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 BREAD 
 
 FACTS 
 
 WORTH READING 
 WORTH KNOWING 
 WORTH PRACTICING 
 
 PUBLISHtD BY 
 RESEARCH PRODUCTS DEPARTMENT 
 
 WARD BAKING COMPANY 
 
PUBLISHED IN THE 
 
 INTEREST OF BETTER 
 
 BREAD MAKING 
 
 BY THE 
 
 RESEARCH PRODUCTS DEPARTMENT 
 
 WARD BAKING COMPANY 
 
 NEW YORK 
 

 Copyright 1920 
 by 
 Ward Baking Company 
 
 MAt 16 1921 
 
 ©CU617025 
 
 . ^W/O I 
 
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 r~- 
 
 INTRODUCTION 
 
 The American baking industry found itself 
 during the war. The fundamental importance 
 of bread as the main food, the lowest-price 
 food, the food which contains more of the 
 elements of nutrition needed in the daily 
 diet of both young and old than any other 
 single food of general consumption was pro- 
 claimed by government agencies in every 
 country. With sufficient bread and milk the 
 children were safe from hunger; were well fed, 
 Bread became as it always has been, the main 
 food of the soldier. With more bread 
 during the war the people were better fed 
 for both health and labor, than they are 
 generally fed. 
 
 Consumers were taught the larger food 
 value of bread during the war days. Business 
 men from all ranks, called to help in the 
 mobilization of the country's resources or in 
 the equitable distribution and conservation 
 of the food supplies, saw the facts as never 
 before and with common consent placed bread 
 in the front rank of national industrial 
 
B REA D FACTS 
 
 importance. Food scientists, from govern- 
 ment and state departments, from universities, 
 large and small, and from private laboratories 
 turned their first attention to bread and 
 emphasized it as the one food to be protected 
 and an adequate supply maintained. House- 
 wives, through direct governmental, commer- 
 cial and trade publications, were told about 
 the food value of bread, about its depend- 
 ability as the main food for the family — were 
 brought to look at bread in a new, a larger 
 and a more important food light — amounting 
 to an advertising value that could not have 
 been purchased at any price. 
 
 The economies of milling and baking were 
 studied by both governmental commissions 
 and by masters in the economics of practical 
 business. From the standpoint of soundness, 
 service and the absence of profiteering not 
 another industry stood a better, a cleaner test. 
 The economy and the better general quality 
 of bread produced from the modern methods 
 of the modern baker were compared by these 
 same disinterested agencies, with the wastes, 
 often baking failures and higher costs of most 
 
B REA D FACTS 
 
 of the home baking — again to the credit of the 
 baking industry. 
 
 Chemistry and physics, bacteriology and 
 the other sciences as they apply to the growing 
 of cereals, to the transportation and storage 
 of grain against spoilage, to milling, to baking 
 and to the accessory materials — yeast and 
 yeast foods, milk and malt extracts, sugars, 
 fats and salt— were put to work in these 
 fields as never before. The pioneer scientific 
 work formerly done by the few was at last 
 acclaimed as a benefaction. Today, domestic 
 science workers are seriously studying bread 
 with more of direct interest in the work, the 
 methods and product of the bakery. Milling 
 companies and bakers are turning, with more 
 dependence, to laboratory control as an aid to 
 practical experience. Schools and colleges are 
 giving the sciences, as applied to cereals and 
 bread, more preeminence in their courses. 
 Out of it all the American baking industry has 
 established the American Institute of Baking 
 as the cap sheaf for continuous, deep and 
 thoroiigh research, for the teaching of sound 
 and practical facts about bread and baking, 
 
B READ FACTS 
 
 and for service to all who seek the aid of 
 science in baking problems. 
 
 At no other time has the American house- 
 wife who does her own baking, or who does 
 not put enough bread into the daily diet of 
 her family been more receptive towards the 
 good baker and good bread. 
 
 With all these facts before us we have con- 
 ceived the idea of assembling for the baker 
 some practical hints on better bread making, 
 the food value of bread, applied science in the 
 bakery and other important facts, all of which 
 we have published in this little volume and 
 which we hope may prove of some service to 
 the trade in general and be a modest but 
 valuable instrument in improving the value 
 of the baker's loaf and help speed the coming 
 of the day when the housewife will rely en- 
 tirely on the baker for her daily supply of the 
 "staff of life." 
 
B READ FACTS 
 
 THE AMERICAN LOAF OF BREAD 
 
 The perfect loaf of bread has no written 
 rules. Science may find and describe the whys 
 but an artist makes the loaf. In no other 
 industry are there so many variables. The 
 flour, the yeast, the time and temperature, the 
 proving and baking must all be fitted one into 
 the other. In no other industry has the work 
 of standardization been more difficult. A 
 formula made out for one shop does not work 
 in another, unless the variable factors have 
 been stabilized towards one standard of ingred- 
 ients and method. If the public could know 
 the earnest care that goes into making a good 
 loaf of bread they could not keep from univer- 
 sal appreciative response. 
 
 There are two points to clear up in the public 
 mind about bread; one is volume and the other 
 absorption. Volume, if not carried to the 
 point of over proving, means lightness, digest- 
 ibility and better bread. Bakers have com- 
 peted among themselves for volume. This 
 competition has been giving the public a slice 
 of bread in which the starch and protein 
 particles are better separated, one from 1 1 1 
 
B READ FACTS 
 
 Other, ready for the action of the human diges- 
 tive processes. What is wanted in bread is 
 that each and every particle shall be opened, 
 opened to the fermentation actions which ren- 
 der it more wholesome, opened to the heat 
 which renders it better baked. So the baker 
 who studies expansion, works for expansion 
 and gets expansion, without sacrifice of flavor 
 — expansion with texture, even, finely divided 
 texture, silky texture, with the bread still full 
 of life, taste and wheat flavor — is doing as 
 much for the human stomach as for his indus- 
 try. Volume, with texture and flavor is the 
 first standard, both for the baker and the con- 
 sumer. 
 
 Another important point is absorption. 
 Much bread is turned out of inferior quality 
 because the yeast and its actions have not had 
 enough moisture during the fermentation. It 
 is easier to handle a dry loaf, than one more 
 moist. Most doughs are too dry, and the 
 resulting bread lacks in the eating qualities 
 desired by the consumer. The yeast must have 
 proper moisture, sufficient oxygen and proper 
 food. Yeast foods are treated under a separate 
 
B REA D FACTS 
 
 chapter. But it may be stated here that the 
 perfect loaf must have, among other things, 
 sufficient absorption and oxygen during the 
 mixing and fermentation. 
 
 Proper mixing is another factor. The gluten 
 is conserved and developed in the mixing, or 
 injured, according to the perfection of the 
 method. The high speed mixer produces a 
 result which hand mixing cannot attain. 
 
 Time and temperature, the strength and 
 quantity of the yeast, fitted into the time, tem- 
 perature and the quality of the flour, systema- 
 tic operation of the shop according to schedule, 
 the proof, the temperature and condition of the 
 heat and moisture in the oven, the humidity 
 under which the doughs are raised, proofed 
 and baked are, all, factors entering into the 
 kind of loaf that the consumer again comes 
 back for to the commercial baker. 
 
 Wheat flour is made into many products and 
 combined with many materials — sugar, nuts, 
 fruits, spices, eggs, icings and other ingredients 
 to make it into a finished food; but the stan- 
 dard product from the bakery is the every day 
 loaf, which the consumer will eat at each meal 
 
lo BREAD FACTS 
 
 with Other food and not tire of. The typical 
 American loaf is developed from what may be 
 termed the American home-made loaf. Its 
 standards of excellence may be described as 
 follows : 
 
 1 . Full expansion with the top pulling, but 
 not pulled loose from the sides. 
 
 2. Golden brown, or darker brown, depend- 
 ing upon oven steam, but in all cases showing 
 that the sugars in the flour and added to the 
 dough have not been used up through exces- 
 sive fermentation. Perfect bloom is indicative 
 of the sweet and better flavor. When this is 
 absent the loaf has less flavor and less qualities 
 which make it palatable. 
 
 3. When the loaf is cut open, fine, silky 
 texture, with the dough cells finely divided, 
 should accompany the full expansion. The 
 fine division of the cell walls puts the bread in 
 better condition for digestion and is character- 
 istic of a properly conducted fermentation. 
 The color of the crumb, or inside of the loaf, 
 should be clear white, with life, due to both the 
 finer division of the cell walls and to absence 
 of detrimental fermentation effect upon the 
 flour. The crumb should not crumble ; that is, 
 fall away in parts when it is cut, but should be 
 
BREAD FACTS n 
 
 firm. The flavor should be the sweet and 
 suggestive nutty flavor of wheat. 
 
 4. Such a loaf has good keeping qualities, 
 and is palatable several days after baking. 
 
 The standard American loaf is baked in a 
 pan, with a thin, rather than a thick crust as 
 distinguished from the types of hearth breads 
 where the amount of crust equals the amount 
 of inside crumb. It is true that there is a large 
 consumption of rolls and rye breads and 
 breads of theVienna or French type, but day in 
 and day out the American public prefer the 
 type of loaf which has been developed from the 
 kind that "Mother" made and baked in a pan. 
 
 The state of civilization and the prosperity 
 of a country can be judged by its bread. Every- 
 where, effort is made to leaven it so that it will 
 be more digestible. In parts of Sweden the rye 
 bread is baked at harvest and stored away. In 
 other northern countries the bread is baked 
 into thin cakes, on hot stones. The Persian 
 makes a bread from rice and sour milk. In 
 many of the Oriental countries sour milk and 
 dough are set as the starter for the leavening 
 of bread. This method is known in our South 
 
12 BREAD FACTS 
 
 as salt rising bread. The leavening is a bacterial 
 or biological action rather than a yeast or 
 plant action. 
 
 But it is to the standard American loaf that 
 the baker in this country can well turn for 
 success, sticking to a few types, centering on 
 quality in the few, rather than on large variety. 
 
BREAD FACTS 13 
 
 THE FOOD VALUE OF BREAD 
 
 Life is built up in steps; first from the soil, 
 in the form of the plants; and then from the 
 plant into the form of animal, and most animal 
 life goes farther and feeds on other animals. 
 Even in human nutrition the most economic 
 way is to utilize, direct, larger quantities of 
 grain, roots and plants for food. Take a 
 bushel of wheat, for example: the human 
 system converts over 90 per cent into nutri- 
 tive value. But, if the bushel of wheat or 
 other grain is used in the production of 
 animal foods, the cow converts eighteen per 
 cent into milk food; the pig fifteen and one- 
 half per cent into pork food ; poultry five and 
 one-tenth per cent in the production of eggs, 
 and four and two-tenths per cent in the pro- 
 duction of dressed poultry; the lamb, three 
 and two-tenths per cent, and no wool; the 
 sheep two and six-tenths per cent, together 
 with wool, while the steer turns only two and 
 eight-tenths per cent of the grain into beef. 
 So that if a nation has but a given quantity 
 of grain foods with which to meet an abnormal 
 demand, or if it has a high cost of living 
 
14 BREAD FACTS 
 
 problem, the people are vitally concerned 
 with that method of utilization which will 
 furnish the maximum amount of nutrition 
 for human consumption. In times of peace, 
 as well as war, bread, with its proper balance 
 with other needed food elements, constitutes 
 the economic food answer. 
 
 The time has come when we have sufficient 
 of dependable knowledge about foods, about 
 the nutritive value of bread, about the daily 
 food needs, to go to the public with definite 
 statements of the amount of bread that should, 
 for health, strength, proper nourishment and 
 proper economy, he put into the daily diet. In 
 this direction of definite advertising lies not 
 only opportunity for increased sales but for 
 service to the public. How much bread 
 should the child, the growing boy and girl, 
 the man or woman at work with muscle or 
 with mind eat each day ? With what food com- 
 binations can bread be made the most ap- 
 petizing to the taste and most nourishing? 
 How does bread best combine with fruits and 
 vegetables, with jams and jellies, with soups 
 and meats, with eggs and puddings, with 
 
BREAD FACTS 15 
 
 butter and other fats, with syrups and honey ? 
 What does it need to supplement its vitamines 
 and mineral salts ? A study of such facts leads 
 to but one conclusion: that each individual 
 should eat from a pound to a pound and a half 
 of bread per day, to be well and economically 
 fed, and that the public can be convinced of 
 this fact if the baker will come to know and 
 proclaim the full food facts. 
 
 The daily need in food elements are in 
 order of quantity: 
 
 Carbohydrates 
 Fats 
 Proteins 
 Mineral salts 
 Vitamines 
 
 The authorities in nutrition agree that the 
 average adult should eat daily: 
 
 Carbohydrates 500 Grams 
 
 Protein 100 
 
 Fats 50 
 
 Salt (Sodium Chloride) 10 
 
 Other Mineral Salts 9.85 " 
 
 Vitamines (quantities not determined). 
 
i6 B READ FACTS 
 
 One pound of bread furnishes: 
 
 Carbohydrates 240 Grams 
 
 Protein 40.5 
 
 Fats 12. 1 
 
 Salt (Sodium Chloride) 6.7 
 
 Other mineral salts 2.78 
 
 The daily mineral salt needs are stated to be : 
 
 Salt (Sodium Chloride)... 10 Grams 
 
 Potash 4.37 
 
 Phosphates 3.25 
 
 Sulphur 1 .2 
 
 Lime i.o 
 
 Magnesia 02 
 
 Iron 01 
 
 Iodine, Fluorline, Bromine 
 and other minerals — small quantities 
 
 One pound of white bread furnishes in 
 mineral salts: 
 
 Salt (Sodium Chloride) 6.7 Grams 
 
 Sulphur 1.08 
 
 Phosphates 98 
 
 Potash 43 
 
 Lime 14 
 
 Magnesia 14 
 
 Bromine 008 
 
 Iron 004 
 
 Other minerals traces 
 
B READ FACTS 17 
 
 Now bread furnishes the frame work of the 
 daily food need. And what the consumer 
 wants to know is just how to build onto the 
 frame work; just what other foods to add to 
 make the diet complete. The facts, free facts, 
 facts with the weight of undoubted authority, 
 facts gleaned through years of patient and 
 world-wide study and experiment, are waiting 
 now for the baker to fit them to his bread. 
 
 Bread is not only a valuable and economic 
 source of carbohydrates but wheat bread is 
 also the source of the best cereal proteins. 
 Wheat bread is then both a carbohydrate and 
 protein food, together with valuable quantities 
 of phosphates, potash, sulphur and the sodium 
 and chlorine added from the salt used in bread 
 making. White bread furnishes the more 
 digestible form of these carbohydrates and 
 proteins. Yeast bread, properly mixed, prop- 
 erly fermented and properly baked fur- 
 nishes these food elements in still more digest- 
 ible form. This is the reason why yeast bread 
 is the preferred form of bread in all lands 
 where wheat and rye are available — wheat and 
 rye because of their gluten content which 
 
B READ FACTS 
 
 distinguish them from other cereals. The yeast 
 not only raises the bread but its enzymes act 
 on both the starch and the protein, rendering 
 these food elements more digestible and more 
 available for human nutrition. 
 
