<'./. V immn v./. m; 1 1. (.." Class J]i2.] Book A-3AI_. Coipgiitl^" CSIVRIGHT DEPOSIT. ^^u 5/; tx A COMPLETE COURSE IN HISTORY. NEW Manual OF General History, WITH PARTICULAR ATTENTION TO ANCIENT AND MODERN CIVILIZATION. WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND MAPS. FOR THE USE OF Colleges, High Schools, Academies, etc. /' "^ JOHN J. ANDBESON, Ph.D., Autnor of a "Grammar School History of the United States," a "Popular School History of the United States, " a "Junior Class History of the United States, " a "History of England, " a " History of France," etc. PART FIRST -ANCIENT HISTORY. PART SECOiND.-MEDLEVAL AM) MODERN HISTORY. NEW YORK: Clark & Maynard, Publishers, 734 Broadway. 1882. 1^ Anderson's Historical ^Series. A Junior Class History of the United States. Illustrated with hundreds of portraits, views, maps, etc. 272 pages. i6mo. A Grammar School History of the United States. Annotated ; and illustrated with numerous portraits and views, and with more than forty- maps, many of which are colored. 340 pp. i6mo. A Pictorial School History of the United States. Fully illus- trated with maps, portraits, vignettes, etc. 420 pp. i2mo. A Popular School History of the United States, in which are in- serted as a part of the narrative selections from the writings of eminent American historians and other American writers of note. Fully illustrated with maps, colored and plain ; portraits, views, etc. 356 pp. i2mo. A Manual of General History. Illustrated with numerous en- gravings and with beautifully colored maps showing the changes in the political divisions of the world, and giving the location of important places. 484 pp. i2mo. A New Manual of General History, with particular attention to Ancient and Modern Civilization. With numerous engravings and colored maps. 600 pp. i2mo. Also, in two parts. Parti. Ancient History: 300 pp. Part II. Modern History : 300 pp. A School History of England. Illustrated with numerous engrav- ings and with colored maps showing the geographical changes in the coun- try at different periods. 332 pp. i2mo. A School History of France. Illustrated with numerous engravings, colored and uncolored maps. 373 pp. i2mo. A History of Rome, Amply illustrated with maps, plans, and engrav- ings. 543 pp. By R. F. Leighton, Ph. D. (Lips.). A School History of Greece. In preparation. Anderson's Bloss's Ancient History. Illustrated with engravings, colored maps, and a chart. 445 pp. i2nio. The Historical Reader, embracing selections in prose and verse, from standard writers of Ancient and Modern History ; with a Vocabulary of Difficult Words, and Biographical and Geographical Indexes. 544 pp. l2mo. The United States Reader, embracing selections from eminent Ameri- can historians, orators, statesmen, and poets, with explanatoiy observations, notes, etc. Arranged so as to form a Class-manual of United States His- tory. Illustrated with colored historical maps. 414 pp. i2mo. CLARK & MAYNARD, Publishers, 734 BROADWAY, NEW YORK. Copyright, 1882, by John J. Anderson, PREFACE. The prominent and characteristic features of the Author's series of school histories have won for these books a large share of public favor, and have secured their introduction into a great number of schools in every part of the country. Of these books the Manual of General History has been, per- haps, the most conspicuously successful, having been for many years used in a large number of colleges, preparatory schools, academies, and seminaries, and having been commended, after a mature practical test of its merits, by many intelligent and accomplished educators, as a work that contains not only a clear and brief statement of all the facts needed to afford a basis for a complete course of historical study, but also such aids to teacher and pupil as are requisite to facilitate the work both of instruction and of acquisition. It is not intended to supersede this work by the New Man- ual, here presented to the public, but to supply, by means of it, a somewhat more extended course of history, especially with regard to the progress of civilization among mankind, so as to show the distinguishing traits of each separate people in respect to religion, manners and customs, and advancement in literature and the arts. There has been, for some time, a growing tendency in the public mind to study rather those things that directly concern the life of the people, as such, than the facts of national or po- litical history. Certainly, this department of knowledge has a most fascinating interest;' but it must be borne in mind that the great movements of mankind are connected rather with their national than their social history; and, hence, it is a false system that makes the former subordinate to the latter, Preface, dwarfing it below its proper proportion, or keeping it out of Tiew altogether. The political history of nations must consti- tute the main groundwork of historical study; and, hence, it has seemed to the Author that a school manual on this subject, however charming in its sketches of popular traits, or grapliic in its painting of ideal scenes of every-day life, usually consid- ered to belong to the province of romance, cannot, and should not, take the place of that which every student imperatively needs to render his subsequent reading of history profitable and satisfactory. The "old masters" of education, though more severe than those of the present time, in their imposi- tion of tasks, and less anxious to consult the uncultured pal- ate of their pupils, probably, on that account, often imparted more solid and enduring accomplishments. The present work, while giving a brief sketch of the political history of every nation, ancient and modern, aims also to afford, in a pleasing and instructive style, all the information needed by the young student in regard to the social peculiar- ities of the people and their progress in each department of civilization; but care has been exercised to keep this branch of the subject within its just limits. As, in most programmes of study in this country, the his- tory of the United States precedes the study of general his- tory, and as, therefore, that subject is fully treated in more elementary books, it has been deemed unnecessary to include it in the present work. The geographical features of the work, including copious maps and map exercises, with constant references to the same in the text, accord with the plan uniformly pursued by the Author in his oth-er works, and strongly commended by the most successful teachers. Indeed, this plan has been followed in all the Author's historical text-hooks published since the date of his first work. The treatment by nationalities rather than by periods has been retained, as being the most suitable for beginners, Preface. inasmuch as it prevents the confusion that is necessarily caused in the minds of the pujDils by a constant interruption of the current of events in passing from nation to nation. Synchronistic exercises and reviews are, however, freely given, which will serve to bring into intimate relation, and give unity of aspect to, all the great contemporaneous events in the national life of each separate people. In the cuts inserted to illustrate the text, the object has been not merely embellishment, but, by addressing the eye, to afford information to the pupil in regard to matters a verbal account or description of which would necessarily be imper- fect or insufficient. It has been also the aim of the Author, himself a practical teacher, to render this work a valuable and effective instru- ment in imparting instruction. Hence, it has been provided with outline reviews, topical synopses, and chronological ta- bles, designed to facilitate the labors of both instructor and student. To this object the analytical table of contents and pronouncing index will be found to contribute. The latest and best authorities have been consulted in the compilation of this work; and every effort has been made to give it all the freshness of interest, and clearness of expression, possible in such a work. The Neio Ma7iual, it is confidently believed, will be found to contain all the requirements for a complete course of history for all institutions of every grade, above that of the grammar-school, that have not the time to devote to the study of the minute history of different nations in separate volumes. It consists of two parts, — the first devoted to ancient, and the second to mediaeval and modern history. These parts are issued together in a single book, as well as in two separate volumes, the first being confined to ancient history, the second comprehending both mediaeval and modern. Kew York, Feb. 1, 1882. LIST OF MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE The Parthenon (Frontispiece). TheWorJd as known to the Ancients. —Map 1 24,25 Map of the Ancient Monarchies 30* Warrior and Horses (Kliorsabad) 33 A Babj'lonian Brick. 35 From the Palace of Sennacherib 36 Interior of an Assyrian Palace 37 Ancient Warrior 42 Ruins of an Egyptian Temple 46 Map of Ancient Egypt 47 Cartouche of a King 49 Memnonian Statues 52 Egj^ptian Mummies 55 The Obelisk, New York 56 Diagram of the Great Pyramid 58 Map of Phoenicia and Palestine 62 Phoenician Ship 63 Head of Baal 64 Antique Vessels 68 Hebrew Costume 69 The Persian Empire.— Map II 74 Persian War-Chariot 78 Greece.—Map III 85 Map of Hellas and her Colonies 86 Map of the Greek Colonies in Italy. . 87 Menelaus 90 Solon 97 Ruins of Areopagus and the Acrop- olis 98 Plan of the Battle of Marathon 100 Miltiades 101 Map of Salamis 102 Aristides 104 The Acropolis at Athens 105 Socrates Ill Map of the Retreat of the Ten Thou- sand 113 Xenophon 114 Epaminondas 115 Empire of Alexander the Great.— Map IV 117 Map showing the Marches of Alex- ander 121 Battering- Ram 122 Plan of the Battle of Arbela 123 Map of Asia Minor 125 The East.— Map V 129 Ruins of Baalbec 135 Pharos 137 Map of the Port of Alexandria 138 Mausoleum at Halicarnassus 140 A Grecian Temple 146 PAGE Zeus, or Jupiter 147 Colossus of Rhodes 148 The Foot-Race 152 Homer 155 Demosthenes 160 Writing Materials of the Greeks 162 Tlie Three Orders of Greek Archi- tecture 163 An Ionic Capital 164 The Parthenon, Restored 165 A Grecian Vase 166 Athenian Female Costume 169 Greek Jewelry 171 Greek Instruments of Music 173 Italy.— Map VI 181 Map of the Vicinity of Rome 185 Cloaca Maxima 186 Celtic Arms 197 Via Appia 203 Map of the Coimtries subject to Car- thage 205 War-Ship of Hiero 206 Map of the Territory of Syracuse 211 Map of Numidia and the Old Prov- ince of Africa 216 The Siege of Nimiantia 218 Temple of Concord 222 Pompey the Great 235 Julius Ceesar 236 Mark Antony 240 Cicero 241 Roman Forum, Restored 248 Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus 250 Aqueduct of the Pont du Gard, at Nismes 251 Racing Chariots 252 The Colosseum 253 Mausoleum of Augustus 254 Temple of Vesta 256 Horace 258 Virgil 258 The Pantheon 259 Suovetaurilia 261 Roman Implements of Writing 264 Roman Toga : 265 Empress Livia 266 lioman Soldiers and Lictor 267 Besieging Tower 268 Roman Standard 269 Triumph of Titus 270 Roman Empire.— Map VII 271 The Arch of Titus 273 Alexander Severus ~76 List of Maps and Illustrations. PAGE Arch of Constantine 281 Europe in the Reign of Theodoric, A.D. 500.— Map VIII Facing 297 Europe at the Death of Justinian, A.D. 565.— Map IX Facing 301 Empire of Charlemagne.— Map X. Facing 315 Map of France after the Treaty of Verdun 320 Saxon England.— Map XI Facing 333 Map of Great Britain and Ireland. . . 339 A Feudal Castle 343 A Norman Castle 344 A Knight in Complete Armor 346 A Knight in the Lists 348 Map of the Dominions of the Ange- vins 350 A Paragraph in Magna Charta 357 Military Accouterments of the Black Prince 364 Knight of the Garter, Gentleman, and Citizen 374 Hats and Caps 374 Ladies' Head-Dresses {Froissart) 375 Chaucer 376 Europe at the Death of Charle- magne.— Map XII Facing 379 Map of France and the Neighbor- ing Countries 380 A Crusading Knight 383 Ramparts of a Town in the Middle Ages 389 France under Hugh Capet, a.d. 987. —Map XIII Facing 393 France at the Time of Valois, a.d. 1328.— Map XIV Facing 392 Cannon of the Fourteenth Century. 393 Fortified Gate of a French Town in the Middle Ages 396 Cathedral of Rheims 397 Feudal Castle in France, Fifteenth Century 398 Froissart 404 Europe in the Time of the Crusades. —Map XV 406, 407 Crusaders 407 Peter the Hermit 408 Knights Templars 409 Knight Hospitaller 410 Map of the Christian Kingdoms in Syria and Palestine 411 War-Ships of the Thirteenth Century 414 Map of Central Europe, about 1200. . 419 A Summons to a Town to Surrender 421 Gregory VII 423 Albert Durer 435 Map of the Spanish Kingdoms, about 1350 449 Map of Southeastern Europe, about 1200 453 Map of Southeastern Europe and Asia Minor, 1354 454 Map of the Ottoman Empire, 1460. . . 457 Modern England.— Map XVI. Facing 461 Ship in which Hemy VIII. em- barked for France, 1520 464 Mary Stuart 472 PAGE Raleigh 479 Musketeer and Pikeman, Time of James 1 480 Milton 490 William of Orange, King of England 498 Prince Eugene 500 Cavalier and Puritan 503 Ships of War, Time of Charles II. . .. 504 Shakespeare 506 Bacon 507 Washington 513 York Minster 518 Map of the Crimea 520 Victoria 521 Gladstone 523 Franklin 530 Morse 531 Goldsmith 532 Burns 532 Byron 532 Wordsworth 533 Scott 534 Tennyson 534 Macaulay 535 George Eliot 535 Dickens 536 Thackeray 536 Carlyle 537 Modern France. — Map XVII 541 Pope Juhus II 542 Field of the Cloth of Gold 544 Francis 1 545 Richelieu 555 Mary de' Medici 556 Louis XIV 558 Pavilion of Henry IV. at St. Germain 565 Fountain Moliere, Paris 567 Fenelon 568 Voltaire 569 Marie Antoinette 570 The Bastile 572 Lafayette 573 Robespierre 575 Madame Roland 576 Napoleon 1 579 Murat 581 Victor Hugo 595 Europe at the End of the Seven- teenth Century.- Map XVIII. Facing 598 Members of Maximilian's Court 599 Charles V 601 Wallenstein 603 Maria Theresa 605 Bismarck 607 Central and Southern Europe, Mod- ern.— Map XIX Facing 609 Frederick the Great 610 William of Orange 612 Map of Spain and Portugal 617 Peter the Great 628 Catharine II 629 Beethoven 640 Copernicus 642 Schiller 644 Richter 645 Goethe 646 ANALYTICAL TABLE OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. PAGE History defined and classified 17 Origin of Nations 17 Aids to History 17 Different Races 18 Comparative Philology 19 Classification of Languages 19 Chronology 20 Different Epochs 21 Ancient Monuments 21 Ancient Writings 22 Divisions of History 23 Philosophy of History 23 Ethnological Synopsis 24 CHAPTER I. Ancient Monarchies. I. Babylonians and Assyrians. Babylonia or Chaldea 25 Chaldean and Babylonian Monar- chies 27 The Chaldees 27 Babylon 27 Berosus 28 Early Dynasties 29 Later Babylonian Monarchy 29 Assyrian Empire 31 Babylonian and Assyrian Civilization. 35 Review Outline 39 II. Median Monarchy. Early History 40 Cyrus the Great 40 Median Civilization 41 III. Kingdoms in Asia Mincyr. The Phrygians 41 Cilicia 41 The Lydian Monarchy 42 Chronological Synopsis 44 IV. Tlie Ancient Egyptians. Origin 45 Sources of Egyptian History 45 Dynasties 47 Topography and Civilization 51 The Ethiopians 61 V. The Phoenicians. Sidon and Tyre 61 Navigation and Commerce 63 Literatm-e and Religion 64 Syria 65 VI. The Hebrews. Situation of Palestine 66 Tribes of Israel 66 Earlj- Kingdom of Israel 66 Later Kingdom of Israel 67 Kingdom of Judah 68 Later Jewish History 69 VII. The Hindoos. Invasion of the Aryans 70 Religion 70 Wealth and Trade 71 VIII. The Chinese. Origin and History 72 Chinese Civilization 73 IX. The Persians. Origin 74 Conquests of Cyrus 75 Cambyses 76 Darius 77 Other Kings 78 Civilization 78 Review Outline 81 Kings of Israel and Judah 83 The Persian Monarchs 84 10 Contents. CHAPTER n. Greece and Macedonia. I. Geographical Sketch. Divisions 85 States and Islands 85 Colonies 86 Physical Features 87 II. First Period— to 776 B.C. Legendary or Traditional History. . . 88 The Pelasgi 88 Hellenes 89 Heroic Age 89 Trojan War 90 State of Society 91 Amphictyonic Council 91 Migrations 92 Colonies 92 .ni. Second Period— 776-500 B.C. Dawn of Authentic History 93 Olympiads 93 Laws of Lycurgus 93 Messenian Wars 95 Attica 96 Draco 96 Solon 97 Pisistratus 97 Clisthenes 98 Ostracism 98 IV. Third Per/od-500-449 B.C. The Persian War 99 Revolt of the Colonies 99 First Persian Expedition 100 Second Expedition 100 Battle of Marathon 101 Expedition of Xerxes 101 Battle of Thermopylae 102 Battle of Salamis . . 102 Burning of Athens 103 Battle of Platasa 103 Treason of Pausanias 103 Confederacy of Delos 104 Themistocles 104 Cimon 106 Pericles 106 V. Fourth Period— 449-358 b.c. page: Interstate Dissensions 107 Height of Athenian Glory 107 Peloponnesian War 108 Thirty Tyrants Ill Condemnation and Death of Socrates 112 Expedition of Cyrus *. . 113 Theban War 115 VI. Fifth Period— 358-301 B.C. Macedonian Supremacy 117 Philip 117 Condition of the Grecian States. . . 117 Social War 117 Sacred War 118 Subjugation of Greece 119 Destruction of Thebes 119 Conquests of Alexander the Great. . . 120 Lamian War 125 Alexander's Successors 126 Disposition of the Empire 126 Death of Perdiccas 126 Battle of Ipsus 127 Partition of the Empire 128 VII. Sixth Period— 301-146 b.l Macedon and Greece 129 Syrian Kingdom of the Seleucidce. . . 133 Egyptian Kingdom of the Ptolemies. 136 The Minor Kingdoms 141 Pergamus 141 Bithynia 142 Paphlagonia 142 Pontus 142 Cappadocia 142 Armenia 142 Bactria 143 Parthia 143 VIII. Grecian Civilization. Early Customs and Institutions 143 Religion of the Greeks 145 Greek Literature 154 First or Early Period 154 Second or Middle Period 156 Third or Later Period 160 Greek Art 162 Social Life and Manners 167 Contents. 11 PAGE Review Outline 175 Topical Review 179 CHAPTER III. Roman H istor y. I. Early History of Italy. Early Races 181 lapygians, Italians 181 Latins, Etruscans, Romans 182 Synopsis of the Races of Italy 183 II. The Roman Kingdom. Foundation of Rome 184 Government 184 Patricians and Plebeians 185 Kings 185 Traditional Chronology of the Kings. 187 III. The Roman Republic. Period of Internal Struggles 187 Legends of the Period of the Tar- quins 189 Agrarian Laws 193 Decemvirs 195 Military Tribunes 197 Invasion by the Gauls -. . 197 Licinian Laws 199 Triiunph of the Plebeians 200 Period of Italian Conquests 200 Conquest of Italy 200 Samnite Wars 201 War with the Gauls 201 War with Pyrrhus 201 Military Roads. 203 Aqueducts 203 Period of Foreign Conquests 203 History of Syi-acuse 204 First Punic War 206 Second Punic War. .' 209 Conquest of Macedon and Greece.. 214 Third Punic War 215 PAGE War in Spain 217 Review of the Period 219 Effects of the Conquests 220 Period of Internal Dissensions and Civil War 221 The Gracchi ;i21 Jugurthine War 223 Invasion of the Cimbrians and Teutons 224 Mithridatic War 225 First Civil War 227 Servile War 229 Conspiracy of Catiline 231 First Triumvirate 233 ' The Great Civil War 234 Second Triumvirate 241 Octavius Master of the Empire 243 Review Outline 244 Table of Contemporaneous Events. . 247 IV. Roman Civilization. Change in Roman Manners 249 Description of Rome 249 Roman Art 255 Roman Literature 257 Roman Rehgion 258 Manners and Customs 262 Military System 266 V. The Roman Empire. Reign of Augustus 271 Birth of Christ 272 The Twelve Caesars 272 Prgetorian Guards 274 Rise and Progress of Christianity . . . 279 The Irruptions of the Barbarians 283 List of the Roman Emperors 288 Topical Review . . 289 Topical Review of the Roman Em- pire 290 General Chronological Review 291 Synoptical View of the Rise and Fall of Nations 296 12 Contents. PART II. I. Medi-eval History. CHAPTER I. General View of Europe. PAGE Conquering Races 297 Burgundians 297 Ostrogoths and Visigoths 298 Sueves, Alans, and Vandals 298 Saxons, Gepidee, and Lombards 299 Arj^ans, Basques, etc 299 Ethnological Synopsis 300 CHAPTER II. The Eastern Empire. Foundation 301 Reign of Justinian 302 Bulgarians and Slavonians 303 Conquest of Italy by Narses 303 Avars, Lombards, and Gepidae 301 Conquest of Italy by the T^ombards. 304 Persia 305 Saracen Conquests 305 Kingdom of Bulgaria 306 Russians and Turks 307 Latin Emperors 308 Mongols and Ottomans 309 Byzantine Civilization 310 Principal Greek Emperors 314 Summary of Events and Dates 314 CHAPTER III. The Conquering Races. I. The Franks and ihe Normans, Dark Ages 315 The Franks 315 Clovis 316 Frankish Monarchy 317 Descendants of Clovis 317 Charlemagne 318 Louis le Debonnaire 319 The Normans 320 II. The Saxons. page Incursions 322 Conquest of Britain 323 Heptarchy 324 England 324 III. The Saracens. Mohammed 324 Conquests of the Caliphs 326 Ommiyades 327 Conquest of Africa and Spain 328 Caliphate of Cordova 329 Haroun al Raschid 329 End of the Caliphate 330 IV. Saracenic Civilization. Commercial Activity 330 Manufactures and Mines 331 Learning and Science 331 Chronological Synopsis 332 CHAPTER IV. England in the Middle Ages. I. Saxon Period. Danes 333 Alfred the Great 334 Norman Conquest 335 Anglo-Saxon Civilization 336 II. Norman Period. William 1 338 William II 340 Henry L, Stephen 341 Norman Civilization 342 Feudal System 342 Chivalry or Knighthood 345 HI. T7ie Plantagenets. Henry II 350 Conquest of Ireland 353 Richard 1 354 John 355 Henry III 358 Edward 1 359 Edward II 361 Contents. 13 PAGE Edward in 362 Richard U 365 Heniy IV., Henry V 367 Henry VI 368 Edward IV 370 Edward V 371 Richard III 372 State of Society in England 373 Kings of England 377 Summary of Events and Dates 377 Topical Review 378 CHAPTER V. France in the Middle Ages. I. Tlie Capetian Dynasty. Hugh Capet 379 Robert, Henry 1 381 Philip I. and Louis VI 382 Louis VII., PhUip II . 382 Louis VIIL, Louis IX 384 Philip III 385 Philip IV 386 Louis X 387 Philip v., Charles IV 388 State of Society 388 II. Branch of Valois. Philip VI 392 John 393 Charles V., Charles VI 395 Charles VII 396 Louis XI 398 Charles VIII 400 State of Society 400 Kings of France 405 Summary of Events and Dates 405 Topical Review 406 CHAPTER VI, The Crusades. Cause 407 First Crusade 408 Second Crusade 411 Third Crusade 412 Fourth Crusade 413 Subsequent Crusades 415 Influence of the Crusades 416 Summary of Events and Dates 417 CHAPTER Vn. Central and Southern Europe. I. Gei-many. PAGE Otto and Conrad 418 Henry 1 419 Otto I., Otto II 420 OttoIIL, Henry II 421 Conrad II., Henry lU 422 Henry IV 423 Henry V., Lothaire 424 Conrad III 424 Frederick I 425 Frederick II 425 Rudolf I., Albert 1 427 Henry VII., Charles IV 428 Wenceslas 429 Albert II., Frederick III 430 State of Society in Germany 431 Emperors of Germany 436 Summary of Events and Dates 436 II. Switzerland. Barbaric Invasions 437 Cantons 437 lU. Italy. Northern Italy 439 Republic of Venice 440 Southern Italy 442 Rome, or Papal Italy 444 State of Society in Italy 445 IV. Spain and Portugal. Christian Kingdoms 448 Castile and Aragon 448 Spain 449 Portugal 450 Civilization in Spain and Portugal. . . 451 CHAPTER VIIL Southeastern Europe. Races and States 452 Bulgaria 452 Servia 454 Hungary 455 Bosnia 456 Ottoman or Turkish Empire 457 Table of Contemporaneous Events. . 459 Topical Review 460 14 Contents. II. Modern History. CHAPTER IX. Engiand. I. The Tudor Line. PAGE Henry VH 461 Henry VIII 463 Edward VI., Mary 468 Elizabeth 469 State of Society in England 474 II. The Stuart Family. James 1 478 Charles 1 481 The Commonwealth 488 Charles II 492 James II 496 William and Mary 498 William III 499 Anne 500 State of Society in England 502 III. The House of Brunsioick. George 1 508 George II 508 George III 512 George IV 516 William IV 517 Victoria 518 State of Society in England 524 Sovereigns of England 538 Summary of Events and Dates 538 Topical Review 539 CHAPTER X. France. I. The Valois-Orleans Branch, Louis XII 541 Francis I 543 Henry II ,546 Francis II 547 Charles IX 548 Henry III 549 State of Society in France 550 II. The House of Bourbon. Henry IV 553 Louis XIII 555 PAGE Louis XIV 556 Louis XV 561 State of Society in France 563 HI. Revolutionary France. Louis XVI 570 The National Convention 574 The Directory 577 The Consulate and Empii-e 578 Restoration of the Bourbons 585 Louis XVIII 586 Charles X 587 Louis Philippe 587 The Second Republic 588 The Second Empire 589 The Third Republic 591 State of Society in France 592 Rulers of France 596 Summary of Events and Dates 596 Topical Review 597 CHAPTER XL States of Modern Europe. I. Germany and Austria. Maximilian 1 598 Charles V 598 Thirty Years' War .* 602 Leopold 1 604 Charles VI 604 Francis I., Francis II 605 William 1 606 Austria 608 II Prussia Early History 609 Frederick the Great Elector 609 Frederick III 610 Frederick the Great 610 Frederick William III 611 Later Events 611 III. Holland and Belgium. Early History 612 Rise of the Republic 612 Later Changes 613 IV. Switzerland. Religious Wars 614 Later History 614 Contents. 15 V. Italy. p^QE Savoy, Sardinia 615 Kingdom of Italy 616 VI. Spain. Charles V 616 Philip II 617 Later Events 618 Isabella II., Alfonso 619 VII. Portugal. Maritime Enterprises 619 Later History 620 Vni. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. Early History 622 Sweden 622 Norway 624 IX. Poland. Early History 625 Later History , . 626 X. Russia. Early History 627 Peter the Great 628 Later History 629 XI. Turkey. Conquests 631 Solyman the Magnificent 632 Selimll 632 Subsequent Reigns. 632 Wars with Russia 633 The Eastern War of 1877-8 634 xn. Greece. p^^j. Turkish Rule 635 War for Independence 635 Kingdom of Greece 635 XIII. Progress of Civilization in Modern Europe. Modern Epoch 636 Maritime Enterprises 637 Industrial Arts 638 Fine Arts 639 Science 641 Literature 643 Review Outline 647 Contemporaneous Events 650 Emperors of Germany. 651 Topical Review 651 CHAPTER XII. Supplementary. I. Asiatic States. China 652 Japan 652 India 653 Persia 654 Turkistan 655 II. American States. Mexico and Central America 656 Brazil 656 Peru 656 Chili, Venezuela, etc 657 Independent States 657 A LIST OF WORKS FOR STUDY AND REFERENCE. The following works are recommended to the student who desires to acquire a complete knowledge of ancient history, or who wishes to make a special study of any single department of the subject, or to obtain a full account of any particular nation It need scarcely be said that this list is by no means exhaustive; though it embraces all that is needed for a full course of reading, or that would be required for the ordinary purposes of consultation. Most of the standard authorities upon each nation are given, as well as those that are especially useful and interesting for the light they throw upon the condition and progress of the most ancient peoples, such as the Egyptians, Assyrians, Phoenicians, and early Greeks, or Hel- lenes. It is in this field of archaeological and historical research that the explorers and writers of the last quarter of a century have won their chief distinction. This list is divided into three parts: (I.) works pertaining to the earUest times; (U.) those relating to Greece; and (III.) those relating to Rome. I. Bunsen's Egypt's Place in Universal History (translated from the French, by Cottrell and Birch). 2 vols. Brugsch, Histoire de VEgypte des les premiers temps de son existence. Wilkinson, Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. Smith, W., Dictionary of the Bible, articles Egypt, Phoenicia, Tyre, etc. Rawlinson, Sir Henry C, Outline of the History of Assyria. Rawlinsou, George, Translation of Herodotus 4 vols. Manual of Ancient History. ^ , , " " The Five Great Monarchies of the Ancient Eastern World. 3 vols. " " The Sixth Great Oriental Monarchy. " " Origin of Nations. Kenrick, J., Phcenicia. Smitli, R. P., Carthage and the Carthaginians. Milniau, H. H., History of the Jews. Layard, Nineveh and its Remains. , „ ^ , Discoveries among the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon. Grant, History of India. Schliemann, Ancient Mycenae. " Troy and its Remains. Davis, Dr. N., Carthage and her Remains^ Yeats, The Growth and Vicissitudes of Commerce, from B.C. 1500 to a.d. 1789. II. Niebuhr, Lectures on the Ethnography and Geography of Ancient Greece. Grote, History of Greece. 12 vols. Curtius, History of Greece. 5 vols. Smith, W., History of Greece. Ciirteis, A. M., Rise of the Macedonian Empire. Mahatty, Social Life in Greece. Gladstone, W. E., Studies on Homer and the Homeric Age. 3 vols. Juventus Mundi; the Gods and Men of the Homeric Age. III. Mommsen, The History of Rome. 4 vols. Merivale, History of the Romans. 7 vols. Niebuhr, History of Rome. 3 vols. Arnold, History of Rome. 4 vols. Forsyth, Life of Cicero. 2 vols. Froude, Caesar : a Sketch. Trollope, Life of Cicero. 2 vols. Liddell, History of Rome. Leighton, History of Rome. Smith, W., Dictionary of Grecian and Roman Antiquities. Becker, Gallus, or Roman Scenes of the Time of Augustus. De Coulanges, The Ancient City: a Study on the Religion, Laws, and Institu- tions of Greece and Rome. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. 4 vols. Long, Decline of the Roman Republic. 5 vols. mTEODUOTIOS' 1. History is a narration of the events which have hap- pened among mankind. It includes an account of the rise and fall of nations, their dealings one History defined. with another, their government and institutions, and the causes of their growth and decline. This is sometimes called political history. History is also a record of the progress of mankind in civilization, giving an Political history. account of the manners, customs, and social life of different peoples, and their advancement in science, art, literature, and religion. This has been termed civil history. History treats particularly of those nations which Civil history. have occupied a prominent place among mankind by reason of their energy, enterprise, intelligence, and culture. 2. The origin of nations is shrouded in obscurity ; but modern scholars by patient study and research v~ — have, to some extent, shown the relationship of ^nifionf different portions of mankind, by a comparison I Aids to history. of their physical peculiarities, their languages, and the remains of their literature, science, and art. Thus history is indebted for its progress to three branches of study and investiga- ' tion: 1. Ethnology, or a knowledge of the races of mankmd ; 2. Comparative philology, or the study of the affinities of languages; and 3. Archwology, or the study of the remains of ancient art, science, and litera- ture, such as inscriptions, monuments, architectural remains, pottery, medals, coins, etc. 18 Ancient History. 3. There are three great races of which history especially treats, — the Ar'yans,* the Sem'ites or SJiem'ites, and the Ham'ites. f The Aryans are often called Races the Lido- Europeans, because the primitive race appears to have separated into two branches, one passing to the west into Europe, and the other to the south-east into India. The place where this separation took place Aryans. seems to have been in the region situated to the south-east of the Cas23ian Sea, sometimes called the plateau of Iran. Thence they entered the Indian peninsula, and laid the foundation of the peculiar civilization, language, and literature of the Hindoos. The ancient Persians, as Avell as that kindred people, the Medes, were also descendants of this ancient race. In their great migrations to the west they occupied Greece, Italy, and other j^arts of Europe, thus laying the foundations not only of the Graeco-Roman nations, but of the Thracians, Celts, Slavs, Germans, etc. Relics of the peoples displaced by this powerful wave of migration still exist in Europe. Such are the Basques, a small tribe living on both sides of the Pyrenees, and the Finns and Laps.]; To the Semites proper belonged the Canaanites, Hebrews, Syrians, Chaldeans {kal- de'ans), Samaritans, and Arabians; to the Ham- Semi-tes. ites, often included among the Semitic nations, the Assyrians, Babylonians, ancient Phoenicians, Egyptians, and Ethiopians. 4. It is by the study of the languages of different nations * Arya, in the later Sanslirit, signifies excellent. In the Vedns, the most ancient Sanskrit writings, the Hindoos style themselves Aryans; and the name Airya was applied to a pai't of southern and western Asia (India and Iran) to distinguish it from the countries of less civiUzed nations. t The terms Semites and Semitic (more properlj^ Sheniites and Shemitic) have been applied to the supposed descendants of Shem; as Hamites and Hamitic denote the races who are supposed to have descended from Ham. t "The results of Germanic antiquarian research lead to the conclusion that ia England, France, the north of Germany, and Scandinavia, before the settlement of the Indo-Europeans in those lands, there must have dwelt, or rather roamed, a people, perhaps of Mongolian race, gaining their subsistence by hunting and fishing, making their implements of stone, clay, or bones, adorning themselves with the teeth of animals and with amber, but unacquainted with agriculture and the use of the metals,"— Ifowmsen's History of Rome. Introduction. 19 that their affinities have been traced. Thus, in regard to the Aryan or Indo-European race, it is found tliat the names of many common objects are the same in all the languages and dialects spoken by these Comparative philology. people; and it could not reasonably be supposed that two na- tions widely separated would have independently selected the same name for the same object. For example, the word for house in Greek is domos, in Latin dotnus, Aryan languages. in Sanskrit dama, in Zend (Persian) demana; and from the same root comes our word domestic. The words, also, for 13loughing, grinding corn, building, etc., are found to be nearly identical. This serves to show, first, that these nations must have had a common origin, and, secondly, that they practiced farming, made bread, and built houses. By observing in this way the similitudes of words having the same meaning, com- parative philology has been the means of throwing much light on the affinities of different peoples. 5. Different languages present three varieties of structure, or stages of development, which have been designated the monosyUalic, the agglutinative, and the inflected. The monosyllabic languages consist only of simple words expressing the ideas without regard to their Kinds of languages. relation to other words. Of these the Chinese is an example. The monosyllabic seems to be the simplest and earliest form of language. The agglutinative are those in which two roots are joined together to form words, one of them losing its inde- pendent meaning and becoming subsidiary to the other. The languages which have been called Turanian^ comprise all those spoken in Europe and Asia, ex- Turanian. cept the Aryan and Semitic. The latter are inflected languages; that is, those In which the roots coalesce, neither retaining its independent meaning. Though the Semitic languages were * The term Turanian is derived from Turan, a name applied by the Persians, from the earUest times, to the region lying to the north of Iran. " Tura,'' says Max Muller, "imphes the swiftness of the horseman." Hence, nomadic races were called Turanian. 20 Ancient History. 5poken by the nations who dwelt in the valley of the Tigris and Euphrates, and in Syria and Arabia, they were not restricted to those countries, but were spoken by a large j^art of the Hamitic nations. 6. As far as we know, the nations that have performed the grandest achievements, made the most progress in civilization, and hence occupied the most conspicuous place in history, are the descendants of the primitive Aryans.* The Semitic and Hamitic nations seem to have more rapidly reached their ma- turity; but their civilization was of a peculiar character, having but little in common with that of the Aryan race, as developed in the growth of the greatest of modern nations, both of Europe and America. In art, science, and literature, this peculiarity is very marked, but is more especially so in religion. Some of the Semitic nations, as the Hebrews, had early reached a sublime height in their religious beliefs and institutions; while others, though they seem to have had pure and just views at the commencement of their national existence, soon fell into corrupt and superstitious notions and observances. 7. Chronology is a department of history which treats of the exact time, or date, of each event with refer- ence to some fixed point of time, called an era or Chronology. epoch. The epoch employed in our times by Christian nations * " The words which have nearly as possible the same form and meaning in all the languages must have existed before the people, who afterwards formed the prominent nationalities of the Aryan family, separated; and, if carefully inter- preted, they, too, will serve as evidence as to the state of civilization attained by the Aryans before they left their common home. It can be proved, by the evidence of language, that before their separation the Aryans led the life of agricultural nomads— a life such as Tacitus describes that of the ancient Germans. They knew the arts of ploughing, of making roads, of building ship . of weaving and sewing, of erecting houses; they had counted at least as far as one hundred. They had domesticated the most important animals— the cow. the horse, the sheep, the dog; they were acquainted with the most useful metals, and armed with iron hatchets, whether for peaceful or warlike purposes. They had recognized the bonds of blood and the bonds of marriage; they followed their leaders and kings, and the distinc- tion between right and wrong was fixed by laws and customs. They were impressed with the idea of a Divine Being, and they mvoked it by various names. All this can be proved by the evidence of language."— Maa; Muller's Science of Language. Introduction. 21 IS the Birth of Christ, called the Christian era. All dates preceding this are marked B.C. — that is, Before Clirist (or, in Latin, Ante Christum); and all subsequent to it are marked A.D. — that is, Anno Domifii, which means Li the year of Our Lord; that is, after the birth of Christ. Previous to the fifth century B.C., there are but few dates that can be fixed with any degree of certainty; that is to say, no uninterrupted series of dates can be accurately and positively assigned to events which are known to have occurred. In the earliest ages all dates are uncertain, from the absence of reliable information in regard to those remote periods.* 8. Still, certain fixed points of time have been assumed by different nations of a very great antiquity. Thus, the Babylonians used the era of Naho7iassar, 747 b. c. — the earliest instance of a national epoch; the Eomans, the era of the Foundation of Rome, 753 Different epochs. B. c. (or, according to some authorities, 752 B.C.); the Greeks, the era of the Olympiads, 776 B.C.; and the Mohammedans, in latter times, the Hegira, or Flight of Mohammed, 622 a.d. 9. In establishing the date of ancient events, much aid has been afforded by the discovery of monuments of great antiquity bearing chronological inscriptions. Of these, one of the most noted is the Parian Marble, brought to England from Smyrna by the Earl of Arundel. Monuments. It contains a chronological arrangement of important events in Greek history, from the earliest times to 355 B.C. The Assyrian Canon, discovered by Sir Henry Rawlinson, consists of a number of clay tablets, constructed in the reign of Sardanapa'lus, and containing a complete scheme of Assyrian * VSThen Christianity became predominant in the civilized world, writers began to date events from various epochs in the history of Christ, the most general being that of his death. About the middle of the sixth century, Dionysius Exiquus, a Roman abbot of Scythian birth, introduced the method of dating from the birth of Christ; but it is generally conceded that his computation placed the event about four years too late. This is, however, of little importance in chronology, as it merely involves the necessity of placing the date of the birth in the year 4 B.C. 2^ Ancient History. chronology, verified by the record of a solar eclipse, which must have occurred June 15, B.C. 763. One of the most interesting remains of this kind is that of the Fasti Capitolini, discovered at Rome, partly in Fasti Capitolini. 1547, and partly in 1817 and 1818. These records are in frag- ments, but they contain a list of the Roman magistrates and triumphs, from the commencement of the RepuWic to the end of the reign of Augustus. To these might be added many others of great interest, particularly the famous Rosetta Stone, the inscription on which in the Egyptian and Greek languages was fortunately deciphered, thus leading to the dis- covery of a key to the meaning of the hieroglyphic writings on the monuments.* [See Egypt.'] 10. Besides these monumental inscriptions, the books of ancient writers, which have come down to us from antiquity, form a copious source of ancient history. Such are the frag- ments of San-cho-ni-a'thon and Be-ro'sus in regard to Phoenician and Assyrian history; the lists of Egyptian kings supplied by Man'e-tho; and the Ancient writings. writings of Herodotus, called the "Father of History," which have survived the wrecks and mutations of more than twenty- three centuries, giving us a graphic picture of ancient nations — their history, manners, and customs, as well as a geographi- cal description of the countries which they occupied. * The nations of antiquity made use to a very large extent of this mode of com- memorating events. In Egypt, in Assyria, in Babylonia, in Armenia, in Persia, in Phoenicia, in Lycia, in Greece, in Italy, historical events of importance were from time to time recorded in this way— sometimes on the natural rock, which was commonly smoothed for the purpose; sometimes on obelisks or pillars; frequently upon the walls of temples, palaces, and tombs ; occasionally upon metal plates, or upon tablets and cylinders of fine clay— hard and durable materials, all of them capable of lasting hundreds or even thousands of years, and in many cases con- tinuing to the present day. . . . The histories of Egypt and Assyria have been in a great measure reconstructed from the inscriptions of the two countries. The great inscription of Behistun has thrown much light upon the early history of Persia. That on the Delphic tripod has illustrated the most glorious period of Greece. It is now generally felt that inscriptions are among the most important of ancient records, and that their intrinsic value makes up to a great extent for their comparative scantiness."— iJawZmson. Introduction. 23 11. History is most conveniently divided into Ancient j MedicBval, and Modern History. Ancient history may properly be considered to end 476 a.d., the date of the destruction of the western division of the Roman Empire. Mediaeval history, or the History of Divisions of history. the Middle Ages, extends from 476 a.d. to about the time of the fall of the eastern division of the Roman Empire, in 1453, or nearly to the end of the fifteenth century, at the time of the discovery of America by Columbus, 1492. All subsequent history belongs to the third division. This mode of dividing the subject is, however, entirely arbitrary. His- tory is also divided into Sacred and Profane History, the former being that which is contained in the Old and New Testaments, and the latter that recorded in other books. Ecclesiastical History is the history of the Church. The history of civilization, to which considerable prominence is given in this work, gives an account of the progress of nations in the arts, sciences, literature, and social culture. 12. The Philosophy of History is a most important de- partment of the subject. It considers not simply the events which have occurred in the past, but traces their causes, and deduces from them certain principles, to serve as a guide to statesmen in conducting Philosophy of history. the affairs of a nation, or to illustrate the general characteris- tics of human nature. Viewed in this light, history has been styled ''philosophy teaching by example;" and it has been remarked by a distinguished writer that ''social advancement is as completely under the control of natural law as is bodily growth. The life of an individual is a miniature of the life of a nation." Ethnological Synopsis. I. ARYANS or INDO-EUROPEANS. I. Aryans proper: 1. Iranians; 2. Indians. II. GrR^co-RoMAN Races: 1. Greeks, Thracians, and Albanians; 3. Italo-Celtic races. a. Latins and Romans; 6. Gauls, British, Gael. III. Slavo- German Races: 1. Slavs. a. Russians; 6. Poles, Czechs, Serbs; 2. Baltics; 3. Germans, Goths, Scandinavians. II. SEMITES. I. Canaanites: 1. Phoenicians; 2. Hebrews. II. Arameans: 1. Syrians; 2. Chaldeans; 3. Samaritans. III. Arabs: 1. Abyssinians, Amharras; 2. Moors or Koranites. III. HAMITES. I. Mesopotamians: 1. Assyrians; 2. Babylonians; 3. Ancient Phoenicians. II. Ancient Egyptians: 1. Copts or Modern Ei^yptians; 2. Ethiopians; 3. Libyans. . i, PAET I. Ancient History. CHAPTEE I. The Ancient Monaechies. SECTION I. The Babylonians and Assyeians. 1. Babylonia or Chaldea. The region watered by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in very early times attracted to it a large pojuilation. Its fertility was extra- ordinary. It produced in great abundance every- thing requisite for the support of man. The Region of the Tigris and Euphrates. cereal grams, wheat, barley, and millet, flourished luxuri- antly.* An abundance of clay afforded material for the manufacture of bricks for building, and the wells of bitumen yielded an excellent cement. These supplied the place of wood, stone, and mortar, f It is not surprising, therefore, * " Of all the countries that we know of, there is none so fruitful in grain. It makes no pretension indeed of growing the fig, the olive, the vine, or any other tree of the kind ; but in grain it is so fruitful as to yield two hundred-fold. The blade of the wheat plant and barley plant is often three or four fingers in breadth. As for the millet and the sesame, I shall not say to what height they grow, though within my own knowledge; for I am not ignorant that what I have already written concerning the fruitfulness of Babylonia must seem incredible to those who have never visited the country.''''— Herodotus. t " Stone and marble were even more rare in this country than wood, but the clay was well adapted for the manufacture of bricks. These, whether dried in the sun or burnt in kilns, became so hard and durable that now, after the lapse of so many centuries, the remains of ancient walls preserve the bricks uninjured by 26 Ancient ttistory. that this region was, at a very early period, crowded with in- habitants, and soon became the seat of populous cities and powerful empires. QEOGRAPHIOAI, STITDT. Find the situation of : Assyria, Babylonia, Chaldea, Mesopotamia, Persia, Media, Phknicia, Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, Lydia, Phrygia, Cilicia, Colchis, Egypt, Babylon, Nineveh, Ur, Susa, Ecbatana, Jerusalem, Memphis, Sidon, Tyre, Thebes, Damascus, Pelusium, Tadmor, Tarsus. their long exposure to the atmosphere, and retaining the impression of the inscriptions as perfectly as if they had only just been manufactured. Naphtha and bitumen were produced in great abundance above Babylon, near the modern town of Hit. These served as substitutes for mortar and cement; and so lasting were they, that the layers of rushes and palm-leaves laid between the courses of bricks as a binding material, are found at this day in the ruins of Babylon as per- fect as if a year had not elapsed since they were put together."— Ta^/^or's Ancient History. Babylonia or Chaldea. 27 2. Three monarchies successively occupied the basin of these rivers:. 1. The Chaldean, or First Baby- lonian Monarchy ; 2. The Assyrian Empire ; 3. The Later Babylonian Monarchy. Chaldea, or Chaldean and Babylonian Monarchies. Babylonia, occupied the plain which extends north from the Persian Gulf, and which was orisinally called i . . 1 , 11 Mesopotamia. Shmar. The district lying between these tAv^o I . rivers was afterwards called by the Greeks Mes' o-2)0-ta' mi-a (from 7nesoSy midst, and pofamoi, rivers). 3. The Chaldees had, as early as 2000 B.C., made con- siderable progress in the arts, particularly in architecture. With their materials for building, brick and bitu- men, they constructed vast edifices, the ruins of The Chaldees. some of which have been discovered in recent times by the explorations of Botta and Layard, at Nineveh and Babylon. Monuments have also been exhumed, bearing inscriptions in what are called cu-ne' i-form (wedge-shaped) characters, and the deciphering of these has served to throw a flood of light upon the early history of this people.* 4. The city of Babylon, f although founded probably more than twenty-two centuries B.C., was, during its early history, * This kind of writing was used for monumental records, and was either hewn or carved in rocks and sculptures, or impressed on tiles and bricks. The most ancient date that can be assigned to this kind of writing is about 2000 b.c, and it seems not to have been used much, if at all, about 300 b.c. Much labor and erudition have been expended in deciphering these cuneiform inscriptions. The following, which is the name of Darius in these characters, will give some idea of their form and appearance: The great inscription of Behistun, in Persia, is of peculiar interest and value. It is engraved in three forms of cuneiform writing, upon the perpendicular face of a mountain, at an elevation of 300 feet, and contains an account of the genealogy of Darius, his exploits, and the provinces of the empire. This inscription was deciphered by Sir Henry Rawlinson. t The native name of the city was Babel, meaning " gate of God." It was here, according to Scripture history, that men attempted to erect the Tower of Babel, but were prevented by the confusion of tongues. An account of this has been re- cently discovered among the cuneiform tablets now in the British Museum. 28 Ancient History. a city of minor importance, for Ur and others were capital cities while it continued to be a mere Tillage.* Several cities are mentioned as prominent — Babylon. Babylon, Ur, Ac'cad, E'rech, Oal'neh, and some others. Of these Babylon afterwards was the capital of the monarchy, and, after the Assyrian conquest, became, through the enter- prise, ambition, and luxurious taste of its reigning sovereigns, the most splendid city in the world. Babylonia was soath of Assyria, being separated from it by the limit of the alluvial plain. The name Chaldea Babylonia and Chaldea. was given more particularly to the region bordering on Arabia and the Persian Gulf. 5. The Hebrew records afford but scanty information in regard to the origin and history of these early monarchies ; but the remains of the history Berosus. written by Be-ro'sus, with what has been gleaned from the inscriptions on the walls of ruined palaces, and on the monu- ments, give us a slight clue to some of the prominent events in Babylonian and Assyrian history. Berosus was a priest of Babylon, who lived about three centuries B.C., and from ancient records compiled a work in which he gave lists of kings whose reigns extended from 2000 B.C. to the conquest of the Babylonian monarchy. 6. These lists are lost, but fragments remain in the works of other writers, showing that a Chaldean dynasty ruled from about 2000 B.C. to 1543 B.C., which was succeeded by an Arabian dynasty that lasted 245 years. Early Dynasties. This was followed by one of forty-five kings, probably Assyr- ian, who held sway during more than five centuries, to 772 B.C., after which came the reign of tlie noted king Pul, who *"The architectural remains discovered in southern Babylonia, taken in con- junction with the monumental records, seem to indicate that Babylon was not at first the capital, nor indeed a town of great importance. It probably owed its position at the head of Nimrod's cities to the powei- and pre-eminence whereto it afterward attained rather than to any original superiority that it could boast over the places coupled with if—Smith's Dictionary of the Bible. Later Babylonian Monarchy, 29 is called in the Scriptures an Assyrian. This reign end^d at the famous Era of Na-bo-nas'sar, 747 B.C., which is important, because Babylonia then resumed its ancient inde- pendence, that had been absorbed in the Assyr- ian empire since 1250 B.C., and because this date Era of Nabonassar. is fixed by certain astronomical phenomena observed by Ptolemy, the Alexandrian astronomer. 7. Later Babylonian Monarchy. By what is called the Canon of Ptolemy, the line of Babylonian kings becomes knoAvn to us from the year 747 B.C. to 330 B.C., when Babylon became a part of the dominions of Alexander the Great. During this period Baby- Canon of Ptolemy. Ion again became subject to Assyria (680 B.C.), and so con- tinued till the taking of the Assyrian capital, Nineveh, by the Medes (625 B.C.), when the Babylonian king, Na-bo-po-las'sar, who had formed an alliance with the Medes, was acknowledged as an independent sovereign, and Nabopolassar. received a share of the conquered Assyrian dominions. The later Babylonian kingdom, then formed, lasted till the taking of Babylon by Cyrus the Persian (538 B.C.). 8. Though of brief duration, this was a period of great splendor. Nabopolassar's reign, which was one of military glory, was succeeded by that of the celebrated King Neb-u- chad-nez'zar, who defeated the king of Egypt, i and subdued Je-hoi'a-kim, Kins: of Judah. Sub- Nebuchad- ^ I nezzar. sequently he destroyed Jerusalem, and put an end to the kingdom of Judah, under Zed-e-ki'ah, carrying its inhabitants captives to Babylon (586 B.C.). Tyre also fell be- fore his conquering arms (585 B.C.). He afterward turned his attention to the embellishment of his capital, and erected in Babylon many edifices of wonderful extent and magnificence. 9. Babylon formed a vast square crossed diagonally by the Euphrates, and surrounded by a double row of walls, which, according to the account given by Babylon. Herodotus, were 335 feet high and '^h feet thick, enclosing 30 Ancient History. an area of nearly 200 square miles. These walls were pierced with a hundred brazen gates and defended by numerous towers. The royal palace, within which was the famous *' hanging garden/' classed among the Seven Wonders of the World, and the great temple of Bel, were the most remarkable buildings.* The latter was constructed in the form of a pyramid of eight square stages, each side of the basement being 600 feet; and on the top, reached by a wind- ing ascent, there was an image of the god, 40 feet high. It was this magnificence that prompted Nebuchadnezzar's haughty boast: ^"^ Is not this great Babylon that I have built for the house of the kingdom, by the might of my power, and for the honor of my majesty?" f 10. After the death of Nebuchadnezzar, the Babylonian kingdom declined. He had four successors, the last of whom was Na-bo-na'di-us, who associated his son Bel- shaz'zar with him on the throne. During this Fall of Babylon. reign the kingdom was invaded by Cyrus the Great, king of Persia, and Nabonadius was defeated. Babylon, also, being carelessly defended by Belshazzar, was entered by Cyrus, who diverted the course of the Euphrates, and Babylonia became a Persian province (538 ^.c.).]; * " Within the precincts of the royal palace, Nebuchadnezzar raised up to a vast height a pile of stone substructions, giving them as far as possible the appearance of natural hills. He then planted the whole with trees of different kinds, and thus constructed what is called the hanging garden ; all which he did to please his wife, who had been brought up in Media, and delighted in the scenery of mountain regions, "—^erosiis. + " The descriptions of Babylon which have come down to us in classical writers are derived chiefly from two sources, the works of Herodotus and Ctesias. Those authors were, both of them, eye-witnesses of the glories of Babylon—not, indeed, at their highest point, but before they had greatly declined— and left accounts of the city and its chief buildings, which the historians and geographers of later times were, for the most part, content to copy."— Z)?-. Smith. i " Belshazzar, who was probably a mere youth, left to enjoy the supreme power without check or control, neglected the duty of watching the enemy, and gave himself up to enjoyment. The feast of which we read in Daniel, and which suffered such an awful interruption, may have been in part a religious festivity; but it indicates, nevertheless, the self-indulgent temper of the king, who could give The Assyrian Empire. 31 11. The Assyrian Empire. The Assyrians were probably a Chaldean colony that settled in the region of the upper Tigris. The capital was at first As'shur (now Ki'leh Sher'gat), on the right bank of that river; but afterward the seat of the empire was the renowned city of Nin'eveh, about sixty miles above, on the same river. The latter Nineveh. subsequently became one of the finest and most populous cities in the world. Ca'lah, another important city on the Tigris, and for a time the capital of the empire, was very ancient, its foundation being ascribed, in the ancient Hebrew records, to the patriarch Asshur. 12. The history of the Assyrian monarchy, extending over more than six centuries, may be divided into three periods: 1. Previous to the conquest of Babylon (about 1250 B.C.); 2. From the conquest of Babylon to Periods. the reign of Tiglath-pile'ser II. (745 B.C.); 3. From the acces- sion of Tiglath-pileser II. to the fall of Nineveh (625 B.C.). Of the first period little is known. The monumental inscrip- tions supply two lists of kings, some of whom seem to have been connected by intermarriage with the con- temporaneous Chaldean monarchs. Among the First Period, most celebrated monarchs was Shal-man-e'ser I., a great con- queror, and the builder of Calah.* 13. During the first three centuries of the second period, the chronology is very imperfect. A great monarch — Tiglath-pileser I. — flourished, and made many conquests. himself so entirely up to merriment at such a time. While the king and his ' thou- sand nobles ' drank wine out of the sacred vessels of the Jews, the Persian archers entered the city, and a scene of carnage ensued. ' In that night was Belshazzar slain.' ''—Rmdinson. * To this period belongs the legendary history of Ninus and his illustrious queen Semir'amis, who succeeded him, and became one of the greatest conquering potentates of antiquity. She is said to have rebuilt Babjion, adorning it with splendid palaces and other costly buildings. She also enlarged and embellished Nineveh, in which she sometimes resided. Music and the arts were also cultivated by her. Her expeditions, we are told by some of the ancient writers, were con- ducted on a scale of incredible magnificence, her armies numbering millions of men. The history of this wonderful queen is found only among the Greek legends. 32 Ancient History. In the latter part of the period, Oalah was the capital, and became a splendid city, as is shown by the ruins of its palaces and temples which have been disinterred in recent years. The dominions of the empire were greatly Second Period. enlarged by conquests made in Armenia, Syria, Palestine, and Phoenicia. It was toward the end of the period that Babylon, under Nabonassar, became for a short time independent. 14. The third period commenced with the brilliant con- quests of Tiglath-pileser II., who carried the arms of Assyria into distant regions. Egypt and Syria were re- duced, and Palestine was invaded, whence many Third Period. of the Jews were carried captive. His successor, Shal-man-e'ser IV., subdued Phoenicia, but was defeated in an attack on Tyre. The siege of Samaria was commenced during his reign (733 B.C.). Sargon, his successor, was one of the greatest monarchs of this period. This Sargon. king took Samaria (721 B.C.), and settled the Israelites in Media and other newly-conquered provinces. He also carried on a successful war with Egypt, and received the submission of Cyprus. The whole reign of this monarch was a continued succession of conquests (721-705 B.C.). 15. The splendid city and palace at Khor'sa-bad, near Nineveh, were built under this monarch. This is now only a small village (Mosul) of Asiatic Turkey.* Here have been found the records of Sargon's conquests, in the inscriptions which he caused to be made, and in which he mentions the names of the kings whom Records of the Reign. he subdued, and enumerates the spoils and tributes which he obtained. In one of these inscriptions he says: ''I imposed tribute on Pharaoh of Egypt; on Tsamsi, Queen of Arabia; on Ith'amar, the Sabsean, in gold, spices, horses, and camels.'' 16. Sen-nach'e-rib, the son and successor of Sargon, ob- * Here in 1846 the ruins of a magnificent edifice were discovered, leading to the subsequent researches, under Layard and others, that have shed so much light on Assyrian history. [See cut, page 33.] The Assyrian Empire. 33 tallied possession of Babylon, and made two expeditions against Judali. In the tirst of these, he carried i ^ — - ° • 1 • 1 Sennacherib. away 200,000 of the Jews captives; but in the I . second he failed entirely, his army being destroyed by a sudden and remarkable pestilence. This was during the reign of the Jewish king Hez-e-kl'ah. Sennacherib was a short time afterward slain by two of his sons (G80 B.C.). Warrior and Horses (Khorsabad— Nineveh). 17. The last great king of Assyria was E-sar-had'don, son of Sennacherib. His conquests extended over a large part of western Asia, and he claimed authority over Egypt and Ethiopia. Manas'seh, king of Judah, Esarhaddon. was brought as a prisoner before him at Babylon; but, after a few years' detention, was restored to his throne by the clemency of the Assyrian monarch. This king reigned alter- nately at Babylon and Nineveh. His son Asshur- bani-pal (called by some of the Greeks Sar-dan-a- Asshurbanipal. pa'lus) succeeded him (according to Eawlinson, about 667 B.C.), during whose reign Assyria reached the height of its 34 Ancient History, greatness and splendor. He made great conquests, built a magnificent palace, and established a royal library at Nineveh. He was a great lover and patron of music and the arts. The sculptured slabs taken from his palace, representing him engaged in hunting, are now in the British Museum. After this splendid reign Assyria rapidly declined. A vast horde of Scythians, from the region north of the Caucasus, made incursions into the territory; and two invasions were made by the Medes, under Cy-ax'a-res, in the second of which they were joined by Nabopolassar, the Fall of Nineveh, Assyrian governor of Babylon, in an attack upon Nineveh, which was taken and given to the flames. 18. The last king of Assyria, Sar'a-cus (sometimes called Sardanaimlus II.), perished in the conflagration (625 B.C.). One of the Greek historians, Otesias {te'slie-as), describes this king, under the name Sai-danapalus, as an effeminate voluptu- ary, spending his time in idleness, and incapable of making any exertion for the defence of his kingdom. At last aroused from this ignoble sloth, he assumes the com- mand of the army, makes a brilliant effort to re- pulse the enemy, but is defeated. He then retires Legend of Sardanapalus. to his palace, erects a large funeral pyre, upon which he places his richest treasures and his favorite wives, and finally mounting it himself, sets fire to it and perishes in the flames. The whole story is now believed to be a fiction, although it has long had a place in ancient history. Byron's drama Sardanapahis is based on this account. So utterly was Nine- veh destroyed, that when Xen'o-phon passed it (401 B.C.), during the expedition of which he gives an account (the An- ah'a-sis), the very name had been forgotten, though he testi- fies to the extent of the deserted city, stating that the height of the ruined walls was 150 feet.* * " Traditions of the unrivaled size and magnificence of Nineveh were equally familiar with the Greek and Roman writers, and to the Arab geographers. But the city had fallen so completely into decay before the period of authentic history, TTie Assyrian 3mpire. 35 Babylonian and Assyrian Civilization. 19. The Chaldean or Babylonian civilization was, in some respects, different from the Assyrian, though they had much in common. The situation of Babylonia, in the alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphi-ates, was quite different from that of Assyria, in the higher plateau region near the upper course of the Tigris. The constant interminglijig of the Babylonians and Assyrians, and their union for many centuries under the same government, naturally led to considerable uniform- ity of manners and customs. These people, in general, be- longed to the Semitic race; but in the earliest times the people of Accad, who came from the mountain regions to the north, were Turanians ; and the cuneiform inscrip- tions for many centuries were in the Turanian language. 20. The Chaldeans were, from the first, an architec- tural people, and they erect- ed many imposing edifices out of their simple materials Babylonian Brick. — brick and bitumen. Their favorite form was that of the pyramid, rising in steps or stages, sometimes to a great height. The baked bricks which they Chaldeans. used in building their palaces were stamped with a legend in cuneiform letters, as seen in the cut. They also under- that no description of it, or even of any of its monuments, is to be found in any- ancient author of trust:'— Smith's Dictionary of the Bible. The destruction of Nineveh forms the subject of the prophecy of Nahum, who lived about a century- earlier, when the Assyrian empire was at the height of its power and glory. 86 Ancient History. stood the working of metals, and to some extent the use of the loom. Their trading caravans journeyed to Bactria, Persia, and Media, and the "ships of Ur" sailed along the coasts of the Persian Gulf. They early became noted for their at- tention to astronomy, some of their recorded obseryations extending as far back as 2234 B.C. 2i. In the height of Assyrian glory, during the splendid reigns of Sargon, Sennacherib, and Sardanapalus, architec- 1 ture, painting, and sculpture had reached a very high degree of perfection. Carving in ivory, modelling, and metallurgy, with kindred arts, had also made great progress. The sculptured panellings which Architecture, painting, etc, From the Palace op Sennacherib, Koyunjik (Nineveh). have been found, representing single figures, of kings and deities, and battle and hunting scenes, evince great delicacy, taste, and skill, and a far greater accuracy in expression than anything found in Egyptian art. The walls of the palaces were adorned with alabaster work most brilliantly painted, and the ceilings were gilded and inlaid with ivory. 22. They understood the manufacture of transparent glass, constructed aqueducts, and knew the use of the arch and the application of the lever and other * mechanical powers. The records of great kings were ingeni- ously inscribed on slabs and cylinders, bricks and stones, rock Manufactures. Tlie Assyrian Empire. 37 tablets, and the walls of palaces. In the preceding cut is seen a section of a pictorial record of this kind. Various branches of learning — astronomy, geography, history — were cultivated. 23. In furniture, costume, and the common ornaments of the house and the person, these people displayed a refined taste. Their chairs, tables, and other articles were of elegant designs, and often of rich mate- Useful Arts. rials and beautiful workmanship. In the arts of weaving and Interior op an Assyrian Palace (Khorsabad), Showing colossal statues of winged lions with human heads, eagle-headed figures, etc., such as were objects of worship among the Assyrians. embroidery they especially excelled; and the Assyrian textile fabrics — in linen, cotton, and silk, were in high repute. Their pottery — vases, cups, utensils, etc. — showed great beauty of form. Many of them were afterwards copied by the G-reeks. 24. They practiced agriculture with peculiar skill, and by careful irrigation raised large crops of sesame, millet, and wheat. The date palm was cultivated in all parts of Mesopotamia. The vine, fig, and olive were Agriculture. 38 Ancient History. common plants, as were also the indigo and the sugar-cane. Herodotus says that they made all the oil they used from the sesame-plant, while the fruit of the palm supplied them with bread, wine, and sweet sirup. They reared the camel and the common domestic animals, including oxen and sheep. They were great lovers of the chase, and their hunting-dogs were very famous.* In short, what remains of their civilization proves them to have been a refined, ingenious, and highly gifted people, by whom the arts of comfort and luxury were carried to a high degree of advancement, f 25. They were also a very religious people, their whole life, in every phase, social and political, being governed by the dictates of a remarkable religious system, abounding in rites and ceremonies. Their deities Religion. were numerous and variously represented. The Supreme Being was worshiped under several different forms and sym- bols. The monuments and ruined palaces contain many strange figures, as winged bulls and horses, men with the heads of various animals, and animals with human heads. A winged human figure with the head of a hawk or an eagle is very common among the bas-reliefs and sculptures. All these figures doubtless symbolized prominent religious ideas and beliefs. Among the Babylonians, Baal, or Bel, was the chief deity; while Asshur, the spiritual personification of the city of that name, was the supreme god of the Assyrians. \ * Among the curious objects excavated from the ruins, models of favorite dogs are very numerous. Of them there are many specimens in the British Museum, obtained from the palace of Esarhaddon, at Nineveh. t Herodotus thus describes the costume of the Babylonians of his time: "Their dress is a linen tunic, reaching to the feet, and above it another tunic made of wool, besides which they have a short white cloak thrown around them, and shoes of a pecuhar fashion, not unlike those worn by the Boeotians. They have long hair, wear turbans on their heads, and anoint their whole body with perfumes." X Below these supreme divinities came the Sun-god, the Moon-god, and the Air- god; and after these were arranged " the fifty great gods," and then the three hun- dred spirits of heaven and the six hundred spirits of earth, besides many local deities. Review Outline. I. CHALDEAN, or FIRST BABYLONIAN MONARCHY. Babylon (2200 B.C.), Accad, Erecb, Calueli; lists of Berosus; Chaldean Dynasty (2000-1543 B.C.); Arabian Dynasty (to 1298 B.C.); dynasty of forty-five kings (to 773 B.C.); reign of Pul (to 747 B. c. , era of Nabonassar). II. LATER BABYLONIAN MONARCHY. Babylon subject to Assyria (680 b.c); splendid reigns of Nabo- polassar and Nebuchadnezzar; conquest of Judah and destruc- tion of Jerusalem; Israelites carried captives to Babylon; con- quest of Tyre ; time of Babylon's greatest splendor. Nabona- dius and Belshazzar; taking of Babylon by Cyrus (538 B.C.). III. ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. Three Periods: (1) Previous to the Conquest of Babylon (1250 B.C. ?) Reign of Slialmaueser I., a great conqueror, the builder of Calah. Legendary history of Ninus and Semira- mis. [See note, page 31.] (2) From the Conquest of Babylon to 745 B.C. Tiglath-pile'ser I., a great conqueror; capital, Calah, a splendid city. Conquests in Armenia, Syria, Pales- tine, and Phenicia. Babylon independent under Nabonassar. (3) From 745 B.C. to the Fall of Nineveh. Brilliant reigns of Tiglath-pileser II., Shalmaneser IV., and Sargon; great conquests (745-705 B.C.). Taking of Samaria (721 b.c). Building of palace of Khorsa- bad. Sennacherib; expedition against Judah ; mirac- ulous destruction of the Assyrian army. Esarhaddon, reigned at Nineveh and Babylon. Asshur-bani-pal (Sardanapalus), conqueror, and patron of the arts. Attacks by the Scythians and Medes. Saracus, or Sardanapalus II; taking of Nineveh (625 B.C.). 40 Ancient History. SECTION 11. The Mediai^ Monarchy. 26. Media was situated to the south of the Caspian Sea, forming a part of the great plateau region of Iran, now Persia. The early history of the Medes is wrapped in obscurity. They come into notice in the ninth Situation. century B.C., when they were brought into subjection to the Assyrian Empire (830 B.C.). About a century later, Sargon occupied a part of their territory. Early history. into which he carried the Israelite captives. In the middle of the seventh century (650 B.C.), the great Median monarchy makes its appearance on the field of history, though the Greek historians relate many events of a previous date. 27. The Medes invaded Assyria a few years after this date, but they were signally defeated in an attack on Nineveh (633 B.C.). For a short time they were occupied in resisting the Scythians, who made an inroad into their country; and, when freed from that danger, they renewed their attack on Nineveh, which they captured and destroyed (625 B.C.). Cyaxares, their monarch Destruction of Nineveh. at that time, extended his conquests, penetrating into Asia Minor, and carrying on war against the Lydians. He is re- garded by some as the founder of the Median monarchy. The reign of his son and successor, As-ty'a-ges, was peaceful. He made alliances with Lydia and Babylon, and his daughter was married to a Persian prince. She gave birth to Cyrus, after- ward called the Great. Cyrus, being bold and aspiring, put himself at the head of the Persian tribes, and marching with a large army into Cyrus the Great. Media, deposed Astyages, his grandfather, and uniting the Median and Persian dominions under himself as king, laid the foundation of the great Persian Empire (558 B.C.). 28. Civilization. Amon^ the Medes were many people of Kingdoms in Asia Minor. 41 Turanian and Semitic origin. Their architecture was devoid of artistic beauty, but possessed a certain barbaric grandeur. The royal palace at Ecbat'ana, their capital, was constructed of wood plated with gold and silver. Art In the early times they were a simple, hai'dy people ; but after the conquest of Nineveh they adopted the luxurious habits of the Assyrians, so that the Habits, court of Astyages resembled that of Sardanapalus. Their religion was chiefly that of Zo-ro-as'ter, the great spiritual teacher of the nations of Iran, whose Religion. doctrines are contained in the sacred books called Zend- Avesta.* The magi, a priesthood claiming supernatural powers, exerted a great influence over the people. SECTION III. Kingdoms in" Asia Minor. 29. Several powerful monarchies existed in Asia Minor prior to the time of Cyrus the Great, the chief of which were Phrygia, Cilicia, and Lydia. The Phrygians were a brave but coarse and brutal people, and very Phrygians. fond of war. Their capital was Gor-di-e'um, and Midas was the most noted of their monarchs. Phrygia was conquered by the Lydians in the sixth century (560 B.C.). 30. Cilicia was early overrun by the Assyrians, but existed as a tributary kingdom. Tarsus was founded, it is said, by Sennacherib, and Sardanapalus married a Cilician i ■'• Cilicia. princess. This kingdom was enabled .to resist I the assaults of the Lydian monarchs, and maintained its independence during the reign of Cyrus, but was afterward annexed to the Persian Empire. * The period at which Zoroaster, or Zarathustra, lived is not known. It was probably before 1200 b.c. [See Persia.] 42 Ancient History. 31. Lydian Monarchy. Lydia was situated in the western part of Asia Minor, and was especially noted for its fruitful soil and great mineral wealth. Its chief river, the Pac-to'lus, abounded in gold, which was also found in the neighbor- ing mines. Hence the Ly- dians soon.became corrupted by luxury and vicious indul- gences. The Lydian king- dom is supposed to have existed in Asia Minor from a very ancient period, but its early history is fabulous and unreliable. For about two centuries this monarchy occupied a prominent posi- tion in the history of western Asia, and when Cy-ax'a-res the Mede overran this part of tlie country, he was check- ed in his career of conquest Ancient Warrior. by King Alyattes {d-le-afUz); and after a war of six years, in which he was often defeated by the Lydians, Cyaxares retired beyond the Ha'lys, the boundary Alyattes. of the Lydian kingdom at that time. 32. This war between the Lydians and Medes is said to have been terminated in a singular way.* Their two great armies had come to an engagement (610 B.C., or, according to some writers, 584 B.C.), when, in the midst of the battle, a total eclipse of the sun occurred. Treaty of Peace. * " On the refusal of Alyattes to give up his suppliants, when Cyaxares sent to demand them of him, war broke out between the Lydians and the Medes, and con- tinued for five years, with various success. In the course of it, the Medes gained many victories over the Lydians, and the Lydians also gained many victories over the Medes. Beside their other battles there was one night engagement. As, how- ever, the balance had not inclined in favor of either nation, another combat took Lydian Monarchy. 43 wliich so alarmed the soldiers that they immediately retired from the conflict. The two monarchs thereupon concluded not only a peace, but a firm treaty of alliance with each other; and peace continued to subsist between these two powers until the time of Cyrus, about half a century afterward. 33. Alyattes is said to have reigned about forty years after the close of this war, and to have constructed a vast monu- ment, scarcely inferior to the great pyramids of Egypt. Its base was formed of immense blocks of stone, the structure above being a huge mound Tomb of Alyattes. of earth. This mound has been explored in modern times, and a chamber found within, formed of solid blocks of mar- ble; but it was evident that it had been rifled of its contents long before. It was without doubt the tomb of Alyattes. 34. Alyattes was succeeded (about 568 B.C.) by his son Croesus {hre'sus), noted for his immense wealth, being by far the richest monarch of his time. He is also distinguished as the last monarch of Lydia; for Croesus. having made w^ar upon Cyrus, the king of Persia, he was entirely defeated; and his capital, Sardis, being taken by the enemy, he was made a prisoner, and condemned by Cyrus to be burnt alive upon a funeral pyre, but was afterward released. Thus, within a very few weeks, from being a power- ful and prosperous monarch, ruler over thirteen nations, he was reduced to the condition of a captive and a beggar, depen- dent upon the will of a despot wliose anger he had provoked. It was in this way that Lydia became a province of the Per- sian Empire (554 B.C.). place in the sixth year, in the course of which, just as the battle was growing warm, day was on a sudden changed into night. This event had been foretold by Thales, the Milesian, who forewarned the lonians of it, fixing for it the very year in which it actually took place. The Medes and Lydians, when they observed the change, ceased fighting, and were aUke anxious to have terms of peace agreed on.''''— Bawlinsori's Herodotus, 44 Ancient History. Chronological Synopsis of Contemporaneous Events. 2200 2000) 1543) 1543) 1298 i 1250 1250 ) 772) 747 745 721 705) 650 625 610 586 I 585' 568 560 558 554 538 Chaldean and Babylo NiAN Monarchies. Babylon founded. Chaldean Dynasty. Arabian Dynasty. Babylonia and Assyria united. Assyrian Dynasty. Babylon independent, under Nabonassar. Babylon subject to As- syria. Nabopolassar. Destruction of Jerusa- lem and Tyre by Ne- buchadnezzar. Babylon taken by C3aTis. Assyrian Empire. Median and Minor Monarchies. First Period of ' rian History. Shalmaneser I Conquest of Babylon by Tiglath-pileser I, End of reign of Pul. Tiglath-pileser II. Samaria taken by Sar- gon. Reign of Sennacherib. Esarhaddon begins to reign. Asshur-bani-pal. ( Nineveh taken by the -c Medes — end of the ( Assyrian Empire, Media subject to As- syria. Media rises to impor- tance. Reign of Cyaxares the Mede. War between the Medes and Lydians. Croesus begins to reign in Lydia. Phrygia conquered by the Lydians. Union of the Medes and Persians under Cyrus Conquest of Lydia by Cyrus. Egypt. 