- gravating difficulties in securing among the colonies co-0})era- tive contributions for common defense.^ Again when war broke out between the French and English in America in 1754, General Shirley, then Governor of Massachusetts, proposed in connection with the discussions of the Albany congress of that year, that application should be made to Parliament to empower a general congress of the colonies to tax the whole according to their several proportions.^ It appears that this proposition was accejitable to most of the colonies. But the jealousy or backwardness of some of them ^ Knox, Controversy between Great Britain and her Colonies, p. 198. * At this time it is said Walpole exclaimed : " What ! 1 have half of old England set against me already, and do you think I will have all New- England likewise." John Fiske, Atlantic Mo., March, 1888. ' Knox, Controversy. 32 The Causes of the American Revolution. [584 prevented this plan from being carried into execution ; it was evident that some of the colonies would not come into the congress, nor be bound by its action. This experience clearly proved, to Governor Shirley's mind, that the Colonial Assem- blies would not agree among themselves upon a fund for their military defense, and that if such a fund was to be provided for, the only effectual way of doing it was by an act of Parlia- ment. Governor Shirley therefore recommended that Parlia- ment should assess a certain sum on each colony j that it would be advisable to leave to the several colonies the manner of raising the revenue, whether by stamp duty or excise, but that if any colony failed to contribute its share, the sum should be assessed by Parliament and collected by imperial officers. "Thus it appears," says Knox in his Controversy with the Colonies, "that too much honor has been done Mr. Grenville in imputing to him the origin of an option that Parliament had a right to impose taxes in the colonies, or raise a fund there to pay the expenses of military services in default of the colonies raising it by their own Assemblies." ^ Grenville now gave the colonies to understand that if they did not make grants in their own Assemblies, Parliament would do it for them. Knox, then under-secretary, represents that Grenville warmly recommended the making grants by their own Assem- blies as the most expedient method.^ In this recommendation ' Knox, Controversy with the Colonies, pp. 197-8. ^ Grenville never made this claim for himself. Burke in his Speech on laxation controverts the assertion made on behalf of Grenville, that he had given the colonies an option for the Assemblies to tax themselves. He says : " Much stress is laid on this fact. However, it happens neither to be true nor possible. Mr. Grenville never thought fit to make this apology for him^^elf in the innumerable debates that were had npon the subject. He well knew that the colony agents had no general powers to consent to it." Burke further asserted that Grenville had let it be understood through a member of Parliament that those who wished to oppose before the ministry the policy of Parliamentary taxation might as well save themselves the trouble of discussion as he was determined upon that point." (See Speech on American Taxation, p. 127, Vol. I, Works.) 585] The Causes of the American Revolution. 33 Grenville was evidently not sincere. He must have known that no such grants were likely to be made and that such a plan for revenue was entirely impracticable. Because, when Franklin on behalf of Pennsylvania suggested to Grenville, after the Stamp Act was proposed but before it was passed, that, in lieu of this Act, the demand for money should be made in the old constitutional way of requisition upon each colony, Grenville answered him, and cut short the discussion, by the forcible question whether the proportion for each colony could be agreed upon. The agents of the colonies knew and confessed that such agreement could not be reached. Grenville also had reason to believe that the requisition would in the case of almost every colony be refused and the demand would be used by the colonists as proof that the Parliament had no right to impose a tax. "Perhaps it might happen," said Knox, "that all the Assemblies could agree in opinion upon some one point, but I much fear that point would not be to lay taxes upon themselves." ^ Knox showed very clearly that the dif- ference of the colonies, the experience of the past, the varied interests and purposes which at different times would demand a revenue, the little concern which one colony manifested in any danger when the danger was remote from itself, the dis- like of all the colonies to the standing army to which they were expected to contribute, — these considerations proved that if a defense fund was to be raised it must be raised by Parlia- ment. The consent of seventeen Colonial Assemblies could not be obtained. If the colonists were to be taxed at all for imperial purposes Parliament was the only power competent to tax them. This, we may rej)eat, was conclusive for two reasons : 1. The colonies could not be induced to confide the power of taxation to a single Colonial Assembly. 2. If they could be so induced there was no assurance that the tax would be voted. Was England then to be blamed if she insisted upon a Parliamentary tax ? ' Knox, Controversy. 3 34 The Causes of the American Revolution. [586 Moreover, was not the Parliament constitutionally compe- tent to tax the colonies ? In the English view, to deny this competency was to deny the supremacy of Parliament over the colonies. If they were to be at liberty to choose what they should pay and how they should pay it, who would doubt that their allowance would fail? On that footing they would, of course, refuse to pay any taxes at all. It would be much better for England, if the constitution would not allow her to tax the colonies, to disclaim all connection with them and refuse longer to continue protection ov^er the colonies all at her own expense.^ For one hundred and fifty years England had been taxing the colonies in treating them as a part of the Empire. The English tariif of that day against colonial products was undoubtedly a tax, and though the tariff had been arranged for the purpose of regulating the trade with the Empire and not for the purpose of raising a revenue, yet the distinction between a tax for one purpose and a tax for another, between a tax gathered directly and a tax gathered indirectly, was a distinction without a difference recognized by the con- stitution. The Americans' reasoning that they could not be taxed except by a body where they were represented, especially when it was known that they would refuse representation to avoid the tax, — this reasoning might be applied with equal plausibility to the Navigation Acts and to all legislation for the colonies, and this would tend to the disintegration of the Empire. The deliverance of the colonies from French aggres- sion, which was the cardinal result of the late war, had been an imperial measure carried out for the good of the Empire. Why not pay for this common benefit by a common imperial contribution ? What body was constitutionally competent to levy this contribution except the imperial Parliament ? If it be granted that Parliament was not superior to but only co- ordinate with Colonial Parliaments — a position implied by the denial of the constitutional right to tax — where, then, was ^ Tucker's Causes of Dispute between the Colonies and the mother country. 587] The Causes of the Amvrlcaa Revolution. 35 there a supreme imperial body ? It was inconsistent to admit that Parliament was such a supreme body for all matters except taxation. Taxation was one of the chief functions of supremacy and sovereignty. To deny the fundamental sovereign power of taxation would lead inevitably to a denial of all sovereign power. Soon the Americans would deny the constitutional right of Parliament to legislate for the colonies — a prediction justified by the sequel. /The Colonial Assem- blies were municipal not national in character, corporations not Parliaments, and as such subordinate parts of the Empire they should l)e made to contribute to the imperial revenue. To have to ask consent, to admit that contributions were like voluntary benevolences was to make a breach in the constitution of the Empire, to diminish the authority and sovereignty of Parliament./ The American contention as to the relation of the colonies to the mother country was held by the ministry to be incon- sistent and untenable. This relation, as we have said, had never been clearly set forth. The theory on the English side of the controversy was — and no doubt it was the theory which expressed the public mind of that country — tiiat Parliament had an absolute and unrestricted power of legislation over English dependencies. The colonies were corporations within its supreme dominion. Americans were the subjects of the realm, subject to English law. It was from this fact that they were entitled to claim the rights of natural born English- men. They could not be out of the realm and relieved of the burdens of the realm and at the same time be entitled to all the rights and immunities of those within the realm. Parlia- ment, the great Assembly of the realm, was the supreme and sovereign source of English law and English rights.^ On the other hand the Americans, reviving an early theory of Massachusetts, held that the colonies were like Scotland ^ Caldecott, English Colonization and Empire, p. 53. *See the argument in Knox, Controversy, p. 3, et seq. 36 The Causes of the American Revolution. [588 before the union ; they were bound in allegiance to the King, but were independent of the Parliament. To thera the King in Parliament meant the King, in the person of his royal governor, in the Colonial Assemblies. America was not a dominion of England but of the King. England was herself / a dominion.