 As pointed out, carbohydrates are the chief 
 daily need in human nutrition. Bread fur- 
 nishes the cheapest, yeast bread the most 
 digestible, form of cereal carbohydrates; and 
 in depending on bread for the energy-giving 
 carbohydrates, consumers can also obtain half of 
 their required protein supply. 
 
 Hunt and Atwater in Farmers' Bulletin 824 
 of the United States Department of Agricul- 
 ture have summarized the needs in nutrition, 
 especially from the standpoint of sufficient 
 protein, with reference to bread as follows: 
 
 ' 'Since the protein foods include many of the 
 more expensive foods in common use, and since 
 an adequate supply of protein is essential to 
 the growth and upkeep of the body, it is 
 especially important for the housekeeper to 
 know how much her family needs and to be 
 able to choose the materials which, in her 
 particular circumstances, will best provide the 
 proper kind and amount." 
 
BREAD FACTS iq 
 
 "The foods usually classed as rich in pro- 
 tein are: milk and cheese; eggs; meat, poul- 
 try and fish; dried legumes, such as peas, 
 beans, cowpeas, soy beans, and peanuts; and 
 almond and some other nuts. Wheat, oats, 
 and some other cereals also furnish consider- 
 able amounts of protein. Milk is the best 
 source of protein for children. There is about 
 one-fourth ounce of protein in each of the fol- 
 lowing: One glass of milk, one egg, i 1-2 to 2 
 ounces of meat, i ounce of cheese, and 13 
 ounces of bread. A man at moderate mus- 
 cular work is believed to need about 3 1-2 
 ounces of protein a day, and a family consist- 
 ing of father, mother and three small children 
 about twelve ounces a day." 
 
 "/^ is possible to plan an attractive and whole- 
 some diet in which one-half of the necessary pro- 
 tein is supplied by bread and other cereal foods 
 which are relatively cheap.'' 
 
 In discussing the relative food values, the 
 true approach is to know just what food ele- 
 ments are necessary in building up and running 
 the human machine, and allow each product to 
 present itself, on its merits, for its proper place 
 in the building. It is from such approach that 
 yeast-wheat bread, measured by all other 
 
20 BREAD FACTS 
 
 foods in its class, ranks first in the food value 
 of the food elements which it supplies. Nor 
 is there need for controversy over whole wheat 
 bread versus white bread. The whole wheat 
 has more of the mineral salts and more fiber. 
 The baker bakes both kinds of bread ; but as a 
 standard for the daily diet, the consumer pre- 
 fers and demands the white bread. The con- 
 sumer can, at will, select the whole wheat 
 bread. 
 
 There have been many reasons for the separ- 
 ation of the wheat berry in milling. The germ 
 of the wheat spoils ; the bran of the wheat does 
 not yield its nutriment to human digestion as 
 readily as do the inside portions of the berry. 
 Though backed by the earnest and disinter- 
 ested propaganda of food writers, though ad- 
 vertised at extensive expense by baking firms 
 the demand for whole wheat bread is limited. 
 All can agree that the germ is rich in protein 
 and fat, and the bran rich in some of the 
 mineral salts needed in human nutrition. 
 And here lies opportunity for scientific devel- 
 opments in the form of grain extracts which 
 will still further separate the valuable elements 
 
BREAD FACTS 21 
 
 of the wheat offal from the fiber. The human 
 machine needs fiber but the human taste seems 
 to prefer the more succulent fiber from green 
 vegetables and ripe fruits. Differing rations 
 are needed for differing needs. The large milk 
 and butter records among dairy cows have 
 been made on rations containing substantial 
 quantities of wheat bran; while the mule at 
 the plow is given a bran ration but once each 
 week ;and the thoroughbred that breaks records 
 under the saddle or at the sulky has the bran 
 mash at still less intervals. Let there be no 
 quarrel with the miller or the baker because 
 the consumer demands bread frompeeled wheat. 
 Even whole grains do not contain all of the 
 elements recognized as necessary in the human 
 diet. They are deficient among other things 
 in lime. Dr. H. C. Sherman of Columbia 
 University says after summarizing a list of 
 valuable data about human nutrition: 
 
 Journal of Industrial and Engineering 
 Chemistry, Vol. lo, No. 5, Page 383. 
 
 "It cannot be denied that the rapid progress 
 of our knowledge of nutrition during the 
 past few years has tended to complicate rather 
 
22 BREAD FACTS 
 
 than simplify our conception of food values 
 and nutritive requirements. But, while the 
 problem has become more complex, it also has 
 become clearer because we now for the first 
 time have good reason to believe that all of the 
 substances needed for normal nutrition have 
 been recognized and can be reckoned with even 
 though the chemical identification is in some 
 cases not yet complete." 
 
 "The efficiency with which economy in the 
 use of food and the conservation of the food 
 supply can be combined with entire adequacy 
 of nutrition is chiefly dependent upon the 
 adequate diet in quantitative terms." 
 
 "These results indicate very strongly that 
 the average American dietary contains a much 
 more liberal margin of protein than of either 
 phosphorous or calcium, and that while the 
 danger of a protein deficiency is rarely serious 
 the danger of a deficiency of phosphorus or 
 calcium is more important. Phosphorus defic- 
 iencies are plainly more frequent than are 
 deficiencies of protein, and calcium deficiencies 
 are more frequent still. The old assumption 
 that adequate protein may be taken as mean- 
 ing adequate supplies of all tissue-building 
 material is found to be wholly misleading. 
 Adequate energy intake is, in practice, more 
 
BREAD FACTS 23 
 
 apt to insure adequacy of mineral elements, 
 but even if all of the 246 dietaries had been 
 brought to a basis of 3,000 calories per man 
 per day, 12 per cent of them would still have 
 furnished less than the average 'requirements' 
 of calcium." 
 
 Also to Drs. Mendel and Osborne of Yale, 
 to Dr. Lusk of Cornell, to Dr. Forbes of Ohio 
 State, and to Dr. McCullum of Johns Hopkins, 
 who have done so much pioneer work on the 
 substances popularly called 'Vitamines" and 
 mineral salts and to others of their class we 
 turn today for accurate knowledge of proper 
 foods and proper feeding. Dr. McCullum has 
 worked with long patience to find out just 
 what cereals need to make them into com- 
 plete foods. In addition to the vitamine need 
 in nutrition, he points out the need for the 
 addition of mineral salts to cereal foods as 
 follows : 
 
 'The growth records make possible the 
 generalization that it is difficult, if not imposs- 
 ible, to obtain even a moderate amount of 
 growth over an extended period on a diet 
 restricted to the seeds of plants. It is evident 
 that satisfactory protein mixtures can be had 
 
24 B READ FACTS 
 
 from seed mixtures, and from the results it is 
 further evident that certain seeds as flaxseed 
 and millet seed contain the fat-soluble A in 
 fairly liberal amounts. Since the water-soluble 
 B is everywhere abundant in the seeds the 
 cause of failure to secure growth on seed mix- 
 tures is seen to lie in the amount and char- 
 acter of the inorganic moiety. An inspection 
 of the literature relating to the content of 
 inorganic elements in various classes of natural 
 foods as determined in recent times by satis- 
 factory methods reveals at a glance the supple- 
 mentary relationships among the different 
 classes of vegetable foods in inorganic elements. 
 Of the seven most important seeds from the 
 standpoint of human nutrition and animal 
 production, only cottonseed and flaxseed 
 contain a high total inorganic content and in 
 both cases the ash is very poor in three impor- 
 tant elements, sodium, calcium, and chlorine. 
 Since a pronounced deficiency of these elements is 
 characteristic of all other seeds as well, no com- 
 binations of seeds will supply these elements in 
 satisfactory amounts. Since spring and well 
 waters in certain districts contain both sodium 
 and calcium in greatly varying amounts it would 
 be expected that animals may secure the necessary 
 inorganic supplements through the drinking 
 water in some localities which would enable them 
 
B READ FACTS 25 
 
 to grow on a ration restricted to seeds, whereas in 
 other parts of the world they could not do 50." — 
 Journal Biological Chemistry, Vol. 30, 
 page 13. 
 
 We sell in wheat bread a food containing 
 refined carbohydrates and the best form of 
 cereal protein, with these food elements ren- 
 dered more soluble and more digestible 
 through the action of the yeast. In addition, 
 bread contains substantial amounts of needed 
 mineral salts. No claims at present are made 
 for vitamines ; but in studying the relation of 
 the food elements and the mineral salts con- 
 tained in bread to the daily amounts needed 
 in human nutrition it is plain that with milk, 
 grain extracts, and additions of mineral 
 salts, bread can be brought more and more 
 towards the standards of a complete food. In 
 selling bread, welcome the dairyman, the 
 vegetable and fruit grower, the meat packer, 
 the fisherman, and poultryman, and then say 
 to the consumer, with full warrant of nutri- 
 tional authority: "Make half of your daily 
 diet bread, and this means at least a pound of 
 bread for each individual per day. And with 
 
26 BREAD FACTS 
 
 this pound of bread as your food basis then add 
 such other foods as will give the full comple- 
 ment of vitamines, mineral salts, fats, other 
 proteins and carbohydrates, as your purse, 
 your taste, and a correct knowledge of food 
 values aids you to determine." 
 
BREAD FACTS 27 
 
 HINTS FOR BETTER BREAD 
 
 There are many troubles encountered in 
 the baking of bread. In making suggestions 
 it is quite difficult, at times, to diagnose a 
 trouble, but hints will often suggest a remedy 
 to follow. The baking foreman when en- 
 countering trouble with his doughs and bread 
 should pause a moment, reflect and check 
 himself to see that the proper procedure was 
 followed in making up the dough. By analyz- 
 ing the situation, the trouble will often solve 
 itself. 
 
 The Rising of the Dough 
 
 You may notice that the dough is not rising 
 properly. A thermometer will tell you whether 
 you set the dough at the proper temperature. 
 Too much salt will retard the rising. If you 
 permit the yeast to come in contact with the 
 salt for only a fraction of a minute, before 
 mixing the dough, there will be a decided 
 falling off in the strength of the yeast. Dis- 
 solving the yeast in very cold water will check 
 the rising. Examine the yeast to see if it is 
 fresh. You may have gotten hold of some stale 
 
28 B READ FACTS 
 
 yeast. Fresh compressed yeast should have a 
 good smell, not putrefactive, the color should 
 be creamy yellow, and not dark, and it should 
 break with a clear fracture and not show the 
 consistency of butter. You may have left your 
 yeast standing in a warm place. A warm tem- 
 perature, even for a short time, is detrimental 
 to yeast action. Know how long yeast has been 
 in the refrigerator. Yeast deteriorates from 
 the instant that it is put into compressed 
 form. This deterioration is all the more rapid 
 the warmer it is kept and the longer it is kept. 
 Yoy may observe that your dough rises 
 rapidly at first, but it gradually loses its 
 activity, the dough rises slowly in the pan, 
 and the dough, instead of having a "kick" 
 in the oven, refuses to expand properly. This 
 may be caused by the nature of the yeast. 
 The yeast may have a strong initial fer- 
 mentation but it loses its strength before the 
 bread is baked. If you have not supplied the 
 yeast with sufficient fermentable material in 
 the form of sugars, the action will become 
 weaker and weaker. Warm temperatures will 
 also cause a rapid start but the final action 
 
BREAD FACTS . iq 
 
 will be slow and sluggish. The best kind of 
 fermentation is one which starts slowly and 
 increases in vigor and reaches its best activity 
 when the dough is in the pan. This condition 
 is attained when there is proper nourishment 
 for the yeast in the dough. 
 
 Arkady Yeast Food supplies an ideal food 
 for the yeast in the dough. It causes the yeast 
 to grow and produce new yeast which, by its 
 very nature of growth, has a maximum raising 
 power. Starting with less yeast when using 
 Arkady, you naturally get a much slower 
 action in the first period, but after the first 
 punch, which is in about two hours, you begin 
 to get the effects of the newly produced yeast 
 and the dough begins to rise more vigorously 
 and continues so until your bread is baked. 
 
 Be sure your yeast is fresh and feed it properly 
 to insure good results. 
 
 Proper Fermentation Period 
 
 By fermentation period is understood the 
 time required to properly develop the dough. 
 This is the time interval from the time the 
 dough is mixed until it is ready for scaling. 
 
30 BREAD FACTS 
 
 There is ho laboratory test which will deter- 
 mine this accurately, although the tests are 
 admirable guides. A high speed mixer develops 
 the gluten, so a shorter fermenting period is 
 required, than when using a slow speed. The 
 longer a dough can be mixed with a high speed 
 mixer, the better the dough will be developed 
 and the shorter will be the fermentation 
 period. Some flours, however, will not stand 
 vigorous mixing so an understanding of your 
 flours is necessary. Flours with a strong, 
 tough gluten will stand more mixing than 
 flours of the soft winter wheat type. 
 
 A dough which has had too much mixing 
 will be sticky when it comes from the mixer. 
 It will remain sticky during the time it stands 
 in the trough; it will scale with difficulty; it 
 will proof poorly, tending to run flat in the 
 pan and it will not expand properly in the 
 oven. Northwestern flour, as a rule, requires 
 more time in the dough than the Southwestern 
 flours. Among the Southwestern flours, 
 Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas flours require 
 a little more time than the Nebraska and 
 Missouri flours. The Kansas and Missouri 
 
BREAD FACTS 31 
 
 flours require more time than the flours from 
 California, Oregon, Washington, Illinois, Indi- 
 ana, Kentucky, Ohio, Pennsylvania and the 
 Eastern states; and the latter flours more time 
 than the very soft wheats of Michigan and 
 Wisconsin. The Canadian flours probably have 
 the toughest and largest amount of gluten, of 
 any flours. They can stand lots of mixing, 
 and must have a long time to develop the 
 gluten most effectively. The doughs from 
 these flours may be soft when they come from 
 the mixer. They have the power, however, 
 to become tough again as the fermentation 
 progresses. 
 