45 SECTION IV. The Aiq^ciENT Egyptiai^s. 36. Egypt is certainly one of the oldest of nations. Its monuments, — among which are the pyramids, — the ruins of its vast and splendid temples, its obelisks and sphinxes, and the other remains of its peculiar civilization, are the most interesting objects of antiquity. The origin of the ancient Egyptians is unknown; but they Origin. were of the Caucasian race, and probably related to the oldest races of central Asia. By ethnologists they are classed among the Hamites, or descendants of Ham ; but they differed essentially from the tribes who lived to the westward of the Nile, as well as from other African races.* 36. The early history of Egypt is involved in fable, and but little reliance can be placed on any system of Egyptian chronology. In the time of the Greek historian Herodotus, the priests claimed for the country an antiquity of more than 11,000 years. In the third cen- tury B.C., Man'e-tho, an Egyptian priest, compiled a history of his country, which he divided into thirty dynasties. This work has perished; but abstracts from it are preserved in other ancient writings, and these, with the histories written by Herodotus and Di-o- Chronology. Sources of its history. * " Now. one can say without fear of contradiction, th* most valuable Egyptian museum in the world is in Cairo. That which was previously carried away being, for the most part, easily accessible, proves to belong to the later rather than the earlier dynasties. Unwearied digging has enabled Mariette [a French archjeologistl to reach the records of the ancient empire, and to show, what we never before suspected, that the glory of Egyptian art belongs^to the age of Cheops, and only its decadence to the age of Rameses II. Not only the art, but the culture, the religion, the political organization of Egypt are carried back to the third dynasty; and Menes, the first historic king, dawns upon our knowledge, not as a primitive ba'-barian, but as the result of a long stage of tmrecorded development. T do not hesitate to say, that since Champollion discovered the key to the hieroglyphics, no scholar has thrown such a broad and clear light upon Egyptian life and history as Mariette."— 5a2/arcf Taylor. Ruins of an Egyptian Temple.* * " As we approach Karnak (a part of Thebes), the most striking objects are two of the enormous propylons so characteristic of Egyptian architecture. They are truncated pyramids pieiced with a gateway. The sides slope inward from a rectangular base, and are surmounted by a heavy cornice, on which is sculptured the symbol known to the Greeks as the Agathodceman. a winged sun, or scarabaeus. It was the number of the propylons that gained for Thebes the Homeric epithet of 'the hundred-gated city.' "— Mci'nning''s Land of the Pharaohs. Egypt. 47 do'rus, and the allusions made to Egypt in the Jewish scrip- tures, besides what has been gleaned in modern times from the hieroglyphic inscriptions on the monuments, and rolls of papy'- rus found in the tombs, consti- tute our knowledge of ancient Egyptian history.* The his- tory of the first seventeen of Manetho's dynasties, covering a period of about twelve cen- turies, is very obscure, for the monuments only give us a few scattered facts and dates. 37. The first of these dynas- ties is supposed to have com- menced about 2700 B.C.; but considerable diver- sity of opinion pre- vails on this point. In the early portion of this period, Egyptian civilization was in an advanced state, and Memphis was a great and flour- ishing city. The fourth dynasty is especially noted for the erec- Geoghaphical Study. tion of many of the pyramids Find the Situation of: Goshen, Hep- /250O B.C.). One of the mOSt TANOMis, Thebais, Sais, Pelusium, Gizeh, ^ ^ p '1 i i, • Heliopolis, Memphis, Hermopolis, Kar- notcd CVCUts of its early hlS- nak, Luxor, Syene, Philae, Mt. Sinai. ^Ory WaS the iuvasiou of the country by a warlike race, who conquered the nation and ruled over it for several centuries. These invaders are known in Early dynasties. *The physical features of the Egyptians and the affinities of their language seem to indicate a similarity of origin to that of the European races. One writer remarks: "The further you go back, the more European the faces found depicted on the monuments become;" and he illustrates this by two portraits discovered in a tomb of the third dynasty, and hence older than the pyramids. He also points out many Egyptian words that are almost identical in Egyptian, Sanskrit, English, 48 Ancient History. history as the Hijh'sos, or Shepherd Kings (from 1900 to 1525 B.C.).* They ruled in Lower Egypt as military despots, and very much oppressed the native peo- Hyksos. pie. It was probably during the reign of one of these that Joseph became the chief minister, and that Jacob and his family were allowed to settle in the land of Goshen, t It is supposed that the Israelites re- Exodus. mained in Egypt a little more than two centuries (215 years), the Exodus taking place during the seventeenth dynasty (1652 B.C.), before the Shepherds had been expelled. 38. The three centuries following the expulsion of the Shepherd Kings, from the eighteenth to the twentieth dynasty, may be considered the most splendid period of Egyptian history (1525 to 1200 B c). Some of the greatest monarchs belong to this period. The most renowned were Thoth'mes III., who made many Thothmes. conquests, and constructed magnificent temples at Thebes, Memphis, and other places; Thothmes IV., who caused the great Sphinx to be constructed; and Seti, son of Ea- me'ses I., who built the Great Hall of Karnak, and con- structed for himself the most beautiful of all the royal tombs. According to Manetho, he reigned upward of fifty years. This king, called Sesos'tris by the Greeks, made German, etc. Thus the English word mother is, in Egyptian, mut ; in Sanskrit, nidtar; in Greek, meter; in Latin, mater; in German, mutter; and in Gaelic, mathair.—See "■Nile Gleanings,'''' by Villiers Stuart (1879). * " The Theban monarchs of the thirteenth dynasty, less warlike or less fortunate than their predecessors, found themselves imable to resist the terrible 'Shepherds,' and quitting their capital, fled into Ethiopia, while the invaders wreaked their vengeance on the memorials of the Sesortasens" [monarchs of the twelfth dynasty]. — Eawlinson's Ancient History. t " Since the Pharaoh of Joseph must have been a powerful ruler and held Lower Egypt, there can be no question that he was, if the dates be correct, a shepherd of the fifteenth dynasty It seems perfectly incredible that Joseph should be the minister of a native Egyptian king."— /SmtY/i's Dictionary of the Bible. The hatred of Eg^T^tians toward foreigners would have naturally pre- vented the appointment of Joseph to so high an office, and the settlement of the Israelites in Egypt. Under the rule of a foreign monarch, there could have been no such objection to these things. Egypt 49 Decline of Egypt- many conquests. Eameses II. was also a very great conqueror. He adorned both Egypt and Nubia with many i splendid tem2)les and other edifices. Egyptian I L_ art reached its highest development in his reign. The exploits of these monarchs are recorded in pictures and hieroglyphs on the monuments. 39. Under the nineteenth dynasty, Egypt attained her highest point of national power and greatness. During the next she rapidly declined, and for almost two centuries scarcely undertook a sin- gle important enterprise. The pre- dominant influence of the priests was a marked feature of this period, during a part of which the priestly dynasty of Tanites held | sway. She'shonk, called I '_ ;j Shi'shak in the Bible (I. Kings xiv. 25), succeeded the priestly line, or ^' High Priests of Amun," as they called themselves, and brought about a partial revival of Egyptian glory (993 B.C.). 40. This monarch invaded Judah, received the submission of Eeho- Cartouche op a King, supposed to be Rehoboam.* bo am, and plundered Jerusalem. There were afterward several other kings of the i same name. The twenty -fifth dynasty was I founded by Sa-ba'co, an Ethiopian, who conquered Egypt. This is the So of Scripture, who made a treaty with Hoshea * In the palace-temple of Karnak, Shlshak is represented in a large bas-relief dragging captive kings in triumph. Each country or city is personified, and its name written in an oval. One of the figures has an inscription which means " Kingdom of Judah." This is the figure represented in the cut. 50 Ancient History. (724 B.C.), and who came in conflict with Sargon, the Assy- rian monarch. Tir-ha'kah (or Teh'rak), of this dynasty, was the greatest of the Ethiopian kings of Egypt. He con- tended successfully with Assyria, and came to the assistance of the Jewish king Hezekiah against Sennacherib, who met with so terrible an overthrow. He was, however, finally defeated, and Egypt was broken up into petty kingdoms sub- ject to Assyria. 41. Psam-met'i-chus threw off the Assyrian yoke, and founded the twenty-sixth dynasty. By means of Greek mer- cenaries he greatly increased his power, though he in this way offended the Egyptian military Psammetichus. class. He encouraged art and constructed several great works. Necho, or Ne-ka'o, his son and successor, gave great attention to maritime enterprises. He built fleets on the Eed and Mediterranean seas, undertook to re- Necho. open the canal between the Eed Sea and the Nile which had been cut by Rameses II., and also directed the circum- navigation of Africa.* After defeating Josiah, king of Judah, he was himself defeated by Nebuchadnezzar (605 B.C.). 42. Ama'sis, the fifth king of this dynasty, had a long and prosperous reign. He constructed many fine buildings, and left numerous monuments in different parts of the country. He encouraged Greek merchants Amasis. to settle in Egypt, and in order to protect his kingdom against the growing power of Persia, made an alliance with Croesus of Lydia. His reign terminated just as Camby'ses, the Persian king, was about to invade the coun- try. His son and successor, Psam-men'i-tus, after Psammenitus. a reign of six months, encountered the Persian host near * "Necho next fitted out some ships, in order to discover if Africa was circum- navigable; for which purpose he engaged the services of certain Phoenician mariners; and he has the honor of having been the first to ascertain the peninsular form of that continent, about twenty-one centuries before Bartolomeo Diaz and Vasco da Gama. "—iJawZmson. Egypt. 51 Pelnsium, and was defeated (525 B.C.). Thus Egypt came under the power of Cambyses, who treated the people with great cruelty. 43. During the remaining dynasties, extending over nearly two centuries from the battle of Pelusium, Egypt was en- gaged in a constant struggle with the Persians for its independence, which it often regained, but as often lost. In these efforts, it received con- Subsequent history. siderable assistance from the Greeks. Since its final con- quest by the Persians (346 B.C.), the prophecy of Ezekiel, that ^'^ there shall be no more a prince of the land of Egypt," has been literally fulfilled, for not one native ruler has ever occupied the throne for a period of more than 2000 years. The subsequent history of this country will, therefore, be given in connection with that of the nations to whom it has successively belonged. Egyptian Topography and Civilization. 44. Egypt, far back in the early ages, became a populous country, because of its extraordinary fertility, due to the annual inundations of the Nile, caused by the rains that fall on the equatorial highlands. In Soil. Productions. fact, this region may be geographically described as the valley of that river; and by some it has been called the ^^gift of the Nile." Its most ancient name was Ohemi {ha' me), the Black Country, on account of the character of the soil. It yielded in great abundance immense crops of dlioiuna, a kind of maize, and other cereals; and thus the granaries of Egypt were able to supply food to all the surrounding nations in times of famine. The date-palm grew spontaneously. The Egyptian portion of the valley extended about five hundred miles from north to south, being bounded on the west by a rocky ridge sloping into the Great Desert, and on the east by low ranges descending to the Red Sea. 45. It was anciently divided into Upper, Middle, and 6^ Ancient History, Lower Egypt, Upper Egypt, or the Tlieb'a-is, as it was often called, included the narrow valley in the extreme southern part. Its capital was Thebes, which, in Divisions. the time of its splendor, is said to have covered twenty-three miles, and to have had one hundred gates. On its site are the villages of Luxor and Karnak, Upper Egypt. where the ruins of splendid temples, colossal statues, obelisks. Memnonian Statues, near Thebes. and sphinxes still bear witness to the grandeur of this famous city. Near Thebes are the two colossal sitting figures, one of which is known as the statue of Memnon, which is said to have emitted a musical sound at the rising of the sun.* Originally, there was an avenue of eighteen such statues. * The height of each of these statues is forty -seven feet, and they I'est on pedes- tals about twelve feet high. The vocal Memnon is the statue of an Egyptian king (Amen'ophis). The sound emitted by this figure is said to have resembled the tvrang- ing of a harp-string. These statues were constructed moi-e than 3000 years ago. Egypt, m The most flourishing period of Thebes was during the eight- eenth dynasty. It was pilhiged by Cambyses, who carried off from it an immense treasure. 46. Middle Egypt, or Heptan'omis, as it was called on account of its seven districts, embraced the wider portion of the Nile basin below the Thebais. Its capital was Memphis, the city of the Pharaohs who received Middle Egypt. and protected the Israelites. This district contains the finest of the pyramids, which are situated on the west side of the Nile, extending a distance of about seventy miles. The first, or Great Pyramid, at Gizeh ( glie'za), is the most remarkable. It is said that 100,000 men were employed during thirty years in its construction. Lower Egypt, Lower Egypt. which consisted of the Delta of the Nile, was very fertile and populous. Sais was its chief city. [See Map, page 47.] 47. The power of the Pharaoh, or king, was absolute, except that he was more or less under the influence of the priests; and, at some periods of the history, was completely under their control.* Women were not entirely debarred from occupying the throne. Political system. nor even from the priesthood. The nation was divided into nomeSf each of which had its governor {^lomarch). The peo- ple consisted of many classes, but there was no fixed caste, as has been supposed, f Many occupations Social system. were hereditary; but the educational system was such that any one could by superior talent rise to eminence. Still the evils of class distinction were almost equal to those of caste. Shepherds and herdsmen, particularly swineherds, were held in great abomination. All handicrafts were despised by the upper classes, whose occupations were priestly, civil, or mili- tary, or such as required scientific knowledge. Even sculp- *The growing influence of the priests, as Rawlinson remarks, was shown especially in the accession to power of the priestly dynasty of Tanites. These styled themselves "High Priests of Amman," and wore priestly costume. t " Castes, in the strict sense of the word, did not exist in Egypt, since a son was not absolutely compelled to follow his father's protession."— Rawlinson. 64 Ancient Misior^y. ture and painting were degraded arts. There were many slaves, who were generally captives taken in war. 48. The religion of the Egyptians, which was probably at first a simple worship of one God, became very complex, owing to the vast number of deities which were adopted into their system. Many of these were. Religion. doubtless, personified attributes of the Deity; but others were regarded as distinct personages, such as Osiris and Isis. The veneration in which many of the lower animals were held was a curious feature of this religion. Thus the ibis, the hawk, the dog, and the cat were considered sacred; and at Memphis the bull Apis, regarded as a symbol of Osiris, was a special object of adoration. To kill one of these sacred animals, even by accident, was to incur the penalty of death. In the temples certain mysteries, or secret ceremonies, were per- formed, to which the jiriests alone were admitted. 49. The worship was either public or private, the former in the temples, the latter at the tombs. Every town had at least one temple dedicated to the chief divinity of the place, where were the images which sym- Worship. bolized his powers, and the sacred animal which he was sup- posed to animate. The religious services were only in part open to the common people. The worship at the tombs was designed to secure certain benefits for the deceased in the future state. Every tomb of the wealthy had a chapel for this purpose, but all passers-by were invited to enter and par- ticipate in the ceremonies, and to offer up prayers for the souls of the departed. The sacrifices to the gods consisted of animals and vegetables, with libations of wine and the burning of incense. 60. The funeral was the greatest of all the social ceremo- nies of the Egyptians. The period of mourning sometimes lasted seventy-two days, during which the procesf of embalming was performed. The body wm Funeral. swathed in many linen bandages, and the mummy thus formed l^mjpi- m was covered with pasteboard, and often inclosed in a box, some- times in a stone sarcophagus. It was then taken to the tomb, and offerings to the deceased were placed in the chapel.* The Booh of the Dead, containing the funeral ritual of tlie ancient Egyptians, is still in existence. This great care to preserve the body from decay was due to the belief that the soul would, after a long period, return to reani- mate it. It is believed that some of the pyramids Avere, for this reason,, constructed by the kings in order to afford durable protection to their mortal re- mains. Imprisonment for debt was not permitted; but a man could pledge to his creditors the mummies of his ancestors, and if he failed in his lifetime to redeem them, he Avas him- self deprived of burial. 51. The Egyptians made great progress in the mechanical and industrial arts. The weaving of cotton and i T 1/1 !•• Ti TjT Industrial arts. linen cloth, workmg m copper and brass, and the making of glass and pottery were among the most prominent branches of manufacture. In their agriculture the people showed very great skill. A considerable traffic was carried on with other countries; gold, ivory, ebony. Mummies. Commerce. skins, and slaves were brought from Ethiopia, incense from Arabia, and spices from India. In exchange for these articles *The bodies of the poor were first salted, and then boiled in bitumen. Vast numbers of sacred animals, bulls, apes, dogs, cats, sheep, etc., were also embalmed. It has been estimated that more than 400,000,000 human mummies were made in Egypt. Sepulchres have been opened in which thousands of them were found deposited in rows, one on another, without coffins. Shiploads have been trans ported to England, and ground up for use in fertilizing the soil. 56 Ai\cient History. grain and cloth were the chief exports. This commerce was carried on principally by Greek and Phoenician merchants, since the Egyptians had not attained any great degree of skill in ship-building or navigation. 62. Egyptian art was intended to illustrate the religious belief of the people. Hence it was characterized by grandeur rather than beauty. Their peculiar taste seems to have been the outgrowth of their religious the design was Fine arts. ideas, for rather to awaken awe than to please the eye with ele- gant and graceful forms. This prevented any pro- gress in art, for all inven- tive genius was trammeled by their strict conventional rules based upon their re- ligious principles. Colos- sal statues, symbolical un- couth figures, and animals of strange ideal forms took the place of that which is natural and beautiful. The temples and sepulchers were adorned with paintings, executed in strong but not glaring colors, in the pecu- liar Egyptian conventional style; that is, the style in which natural variety of form is sacrificed to an ideal sameness. The pigments used were very durable and often brilliant. Music was highly cultivated, and the instruments were considerable variety and ingenuity. Dancing was also Painting. The Obelisk, now in the Central Park, York, as it stood in Alexandria. New Music and dancing. of cultivated as an art. Egypt, 57 53. Architecture was the greatest of the Egyptian arts. Massiveness and grandeur were the prominent features. This people delighted in pyramids, obelisks,* and stupendous temples, with immense columns and Architecture. spacious halls, adorned with colossal statues, avenues of sphinxes, and elaborate sculpture, all producing an awe-in- spiring effect. The huge blocks of stone used in these struc- tures were drawn hundreds of miles from the quarries, by the united labor of thousands of men. The pyramids are the most celebrated of these structures. There The pyramids. are as many as seventy standing on the left bank of the Nile, but the Great Pyramid at G-izeh is the most famous. 64. This massive stone structure, standing near the apex of the Delta, is believed to be the largest and oldest building now in existence. Its original height was 480 feet, and its base 764 feet square, covering an Great Pyramid. area of more than 13 acres; but by the removal of the casing- stones for the building of Cairo, its height was reduced about 30 feet. Like all the other pyramids, it faces the cardinal points, and is built on strictly scientific and mathematical prin- ciples; while in its form, position, chambers, and passages, it is sup230sed to symbolize many important truths. Its entrance passage is about four feet high, leading downward to a sub- terranean chamber cut out of the solid rock. The upward * The name obelisk (meaning in Greek a spit) was given to these tall and slender monoliths on account of their peculiar shape. They were erected in pairs at the gateways of temples, one standing on each side. They were taken from the quarries of Syene, and floated down the Nile on rafts, at the time of the inundation. Their form was dictated by a certain law of proportion ; and their height varied from a little over 20 feet to 12.3 feet. On their sides were carved hieroglyphic records of the names and titles of the kings by whom they were erected. The one recently removed fi'om Egypt to New York was originally placed at the gate of the temple of the sun, erected at Heliopolis by Thothmes III., where it stood for eighteen centuries, having been transported to Alexandria by the Romans in the time of Augustus. Its companion was removed with it, and at Alexandria was known as Cleopatra's Needle. This obelisk was removed to London a few years ago. An obelisk was removed from Luxor to Paris, and set up in the Place de la Concorde, in 183-3. Several previously had been transported to Rome. 58 Ancient History. passage leads to what is called the Grand Gallery, 28 feet high and about 157 feet long, and thence to the highest and largest known room in the structure, called the King's Cham- ber, which contains a granite coffer, the only article of furni- ture in the pyramid. Below the King's Chamber is the Queen's Chamber, reached by a horizontal passage from the foot of the Grand Gallery. According to Herodotus, it was built by a king named Cheops {ke'ops), called also Shufu or Su- phis; and the date of its erection was probably about 2400 b. c. * 55. The Great Sphinx, an immense sculptured figure of a fabulous monster, having the head of a man and the body of a lion, stands a short distance from the pyramids of Gizeh, with its head facing the Nile. It is sup- posed to be even older than the Great Pyramid. Its dimensions Great Sphinx. are enormous, the length of the body being 146 feet, and the distance across the .shoulders 36 feet. Between the paws, which are 50 feet apart, a small temple was constructed. This colossal figure was intended to represent one of the Egyptian deities, Horns, the Sun-god, as named in the hieroglyphics. * No opening was discovered in this wonderful building till about 825 a.d., when, by order of a Saracen monarch, the Mohammedans broke into it, making an irregular passage (10); but in doing this they discovered the passage (2) made by the builders, the opening to which was carefully concealed from without. The diagram shows the subterranean chamber (3), the ascending passage (4), the horizon- tal passage (5), the queen's cham- ber (G), the grand gallery (7), the king's chamber (8), the passage leading to the subterranean cham- ber (9), and the chambers of con- struction (11) over the king's cham- ber; also ventilating tubes to the north and south. At the time of the Saracenic invasion this building was still per- fect, and covered with hieroglyphics sufficient, as an Arab writer calculated, to fill 10,000 volumes. The Mohammedans took enough stone away to build all the mosques and palaces of Cairo. It originally contained nearly 7,000,000 tons of masonry, or 85 millions of cubic feet of cut stone. This would furnish enough material to construct a railway embankment 10}^ feet high and 240 miles in length. Egypt. 69 66. The Egyptians made great progress in many of the sciences. Tlieir knowledge of astronomy was quite exten- sive, as is shown by the observations they made, and their mode of reckoning time; while their Science. Useful arts. Language and literature. achievements in architecture prove that they had consider- able knowledge of mathematical and mechanical science. They were also versed in medicine and surgery. They possessed great skill in many of the useful arts, including pottery, the manufacture of glass and porcelain, dyeing, and the making of linen. They were like- wise skilled in the polishing and engraving of precious stones, and in metallurgy. 57. The language of the ancient Egyptians was related to the Semitic, but differed from it in many respects. Its modern form is the Coptic. In ancient times there were different dialects in upper and lower Egypt. Hieroglyphics were used for monumental writing, from which a kind of running hand was formed, used for documents written on papyrus; and besides these there was the demotic, or common writing. Tiie mode of writing was with a reed, the hieroglyphs being traced in black; but the paragraphs Avere commenced in red. The sculptured hieroglyphs were also embellished with colors. Much of the ancient literature has come down to us, but is generally disconnected and of little value. The discovery of the famous ^^Rosetta Stone" led to the deciphering of the hieroglyphic inscriptions, by means of which a flood of light has been thrown upon ancient Egyptian history.* * " All three forms of hieroglyphic writing were alike unintelligible to the Greek travelers in Egypt, but they had the priests for interpreters. This key lost, the treasures of Egyptian learning— 'a library of stones and papyri in myriads of volumes '—appeared to be sealed forever, till, early in the 19th century, the key was found by Dr. Young, and successfully applied by M. Champollion. The discovery was first made from the 'Rosetta Stone.' one of the gatherings of Napoleon's expedition to Egypt, and now in the British Museum. It is a piece of black basalt, engraved with a trilingual inscription in honor of King Ptolemy V., Epiphanes, about the beginning of the second century b.c. The same text is repeated, first in hieroglyphics, secondly in enchorial [demotic] characters, lastly iu 60 Ancient History. 58. The pictures on the monuments and tombs give us a fair representation of the everj-day life of these remarkable people. At their feasts, which were numerous among the rich, the host and hostess presided. The seats were single or double chairs, but many sat on the gi'ound. The servants decked the guests with lotus flowers, and piled meat, fruits, cakes, and other food on small tables placed before them; while hired musicians and dancers enter- tained the company. ThQy had several games, among which was a kind of draughts or chess. The rich rode in chariots, or in heavy carriages drawn by oxen. Women were treated with respect, and enjoyed a greater degree of freedom than in many of the Asiatic civilizations. The Ethiopians. 59. Directly south of Egypt lay the country of the Ethiopians, a nation the origin of which is lost in antiquity. Its capital, Mer'o-e, on account of its favorable situation on the upper Nile, became the emporium Meroe. of Arabia, Egypt, and other nations in -its vicinity; and Ethiopia grew to be one of the most powerful states of the ancient world (about 1000 B.C.). For a time it was tributary to Egypt; but (about 750 B.C.) it acquired its independence, under Sab'a-co, and in its turn subdued Egypt, which it kept under its sway about sixty years. Greek; but the stone is so mutilated at the corners and one edge, that the first part of the hieroglyphic text and the last part of the Greek are lost, as well as the begin- ning of several lines of the enchorial. The first comparison made was that of certain names and titles, which occur frequently in the Greek text, with groups of charac- ters similarly repeated in the corresponding parts of the enchorial. Conspicuous among these was the name of Ftolemij, Avhich Dr. Young next found in the hiero- glyphic text, guided by a suggestion, previously made, that the oval rings, or cartouches, constantly seeti in hieroglyphic inscriptions, formed the inclosure of royal names. Hence he determined the phonetic or alphabetic value of the charac- ters which he supposed to spell Ptolemaios, or Ptolemeos, and then those of Berenice. In 1822 the publication of the bilingual inscription on the obelisk at Philae enabled ChampoUion to decipher the name of Cleopatra. The subsequent discovery of many other Greek and Roman names led him on to the deciphering of the letters of common words.''— Smith's Ancient History of the East. The Phoenicians. 61 60. During the reign of Psammetichus, 240,000 Egyptians emigrated to Ethiopia, and settling there added greatly to the prosperity of the state. After subduing Egypt, Cambyses invaded Etliioi)ia ; but his soldiers suffered terrible hardships from famine in the Invasions of Cambyses. deserts before they reached Meroe, after the capture of which he was obliged to abandon his hopes of further conquest and return to Egypt. About five centuries later, Ethiopia was conquered by the Komans. SECTION V. The Phcenicians. 61. Phoenicia, bordering on the eastern shore of the Medi- terranean Sea, is particularly noted for its two great cities, Sidon and Tyre, the most ancient seats of com- merce mentioned in history. Each had a govern- Sidon and Tyre. ment of its own, and each sent colonies to different parts of the world. The most ancient were Ga'des (now Cadiz), in Spain (Tarshish), and Utica, in Africa. Some of the earliest settlements in Greece are said to Colonies. have been made by Phoenicians. The greatest of their colo- nies was Car'thage, on the northern coast of Africa, founded by Dido, a Tyrian princess (878 B.C.). Ar'a-dus was also an important city of Phoenicia. 62. Phoenicia was, in fact, a confederacy of states, or large and powerful cities, of which Sidon was the most ancient, and for some time the most flourishing; but her defeat by the Philistines of Ascalon gave the pre- Sidon and Tyre. cedency to Tyre (about 1050 B.C.). This city, like the others in Phoenicia, was under the rule of kings, but the priesthood and the aristocracy had great influence. The list of the 62 Ancient History. Tyrian kings from 1050 to 830 B.C. is known to us. About the close of that period, the country was invaded by the Assyrians, and lost its independence. After the fall of that empire, Phoenicia was brought under the power of the Egyptians (608 B.C.), s^Ezion-geI)er V ]MED SEA. . PHCENICIA -<^^ AND PALESTINE ivrnes 6 3o 40 60 and three years after- ward was conquered by Nebuchadnezzar. 63. Tyre revolted from him eight years later, and maintained a successful resistance for thirteen years, when she was again brought under the Babylonian yoke, and so remained till both Tyre and Sidon were reduced by Cyrus (538 B.C.). Having revolt- ed from the Persians (in 351 B.C.), Sidon was fired by its own inhabitants and en- tirely destroyed. It was, however, rebuilt. Both cities were taken by Alexander the Great (in 332 B.C.), Geographical Study. What ivas the situation of: Phcenicia? Syrian JuDAH? Israel? Edom? Moab? Gilead? Galilee 5 Tyre? Sidon? Aradiis? Jerusalem? Damascus? Sama- ^yre yielding to the ria? Askelon? Gaza^' Ashdod? Joppa? Beer-sheba? <., -, Byblus? Tadmor? Ezion-geber? Dead Sea? Jordan COnqUCror alter a QC- River? Orontes River? What name has been given to iermincd resistance of the whole district west of the Jordan? ^71 s. Pales- mnntVisi tine, or the Holy Land. ^^^®" monLUb. 64. The Phrenicians were the greatest navigators and mer- chants of antiquity. Keeping near the shore, and guided by The Fhcenicians. m the stars, their ships visited the most remote parts of the Mediterranean Sea, and even passed the "Pillars of Hercules" (Strait of Gibniltar) into the Atlantic, probably reaching the ''Land of Tin" — the peninsula of Cornwall, in Britain ; also the Canaries, the Navigation and commerce. Azores, and the Madeira Islands in the west, and India and Ceylon in the east. Wherever trade was profitable they ex- tended their voyages, and they were careful to conceal from all others the course they took to the wealthy lands they reached. When Herodotus visited Tyre, he could gain no information of the source of their supply of tin and amber, although they had been selling those products to the Greeks for centuries.* Phcenician Ship. In their desire for gain the Phoenicians did not at times scruple to commit piracy; and they sometimes, it is s^id, kidnapped Greek and Hebrew children and sold them for slaves. Many of the great commercial centers on the shores of the Mediterranean grew from Phoenician settlements. Thus it will be seen that the Phoenicians were masters of the commerce of the world before the Greeks became at all promi- nent on the field of history. 65. Their manufactures of glass and linen, of perfumes and purple dye, were sources of unbounded wealth ; and the Phoenicians were universally considered to be the most skillful *It is related that the master of one of their merchantmen bound for the " Land of Tin," perceiving himself followed by a Roman ship, which had been sent to learn the way, ran his vessel on the rocks to lead the rival craft to destruction, and on his return home his government indemnified him for the loss. 64 Ancient History. workmen in gold, silver, ivory, and bronze. These manu- factured articles they exchanged for the rich products of distant lands. From the natives of Manufactures. Tarshish (southern Spain) they obtained gold, silver, iron, and lead ; for this country at that time was almost a mine of wealth, silver being so plentiful that the mer- chants, as Aristotle relates, ballasted their ships with it. For these treasures the simple natives eagerly ac- cepted Tyrian ornaments and glass trinkets. On the southern shores of the Baltic a similar traffic was carried on for the precious amber of that region. 66. These people also made great progress in literature. Their alphabet was more complete than any that previously existed, for it was ^jJionetic; that is, it represented the elementary sounds of spoken words, not pic- tures of objects. It is stated that Cadmus, a Phoenician, brought sixteen letters into Greece, thus forming a basis for the Greek alphabet. How- Alphabet. ever this may be, it is cer- tain that not only the Greek but all our modern alpha- bets are directly or indirectly based upon that of the Phoe- nicians. Thus, whatever the origin of these wonderful people, for it is impossible to say whence they came, they must be considered among the most enterprising, ingenious, and intellectual nations of antiquity. 67. The Phoenicians worshiped a vast multitude of gods, among whom Ba'al was pre-eminent, corresponding to the Babylonian deity of that name; and next to him was a female Head of Baal. (From a Tyrian Coin.) The Phoenicians. Q>5 deity named As-tar'te, whose emblem was the moon. The evil principle was personified by the dreaded being Moloch, to whom they sometimes sacrificed their children and other human beings. They erected temples, but chiefly selected for their places of worship mountains, Religion. glens, groves, and the banks of streams, which they deemed the favorite abodes of the gods. Fire was kept burning perpetually on their altars, and they sacrificed both men and animals. Many of their religious rites and ceremonieS^ were dreadfully cruel and degi^ading, Syria. 68. Syria is the name given to a region of indefinite extent situated to the east of the Mediterranean Sea. By the Hebrews it was called A'ram. It was united under one government till the time of its com- Situation. plete conquest by the Persians. There were several states, but the one most generally known was Syria of Damascus, which was an important state even in the times of Abraham. In the subsequent history of the Damascus. Jews it became quite prominent. King David gained a great victory over the Syrians of Damascus, and reduced their city; but during Solomon's reign it regained its independence (1000 B.C.), 69. There were three kings named Ben-ha'dad, all of whom contended repeatedly with the Hebrews. Benhadad II. was murdered by the usurper Haz'a-el, who afterward gained important victories over the Benhadad. Israelites, ravaged their territory, and plundered Jerusalem (about 850 B.C.). His son, Benhadad III., also "oppressed Israel." At a later j^eriod, Syria was successively subdued by the Assyrians, Persians, and Macedonians. About 63 B.C., it became a Roman province, and was subsequently divided into several provinces. 66 Ancient History. SECTION VI. The Hebrews. 70. Palestine was situated between the Mediterranean Sea and the yalley of the Jordan Eiver, extending about 145, miles from north to south, with an average breadth of less than fifty miles. The name is a corruption of Philistia, or the country of the Philistines, those fierce idolaters with whom the Hebrews waged many wars. Their chief cities were Ash'dod, or A-zo'- tus, As'ca-lon, Gath, Ga'za, and Ek'ron, all noted Philistine in sacred history. The western parts of what was called Palestine were inhabited by the Canaanites and other tribes, or nations {seven mentioned in the Canaanites. Scriptures), which were conquered by the Hebrews. 71. The Hebrews were a Semitic race. Abraham jour- neyed from Chaldea to Canaan (Palestine), where his de- scendants continued to dwell as a patriarclial and pastoral nation until Jacob and his sons left the country to settle in Egypt. The Jewish state properly commences with the Exodus from Egypt and the settlement again in Palestine. Of the twelve tribes of Israel, nine and a half were located to the west, and two and a half to the east, of the Tribes of Israel. Jordan. Into this region they had been led by Joshua, as Moses was permitted only to catch a glimpse of the promised land. After the death of Joshua followed the period of the Judges, which lasted about five centuries. The last of the Judges was Samuel, who, when the people demanded a king, anointed Saul (1095 B.C.). 72. Saul was succeeded by David, during whose reign (from 1055 to 1015 B.C.) the kingdom of Israel stretched \ 1 from the Mediterranean Sea to the Euphrates I Eiver, and from Syria to the Eed Sea. He en- couraged navigation and trade, particularly with Tyre, which The Hebrews, 67 led to a vast influx of the precious metals into the kingdom, and afterward made Solomon's court a scene of oriental luxury and magnificence. The reign of Solomon (1015-975 B.C.) was the most splendid period in Jewish history. He built a sumptuous palace, and caused Solomon. the great temple to be constructed. Alliances were formed with the surrounding nations ; an active trade with Egypt was opened; and, to facilitate his commercial enterprises, he erected Tad'mor in the desert, which afterwards became so renowned as Palmy'ra. He also built a superb navy at a port (E'zi-on - ge'ber) which he established at the northern part of the Red Sea. [See map, page 56.] 73. The glory of Solomon's splendid kingdom was not to continue. Already, during his life, luxury had brought its usual corruption and weakness. The purity of religion was stained by cruel and licentious rites; the people were oppressed by a burdensome taxation ; and dissension and discontent prevailed. The tyranny Revolt of the Ten Tribes. and insolence of Re-ho-bo'am, Solomon's son and successor, completed the ruin of tlie kingdom, causing the revolt of the ten tribes, who followed Jer-o-bo'am, and set up a new king- dom of Israel at She'chem. To Rehoboam were thus left only two tribes, forming the kingdom of Judah. A desultory war was kept up between these two kingdoms during most of the reign of Jeroboam, which lasted twenty-two years. 74. The territory ruled over by Jeroboam was partly be- yond the Jordan. It reached from the borders of Damascus to within ten miles from Jerusalem; and in its first period contained twice as large a population as Judah. Its first capital was She'chem; the second, Tirzah; and the last, Samaria. In about 250 years nineteen monarchs reigned, the history of wliom is but a sad record of wicked- ness and war. They deserted the purity of the former religious 'worship, and practiced idolatry, against which the prophets vainly denounced the judgments of Heaven. The 68 Ancient History, kingdom was destroyed by the Assyrians, to wliom the last king, Ho-she'a, surrendered Samaria, and the ten tribes were carried into captivity (721 B.C.). Their place was supplied by Babylonian settlers, from whom, with the remnant of the Jewish population, was derived the Samaritan race. 75. The kingdom of Judah lasted 135 years longer than Israel. Most of its kings were wicked and idolatrous; but, 1 during the reign of the good king Je-hosh'a-i^hat I (916-892 B.C.), the kingdom was in a more pros- perous state than it had been since the reign of Solomon. Hezekiah's reign (726-697 B.c) is remarkable for the invasion _ of Sennacherib and the mir- aculous destruction of his army. The last king was Zed-e-ki'ah, during whose reign Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, took Jerusalem and destroyed it, sending the Jewish king in chains to Babylon, whither were also transported tlie wretch- ed inhabitants (586 B.C.). The temple was razed to ANTIQUE VESSEI.S. ^jjg ground, and for more than fifty years the holy city perished, except in the memory of the heart-broken exiles. The restoration of the Jews took place in 536 B.C., in pursuance of an edict of Cyrus, the great Persian monarch, which permitted the Jewish people in Baby- lon to return to Jerusalem, and to rebuild the temple, every Jew in the city being enjoined by the edict to assist in the work. 76. After the edict of Cyrus, the Jews remained under the dominion of Persia till the time of Alexander; and on his death (324 B.C.), they became subject to Ptol'e-my {toVe-me), one of his successors. Subsequently the kings of Egypt and Syria con- The Hebrews. Subsequent Jewish history. tended for Palestine, until An-ti'o-chus the Great defeated the Egyi)tians, and thus became its ruler. In conse- quence of the oppression of one of his successors, the Jews revolted, under the renowned Judas Mac-ca-be'us, who in a succession of victories routed the Syrian armies, and entered Jerusalem in triumph (1G5 B.C.). 77. After his death (IGl B.C.), his brothers completed the work of national deliverance, and they and their successors ruled as high-priests, until Aristobu'lus assumed the crown (lOG B.C.). The second king of that name was subdued by Pompey, the Roman general, when Judea became a Roman province. The successors of Judas Maccabeus are called the Maccabees, or the As- mo-ne'an dynasty. These were followed by the dy- nasty founded by Herod the Great, who ruled under the Romans (37 B.C.-44 A.D.). Sub- sequently Judea was appended to the Roman province Syria. The revolt of the Jews led to a ''war of independence," which was closed by the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus (70 A.D.) and the final dispersion of the Hebrew race. 78. The civilization of the Hebrews was not marked by any great and peculiar progress in the arts and sciences; and the world has received no impulse from their national achievements or history in this respect. Their religious institutions, spiritual ideas, and Hebrew Costume. Hebrew civilization. moral teachings have, however, exerted a mighty influence on modern civilization. The sacred writings of the Jews are still a treasury of inspired wisdom, the influence of which pervades the most civilized nations of the globe. '70 Anclerd History. SECTION VII. The Hindoos. 79. The original seat of the great Aryan race appears to have been the region lying between the northwestern boun- dary of India and the shores of the Caspian Sea. [See map No. II.] From this country emigrants Aryans. pushed across the Indus River, and drove toward the south or reduced to servitude the native inhabitants. Of these Aryan invaders, mingling with the darker races whom they had sub- dued, the Hindoos are the descendants. The land was subse- quently called Ar'ya-d-var'ta, or the Home of the Aryans. The date of this invasion is uncertain, but it has been placed by some Sanskrit scholars as far back as 3100 B.C. 80. These invaders brought with them a religion called Brahmanism and the Sanskrit hmguage, and also established the institution of caste. Of these castes the Brah- mans or priests, constituted the highest, and the Sii'dras, or conquered people — the artisans and laborers — the lowest. To these may be also added the Pa'rialis, or outcasts. The Sanskrit is now a dead language, but a com- parison of it with other languages shows it to have Castes. Sanskrit. been the parent of Greek, Latin, Iranian or Persian, German, Celtic, Slavonic, and most of the languages of modern Europe. The Vedas, or sacred books, written in this lan- guage, are believed to be as old as 2000 b. c. The ancient literature of the Hindoos includes many other inter- esting works, both in prose and poetry, a number of which have been translated into English and other modern languages. 81. The Vedas teach the worship of one Supreme Being, an Infinite Spirit, pervading all things, and manifesting himself under three forms: Brahma, the creator; Vishnu, the preserver; and Siva, the destroyer. Religion. The doctrine of the *' transmigration of souls" was a promi- The Hindoos. 71 nent feature in these religious teachings. According to -this belief, the souls of all those who had not lived pure lives passed at death into the bodies of lower animals as a punish- ment. In the sixth century B.C., there arose a wonderful religious reformer or teacher in the person of Prince Gau- ta'ma, called Buddha (hoocV ilali) — the Enlightened, i \ He was the founder of Buddhism, a religious I L_ system which at first was pure and spiritual, but subsequently became stained with many abuses and corrupted with idolatry and superstitious practices. It is now the religion of a large part of mankind.* 82. We have no continuous authentic history of the ancient Hindoos. The first event in connection with the history of Europe that brings India into notice is the invasion of the country by the Macedoni- ans, under their great leader, Alexander the Great (326 B.C.). After several engagements with the native princes, he was compelled to retire Avithout making any conquests. The his- torians who accompanied the army wrote quite a full descrip- tion of the people and their peculiarities. 83. The wealth of India — its diamonds and other precious stones, pearls, silks, spices, and perfumes — made this land for many centuries an object of interest, and trade with it was eagerly cultivated. Maritime commerce with India was carried on by the Wealth and trade. Phoenicians, as it was afterward by the Italian commercial states. A great overland trade was also carried on not only by the Phoenicians but by other nations. In all other respects, however, the country and its people remained a sealed book for ages. * " In point of age, most other creeds are youthful compared with this venerable religion, which has in it the eternity of a universal hope, the immortality of a boundless love, an indestructible element of faith in final good, and the proudest assertion ever made of human freedom."— JJdifZH Arnold. 72 Ancient History. SECTION yiii. The Chinese. 84. China is spoken of by the ancient classic writers as the land of the Se'res. In the Middle Ages it was called the empire of Cathay'. From others it received the name of Sin, Cliin, or CMna. The latter name China. is supposed by some to be derived from the Tsin dynasty, of the third century B.C. In the ancient descriptions of this country, its rich products — raw silk, silk stuffs, fine furs, and excellent iron — are especially mentioned. The Greeks and Eomans had but a very indefinite knowledge of the Chinese and their country. In the Middle Ages, it became better known, particularly through the account given by Marco Polo of his travels in Cathay. 85. The Chinese historians extend their records back during fabulous periods of hundreds of thousands of years, but fail to explain the origin of the race. They "^'"' ' describe the first settlers as nomadic emigrants from the region near the Caspian Sea, who, however, soon devoted themselves to agriculture, cultivating grain and flax, and nourishing silkworms. They established centers of trade, and began to study science, particularly astronomy. They had a kind of hieroglyphic writing. The natives could make but little resistance to the ^^black-haired race," so much superior to tliemselves in intelligence and vigor, and hence were driven into the less habitable parts of the country. 86. All the early history of the Chinese is very obscure, but, about the twenty-fourth century B.C., the ' mist begins to rise, and we have a continuous history of dynasties and kings. In the tenth century, the formidable Tartars commenced their incursions, and down to modern times continued to harass Tartars. the empire. In the sixth century (551 B.C.), the wise teacher The Chinese. 73 Confucius WHS born, who devoted his long life to the endeavor to instill into the minds of the people pure prin- ciples of vii'tue and religion. Not until after his Confucius. death, however, were his precepts respected; they were then erected into a religious system known as Confucianism. 87. Lao-tse {low-t^d') was contemporary with Confucius, and he also founded a religious system, called Taouism, which still extensively prevails. A wise and Taouism. powerful monarch, called in the Chinese history " the first universal emperor," in the third century b.c, gained several great victories over the Tartars, and to prevent their incursions in the future, planned the con- Great wall. struction of the " Great Wall," but died before it was com- pleted (210 B.C.). Buddhism was introduced from India about 65 A.D., and now extensively prevails. Chinese Civilization. 88. The character, institutions, and customs of the Chinese have undergone but little change since the earliest times. They have ever been jealous of foreigners, fearful of innovations, and attached to their own Manners and customs. modes in everything. Their government is an absolute monarchy; but the emperor is regarded as the father of his people, and as being specially the Government. son of Heaven, and the mediator between Heaven and all who belong to the Chinese nation. Prayers and sacrifices for the people are offered by him at stated times. The punishments inflicted upon criminals are severe and cruel. The patriarchal system prevails in social life, obedience to the head of the family being sternly enforced. Edu- Education. cation receives a great deal of attention, and is the passport to all offices, to which every one is eligible. 89. The Chinese language is one of a small class of Asiatic languages which are usually described as monosyllaMc. It has no alphabet, the characters being chiefly symbols of the 74 Ancient History. objects which they are designed to denote. There are at least 30,000 characters in the language, represented to the ear by about 500 syllabic sounds. The ancient literature embraces the works compiled by Confucius, five in number, among which is the Booh of History, which treats of a j)criod extending from the Language and literature. twenty-fourth century to 721 B.C. These, with four other works, constitute the famous classics, with which every edu- cated Chinaman must be familiar. The art of printing was known to the Chinese several centuries before it was invented in Europe.* 90. The native religions of the Chinese are those founded by Confucius and Lao-tse. The former is rather of a moral and philosophical character ; the latter, of a spiritual nature. The educated, as a general Religion. thing, profess Confucianism; the middle and lower orders, Taouism or Buddhism. Great toleration in religion prevails. The saying is common: ^'Eeligions are many; reason is one; we are all brothers." Multitudes of superstitious beliefs and ceremonies have disfigured the ancient religions as now pro- fessed and practiced by the people. SECTION IX. The Persians. 91. The Persians were an Aryan race who migrated to the lofty plain of Iran from the region east of the Caspian Sea. Achaemenes {a-hem' e-nez) seems to have been the founder of the monarchy about a cen- Origin. tury before the time of Cyrus. There were many tribes, of which the Pa-sar'ga-die were the most prominent, forming a * The modern literature of China is very extensive. The roj-al Hbrary contains at least 100,000 volumes, its catalogue alone filling 122 volumes. No. 2. 5 ^ g ?, ■■" ^ ^^^^^^''■■^^■:^ :^^ ^^f \ j \_5^--Ar^ \ "^ V o \_^'--*'Ysr^ g s \ X \ L^^^^'!\'^^^^ \ ^^^^^^^^^^r X CQ !>: s \ g 3 ^/ 'I "to '7^y^ «^'^ :-; c3 111 1 r^ . > V ^ 1 § \ r' X-p-^ ' A / UJ ts / ^^ . — ^ § 7 v^^ ^1b -t jr -^ ^ ^ s ■^ 1 / ,.^7 ^~- s?^ ^^r-Si^"^^ r^ ^ •3 ^ ^ -f r^ ^^'/\ : s ^ ^T ^ ir /' p^ 3 */ ¥~—^ U^JX- Cm - lO v^ W^^}b[ S ('n<"p*'i — ' '- [ r\\ ^ (^ '' ' — ' ■ H^ s '-^67^ ^ J 4 — \x^w~^ ^-^ ^ 1 Q2 1 ^ s]\ ( °i \ I ^- I P^ 1 '""^^^'^^ / P^ 1 -J-> ^ ^?4iJ2fr^^^ : > ^ g ifnlPfl^W^ -- g ' o *'/! "f u \> ""^ — T~J^ ^ f y' / « ^y^ A. •^^p'v^'-^ l^~~^)^~~-^f^^/\ / S 3 ^ B ^1 The Persians. 75 kind of nobility. The Persians, before Cyrus, were subject to the Median monarchy; but that ambitious prince being kept as a sort of hostage at Ecbatana, and seeing that the luxury and effeminacy of the Medes had under- i ■ mined their strength, determined to throw off the Median yoke. This he accomplished in spite of all the efforts which Astyages made to repress the revolt. The con- quest of Media by Cyrus and the capture of Astyages opened the way for greater changes. 92. By a Avonderfully rapid series of conquests Cyrus then made himself master of Lydia, the Asiatic Greeks, Babylon, and the nations of the remoter East — Hyrca'nia, Par'thia, Bac'tria, Sog-di-a'na, etc. Conquests of Cyrus. [See map No. II.] Babylon, as already related, fell before his conquering arms in 538 B.C. All these countries were sub- dued by this extraordinary man in less than thirty years (558-529 B.C.). The circumstances of his death are variously related. Herodotus says he was killed in an expedition against the Massagetae [mas-saj'e-te), a barba- rous tribe living east of the Caspian Sea.* He was succeeded by his son Camby'ses. * The account given by Herodotus is as follows: " Tomyris, queen of the Massa- getae, when she found that Cyrus paid no heed to her advice, collected all the forces of her kingdom and gave him battle. Of all the combats in which the barbarians have engaged among themselves, I reckon this to have been the fiercest. The following, as I understand, was the manner of it: First, the two armies stood apart and shot their arrows at each other; then, when their quivers were empty, they closed and fought hand to hand with lances and daggers ; and thus they continued fighting for a length of time, neither choosing to give ground. At length the Massagetae prevailed. The greater part of the army of the Persians was destroyed and Cj'rus himself fell, after reigning nine-and-twenty years. Search was made among the slain, by order of the queen, for the body of Cyrus; and when it was found, she took a skin, and, filling it with human blood, she dipped the head of Cyrus in the gore, saying, as she thus insulted the corse, ' I live, and have con- quered thee in fight; and yet by thee am I ruined, for thou tookest my son vdth guile; but thus I make good my threat, and give thee thy fill of blood.' " According to Xenophon, Cyrus died peacefully in his bed. Ctesias says he was mortally wounded in a battle with Derbices, and died in his camp a short time afterward. There seems to be httle reason to doubt that he died in a violent manner, but it is uncertain w-hat enemy he was contending against at the time. 76 Ancient History. 93. Ciimbyses was a warlike prince, as well as cruel and despotic. He caused his brother Smerdis, sometimes called Bardius, to be put to death on account of jeal- ousy, because Cyrus had left to him the govern- Cambyses. ment of several important provinces. He compelled the sub- mission of Phoenicia and Cyprus, the great naval powers of western Asia, and then invaded Africa (525 B.C.). He de- feated Psammenitus, took the city of Memphis, conquered the Libyan tribes, and planned the conquest of Carthage, but the Phoenician soldiers in his army refused to attack their own colony. The army which he sent to capture the temple of Ammon, situated in an oasis of the desert (Si-wah'), perished in a simoom; and the march of his own army against Ethio- pia was arrested in the Nubian desert by drought and famine. 94. On his return to Egypt he found it in a state of revolt, to repress which he was guilty of the wildest atrocities, compelling the Egyptian king to take poison, killing the sacred animals, and otherwise offend- ing the religious prejudices of the people. In Revolt of Egypt. the mean time a revolution took place at the Persian capital. A Magian personated the murdered Smerdis, and seized the throne, being supported by the Smerdis. Magian order, the most powerful in Persia. Cambyses on his way homeward died, some say by suicide, others in consequence of a wound which he accidentally inflicted upon himself while mount- Death of Cambyses. ing his horse (522 B.C.).* 95. Smerdis, the impostor, on the discovery of the fraud, was quickly deposed by the Persian nobles, who elected Da- ri'us I. , called Hys-tas'pes, king. He was the greatest of the * ' ' The Magian revolution was religious rather than political. The subject is still to some extent obscure ; but it seems certain that Magianism and Zoroastrianism were at this time two distinct and opposed systems. The pretender was a Magus, born in the eastern part of Persia ; and the object of the revolution was to make Magianism the state religion. Its ill success re-established the pure religion of Zoroaster. ' ' — Raiclinson. The Persians. 77 Persian monarchs, being both a conqueror and a statesman. He speedily put down the lebellions which, on his accession, had broken out in all parts, and then perfected the organization of the empire, dividing it into twenty Darius I. provinces, over which he placed governors, or satraps, as they were called by the Persians. He made Susa his capital in the spring, Ecbatana in summer, and Babylon in the winter. 96. Several great military expeditions were then under- taken. The first was against Avestern India, near the head- waters of the Indus, where he made conquest of a rich gold tract that added greatly to the revenues of the empire. The next was against the barbarous Scythian nations dwelling on the vast plains lying north of the Euxine. With an im- mense army he crossed the Bos'po-rus by means of a bridge of boats, and advanced against these people, who fled at his approach. This expedition seems to have been undertaken more for the purpose of overawing the people than to make conquests, and after ravaging the country he returned to Per- sia, leaving a force to subdue Thrace. 97. The Greek colonies of Asia Minor, provoked by the tyranny of the Persians, planned a revolt, and expelled or put to death their governors. Sardis, the capital of the satrapy, was taken and burned; but the rebellious states, after several battles, were com- Revolt of the Greek colonies. pelled to surrender, and were punished with great severity. Athens, having aided and abetted the insurrection, brought upon herself and all Greece the vengeance of the Persian despot, who sent two great expeditions to con(|uer the coun- try. These were unsuccessful. In the second of them, the Persian army, numbering more than 100,000 men, was de- feated by the Greeks on the j)lains of Marathon, not far from Athens. This was the first signal defeat which the Persians had ever encountered. While organizing a third exj^edition, on a still larger scale, Darius died (485 B.C.).* * " Darius probably died at Susa; but he was buried in the vicinity of Persepolis, 78 Ancient History. 98. Xerxes I. {zerx'ez), the son and successor of Darius, renewed the attempt to subdue the Grecian states, and for the purpose collected a vast army and fleet; but he met with a disastrous defeat both by land and sea. After a reign of Xerxes I J Artaxerxes I. Persian War-chariot. twenty years,* he trans- mitted the enterprise to his son, Ar-tax-erx'es I., who was at last compelled to make j^eace with the Greeks, after the war had continued about fifty years (449 B.C.). The subse- quent history of Persia is of little importance, except as it is connected with that of the Greeks. The last king was Darius III., called Cod-o-man'us, who was subdued by Alexander the Great (329 B.C.). Persia then became a part of the Mace- donian Empire, having lasted a little over two centuries. Civilization of the Persians. 99. Until after the reign of Cyrus the Great, the Persians were a liardy race, of simple manners and great courage in war; but they soon became soft and effeminate, like the Medes, to whom they were related. Darius III. Manners. They lost their bold hardihood, and sank into a corrupt where he had prepared himself an elaborate rock tomb, adorned with sculptures, and bearing a long inscription, all of which remain to the present day. The great palace of Persepolis was his conception, if not his work, as was the equally magnificent structure at Susa, which was the ordinary royal residence from his time. He likewise set up the great rock inscription at Behistun, the most remark- able of all the Persian monumental remains."— i?a?oZ/riso?i's Ancient History. * Xerxes was a licentious and cruel monarch, and from him commenced the long course of folly, self-indulgence, and wickedness that disgrace the subsequent history of Persia. He was murdered by the captain of his guard and his chamber- lain. Xerxes is supposed to have been the Ahasuerus of Esther; as the latter name is the Semitic equivalent of the Aryan Khshnyarsha. corrupted into Xerxes. TJie Persians. 79 state, brought about by luxury and sensual indulgence. They made but little progress in the industrial arts, as they were enabled to obtain from Egypt, Arts. Assyria, Babylonia, Phoenicia, and India the rich products of those countries. 100. Architecture was, however, cultivated with success; and the ruins of their beautiful city, Per-sep'o-lis, still bear witness to the progress they had made in that art. This city, called in ancient times " The Architecture. Glory of the East," was adorned in every possible way by the great Acha^menian princes. The most prominent features of its edifices were lofty and spacious stone platforms, approached by magnificent flights of stairs, also elaborate and tasteful sculptures and bas-reliefs, and long rows of light and graceful columns. The interiors were ornamented with beautiful paintings. The royal palace of Persepolis, afterward wantonly destroyed by Alexander the Great, was a miracle of magnifi- cence, as the ruins of the Great Hall of Xerxes, or Hall of a Hundred Columns, still dimly show. The Persians, unlike the Egyptians and Assyrians, delighted rather in splendid pal- aces and sumptuous tombs than in stately and magnificent temples. Ruins of palaces are also found at Pasargadse, which was the residence of Cyrus and Cambyses, as Persepolis was the capital of Darius and Xerxes. There are similar rums of Susa and Ecbatana. 101. The ancient religion of the people of Iran was, at first, a kind of Brahmanism, like that of the Hindoos; but after the exodus of the Aryans, who migrated to India, a deadly feud arose between the two Religion. branches of that racCo and the Persians adopted new beliefs and ceremonies. Their religion was, however, essentially the worship of one Supreme Being, symbolized by the sun and by fire; but, in course of time, it became corrupt, under the Magi, or fire-priests. Then Zo-ro-as'ter, Zoroaster. or more properly Za-ra-thus'tra (meaning chief ovhig/i-priest), 80 Ancient History. arose, and taught a purer and simpler doctrine, the worship of the Infinite Spirit, under the name of Ahura Maz'da (Ormuzd).* This is the religion of the Parsees, and is con- tained in the sacred book of the Persians, called Zend-Avesta, f In later times, Zoroaster's teachings were perverted into the doctrine of Ormuzd, the principle of good, and Ahriman, that of evil. Light and fire^ as emblems of the Divinity, are held sacred; and in the temples the fires are kept perpetually burning. Even the priests approach them with masked faces, lest their breath should defile them; and they touch them only with consecrated implements. 102. The chief remains of ancient Persian are the cunei- form inscriptions of the Achsemenian princes, discovered in the ruins of Persepolis, on the famous rock of Behistun, and at other places. A few proper Language. names, and terms for vessels and garments, have survived in the Bible, chiefly in Daniel. The alphabet commonly used by the Persians was not cuneiform, but Semitic. The Zend, a rich language, agreeing with the Sanskrit of theVedas, died out in the third century B. c. The Sliali Nameli {Book of Kings), a poem, written by Firdusi (feer-doo'se) in the tenth century a.d., contains the history of Persia from the earliest times. Much of it is, however, fabulous. J * Ahu'ra is the good spirit, as Diva is the evil one. Ahura-Mazda is tlie Good Spirit, the Creator. This word was corrupted into Ormuzd. Zoroaster's life is shrouded in darkness, very little being known in regard to the period in which he lived, or the circumstances of his career as a religious reformer. He was born, it is said, in Bactria; and the Persian traditions appear to indicate that he must have lived before the Assyrian conquest of Bactria, which took place about 1200 b.c. The Zend-Avesta represents him as a being of supernatural character, endowed with divine powers and intelligence, holding intercourse with the Deity, and receiving from him the moral and spiritual truths which he taught to mankind. t Zend means translation or commentary; avesta, or avastha, text or scripture. The Zend language is closely related to the Sanskrit. t Firdusi was the greatest epic poet of the Persians. His Book of Kings abounds in beautiful poetry, but is a strange medley of truth and fiction. It was written to please the King rather than to state historical facts. Firdusi died 1020 a.d. Review Outlii^e. Contemporaneous Events. EGYPTIAN fflSTORY. Babylon founded, 3200 B.C. Arabian dynasty of Chaldean kings. Conquest of Baby- lon by the Assy- rians, 1250 B.C. Ethiopia indepen- dent, 750 B.C. Sargon, king Assyria, 745 705 B.c Nineveh taken by the Medes, 625 B.C. War between the Medes and Lyd- ians, 610 B.C. Babylon taken by Cyrus, 538 b. c. First dynasty of Egyptian kings (about 2700 B.C.). Memphis a large and flourishing city. Fourth dynasty — pyramid-builders — began about 2500 B.C. Shufu (Suphis or Cheops) built the Great Pyramid (about 2400 B.C.). The Hyksos or Shepherd Kings (1900 to 1525 B.C.). The Israelites go down into Egypt, where they remained 215 years. The Exodus (1652 B.C.). The most splendid period of Egyptian history (1525 to 1200 B.C.); reigns of Thothmes III. and IV.; conquests of Seti (Sesostris) and Barneses II.; magnificent temples erected in Egypt and Nubia. Great Ilall of Karnac built. Priestly dynasty of the Tauites ("High Priests of Amun") — period of Egyptian decline. Sheshonk (Shishak); partial revival of Egyptian glory ; invasion of Judah. Ethiopian (25th) dynasty; Sabaco (or So); conflict with Sargon (724 B.C.); Tirhakah, greatest of the Ethiopian kings; alliance with Hezekiah against Sennacherib. Conquest of Egypt by the Assy- rians; divided into subject states. Psammetichus, founder of the 26th dynasty, en- couraged art and constructed great military works (reigned from 664 to 610 B.C.). Necho or Nekao, son of Psammetichus ; great maritime enterprises; circumnavigation of Africa. Defeated by Nebuchadnezzar (605 B.C.). Amasis, fifth king of the 26th dynasty; a wise and active monarch; a long and prosperous reign. Psammenitus, son of Amasis ; defeated by Cam- byses, the king of Persia, at Pelusium (525 B.C.); end of the 30th dynasty of Manetho; Egypt under the rule of the Persians (31st dynasty). 82 Ancient History. PHCENICIANS. Early settlements and maritime en- terprises. Sidon and Tyre. Sidon subdued by the Philistines; Tyre predomi- nant (1050 B.C.). Carthage founded by the Tyrians, 878 B.C. Phoenicia under Assyrian rule, about 830 B.C. Phoenicia under Egyptian rule, 608 B.C. Con'quered by Nebuc h a d n e z - zar, and under Babylonian rule till subdued by Cyrus, 538 B.C. Tyre and Sidon taken by Alex- ander, 332 B.C. HEBREWS. Abraham's migration from Chaldea to Palestine (Canaan), about 2000 B.C.* Jacob and his sons go down into Egypt (about 1867 B.C.). Sojourn in Egypt 215 years. Exodus, 1652 B.C. ; beginning of the Jewish state. Period of the Judges— about five centuries, to Samuel, the last of the Judges. Saul, the first king, 1095 to 1055 B.C. David, 1055 to 1015 B.C. ; territories of the kingdom greatly enlarged. Splendid reign of Solomon, 1015 to 975 B.C.; great- est extent of the Jewish kingdom. Rehoboam's tyranny and insolence cause the dis- ruption of the kingdom into two: (1) Judah, that of Rehoboam, and (2) Israel, that of Jeroboam. Israel, having lasted 250 years, is destroyed by the Assyrians, 721 B.C. Hoshea, the last king. The captivity of the ten tribes. Judah lasted about 385 years. Prosperous reign of Jehoshaphat, 916 to 892 B.C. Invasion by Sennacherib and the destruction of his army, during the reign of Hezekiah, 726 to 697 B.C. Jerusalem taken and destroyed. In the reign of Zedekiah, the last king (586 B.C.). The fifty years' captivity. Restoration of the Jews by edict of Cyrus, 536 B.C. Judea, the land of the Jews, under the rule of Persia till its conquest by Alexander the Great; after his death (324 B.C.), a part of Ptolemy's kingdom; sub- sequently, a part of the dominions of Antiochus the Great. Successful revolt of the Jews under Maccabeus, 165 B.C. : Judea, an independent king- dom till its conquest by Pompey the Great (63 B.C.). * It is impossible to fix witli any degree of accuracy the dates of these early events. The Biblical chronology, by Usher, puts the call of Abraham at 1821 e.g.; according to Lepsius, he entered Palestine about 1700 b.c. ; but according to Bunsen, 2886 B.C. In Beer's Life of Abraham, his birth is placed in 2040 b.c. See Encyclo- pcBdia Britannica, Art. Abraham, Review Outline. 83 KINGS OF ISRAEL AND JUDAH. Kings of Israel. Length of reign. In years. Reign commenced. B.C. Kings of Judah. Length of reign, in years. 22 2 2 12 22 1 13 28 17 16 41 11 10 2 20 9 9 975 958 . 956 954 953 930 929 929 918 916 897 896 892 885 884 878 856 839 838 823 809 772 772 771 762 700 757 741 730 726 721 697 642 640 609 609 605 597 586 Rehoboam Abijah Asa 17 3 41 Nadab Baasha Elah Zimri Omri Ahab 25 Jehoram Ahaziali Jehoram 8 1 Jehu AthaUah 6 40 Jehoahaz 29 Jeroboam 11 Uzziah, or Azariah Jotham 52 Shallum Menahem Pekahiah Peka 16 Ahaz Hezekiah 16 Hoshea 29 Samaria taken 55 Amon 2 Josiah Jehoahaz Jehoiakim... Jehoiachin, or Coniah. . Zedekiah 31 11 11 Jerusalem taken THE PERSIANS. The Persian monarchy was founded by Achsemenes, about 650 b.c. The Pasargadae were the most prominent of the tribes. The Persians were at first subject to the Median monarchy. Cyrus having been kept as a hostage, and educated by his grand- father, Astyages, at Ecbatana, determines to throw off the Persian yoke. He defeats Astyages and makes him a prisoner, 558 B.C. He rapidly subdues the whole of western Asia; is killed in 589 B.C. Cambyses, son of Cyrus, conquers Egypt, and invades Ethiopia and Libya; is killed, 522 b.c. 84 Ancient History, Darius I., Hystaspes, deposes the Magian impostor, Smerdis, and ascends the Persian throne, 522 B.C. He organizes the empire; under- takes expeditions to India and against the Scythians; suppresses the revolt of the Greek colouies, and determines to conquer Greece. Unfortunate expeditions of Mardonius, and of Datis and Artapher- nes; the latter defeated by the Greeks at Marathon, 490 B.C. Xerxes organizes a vast expedition against Greece, in 480 B.C. ; is totally defeated. Artaxerxes I. is compelled to make peace with the Greeks, 449 B.C. Darius III. (Codomanus), the last king oi' ancient Persia, is subju- gated by Alexander the Great (329 B.C.). End of the Persian Empire. THE PERSIAN MONARCHS. Name. Date of Reign. Cyrus the Ch-eat 559-529 b.c, Cambyses 529-522 Smerdis, a usurper 522 Darius I., Hystasjjes 522-485 Xerxes 1 485-465 Artaxerxes I. ,Longimamis. 4(j5-A25 Xerxes U. (reigned 45 days) — 425 Name. Date of Reign, SoGDiANUS, a usuiper 425 b.c. Darius II., Nothus 424-405 " Artaxerxes II., Mnemon . . .405-359 " Artaxerxes III., Ochus 359-338 " Arses 338-336 " Darius IU., Codomanus 33fr-329 " LEADING DATES TO BE MEMORIZED. B.C. 1052. Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt. 1095. Saul, the first king of Israel. 1055. David begins to reign over Israel. 1015. Accession of Solomon. 975. Secession of the Ten Tribes. 878. Carthage founded by the Tyrians. 747. Era of Nabonassar. 721. Samaria taken ; end of kingdom of Israel. 625. Taking of Nineveh by the Medes. 586. Destruction of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. 5.58. Conquest of the Medes by Cyrus. 538. Taking of Babylon by Cyrus. 536. Restoration of the Jews. 525. Conquest of Egypt by Cambyses. 522. Accession of Darius Hystaspes. 501. Ionian revolt in Asia Minor. 490. Defeat of the Persians at Marathon. 480. Invasion of Greece by Xerxes. 329. Persia conquered by Alexander the Great, No. 3. CE. 1^ ^ Ma CHAPTER II. Gkeece and Macedonia. SECTION I. Geogeaphical Sketch. 1. The country known in history as Greece anciently con- sisted of three quite distinct parts: the first, in the north, was composed of Thes'sa-ly and E-pi'rus; the second, in the middle, which was the most impor- Divisions. tant, was called Hel'las ; and the third consisted of the peninsula which forms the southern portion of the country, called anciently Pel-o-pon-ne'sus, in modern times Mo-re'a. To these was afterward added Macedonia, which was situated to the north of Thessaly and Epirus. 2. Central Greece and Peloponnesus were divided into seyeral small states, of which the most important were the following: Hellas. — At'tica, Boe-o'tia, Pho'cis, East and West Lo'- cris, Do'ris, ^E-to'lia, Acarna'nia, and Meg'aris. Pelopon"N"esus. — Corin'thia, Sicyonia {sishe- Grecian states. on'ia), Ar'go-lis, Achaia (a-ha'ijali), Arca'dia, E'lis, Laconia, and Messe'nia. Besides these, the land of the Hel-le'nes included the Islands and the Colonies. Of the islands, the largest was Euboea {ii-le'ah), near the eastern coast of Hellas; and near the western coast was the important Islands. island Cor-cy'ra. Numerous islands were scattered over the ^gaean (e-jVan) Sea, among which the principal groups were the Cyc'la-des and Spo'ra-des. The term Hellas was 86 Ancient History. sometimes used to denote the whole of Greece and her colonies. * 3. The Grecian colonies were very numerous and wide- spread. Those in and near Asia Minor were planted at a very early period by three different races, the ^olians, Dorians, and lonians. The ^olians made settlements on the coast of Mysia and in the island of Lesbos, form- ing a confederacy of twelve cities (^olis). The lonians col- Colonies. onized the coast of Lydia and the islands of Chios {he^os) and Samos (Ionia); and the Dorian colonies were in the south- western part of Asia Minor (Doris). Of these the lonians grew into the greatest importance. Their cities were espe- cially noted for their enterprise, and during the eighth and seventh centuries B.C. Miletus was the first commercial city of the Hellenic race; but Eph'e-sus afterward rivaled it in size and importance. [See map.] * " The limits of Greece proper seem not to have been very precisely defined even among the Greeks themselves ; and so large a proportion of the Hellens were distributed among islands and colonies, and so much of their influence upon the world was produced through their colonies, as to render the extent of their original domicile a matter of comparatively little moment to verify Hellas proper (or continuous Hellas) was understood to begin with the town and gulf of Ambracia. "— G^?-oie. Greece and Macedonia. 87 4. The southern part of Italy was called Magna Gr£ecia, from the large number of Greek cities which it contained. One of the earliest was Cu'mae, an Magna Graecia. ^olic colony, on the bay of Naples; but the most prominent were Syb'aris, noted for its effeminacy and loose morals, and Oro'ton, distinguished for its athletes and physicians. After the destruction of Sybaris by its rival Cro- ton, Taren'tum took the lead among the cities of Magna Grrtecia. Sicily also contained a large number of Greek cities, of which the most noted were Messa'na, Syr'a-cuse, and Agrigen'tum. Syracuse was a Corinthian colony, founded 734 B.C. [See Map.] 6. There was also a cluster of colonies at the western part of the Mediterranean Sea, of which Mas-sa'lia (now Mar- seilles), founded 600 B.C., was the chief. On the i 1 T n T 1 i 1 Other colonies. African coast, Cy-re ne was established by the Spartans (630 B.C.). This city became the capital of Cyre- naica {d-re-na'e-hali). On the Propontis and the Euxine there were also numerous colonies, of which Cyz'i-cus and Si-no'pe were the most celebrated. 6. The physical features of the mainland, particularly of Hellas proper, are (1) the deep inlets with which its coasts are indented, thus favoring maritime enter- prises and associations, and bringing the people into connection with the ancient commercial i nations; and (2) the numerous mountain ridges by which its surface was divided into distinct portions, thus favoring the formation of independent states. It is the existence of Physical features. 