^ The relation of the colonies was to the Crown not to the Parliament. It is obvious that in these assertions and constitutional dogmas, the colonists could not escape the charge of inconsis- tency. They had re])eatedly and in explicit terms acknowl- edged the right of Parliament to bind the colonists by its legislation.^ They had long time resisted the extension of the royal prerogative and now they were found pleading this prerogative against the powers of Parliament. By their reasoning there was no way by which they could avoid a dilemma: "How could they escape out of the hands of the King without falling into the hands of Parliament ? If, as some claimed when they resisted the royal prerogative they were British subjects entitled to the same rights and privileges as native born subjects within the realm, why then should they, more than any other subjects, be free from the burdens imposed bv the imperial policy ? But when in pursuance of that policy, Parliament undertook to tax the colonies, then they were forced by the logic of the situation to claim that, though subjects of the ' best of Kings,' they owed no more alle- giance to Parliament than the Scotch did before the imion."^ Knox, for the English side of the controversy made forcible use of these inconsistent claims of the Americans. He reduced their pleas to two : 1. The colonies had all the rights, liberties and privileges of Englishmen. 2. That they are without the realm, and, therefore, not subject to the common jurisdiction ^ Franklin. ' Story's Constitution of the United Slates, I, p. 1 74. 'Chamberlain in Winsor's Narrative and Critical Hist, of America, Vol. VII, p. 5. 589] The Causes of the American Revolution. 37 of Parliament. He then very cleverly urged that to make good the first claim was to deny the second. The rights and privileges of Englishmen pertained to those only who were born and inhabiting within the realm, subject to the common law. On this reasoning, the legal argument against t;he policy of taxation by the plea of a peculiar relation of the colonies to the Crown was rejected by the ministry as inadequate. These are the main points on which the ministry rested their case for the policy of the Stamp Act. The resistance of the colonies was not 'only to the Act itself but to the principle which it involved and the policy which it instituted. The Americans were not much moved by the plea of gratitude nor was there reason why they should be. Even if the burden of obligation had been upon the side of America, as it was not, it should have been remembered by English statesmen that gratitude has little place among national motives. The para- mount motive among nations is interest. DeGarden the his- torian of Treaties well says that it is an erroneous calculation in politics to reckon upon gratitude as a force of any value in determining national conduct. But the fact was that befitting gratitude did not require of the colonists that they should submit to the innovation of internal taxation by an external power. In answer to such a plea they could urge as they did that the late war, to the expenses of which on account of an accumulated debt they were now asked to make an extraordi- nary contribution — this war had not been carried on at the sole expense of Great Britain, nor had the colonies alone reaped the benefit. The colonies had shared in the burden and the mother country had shared the benefit. Every year during the war requisitions were made by the Crown on the colonies for money and men ; they made more extraordinary efforts in proportion to their abilities than Britain did ; they raised, paid, clothed and fed, for five or six years, nearly twenty-five thousand men. That this was more than the share of the colonies was not only a claim of their own but the claim was recognized by the royal governments and by the 38 The Causes of the American Revolution. [590 recommendation of the ministry that the colonies be allowed for the years of the war an annual reimbursement to the extent of 200,000 pounds sterling/ This reimbursement did not amount to more than two-fifths of their yearly expense. The balance was still resting upon them as a load of debt. To pay these debts the colonists had assessed heav}' taxes upon themselves, on all their real and personal property, assess- ments which they could not hope would discharge their obli- gations for many years to come. While these burdens con- tinued ; while England was restraining the colonies in their commerce and manufactures ; while she drained the colonies of all the cash they could procure by every art and industry in any part of the world, thus keeping them always in her debt; and in view of the fact that the colonies had been neglected while they were weak and had grown to strength and opulence almost by their unaided efforts ; that they had been planted in America by the oppression and strengthened by the neglect of Eugland ; ^ in view of all these things could they be thought unreasonable and ungrateful for opposing new and unusual taxes which they believed to be unconsti- tutional and subversive of their most valuable rights ? ^ The home burdens of the Americans had been increased by the war, and in the face of these burdens it was now, not asked, but demanded of them that they contribute toward the support of an army which they did not want, which, as they felt, their situation did not require, and whose presence they resented as an imputation upon their loyalty. They looked with suspicion upon the army as a device for keeping them in subjection. The troops were not necessary to defend the colonists from the Indians. The colonies had defended themselves when they were weaker and the Indians more numerous. It was only after the Indians had been driven over the mountains that it 'Franklin, Letter on Gratitude of America, Works, IV, pp. 157-8. * Barre in the Commons. ' Franklin's Letter on Gratitude, Works, IV, p. 158. 591] The Causes of the American Revolution. 39 was thought necessary by the home govei'nraent to send troops for defense against them.' The plea of gratitude to England for the protection which she had afforded fell without much effect. The fact that all the revenue collected by the Stamp Act was to be expended in America, was not material. It would be spent in the new provinces recently conquered from France where the soldiers were, not in the colonies which furnished the revenue.^ The tax was distinctly an English tax for English purposes in that its motive was to relieve English- men at home and extend English power and English trade abroad. Colonial interests were not in the mind of the ministry either in the assessment or the proposed expenditure of the Stamp Tax. The first public opposition in America to Parliamentary taxation was made in Massachusetts.^ In April, 1764, after the declaration by the Commons of intention to tax the col- onies, the Boston Town Meeting, in instructions prepared by Samuel Adams, urged their Provincial Assembly to oppose the policy of taxation and assert American rights.'* This the Assembly did in the resolution that the sole right of giving and granting the money of the people of that province was vested in them as their legal representatives ; that the impo- sition of duties and taxes by Parliament upon a people not represented in the House of Commons is absolutely irrecon- cilable with their rights ; that no man can justly take the ^ Franklin before Committee of Commons, Works, IV, p. 190. * Franklin, Testimony before the House of Commons. 'Wells, Life of Samuel Adams, Vol. I, p. 45. *It has been claimed that the "alarm bell" was sounded in Virginia by the Resohitions of Patrick Henry in the Burgesses to which I subsequently refer. These followed Adams' instructions a full year, though Henry's Resolutions seem to have been independent of the action of Massachusetts and were more widely published. Henry claimed that his Resolutions in the Burgesses, May, 1765, formed " the first opposition to the Stamp Act.'' F'or a clear presentation of this matter see Wells' Life of Samuel Adams, Vol. I, p. 45 et seq. 40 The Causes of the American Revolution. [592 property of another without his consent, — upon which original principle the right of representation in the body levying the taxes, one of the main pillars of the English Constitution, is evidently founded.^ This Massachusetts declaration is the earliest formal assertion of the American idea, — the idea upon which was based the American Revolution. It was not a new idea, certainly. The people had always been used to it in the practical operation of their governments. But an urgent occasion had arisen for its assertion, and our fathers proceeded to formulate a theory of the constitution for the defense of their rights. That this idea of the constitution had long been in fact a part of the American faith is seen in this, that upon the arrival of the Stamp Act in America every Assembly on the continent came to resolutions against the right of Parlia- ment to impose taxes upon the people without their consent. The popular opposition excited in America by the Stamp Act is familiar. The Assemblies of the various colonies after the manner of Massachusetts were quick to put themselves on record in setting forth what seemed to them the legal and constitutional limits of the power of Parliament within the colonies. This keynote of organized colonial resistance was renewed independently by Virginia when she asserted in a series of resolutions that the colonists " were entitled to all the privileges and liberties of natural born subjects ; and that the General Assembly of this colony have the only and sole ex- clusive right and power to lay taxes and impositions upon the inhabitants of this colony ; and that every attempt to vest such power in any person or persons whatsoever, other than the General Assembly aforesaid, has a manifest tendency to de- stroy British as well as American freedom ; that the taxation of the people by themselves, or by persons chosen to represent them, is the distinguishing characteristic of British freedom, without which the ancient constitution can not subsist." ^ The ' Proceedings in Massachusetts Bay, Franklin's Works, Vol. IV, p. 469. *A copy of these Resolutions may be found in Tyler's Patrick Henry, p. 62, Frothingham's Rise of the Republic, p. 180, 593] The Causes of the American Revolution. 