 There are seasons, however, when the above 
 remarks will not hold for a given territory. 
 The larger portion of the wheat crop for 
 Montana, in 191 8, produced a flour much like 
 the Canadian flours. The gluten was tough 
 but elastic, and it was present in large 
 amounts. This flour required a long fer- 
 mentation to get the best results. However, 
 the 19 19 wheat crop of the same state pro- 
 duced a flour which was deficient in gluten, 
 as well as one that was weak and did not stand 
 
32 BREAD FACTS 
 
 much fermentation. The 191 8, Northwestern 
 and Southwestern wheats, gave a flour with 
 a strong gluten and plenty of it; so a 4^^ to 
 5 hour fermentation gave excellent bread. 
 The 19 19 crop from the same localities gave 
 a flour which showed its best results when 
 taken in 33^2 to 4 hours. The 1920 wheat crop 
 promises to give an excellent flour for gluten 
 quality and gluten strength. A longer period 
 of fermentation with a slacker dough will give 
 better results than you are getting with the 
 19 19 crop, using the shorter period of fer- 
 mentation. 
 
 There are a number of factors which will 
 influence the fermentation period. In the 
 first place, the amount of yeast that is used, 
 the quality of the yeast, and the age of the 
 yeast, will affect the time. The stronger the 
 fermentation, naturally, the shorter the time 
 required to develop the dough. Warm tem- 
 peratures shorten the period, through in- 
 creasing the activity of the yeast and through 
 stimulating those ferments which act best at 
 higher temperatures and which are always 
 present in a dough. These act upon the 
 
BREAD FACTS 33 
 
 gluten, making it soft and elastic. Some of 
 this is to be desired, but when this action goes 
 too far the capacity of the dough for holding 
 gas and then giving the proper "kick" in 
 the oven is gone. The weaker the flour the 
 more noticeable will be this action. 
 
 Salt tends to lengthen the fermentation 
 period. It checks the ferments which act on 
 the gluten and checks the yeast action, and it 
 toughens the gluten. Whole milk, skimmed 
 milk, powdered milk, sweetened condensed 
 and unsweetened condensed milk lengthen 
 the time. They have a binding effect on the 
 gluten. Buttermilk, on the other hand, 
 shortens the time, due to the acidity and the 
 ferments which the buttermilk contains. Cane 
 sugar, glucose, corn sugar and maltose sugars 
 seem to have little direct effect upon the 
 development of the dough. They ferment 
 about equally well in the dough and other 
 than supplying fermentable material for the 
 yeast they do not effect the fermentation 
 period. Malt extracts, however, shorten the 
 period of fermentation. The higher the 
 Lintner value the greater will be the action 
 
34 BREAD FACTS 
 
 on the dough. Shortenings also shorten the 
 fermentation period a little. The better they 
 are incorporated in the dough, the greater 
 will be their action on the dough. 
 
 Naturally, a strong yeast or one that has 
 been supplied with the proper food for the 
 yeast will develop the dough quicker, and 
 make the fermentation period shorter than 
 a dough made from a weak yeast, or one not 
 supplied with yeast food. 
 
 Arkady Yeast Food decreases the time of 
 fermentation by 30% when the average 
 quantity of yeast is used, but by cutting the 
 quantity of yeast from 40% to 50% the fer- 
 mentation period of the dough will remain 
 the same as when no yeast food is used. 
 
 Is a short fermentation period desirable? 
 It is, if the dough can be developed most ef- 
 fectively in a short time. Flours which are 
 weak should be developed rapidly, and for 
 these the shorter periods are desirable and 
 necessary. A flour with a strong tough gluten 
 will give best results with a longer period of 
 fermentation. For flours with a large amount 
 of tough gluten, a moderate amount of yeast 
 
BREAD FACTS 35 
 
 with a long time will give a better result than 
 a large amount of yeast and a short time, and 
 for weaker flours with a small amount of 
 gluten and one that is soft the reverse is true. 
 More yeast and less time are preferable. 
 
 It is a difficult matter to say and still more 
 difficult to determine just exactly what is the 
 correct fermentation period of a dough. 
 After you have the analysis of the flour to 
 show you the quantity of gluten and the qual- 
 ity of the gluten you get an idea of how much 
 fermentation the dough will stand. You will 
 get an idea of how much yeast and how much 
 salt to use, and the time required to develop 
 the gluten properly. The best procedure to 
 follow is to make a dough of proper consistency 
 with the quantity of yeast and salt that you 
 think it should have. Set the dough at 80° F. 
 and scale one fourth of the dough after it has 
 stood 33^2 hours and work up in regular way. 
 Take another 3^^ of the dough after it has 
 stood ^2 hour longer making four hours from 
 time dough was mixed, and proceed as with 
 first portion ; take the third quarter after it has 
 had 43/2 hours ; and the last portion after it has 
 
36 BREAD FACTS 
 
 had 5 hours. If this is not convenient for 
 your shop then make separate doughs with 
 same formula and temperature but give the 
 dough different times, one dough 33^^, one 4, 
 one 43^, and one 5 hours. Make accurate 
 observation and keep notes on what you ob- 
 serve in regard to the dough; its scaling; its 
 moulding; the proving and the quality of 
 bread produced. After the bread is cold inspect 
 and determine which of these periods of fer- 
 mentation gave the best bread. You may find 
 that all of the bread baked is below your 
 standard of quality. The loaves may all have 
 a tendency to be flat, in particular those that 
 had the most fermentation. You should then 
 try using more yeast, but cut the time to three 
 hours — three and a half and four hours and 
 see which give best results. Or, you may find 
 that the dough with five hours gave the best 
 results in that run, but bread still inclined to 
 be too small. It may be you are using too 
 much salt for this flour, and it is preventing 
 the dough from expanding in the oven. Try 
 using less salt and giving the dough five hours 
 or use a little more yeast and still give the 
 dough five hours' fermentation. 
 
BREAD FACTS 37 
 
 If a piece of dough is taken from a batch 
 each half hour, for six hours, from the time of 
 mixing, scaled, rounded up, moulded into a 
 loaf and baked in usual way , it will be found 
 that one of these loaves will be better for 
 appearance, size, texture and color of crumb, 
 and flavor over all the others. The one which 
 is best in these points has had very nearly the 
 proper fermentation period. All the other 
 loaves will have had either too much or too 
 little fermentation. It is true some will be 
 nearly as good as the best one, but even an 
 inexpert person can tell the difference. The 
 dough is developed gradually from the time it 
 is mixed until it reaches a maximum develop- 
 ment and after that stage is passed the dough 
 loses in quality ; it becomes undeveloped again, 
 so to speak. 
 
 The time required for the maximum devel- 
 opment of the dough cannot be ascertained 
 accurately but we can come very near to it by 
 making a series of bakes as described above. 
 Fortunately there is a fairly wide range of 
 time through which we can ferment a dough 
 and still produce a salable loaf of bread. There 
 
38 B REA D FACTS 
 
 is one correct period of fermentation for every 
 dough, when the highest quality loaf of bread 
 is produced, the loaf that creates and holds a 
 customer. 
 
 Is it then possible for a baker to make 
 several kinds of bread, all of the highest quality 
 from one dough ; some of it getting three hours 
 of fermentation and the other possibly six 
 hours ? The answer is, he cannot. One piece of 
 his dough will probably make a good loaf, 
 whereas the remainder of his goods will be 
 either made from a dough which is too young 
 or one that comes from a dough with too 
 much age. 
 
 Many a baker will probably say to this, 
 "Well, my trade likes my bread and I follow 
 this practice." His business is small, because 
 he follows this practice, and if it is not his com- 
 petition is small. The remedy for this is to set 
 separate doughs, for each type of bread, in- 
 stead of setting one dough for a variety of pro- 
 ducts. It may involve a little more time, but 
 it is the only way to produce the highest qual- 
 ity products. At times, the baker sets one 
 dough large enough to fill two ovens, but he 
 
BREAD FACTS 39 
 
 only has one oven in his shop. He takes one 
 half of the dough forty-five minutes before the 
 other half. The result is he has bread of two 
 different qualities. Far better results would 
 be obtained by setting two doughs, each just 
 large enough to fill the oven, and no more. 
 
 The highest quality flour, yeast, shortening, 
 sugar, malt, milk, salt, etc., will not insure 
 the baker good bread if his dough is not fer- 
 mented properly. For that reason such 
 importance is placed upon the necessity of 
 determining proper fermentation period of the 
 dough. In fact, it is the very key to the pro- 
 duction of a quality loaf. 
 
 Sticky Doughs 
 
 It is the experience of every baker to en- 
 counter sticky doughs. A warm temperature 
 may be the cause. Gluten acts very rrluch like 
 glue ; the warmer it gets, the stickier it gets. A 
 sticky dough will result if the yeast weakens 
 during the rising of the dough. Malt extracts 
 with high diastatic and proteolytic enzymes if 
 used in too large amounts will make the dough 
 soft. A knowledge of your malt extract and 
 
40 BREAD FACTS 
 
 the judicious use of it with different flours will 
 save you many troubles. A young dough will 
 feel sticky and will even be sticky and have a 
 tendency to run when in the proof box. Some 
 flours, especially when made from damaged 
 wheat, due to rains, show a remarkable sticki- 
 ness when made into dough and the longer the 
 dough stands the more this develops. One 
 way to handle a flour of this nature is to use 
 lots of salt and yeast, and use a short fermen- 
 tation period. The better solution is to get rid 
 of the flour, if possible to do so. Mixing the 
 dough so long that the gluten loses its elasticity 
 causes a condition of stickiness. This applies 
 to the high speed mixers. There is no danger 
 of making a dough sticky with a slow speed 
 mixer. 
 
 Young and Old Doughs 
 
 A young dough, as the name implies, refers 
 to a dough which is not developed properly. 
 The loaf of bread baked from such a dough will 
 have a dark reddish brown crust, and quite 
 frequently there will be blisters, just beneath 
 the crust. The loaf will be small and flat, 
 
BREAD FACTS 41 
 
 showing little oven spring and if there is any 
 spring the loaf will have a poor appearance. 
 A young dough will take on color quite readily 
 in the oven. In the proof box the dough will 
 flatten out in the pan, and will, in most cases, 
 take considerable time to proof. The dough 
 will also be quite sticky in the pan during 
 proofing, and will also look as though it were 
 sweating. Young doughs have a strong ten- 
 dency to stick to the divider and moulding 
 machine. If the dough is quite young the 
 texture of the crumb will be coarse and the color 
 will be quite yellow, but the flavor will be good. 
 
 Old doughs show some characteristics of 
 young doughs, in that the doughs stick quite 
 badly when scaled and when it passes through 
 the moulding machine. The odor of an old 
 dough is strong, suggesting a sour yeasty 
 smell. An old dough does not show the same 
 stickiness and tendency to run in the proof box 
 that a young dough does, and when it goes to 
 the oven the dough may first show a little ex- 
 pansion, standing up round, but when the loaf 
 is baked it will be smaller than when the dough 
 went into the oven. The gluten in an old 
 
42 BREAD FACTS 
 
 dough tends to pull together in the oven. This 
 is often referred to as having a binding effect. 
 The dough will color slowly in the oven and the 
 crust will be pale. The bread will have a 
 coarse texture and the color of crumb will be 
 dark, but it will not be yellow like that of a 
 young dough; it will have a dirty gray color. 
 An old dough is easily recognized by the strong 
 sour smell of the baked bread. The loaf also 
 crumbles when cut and tastes very poorly. 
 Many bakers ferment their doughs too much. 
 It is much more desirable to take the doughs 
 just on the young side than a little old. You 
 gain in flavor, in keeping qualities and in the 
 bloom of the crust. Bread from an old dough 
 dries out quickly and gets stale very readily. 
 Remedies for old doughs : set dough cooler, or 
 shorten fermentation period, use more salt or 
 use less yeast. 
 
 Proving the Dough 
 
 Proof, as we commonly understand the 
 term, is applied to the rising of the dough in 
 the pan, if it is pan bread, or if hearth bread 
 the rising period from the moulding of the loaf 
 
B RE A D FACTS 
 
 43 
 
 until it goes to the oven. Broadly speaking, 
 proving also includes the rising period from the 
 time the dough is scaled until it is moulded 
 into the loaf. 
 
 This first period of proving though impor- 
 tant is not so vital as the second stage, when 
 the loaf is moulded. This first period should 
 require about lo to 15 minutes under ordinary 
 conditions. However, if the dough is warm 
 and the room is hot, as is often the case, this 
 period should be less. With cold dough the 
 time may be longer. The dough, after being 
 scaled and rounded up, should receive a cer- 
 tain amount of recovery, before moulding. 
 Poor moulding due to improper proof may 
 result from an under, as well as an over proved 
 dough. Under proving will tend to make the 
 loaf heavy and may even cause blisters in the 
 bread. Over proving should be avoided. It 
 develops a skin on the outside which will cause 
 streaks in the bread and it will mold with 
 difficulty ; the dough will tend to tear and stick 
 to the machine and will not mold smoothly. 
 
 The second stage of proving is an important 
 step in the production of a good loaf. A good 
 
44 B READ FACTS 
 
 flour, or a good yeast, is often condemned 
 because of failure in proving the dough prop- 
 erly. The proof room should be kept at 95 
 to ioo°F. and the atmosphere almost saturated 
 with moisture for pan breads. Under these 
 conditions the loaf should proof in 45 to 60 
 minutes. A dough taking longer than one 
 hour to proof may be slow, due to insufficient 
 yeast; it may have too much salt; the yeast 
 may be weak, due to exhaustion, or the dough 
 may be cold, due to setting the dough cold or 
 getting the dough chilled after scaling. A long 
 time in the proof box should be avoided as the 
 gluten loses its ability to hold gas over a long 
 period, especially, as it is matured. The dough 
 will show a tendency to flatten in the pan and 
 the resulting bread will lack the oven "kick." 
 The bread will have a poor texture and the 
 color of crumb and the general appearance of 
 the loaf will not be good. See that you are 
 getting a quick proof. However, avoid taking 
 your doughs under proof as this will make your 
 doughs stand up round and will pull away 
 from the pans when in the oven. The bread 
 will be heavy ; it will not bake well in the oven ; 
 
BREAD FACTS 4$ 
 
 it will lack in bloom and the odor and flavor 
 will be strong. Caution — do not over proof 
 the dough. A dough which has had too much 
 proof will not show much oven "kick;" the 
 texture of the bread may be even, but it will be 
 coarse, the color of the crumb will be off, and 
 the crumb will show a great tendency to 
 crumble when cut. Do not try to get volume 
 in your loaf by proving. A properly proved 
 loaf if it is fermented properly will show a 
 lively spring in the oven and will give you the 
 proper size. The bread should show a small 
 break with shredded appearance on the side of 
 the loaf. Too much heat is injurious in prov- 
 ing; the dough will flatten and the resulting 
 loaf of bread will, naturally, be flat, and may 
 have numerous blisters beneath the crust ; the 
 texture will be coarse and color of crumb 
 dark. 
 