88 Ancient History. these free states that renders the history of the Greeks so interesting and instructive, and makes the contrast so striking between it and the history of the ancient Asiatic and African monarchies. When we come to the period of Greek nation- ality, we cease to contemiohite merely a record of the splendid deeds of emperors and kings; we look on the progress and exploits of a free people. Geographical Study. [See Map No. III., and maps, pages 86,87.] What was the sihiatio7i of : Attica^ Bceotia ? Phocis ? East LocRis ? West LocRis ? Doris ? -^tolia ? Acarnania ? Megaris ? Corinthia ? Laconia ? Argolis ? AcHAiA ? Arcadia ? Elis ? Messenia ? Sicyonia ? Epirus ? Thes- SALY ? Macedonia? Magna Gr^cia ? Sicily? Euboeal.? Salamis I. ? Cyclades Is. ? Lesbos I. ? Samos I. ? Rhodes I. ? Pindus range ? CEta Mts. ? Mt. Olympus ? Mt. Parnassus ? Athens? Thebes ? Delphi ? Corinth ? Sparta ? Platsea ? Mar- athon ? Chalcis ? Argos ? Olympia ? Sicyon ? The Dorian Colonies ? Ionian Colonies ? ^Eolian Colonies ? Croton ? Sybaris ? Tarentum ? Cumse ? Paestum ? Syracuse ? Messana ? Agrigentum ? SECTION 11. First Period. LEGENDARY OR TRADITIONAL HISTORY. From the Earliest Times to 776 B.C. 7. The great Aryan v/ave of migration which, passing westward from Asia, swept over Europe, appears to have reached Greece in very early times. To this race the people called the Pelasgi belonged, relics of Pelasgi. whose civilization still exist in the remains of a peculiar archi- tecture called Cyclo'pean, from the huge masses of stone of which the walls were built. But the Pelasgi formed only an important tribe among very many that then existed in the Greek peninsula, under different names, as Lel'e-ges, Ou-re'tes, Dol'o-pes, etc. This was the ^^ golden age" of the Greece and Macedonia. 89 poets, for these tribes were a peiiceful, agricultural or pastoral people, with simple manners and religion, probably knowing nothing of the numerous gods of the later Greeks. 8. The Hel-le'nes, a kindred but more vigorous race, at an early period poured into the peninsula from the north, and gradually gained a dominant influence over the people with whom they intermingled. Of these there were originally two tribes, the Achae'ans and the Do'- rians, under the former of whom the three ancient kingdoms, Ar'gos, My-ce'nae, and Sparta, in the Peloponnesus, attained a considerable degree of civilization and prosperity. The Dorians, in the course of time, became an exceedingly bold and warlike tribe. Afterward two other tribes grew into importance, the lonians and ^olians; and these four tribes gradually assimilated, constituting the four divisions of the Hellenic peoj^le; but among these the lonians and Dorians became the leading races. 9. The most ancient traditions represent the country as divided into a large number of small states, each under its own chief, or petty king, and engaged in war or piracy. This period is usually called the Heroic Heroic age. Age, because it abounds in fabulous stories of men of sujoer- human strength and valor, such as Hercules, Theseus {ihe'- silse), Achilles {a-hiVUz), etc. The most interesting events referred to in this jieriod were the Argonautic expedition and the Tro'jan war. The first, supposed to have occurred about 1225 B.C., was an enterprise the object of which, according to the tradition, was to bring from Colchis {IcoVhis) the ^"^ golden fleece." * The heroes who engaged in it were called * Athamas, king of Boeotia, married Neph'e-le, a cloud-nymph, but wearj ing of her, divorced her, and man-led Ino, who sought to put the two children of Nephele, Phryxus and Hel'le, to death. To rescue them, Nephele placed them on the back of a winged ram having a fleece of pure gold, the gift of Hermes, and they were carried away, but in crossing the strait between Europe and Asia, Helle fell into the sea, which was thenceforth called, after her, the Hellespont. Phryxus reached Colchis, and in gratitude for his preservation sacrificed the ram to Zeus. The 90 Ancient History. the Argonauts, because they sailed in a vessel called Argo. It appears to have been either a commercial voyage or a piratical expedition, its real object being disguised by the fable of the ^''golden fleece." 10. The Trojan war is related by Homer in his famous poem called the Iliad (from Iliiwi, the ancient name of Troy). It was undertaken to avenge the crime committed by Paris, son of Priam, king of Troy, who had abused the hospitality of Menela'us, king of Sparta, by carrying off his wife Helen, said to be the most beautiful woman of those times. The states of Greece joined in the war, and elected Agamem'non, brother of the Spartan kiug, their common general. Nearly the whole of Asia Minor leagued with Troy, whose chief leader was Hector, son of Priam. Troy was besieged ten years, and was finally taken by stratagem and burned (1184 B.C. ). Homer's great poem the Od'ys-sey relates the wanderings of U-lys'ses, king of Ithaca, on his return home from the war. 11. The traditions seem to indicate that important foreign elements were introduced into the Hellenic nation during this early period. Egyptians settled in Attica and Argolis; Phoenicians, in Boeotia; and Mysians, or Phrygians, at Argos. Hence was derived the Foreign settlements. use of letters from the Phoenicians (probably before 1100 B.C.). But these foreigners were few in number, and left only a faint trace upon the language or customs of the people. These fleece was carefully preserved, and Aetes, kin^ of Colchis, being told that his life depended upon its safety, had it guarded by an immense dragon that never slept. Colchis was situated to the east of the Euxine, or Black Sea, Greece and Macedonia. 91 traditions give the names of Cecrops, the founder of Athens (about 1550 B.C.— period of Moses in Egypt); Cadmus, the founder of Thebes, in Bceotia (about 1492 B.C. — during the Chaldean Monarchy); and Pelops, who came to the Pelo- ponnesus from Phrygia (about 1300 B.C. — during the time of the Judges, in Israel). 12. The general state of society in the period referred to in Homer's poems presents several marked features: 1. The tribe was superior to the city; while, in later times, the city became the mistress of the nation. 2. The kingly rule everywhere prevailed, and the State of society. office was hereditary. 3. There was also a powerful body of hereditary nobles, from whom the council of the office was selected, and an assembly to assist in administering the govern- ment, but with no control over it. 4. Slavery was a prevail- ing institution; females were held in respect, and polygamy disapproved; warlike virtue and physical courage were the greatest virtues, and consequently war was incessant; nauti- cal habits were quite general, and piracy was a common prac- tice. 5. There was a strong religious feeling, a respect for the priesthood, and a reverence for the temples, sacred places, and festivals. Hospitality was a national virtue, and heralds and suppliants were protected. Polytheism, or the worship of many gods, was the prevailing religious prac- tice. 13. This is also the period of those early leagues among the states called Am])liictyonies. These were formed origi- nally for religious purposes — to protect sacred buildings, lands, persons, and rites, and not for political objects. The oracle, or shrine of Delphi, was the center of the most noted of these. It was formed by twelve states or tribes; and meetings were held twice a year, in the spring at Delphi and in the autumn at Thermopylae. This league, called the Ampliic- Early leagues. Amphictyonic council. tijonic Council, played quite a prominent part in the subse- 92 Ancient History. quent history of Grreece.* As there was no general political union, the Hellenic states were constantly embroiled during most of their history in mutual dissensions and destructive wars. This was partly due to the traditional animosities and jealousies of the different tribes, and partly to the geographi- cal character of the country in which they dwelt; for being crossed in every direction by mountain chains, or divided by deep gulfs, it provided those natural barriers which encour- age local pride and engender hostility. The later history of this remarkable people abounds in illustrations of this prin- ciple. 14. A great migratory movement commenced in Epirus about 1200 B.C. The Thessalians crossed the Pindus range and invaded the fertile country of the Boeotians, who passing southward entered the plain of the Migrations. Ce-phis'sus, and drove out the Cadmeians, who were scattered in various parts. The Dorians also took part in this movement, and for a time settled in the country, which then received the name of Do'ris. The most important Dorian migration, how- ever, took place later. Crossing the Corinthian Gulf, they entered the Peloponnesus with their allies, the ^tolians, and made a conquest of the country (1124 B.C.). This movement, being conducted by the descendants of Her'cu-les, is called in history the Eeturn of the Heracleidm {her-a-cli'de), the Greek name of Hercules being He'ra-cles. 15. The former inhabitants, the Achaeans, proceeding northward, attacked the lonians, whom they drove eastward to Attica. A part of these passed through the Cyclades across the ^g^ean, and established the Colonies. colony of Ionia, in Asia Minor; as tlie ^olian colony had * "The tendency to relig^ious fraternity took a form called an Amphictyony, different from the common festival. A certain number of towns entered into an exclusive religious partnership, for the celebration of sacrifices periodically to the god of a particular temple, which was supposed to be the common property, and ■ under the common protection of all There were many religious part- nerships of this sort."— Grroie. Greece and Macedonia. 93 been previously caused by the Boootian conquest. The Dorian invasion caused a part of the Achaeans to emigrate to Asia under Doric leaders, while another part settled in Italy. SECTION III. Second Period. DAWN OF AUTHENTIC HISTORY. From 776 b.c. to 500 B.C. 16. The authentic history of Greece may be properly con- sidered to commence 776 B.C.; that is, at the first recorded Olympiad, a period of four years, which elapsed between two successive celebrations of the Olympic Olympiads. games. These games were celebrated in honor of Jupiter, at Olympia, in Elis, and constituted the most splendid national festival of the Greeks. Their origin is lost in the darkness of antiquity. It was, as is supposed, about this time (776 B.C.) that Lycur'gus reformed the government and laws of Sparta, and gave to it the constitu- Sparta. tion by means of which it afterward acquired the supremacy in Grecian affairs. This city, the capital of Laconia, some- times called Lacedaemon {las-e-de'mon), was conquered by the Dorians, when they invaded the Peloponnesus, and soon became the head of the Dorian states. 17. The system of Lycurgus was designed to perpetuate the primitive simplicity and hardihood of the people, by pre- venting the spread of luxury, and by educating the youth so as to make them brave and patriotic soldiers. To this end everything was sacrificed. Laws of Lycurgus. Most of the usages of society commonly considered refined were repressed; even the natural affections were extinguished. Prom the seventh year the children were taken from their 94 Ancient History. parents to be educated by the state, unless they were weakly, when they were exposed to perish. They were trained to endure hunger and thirst and the extremes of heat and cold, and to suffer without murmur the severest bodily pain. Gymnastic exercises and military drill were incessant; in short, the great object was to make them good soldiers. They took their meals in public, and were allowed only the plainest fare. Besides this athletic training, letters and music were taught. Girls were educated with no less care than boys, and were subjected to similar athletic training. 18. The men were allowed but little more freedom than the boys. They took their meals at the public tables, and slept in the public barracks, but were allowed to visit their homes at certain intervals. Their public duties occupied nearly all their time, so that they could not engage in private enter- prises of commerce or agriculture, or any occupation of profit. The use of gold and silver was strictly forbidden, and the money was coined out of iron.* Marriage was regulated by the state, and at a certain age all were obliged to marry. 19. The government was administered by two chief magis- trates called kings, Avho were hereditary, but whose power was very limited; a senate, elected by a general assembly of the older citizens; and five magis- Government. trates, called epJi'ors {epli'o-ri). The kings presided in the senate, and led the armies. The special business of the ephors was to watch over the constitution, as established by Lycurgus, and bring to swift punishment all who violated it in the least. They had great power: they could restrain the * "The first gold and silver coins were brought from Asia to Hellas as an article of commerce. Gradually they came into use as money. After the state had com- menced to coin its own money, for a long time there existed only a small amount of coined money in the land, and this was chiefly in the hands of the men of business and merchants. As soon as money ceased to be an article of trade like other articles coming on the market, when even the poorer classes could not exist without it— the laws of debt prevailing in the interest of the proprietors, — money, like a poisonous plant, absorbed and consumed the strength of the land."— C^trfms's History of Greece, Greece and Macedonia. 95 kings and control the public assemblies; and they were the arbiters of peace and war. 20. This wonderful constitution made, in a short time, a nation of warriors; while the women themselves sank their natural affections in their devotion to their coun- try. No Spartan mother would deign to look at a son who had disgraced himself by cowardice or Spartan character. treason. ^'Eeturn with your shield or upon it!" was her admonition to her son when he was about to depart for the field of battle. Military glory was, however, all the Spartans attained. They had no orators, no poets, no historians, no philosophers, nor artists. Their Helots, or slaves, performed all the labors of the husbandman and the artisan, thus leaving to the free only the pursuits of war. 21. The effect of this system was illustrated in the wars which the Spartans waged against the Messenians. The first of these lasted twenty years (743-723 B.C.); and the second, seventeen years (685-668 B.C.). They resulted in the total defeat of the Messenians and Messenian wars. in their partial dispersion into various parts, so that for the next three centuries Messenia formed a part of Laconia.* Wars were also waged by Sparta with the other states of the Peloponnesus, which resulted in extending her authority over the whole peninsula. The Area- other wars. dians became her subject allies (560 B.C.); the Argives were too much weakened by defeat to make any further resistance (547 B.C. ) ; and no northern state could, at that period, com- pete with her in war. Thus, in the sixth century B.C., Sparta became the controlling power in the Peloponnesus, and threatened to extend her sway over all Greece. 22. The most important state of Central Greece, after- ward the great rival of Sparta, was at this period Attica, of * More than two centuries later, when the Helots, or slaves, revolted at Sparta, the Messenians attempted to regain their independence, thus bringing on a third Messenian ivar, which lasted for ten years. It was closed by a treaty which permitted the Messenians to remove, with their families, from the Peloponnesus. 96 Ancient History. which the capital was Ath'ens, in some respects the most renowned city in the world. It was the seat of learning and the arts, and may justly be considered the mother of modern civilization. Its people were of Ionian origin, although in the mythic history of Athens it is said to have been first settled by a colony from Egypt, under Ce'crops (about 1550 B.C.). Until the eleventh century, its govern- ment was monarchical; but after the return of the Heracleidae it was vested in elective magistrates, called arcltons (ar'kons). The last king of Athens, Oo'drus, in a war with the Dorians, sacrificed his life to save the city from capture. This was done in pursuance of the words of the oracle: "If the king die, the Athenians shall triumph," Accordingly, Oodrus, in the disguise of a peasant, entered the camp of the enemy and assaulted one of the soldiers, and was immediately slain by him. The discovery of the death of the Athenian king so disheartened the Heracleidae, or Dorians, that they retreated, and it was decreed at Athens that no man was worthy to suc- ceed Codrus. 23. Athens suffered for centuries from anarchy and mis- rule; but, in the seventh century (624 B.C.), it adopted the laws proposed by Dra'co, which were so severe that they were said to have been Avritten in blood. Draco's code of laws imposed the penalty of death for all offences; "for," he said, "the smallest crime deserves death, and I can find no heavier penalty for the greatest." They gave place to the constitution and laws devised by Solon (594 B.C.).* By these the government was vested in a senate * Solon was counted among the "Seven Sages of Greece," namely; Bi'as, Chi'lo, Cleobu'lus, Pit'tacus, Perian'der, So'lon, and Tha'les. To these are attributed many pithy moral maxims; as, "Know thyself," "Know thy oppor- tunity," "Consider the end," "The greatest blessing is the power to do good," " Pardon often checks crime more effectuall.y than punishment." " An untiring love of knowledge filled Solon from his earliest youth up to the end of his life; for even when at the point of death he Is said to have raised his weary head to take part in the conversations of his friends. This love of knowledge, as well as his domestic circumstances, early caused him to quit the narrow circle Greece and Macedonia. 97 or council, a general assembly of the people, and a chief Solon. magistrate, called Arclion (ruler), with eight in- ferior executive officers. The most venerable court of justice was that styled the A-re-op'a-gus,* the members of which were inspectors of educa- tion and morals, as well as ad- ministrators of the laws. 24. The constitution of Solon laid the foundation of the great- ness of Athens; but this plan of government was not of long du- ration. The discontented were for a time restrained by his per- sonal influence, but violent con- tentions soon broke out among the local factions. Of these, Solon. Pi-sis'tra-tus took advantage, and seized the government as dictator (560 B.C.). He exercised a despotic sway for thirty-three years, and transmitted his au- Pisistratus. thority to his two sons, Hip'pi-as and Hip-par'chus, called sometimes the PisistrafidcB (sons of Pisistratus). He, how- ever, ruled with moderation, patronized literature and the arts, adorned Athens with many beautiful buildings, opened a public library, and collected, it is said, the poems of Homer, f of home, and to explore the world. In the midst of his restless life of travel, all his thoughts and wishes remained devoted to his home. Whatever met his eye he looked upon with reference to Attic interests. "—C?m-^/ws's History of Greece. * Areopagus (Mars Hill) was the name given to a small eminence near the Acropolis at Athens. The court of Areopagus was held here, in an open space, containing at first only an altar to Minerva and two stone seats, for the accuser and the defendant. Later, the space was inclosed and roofed with tiles. This court was said to have been founded by Athene (Minerva) ; and when the judges were equally divided she gave the casting vote. Religious- causes and murders were tried in this court; for here it was, according to the legend, that Ares (Mars) was tried for the murder of the son of Poseidon (Neptune). [See cut, page 98.] t It is beUeved that ^sop, the celebrated author of the Fables, was a friend of Pisistratus. This personage only wanted a lawful title to the sovereignty which he exercised, to have left his name to posterity as one of the most splendid examples of princely virtue, Ancient History. Hippias and Hipparchus. 25. His successors, Hip2:>ias and Hipparchus, governed for several years with mildness and justice; but an act of tyranny committed by Hippias caused a conspir- acy to be formed against them, and Hipparchus was slain (514 B.C.). Hippias ruled with great severity for four years longer, when he was expelled, with the aid of the Spartans (510 B.C.). He took refuge at the court of Darius, king of Persia. Harmo'dius and Ar-is-to-gi'ton, the leaders in the conspiracy against the tyrants, were ever after held in honor. Statues were erected to their memories, and their descendants enjoyed an immunity from all taxes and public burdens. 26. After the expulsion of the tyrant Hippias from Athens, the government, under the administration of Clis'the-nes, an able statesman, underwent several modifications. Clisthenes, next to Solon, may be considered Clisthenes. the founder of the free institutions of Athens. The measures adopted by him made the government truly democratic; for all classes — the poor as well as the rich — felt they had an equal interest in the welfare of the state. A very remarkable institu- tion was devised at this time to prevent, in the future, any powerful and ambitious citizen from making himself dictator or despot. This was the famous Os/fmmm, by which any citizen could be banished for ten years without trial or even any formal accusation, but simply by a vote Ruins op Areopagus and the Acropolis AT Athens. Ostracism. pf the people, each citizen writing the name of the person Greece and Macedonia. 99 whom he wished to banish on a shell {ostracon). Six thou- sand votes were required against any person to determine his condemnation. Though apparently unjust and unreasonable, this law was effective, for no attempt at usurpation occurred after its establishment. 27. The Age of Despots. It was not in Athens alone that despotic power was usurped and the popular government over- turned. From 650 to 500 B.C. there were but few of the Gre- cian cities that escaped this calamity. Hence this period has been called the Age of Despots. In the city of Sicyon {sish'e-on) a despotic dynasty lasted for more than a hundred years, and in Corinth one Sicyon and Corinth. that continued seventy-four years. The most noted of the des- pots of Corinth was Pe-ri-an'der, whose sway (from 625 to 585 B.C.), though oppressive and cruel, made that city the wealth- iest and most commercial in all Grreece. Like Pisistratus, he was a patron of literature and art, and his prudence and intelli- gence were such that he was classed among the Seven Wise Men of Grreece. SECTION IV. Third Period. THE PERSIAN WAR. From 500 e.g. to 449 B.C. 28. The Grreek colonies in Asia Minor had been subject to Croesus, but when the Lydian monarchy was overturned by Cyrus they fell under the Persian yoke. [See page 37.] In 500 B.C., an insurrection against Darius broke out at Mi-le'tus, the capital of Ionia, and Revolt of the colonies. spread through all the Greek cities in Asia. In this revolt, an Athenian force was sent to aid the lonians, by means of which the city of Sardis was taken and burnt. The Ionian 100 Ancient History. fleet having been defeated, and the city of Miletus captured by the forces of Darius, the revolt was speedily subdued, and the Greek colonies were completely subjugated, and treated with great severity. All the inhabitants of Miletus were either put to death, or sent into captivity. 29. The aid given by Athens to the lonians and the burn- ing of Sardis drew down the wrath of Darius upon all Greece. As soon as the colonies were reduced, he resolved to make a conquest of that country. Every day, as he sat down to dinner, a slave was ordered to repeat thrice the words, '' Master, remember the Athenians!" In this desio-n, he was First expedition of Darius. Marathon BATTLE OF MAHATHON further instigated by the revengeful repre- sentations of his guest, the tyrant Hippias. The first expedition which he dispatched against Greece proved an entire failure, the fleet being wrecked and a large part of the further weakened in a off Mount Athos [see map No. III.] army drowned. The forces were still night attack made by the Thracians, and Mardonius, the Per- sian general, was compelled to retreat (492 B.C.). 30. A second expedition, under Da'tis and Ar-ta-pher'nes, sailed across the JE-ge'an Sea, and after reducing several islands landed at Mar'a-thon, twenty-two miles from Athens. Here they were met by a small army of Athenian soldiers under Mil-ti'a-des,* and Second expedition. * Miltiades was only one of ten generals to whom the command of the army had been given, each in succession having the right to conduct it for a day. Aristides inr-is-ti'des), however, showed his moderation and patriotism by giving up his command to Miltiades, as being tlie best general; and, his example having been followed by the others, the result was a glorious victory. Few of the char- acters of history are so worthy of praise as the noble and patriotic Aristides. Greece and Macedonia. 101 Ba«le of Marathon. completely routed (490 B.C.). This was one of the most mem- orable battles ever fought. The Persians, then famed as the greatest soldiers in the world, were more than ten times as numerous as the Greeks, and previous to that battle had scarcely known a check in their conquests. Had they succeeded at Marathon, European civilization would probably have assumed a new face; but, through the genius of Miltiades and the patriotic daring of the Athenians, aided by a small band of the Pla- tge'ans, the invaders were driven back, and Greece was saved.* 31. The attempt was not re- newed by the Persians till ten years afterward, when Xerxes, the suc- cessor of Darius, collected one of the largest armies the world has ever known, besides an immense fleet, and having crossed the Hellespont by means of two bridges which he had caused to be constructed, f marched to the Pass of Ther- mop'y-lse, on his way into Greece. Here he was oj^posed by a small army under Le-on'i-das, a Spartan general. The defense was successful, until a traitor discovered to the Persians a Miltiades. Expedition of Xerxes. path across the mountains, when, seeing no hope of victory, * Miltiades did not retain the glory which he gained by this splendid victory. He died in prison, of wounds received in a treasonable and unsuccessful attack upon the island of Paros. t Herodotus gives a picturesque description of the passage of this vast force across the strait from Asia into Europe, after a review by Xerxes, sitting upon a marble throne , erected for the haughty monarch on a hill near Abydos. Libations were made by him with a golden censer, and with them he cast into the sea a golden bowl and Persian cimeter, at the same time offering up prayers to Helios, the god of the sun. The ten thousand Persians called the Immortals, all wearing garlands, were the first to pass over; and then followed Xerxes, at the head of the army. Notwithstanding the application of the lash to accelerate the progress of the soldiers, the passage occupied no less than seven days and nights, without any intermission. See Grate's History of Greece. 102 Ancient History. but being forbidden by the laAvs of Sparta to flee from the enemy, Leonidas dismissed the forces of the allies to avoid useless bloodshed, and then formed the ranks of his little band of three hundred for a final stand against the enemy. He then led them into the midst Thermopylae. Thriasian Plain JHeus of the Persians, whence, after making great slaughter, they retired to a small eminence, and there fell, one by one, under the arrows of the Medes (480 B.C.). The heroism of Leonidas and his band has ever been a subject of praise and admiration. Probably, no event in the history of the Spartans has shed MtHymettus SO much glory upon their character as the sublime self-devotion of the three hundred; yet it was a useless sacrifice of the lives of these brave men, who might have served their country far better by preserving their courage and strength for the con- flicts that were to come. 32. The great Persian fleet came to action with the much smaller one of the Greeks in the narrow strait of Sal'a-mis, and was defeated with immense loss; Salamis. SO that Xerxes, who had witnessed the fight, fled in dismay to Persia, leaving the conquest of Greece to his general, Mardonius.* The chief command of the fleet had been * The Persian monarch, confident of victory, seated himself upon a throne placed on a lofty promontory, so as to overlook the scene of the naval battle. It was of this event that Byron wrote the following lines: " A king sat on the rocky brow Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis; And ships by thousands lay below, And men in nations, — all were his. He counted them at break of day, And when the sun set, where were they?" Greece and Macedonia. 103 given to the Spartan Eu-ry-bi'a-des; but the credit of this great victory was due to the Athenian The-mis'to-cles, who, when the Greeks, in alarm, were about to disperse their fleet, sent word to the Persians that unless they made an immedi- ate attack the Grecian fleet would escape them. By this stratagem he succeeded in keeping the allies together and brought on the action. 33. In the mean time, the land forces of the Persians had invaded Attica and taken and destroyed Athens, the inhabi- tants of which had fled to the neighboring islands for protection. Thus was the burning of Sardis avenged. Still, the army of Mardonius, 300,000 Burning of Athens. strong, and assisted by Grecian auxiliaries (for a few of the Greek states had gone over to the Persians), did not come to any decisive engagement till the next year (479 B.C.), when it was defeated and almost utterly destroyed at Platge'a by the allied army of the Battle of Plataea. Greeks, consisting of 110,000 men, uuder Pau-sa'ni-as, a Spartan general, assisted by the Athenian A-ris- ti'des. On the same day the Athenians gained Mycale. a great victory over the combined land and naval forces of the Persians at Myc'a-le, in Asia Minor. 34. Having driven the Persians out of their country, the Greeks sent a fleet under Pausanias to invade the Persian dominions. This expedition was entirely suc- cessful ; the Greek cities were set free, and Byzantium {be-zan' she-u7n) , after a long siege. Byzantiur taken. surrendered. At this point the Spartans, who had been the leaders in the war, lost their ascendency through the trea- son of Pausanias. Intoxicated by the fame and wealth which he had acquired at Plataea, and by his subsequent success, and ambitious of more Treason of Pausanias. splendor and influence than the little state of Sparta could confer upon him, he sent a letter to Xerxes, offering to deliver Greece into his power, if he would give him his 104 Ancient History. daughter in marriage. The plot was, however, discovered before it was carried into effect, and Pausanias was recalled, and, by order of the Ephori, put to death (471 B.C.).* 35. The allies then transferred the chief command to Aristides, who had at this time a great reputation for in- tegrity and jirudence. A league was also formed among the lonians and some of the Greek islands, under the leadership of Athens, which was called Confederacy of Deles. the ^^ Confederacy of De'los," since the deputies met at that island. This great maritime alliance contributed very much to the subsequent influence of Athens. It lasted about seventy years. 36. The glory which Themistocles had gained at Salamis, together with his great ability and prudence, gave him un- ; 1 limited influence at Athens. Ll After the retreat of the Persians, he caused the city to be re- built and strongly fortified, notwith- standing the opposition prompted by the mean jealousy of the Spartans. But, after the fall of Pausanias, he was accused of participating in his treason, and was banished by the Ostracism (471 B.C.). He then took refuge in the dominions of Artaxerxes, the Per- aristides. sian monarch, where he lived in great splendor and dignity till his death (449 B.C.). 37. In the early period of the Persian war, Themistocles and Aristides were the most distinguished men at Athens. They were rivals for popular favor, particularly during the ten years preceding the invasion of Xerxes. Tlie former was * Pausanias was a man of great ability, but his ambition, pride, and desire of display destroyed him. On his return to Sparta he took refuge in the temple of Minerva, from which he could not lawfully be taken by violence. Accordingly, the entrance was fastened and the building unroofed, and he was left to perish by famine and exposure. [Ephori, literally, overseers; magistrates. See page 88.] Greece and Macedonia. 105 especially noted for his genius and Ins ambition; the latter for his prudence and stern integrity. Having been commis- sioned to take charge of the spoils after the battle of Marathon, Aristides so honorably discharged his duty that he was called '' The Just." * This Themistocles and Aristides. brought him into envy, and he was banished by the Ostra- cism (483 B.C.). He returned, however, just in time to aid his country in the battle of Salamis. Aristides survived the The Acropolis at Athens. banishment of his great rival only a short time. He died honored by his countrymen, and with a reputation for virtue and patriotism that no one could impeach (468 B.C.); but as to the place and circumstances of his death the accounts given greatly differ. Notwithstanding his eminent services, he was so poor that his funeral had to be provided for at the public expense, and his children supported by state bounty. It is * Themistocles had artfully insinuated that Aristides was aiming at the dicta- torship at Athens, and thus the people were induced to banish the most upright man in the communitj-. While the shells were being prepared for the vote, a peasant approached Aristides, and asked him to write the name of Aristides on the shell. " Has Aristides ever injured you?" he ventured to ask. " Oh no," said the peasant; " I do not even know him, but I am tired of hearing him called The JusV 106 Ancient History. remarked by historians that for two or three generations the poverty of his descendants was a subject of notice.* 38. Oi'mon, son of Miltiades, succeeded Aristides in the leadership at Athens. He gained a splendid victory over the Persians at the Eu-rym'e-don Eiver, but afterward gave offense to the Athenians by favoring the Cimon, Spartans. He was, accordingly, banished, through the con- trivance of Per'i-cles, who by this means gained a position of eminence at Athens which he held for thirty years. Pericles was a brilliant orator and statesman, and his ad- ministration was the most splendid the Athenians Pericles. ever had. During the '^ Age of Pericles," art and literature flourished, and the city was embellished with the most mag- nificent edifices. Among these, the temple of Minerva, called the Parthenon, erected on the A-crop'o-lis,f may claim pre- eminence for beauty and artistic excellence. 39. Cimon, after a few years, was recalled from exile, and served in the war against the Persians. He died during the siege of Citium {sish'e-um), in Cyprus. | The Athenians soon after gained another victory over the Persians, which finally brought this long war End of Persian war. to an end (449 B.C.). Athens gave up to Persia Cyprus and Egypt, while Persia acknowledged the independence of the Greek cities in Asia Minor. * "Near a century and a half afterward, a poor man, a descendant of the just Aristides, was to be seen at Athens carrying a mysterious tablet, and obtaining his scanty fee of two oboli [pence] for interpreting the dreams of the passers-by."— Groie. t Athens, anciently called Cecro'pia, from its founder Cecrops, was originally built on the summit of a high rock, from which it expanded into the great city of Athens. The ancient city was afterward called the Acropolis, or Upper City, and here stood many beautiful buildings, besides the Parthenon. [See cut, page 99.] X Cimon was not only a man of brilliant talent, both as a general and a states- man, but possessed that generous, affable disposition, and kind and courteous demeanor, that was calculated to win the affections of the people. It is said he threw his gardens open to the public, and kept a table constantly laid for any one who chose to dine at it. He has been styled "the last of the Greeks whose spirit and boldness defeated the armies of the barbarians." In 460 B.C., he gained three victories over the Persians in a single day. Greece and Macedonia. 107 SECTION V. Fourth Period. From the Close of the Persian War to the Bise of Macedon, 449-358 B.C. 40. After the repulse of the Persians, there had been dis- cord and war among the Grecian states. The disgrace of Pau- sanias, followed by the Confederacy of Delos, impaired the influence of Sparta and strengthened that of Athens; and that state took the lead during Inter-state wars. Height of Athenian glory. the remainder of the Persian war. Sparta was also disabled by the revolt of the Helots (464 B.C.), which occupied her atten- tion for nearly ten years. [See page 89. ] Argos, taking advan- tage of this, claimed the leadership of Greece, and Athens made an alliance with that state against Sparta. Several of the states, jealous of the Athenian power, formed a league against it; but Athens gained a great victory over the allied fleet. 41. The administrations of Cimon and Pericles mark especially the period of the greatest glory of Athens. This was, in part, the fruit of the ability of Themis- tocles and the wisdom and integrity of Aristides; but it needed the genius of Pericles to give a finishing stroke to the work. Among his great works was the completion of the '^long walls," which connected Athens with her port, Piraeus. He was distinguished not only for eloquence and literary taste, but for the highest artistic cul- ture. On his death-bed he remarked to his friends that his greatest consolation was, that none of his fellow-citizens had been compelled, through any act of his, to put on a mourn- ing-robe.* * To every student of Grecian history, Pericles must ever appear as its central figure. His form and manner and outward appearance are all well known. His aspect was stern, almost forbidding, repelling rather than inviting intimacy; and this, with his majestic stature and massive head, silvered over with the marks of 108 Ancient History. 42. Sparta made an effort to check the growing power of Athens; but Athenian arms were triumphant, and Pericles concluded a peace with Sparta for five years (451 B.C.). Only four years later, Athens received a severe blow, in the rebellion of Boeotia, followed by Strife between Athens and Sparta. a serious defeat at Oor-o-ne'a (447 B.C.). At the close of the five years' peace, Sparta renewed her efforts to destroy her rival, and Athens was compelled to make concessions, which led to a thirty years' peace (445 B.C.). But this treaty, as we shall see, was not fully observed, owing to the rivalship and deadly animosity of Athens and Sparta. The Peloponnesian War. 43. The struggle that now commenced, known as the Peloponnesian War, extended over the greater part of the Grecian world, and lasted twenty-seven years (431-404 B.C.). It was not only a war between rival states, but a *' war of races;" for, on one side, the Ionian Greeks made common cause with Athens, as the Dorians took the side of Sparta. It was, moreover, a war of principles, since Athens was the representative of democracy. Athens and Sparta. and Sparta of oligarchy. Athens was chiefly a maritime power; Sparta's strength lay in her disciplined armies. The former's influence chiefly prevailed on the eastern side of Greece and in Asia; Sparta's, on the western side and in Italy and Sicily. Athens assumed the position of mistress of an empire she had for fifty years been building up; Sparta age even from his fiftieth year, excited something like awe in the beholder. The most stately resei-ve reigned through his whole life. Never were his features seen to relax into laughter, and only twice in his long career did they melt into tears. During that long period he never accepted but once an invitation to dinner. He was in the habit of writing out carefully all his speeches, but the effect of his delivery seems to have been overwhelming. It was sometimes com- pared to the thunder and lightning of the Olympian Jove, whom in majesty and dignity he himself resembled. Such is the picture we have of this roost remark- ably man, Greece and Macedonia. 109 professed to be only the leader of a confederacy formed to liberate Greece from the oppressive yoke of the Athenians. 44. The immediate cause of the war was a difficulty between Corinth and Cor-cy'ra, one of her colonies; for, because Athens took sides with the latter, the Dorian Confederacy accused her of violating the terms of the thirty years' peace, and a Spartan Cause of the war. army was sent to invade Attica (431 B.C.). Unable, with his few allies, to contend against the superior military power of the Spartans, Pericles pursued the policy of keep- ing within the city, and sent his numerous fleet First steps. to ravage the enemies' coasts. A dreadful plague at this time broke out in Athens, causing the death of thousands. Pericles himself fell a victim to it (429 B.C.).* 45. The most noted events in the early part of the war were the revolt of Lesbos from Athens, and the brave defense of Plataea against the Spartans. The flower of the Spartan army having been blockaded by the Early events. Athenian fleet at Sphac-te'ri-a, the Sj)artans applied to the Athenians for peace, which, through the influence of Cle'on, a low and noisy demagogue who had succeeded Pericles in the leadership of the popular assem- Cleon. blies, was refused. Si)hacteria was afterward attacked, and the Spartans compelled to surrender. The Athenians were severely defeated by the Boeotians at De'li-um, i and a short time afterward lost their empire in I Thrace by the battle of Am-phip'o-lis, in which Bras'i-das, a distinguished Spartan leader, defeated Cleon, the Athenian, * This dreadful pestilence commenced in Ethiopia, passed through Libya, and crossed the Mediterranean Sea to Greece. The sufferers were afflicted with an intolerable thirst, and many dragged themselves to the fountains and then fell dead, with none to bury them. It was midsummer, and not only was every house occupied, but many families were crowded together in stifling huts, where they died in heaps. The very temples were filled with the dead. The Peloponnesian army, after laying waste the vale of Attica for forty days, becoming panic-stricken at the pestilence, hastened homeward, 110 Ancient History. both generals being slain. This terminated the first period of the war; for, through the influence of Nicias {nish'e-as), the successor of Oleon, peace was Amphipolis. made with Sparta. 46. There was, however, only a brief cessation of hostili- ties. Al-ci-bi'a-des, a handsome and talented but dissolute pupil of the great philosopher Soc'ra-tes, per- suaded Argos to renew the war. He then in- Alcibiades. duced the Athenians to send an expedition against Syracuse, to the command of which himself and Nicias were assigned. But Alcibiades, being accused of committing an act of great outrage and impiety, was recalled, and was condemned to death. He, however, escaped, and went over to Sparta. Nicias suffered a most disastrous defeat, losing one of the finest armaments that Athens had ever equipped (413 B.C.). This terminated what is regarded as the second period of the war, during which there was a nominal observance of the peace, each rival refraining from direct at- tacks on the other's territories. 47. Alcibiades, acting in the interest of Sparta, went to Ionia, and raised a revolt against Athens; but finding the Spartan generals hostile to him, he took refuge with the Persian Satrap, Tis-sa-pher'nes. His old feeling of patriotism returning, he made victories of Alcibiades. overtures to the Athenian army at Samos, and was made their general. He soon gained some brilliant naval victories over the Spartans, and was recalled to Athens with great enthusiasm and joy; but, after an Defeat. unfortunate defeat, he was again driven into exile (407 b.c.).= * He retired to Asia, where, through the influence of Lysander, he was assassi- nated by the Persians, in 404 B.C. With such resplendent and versatile talents, Alcibiades might have shed glory upon himself and his country; but he was "a slave to every passion," and plunged into every excess. He was distinguished as an orator, a statesman, and a general; and possessed of vast riches. Socrates greatly loved him, and at one time saved his life by carrying him off the battle- field. This favor Alcibiades is said to have reciprocated by saving the life of his Greece and Macedonia. IIJ Such was the fury of the Athenians because of this defeat that they unjustly ordered six of their generals to be put to death for alleged neglect of duty. 48. The chief command was then given to Co'non. Though an able officer, he allowed himself to be surprised by the Spartan general Ly-san'der, at a place called ^'gos-pot'a-mos, on the Hellespont, and Conorv nearly all the fleet was destroyed (405 B.C.). Lysander, fol- lowing up his victory, the next year proceeded to Athens, captured the city, and thus ended this Lysander. long war. For a minute account of these events we are indebted to the historians Thu-cyd'i-des and Xen'o-phon. 49. Athens was thus driven to the most humiliating sub- mission. She was compelled to de- stroy her port, to agree i to undertake no military ^"^ Athens" °^ enterprise, except under I the command of Sparta, and also to consent to the abolition of her popu- lar government, accepting in its stead the rule of thirty magistrates, styled afterward, from their cruel and oppressive measures, the Thirty Tyrants. While it lasted, this was truly the '^ reign Socrates. Thirty Tyrants. of terror" in Athens. But the democratic government was soon restored through the courage and patriotism of Thras- y-bu'lus, by whom and his associates, after capturing the fortress of Phy'le, near Athens, the tyrants were expelled (403 B.C.). 50. A short time after this, perished, by an unjust sen- tence of the Athenian judges, at the age of seventy, Socrates, teacher. "If he was not altogether worthy to be the preserver of the Athenian p:reatness, he merited the honor of casting the last rays of glory over it, and having his fall forever identified with its destruction." 112 Ancient History. the most virtuous and illustrious of all the ancient philoso- phers. Accused of irreligion, and of corrupting the youth of Athens by teaching false doctrine, he defended himself with great ability and courage; but he Socrates. gave offense to the judges by not supplicating their mercy. He spent the interval of thirty days between his condemna- tion and death in tranquil discourse with his disciples; and having drunk the cup of hemlock,* with a firm and cheerful countenance, amid his weeping friends, died with perfect composure, expressing to the last his belief in an immortality beyond the grave (399 B c.).f His most eminent disciples were Plato and Xenophon, from whom we derive our knowl- edge of his doctrines, since he himself committed nothing to writing. \ * "The Athenians were humane in their executions. They took pains to ascer- tain the most easy and gentle mode of death, as Xenophon points out in his Apologia; and on this account poisoning with liemlock was emj^loyed. Even the executioner, who handed the cup of poison to Socrates, shed tears; for lie saw his magnanimity, and felt his innocence. It lias been remarked that In their execu- tions the Athenians were far more merciful than the modern Christian nations."— Mahaffi/s Social Life in Greece. + Socrates was pronounced by the Delphic Oracle " the wisest of men." This, he at one time remarked, seemed to be true, because "he knew that he knew nothing, while other men, he found, did not even know that." It has been said that " his uninspired wisdom made the nearest approach to the divine doctrines of the Gospel." One of his disciples said to him when in prison, "How sad it is that thou shouldst die Innocent!" "What!" he replied, "would you have me die guilty?" To the last he taught the Christian principle that " it is better to forgive injuries than to avenge them." X When Socrates was in middle age, there seemed to come to him a call— he said he heard a voice— bidding him to devote himself to the instruction of his fellow-men ; and Avith a devotion unparalleled in all pagan history, he obeyed it. From that time, for thirty years, neglecting all other occupations, he applied himself to the duty imposed upon him. He was ever at his post,— in the public walks, at the gymnasia, in the market-place, wherever men congregated, there he stood, ready to talk with any one who would listen, young or old, rich or poor, never accepting fee or reward. His singular appearance attracted the attention of all ; the repulsive features, unwieldy figure, naked feet, rough threadbare attire, sometimes caused laughter, sometimes disgust. But those who stopped to listen soon became interested, then spell-bound, at the wonderful power of his logic, the beauty of his speech, the elevation and originality of his sentiments, and the keenness of his wit: and while they felt they knew less than they had thought they did, they invariably desired to learn more. Greece and Macedonia. 113 61. A short time after the close of the Peloponnesian war, the Greek soldiers being unemployed, a large number (about 14,000), under a Spartan leader, named Ole-ar'- clius, entered into the service of Cyrus, sur- named the Younger, a Persian prince, and the brother of the reigning king, Artaxerxes II. Expedition of Cyrus. His object was declared to be an attack upon the Pisidians, but his real design Avas to deprive his brother of the throne of Persia. They marched to Cu-nax'a, near Babylon, where an immense army of 900,000 Persians engaged the forces of Cyrus, consisting of 30 East Irom Lonaon. 40 300,000 besides the Grecian mercenaries. The latter gained a complete victory; bat Cyrus, in a rash attempt to slay his brother, was himself killed, and the expedition was aban- doned (401 B.C.). 52. On their retreat, the Greek leaders were drawn into a conference with the Persians, and treacherously put to death. Xenophon, who had been a volun- teer in the expedition, was then chosen com Retreat of the Ten Thousand. mander; and the retreat was continued by the Greeks for a 114 Ancient History. distance of more than 1500 miles, amid incredible hardships from cold, hunger, and the constant assaults of their enemies. They at last reached the Euxine, when they found their numbers reduced to about 10,000. This celebrated expedi- tion, as well as the retreat which closed it, forms the subject of perhaps the most interesting work of Xenophon (the An-ab'a-sis). He afterward, with the same forces, entered the service of a Thracian king, and subsequently assisted the Spartans in Asia Minor against the Persians.* 63. In this war with the Persians, A-ges-i-la'us, the Spartan king, gained several important vic- tories, but was suddenly recalled to defend his coun- try against a powerful Agesilaus. league, consisting of Argos, Cor- inth, Athens, and Thebes, formed to attack her. The confederate army was, however, defeated by Agesilaus in the battle of Oor-o- ne'a; but, about the same time, the Spartan fleet was almost entirely destroyed at Cnidus {ni'dus) by Co'non, the Athenian (394 B.C.). By this victory the Athenians regained the naval supremacy which they had lost at ^gospotamos. 54. The Grecian states being thus at war with one another, each party contended for the alliance and aid of the Persians. Oonon, who by means of Persian gold had been enabled to Xenophon. * The execution of Socrates took place during the absence of Xenophon from Athens; and, upon his return to his native city, he found that a decree of banish- ment had been issued against himself. It was then that he went to Asia Minor, and joined the Spartan army. The LacedEemonians, at the close of the war, gave him the little town of Scillus, on the border of Ehs, where he lived for some time with his wife and two sons. Though invited to return to Athens, he never lived again in that city. He died at Corinth in the ninetieth j'ear of his age. Xenophon, as a soldier, philosopher, and writer, holds a conspicuous place in the annals of Greece. Greece mid Macedonia. 115 equip liis fleet and to rebuild the walls of Athens, was, through the machinations of Sparta, brought under sus- picion with the king of Persia, and thrown into prison. The Spartans thus obtained the alliance of the Persians, and tlirough their emissary, An-tal'ci-das, negotiated a peace by which the Greek cities of Asia were given up to Persian rule. This disgraceful treaty was ratified by the other states ^387 B.C.). Peace of Antalcidas. Theban war. 65. The Spartans, having unjustly seized the citadel of Thebes, and held it for four years, were expelled, through the influence of Pelop'idas and Epami- non'das, two distinguished Theban patriots. This brought on a war between Thebes and Sparta, by which the former state rose to a great height of power and distinction. In the noted battle of Leuc'tra (371 B.C.), the Spartan army was defeated by forces much inferior in number, commanded by Epaminondas and Pelopidas; and the Peloponnesus was thrown open to invasion. Agesilaus, however, by his vigor- ous measures, saved Sparta from capture; and Epaminondas, after laying waste the territory of Laconia with fire and sword, retired from the Peninsula. The Thebans afterward again invaded the Peloponnesus, and in the battle of Man-ti-ne'a (362 B.C.) gained a great victory over the Spartans command- ed by Agesilaus ; but Epaminondas was mortally wounded. He died, as he had lived, a hero. A javelin had pierced his bosom; but in the agonies of death his inquiries were only for his country, and when told that the Thebans had triumphed, he exclaimed, ^^Then all is well!" and drawing the weapon from his breast, he immediately expired. Epaminondas. 116 Ancient History. 66. Epaminondas is justly regarded as one of the greatest heroes and patriots Greece ever produced. Wise in council, and brave and skillful in battle, an accomplished statesman and orator, and, what is still more, a Epaminondas. man of unswerving truth and honesty, he ij^as, during all the subsequent history of Greece, universally considered the best model for imitation. With him the influence of Thebes began and ended. His last advice was followed by his mourning countrymen, and peace was concluded before they departed from the Peloponnesus. Agesilaus died the next year, while on his return from an expedition in which he had engaged, though eighty years of Agesilaus. age, to assist Egypt against the Persians.* Though, perhaps, inferior to Epaminondas as a general, he was in wisdom and virtue his equal, being entirely free from the selfishness, deceit, and ill-faith that too often disgraced the Spartan character. He was small, mean-looking, and lame in one foot ; and on that account objection had been made to his accession, for the oracle had warned Sparta of evils to occur during ^^ a lame sovereignty. " 57. For more than sixty years, covering the period of the Peloponnesian and Theban wars, the Greek states had been wasting their strength in these constant struggles with each other. While, had they been united, they could have defied the hostilities of every Greek dissensions. other nation, they had now reached a state of exhaustion that made them an easy prey to the first ambitious potentate who might plan their conquest. Such a personage now appeared on the stage of history in Philip, king of Macedon; and the narration of Grecian affairs now becomes merged into that of Macedonia, just emerging into prominence. * "Upon his arrival in Egypt, all the great officers of the kingdom came to pay their court to him; but when they beheld no pomp or grandeur of appearance, but only a little old man in mean attire seated on the grass by the sea-side, they could scarcely conceal their contempt, saying it reminded them of the old fable of the mountain in labor that brought forth a mouse."— PZwtorc/i. 30 Longitude Eaf o • rf 1 n • Agrarian laws. by the constitution of Servius iullius, they were to be divided partly among the poorer peo^^le. This kind of aggression continued to exist for centuries, and gave rise to the proposal of many exciting measures, called "agrarian laws," the object of which was to enforce a proper division of the public lands. This was the more necessary, since, when held in large quantities by the wealthy, the lands were culti- vated by slaves, and the small farmers and freemen were deprived of the means of existence. 17. To correct this injustice and abuse, the consul Spu'rius Cassius {kash'e-us), a patrician of the highest standing, pro- posed the first Agrarian Law, providing for an equitable division of the newly acquired lands Spurius Cassius. (486 B.C.). The patricians were greatly incensed against the measure, but they could not prevent its enactment. The next year, however, an accusation was brought against Cas- sius, at their instigation, charging him with aiming at kingly power ; and he was condemned and put to death. The agrarian law was not enforced ; for the influence of the patricians was greatly strengthened by the execu- tion of Cassius, and the Fabian family (gens) suc- Fabian family. ceeded in usurping the consulship for ten years. They were at last driven out of the city, and for two years sustained the war of Veil [ve'yi) against Rome ; but were finally enticed into an ambuscade and slain (477 B.C.). 18. The contest between the orders for the execution of the agrarian law was still fiercely waged; and it became obvious to the people that they must have bold and independent men as tribunes to contend Publilian law. against the unscrupulous and violent patricians. Hence, the tribune Vol'e-ro Pub-lil'i-us proposed a law that the tribunes should be elected by the plebeians themselves at the Assembly \ 194 Ancient History. of the Tribes, instead of, as previously, by the Assembly of the Centuries. This measure, after great opposition, was carried (471 B.C.), and was a great gain to the lower order. Indeed, the Publilian law of Volero broke the power of the nobles, and virtually made Rome a democratic state. 19. While these struggles had been going on in the city between the two orders, there were almost constant wars with the neighboring people, among whom the ^'qui-ans and Volscians {voVshe-ans) were the most troublesome. To this period belongs the story of Co-ri-o-la'nus, a patrician general, who acquired his surname by the capture of Oo-ri'- o-li, an important city of the Volscians. Having Coriolanus, great influence at Rome in consequence of the victories which he had gained, he insisted, during a time of famine, that no corn should be given to the people unless they would relin- quish their privileges. But the tribunes procured his banish- ment; and going over to the Volscians, he marched with an army against Rome and threatened its capture. Tlie Senate made several attempts to dissuade him from his revengeful purpose, but in vain. At last, when his mother, wife, and children were sent to his camp to intercede for the city, he relented, and retired with his army. Shortly afterward, he was put to death by the Volscians (488 B.C.). 20. To a somewhat later period belongs the interesting legend of Cin-cin-na'tus, who, although a patrician, lived on a small farm which he cultivated with his own liands. Twice was he called from the plow to serve his country, once as consul and again as dictator; and while holding the latter office, he gained a great victory over the ^quians; and then, having freed Rome from danger, immediately resigned his great office, and returned to his humble agricultural labors, followed by the applause and blessings of all his countrymen (458 B.C.). Nearly thirty years afterward, when at the age of eighty, he was again called from his retirement to tal^e the office of dictator, The Roman Republic. 195 21. During this period, while Rome was imperiled by fierce enemies without, the contest still raged within between the rival orders. Concession after concession was wrung from the nobles, but the people still pressed forward clamorous for their rights, and for just and equal Decemvirs. laws; for there was no written code to which they could appeal. The patricians again gave way, and allowed a com- mission of three to be sent to Athens and Southern Italy in order to study, and report on, the Grecian systems of legisla- tion. On their return, ten persons (Decem'virs) were appointed to prepare a code of laws (451 B.C.). They were also invested with a very large authority, superseding the other magistrates, and ruling by turns, each for one day. The cele- brated code of the Twelve Tables was the result Twelve Tables of their labors. Thus was laid the foundation of Roman juris- prudence. These laws were set up in a prominent place, so that all the people might read them; and afterward were com- mitted to memory by the boys in the schools. 22. The task assigned to the Decemvirs had been so well performed, and they had ruled with such justice and modera- tion, that the office was continued for another year, in order that they might complete the work. But Ap'pi-us Clau'di-us, one of their number. Appius Claudius. was a bold, ambitious, wicked man, and he succeeded in having elected with him those who were wedded to his inter- ests. The mask was soon thrown oiT; and the people found their lives and property entirely at the mercy of a relentless despot. Lucius Si-cin'ni-us Den-ta'tus, a brave soldier and former tribune, spoke loudly against this usurpation, and was waylaid and murdered. A dreadful outrage * perpetrated by * This was the attempt which Appius made to obtain possession of Virginia, a beautiful maiden, the daughter of a soldier named Virginius. To accomplish his object Appius induced one of his clients to swear that she was the daughter of one of his slaves; and she was seized and brought before the Decemvir's tribunal, where the client made his claim, which Appius at once decided in his favor Virginius, who had hastened to the spot, seeing no way left to save his daughter 196 Ancient History. Appius Claudius at last caused a revolt of the army; and the tyrants were compelled to abdicate. The former government was then restored (449 B.C.). Appius Claudius put an end to his life while in prison. 23. The right of intermarriage between the patricians and plebeians being forbidden, a law was introduced by one of the tribunes (445 B.C.) making such marriages legal. This, after violent opposition, was passed, and was immediately followed by a proposal to open the Military tribunes. consulship to the plebeians. To put an end to the strife and excitement which this produced, the duties of consuls were intrusted to officers called military trihunes, to be elected by the Assembly of the Centuries, both patricians and plebeians being eligible to the office. The Senate, however, could order the election of consuls, instead of the tribunes, for any year. These officers continued to be elected with various intermis- sions until 367 B.C., when, by the Li-cin'ian Lmv, plebeians were admitted to the consulship. About this time, also, two magistrates, called Censors, were appointed for the purpose of taking the census (445 B.C.).* 24. The Romans having besieged Veii, a large and power- ful city of E-tru'ri-a, for several years, were on the point of suffering a disastrous defeat, when Fu'ri-us Oa- mil'lus, being appointed dictator, caused a tunnel to be dug, by means of which the soldiers were Furius Camillus. admitted into the citadel, and the city was taken and destroyed (396 B.C.). Veii being a larger and more magnificent city than Rome itself, and more favorably situated, very many of the from dishonor, plunged a knife into her bosom, and rushing from the city, told his tale of woe to the army. This aroused the indignation of the soldiers, and they revolted, encamping on the Aventine at first : but being afterward joined by the other army, they took up a position on the Sacred Mount. The story of Virginia forms the subject of one of Macaulay 's Lays of Ancient Borne. * The powers and duties were afterward greatly extended ; for they exercised a general control over the finances of the state, the management of the public land^ and the farming of the taxes, as well as a general supervision over the public and private life of every citizen. 1 The Roman Republic. 197 Romans were inclined to abandon their own city and migrate thither. From this, however, they were finally dissuaded by the patricians. Camillus, being accused of appropriating the spoils of the conquered city to his own use, was driven into exile (391 B.C.). The conquest of Veii made an important addition to the Roman territory. Four new tribes were formed; and the wealth acquired from the spoils gave a new impulse to industry and trade. 25. At this period, the Gauls, a barbarous but very bold and warlike people of the Celtic race, had possessed themselves of nearly all western Europe, and occupied also the north of Italy. Proceeding farther south, they attacked Clu'si-um, an impor- tant city of Etruria, the inhabitants of which sent to Rome for assist- ance. (391 B.C.) Em- bassadors were accord- ingly sent to Clusium {klu' She-Um) to de- The Celtic Arms. mand of the Gauls the reason of their hostile invasion, and bid them quit a territory to which they had no claim. Bren'nus, their leader, answered that the *^ title of brave men was their swords ;" whereupon a Invasion by the Gauls. battle ensued, in which the Roman deputies, unmindful of tlieir neutral character, took part against the Gauls. This so enraged Brennus that he immediately left Clusium, and with an army of nearly 75,000 men marched toward Rome. On the banks of the Al'li-a, a few miles from the city, he met and defeated the Roman army; and then marching to the 198 Ancient History. city itself, entered it without opposition, all the inhabitants having fled, except eighty aged senators, who awaited the enemy in the Forum, in their robes of state and seated in their ivory chairs. These venerable men were quickly mas- sacred, and the city pillaged and burnt (390 B.C.).* 26. The citadel, however, being built on a steep and lofty cliff, held out for seven months; and the Gauls besieging it were reduced in numbers by a pestilence which broke out among them. It is said that at one time they were on the point of taking the citadel; for having discovered a narrow path up the cliff, they had nearly reached the summit during the darkness of night, all the guards being asleep; but at that instant the sacred geese kept in the temple of Juno com- menced a loud cackling, which awoke the garrison; and the Roman commander, Mar'cus Man'li-us, springing up, rushed to the edge of the rock and hurled the Gauls headlong down. 27. In the mean while, Camillus had been called from banishment and made dictator. He arrived, as the story goes, with an army just as the Romans were about to deliver to the Gauls 1000 pounds of gold which they had agreed to pay as a ransom. Exclaiming that *'Rome should be ran- somed only with steel,'' he ordered the gold to be carried away, and immediately attacking the Gauls, defeated them * Many of these details are mythical, but there is probably a basis of truth. The following is Arnold's description of the savage massacre of the Roman senators: "Then, as men devoted to death, they arrayed themselves in their most solemn dress ; they who had held curule offices, in their robes of white with the broad scarlet border; they who had won triumphs, in their robes of triumph, overlaid with embroidery of many colors and with palm-branches of gold, and took their seats, each on his ivory chair of magistracy, in the gateway of his house. When the Gauls saw these aged men in this array of majesty, sitting motionless amidst the confusion of the sack of the city, they at first looked upon them as more than human, and one of the soldiers drew near to M. Papirius, and began to stroke reverently his ivory-white beard. Papirius, who was a minister of the gods, could not endure the touch of profane barbarian hands, and struck the Gaul over the head with his ivory scepter. Instantly the spell of reverence was broken, and rage and the thirst of blood succeeded to it. The Gaul cut down the old Papirius with his sword ; his comrades were kindled at the sight, and all the old men, according to their vow, were offered up as victims to the powers of death." — History of Rome, The Roman Republic. 199 with great slaughter. Other, and probably more truthful, accounts state that the gold was paid, and that the Gauls then peaceably retired; and it is even said that, more than four centuries afterward, some of this very gold was recovered from the Gauls of that later period. It is, however, certain that the city was left in ruins; and the public records having been destroyed, no materials for an authentic history of the events preceding this period could afterward be obtained. 28. After the departure of the invaders, the city was in a sad condition, and the peoj^le were almost in desi)air. They had lost their houses, their cattle, and their crops, and yet were obliged to pay taxes in order to rejoair the city walls, and to carry on the wars which the neighboring states waged against them. They were also very much oppressed by the merciless laws against debtors. In this crisis, Marcus Manlius, the brave defender of the citadel, dis- tinguished himself by his efforts and sacrifices to relieve the people's wants. Having by this means acquired very great popularity, he excited the suspicions of the patricians, and was accused of attempting to make himself king; of which offense being unjustly pronounced guilty, he was thrown down the Tarpeian {tar-pe'an) Eock, the very place from which he had repelled his country's enemies (383 B.C.).* 29. For a considerable time the destitution and suffering of the people continued, while the wealthy classes selfishly held on to their unjust powers and privileges. At length a scheme of legislation was j^resented Marcus Manlius. Licinian laws. by 0. Li-cin'i-us Sto'lo and L. Sextius, two plebeians of high rank and great ability (366 B.C.). This measure, known as the Licinian Laws, comprehended three provisions: (1) That * " M. Manlius, less pure and disinterested than his prototype, Spurius Cassius, made the plebeian wrongs the stalking horse of his own ambition. Partly tempted, partly goaded into crime, he is entitled to our pity, even though we condemn him. His intentions were probably at first honest, and the means that he designed to use legal ; but the opposition which he encountered drove him to desperate measures, and he became in the end a dangerous conspirator." — Raiolinson. 200 Ancient History. the interest already paid on borrowed money should be de- ducted from the principal, and the balance made payable in three yearly installments; (2) That no person should hold more than 600 jugera (about 380 acres) of the public lands; and (3) That thereafter consuls should be elected in the place of military tribunes, and that one of the two consuls should belong to the plebeian order. 30. The Licinian laws were adopted, but not without a severe struggle that lasted several years, during which the aged Oamillus was again made dictator. Lucius Sex'tus, one of the proposers of the laws, was elected the first plebeian consul; and, at the close Oamillus dictator. of the contest, Oamillus dedicated a temple to Concord. The patricians, however, from time to time, endeavored to over- ride or evade these laws, but were invariably defeated, being compelled in the end to make still further concessions. At the close of these long struggles, a perfect equality was established in the political powers of the orders; for the plebeians were admitted to all the Triumph of the plebeians. offices, including the dictatorship, censorship, and even the sacred college of pontiffs and augurs. Domestic tranquillity being thus established, Rome was ready to commence her wonderful career of conquest (340 B.C.). II. Period of Italian Conquests. 31. During the period to which we have arrived, lasting about three fourths of a century (340-264 B.C.), great^wars were waged in Italy, the result of which was that Rome became mistress of the whole peninsula. These wars consist chiefly of the four Samnite Conquest of Italy. wars, the great Latin war, the war with Pyr'rhus, and a war with the Gauls. These will all be treated of briefly, avoiding details in the account of the military movements, since for these, if needed, larger works can be consulted. The first to be referred to is the war with the Samnites. The Roman Republic, 201 First Samnite war. A war with 32. The Samnites, a warlike people inhabiting central Italy, having made war upon the Oampa'nians, the latter called in the aid of the Romans (343 b. c. ), who entering Campania defeated the Samnites with immense slaughter, and compelled them to make peace, after the war had lasted about two years, the Latin cities followed, in which the Eomans were also victorious, and Latium was annexed to the Roman territory (339 B.C.). In the second war with the Samnites, the Romans sustained a terrible defeat in a narrow valley called the Cau'dine Forks, and were com- pelled by the Samnite general to pass under the yoke* in acknowledgment of their subjugation (321 B.C.). The war was, however, continued until 305 B.C., Latin war. Other Samnite wars. when the Samnites, having been repeatedly defeated, were compelled to acknowledge the supremacy of Rome. Seven years afterward, they renewed the war, being aided by the Umbrians, Etruscans, and Gauls; but the allied army suffered a great defeat near Sen-ti'num, a town in Um'bria (295 B.C.). This famous victory War with the Gauls. gave the Romans the dominion of nearly all Italy, f Close upon this event, followed a war with the Etrurians and Gauls, whose combined forces were also vanquished with great slaughter. 33. The inhabitants of the Greek colony of Ta-ren'tum [see map, page 87] having given offense to the Romans, the latter declared war upon them, upon which the Tarentines solicited the aid of Pyrrhus, king of E-pi'rus, the greatest general of his age. Complying with this request, he landed in Italy and gained a great War with Pyrrhus. * The yoke was formed by setting two spears upright, and placing another across the top of them. t " The third Samnite war is the contest of confederated Italy against the terrible enemy whose greatness was now seen to threaten every power in the peninsula. Its turning point, which well deserves its place among the ten or twelve ' Decisive Battles of the World,' was the battle of Sentinum."— jRaw^msow. S02 Ancient History. victory over the Eomans, commanded by the Consul Lae-vi'- nus (280 B.C.). But it was a dear-bought triumph, for he lost many of his best troops and some of his ablest officers, and was probably indebted for it more to the confusion occa- sioned by the elej^hants which his army contained, and to which the Romans were not accustomed, than to the superior valor or skill of his soldiers. When, on visiting the battle- field the next day, he gazed on the Roman dead, all of whom appeared to have fallen in their ranks, and with their faces turned toward the enemy, he exclaimed: ^'li I had such soldiers as these, how easily could I conquer the world!" 34. Many of the Italian nations now joined Pyrrhus, and he advanced to a point within eighteen miles from Rome, to which he sent an emissary, offering peace; but the Roman senate refused to treat for peace until he should withdraw his forces from Italy. Another battle was fought the next year, in which the Romans were again defeated, but with great loss to Pyrrhus. Leaving Italy, he then proceeded to Sicily with the design of expelling the Carthaginians from that island, but in this he was not successful; and after an absence of two years he returned to Tarentum. At Ben-e-ven'- tum, a town in Samnium, about 28 miles from Cap'u-a, he was met by the Romans under the Defeat of Pyrrhus. Consul Cu'ri-us Den-ta'tus, and suffered a most disastrous defeat (275 B.C.), after which he retired from Italy, with the almost total loss of his army.* 35. After the departure of Pyrrhus, the Tarentines applied for aid to the Carthaginians, who sent a fleet for their relief; but the Romans obtained possession of Tarentum. The Sam- nites, Luca'nians, and other tribes soon afterward submitted, thus leaving Rome mistress of all Italy (264 B.C.). Over this extensive domain she organized a most effective government. * On his return to Greece, he was proclaimed king of Macedonia. Making war upon the Spartans, he nearly took their city ; but, in an attack upon Argos, he was killed by a tile thrown by a woman from the roof of a house. Tlie Roman Republic. 203 Some portions, which were called prmfectures — that is, dis- tricts governed by prasfects, she ruled by means of magis- trates sent from herself. From others, the municipal towns, she only exacted military service, leaving to them the control of their own local affairs; while in very many she planted colonies of Roman citizens, whom she supplied with lands from the conquered territory, and placed over the subjugated inhabitants. Her rule was, however, mild and generally just, and was but little disturbed by commotion or revolt. 36. In connection with the colonial system of Rome at this time, the military roads were an important auxiliary. After the conquest of Campania, Ap- pius Claudius (Csecus) constructed a paved road to Capua, called after him the Appian Way (312 B.C.). Other roads were afterward constructed, which intersected every part of Italy, and served to bind all the outposts to Rome as the great center of the whole. The wonderful aqueducts, stretching over hills and valleys, or forming subterranean channels, were com- menced about this time. The Military roads. Aqueducts. The Via Appia. (Passing through the grotto of Posilipo near Naples.) re- mains of these structures, so exten- sive and durable, now present one of the most imposing spectacles that the eye of the traveler rests upon among the wonders of the ^'^ Eternal City" and its surroundings. III. Period of Foreign Conquests (264-133 B.C.). 37. The period to which we have now arrived, in the history of Rome, is especially marked by the splendor of her military career, and the rapidity and extent of her foreign conquests. Owing to the great increase of her wealth from 204 Ancient History. the couquered states . in Italy, and the large and numerous colonies which she was continually sending forth, and haying now an established constitution and system of laws, she was relieved from those internal troubles by which the develop- ment of her power as a nation was checked. Hence, at this period, the external relations of Rome became the all-engross- ing theme; for the brazen gates of the temple of Janus had never been closed but once during this long series of years (in 235 B.C.). 38. Across the Mediterranean, on the African shore, was the great rival republic, Carthage (see map, p. 205); and it n was with her that Rome was now to measure her strength in three tremendous contests, known in Punic wars. history as the Punic Wars. Carthage was of Phoenician origin, having been settled by the Tyrians about six centuries before this period. She had, at this time, become one of the greatest maritime powers in the world. Carthage. Her ships covered the Mediterranean, distributing the pro- ducts of the East to the various ports on its shores. Three hundred cities in Africa paid her tribute; and she had made extensive conquests in Spain, Sardinia, and Sicily. 