41 case wag fully drawn up for the colonies by the Stamp Act Congress of 1765. The Declaration of Rights published by this Congress is recognized by all parties as a remarkably able state paper/ Story regards it as the '' best general summary of the rights and liberties of the colonies." ^ It was upon the basis of this Declaration by the Stamp Act Congress in 1765 that the Americans rested their case. The student should note carefully the significance of their assertions : They declared 1. The allegiance of the colonies to the British Crown and their loyal subordination to Parliament. 2. That they were entitled to all the inherent rights and liberties of natural born subjects. 3. That it was the undoubted right of Englishmen that no taxes be imposed upon them without their consent, given personally or through their representatives. 4. That the Colonial Assemblies can be their only repre- sentative bodies competent to tax them. " The only represen- tatives of the people of the colonies are persons chosen therein by themselves, and that no taxes ever have been, or can be, constitutionally imposed upon them, but by their respective legislatures ; that all supplies to the Crown being free gifts of the people, it is unreasonable and inconsistent with the principles and spirit of the British Constitution for the people of Great Britain to grant to His Majesty the property of the colonists." 5. That trial by jury was an inherent and invaluable right.^ 6. " That there is a material distinction in reason and sound policy between the necessary exercise of Parliamentary juris- diction in general acts for the amendment of the common law and the regulation of trade and commerce throughout the whole Empire, and the exercise of that jurisdiction by imposing taxes on the colonies." ' Lecky, Vol. Ill, p. 357. 'Commentaries on the Constitution. ^The Stamp Act provided that offenses against the Act sliould be cog- nizable in Courts of Admiralty. 42 The Causes of the American Revolution. [594 It is necessary to understand this " material distinction " in order to understand the constitutional position of the Americans on the question of taxation. This was the distinction, now first formulated in theory by the colonists, between internal and external taxation. Congress had jurisdiction, the Stamp Act Congress conceded, in case of new legislation for the amend- ment of the common law ; she had jurisdiction in the regula- tion of commerce throughout the Empire; the distinction between her jurisdiction for these purposes and her jurisdiction for imposing taxes within the colonies was the distinction now asserted by the Americans, and it was the fundamental con- stitutional distinction of the American Revolution. Was it a distinction without a difference in fact or principle? The colonists conceded to Parliament the right to rule the Empire and they acknowledged, they were, indeed, glad to claim, that they were part of the Empire. But determining the imperial commercial system was one thing ; raising rev- enue was another. Regulating their trade was a means of promoting the welfare of the Empire against the rest of the world. It would enable Englishmen to beat the Dutch, or the Spaniards, or the French, and for this the colonists were willing, like loyal Englishmen, to have their trade restrained and their manufactures repressed, if need be; for this they were willing to bear burdens, to suffer, and to pay. In these trade laws taxing was a mere incident ; the purpose of the laws was not to tax, but to promote and regulate English trade, to legislate for the British Empire, to adopt a policy of state. But domestic taxation and administration are the con- cern of the people of the province in question. The only taxing power which the colonists had ever known were the Colonial Assemblies in which they were represented. Con- sidered as a policy or system of revenue the Stamp Act was a departure from all former policies and systems. Domestic taxation through elective representatives, — this had been a fundamental fact, if not a principle, of the English speaking people, since Magna Charta ; it is the basic and precedent 595] The Causes of the American Revolution. 43 principle of home rule and local self-government in the States to-day. The Stamp Act, therefore, opened a new principle. For the first time in English history a bill had passed Parlia- ment granting duties to the King in the colonies; and "there began," says Burke, "the second period of the policy of this country with regard to the colonies." Before this dispute arose the authority of Parliament to make laws for America had never been questioned. That authority was allowed to be valid in all matters except such as involved internal taxes.^ The colonists were always jealous of their liberties and they were always quick to vin- dicate them when violated. They had long believed and insisted in repeated instances, that their liberties implied that a large sphere of government — the whole of domestic taxation and administration — were, and should be, sacredly reserved by their charters to their Provincial Assemblies. States rights were very early a part of the American political faith. These inviolable rights were claimed while the States were yet colonies and provinces. Regard for these rights were very deeply imbedded in the colonial mind. Nothing is more clearly observed by the student of history, no lesson is more important to statesmanship, than the necessity of wis- dom in government in showing regard to prevailing and established opinions among the people to be governed. Franklin reminded the ministry of this important truth in discussino; for the Enirlish rulino: classes the causes of Ameri- can discontent. "It was well known," says Franklin, "that the colonists universally were of opinion that no money could be levied from English subjects but by their own consent, given by themselves or their chosen representatives; that, therefore, whatever money was to be raised from the people of the colonies, must first be granted by their assemblies, as the money raised in Britain is first to be granted by the House of Commons ; that this right of granting their own ^Franklin before Committee of Commons, Works, IV, p. 169. 44 The Causes of the American Revolution. [596 money was essential to English liberty ; and that if any man or body of men, in which they had no representative of their choosing, could tax them at pleasure, they could not be said to have any property, anything they could call their own.^ The process of raising revenues in the colonies before 1763, had been by requisition. The Crown made requisitions through the Governor or Secretary of State for the colonies and these were accustomed to grant their own money volun- tarily and amply, whenever the Crown by its servants came into the Assemblies and demanded aids. Franklin believed that this old constitutional way of raising money in the colo- nies was still sufficient and that the colonies would respond to all demands for fair and reasonable aids. Americans there- fore held the Stamp Act to be unnecessary because the colo- nies had ever been ready to make voluntary grants; they held it to be unjust because it violated the rights and customs of natural born subjects. It is well to emphasize what Gads- den was strenuous in urging upon the Congress of 1765, that the Americans based their claims not upon their charters, not on the rights and immunities guaranteed in these documents, but rather upon the common rights of Englishmen. If the colonies had been left free to grant or refuse a revenue as they deemed fit, the probability is that they would have refused, though Franklin thought otherwise. It was a feeling of cer- taiuty as to this refusal which most influenced the ministry in adopting the policy of forcible taxation. But the freedom to refuse was a right which no one thought of denying to the Commons of England. This invaluable right of the Com- mons, a right which had been repeatedly defended in arms since Magna Charta, pertained to those Englishmen, and to those only, whose representative body the Commons was. If this right of the natural born citizens of England was to be enjoyed by the Englishmen in America it could be done only by saving their colonial assemblies the right freely to give or refuse aids demanded by the Crown. 1 Franklin's Works, Vol. IV, p. 244. 597J The Causes of the American Revolution. 