 A proof box that supplies warmth and mois- 
 ture is essential for every shop; regardless of 
 whether you bake one dozen loaves or one 
 thousand. 
 
 The dough should be kept warm and moist 
 during proving. 
 
46 BREAD FACTS 
 
 Controlling the Temperature of the Dough Room 
 A loaf of bread of uniform goodness can only 
 be obtained where shop conditions are con- 
 trolled. 
 
 The two vital ingredients, flour and yeast, 
 are very susceptible to changes of tempera- 
 ture, particularly when in the dough. Cold 
 temperatures check the activity of the yeast. 
 At 6o°F. fermentation practically ceases; at 
 70° there is slow action of the yeast but from 
 this point the yeast activity increases until a 
 temperature of 95 to ioo°F. is reached, when 
 it begins to fall. 
 
 Experiments have shown that a dough fer- 
 mented at 77° F. produces 25% more gas than 
 one set at 68° F. At 86° 34% more gas is pro- 
 duced than at 77° F. At 95° F. 1 5% more gas 
 is produced than at 86° F. A strong yeast 
 action is desirable in the dough but the strong 
 action obtained through warm doughs, though 
 desirable, must be avoided. A warm dough is 
 undesirable for many reasons. As a rule, the 
 colder dough increases absorption. Low 
 temperatures, however, check the yeast. 
 Doughs set lower than 78° F. work slowly. 
 
BREAD FACTS 47 
 
 Unless you are using the sponge pirocess or a 
 long time dough avoid setting doughs colder 
 than 78° F., even though your absorption is 
 increased, at the lower temperatures. 
 
 Warm temperatures make your doughs 
 runny and sticky, they become difficult to 
 handle in the machines and the longer they 
 ferment the worse they get. Warm doughs 
 also stimulate and multiply undesirable bac- 
 teria. These will cause your dough to have 
 objectionable flavors, odors and a poor bloom. 
 Rope will develop best under these conditions. 
 
 The best and most practical results will be 
 obtained when doughs are set at 79° to 81° F. 
 The dough should increase in temperature so 
 it will be about 83° to 84° F. when ready for 
 scaling. A most excellent loaf of bread can be 
 obtained at lower temperatures but this 
 necessitates more yeast, more time and a 
 greater expense in making. So temperatures 
 lower than 78° F. are not frequently employed, 
 except when sponge doughs are made. Sponge 
 doughs are frequently set as low as 7^° F. 
 during the warm weather. The temperature of 
 the dough room should be 80° F. 
 
48 BREAD FACTS 
 
 Baking the Loaf 
 
 No specified time or temperature can be 
 given at which a loaf of bread should be baked. 
 The weight of the loaf, the character of the 
 bread, the age of the dough, the ingredients 
 used and the proof of the loaf all must be taken 
 into consideration when attempting to give 
 the proper temperature for baking. A good 
 heat for pan bread is 450° to 500° F. At this 
 temperature the loaf should bake in 35 to 45 
 minutes, depending upon the weight of dough 
 in the pan. It is quite necessary that your 
 thermometer register the temperatures ac- 
 curately. Many thermometers are not ac- 
 curate and the position of the thermometer in 
 the oven may give you the wrong temperature. 
 
 A dough which proves slowly and one which 
 is young should be baked in a cooler oven. 
 This will give the loaf an opportunity to ex- 
 pand and it will prevent it from coloring too 
 rapidly. Old doughs need higher temperatures 
 to give color to the crust. A cold oven makes 
 a larger loaf than a hot oven but the keeping 
 quality and flavor of the loaf is not so good. 
 The degree of fermentation of the loaf deter- 
 
BREAD FACTS 4Q 
 
 mines, in a measure, the time required to bake 
 a loaf. If you have a quick fermentation it 
 will bake more quickly than a slowly fermented 
 dough. 
 
 A properly baked loaf will have a crumb that 
 is springy and will come back quite reddily 
 when pressed with the finger. An underbaked 
 loaf will feel doughy and will show an impres- 
 sion when pressed. A good test also is to press 
 the loaf quite flat when it is baked and note 
 whether it recovers again. If the loaf remains 
 flat it is not baked enough. Good bread can be 
 made either with or without steam in the oven. 
 The character of the crust and bloom will be 
 different. A loaf baked without steam will not 
 have the golden brown color and glossy appear- 
 ance that a steamed loaf has. The crust of the 
 loaf, however, will be short and quite tender. 
 Steaming the dough makes a tougher crust 
 and puts a gloss on the loaf. Care must be 
 exercised where using steam. It should be 
 used only during the early part of the baking. 
 Too much steam will check the expansion of 
 the dough and it will interfere with the open- 
 ing up of a cut loaf. Good wet steam should be 
 
50 BREAD FACTS 
 
 used and of just sufficient pressure to supply 
 the necessary moisture. 
 
 There are two types of heat "solid" and 
 "flash" heat. A properly constructed oven 
 with thick walls and made of the proper 
 materials will produce a continuous heat and 
 will not fall off much during the baking. This 
 is known as "solid" heat. The heat is radi- 
 ated slowly and continuously from the walls 
 to the loaf. This insures a thorough baking of 
 the loaf and also gives it the proper bloom. 
 A "Flash" heat is a heat which is only tem- 
 porary, but frequently intense for a moment 
 and then falls off rapidly. Some ovens will 
 only produce a "flash" heat. Their walls are 
 thin and so must be heated very high before 
 putting in the bread. The result is that the 
 oven first burns the bread and toward the end 
 is so cool that it does not completely bake the 
 batch. Obviously the oven with a solid heat 
 is the preferable one. 
 
 Handling the Baked Loaf 
 
 The loaf when it is baked should be placed 
 on clean sanitary racks or conveyors in a clean, 
 
BREAD FACTS 51 
 
 cool, sanitary place, and cooled as rapidly as 
 possible. The quicker the loaf can be cooled 
 the longer the loaf will keep. Quick cooling 
 prevents the loaf from loosing moisture and it 
 protects it from undue exposure to germs that 
 are everywhere in the air. It has been shown 
 that in a crowded room 70,000 germs fall upon 
 an area of i square foot every hour. The 
 advisability for rapid cooling and then wrap- 
 ping is apparent. A loaf of bread cooled in an 
 atmosphere of cold dry air can be wrapped in 
 10 to 15 minutes after baking. Unless the bread 
 is cooled in some manner it is not advisable to 
 wrap it in less than i hour. Bread wrapped 
 warm will be in a most favorable condition for 
 developing rope during the warm weather. 
 
 If the bread is to be cooled quickly and 
 wrapped it must have a good strong bake 
 otherwise the loaf will be heavy and soggy. 
 For an underbaked loaf more time is neces- 
 sary so the loaf will dry out before wrapping. 
 
 Volume of the Loaf 
 
 We have shown the importance of a properly 
 fermented dough in making quality bread. 
 
52 BREAD FACTS 
 
 The very purpose of fermentation is to make 
 the loaf light, give volume to the bread. Every 
 baker tries to make a well risen loaf. His aim 
 is to get expansion. The volume of a quality 
 loaf will necessarily vary because of the vari- 
 ance in the quality of flours and the variance 
 which will be caused by the addition of differ- 
 ent ingredients. It is an error to say that 
 unless a loaf has a certain volume it will not 
 possess quality. Flours vary in composition, 
 some have a large amount of excellent gluten, 
 some have a large amount of poor gluten, 
 others have a small amount of excellent gluten, 
 still others have a small amount of poor gluten. 
 Blending these flours will change the amounts 
 and expanding power of the gluten. All 
 gluten, however, has a certain natural expan- 
 sion when fermented; but this expansion 
 varies in the different flours, and in the 
 blends of flours. The flours with a large 
 amount of excellent quality gluten will 
 possess a high degree of expansion in the 
 oven. These flours will, from the nature of 
 the gluten make a loaf with a large volume. 
 It would be folly to try to check the ex- 
 
BREAD FACTS 53 
 
 pension and make the loaf smaller with flour 
 of this nature. Either you would have an 
 undeveloped dough or one that would be 
 too old. Any process which could be used 
 to hold the expansion in check would interfere 
 with the natural function of the gluten and so 
 would be detrimental to loaf quality. A flour 
 of this nature must produce a large volumed 
 loaf in order to give excellence of texture, of 
 color, of flavor, of moisture retaining properties 
 and in general appearance. 
 
 It would likewise be folly to try to make a 
 large loaf with a flour low in gluten but with 
 an excellent gluten. Any process used to in- 
 crease the volume beyond a certain point will 
 be injurious to loaf quality. A flour of this 
 nature will produce quality bread, but the 
 volume of the loaf will be small. 
 
 The point to be impressed here is that each 
 type of flour will produce a certain volumed 
 loaf possessing the marks of a quality loaf and 
 it is up to the baker to determine just what he 
 can get out of his flour. If his loaf is too large 
 he should blend his flours so as to give him a 
 smaller loaf. If too small, then he should get 
 
54 BREAD FACTS 
 
 a flour with a gluten that will expand and give 
 him the volume. 
 
 In order to produce the particular volume 
 that is desired the baker must have a knowl- 
 edge of the materials and conditions which 
 effect the size of the loaf. A small volume does 
 not necessarily imply that there is something 
 wrong with the method of working. If the 
 bloom of the crust is good, if the texture is 
 good, the color good and the flavor good, you 
 can feel assured that you are getting the best 
 out of your flour and other ingredients. You 
 may find your loaf heavy and soggy ; however, 
 if the color of crust is *'foxy," your dough is 
 young ; if the crust is pale and odor of bread 
 strong your dough is too old. Be sure your 
 proof is correct, and be sure the dough is not 
 injured during scaling and moulding. Under 
 proving the loaf will give a heavy loaf, appear- 
 ing as though it were gluten bound. Excessive 
 proof will make a small flat loaf; too much heat 
 in the proof box, during proving, will make the 
 loaf small. 
 
 On the other hand, your volume may be 
 satisfactory but the texture coarse, and the 
 
BREAD FACTS 55 
 
 color inclined to be dark. This indicates that 
 you are creating a volume by proving and the 
 loaf may be larger than the quality of the flour 
 justifies in producing; or, you may find that 
 proper proving will give you a better expan- 
 sion with the proper texture, color, flavor and 
 bloom. 
 
 Character of the Crust and Crumb 
 
 The crust of the loaf should be of a golden 
 brown color. It should be thin and tender. A 
 tough crust is produced from strong, tough, 
 glutenous flours when not given enough fer- 
 mentation. Too much salt makes the crust 
 tough as the salt has a binding effect on 
 the gluten. An under-proved loaf will cause 
 toughness. An excessive quantity of milk, too 
 much steam in the oven, too much handling of 
 the dough, after it is developed, and low grade 
 flours produce bread with a tough crust. The 
 crust of your bread may lack coherency ; this 
 indicates too much age, or too much proof. 
 Weak flours have a tendency to produce such 
 crusts due to being easily over-fermented. An 
 old dough will give you a loaf with a pale crust, 
 
56 BREAD FACTS 
 
 a cold oven may also be the fault. If you 
 haven't sufficient sugar in the dough the crust 
 will be pale. Sometimes the top crust is grey 
 but the bottom of the loaf has a good bloom. 
 This is caused by the dough getting too dry 
 during proof, or the oven being too dry. You 
 may find the bread too pale on the bottom, and 
 top bloom satisfactory ; more bottom and less 
 top heat will give better results. If the loaf 
 crumbles when cut the indications are that 
 your dough is too old, or, you have given the 
 dough too much proof. Weak flours will pro- 
 duce crumbly breads. Substitutes for flour 
 also make the bread short and crumbly. A 
 young dough will give the bread a yellow cast 
 whereas, an old dough will give a dark grey 
 color. Streaks in bread are caused by too 
 much dusting flour at the moulding stage, or 
 by the drying up of the dough in the proving 
 stage before moulding. 
 
 A satisfactory development of the dough 
 with proper richness of ingredients will give 
 the perfect bloom to the crust and an ideal 
 texture of the crumb. 
 
BREAD FACTS 57 
 
 Yeast 
 
 Within the yeast cells that come to you in 
 compressed form, there lies a tremendous 
 latent power ready to be released instantly the 
 yeast is placed in proper surroundings. So 
 great is this power that one pound of the yeast 
 can raise one hundred and fifty times its 
 weight of dough, from a small flat mass into a 
 balloon-like mass five times its original size in 
 a period of three hours. 
 
 This yeast has life. It is the very soul of the 
 dough. Since it has life it is very delicate and 
 needs attention and proper care to maintain 
 its vigorous functions, producing gas and 
 creating the juices which soften the gluten so as 
 to give it perfect elasticity and make it easy 
 for the dough to rise. Not only does it do that 
 but it also grows new yeast, on the scanty food 
 available for it in the dough. Yeast is a plant 
 and so is very susceptible to changes of tem- 
 perature. It grows rapidly. A yeast cell will 
 reach full maturity in a few hours. It also dies 
 rapidly. Yeast, as soon as it reaches maturity 
 begins to weaken. This weakening is delayed 
 by getting it into compressed form and keeping 
 
58 BREAD FACTS 
 
 it cold, 40 to 45° F. The higher the tempera- 
 ture at which compressed yeast is kept and the 
 longer it is kept the more rapidly it weakens. 
 The following tests made in the Ward 
 Laboratory show how yeast loses strength 
 when kept under different conditions. Gas 
 collection test were made on a dough with the 
 following formula. 
 
 grams 
 
 Flour 
 
 100 
 
 Water 
 
 61 
 
 Sugar 
 
 5 
 
 Yeast 
 
 I 
 
 Salt 
 
 ii/ 
 
 The doughs when set were 86° F. and the fer- 
 mentation carried out in a chamber which was 
 maintained at 85 to 87° F. during the entire 
 test. On next page are given the quantities of 
 gas produced from the above doughs, using 
 yeast one day from the date of its arrival. One 
 portion was kept in the refrigerator at 45° F. 
 Another portion in the dough room, which was 
 80° F., and a third portion kept in the baking 
 room where the temperature was around 
 95°F. 
 
BREAD FACTS 5q 
 
 Cubic centimeters of gas produced in six 
 hours : 
 
 Where stored c.c. gas produced in 6 hours 
 Refrigerator 45° F. i i6oc.c. 
 
 Dough room 80° F. 900 
 
 Baking room 95° F. 310 
 
 The above results show the vital necessity of 
 proper refrigeration for the yeast. If the yeast 
 comes to you in a warm condition, or, has been 
 delayed in transit you can rest assured your 
 yeast will work slowly. Examine your yeast 
 on arrival and see that it is fresh. Yeast which 
 has been kept warm, for even a short time, 
 will show darkness on the surface and may 
 even become soft and putty like. The yeast 
 should break with a clear break and have a 
 fresh yeasty smell. Stale yeast shows a putre- 
 factive odor. When the yeast arrives, immed- 
 iately place it in a refrigerator which should 
 never be much higher than 45° F. Do not 
 permit your yeast to stand around the dough 
 room. Take just enough from the refrigerator 
 to make the doughs you are setting at the time. 
 The following test shows how yeast deter- 
 iorates upon storage even when kept at 45° F. 
 