39. Syracuse, however, in Sicily, still retained its inde- pendence, after repeated wars with the Carthaginians. This city was a colony of the Corinthians, established in the eighth century B.C.; and, in the fifth cen- tury, became the most populous and powerful History of Syracuse. state in the island, under a virtuous and patriotic sovereign, named Ge'lon. During its struggle with Athens, in which Nicias was so disastrously defeated, it was under a free gov- ernment, but subsequently lost its liberties (405 B.C.), being ruled for 38 years by the famous Di-o-nys'i-us, who carried on a successful war with the Carthaginians. Ti-mo'le-on, a Corinthian of great virtue and talents, restored it to freedom (344 B.C.); but under A-gath'o-cles, the despotism was again established (317 B.C.). At the time at which we have arrived. P ^9 TlKVJx 206 Ancient History. it was under the rule of a monarch named Hi'e-ro, during whose reign flourished the famous mathematician Archimedes {ar-ke-me'deez), FIRST PUNIC WAR. 40. The first Punic war commenced in 264 B.C., and lasted 23 years. It was brought on in the following manner. Agathocles, who waged long wars with Carthage, had hired a body of troops from Campania; and these, after the death of that despot, seized Messana and slaughtered the inhabitants, after which they assumed the name of Mam'er-tines, sons of Mars, or warhke The Mamertines. War-ship of Hiero. men. These Hiero, king of Syracuse, marched against and defeated. Whereupon they invoked the aid of the Romans; and, notwithstanding Hiero had but a few years before been their friendly ally, and had given them valuable aid, the Romans decreed that assistance should be sent to the Mamer- tines. But in the mean time, Hiero had formed an alliance with Carthage; and thus, through a set of mercenary mur- derers and robbers, these two great republics were plunged The Roman Republic. 207 into a series of wars wliicli lasted more than a hundred years. The real cause of the war was, however, the rivalship of these states. 41. The Komans, having gained some important victories, were soon joined by many of the cities oi Sicily, including Syracuse, for Hiero soon deserted the Cartha- ginians, and became an ally of Kome. They then took Ag-ri-gen'tum, defeating an immense army Success of the Romans. which the Carthaginians had sent to its assistance (262 B.C.). Seeing then the necessity of coping with their enemy on the sea, they built a fleet, and, under the Consul Du-il'li-us, gained two great naval victories. Thus encouraged, they sent an armament under Reg'u-lus to attack Car- thage itself; but this expedition, although at first Regulus. successful, was defeated with great loss through the assist- ance of Xan-thip'pus, a Spartan general, who had recently entered the service of Carthage. He advised the Carthaginians to select the level, open country for their battle-field, where their elephants and cavalry coidd be fully brought into action. The greater part of the Romans were slain or made prisoners, Regulus himself being among the latter (255 B.C.). 42. But the Romans were not to be discouraged by this great disaster, and they soon gained several important vic- tories, among which the defeat of Ha-mil'car in i Sicily by the Consul Me-tel'lus (251 B.C.) was the ^Seat' most serious to the Carthaginians, and induced I them to make overtures for peace. They, accordingly, as is related, took Regulus from prison and sent him to Rome, exacting from him a promise that, unless he should obtain for them favorable terms of peace, he would return to Car- thage (250 B.C.). But Regulus listened to the dictates of patriotism, instead of consulting his own per- sonal safety, and advised his countrymen to con- tinue the war, assuring them that Carthage was Fate of Regulus. nearly exhausted. In spite of the entreaties of his family and 208 Ancient History. friends, he kept his word, and returned to Carthage, where, it is said, he was put to death with the most dreadful tor- tures. After the war had continued some years longer, the Carthaginians were compelled again to sue for peace, which was granted on condition that they should evacuate Sicily, acknowledging the inde- Close of the war. pendence of Syracuse, restore the Roman prisoners, and pay all the expenses of the war (241 B.C.). Sicily, with the excep- tion of Syracuse, then became a Roman proyince. 43. One important result of this war was to make Rome a great naval power; for, though at the beginning the Romans had no maritime experience, in the course of it they became fully a match for the Carthaginians in this kind of warfare. Carthage was still further Results of the war. weakened by the revolt of her mercenary army and African allies. But she Avas finally rescued from this trouble by the energy and genius of Hamilcar, her great general. Rome, however, took advantage of the revolt to seize upon Sardinia, which she formed into a Roman province. In the organization of Sicily and Sardinia com- menced the provincial system, each province Provincial system. paying taxes to the Roman people. Rome also sbowed her maritime skill and power in subduing the Il-lyr'i-an pirates, then the terror of the surrounding seas. She also defeated the Gauls in northern Italy, and made a complete conquest of the country between Further successes. the Apennines and the Alps, afterward called Cisalpine GauL 44. In the mean time, the Carthaginians, driven out of Sicily and Sardinia, obtained full compensation for their loss by their increase of power in southern Spain, under the management of their great leader, Hamilcar. They occupied the rich towns, and Carthaginians in Spain. reduced and trained to arms the warlike Celts and Iberians. They, moreover, discovered and commenced to work the rich silver mines, near which they founded a city called New The Roman Republic. 209 Carthage, designed to be the capital of this new empire. Eome, ever watchful and jealous, made an alliance with Sa-gun'tum, and extorted a promise from the Carthaginians that they would not pass the Ebro. 45. But Han'ni-bal, the son of Hamilcar, had when a youth been made by his father to swear upon the altar eternal enmity to the Komans; and, as soon as he assumed i the command (220 B.C.), he determined to carry I _"" '_ his hostile plans into execution by invading Italy. He first marched his forces to the Ebro, and attacked Saguntum, which, in spite of the remonstrances of the Roman senate, he captured, after a siege of eight months (219 B.C.). This was the commencement of the Seco7id Punic War.^ SECON^D PUKIC WAR. 46. Hannibal, having passed the winter at New Carthage, in the spring crossed the Pyrenees, with the intention of invading Italy; for he anticipated that the war- like tribes of the newly conquered territory of Cisalpine Gaul would declare in his favor, and Invasion of Italy. Defeat of the Romans. expected that the Italian states would desert the Roman con- federacy. With wonderful daring and dispatch he crossed the Alps, and at the river Ti-ci'nus met and defeated the Romans under their consul Scip'i-o (218 B.C.). A few days afterward, he inflicted a severe defeat upon the other consul, Sem-pro'ni-us, near the I river Tre'bi-a, a short distance from the scene of the first conflict. Another great battle was fought the next year, near the lake Tras-i-me'nus, where the Romans were again defeated, * After the fall of Saguntum, the Roman senate sent an embassy to Carthage to demand satisfaction for this violence done to the allies of Rome ; and, in present- ing the subject, the chief of the embassy, gathering up the folds of his toga, exclaimed: " Here I carry peace and war. Say, ye men of Carthage, which shall it be?'' "Give us v/hat you will," was the reply. "Then give we war," said the embassador, spreading out his toga. "We accept it, and will maintain it with the spirit in which it is accepted," rejoined the Carthaginians. Thus, according to Livy, was this dreadful war declared. 210 Ancient History. their army being almost destroyed (217 B.C.). So alarmed did the Eomans become, in consequence, that they immedi- ately appointed a dictator, Fa'bi-us Max'i-mus being selected for the office. But Hannibal did not march to Rome, as was expected, because he waited for the Italians to join his stand- ard; but their fidelity to Rome remained unshaken, and not a town opened its gates to the invader. 47. The cautious Fabius, unwilling to risk another engage- ment with Hannibal's army, now flushed with victory, adopted the tactics of harassing the invaders as much as possible, hovering around them, like " a cloud on the mountains," thus wearing out their resources by delay. The Romans were thus enabled to recover somewhat from their disasters; but the next year (216 B.C.), Hannibal, having advanced into southern Italy, was opposed by a large army under the consuls -^-mil'i-us and Var'ro; and at Oan'nae a terrific battle took place, which for the fourth time resulted in a complete victory for the Car- thaginians (216 B.C.). It is said that more than Battle of Cannae. 50,000 Romans fell on the field, and that Hannibal sent to Carthage three bushels of gold rings, taken from the fingers of the senators and knights who were found among the slain. Several of the tribes in the south of Italy revolted from the Romans; but the Creek cities and nearly all the Italian sub- jects i-emained faithful. Hjmnibal, instead of marching on the city, which it is thought he might have captured, went into winter quarters at Capua, and waited for reinforcements. 48. In the mean time, the Romans had sent Publius Cor- ne'lius Scipio into Spain to make an attack upon the Cartha- ginians there, in order that no additional forces might be sent to Hannibal. In a few years Scipio Scipio in Spain. and his brother succeeded in destroying the Carthaginian power in that country, and reduced Spain to a Roman province (216-205 B.C.). Hannibal gained no decisive vic- tory after that at Canucne. His army, reduced in numbers. The Roman JRepublic, 211 ^^—qrr. and impaired in strength and discipline by the pleasures and vices of Oapua, was scarcely adequate to protect his Italian allies against the Romans, now under the com- i mand of Fabius and Mar-cel'lus, the former of MaJceiiuJ^ whom, from his cautious policy, was called the I Shield of Eome, and the latter, on account of his vigor and address, the Sword of Rome. Marcellus did important ser- vice in Sicily. 49. Hiero, king of Syra- cuse, having died, the people of that city estab- lished a popular government, and The territory of Syracuse TEAR B. C. 264 declared against the interests of Rome. Marcellus there- fore proceeded against the place, which he took after a siege of two years (212 B.C.). This siege is memorable for the part taken in the defense of the city by Archimedes, who exhausted his science and skill in the invention of machines to assail the besiegers. In the general massacre that followed the entrance of the Romans, the aged philoso- plier was slain;* the city was pillaged, and many of its mag- nificent works of art were carried to Rome. Taking of Syracuse. * Archimedes was in his study, absorbed in his scientific researches, when the Romans entered: nor did he perceive that tlie city was taken till a soldier entered his room, and commanded him to follow him into the presence of Marcellus. Ar- chimedes requested him to wait till he had finished his problem, upon which the soldier drew his sword and killed him. Marcellus, much grieved, ordered his body to be honorably buried, and a tomb erected to his memory. His genius for mathe- matics and his devotion to his favorite study were very remarkable. He was often so engaged in this study that he neglected his meat and drink. The incident of the crown is very interesting. It seems that a jeweler had made a crown for Hiero; but the king, suspecting that it had been fraudulently alloyed with silver, set Archimedes 212 Ancient History. 60. Hannibal, despairing of succor from Carthage, now eagerly awaited the arrival of a force under his brother Has'dru-bal from Spain, which had been expected for some time. At length Hasdrubal succeeded in crossing the Alps, and was 2jroceeding on his Defeat of Hasdrubal, route to join Hannibal in Umbria, when he was intercepted by a Roman army, at the Metaurus River; and was defeated and slain (207 e.g.). Hannibal received notice of this disaster by the sight of his brother's gory head, which the consuls caused to be thrown into his camp. At the sight of this dreadful omen, Hannibal exclaimed: '•' I foresee the doom of Carthage!" The Romans, under the influence of Scipio, the conqueror of Spain, resolved now to '■' carry the war into Africa," and Scipio was appointed to the command. Meanwhile, Hannibal withdrew to the wild and mountainous districts of Bruttium {hru' slie-um) , still nursing the hope that he might receive reinforcements from Carthage. 51. Scipio landed in Africa in 204 3.c. Having defeated the Numid'ians in a great battle, and vanquished the Car- thaginians with immense slaughter, at U'ti-ca, Scipio marched almost to the gates of Carthage; Scipio in Africa. when the Carthaginian senate, driven to despair, recalled Hannibal to the defense of his own country. The call was at once obeyed, and landing in Africa, Hannibal drew u]) his forces on the plain of Za'ma, a town in Numidia.* Seeing that his army was far inferior to that of the Romans, he o])tained an interview with Scipio, and proposed a treaty of to examine into the affair. Archimedes thought upon the subject a long time in vain. But one clay in the bath, perceiving that liis body displaced a certain quan- tity of water, it occurred to him that tliere was a definite relation between the quantity of water displaced and the weight of the body, and thus the principle of specific gravity flashed across his mind. The problem was solved ; and, transported with joy, he ran out into the street, crying out Eureka! Eureka! "I have foimd it! I have found it!" * Zama, sometimes called Zama Regia, lay some distance to the south-west of Carthage, and north-west of Hadrumetum. It was a place of considerable size and strongly fortified. [See map, page 216.] The Uoman Republic. 213 ])eace; but Scipio, true to Eoman polic}^, declined the pro- ])()Siil. The battle therefore took place, and Hannibal was defeated Avith great loss (202 B.C.). 52. The battle of Zama ended the second Punic war; for although the Carthaginians were not utterly exhausted, yet, by the prudent counsel of Hannibal, who saw that it would be useless to protract the struggle, they consented to accept the terms of peace dictated Close of the war. by Scipio, and approved by the Roman Senate. These were very severe: Carthage was to evacuate Spain, to give up all her prisoners, surrender her fleets, make annual payment of 200 talents for fifty years, in order to defray the expenses of the war, and agree to undertake no future war without the consent of Rome. The treaty having been concluded, Scipio returned home, and was honored with a more splendid tri- umph than any Roman general had previously received. He was called thereafter Scipio Af-ri-ca'nus. 53. Hannibal, for a time, was treated with great respect by the Carthaginians, and being placed at the head of the government, endeavored to restore the nation to its former prosperity and splendor. But the in- trigues of the ancient nobility prevailed against Fate of Hannibal. him, and he was compelled to flee in order to save his life (196 B.C.). Taking refuge in Syria, at the court of Antiochus {an-Wo-kus) the Great, he assisted that monarch in a war against the Romans; but the latter prevailing, demanded that Hannibal should be given up to them; whereupon he fled to Bithynia, and then, being still pursued by the Roman emissa- ries, he was at last obliged to put an end to his life to avoid falling into their hands (183 B.C.).* * " After the loss of his last hope by the destruction of the Syrian host at Magne- sia, he wandered from land to land till he found a resting-place at the court of Pru- sias of Bithynia. The Senate could not breathe while their great enemy Uved ; and Flamininus was sent to demand from Prusias the person of his illustrious guest. The king dared not say nay, and gave Hannibal to understand that he must be surren- dered to Flamininus; but the great Carthaginian, to avoid falling into the hands of 1214 Ancient Misiori), Conquest of Macedonia and Greece. 64. At the close of the Second Punic War, the Romans commenced an attack on Macedonia; for Philip, the king of that country, had not only given aid to the Cartha- ginians, but was engaged at this time in schemes to conquer Egypt, Pergamus, and Rhodes, which Macedonian war. Rome chose to take under her protection, claiming them as her allies. Hence, she entered upon what is called the Mace- donian War. The Roman general, Flam-i-ni'nus, on taking the command, united all Greece against Philip, by issuing a declaration of Grecian independence; and the next year he totally defeated Philip in the great battle of Cyn-os-ceph'a-lse- (197 B.C.). This decisive victory made Rome the arbitress of the world. 66. The war against Antiochus, of Syria, soon followed (192 B.C.); for this great monarch dared to undertake the conquest of certain countries — Asia Minor, Thrace, etc. — without the consent of the Roman senate. Moreover, he afforded an asylum to Hannibal, War against Antiochus. sent a haughty defiance to the Romans, and, on the invitation of the ^tolians, landed in Greece. But his Greek allies were routed at Thermopylas (191 B.C.), his fleet was scattered; and he himself, the next year, suffered an overwhelming defeat at Magnesia, in Asia Minor, from the Roman army, really directed by the great Scipio, though his brother Lucius had the command. The latter was afterward styled Asiati- cus, in honor of this great victory. These two illustrious men subsequently excited the envy of certain persons at Rome, and were accused of embezzling some of the treasures his implacable foes, swallowed a dose of poison, which, according to the common story, he carried with him constantly, in the hollow of a ring. He was sixty -three years of age. Life had long ceased to be valuable to him, because opposition to Rome had become hopeless. He died, as he had lived, faithful to the service of that avenging deity to whom he had been bound in his boyhood by his father, Hamil- car."— LidcZeZZ's History of Rome. The Roman Bepuhlic. 215 captured in Syria. To this base and ungrateful accusation, Publius Scipio, the conqueror of Hannibal, dis- Exile of Scipio. dained to plead; but quitting Rome in disgust took up his abode in Campania, where he died a few years afterward (183 B.C.).* 56. After the death of Philip, king of Macedonia, Perseus [per'suse), his successor, a young and brave prince, made an effort to free Macedonia and Greece from the , Battle of Pydna Roman yoke; but, after a war of three years. he was utterly subdued at the battle of Pyd'na (168 B.C.). He was carried captive to Rome, where he and his children graced the triumph of ^mil'ius Paulus, his conqueror. Thus was Macedonia added to the Roman dominions, 144 years after the death of Alexander. It has been observed that the victory of Pydna really established the dominion of Rome over the whole civilized world; for this was the last battle in which the forces of a civilized state contended on anything like equal terms with those of Rome. A few years afterward the conquest of Greece was Taking of Corinth. completed by the taking of Corinth, which was burnt to the ground (146 B.C.). THIED PUNIC WAR. 57. In the mean time the Third Punic War broke out, caused by the inveterate hatred of the Romans toward the Carthaginians; for the latter had been so thor- oughly subdued and humbled that no further Cause. danger could be apprehended on their account. There was, however, a strong party at Rome bent on their complete * No more striking instance of the proverbial ing'ratitude of republics can be found. Scipio directed that his remains should not be conveyed to Rome; but the day of his death was a day of general sorrow in the city, and many who refused to do justice to this great man while he lived shed tears when he passed away. A monument was afterward erected at the place of his death. Scipio had ordered to be inscribed on his tomb: " Ungrateful country, you do not possess even my bones!" Lucius (Asiaticus) was also persecuted for a time ; but the reaction set in before his death, and due honor was paid him for his eminent services. 216 Ancient History. destruction, at the head of which was Porcius Cato, the Censor, who for years was accustomed to end every speech which he made with the words, Be- Cato. len'da est Cartlia'go, Carthage must be destroyed. 58. A pretext for commencing hostilities was found in the efforts made by Carthage to repel the aggressions of Mas-i- nis'sa, king of Numidia, whom the Eomans claimed as their ally. It was in vain that the doomed people endeavored to appease the hostil- ity of their enemies. They complied with every demand, banishing all who had given offense to the Romans, and even Defense of Carthage. PROVINCE surrendering their arms and military stores. But when finally told that they must leave Carthage, and permit it to be destroyed, they took courage from despair, shut the gates of the city, and put to death every Eoman within its walls. The most vigorous exertions were then made to supply the weapons which the treachery of Rome had wrested from them. Men of every rank toiled day and night in the forges, and the women even cut off their hair to furnish bow-strings for the archers. The Roman Bepuhlie. 217 59. For three years, under their general, Hasdrubal, did they keep the Komans at bay ; but at length were obliged to yield to the skill and perseverance of Scipio, afterward called Africanus the Younger, under whose command the llomans scaled the walls of Taking of Carthage. the city, and cut their way to the citadel. After six days of continuous slaughter, the miserable inhabitants were subdued; and the city having been set on fire, very many perished in the flames. By a subsequent order of the Roman Senate, every house that was left standing was thrown down, and the city completely destroyed, and a curse pronounced against any one who should attempt to rebuild it (146 B.C.). Thus perished this magnificent city of 700,000 people, after it had existed seven centuries. The Carthaginian territory was then formed into a province under the name of Africa, and the seat of government fixed at Utica.* 60. Although the Carthaginians had been expelled from Spain, the inhabitants were not subdued; and they valiantly defended their liberties for a long series of years against the Romans. Among the most courageous War in Spain. and warlike tribes were the Cel-ti-be'ri-ans and Lu-si-ta'- nians. \ The latter found, in their noble and patriotic chief Vir-i-a'tus, a leader worthy of their bravery, and able to cope with the best generals of Rome. During six years he defied every effort for his defeat and capture; and the Lusitanians were not subdued until the Romans by treachery procured his assassination; to such a depth of dishonor had the Roman government sunk at that time (139 B.C.). * The destruction of this great city was one of the most ruthless acts recorded in history, like the destruction of Veil, in 393 b.c. ; of Corinth, which perished the same year with Carthage; and Jerusalem, in 70 a.d. Under the Emperor Augustus, Car- thage was rebuilt, and became, in the second century of the Christian era, one of the finest cities of the Roman Empire. It was again destroyed by the Arabs in the seventh century (698 a.d.), and now only a few ruins remain to mark its site. i Lusitania corresponded very nearly with modern Portugal; Celtiberia, with Aragon, in the north-eastern part of Spain. % f . I ^^A Z I The Roman Republic. 219 61. The Numantine war continued several years longer in the vicinity of Numantia, a city in the northern part of Spain; and it was not until Scipio ^Emilianus* took tlie com- mand that it was brought to a successful conclusion. Numan- tia suffered, for fifteen months, one of the most dreadful sieges recorded in history, the people, in the extremity of famine, devouring the bodies of the dead. At last they were compelled to surrender; but some set fire to their houses, killed their wives and children, and perished in the flames. Only a miserable remnant of the inhabitants survived; and of these Scipio selected fifty to grace his triumphal pro- cession; the rest he sold into slavery, and ordered the city to be entirely destroyed (133 B.C.). 62. These events closed the epoch which we have called W\Q period of foreign conquest; for though Rome continued to carry on wars and to annex new territories, it was during that period that she succeeded in making herself the sole great power in the then Review of the period. civilized world. At the beginning of that epoch, her do- minions were confined to Italy ; but at its close her sway stretched over the whole of southern Euroj^e, from the Atlantic to the Euxine, including all the great islands near its shores, while her power was felt in Egyj)t and the king- doms east of the Mediterranean. Her rapidly acquired provinces had led to an additional feature in her polity— the provincial or proconsular system, each province being governed by a magistrate of great power and dignity, both civil and military, either a proconsul, a praetor, or a propraetor, accord- ing to its importance or extent. 63. The effect of this rapid tide of conquest was to pour a flood of wealth into the city, leading to many great public improvements. New buildings were erected, including two * This was Scipio Africanus the Younger. The title of Numantinus was given to him after the war, making his full name Publius Cornelius Scipio ^milianus Afri- canus Numantinus. 220 Ancient History. new aqueducts; the streets were paved; the city was thor- oughly drained by capacious sewers; and addi- tional military roads were constructed in different parts of Italy. It was about this time that the Effects of the conquests. Change in nnanners. consul P. Scipio Na-si'ca caused a clep' sy-dra,"^ or water- clock, to be set up for public use. After the conquest of Greece, the city was filled with Greek scholars, writers, teachers, and musicians, many of whom were slaves; and the study of Greek literature came into vogue with Greek manners, customs, and fashions. Latin literature, also, made a commencement at this epoch, during which flourished the dramatists Naevius, Ennius, Plautus, and Terence. Some of their writings are still extant. 64. With wealth came luxury and a total departure from the simple manners which had characterized the Romans of the early days. A large part of the people became licentious and effeminate; and the love of pleasure and disj)lay, instead of patriotism and virtue, be- came the ruling motive. Corruption prevailed among the public officers and magistrates; and, to crown all, slavery assumed enormous proportions. It is said that of the popu- lation of Italy at this time, about twelve millions — more than two thirds — were slaves, f Such was the state of things that led to the interminable dissensions and terrible civil wars which characterize the next period of this history. * The clepsydra, in its simplest form, consisted of a transparent vase, filled with water, which was permitted to escape by a very small orifice, its height as shown by a graduated scale indicating the hour. This instrument was invented, or greatly improved, by Ctesibius of Alexandria, about 235 B.C. t " A few examples will show the prodigious number of slaves that must have been thrown into the market after the Second Punic War. To punish the Bru^- tians for the fidelity with which they adhered to the cause of Hannibal, the whole nation were made slaves; 150,000 Epirotes were sold by ^Emilius Paulus; 50,000 cap- tives were sent home from Carthage. These numbers are accidentally preserved; and if, according to this scale, we calculate the hosts of unhappy men sold in slavery during the Syrian, Macedonian, Illyrian, Grecian, and Spanish wars, we shall be prepared to hear that slaves fit only for unskilled labor were plentiful and cheap."— LiddfZrs History of Rome. The Roman Republic. 221 rv. Period of Internal Dissensions and Civil War (133-29 B.C.). 65. The Gracchi. The great conquests Avhich had been made served rather to enrich the nobles than to benefit the middle and poorer classes of the citizens; and, besides, had corrni)ted the government by giving undue power to the Senate. The agrarian laws Revival of the Licinian laws. which in earlier times had been passed to protect the people against the greed of the aristocracy, were generally unob- served; so that the land throughout Italy was in the pos- session of a few noble families; while the swarms of slaves left no occupation to the citizens except that of war. At this time a champion of the people arose, in the person of a young noble named Ti-be'ri-us Grac'chus, who being elected tribune, and noticing with grief and indignation the oppressions of the rich and the sufferings of the poor, determined to make an effort to redress these wrongs by reviving the Licinian laws [see page 199] (133 B.C.).* 66. Following the provisions of these laws, Gracchus pro- posed that the persons who held public lands to which they had no right should vacate them, on receiving pay- ment for the buildings which they had erected upon them, and that the lands should then be divided Measures proposed by Gracchus. according to law. He also proposed that the treasures left to * The speeches of Gracchus to the people were very effective, for he was a great orator. On one occasion he said: "The wild beasts in your land have their dens, but the soldiers of Italy have only water and air. Without houses or property, they, with their wives and children, are vagabonds. Your commanders deceive you when they bid you fight for your hearths and your gods : you have no hearths ; you have no household gods. It is for the insolence and luxury of others that you shed your blood. You are called the lords of the world, and you do not possess a square foot of soil." Tiberius and Caius Gracchus were the sons of that celebrated matron Cornelia who, though of illustrious family and possessing extensive accomplishments, was only proud of her distinction as the "Mother of the Gracchi." She it was who pointed to her sons, on a certain occasion, and remarked, " These are my jewels!" 222 Ancient History. Rome by Attains, king of Pergamus, should be laid out in the purchase of farming implements and cattle for the poor occupants of these lands. These propositions raised a great storm of indignation among the senators and other members of the aristocracy; and, while an election for tribunes was going on, in order to prevent the re-election of Gracchus Temple op Concord. they rushed into the assembly, under the lead of Scipio Nasica; and in the tumult Gracchus was slain. Three hundred of his friends perished with him, and their bodies were thrown into the Tiber. This was the first blood shed in civil strife at Rome since the time of the kings (133 B.C.). 67. The agrarian law, however, stood, and was partly carried into execution. This led to other troubles; and, ten The Roman Rejpubllc. 223 years afterward, Cai'us Gracchus, the brother of Tiberius, especially famed for his oratory, made another attempt to vindicate the rights of the lower orders Caius Gracchus, against the encroachments of the aristocracy and the senate. He proposed that the portion of grain which accrued to the state froni the provinces should be distributed among the people at a low rate, and brought forward several other meas- ures in the popular interest. But he, too, fell a victim to the violence of his opponents; for, civil war having been declared by the senate, Gracchus and 3000 of his adherents were slain, by the orders of the consul (121 B.C.). After this massacre, there was a large confiscation of property, by means of which a temple was erected to Concord. [See page 222.] The Gracchi were branded by the aristocracy as seditious dema- gogues, but the people honored their memory. * 68. Jugurthine War. The shocking corruption of the aristocratic order, including the senate, was shown in the war against Ju-gur'tha, who, having murdered his two cousins, sons of Mi-cip'sa, a faithful ally of Jugurtha. Eome, had usurped the throne of Numidia. These crimes he had been enabled to commit, after repeated complaints and entreaties made by the unfortunate princes, by bribing the members of the Roman senate; and he openly boasted of the power of his gold. At last, when the people would endure his outrageous wickedness no longer, war was declared against him (111 B.C.).; but even then he succeeded in bribing the generals sent against him, and thus prevented defeat. * "The law of Gracchus cut the patricians with a double edge. Their fortunes consisted in land and slaves ; it questioned their titles to the public territories, and it tended to force emancipation by making their slaves a burden. A real crisis had come, such as hardly occurs to a nation in the progress of many centuries. Men are in the habit of proscribing Julius Caesar as the destroyer of the Commonwealth. The civil wars, the revolutions of Caesar, the miserable vicissitudes of the Roman emperors, the avarice of the nobles and the rabble, the crimes of the forum and the palace, all have their germ in the ill success of the reform of Gracchus. "—.B«r^- arofi. 224 Ancient History. 69. After the corrupt conduct of these generals had been dis- covered, the management of the war was intrusted to Me-tel'- lus, a man of great energy and military skill. Jugurtha was soon defeated, and compelled to flee for protection to the neighboring kingdom, Mau-ri-ta'ni-a. At this point, one of the greatest characters in Eo- Defeat of Jugurtha. man history steps upon the stage — the famous Caius Ma'ri-us,* who had thus far acted as the lieutenant of Metellus in this war. Now, notwithstanding his illiteracy and mean birth, he was suddenly raised by the people to the consulship, and placed in command of the army against Jugurtha. He soon brought the war to a close, having de- feated and captured the wily and cruel Numidian (106 B.C.), whom he brought a captive to Rome. After being led, with his children, in triumph by Marius through the streets, Ju- gurtha was thrust into a dungeon, in the Mam'er-tine prison, and left to die of cold and hunger (104 B.c.).t 70. Invasion of the Cimbrians and Teutons. In the mean time, hordes of barbarians, from Germany, called the Cim'bri- ans and Teutons, invaded Gaul, and threatened Italy. After four Roman armies had been successively defeated by them, the command was given to Marius, who attacked the Teutons near the Rhone River, and gained so de- cided a victory over them, that they were almost annihilated (103 B.C.). The next year, having been appointed * Caius Marius, the son of a poor day-laborer, was born near Arpinum, among the Latin hills, about 157 B.C. He served at the siege of Numantia under Scipio, who greatly admired his military talents. Indeed, on one occasion, being asked where the Romans would be able to find a general to take his place when he was gone, he replied, placing his hand upon the shoulder of Marius, "Here, perhaps." t Marius set out for Italy, and, with his legions and their captives, entered Rome in triumph— a spectacle of which Jugurtha, in chains, and his unfortunate children, were the principal figures. When the procession was over, the captive king was led to a dungeon, under orders for his immediate execution. As he was about to be stripped of his ornaments and robes, the executioner, in haste to pluck the pen- dants from his ears, tore away the flesh, and thrust him naked into a dungeon below ground. He descended into this place with a smile, saying, ' What a cold bath is here ; ' He pined about six days, and expired, "—FergiMsori's Roman Rep^iblic. Defeat of the Cimbrians. The Roman BepicbUc. 225 consul for tlie fifth time, he marched against the Oimbrians, whom he also defeated with immense slaughter, in Cis-al'pine Gaul. By these two great victories, the tide of barbarian inundation w^as turned back for centuries, and Marius was deservedly hailed as^e Savior of his Goiintri/.* 71. A dreadful war broke out soon afterward (90 B.C.) between Rome and the Italian states, called the Social War. This was caused by the demand of the states for the rights of citizenship, which the senate refused. Social war. After nearly two years of war, and tlie destruction of about 300,000 Italians, the franchise was granted to all such as con- sented to lay down their arms; and tranquillity was restored. 72. Mithridatic War. Among the eastern monarchs of this time, Mith-ri-da'tes, king of Pontus, the sixth of that name, had risen to great power by his wonderful genius and force of character. His extraordinary Mithri dates. physical size, strength, and accomplishments were matched by his mental endowments and culture; for he was versed in all the learning of the East as well as of the Greeks; and, it is said, could converse in all the different languages spoken in his extensive dominions, f Already he had made many con- quests in Asia Minor, which had in some degree brought him in collision with the Romans, when he conceived the idea of extending his empire toward the Avest, and announced himself as the liberator of the Hellenic people from the yoke of Rome. * " The human avalanche which for thirteen years had alarmed the nations from the Danube to the Ebro, from the Seine to the Po, rested beneath the sod, or toiled under the yoke of slavery. The forlorn hope of the German migration had per- formed its duty; the homeless people of the Cimbri and their comrades were no more. " — Mommsen. + "What really distinguishes Mithridates amidst the multitude of similar sultans is his boundless activity. He disappeared one fine morning from his palace, and remained unheard of for months; so that he was given over for lost. When he returned, he had wandered incognito through all Western Asia, and reconnoitered everywhere the country and the people. In like manner he was not only generally fluent in speech, but he administered justice to each of the twenty -two nations over which he ruled in its own language without needing an interpreter— a trait significant of the versatile ruler of the many-tongued EslsV— Mommsen. 226 Ancient History. At Ephesiis he issued an order that all the Italians residing in Asia Minor should be put to death; and, as it is stated, 80,000 were accordingly massacred in a single night (88 B.C.). 73. Sul'la, afterward so celebrated for his contests with Marius, was sent into Greece to manage IJ^e war against him; and, after defeating him in several battles, com- pelled him to submit to humiliating conditions of Sulla. peace (84 B.C.). The war was afterward renewed by Mithri- dates (74 B.C.), with a large and well-disciplined army, and a powerful fleet; but he suffered a terrible defeat from Lucullus, his army being almost annihilated. After another defeat he took refuge in Armenia, with his son-in-law Ti-gra'nes, then one of the most powerful mon- archs in the East, who not only received him, but Roman victories. raised an immense army for his defense against the Romans. This vast host was defeated at Ti-gran-o-cer'ta [see Map V.] by Lucullus, with a force of only 12,000 men (69 B.C.); while, it is said, the army of Tigranes exceeded 200,000 men, of whom more than 50,000 were cavalry. The next spring (68 B.C.), Lucullus gained another victory over the enemy in Armenia, and probably would have captured the capital, but his soldiers, disgusted with his insatiable lust for the spoils of war, revolted; and he was, therefore compelled to retreat. 74. Soon afterward, Mithridates collected a large force, and, while the mutiny in the army checked the operations of Lucullus, defeated the Romans. Pompey, afterward called the Great, then took the com- ipey. mand ; and in a short time subdued both Tigranes and Mithridates. The latter, driven from his throne and country, in order to escape death at the hands of his own son, who had revolted against him, put an end to his life (63 B.C.). The Romans felt as much joy Death of Mithridates. at the news of his death as if they had gained a great victory. Tlie Roman Bepublic. 227 FIRST CIVIL WAR. 75. The period of this war is especially noted for the beginning of those great contests for the supreme power which the ambitious leaders waged between each other, and which finally brought the Roman republic to destruction. When the Mithridatic Marius and Sulla. war broke out, Marius expected to be selected by the senate to conduct it, and was greatly offended because the command was given to Sulla; for the latter, who had acted as his lieu- tenant in the war against Jugurtha, had grown so much into favor as to become his rival. Marius, therefore, by means of an intrigue, obtained the passage of a decree in the comitia of the tribes transferring the command to himself. Sulla refused to submit, but at the head of his legions marched to Rome, which he entered and occupied; and Marius was com- pelled to flee to save his life. Thus, for the first time in the history of the city, a Roman army encamped within its walls; and an example was set of using the military power against the civil, which was afterward so often followed (88 B.C.). 76. The aged Marius, who had been six times elected consul, and, as we have seen, had been hailed as the savior of his country, thus became a wretched fugitive, with a price set upon his head. At one place he was thrown into Exile of Marius a dungeon, and a Cimbrian slave was sent to put him to death; but, it is said, that, as the assassin approached, the eyes of the old hero flashed fire, and he exclaimed: '^ Durst thou slay Caius Marius ?" And the sword fell from the affrighted barbarian's hand, and he fled, muttering, ^' No, I cannot kill Caius Marius." The magistrates then released him, and he crossed to Africa, landing at the site of Car- thage. There he received a message from the praetor, com- manding him to leave. '^Go tell the praBtor," he replied, with a sigh, ^'that you have seen Caius Marius, a miserable fugitive, sitting amidst the ruins of Carthage." 928 Ancient History. 77. But the soothsayers, in his youth, it was said, had foretold that he would be seven times declared consul; and this prophecy was to be remarkably fulfilled. * After Sulla had departed from Kome to prosecute the war against Mithri- dates, one of the consuls, Cinna, who belonged to the Marian or popular party, obtaining control of a considerable force in southern Italy, marched to Rome. On hearing this, Marius immediately returned to Italy, and, with such forces as he could collect, united with Cinna. The city was occupied by the soldiery, and a dreadful massacre ensued, lasting five days. Many of the most dis- Massacre by Marius. tinguished citizens were put to death, Marius reveling in the slaughter. The next year he and Cinna were declared con- suls without an election; but, tormented by a guilty con- science and exhausted by intemperance, he survived this last triumph only thirteen days, dying in his seventy-first year (86 B.C.). 78. The Marian party still continued to rule, till Sulla, returning from Asia, entered Italy with a large army (83 B.C.); but the leaders of the Marian party had made great prepara- tions to oppose him. A dreadful war of two years ensued, during which the Samnites took up arms against Sulla. He was, however, triumphant over all his enemies, and after gaining several great victories, entered Rome its undisputed master. His first act was to Masscre by Sulla. massacre 6000 Samnite prisoners ; and then commenced a fearful slaughter of all whom he deemed his enemies. Every day he issued a new list of those wlio might be put to death by any one; and, it is said, the porch of his house was kept full of heads. After this dreadful proscription, in which it is estimated 8000 citizens perished, he declared himself Perpetual * *'He told his companions that, when he was very young, and lived in the coun- try, an eagle's nest fell into his lap, with seven young ones in it. His parents, sur- prised at the sight, applied to the diviners, who answered that their son would be the most illustrious of men, and that he would seven times attain the highest office and authority in the country."— PZwtorc/i. The Itoman Repuhlic. 229 Dictator. Having effected some reforms in the government, he resigned, to the surprise of all, the office of dictator, which he had filled about two years, and retired to private life (79 B.C.). A short time afterward, he died of a loathsome disease, occasioned by intemperance and debauchery. His memory was honored with a gorgeous funeral, and upon a monument erected to him was inscribed the Death of Sulla. epitaph, composed by himself: ^^I am Sulla the Fortunate, who in the course of my life have surpassed both friends and enemies — the former by the good, the latter by the evil I have done them." 79. In this war Marius had been opposed by the patricians, while the Senate and its partisans had been on the side of Sulla. The party of Marius was thus sustained by the people, but that of Sulla by the aristocracy. The death of these two great chiefs did not end the strife. Ser-to'ri-us, one of the most distinguished of the Marian Sertorius. leaders, had taken refuge in Spain, and there established a power which for more than ten years defied all the efforts of the Senate. Pom'pey was sent against him; but it was only after the assassination of Sertorius that the insurgents could be subdued (72 B.C.). 80. Servile War. In the mean time, Rome was con- fronted with a terrific danger. This was a slave insurrection. Spar'ta-cus, a Thracian, made captive in war, and afterward kept in a training-school for gladiators, Spartacus. at Capua, broke away from his place of bondage with a number of his fellow-prisoners, and fleeing to Mount Vesuvius, was joined by a vast number of slaves and outlaws of every description. Having collected a force of over 100,000 ftien, he moved northward, defeated the regular army in several engagements, and threatened Rome itself. At last he was met by a large force under Cras'sus, and his army cut to pieces, he himself being among the slain (71 B.C.). This was the second great slave revolt, one having, about sixty years 230 Ancient History. before, broken out in Sicily, and been reduced only after frightful massacres and ravages. These insurrections were the natural result of the dreadful slave-system pursued in the Eoman conquests. 81. At this time, Pompey and Crassus were the two lead- ing men at Kome. The former, by his conduct during the civil war, his good fortune in Spain, and the timely assistance he had rendered against Spar- Pompey. tacus, had contrived to acquire very great popularity.* Sulla had given to him, while yet a young man, the title of Magnus — the Great. Crassus exerted a powerful influence by means of his immense wealth, which he had craftily acquired by buying up the estates of the proscribed during the dictator- ship of Sulla. Pompey being sent against the pirates of the Mediterranean, acted with so mucli energy and address that in three months he entirely cleared the seas of those robbers {^^ B.C.) — a most important achievement, for the commerce of the Mediterranean had been wholly at their mercy, so that Italy could no longer export her products nor even obtain corn from her provinces. \ 82. In the mean time, Lucullus had been winning vic- tories over Mithridates and his son-in-law Tigranes, king of * After the victory of Crassus over the forces of Spartacus, a considerable body of the insurgents escaping into Cisalpine Gaul were met by Pompey returning with his victorious troops from Spain, and were cut to pieces. Pompey on this occasion wrote to the Senate, stating "that Crassus had defeated the enemy in battle, but that he had cut up the war by the roots." Subsequently Pompey and Crassus " instituted throughout Apulia and Lucania a man -hunt such as there had never been before, to crush out the last sparks of the mighty conflagration. Along the road from Capua to Rome the six thousand crosses bearing captured slaves testi- fied to the re-establishment of order and to the renewed victory of acknowledged right m^er its living property that had rebelled." t The power of these freebooters extended from the Pillars of Hercules to the shores of Cilicia. They formed a great piratical state, and had been recognized as a political power, for Mithridates had formed an alliance with them. Everywhere they had rock castles where they concealed their wives, their children, and theu- plunder, which they called military spoils. They made it their boast that they were at war with the world ; and while they expected crucifixion in every Roman seaport, they hesitated not to inflict the same merciless punishment on their cap- tives, when the latter could not purchase their release. The Roman Bepuhlic. S31 Armenia, but was stopped in his career of success by a mutiny of Ins troops. Pompey was, therefore, sent into Asia, with the powers of a despot, to bring the war to a close. This he accomplislied in less than three years, subduing both the revolted kings, and reducing Pontus to a Roman province (63 B.C.). He also reduced Conquests by Pompey, Syria, and took Jerusalem, dethroning the reigning king of Judea, and making the kingdom tributary to Rome. Having regulated all the provinces of the east, with the authority of an absolute potentate, he returned triumphantly to Italy (61 B.C.). [Seep. 69.] 83. Conspiracy of Catiline. While Pompey was in Asia, the famous conspiracy of Cat'i-line occurred. The late civil wars had left many needy and reckless characters who had profited by the lawless violence of that time, and who longed for its repetition in order that Character of Catiline. they might gain power and riches. This dangerous class found a leader in Lucius Catiline, an audacious and unprincipled man, possessing great physical strength as v»^ell as mental vigor and culture, for he was by birth a patrician. Having held various offices in which he became notorious by his reckless extortion and other crimes, he aspired to the consulate; and being disappointed, formed a plot to murder the Plot. consuls and seize the government. Failing in this, while Cicero, the orator,* was consul, he renewed the scheme; designing not only to murder the consul but to burn and pillage the city. 84. Fortunately this dreadful plot became known to Cicero, who denounced Catiline and his associates with such scath- ing eloquence in the Senate, that he was compelled to flee * Cicero, noted for his eloquence and learning, was among the most illustrious men of this time. He was bom at Arpinum, 106 B.C., of a plebeian family, and enjoyed the instruction of the most eminent lawyers and orators of the day. He also studied Greek philosophy under the best teachers in Rome, and afterward in Athens itself. Previous to attaining the consulship, he had filled nearly every inferior office, and had greatly distinguished himself as an orator. 232 Ancient History. fi*om Eome. His confederates, who had been left in the city to consummate the wicked sclieme, were betrayed by some Gauls whom they had endeavored to gain over to their service, and being immediately apprehended were put to death, through the courage and promptitude of Cicero. Catiline, at the head of a numerous Defeat of the conspirators. force, which he had succeeded in collecting, attempted to reach Gaul, but being overtaken in Etruria, was defeated and slain (62 B.C.). 85. A few months after this, Pompey returned from the Mithridatic war laden with the spoils of the East. His triumph of two days was the most splendid that Rome had ever seen; for he had conquered fifteen nations, and more than three hundred princes Triumph of Pompey. walked before his triumphal car. Yet the Senate, under the lead of Cato, refused to ratify his acts; and, irritated by this, he joined the popular party. The most prominent leader of that party at this time was Julius Caesar,* then just rising into notice and power. This man, who Julius Caesar. afterward became the greatest character in Roman history, had already gitined distinction in Spain; and in Rome had won over the people by his lavish and princely munificence. Seven years before, when holding the office of an inferior magistrate, he had dared to restore the trophies of Marius, * Caius Julius Caesar was born in 100 b.c, and was a descendant of an old patrician family. His aunt married Marius; and, at the age of seventeen, he married the daughter of Cinna, the distinguished Marian partisan. During the time of Sulla's proscription, Caesar's name was put on the list of those to be slain; but some of the nobles interceded in his favor. "I grant your request," said the dictator; " but you will find many a Marius in that young man." Once, while on his way to Rhodes, the pirates captured him, and demanded twenty talents for his ransom. " I will pay you fifty," he replied, "but as soon as I am free I will have you all crucified." When released, he collected a force, pursued the rob- bers, and kept his word. Thus had he already shown the irresistible energy of his character. In the eulogy which he pronounced on his aunt Julia, he said: "My aunt derived her descent by her mother from a race of kings, and by her father from the immortal gods. In our family is the sacred majesty of kings, who are masters of the world, and the divine majesty of gods, who are the masters of kings." This was in 72 b.c. The Roman Republic. 233 thus delighting the old veterans, who stood gazing upon the statue of their beloved leader with tears in their eyes. First Triumvirate. 86. With the greatest adroitness, Caesar reconciled the differences existing between Pompey and the wealthy Crassus, and succeeded in forming with them an alliance by the terms of which the three were to support each other's plans and interests (60 B.C.). To Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus. cement the union of Pompey more strongly with himself, he gave to him his only daughter Julia in marriage. This secret cabal is known in history as the First Triumvirate [association of three men]. By the support of his two powerful con- federates, Caesar obtained the consulship; and at its close the Senate passed a decree by which he was assigned the proconsul- ship of Gaul, with the command of an army to subdue the barbarians, some of whom had commenced hostile movements, threatening the Eoman province. 87. Caesar's campaigns in Gaul lasted about eight years; and, in that period, he not only succeeded in subjugating all the warlike races of that country, but, crossing the Rhine, gained great victories over the bold and hardy Germans. He also passed into Britain, Conquest of Gaul. and defeated the fierce and warlike inhabitants, who strove with the greatest intrepidity to repel the invaders from their island (55 B.C.). By 50 B.C., his province was completely subdued; and it is computed that in these eight years of war, nearly a million of Gauls and Germans were sacrificed, Caesar never showing the least mercy to the barbarians, while toward his fellow-citizens he invariably manifested remarkable mild- ness and humanity. He captured more than 800 cities, and defeated 300 tribes. 88. In the mean time, Crassus had obtained the pro- consular government of Syria, and had undertaken an ex- S34 Ancient History-. pedition against the Par'tliians, an eastern race who, first appearing near the Caspian Sea, had at this time conquered the vast region extending from the Euphrates to the Indus. In this expedition Crassus was de- feated and slain (53 B.C.).* This disaster ex- Defeat of Crassus. posed the Roman provinces in the east to the attacks of the Parthians; but Cassius (kash'e-us), the lieutenant of Crassus, prosecuted the war two years longer, and gaining a decided victory over the Parthians, checked their further advance westward. The Great Civil 3Var. 89. Pompey, although made proconsul of Spain, remained in Rome, of which, after the death of the violent and unprin- cipled demagogue Clodius, he became the un- limited master. One of the members of the triumvirate having been removed by death, and Pompey's measures. Pompey having become intensely jealous of Caesar, the trium- virate was practically dissolved. Pompey, determining to supplant Cassar and obtain the dictatorship, went over to the party of the Senate which he had hitherto opposed, and ob- tained in succession two decrees: first, that Caesar should forthwith disband his army; and second, as he had not obeyed, that he should be proclaimed an outlaAv, while Pompey himself all the while retained his army in Spain, as well as other forces in Italy, in order to enforce his ambitious designs. Caesar, seeing that he could Crossing of the Rubicon. only oppose violence by violence, at once broke up his camp, and crossing the river Ru'bi-con, the boundary of his prov- ince, entered Italy, with a small army, afterward reinforced - * Crassus, after his defeat, was treacherously induced to meet the Parthian chieftain to arrange terms of capitulation; and was barbarously assassinated. The victor sent the head and hand of Crassus to the Parthian king, who, it is related, caused molten gold to be poured into its mouth, in mockery of the Roman's avarice. The wealth of Crassus was enormous, amounting at his death to about $10,000,000. The Roman Repuhlic. 235 by detachments from Gaul. Thus was commenced the Second Civil War. 90. Pompey, with what forces he had, and accompanied by many of the senators and others, fled to Brundi'sium, from which port, having collected a large fleet, he sailed toEpirus. Caesar soon overran Italy ; and Defeat and death of Pompey. then proceeded to Spain, where, with consummate ability, he speed- ily compelled Pompey's generals to surrender, and annexed most of their forces to his own. Re- turning, he then crossed to Epirus to give battle to Pompey. No general engagement, however, took place till the next year; when, on the plains of Phar-sa'li-a,* the Pompey the Great. battle was joined, and Caesar, al- though with forces far inferior in number, gained a decisive victory (48 B.C.). This battle, according to Caesar's own statement, cost him only two hundred soldiers; while on Pompey's side there fell about fifteen thousand. Pompey fled to Egypt, but was treacherously assassinated, by order of the Egyptian court, as he was about to step ashore. \ * The battle was fought near the city of Pharsalus, in that part of Thessaly called Pharsalia. Hence it is sometimes called the battle of Pharsalus. Pompey's army was confident of victory, and great preparations had been made for cele- brating it. Caesar says in his Commentaries on the Civil War: "On enter- ing Pompey's camp, we found tables ready covered, side-boards loaded with plate, and tents adorned with branches of myrtle; that of L. Lentulns, with some others, was shaded with ivy. Everything gave proofs of the highest luxury, and an assured expectation of victory; whence it was easy to see that they little dreamed of the issue of that day, since, intent only on voluptuous refinements, they pretended, with troops immersed in luxury, to oppose Caesar's army, accustomed to fatigue, and inured to the Avant of necessaries." t '• Thus fell the illustrious chief whom alone of all their champions the Romans bad distinguished by the appellation of the Great, a title which seemed peculiarly 236 Ancient History. 91. Caesar, with his characteristic promptitude, pursued Pompey to Egypt, and on arriving there was presented with the head and ring of his great riyal. He accepted the ring, but turned aside with tears from the mournful and ghastly spectacle of the gory head, Caesar in Egypt. and ordered Pompey's remains to be burned with due honor. He then entered Alexandria. The succession to the throne of Egypt was, at that time, in dispute between the young King Ptolemy and his sister, the celebrated Cle-o-pa'tra. Caesar, influenced by the fascinations of the latter, eopara. (igci(je(i i^ ^gr favor, and thus incurred the z\ hostility of Ptolemy's adherents, who raised a fearful insur- rection against him. This, however, in a few months Caesar reduced, and confirmed Cleopatra on the throne. During this war at Alexandria, Caesar set fire to the Egyptian fleet, and the flames having extended to the public library, that im- mense collection of more than 100,000 volumes, containing copies of all the most valuable works of ancient times, was de- stroyed (48 B.C.). 92. While Caesar was in Egypt, rumors spread that he had been slain, and the wildest confusion prevailed for a time throughout the empire, but especially in Italy, where his pres- ence was greatly needed. But from Egypt he pro- ceeded against Pharna'ces, son of the great Mithri- dates, who had risen in rebellion and seized upon Other victories. Armenia and Colchis. Caesar speedily defeated him at Zie'la, in Pontus, and announced his victory to the Eoman Senate in three words — Vent, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered). In two months all Asia was restored to tranquillity, and Caesar then returned to Rome, to assume the office of dictator. Proceeding next to Africa, he gained a great victory at Thap'- appropriate to one whose rapid conquests in Asia could only be paralleled by those of the Macedonian Alexander. His fate continued to point a moral to the latest period of the Empire, and its consummation deserved to be regarded as the most tragic incident in Jlomaii history."— ilferwate's History of the Eomam, The Roman Republic. 237 sus over the forces of Scipio, who, assisted by Ju'ba, king of Mauritania, still adhered to the party of the aristocracy and the Senate. Cato, called the Stoic, on account of his stern virtue, seeing that all was lost, and that the Roman republic was now at an end, committed suicide at Utica (46 B.C.).* 93. Caesar, having formed Numidia into a Roman province, returned to Rome, where he celebrated with extraordinary magnificence four triumphs — over Gaul, Egypt, Pontus, and Africa. The Romans had never before seen so magnificent a j^rocession. A great Gallic Caesar's triumph. chief, the son of Juba, of Mauritania, and Arsinoe, Cleopatra's sister, walked before his car. C^sar lavished immense sums of money on the people, and also gave feasts and splendid shows, f A general amnesty was then declared, and the soldiers were re- warded with liberal donations. But before he could settle affairs at Rome, he was called to Spain, where the two sons of Pompey had raised an army against him. These he defeated in the severe battle of Munda, which closed the war. Having thus become master of Rome, he determined to lay aside the sword and cultivate the arts of peace. He instituted many im- portant reforms in the laws and government, rectified the calendar, and formed plans for many great and useful works, among which were the building of a new senate-house, a grand theater, and a public library. He encouraged agricul- ture, tried to revive the Licinian laws, and caused laws to be enacted regulating bankruptcy, usury, and luxury.]; * " The constitutional strug^gle was at an end; and that it was so was proclaimed by Marcus Cato when he fell on his sword at Utica."— Mo??; msen. t These were the great shows of the amphitheater, consisting of those cruel gladiatorial exhibitions, mixed with the combats of wild beasts, in which the Roman people delighted. On this occasion, the grand vela'rium, or awning of a thousand colors, made of the richest silk, the product of eastern looms, protected the spectators from the sun. Thus were the people amused and quieted while they were being robbed of their liberty; but, at the same time, they were enjoying the spoils of enslaved and plundered nations, the victims of Roman ambition, rapine, and avarice. X " Caesar was monarch, but he never played the king. Even when absolute lord of Rome, he retained the deportment of the part^ leader. Perfectly pliant 238 Ancient History. 94. While engaged in these reforms, a stop was suddenly put to his magnificent career. Notwithstanding the modera- tion with which he acted, his generosity to his enemies, and the consideration and kindness with which he treated all parties, there was an under- Death of Caesar. current of dissatisfaction and hostility; for he was, in every- thing but the name, a king; and it was said that he designed to assume even the royal title and crown. A conspiracy was, there- fore, formed against him by a large body of the nobles, promi- nent among whom were Brutus and Cassius, the former his most trusted friend. At a meeting of the Senate held on the 15th of March (the Ides of March), he was attacked by the conspirators, and fell pierced with twenty-three wounds (44 B.C.). He had de- fended himself for a time, after the assassins commenced to assail him; but, when he saw Brutus among them, he exclaimed, "And thou, too, Brutus!" and yielded to his fate, falling at the base of Pompey's statue.* 95. The conspirators excused their crime on the plea that they were freeing Rome from a dangerous tyrant; but they were, doubtless, actuated rather by envy than by patriotism, with the exception of Brutus, Julius C^sar. (From a Roman coin.) The conspirators. who sacrificed friendship to the love of his country. Besides, and smooth, easy and charming in conversation, complaisant toward every one it seemed as if he wished to be nothing but the first among his peers. "—Mommscn, * "The assassins stabbed him through and through, for they had pledged them- selves, one and all, to bathe their daggers in his blood. Brutus himself received a wound in their eagerness and trepidation. The victim reeled a few paces, propped by the blows he received on every side, till he fell dead at the foot of Pompey's statue. ' '— ikfenf a^e. Tlie Roman Republic . 239 most of the leaders in tlie conspiracy were guilty of base in- gratitude; for they had been freely pardoned their former opposition to Ca?s;ir, and placed in offices of power and emolu- ment. Cassius, indeed, had been one of the most active of Pompey's adherents. 96. Caesar was probably the greatest man that Rome ever produced. He was not only an able general and a consum- mate statesman and politician, but a splendid orator, a fine scholar, and an elegant writer. His history of the Gallic campaigns, styled the '' Com- Character of Caesar. mentaries," is a complete model for that kind of composition. His knowledge of human nature seems to have been almost perfect, for he swayed the minds of all wlio came within his influence, to an extent rarely . equaled and never surpassed. The activity of his intellect was marvelous. Pliny says, " He could be writing and reading, dictating and listening all at the same time. He was wont to, occupy four amanuenses at once, and had been known to employ as many as seven." He is described as "pale in complexion, of a tall and spare figure, with dark piercing eyes and an aquiline nose, with scanty hair and without a beard." He may be truly said to have com- pleted the destruction of the liberties of his country; for the battles of Pharsalia, Thapsus, and Munda established the Roman Empire, and Julius Caesar virtually became its first emperor, as he is reckoned the first of the "Twelve Caesars." 97. After the murder of Caesar, the conspirators fled to the capitol, where they remained until they entered into an agree- ment with Mark An'tony, the consul, and a par- ticular friend of Caesar, that all his laws should remain in force, that his will should be carried into effect, and that his body should be honored with a public funeral. Accordingly, the body was carried into the forum; and Mark Antony pronounced over it a funeral oration, in the course of which he exposed the bleeding wounds to the people, and so worked upon their sympathies, that they arose Antony s oration. 240 Ancient History. against the cons23irators and compelled tliem to flee from the city. 98. Antony, having thus become master of Rome, produced Caesar's will, and other papers which he represented as contain- ing his acts and wishes. These he made such use of as best served his purpose, to excite popular feeling in favor of Caesar's party. Thus he excited the op- Antony master of Rome. position of the senatorial party, led by Cicero, who was heard to exclaim: ^'The tyrant is dead, but the tyranny still lives." Another actor, however, now appeared on the stage, and one destined to play a great part. This was Caius Octavius, then a young man, the nephew and Octavius in Rome. adopted son of the great Julius, who had been appointed heir in his last testament. He now (May) appeared in Rome, and demanded the property left to him by his adopted father (44 B.C.). 99. Octavius did everything he could to win over the people, giving them public shows, and even borrow- ing money in order to pay Caesar's legacies. He cultivated the esteem and confidence of Cicero, and conciliated the Senate, showing the greatest appearance of hostility to the am- bitious schemes of Antony. The latter was declared a public enemy by the Senate, and was boldly attacked by Cicero, who pronounced against him a series of magnificent orations, which have been styled, in imitation of Mark Antony. His artful policy. Cicero. those of Demosthenes, the PMUppics. Cicero was sanguine that the republic could be re-established, and he was unre- mitting m his efforts to effect this result; for, though fond of I The Roman Republic. 241 Antony and Lepidus. Octavius consul. praise and distinction, he was at heart a true patriot. Cir- cumstances were, however, working against him, and neutral- izing all his exertions. 100. While these things were in })rogress in Rome, Antony was in Cisalpine Gaul, where he was defeated by the two con- suls; but both of them being slain, Octavius took the command, while Antony formed a union with Lep'i-dus, a general of great experience and influ- ence, then stationed in Transalpine Gaul. In the mean time, the aristocratic pai-ty in the Senate withdrew the command from Octavius, and refused him the consulate ; whereupon he approached the city with his army, and compelled the Senate to accede to wishes. Second Triumvirate. 101. Soon afterward Octavius entered into a negotiation with Antony and Lepidus, and arranged for an interview, the result of which was the formation of the Second Triumvirate, tlie agree- ment being tliat the three were to kee^) possession of the supreme con- trol of tlie government for five years, his Ternns of the agreement. ClCHRO. assigning the provinces, and appoint- ing the magistrates as they pleased (43 B.C.). A dreadful proscription and massacre followed the formation of this league, each of the triumvirs inserting in the list all whom he deemed hostile and wished to be put to death. Not fewer than three hundred senators and two thousand knights were among the pro- scribed; and one of the victims sacrificed to the hatred of Antony was Cicero, who was assassinated by the emissaries of the triumvir, as he was endeavoring to escape. 242 > Ancient History. 102. Having taken vengeance upon their enemies in Italy, the triumvirs turned their attention to Brutus and Cassius, who, with the design of restoring the liberties of their country, had succeeded in making them- selves masters of all the eastern part of the Defeat of Brutus and Cassius. empire. Antony and Octavius crossed to Macedonia and engaged the republican forces at Philip'pi, where Cassius and Brutus were successively defeated, each slaying himself at the close of the battle (42 B.C.).* These victories left the Trium- virate in absolute control of the empire. At the expiration of the five years, the triumvirate was renewed; but soon after- ward Lepidus attempted to gain the joower for himself, and was deposed (36 B.C.). 103. Antony being visited by Cleopatra in Asia, returned with her to Egyi)t, and surrendered himself to the wiles of that artful beauty, f At last, after neglecting his duty for years. * " As long as there seemed a chance that the godlike stroke would be justified by success, Brutus claimed the glory of maintaining a righteous cause; but when all hope fled, he could take leave of philosophy and life together, and exclaim, 'I once dreamed that virtue is a thing; I find her only a name, and the meie slave of fortune.' He had blamed Cato for flying from misery by self-murder; but he learnt to justify the same desperate act when he contemplated committing it him- self.'"— Meru'a^e. Plutarch says that, sitting in his tent, one evening before the battle, he saw a strange figure enter, and stand by his side. " Who art thou '?" he exclaimed. " I am thy evil genius," replied the figure; "thou shalt see me again at Philippi." t "When Antony first set out on his expedition against the Parthians, he sent orders to Cleopatra to meet him in Cilicia, that she might answer some accusations which had been laid against her of assisting Cassius in the war. Though she had received many pressing letters of invitation from Antony and his friends, she held him in such contempt that she by no means took the most expeditious method of traveling. She sailed along the river Cydnus in a most magnificent galley. The stern was covered with gold, the sails were of purple, and the oars were silver. These, in their motion, kept time to the music of flutes, and pipes, and harps. The queen, in the dress and character of Venus, laj' under a canopy embroidered with gold, of the most exquisite workmanship; while boys, like painted cupids, stood fanning her on each side of the sofa. Her maids were of the most distinguished beauty, and, habited like the Nereids and the Graces, assisted in the steerage and conduct of the vessel. The fragrance of burning incense was diffused along the shores, which were covered with multitudes of people. Some followed the proces- sion ; and such numbers went down from the city to see it, that Antony was at last left alone on the tribunal. A rumor was soon spread that Venus was come to feast The Uonian Republic. S48 he gave great offense to Octavius by divorcing his sister Octa- via, in order to marry the Egyptian qneen, and dis- pleased tiie Roman peoi)le by his conduct in Egypt. This brought on a war, which Octavius directed Antony and Cleopatra. the Senate to declare against Cleopatra. The war thus caused was ended by the naval battle of Actium [ah' t^he-um) , Antony and Cleopatra being totally defeated (31 B.C.). Fleeing to Egypt, Antony stabbed himself, and Cleopatra put an end to her life (it is said, by Battle of Actiunn. means of a venomous asp), in order to prevent being com- pelled to grace the triumph of Octavius.* Her death ter- minated the sovereignty of the Ptolemies, which had existed about three centuries (323-31 B.C.). 104. Egypt having been made a Roman province, and pluudered of its immense treasures in order to supply Oc- tavius with funds to reward his soldiers, he re- turned to Rome, where he was formally invested by the Senate with absolute autliority, receiving Octavius master of the empire. the title of Augustus (29 B.C.). The date of this event is properly chosen as the era of the commencement of the Roman Empire. Subsequently, the government was merely a military despotism, under which the Romans were hopeless of relief; they, therefore, made no effort to restore the repub- lican constitution. Augustus celebrated the restoration of peace by closing the gates of the temple of Janus, for the third time in the history of Rome. \ with Bacchus, for the benefit of Asia. Antony sent to invite her to supper; but she thought it his duty to wait upon her, and, to show liis poHteness on her arrival, he compHed. "— PZuto7-c/i. * " When the figure of Cleopatra was afterward carried in the triumph of Octavius, she was represented reclining on a couch with the asp clinging to either arm, and a mortal sleep stealing slowly through every limb."— MerivaZe. t " Octavius, in a little time, when he had allured to his interest the soldiery by a profusion of largesses, the people by distributions of corn, and the minds of men in general by the sweets of peace, snowed more aspiring views. By degrees, and almost imperceptibly, he drew into his own hands the authority of the Senate, the ftmctions of the magistrates, and the administration of the laws. To these en- croachments no opposition was made."— racrtws. M4 Ancient History. Review Outlitte. Chronology. Roman Kingdom. 753 B.C. 509 B.C. Roman Republic. 509-29 B.C. FIRST PERIOD 509-840 B.C. 494 B.C. 493 B.C. 486 B.C. 471 B.C. 445 B.c 366 B.C. 451 B.C. 390 B.C. SECOND PERIOD. 340-264 B.C. 343-295 B.C. 339 B.C. 280 B.C. 275 B.C. One of the Latin tribes — the Ramuians, or Romans — made a settlement on the Tiber River, which by the addition of other Latin cantons soon in- creased in influence and numbers. This became the famous city of Rome. It was at first under a kingly government, which, according to the tra- ditionary history, lasted through seven reigns, ending with that of Tarquin. The struggles between the two orders — the patri- cians and the plebeians, or the rich and the poor — were the most prominent events in Roman his- tory for about a century and a half. The patri- cians were obliged to make many concessions to the plebeians, of which the principal were the fol- lowing: The appointment of the tribunes of the people, and the conferring upon them of the mio power; the passage of the Icilian law, making their persons sacred ; the agrarian law of Spurius Cassius; the Publilian law of Volero, which gave the election of the tribunes to the people; the right of intermarriage between patricians and plebeians; and the Licinian laws, which admitted plebeians to the consulship, restricted the holding of the public lands, and partly relieved the bur- dens of debtors. The celebrated code of laws, called the Twelve Tables, was framed during this period. Rome w^as taken and burned by the Gauls. During three fourths of a century succeeding the close of the first period, the Romans were en- gaged in the conquest of Italy. They waged four wars with the Samnites; subdued Latium; vanquished the combined forces of the Etrurians and Gauls; and, though at first defeated by the invader Pyrrhus,' they finally gained a great vic- tory over his forces at Beneventum. Soon after I Remew Outline. S45 264 B.C. THIRD rp:RIOD. 264-133 B.C. First Punic War. 264-241 B.C. 255 B.C. 251 B.C. 241 B.C. Second Punic War, 218-202 B.C. 218 B.C. 216 B.C. 212 B.C. 207 B.C. 202 B.C. 196 B.C. 168 B.C. 146 B.C. 146 B.C. 133 B.C. FOURTH PERIOD. 133-29 B.C. 138 B.C. 121 B.C. 111-106 B.C. all the tribes and nations of Italy submitted to the Roman power. The 'period of foreign conquests succeeded, lasting about 130 years. The Punic wars, which ended in the conquest and destruction of Cartilage, ex- tended nearly to the end of this period. The principal events of the First of these wars were the following: The defeat of the Roman general Regulus. The defeat of the Carthaginian Hamilcar. This war ended with the submission of the Car- thaginians. The chief events of the Second Punic War were the following: The Romans were defeated by Hannibal at the Ticinus, the Trebia, and Lake Trasymenus. The great battle of Cannae, a disastrous defeat for the Romans. The taking of Syracuse by Marcellus. The defeat of Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal. The defeat of Hannibal by Scipio at Zama, Carthage at the close of the war gave up Spain, agreed to pay the expenses of the war, and, in fact, became tributary to Rome. Hannibal died, by his own hand, in exile a few years afterward. The conquest of Macedonia soon followed, the last king, Perseus, being defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of Pydna. Greece became a Roman province. The third Punic war ended in the taking and total destruction of Carthage. The taking of Numan- tia brought to a close a long and fierce war with the native tribes in Spain. The period of internal dissensions followed that of foreign conquests. It opened with a renewal of the agrarian struggles, in the attempt to revive the Licinian laws by Tiberius Gracchus. The patricians opposed the measure, and Gracchus was slain. His brother Caius shared the same fate, a few years afterward. The war with Jugurtha occupied several years, and ue Ancient Hisiory. 