45 This theory of the Americans involved in the distinction between internal and external taxes was not merely raised up for the occasion. It had been the opinion and feeling of America before 1763. Franklin testified before a Committee of the Commons that he had never heard any objection to the right of laying duties to regulate commerce, but a right to lay internal taxes was never supposed to be in Parliament; it was the opinion of every one that Americans could not be taxed by a body in which they were not represented. True, they had never formulated the distinction. It takes an occasion to bring out from an Englishman an attempt at an abstract definition or declaration. The attempt to tax America brought out the resolutions of Assemblies declaring this distinction. When Franklin was asked before the Committee of the Com- mons whether he could show any difference between the two taxes, he replied that the difference was very real and very great. "An external tax is a duty laid on commodities; that duty is added to the first cost and, when it is offered to sale makes a part of the price. If the people do not like it at that price they refuse it ; they are not obliged to pay it. But an internal tax is forced from the people without their consent, if not laid by their own representatives. The Stamp Act says, we shall have no commerce, make no exchange of prop- erty with each other, neither purchase, nor grant, nor recover debts ; we shall neither marry nor make our wills, unless we pay such and such sums ; and thus it is intended to extort our money from us or ruin us by the consequences of refusing to pay it.^ When it was suggested that a duty might be levied upon the necessaries of life and thus extort by an external tax the money of the colonists, Franklin replied that the Americans if they desired could easily do without English imports. It is true that the Americans could not in the abstract definition, in theory, draw a clear line of demarcation between > Franklin's Works, IV, p. 174. 46 The Causes of the American Revolution. [598 external and internal taxes. It could be said with a show of truth that, since the tariif acted clearly as a tax the distinction between the two kinds of taxes was without a real basis in fact. Metaphysical reasoning might make it appear that one kind of tax shaded into the other, nevertheless there was a distinction both in practice and in principle, a distinction which was not to be misunderstood and was not to be avoided. This distinction, as defined by Franklin, was sustained by Burke. External taxation, which had always been conceded, was not, he says, "a distinction of geography but of policy; it is a power for regulating trade, and not for supporting estab- lishments. The distinction which is as nothing with regard to right is of most weighty consideration in practice Be content to bind America by laws of trade ; you have always done it. Let this be your reason for binding their trade. Do not burden them by taxes ; you were not used to do so from the beginning. Let this be your reason for not taxing them. These are the arguments of States and Kingdoms. Leave the rest to the schools." * It is well known that Burke argued the question merely from the standpoint of expediency. With him it M'as a ques- tion of policy not of right. He had very little use for abstract principles in politics. He was not examining whether voting away a man's money was a power reserved out of the general trust of government ; or whether the right of taxation was in principle necessarily involved in the general principle of legis- lation and was therefore inseparable from the supreme power in the Empire. He was not seeking to determine a question of constitutional law ; he was for restoring tranquillity. " The question with me is," he says, " not whether you have a right to render your people miserable ; but whether it is not your interest to make them happy. It is not what a lawyer tells me I may do; but what humanity, reason and justice tell me * Speech on Taxation, Payne's Select Works of Burke, Vol. I, p. 153-4. 599] The Causes of the American Revolution. 47 I ought to do," ' Burke would have recalled the commons to the old policy and to original principles in the colonial system, — that of regulating trade while leaving the colonies " every characteristic of a free people in all their domestic concerns." He held that it was not till the scheme of taxa- tion arose and was revived again after the repeal of the Stamp Act, which filled the minds of the colonists with fears and apprehensions, — it was not until then that they quarreled with the old taxes as well as the new ; it was not until then that they questioned even the legislative power of Parliament.^ Although Burke in his two great speeches on the Revolu- tion based his opposition to the ministry and his plea for the colonies chiefly on the question of expediency, he could not altogether avoid the question of constitutional right. The old constitutional principle found defense even from Burke. He recosrnized that the y;reat contests for freedom among the English people were " from the earliest times chiefly ujwn the question of taxing." In speaking of the great and vital ques- tion of taxation he asserted that the constitutional lawyers, both English and American, who were defending the Ameri- can idea in our revolution were but defending the ''excellence of the English Constitution." These, he says, " not only found it necessary to insist on the privilege of granting money as a dry point of fact, and to prove that the right had been acknowledged in ancient parchments, but they went further. They attempted to show, and they succeeded, that in theory it ought to be so, from the particular nature of a House of Commons. They took infinite pains to inculcate as a funda- mental principle that in all monarchies the people must, in effect, themselves mediately or immediately, possess the power ^ Speech on Conciliation with America, Payne's Works of Burke, Vol. I, 196. * Speech on Taxation. The two speeches of Burke, on American Taxation and Conciliation with America are a very valuable source for a study of the Causes of the Revo- lution 48 The Causes of the American Revolution. • [600 of granting their own money, or no shadow of liberty can subsist. The colonies draw from you as with their life blood these ideas and principles." ^ We see, then, that even in Burke's opinion, after all, it was not merely a question of expediency. There were " ideas " and " principles " and con- victions, back of the contest. " The feelings of the colonies," he says elsew^here, " were formerly the feelings of Great Britain. Theirs were formerly the feelings of Mr. Hampden when called upon for the payment of twenty shillings. Would twenty shilliugs have ruined Mr. Hampden's fortune? No ! but the payment of half twenty shillings, on the principle it was demanded would have made him a slave. It is the weight of that preamble^ not the weight of the duty that the Ameri- cans are unable and unwilling to bear."^ Pitt based his opposition to the Stamp Act and Parliamen- tary taxation upon different grounds. He denied, as boldly as any American, the constitutional right of Parliament to tax the colonies : " This Kingdom has no right to lay a tax upon the colonies. At the same time I assert the authority of this Kingdom over the colonies to be sovereign and supreme in every circumstance of government and legislation whatsoever. They are the sub- jects of this Kingdom, equally entitled with yourselves to all the peculiar privileges of Englishmen, equally bound by its laws, equally participating in the constitution of this free country. Americans are the sons not the bastards of England. Taxation is no part of the governing, or legislative power. Taxes are a gift, a grant of the Commons alone. In legislation the three estates of the realm are alike concerned. A tax is of the Commons alone; only the concurrence of the peers and the Crown is necessary to clothe it with the form of law. ^ Speech on Conciliation with America. * That is, the principle asserted. • Speech on American Taxation, Vol. I, p. 105, Payne's Works of Burke. 601] The Causes of the American Revolution. 49 The distinction between legislation and taxation is essentially necessary to liberty."^ Pitt then proceeded to acknowledge, more clearly and boldly, if possible, the American distinction : '' There is a plain dis- tinction between taxes levied for the purposes of revenue and duties imposed for the regulation of trade for the accommoda- tion of the subject, though in the consequences some revenue may incidentally arise. . . . Let the sovereign authority of this country over the colonies be asserted in as strong terms as can be devised, and be made to extend to every point of legislation whatsoever; that we may bind their trade, confine their manufactures, and exercise every power whatsoever, except that of taking tiieir money out of their pockets without their consent." ^ Lord Camden also asserted in Parliament that taxation was not included in the general right of legislation, that "taxation and representation were inseparable." It was urged by the party of the ministry that these argu- ments were pure theory and were not found to be operative in fact. Birmingham and Sheffield and Manchester, English centres of ])opulation were not more represented in Parliament than Boston and Philadelphia, yet these centres were the heaviest tax-paying districts in England. A representative in the Commons was not supposed, on the true theory of rep- resentative government, to represent merely the district which sends him up, but he stands as a representative and legislator for the Empire. Such fallacy and sophistry were easily detected and exposed. All the "representatives of the Empire" were irom Great Britain, having their commercial and property interests there, and by this convenient theory these were to be allowed the exclusive right of disposing of the property of colonists 3,000 miles away. That certain important English interests had no 1 Goodrich's British Eloquence, Speech of Pitt. • Goodrich's British Eloquence, 4 50 The Causes of the American Revolution. [602 representatives in Parliament was to the shame not to the credit of England ; it was due to her deformed and corrupt electorate. Burke might well ask in speaking of the colonies, " When this child of ours wishes to assimilate to its parent, and to reflect with a true filial resemblance the beauteous countenance of British liberty, are we to turn to them the shameful parts of our constitution? Are we to give them our weakness for their strength? Our opprobrium for their glory?" > It is very true that the American principle now asserted in the expression '' no taxation without representation/' would not bear, as Lecky says, "a severe and philosophical examina- tion." Many practical inconsistencies could be urged against it. As an abstract political principle it could not be said that the English people before our Revolution had ever pretended to apply it fully in the state, and both the commonwealths, England and America, have violated it ever since. It was never asserted as a principle a priori. It did not have its origin in political speculation. It is found to have been a fact with English freemen very early in English history. Far back under feudal conditions the Barons claimed for the nation the right, and the King conceded it, that in questions concerning the assessment of aids a council of the realm shall be summoned whose consent should be necessary to any new imposition.