6o BREAD FACTS 
 
 ^ 
 
 Gas produced in six hours using previous 
 formula : 
 
 Time stored after arrival c.c. gas produced 
 
 1 day 1245 c.c. 
 
 2 days 1 1 50 
 
 3 days 1 1 20 
 8 days 850 
 
 Yeast stored at 80° F. deteriorates rapidly on 
 storage as the tests below will show. 
 
 Time stored c.c. gas produced 
 
 1 day 970 c.c. 
 
 2 days 750 
 
 3 days ^S5 
 
 4 days 365 
 
 Note the rapid falling off in the gas-producing 
 power of the yeast when it is stored at high 
 temperatures. Since the fermentation period 
 of the dough depends upon the activity of the 
 yeast it is quite obvious that, in order to have 
 the fermentation period under control, the 
 baker must have a yeast that works uniformly. 
 He must get it fresh and he must keep it from 
 losing strength. 
 
 Stamp the date on the package of the yeast 
 when it reaches you. Use it as quickly as 
 
BREAD FACTS 6i 
 
 possible. Do not allow it to stay in storage 
 longer then necessary. 
 
 These results on yeast tests show you the 
 necessity for using yeast foods to bolster up 
 your yeast in the dough whether you are a 
 believer in them or not. Get this fact. Yeast 
 which grows in the dough, has the greatest 
 maximum of strength, greater than you can 
 possibly get from yeast in compressed form. 
 Grow yeast in your dough by using Arkady 
 Yeast Food, now recognized everywhere, as 
 the best source of food for yeast. 
 
 Salt 
 
 Salt, in addition to producing flavor, has a 
 regulating influence upon the ferments in the 
 flour and yeast. A good average quantity to 
 use is three pounds per barrel of flour. Salt 
 also has a strong binding action on the gluten. 
 The more salt you use the more the fermenta- 
 tion required to develop the gluten perfectly. 
 Some flours will carry more salt in the dough 
 than others. Salt has a strong inhibiting 
 action on the yeast. As you increase the salt 
 you must likewise increase the quantity 
 
62 
 
 B READ FACTS 
 
 of yeast, in order to get the same rate of 
 rising. 
 
 An average of many gas collection tests in 
 the Ward Laboratory shows the following per 
 cents of salt and yeast calculated on the flour, 
 to give equal quantities of gas in the dough. 
 
 That is to say, i% salt and .7% yeast will 
 produce as much gas in six hours as 2% salt 
 and 1.25% yeast will produce in the same 
 time. 
 
 Salt 
 
 Yeast 
 
 1% 
 
 0.70% 
 
 1.25 
 
 .83 
 
 1.50 
 
 I. GO 
 
 1.75 
 
 1. 10 
 
 2.00 
 
 1.25 
 
 2.25 
 
 1.50 
 
 2.50 
 
 1.65 
 
 2.75 
 
 1.80 
 
 In selecting the quantity of salt you wish to 
 use be sure and use the proper quantity of 
 yeast to raise your dough. 
 
 Milk 
 
 Milk in any form is a very desirable ingred- 
 ient to use in bread ; if for no other reason than 
 
BREAD FACTS 63 
 
 that of the food value which it possesses. It is 
 the most nutritious and has the best propor- 
 tions of food elements of any known food 
 product. Bread made with milk will have a 
 better flavor, a better bloom and will retain its 
 freshness longer than a loaf made without milk. 
 Milk has a toughening action on the gluten 
 so the more that is used the more fermentation 
 the dough needs. The dough should also be 
 set fairly slack so as to overcome the binding 
 effect of the milk. Six pounds per barrel of 
 condensed milk or two pounds of powdered 
 milk are sufficient to make a good loaf of 
 bread. Buttermilks work just the opposite to 
 fresh milks. They mature the dough, due to 
 the acidity and the ferments which they con- 
 tain and so do not show a binding effect on the 
 dough but tend to slacken it. 
 
 Shortening 
 
 The term "shortening" when used in bread 
 making refers to fats and oils in various forms. 
 These may be liquid, semi-solid or dry. The 
 main purpose in adding these to the bread is to 
 improve the texture and keeping qualities of 
 
64 BREAD FACTS 
 
 the loaf. The crumb of the loaf also has better 
 eating qualities because it is not so tough. 
 Shortenings do not directly effect the fermen- 
 tation. They do, however, aid in developing 
 the gluten by giving it more elasticity, thus 
 aiding its expanding power in the oven. Their 
 action on the gluten also effects the texture of 
 the loaf. The loaf texture is finer and closer 
 and more silky than when no shortening is used. 
 The effectiveness of a shortening depends 
 upon how well it is incorporated into the dough 
 batch. Dry shortenings can be easily and 
 thoroughly distributed in the dough and for 
 this reason have greater shortening power in 
 bread doughs than the liquid kind. Florolene 
 in this respect leads all other shortenings. 
 Another big advantage in using it, is its clean- 
 liness. 
 
 Sugars 
 
 The bloom of the loaf, its flavor, the raising 
 of the dough and the stiffness of the dough 
 depend upon the nature and the amount of 
 sugar used in the dough. Cane sugar, corn 
 sugars, and maltose when used in equal dry 
 
BREAD FACTS 65 
 
 weight raise the dough equally well, but they 
 have different effects on the flavor and bloom 
 of the loaf, as well as the color of crumb. Cane 
 sugar excels in flavor, color and bloom, but 
 present prices do not justify its use as the 
 difference in quality over the bread produced 
 by the other sugars is not sufficiently pro- 
 nounced. Lactose or milk sugar is of no value 
 in raising the dough, but it does help the 
 bloom. The sugars slacken the dough. One 
 pound of sugar displaces about J^ pound 
 of water. The more sugar that is used — 
 the less water you must use in making 
 the dough. When more than lo pounds of 
 sugar per barrel of flour are used the raising 
 of the dough is checked. Yeast works best 
 when the sugar is kept below this amount. 
 What has been said above also applies to 
 such products as glucose, maltose, syrup, etc. 
 Allowance must be made for the water they 
 contain. 
 
 Malt extracts act somewhat differently than 
 sugars. The most of them have 7^ per cent 
 solids but their diastatic and proteolytic pro- 
 perties vary, depending upon materials and 
 
66 BREAD FACTS 
 
 methods used in manufacture. A good malt 
 extract for bakers to use is one that shows 
 about 60° Lintner. Some bakers prefer to use 
 malt extracts that have no Lintner value. The 
 higher the Lintner value of a malt extract the 
 greater is its action on the gluten, so it is 
 necessary to bear in mind the type of flour 
 that you have when you specify the kind of 
 malt extract that you want. 
 
 A safe quantity of malt extract to use in the 
 average formula for straight doughs is from 2 
 to 3 pounds per barrel of flour. More or less 
 can be used depending on the Lintner value, 
 and the flour you are using. Malt extracts 
 must be used carefully with weak flours. 
 
 The malt extracts and syrups are valuable 
 aids in baking. A given weight of 60° Lintner 
 extract will displace from 3 to 4 times its 
 weight of sugar in the dough. The doughs, 
 however, do not take nor carry the water, that 
 doughs made from sugar do. Likewise the 
 warmer your doughs are the stronger is the 
 action of the malt extract on the gluten and 
 starches of the flour. The yeast action is 
 stimulated and the fermentation period 
 
BREAD FACTS 67 
 
 shortened. However, with proper care, a loaf 
 can be produced having an excellent bloom 
 and flavor. 
 
 In general, sugars are necessary for the pro- 
 duction of a good bloom on the loaf. The 
 amount you should use depends upon the time 
 you ferment the doughs, the temperature of 
 the dough and the temperature of your oven. 
 Sugars retain freshness in the loaf because the 
 loaf readily takes on the desired bloom in the 
 oven. A dough that has not sufficient sugar 
 must be baked in a hot oven to give color to the 
 crust or else baked a long time in a moderate 
 oven both of which will drive too much mois- 
 ture from the loaf. 
 
68 BREAD FACTS 
 
 WHEAT 
 
 June, July and August are the heavy har- 
 vest months for wheat. Seventy-five per cent, 
 of the world crop is harvested in these months. 
 But somewhere, in every month, wheat is 
 being planted — is being harvested. Rice and 
 rye, Indian corn and barley furnish the cereal 
 supply for large numbers of world population. 
 In the warmer climates the orientals grow and 
 eat rice. In the colder north countries — ^Nor- 
 way and Sweden, Finland and the northern 
 sections of Germany, Russia and Poland — 
 rye, oats and barley are the main dependence 
 for cereal food. But even in these colder 
 countries, as wheat, through the centuries, 
 has been acclimated to the colder tempera- 
 tures from the warmer regions of the Nile, it 
 has been given first choice over all other 
 cereals for bread making. Indian corn was the 
 cereal food found on the American continent. 
 The Aztecs cultivated corn on the high table 
 lands of old Mexico. The American pioneers 
 developed corn and made it their first cereal 
 food. But they brought wheat; until today 
 Great Britain, Belgium, Germany, the 
 
B READ FACTS 6q 
 
 Netherlands, France and Italy look with inter- 
 est, at each harvest season, towards the hoped 
 for three hundred million bushels of wheat 
 surplus from the United States and Canada. 
 And if Russia and the Balkans add another 
 two hundred million bushels, if South America, 
 India and Egypt give their normal wheat sur- 
 plus then the congested centres of Europe may 
 have their usual per capita of wheaten, 
 leavened, more nourishing, more digestible 
 bread. 
 
 The march of civilization, the development 
 of the stronger types of thinking people have 
 been associated with meat and dairy foods; 
 but their development can also be asso- 
 ciated with the growth or decline of wheat 
 production. The Chinese have abundance of 
 rice and poultry; but wheat was the cereal in 
 their older and more powerful days. The new 
 era of Japan is associated with the closer atten- 
 tion to wheat and the high average of twenty 
 one bushels per acre produced by the Japanese 
 farmer. 
 
 Even the strong dairy sections cluster 
 around the lands of wheat surplus, and the 
 
70 
 
 B READ FACTS 
 
 wheat by-products are the first choice of all 
 foods for the dairy cow. 
 
 The calendar of the world's wheat harvest 
 shows how universal has this cereal become 
 the first choice for human food. Wheat is har- 
 vested by months, and in the countries of the 
 world, as follows: 
 
 January 
 
 Australia 
 
 Chile 
 
 New Zealand 
 
 February and March 
 
 Egypt (upper) 
 India 
 
 April 
 
 Asia Minor 
 
 Cuba 
 
 Cyprus 
 
 Egypt (lower) 
 
 India 
 
 Mexico 
 
 Persia 
 
 Syria 
 
 May 
 
 Algeria 
 Asia (central) 
 China 
 Japan 
 Morocco 
 United States 
 Texas 
 
 June 
 
 France (south.) 
 
 Greece 
 
 Italy 
 
 Portugal 
 
 Spain 
 
 Turkey (Europ.) 
 
 United States : 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 California 
 
 Georgia 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Missouri 
 
 No. Carolina 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 Utah 
 
 Virginia 
 
 Washington 
 
 July 
 
 Austria-Hungary 
 Bulgaria 
 Canada: 
 Quebec 
 
 July (Cont.) 
 
 England (south.) 
 Germany 
 Roumania 
 Russia (south.) 
 Switzerland 
 United States : 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Michigan 
 
 Minnesota (so) 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 New York 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 August 
 
 Belgium 
 Canada : 
 
 Alberta 
 
 Brit. Columbia 
 
 Manitoba 
 
 Ontario 
 
 Saskatchewan 
 Denmark 
 Great Britain 
 Russia (central) 
 
B READ FACTS 
 
 71 
 
 August (Cont.) 
 
 Poland 
 
 The Netherlands 
 United States : 
 Minnesota 
 (c'l and north.) 
 Montana 
 New England 
 North Dakota 
 South Dakota 
 
 Sept. and October 
 
 Norway 
 Russia (north.) 
 Siberia 
 Scotland 
 Sweden 
 
 November 
 Africa (southern) 
 Argentine 
 Peru 
 
 December 
 
 Burma 
 
 New South Wales 
 
 The world per capita consumption of wheat 
 is given by the United States Department of 
 Agriculture, based on ten years average of 
 production, import and export figures and 
 seeding requirements as follows: 
 
 Bus 
 
 Canada q.5 
 
 Belgium. 8.3 
 
 France 7-Q 
 
 Spain 6.1 
 
 United Kingdom 6.0 
 
 Switzerland 6.0 
 
 Australia 5 
 
 Italy 5 
 
 United States 5 
 
 Uruguay 5 
 
 Argentina 5 
 
 Bulgaria 5 
 
 Austria Hungary 4 
 
 Bus 
 
 Netherlands 4.2 
 
 Roumania 4.0 
 
 Denmark 3.5 
 
 Chile 3-4 
 
 Germany 3.2 
 
 Russia 2.7 
 
 Serbia 2.5 
 
 Sweden 2.5 
 
 Egypt 2.5 
 
 Portugal 1.8 
 
 British India 8 
 
 Mexico 8 
 
 Japan 5 
 
 The per capita consumption of wheat in the 
 United States, by states, and the available 
 supplies can well be studied by bakers. A 
 baker in Alabama, Mississippi or Arkansas, 
 with a wheat per capita consumption of four 
 
72 BREAD FACTS 
 
 bushels has not the opportunity of the baker 
 who serves Ohio, with a per capita consump- 
 tion of 6 3-10 bushels; or Minnesota where it 
 is 7 2-10 bushels; or Pennsylvania where it is 
 5 8-10 bushels. 
 
 Wheat is the main raw material upon which 
 the baking industry depends and to know 
 bread is to know wheat. Agricultural science 
 has spent a long effort to increase production, 
 improve varieties and increase the bread- 
 making value of wheat. This effort can be 
 helped and directed towards more definite 
 bread-making results, through closer interest 
 from the baking industry in the work of the 
 agricultural scientist. 
 
 A century ago there were but few varieties, 
 today agricultural science has developed a 
 variety for all soils and all climates. Men like 
 Luther Burbank foresaw that if one grain 
 more could be added to each wheat head the 
 result would add fifteen millions of bushels to 
 the annual American wheat harvest. One 
 reason for the superior food value of wheat is 
 the amount and character of its protein con- 
 tent. Wheats vary in this ingredient from a 
 
BREAD FACTS 73 
 
 minimum of eight to a maximum of twenty 
 per cent. Colorada wheats are highest in pro- 
 tein; California and Carolina wheats yield 
 more starch and less protein. 
 