102 B.C. 88-63 B.C. 88-79 B.C. 86 B.C. 83 B.C. 81 B.C. 63 B.C. 60 B.C. 58-50 B.C. 49 B.C. 48 B.C. 46 B.C. 44 B.C. 43 B.C. 42 B.C. 31 B.C. 29 B.C. was followed by the invasions of the Cimbrians and Teutons, wiio were repulsed by Marius. The Mithridatic war was a long contest carried on in the East against the king of Pontus, and was terminated by his death. The first civil war was brought on by the dissen- sions between Marius and Sulla. The former, having gained possession of Rome, ordered a massacre of his opponents; but died soon after- ward. Sulla, in turn triumphing, retaliated with slaughter, and made himself perpetual dictator. Pompey, after making great conquests in the East, returned in triumph to Rome, joined the popular party with Caesar, just rising into power, and together with Crassus, formed the First Tvium- virate. Csesar returned from his province, Gaul, whence after eight years of victorious warfare against the natives, crossing the Rubicon into Italy, returned to Rome in order to check the intrigues of Pompey against him. A war ensued between these two ambitious generals, which resulted in the de- feat of Pompey at Pharsalia. The adherents of Pompey under Scipio were defeated at Thapsus, and the sons of Pompey were vanquished in Spain, after which Caesar found himself the mas- ter of Rome. But a conspiracy having been formed against him by Brutus and Cassius, he was assassinated in the Senate-house. Octavius, his adopted son, formed the second triumvirate with Mark Antony and Lepidus, and caused their opponents in Rome to be put to death. Octavius and Antony defeated Brutus and Cassius, in the battle of Philippi. Antony then went to the East, where he made the acquaintance of Cleopatra, the Egyptian queen, through whose influence he di- vorced his wife Octavia, sister of Octavius, and in other respects displeased the Roman people. The war that followed was decided by the battle of Ac- tium, in which Antony and Cleopatra were de- feated. Egypt became a Roman province ; and Oc- tavius, on his return to Rome, was invested with ab- solute authority under tlie title of Augustus Ccesar. Contemporaneous Events. Cent. b.c. 8th. Rome. 776 753 747 743 734 721 730 rth. 672 640 625 624 618 594 I 560 ! 546 6th. 538 [ 534 525 Foundation of Rome. Greece. Fu^t Olympiad. Other Nations. First Messenian War. Syracuse founded. Second MessenianWar. Tullus Hostilius. Ancus Martius. Draco at Athens. Tarquin the Elder. 5th. 510 494 485 471 464 449 Tarquin the Proud. Tarquins expelled. Creation of Tribunes. Coriolanus Law of Volero 4th. 3d. I 346 i 343 307 305 301 I 221 i 218 i 213 I 212 I 205 Decemvirate abolished. Romans take Veil. Solon at Athens. Pisistratus at Athens. Hippias expelled from Athens. Miletus taken by Darius Themistocles banished Death of Cimon. Samnite War begins, Battle of Caudine Forks Samnites subdued. Battle of Coronea. .( Accession of Philip of ( I Macedon. . . Sacred War ends. Lamian War Demetrius Phalereus expelled from Athens Era of Nabonassar. Samaria taken. Lydians in Asia Minor. Medes take Nineveh. Jerusalem taken by Nebuchadnezzar. Cyrus subdues Croesus. Babylon taken by Cyrus Pelusium taken by Cambyses. Accession of Xerxes. Death of Xerxes. Death of Alexander the Great. j Battle of Ipsus. Pyrrhus invades Italy.. Gauls invade Greece. [Seleucus assassinated. End of First Punic War. Aratus.-Agis \ f'pllv^ct ^ ^°"'^'' j Sparta taken by Antig- Kingdoms of Parthia I onus. Second PunicWar begins Aratus poisoned. Syracuse taken. [ Scipio in Spain IPhilopoemen. and Bactria founded. 183 146 Carthage taken. Death of Philopoemen. Death of Hannibal. Rattlp of Pvdna i Revolt of Jews under Battle ot I'ydna -j j^^^^ Maccabeus. Corinth taken. Roman CimlizaUon. S49 SECTION IV. EOMAN CiVILIZATIOK. 106. In treating of this extensive subject, witliin the nar- row limits here permitted, it will not be possible to trace the progressive development of Roman civilization during the seven centuries that preceded the time of Augustus. At first, the Roman character and Change in Ronnan manners. mode of life were characterized by extreme austerity and simplicity; but, in the later periods, these gave place to refine- ment and luxury, in imitation of Greek manners, and under the influence of the vast wealth which the spoils of conquered nations brought into Rome. 106. Rome had grown to be the metropolis of a vast empire, which contained, when Augustus reached the pin- nacle of his power, about one hundred millions of people; while the population of the imperial city must have numbered, at the time of its greatest Growth of Rome. splendor, at least two millions, representing not only the Roman, but the Greek and Oriental civilizations. Its mag- nificent aqueducts, baths, amphitheaters, temples, and other edifices made it a scene of wonder to the visitor from foreign lands, and enabled it to cope in grandeur with the great and pompous cities of ancient nations. This was especially true of it after the rule of Augustus, who boasted that he ^^ found the city brick, and left it marble."* A few of the most prominent objects of Rome will be referred to. 107. The Forum, or place of public meetings, and the great market of the city, should first be mentioned. Here * "Rome remained, even to the end of the republic, a network of crooked, narrow lanes, along which shops and houses of poor and mean appearance were constructed. There were not more than two streets in Rome suitable for heavy- carriages to pass in, and in the others the litters of the wealthy struggled to force their way through the dense crowd."— Lei'sr/ifon's History of Rovie. 250 Ancient History. was the Senate-House; the temple of Janus, built of bronze, 1 the gates of which were closed only in time The Roman ^f peacc ; thc tcmplcs of Vesta, of Concord, of I Saturn, and of Castor and Pollux; the hall of records {Tabula' Hum); the prison (career);"^ the courts for Temple of Jupiter Capitolinls. the administration of justice {basiVim) ; \ the statues of dis- tinguished statesmen and warriors, and the spoils of conquered * This was the great prison of Rome-the Mamertine-built by Ancus Martius, on the lope of the CapLine, and enlarged by Servius TulUus by a subterranean dungeon, I feet underground, walled and overarched with masonry. It was u o„e of the cold, damp cells of this dungeon that Jugurtha closed his eventful but ""'fThesTwere covered porticoes in which persons met to transact business and in which the courts of law held their sessions. After the recognition of Christianity by the state, the basilica became a model for church architecture. The main body of the building, called the nave (from its resemblance to the interior of a ship navis^ was for the people assembled for business: the aisles (aim, wings), separated from'ihe nave by pillars, afforded passage from the crowd; and the end, semi- circular in form, was for the pra3tor and those who appeared before his tribunal. In the church edifices these became, respectively, the nave, aisles, and choir. The first basilica was erected in 184 b.c. Roman Cimlization. 251 nations; while, looking down upon all, from the Oapitoline Hill, was the great temple of Jupiter.* -Various streets sur- rounded or intersected portions of this space, in which were shops for the sale of goods {taher'7im). 108. Besides the main forum, there were other public squares of a similar character, used for market-places, or places of business. There were, also, open spaces of larger extent, resembling parks, being set with trees and partly covered with grass. These were called fields (campi), chief among which was the Campus Campus Martius. Aqueduct op the Pont du Gard, at Nismes. Martius, or Field of Mars, in which were held the assemblies (comitia) for making laws and appointing magistrates, and where the young men had their martial exercises, drilling, ridino^, etc. This was also surrounded by many i ~ ^\ . _ ^ • ^ . "^ •; The Pantheon. splendid edifices. Near to this square was erected I by Agrippa, son-in-law of Augustus, the magnificent temple * The Capitoline Hill, the smallest of the seven hills, was called previously the Tarpeian rock. It was very steep and rugged, and formed a natural fortress. On its top was built the Capitol, completed by Tarquin the Proud. It was burned dur- ing the Sullan civil war, but was afterward restored. 252 Ancient History. called the Pantheon (temple of all the gods), vived the ravages of time and the destructive barbarians. 109. The aqueducts were among the most the Roman works. Of these there were seven Augustus, affording an abundant both for private use and for the Aqueducts. which has sur- violence of the magnificent of in the time of supply of water immense public uctures of this baths. During the empire many minor str Racing Chariots. kind were erected. By these aqueducts the water was carried from a considerable distance, over stone arches, some of which were more than one hundred feet high. The remains of these still attest their original grandeur; and of the three aqueducts which now supply modern Rome with water, two are of an- cient construction.* 110. Besides these, should be mentioned the buildings for the games of the circus, consisting of chariot-races, boxing, * "Wherever the Roman went he carried with him his art of building. The aqueduct which was constructed by Agrippa to supply Nemansus (Nismes), a colony of no great note, with water, is a proof of this assertion. The largest modern cities can hardly show a work of public utility so magnificent as the structure which is known to thousands of modern travelers under the name of the Pont du Gard/'—LiddelVs History of Rome. See page 251. J Roman CwiUzation. 253 and gymnastic contests. These games were, as among the Greeks, of a religions character, intended as an expression of joy for the favor of the gods or to appease their i ^— displeasure. Among the exercises were also the dreadful gladiatorial combats, introduced in 264 B.C. The .<^M. The Flavian Amphitheater, or Colosseum. largest and oldest circus was the Circus Maximus, capable of holding more than 200,000 persons. There were several other buildings of this character in the city. 111. To the circus succeeded, in the time of Julius Caesar, the amphitheater, which was better adapted to the exhibition of the gladiatorial combats, the seats, rising in tiers, being arranged around the central space, or arena, on which the contests took place. In the Amphitheater. _ time of Augustus, a stone amphitheater was built in the Campus Martins: but the grandest building of this kind was erected 254 Ancient History. about one hundred years later, by the emperors Vespasian and Titus. This was called the Fla'vian Amphitheater (from the emperors' family), but subsequently received the title of the Oolosse'um, on account of its immense size.* It was elliptical in shape, 564 feet long and 467 The Colosseum. feet wide, resting on fourscore arches, and to the Mausoleum of Augustus (Restored). height of 140 feet. It accommodated at least 80,000 specta- tors. Its internal and external decorations were of the grandest description. * "The outside of the edifice was incrusted mth marble, and decorated with statues. The slopes of the vast concave which formed the inside were filled and surrounded A^ith sixty or eighty rows of seats of marble, likewise covered with cushions, and capable of receiving with ease above fourscore thousand spectators. Sixty-four vomitories (for by that name the doors were very aptly distinguished) poured forth the immense multitude ; and the entrances, passages, and staircases were contrived with such exquisite skill that each person, whether of the senato- rial, the equestrian, or plebeian order, arrived at his destined place without trouble or confusion."— Cri66o?i. I Roman Civilization. 255 112. Pompey's Theater was another remarkable building, erected by that great general after his return from the east. It was built of stone, and was large enough to seat 40,000 spectators. There were also spacious edifices for the public baths, built of marble, and Pompey's Theater. supplied with every convenience ; and numerous palaces (pala'tia), among which the imperial palace of Augustus, fronting the Forum, was conspicuous; but several others were built by his successors. Many of the Mausolea. private palaces were very spacious and elegant. On the hills around the city were laid out parks and gardens {liorti), adorned with handsome buildings and works of art. The city was also rich in sepulchral monuments — imperial or private mausolea, as well as columns erected in honor of illustrious Romans. Roman Art. 113. In the early period of Roman history, art had made some progress. Statues were erected to heroes and patriots, distinguished by their services to their country, and temples were built to the gods; but of these Early period. works of the olden time nothing now remains but the famous bronze group of the wolf suckling the twins, constructed about, three centuries B.C., and set up in the Capitol. • The Romans seem to have derived their art from the Etruscans and Greeks, whose artistic Source of Roman art. styles and designs had very much in common. After the conquest of Southern Italy, Rome was brought into imme- diate contact with the finest specimens of Greek art. 114. Utility rather than beauty was the guiding principle in Roman art; and the aqueducts, sewers, public roads, and other works already referred to are the best monuments of their building and engineering Guiding principle. skill. They aimed not to please the taste simply, but to accomplish some great public benefit by their vast structures. 256 Ancient History. Thus, they cut tunnels through the solid rock for the purpose of draining off the volcanic lakes;* and, when Julius Osesar had reached the height of his power, he formed the design of draining the Pontine marshes by constructing a canal, so as to improye the healthfulness of the city, and pro- jected other great works. In the early times, an The arch. order of architecture called the Tuscan was mostly used.f Temple of Vesta— (In its present condition). Roman architecture is particularly distinguished for the use made of the arch, supposed to have been invented by the Etruscans, and of the vaulted dome.J * " The first tunnel of which we hear was that by which the Alban Lake was partially let off during the siege of Veii, a work which was suggested by an Etrus- can soothsayer. Other works of like kind still remain, though the time of their execution is not always known."— LtdcZeZrs History of Rome. t This is an order of architecture, the composition of which is attributed to the Etruscans. It is a species of simple Doric. No complete sample of it, however, has been left to us by the ancients. tWith the fifth century began the building of gates, bridges, and aqueducts ba.sed mainly on the arch, which is thenceforth inseparably associated with the Roman Civilization. 257 116. In the later period, iifter wealth and luxury had invaded Rome, Greek art became a study; and though there were no Roman artists of any account, there were many connoisseurs and collectors. The dwellings of the rich were adorned with the works of Greek masters, as were likewise the ^Dublic buildings and temples. Music and dancing were especially cultivated; as, in the Roman banquets, the singers and instru- mental performers, as well as the dancing-girls. Use of Greek art. Music and dancing. were in great demand. This was also the custom in their theatrical entertainments. Roman Literature. 116. Roman literature, for the most part, was only an imitation of that of the Greeks. Rome had no literature worthy of the name until near the close of the republic; and the rage for Greek models con- First period. stantly repressed all original genius. The first period of Roman literature begins with the dramatist Livius An-dro-ni'cus, who flourished about 240 B.C. He was a native of Magna Grgecia ; and, when his Livius Andronicus. country was conquered by the Romans, he was brought a captive to Rome. He wrote comedies and tragedies, in which he also took part as an actor. The stirring hymn which he composed for the Romans during O+her poets. the first Punic War was much admired. Ennius, sometimes called the "father of Roman song," and Plautus and Terence, noted for their comedies, also lived during this period (in the second century b.c). 117. The second j^eriod, sometimes called the golden age, of Roman literature, was more prolific of genius. In the early part, flourished Varro, celebrated for his learninsr, who wrote Roman name. Akin to this was the development of the form oZ the round temple with the dome-shaped roof, which was foreign to the Greeks, but was a peculiar favorite with the Romans, and was especially applied by them in the case of their peculiar non-Grecian worship, particularly that of Vesta, "—il/owwtse??.. 258 Ancient History. on agriculture, grammar, antiquities, and many other subjects. Indeed, it is said, his works filled 500 volumes. He died 26 B.C. Lucretius, a noted Golden age. philosophical poet, who embodied in verse the peculiar tenets of Epicurus, was a contemporary with Varro. It was, however, during the age of Augustus that Latin literature reached its height, through the genius of many gifted poets: Virgil, the author of the j^nead ; virgil. Horace, renowned for his odes, satires, and poetical epistles ; Ovid, for many beautiful poems ; Livy and Sallust, for their histories ; and Catullus, Tibullus, and Pro2)ertius, for their lyric poems. Augustus was a great patron of letters, as was likewise his friend and minister, Horace. Mae-cc'nas. Among the writers of the golden age must also be mentioned Cassar, whose Comme^itaries on his own campaigns are a model of military history; and Cicero, illustrious not only for his orations but for his philosophical works, and his essays and letters. 118. The third period, sometimes called the Silver Age, belongs to the time of the empire; but, in continuation of this topic, we may here mention the most promi- nent writers v^^ho flourished during it, as their Silver age. works form an essential portion of Roman literature. Tac'i-tus and Sue-to'ni-us are especially noted for their histories and biographies; Per'seus and Ju've-nal, for their satires; and the elder Pliny for his writings on natural history. To these must be added Sen'e-ca, the philosopher and moralist, whose writings are prized for their purity and elevation. Roman Religion. 119. The religion of the Romans, in its general features, resembled that of the Greeks; that is to say, it consisted in the worship of a large number of deities; and among these I Roman Cimlization. 259 were many of the gods of Olympus, but with different names. This has already been pointed out in the account given of the Greek mythology. Some of the prominent features of the Koman religion were General features. derived from the Etruscans, who were exceedingly superstitious. As the Eomans were very religious, and as they traced the causes of all events, including the phenomena of nature, to the action of the gods, nothing was undertaken without previously con- The Pantheon— (It-, piebeiit cunditiun, lb81) suiting their will, by established methods, which constituted a part of the Roman political as well as religious system. 120. There were many modes of divination — by omens, prodigies, the Sibylline books,* and the auspices; but the most * The Sibylline books were said to have been brought from Cumse. " The story- runs that a strange woman came to Tarquin and offered nine books for sale. The king refused to buy the books. The sibyl departed and burnt three,- then returned, offering the remaining six at the same price. The king again refused. The sibyl then burnt three more, and demanded the same price for the remaining three. The curiosity of the king was aroused; he bought the books, and the woman vanished. The books were kept in a stone chest under the capitol in charge of two 260 Ancient History. important were the auspices, which were certain signs sup- posed to be given by the gods in order that their will might become known. There were officers, a Divination. kind of priesthood, appointed for the purj^ose of attending to the proper rites to be employed in interpreting these signs; these composed the College of Augurs, consisting at first of four, afterward increased to Coliege of Augurs, sixteen, and selected from the patrician order. Besides these there was a College of Pontiffs, the most sacred of all the religious institutions, which supervised and regulated the worship of the state, including College of Pontiffs. the times of the religious festivals, which were very numerous; and also decided what gods should be adored. 121. The public meetings could not be convened without consulting an augur; nor could the business proceed if he pronounced the omens unfavorable. If it light- ened or thundered, or there was any other dis- turbance in the atmosphere — a storm, darkness, or Office of the augurs. any peculiar appearance of the sky — the assembly was com- pelled to disperse. There was, also, a form of divination performed by those called Ha-rus'pi-ces, intro- duced from Etruria. It was based upon an in- Haruspices. spection of the entrails of victims offered in sacrifice, by which they pretended to ascertain the will of the gods. They also professed to be able to appease by certain ceremonies the anger of the gods, when it was indicated by some strange natural occurrence, as when the lightning struck, when it rained stones or blood, or when any other prodigy occurred. 122. The priests did not form an exclusive class. They were elected as likewise were the other magistrates, but for life; and sometimes held a civil as well as a priestly office. The pontifex maxitnus (high priest) stood first in power; but the men, called duoviri sacrorum. They were consulted by order of the senate in times of great emergency or public calamity. Through their influence the worship of many Grecian deities was introduced.^'— Leighton''s History of Borne. Roman Civilization. S61 King of the Sacrifices {rex sacrific' ulus) held the highest rank in sanctity of office. The suhordinate priests were called flamens (flani'i-nes), who attended Priesthood. to the worship of particular deities: the Vestal Virgins were priestesses of Vesta. It was unlawful for a flamen to ride upon a horse, to look upon an army equipped for battle, or to take an oath. He could have no knot in any part of his clothing; nor was he permitted to be absent from the city a single night. Such are a few I of the restraints to which every priest was subjected. 123. The Eoman calen- dar showed the festival days, which afforded the people a great deal of time for leisure Festivals. and enjoyment, besides im- pressing their minds with their religious duties. The worship of Jupiter and Mars (Qui-ri'nus) was the most prominent, but that of SxTovETATjRiLiA. Vcsta was the most sacred. * The days of full moon were sacred to Jupiter. To Mars belonged the new year's day, March 1, which was a great warrior festival, celebrated with war-dances, and the conse- cration of arms; and besides this there were the Quirina'lirt on the 27th of February, sacred to the same deity. The corn and wine festival {Cerea'lia), sacred to Ceres, took place in June; the Vina'lia, or wine feast, in August; the Saturn- a'lia, or festival of Saturn, in December ; the Luperca'lia, * " Six chaste virgins, daughters as it were of the household of the Roman people, attended to the service of Vesta, and had to maintain the wholesome fire of the common hearth always blazing as an example, and an omen to the burgesses. This worship, half domestic, half public, was the most sacred of all in Rome."— Mommsen. 262 Ancient History. or wolf festival, in February. Then there were the festival of departed spirits {Fera'Ua) and the ghost celebration {Lemur- a'lia), lasting three days, besides many others. At certain ceremonies of purification {lustratiofis), a pig, a sheep, and a bull were sacrificed. These were called the suovetauril'ia. The Latin religion lacked the spiritual and aesthetic element so prominent in that of the Grreeks, and soon degenerated into a dreary round of meaningless ceremonies. The wor- ship was very sensuous, consisting chiefly in expressions of joy, — songs, games, dances, and banquets. Manners and Customs. 124. Roman houses, in early times, were very plain and simple, one story in height, and containing but a single room, the floor of which was usually covered with straw; the windows being only openings in the walls Roman houses. closed by shutters, which also supplied the place of chimneys for the escape of smoke. When the tide of wealth and luxury flowed into Rome, handsome residences took the place of these hovels, and many magnificent mansions were erected. 125. From the vestibule, at the entrance of which the word salve (welcome) was carved, the visitor passed into a spacious hall, or reception room, called the atrium, doors from which led to the other apartments, either directly or by intermediate courts. There Vestibule, atrium, etc. were separate rooms set apart for cooking, for the entertain- ment of intimate friends, and for the domestics, besides sleep- ing-apartments, banquet-halls, and often a chapel for the worship of the gods. Here were the lares, or household gods; while the images of the dead were placed in the atrium. Windows of transparent stone succeeded the rude openings with shutters; but, under the empire, glass was used. 126. The walls and ceilings were painted in various colors, or adorned with frescos, representing mythological groups, landscapes, or scenes from daily life. The furniture consistei? 1 Roman Civilization. 263 of chairs, tables, dinner-couches, lamps of various forms, vases, mirrors, urns, incense-burners, etc.; and the floors were sometimes covered with many- Furniture. colored carpets from eastern looms. Ttie house was heated by means of a fire-place or a portable furnace, sometimes by the admission of air heated by a furnace below. Oil-lamps were used for lighting, in the designing of which much taste and skill were expended. The candelabra, or support for the lamps, was often very elaborate and beautiful. 127. The Komans had three meals each day: a light break- fast; a lunch, at noon; and a dinner, toward evening, which was the chief meal. At the costly banquets given by the rich, there was every possible display, as well Meals. as luxurious entertainment, including crowds of slaves, gor- geous furniture, music, and dancing-girls. While eating, they reclined on couches, like the Greeks. Banquets. Instead of knives, they used two spoons, both pointed at the end. Each guest brought with him a linen napkin to fasten over his breast. 128. Marriage was celebrated with great ceremony. The auspices having been taken, and the bride and bridegroom led to the household a*ltar, sacrifices were offered; then the marriage-feast was given, after which Marriage. the bride was conducted to her husband's house, being care- fully lifted over the threshold of the atrium, to avoid the ill omen of stumbling. The next day a second marriage-feast was held, and the bride offered sacrifices to the gods of her new home. 129. The mother took charge of the early education of her children, after which the father assumed that duty; in fact, the authority of a father over his sons continued until his death, unless the son became a flamen of Jupiter, or the father resigned his authority. Schools. Elementary schools for boys and girls seem to have been established at Rome at an early period; but, for many con- 264 Ancient History. turies, the branches studied were very rudimental — merely reading, writing, and arithmetic. Later, the literature and language of the Greeks were generally taught. The punish- Implements of Writing.* « ments were severe: Martial, the poet, remarks that before the crowing of the cock the air resounded with the noise of flogging and the cries of the children. Hence the schools must have begun at a very early hour of the day. The books and implements of writing resembled those of the Greeks. Books and writing. * " The circular wooden or metal case (scrinium) at the left, with a cover, con- tains six volumes rolled up (hence the word volume), and labelled that they maybe easily distinguished. In front of the case is a stylus and a pentagonal inkstand, very similar to those now in use. A little to the right is a pen made of reed, hence called calamus. Next to the case of books is the tabella, joined together as with hinges, and covered with wax. Above this, is another, pinned as it were to the wall with a stylus; to the right of the last, lies a book of tablets open. In the center are single vohimes in cases; one of the cases on the left is open, and the other shut. On the right, are four volumes, two of which have their titles, one attached to the papyrus itself, and the other to the umhilicus or cylinder of wood in its center. The books were carried in the scrinium. When a Roman, either in the city or on a journey, wished to use books, a slave accompanied him to carry the scrinium. The children of the rich were accompanied to school by a slave, who carried their books and writing-tablets. Books and documents when not in use were deposited in the scrinium^ which was sealed if the documents were im- 1 Roman Civilization. 265 130. The principal garment of the men was the toga, a loose upper garment, under which was worn the tunic, which fitted more closely. The toga was permitted to none but citizens, and was in all periods tlie gar- ment that especially characterized a Roman. It was made of pure white wool, and was nearly semicir- cular in form. In adjusting it, one end was thrown over the left shoulder to the front, so that the round side fell out- ward; then it was drawn over the right shoulder behind the body, so that the arm rested as in a sling, while the re- maining part was drawn in front and thrown over the left shoulder. The mantle (pmnula) was another form of over-garment. The covering for the feet nvas either sandals fastened by straps, or a kind of shoes. 131. The costume of Roman ladies consisted of an inner tunic, and a loose over-dress (stola), gathered in and confined at the waist by a girdle and ending in a Female costume. deep border or flounce, which extended to the feet. Over these, in the street, a kind of shawl (palla) was worn, large enough to envelop the whole figure. Great care was bestowed upon the dress- ing of the hair, over which nets, veils, caps, or turbans were worn, of various designs, and often costly materials. The other ornaments of the person, as necklaces, bracelets, and earrings, were often very rich and beautiful. Toga. portant. A library of 30,000 and even 60,000 volumes was not uncommon. In the time of Augustus, there were 31 libraries in Rome. Others were added by later emperors. The Ulpian library was the most important of alV—Leighton's Rome. ^66 Ancient History. 132. The bath constituted a very important element of comfort and luxury with the Romans; and, in the later period of their history, magnificent buildings were erected, splendidly decorated, and supplied with every luxury. The bathing-houses in Rome must have been Baths. very numerous; for Agrippa, the friend of Augustus, added no less than 170 to those existing previously. They included not only bathing appliances, but gymnasia and libraries, all free to the public. They were in fact the popular re- sorts for amusement and pastime, and an exchange of the gossip of the day. The famous baths of Caracalla, the most spacious of all, belong to a later period of the history. 133. Funerals resembled those of the Greeks; like them, the Romans believed that the spirits of the unburied ^van- dered about without rest, not being permitted to enter Hades. The corpse was laid out and placed in the atrium, with empress livia. the images of the deceased person's ancestors; while a cypress or pine tree was placed before the house as an emblem of death. A funeral procession was formed, and the corpse was taken to the forum, where an address was delivered by one of the relatives, extolling the deeds of the deceased and those of his ancestors. After this the procession moved to a place beyond the walls where the body was buried, or, in later times, cremated. On the ninth day after the funeral, articles of food were placed beside the tomb, which was decked with garlands; while beside the niches within were placed lamps and an inscription. Military System. 134. The divisions of the Roman army were called legions, each consisting of infantry and cavalry. The legion originally Roman Cimlization. 267 was composed of 3000 foot-soldiers and 300 horse ; but it afterward underwent various modifications, and contained from 5000 to 6000 men. For a long period the Roman citizens were all subject to military duty; but after the time of Marius, a soldier when en- Organiza-tion of the army. listed remained constantly with the army for twenty years. The Slinger. Legionary. LiCTOR. Knight. legion then consisted of ten cohorts of 600 men each, all being under pay;* and the army was composed of legionaries and auxiliaries sent from the provinces, or from allied states. Under Augustus the legion consisted of about 7000 men. f * " Caesar fixed the annual pay at 225 denarii, equal to about $37 for each soldier, payable in three installments of 75 denarii each. The pay remained as fixed by Caesar until the time of Domitian."— I/e/f/ZitoJi's Rome. t "The legion of Augustus was organized as follows: (1) Infantry— ten 'com- panies ' {cohortes), containing 555 men each, except the first, which was of double 268 Ancient History, 135. The legionaries were armed with a short sword and the piluni, a kind of javelin or spear; and also carried a shield. The knights, or horse-soldiers, wore a coat of mail, carried a round shield, and were armed with the pilum and sword. There were also mercenaries, such Besieging Tower. as the slingers from the Balearic Islands and bowmen from Crete. Several kinds of military engines were used for strength, and therefore contained 1110 men ; total, 6105 men. (2) Cavalry— ten 'troops' (furmo'), containing 66 men each, except the first, which had twice the number; total, 726 men. (3) Artillery—two large and ten small machince, with a sufficiency of men to work them, number unknown; probably not less than 70, Total (probable) strength of the entire legion, QdOV'—RawUnson's Ancient History. Roman Cimlization. 269 the taking of cities, such as the battering-ram and the besieging-tower, the latter composed of several stories, on which were placed soldiers who cleared the walls by means of their missiles, or made a Besieging- towers, etc. direct attack by the drawbridges. Besides these, the catapult was employed for discharging darts, and the ballista for hurl- ing balls or stones at the enemy.* 136. In making an assault upon a city, the battering-ram was used to destroy the lower part of the wall, the catapult hurled its darts at the defenders on the top of the walls, while the missiles from the ballista de- stroyed the battlements. Those who were engaged Mode of attack. in filling up the moat so as to approach the walls, were pro- tected from the missiles of the besieged by wooden sheds, covered with hides or other incombustible material, and placed on rollers so as to be pushed forward. Mines were some- times dug under the fortifica- tions. In the mean time, the besieged hurled Mode of defense. from the walls stones, darts, and fire, pushed the attacking ladders back, or seizing the assailants with tongs drew them into the city. Counter- mines were constructed under the walls; and huge stones or sand -bags were let down to protect the walls from the effects of the battering-ram. 137. Auxiliary to the military system was the triumph, the * The Romans first learned the use of the ballista at the siege of Syracuse, where Archimedes, by means of these machines, hurled stones weighing 1200 pounds upon the vessels of the Romans lying in the harbor. t The letters S P Q R on the standard signified Senatus popiilusque Eomanus— Senate and {que) People of Rome, Roman Standard. 270 Ancient History. tribute of praise and honor publicly bestowed on a victorius general after his return from war. To be the central figure in this splendid pageant was the The triumph. highest object of the soldiers ambition, and excited him to glorious deeds of fortitude and valor. It consisted of a grand procession along the Via Sacra (sacred street), up to the capitol, where a bull or ox was sacrificed to Jupiter.* It was an occasion of general rejoicing. The temples were thrown Spoils op Jerusalem, from the Arch of Titus, t open, and were adorned with flowers; iind the people, in their holiday attire, thronged the streets, or stood on balconies or temporary scaifoldiiigs, eager to gaze on the spectacle. 138. The victorious imperator entered the city by the gate of triumph, in a chariot drawn by four horses, and was met by the Senate and other magistrates ; and the procession then passed on, consisting first of the civil oflficers; then the spoils of the vanquished; the priests, with the victim to be sacrificed; distinguished captives, and other prisoners in chains, the lictors with their fasces; then the victor, bearing a laurel bough in his right hand, in his left a scepter, and wearing a laurel wreath on his head; while the army brought up the rear. The procession. * There was a lesser triumph, at which only a sheep {ovis) was sacrificed. Hence this was called an ovation. t This structure was erected in Rome to commemorate the taking of Jerusalem by Titus. The cut represents a portion of the bas relief on the monument. (See ' page 873,) ROMAN EMPIRE IN THE TIME OF. AUGUSTUS • ^♦^ Scale of Miles 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 English 7. I The Roman Empire. 271 SECTION V. - The Koman Empire. 139. The reign of Augustus may properly be deemed to commence with the victory at Actium; and it lasted forty-five years from that event (to 14 a.d.), for Augustus lived to be seventy-seven years of age. Although he ruled with absolute power, he was careful to retain the forms of the republican government, and to avoid every offensive title, such as king or dictator; but he caused all the important oflQces to be conferred upon himself. Thus, as Reign of Augustus. Imperator (commander-in-chief ), he liad the command of the ar- mies, and as president of the Senate and consul, he administered the civil government. The Senate still held its sessions, but its decrees had no real weight. The long civil wars had made the Romans greatly desire tranquillity; and as Augustus ruled with equity and moderation, they acquiesced in his authority. He kept large armies stationed at various parts of the empire to repress all opposition, and he instituted the Praetorian Guards* to protect his person. He also appointed a special Geographical Study. What were the boundaries of the Roman Empire under Augustus? Ans. North, the British Channel, the German Ocean, the Rhine, the Danube, and the Euxine (Black Sea); East, the Euphrates River and the desert of Syria; South, the great African desert ; West, the Atlantic Ocean. How were the provinces divided ? Ans. Into three groups— the Western, or European; the Eastern, or Asiatic; and the Southern, or African. What were the W^estem provinces? Ans. Hispania (Spain), Gallia (Gaul), Germania (Germany), Vindelicia, Rhgetia, Noricum, Pan- nonia, Moesia, Illyricum, Macedonia, Thracia (Thrace), Achaia, Sicily, and Sardinia (14). What were the Eastern provinces? Ans. Asia, Bithynia, Galatia, Pamphylia, Cappadocia, Cilicia, Syria, and Judea (8). What were the Southern? Ans. -. 146. During the reign of his son Oaracal'la, a remorse- less tyrant, the old distinction between Romans or Italians and Provincials was abolished, and Roman citizen- ship was given to all the free inhabitants of the Caracal la. empire. Several of the emperors who subsequently reigned were natives of the provinces. The two emperors who suc- ceeded Caracalla were perfectly detestable ; but Alexander Severus, who followed, was a virtuous young man, of a mild and benevolent disposition, and very fond of learning; and his government was all that could have been expecteC( CO |f>. c c c .5 be alTJ ^ 3 S^5 ftc g<2 o.=? ^ . - — -1^ "^ *- — o eg H cS cScgwoiK tC2l5a^"='0:Ocef-S'coft 322 MedicBval History. and embraced Christianity; and his followers also intermar- ried with the people among whom they had settled. The new Norman race that resulted from this union, retaining the daring and adventurous spirit of the old Scandinavian warriors combined with the New Norman race. higher civilization of the French, played a great part in the subsequent history of Europe. SECTION 11. The Saxons, 11. The Saxons (German Sachsen, from sahs, a knife), like the Franks, were a confederation of Teutonic or Low German tribes. As early as the third century they made their appearance in northern Germany, from Saxons. which they passed southward and invaded the Eoman Empire. At a later period, in the fifth century, they commenced their incursions into Gaul and Britain.* After the abandonment of the latter province by the Ro- incursions. mans, hordes of these barbarous tribes, associated with An'gles and Jutes from Denmark, rushed with irresistible force upon * Britain had been in the possession of the Romans nearly four centuries. The latter found the Britons a fierce, hardy, courageous race of warriors; they left them so effeminated by the corrupt civilization of Rome that they were unable to defend themselves from the warlike barbarians of the north; and their appeals for aid to the Roman governers were so frequent and urgent that they were called the "groans of the Britons." The ancient religion of the Britons was called Druidism; rmd the Druids, or priests, were not only ministers of rehgion. but judges, physi- cians, and teachers. They worshiped the sun and moon ; and were accustomed to live in caverns or amid the gloom of forests. There are many remains of this curious religion, the most remarkable of which is Stonehenge (Saxon, raised stones) on Salisbury Plain. This singular monument originally was a circle {crom- lech) of thirty stones, fourteen feet high, surmounted with large flat stones. Such circles were called " doom rings," and each contained in the center an altar {dolmen), on which victims were sacrificed. Besides these there were " rocking- gtones" {loggans),—yast masses of granite or sandstone, sometimes weighing more than 500 tons, so nicely poised on another stone as to be moved by the least towh. (See eut, page 323.) The Saxons. B2B the island, and completed the conquest of the whole, except the western portion, now called Wales, into which the rem- nant of the British population retired. 12. The Britons, being abandoned by their Roman con- querors, were subject to the constant and harassing attacks of the Scots and Picts of the northern districts; and in their distress adopted the desperate measure Britons. of inviting the Saxon sea-rovers to come to their aid (449). The Saxons soon drove back the northern invaders, but the Stonehenge. (See note, page 322 ) unfortunate inhabitants found themselves at the mercy of these pirates, who, with the assistance of con- stantly increasing hordes of Saxons, Angles, and Jutes, soon possessed themselves of most of the Saxon conquest. country, driving the Britons into Gaul or the western fast- nesses of the island. The northwestern part of France was called Brittany, because it afforded a refuge to the Britons.* * " The whole southern part of the island, except Wales and Cornwall, had totally changed its inhabitants, language, customs, and political institutions. The Britons, under the Roman dominion, had made such advances toward arts and civil manners, that they had built twentj'-eight considerable cities within their province, besides a great number of villages and country-seats; but the fierce con- querors by whom they were now subdued, threw everything back into ancient barbarity; and those few natives who were not either massacred or expelled their habitations, were reduced to the most abject slavery." — Hume''s History of Eng- land. 3^4 MedicBvat History. 13. Thus were formed during the fifth and sixth cen- turies, by the inroads of these people, seven kingdoms in the central and southern parts of the island of Brit- ain, named collectively the Saxon llep'tar-chy, Heptarchy. consisting of : 1. Kent ; 2. Sussex ; 3. Wessex; 4. Essex ; 5. Northumbria; 6. EastAnglia; 7. Mercia. (See Map No. XL) Various wars arose among these states, and many changes occurred in their respective territories, the final result of which was, that Wessex absorbed all the others; and in 827, its king Egbert became the acknowl- England. edged monarch of the whole country, to which he gave the name of England {Engla-land, i.e., Land of the Angles). SECTION IIL The Saraceks. 14. Sar'a-cens {Eastern People) was the name given to that fierce and active race who, proceeding from Arabia in the seventh century, rapidly overran a consider- able part of western Asia and the whole of Saracens. northern Africa, and made a conquest of the kingdom of the Visigoths in Spain; but were stopped in their victorious career by the valor of the Franks, who in southern France turned the tide of Saracenic invasion. 15. They were the followers of Mo-ham'med, or Mali'o- met, an Arabian, born at Mecca in 570.* He professed to be * The Arabians, up to the time of Mohammed, with the exception of the inhabi- tants of the cities, were divided into many small tribes, each having its leader, called Sheik or Emir. They dwelt in the deserts, wandering from place to place, and gaining their subsistence in the service of the merchants, by carrying goods across the deserts on the backs of camels, but more often they depended upon the plunder which they took from hostile tribes. They were skilled in the use of the bow, the lance, and the cimeter; and were wonderfully adroit riders. In religion they were worshipers of fire or the stars. The Saracens, 825 a prophet and the bearer of a new revelation from God, and began to preach at Mecca,* but his doctrines were received with such opposition that he was Mohammed. compelled to flee from the city (622). This event, called in Arabic the He-gi'ra, is the epoch which the Mohammedans employ in their chronology. In Hegira. Medina, where he found a refuge, his doctrines were received with more favor, and after a time gained general credence. 16. At the first, while his converts were few, he preached a religion of love and peace, particularly exhorting his dis- ciples to lead abstemious and unselfish lives; but as his precepts began to be generally ac- Doctrines. cepted, and when he found himself at the head of a large body of warlike followers, a great change came over him. He became ambitious and bigoted, persuading himself that the power he had acquired was the gift of the Almighty, to enable him to promulgate his doctrines by the sword, t Thus, in seven years after his flight, he was enabled to return to Mecca with a consider- Retum to Mecca. able army of roving Arabs, whom he controlled by promises of plunder in this world and everlasting bliss in the next. * " Mahomet, or more properly Mohammed, was born at Mecca, four years after the death of Justin ian, and two months after the defeat of the Abyssinians, whose victory would have introduced into the Caaba the religion of the Christians. In his early infancy he was deprived of his father, his mother, and his grandfather; his uncles were strong and numerous; and, in the division of the inheritance, the orphan's share was reduced to five camels and an Ethiopian man-servant. At home and abroad, in peace and war, Abu Taleb, the most respectable of his uncles, was the guide and guardian of his youth. In his twenty-fifth year he entered into the service of Cadijah, a rich and noble widow of Mecca, who soon rewarded his fidelity with the gift of her hand and fortune. By this alliance, the son of Abdallah was restored to the station of his ancestors; and the judicious matron was content with his domestic virtues, till, in the fortieth year of his age, he assumed the title of a prophet, and proclaimed the religion of the Koran."— (ribbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. t " Even the miracles of Moses and Jesus have been treated with unbelief . I, therefore, the last of the prophets, am sent with the sword. Let those who pro- mulgate my faith enter into no argument nor discussion, but slay all who refuse obedience to the law. Whoever fights for the true faith, whether he fall or con- quer, will assuredly receive a glorious reward."— lfa?ii/esfo of Mohammed. 326 Mediceval History. Soon afterward the Arabians generally embraced his doc- trines, accepted his sacred mission, and gave their assent to the cardinal principle of his creed, '* There is but one God, and Mohammed is his prophet. " * 17. Mohammed began the propagation of his faith by sending emissaries to the courts of the neighboring provinces to invite them to embrace the new faith, and become Moslejns, true believers. Some of these First overtures. were treated with indifference; but at the court of Syria his proposals were received with disdain, and his embassy was slain. This action caused the first great battle fought by the Saracens, and in it they were victorious. Khaled, afterward so renowned under his title of the Khaled. '* Sword of God," first became prominent here. 18. Mohammed had scarcely more than commenced his successful career of conquest, when he was stopped by death (G32), being succeeded by Abu-Bekr {ah'hoo- Mkr'), styled the First Caliph {successor). He First Caliph. left a series of writings which he said he had received directly from heaven; and these were collected and compiled by his successor, forming the sacred volume, or Bible, of the Mohammedans. This book is called by them the Koran (Arabic Alcoran, The Book); and the Mohamme- dan religion, Islam — submission to the will of God. 19. Abu-Bekr prosecuted the conquest of Syria; and his general Khaled defeated the emperor Heraclius, and besieged Damascus. Under O'mar, the next caliph, Da- mascus and Jerusalem were taken (G35 and 637), Conquests. and Syria totally subdued. Egypt also was subjugated, and * " Mahomet inculcated the belief that there is, was. and ever will be, one only God, the creator of all things; who is single, immutable, omniscient, omnipotent, all-merciful, and eternal. The unity of God was specifically and strongly urged, in contradistinction to the Trinity of the Christians. It was designated, in the profes- sion of faith, by raising one finger, and exclaiming, ' There is no God but God,'— to which was added, ' Mahomet is the prophet of God.' ''''— Irving'' s Mahomet and His Successors. The Saracens. 327 the Persians were defeated in a great battle, at Ca-de'sia, on the Tigris. Omar, it is said, during his reign of ten years reduced 36,000 cities and vilhigcs, demolished 4000 Chris- tian churches, and erected 1500 Mohammedan temples, or mosques. He was succeeded by Oth'man, who completed the conquest of Persia and other eastern countries, extended his dominion in Africa, and published a new edition of the Koran. Cyprus and Rhodes were also taken; and the Saracens at the latter place took possession of the famous brazen Co-los'sus,* or statue of Phoe'bus, the god of the sun. The murder of Othman made Ali (ah'Ie) caliph, who is considered the bravest and most virtuous of the successors of Mohammed (655). 20. During the reign of Ali a great schism occurred which divided the Mohammedans into two sects, called the Sun'- nites and the Shi'ites, the former acknowledging the authority of all the caliphs, while the latter Schism, reject all but Ali, whom they regard as the equal of Mo- hammed. The Shiites also reject the Suii'nah, a book of traditions concerning the Prophet, which the Sunnites, or orthodox Mohammedans, receive as sacred. During the reign of Ali, Mo-a-wi'yah usurped the govern- ment of Syria, and by the murder of Ali became Ommiyades. caliph. He was the first of the dynasty called the Om-7ni- ya'des, which lasted tul 752. 21. Moawiyah fixed his capital at Damascus, and, by his A-mir-al-ma (captain at sea; hence our word admiral) and his lieutenant Ak'bar, continued the conquest of northern Africa, founding south of Tunis the Moawiyah. famous city of Kairwan (kare-ivalm'). It was the army of this caliph that besieged Constantinople, and was repulsed by means of the Greek fire, so efiRciently employed by its defenders (668-675). About Defeat of the Saracens. forty years afterward (717), Constantinople was again attacked by an army of Saracens, said to number 120,000 nien; but. * See page 148. 828 MedicBval History. after a siege of thirteen months, was relieved by the Bul- garians, who fell upon the Saracens and defeated them with immense slaughter. 22. Carthage was taken by the Saracens in 698, and utterly destroyed, after which they encountered no opposition in Africa except from the native Berber tribes, whom they finally subdued (709) and converted. ,'^ From the union of the Arabic and Berber races. Conquest of Africa. sprung the Moors, so noted in Saracenic history. The con- quest of Africa was immediately followed by that of Spain; for Mu'sa, the Saracen general, dispatched his lieutenant Ta'rik across the strait of Gibraltar (Gib-el- Tarik — mountain of Tarik) with an army which Spain. defeated Roderick,* the last of the Visigothic kings, and thus destroyed their monarchy in Spain, after an existence of more than two centuries (711). f A remnant of the Gothic nation, however, escaped to the highlands among the Asturian moun- tains, where they succeeded in maintaining their indepen- dence for many centuries. 23. Crossing the Pyrenees, the victorious Saracens were still pressing on in their career of conquest when they were defeated, in a battle that lasted seven days, by the Franks under Charles Martel, who by his valor Defeats. and skill probably rescued Europe from the Mohammedan yoke (732). His grandson Charlemagne more than fifty years afterward drove them beyond the Ebro, and thus confined them to their dominions in Spain. The Ommiyade dynasty of caliphs was, in the middle of the eighth century (752), * It is said that the Saracens were invited into Spain by Count Julian, a Gothic noble, in revenge for an injury inflicted upon him by King Roderick. t " Amidst the general disorder, Roderick started from his car, and mounted Orelia, the fleetest of his steeds; but he escaped from a soldier's death to perish more ignobly in the waters of the Guadalquiver. His diadem, his robes, and his courser were found on the bank; but as the body of the Gothic prince was lost in the waves, the pride and ignorance of the Caliph must have been gratified with some meaner head, which was exposed in triumph before the palace of Damascus." — Gibbon, I TJie Sar'icens. 329 succeeded by the Ab-bas'i-des, descendants of Ab'bas, the uncle of Mohammed; but one of the Ommiyades, escap- ing to Spain, founded an independent caliphate at Cor'do-va, which lasted 250 years, and was Caliphate of Cordova. one of the largest and most splendid centers of commerce, literature, and the arts in the world. 24. Al Mansur (mcm-soor^), the second of the Abbasides, removed the capital to the Tigris, founding there the city of Bagdad, which was built out of the ruins of Seleucia and Ctesiphon (762). The most cele- Bagdad. brated of the caliphs of Bagdad was Ha'roun al Rasch'id (Aaron the Just), made familiar both to young and old by the tales of the ''Arabian Nights."* During this reign (786-808), and several succeeding reigns, literature and science, particularly as- Haroun ai Raschid. tronomy, were carried to a very high degree of perfection both at Cordova and Bagdad, while nearly all Europe was slumbering in the intellectual night of the dark ages. 25. After the reign of Haroun al Raschid, the Saracen Empire became divided by the rebellion and usurpation of the provincial governors, so that, in the beginning of the tenth century, there were no less than seven caliphates, all of whom acknowledged the caliph of Bagdad only as the successor of Mohammed, denying to him any temporal authority over their respective dominions. Of these independent kingdoms the most distinguished was that of the Fat'i-mites, or Mo'ez-zites. The founder of this dynasty was an African Saracen, who, with the emirs of Fez, claimed descent from Fatimah, the daughter of the Prophet. This chief commenced his career in 908, and soon became master of the Mohammedan states of Fez and * Haroun al Raschid was contemporaneous with the great Frankish emperor Charlemagne, and exchanged courtesies with him. He sent him various presents, among which was a curious clock that struck the hours ; and it is said he offered him the keys of Jerusalem, the Christian monarch being supposed to regard such a possession with the utmost reverence. 380 MedicBval History, Kairwan, which he miited into one kingdom (010), which was afterward extended by the conquest of Sicily and several parts of Italy. One of the Fatimite rulers conquered Egypt and built Cairo, which he made his capital (9G0); and subse- quently Palestine was conquered (9G9). The dynasty of the Fatimites continued in power till 1171, when its last repre- sentative was conquered by Sal'a-din. 26. In the eleventh century (1055), Bagdad was taken by the Seljuks; but these fierce barbarians, being believers in Mo- hammed, acknowledged the caliphs of Bagdad as their superiors. The power, however, of the latter Bagdad taken. had been greatly diminished; and their dominions scarcely extended beyond the walls of the city. At length, in 1258, during the reign of the grandson of Genghis Khan, Bagdad was taken and sacked by the Mongols* and the caliphate extinguished, after it had existed nearly 500 yeai's. This event is generally regarded as End of the caliphate. the termination of the Saracen Empire, although, centuries before, its various parts had been but nominally connected. SECTION IV. Saracenic Civilization". 27. The rapid and extensive conquests of the Saracens made them acquainted with the greater part of the civilized world, and as they were a highh^ intellectual and enterprising race, they soon learned to make their knowledge available. Tiiis was first shown in Comnnercial activity. their commercial activity. Planting trading stations along the African coast, they soon controlled the whole maritime commerce of the Mediterranean. They restored the ancient caravan routes, constructed highways, Routes of travel. opened wells along all the roads leading to every great center, and established caravansaries at convenient points. Bagdad, Saracenic Cimlization. 331 which became the center of the caravan routes, acquired a splen- dor and opulence that might almost vie with ancient Babylon. 28. Their trade extended to the far east as well as the west. There were caravan routes that led into Siberia, and their traders visited India and even China. They brought gold and negro slaves from the western Trade, coast of Africa; and, sailing along the east coast, spread their commerce to Madagascar. They exchanged their linen, silk, and cotton manufactures for the furs of the Russians; and obtained the rich products Articles of exchange. of Independent Tartary and Persia in exchange for their tapestries and silk stuffs, the cloths of Yemen, the dates and flour of Sana, the balsams of Mecca, and the cutlery and textile fabrics of Damascus (damasks). 29. In Spain the Saracenic dominion was equally wealthy and magnificent. Of this Cordova was the capital, renowned for its splendid mosque and sumptuous palace, i It was the seat of extensive manufactures of silk, '^in'spSir^^ leather, silver-work, and other articles. It con- I tained 600 mosques, nearly 1000 baths, and 16,000 looms for silk-weaving. The old silver-mines of Spain were worked anew by tlie Moors, and yielded large Mines. treasures. In weaving and dyeing they showed a wonderful skill. Granada and other cities also enjoyed great prosperity. 30. In learning, the Saracens became equally advanced. They founded universities and schools, built observatories, and instituted public libraries and museums. They collected the works of the ancient classic Learning. writers, and translated many of them into Arabic, and cul- tivated with astonishing success almost every branch of science, particularly chemistry, as- Science. tronomy, and mathematics. They also introduced the arith- metical notation (Arabic) which we now use. The Saracenic architecture is a special order, of which the famous palace of Alhambra, in Granada, is a type. 332 MedicBval History. Chronological Synopsis of Events. A.D. Eastern Empire. Western Europe, Saracens. 441 Invasion by the Huns. 449 Saxon invasion of Britain. 486 The Franks imder Clovis invade Gaul. 493 Italy invaded by the Ostro- goths. 511 Death of Clovis. 568 Lombards invade Italy. 569 Birth of Mohammed. 622 Defeat of the Persians by Heraclius. Merovingians in France. The Hegira. 650 Conquest of Persia. 680 Bulgaria founded. 687 Pepin d'Heristal, Mayor of the Palace. 711 End of the Visigothic king- dom in Spain. Conquest of Spain. 732 Defeated by Charles Martel. 752 End of the Merovingian dynasty. 762 Bagdad founded. 768 Accession of Charlemagne 786 Accession of Haroun al Raschid. 800 Charlemagne emperor of the West. 808 Death of Haroun. 843 Empire of Charlemagne divided. 865 Russia.n invasion. — Con- stantinople attacked. 884 Empire united imder Charles the Fat. 887 Final division of the em- 910 pire. Commencement of the Fatimite dynasty. 912 Normans settle in France. 987 End of the Carlovingians. 1055 Bagdad taken by the Seljuks. 1076 Jerusalem taken by the Seljuks. 1097 Nice taken by the Crusa- ders. 1204 Constantinople taken by the Crusaders. 1258 Bagdad taken byGenghis Khan. — End of the Saracen Empu-e. 1453 End of the Eastern Em- pire. » No. 11 Saxon Period. 333 GHAPTER IV. England in the Middle Ages. SECTION I. Saxon Period. 1. The Saxon period of the history of England includes that of the Heptarchy, about three and a half centuries pre- ceding the consolidation of the Saxon kingdoms by Egbert. To this period of British history Saxon period. belong the stories related of King Arthur, a famous British champion who became renowned for his many victories over the Saxon invaders; also the partial conversion of the Saxons to Christianity, which was effected by St. Au'gus-tine and several monks, commissioned by Pope Gregory the Great to perform this work (597). The bar- barous and ferocious manners of the age, although softened, were by no means removed, by the partial Christianizatioq. thus effected. 2. In the same period, the Danes commenced their inva- sions. These people were Norsemen who had come from Norway to Denmark, and occupied the lands left uninhabited by the emigration of the Angles and Jutes to Britain. The Danes for a long time continued to harass the kingdom of England, in the reigns of both Egbert Geographical Study, Map No. XI. What was the situation of: Kent? Sussex? Wessex? Essex? East Anglia? Mercia? Northumbria? Strathclyde? North Wales? West Wales? Senlac? Deal? Stonehenge? Glastonbury? Wareham? Stamford? Leicester? Derby? Not tingham? Lincoln? York? Leeds? Stamford Bridge? Scarborough? The country of thePicts? Anglesey? Isle of Wight? River Thames? Humber? Tees? Tyne? Sever©? Wye? Firth of Forth? Tay? Clyde? Solway Firth? 834 MedicBval History. and his successors, the Saxon kings of England, who, except during the reigns of Canute the Dane and his two successors, held the throne a little over two centuries (827-1066). 3. Alfred the Great. The most eminent of these Saxon kings was Alfred the G-reat, who was the most illustrious monarch of his age, and one of the wisest and most virtuous kings that ever reigned. Though Reign of Alfred. at one time entirely overwhelmed by the Danes, and re- duced to such an extremity that he was obliged to seek safety in an obscure part of the country, in the disguise of a peasant, he at last, by his fortitude and address, was enabled to defeat his enemies, and to regain his throne. The Danes being expelled, he restored tranquillity to the country, and endeavored, by judicious measures, to promote the prosperity and civilization of the people. He founded the University of Oxford, improved the laws of the kingdom, and established schools for the education of the people. His reign lasted thirty years (871-901).* 4. Daring the next century, the Danes continued their incursions, until the English monarch was compelled to sur- render one half of his dominions to the Danish conqueror Can-ute'; and soon afterward the latter Canute. obtained full possession of the throne (1017), which he and his two successors held, until the Saxon line was again restored in the person of Edward, called the Confessor, on account of his studious habits Edward the Confessor, and pious disposition. This monarch was canonized by the * " Alfred is the most perfect character in history. He is a singular instance of a prince who has become a hero of romance, who, as such, has had countless imaginary exploits attributed to him, but to whose character romance has done no more than justice, and who appears in exactly the same light in history and in fable. No other man on record has ever so thoroughly united all the virtues both of the ruler and of the private man. In no other man on record were so many virtues disfigured by so little alloy. A saint without superstition, a scholar without ostentation, a warrior all of whose wars were fought in the defense of his country, a conqueror whose laurels were never stained by cruelty, a prince never cast down by adversity, never lifted up to insolence in the day of triumph, there is no other uame in history to compare with his,"— Free wan's Norman Conquest. Saxon Period. BBS Pope, and very much revered by the people, who imputed to him the power of curing the scrofula by the touch of his hand. Hence this disease was called the "king's evil;" and for seven centuries those afflicted with it were, at times, pre- sented to the king to be cured in this way. 5. Edward dying without heirs, the crown was conferred by the clergy and nobles uj^on Harold, son of Earl Godwin, the most powerful nobleman of the time, whose daughter Edward had married. Harold was also. Harold. through his grandmother, a descendant of Sweyn (swane), the Danish king. His right to the throne was, however, dis- puted by his brother Tos'tig, who, with the aid of the kings of Scotland and Norway, was en- Tostig. abled to raise a large army; but he was defeated by the Eng- lish forces under Harold, after a severe battle fought near the Der'went River, in the northern part of England (September 25, 1066). 6. Three days after this battle, a more powerful competi- tor for the throne landed on the southeastern shore of Eng- land, with a largo and finely equipped army. This was William, Duke of Normandy, to whom Edward had bequeathed the throne, and whose Norman conquest. claim was sanctioned by the Pope; while Harold, who, it was said, had Sacredly promised not to dispute William's claim, was viewed by many as guilty of usurpation and perjury. Harold, notwithstanding his recent conflict with the Nor- wegians, marched with all the forces he could collect to oppose the Normans. The battle, which was long and bloody, was fought near Hastings,* and resulted in the entire defeat of the Saxons, Harold himself being slain (October 14, 1066). f * On the site of the town now called Battle, in the southeastern part of England. It was fought on the hill of Senlac. (See Map No. XI.) + "Toward the evening, while still unweariedly sustaining his army with his voice and hand, Harold was struck with an arrow through the left eye into the brain, and fell dead upon the field. His two brothers. Gurth and T^eofwin. were also slain, with nearly all the nobles and knights in the battle. The old Anglo- 336 Mediceval History, This ended the Saxon dynasty, and gave the control of the kingdom to Willi'iT^i, who, two months afterward, was formally crowned king of England in Westminster Abbey (December 25, 1066). Anglo-Saxon Civilization. 7. The great council of the nation was called the Witen- agenwte (meeting of the witan, or wise men), and was com- posed of representatives of the nobles and clergy. The churls, or common people, had no voice in Witenagemote. Administration of justice. it. The kings were chosen by it, and no law could be enacted without its consent. Justice was administered in the shire- mote, or county court, from which an appeal could be made to the king. The finding of a verdict was assigned to twelve thanes (lowest order of nobles), who thus bore some resemblance to a modern jury. The accused cleared himself by his own oath or those of others, called compurgators, who swore to his innocence. Without these, he was subjected to the ordeal (great judgment); that is, he was compelled to thrust his arm into boiling water, hold a piece of red-hot iron in his hand, or walk over burning plowshares; and if at the end of three days no signs of injury appeared upon him, his innocence was deemed to be estab- lished. 8. The dwellings of the Anglo-Saxons were constructed of wood, having, instead of a cliimney, an aperture in the roof. The windows were of lattice-work, but some- times were covered with a linen blind; in the Dwellings. houses of the rich they were often glazed. The floors were covered with rushes, and the walls often hung with rich tapestry, embroidered with gold or colored thread, the women Saxon heroism, worthy of a better fate, set in that dark eclipse; the battle-ax no longer availed against the Norman spear. Certain it is, however, that there was neither rout no** flight, so great was the despairing energy with which the English fought. Eing Harold's army was exterminated but not vanquished, and England lay paralyzed at the foot of the conqueror."— Boscoe's Lives of the Kings of England. Saxoii Period. 337 of this period being skilled in needlework. The furniture was very rude and simple, stools, benches, and settees being used in place of chairs; and these Furniture. were made of wood, often curiously carved. Many of the vessels employed in eating and drinking were of silver and gold beautifully wrought. Drinking-horns supplied the place of glass vessels. 9. The Anglo-Saxons were hospitable, and fond of feast- ing and merriment; and at their banquets, the harp was passed around, that each, in turn, might contrib- ute by his skill to the entertainment. Their Social customs. amusements were active and exciting. Among the higher classes, hunting and hawking were favorite sports; while the churl delighted in bear-baiting, in the feasts of jugglers and tumblers, and in the songs of the gleeman, or minstrel. Back- gammon, chess, and dice were also resorted to for more quiet pastime. The ladies were much occupied in spinning; hence the name spinster came to be applied to a young unmarried woman. 10. Little was done after Alfred's reign to encourage learning and science, the irruptions of the Danes preventing any progressive efforts to cultivate the arts of peace. There were no means of diffusing knowl- edge. The monasteries were almost the only Learning and science. schools; and in these a very few persons received instruction in Greek, Latin, theology, and astronomy; also in some of the fine arts, the monks being often skilled in painting, music, and sculpture. They also spent much of their time in copying and illuminating books on vellum or parchment, which, being executed with so much labor, were very costly, a considerable fortune being requisite to obtain a few volumes. 11. The foreign commerce of England during this period was considerable, London being the great em- i — porium of the nation. Wool was the chief article of export, and was received back from the continent in fabrics 338 Medice^al History, of various kinds. Mints were established in some of the cities and towns, and many of the Anglo-Saxon coins still preserved exhibit remarkable skill. SECTION II. The Norman Period. 12. William I, surnamed the Conqueror, Avas a descendant of the famous Duke Rollo, to whom Charles the Simple had ceded Normandy about 150 years previously. He was not only a brave and skillful general, but an Character able statesman; and, after subduing all the Anglo-Saxon leaders who opposed his rule, he, by severe but judicious regulations, firmly established the government, and effectually j^rotected the country from foreign invasions. The Saxon population was, however, reduced to a condition of abject bondage to the great Norman barons, among whom most of the lands were divided as a reward for their ser- Measures. vices, according to the usages of the feudal system. The laws of Edward the Confessor were not, however, abolished; and some of the Saxon nobles sat in council with the Norman counts. 13. William instituted the custom of ringing the curfew- hell in the evening, as a signal that the people should ex- -] tinguish their lamps and fires, either to prevent conflagrations or secret assemblies of those who Chief events. were hostile to his government.* One of his most useful acts * "William, knowing how ill the English stood aflfected to him, resolved to take all possible measures to screen himself from their resentment; for that pui*pose he took two precautions which were equally insupportable to them. The first was to take away their arms, the second to forbid them any lights in their houses after eight o'clock, at which hour a bell was rung to warn them to put out their fire and candle, under the penalty of a great fine for every offense."— i^opm's History of England. Norman Period. 380 Wcas to cause tlie compilation of the Domesday Booh, which was a register of all the estates in the kingdom. Hunting was his favorite amusement; and in order to make a ncAV forest near his residence, he laid waste a tract of country Geographical Study. What is the situation of : 'E.^GT.A.^T)'! Wales? Scotland? Ireland? London? Dover? Hastings? Portsmouth? Canterbury? Cornwall? York? Carlisle? Ot- ierbum? Flodden Field ? Edinburerh? Glasgow? Inverness? Dublin? St. Albans? Bamet? Wakefield? Towton? Isle of Wight? 840 Mediceval History. extending thirty miles, driving out the inhabitants, demolish- ing houses and even churches, but making no compensation for the injury. To kill game in any of the forests was made a crime of greater enormity than murder.* He died during an invasion of France, in the twenty- third year of his reign (1087). 14. William II., surnamed Rufus, the Red, from the color of his hair, succeeded to the throne of England, by the will of his father, while his elder brother Robert assumed the government of Normandy. William inherited the courage and much of the ability of his father. Character. but was more cruel and unprincipled. His reign was much disturbed by quarrels with his brothers Robert and Henry, which caused him to invade Normandy. He also waged war with Malcolm, king of Scotland. During this period the First Crusade occurred; and Robert, Events. wishing to join it, mortgaged to William his duchy of Nor- mandy (1095), the latter raising the money to pay for it by forced levies upon his subjects, even compelling the convents to melt their plate in order to furnish their quota. After a reign of thirteen years, he was shot while hunting in the New Forest (1100). The people viewed Death. this as a just retribution; for where the Conqueror had de- stroyed the homes of the Saxons, his son prematurely and miserably perished. \ * " ' stark he was,' says the English chronicler, ' to men that withstood him. So harsh and cruel was he that none dared resist his will. Earls that did aught against his bidding he cast into bonds, bishops he stripped of their bishoprics, abbots of their abbacies. He spared not his own brother; first he was in the land, but the king cast him into bondage. If a man would live and hold his lands, need it were that he followed the king's will.' But stern as he was, he gave peace to the land. Even amid the sufferings which necessarily sprang from the circumstances of the Con- quest itself, from the erection of castles, or the inclosure of forests, or the exac- tions which built up the great Hoard at Winchester, Englishmen were imable to forget ' the good peace he made in the land, so that a man might fare over his realm with a bosom full of gold.' ''—Green's History of the English People. t " It was almost night, when a poor charcoal-burner, passing through the New Forest with his cart, came upon the solitary body of a dead man, shot with an arrow in the breast, and still bleeding. He got it into his cart. It was the body of JSlormaii Period. 341 15. Henry I. (surntimed Beauclerh, the Sdiolar), the younger brotlier of Williiini II., succeeded him; Robert, the elder brother, being absent in the Iloly Land. The latter, on his return, again received Nor- Robert. mandy; but some time afterward, war arising between the brothers, Robert was made prisoner, sent to England, and confined in a castle in Wales till his death. The government of Henry was characterized by seve- Government. rity; and so strict and impartial was he in administering the laws, that he was styled the ''Lion of Justice." He married Matilda, daughter of the king of Scotland, and niece of Edgar Atheling, a prince of the old Saxon line. Matilda was much beloved by the people, who called her Maud the Good. Henry's private life was, how- ever, very immoral; and he was so deceitful and treaclierous that even his greatest favorites dis- Private life. trusted him. The latter part of his life was saddened by the loss of his only son, who was drowned on his passage from Normandy; after which event, it is said, Henry was never seen to smile. 16. Stephen, a nephew of Henry, succeeded him, although it had been his cherished wish that his daughter Matilda should have the throne. This princess, whose first husband was the emperor of Germany, and Matilda. who afterward married Geoffrey Plan-tag'e-net, Earl of Anjou, raised an army, and having defeated Stephen and made him a prisoner, was declared queen of England (114:1). She, however, soon disgusted all her English friends and sup- porters by her despotic and arrogant behavior; and Stephen was enabled to regain the throne, Matilda being compelled to flee. the king. Shaken and tumbled, with its red beard all whitened -with lime and clotted with blood, it was driven in the cart by the charcoal-burner nest day to "Winchester Cathedral, where it was received and buried. By whose hand the Red King really iell, and whether that hand dispatched the arrow to his breast by accident or de- sign, is known only to God."— i>iofcens. 94'i MedicBval Hldorl). 17. Some years after this, Henry Plantagenet, her son, made another effort to dethrone Stephen, but was finally reconciled to the king, being adopted by him as ^"!^' I his son and successor; soon after which, on the death of Stephen, he became king (1154). During the reign of Stephen, on account of the weakness of the government, the country suifered greatly from the violence and rapacity of the feudal barons, each of whom occupied a fortified castle, from which, at the Condition of Ihe country, head of his band of mercenary ruffians, he sallied forth day and night to plunder and oppress the inhabitants. This reign terminates the Norman period. Norman Civilization.— The Fettdai* System. 18. The Norman conquest of England wrought many great changes in the social as well as the political condition of the people. Among these the establishment of the Feudal System was the most important. This Feudal system. was a system by which, during the period from the ninth to the thirteenth century, social and political relations, includ- ing the rights of landed property, were regulated in nearly all the countries of Europe. A feudal proprietor was one who held his lands from another, on condition of certain ser- vices which he, as a vassal, was bound to perform for the other, as his suzerain, or superior. 