^ It was not a question of accuracy in political reasoning ; it was a question as to the custom of the realm. If there is a better definition any where of that custom than that there shall be no taxation without consent given in ])er- son or through representatives, we have not been able to dis- cover it. Political principle is often but another name for long standing usage. This principle had been recognized by the English people on at least four great and solemn historic occasions and usage had confirmed their faith in it. 1. In 1215, when the Barons forced the charter from John, in which American Taxation. * Magna Charta. 603] The Causes of the American Revolution. 51 it was agreed, and guaranteed by the sovereign power of the state, that aids should be fixed and certain and that a common council of the realm should be summoned and consulted upon their imposition. 2. In 1297, in the Confirmatio Chartarum under Edward I, and in the Statute De TaUagio non Conce- dendo, ever since which time no taxation without consent has been an admitted principle in the constitution/ 3. In 1628, in the Petition of Right under Charles I, at which time this principle was again solemnly asserted. 4. In the " glorious revolution" of 1688, when the nation in assembly again declared its faith that the sovereign power of taxation was to be exercised only by the consent of the representative Com- mons house of Parliament ; that is, by the consent of the rep- resentatives of those who were to pay. It may be true that by " severe accuracy of definition, by refinement and precision of reasoning, and by the letter of the law " it was impossible to prove that there really was any distinction between taxing and other legislative acts.^ But by the constitutional traditions and usage of the English people such a distinction was clearly recognized. On this account Mr. Lecky says, with great fairness and force, that ''the Stamj) Act, although it was by no means as unjust or as unreasonable as has been alleged, did unquestionably infringe upon a principle which the English race both at home and abroad have always regarded with peculiar jealousy. The doctrine that taxation and represen- tation are in free nations inseparably connected, that consti- tutional government is closely connected with the rights of property, and that no people can be legitimately taxed except by themselves or their representatives, lay at the very root of the English conception of political liberty." ^ The Stamp Act was repealed the year following its enact- ment. Accompanying the repeal, — in a measure the condition ' Taswell-Langmead, Constitutional History of England, p. 271. * Lecky's Em/land in the Eighteenth Century, ^'ol. III, pp. 353, 354. ' Lecky's England in the Eighteenth Century, Vol. Ill, p. 353. 52 The Causes of the American Revolution. [604 on which repeal was secured, — the Declaratory Act was passed. This Act asserted tlie right of Parliamentary taxation in the colonies ; that " Parliament has power to bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever." The ministry had surrendered their measure but not their principle. The repeal however, hushed popular clamor and opposition. John Adams said that the people would have very little regard for the mere empty decla- ration of right which was never to be exercised. Dr. Franklin aifirmed before the Commons that the resolutions of a right to tax would give very little concern if they are never attempted to be carried into practice. In view of assertions like these and the absence of public objections in America to the Decla- ratory Act, the motive of the American contention has been impeached. If it were principle and not pence they were con- tending for, it has been asked, why did the colonists not raise vigorous objection to the Declaratory Act, which solemnly affirmed the principle which they denied ? Was it only jxiying they objected to ? The importance of the Declaratory Act has not been fully estimated. As a matter to excite resistance it was not for- midable. Protest against the principle it asserted had already been made. It is not true that the Americans had no concern over the re-assertion of the principle. It was constantly in their minds. They regarded it as a continual menace to their constitutional liberties. To the degree that they were reminded of it by its practical application in overt acts of legislation they met it firmly by overt acts of resistance. The Declaratory Act was an index to the irrepressil)le nature of the controversy. Each party had published its platform. One affirmed and the other denied the right of Parliamentary taxation, and neither party would retract. Resistance and separation were, upon that basis, but a question of time and strength. It is not the purpose of this monograph to trace the progress of the Revolutionary movement. The mode and measure of colonial resistance are familiar. When Townsiiend came to power in Parliament in 1767, he took occasion to express 605] The Causes of the American Revolution. 53 contempt for the American distinction between internal and external taxation. He then proceeded to carry three measures in Parliament on the line of the Declaratory Act. First, urged on by the opposition, he proceeded to punish New- York, for her disregard of the Quartering Act in refusing to make provision for the troops, by suspending her Assembly and denying royal sanction to any law until the terms of the objectional act should be complied with. Franklin inter- preted the temper of this act to be : " Obey implicitly laws made by Parliament to raise money on you without your consent or you shall enjoy no rights and privileges at all." ^ By a second act of Townshend's ministry a Board of Commis- sioners was created to execute the Laws of Trade. By a third the taxing policy was resumed.^ This commercial taxation, on glass, lead, painters' colors, paper and tea, was to be collected by import duties. It was thus cleverly arranged by Townshend to observe the American distinction in letter while he violated it in spirit. But his tax was clearly a means of supply not an instrument of Empire, and he should have foreseen that it, also, would have been resisted by the Americans. During the seven years of " peace- ful resistance " by America, occurred the aggravating acts of violence in the colonies which provoked Parliament to coercion. The agitation by the American press and speakers, the policy of non-importation in respect to the goods under tax, the " committees of inter-colonial correspondence," these all fanned the flame of opposition and did nothing to secure concession an- ertv, 167 ; of Maryland, concerning religion, 193-199. Cheshire, En: J. B., quoted, 248. Chipman, Hoyu Daniel, and Memoir of Thomas Chittenden, 172. Choiseul, quoted, 563. Cholera, Asiatic, 35, 36. Christison, 135. Church of England, attempt to estab- lish in Maryland, 225-234 ; estab- lishment of, 237--38. Church, the Established, in North Carolina, the first struggle with the Dissenters. 272-276; the second struggle, 277-300. Churchman, .John, 444. Cipango, 483. Clavton, Rev. Mr. 426. Clifton, Mr. Richard, 100. Colbert, and his policy, 560, 570. Coleridge, 409. Colonies and England, relation, Eng- lish side, 587 ; American view, 588. Colonv, comparison of Greek, Roman, and modern idea of a colony, 564- 566. Columbus, Christopher, and Dis- covery of America, Dr. IT. B. Adams on, 472-503; foresight of, 471 ; immortal deeds of, 472 ; re- lation to poet-prophets, 475-476 ; to schoolmen, etc., 476; his letter to Ferdinand, 478 ; his summary of classical reading, 478 ; his youth, 480; good example to, 481; his first appeal, 484; final triumph, 485 ; origin of equipment, 486 ; his departure, 486; announcement of discovery, 489; his first idea of America, 490; his "blunder" and contribution, 490; critics on, 491, 493; prerogatives, vote, 492; his later letters, 492 ; a royal captive, 493 ; his death, 493 ; his low estate, note, 494; relics of, 500; his real object, 504 ; his religious sincerity, 505 ; a crusader, 505 ; memory of, 506; bibliographies of, 524-530. Columbus M(yrnnt)erits,V>a\timo\eJ^M ; Barcelona. 549 ; Columbus, O., 541 ; Genoa, 547, 549; Granada, 551; Harrisburg, 539; Madrid, 548; New York, 537 ; Palos, 549 ; Wat- ling's Island, 543; Washington, 541 ; Sldtne.-^; Baltimore. 539 ; Bos- ton, 535, 536, 539 ; Cardenas, 542 ; Chicago, 540; Colon, Cuba, 544; Colon, Panama, 546 ; Genoa, 550 ; Havana, 543; Isabella, 544 ; Lima, 545; Madrid, 550; Mexico, 546; Nassau, 542 ; New York, 536 ; Philadelphia, 537 ; Sacramento, Cab, 537; Santo Domingo, 543; St. Louis, 537; Valparaiso, 547; Washington, 535; Willimantic, Conn., 540; Busl.