 Why? The agricultural scientist is trying 
 to find out, is making progress, and the baker 
 is interested as this question affects the gluten 
 strength of his flour and the food value of his 
 bread. 
 
 In i860 the average wheat yield per acre in 
 the United States was around ten bushels; 
 today it has passed sixteen bushels per acre; 
 while in Great Britain and Germany the aver- 
 age yield per acre is around thirty bushels ; in 
 France the yield is past twenty bushels. Irri- 
 gation has added more than fifteen million 
 bushels to the annual wheat harvest in the 
 United States. The mineral needs of the 
 wheat plant have been studied ; just, as later, 
 the mineral needs of the yeast plant were 
 studied and determined. The wheat plant has 
 been found to need phosphates, potash and 
 nitrogen in the form of ammonium salts, or 
 nitrogen gathered from the air by the pea and 
 bean plants. 
 
74 BREAD FACTS 
 
 The making of flour begins in the wheat 
 fields; if underripe the flour will make a sour 
 and a dark bread; if well ripe it may lose in 
 weight but the quality of the gluten is en- 
 hanced. The wheat undergoes changes in the 
 shocks, in the stack, in the elevator, and the 
 flour, after milling, is still subject to changes, 
 the reasons for which are still not clearly 
 worked out. It is in the ripening or aging — 
 proper aging — of the wheat and flour that 
 flavor, the delicious wheat flavor, is developed. 
 In the process, too, the gluten quality is con- 
 served or injured. 
 
 Milling is an art of its own. The main fea- 
 tures of milling, after the proper wheat selec- 
 tions, are cleaning and tempering the wheat 
 berry and separating it into the different 
 classes or grades demanded by the baker and 
 the general market. It is not generally known 
 that the strongest gluten comes from nearest 
 the bran. The more soluble proteins and 
 starches are from the inside of the berry. But 
 milling is another industry, at present, too 
 distinctly separate to be combined with bak- 
 ing. While the progressive miller studies 
 
BREAD FACTS 75 
 
 wheats from all sections and of all strengths, 
 the baker must be equally free to pick for flour 
 quality. In selecting flour the baker is inter- 
 ested in 
 
 the moisture content, 
 
 the quantity and quality of the gluten, 
 
 the flavor, and 
 
 the final way in which the flour bakes up. 
 The moisture of wheats vary, but American 
 wheats are lower in moisture than European 
 wheats. The moisture content of the average 
 good flour furnished the American baker 
 should be around thirteen per cent. Water is 
 used in milling to temper the wheat, but it is 
 possible to go beyond and increase the mois- 
 ture content of the flour above that neces- 
 sary to temper. Flour may lose moisture 
 after milling and thus lose in weight. It is 
 more apt to lose moisture than to gain mois- 
 ture. A condition which causes it to gain 
 moisture is not good for either its flavor or 
 gluten quality. Flour is best stored in a dry 
 temperature of from 75 to 80 degrees F. free 
 from foreign odors. Excessive moisture or 
 excessive heat injures gluten quality. The 
 
76 BREAD FACTS 
 
 moisture test is one of the daily necessary tests 
 in the scientific control of baking. I f enough 
 flour is used, the laboratory can pay its way by 
 watching the moisture content of the flour. 
 And when the moisture content and gluten 
 strength are known the proper absorption and 
 fermentation can be determined for the dough 
 mix. 
 
 The quantity and quality of the gluten 
 varies with wheat varieties, districts where 
 grown, the condition of the season, the aging 
 and protection of the wheat, the milling 
 and the proper conditioning or aging of the 
 flour. 
 
 Wheats that produce excellence in gluten 
 content come from the northern middle and 
 southern American states, of what may be 
 called the American plains — from Minnesota, 
 the Dakotas andMontana, south through Okla- 
 homa, into Texas. Other lands where wheats 
 of high gluten strength are produced are 
 Canada, eastern and southern Russia, Rou- 
 mania and southern Argentina. 1 1 is estimated 
 that Canada, alone, has one hundred and fifty 
 million acres capable of producing wheat of 
 
BREAD FACTS 77 
 
 this class, not over seven per cent of which is 
 now in cultivation. The entire wheat acreage 
 in the United States for 1920 is given at fifty- 
 three million acres. 
 
 Gluten does not exist in flour as such, but is 
 formed from the glutenin, gliaden and other 
 elements of the flour proteins. Chemists are 
 studying the relation of the elements of gluten 
 to gluten strength. This involves the chem- 
 istry of both proteins and enzymes — two of the 
 most difficult, the most interesting fields in 
 chemistry. 
 
78 BREAD FACTS 
 
 APPLIED SCIENCE AT THE 
 BAKERY 
 
 The words "research," "applied science," 
 "laboratory," and "chemist" have a far-away 
 meaning to many in the baking industry. 
 But the good superintendent of baking, though 
 he may not know it, practices daily in the 
 fields of chemistry, physics and other sciences. 
 He knows the method which produces the 
 results; in many cases he knows the under- 
 lying cause. But experiment and testing in 
 the bake shop are costly, uncertain and 
 inconvenient. Enough has been demonstrated 
 to show the opportunities in adding scientific 
 control to practical experience. 
 
 Any baker with his face set towards prog- 
 ress can make the start. Make a visit to the 
 agricultural college. Pick a sophomore, a 
 second year man, who has found himself and 
 demonstrated his sticking qualities. Let it be 
 a boy who stands well among his fellows, and 
 who is, at least in part, earning his way 
 through college. Talk the matter over with 
 the dean of his course, and suggest that the 
 
BREAD FACTS yq 
 
 boy take some studies related to cereals and 
 fermentation, with his chemistry and bacter- 
 iology. When the summer months come, offer 
 the boy work in the bake shop, in the actual 
 operations connected with the dough. At the 
 end of the summer he will return to college 
 with a large part of your problem on his mind. 
 Bring him back again during the summer 
 before his senior year. When he graduates 
 send him for a few months to the American 
 Institute of Baking. Make him feel your per- 
 sonal interest in him; sell him heart and soul 
 to the opportunity for clean work, for happy 
 work, for public service as well as profit in the 
 baking of good bread. Make him feel that 
 this opportunity can be fully realized in your 
 organization. Remember that his mind has 
 been started to work during his college days 
 and never forget this important point in deal- 
 ing with him. 
 
 The next step is your laboratory. The 
 plant ovens are the best for baking experi- 
 mental doughs, and you will not need a labor- 
 atory oven. The balance of the equipment, 
 
8o BREAD FACTS 
 
 for beginning, may be listed, at present prices, 
 as follows: 
 
 General Equipment and Furniture 
 
 Proofing cabinet _. $40.00 
 
 Yeast testing cabinet 25.00 
 
 Electric drying oven 1 15.00 
 
 Analytical balance 50.00 
 
 Muffle furnace 80.00 
 
 Moulding table for baking tests $25.00 to 50.00 
 
 Table for oven and muffle furnace 1 5.00 
 
 Table for analytical balance 15.00 
 
 Table for washing glutens 15.00 
 
 Sink and drain board with hot and cold water 100.00 
 
 Set weights for analytical balance — 100 gms — 5 mg — 
 
 lacquered 12.00 
 
 Microscope $100.00 to 200.00 
 
 Plumbing and gas connections, not to exceed 200.00 
 
 Glass Ware and Small Accessories for Yeast Testing 
 
 4 Jars, Chidlow gas collection graduated to iSoocc. in 20cc. 
 division accessory bottler, tubing and rubber stopper.... $3 0.00 
 
 Glass Ware and Small Accessories for Washing Glutens 
 
 2 — I gal. capacity pottery bowls, white inside 1.50 
 
 6 — porcelain cups 50 
 
 I — spatula flexible steel with wooden handle 5" blade 30 
 
 I — spatula steel non-flexible blade at both ends 25 
 
 2 — pipettes Mohr's graduated in i-iocc i.oo 
 
 I — aluminum weighing scoop and counterpoise 3.35 
 
 Glass Ware and Accessories for Ash Test 
 
 6 — Silica dishes 6.00 
 
 60mm diam. 
 
 13mm deep 
 
 Accessories for Baking Tests 
 
 6 — mixing bowls with covers to be used for mixing and fer- 
 menting the dough 3.00 
 
BREAD FACTS 8i 
 
 I— balance baker's scale with funnel scoop and counterpoise 
 
 $15.00 
 
 I —set weights, brass in wood block i gm. — to— i ooogms.. 5 .00 
 
 6 — wide mouth glass jars pint size 60 
 
 necessary covered jars for holding sugar, salt, shortening, 
 
 etc •••■ ^-0° 
 
 I — 500CC. glass graduated cylinder 1-2-5 
 
 I — loocc. glass graduated cylinder 75 
 
 1 — bread knife for cutting bread and dough i .00 
 
 I — large spatula, flexible blade i-oo 
 
 Accessories for Moisture Test 
 
 6— dishes, aluminum flat bottom with slip in lid 2 .00 
 
 diameter 58mm 
 
 height 17mm 
 
 Miscellaneous Equipment, not to exceed 50.00 
 
 This laboratory equipped as above is designed for making the 
 following tests: 
 
 ash gas production 
 
 moisture On Yeast tests 
 
 On Flour absorption 
 
 wet gluten 
 
 dry gluten Tests on other baking 
 
 baking tests materials 
 
 The chemist has already learned to mix, 
 mould, proof and bake a loaf of bread. Put 
 him to studying how to produce a better 
 loaf, from different flours and different ingred- 
 ients. Put him to testing flours, the moisture 
 content, gluten quantity and quality and how 
 best to handle a particular flour in your shop. 
 His skill will increase with the number and 
 variety of flour samples tested and baked into 
 loaves. From flour, his interest will expand 
 
82 BREAD FACTS 
 
 towards oils, milk products, yeast, flavoring 
 extracts and the long list of bakery supplies 
 offered the bread and cake baker, soaps and 
 cleaning powders, gasoline, lubricating oils. 
 He will need more apparatus as he goes along, 
 and as he shows you the particular need and 
 usefulness to your business. 
 
 If he is the kind that will turn it to good 
 account and not waste time, have him keep in 
 touch with the local medical society, the high 
 school chemist and domestic science teacher, 
 the woman's club and other civic organizations. 
 The opportunity to build up public confidence 
 for your plant and your bread will be well 
 worth the interest he takes. 
 
 In making tests of foods, the methods of the 
 Association of Official Agricultural Chemists 
 are reliable and at once available. He will 
 need a small library to begin with, including a 
 half dozen of the scientific journals. Have him 
 start a systematic record plan of all tests and 
 all experimental bakes; have him make suffi- 
 cient tests and bakes to be sure of his facts. 
 Suggest that he start loose leaf note books into 
 which every item of interest relating to either 
 
BREAD FACTS 83 
 
 the science or economics of baking will be 
 brought together, making duplicate copies for 
 your own use. 
 
 With your interest, backing and patience, 
 his work will soon begin to show on the credit 
 side of your costs sheets and in the increased 
 quality and better uniformity of your bread. 
 The rest will take care of itself. The methods 
 worked out and used in the Ward Laboratories 
 for testing flour are as follows: 
 
 "Weigh out carefully lo gr. of flour in dup- 
 licate ; place in a small dish or suitable recept- 
 acle; add 5 8-10 to 6 cc. of water to spring and 
 hard wheat flours. If soft winter flour use 
 ^}/2 CC. After adding the water to the flour 
 make into a smooth dough by means of 
 spatula. Be sure the dough is well collected 
 into a smooth ball of dough. Cover dough 
 with water at a temperature of 80° Fah- 
 renheit. Allow hard winter and spring flours 
 to stand one hour ; soft winter flours, wash out 
 glutens immediately after doughing up. The 
 gluten is now ready for washing. 13^2 to 2 
 liters of tap water — 80° Fahrenheit are taken 
 in a suitable bowl and the glutens are washed, 
 taking a piece of dough in each hand. The 
 dough should be washed very carefully in 
 
84 BREAD FACTS 
 
 the beginning so as not to scatter the gluten. 
 After gluten collects doughs can be washed 
 more vigorously. In working be careful to 
 collect any scattered gluten which may collect 
 in bottom of bowl. Washing in the first 
 water should take about ten minutes. This 
 will get rid of the greater portion of the 
 starch. The glutens are now removed and 
 the water poured from the receptacle. Be 
 careful to note whether any small pieces of 
 gluten remain in the receptacle. If so, collect 
 them with the piece of gluten obtained from 
 the flour. A fresh sample of tap water is now 
 taken, 80° Fahrenheit, and the final washing 
 of the gluten made. This should take from 
 twelve to fifteen minutes, the glutens being 
 alternated every four or five minutes ; that is, 
 the gluten washed in the right hand for four 
 or five minutes and vice versa. This change is 
 necessary because the two hands do not work 
 the dough equally and by changing from one 
 hand to the other we find that we get more 
 uniform results. When the gluten is com- 
 pletely washed it is dried between the fingers 
 to a point where the gluten just begins to 
 stick to the fingers. It is then placed on a 
 piece of paper and weighed, using a tare piece 
 of paper to balance piece holding the wet 
 gluten. This weight multiplied by ten gives 
 
BREAD FACTS 85 
 
 the per cent of wet gluten in the flour. The 
 gluten is now baked in an oven at 1 50° C. from 
 twenty to thirty minutes and then placed in a 
 drying oven at io5°C. for at least twelve 
 hours. The weight of dry gluten multiplied by 
 ten gives the per cent of dry gluten in the 
 flour. The ratio of wet to dry gluten can then 
 be calculated. We find that by carefully 
 washing the glutens the duplicate glutens 
 should check within i-io of i per cent and 
 not vary more than 2-10 of i per cent. We also 
 find that different manipulators get uniform 
 results when using this method. It is a 
 significant fact that the higher the ratio, 
 wet to dry gluten for a given flour, that is, for 
 a spring or a hard winter flour, the better the 
 baking quality. A good spring flour should 
 have a ratio of three to one ; the hard winter, 
 3.1 to 3.2 to i; soft winter flours which are 
 washed immediately after doughing, the ratio 
 of wet to dry is 3 to i . The ratio of wet to dry 
 gluten for a given type of flour depends upon 
 the grade of flour. The lower the grade the 
 lower the ratio of wet to dry gluten." 
 