19. This peculiar relation was established for the pur- pose of obtaining and preserving military strength; and was admirably adapted to that end. Thus, when the king needed an army he summoned his barons, who in like manner called upon their vassals. Object of the system. and they at once made a similar demand upon their depen- dents; so that, with wonderful promptitude, the whole force of the nation was brought into the field. With the exception of the duty of military service to Vassals. their superiors, the vassals of a king practically were invested Norman Period. m with sovereign power within their own dominions, having vassals in various degrees beneath them; and living in their fortitied castles, often by means of pillage, while the peasan- try were bound as serfs, or slaves, to the soil. 20. These feudal castles soon became a striking feature in England and other parts of western Europe, their whole appearance indicating that the only Feudal castles. objects of their construction were strength and security. They were surrounded by walls _^ often more than twelve feet high, within which was a lofty tower called the donjon, or keep, whose massive walls, pierced with small windows or loop-holes, defied the fierc- est assault. Here the baron lived, and here was stored the property of the castle. Under it was a gloomy dungeon, in which those who had offended a Feudal castle. its haughty master were thrust, and often left to starve. The ruins of some of these castles still exist. 21. The feudal nobles and gentlemen fought on horseback, and were protected by a close-fitting armor of steel, often ornamented with gold and silver. Their princi- pal weapons of offense were long lances, with which they rode fiercely against each other; and Modes of combat. clubs, maces, or swords for hand-to-hand conflicts, when their lances were broken, or when the combatants became un- horsed. The common soldiers fought on foot, were unpro- vided with protective armor, and used bows and arrows — either long-bows or cross-bows. The Normans were skilled in the use of every species of arms, but particularly in the cross-bow; and, after the Norman invasion, the English became the most skillful archers m the world. 344 MedicBval History. 22. Tlie most numerous class in England at this time were the Saxon churls, or, as called by the Normans, villaifis. These were farmers, and were obliged to place themselves under the protection of some noble, as otherwise they might be seized as robbers. They were bound to reside on the lands which they held from their lords, unless permitted to leave them. Next below these were the serfs, who were in all respects bondsmen, i beinff at- I tached to the soil, and subject to the will of their masters. The num- ber of these regis- tered in Domesday Book was 25,000. 23. The dress of the Normans was, in many respects, pecu- culiar. A short cloak, often richly furred and ornamented with gold lace, worn over •1 Innap rJnnhlof voonli 1- The Donjon; 2. Chapel; 3. Stables; 4. Inner Bal- a loose UOUOILL l eacn- ^^j^ (bailey, or court); 5. Outer Ballium; 6. Barba- in o- liji If wnv flnwn flip <^^"i ''• Mount, supposed to be the court-hill, or ing naii vva^^ UOWn Uie tribunal, and also the place where justice was leg, formed the most executed; 8. soldiers' Lodgings. conspicuous portion of a gentleman's costume. The shoes had very long pointed toes, sometimes A Norman Castle. Costume. twisted in a very curious manner, and occasionally fastened by gold or silver ckains to the knees. Long hose, fastened to Norman Period. 845 the doublet by strings, called poi7its, and a velvet bonnet, completed the costume. The Norman ladies wore a loose wide-sleeved robe reaching to the ground, and covering a kirtle or under-gown of silk. Other modes of costume were peculiar to various characters. Thus the mmstrel was dis- tinguished by his harp strung on his shoulder, a plate of silver on his arm, and a chain around his neck bearing the tuning-key; the fool, or jester, by his cap and bells, and his party-colored dress; the palmer, er pilgrim, by his sandals, the scallop-shells border- ing his hat, and his iron-shod staff. The Saxon serf was clothed in uu tanned hide, sandals of Dress of the serf. hog-skin, and leather hose, and wore a collar of brass en- graved with his master's name. 24. Learning at this period was almost exclusively con- fined to the cloister, the monks and priests being the only scholars. Every monastery had its writing- room, where the copying of books was constantly Learning. carried on by the monks. The most noted among the English writers of this time were William of Malmsbury, Geoffrey of Monmouth, and Henry of Huntingdon. These were the au- thors of several interesting chronicles. Chivalry or Knighthood. 25. Chivalry or knighthood, like feudalism, was an insti- tution peculiai' to this age, and exerted a powerful influence upon the social customs of the Normans. While the feudal system constituted the basis of the political system both of England and France at this time, chivalry controlled the moral and social character of the people. Though pertaining to the general history of Europe, we give a sketch of it here, because of its prominence among the Normans, both in Normandy and in the conquered Anglo- Saxon kingdom. 346 MedicBi)al History. 26. It was a singular combination of religion, military valor, and gallantry; and for several centuries continued to exercise a powerful influence upon the man- ners, customs, and opinions of all classes. Al- Development. Training for kniglithood. though its origin can be faintly discerned in the institutions and practices of the German and Gothic nations, its full develop- ment was not reached till the eleventh or twelfth century, being rapidly matured by the Crusades, from which it received a strong religious character. Those destined for knighthood received, from their earliest years, a pe- culiar training. Tlie first degree was that of "page (called sometimes child or var- iety-, after the age of fourteen, the page might be made an ef^quire, and was allowed to bear arms. He was then kept in con- stant service, waiting upon the master and mistress of the castle, and acquiring habits of perfect obedience and courtesy. Every care was taken to impress in- delibly upon his mind a love of chivalry; that is, a devotion to feats of arms in behalf of the weak and oppressed, or in vindication of religion, and of the honor and virtue of the female sex.* * " The young man, the esquire, who aspired to the title of knight, was first stripped of his clothes and placed in a bath, which was symbolical of purification. On leaving the bath he was clothed in a white tunic, symbolical of purity ; a red robe, symbolical of the blood he was bound to shed in the service of the faith ; and a black close-fitting coat, of the death which awaited him as well as all men. Thus A Knight in Complete Armor. Norman Period. 347 27. By means of this training, he was prepared to receive his golden spurs, and to take the vows of a hniglit. The candidate for this honor was obliged, the night before receiving it, to hold his vigil; that is, he kept silent watch within some gloomy chapel Mode of admission. over the arms which he was about to assume. The chief of these was a lance, besides which he had a two-handed sword, the "dagger of mercy," and sometimes a battle-ax or mace. He was clad from head to foot in armor, consisting of plates of metal riveted together, and worn over a dress of soft leather. His helmet bore a crest, ornamented by favors bestowed by the lady of his knightly devotion, and on his tri- angular shield was a coat of arms. When the sword and spurs were bound upon him, he was struck on the cheek or shoulder, this being the last personal affront which he was to receive unavenged. He then took a solemn oath to protect the distressed, maintain right against might, and never, by word or deed, to disgrace himself as a knight or a Christian.* purified and clothed, the candidate observed for four-and-twenty hours a strict fast. When evening came he entered the church and there passed the night in prayer. Next daj^ his first act was confession, after which the priest gave him communion; and then he attended a mass of the Holy Spirit and listened to a sermon touching the duties of kniglits. The sermon over, the candidate advanced to the altar with the knight's sword hanging fi'om his neck. This the priest took off, blessed, and replaced upon his neck. The candidate then went and knelt before the lord who was to arm him. . . . Then drew near knights and sometimes ladies to reclothe the candidate in all his new array. He was then called adiibbed (that is. adopted). The lord rose up, Avent to him and gave him three blows with the flat of the sword on the shoulder or nape of the neck, and sometimes a slap with the palm of the hand on the cheek, saying, 'In the name of God, St. Michael, and St. George, I make thee knight.' ''—GuizoVs History of Civilization. * " No man could approach the idea of chivalry or rank himself among gentle- men and men of honor who was not ready to contend, when occasion arose, against any odds, and thus to encounter death rather than yield one inch from his post. He must feel himself absolutely free from the stain of a single lie, or even of an equivocation. He must be ever ready to help the weak and the distressed, whether they be so by nature, as in the case of women and children, or by circumstances, as in the case of men overpowered by numbers. He must with his heart, and not with mere eye-service, obey God and the king, or even <=uch other authority as he volun- tarily pledged himself to obey. A knight who violated any of these conditions, even if he escaped detection at the hands of his fellows, felt himself degraded and untrue to the oath taken before God. and the obligation which he bad bound him- self to fulfill."— Ma/io^r/'s Social Life, etc. etc. 348 MedicBval History. 28. The display of chivalry was not confined to the battle- field, but found a frequent occasion in the tournament or joust — the highest species of amusement of this period. This was a fierce personal contest held Tournament. in an inclosed space, called the lists, in galleries around which sat the nobles and ladies to witness the sport, the out- side being thronged with eager spectators from the lower Combat D Knight in the Lists.* orders. At the sound of the trumpet, the combatants, cov- ered with steel and known only by their emblazoned shields, dashed at full gallop from the opposite ends of the lists; and meeting in the center with a terrific shock, one or the other was generally unhorsed, their lances often being shivered to pieces, and the vanquished thrown bruised and bleeding to the ground. The victor was usually * The knight is here seen in his hauhcrk, or coat of mail. A sort of overcoat was sometimes worn over this in warm countries to mitigate the heat of the sun on metal armor. This was nade of cloth or silk stuff, embroidered in gold and silver. Norman Period. 349 rewarded by^ receiving his horse and armor, and sometimes by the privilege of naming some lady, who, with the title of Queen of Love, presided over the remainder of the tourna- ment. In other cases, he received a scarf, ribbon, or other favor from the lady in whose honor the tournament was held.* 29. These combats were not only used for sport, but were resorted to in order to discover the guilty; it being the pre- vailing belief that Providence would interpose, in all such cases, for the protection of the innocent. In this conviction, those who were charged with Judicial combat. crime Avere challenged by their accusers, and were compelled to abide the issue of a personal combat in the lists. This appeal of the Normans to the justice of Heaven closely resembled the ordeal of the Saxons; and upon it was based the practice of tlie duel in more modern times. 30. The customs and practices of chivalry varied in differ- ent countries, being modified by the character and circum- stances of the people. Being a Christian institu- tion, it was a very general object to fight against Military orders. the infidel, and thus uphold, as was conceived, the cause of true religion. Hence, great military orders of knighthood were formed during the Crusades, or expeditions in protection of the Holy Land, of which we shall speak here- after. KnigM-errantry was the practice as- Knight-errantry, sumed by certain knights in wandering about in quest of persons in distress, the rescue of whom conferred special glory upon the champion, f * The tournament differed from the joust principallj^ in the greater number of the combatants. Both were held in the open air, the tournament lasting several days. Outside the lists were pitched the tents of the knights, decorated with their poats of arms, while immediately surrounding the lists, seats were arranged for Bpectators, who attended in large numbers. Special canopies of silk and other rich stuffs were erected for the ladies, who thronged to the spectacle arrayed in their costliest dresses. At the close of the performance the victorious knights were pub- iicly crowned by the ladies of their choice. t The knight-errant traveled about from tournament to tournament, everywhere receiving hospitable entertainment. Out of chivalry sprang the romance, in which 350 Mediceval History. SECTION III. The Plantagekets. 31. Henry II., the first of the Phmtagenets,* had married Eleanor, duchess of Gaienne {glie-eii'), the divorced queen of Louis VII., king of France; and having inherited Anjou from Dominions. Acts. his father, and Maine and Normandy from liis moth- er, at his accession he be- came the ruler not only of England but of the greater part of France. His first acts were to reduce the re- fractory nobles to obedi- ence ; and, dispossessing them of their strongholds, to compel them to discon- tinue their lawless violence and pillage. His next ob- ject was to diminish the powers and privileges of the clergy, who were, by the institutions of William the Conqueror, amenable only to the ecclesiastical courts, by which, if found guilty, they were delivered up to the secular power for punishment. we find the deeds of such heroes as Arthur and Charlemagne related and em- be]lished. These were sung by the frouveres of Normandy, the troubadours of Provence, and the minnesingers of. Germany. (See page 434.) * Plantagenet means, in French, broom-plant; and was given to this family, it is said, because one of their ancestors had done penance by scourging himself with twigs of that plant. Henry being Dujte of Anjou, he and his successors, down to and including John, are called the Angevins. They possessed a large part of France. (See Map.) Dominions of the Angevins. The Fldntagenets. 351 32. In this undertaking he met with determined opjiosi- tion from Thomas a Becket, a man of great talent and fear- less courage, who, holding the highest office in the Church (that of Archbishop of Can'ter- bu-ry), considered it his duty to defend the au- Thomas < Becket. thority and privileges of his order, notwithstanding he had been eleyated to this great dignity by the friendship and partiality of Henry II. At a grand council held at Claren- don (1164), the king presented sixteen propositions, called the '^Constitutions of Clarendon, one of which was that clergymen accused of any crime should be tried by the civil courts; while the others Constitutions of Clarendon. were designed to define and regulate the ecclesiastical au- thority, and make it subservient to the civil power. To these propositions Becket, by the request of the Pope, reluctantly gave his assent; but afterward, being charged with evading them, he was condemned by a council specially called by the king to pass judgment upon him. 33. He then secretly departed from England, and took refuge with the king of France, by whom, as well as by the Pope, he was encouraged and sustained. Henry at last becoming reconciled to him, he returned to England and resumed his high office. But he again opposed the royal au- thority; and the king was at last provoked into exclaiming, ''Is there no one of my subjects who will rid me of this insolent priest?" Four knights, constru- ing this as a command, immediately proceeded Murder of Becket. to the residence of the prelate, and, pursuing him into the cathedral, barbarously slew him before the altar (1170). 34. Henry was thrown into the greatest consternation on hearing of this event. He expressed the deepest sorrow for the words he had hastily uttered, and evinced i ■ the sincerity of his repentance by acts of the penan^ce. severest penance, consenting to go as a pilgrim to the tomb of the murdered prelate, now canonized as a 3o2 MedicBval History. saint and martyr, and for miles of the way walked barefoot over the flinty road, marking his steps with blood. Inde- pendently of its atrocity, nothing could have been more dis- astrous to the king's cause than the murder of Becket; for the Church party gained more by the death of their champion than all his best Effect of Becket's death efforts could have won for them if he had lived, talented and determined as he was; and Henry only obtained pardon from the Roman pontiff on condition that he would submit entirely to the wishes and injunctions of the holy See. 36. One of the most important events of this reign was the conquest of Ireland, which Henry completed in 1172. Ireland, anciently called Hibernia, was peopled by a race similar to the Britons, but little is Ireland. . known of them before the fourth century.* Each province had its separate king, but was dependent upon the monarch who held his court at Tara.f In the fifth century the people were converted to Christianity, chiefly through the efforts of the renowned St. Patrick. From the sixth to the twelfth century, Ireland became famous for History. its progress in literature and art, and sent forth many learned men and missionaries from the monasteries which had been established. J For three centuries it was much harassed by * " Many years before Christ, a race of men inhabited Ireland, exactly identical ■with its present population, yet very superior to it in point of material well-being; a people acquainted with the use of the precious metals, with the manufacture of fine tissues, fond of music and song, enjoying its literature and books; often dis- turbed, it is true, by feuds and contentions, but, on the whole, living happily imder the patriarchal rule of the clan ^y?.iem..'''—Thehaud''s Irish Races. t "The ancient Hall or Court of Tara, in which, for so many centuries, the Tri- ennial Councils of the nation had been held, saw for the last time (a.d. 554) her kings and nobles assembled within its precincts. Some fugitive criminal, who had fled for siinctuary to the monastery of St. Ruan, having been dragged forcibly from thence 'o Tara, and there put to death, the holy abbot and his monks cried aloud again-t the sacrilegious violation; and pronounced a curse upon its walls. 'From that day,' says the annalist, no king ever sat again at Tara.' "— ilibore's History of Ireland. t " In order to convey to the reader any adequate notion of the apostolical labors of that crowd of learned missionaries whom Ireland sent forth in the course Tlte FlautageiieU. 353 the Northmen or Danes; but in 1014 the latter were utterly defeated in a great battle fought at Olon'tarf, near Dublin. 36. Some years before the death of Becket, Henry ob- tained permission of tlie Pope to subdue the island; but it was not until 1169 that an actual invasion was made. One of the five subordinate kings having been expelled from his province, and having Conquest of Ireland. taken refuge in England, succeeded in enlisting a force from the Anglo-Norman nobles and adventurers, with which he regained his kingdom (1170). The English then so rapidly prosecuted the conquest of the country, that the next year Henry went there, and, having received the submission of most of the native chiefs, committed the government of the island to a viceroy whom he appointed. 37. The last sixteen years of Henry's life were embittered by family dissensions, his three oldest sons combining with Louis, king of France, to deprive him of his throne. At the same time his French dominions Family troubles. were threatened by a revolt, and the northern part of Eng- land was invaded by the king of Scotland. Henry, however, triumphed over all his enemies. But these troubles were no sooner pacified than similar family discords broke out, his sons being encouraged in their disobedience and unnatural hostility by Queen Eleanor, their mother, who had become of this [the sixth] century to all parts of Europe, it would be necessary to trans- port him to the scenes of their respective missions; to point out the difficulties they had to encounter, and the admirable patience and courafre with which they surmounted them ; to show how inestimable was the service they rendered, during that dark period, by keeping the dying embers of learning awake, and how grate- fully their names are enshrined in the records of foreign lands, though but faintly, if at all, remembered in their own. It was, indeed, then, as it has been ever since, the peculiar fate of Ireland that, both in talent and in the fame that honorably re- wards it, her sons prospered far more triumphantly abroad than at home; for while, of the many who confined their labors to their native land, but few have left those remembrances behind which constitute fame, those who carried the light of their talent and zeal to other lands not only founded a lasting name for themselves, but made their country also a partaker of their renown, winning for her that noble title of the Island of the Holy and the Learned, which throughout the night that oyerhung all the rest of Europe she so long and proudly wore, "— il/oore. 354 MedicBval History, enraged against the king for his licentiousness, and particu- larly on account of his attachment to Rosamond Clifford, styled in the ballads of the time the *^Fair Rosamond." Eleanor, attempting to flee the kingdom, was arrested and kept in close confinement. The king's eldest son, Henry, died of a fever; his second son, Geoffrey {jef're), was killed in a tournament in France; and Richard, the third son, with John, the fourth son, joined the king of France in a war against England, so that Henry was compelled to submit to a very humiliating treaty of peace. 38. Henry's death occurred a short time afterward (1189).* He was, undoubtedly, a very able monarch, and did much to establish the royal authority in opposition to the violence of the feudal barons, and to the exorbi- tant claims and privileges of the clergy. He was a patron of learning and art, and many Gothic edifices of great splen- dor were erected during his reign. The simple arts of civi- lized life also made considerable progress during the same period. Henry was succeeded by Richard, who was after- ward styled, on account of his martial courage, Coeui' de Lion ijcyur dull le-onc/), the Lion-hearted. 89. Richard I. This monarch, being ambitious of mili- tary glory, embarked in the Third Crusade, and gained several important victories in the Holy Land over the renowned Saladin. On his return he was arrested Military caree in Austria; and, by the order of Henry VL, emperor of Germany, whom he had offended in Palestine, was confined * "When the French ambassadors were ushered into his presence, sick and bed- ridden as he was, and he inquired the name of Richard's supporters (amnesty for whom was a condition of the treaty), the first name on the Ust was that of his be- loved John. On hearing his name he was seized with a sort of convulsive move- ment; he sat up in bed, and gazing around v/ith a searching and haggard look, he exclairued, ' Can it be true that John, my heart, the son of my choice, he whom I have doted on more tlian all the rest, and my love for whom has brought on me all my woes, has fallen away from me?' They replied that it was even so; that nothing could be more true. ' Well, then.' he said, falling back on his bed, and turning his face to the wall, 'henceforward let all go on as it may; I no. longer care for myself or for tTie world.' ""—Michelet, The Plaiitagenets. B55 in a dungeon, until his subjects paid a large sum of money for his deliverance (1194). During his absence, Philip, king of France, had seduced John, Richard's brother, from his allegiance; and both had plotted for the destruction of Eichard, with the design of Philip and John. obtaining possession of his dominions; but this scheme was thwarted by the king's return. The rest of Richard's reign was occupied in contention with Philip; and after much petty and indecisive war, he was mortally wounded in an attack upon a castle in France, held by a rebellious vassal (1199). 40. The character of this monarch is one of the most romantic to be found in history, and displays a love of adven- ture, a military daring, and a strength and skill in feats of arms, unsurpassed in ancient or modern times. His people, oppressed by the taxes which Character of Richard. were ruthlessly levied to carry out his useless projects, were yet proud of his fame, though he accomplished nothing for their benefit, nor advanced in any respect the prosperity of the country. He, indeed, spent but fourteen months in his kingdom during the ten years of his reign. 41. John (Lachland)y the brother of Richard, succeeded him, with the consent of the people, although Arthur, Geoffrey's son, was the rightful heir. This young prince, having fallen into the power of his uncle. Prince Arthur. was imprisoned, and, it is said, cruelly murdered by him. Philip, king of France, summoned John, his vassal, as Duke of Normandy and Aquitaine, to answer for this offense before a court of peers; but he refused to obey the sum- mons, and was accordingly branded as a murder- er, and adjudged to lose nearly all his French Loss of French territory. territories, which in a few years Philip succeeded in conquer- ing, and annexed them to his own dominions. Hence John received the surname of Lackland. 42. The Pope (Innocent III.) having caused Stephen Langton, a man of great talent and unblemished character. 356 MedicBvai History. to be elected Archbishop of Canterbury, John refused to give his consent; whereupon Innocent phiced tlie kingdom under an interdict, in consequence of which the churches were closed, the dead were reiused Christian burial, and aril other religious offices ceased. The king, still resisting, was formally excommunicated by Pope Innocent, his people were absolved from their allegiance to him, and a solemn injunction was placed upon Philip of France to take posses- sion of the kingdom. John at last submitted, and solemnly surrendered his dominions to the Pope, promising to hold them as his obedient vassal, and to pay to him an annual tri- bute (1213). Philip, attempting to carry out his design of conquering England, sustained a great Defeat of Philip. disaster in the loss of his fleet, which was attacked by the English and destroyed. This was the first naval action of importance between the English and French. 43. John's next contest was with the barons, who, under the leadership of Langton, determined to compel his assent to a series of propositions designed to diminish the royal prerogatives and secure the liberties of the subjects by established principles. This John Contest with the barons. steadily refused, until a large army had been raised by the barons, and the city of London taken; when he finally sub- mitted, and signed the famous Magna Charta (the Great Charter) at Eun-ny-mede' (June 15, 1215).* One of the most important articles of this instrument was that ^'no delay should take place in doing ]us- Magna Charta. tice to every one; and no freeman should be taken or im- prisoned, dispossessed of his free tenement, outlawed, or ban- * " This Holy Land of English liberty is about half way from Odiham to London, and it is a grassy plain, of about one hundred and sixty acres, on the south bank of the Thames, between Staines and Windsor.* Various derivations are given for the name; that of the antiquary Leland affirms it to have been so called from the Saxon word Bnne, or council, and to mean the Council Meadow, having been used in the old Saxon times as a place of assembly. No column or memorial marks the spot where the primary triumph of the English constitution was achieved."— Creasy's Rise and Progress of the English Constitution, Tlie Plantagenets. 857 ished, U7iless hy the legal judgment of his peers.''' This famous charter, although granted to the nobles only, pro- tected the rights of all, and is justly regarded as the palladium of English liberty.* 44. John attempted -afterward to resist the execution of this instrument, and levied an army of foreign mercenaries, by means of which he perpetrated the most atro- cious cruelties, and compelled the authors and supporters of Magna Charta to flee the country. John s resistance. In the midst of the troubles which this excited, his death fortunately occurred, and thus saved the people from the disaster and misery of a prolonged civil war (1216). The character of John was despi- Death and character. cable; cruelty, treachery, and cowardice being its prominent * " How is it possible that at least a third of the provisions of the Charter should have related to promises and guaranties made in behalf of the people, if the aris- tocracy had only aimed at obtaining that which would benefit themselves ? We have only to read the Great Charter in order to be convinced that the rights of all three orders of the nation (clergy, nobles, and common people) are equally re- spected and promoted."— Guizof. The following is a paragraph in Magna Charta, as written; The same in Roman letters. Nullus liber homo capiatur, vel imprisonetur, aut dissaisiatur, aut utlagetur, autexuletur, aut aliquo modo destruatur; nee super eum ibimus, nee super eum mittemus, nisi per legale judicium parium suorum, vel per legem terrae. Translation. No freeman shall be taken, or imprisoned, or disseised, or outlawed, or ban- ished, or any ways destroyed; nor will we pass upon him, nor will we send upon him, unless by the lawful judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land. 358 MedicEval History. traits, unrelieved by a single redeeming virtue. He was suc- ceeded by his son Henry, then only nine years old. 45. Henry III. During the first part of this reign, the country was governed by the guardians of tha young king, and was much disturbed by wars vv^ith France. After attaining the age of majority, Henry had First events. frequent disputes with the barons, who compelled him to con- firm the Great Charter in the most solemn m.uiner. They nevertheless continued to oppose the royal authority, in con- sequence of the unwise exactions of Henry, and his submis- sion to the influence of foreigners, by whom the offices both of church and state were filled. 46. Through the efforts of Simon de Mont'fort, Earl of Leicester {les'ter), twenty-four barons were appointed by the great council to regulate the kingdom; and to this arrange- ment the king gave his assent (1258). A quarrel afterward arising between the nobles and the royalists, civil war ensued; and the king's forces were defeated Civil war. at Lew'es, and he and his son, Prince Edward, were taken prisoners (1264). This placed the government mainly under the control of Leicester, who, in order to strengthen his influ- ence, summoned a council (now styled a parlia- ment), and gave seats in it not only to the barons Parliament. and knights, but to the representatives of the boroughs, or towns (12G5). This is considered the first institution of the House of Commons — the most important branch of the Eng- lish legislature. 47. Prince Edward, having escaped from the confinement in which he had been kept by Leicester, raised an army; and, in the battle of Eves'ham, entirely defeated the forces of Leicester, who, with his eldest son, was among the slain (1265).* This placed Henry Defeat of Leicester. * " The Earl moved to a place on the Avon, called Evesham, and with great glad- ness savA his own banners coming over the hills from Kenilworth. These, however, turned out to be the captured standards of his son; and when he looked to ether The Plantagenets. 859 again on the throne; and Prince Edward having by prudent measures restored general tranquillity, by infusing a wiser and more popular spirit in the government, went on a crusade to the Holy Land. Before his return, his father died (1272), after the exceedingly long reign of tifty-six years. Henry was mild and pacific in his disposition, but pos- sessed neither the talents nor force of character required to cope successfully with the difficulties Character of Henry. of so disturbed a period. England, however, increased in wealth and influence during this reign, and widely extended her commercial relations with other countries. 48. Edward I. The first important event of this reign was the conquest of Wales, which Edward undertook because Llew-el'lyn, prince of that country, refused to do him the homage which he owed as a vassal. The conquest was completed in 1283; Llewellyn beini Conquest of Wales. defeated and slain, and the principality of Wales conferred upon the king's eldest son, called the '' Prince of Wales" — a title ever afterward borne by the eldest son of the English sovereign. The wars with Scotland occupy nearly all the rest of this reign. Alexander III., king of that country, having died without a male heir, several competi- tors arose for the throne, the most noted of whom were John Ba'li-ol and Eobert Bruce, the former War with Scotland. being the grandson of a second daughter, and the latter a points of the compass, he saw glittering flies of spears advancing in converging lines toward the position he held. Bitterly, as he saw this sight, did he ciy, ' It was I who taught them the art of war.' But bitter words were of little use at such a crisis. Having put his men in array of battle, he knelt down to say a short prayer, and then took the sacrament, as pious knights always did before going to battle. The fortunes of the day went against him from the first, but he resolved to sell his life dearly. His last stand was made on the top of a hill, where he gathered round him in a solid circle some of his bravest men. When his horse was killed he fought on foot; but the circle at length yielded to the pressure of charges from every side, and brave old Leicester, a benefactor of the English people second to none, fell on his last field. His head and limbs were brutally chopped off, and the horrible frag- ments were sent as a present to the wife of his greatest toe,'"— Collier's Pictures of Ei^jlish History. 360 Mediceval History. son of a third daughter, of David, the brother of a previous king. A furious dispute having arisen in the Scotch parha- ment, as to the succession, the matter was referred to the arbitration of Edward, who, in accordance with the unani- mous opinion of all the great lawyers of Europe, decided in favor of Baliol, as being the most direct descendant, and he was accordingly placed upon the throne. 49. Edward, however, had meanly taken advantage of the circumstances to compel Baliol to take an oath of fealty to him, and thus to acknowledge himself a vassal to the English crown; and he subsequently so harassed him by frequent and degrading commands, that Baliol was finally provoked into a refusal to comply, determining to make a stand for his own and his people's liberty. He was, however, unsuccessful; for Edward, invading Scotland with a large army, defeated Baliol in the battle of Dunbar (1296), after which the latter surrendered, and was carried Battle of Dunbar. captive to England. He was afterward released, and died in obscurity, in Erance. 60. Scotland, although subdued for a time, soon found a noble champion in the renowned William Wallace, who de- feated an English army of 40,000 men, near Stirling, and committed great ravages in the north of England (1297). The next year, however, Edward defeated Wallace, in the battle of Fal'kirk, and again estab- lished his government in Scotland. Wallace was never after- ward able to gain a decisive victory over his country's enemies; although he fought bravely for several years, until, having been betrayed by one of his own countrymen into the power of Edward, that remorseless king sent him to London; and, in order to intimidate the Scottish leaders, caused him to be executed (1305). 51. The people of Scotland made still another effort to regain their liberties, under the leadership of Robert Bruce, grandson of the competitor of Baliol, and now acknowledged The Plantagenets. 861 the rightful heir to the throne. The attempt was successful, the English being driven from the country. But Bruce afterward suffered a defeat from one of Robert Bruce. Death of Edward. Edward's generals; and the king himself marched to com- plete the conquest, but was suddenly taken ill, and died, at Carlisle (1307), enjoining with his last breath his son Edward to prosecute the enter- prise, until the Scots should be entirely subdued. 52. Edward I. had also carried on war with Philip IV. of France, who had formed an alliance with the Scottish king, Baliol. He confirmed, but with great reluctance, the Great Charter ; and (in 1295) caused the Parliament. deputies from the boroughs to meet the other representatives in Parliament, stating that " what concerns all should be approved by all," — a principle that lies at tlie foundation of all civil and political freedom. Edward was one of the ablest and most successful monarchs that ever reigned. He was politic and warlike, popu- Character of Edward I. lar on account of his majestic personal appearance, his mili- tary success, and his wise measures. His efforts to reform and establish the laws gained for him the appellation of the E7iglish Justinian. 53. Edward 11., unmindful of his father's dying injunc- tion, withdrew his forces from Scotland, and the people of that country gradually recovered their freedom. Having, at last, in the seventh year of his reign. Bannockburn. invaded the country, he was disastrously defeated by Eobert Bruce, in the famous battle of Bannockburn (1314). Of a character the very reverse of his father, Edward soon lost the respect of his people, and gave great offense to the nobles by surrendering himself to the influence of foreign favorites. Civil war finally broke out, in which Isabella, Edward's queen, took part against him ; and Fate of the king. being deserted by his subjects, lie fell into the hands of liis enemies, who kept him for some time in prison, but at Ust 362 Mediceval History. caused him to be put to death in the most shocking manner (1327). His son Edward had previously been declared king. 54. Edv/ard III. In consequence of the youth of the king, a council of regency was appointed to administer the government; but the real power was possessed by Isabella and her paramour, the infamous Mor'- ti-mer, a prominent baron, both of whom had Isabella and Mortimer. been accessory to the murder of the late king. This occa- sioned universal disgust and abhorrence; and the young king soon (1330) found means to punish the murderers of his father, Mortimer being seized and executed as a common criminal, and Isabella placed in confinement, where she was kept until her death. The Scots were defeated by Edward in. the great battle of Halidon Hill Halidon Hill. (1333), and thus were again brought into subjection to the English crown, the young king David Bruce fleeing to France. 65. Edward's next object of ambition was to acquire pos- session of the throne of France, circumstances seeming to favor that project; for Charles IV., the king of that country, having died without heirs, the nation had placed his cousin Philip VI. on the throne. But Edward, through his mother Isabella, was a more direct descendant; and on this ground, notwithstanding that the ancient laws of France {the Salic law — i.e., law of the Salian Franks) excluded females from the throne, he claimed his right to the succession, and proceeded to vindicate it by force of arms. Having destroyed the French fleet in a great Attack on France. naval battle (1340), he invaded France, and with forces far inferior to those of Philip, defeated him in the memorable battle of Crecy {ki^es'e). This battle is made par- ticularly interesting, not only by the greatness of Crecy. the victory, but by the fact that in it cannon were for the first time employed by the English,* and also as the occasion * Firearms appear to have been used by the Chinese in 618 b.c, nearly two thou- sand years before the battle of Crecy. They were also used in different forms iu The Plantagenets. 363 on which the king's son Edward, afterward styled the Black Prince (from the color of his armor), commenced his bril- liant military career (1346).* 66. Edward next took Calais {kal'is), after a long siege; and expelling all the inhabitants, peopled it anew with Eng- lish. This city, regarded as the key of France, the English retained for nearly two centuries. Calais. While Edward was thus engaged, the Scottish people had again placed David Bruce upon the throne, who invading England, was defeated and taken prisoner in the battle of Neville's Cross, near Dur'ham (1346). This vic- tory was due to the activity and heroism of Phi- Neville's Cross. lip'pa, Edward's queen, who, previous to the action, rode through the ranks of the army, encouraging the soldiers. A dreadful plague that swept av/ay Plague. many thousands of the people, not only in England but in other parts of Europe, caused for a time a cessation of hostili- ties between the French and English. 57. Philip, king of France, having been succeeded by John (1350), and the country been distracted by factious dissensions, Edward resolved again to attack it; and for this purpose dispatched the Black Prince with an army to Guienne, while he himself was to make an incursion by way of Calais. India ; and, as early as the eighth century, by the Saracens. The invention of gun- powder is generally attributed to Friar Bacon, who in 1270 announced its composi- tion ; but it was not till 1320 that the proper mode of making it was understood. King Edward's cannon were only of the size of duck-guns. * The young Prince of Wales had been knighted only a month before; and Ed- ward, who was watching the battle from a windmill, resolved to leave to his son the glory of victory. Although the prince was then hard pressed by the French, the king refused to send succor to his assistance, sajing, ' Let the child win his spurs, and let the day be his.' . . . The whole French army took to flight, and was followed and put to the sword, without mercy, till the darkness of the night put an end to the pursuit. The king, on kis return to the camp, flew into the arms of the Prince of Wales, and exclaimed, ' My brave son 1 persevere in your honorable course; you are my son, for valiantly have you acquitted yourself to-day, and worthy are you of a cro'v\Ti.' From this time the young prince became the terror of the French, by whom he was called the Black Prince, from the color of tbp ftrnior wlxich he wore on that day."— iyuwie's History of Encrlan4t 364 MedicBval History. The former penetrated into the heart of France with an army of 12,000 men; but at Poitiers {poi-terz') found himself confronted by a splendidly equipped force of 60,000 men, commanded by John in person. Desirous Poitiers. to retreat, the Prince offered to restore air his conquests and give up the war; but John declining any terms but uncon- ditional surrender, a battle ensued, which, owing to the skill Military Accoutbrments op the Black Prince, Suspended over his Tomb at Canterbury Cathedral. and valor of the Black Prince, resulted in the entire over- tnrow of the French, John himself being made a prisoner (1356). The French king was kept in captivity in London till ransomed by his subjects (1360); Death of John. but not being able to fulfill the terms of his release, he re- turned to London, where he died the next year (1364). 58. Under his successor war was renewed between the two countries; but Edward gained no permanent advantage, not- The Plantagenets. 365 withstanding the able generalship of the Black Prince. This renowned leader soon after died, worn out by incessant toil and exposure (1376). He was Black Prince. universally esteemed, not only for his heroism and military genius, but for the generosity, moderation, and amiability which shed still greater luster on his character. The king survived him only a year. Death of the king. He was succeeded by Richard, the son of the Black Prince, then only eleven years old (1377). 59. Edward III. was a wise and powerful monarch, popu- lar not only for his military success and prudent administra- tion, but for his many personal accomplishments. Although nearly all his time was spent in war, he Character was comparatively quite a learned man. His familiarity with the Latin and German languages was of great service to him in his foreign wars and negotiations. He took no important steps Avithout consulting his parliament, and so greatly en- couraged trade that he has been called the '^ Father of English commerce." Wool was the chief arti- Trade. cle of export, and an extensive trade was carried on with the ports of the Baltic. He kept up a close connection with the Flemings, then noted for their extensive woolen manufactures, and thus increased the English trade. 60. Richard II. The first part of this reign is noted for an insurrection of the lower orders of the people, occasioned by the condition of serfdom in which they were kept, and the miseries to which they were subjected Serfdonn. by the unjust laws of the period, and by the oppressions of the wealthier classes. The immediate occasion of the out- break was the imposition of a tax on every person above fifteen years of age, and the indignity with which a young maiden, the daughter of one Wat Tyler (or Wat, [ the' tiler), was treated by a brutal tax-gatherer. I ^ ^^'- This so incensed her father that he struck the officer dend with his hammer; and, being joined by his friends m^ 366 Mediceval History. neighbors, raised a revolt, and placed himself at the head of the insurgents. 61. The populace, to the number of 100,000 men, assem- bled at Blackheatli, near London, broke into the city, burned the palaces and mansions of the nobles, plundered the ware- houses, and murdered the archbishop and many other persons of distinction. The king having entered upon a conference with Wat Tyler, the latter, it is said, acted with so much insolence that Wal' worth, the Mayor of London, struck him with his sword; whereupon Tyler was imme- diately dispatched by others of the king's retinue. Eichard, to quell the mutiny, acceded to the demands of the insurgents, and the latter dispersed; but the nobility having raised a large army, the ringleaders were apprehended and executed, and the concessions of the king were annulled (1381). This made Richard very unpopular with the com- mon people, for their demands had been reasonable and just; the most important being that ville7iage and serf- dom should be abolished, the people paying a fixed rent for their lands, instead of being bound Death of Wat. Villenage and serfdom. to do such services as their feudal lords might require. Serf- dom, however, did not entirely cease in England until more than four centuries after the date of these events. 62. The subsequent conduct of this king was characterized by indolence and inefficiency. He quarreled with the great officers and distinguished nobles of his court, and gave his entire confidence to unworthy favorites. He had banished his cousin Henry, son of John The king's character and conduct. of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster, for being concerned in a duel; and, on the death of the duke, proceeded to dispossess Henry of his estates and annex them to those of the crown. Henry, however, taking advantage of Richard's absence in Ireland, landed with a small force in England; and so unpopular was the king, that the invader was Deposition. soon joined by a force of 60^000 men, Richard was accord- Wickliffe and Chaucer. The Plantagenets. 367 iugly depooed (1399), and, it is said, was soon afterward mur- dered. During this reign Wickliffe, called by some the ''morning star of the Keformation," translated the Bible. He and his doctrines were much favored by John of Gaunt.* Chaucer, styled the ''Father of English poetry," also wrote his celebrated poem, "The Canterbury Tales." 63. Henry IV., the first of the house of Lancaster, had no legal right to the throne, being a descendant of the fourth son of Edward III., while Edmund Mortimer was living, who was descended from the third son of the same monarch; hence this reign was Right to the throne. little else than a series of insurrections. The most formidable was that excited by the Eiirl of Northumberland and his son, Harry Percy, surnamed Hotspur, on account of his fiery temper. This young nobleman was dis- Hotspur. tinguished for the battle which, in the previous reign, he had fought with the Scots at Otterburn (1388), and on which was founded the famous ballad of "Chevy Chase." He had also greatly aided Henry v^ his efforts to obtain possession of the kingdom; but, afterward quarreling with him, joined his forces to those of the Scots under Douglas and the Welsh under Owen Glen'dower, with the object of placing Morti- mer on the throne. A terrific battle was fought near Shrewsbury (1403); but the rebels were Shrewsbury defeated, and their brave leader, Percy, was slain. The king and his son took part in the battle, and signalized themselves by their feats of strength and daring. Henry IV., after his death in 1413, was succeeded by his son, Henry V. 64. Henry V., during his father's life, had been notorious for his riotous and disorderly conduct; and had, on one occa- * Wickliffe advocated many of the reforms and doctrines afterward prenrhed by Luther and his followers in the sixteenth century. The followers of W^ickliffe were called Lollards, a name first used in the Netherlands about 1300, 868 MedicBval History. sion, been committed to prison by the chief -justice, whom ho had insulted for indicting one of his dissohite companions. On his accession, however, he dismissed his profligate associates and tlioroughly reformed liis life, retainins: in office the wise ministers of Change ii character his father, including the chief -justice by whom he had been so fearlessly punished. Soon afterward he invaded France; and having taken Ilarfleur, after a long siege, he engaged the French army, four times as numerous as his own, and totally routed it in the memorable battle of Ag'in-court (1415), 10,000 of the French being slain and Agincourt. 14,000 taken prisoners; while, it is said, the English lost only 40. Henry then returned to England; but, two years later, he again crossed to France, and, after some successes, a treaty was concluded (1420) at Troyes (trwah), by which Henry was to marry the king's daughter Catharine, and to succeed to the French throne Treaty of Troyes. on the death of Charles, and the two kingdoms were to be united. This treaty was carried into effect, and Henry, as regent of France, entered Paris in triumph. But, in a few months, death stopped short his triumphant career, and put an end to all his schemes of vainglory and ambition (1422). He left one son, Henry, less than a year old. Tlic persecution of the Lollards, commenced in the Lollards. previous reign, was continued in this. 65. Henry VI., at his accession, was proclaimed by the Parliament king of France as well as of England; and his uncle, the Duke of Bedford, the most accomplished prince of his age, was appointed Protector of the kingdom and guardian of the infant king. On arriving Protectorate. at the age of majority, he showed neither the capacity nor the disposition to take control of the government. He married Margaret of Anjou, a princess whose accomplish- ments and masculine energy of character were Marriage. well suited to supply the defects and weaknesses of her hus- The Plantagenets. 369 band.* But the incapacity of the king encouraged the rival house of York to lay claim to the throne, in hehalf of Richard, Duke of York, the descendant of Edward's third son, who was a man of ability and valor, as well as immense wealth. In this pretension Richard was upheld by the greatest noble- man of the kingdom, the renowned Earl of Warwick {war'- rick). afterward called the Kinn-maker, whose i ■ ' , -1 Warwick. means and possessions were so extensive that I . 30,000 retainers were constantly supported by him in his various castles and manors, f An insurrection of the lower orders, under a leader named Jack Jack Cade. Cade, broke out about this time, but was soon put down, Cade being slain (1450). 66. The king's government being very uni:)opular, Richard raised an army, ostensibly for the redress of grievances; and in the battle of St. Albans {aivr- bans) defeated the royalists (1455), and took the War of the Roses, king prisoner. This was the first battle in that gi'eat civil war * " When Henry was twenty-three years old, his council suggested that it was time he should marry ; and every one foresaw that the queen, whoever she might be, would possess the control over the weak mind of her husband. The choice of Henry was directed toward Margaret the daughter of Rene, King of Sicily and Duke of Anjou. In personal beauty she was thought superior to most women, in mental capacity equal to most men of the age. The marriage was agreed on. Margaret landed at Portchester, was married to Henry at Tichfield, and cro^vaaed Maj' 30, 1444."— Lmj/arrZ's History of England. t "During the whole extent of England's history, under the Saxon, Dane, or Norman, the mightiest of her barons was the king-maker, Warwick. It was his power that made Edward king, and his that unmade him. It was his power that dethroned King Henry, and it was his that restored him. Each monarch in turn became the captive and prisoner of this great earl. With princely revenues and estates, Warwick's vassals were an army ; and some notion may be formed of the f«rce he could, at will, bring armed into the field, from the fact that he is said to have daily feasted, at his numerous manors and castles, upward of thirty thousand persons. The other nobles possessed, in their degree, the power of an armed feu- dal retinue, ready to follow their lord to battle in any cause of his choosing ; and thus there was a baronial power of which modern England shows only the shadow. As the traveler now beholds the stately walls of Warwick Castle, he can scarce, with all the impulse given to his imagination, call up the vision of the armed hosts which, some three hundred years ago. could, at a moment's summons, be gathered there in battle array."— i?eed's Lectures on English History. 370 MedicBval History. styled the " War of the Roses" (from the badges of the par- ties, the Lancastrians wearing a red rose and the Yorkists a white rose). This war lasted thirty years, was signalized by twelve pitched battles, and almost annihilated the ancient nobility of England. The next year after the battle of St. Albans, the king was restored to his authority; but the con- test soon broke out with increased fury, and in the battle of Northampton the king was defeated and taken prisoner by the Earl of Warwick (1460), after which the Duke of York was proclaimed the lawful successor of Henry, and Edward, the son of Henry and Margaret, was excluded from the throne. The queen, however, fled to Scotland, and with the aid of the northern barons raised a large army, with which, in the battle of Wakefield, she defeated the Duke of York, who was taken prisoner and put to death (1460). A few weeks after this Margaret defeated the Earl of Warwick and regained posses- sion of the king; but Edward, son of the late Duke of York, joining his forces with those of Edward IV. Warwick, compelled her to retreat, and, triumphantly enter- ing London, was proclaimed king, under the title of Edward IV. (1461). 67. Edward IV. Queen Margaret, however, was not sub- dued. She succeeded in collecting an army of 60,000 men in the northern counties, with which she encountered the forces of Edward and Warwick in the terrific battle of Tow'ton; but was totally defeated (1461), and compelled, with her husband, to take refuge in Scotland. During the next three years Margaret made but Defeat of Margaret. one effort to recover the lost kingdom, but was defeated and compelled to flee to France; a short time after which Henry fell into the possession of the king, and was conflned in the Tower at London. Edward's vices, however, and his marriage with Elizabeth Gray, a Lan- castrian knight's widow, upon whose relatives Vices of the king. the infatuated monarch showered all his favors, so dis- The Plantagenets. §71 gusted the brave and high-spirited Warwick that he de- serted the cause of Edward, and formed an alliance with Margaret. So popular was this nobleman that in a few days he raised an army of 60,000 men, compelled Edward to flee, and placed Henry again on the throne (1471). Disaster soon followed this great victory; for Edward landing in England with a small force, was soon joined by an immense army, and regaining possession of Henry again king. London, once more made prisoner the hapless Henry, and marched against Warwick, who had taken a position at Bar'- net, near London. 68, The king-maker, deserted by his son-in-law, the Duke of Clarence, brother to Edward, who with a large force went over to the Yorkists, was defeated in the battle of Barnet, and slain (1471); and, a fortnight afterward, Edward gained a decisive victory over Defeat of Warwick. the forces of Margaret at Tewks'bury, the latter, with her son Edward, being among, the prisoners. The young prince was cruelly put to death by the Dukes of Clarence and Glos- ter, brothers of Edward IV., and Margaret was imprisoned in the Tower. A few days after this battle Henry expired in the Tower, according to general be- Death of Henry. lief, by the murderous hand of the cruel and wicked Duke of Gloster. Queen Margaret afterward found a refuge in France, where she died (1482). Edward, being now secure on the throne, gave himself up to every species of vice and debauch- ery. He caused his brother, Duke of Clarence, to be put to death on a charge of treason, being probably instigated to this crime by his younger Murder of Clarence. brother, Eichard, Duke of Gloster, who was noted for his designing character and unrelenting ambition. Edward was about to engage in a war with France, when he was seized with a distemper, of which he expired (1483). 69. Edward V., the eldest son of Edward IV., a youth of twelve years, was pj.'oclaimed king; and his uncle, the Duke B7'2 Mediceval History. of Gloster, was appointed Protector. This artful and wicked prince, obtaining possession of the young king and his brother Richard, phiced tlicm in the DukeofGloster Tower; and caused Lord Rivers, their maternal uncle, and Lord Hastings, with several other distinguished persons, to be executed on a charge of treason. He then gave out that the young princes were illegitimate; and contrived that some of his friends should solicit him to take the crown, which, with pretended reluctance, he accepted, and held under the title of Richard III (1483). 70. Richard III. The first act of this wicked usurper was to destroy the two young princes, who are supposed to have been smothered in their beds in the Tower by his orders. But he was not permitted quietly to enjoy the fruits of his crimes. A conspiracy Murder of the princes. was formed against him by his former friend, the Duke of Buckingham; but it failed, and Buckingham was seized and executed. The nation, however, soon found a deliverer in Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond, the last heir of the house of Lancaster, who, landing at Mil'- Henry Tudor. ford Haven, in Wales, was soon joined by sufficient forces to cope with those of the usurper. An engagement took place at Bosworth Field; and Richard, being deserted by Lord Stanley and a large part of his army, was Bosworth. defeated, and he himself, fighting desperately in the conflict, was slain. Richmond was proclaimed king on the battle-field, with the title of Henry VII., by Sir William Stanley, brother of Lord Stanley (1485).* * " The battle which brought to a close the famous War of the Roses was fought on Redmore Plain, about a mile to the south of Market-Bosworth in Leicestershire. From this town it received the name by which it is most generally called— the bat- tle of Bosworth. The leaders of the war were Richard Plantagenet, a little sharp- faced man, with one shoulder somewhat higher than the other, from which slight deformity he was branded by his enemies with the name of Hunchback; and Henry Tudor, or Tydder, a gray-eyed cautious man, with long yellow hair. The former represented the House of York; the latter, the House of Lancaster."— CoHier's Pictures from English Historu. The Plantagenets. S73 State of Society in England, During tJie Period of the Plantagemts (1154-1485). 71. The institution of the House of Commons, the grant- ing of Magna Charta, and the abolition of serfdom were the most important events in the political and social progress of England during this period. The English kings constantly sought to evade the Political and social progress. provisions of the great charter, but without success, for no less than thirty-eight times were they compelled to ratify it. Trial by jury took the place of the ^'judicial combat" of the Normans, the charter prescribing Trial by jury. " the legal judgment of his peers" as necessary for the con- demnation of every one charged with committing crime. 72. In the earlier reigns, although so much had been ac- complished toward laying the foundation of English liberty, the condition of the common people was very little im]n-ovc>d. A degrading system of serfdom con- Serfdom. tinned to exist. Slaves were bought and sold at the fairs, and it is said that the price of a man was less than that of a horse.* But in the Lancastrian period, the result of the great civil commotions was to introduce considerable changes in the social condition of the people. One of the most important of these w^as the extinction of villanage, or serfdom. The nobles being compelled to arm their serfs in the Wars of the Roses, could never afterward * " Of the two millions of human beings who inhabited England in the reign of John, a very large number, probably nearly half, vrere in a state of slavery. Those who are disposed to listen to tales about ' Merrie England ' and ' the good old times ' should remember this fact. At the commencement of true English history, we start with the laborers in abject wretchedness. The narrative of the changes in their social and political positions thenceforward to modern times is certainly a history of progressive amelioration, though lamentably slow and imperfect."— Creasy. 374 MedicBval Jffisiory. reduce them to servitude. The ancient nobility having nearly all perished in these long wars, feudalism in England was destroyed, and a better system Feudalism. took its place. 73. The great staple of commerce was wool, which, with other commodities — tin, lead, leather, etc. — was sold princi- pally to the German merchants, who ex- Commerce. ported into England gold, silver, silks, wines, spices, and other lux- uries for exchange. In the latter part of the period silk - making was introduced, and a law was passed to protect those engaged in it from the competition of the Lombard merchants (1455). Agri- culture continued to be very rude; and large tracts of tilled land were converted into sheep-pastures, in order that the grain of foreign 1 2 3 Knight of Garter; 2. Gentle- man; 3. Citizen. Agi-iculture. countries might be purchased with the wool thus obtained. Hats and Caps. 74. The modes of living gradually became more refined. Glass windows, vessels of earthenware, the use of coal for fuel and of candles for lighting purposes enlarged the comforts of the people. The costume of this period was curious and fantastic. Long-pointed shoes, with the toes fastened to the knees or the girdle; stockings of different colors; a coat half blue or black, half white, with Mode of living. 1 The Ptantagenets. ^75 trousers reaching scarcely to the knees, were some of the most prominent peculiarities in the dress of the ~~ T rni IT- , T T Costume. fine gentlemen. The ladies wore party-colored tunics, very short tippets, small caps, and girdles orna- mented with gold and silver, in which they carried two small swords. Their trains were very long; and their head- Ladies' He ad-Dresses. (Froissart.) dresses towered sometimes two feet above their heads, and were decked at the summit with waving ribbons of various colors. 75. Science made some progress, particularly through the researches of Eoger Bacon (1214-1292), who applied the learning which he had acquired at Oxford to the making of useful inventions. He discovered the composition of gunpowder and the use of the Science and learning. magnifying-glass, and devised various matliematical and philo- sophical instruments. This wonderful knowledge caused him to be regarded by the people as a magician, and he was confined in prison for many years. Astrology and alchemy were favorite subjects of research; but though the alchemists failed in their laborious search for the ^^philosopher's stone" and the '^ elixir of Astrology and alchemy. life," they laid, by their experiments, the foundation of ^76 Mediceval History, modern cliemistyy, as the astrologers, by their constant obser- vations, contributed to the progress of astronomy. 76. The great event of this period was the introduction of printing by William Caxton, who, after acquiring a knowl- edge of the art in Holland and Germany, set up a press at Westminster, during the reign of Ed- Printing. ward IV. Previous to this there were no books except such as had been prepared with great expense of time and labor in the *^ writing-rooms" of the monasteries, for learning was confined almost exclusively to the clergy. The first book printed in England by Caxton was Caxton. The Game and Playe of Chesse (1474). The types used by him were like those used by the Ger. mans {black-letter), which was the common style of print till the reign of James I. 77. The first era of English literature may be placed in the reign of Edward III., when the Travels of Sir John Ma^idevilU English literature. were published (1360). This is Chaucer. the earliest known work in English prose. The famous John Wickliffe (1324-1384), who translated the Bible, and the poet Geoffrey Chaucer (1328-1400) flourished during the same reign. The language of these writers is called "Middle English," because it comes between the " semi-Saxon," which preceded it, and modern English, which commenced in the reign of Elizabeth. Dra- matic literature included only such compositions as the Mysteries or Miracle Plays, the subjects selected being of a religious character. They were succeeded by the Moral Plays, the object of which was to give moral lessons by presenting on the stage ingenious allegories. Middle English. The drama. Principal Events and hates. 377 Kings of England, From Egbert (827) to Henry VU. (1485). Line. Name. Date Egbert Four reigns Alfred the Great Edward the Elder Eight reigns ^ I Canute •g < Harold I. (Barefoot) ' Hardicanute § J Edward the Confessor — . g 1 Harold II '". r William I 1 I William II g 1 Henry I ^ [ Stephen of reign. 827- 830 836- 871 871- 901 901- 925 925-1016 1016-1035 1035-1040 1040-1042 1042-1066 1066-1066 1066-1087 1087-1100 1100-1135 1135-1154 Line. Name. Henry II Richard I... John Henry III... Edward I . . . Edward II.. Edward HI. Richard II Henry IV... Henry v.... Henry VI... Edward IV. . Edward v.. I Richard III. Date of reign. 1154-1189 1189-1199 1199-1216 1216-1272 1272-1307 1307-1327 1327-1377 1377-1399 1399-1413 1413-1422 142'2-1461 1461-1483 148;3-1483 1483-1485 Summary of Principal Events and Dates. Union of the Saxon kingdoms under Egbert 827 Battle of Hastings. Harold defeated by the Normans 1066 Assassination of Thomas a Becket 1170 Conquest of Ireland 1172 Magna Charta signed by King John 1215 Battle of Lewes. Defeat of Henry III. by Leicester 1264 House of Commons instituted by Leicester 1265 Conquest of Wales by Edward 1 1272 The Scots defeated at Dunbar by Edward 1 1296 William Wallace defeated at Falkirk 1298 Wallace taken prisoner and executed , ♦ 1305 Edward II. defeated by Robert Bi uce at Bannockbum 1314 The Scots defeated at Halidon Hill 1333 The French defeated at Crecy by Edward III 1346 The French defeated at Poitiers by the Black Prince 1356 Death of Edward the Black Prince 1376 Insurrection under Wat Tyler 1381 Battle of Otterburn between Percy (Hotspur) and Douglas 1388 A Lollard clergyman burnt at the stake 1401 Battle of Shrewsbury. Percy defeated and slain 1403 The French defeated at Agincourt by Henry V 1415 Jack Cade's rebellion 1450 The royalists defeated at St. Albans 1455 Battle of Northampton. Henry VI. taken prisoner 1460 Queen Margaret defeated at Towton 1461 Warwick defeated by Edward IV. at Barnet 1471 Art of Printmg mtroduced into England 1474 Death of Queen Margaret in France 1482 Battle of Bosworth. Henry VII. proclaimed king 1485 878 MedicBval History. Topical Review. CONQUERING- RAGES. Who were they? What conquests did they mdkef p^qe Burgundians 297, 316 Lombards 299, 304 Avars £99, 303 Bulgarians 303, 304, 306 Slavonians 303, 306 Sueves 297, 298 Magyars 307 Seljuks 307, 330 Mongols and Ottomans 309 Franks 315 Alemanni 316 Normans 320 Saxons 322, 323 Saracens 305, 324, 326, 327, 328 EMINENT PERSONAGES. Who were they? In what period did they live? With what events connected? Theodoric 301, 302 Belisarius 302, 303 Alboin 304 Khosru 305 Genghis Khan, Amurath 309 Timour 310 Clovis T. 316 Charles Martel 317, 328 Pepin the Short 318 Charlemagne 318 Alcuin 319 RoUo 321 Mohammed, Egbert 324 Omar 327 Haroun al Raschid 329 Alfred the Great 334 Harold, Sweyn 335 WiUiam the Conqueror 335, 338 Matilda, Geoffrey Plantagenet 341 William of Malmsbury 346 Henry of Huntingdon 346 Geofifrey Monmouth 346 Eleanor of Guienne 350 Thomas h. Becket 351 St. Patrick 352 PAGE Prince Arthur 355 Robert Bruce 359, 360 Edward the Black Prince . . 363, 364, 365 Wat Tyler 365, 366 Harry Percy (Hotspur) 367 Earl of Warwick 369, 370, 371 Margaret of Anjou 368, 370, 371 Jack Cade 369 Elizabeth Gray 370 Richard, Duke of Gloster 371, 372 Henry Tudor 372 Roger Bacon 375 William Caxton 376 Sir John Mandeville 376 Geoffrey Chaucer 367, 376 John Wickliffe 367, 376 IMPORTANT EVENTS. When did they occur? WJiat led to them? What resulted therefrom? Conquest of Italy by the Goths 302 Lombard conquest of Italy 304 Fall of the Sassanides 305 Taking of Constantinople 308, 310 Foundation of the French monarchy 316 Defeat of the Saracens 317, 318 Hegira 325 Saracenic conquest of Spain 328 Taking of Bagdad 330 Danish invasion of England 331 Battle of Hastings 335 Conquest of Ireland 352, 353 Signing of Magna Charta 356 Institution of the House of Commons 358 Battle of Evesham 358 Conquest of Wales 359 Conquest of Scotland 360 Battle of Bannockburn 361 Battle of Crecy 362 Battle of Poitiers 364 Battle of Shrewsbury 367 Battle of Agincourt 368 Treaty of Troyes 368 Battle of Towton 370 Battle of Barnet 371 End of the Plantagenets 372 No. 12. CHAPTER Y, France in the Middle Ages. SECTION I. The Oapetian Dynasty. 1. During the period of nearly two centuries (814-987) that ehipsed from the death of Charlemagne to the termina- tion of the reign of his successors, called the Carlovingia?i dynasty, the throne of France was occupied mostly by weak princes. Toward Carlovmgian princes. the close of this period, the feudal lords had sliorn the king of most of his power, and the kingdom consisted of a loose collection of provinces over which they held sway. At length Hugh Capet [hali-pa'), styled Hugh Capet, Hugh the Great, the most powerful of these vassals, seized the throne, and inaugurated a new line of kings, named after him the Capetian dynasty. 2. Hugh Capet. During the early reigns of this dynasty the actual dominions of the French king were of but small extent, a large part of the territory having been usurped by the ambitious nobles and held only by the feudal tie. The most important of these pro- French dominions. vinces were Brittany, in the northwest; Normandy, in the north ; Aquitaine, or Guienne {ghe-en'), and Anjou {ahn'joo), in the west; Gascony and Na- Provinces. varre, in the southwest; Provence (pro-vahns'), in the south- east; Burgundy and Champagne {shong-pahn'), in the east; Geographical Study, Map No. XII. What was the situation of: Francia (France)? Aquitania? Burgundy? Aus- tria? Neustria? Bavaria? Emirate op Cordova? Bulgaria? Bagdad? Where was the territory of: The Avars? Turks or Magyars? Who held the northern part of Africa? The territory between the Mediterranean Sea and the Euphrates River? What did the Eastern Empire embrace? 880 MedicBval History, and Flanders, in the northeast. The history of this period is mainly occupied with the wars which were waged to bring AXong. West long. East A. fromuIiOiiaoiL 8 Geographical Study. What was the situation of : Normandy? Brittany? Picardy? Maine? Anjou? POITOU? GUIENNE? GaSCONY? LaNGUEDOC ? PROVENCE? DAUPHINY ? AUVERGNE ? Burgundy? Champagne? Lorraine? Alsace? Flanders? Netherlands? Savoy? Paris? Aix la Chapelle? Metz? Rheims? Troyes? Lyons? Avignon? Toulouse? Bor- deaux? Nantes? Orleans? Crecy? Calais? Rouen? Brest? about a consolidation of the kingdom. Hagh Capet was an active and prudent monarch; and, during his reign of nearly ten years, he succeeded in overcoming all opposition to his authority, and Character of Capet. in enlarging his dominions. At his death he left the throne to his son Kobert (996). The Oapetiaii Dynasty, 381 3. Robert succeeded in annexing Burgundy to his do- minions. During this reign the year 1000 arrived, which, as the date of the millennium, had been very gener- ally predicted as the '' end of the world." * This Year looo. belief occasioned general neglect and idleness; and a dreadful famine and pestilence was the result, which swept away vast multitudes of people, and caused the most frightful miseries and crimes. The superstition and ignorance of the people, and the oppression and vices of the nobles, made this one of the darkest periods in human history. Robert died in 1031, leaving the throne to his son Henry. 4. Henry I. This reign is noted for the repeated wars which Henry waged with the Duke of Normandy — William, afterward the Conqueror of England — who suc- cessfully defended his dominions against the at- tacks of the French king. Thus was produced Wars with Normandy. that aversion between the English and French monarchs that occasioned so many wars during the following reigns. The power of the Church was exercised during this reign to put a check to the unceasing warfare of the nobles, and to procure some respite for the unfortunate peasantry, so that they might cultivate the lands, and thus prevent famine and pestilence. This was effected by establishing what was called the Truce of God — a religious injunc- tion against all military operations, dueling, Truce of God. and other acts of violence, from Wednesday, at sunset, till sunrise on Monday, and on all feast and holy days. This regulation did much, eventually, to soften the ferocity of * " Toward the close of the tenth century, a false interpretation of a passage in the Gospels, according to which the end of the world and the second coming of Jesus Christ in Judea had been fixed for the year 1000, had struck all Christendom with stupor and affright. 'The end of the world being at hand,' were the opening words of all deeds and contracts : and the vanities of the world being forgotten in the near approach of the ' supreme and inevitable catastrophe,' every one was anxious to start for the Holy Land, in the hope of being present at the coming of the Saviour, and of finding there pardon for his sins, a peaceful death, and the sal- vation of the sonV—Lacroix's Military and Religious Life in the Middle Apes. 382 Medicetal History. these terrible times. Henry was succeeded by his son Philip (1060). 5. Philip I. and Louis VI. Philip's reign is noted for the coiKpiest of England by Duke William of Normandy (1066), and the preaching of the First Crusade (1095), an account of which is given further on (sec Chief events. page 121). Philip was succeeded by his son Louis (1108). This king, surnamed the Fat, was wise and ener- getic. He did important service to France by Louis the Fat. keeping the great vassals of the crown under control, and gave to the towns their first charters, thus relieving large numbers of the lower orders from the wretched condition of serfdom, in which they had been ke]:)t by the iron hand of the aristocracy. These early municipalities were called Com- munes, or commons (afterward the Third Estate), and consisted of citizens leagued together for Communes. mutual interest and defense. Louis VI. v/as succeeded by his son Louis (1137). 6. Louis VII, by marrying Eleanor, became possessed of Guienne and Poitou {pwah-too'); but during the expedition which he undertook to the Holy Land (see page 123), and in which he was accompanied by his queen, he was so provoked by the freedom and levity of her conduct that he divorced her, and thus lost her great posses- sions. These he had the mortification of seeing annexed to the dominions of Henry, Duke of Normandy, Count of Anjou and Maine, and afterward king Loss of territory. of England (Henry XL), whom Eleanor married after her divorce from the French king. In this way the English monarch came into possession of more extensive territories in France than those of the French king himself. Louis was succeeded by his son Philip (1180). 7. Philip II. {Augustus). During this reign the authority of the monarch was more generally acknowledged than it had been since the accession of Hugh Capet, and the country Tlic Capctiaa Dyitastfj. 383 Power of the king. became more united and powerful. This was partly due to tiie great ability and prudence of Philip, who knew how to make himself respected and feared. He engaged in the Third Crusade with Eichard I. of England; but, becoming jealous of the English monarch's fame, he deserted him, and, returning home, j — basely plotted I with llichard's brother John to seize his domin- ions. Failing in this, he afterward obtained the English provinces in France by means of the wickedness and cowardice of John (1204). He thus added to his dominions Normandy, Maine, An- jou, Poitou, and Lou- vain ; and gradually ex- tended his . sway to the Pyrenees. He greatly improved the discipline of the army, encouraged learning, and walled and paved Paris and several other towns. After a reign of forty-three years, he left his kinajdom in a state of tranquillity to his son Louis (1223). 8. This reign is memorable for the rise of the Al-bi-gen'- ses, a numerous sect of dissenters from the Catholic Church, who became prominent at the commencement of the thirteenth century, in Languedoc {lan'glie- doc), and were supported by Raymond VL, Count of that province, They received their name from Albigeois [al-he- Measures of Ihe king. Orxjsadixg Knight. Albigenses. 384 Mediceval History. zhwah), the district in which they first appeared. During the reign of Phihp Augustus (1209), Pope Innocent III. caused a crusade to be preached against them, excommuni- cating both them and Count Raymond; and, in the war which ensued, many of their towns were taken, and the most dread- ful massacres perpetrated. Raymond was at last obliged to submit to the authority of the Pope. During the war Simon de Montfort, the elder,* took an active part against the Al- bigenses, and was conspicuous for his cruelty and perfidy. He was killed at the siege of Toulouse (1218). 