^; Brooklyn, 540 ; Cogoleto, 548 ; Genoa, 550 ; Ha- vana, 544 ; New York, 540 ; Pavia, 548 ; Rome, 551 ; Santiago, 547 ; Washington, 540; Arch; Barcel- ona, 551; New York, 538; Fouv- Uiiim; Colon, Panama, 546; Mad- rid, 551 ; New York, 54! ; Ousfodia, Genoa, 547 ; Tablet, Havana, 542 ; Mcdulli'm, Newark, 540; J'divting and door, Washington, 535, 536 ; Portrait.% 552. Communism, Jansonists' idea of, 27. Congregational, 187 ; and Unitarian, 187. Congress, address to English, 614. Connecticut, colony of, 125; Puritan colony, 126; first Church, 125 ; re- lation of Church and State, 126 ; Congregational order approved in, 127; condition of in 1680, 127; toleration law, 137; franchise in, 138 ; breaking up of town-church. system, 153; law of 1784, 171; lawof 1791, cited, 181. Constitution, of Massachusetts, 165; Federal, concerning religious free- dom, 177; amendments, 178. Convention, the Albany, 316, 324. Copley, jUr., his letter, (pioted, 205. Cornelius, C. A., quoted, 14. Countv Court, 116. Cranfi'eld, 124. Cranmer, 95. 68 Index. [620 Crimean war, 63. Cromwell and the Independents, 256 ; and the Navigation acts, 570. Cronau, Kudolf, 488. Cuba, Island of, 512. Cutler, Rector of Yale college, 156. D Dably, Mr., 463. D'Ailly, Cardinal, "Imago Mundi," quoted, 477. Danforth, Thomas, 121. Daniel, Vol. Kobert, and the Vestry Act, 279. Dante, quoted, 475. Darien, 473. Davenport, .John, and his sermon, 125. Davenport, Rev. Mr., 141. Declaration of Independence, quoted, 557, 569, 570. Declaration of Rights, 593 ; basis of, 593; Declaratory Act, 604; John Adams and Franklin on, 604; Townshend on, 605. Dedham case, cited, 187. De Garden, historian, quoted, 589. Denny, Gov. William, of Pennsyl- vania, 363. De Puy, quoted, 132. Devotionalists, origin of, 14; society of, 16. Dexter, Dr. H. M., 99. Dickinson, Jonathan, his letter, 455. Dinwiddle, d'or., of Virginia, and his defense against the French, 322- 323 ; his letter, quoted, 325. Discovery of America, Dr. Wood on, 504-508; how begun, 473; first seen, 488 ; first monument, 494 ; second monument, 497 ; and ex- pulsion of Jews, 510; bibliogra- phies of, 520; of pre-Columbian claims, 520-524 ; of Vespucci and the Cabots, 530-532; Ilarrisse, quoted, 490. Dissenters, increase of, 154; victory of, 157, 161; and congress, 164; certificate for, 174; and Republi- cans, 182 ; effort of, under Bill of rights, 185; in North Carolina. {See Quakers.) Dorchester, 114. Doyle, on Articles of Pilgrims, 104. Dunbar, Col., 330. Dunster, P/r.s., of Harvard College, 156. Duxbury, 112. E Eaton, Theodore, 125. Edmundson, Wm., the first preacher in North Carolina, 260 ; his jour- nal, quoted, 60-61 ; a second visit to North Carolina, 263. Edwards, Jonathan, 170. Elizabeth, Queen, her letter to Sir Walter Raleigh, quoted, 196. Endicott, Gov., letter to, 135, 136. Endicott, John, 110. English government, colonies treated by, 590. Episcopalians, in Connecticut, 161 ; in Massachusetts, 162; of Fair- field, 167. Escobar, Portuguese nobleman, 482. Evans, Gov., 423, 442. Exempting laws, 161 ; influence of, 162, 164, 168; in Connecticut, 168. F Falmouth, 121. "Four Intolerable Measures," 606- 608 ; Massachusetts against, 607. Ferdinand, 478; his order, 510. Fisk, John, cited, 481. Forbes, Genl, an expedition against Fort Duquesne, 369-370. Fort Cumberland, 328; garrisoned, 331, 353 ; the reduction of the force of, 367. Fort Duquesne, 323 ; an expedition against, 325. Fox, George, and his preachings in North Carolina, 262, 270 ; quoted, 388, 389, 392, 402. France, humiliation of, 561. Franklin, Benjamin, and his mis- sion to England, 364-365 ; defends Maryland's cause, 372; goes to England again, 378 ; quoted, 595. Frederick, Lord Baltimore, 316, 340: and the assembly, 353-359, 373. Frederick the Great, and the rise of the house of Hohenzollern, 561. Free-Will Anti-Pedo Baptists, rise of, 183. 621] Index. 69 G Galva, city of, 60, 61 ; the head- quarters of l;ishop Hill colony, 61. Ganlan, William, 404. Gette, city of, 15; departure of the Jansonists from, 28. General Assembly, 41 1 ; first measure bv, 412; law concerning Sabbath, 4i8. General Court, 115, 116, 170; of Connecticut, and letter to King, 137 ; and Half-way cov^enant, 141 ; and commissioners, 142-143; and division of church, 154. George III, and Quakers, 388. Germantown, 450. Gilbert, Raleigh, 118. Gloucester, town of, 153. Glover, William, and Col. Cary, 293- 297'. Grahame, Mr., cited, 388 ; cited, 428, 436, 447. Granada, 485. Grand Council of 1641 and resolu- tion, 169. Granville, Lord John, and the Test Act, 281, 283. "Great Law.s," 391, 396; law con- cerning second marriage, 413 ; bill concerning prison, 414. Green, quoted, 256, 557, 558, 561, 563. Green Harbor, 113. Green, Roger, 258. Greenwood, prison writings of, 100. Grenville, and his policy, 556, 578, 582. Grindall, 97. Goethe, quoted, 507. Gordon, the missionary, quoted, 266; account of the Cary rebellion, 288. Gorges' Heirs, 121. Gott, Charles, and writing. 111. Government, Federal, and religion, 179. Guanahani, 489. H Half-way covenant, 141, 170 ; and its results, 158. Hallam, quoted, 94. Hammond, Mr., 216. Hampden, Mr., cited, 600. Hanno, the Carthaginian, 473, Harrison, Rev. Thomas, 215. Hartford, 125 ; second church of, 153. Harvey, Thomas, and the Quakers in North Carolina, 271, 272. Hawks, Dr., quoted, 248, 283, 286. Haynes, 125. Hebbe, Mr.s., 31. Hebrew prophecy, 475. Hellstrom, Mr., 31. Helsingland, 11 ; religious state of, 12 ; main occupation of the people of, 15. Henden, Nils, an apostle of Janson- ism, 31 ; success of, 56 ; and the doctrine of celibacy, 56, 69. Henry, Patrick, and his Resolution, 591 unie; by Congress of '74, 612. Henry, Prince, th^Navigator, 481. Hercules, pillars of, 473. Herodotus, quoted, 433. Higginson, 110, 111. Hispaniola, Island of, 478. Holdernesse, Lord, 322. Hooker, 125. Horrland, 15. Hough, quoted, 130. Hovey, 163. Hubbard, quoted, 109. Humboldt, Alex, von, 490. Hyde, Edward, 251 ; and the Cary rebellion, 297-300. Illinois, the Jansonists settle in, 27. Immigrants, from Sweden, 28, 37. India, new route to, 481, 482. Indians, respect Penn, 445. Isabella, 478. James I, and the importation of con- victs, '347. Janson, Eric, childhood of, 16 ; change in religious view, 17 ; in- terview with Olson, 18; the rise of Jansonism, 18; relation to the Methodists, 20 ; preachings of, 20, 21 ; arrests of, 22, 23 ; comes to America, 27 ; communistic idea of, 27 ; his authority over the colony, 38; trouble with John Root, 39; 70 Index. [622 Murder of, 42; funeral of, 44; personal appearance of, 45. Janson, Mrs., actual head of the Jansonists, 43, 44; i-emoval to Pleasant Hill, .% ; death of, 70. Jansonists, the rise of, 19; persecu- tions of, 20, 21, 22, 23; burning of religious books, 22, 23 ; doctrine of, 25 ; religious communism the aim of, 27 ; society of, 27 ; de- parture for America, 28, 29 ; pur- chase of land in Illinois, 29 ; . tabernacle erected, 30 ; sufferings of, 30-33; progress of, 32, 34; Asiatic cholera among, 35, 36 ; introduction of the doctrine of celibacy, ^>& ; last day of, 71. Jeffrey, Mr.. 389. Jerusalem, the new, 26. Jesuits, the, in Maryland, 205, 207, 208. Jewell, 97. Jews and Quakers, the status of, in early Maryland, 222-224, 236. Johnson, Olof, 27 ; enterprise of, 62, 63 ; failure of, 63 ; death of, 68. Johnson, Sir Nathaniel, and the Test Act in South Carolina, 281, 282. Juan Perez, friend of Columbus, 485. K Keith, Gov., 388, 399. Kent Island, settled by Protestants, 217. Kett, quoted, 60. Kilcacenen, king of the Yeopim Indians, 259. Kinnett, Thomas, 393. Kittery, 120. Knox, quoted, 584, 585 ; refutes American claims, 588. Krauskopf, Rabbi Dr. Joseph, extract from lecture, 513, note. Kresheim, 450. Las Casas, 491. Lauer, Paul E., A. M., on Church and State in New England, 93-188. Lanier, Sidney, quoted, 487. Lazarus, Emma, and her verses, 509. Lecky, quoted, 570, 572, 580, 603. Le Mayeur, Dr., 405. Lewgar, Mr., 205 ; and the Jesuits, 206, 207, 208. Licenses, ordinary, in Maryland, dis- pute of, 341-346. Lisbon, 480. Ljusne, riyer of, 11. Locke, and the Fundamental Consti- tution, 254, 256. Logun, SecJ ij, 435. London, the Bishop of, 228. Louisiana, lost to France, 561, 562. M McCarthy, quoted, 558. Maderia, Islands, 480. Maine, the Popham Colony, 118 church of, 119; goyernment of, 120-122; relation of church and state, 122. Markham, Clements E., English naval officer, 479. Markham, Gov., 426. Markin, Thomas, 399. Martin, quoted, 248, 286. Maryland, early, church and state in, Dr. George Petrie on, 194-238. Maryland's attitude in the struggle for Canada, Dr. J. William Black on, 309-379. (See his Table of con- tents, 313.) Massachusetts, ecclesiastical begin- ning of. 111 ; foundation of com- monwealth, 112; beginning of New Town, 112; relation of church and state, 114-115 ; laws to support preachers, 116-117; law against Quakers, 117 ; persecution in, 134 ; religious liberty, 135-136, 162; franchise in, 139-140, 142; half- way covenant, 140; controversy with King Charles, 145-146; all persecuting laws repealed, 146; new constitution, 165 ; law of 1799, 186; law to support public teach- ers, 186 ; religious freedom act, 186; U^nitarian ascendency, 186; MfissachuKeltn BUI, 606. Mather, Dr. Cotton and sermon, 156. Mather, Dr. Increase, 156 ; letters of, 160. Mattson, Johannes, 16. 623] Index. 