86 BREAD FACTS 
 
 ARKADY 
 
 Arkady is a yeast food. The word stands 
 for the initials of Robert Kennedy Duncan, 
 first director of the Mellon Institute at Pitts- 
 burgh. To the hundreds of American bakers 
 daily using Arkady, it means better bread and 
 increased bread sales. The baker who learns 
 Arkady, learns what it is to make a better loaf. 
 It brings standardization into his shop and a 
 better control over the dough batch. It saves 
 yeast, for it feeds yeast. It saves flour and 
 sugar from fermentation loss, for it helps the 
 yeast do its work on the living, budding grow- 
 ing side, instead of on the destruction side of 
 fermentation. The combination of mineral 
 salts in Arkady was put together, after long 
 and patient experiment, for the central purpose 
 of standardizing the waters used in baking. 
 The result did the job, standardized the waters, 
 made up the deficiencies in mineral salts needed 
 for a healthful fermentation in the dough, and 
 produced the better loaf of bread. But in a 
 trial in baking, it was found that the average 
 amount of yeast generally used had to be de- 
 creased. Further use and continued study 
 
BREAD FACTS 87 
 
 proved that Arkady cut the fermentation 
 losses one half. Visualize a hundred barrels 
 of flour. Four of them are burned up into 
 leavening gas, in the dough process. Two of 
 these barrels are saved from the loss through 
 the use of Arkady. Visualize a hundred 
 barrels of sugar for bread making. From 
 thirty to fifty of them will be used up by the 
 yeast in the fermentation trough. Arkady 
 saves at least fifteen of them from waste ; saves 
 them into the loaf to give more bloom, more 
 flavor, more food value ; or saves them to the 
 other sugar needs, in times of sugar shortage. 
 Arkady has shown what science can do for 
 baking. Robert Kennedy Duncan was a pro- 
 fessor in the University of Kansas. He saw 
 what science was doing for the dairyman, the 
 farmer, the wheat grower. He followed on 
 with his idea. Why should not science extend 
 its investigations to the whole field of human 
 effort? What about the food products after 
 they reached the factory for preparation for 
 the consumer ? What about the helpfulness of 
 science in these fields? Why do foods spoil? 
 How could the spoilage be prevented? What 
 
88 BREAD FACTS 
 
 about the laundryman ? What about the rela- 
 tion of chemistry to the soil on clothes and 
 removal without weakening the fiber of the 
 garment? And so he joined his ideas with the 
 big human interest and money of the Mellons 
 at Pittsburgh. And the Ward Baking Company 
 was one of the first industries to seek the help 
 of the Institute. 
 
 Mr. George S. Ward, President of the Ward 
 Baking Company, stated in 19 17 the early 
 history of the development of Arkady as 
 follows : 
 
 "About six years ago, in an effort to stan- 
 dardize our product, our company, operating 
 in different cities and having a natural desire 
 to have our bread equal in one city to what it 
 was in another, endeavored to standardize 
 it, and in doing that we found some difficulties 
 in our fermentation problems which we could 
 not understand. Upon closer study we dis- 
 covered that the hardness of water, or the 
 softness of water, as the case might be, affected 
 the fermentation. In other words, notwith- 
 standing the fact that we had laboratory con- 
 trol of the raw material — the raw material 
 coming from exactly the same sources, the 
 flour from the same mills — in spite of that, we 
 
BREAD FACTS 8q 
 
 were not able to make the same bread in 
 Boston as we did in the city of New York, or 
 the city of Pittsburgh, or the city of Cleveland, 
 and we finally hit upon the fact that it was 
 because of the difference in the water. 
 
 "About that time in Pittsburgh a public 
 spirited man named Mellon opened up the 
 Mellon Institute for Industrial Research. I 
 took this problem to him and to Dr. Duncan, 
 Director of the Institute, and our company 
 established fellowships to undertake research 
 in bread making. The water problem was 
 taken up at once by Dr. Duncan and his staff, 
 and they soon found that the mineral salts in 
 the water had an influence on the action of the 
 yeast in bread making. They set to work to 
 try out varying amounts and different com- 
 binations of mineral salts as generally found in 
 water, in experimental baking. When the 
 combination of mineral salts as now used in 
 Arkady was reached they baked up loaves of 
 bread with and without these salts, and each 
 time the loaf made with Arkady was selected 
 by us as the better loaf. 
 
 "We then asked about the wholesomeness of 
 the process, and the Mellon Institute replied 
 that it was entirely wholesome. We went 
 further, and submitted Arkady to medical 
 
go 
 
 B READ FACTS 
 
 experts of high standing. In each case they 
 reported not only that it was wholesome but 
 added to the food value of the bread. The 
 conservation and yeast-saving facts reported 
 from the Mellon Institute were submitted to 
 and confirmed by a large number of chemists 
 connected with some of the best known uni- 
 versities, colleges, and research laboratories. 
 All of our facts have been submitted to the 
 Federal and State pure food officials. The 
 Ward Baking Company, has made the fullest 
 effort in its own investigations to establish the 
 truth, the full truth, and we have been equally 
 interested in throwing all of these facts on top 
 of the table, so that all who may be interested 
 in the scientific progress of the baking industry 
 — bakers, pure food officials, legislators, press 
 and public — may study for themselves what 
 has been accomplished and proved." 
 
 The establishment of Arkady is a story with 
 a deep human interest. The investigations 
 connected with it have reached from the 
 Mellon Institute into many of the leading 
 laboratories of the country. Scientists of 
 national and international reputation have 
 turned from other work to confirm and extend 
 the facts connected with it, and the yeast food, 
 
BREAD FACTS qi 
 
 conservation and better bread making claims, 
 established in the laboratory have been fol- 
 lowed on out into the bakeries, large and small, 
 and the facts further demonstrated under the 
 joint supervision of the scientists and baking 
 experts in actual bakings. The opponents of 
 Arkady have pulled it from the scientists and 
 public health boards into politics, where think- 
 ing and independent majorities in the legisla- 
 tive bodies where it was brought to trial have 
 pronounced in its favor. Wherever scientist 
 or baker, legislator or editor, army officer or 
 mess sergeant have looked into its facts, have 
 seen its bread making results, it has won on 
 its merits and on the level. 
 
 Arkady is new in application; old in prin- 
 ciple. It puts nothing new into bread ; nothing 
 that flours, salt, waters, malt extracts, milk and 
 other ingredients do not put into bread. But it 
 was a new way, with a definite, dependable, 
 measurable, and temporarily competing result. 
 It was thought that it would hurt yeast. Yeast 
 experts, of long experience in the science of 
 fermentation, said that the Arkady salts would 
 not feed yeast. Today one of the Arkady salts 
 
92 B READ FACTS 
 
 is being used in the production of a large part 
 of the yeast supply. And so, at first an aid to 
 yeast in the making of bread, one of its salts has 
 become an aid to the yeast maker in making 
 yeast; it has revolutionized yeast making. 
 
 One of the salts in Arkady is calcium sul- 
 phate, refined, soluble calcium sulphate. Bread, 
 as pointed out in the chapter on the food value 
 of bread is deficient in calcium. Wheat is 
 richer in phosphates, and phosphates need 
 their calcium balance, both for better yeast 
 action and for better human nutrition. All of 
 the calcium salts were tried out; but the little, 
 mysterious yeast plant seemed to like best, to 
 thrive best with the lime salt, calcium sul- 
 phate. This salt was chosen as basis for the 
 attack against the process, and in 191 5 Arkady 
 was hailed before the Public Health Com- 
 mittees of the Massachusetts Legislature. No 
 one could pronounce it unwholesome; no one 
 would say that it lowered the nutritive value 
 of the bread. The only thing its opponents 
 could find wrong with it was that it was new 
 and the opposition secured the passage of an 
 act which named a list of baking ingredients 
 
BREAD FACTS q3 
 
 that could be used without labeling and 
 required any ingredient 'not commonly sold 
 at retail as food to be labeled." Since Arkady 
 was new the loaves of bread containing it were 
 labeled, but consumers continued to eat the 
 bread. 
 
 In 191 7, the law of 191 5 having failed of its 
 trade fight purpose, the attack on Arkady was 
 renewed before the Massachusetts Legislature. 
 The Ward Baking Company went before the 
 committees and legislature with the wealth of 
 fact which it had accumulated behind Arkady, 
 and went to the public with these facts through 
 an extensive advertising campaign, and not 
 only defeated the bill by a decisive vote but 
 greatly increased the sale of its bread. 
 
 Among the American experts that have 
 investigated and confirmed the Arkady facts 
 are the following : 
 
 Dr. Robert Kennedy Duncan, and Drs. 
 H. A. Kohman and Charles Hoffman, who 
 conducted the investigation leading to its 
 discovery, and 
 
 Dr. Raymond F. Bacon, Director Mellon 
 Institute, Pittsburgh. 
 
Q4 BREAD FACTS 
 
 Dr. Alice G. Blood, Professor of Nutrition, 
 Simmons College, Boston. 
 
 Dr. Wm. F. Boos, former Expert for Federal 
 Government in Physiological Chemistry and 
 Medicine, Boston. 
 
 Dr. Frederick E. Breithut of the College of 
 the City of New York. 
 
 Miss L. A. Cauble, Investigator for New 
 York Association for the Improvement of the 
 Poor. 
 
 Dr. Worth Hale, Professor of Pharmacology, 
 Harvard Medical School, recently with Federal 
 Bureau of Public Health ; Government Expert 
 in many Pure Food and Drug cases. 
 
 Prof. Carl Miner, Chief Miner Laboratory, 
 Chicago. 
 
 Prof. Herbert R. Moody, College of the City 
 of New York. 
 
 Dr. James F. Norris, Professor of Chemistry, 
 Mass. Inst, of Technology. 
 
 Dr. Wm. H. Walker, Professor of Chemistry, 
 Mass. Inst, of Technology. 
 
 Dr. C. E. A. Winslow, Professor of Public 
 Health, Yale University. 
 
 Dr. A. G. Woodman, Professor of Food 
 Chemistry, Mass. Inst, of Technology. 
 
BREAD FACTS 95 
 
 In .1917 Professor John P. Street, State 
 Analyst of Connecticut, referee on bread for the 
 joint food standards commission appointed 
 from the United States Department of Agricul- 
 ture, the American Associations of State 
 and Federal Pure Food and Drug Officials, and 
 Association of Official Agriculture Chemists, 
 and acting as State Analyst for Connecticut, 
 made a thorough investigation of yeast food, 
 and particularly of the mineral salts contained 
 in Arkady because of the newness in applica- 
 tion to bread. Professor Street's report is 
 published in the 22nd report on Food Products 
 of the Connecticut Agriculture Experiment 
 Station, Bulletin 200, December, 19 17. Pro- 
 fessor Street deals directly with Arkady. On 
 the question of conservation, Professor Street 
 says: 
 
 "In every test the non-Arkady breads 
 showed the greater loss in. dry matter. This 
 ranged from 1.340 to 21.006 lbs.; the Arkady 
 breads showed losses of from 0.675 to 13.155 
 lbs. ; in both cases the losses varying to a con- 
 siderable extent with the amount of flour used. 
 The percentage loss of dry matter in the non- 
 Arkady breads ranged from 2.41 to 5.12 and in 
 
q6 bread facts 
 
 the Arkady breads from 0.53 to 3.25. Al- 
 though there are considerable variations in the 
 decreased losses of dry matter where Arkady 
 was used, it is a striking fact that in every test 
 the Arkady bread showed a lower loss, ranging 
 from 0.60 to 2.49, average, 1.60 per cent. 
 
 ''In other words, in making 2,414 loaves of 
 bread weighing 3,505 lbs., the use of 11.878 
 lbs. of Arkady allowed the saving of 22.93 lbs. 
 of flour, 10.125 lbs. of sugar, 2.875 lbs. of salt, 
 14.00 lbs. of yeast and i.oo lb. of malt 
 extract, or a total net saving in raw materials 
 of 39.052 lbs. At the same time 40.15 lbs. of 
 the dry matter of the dough was saved from 
 unnecessary destruction by the yeast ferments. 
 Calculating these results to the basis of i ,000 
 1.5 lb. loaves of bread, the saving in ingred- 
 ients following the use of Arkady were as 
 follows : 
 
 Saved 
 
 Used in Addition 
 
 9.50 lbs. flour 
 
 4.92 lbs. Arkady — 
 
 4.19 sugar 
 
 
 1. 19 " salt 
 
 
 5.80 " yeast 
 
 
 0.41 *' Roloco 
 
 /■ /• 11 r . 1 
 
 In addition to the above, 16.63 lbs. of the 
 dry matter of the dough was saved per thou- 
 sand 1.5 lb. loaves. When one considers the 
 
BREAD FACTS qy 
 
 millions of loaves of bread made annually such 
 a conservation as is shown by tests is well 
 worthy of careful attention." 
 
 On the general food value and wholesome- 
 ness Professor Street states : 
 
 ''It is apparent, therefore, that the use of 
 Arkady does not increase the moisture content 
 of the bread, that it slightly increases its food 
 value, and that it in no way decreases the 
 bread's digestibility." 
 
 Every pound of yeast during its period of 
 active fermentation in the bread dough burns 
 up an average of four pounds of flour in pro- 
 ducing leavening gas. Think this big fact over. 
 Four barrels in every hundred barrels of flour 
 are burned up by the yeast into gas. Only 
 one-half of this gas is needed to raise the 
 dough. The other half is WASTE. 
 
 Arkady Yeast Food stops this waste and it 
 saves for the general food supply of the country 
 out of each year's supply of baking materials 
 
 — Six Months^ Supply of Yeast 
 — Two Months^ Supply of Sugar 
 — One Week^s Supply of Flour 
 
q8 bread facts 
 
 In the extensive investigations surrounding 
 Arkady Yeast Food, American scientists and 
 baking experts have just completed the most 
 thorough and exhaustive study of fermenta- 
 tion losses in bread making ever made. 
 Seventy-six of the baking tests made were 
 checked by two or more independent experts. 
 The average American bread formula was 
 followed : thirty-eight of the bakes were made 
 with the usual amount of yeast and no Arkady 
 and thirty-eight of the bakes with Arkady and 
 but one-half of the usual amount of yeast. 
 
 The average percentage of fermentation loss 
 of dry, water-free flour material burned up by 
 the yeast in the production of leavening gas 
 stands in these tests as follows: 
 
 Without Arkady Yeast Food 3-9% 
 
 With Arkady Yeast Food ^-3% 
 
 Conservation of Food Material in 
 
 favor of Arkady i .6% 
 
 Sample loaves of known weight were taken 
 for moisture determinations. The results of 
 the analysis of tests show fermentation losses 
 
B REA D FACTS 
 
 99 
 
 in detail in percentage of 
 follows : 
 
 Hoffman Analyst, Ward Plant 
 
 dry material as 
 
 New Haven Plant 
 U. S. Army Washington Barracks 
 Indianapolis Plant 
 Street Analyst, Ward Plant 
 
 New Haven Plant 
 U. S. Army Washington Barracks 
 Miner Analyst, Chicago Plant 
 
 Robinson Analyst, Detroit Plant 
 
 Per cent 
 
 Per cent. 
 