9. Louis VIII. was a feeble monarch, but the wise policy of his father had given such an impulse to affairs, that France continued to be triumphant over the English, who, during the reign of Henry IH., made re- English attacks. War against the Albigenses. peated attacks upon the French territories (see page 70). Another crusade was undertaken against the Al- bigenses by Louis Vni. by request of the Pope. With a large army he laid siege to Avignon {ali- ven'yong), but was kept so long under its walls that 20,000 men perished by disease and famine; and Louis himself died a short time after he had received the submission of the con- quered inhabitants (1226). 10. Louis IX. (Saint Louis), son and successor of Louis Vin., was but a youth at the time of his accession, and the government was administered by his mother, Blanche of Cas- tile {has-teeV), during whose regency the war against the Al- -j l)igenses was closed by the complete submission Close of the ^f Couut Ravmoud, and the cession, by formal war. I V ' ^ ^ treaty, of Languedoc to the crown of France (1229). The remnant of this people emigrated to the east, and are lost sight of in history a century later. Louis, though unmstructed m letters, had im- King'scharacter. bibed the most excellent princi])les of conduct from his * Father of the famous Earl of Leicester, who founded the English llouse of pommons. (See page 358.) The Capetian Dynasty. 385 mother, and he strictly observed them after he attained the age of majority. He engaged in a crusade (1249) against the sultan of Egypt, but was taken prisoner, and ransomed by his subjects for an immense sum Other events. ($1,500,000). Keturning after an absence of five years, he ruled with so much candor and moderation, and with such a conscientious regard for justice and rectitude, that he was universally esteemed, and was enabled to promote the true progress and happiness of his people. In another crusade, undertaken to check the ^lohammedans in Syria, he died while on his way thither, near Tunis (1270). Some years after his death, he was canonized by Pope Boniface VIII.* 11. Philip III, called tlio Hardy (because his constitution had proved strong enough to resist the pestilence that carried oil his father), continued the war against the Moors; and, with tilt aid of his uncle, Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, reduced the king of Tunis to submis- sion. Charles, who had but recently acquired War against Tunis. possession of Sicily, became very odious to the people by his arbitrary government and the excesses of his followers; and this discontent was encouraged by Peter, king of Aragon,f who claimed the island. The result was that on Easter-day (1282), when the church-bells sounded for vespers, the Sicil- ians rushed on all the French inhabitants they i met, and massacred them without mercy. About L^'^_^'^ 8000 perished by this dreadful event, which is known in his- tory as the Massacre of the Sicilian Vespers. Peter of Ara- *"The character of St. Louis is one of the noblest that occurs in modern his tory. He possessed all the virtues of his age, untarnished by its vices; he was brave without cruelty or violence, pious without bigotry or weakness. Although more the hero of the legend than of romance, he conamands our admiration by his rare disinterestedness, his bold attempt to rule his actions as a monarch by the rigid maxims of private honor, and by the great good sense that tempered his de- votion, and that never allowed him to sacrifice humanity or justice to the interests even of that Church which he revered."— Cro^ye's HiMory of France. t Aragon was at this time an important kingdom in the northeastern part of Spain ; and Peter rested his claim to Sicily on his marriage with Constance, daugh- ter of a previous Iring of that island, 386 Mediceval History. gon, by this means, succeeded in expelling Charles of Anjou from Sicily; and Philip III., taking up the cause of his uncle, made an unsuccessful invasion of Aragon, and died a short time afterward of a fever, resulting from disappointment and fatigue (1385). 12. Philip IV. {le Bel — the Fair) succeeded at the age of seventeen. His reign is one of the most important in French history. He carried on a war of seven years with Edward I. of England, in order to obtain Guienne; but finally consented to a treaty relm- War with England. quishing his claims to that duchy. He obtained possession of Flanders, but governed it so oppressively that the people (called Flemings) rose in revolt and massacred the French to the number of 3000. Philip endeavored to re- duce the Flemings to submission, but this brave Flemish war. people successfully defended their liberties against his assaults. The Flemings were, at this j^eriod, greatly distinguished for tneir skill in weaving and in other industrial arts. One of Knights Templars. the most remarkable events of this reign was the suppression of the famous order of Kniglits Tem- plars. Philip's measures were harsh and sum- mary. He ordered all the Templars in France to be arrested on the same day; and the Grand Master and others, having been condemned for sacrilege and immorality, w^ere burnt to death.* This order of knights was also prosecuted and con- demned in other parts of Europe, f Philip died in 1314. * The king, Philip IV., ordered two Templars, one of them the Grand Master, to be burned. "It was probably owing to the last words of the Master — 'God will avenge our death '—that there arose a popular rumor that the Master, at his death, had cited the Pope and the king to appear with him, the former at the end of forty days, and the latter within a year, before the judgment-seat of God. Events gave a sanction to the legend;" for both Clement and Philip actually died within the time named. t This celebrated religious and military order was founded at Jerusalem in the beginning of the twelfth century, for the protection of the Holy Sepulcher, and the pilgrims who journeyed thither. It afterward spread all over Europe, and became noted for its vast possessions. It was suppressed in England by Edward II. (1309), |ind the general council that met at Vienna in 1311, pronounced a decree annulling The Capetian Dynasty, 387 13. The most important act in the reign of Philip was his creation of the Third Edate {Tiers Eiat). Up to this time there had been only two recognized orders in France, the nobles and the clergy. In 1302, Third Estate. however, Philip being then at the height of his quarrel with the Pope, and feeling his need of the suppori of the whole people of France, permitted the burghers, or common people, to send representatives to the States-General which he had called. In this general council, these representatives sat on equal terms with those of the nobles and the clergy; and thus one of the most despotic kings of France was the means of bringing about a great political advance in the condition of the people. From that time three estates were known m France: the nobles, the clergy, and the people, or, as the latter were called, the TJiird Estate. 14. Louis X., surnamed Ilutin (disorder, or tumult), from the tumultuous conduct of the nobles and clergy, at- tempted to regain from Louis the powers and privileges of which they had been deprived by his artful and despotic father. He yielded to most Nobles and Clergy. of their demands, and issued an ordinance enfranchising the serfs within the royal domains. During his short reign, he was under the influence of his uncle, Charles of Valois {val-wali'), who employed it to destroy Marigny (mah-reen^ye), the former prime minister of Philip Mangny. the Fair; and this distinguished man was condemned and put to death upon a malicious and absurd charge of sorcery. On the death of the king (1316), the government was admin- istered by his brother Philip, as regent; and, the infant son of Louis X. having died, Philip became king (1317). and abolishing the order, and bestowed its privileges on the Knights ol" St. John. At the time of its suppression in France, the number of the knights in that country was about 15,000. Their treasury contained 1.50,000 gold florins, besides large quan titles of silver, precious stones, rich vases, etc. It is believed by many that Philip's persecution was instigated by the desix-e to obtain tliis vast hoard in order to satisfy his cupidity. 888 Medicei^al History, 15. Philip V. {le Long — the Tall) assembled the States- General to pronounce upon his right to the throne, which was disputed by the daughter of Louis X. ; and a decree was issued declaring that females are incapable of inheriting the crown of France. This decree, being based, as it was said, upon tlie barbarous code of the Salian Salic law- Franks, was called the SaVic Laiu. During this reign, France was the scene of dreadful religious persecutions, par- ticularly of the Jews, who were put to death in Tou-raine' with the most dreadful barbarity. Jews. Philip, after a brief reign of five years, was succeeded by his brother Charles (1322). 16. Charles IV. became king by the operation of the Salic law, for Phihp V. had left daughters but no sons. His reign \ 1 is almost a blank, being only noted for his inva- _J sion of Guienne, to which he was invited by the troubles of Edward II. of England. It was in France that the wicked Queen Isabella, sister of Charles IV., plotted with Mortimer for the destruction of her unfortunate husband. Charles afterward restored Guienne to Edward III. On the death of Charles without male heirs (1328), the direct line became extinct, and End of the Valofs. Philip of Valois, nephew of Philip the Fair, succeeded to the throne. This introduces a collateral line of kings, called the Branch of Valois. State of Society during the Capetian Period. 17. The most important changes which took place in France during the Capetian period were the firm establish- ment of the monarchy and the elevation of the common people. A result of this was the slow Changes. decay of feudalism. Attacked from above by the king and from below by the people, it yielded gradually in the contest.* * " The introduction of standing armies was unquestionably the most important political change in the history of modern Em-ope. When introduced in one nation The Capetian Dynasty. 389 A new power rose into prominence during this period — the power of the pco])le. Tlie working-man became a soldier, and the tradesmen of the cities, whose friendship the king had found useful to him in his struggle with the lords, were granted special charters, which protected them in their industries. At first the king Power of the people. left to each city the conduct of its affairs, being satisfied with appointing a royal superintendent. This was followed by Ramparts op a Town in the Middle Ages. other claims, from time to time, till, finally, each man, in- stead of boasting as before that he was the inhabitant of a particular city, came to pride himself upon being the king's yeoman. 18. The purchase of their freedom by the serfs, after it had begun, went on with great rapidity. A large middle all were obliged to follow the example. This at once made it impossible to continue the system of government which prevailed everywhere during the IMiddle Ages. On the Continent it led to despotic government, in England to the supremacy of Parliament." — Wilberforce^s Church and the Empires. 390 Mediwval History. class of citizens was thus formed, the existence of which sup- phed a condition favorable to the existence of trade and commerce. The danger, however, which attended all communication between different parts of the country checked their growth. Eobbery and crime on the public highway were common, and only in the immediate neighborhood of towns and cities was property secure. This state of alfairs was gradually amended by strict laws passed by the king as his power increased. The estab- lishment also of a uniform currency, and a system of regulations for the government of the different kinds of trades which existed, aided greatly in making them permanent. 19. Trade centers soon came to be established, which, by means of annual fairs, attracted merchants from all parts of Europe. The wines of southern France found a ready market in England and the Netherlands, Trade centers. and were exchanged in Spain for arms, and leather fabi-ics of many kinds. The fisheries of the southern ports also yielded a large revenue. Some of the products intro- duced by the Crusaders gave rise to entirely new Industries. industries. Among these were the glass of Tyre and the tissues of Damascus. The use of flax and silk, and the em- ployment of windmills, is also ascribed to them; and the intro- duction of the sugar-cane, the plum-tree, as well as the culti- vation of the mulberry. Enameling of various kinds, seal- engraving, and the art of the goldsmith had also reached a high degree of perfection. 20. In all parts of France, at the end of this period, schools existed in connection with the Church. There was, how- ever, a great want of books. Five universities afforded a hisfher education, of which the most Education. noted was that of Paris, the independence of which was recog- nized by Philip Augustus in 1203. This was attended by between 15,000 and 20,000 students. Latin was the lan- guage employed in instruction, and all civilized countries The Capetian Dynasty. 391 sent students to be educiited there. In 1250 Robert de Sor- bon, chaplain of Louis IX., founded a school of theology, afterward called the Sorbonne {aor-bon'). 21. Down to the thirteenth century, people of the lower classes were not permitted to wear the dress or ornaments peculiar to the nobility. An edict of Philip the Fair prescribes minutely the number and cost of Dress. the dresses the tradeswomen may wear. The dress of the villain consisted of a blouse of cloth or skin, fastened at the waist by a leather belt, a mantle of woolen stuff, trousers of the same, and shoes or large boots. Fastened to his belt was a wallet or purse, and a sheath for his knife. Notwithstand- ing the hard condition of the laboring classes, they had many holidays, nearly all the festival days of the Church being devoted partly to amusement. On these Holidays. occasions they dnink, sang, danced, practiced archery, played athletic games, and passed most of the day in merriment. Nearly all the occupations now pursued in the rural districts were in use in the earliest times. 22. At this time the French language began to take defi- nite form, and the laws which heretofore had been written in Latin now were issued in French. The literature of the period embraces history, poetry, and ro- mance. In the middle and north of France the Trouveres {troo-vare'), like the Troubadours* of the south, produced a series of poems that became models " for other countries. Among the eminent men '°"''^'^^' of this period may be mentioned Ab'el-ard (1079-1142), illus- trious for his genius as a philosopher and lectui er; St. Bernard (1091-1153), the famous preacher Language and literature. of the Second Crusade, and celebrated not only for his piety * The Troubadours were accompanied in their wanderings by minstrels and jugglers, the latter displaying their skill at the close of the poem or recitation. Sometimes the minstrels were formed Into an orchestra, to the music of which dancing tock place. 892 MedicBi^al History. but for his extensive learning; Jelian de Joinville (1223-1317), who wrote a biography of St. Louis, noted for its graphic de- scription of all the minute events of that famous reign; and the Abbe Suger {soo-zlia') (1085-1152), the most eminent of politicians during the reign of Louis VI. and Louis VIL SECTION IL Beakch of Valois. 23. Philip VI. The claim set up by Edward III. of Eng- land to the throne of France, in opposition to the right of Philip of Valois, has already been referred to. The victories gained by Edward in the war that English claim. followed did not give him the object of his desires; and, a truce being agreed on, he returned to England. Dau'phiny was about this time ceded to the grand- Dauphiny. son of Philip, afterward King Charles V,, and later was an- nexed to France. The king's eldest son there- after bore the title of Dauplivi. The Black Plague, Plague raged throughout France during this reign, and car- ried off vast multitudes of people — 50,000 in Paris alone.* Philip was succeeded by his son John (1350). Geographical Study, Maps Nos. XIII. and XTV. What was the extent of the Royal Domain in 987 ? What in 1328 ? VHiat did it embrace at the latter date? What were the limits of Aquitaine at the former date? What at the latter? Mention the chief provinces at the time of Hugh the Great? At the time of Valois? What was the situation of: Bruges? Ghent? Koln (Cologne)? Mainz? Strasburg? Basel? Metz? Nancy? Chalons? Lyons? Avignon? Aries? Narbonne? Bayonne? Poitiers? Harfleur? Rouen? Soissons? Rheims? Amiens? Boulogne? Calais? * " Many died in the streets; others were left alone in their houses— but the fact of their death was known by the smell. Often, husband and wife, son and father, were laid on the same bier. Large ditches had been dug, in which the corpses were heaped by hundreds, like bales in a ship's hold. Every one carried in his hand strong-smelling herbs. The air stank with the dead and dying, or with infectious drugs. Alas! ho-w many fine hotses remained empty I How many fortunes with- Nos. 13 & 14. Branch of Valois. 393 24. John {U Bon — the Good). During this reign the Eng- lish, under the Black Prince, again invaded France, and the memorable battle of Poitiers was fought, in which John was taken prisoner, and no less than 2500 of the Fi-ench nobility and chivalry were slain. Poitiers. The king being carried to England, his eldest son, Charles, became regent, and during his administration the people, under Mar- cel', head of the munici^oality of Paris, made a desperate strug- gle to curb the despotic power of the monarch and obtain a Popular insurrection. Cannon of the Fourteenth Century. share in the government. The States-Greneral were assembled, and granted the privileges demanded; but these being afterward annulled, an insurrection broke out which raged for some time, but was term in- ated by the death of Marcel, and the defeat of the popular cause. Cannon commenced to be used about this time. 25. At the same time a frightful insurrection of the i^eas- antry burst forth, caused by the hopeless misery m which out heirs! How many lovely ladies, how many amiable young persons, dined in the morning with their friends, who, when evening came, supped with their ancestors!" —Boccaccio. This terrible epidemic broke out in China, and carried off. it is said, twenty -four millions of the inhabitants. It appeared in Italy in 1346, and spread thence into France, Spain, Germany, and England, also, later, into Sweden and Norway; and, ia 1351, it frightfully desolated Russia and Poland. 894 MedicEval History. they had been so long kept by the nobles. This revolt is called the Jacquerie {zhak'er-e), from Jacques Bonhomme {zhak bon-om'), the name derisively Jacquerie. applied to a French peasant. The feudal castles were sacked and destroyed by the insurgents, and their inmates, of every age and sex, put to death with shocking barbarity. Being at last defeated in an attack upon one of the towns, the peasants were hunted down on all sides like wild beasts, and massacred by thousands; so that some of the rural districts were almost depopulated, and presented a ghastly scene of ruin and deso- lation (1358).* 26. In the mean time, John, being a prisoner in England, in order to obtain his release, consented to surrender a large part of his territories; but to this the States- General would not submit; and Edward III. John. again invaded France, but finally made peace, consenting to release John upon more reasonable terms. The latter, after four years' captivity, finally returned to his kingdom, and was greeted with universal transports of joy and gratitude by his people; but his son Louis, who had been delivered to the king of England as a hostage, having escaped, John was so conscientious that he surrendered himself again to his English captors, and died a short time after his arrival in England (1364). He had previously (1363) given to his favorite son Philip the duchy of Burgundy in Burgundy, reward for his bravery at Poitiers; and thus was founded that * " Not only did the peasants butcher their lords, but they tried to exterminate the families of their lords, murdering their heirs. And then would these savages tuck out themselves and their wives in rich habiliments, and bedeck themselves with glittering but bloody spoils. Yet were they not so savage as not to march with a kind of order, under banners, and led by a captam chosen from among themselves. a crafty peasant, called Guillaume Callet. These bands consisted mostly of the meaner sort, with a few rich burgesses and others. ' When they were asked,' says Froissart, ' for what reason they acted so wickedly, they replied, they knew not. but they did so because they saw others do it; and they thought by this means they should destroy all the nobles and gentlemen in the world.' "—MicheleVs Histonj of Prance. B I audi of Valols. 395 famous ducal line of Burgundy whicli continued more than a century, and played so important a part in French history. 27. Charles V., surnamed the Wise, succeeded his father, and, by means of his prudent measures, did much to restore peace and prosperity to his kingdom. He was himself of an unwarlike disposition, being fond of study, and having a talent for statesmanship rather than for the conduct of mili- tary affairs. He raised to the office of Constable of France the famous Du Guesclin {ga-klang'), one of the greatest generals of his age. Although defeated Du Guesclin. and taken prisoner in the battle of Nav-ar-re'te by the Black Prince, Du Guesclin, after the death of that great leader, pursued an almost uninterrupted career of victory against the English, depriving them of nearly all their possessions in France. Charles founded the Royal Library at i — Paris, and was a generous patron of literature I °^^' ' '°'^' and art. He died in 1380, two months after the death of the Constable Du Guesclin. 28. Charles YI, son and successor of Charles V., was about twelve years of age at his father's death; and accordingly his uncle, the Duke of Anjou, was made regent. Disturbances were occasioned by the efforts of Regency. the people to release themselves from the unjust and oppres- sive taxes which had been imposed by Philip the Fair and his successors; and at Paris an insurrection occurred, which was with much difficulty subdued. An expedition was under- taken to reduce the Flemings, who had revolted against their ruler, Count Louis of Flanders; Flemings. and the terrible battle of Rosebecque {rose'bek) was fought, in which the celebrated Flemish leader Philip Van Artevelde {ar'te-veld) was defeated and slain, and no less than 25,000 of the brave Flemings perished (1382). The French king himself was present in this battle, but his army was com- manded by Oliver Clisson (klees'song), Constable of France, a man of great talents and distinction, This great victory 396 MedicBval History. strengthened the power of the king; and the French towns, which had made resistance to the rojal exactions, being obliged to submit, all their citizens who had been prominent in the popular movement were put to death without mercy. In Paris alone 300 were led to the scaffold, martyrs to the cause of popular freedom (1382). 29. Some years after this, Charles VI. became afiiicted with insanity, from which he never entirely recovered; and while France, in consequence of this calamity, was a prey to every species of disorder, Henry V. invaded it, took Har'fleur, and penetrated into the country. Harfleur. On his retreat, he was sur- prised at Agincourt; but, though obliged to give bat- tle at great disadvantage, he gained a .decided victory (1415). This was followed by the taking of Rouen and the conquest of Normandy; when, finally, the treaty of fortified Gate op a French Town" Troyes was made, according Middle Ages. Treaty of Troyes, to which Henry married Catharine, daughter of Charles VI., and was, on the death of the latter, to become king of France (1420). This shame- ful treaty was ratified by the States-General, but was never carried into effect, for Henry died some months before the death of Charles VI. (1422). 30. Charles VII., surnamed the Victorious, was crowned at Poitiers; but Henry VI. of England had already been pro- claimed king of France, in accordance with the treaty of Troyes. The Duke of Bedford, the English regent, gained a great victory over the army of Charles, consisting partly of Scotch and other auxiliaries (1424). This dreadful disaster to Charles was followed Defeat of Charles. (1428) by the siege of Or'leans, the last stronghold of his Branch of Valois. 397 party, while no hope was entertained by the French of being able to repel its assailants. The deliverance of Charles was, however, effected by one of the most extraor- dinary occurrences recorded m history. Joan of Arc, a simple peasant girl, had been told of a prophecy, to the effect that France could be delivered from its enemies only by a virgin; and she became impressed with the idea that to her had been divinely commit- ted the task of ef- fecting this great object. She also said she heard voices that told her this. She soon induced others to believe in the truth of her mis- sion, among them the king and his chief officers, and was admitted into Orleans, arrayed in armor, and provided with a train of attend- ants (1429). 31. Under her leadership, the French attacked the English with renewed courage, and soon compelled them to raise the siege. She next urged the king to march to Rheims (reemz), in order to assume the crown of his ancestors according to the accustomed rites; Cathedral of Rheims— (Completed ik the Fifteenth Century). French successes. and, partly under her leadership, the French, after several vie- 398 Medicexal History, torious battles, reached the city, which the Enghsh were com- pelled to surrender; and the king was crowned in the great cathedral (1429). Joan then declared her mission ended, and wished to be dismissed; but her services being still demanded, she remained in the army; and a short time afterward fell into the power of the English, and was burnt to death at Rouen on a charge of sorcery (1431). * Nothing, Fate of Joan. however, was gained by the English from this cruel execution of the " Maid of Orleans;" for they continued to suffer defeat until they finally lost all their French possessions except Calais; while the Duke of Bur- Defeat of the English. Character. gundy, who had previously sup- ported them, became reconciled to Charles VII. The latter reigned till his death (1461). 32. Louis XL, who succeeded his father, has been called the Ti- berius of Fi'mice on account of his deceitf ulness and cru- elty. The last years of his father's life had been em- bittered by his unnatural conduct, for Louis was repeatedly plotting against him. With such terror was the king inspired on this account, that he was even afraid to take food lest he might be poisoned; and, it is said, he died for want of sustenance. The great object which the new king set about to accomplish was the enlargement of the royal authority by weakening the great feudal vassals. This found Feudal Castle in France in the Fifteenth Century. * " When she felt the flames rising around her, she besought the priest who at- tended her to leave her. The Cardinal of Winchester, and even the Bishop of Beau- vais. who had been her bitterest enem.y, could not conceal their emotion. After her death two of the judges who had condemned her exclaimed, ' Would that our souls were where we believe hers is! ' and Fressart, the secretary of Henry VI., said, as he left the place of execution, ' We are all lost; we have burned a s^intl ' ^''—Qui^oV^ History of France, Branch of Valois. 399 League of the Public Good. soon excited their determined resistance; and a coalition was formed against liim, called the League of the Puhlio Good (1465), of which the ruling spirit was Charles the Bold, afterward Duke of Bur- gundy. A war ensued, in which Louis was defeated, and thus was compelled to grant the concessions demanded by the nobles. These, however, he afterward revoked, and, one by one, at last succeeded in reducing the vassals to submission. 33. The greater part of this reign is occupied with dark intrigues against his enemies, particularly against Charles the Bold, Duke of Burgundy. The latter was utterly defeated, in two great battles, by the Swiss, whose country he had invaded; and the Charles the Bold. next year he suffered anothor defeat from the Duke of Lor- raine', at Nan'cy, where he was slain (1477). Louis took advantage of these circumstances to re-annex Burgundy to his dominions. The death of Charles the Bold ended the long resistance of the great French vassals to the central power of the monarchy. Mary of Burgundy, the daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, still remained mistress of Flanders, and Louis desired to marry Mary of Burgundy. her to the Dauphin (the eldest son of the kina); but she refused her consent, and accepted the hand of Maximil'ian, son of the Emperor of Germany, and Archduke of Austria (1477). This marriage increased the influence of the house of Austria, and led to a rivalry between France and the empire which lasted nearly two centuries. As Louis grew old, he became very superstitious and cruel; and, at last, conscious of being universally ab- horred, he shut himself up in a castle, which he kept con- stantly defended by armed troops. His death occurred in 1483.* * " As he felt his disorder increasing, he shut himself up in a palace near Tours, to hide from the world the knowledge of his decline. His solitude was, like that of Tiberius at Capreae. full of terror and suspicion, and deep consciousness of uuiver- Death of Louis. 400 MedicBval History. 34. Charles VIII. was a mere boy on tlie death of his father, and a meeting of the States-General was called to decide upon his guardiansliip. In this meeting the Third Estate made an unsuccessful attempt to obtain some influence in the government. By the mar- Third Estate. riage of Anne, Duchess of Brittany, Charles annexed that country to France, and thus destroyed the last stronghold of feudal power. The French also for a time obtained Nai)les by the enforced abdi- Anne of Brittany. cation of Alfonso II. of Aragon (1495); and Charles gained a victory over the allied forces of Venice, Milan, and other states of northern Italy; but these suc- Naples. cesses were in the end fruitless, and Charles afterward gave himself up to vicious excesses, which ruined his health. His death occurred in 1498. His reign was the last of the house of Valois, and marks the close of the Middle Ages. Louis, Duke of Orleans, succeeded to the French throne. State of Society during the Valois Pekiod. 35. France was virtually an absolute monarchy, unlike England, in which the Commons represented in Parliament exercised considerable control over the royal power. In the States-General of France — the Government. grand council of the nation— there was a representation of the three orders, the nobles, the clergy, and the Commons, the latter being called the Tiers Etat (Third Estate). This sal hatred. All ranks, he well knew, had their several injuries to remember: the clergy, whose liberties he had sacrificed to the See of Rome; the princes, whose blood he had poured upon the scaffold; the pariiament, whose course of justice he had turned aside; the commons, who groaned under his extortions, and were plundered by his soldiery. The palace, fenced with portcullises and spikes of iron, was guarded by archers and crossbow-men, who shot at any that approached by night. Few entered his den ; but to them he showed himself in magnificent ap- parel, contrary to his former custom, hoping thus to disguise the change of his meager body. He distrusted his friends and kindred, his daughter and his son, the last of whom he had not suffered even to read or write, lest he should too soon become his rival. No man ever so much feared death, to avert which he stooped to every meanness, and sought every remedy."— -ffaZtoJii's Middle Ages. r Branch of Valois. 401 assembly, however, did not regularly meet, and was entirely subordinate to the royal authority. The first convocation of this body took place during the reign of Philip IV. (1302), this event servhig to mark the pre- Tiers Etat. vailing influence of civil institutions over the military forms of feudalism. 36. In the assembly of 1357, the Third Estate came into conflict with the royal authority; and, at every subsequent convention, the proceedings showed a spirit of resistance to the corruptions and tyranny of the court, from which resulted measures of great Contests with the Commons. advantage to the people. The States-General of 1484 de- manded that these assemblies should be called at regular periods, and that taxes should be levied equally upon all classes. The effect of these measures, however, was not last- ing; the king only convoked the States-General when he pleased, and the nobles and clergy together could always out- vote the Commons. Hence the people, during the troubled period of the English wars, made but little improvement in their political condition. 37. At the opening of the States-General, it was the custom for the king to be present, and to make a short speech, after which the Chancellor of France explained at length the purposes of the session. The nobles States-General. and clergy remained seated and covered, while the Com- mons stood with bare heads. After a reply to the Chancellor, from the president of each order, the three orders retired to their several rooms. When the deliberations were complete, they again convened, and presented to the king their wishes, demands, or complaints, in the form of suggestions. The king made no reply; and the assembly, after voting a pecu- niary tax, separated. Thus it will be seen that the States- General was not a legislative body, all laws being made by the king, who could listen or not to the demands of his people. 402 MedlcBval History. 38. Schools scarcely existed at this time. Scholars wan- dered about, giTiiig instruction to such pupils as they could collect. The methods of teaching were of the Education. rudest description, and the discipline was brutal in the extreme. The University of Paris was one of the most noted seats of learning in the world, being attended by stu- dents from all parts of Europe. Astrology was a favorite science at this period, the influence of the stars upon human affairs being almost universally be- Learning. lieved. The Royal Library of Paris was founded by Charles the Wise, who was a generous patron of litera- ture and art. The fine arts had made little or no progress beyond the barbarism of the dark ages. 39. The drama was confined to the Mysteries and Morali- ties, the former representing incidents in sacred history. In 1385, at the marriage of Charles VI. and Isabel of Bavaria, a play was acted before the royal pair. The drama. entitled '' The History of the Death of our Saviour," which lasted eight days, having eighty-seven characters, the chief of whom was St. John. A similar Passion Play is still per- formed in Bavaria. In 1402, the king granted letters-patent to some of the citizens of Paris to form an association to rep- resent the Mystery of the Passion. This is the origin of the modern tragedy in France; as the performance of the Moral- ities or Moral Plays is of the comedy. - 40. At the siege of Arras, in 1414, use was made for the first time of muskets, then called liand-cannons. Playing- cards were improved, games of cards having been introduced to amuse the unfortunate Charles VI. during his lucid intervals. The fissures on the cards were Inventions. the same as now used. The hearts signified the churchmen; the spades (pike-heads), the nobles or military; the diamonds (tiles), the working-class; and the clubs (clover-leaves), the peasantry. About 1420, painting in oils was introduced, before which time all pictures were in water-colors. Louis XI. Branch of Valois. 409 favored trade and commerce of every kind, encouraged the new art of printing, endowed a school of medi- cine at Paris, and inaugurated a postal system. commerce. An attempt was also nuide to light the streets of the capital. 41. Various changes occurred in the style of dress during this period. Charles VII. revived the fashion of long and loose garments; but, during the reign of Louis XI., a total revolution took place, the ladies lay- Costume. ing aside their long trains and sleeves, and assuming in their place broad borders of fur, velvet, or silk. In the reign of Charles VI. the head-dress was of extraordinary breadth; subsequently it was very high — sometimes more than three feet. Peaked shoes of great length were also a singular fea- ture of the costume. 42. The dwellings of the rich were sometimes furnished with great splendor. We read of the " fine linen of Rheims," which was sold at an extravagant price; and of fabrics made of '^silk and silver tissue." Rich carpets and tapestry, and other articles of furniture spoken of, give evidence that means were not wanting for luxurious living and for the gratification of expensive tastes. Stone was used in constructing the basements of houses, the upper portions being constructed of wood. In the richer kind of houses, the front was adorned with projecting cor- ner-posts, covered with carvings of figures — foliage, animals, , heads of angels, etc. The castle had its cellar, wine-vault, I™ bakery, fruitery, laundry, special rooms for glass, salt, furs, 0,nd tapestry; while near the guard-room and beyond were the porters' lodges and various other buildings, used by servants and retainers. 43. During this period, Paris was often the scene of dread- ful tumult; and at times the mortality was fearful. In 11438, there were 45,000 deaths in the city. Wolves iprowled through the streets, and often carried off [children. Famine and pestilence were frequent visitants and 404 Mediceval History. committed dreadful ravages. In 1466, the malefactors and vagrants of all countries were invited to come to the city, in order to fill up the broken ranks of the population. At the close of the reign of Louis XL, the city probably contained about 300,000 inhabitants.* 44. The most noted writers of the time are Jean Froissart (1337-1410), who wrote the Chro7i- icles, or annals of France during the Noted writers. greater part of the fourteenth century; and Philippe de Comines (1445-1509), for a time the favor- ite of Charles the Bold. He wrote the Memoires, giving a complete view of the affairs of his time, in- cluding a vivid picture of the character of Louis XL To these should be added Jean de Gerson (zhdr-song) (1363-1429), surnamed **The most Christian Doctor," who became Chancellor of the Uni- versity of Paris. He wrote a treat- ise On the Co7isolation of Theology, and is supposed by some to have been the author of the celebrated religious work entitled The Imitation of Christ, which is usually ascribed to Thomas a Kempis. \ FROISSAR'n * The following is a description of scenes in Paris during this period: "At the eai-ly da\/n the death-criers, persons clothed in black, and announcing themselves by the tinkling of small bells, gave notice of the death of such persons as had died during the night, and called upon all good Cliristians to pray for their souls. These were follow- d by the people who called aloud that the hot baths were ready for use; and after these came the tradespeople hawking their wares — butchers, millers, fishmongers, fruit-sellers, etc., besides menders of old clothes, who stood ready to repair any accidental rent in the garments of passers-by." + A German writer who flourished during the fifteenth century (died 1471). The weight of evidence seems to favor his claim to the authorship of the work referred to, of which it has been said that it is " the nearest approach to the divine spirit of Christ which has ever emanated from the human mind," Principat Events and Dates. 405 Kings of France, From Clovis (511) to Louis XU. (1498). Line. Kame. Date of reign. g f Clovis 486- 511 •5, J Descendants of Clovis 511- 742 f I Chilperic III. Deposed by S [ Pepin 743- 752 I f Pepin le Bref 752- 768 Charlemagne 768-814 Louis 1 814- 843 Charles the Bold 843- 877 Louis II 877- 879 Louis III. and Carloman . . 879- 884 Ciiarles the Fat 884-878 Charles the Simple 898- 929 Louis IV 929- 954 [ Lothaire and Louis V 954- 987 ^ f Hugh Capet 987- 996 §\ Robert 996-1031 II Henry 1 1031-1060 o [ Philip I 1060-1103 Line. Name. f Louis VI Louis VII.... Philip II Louis VIII .. Louis IX PhUip III.... Philip IV.... Louis X Philip V Charles IV... Philip VI John Charles V m^ Charles VI... Charles VII.. Louis XI Charles Vm. Date of reign. 1103-1137 1137-1180 1180-1223 1223-1226 1226-1270 1270-1285 1285-1314 1314-1316 1316-1322 1322-1328 1328-1350 1350-1304 1364-1380 1380-1422 1422-1401 1461-1483 1483-1498 Summary of Principal Events and Dates. A.D. Pepin d'Heristal virtually becomes king 687 Defeat of the Saracens by Charles Martel 732 Lombardy subjugated by Charlemagne 775 Charlemagne crowned Emperor of the West 800 Treaty of Verdun. France divided 843 Normandy given to the Normans 911 Conquest of England by William of Normandy 1066 Enfranchisement of the Com.munes by Louis VT 1108 English territories in France acquired by Philip II 1204 Crusade against the Albigenses 1209 The Albigenses entirely subdued by Louis IX 1229 The States-General convoked by Philip IV 1302 The peasant insurrection called the Jacquerie suppressed 1358 The duchy of Burgundy conferred by John upon Philip 1363 Death of the Constable du Guesclin 1380 The battle of Rosebecque. Death of Philip van Artevelde 1383 The French defeated at Agincourt by Henry V 1415 The treaty of Troyes 1420 Joan of Arc, Maid of Orleans, commenced her mission 1429 The Maid of Orleans burnt as a sorceress at Rouen 1431 The League of the Public Good formed against Louis XI 1465 Charles the Bold defeated and killed at Nancy 1477 Mary of Burgundy married to Maximilian 1477 Capture of Naples by the French 1495 Death of Charles VIII. End of the Valois period 1498 40(j MedicB'})al Bisiof V' Topical Eeview. EMINENT PERSONAGES. Who were theyf At what period did they live? With tvhat events connected? page Hugh the Great 379 Robert 381 Henry I 381 Phihp 1 382 Louis VI 382 Eleanor of Guienne 382 Henry of Normandy 382 Phihp Augustus 382, 383, 384 Raymond of Languedoc 383, 384 Simon de Montfort 384 Blanche of Castile 384 Saint Louis 384,385 Charles of An jou 385 Peter of Aragon 385, 386 Philip the Fair 386, 387 Marigny 387 Charles of Valois -. 387 Queen Isabella 388 Philip of Valois 388 Robert de Sorbonne 391 Abelard 391 St. Bernard ... 391 Jehan de Joinville . . . m 392 Abbe Suger 392 Marcel 393 John the Good 394 Charles the Wise 395, 402 DuGuesclin 395 Philip Van Artevelde 395 Oliver Clisson 395 Charles VII 395, 402 Duke of Bedford 396 Charles the Victorious 396 Joan of Arc 397 The Tiberius of France 398, 399, 402 Charles the Bold 399, 404 Mary of Burgundy 399 Maximilian 399 Anne of Brittany 400 Louis, Duke of Orleans 400 Jean Froissart 404 Philippe de Comines 404 Jean de Gerson 404 Thomas a Kempis 404 GREAT EVENTS. When did they occur? What led to them? What resulted therefrom? page Truce of God 381 Establishment of the Communes 382 Suppression of the Albigenses. . 383, 384 Sicilian Vespers 385 Revolt of the Flemings 386, 395 Suppression of the Templars 386 Creation of the Third Estate 387 Persecution of the Jews 388 Proclamation of the Salic Law 388 Foundation of the Sorbonne 391 Cession of Dauphiny 392 Introduction of cannon 393, 402 The Jacquerie 394 Captivity of King John 394 Foundation of the Royal Library 395 Battle of Navarreto 395 Battle of Rosebecque 395 Conquest of Normandy 396 Burning of the Maid of Orleans 398 League of the Public Good 399 Battle of Nancy 399 INSTITUTIONS, Etc. Give a description of it. Period of its establishment. Chivalry or Knighthood 345 Writing-rooms 345 Tournament , 348 Judicial Combat 349 Knight-errantry 349 Feudalism 342, 388 Feudal Castles 343 Serfs and Serfdom 344, 345, 389 Trade 390 Trouveres or Troubadours 391 States-General 387, 400, 401 Third Estate 387, 401 Schools and Universities 390, 402 Astrology 402 The Drama 402 Playing-cards 402 Oil-painting 403 Architecture 403 Paris in the Middle Ages 403 Europe cluriii'^' iJie tixne of THE CRUSADES Not- ^&iglisfo Territory irvTraxvce 30 CHAPTER YL The Crusades. 1. The Crusades were religious wars which, during the Middle Ages, were waged by the Christian nations of the West against the Mohammedans of the East. From an early period, it had been deemed by the Cause. Church an act of piety to make a pilgrimage to Palestine to yisit the various places which Christ had hallowed by his Crusaders. presence, and to pay devotion to the sepulcher in which his body had been entombed. The Saracens, who conquered Palestine in the seventh century, had respected these Chris- tian pilgrimages, and rather assisted than opposed those who made them, allowing them to build a church and a hospital at Jerusalem. 2. But when the Seljuk Turks took possession of Syria and captured Jerusalem (1076), the pilgrims were treated with the most shocking cruelty and insult; and the news of Geographical Study, Map No. XV. What rvas the situation of : Iconium or Roum? Edessa? Armenia? Syria? An- TiocH? Jerusalem? Cyprus? Nice? Edessa? Antioch? Aleppo? Tri polls? Da- mascus? Jerusalem? Describe King Richard's route to Jerusalem in 1191. 40g Medimval History. these atrocities excited the deepest indignation throughout Christendom. The Byzantine emperors, first tak- ing alarm, appealed to the Christian monarchs Seljuks. of the West; and Pope Gregory VII. had entertained the idea of sending aid to the Emperor Manuel, in ac- cordance with his earnest supplication, as early as 1073. It was not, however, until Peter the Peter the Hermit. Hermit, on returning from Palestine, depicted the dreadful sufferings of the Christians in that country, that any effective measures for relief were taken. 3. This religious enthusiast was a native of Am'i-ens, in France, and animated all who listened to his preaching with the same hurning zeal against the infi- dels as had filled his own soul on witness- ing their atrocities. Pope Urban II. soon took up the cause; and two councils were held, at the Urban. Peter the Hermit. second of which, at Cler-mont', in France (1095), the Poj^e himself delivered an im- passioned address to a vast multitude of both clergy and laymen. His exhorta- tion was greeted with the cry of *^God wills it!" which burst simultaneously from every one present. The war was, accordingly, agreed upon; and all who entered into it were directed to wear, as a badge, a cross of red stuff attached to the shoulder. Hence these wars were called Crusades. First Crusade. 4. From all parts of Europe thousands hurried, at the summons of the Pope, to take part in what was regarded as -| the holy war; and, in the spring of 1096, no less J than 275,000 men, consisting in great part of the the population, were on their way to Palestine. a great multitude; but the first First Crusade. dregs of Peter himself commanded The Crusades, 409 detachment, under Walter the Penniless, was cut to i)ieces by the Bulgarians, only a small band reaching Constantinoj^le, where it was joined by the forces of Peter.* This undisciplined multitude engaged the army of the Turkish sultan on the plains of Nice, but were defeated with great slaughter. A third and fourth ex- pedition of the same kind shared a similar fate. 5. But the real Crusaders soon arrived at Constantinople. Walter the Penniless. These consisted of six armies of veteran soldiers, commanded by tlie most skillful and experienced generals of the age : Godfrey of Bou- Crusading arnnies. illon {boo-yong'), Duke of Lorraine; Hugh the Great, brother of Philip I., king of France; Robert, son of William the Conqueror of England; Count Ro- bert of Flanders; Bo'he-mond, Count of Tarentum, with his cousin, the no- ble and illustrious Tancred; and Count Raymond of Toulouse. The number of their forces was about 600,000 men. 6. Having defeated Sultan Sol'y- man, and captured Nice, his capital (1097), they proceeded to Syria, and took Antioch (1098), after a siege of seven months. During this siege, thousands per- ished, and Peter the Hermit and multitudes of others deserted the ranks of the Crusaders and returned home. After rout- ing an immense army of Mohammedans, sent by the Persian Knights Templars. * " On reaching a plain at the base of a mountain, the peasant-pilgrims found themselves face to face with countless foes. VValter halted, formed his men, and did all that a brave and sagacious leader could do under the circumstances; but his skill was exerted in vain. Surrounded on all sides by superior numbers, and shrinking from the perils they had defied, the Crusaders lost heart and energy. At first, indeed, the conflict was fierce, and the carnage fearful; but ere long every hope expired, and, with Christian blood flowing around him like water, Walter fell in the midst of his foes, transfixed with arrows and covered with woimds."— ^'dg'ar's Cnisades and Crusaders. 410 MedicBval History. sultan to the assistance of the sultan of Koum, the Crusaders marched to Jerusalem, on reaching which they found their army reduced, by war, famine, and pestilence, to 40,000 men.* After a siege of six weeks, this city surrendered (1099), and Godfrey of Bouillon was unanimously elected king.f A short time afterward, he de- Jerusalem taken. Succeeding events. feated the sultan of Egypt, with a vast army, at Ascalon. 7. The kingdom of Jerusalem thus founded was gradually extended till it embraced the whole of Palestine. The greater part of Asia Minor was restored to the Eastern Empire. Bo- hemond was made Prince of Antioch, and Baldwin, the brother of Godfrey, was made Prince of Edessa. At Jeru- salem were founded the two famous orders of the Knights Hospitallers of St. John and the Knights Templars, for the defense of the Holy Sepulcher. the three Latin principalities in the East maintained them- selves against the Mohammedan power, and increased in influ- ence and wealth. Thus Jerusalem became the capital of an important Christian state. Knight Hospitaller. For nearly fifty years, * When the Crusaders first came in sight of the Holy City, their emotion was intense. Some leaped and shouted; some threw themselves on the earth and kissed it; some gazed and wept. Their dreadful toils and sufferings were all forgotten in the supreme joy of that moment, in which their fondest wishes were realized. t " When the chiefs met to choose a king for the realm which they had won with their swords, one man only, Godfrey of Bouillon, appeared, to whom the crown could fitly be offered. But in the city where his Lord had worn the thorny crown, the veteran leader, who had looked on i-uthless slaughter without flinching and had borne his share in swelling the stream of blood, would wear no earthly diadem, nor take the title or king. He would watch over his Master's grave and the interest of his worshipers, under the humble guise of Baron and Defender of the Holy Sepul- cher; and as such, a fortnight after his election, Godfrey departed to do battle with the hosts of the Fatimite Caliph of Egypt. "—Coa;'s Crusades. The Crusades. 411 Second Crusade. 8. The Second Crusade was excited by the dangers to which the Christians of Syria were exposed from the conquer- ing arms of a Turkish Eniir^ named Nou'red-din, who, having been ap})ointed governor of Aleppo, had so increased his power, that he became master of all the ter- Cause. ritory between the Tigris and the Nile. He had defeated the Franks at Antioch, and taken Edessa, and now threat- ened the destruction of all the Christian kingdoms in Syria. This crusade was jireached by the celebrated St. Ber'nard, Abbot of Clair- vaux {clare-vo'), in Cham- pagne, who was distinguished for his learning and devotion. Two immense armies, num- bering over a million of men, under Louis VII., king of France, and Conrad III., emperor of Germany, the most powerful monarchs of Europe, marched for . the Holy Land (1147). But, owing to the base treachery of Manuel Com-ne'nus, the Greek emperor, the armies met with a long series of disasters; and, after a fruit- less attempt to take Damascus, the expedition was abandoned, only a small remnant of the numerous host Result. returning to Europe, the greater part being slain, rest left captives among the Turks. and the 412 Mediceval History, 9. After this defeat of the Christians, Noureddin found himself more powerful than ever. He continued his attacks upon Jerusalem, but they were* successfully re- l)ulsed. He next turned his attention to the Fatimite caliph of Egypt, sending to the court of Cairo two emissaries, one of whom was the renowned Saladin, more properly iSalah-Eddin, who succeeded in getting possession of the viziership of Egypt, when, iind- Saladin. ing himself really master of the government, he abolished the Fatimite dynasty, and declared the reunion of Egypt with the orthodox caliphate of Bagdad. This was intended as a step to the government of the whole Mohammedan world, to which he aspired; and, as leading to that, he resolved to subdue the Christian kingdoms of Palestine. Third Crusade. 10. Saladin invaded Palestine with a large army, defeated the Christians in a great battle, captured the smaller towns, and laid siege to Jerusalem, which surrendered after a resistance of two weeks (1187). This event created a great sensation in Europe, and led to the Christian defeat. Third Crusade, preached by William, archbishop of Tyre, who left Palestine to carry the news of the sub- jugation of the Christians to the people of the Third Crusade. West. Frederick Bar-ba-ros'sa, emperor of Germany, Philip Augustus of France, and Kichard I. of England promptly an- nounced themselves leaders in the great expedition. Others followed their example. The emperor set out first (1189), but was drowned while crossing on horse- Events. back the river Calycad'nus, in Cilicia. His army joined the forces of the other two monarchs at Acre, which city, after a long siege of nearly two years, was compelled to surrender, though Saladin made every effort to relieve the defenders (1191). No less than nine battles were fought, and more thati 100,000 Christians perished during this siege. The Crusades. 418 11. Eichard and Philip having quarreled, the latter re- turned to Europe; but the former led his forces to Ascalon, and defeated Saladin, but was compelled to retire from Jerusalem. After accomplishing prodigies Richard. of valor, which excited the admiration of the Saracens, he nuide a treaty with Saladin, to protect the pilgrims from in- jury and oppression, and set out for Europe (1192). Saladin dying the next year, the unity of his empire was destroyed. The sultans of Death of Saladin. Egypt, Aleppo, and Damascus became hostile to each other; and the Christians of Syria were left secure in their possessions. Fourth Crusade. 12. The Fourth Crusade was enjoined by Pope Innocent III., without any special exigency such as had brought about the preceding ones, but as a matter of general policy to stimulate Christian feeling, and to foster Cause. the opposition to Mohammedan encroachments. Several French and Italian nobles, among whom were Simon de Montfort of France and Count Baldwin of Flan- ders, offered themselves as leaders; while the Participants. Venetians supplied most of the means for equipment, and directed their doge, the as^ed and valiant Dan'- r ■ ° , . A • Arnnannent. dolo, to accompany the expedition. An im- I mense armament was fitted out at Venice; but before it sailed, circumstances occurred to change its destination. 13. Ever since the First Crusade, the Greek emperors had excited the suspicion and hostility of the Western Crusaders by their selfishness and perfidy; and at this time the son of a former emperor, who had been deposed, arrived at Venice to solicit assistance in the recovery of the throne. The Crusaders, embracing the opportunity to re- dress former grievances, and urged also by the Attack on Constantinople. Venetians, who desired to establish Western influence in the Greek Empire, as well as to unite the Roman and Greek 414 MedicBval History, Latin dynasty. churches, agreed to direct their forces against Constantinople, thus changing the expedition from a crusade to an attack on a Christian power. Constantinople was besieged, and given up to pillage, and the Greek dynasty was set aside (1204). The Latin dynasty then founded occu- pied the throne for fifty-six years. The effect of this Crusade was entirely adverse to the general object of these expeditious. War-Ships of the Thirteenth Century. since it tended, by weakening the G-reek Empire, to destroy the greatest barrier in Europe to the progress of Islamism westward. The subsequent fall of Constantinople proved this. A little after this, occurred the remarkable expedition called the Children's Crusade. It was preached by a French peasant- boy (1213); and, though the king of France issued an edict against it, thousands of boys embarked for Palestine, all of whom either perished, or were sold into slavery on reaching; Alexandria. The Crusades. 415 Subsequent Crusades. 14. The Fifth Crusade was incited by Pope Innocent III., in 1216, and was joined by people of various nationalities in Europe. They at first led their forces into Egypt, took Dami- et'ta, and advanced on Cairo; but were soon afterward glad to obtain the permission of the sultan to retire from the country (1218). The actual Crusade was led by Frederick II., emperor of Germany. It began in 1228, and was terminated by a treaty which the emperor made with the sultan i — of Egypt. In accordance with this treaty. Pales- I ' "^^^ ^' tine was ceded to Frederick, and free toleration granted of both the Christian and Mohammedan faiths. Under this arrangement, the Christians lived in Jerusalem in peace and prosperity, undisturbed until the irruption of the Mongols in the middle of the thirteenth century. The Sixth Crusade was undertaken by Louis IX. (St. Louis) of France (1249), in consequence of the capture and pillage of Jerusalem by the barbarous Mongols. The French monarch, after having taken Damietta, was utterly de- Sixth Crusade. feated by the sultan of Egypt, and taken prisoner. He was afterward ransomed by his subjects (1250). 15. The Seventh Crusade was undertaken by St. Louis in alliance with Prince Edward (afterward Edward I.) of Eng- land (1269), in consequence of the taking of Antioch by the Mam'e-luke* sultan of Egypt. Louis crossed to Africa, expecting to receive the Seventh Crusade. king of Tunis as a convert to Christianity; but, instead of a convert, he found a determined enemy; and a pestilence hav- ing broken out, the French perished by thousands on the burning sands. St. Louis died in his tent; and his son * The Mamelukes (a word meaning, in Arabic, slaves) were of Turkish origin, and were bought by the sultan of Egypt and placed in the army. In 1254, they had ad- vanced to such a degree of power, that they made one of their number sultan, and founded a dynasty which occupied the throne of Egypt for centuries, 416 Mediceval History. Philip, after making a treaty with the king of Tunis, re- turned to France (1270). Prince Edward, however, pro- ceeded to the Holy Land, and gained some advantages by his skill and valor; and after making a ten years' truce, he returned home to ascend the English throne. 16. This was the last of the Crusades. Antioch had been taken by the sultan of Egypt, and all its inhabitants slaugh- tered or made slaves in 1268; the other towns of Syria soon after fell successively into the hands of the Mohammedans, excepting Acre, which for a time was the metropolis of the Christians. This also was captured by the sultan in 1291, and its inhabitants, to the number of GO, 000, put to death or sent into bondage. Soon afterward, all the churches and fortifica- tions of the Latin Christians throughout Syria were demolished. Influence of the Crusades. 17. These enterprises indirectly contributed very greatly to the political and social improvement of the nations of Europe during the Middle Ages. They tended to break up the feudal system, by compelling the great barons to sell their lands, in order to On the feudal syslem. raise the money necessary to equip their troops and transport them to distant countries. They also aided popular freedom, by inducing kings to grant to the towns political privileges, in return for contributions of money for the same purpose. They encouraged commerce, by employing so many ships and such vast supplies as were ro- piired to transport and sustain the vast armies On commerce and navigation. wliich ^GYQ raised and sent out to so great a distance. For- eign countries were brought into communication with each other, and the advantage of a mutual exchange of products soon became apparent. Thus the arts of navigation and ship- building rapidly advanced, and many cities situated in the route of these expeditions soon acquired extraordinary influ- ence and wealth. Of these G-en'oa and Venice are examples. Frincipal Events and Dates. 417 18. They promoted the diffusion of knowledge, and the progress of science and literature. Those who engaged in them were at first grossly ignorant and illiterate; but coming in contact with the Greek and Sara- cenic civilization, they soon imbibed a taste for On science and literature. the science and literature which constituted one of its most prominent features, and, on returning home, communicated the same spirit to their fellow-countrymen. Moreover, they were enterprises undertaken for a noble and un- selfish purpose; and although blended with it On character. was the desire of military distinction and renown, this was to be gratified by great self-sacrifice and personal devotion to a cause which conscience and religion approved. Hence were necessarily infused that heroic and disinterested spirit, that eas^erness to succor the weak and distressed, that love of roman- tic adventure, and those elevated sentiments of honor, all of which went to form that remarkable feature of the manners of the Middle Ages known as chivalry. (See page 57.) Summary of Principal Events and Dates. A.D. The Seljuk Turks take possession of Jerusalem 1076 Council held at Clermont 1095 First Crusade, proclaimed by Pope Urban II 1095 Peter the Hermit and the Crusaders start for the Hol.y Land 1096 Solyman defeated, and Nice taken by the Crusading armies 1097 Antioch taken by the Crusaders 1098 Jerusalem taken, and Godfrey of Bouillon elected king 1099 Second Crusade, undertaken by Louis VII. and Conrad 1147 Saladin defeats the Christians and takes Jerusalem 1187 Third Crusade, under Philip II., Richai-d I., and Frederick Barbarossa 1189 Richard I. set out on his return to Europe 1193 Saladin's death; his empire dissolved 1193 Fourth Crusade, under Baldwin . Count of Flanders 1203 Constantinople taken by the Crusaders 1204 Fifth Crusade, under the Emperor Frederick II 1228 Sixth Crusade, under Louis IX. (St. Louis), king of France 1249 Antioch taken by the Sultan of Egj'pt 1268 Seventh Crusade, under Louis IX. and Prince Edward of England 1279 Capture of Acre by the Mohamraedans. Total conquest of Syria and subjuga- tion of the Latin Christians , , 1291 9 CHAPTER YII. Central and Southern Europe. SECTION I. Germany. 1. After the battle of Fontenaille, in which the degen- erate grandsons of Charlemagne fought with each other over the territories subdued by his wisdom and valor, the empire was divided into three portions — France, Cermany, and Italy; and the second Divisions of the empire. of these divisions was assigned to Louis (843). The Carlo- vingian race became extinct in 911; and there- after the Di'et, or Great Council, consisting of the great princes of Germany and the chief dignitaries of the Church, assumed the right of electing the emperor, subject to confirmation by the Pope, by whom alone he could be crowned. Several races at this time occupied Germany, the chief of which were the Franks, Races. the Saxons, the Bavarians, and the Suabians. The first choice of the electors was Otto the Illustrious, Duke of Saxony; but, he declining, they chose Conrad of Franconia (912). Conrad was a good Otto and Conrad. and wise monarch, but he reigned only six years, his death occurring in 918. Geographical Study. (Map, page 419.) What is the situation of : Germany? Kingdom of Burgundy? Austria? Hun- gary? Bohemia? Brandenburg? Poland? Pomerania? Saxony? Westphalia? Francia? Lotharingia? Suabia? Brabant? Flanders? France? Vienna? Prague? Hamburg? Frankfort? Aacheu? Strasburg? Milan? Venice? Genoa? Geneva? Aries? Florence? Germany. 419 %r Five Saxon emperors succeeded {Saxon Dynady), the first of whom, Henry I. (called the Foioler),'^ was a very great monarch. He subdued the rebellious and dis- orderly i)rinces, and restored peace to the coun- try. Bohemia was made tributary to the German Empire, and the Suabians were subdued. Henry also gained a great Yictory over the Hungarians, who had swarmed into Saxony; Central Europe (about 1200). and so thankful were the people for their deliverance from these savage hordes, that he was hailed as the ^'Father of his Country" (934). f To this great achievement was added * He received the title of Fowler, because he was flying his hawks on the Hartz mountains, when the messengers came to tell him that he had been chosen king. t " The nine years' truce being ended, the Hungarians sent to the Fowler for blackmail. Blackmail indeed! The only tribute Henry would give them was a 420 Mediceml History, • an invasion of Denmark, and the reduction of the sea-kings to submission. His reformatory measures and institutions, both civil and religious, were very important. He died in 93G, being succeeded by his son Otho, or Otto. 3. Otto I., (or Otho I.), the Lion, on marrying the widow of the king of Normandy, assumed himself that title, and made the kingdom a fief of Germany. Tlie Hungarians renewed their invasions, but were defeated by Lombardy. Otto in a great battle fought in Bavaria. The Duke of Lom- bardy having revolted. Otto, at the head of a victorious army, passed the Alps, subdued the Hungarians. rebel duke, and after receiving at Milan the iron crown of the Lombards, was crowned by the Pope Emperor of the West {Kaiser — C(Bsar)y like his great prede- cessor, Charlemagne (962). He was a zealous Crowned ennperor. patron of letters, having a school in his own palace, though he could neither read nor write. He died in 973. In this reign the Hartz silver-mines were discovered. 4. Otto II., called the Red King, succeeded his father as ^' King of Germany and Kaiser of the Holy Roman Empire," being elected by the princes, and crowned by the Pope. His reign was a constant series of wars. He defeated the Saracens in Lower Italy, and made himself master of Naples and Tarentum; but the Greek emperor Saracens. having invited the Saracens again into Italy, Otto was entirely overwhelmed by them, and narrowly escaped with life. At a diet held in Ve-ro'na, he formally confirmed the privileges of \ 1 the Republic of Venice: and was preparinor a Venice. , ± j. cj . _J great expedition against the Greeks and Sara- cens, when he died in Italy, probably from the effects of poison (983). mangj' cur, cropped of its ears and tail. The Hungarians were furious; they vowed vengeance, death without mercy, battle without quarter; but vengeance had gone over to the other side. A battle was fought at Meneburg, in Saxony, and the Hun- garians were defeated. The massacre was dreadful ; the number of prisoners, we are told, was 200,000."— 5re?rer's History of Germany. Germany. 421 5. Otto III. (called the Wonder of the World), at the death of his father, was only three years old; and from an early age was the pupil of Gerbert, afterward Pope Sylves- ter II., one of the most accomplished scholars of his age. It was owing to his extraordinary attainments under this great teacher, that Otto received his title. On com- Sylvester. mencing his reign, at the age of sixteen, his principal am- A Summons to a Town to Open its Gates and Surrender. (From an old engraving.) bition seemed to be to introduce the customs of the Byzantine court, and to make Rome his capital. By for- mally acknowledging the Duke of Poland as a Poland. separate ruler, he raised the Polish territories to the rank of a kingdom. He died in Italy (1002). 6. Henry II. (the Lame), cousin of Otto, succeeded him. The Polish ruler having refused tribute and homage to the new kaiser, and, moreover, having annexed Bohe- mia to his dominions, and invaded the country Henry II. of the Prussians, Henry, after a war of several years, made a treaty with him, acknowlecldug the independence of Poland, but retaining Bohemia as a fief of Germany. The Lombards 422 . Mediceval History. having revolted, lie marclied into Italy, and took Pavia, which was burned. He also successfully . made war upon the Greeks in southern Italy. He was Wars in Italy. a very pious king, and in great favor with the Church; hence sometimes called the JSaint. At his death (1024), the Saxon Dynasty terminated. 7. The Franconian Dynasty, consisting of four emperors, succeeded. The first was Conrad II., who, by his marriage, annexed the kingdom of Burgundy to the empire (1033). He made a treaty of peace and friend- ship with Canute, king of Denmark and England; and, having been crowned with the iron crown of Lombardy, received the submission of all the cities in northern Italy, including Pavia. He also received the homage of the Nor- mans and Saracens in southern Italy. The ^' Peace of God" (see page 93) was issued during this reign. Conrad died in 1039. 8. Henry III. (called, the Black King, from the color of his hair) succeeded. In the second year of his reign, the ^' Truce of God" was substituted for the /^ Peace of God;"* and the emperor proclaimed that Ger- Peace. many enjoyed a universal peace, for the first time since the monarchy was founded. He gained a great vic- tory over the Hungarians (1044), and made their Hungarians. kingdom tributary to the empire. This great king died in early manhood, after a reign of seventeen years (1056). His son Henry, who had previously re- ceived the title of ^' Kmg of the Komans," suc- King of the Romans. ceeded him. This title was subsequently borne by every heir-elect of the empire. * " Henry summoned a diet of the German princes, ur^ed the measure upon them in an eloquent speech, and set the example by proclaiming a full and free pardon to all who had been his enemies. The change was too sudden to be accept- able to many of the princes, but they obeyed as far as convenient; and the German people, almost for the first time in their history, enjoyed a general peace and (security. "--J5a7/ard Taylor'' s History of Germany. Germany. 42B 9. Henry IV. (the Great), a child of five years at the death of his father, assumed the government at the age of fifteen. The extravagance of the court and the haughti- ness of the young king caused an insurrection of Saxons, the Saxons; and Henry, for a time, was compelled to yield to their demands; but finally he marched into Saxony with an immense army, defeated his enemies in a terrible battle, and laid waste their country with fire and sword (1075). His next contest was with the famous Pope Gregory Vn. (Hildebrand). This talented and energetic Hildebrand. pontiff aimed to free the Church from its abuses and make it supreme over the civil power, and there- fore determined to put a stop to the cor- rupt sale of ecclesiastical offices by the emperor. Henry, resisting this, was ex- communicated; and, in 1077, the greatest temporal monarch in the world was forced to stand barefoot on the frosty earth at Ca- nossa (a town in Italy) for three days, wait- ing for admission to Gregory, to whom he finally made the most abject submission.* 10. But Henry, stung to madness by the humiliation he had suffered, returned to Germany, raised a large army, and conquered Rudolf of Suabia, whom the Pope had caused to be elected in his Gregory VII. Henry's revenge- place. Then passing into Italy, he took Rome (1084), and * " It was the fourth day on which he had borne the humiliating garb of an affected penitent, and in that sordid raiment he drew near on his bare feet to the more than imperial majesty of the Church, and prostrated himself, in more than servile deference, before the diminutive and emaciated old man, ' from the terrible glance of whose countenance,' we are told, ' the eye of every beholder recoiled as from the lightning.' Hunger, cold, nakedness, and shame had, for the moment, crushed the gallant spirit of the sufferer. He wept and cried for mercy, again and again renewing his entreaties until he had reached the lowest level of abasement to which his own enfeebled heart, or the haughtiness of his great antagonist, could depress him. Then, and not till then, did the Pope condescend to revoke the an- athema of the Vatican,"— /Sir J. Stephen. 424 Mediceval History. ordered the election of a pope in place of Gregory, whom he declared to be deposed, and drove into exile at Salerno, a town in southern Italy. Here this zealous and able pontiff died (1085); but, notwithstanding his misfortunes, he left the papal power greatly strengthened and improved by his efforts.* Henry IV. reigned till 1106, when he was succeeded by Henry V., called the Parricide, because he had deposed his father. f His reign was a constant Henry V. struggle with the Church and the nobles. He was the last of the Franconian emperors. The crown was next worn by Lothaire of Saxony (1125-1137), when it passed into the possession of Conrad of Suabia. 11. Conrad III, the first of the house of Hohenstaufen (-stow[fen) or Suabia, had been chosen by the electors in preference to his rival, Henry the Proud, son-in- law of Lothaire. Guelph, the brother of Henry, made war upon the new king, but being defeated Henry the Proud. took refuge in Weinsburg, which Conrad besieged and took (1140). J; Unable to resist the eloquence of Bernard, in his passionate appeal for aid in the Second Crusade, Conrad * " The monk of Cluny, Hildebrand of Savona, whe had inspired the poUcy of four popes, during twenty-four years, became Pope himself in 1073, under the name of Gregory VII. He was a man of iron will and inexhaustible energy, wise and far-seeing beyond any of his contemporaries and unquestionably sincere in his aim?,:'— Bayard Taylor. His last words were: "I have loved righteousness, and hated iniquity; and, therefore, I die in exile." t In the latter part of his life, a curse seemed to rest upon Henry IV. His sons rebelled against him, his wife proved unfaithful; and at last he was compelled to abdicate by his favorite son Henry. A homeless beggar, he wandered from house to house, refused by every one food and shelter. He made his way to Liege, where he was found dead on the door-steps of a religious house from which he had been spurned. As he died under the ban of the Church, his body was denied funeral rites, and for five years lay in a cellar at Liege. In 1111, it was removed to Spires and their buried, the ban having been removed by the Pope. X The city having made an obstinate defense, Conrad determined to burn it to the ground, but gave notice that the women might depart and take with them whatever they liked best. When the gates were thrown open, the women appeared each carrying a husband, a lover, or a son. This moved the king so greatly, that he pardoned the rebels and spared the city. The terms Guelphs and GhihelUnes originated at this time, the former being the password of the rebels, and the latter of Conrad's army. Germany. 425 3'ielded, and set out for the Holy Land with an army of 60,000 men; but he met with nothing but dis- aster, and after an absence of two years re- turned to Germany. He died in 1152. Con- Second Crusade. rad was never crowned kaiser, being only king of Germany. 12. Frederick I. (Barbarossa — Red Beard) was a great monarch, and was honored with the title of " Father of his Country." In the first year of his reign, he compelled the kings of Denmark, Poland, and Hungary to do homage to him for their crowns; Principa events. he raised the duchy of Bohemia to a kingdom; and by his marriage obtained possession of Burgundy. He had a diffi- culty with Pope Adrian IV., but it was soon settled, and he was crowned kaiser in St. Peter's. Frederick's greatest con- test was with the cities of Lombardy, which were then emerging into power, and demanded their Lombard cities. independence. Although at first defeated, they gained a great victory over Frederick in the battle of Legnano (len- yah^no)* (1176); and by the peace of Constance,! gained the right of independent government, though they recognized the emperor as chief ruler (1183). Frederick perished in the Third Crusade (1190). 13. The interval between the death of Frederick Barba- rossa and the accession of the Hapsburg line (1190-1273), was a period of constant internal commotion and foreign war. The most eminent of the emperors of this period was Frederick II., grandson of Barbarossa, and Frederick II. one of the ablest and most accomplished sovereigns of the Middle Ages. He was compelled, by his obligations to the Pope, to undertake two expeditions to the Holy Land, in the second of which he was successful. Contests with the Italian cities and with the papacy occupied the remainder of his * A town in northern Italy, sixteen miles northwest of Milan. t A town in the southwestern part of Germany, on the northwestern shore of Lake Constance. 426 MedicBval History. reign.* He died in 1250, being succeeded by Conrad IV., whose reign was the last of the house of Hohen- staufen. At his death (1254), he left a son, Conrad IV. Conrad, only two years old (called in history Konradin — the little Conrad). He received a good education, became a scholar and a poet; and at the age of ten the diet would have crowned him king of Germany, but the Pope opposed it. 14. Subsequently, he became the central figure in a pathet- ic tragedy. After the death of Conrad IV., the Pope claimed ; Naples and Sicily as being forfeited to the ^_!!!!!_l!!l^ Church, and gave the latter to Charles of Anjou, brother of Louis IX., King of France. Manfred, the ruling king, was the uncle of Konradin ; and resisting the Pope, was defeated and slain. Konradin determined to avenge the injury to his uncle, raised a considerable force, with which he marched into Italy, and invaded the territory of Naples. He was, however, defeated in battle, and falling into the hands of Charles, was ordered to be executed. Thus perished, at the age of sixteen, the last of the Hohenstaufens (1268). The poet Dante, then a boy of three years, was present at this execution, t 15. Germany could scarcely be deemed a united empire after the Hohenstaufen dynasty. The Italian republics had become practically independent ; and the rest of the empire was made up of various states — dukedoms, principalities, bishoprics, etc., loosely confederated together. For seven- * During the reign of Kaiser Frederick II., the Teutonic knights took possession of Prussia, in order to reduce the heathen people to Chi-istianity. It was afterward united to Brandenburg; and now (1881) the king of Prussia is German emperor. t Konradin and his friend Frederick of Baden, also a mere youth, Avere led to the scaffold, while the savage Charles watched the scene from a window of his palace, and the people looked on in gloom and discontent, only prevented from revolt by the roj^al guards. Konradin, standing on the scaffold, threw his glov^ among the spectators, that some friend might take it up and avenge his death. Then, exclaiming, "O mother, what sorrow I have caused thee!" he knelt, and received the fatal blow. Frederick and thirteen others were executed with him. In 1282, the massacre of the " Sicilian Vespers" occurred; the French in Sicily were slaughtered, and Peter of Aragon became king of the island. (See page 385.) Germany. 