71 Maverick, John, 114. Mercantilism, {)olicy of European nations in ISth century, 571. Mercury Gazette, 456. Metcalf, Timothy, 417. Methodist, 183, 186. Mitilin, Warner, 463. Mii., Johns Hopkins University, Md.; Ley'h, Edw. F., Baltimore, Md.; Lodeman A State Normal School, Mich. ; Morfill, W. R., Oxford, England ; McCabe, T. Johns'Hopkins University, Md.; McElroy, John G. R., University of Pennsylvania, Pa.; O'Connor B. F., Columbia College, N. Y''. ; Primer, Sylvester, Providence, R. I. ; Schele De Verb M 'University of Virginia, Va. ; Schilling, Hugo, Wittenberg College, Ohio; Sheldon, Edw.'s Harvard University, Mass.; Shepherd, H, E., College of Charlesion, S. C. ; Schmidt, H University of Deseret, Salt Lal^e City, Utah ; Sievers, Eduard, University of Tiibingen, Germany Smyth, A. H., High School of Philadelphia, Pa.; Stoddard, Francis H., University of City of New York; StOrzingkr, J. J., Bryn Mawr College, Pa.; Thomas. Calvin, University of Michigan, Mich.; Walter, E. L., University of Michigan, Mich.; Warren, F. M., Johns Hopkins University, Md.; White, H. S., Cornell University, N. Y. Subscription Price One Dollar and Fifty Cents Per Annum. Payable in Advance. Foreign Countries $1.75 per annum. Single Copies Twenty Cents. Specimen pages sent on application. Subscriptions, advertisements and all business communications should be addressed to the Managing Editor op Modern Language Notes, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md. mis ifi HisMi, Ecoiiiicui pmic ui EDITED BY THE UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF POLITICAL SCIENCE OF COLUMBIA COLLEGE. The mouographs are chosen mainly from among the doctore' dissertations in Political Science, but are not necessarily confined to these. Only those studies are included which form a distinct contribution to science and which are positive works of original research. The monographs are published at irregular intervals, but are paged consecutively as well as separately, so as to form completed volumes. VOLUA4E I. 1. The Divorce Problem — A Study in Statistics. By Walter F. Willcox, Ph. D. Price 50 cents. 2. The History of Tariff Administration in the United States, from Colonial Times to the McKinley Adminis- trative Bill. By John Dean Goss, Ph. D. Price 50 cents. 3. History of Municipal Land Ownership on Manhattan Island. By George Ashton Beack, Ph. D. Price 50 cents. 4. Financial History of Massachusetts. By Charles H. J. Douglas. Price $1.00. Vol. I complete. Price $2.00. Bound, $2.50. VOLUMLK II. 1. The Economics of the Russian Village. By I. L. HouRWiCH. Price, fl.OO. 2. Bankruptcy — A Study in Comparative Legislation. By Samuel N. Dunscomb, Jr. For further particulars apply to PROFESSOR EDWIN R. A. SEUGMAN, Columbia College, New York. American Economic Association. PUBLICATIONS. A series of monographs ou a great variety of economic subjects, treated in a scientific manner by authors well known in the line of work they here represent. Among the subjects presented are Cooperation, Socialism, the Laboring Classes, Wages, Capital, Money, Finance, Statistics, Prices the Relation of the State and Mui icipality to Private Industry and various Public Works, the Railw: y Question, Road Legislation, the English Woolen Industry, and nur lerous other topics of a like nature. The latest publication is that for July-September, 1892, — Vol. VII, No. 4-5 :— SINKINCi FUNDS, By EDWAK ) A. ROSS, Ph. D. PRICE OME DOLLAR Six volumes of these public itious, containing thirty-six numbers are now complete. They will be sent:— bound in Cloth, at $5 each ; any two for $9; any three for $13; any four for $17; any five for $21; all six for $25; all six volumes bound in half morocco, $28. OO; single volumes in half morocco, $5.50. Unbound, $4 per volume. Subscription to Vol. VII, $4.00. Annual membership $3 ; life membership $50. Address, Publication Agent, Aat ;rican Economic Association, Baltimore, Maryland. NOTES SUPPLEMENTARY TO THE STUDIES. The publication of a series of Notes was begun in January, 1889. The follow- ing have thus far been issued : MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT IN ENGLAND. By Dr. Albert Shaw, of Minne- apolis Keadf r- on Miuiici|ial Government, J. H. U. SOCIAL WORK IN AUSTRALIA AND LONDON. By William Grey, of the Denisoii ( luli, Ldmion. ENCOURAGEMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION. By Professor Herbert B. Adams. THE PROBLEM OF CITY GOVERNMENT. By Hon. Seth Low, President of Columbia College. THE LIBRARIES OF BALTIMORE. Bv Mr. P. R. Uhler, of the Peabody Institute. WORK AMONG THE WORKINGWOMEN OF BALTIMORE. By Professor H. B. AnAM>. CHARITIES: THE RELATION OF THE STATE, THE CITY AND THE INDI- VIDUAL TO MODERN PHILANTHROPIC WORK. By A. G. Warner, Ph. D., sometuue General Secretary of the Charity Organization Society of Baltimore, now Associate Professor in tbe UTiiversitv of Nebraska. LAW AND HISTORY. By Walter B. Scaipe, LL. B., Ph. D. (Vienna), Reader on Historical deotrraphv in the Johns Ilopkius University. THE NEEDS OF SELF-SUPPORTING WOMEN. By Miss Clare db Graffen- RKID, of I he Dt-partnieiit of I^ahf)r, Washington. D. C. THE ENOCH PRATT FREE LIBRARY. Bv Lewis H. Steiner, Litt. D. EARLY PRESBYTERIANISM IN MARYLAND. Bv Rev. J. W. McIlvain. THE EDUCATIONAL ASPECT OF THE U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. By Professor O. T. Mason. UNIVERSITY EXTENSION AND THE UNIVERSITY OF THE FUTURE. By E. G. MOULTON. These Notes are sold at five cents each; iweiity-five copies will be furnished for fl.OO. ANNUAL SERIES, 1883-1891. Nine Series of the University Studies are now complete and will be sold, bound in cloth, as follows : SERIES I.— LOCAL INSTITUTIONS. 479 pp. S4.00. SERIES II.— INSTITUTIONS AND ECONOMICS. 629 pp. $4.00. SERIES III. -MARYLAND, VIRGINIA AND WASHINGTON. .595 pp. 84.00. SERIES IV.— MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT AND LAND TENURE. 600 pp. 83.50. SERIES v.— MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT, HISTORY AND POLITICS. 559 pp. 83.50. SERIES VI.— THE HISTORY OF CO-OPERATION IN THE UNITED STATES. 540 pp. S.t.50. SERIES VII.— SOCIAL SCIENCE, MUNICIPAL AND FEDERAL GOVERN- MENT. 628 pp. 83.5(1. SERIES VIII.— HISTORY, POLITICS, AND EDUCATION. 625 pp. 83.50. SERIES IX.— EDUCATION, HISTORY. AND SOCIAL SCIENCE. 636 pp. 83.50. SERIES X.-CHURCH AND STATE. COLUMBUS AND AMERICA. 630 pp. 83.50. The lime series are now offered, uniformly bound in cloth for library use, for 827.00. The nine volumes, with twelve extra volumes, altogether tweniy-one volumes in cloth, for 845.00. All business communications should be addressed to The Johns Hop- kins Pkess, Baltimore, Maryland. Subscriptions will also be received, or single copies furnished by any of the following AMERICAN AGENTS: New York.— G. P. Putnam's Sons. Baltimore.— John Murphy & Co.; Cushiug New Haven. — E. P. Judd. & Co. Boston. — Damrell & Upham ; W. B. Clarke Indianapolis. — Bowen-Merrill Co. A Co. Chicago.— A. C. McClurg & Co. Providence. — Preston & Rounds. Louisville. — Flexner & Staadeker. Philadelphia. — Porter & Coates; J. B. Lip- San Francisco.— Bancroft Company. piiieoit Co. New Orleans.— George F. Wharton. Washington.— W. H. Lowdermilk & Co.; Richmond.— Randolph Co. Breuiano's. Toronto. — Carswell & Co. Cincinnati.— Robert Clarke & Co. Montreal.— William Foster Brown & Co. EUROPEAN AGENTS: London. — Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner & Berlin. — Puttkammer&Miihlbrecht; Mayer to.; (i. P. Putnam's Sons. & Miiller. Paris. — A. Hermann, 8 rue de la Sorbonne; Leipzig. — F. A. Brockhaus. Em.Terquem,HlbisBoulevardHaussmann. Frankfort. — Joseph Baer & Co. Strassburg.— Karl J. Triibner. Turin, Florence, and Rome.— E. Loescher. THE REPUBLIC OF NEW HAVEN. A History of Municipal KvotuTioN. By CHARLES H. LEVERMORE, Ph. D. {Extra Volume One of Studies in Historical and Political Science.) The volume comprises 342 pages octavo, with various diagrams and an index. It wiH be sold, bound in cloth, at $2.00. PHILADELPHIA, 1681-1887: A History of Municipal Development. By Edward P. Allinson, A. M., and Boies Penrose, A. B. {Extra Volume Two of Studies in Historical and Political Science.) The volume comprises 444 pages, octavo, and will be sold, bound in cloth, at $3.00; in law-sheep at $3.50. Baltimore and the Nineteenth of April, 1861 A Study of the War. By GEORGE WILLIAM BROWN, Cfiief Judge of ilie Supreme Bsnch of Baltimore and Mayor of the Cili/ in ISGl. (Extra Volume Three of Studies in Historical and Political Science.) The volume comprises 176 pages, octavo, and will be sold, bound in cloth, at $1 . Local Oonstitiitional History of the United States. By GEORGE E. HOWARD, Professor of History in the University of Nebraska. (Extra Volumes Four and Five of Studies in Historical and Political Science.) Volume I. — Development of the Township, Hundred, and Shire, is now ready. 542 pp. 8vo. Cloth, Price, $3.00. Volume II. — Development of the City and Local Magistracies. In prep- aration. THE NEGRO IN ]M^RYLA.ISrD: A STUDY OF THE INSTITUTION OF SLAVERY. By JEFFREY R. BRACKETT, Ph. D. (Extra Volume Six of Studies in Historical and Political Science.) 270 pages, octavo, in cloth. $2.00. The extra volumes are sold at reduced rates to regular subscribers to the ' Studies." THE SUPREME COURT OF THE UNITED STATES: Its History and lufliieoce in our Constitutional System. By W. W. WILLOUGHBY, Ph. D., {Exlra Volume VII oj the Studies in History and Politics.) 124 Pages. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $1.25. The Intercourse between the United States and Japan. By INAZO (OTA) NITOBE, Ph. D., Associate Professor, Sapporo, Japan. * {Extra Volume VIII of the Studies in History and Politics.) 198 Pages. Svo. Cloth. Price, $1.25. State and Federal Government in Switzerland. By JOHN MARTIN VINCENT, Ph. D., Librarian and Instructor in the Departmenl of History and Politics, Johns Hopkins UniversUy. {Extra Volume IX of the Studies in History and Politics.) 225 Pages. Svo. Cloth. Price, $1.50. SPANISH INSTITUTIONS OF THE SOUTHWEST. By FRANK W. BLACKMAR, Ph. D., Professor of llisto'y and Sociology in the Kansas Stale University. {Extra Volume X of the Studies in History and. Politics.) 380 Pages. Svo. Cloth. Price, $2.00. >Vith Thirty-one Historical Illustrations of old Spanish Missions, etc., and a map showing the extent- of Spanish Possessions in North America in 1783. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF THE CONSTITUTION. A Study Showing the Play of Physical and Social Factors in the Creation of Institutional Law. By IVIORRIS IVI. COHN, Aitorney-al- Larv . {Extra Volume XI of the Studies in History and Politics.) 250 pages. Svo. Cloth. Price, $1.50. The aim of the author has been to show with somewhat less detail than has been adopted in more voluminous productions, yet with sufficient breadth of out- line, the general prevalence of constitutional institutions among peoples who have made any advance at all in political organization. The illustrations of the subject have been tnken principally from the fields of politics and jurisprudence, though when required, or when it seemed to the author appropriate, other sources were utilized. NEW EXTRA VOLUMES. AMERICA Its Geographical History, 1492 to the Present, By DR. WALTER B. SCAIFE. This work invites attention to the ranch-neglected borderland that nnites history and geography. Starting with the discovery of Guanahani in 1492, it shows, by reference to maps and writings of the sixteenth century, tiie gradual evolution of the Atlantic and Pacific coast-lines in the consciousness of Europe. The third chapter sketches the slow growth of knowledge in Europe regarding the vast interior of the American continents and of the polar regions. There is a full discussion of the historical uses and the theories as to the origin of the names America, Canada, and Brazil. The history of our border lines, national and state, then engages the writer's attention ; who passes*from that subject to the geographical work of the national government, in treating which he has been aided by much informa- tion furnished direct from the offices of the Coast and Geological Surveys. In a Supplement Dr. Scaife undertakes to prove, contrary to the general opinion, that the Mississippi River is not always or even usually to be understood when the Spanish geographers mention the Rio del Espiritu Santo. The work will be illustrated by phototypes made from photographs of the famous Weimar and other maps, taken specially for the author. The volume will be sold for $1.50. THE OLD ENGLISH MANOR. By C. M. ANDREWS, Ph. D., t A.ssociiitp, in Hixtorrj, Bryii Maicr College. 280 pages. 8vo. Cloth. Price, $1.50. This work is an attempt to reconstruct the village and manorial organization and life in England at the beginning of the eleventh century. The study is based largely on the well known documents Recliludinea Si.ngularum Personarum and Gerefa, the latter of which has never before been ased for historical purposes. In addition all Anglo-Saxon literature has been put under contribution, that the study might be as complete as possible. Such reconstruction has more than a merely antiquarian interest, for it relates to an important period of English economic history. It shows the complete isolation of local life, the preeminence of agriculture, and the secondary importance of craft and artisan work. It brings Anglo-Saxon farming methods into line with [)ost-Norman and shows the tenacity of the old life and custom, crude and uneconomical as it was, uninfluenced, to any great extent by the Norman Conquest. In the introduction the writer dis- cusses the origin of the manor, suggesting points of view somewhat diflerent from those ordinarily received by the Germanic school, but supporting, in opposition to Mr. Seebohm, the freedom of the village community. Johns Hopkins University STUDIES IN HISTORICAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCE. HERBERT B. ADAMS, Editor. FOR THE ELEVENTH SERIES, 1893. Subscription, $3.00. I. The Social Condition of Laiior. By Dr. E. R. L. Gould. II. The World's Kepresentative Assemblies of To- day : A Study in Comparative Legislation. By Professor Edmund K. Alden. III. History of Slavery in Connecticut. By [)r. B. C. Stkiner. IV. The Cincinnati Southern Railway: A Study in Municipal Activity. By Mr. J. H. Hollander. V. Jared Sparks and De Tocqueville. By Professor Herbert B. Adams. VI. Popular Revolutions in the Middle Ages. By Dr. George Kriehn. VII. Church and State in North Carolina. By Professor Stephen B. Weeics. VIII. LiOCAL Government in the South and the Southwest. By Professor Edward W. Bemis and others. IX. The Negro in the District of Columtjia. By Mr. Edward Ingle. X. Progress of American Historical Literature. By Dr. J. M. Vincent. XI. Progress op American Economic Literature. By Dr. Sidney Sherwood. Orders should be addressed to The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Md. LB N 05 FOURTH SERIES— Municipal Government and Land Tenure.— i£S6.— ^3 50. I. Dutch Village Communities on the Hudson River, Byl. Ei.tjng. 50cenis. II-III. Town Governnient in Rhode Island. By W. E. Foster. — The Narragansett Planters. By Edward Channikg. 50 cents. IV. Pennsylvania Boroughs. By William P. Holcosib. 50 cents. V. Introduction to the Constitutional and Political History of the indi- vidual States. By J. F. Jameson. 50 cents. VI. The Puritan Colony at Annapolis, Maryland. By D. E. Kandall. bOcfs. VII-VIII-IX. History of the Land Question in the United States. By Shosi;ke Sato. $1.00. X. The Town and City Government of New Haven. By Charles H. Leveumore. 50 cents. XI-XII. The Land System of the New England Colonies. By Mel- ville Eoleston. 50 cents. FIFTH SERIES.— Municipal Government, History and Politics.— 1887.— ^3.50, I-H. City Government of Philadelphia. B Edward P. Allinson and Boies Penrose. 50 cents. III. City Government of Boston. By James M. Bdgbee. 25 cents. IV. City Government of St. Louis. By Marshall S. Snow. 25 cents. V-VI. Local Government in Canada. By John George Bourinot. 50cenis. VII. The Influence of the War of 1812 upon the Consolidation of the American Union. By Nicholas Murray Butler. 25 cents. VIII. Notes on the Literature of Charities. By Herbert B.Adams. 25cents. IX. The Predictions of Hamilton and De Tocqueville. By James Bryce. 25 cents. X. The Studyof History in England and Scotland. By P. Fredericq. 25cfs. XI. Seminary Libraries and University Extension. By H. B. Adams. 25 cents. XII. European Schools of History and Politics. By A. D.White. 25cents. SIXTH SERIES— The History of Co-operation in the United States.— 1888.— $3.50. SEVENTH SERIES.-Sodal Science, Education, and Government.— 1889.— $3 50. I. Arnold Toynbee. By F. C. IMontague. With an Account of the Work of Toynbee Hall in East London, by Philip Lyttelton Gell. 50 cenL'i. II-III. The Establishm.ent of Municipal Government in San Francisco* By Bernard Moses. 50 cents. IV. The City Government of New Orleans. ByW. W.Howe. 25 cents. V-VI. English Culture in Virginia: A Study of the Gilmer Letters etc. By William P. Trent. $1.00. ' VII-VIII-IX. The River Towns of Connecticut. Wethersfield, Hartford and Windsor. By Charles M. Andrews. $1.00. X-XI-XII. Federal Government in Canada. By John G. BotrRiNOT. $1.00, EIGHTH SERIES.— History, Politics, and Education.— 1890.— $3,50. I-II. The Beginnings of American Nationality. By A. W, Small. $1.00. III. Local Government in V/isconsin. By D. E. Spencer. 25 cents. IV. Spanish Colonization in the Southwest. By F.W. Blackmar. 50eents. ^"^^' Jaa ^*"*^y °^ History in Germany and France. By P. Feedericq. 5)1.00. VII^VIII-IX, Progress of the Colored People of Maryland since the War. By Jeffrey R. Brackett. $1.U0. X.' The Study of History in Belgium and Holland. By P, Fredericq. 50 cents. XI-XII. Seminary Notes on Recent Historical Literature. By H. B. Adajis, J. M. Vincent, W. B. Scaife, and others. 50 cents. NINTH SERIES.— Education, History, Politics and Social Science.— 1891.— $3.50. I-II. Government and Administration of the United States. By W. W. WiLLOUGHBY and W. F. Willoughby. 75 cmts. Interleaved edition for notes, $1.25. III-IV. University Education in Maryland. By B. C. Steiner. The Johns Hopkins University (1876-1891). By D. C. Gilman. With Supplementary Notes on University Extension. By R. G. Moulton. 50 cents. V-VI. Development of Municipal Unity in the Lombard Communes. By WiT^LiAM K. Williams. 50 cents. VII-VIH. Public Lands and Agrarian Laws of the Roman Republic. By Andrew Stephenson. 75 cents. IX. Constitutional Development of Japan (T853-1881). By Toyokichi i YEN AG a. 50 cents. X. A History of Liberia. By J. H. T, McPherson. 50 cents. Xl-Xn. The Character and Influence of the Indian Trade in Wiscon- sin, By Frederick J. Turner. 50 cents, TENTH SERIES.— Church and State.— 1892.— $3.50. I. The Bishop Hill Colony: A Religious Communistic Settlement in Henry County, Illinois. By Michael A. Mikkelsen. Paper, 50 cents. Clotb, 75 cents. II-III. Church and State in New England. By Paul E. Lauer. Paper, 50 cents. Cloth, 75 cents. IV. Church and State in Early Maryland. By George Petrie. 50 cents. V-VI. The Religious Development in the Province of North Carolina. By Stephen B. Weeks. 50 cents. VII. Maryland's Attitude in the Struggle for Canada. By John W. Black. 50 centn. VIII-IX. The Quakers in Pennsylvania, 1682-1776. By Albert Clayton Applegarth. 75 cents. X-XI. Columbus and his Discovery of America. By H. B. Adams and Henry Wood. 50 cents. XII. Causes of the American Revolution. By James Albert Woodburn. 50 cents. The set of ten series is now offered, uniformly bound in cloth for library use, for $30.00, and including subscriptions to the eleventh series, $33.00. The ten series, with twelve extra volumes, "New Haven," "Philadel- phia," "Baltimore," "Local Constitutionaf History " Vol. I, "Negro in IVIaryland," " U. S. Supreme Court," " U. S. and Japan," "Switzerland," "Spanish Institutions in Southwest," "Study of Constitution," "Old English Manor," and "America: Its Geographical History," altogether twenty-two volumes in cloth as above, for $48.00. All business communications should be addressed to Tbje Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore, Maryland. LRpMrVS VQ C-