 Loss With- 
 
 Loss With 
 
 out Arkady 
 
 Arkady 
 
 4-73 
 
 3.84 
 
 4.03 
 
 2.38 
 
 3-49 
 
 i.qq 
 
 3.82 
 
 2.16 
 
 2.78 
 
 2.18 
 
 3.31 
 
 2.70 
 
 3.48 
 
 2.31 
 
 2.32 
 
 1.50 
 
 3.60 
 
 2.iq 
 
 3-4 
 
 2.05 
 
 3-45 
 
 2.17 
 
 3.10 
 
 1.80 
 
 2.51 
 
 1.26 
 
 2.61 
 
 2.01 
 
 2.85 
 
 0.83 
 
 5.16 
 
 3.41 
 
 4.07 
 
 2.oq 
 
 3-34 
 
 i.2q 
 
 3.60 
 
 2.1Q 
 
 I.QO 
 
 0.65 
 
 3.6q 
 
 1.64 
 
 6.6 
 
 4-39 
 
 5-53 
 
 1.24 
 
 3.18 
 
 o.qi 
 
 5.66 
 
 2.76 
 
 5-77 
 
 4.21 
 
 3-55 
 
 1.87 
 
 6.35 
 
 4.6 
 
 7.28 
 
 2.6q 
 
 1.34 
 
 1. 01 
 
 2.45 
 
 •79 
 
 3.oq 
 
 1.07 
 
 2.48 
 
 .50 
 
 4.88 
 
 3-55 
 
 4.23 
 
 2.02 
 
 6.34 
 
 4.97 
 
 5-5^ 
 
 5.32 
 
 4.10 
 
 3.41 
 
loo BREAD FACTS 
 
 The use of Arkady in bread making, 
 
 Saves Yeast to the extent of 50 per cent, of 
 the amount usually required. 
 
 Conserves Flour and Sugar : From 1 1/2 to 2 
 per cent, of the flour and from 15 to 20 per 
 cent, of the sugar usually added to the dough 
 batch are saved from destruction by the yeast 
 into unnecessary leavening gas. 
 
 Produces a Better Loaf with better flavor 
 through a better fermentation in the dough, 
 with more spring and life in the oven, resulting 
 in a loaf of better texture and bloom. 
 
 How these claims have made good with the 
 bakers is shown in a letter from a scientific 
 service for bakers to its clients in August, 
 1920, as follows: 
 
 "Our laboratory, our expert bakers, and all 
 of our big list of clients who subscribe for our 
 technical service, agree that ARKADY is one 
 of the greatest discoveries of the age. 
 
 It has made its way by sheer merit, in the 
 face of skepticism and, at times, of violent 
 opposition. Today the largest and best in- 
 formed bakers in the country use it. 
 
BREAD FACTS loi 
 
 It DOES save yeast and it DOES save 
 sugar. These savings more than offset its 
 cost. 
 
 But the big thing is that it makes better 
 bread. 
 
 We KNOW that ARKADY will give you 
 better control of your fermentation, more 
 spring in the oven, better texture, better flavor 
 and bloom. 
 
 Besides, it will save flour, sugar and yeast 
 far beyond its cost. Here, then, is BETTER 
 BREAD AT LESS COST." 
 
 At the Washington, D. C, barracks in the 
 heat of the summer of 1 9 1 7 Arkady was given 
 its first test in the Army. It was a severe test. 
 The mixing was done by hand, the doughs 
 raised and proved in a tent and baked in a 
 portable field oven. Two doughs were carried 
 through, one with the usual amount of yeast 
 used in the Army formula, and one with one- 
 half the usual amount of the yeast and one 
 pound of Arkady per barrel of flour. When the 
 loaves came from the oven the superiority of 
 the Arkady loaf was outstanding. Baking 
 
I02 BREAD FACTS 
 
 tests were made in seventeen more Army 
 camps, and the result is told in a letter to the 
 Company from a Lieutenant Colonel in charge 
 of the Army baking, as follows: 
 
 "I am glad to advise you that the Quarter- 
 master General of the Army has instructed 
 purchasing Quartermasters to carry yeast food 
 hereafter in the local commissaries for use in 
 bread making in the Army Bakeries. 
 
 In this connection, I wish to state to you 
 that I have tried out, under my personal super- 
 vision, the use of Arkady Yeast Food and 
 found it came up to all that was claimed for it 
 by its manufacturers. 
 
 I take this occasion to express my apprecia- 
 tion of the patriotic offer of the Ward Baking 
 Company to allow the Government to pur- 
 chase Arkady Yeast Food at the cost of manu- 
 facture during the period of the existing war." 
 
 After this the Government sent some three 
 million pounds of Arkady over-seas. Each 
 pound of this Arkady saved the shipment of 
 around four pounds of the grain consumed in 
 making a pound of yeast, protected two 
 pounds of flour from fermentation loss and 
 made a better loaf of bread for the soldier. In 
 
BREAD FACTS 103 
 
 the Amaroc, an official daily newspaper of the 
 American Army, in its issue of May ist, 19 19, 
 a writer on "How Good Bread Is Supplied For 
 Army," states: 
 
 "The month of April in the Coblenz bakery 
 saw an average output which is maintained by 
 the 1 2 other bakeries of the Third Army which 
 cover all parts of the area. During the month, 
 650,000 pounds of flour were used with other 
 ingredients to produce 825,000 pounds or 
 412,500 loaves of light and delectable white 
 bread. With the huge amount of flour was 
 used, 9,500 pounds of sugar; as many of salt 
 and lard; and 3,200 pounds of yeast, to make 
 bread for the troops of the Coblenz area. This 
 large output also necessitated the use of 4,700 
 pounds of Arkady Yeast Food." 
 
 Another instance is in a letter from an Army 
 Sergeant, as follows : 
 
 "The way I knew about Arkady, I was in 
 the Army and was a baker. I used hundreds 
 of sacks of Arkady Yeast Food and we baked 
 good bread and when I came home I wanted 
 the same kind of bread. I wouldn't think of 
 baker's bread without it." 
 
I04 BREAD FACTS 
 
 Such, in brief, is the story of Arkady. As 
 the letter from the scientific baking service 
 company just quoted says: 
 
 "It has made its way by sheer merit in the 
 face of skepticism and, at times, a violent 
 opposition." 
 
 But all of this is over, and the process not 
 only stands as one of the foremost advances 
 in the science of baking, but a new policy in 
 trade has been established. The Ward Baking 
 Company is putting the well tried-out results 
 of its research at the disposal of all of the 
 bakers, not only to bakers in territories where 
 it does not sell bread, but equally so in terri- 
 tories where it sells bread on the basis of a 
 reasonable profit; in fact, a far greater profit 
 to those who use it than to those who make it. 
 
 Private research must be financed. Patent 
 protection is the reward which the Govern- 
 ment has established for those who are willing 
 to seek facts and apply them to useful purpose. 
 The use in baking of the mineral salts con- 
 tained in Arkady Yeast Food have been 
 patented. The next chapter will be the 
 establishment of the Arkady patent rights in 
 
B READ FACTS 105 
 
 the courts, against that minority in the field of 
 trade who, without sowing, without hoeing 
 and cultivating, risking and waiting, are, 
 nevertheless, ever present to make appro- 
 priations to themselves after the usefulness of 
 the invention has been established. 
 
io6 
 
 B REA D FACTS 
 
 THE STORY OF AN AMERICAN 
 BUSINESS SUCCESS 
 
 THIS is a story of an 
 American business 
 success — a story of Ward's 
 Bread and how, from a 
 modest beginning in a small, 
 old-fashioned building and 
 an output of a few hundred 
 loaves a day, the business 
 has grown and grown until 
 today Ward's products are 
 made in fifteen huge, modern and sanitary 
 bakeries with a combined daily output of over 
 a million loaves of bread and a quarter of a 
 million cakes. 
 
 It was in 1 849 that Hugh Ward arrived from 
 Ireland and opened a bakery in a small build- 
 ing on Broome Street, New York City, a 
 photograph of which is reproduced at the top 
 of this page. A few years later he decided to 
 locate in Pittsburgh, Pa., which decision he 
 carried out and in a short time was again 
 engaged in the bread business and introducing 
 
BREAD FACTS 107 
 
 to the people of the then "smoky city" Ward's 
 Bread. 
 
 At the early age of eight years, Robert B. 
 Ward, the son of Hugh Ward, and founder and 
 organizer of the present company, owing to 
 the great scarcity of labor, caused by the civil 
 war which was then in progress, was obliged to 
 assist his father in the bake-shop and from 
 that time up to the age of twenty-one years, 
 less the time spent in public school, devoted 
 himself to acquiring an expert and practical 
 knowledge of bread making. 
 
 A few years later he bought out a small 
 bakery and started in the bread business for 
 himself in that section of the city of Pittsburgh 
 known as the "East End." In later years he 
 associated with himself his youngest brother, 
 George S. Ward, who had succeeded his father 
 and knew what it was to bake and deliver 
 bread before going to school each morning, and 
 together they formed the firm of R. B. Ward 
 & Company. The company thus formed was 
 remarkably successful and continued to pros- 
 per until in 1 897 its growth and expansion had 
 reached such proportions that more capital 
 
io8 B REA D FACTS 
 
 was required and so the firm of R. B. Ward & 
 Company was merged into a company known 
 as the Ward-Mackey Company. 
 
 The business of the new company continued 
 to increase and it was soon recognized that it 
 would be necessary to enlarge the manufactur- 
 ing facilities to keep up with the ever growing 
 demand for Ward's Bread. The Wards, there- 
 fore, decided to erect a modern, sanitary, 
 bread making plant and this resolution was 
 realized on July 7th, 1903, on which date their 
 modern Pittsburgh bakery began the making 
 of Ward's Bread. So far ahead of other bread 
 making establishments was this new plant and 
 so complete and up-to-date its equipment that 
 today, seventeen years after its erection, it still 
 stands in the front rank among model bread 
 bakeries and a tribute to the enterprise and 
 farseeing business intelligence of Mr. R. B. 
 Ward and Mr. George S. Ward, the men who 
 had the courage and the pioneer spirit to erect 
 the first sanitary and scientific bakery in 
 America. 
 
 The popularity of Ward's Bread in Pitts- 
 burgh increased by leaps and bounds and not 
 
BREAD FACTS loq 
 
 long after the opening of the new Pittsburgh 
 bakery it was decided that, since Ward's 
 Bread had become the leading seller in the 
 Pittsburgh district there was no reason why its 
 quality, purity and cleanliness should not find 
 equal favor among the people of other cities. 
 And so, the next few years witnessed the 
 further growth of the company and bakeries 
 were built and successfullyoperated in the cities 
 of Chicago, Cleveland, Boston and Providence. 
 In 191 1 the Wards decided to return to New 
 York where their father and grandfather had 
 first begun business in this country. In that 
 year they organized the Ward Baking Com- 
 pany and erected in the cities of New York and 
 Brooklyn two immense plants with a combined 
 capacity of over a half million loaves a day. 
 The opening of these wonderful bakeries and 
 the announcement of the Wards that they 
 proposed to supply the people of Greater New 
 York with bread which surpassed all other 
 kinds in quality and purity and above all, in 
 cleanliness, was welcomed by the people of the 
 metropolis, who immediately responded with 
 liberal patronage as proof of their appreciation. 
 
no BREAD FACTS 
 
 And true to their promise the Wards did 
 make and offer for sale a loaf of bread — the 
 famous Tip-Top bread — which in texture, 
 taste and cleanliness, eating qualities and 
 keeping qualities was far superior to any loaf 
 ever bought by the people of the world's 
 greatest city. 
 
 Another distinctive feature of Ward's Tip- 
 Top Bread was the method of delivering it. 
 Horses, harness and stables had no place in the 
 Ward way of delivering the staff of life. Since 
 the bread was made amid surroundings of 
 spotless cleanliness it was resolved to practice 
 the same rule in the delivery of it and so every 
 loaf was delivered in electric motor vehicles 
 driven by clean cut, healthy salesmen, uni- 
 formed and gloved in white. 
 
 A short time later another huge plant was 
 erected in Newark, N. J., to supply the people 
 of that city and other New Jersey towns with 
 Ward's Bread and this bakery, too, is a real 
 Ward establishment and like the other bread 
 making institutions bearing the Ward name, 
 a veritable snow-white temple of cleanli- 
 ness. 
 
B RE A D FACTS m 
 
 Ward's Bread was made when the tallow 
 candle was still a utility in almost every home. 
 Long before the advent of the incandescent 
 lamp, the telephone, the telegraph and even 
 the sewing machine it was the daily bread of 
 many American families. Ward wagons in 
 those days rattled over cobble paved streets, 
 passing flickering gas lamps on their early 
 morning delivery of bread to the dealers. Day 
 by day since that time it has grown in public 
 favor. Today there are sixty-six kinds of 
 Ward's bread and rolls and twenty-three kinds 
 of Ward's Cakes, all made "the Ward Way," 
 the "Clean Way," in fifteen modern bakeries 
 located in the cities of New York, Brooklyn, 
 Newark, Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, 
 Boston, Providence and Baltimore. 
 
 The rise of this great business from obscurity 
 to the proud position it holds today is a monu- 
 ment to the courage of those who founded it 
 and carried it on to its present day supremacy 
 and their constant maintaining of the product 
 to the company's standard of "Quality, Purity 
 and Cleanliness." 
 
Pittsburgh Bakery No. 1:-The firsi 
 modem sanitary bakery to be erected 
 in this country. Built sixteen years 
 ago and still recognized 
 as a model plant. 
 
 ^=tmii 
 
 Brooklyn Bakery:— One 
 of our three great plants which 
 supply millions of people resid 
 ing in metropolitan territory 
 
 people of Newark 
 and surrounding New 
 Jersey towns are justifi- 
 ably proud of this huge and 
 beautiful bread-making estab- 
 lishment. It is one of the 
 industrial sights of that district. 
 
 Chicago Bakery No. 2:— This 
 photograph of ourChicago No. 
 2 plant presents evidence that 
 Ward's Bread is made in that 
 great city, as elsewhere, amid 
 surroundings of spotless clean- 
 liness and by the most modern 
 methods. .. 
 
 New York Bakery: — Erected 
 in 191 1 at a cost of over two mil- 
 lion dollars. Has a capacity of 
 two hundred and fifty thousand 
 loaves per day Admitted the 
 world's greatest bakery and 
 known as "the snow-white 
 temple of bread-makir«g clean- p 
 liness." 
 
 jrf=aa