427 teen years (1256-1273), there were several who bore the title of Kaiser; but there was, in fact, no reigning em- peror. This period, called the Great Interregnum, is one of the darkest in German history. The Great Interregnum. country was filled with feudal castles, the residences of robber barons, whose quarrels, outrages, and depredations gave the people neither peace nor safety. 16. Rudolph I, the first of the Hapshurg * line, was just the man for the position which he was elected to fill. He was an experienced warrior, of determined will and indomitable courage, vigorous in intellect, and Character. of a powerful physical frame. He subdued Ot'to-car of Bo- hemia, and seized his dominions, including Austria, thus founding the present Austrian Empire. He ruled with much skill and energy; and, reducing Ottocar. the robber nobles to submission, greatly increased the imperial power, f On his death (1291), Albert, his son, was set aside by the electors, and Adolf of Nassau was ap- pointed in his stead; but, a few years afterward, he was deposed, and Albert elected in his place (1298). Adolf, resisting, was slain in battle. 17. Albert I, was naturally a despot, and cared nothing for the welfare of his subjects. J Dnriug his reign, the Swiss cantons made their memorable rising for independence, being provoked, according to the popular tradition, by the * Hapshurg, meaning Hawk's Castle, was the name given to the stronghold built on the Rhine by the feudal ancestors of this race. t " In Thuringia, which was perhaps the worst of the haunts, he leveled to the ground as many as sixty-six castles, and put to death twenty-nine of the robber nobles. Some were tied to the tails of their own horses and trampled to death; others were hung on the nearest tree."— Dr. Brewer. X His manners and personal appearance were by no means prepossessing. It is said he "looked like a clown and behaved like a loon." He was "big-nosed, loose- lipped, blind of one eye, ill-mannered, grasping, selfish, and overbearing." When Pope Boniface VIII. was told of his election, he exclaimed, " How can Siuch a one- eyed lout be emperor of the Romans!" Indeed, the Pope refused to sanction his election, and excommunicated him; but he afterward became reconciled to t^h? "one-eyed lout," 428 Mediceval History. tyranny of the governor, Gesler (ghes'ler), who commanded, as the story goes, the citizens of Al'torf to bow before the ducal cap of Austria, set upon a pole Swiss cantons. in the market-place. This William Tell refused to do; and was condemned to lose his life, or shoot an apple from his son's head. Although he succeeded in this trying ordeal, the governor still refused to set him at William Tell. liberty; but a storm arising as he was carried in chains across the lake, he was unfettered, in order that he might render aid as a steersman; when, leaping from the vessel as it neared the shore, he escaped, and a short time after avenged himself and his country by slaying the tyrannical governor (1308).* The emperor himself was murdered the same year in Switzerland by his nephew, John of Suabia. 18. After the murder of Albert, the imperial throne wscs filled by Henry VII. (1309-1313), who released the three Swiss cantons from their allegiance to the house of Hapsburg, and gave Austria to the sons of Albert. Henry Vii The two rival kaisers, Frederick of Austria and Louis of Bavaria, followed, the latter of whom finally triumphed in battle (1322). Louis reigned till his death in 1347; but the year previous he was Frederick and Louis. excommunicated by the Pope; and the archbishops united with the latter in the selection of Charles of Luxemburg; but the free cities and most of the Charles. temporal princes stood by Louis. The free cities, of which there were about 150, now rose to great influence and prosperity. They encouraged learning, pro- Free citi( moted commerce, and thus contributed greatly to the progress of Germany. 19. Charles IV., at first opposed by the elector?, finally gained the throne. Having been nominated by the Pope without the consent of the electors, he was called the ^' Pope's * The story of William Tell is a traditjouary legend, the details of whjcb are pow believed by many to be flctitjoug, Germany, 429 Kaiser." He was the grandson of Henry VII., and the son of John, King of Bohemia, who was slain by the Black Prince at the battle of Crecy. Charles Pope's Kaiser. Golden Bui possessed great learning himself, and encouraged it. He founded the three universities of Heidelberg, Vienna, and Prague. His most important act was the issue of the '^ Golden Bull," by which the electors of the German Empire and the mode of election were defined (1356).* The famous Rienzi, ''the last of the Roman Tribunes," was arrested by the emperor, and for a time kept a prisoner in Prague. Charles reigned till 1378. The ''Black Death" raged during the first years of this reign. 20. The death of Charles IV. was followed by the reign of Wenceslas, called the Worthless (1378-1400), and Rupert (1400-1410), after whom the crown was con- ferred on Sig'is-mund of Hungary, a son of Sigismund. Charles IV. (1410), called the " Light of the World." This emperor had been king of Hungary, and was a very accom- plished man. It was in this reign that the great Council of Constance met (1414), at which, there being three competitors for the pontifical throne. Council of Constance. Martin V. was elected Pope, and the great schism extin- guished. The doctrines of Wickliffe were also condemned; and John Huss, rector of the University of Prague, having adopted and preached them, was cited to appear before the Council. Refusing to retract, he was degraded from the priesthood; and having been delivered up to the civil law, was burnt at the stake for heresy (1415). Huss had received from the emperor a safe-conduct; but * The Golden Bull was so called because its seal was inclosed in a gold case. By this instrument the number of electors was prescribed— three prelates and four lay princes; and no appeal was permitted from their decision by a majority vote. They were to meet at Frankfort; and the place of coronation was Aix-la-Chapelle. The college of electors thus constituted lasted, with few changes, 450 years, till the time of Napoleon, who broke up the Germau Empire, 430 Mediceval History. Sigismund broke his plighted word, in permitting this cruel sentence to be executed. Jerome of Prague, the friend and disciple of Huss, the next year shared Jerome. the same fate. 21. This led to a furious war of sixteen years, in the first part of which the Bohemians, or Hussites, were led by tlie famous John Zisca, and defeated the armies of Sigismund in many battles. In 1422, a treaty Bohemian war. was made by the emperor, by which the religious liberty of the Hussites in Bohemia was fully acknowledged. The war, however, was afterward renewed, and continued till 1434. While the war was going on, Sigismund marched against the Ottoman Turks, whom he defeated in a great battle near Nissa (1419). By this victory, he Turks, not only took vengeance upon those fierce barbarians for his own disastrous defeat at Nicopolis, twenty-three years before, but checked for some time the Ottoman conquests on the eastern frontier. Sigismund died in 1437; and the house of Austria succeeded, which occupied the throne about three centuries (1437-1740). 22. The short reign of Albert 11, the Illustrious (1438- 1439), was followed by that of Frederick III, the Pacific, who, in order to aggrandize the house of Austria,* neglected the general interests of the empire, and suffered the Ottomans, who had taken Constanti- Albert II. Frederick III. nople (1453), to make great encroachments upon its terri- tories. He was the last German emperor that was crowned at Rome. He succeeded in effecting a marriage between his son Maximilian and Mary of Burgundy, thus obtaining for the former the sovereignty of the Netherlands, which Marv had inherited from her father, Charles the Netherlands. Bold. Frederick's reign was the longest in German history, * Frederick adopted for his device an anagram consisting of the five vovels, A, E, I, O, U, meaning, in Latin, Austria Est Imperatura Orhi TJniversa^ or, in Eng- lish, Austria's Empire Is Or(Xained Universal. Germany. 431 lasting fifty-three years. He was succeeded by Maximilian (149o). During Frederick's reign, printing was invented in Germany (about 1450). With this Printing. reign terminates the mediaeval period of German history. State of Society in Germany During the Middle Ages. 23. From the time of the great German warrior and patriot Hermann, to the reign of Charlemagne, the political history of Germany is almost a blank. Early period. Many petty states were formed, each under its own chief; and Christianity was introduced and propagated by English and Irish missionaries, among whom Criristianity. should be especially mentioned the English monk Winifred, afterward named Boniface, and called, on account of his zeal, the '^'Apostle of tlie Germans." 24. The Feudal System was firmly established in Ger- many, with the resulting lawnessness and violence that charac- terized the institution in other parts of Europe. The king or kaiser* was but a nominal sovereign; Feudal syster for many of his vassals were richer than himself and quite as powerful. They only owed their lord military service; and when that was rendered, they were free to do as they pleased. It was not until the close of the Saxon dynasty that Germany was formed into a really organized state, under the rule of laws, and with properly constituted Organization. magistrates to execute them. Churches were founded in every part of the country, and there were many walled towns * The title kaiser — emperor — was conferred on Charlemagne when he was crowned Emperor of the West, or Emperor of the Romans. Louis le Debonnaire also received the title, and afterward Lothaire, King of ItalJ^ It then passed to the German King Louis, or Ludwig, and next to Charles the Fat, of France, on whose death the empire ceased to exist for abour three quarters of a centurJ^ Otto I. received the title of Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, a title borne by all the sovereigns of Germany till the time of Napoleon I. This title is, however, synony- mous w^ith Emperor of the West, Emperor of the Romans, or the German title kaiser. King of the Romans was a title conferred by Henry HI. on his son as emperor elect or prospective, and was thus used up to the sixteenth century. 432 Mediwval History. in various parts, some of which were Imperial Free Cities, others ducal towns, and church cities, so called because built on church lands, and having the bishop as chief magistrate. 25. Notwithstanding the general spread of Christianity, the state of society was very low. There was but little respect for property or life. Almost any offense, except parricide, sacrilege, or the killing of a master by State of society Cities. his slave, could be atoned for by paying a fine, called a money- hote. Rough manners and coarse sensuality characterized the people of all classes, until the cities, having ac- quired a certain degree of independence, increased in industry and thrift. This was promoted by Henry Y., who admitted their artisans to the privileges of free burghers. Serfdom was gradually abolished; and, before the end of the thirteenth centuvy, generally gave Serfdom. place to a free peasantry. 26. In the thirteenth century was formed the famous league of cities, called the Hansa, or Hanseatic League, the object being to protect their shipping against pirates, and to extend their commerce. Ham- burg and Lubeck were the first to form a union; Hanseatic League. but Brunswick, Bremen, Cologne, Dantzic, and many other towns soon joined the confederacy, which became very power- ful, and exerted an important influence on the civilization and commercial prosperity of Germany. The chief foreign depots of the league were London, Bruges,* Novgorod,! and * Bruges, the chief city of Flanders, was, in the Middle Ages, the great emporium of central Europe, distinguished not only for its extensive commerce, but its manu- factures, particularly of cloths and tapestries. Hallani remarks: "In the thir- teenth century, it was said that all the world '..as clothed from English wool wrought in Flanders." t " Novgorod, on the banks of the Ilmen Lake, was the glory of Russia during the Middle Ages, with its strong walls, its 250 churches and convents glittering ^vith gilt cupolas, and its 300,000 active citizens, who soon threw off the yoke of the wrangling Russian princes, and constituted themselves into the celebrated republic. Later (after 1240), it entered the confederacy of the Hanseatic cities, and became the gi-eat emporium of Indian commerce for the north of Europe. "—.Kbeppen's Middle Ages, Germany. 433 Bergen.* Its deputies met every three years at Lubeck. The confederacy attained its grentest prosperity and niflneiice in the fourteenth century. Its last general assembly met in 1630. t 27. The peasants or serfs lived in miserable hovels near the castle to whose lord they looked for protection. The townsfolk had wooden houses, with few con- veniences, and furnished in the rudest manner. Dwellings. The dwellings of the nobles were huge castles, gloomy and lonesome, built on a high hill or some other almost inaccessible place. The master and his numerous retainers, when not engaged in war and pillage, passed their time in feasting and revelry, interspersed with rough brawls. The women occu- pied themselves in spinning, embroidery, weaving gold fringe, making banners, etc., or playing on Employments. the harp or lute. During the grand banquets and festivals, crowds of minstrels, jugglers, mimics, and clowns flocked to the castle to amuse the guests. Some of the furniture w^as often rare and costly — fine table- Furniture. linen from Damascus, and rich tapestry; and their drinking- vessels were sometimes of silver, though usually of horn or earthenware. They had only wooden platters or pewter trenchers, and knives and forks were not used at the table, each person taking up his food in his fingers. 28. The costume of the king and nobles was rich and elaborate. The former, on great occasions, wore a magnifi- cent purple tunic, with a golden girdle, from which hung a sword. On his head was a jeweled cap of crimson velvet, his hair flowing over his shoulders. * A commercial town on the western co£i,..t of Norway. t " Eighty of the most considerable places constituted the Hanseatic con- federacy, divided into four colleges, whereof Lubeck, Cologne, Brunswick, and Dantzic were the leading towns. Lubeck held the chief rank, and became, as it were, the patriarchal see of the league ; whose province it was to preside in all gen- eral discussions for mercantile, political, or militaiy purposes, and to carry them into execution, ""—Hallam's Middle Ages, 434 MedicBval History, The tunic was also worn by the nobles. The shoes were usually long and pointed, often made of purple cloth fringed with gold. Ladies wore very long robes with tight sleeves extending to the wrist, the body fitting close to the waist, and confined by a rich girdle. A wimple was usually worn round the face and chin, fastened at the forehead by a gold or jeweled fillet. 29. All through the gloomy period of the Dark Ages, there was but little of learning or literature in any part of Germany. Charlemagne and a few of his suc- cessors took an interest in intellectual culture; but, with the exception of a few histories and Learning and literature. poems in Latin, or in some of the German dialects, nothing was written. Among these may be mentioned a Latin chroni- cle of the world, by Hermann the Cripple,* a scholar of extraordinary genius and learning, who lived in the reign of Henry IK. It was a monk named Conrad, in tlie service of Henry the Lion, who wrote the famous Song of Roland {Rolands-lied), in the twelfth cen- tury. About the same time (1150-1250), flourished the cele- brated 3Iin'7ie-sing-ers, or 'Move-poets" — the troubadours of Germany — whose poems aided in Conrad. ] Minnesingers. the revival of European literature, f The Nibelung en-lied, a kind of epic poem in ballad form, belongs to this period. In * Hermann was a wonder. His body was wholly paralyzed; he could scarcely hold a pen, or speak intelligibly; yet his learning and sagacity made him an object of universal attention, people coming from different parts of Europe to converse with him. Hie Chronicle of the Six Ages of the World is a valuable work, especi- ally because of its history of Germany during the tenth and eleventh centuries. He also wrote a treatise on music, and one on the astrolabe, an instrument used in the Middle Ages for measuring the altitude of the heavenly bodies. t The name is derived from the old German word niinni, meaning love. They were contemporaneous with the house of Hohenstaufen, the kings of which line spoke the Suabian dialect, the richest and most musical in Germany. The poems of the Minnesingers were not all love-songs, but often commemorated heroic deeds and wonderful exploits. The names of about one hundred and fifty of these poets are preserved. Many princes and knights, Frederick II. for example, were proud to be classed among them. Germany. 4B^ the fifteenth century arose in the cities tlie Meister singers, a kind of literary society or guild, whose composi- tions were chiefly of a humorous or satiric charac- ter. Hans Sachs, one of these, a shoemaker by trade, was the Meistersingers. most distinguished German poet prior to the Reformation. 30, In the fifteenth century a stronger light began to pre- vail. During the long reign of Frederick the Pacific, there were many learned men eminent in various branches of science and literature, among whom may be mentioned Nicholas of Ousa (1401-1464), the son of a fisherman, who became one of the greatest scholars of his age; John Miiller (1436-1476), con- sidered the restorer of astron- omy; and Rudolf Agric'ola (1443- 1485). Toward the end of the century, Copernicus, the reviver of the true theory of the solar system, was born; and Albert Duror commenced to be famous as a painter and engraver. The invention of printing gave an impulse to learning and literature which it had never before received. The credit of this inven- tion is contested by the Dutch in favor of Lau- Albert Durer. Invention of printing. reus Coster of Harlaem (1423), and by the Germans in behalf of John Gutenberg of Mentz (1436).* * Gutenberg, in 1450, entered Into partnership with John Faust, oij Fust, the latter furnishing the means of utilizing the invention ; and the work for printing the Bible in Latin was partly executed, when the partnership was dissolved, in 1455. The next year, Gutenberg completed the printing of the Bible ; and in the mean time, Faust entered into partnership with Peter Schoeffer, his son-in-law, and also printed books. Coster seems to have been the first to invent the method of im- pressing characters on paper by means of blocks of carved wood, in 1423; while Gutenberg invented movable types, and Schoeffer, in conjunction with Faust, first founded types of metal. Thus Gutenberg is entitled to be considered the inventor of printing, and Schoeffer of type-founding. Faust was merely a patron, as he only furnished the means to carry on the work. 436 MedicBval History. Emperors of Germany, From Conrad I. (911) to Maximilian I (1493), Line. Name. Date of reign. Conradl 911- 918 r Henry 1 918- 936 cf I Otto 1 936- 973 gi^ Otto II 973- C83 «2« I Otto III 983-1002 t Henry II 1002-1024 i (Conrad II 1024-1039 1 J Henry III 1039-1056 c j Henry IV 1056-1106 ^ iHenryV 1106-1125 f Lothaire II 1125-1137 g Conrad HI 1138-1152 o| I Frederick 1 1152-1190 H \ Henry VI 1190-1197 ^1 Two reigns 1197-1215 I I Frederick II 1215-1250 (Conrad IV 1250-1254 Line. Name. Interregnum f Rudolf I. Hapsburg. Adolf Albert I Henry VII Frederick of Austria . Louis V. of Bavaria. . .2 Gunther ^ I Charles IV j Wenceslas 1 Rupert "^ Sigismund i [Albert II 1^ Frederick m < (Maximilian Date of reign. 1254-1273 127^-1291 1292-1298 1298-1308 1309-1313 1314-1330 1314-1347 1347-1349 1347-1378 1378-1400 1400-1410 1410-1437 1438-1439 1440-1493 1493 Summary of Principal Events and Dates. A.D. Carlovingian race becomes extinct 911 Hungarians defeated by Henry the Fowler 934" Lombardy made a fief of the German Empire 961 Otto the Great crowned Emperor of the West (Kaiser) 962 Lower Burgundy annexed to the Empire of Germany by Conrad II 1033 The Hungarian Empire made tributary to Germany 1044 Bohemia added to the Empire 1045 The king-elect of Germany was styled " King of the Romans" 1056 Saxony invaded and overrun by Henry IV 1075 Rome taken by Henry IV. ; Gregory driven into exile 1084 Frederick Barbarossa defeated by the Italians at Lignano 1176 The Italian cities gain their independence hj the peace of Constance 1183 Prussia became a part of the German Empire 1230 Execution of Konradin, the last of the Hohenstaufens 1268 Insurrection of the Swiss cantons. Legend of William Tell 1308 The Golden Bull issued by Charles III 1356 Meeting of the Council of Constance 1414 John Huss condemned and burnt at the stake for heresy 1415 The Turks defeated at Nissa by Sigismund 1419 The religious liberty of the Hussites in Bohemia acknowledged 1422 Frederick HI. crowned kaiser by the Pope. The last king thus crowned 1452 The Bible printed by Gutenberg and Faust 1455 ISwitzerland. 437 Barbaric invasions. SECTION 11. SWITZERLAN"D. 31. Switzerland, anciently the land of the Helvetians, who were so terribly defeated by Csesar, like other parts of the Koman Empire, was overrun by the barbari- ans. In the tiftli century, the Alemanni, Goths, and Burgundians possessed different portions of the country; but, in the next century, these were conquered by the Franks, under whose sway . Christianity was generally established. It thus formed a part of the Frankish empire of Charlemagne. After the reign of Charles the Fat, the northern part of Switzerland became a part of the German Empire, and the southern portion was an- nexed to Burgundy. At first the land was held as a fief by the vassals of the crown; but, in course of time, the towns acquired great influence, some becom- Towns. Cantons, ing free cities of the empire. The three ancient cantons of Schwytz {shvUz), TJri (oo're), and Unterwalden {oon' ter-wal-den) , inhabited by descendants from Swedish immigrants, retained a certain degree of indepen- dence. 32. Eudolf of Hapsburgy a Swiss baron, when he became emperor, favored the independence of the cantons; but his son Albert pursued an opposite policy, and undertook to an- nex Switzerland to Austria. The oppression of the Swiss by that emperor led to an uprising of Insurrection. the people and the expulsion of the Austrian bailiffs.* Leo- pold, the emperor's son, advancing into Switzerland with a * The leading men of the " forest cantons," whose dependence upon the empire had been for centuries only nominal, met in convention on the Rutli meadow, and adopted a solemn resolution to drive out the Austrian governors, whom they looked upon as foreign tyrants (1307), To this period belongs the story of William Tell. (See page 428.) 498 Medimdal Mlsiorp. considerable army, was defeated by a small baud of Swiss at the narrow pass of Mor'gar-ten (1315). This was followed by a league of the cantons of Uri, Schwytz, and Untcrwal- den, to which others were afterward added; and, in 1352, the confederacy included eight cantons. Confederacy. The Austrians afterward renewed tlie war, and were again defeated at Sem'pach (1386), in a battle memor- able for the devotion of Arnold of Winkelried Sempach. {win'kel-reed), who, when his countrymen recoiled from the serried spears of the enemy, rushed upon them, burying them in his bosom, but making way for the Swiss host behind him.* 33. In the following century, Switzerland had gained in strength; but it was severely tried by a civil war which. broke out among the cantons in 1436. This was followed by a struggle with Charles the Bold, Duke of Bur- gundy, in which the Swiss gained two decisive victories (1476). The emperor Maximilian re- Contest with Charles the Bold. newedthe attempt to deprive the Swiss of their independence; but was defeated in six desperate battles (1499). This led to a treaty with Maximilian, by which Treaty. the independence of the cantons was finally established. This made the Swiss a nation; and, five new cantons being admit- ted to the confederacy, it assumed the form which it retained for two centuries. * The historian Van Mtiller thus describes the incident: " The hostile lines stood unbroken and firm. Sixty Swiss had already been slain. They feared the sudden effect of some unpereeived movement by the vanguard from the rear, or of some surprise by the troops of Bonstetten. This moment of delay and indecision was terminated by a man from the canton of Unterwalden, Arnold Strutthan of Winkel- ried, knight. He said to his companions, 'I'll make a lane for you,' leaped from out the ranks, called with a loud voice, ' Take care of my wife and children ; faith- ful, dear confederates, remember my race;' rushed upon the enemy, grasped some lances with his hands, buried them in his breast, and, being a very tall and strong man, he pressed them with him to the ground, as he sank down. Instantly his companions threw themselves over his body ; and all the hosts of the confederates, in succession, pressed on with the utmost force. The lines of the astonished enemy pressed one upon another to receive them ; whereby, through fear, haste, horror, and heat, many lords, wounded in their armor, were suffocated ; while large bands, hastening from the forests strengthened the forces of the Swiss," ttaly. m sectio:n- III. Italy. 34. Northern Italy, by the defeat of the Lombards (774), passed under the rule of Charlemagne, who was, in 800, crowned at St. Peter's ^Emperor of the West, or Emperor of the Romans. After the battle of Eontenaille, Various events. it was assigned to his grandson Lothaire (843), whose descend- ants held the throne nearly fifty years (843-888). This period is noted for the invasion of southern Italy by the Saracens, who carried their victorious arms even to the gates of Rome. They held possession of a large part of the coun- try until they were expelled by the Normans (1016). 35. Confusion and civil war followed the close of the Car- lo vingian dynasty in northern Italy, occasioned by the dis- putes of ambitious nobles for the throne, until Otto I. of Germany assumed the sovereignty of Civil war. the country (961). Erom this period the chief towns rapidly emerged into power and importance. The Lombard League was formed in 1167, and, in 1183, the cities secured their independence by the Peace of Constance. The bitter strife between the Guelphs and Ghibellines de- vastated the country for centuries, some of the cities favoring the Guelph interest, that is the interest of Italy and the popes against that of the emperor; others the Ghibelline, or impe- rial interest. Nevertheless, the republics of northern Italy attained a high degree of splendor and prosperity, which they continued to enjoy during the Middle Ages.* * These republics included : 1. The Lombard CiYtes— Milan, Cremona, Pavia, Brescia, Verona, Mantua, Padua, etc. ; 2. The Cities of Romagna— Bologna, Fer- rara, Modena, etc.; 3. The Tuscan Cities— Florence, Pisa, Lucca, etc.; 4. Genoa; and 5. Veiiice. Some of these cities were in the Guelph interest; others in the Ghibelline. There were frequent wars among these small states, and family feuds in the individual cities, such as that of the Capulets and Montagues in Verona, on which Shakespeare founded his play of Romeo and Juliet. 440 Mediceval History. Republic of Venice. 36. Among these republics, Venice occupied a prominent place. Its foundation dates from the invasion of Italy bv Attila (452), who pillaged and destroyed the cities of the Veneti in northern Italy; and many of Early history. the inhabitants, taking refuge among the islands at the head of the Adriatic, founded there a settlement which for a time depended for its subsistence npon fishing and the manufacture of salt. It was called Ve-ne'zia. Later history. St, Mark. Between two and three centuries, it was a simple republic; but, in 697, the first doge (duke) was elected, an officer in whom was vested almost absolute authority. The republic was nom- inally subject to the Eastern Empire, and assisted it in defend- ing the Exarchate of Ravenna from the attacks of the Lom- bards. During the reign of Charlemagne (b09), it Avas attacked by the Franks, but defeated them with great loss. In the course of time, the central island, Rialto {re-ahl'to), was con- nected with the other islands by numerous bridges; and this city of bridges and canals, instead of streets, came to be gen-; erally known by its present name, Venice. A I short time after this, the Venetians took St. Mark as their patron saint, having, as is said, brought his body from] Alexandria (829).* 37. During the next 250 years, the republic greatly in- creased in wealth, commerce, and naval power; and its ter-| ritorial dominions were augmented by the acqui- sition of Dalmatia, and some of the neighboring] provinces. In the First Crusade, the Venetians sent a fleet] * "After defeating Pepin, king of Italy (in 809), the Venetians made choice of I the largest island, the Riva Alia,- -Rialto— in the center of the Lagoons, where they j had secured their families and their wealth, and there they built the city of Venice, the capita,l of their republic. Some years later, they transported thither from Alexandria, in Egypt, the body of Saint Mark, the Evangelist, whom they chose patron of their state. His winged lion figured in their arms: and under his victori- ous banner they afterward raised their great colonial empire of the East."— A:oep-j pen's Middle Ages. Growth. Italy. 441 of more than two hundred vessels to aid Godfrey of Bouillon (1099); and during the whole period of these expeditions, Venice was the great center of commerce, and the emporium by which the silks, spices, and gems of the East were dis- tributed to Europe. It was a prominent member of the League of Lombardy against Frederick Barbarossa; and, dur- ing the contest (in 1177), gained a splendid naval victory over the Ghibellines, under Otto, Frederick's son, in defense of the Pope, who had appealed to the republic for protection. It was after this victory that the ceremony of "wedding the Adriatic" was instituted, the Pope presenting the doge with a ring for the purpose. This cere- mony was always afterward performed with great Wedding the Adriatic. pomp and festivity, a ring being cast into the sea, to indicate that it was '^subject to Venice as a bride is to her husband." 38. After the taking of Constantinople by the Crusaders (1204), Venice having supplied a fleet, under the venerable Doge Dan'do-lo, received, as her share of the spoils, the Mo-re'a, and several other territories Dandolo. in Europe. The doge, although blind and ninety years of age, so distinguished himself that the Crusaders, in admira- tion of his prowess and skill, offered him the imperial crown, which he refused. During the latter half of the thirteenth century and most of the fourteenth, Venice was engaged in almost constant war with her great rival, Gen'o-a. 39. In the latter part of the thirteenth century (1275), Mar'co Po'lo, the great Venetian traveler, crossed Asia, and, after visiting Tartary and China, returned home by way of the East Indies and the Persian Gulf. Marco Polo. The account which this traveler gave of the East did muoh to stimulate further adventure and exploration. After Genoa had passed away as an independent power (1396), Venice experienced her highest prosperity, and was the greatest maritime power in the world. She ac- H eight of glory quired by conquest, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, 44^ MedicBval History. a large domain in northern Italy, and did important service to Europe by repelling the attacks of the Turkish fleets in the Mediterranean. Her wars, however, soon wasted her treas- ures and impaired her commerce; while her government be- came tyrannical and corrupt. When the new route to the East, by way of the Cape of Good Decline. Hope, was discovered (1497), her glory soon departed. Southern Italy. 40. In the ninth century, southern Italy was invaded by the Saracens, against whom it was for a time defended by the armies of the Byzantine Empire. In the next century. Otto II. of Germany, having defeated Saracens. the Saracens, made himself master of Naples and Salerno, and finally of Tarentum. This so alarmed the Greek em- peror, that he formed an alliance with the Saracens; and, in the severe battle of Crotona, utterly defeated Otto, who with difficulty escaped from the hands of the victors. The Sara- cens held many of the most important places in southern Italy until they were expelled by the Normans, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. 41. These were a band of adventurers from Normandy, who at first rendered aid in expelling the Saracens from Salerno (1016). Being joined by others, they soon made a lodgment in the delightful regions Normans. of southern Italy, repeatedly defeating the vastly more numer- ous forces of the Eastern Empire. Their numbers were in-j creased by constant accessions from Normandy; and, in 1060, the renowned Robert Guis'card (or ghees-kar')] was acknowledged by the Pope Duke of Apu'liaj Guiscard and CahVbria, and of such other lands, in Italy and Sicily, as he might rescue from the Greeks and Saracens. This Norman] duke was, perhaps, the most accomplished soldier of his age;] and extended his conquests throughout southern Italy, thus putting an end to the long dominion of the Eastern emperors. Italy. 443 42. He subsequently raised an immense army, officered by Norman knights, and attacked the other territories of the Eastern Empire. Durazzo (doo-rat'so) fell, after a siege of seven months, before his invincible skill and valor; and thence he marched his army Conquests of Guiscard. into the heart of the empire, making Constantinople itself tremble. He was, however, hastily recalled to Italy to pro- tect Pojie Gregory VII. (Hildebrand) against his inveterate foe, Henry IV. of Germany; and, rais- Hildebrand. ing a large army, he marched rapidly from Salerno to Rome, and compelled the German emperor to seek safety in retreat. It was with the faithful Robert Guiscard that the illustrious pontiff at last found an asylum at Salerno. 43. Roger I., the brother of Robert Guiscard, conquered Sicily from the Saracens after several years of war; and his son, Roger II., ruled over the Norman posses- sions in both Sicily* and Italy, and subjugated Roger Guiscard. the free cities of Naples and Amal'fif (1127); but, in the person of AVilliam II., his grandson, the Norman dynasty became extinct, and the kingdom passed under the sway of the German emperors (1189). End of Norman rule. Thus it remained till the reign of Manfred, whom Charles of Anjou defeated in the battle of Beneven'to (1266), and thus obtained the throne of Naples and Sicily, which i ; he retained till the dreadful massacre of the I Sicilian Vespers (1282). By this event he lost Sicily; but transmitted Naples to his descendants, who retained the throne of that country till 1435, when it passed to the kings * Roger Guiscard was crowned king of the Two Sicilies at Palermo. He brought artisans from Athens, and founded a silk manufactory in that city in 1146. t A town on the Gulf of Salerno, southeast of Naples, noted for its extensive trade in the Middle Ages. "This httle republic rose, reached the height of its power, and declined, between the sixth and twelfth centuries. Its career as a free trading state was brilliant till checked by the arms of Roger Cuiscard, king of Sicily, from which time its splendor was lost." — Yeats' s Growth and Vicissitudes of Commerce. 444 MeMcEval History, of Anison, who had ruled Sicily from the time of the Sicilian Vespers. 44. Rome, or Papal Italy, was governed after the eighth century by the Popes, who, in succession, were elected to fill the chair of St. Peter. During a period of sixty -eight years (from 1309 to 1377) the Pope's residence was at Avig- non, in France. Rome, in the mean while, was the scene of constant disorder from the lawless acts of the great nobles, who prosecuted their Condition of Rome. family feuds with the utmost fury and license. Out of these struggles arose Rienzi {re-en' ze), the " Last of the Tribunes," who, in 1347, seized the chief Rienzi. power, and, having expelled the nobles, endeavored to restore the ancient liberties of the city. A counter-revolution over- turned his government after an existence of but seven months, and he was driven into exile. Rienzi was a friend of the famous poet Pe'trarch, and was distinguished for his learning and oratory.* Ancona, in Papal Italy, was one of the most important commercial cities in the peninsula at this period, f * " Never perhaps has the energy and effect of a single mind been more remark- ably felt than in the sudden, though transient, reformation of Rome by the tribune Rienzi. A den of robbers was converted to the discipline of a camp or convent: patient to hear, swift to redress, inexorable to punish, his tribunal was always accessible to the poor and stranger; nor could birth, or dignity, or the immunities of the Church protect the offender or his accomplices. The privileged houses, the private sanctuaries in Rome, on which no officer could presume to trespass, were abolished ; and he applied the timber and iron of their barricades in the fortifica- tions of the capitol. ... In this time (says the historian), the woods began to rejoice that they were no longer infested with robbers; the oxen began to plow; the pilgrims visited the sanctuaries; the roads and inns were replenished with travelers; trade, plenty, and good faith were restored in the markets; and a purse of gold might be exposed without danger in the midst of the highway. As soon as " the life and property of the subject are secure, the labors and rewards of industry spontaneously revive : Rome was still the metropolis of the Christian world; and. the fame and fortune of the tribune were diffused in every country by the strangers who had enjoyed the blessings of his government."— (r/foboji. t "Ancona, in the Papal States, was founded by the Syracusans about four cen- turies before Christ, and has ever been, next to Venice, the most considerable portr on the Adriatic coast of Italy. Its early eastern trade was chiefiy with Cyprus."—; Yeats. Italy. 445 State of Society in Italy During the Middle Ages. 45. The innumenibls invasions and revolutions to which Italy was subjected in the Middle Ages, introduced vast changes not only in the political condition of the country, but in the manners and customs, the Changes. arts, occupations, and language of the people. Out of the barbarism resulting from this ruin and disorder, a new civilization slowly emerged, having its origin and principal growth in the cities, par- New civilization. ticularly those of the north. The Lombard rule was, on the whole, favorable to this improvement. The feudal system prevailed, but it acquired a more Feudal syster exact and legal form in Italy than in other parts of Europe. 46. The great commercial cities, Venice, Genoa, Florence, Ancona, and Amalfi, were the gateways not only of imported commodities, but of the civilization of the countries with which they were brought Commerce and manufactures. into communication. Manufactures were extensively carried on in all the cities of northern Italy; being in some the chief source of their wealth. In Florence this was especially true. Dyeing, and the nuiking of cloth, scarlet stuffs, silk fabrics, tapestries, straw hats, with artistic work in mosaic, metal, and alabaster, were prominent industries. Lombard capital- ists competed with the Jews as bankers and money-changers in every important city of Europe. Venice had, also, very numerous and extensive manufacturing industries. 47. Architecture in Italy gradually passed from the old classic style to the Gothic; but this mode of building did not progress as rapidly in this as in many other parts of Europe. The splendid palaces and mansions Architecture. erected in Florence, Bologna, Genoa, and other cities, show wonderful taste and genius in this branch of art. The works 446 Mediceval History. of the Roman architect Vi-tru'vi-iis * were printed at Rome in 1486; and the adoption of his system by the Italian archi- tects led to the arrangement of the Five Orders of Architec- ture. 48. Many Byzantine artists passed into Italy, and intro- duced their various styles of painting and sculpture, thus laying, in the thirteenth century, at Venice, Pisa, and other cities, the foundation of the Italian schools of art. Sculpture, under Nicola Pisano Painting and sculpture. {ne'ko'lah 2^e-sah'no),\ took the lea^d in painting. The revival of painting, in the latter part of the thirteenth century, was greatly promoted by the celebrated Cimabue {che-mah-hoo'a) (1240-1300),! of Florence; but Italian painting more prop- erly begins with the next century. Giotto (jot'to) (1276- 1336) was eminent not only as a painter, but an architect and a sculptor. In the fifteenth century, the fine arts made great progress, particularly in Florence, under the sway of the Medici. Leonardo da Vinci {vin'che)% painted his great pic- ture, " The Last Supper," at the close of the mediaeval i)eriod (1497). He was noted for the universality of his genius. 49. The Italian literature dates from the thirteenth cen- tury, previous to which time there were dialects more or less * Vitruvius. or more properly Marcus Vitruvius PoUio, lived in the time of Augus- tus, by whom he was greatly admired and patronized as an architect. He wrote an elaborate work, On Architecture, arranged in ten books. A second edition of this work was printed at Florence in 1496, and a third at Venice in 1497. It treats in detail of the four orders of architecture. t Pisano, born about 1300, inaugurated the revival of sculpture in Italy, He executed many magnificent works not only in sculpture, but in architecture. He died in 1378. ^ Giovanni Cimabue took the lead in the restoration of painting. Having studied under Byzantine masters, he soon laid aside their fixed, traditional methods, and by boldly adopting the style dictated by his own genius, gave life and individuality to his works. His church frescos were much admired. He is called by some "the father of modern painting." Giotto was his greatest pupil. § Leonardo da Vinci was bom at Vinci, near Florence, in 1452. He was emi- nent not only as a painter, but as a sculptor, architect, engineer, and scientist. His pictures are classed with those of Raphael and Michael Angelo, who lived in the succeeding period. He died in 1519. Italy, 447 closely resembling the Latin language, such as the Tuscan, the Venetian, the Neapolitan, etc. Of these, the Tuscan might claim a superiority in many respects. Literature. Classical Italian literature commenced in Florence under the influence of the Troubadours; and the common language began to take the place of Latin. Among the writers of this century, Dante {dan/ to) (1265-1321) may justly be given pre-eminence. This world-renowned poet Dante. had political as well as literary distinction, being the chief magistrate of his native city, Florence. He was, however, banished by its factious citizens; and while living in exile wrote his great poem, the Divi'na Comme'dia, published just before his death. 60. A little later, Pe'trarch (1304-1374) wrote his 8o7inets, classed among the most melodious and beautiful compositions in the Italian language; and in the same period Boccaccio {bole-hat' cho) (1313-1375) wrote the Noted writers. romances and tales called the Decam'eron, noted for its ele- gant style. The fourteenth century is deemed the greatest era of Italian literature; in the next, flourished the poet Ar-i-os'to (born in 1474), the author of the romance poem Orlan'do Furio'so, and the famous statesman and author Macchiavelli (mak-e-ali-veVle), born in Florence (1469). The latter part of the century was enriched by the galaxy of genius that encircled their great patron at Florence, Lorenzo de' Medici, styled. the Magnificent. The first printing-press was set up in Italy in 1465. 61. At the end of the tenth century, was born Guide (gtoe'do) of Arezzo (ah-ret'so), who is considered the father of the modern system of music. He invented the staff and the art of solfa-ing, and greatly im- Music. proved the system of musical notation in use in his time.* * " The tradition is, that while chanting a hymn in honor of St. John, he was struck with the gradual and regularly ascending tones of the opening syllables of each hemistich in the three first verses, and discerned at once their fitness for a 448 MedicBval History. Italy and Germany took the lead in music during the remain- ing periods of the Middle Ages, as they have continued to do in subsequent times. SECTION IV. Spain" an^d Portugal. 52. On the conquest of Spain by the Saracens, the Chris- tians, who were the remnant of the Visigothic kingdom, took refuge in the mountainous districts of As-tu'ri-as, and founded a new kingdom under their leader Pe-la'yo. For centuries they and their descend- Christian kingdoms. ants waged an almost incessant warfare upon the Mos'lems, or Mohammedans; and new kingdoms came into existence as the country was gradually recovered. Of these, Ar'a-gon and Castile {cas-teeV) were the chief. In 1212 these different kingdoms combined their forces, and Tolosa. gained at To-lo'sa * one of the greatest victories ever achieved by the Christians over their Moslem foes. 53. After this battle the Saracen power rapidly declined, and that of Castile and Aragon steadily increased. The most celebrated of the Castilian monarchs were Al- fon'so X., noted for his learning, and particu- larly for his love of astronomy. (1252-1282); Peter Castile and Aragon. the Cruel, a contemporary of Du Guesclin and the Black system of solfeggio. On introducing his new theory to the choir, it proved emi- nently successful, and was gladly adopted. The words of the hymn in Latin are: English. Ut queant laxis Ut-tered be thy wondrous story 7?e-sonare fibris i?e-prehensible though I be, Mi-ro gestorum Me make mindful of thy glory, Fa-rauli tuorum, iJ'a-mous son of Zebedee ; Sal-ye polluti Sol-ace to my spirit bring, La-bii reatum, ia-boring thy praise to sing." Sancte Johannes. * Tolosa is in the northern part of Spain, on the Bay of Biscay. Spain and Portugal. A.4Q Prince; and Henry, his successor, who was defeated at Na- varrete {^lali-var-ra'ta) by the Black Prince, and deposed. The smaller kingdom of Aragon acquired extensive foreign possessions, the chief of which were Sicily, Naples, and Sar- dinia. Under the reign of Ferdinand the Cath- olic, who married Isabella, queen of Castile, both Union. these kingdoms were united (1479); and from this date com- menced the real greatness of Spain. The SpAMSH KI^GDOMS About Geographical Study. Whattvasthe situation of : XKA.Goti'i Castile and Leon? Granada? Navarre? Portugal? Old Castile? New Castile? Asturias? Gallicia? Catalonia? Zaragosa? Barcelona? Pampeluna? Toledo? Cordova? Seville? 54. Ferdinand for ten years carried on a fierce war against the Moorish kingdom of Granada {grali-nah'dah), in southern Spain, the only remnant of the Saracenic power in the Penin- 450 MedicBval History. 8ula. War with Granada. After a long siege, the famous fortress Alhambra was surrendered; and Boabdil, the ^^last of the Moors," was allowed to retire, his subjects being free to sell their property and leave Spain, Conquest of the Moors. or to remain under their own laws, customs, and magistrates, but tributary to Castile (1492). The Jews, how- ever, were expelled; and Ferdinand, in thus driving out thousands of his most industrious and enterprising subjects, inflicted a severe blow on the prosperity of the kingdom. The year 1492 is also memorable for the discovery of America by Columbus. Christopher Columbus, who had sailed under the patronage of Queen Isabella. Portugal. 55. This kingdom was previously a part of Castile; but, m 1095, King Alfonso VI. granted it to his son-in-law, Henry of Burgundy, who was to rule as a vassal. Henry's son and successor, Alfonso, gained a great vic- tory over the Saracens, and, throwing off his allegiance to Castile, made Portugal an independent kingdom (1139). This led to a fierce contest with Castile, which lasted for a long time ; but ended in favor Early history. Independence. of the Portuguese, who were governed for more than tw( centuries by the descendants of Alfonso, whom they had chosen for his virtues and his valor. 56. Alfonso III. extended the kingdom to its preseni limits, by the conquest of Al-gar've, the most southern pro- vince, Avhich he wrested from the Moors, after a contest o1 three years (1252). During the reign of John, Prince Henry, the Navigator, one of the wisest Prince Henry. and best men of his age, planned and directed several voyagei in order to explore the coast of Africa, and di cover a passage around it to the Indies. Undei John II., Bartholomew Diaz (de'az) reached th stormy cape" at the extremity of the continent (1486), t< Diaz and Da Gama. Spain and Portugal. . 451 which the king of Portugal gave the name of Good Hope; and, in 1497, Vas'co da Ga'ma doubled this cape, and suc- ceeded in sailing to India. This voyage and that of Columbus revolutionized the commerce of the world. Progress of Civilization in Spain and Portugai. 67. The greatest advancement in civilization reached in these centuries was during the dominance of the great Moor- ish kingdom, the center of which was at Cordova. Eeference has already been made to this (see Moors. page 43). Christian civilization did not begin to make any progress of importance till the reign of Ferdi- nand; and, therefore, an account of it properly Christians. belongs to the period of modern history. The last twenty years of the fifteenth century were distinguished by the maritime enterprises of the Portuguese; and Spain became identified with maritime discov- Maritime discovery. eries even more astounding. Barcelona was noted for its ex- tensive commerce during the whole period of the Middle Ages. 58. In Spain, as in Italy, there were various dialects spoken in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, besides the native Basque language and the Arabic. The modern Spanish language is based upon the old Castilian dialect, in which were written the earli- Language and literature. est specimens of Spanish literature, consisting of heroic bal- lads and romances, mostly relating to the exploits of the Cid, the most renowned of the legendary heroes of Spain; also a rhymed chronicle of this personage, written in the thirteenth century. The earliest prose writers were monks and priests. In the reign of Alfonso X., there was a great literary revival; the king himself wrote several poems, and caused translations of foreign works to.be made into Castilian. There were many Castilian writers in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, but neither Spanish nor Portuguese literature reached any important development till a later period. CHAPTER yill. Southeastern Europe. 1. In" connection with the history of the Eastern Empire, reference has been made to several conquering races that, from time to time, invaded its dominions, with varying success; as the Bulgarians, Magyars or Races. Hungarians, Slavonians, Russians, and Turks. Some of these succeeded in establishing independent states that existed for a longer or shorter time, among which the most important were Bulgaria, Servia, Hungary, Bos- states. nia, and, finally, the great Ottoman Empire, into which most of them were absorbed. Of each of these a brief sketch will here be given. Bulgaria. 2. The Bulgarians, a Turanian race, emigrated in two divisions from their homes near the Caspian Sea, one found- ing a power (Great or White Bulgaria) on the Volga River, and the other passing, in the fifth Bulgarians. 'century, to the west, where finally they established a kingdom (Black Bulgaria), in 680. This latter branch of the race had come into collision with the Avars Bulgaria. and Slavs, and been assimilated by the latter to such an extent, that this western Bulgarian power is historically Slavic, or Slavonic* Christianity was introduced into this kingdom in the middle of the ninth century. In the latter * "The modern Bulgarians bear the Bulgarian name only in the way in which the Romanized Celts of Gaul bear the name of their Frankish masters from Ger- many, and in which the Slavs of Kief and Moscow bear the name of their Russian masters from Scandinavia. In all three cases, the power formed by the union of conquerors and conquered has taken the name of the conquerors, and has kept the speech of the conquered."— Freeman's Historical Geography of Europe. Southeastern Europe. 453 part of this century, the Bulgarian Kingdom was overturned by the Eussians. 3. In the middle of the tenth century, there was a great revival of the Greek power; and Bulgaria was re-annexed to the empire, making the Danube again its boundary; and ^pxia ^' xi jfrj:;,"/ £IDEastern Empire ;:^::~^^^^^^^^^ ", Geographical Study, "What xmis the situation of: Bulgaria? Hungary? Servia? Roum? Where were the Cumans? What was the extent of the Eastern Empire? What was the situation of Belgrade? Hadrianople? Nicomedia? Nicaea? Ephesus? Philadelphia? thus it remained for more than two hundred years. Then a revolt occurred, and a second Bulgarian kingdom was formed, extending southward to Thessaly and Epirus; but this was again subdued by the Second and third kingdoms. empire in the eleventh century (1018). Once more was the Bulgarian kingdom revived by an insurrection against the 454 MedicBval History. imperial authority (1187), and retained its independence till its conquest by the Ottomans, in the latter part of the four- teenth century, after their great victory at Cossova (1390). Servia. 4. The country that received this name was under Byzan- tine rule till the early part of the seventh century, when it was devastated by the Avars, who were afterward driven out by a Slavonic race called the Serbs, or Servians. These people had. been hving previously in the Early history. I SouTHEASTERis Europe AND Asia Minor 1354 A.D. f Geographicat. Stttdt, What were the situation and boundaries of: Servia? Bulgaria? Wallachia? Bosnia? Croatia? Where was the kingdom of Sicily? Hungary? The Dobrutcha? What was the extent of the Eastern Empire at this time? Of the Turkish domin- ions? To what did Trebizond belong? Armenia? What was the capital of the Greek Empire? region north of the Carpathian mountains, which they had left at the instigation of the Greek emperor, to give assist- ance against the Avars. For some time Servia continued in vassalage to the Eastern Empire; but subsequently it became subservient to Bulgaria, till the conquest of the latter (1018). Southeastern Europe. 455 6. It became anindeiiendent principality about the middle of the eleventh century (1043), and allied itself to Hungary against the empire; but its ruler Avas not crowned king until the commencement of the thirteenth century (1217). About the middle of the next Independent kingdom. century, it made extensive conquests, and soon comprehended Macedonia, Albania, Thessaly, northern Greece, and a part of Bulgaria (see map). Its ruler at this time took an imperial crown, with the title of Emperor of the Serbs and the Greeks. This was the height of its glory; for under subsequent rulers it fell to pieces; and in the latter part of the century, was overwhelmed by the Ottomans. Servia was not, however, permanently annexed to the Turkish Empire till 1521. Hungary. 6. The Magyars or Hungarians, also a Turanian race, like the Bulgarians, made their way from their home between the mouths of the Dnieper and the Danube rivers, and founded, in the ninth century, a kingdom on the Magyars. north bank of the latter river (887). They were an active and warlike people; but their bold incursions were repressed, on the east by the Greek Empire, and on the west by the German emperors (934 and 955). From the beginning of the eleventh century, Hungary ranks as a kingdom of Latin Christianity, and after that time it grew in all directions. It made a permanent conquest Kingdonn of Hungary. of Croatia and Transylvania. The Turanian Cumans ad- vanced to the Danube; but, in the thirteenth century, the Mongolian invasion swept them away, and for a time crushed the Hungarian power. The rem- nant of the Ouman nation continued to exist Mongol invasion. under Magyar rule, giving to the Hungarian monarch the additional title of King of Cumania. 7. The greatest extension of the Hungarian dominion was in the fourteenth century, during the reign of the Angevin Louis the Great. 456 MedicBval History. king, Louis the Great (1342-1382). He took Dalmatia from the Venetians, and reduced Wallacliia, Moldavia, Bosnia, and Bulgaria to a state of dependence. In 1370, by right of succession, he became King of Poland, and thus became the ruler of an empire stretching from the Baltic to the Adriatic. On his death, Poland was detached from Hungary ; and the latter, by the marriage of Mary, eldest daughter of Louis, to Sigismund, Later history, became united to Germany (1411). Hungary was subse- quently again independent ; and under its heroic kings Hunyadi and Matthias, recovered its strength, and extended its sway.* During the fifteenth century it waged incessant wars with the Ottomans, especially during the first half, pre- vious to the fall of Constantinople. Bosnia. 8. Bosnia was formed as an independent state by a Slavic irruption in the seventh century; but it maintained, for a considerable time, only an uncertain and change- ful independence. In the twelfth and thirteenth History. centuries, it was under the Hungarian sway; and, in the next (1339), it passed to ths Servian Empire, to which it belonged for some time, when it again became independent (1370). It was under the last Bosnian dynasty, commencing in 1376, on the breaking up of the empire of Servia, that it acquired a real position among European powers ; for it promised at one time to take the place of that fallen empire. Its greatness was, however, shattered at Cossova, with other Christian powers; and it finally succumbed to the sway of the Ottomans, becoming a province of their vast empire in 1463, but not permanently annexed to it until 1528. * " Later in the fifteenth century came another day of Hungarian greatness under the son of Hunyady and Matthias Corvinus. Its most distinguishing feature was the extension of the Magyar power to the west, over Bohemia and its depend- encies, and even over the Austrian archduchy. In the southeastern lands, Walla- chia and Moldavia again became Hungarian dependencies."— Freeman, Southeastern Europe. 457 Ottoman or Turkish Empire. 9, Of all the different conquering races that poured into Europe from the north of the Euxine or Black Sea, the most terrible were the Turkish hordes, first the Seljuks and then the Ottomans.* The attacks of the Turks. Ottomans on the Eastern Empire, and the successive con- Geographical Study. What were the boundaries of the Ottoman Empire in 1260? What was the situa- tion of Bosnia? Wallachia? Bulgaria? Roumelia? Albania? Morea? Hungary? Slavonia? Croatia? Dalmatia? To whom did Dalmatia belong? quests which they made of its territories, have already been referred to. The Ottomans were originally a Tiirkish band who served the Seljuk sultan Origin. against the Mongols; and subsequently, as the vassals of that * "Most of these invading races have passed away from history; three stUl re- main in three different stages. The Bulgarian is lost among the Aryan people, who have taken his name. The Magyar abides, keeping his non-Aryan language, but adopted into the European commonwealth by his acceptance of Christianity. The Ottoman Turk still abides on European soil, unchanged because Mahometan, still an alien alike to the creed and to the tongue^ of Europe."— i^reeman. 458 MedicBxal Bistory. monarch, they became a power in Asia, and soon afterward passed into Euroj^e. 10. When Am'urath, the successor of Othman, had fixed his capital at Adrian ople, in the middle of the thirteenth cen- tury, he had already in fact hemmed in the Greeks at Constantinople; and, under Bajazet, Conquests. the first Ottoman prince who bore the title of Sultan, the Ottoman dominions in Europe extended from the Danube Eiver to the iEgean Sea, thus including Bulgaria, Macedonia, Thessaly, and Thrace. Servia and Wallachia were dependent states; and central and southern Greece, with Bosnia, Hun- gary, and other western lands, were open to the ravages of these Mohammedan conquerors. 11. But a mightier power than even the Ottomans was at hand to check their career. This was the Tartar horde under Timour, and the great Turkish dominion was for a time broken to pieces.* The Christian states _ enjoyed a respite from attack, and* the sons of the defeated and captive Bajazet were contented to restore to the empire some portions of its lost territory. In the early part of the fifteenth century, the tide of Ottoman conquest turned again; and, under Mohammed the Conqueror (1451- 1481), made rapid progress. It was during the thirty years of his reign, especially after the taking of Constantinople, that the Turkish do- Timour the Tartar. Later conquests. minion was fully and firmly established as a great power in Europe. [For the extent of its territory in this reign, see map, p. 457.] The further development of this empire will be given in connection with modern history. . * Timour, or Tamerlane, was born not far from Samareand. At an early age he rose to great eminence in his native country, and was invested with imperial au- thority. With insatiable ambition, he aspired to the dominion of the world. After many victories in Persia, Tartary, and India, he turned his attention to the Ottomans who, under Bajazet, were making great conquests. The latter collected an army of 400,000 men ; but he met with a terrible defeat, and fled from the scene of the conflict on a fleet horse (1402). He was, however, pursued and captured; and it is said was kept for a time by his conqueror in an iron cage. (See page 310.) Table of Contemporaneous Events. A.D. England. FBAKCE. Other Nations. TR*^ Victory of Charles Martel. End of Merov. dynasty. Accession of Charlemagne.. Period 7^'^ of the 768 786 The Saxon Heptarchy. Saracen Conquests. 800 Empire of the West restored Death of Charlemagne. Div.ofCharlemagne's empire Charles the Fat. sn 827 818 Egbert, King of England Louis Emp. of Germany, 871 884 Alfred the Great. 910 Fatimite dynasty begins. 912 Normans settle in France. 9m Otho the Great. 987 996 1013 1017 Sweyn. Hugh Capet. Robert. The Normans in Italy. 1081 Henry I. 1043 1055 Edwai'd the Confessor. Seljuks take Bagdad. Henry IV. of Germa.ny. Robert Guiscard. 1056 1060 Philip I 1066 1076 Willi a,m the Conqueror. 1084 Hildebrand deposed. 1087 1095 William Rufus. First Crusade. Louis VI. Louis VII. 1100 1108 Henry I. 1187 1152 1154 1176 Henry ii. Battle of Legnano. 1180 Philip II. (Augustus). 1187 Saladin takes Jerusalem 1189 1199 1216 1'«8 Richard I. John. Henry III. Louis Vni. Louis IX. V^M 1t>58 End of Saracen Empire. V^70 Philip m. 1^?7'^, Edward I Mongols take Iconium. 1^85 Philip IV. Louis X. 1307 1314 1815 Edward II. Battle of Bannockburn. . Battle of Morgarten. 1317 PhiHp V. Charles IV. PhUip VI. 18?,i^ 1327 1.8'?8 Edward HI. 1347 Rienzi. 1850 John. Charles V. Charles VI. 1864 1377 1880 Richard n. 1386 Battle of Sempach. Battle of Nicopolis. 1896 1399 1413 1414 Henry IV Henry V. 1 4'>'^ Henry VI Charles VII, 1453 Constantinople taken. 1461 1483 Edward IV. . Louis XI. Charles VOX. Edward V. Richard UI. 460 MedicBval History. Topical Keyiew. EMINENT PERSONAGES. Who were they? At what period did they live? With what events connected? page Peter the Hermit 408, 409 Urbanll 408 Godfrey of Boviillon 409 Noureddin 411, 412 Saladin 412, 413 Cotint Baldwin of Flanders 413 Dandolo 418, 441 Otto the Illustrious 418 Henry the Fowler 419 Otto the Lion 420 Otto the Red King 420 Otto the Wonder 421 Sylvester H 421 Otto the Lame 421 Henry the Black King 422 Henry the Great 423 Hildebrand (Gregory VH.) 423, 443 Frederick Barbarossa 412, 425 Konradin ; 426 Rudolf of Hapsburg 427, 437 Albertl 427, 437 William Tell 428 The Pope's Kaiser 428, 429 Rienzi 429, 444 Sigismund of Hungary 429 John Huss 429 Jerome of Prague 430 John Zisca 430 Frederick the Pacific 430 Winifred or Boniface 431 Herman the Cripple 434 HansSachs 435 Nicholas of Cusa 435 John MuUer 435 Rudolf Agricola 435 Albert Durer 435 Arnold of Winkelried 438 Marco Polo <■ 441 Robert Guiscard 442 Rogerl 443 Petrarch 444, 447 Dante 426, 447 Nicola Pisano , 446 PAGE Cimabue 446 Giotto 446 Leonardo da Vinci 446 Boccaccio 447 Ai-iosto 447 Lorenzo the Magnificent 447 Macchiavelli 447 Arezzo 447 Pelayo 448 Ferdinand the CathoHc 449 Boabdil 450 Queen Isabella 449, 450 Prince Henry the Navigator 450 Bartholomew Diaz 450 Hunyadi 456 Mohammed the Conqueror : 458 Bajazet 458 GREAT EVENTS. When did they occur? What led to them? What were the consequences? Preaching of Crusades.. 408, 411, 412, 414 Taking of Jerusalem 410 Children's Crusade 414 Captivity of St. Louis 415 Battle of Fontenaille, 418, 419 Defeat of the Hungarians 419, 420 Poland made a kingdom 421 Taking of Weinsburg 424 Battle of Legnano 425 Independence of the Italian Cities. . 426 Revolt of the Swiss 428 Growth of the Free Cities 428, 432 Issue of the Golden Bull 429 Battle of Nissa 430 Revolt of the Hussites 430 Introduction of Christianity 431 Union of the Hanse towns 432 Invention of Printing 435 Battle of Morgarten 438 Lombard League 439, 441 Foundation of Venice 440 Discovery of Cape of Good Hope.442, 450 Battle of Benevento 443 Expulsion of the Jews from Spain . . 450 No. 16: Orkney C~ |lslands 11. MODERI^ HISTORY. CHAPTER IX. England, From 1485 to the Present Time. SECTION I. The Tudor Line. 1. Henry VII. With the accessiou of this king the long civil wars, by which the country had been devastated for so many years, were brought to an end. Henry was the son of Edmund Tu'dor and Margaret, a de- Descent. scendant of John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. In order to strengthen his title to the throne, and put an end to all dissensions between the rival families, he mar- ried Elizabeth, the daughter of Edward IV. To Marriage. remove all competition for the crown, he imprisoned in the Tower the young Earl of Warwick, son of the Duke of Clar- ence, and grandson of the renowned king-maker. 2. The general favor felt toward the house of York occa- sioned Henry much trouble, and many plots and insurrections Geographical, Study, Map No. 'SMT. What is the situation of : Dover? Portsmouth? Canterbury? Winchester? Sahs- bury? Shoreham? Windsor? Plymouth? Torbay? Taunton? Exeter? Sedgemoor? Bath? Bristol? Newbury? Gloucester? Cardiff? Milford? Caernarvon? Worcester? Tewksbury? Evesham? Worcester? Edgehill? Naseby? Northampton? Cambridge? Fotheringay? Norwich? Oxford? Bosworth? Shrewsbury? Derby? Nottingham? Manchester? Hull? York? Towton? Marston Moor? Durham? Carlisle? Preston Pan? Dunbar? Stirling? Falkirk? Glencoe? Inverness? Culloden? 462 Modern History. were formed against him. A rumor having been circulated among the people that Warwick had escaped from the Tower, an attempt was made to personate him; and for this purpose a handsome youth, named Lambert Simnel, a baker's son, was chosen. The impostor was car- Simnel. ried to Ireland, and was there proclaimed king under the title of Edward VI. (1487). The king prevented the insurrection from spreadina: in England by exhibiting in public the real Earl of Warwick; and the adherents of the impostor, having landed in England, were defeated in a decisive battle by the king's troops (1487). Simnel, being taken prisoner, was par- doned, and was afterward employed as a domestic in the king's household. 3. Five years afterward, a more formidable attempt was made by the enemies of the king to raise a pretender to the throne, by counterfeiting Kichard, the younger of the two sons of Edward IV., who were said to have been smothered in the Tower. The person selected for this purpose was a young man named Perkin Warbeck; and so well did he play his part, that Margaret, Duchess of Bur- gundy, sister of Edward IV., acknowledged him ♦"erkin Warbeck. as her nephew, and greeted him with the title of the White Rose of England.^ James IV., king of Scotland, also ac- knowledged him, and gave him the noble Lady Gordon in marriage, and invaded England in order to raise an insurrec- tion in his favor. The attempt, however, failed; and Perkin finally gave himself up, and was imprisoned in the Tower * " Margaret was second sister to King Edward the Fourth, and had been second wife to Charles surnamed the Hardy, Duke of Burgundy, by whom having no children of her own she did with singular care and tenderness intend the education of Philip and Margaret, grandchildren to her former husband ; which won her great love and authority among the Dutch. This princess (having the spirit of a man and the malice of a woman), abounding in treasure by tlie greatness of her dower and her provident government, and being childless and without any nearer cares, made it her design and enterprise to see the Majesty Royal of England once again re- placed in her house; and had set up King Henry as a mark at whose overthrow all her actions should aim and shoot; insomuch as all the counsels of his succeeding troubles came chiefly out of that quiver."— J5acon.'s Reign of Henry VII, England. 463 (1497). There, becoming acquainted with the Earl of War- wick, he phmned with him an escape, but the plot was dis- covered, and both were executed, Perkin being hanged at Tyburn, and the unfortunate prince beheaded, on a charge of treason (1499). By this act of cruelty, Henry destroyed the last male descendant of the Plantagenets. 4. Henry was a prudent monarch, and very much averse to war, because it prevented the gratification of his ruling passion, avarice. In order to increase his hoards, he resorted to the most unjust and tyrannical exactions. His treasures amounted at his death Wealth of the king. to nearly two millions sterling — an enormous sum for that period. He died after a reign of twenty-four years, and was succeeded by his son Henry (1509). During the reign of Henry VII., the celebrated navigators, John and Sebastian Cab'ot, set sail from Bristol under a Cabots. commission from the king, and discovered the mainland of North America (1497). It was not until the year after this that Columbus, in his third voyage, reached the mainland of America. Henry built a large vessel which he named the Great Harry, thus laying the foundation of the English navy. 6. Henry VIII, when he ascended the throne, was only eighteen years of age, and was handsome, affable, and popu- lar. During the first year of his reign, he mar- ried Catharine of Aragon, aunt of the Emperor Marriage. Charles V., to whom he had been betrothed since his eleventh year. This princess had been previously married to his elder brother Arthur, a youth of sixteen years, who died a few months after the marriage. Henry made a special favorite of Thomas Wolsey (wooVze), and advanced him suc- cessively to the highest honors, though he was of very humble origin, being, as it is said, the son of a butcher. Wolsey had, however, received an excellent education, and was a man of very great talents. He was afterward made a cardinal by the Pope, and himself aspired to be pope. Wolsey. 464 Modern History. 6. Heury joined the league which was formed against France by Spain, Venice, and the Pope; and, having invaded France at the head of 50,000 men, he routed the French in the celebrated Battle of the Spurs, so called from the rapid flight of the enemy Defeat of the French. (1513). In this campaign, the Emperor Maximilian enlisted in Henry's nriny, and received pay as one of his subjects and Ship in which Henry VIII. embarked in 1520 for France. captains. In the same year, James IV., king of Scotland, having invaded England with a large army, was defeated by the Earl of Surrey in the battle of Flodden Field; and the king himself, with the flower of the Flodden Field. Scottish nobility, was left dead on the field.* The French * The Scots would not believe that their king was slain, asserting that the body which was taken to London and interred as his. was in reality that of one Elphin- ston, who, to deceive the English, was arrayed in arms resembling the king's England, 465 king, Francis I., desirous of effecting an alliance with Eng- land, planned a meeting with Henry, which took place near Calais, at what was called, from the gorgeousness of the dis- play made, the ^' Field of the Cloth of Gold" (1520). 7. Martin Luther having caused great excitement in Europe by the promulgation of his doctrines, Henry VIH., who had been carefully educated in the Roman faith, wrote a treatise against them, and dedicated it to the Pope (Leo X.), who, as a recompense, conferred on the royal author the title of Defender of the Faith (1521). A few years after this, Henry applied to the Pope (Clement VII.) for a divorce from Queen Catharine, professing to have some doubts of the lawfulness of a marriage with his brother's widow; while the real reason was that he desired Anne Boleyn. Wolsey's fall. to marry Anne Boleyu (cm 'buVen)^ an attendant of the queen, with whom he had become enamored (1527). 8. Clement, unwilling to grant the request of the English monarch, put him off from time to time, thus keeping him in a state of suspense. The king's anger was first vented upon his great minister, Wolsey, to whose insincerity or neglect he attributed the disappointment of his wishes. Accordingly, the cardinal was dismissed from his high office, banished from court, and deprived of many of his great possessions. Being resolved upon his entire ruin, the king afterward caused him to be arrested on a charge of treason; but death saved the proud cardinal from any further disgrace* Among his last words was the well-known excla- mation, " Had I but served God as diligently as I have served the king, he would not have given me over in my gray hairs!" 9. By the advice of Cranmer, the great universities of Europe were consulted with regard to the lawfulness of during the battle. Hence, the populace entertained the opinion that James was still alive, having secretly gone on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land, and that he would return and take possession of the throne. To this fond conceit they clung for many years. 466 Modern History. Henry's mamage; and these having generally decided against it, Cranmer, who had recently been made Archbishop of Canterbury, opened a court to examine the question; but the queen refusing to appear before it, he declared the marriage invalid, and ratified that with Anne Boleyn, who was then formally crowned Divorce of Catharine. queen (1533). The Pope having pronounced the judgment of Cranmer illegal, and threatened Henry with excommuni- cation, the Parliament, under the king's influence, confirmed his marriage with Queen Anne, and formally declared him '^the only supreme head in earth of the Church of England." By this declaration and other acts of Parliament, the English Church was separated entirely from the Catholic Church (1534). The ^monasteries were after- ward suppressed, and sonue modifications intro- English Reformation. duced in the doctrines and forms of religion. This event is known in history as the English Reformation. 10. Sir Thomas More, one of the most virtuous and learned men of the kingdom, who had succeeded Wolsey as chancellor, was beheaded for refusing to acknowl- edge "the king's supremacy ; and the upright Bishop Fisher was condemned and executed for More and Fisher. the same offense (1535).* The king indeed evinced, during the whole of his subsequent reign, a spirit of the most cruel bigotry and persecution. In abandoning his allegiance to thePope, he by no means became a Henry's bigotry. convert to all the new doctrines of Luther and others against * " CromweU's ingenuity framed an act of succession which not only sanctioned the re-marriage, but called on all who took the oath of allegiance to declare their belief in the religious validity of the divorce." It was this oath that More refused to take. "A mock trial was hardly necessary for his condemnation, or for that of Fisher, the most learned among the prelates who had been imprisoned on the same charge in the Tower. The old bishop approached the block with a book of the New Testament in his hand. He opened it at a venture ere he knelt, and read: ' This is life eternal to know Thee, the only true God.' Fisher's death was soon followed by that of More. On the eve of the fatal blow, he moved his beard carefully from the block, ' Pity that should be cut,' he was heard to mutter, with a touch of the old, sad irony; 'that has never committed treason.' '"—Greene. England, 467 the Catholic faith; and while he deprived the churches and monasteries of their possessions, he caused those who dis- sented from their teachings to be punished without mercy, many being burned at the stake. 11. Less than three years had elapsed after his marriage with Anne Boleyn, when he caused her to be beheaded on a charge of adultery; but he himself seemed to prove her innocence and the wickedness of his own conduct, by immediately marrying Jane Wives of the king. Seymour, to whom he had previously become attached. This queen having died a short time afterward, for political rea- sons he contracted a marriage with Anne of Cleves; but, on seeing her, he was greatly disappointed with her personal appearance, and he soon afterward divorced her. Cromwell, who had arranged the marriage, was executed on a charge of treason. His next choice was Catharine Howard, who, like Queen Anne, was condemned and beheaded on a charge of adultery, but was generally believed guilty. Catharine Pted a landing in Scotland, though with- Prince Charles. I out any military support (1745). Being soon joined by a small army of Highlanders, he defeated the royal forces; and, having taken Edinburgh and some other cities, he caused his father to be proclaimed king of Scotland, under the title of James VIII. He next marched into England, but was soon compelled to retreat, being pursued by the royal army, under the Duke of Cumberland, second son of George II. The two armies at lensfth met at Cul-lo'den: and a battle was fought, in which the Pretender and his ad- herents were entirely defeated (1746). This was the last battle fought on the soil of Great Britain, and closed the * Dettingen is a village of Bavaria, on the Main River, east of Frankfort, t Fontenoy is a village of Belgium, 43 miles southwest from Brussels, about half- way between Oudenarde and Malplaquet. (See Map, page 380.) 510 Modern History, struggle made by the Stuarts to regain their lost throne. Prince Charles wandered in disguise tlirougli the country for five months; but, at length, succeeded in elfecting his escape to France. 98. A treaty of peace was made with France at Aix-la- Ohapelle, in 1748, by which Maria Theresa's claim to the throne was confirmed; but the war was soon after renewed in consequence of disputes respect- French war. ing the boundary of the French and English territories in America. In 1755, General Braddock was defeated by the French in an expedition against Fort du Quesne (doo-kane^); but General. Johnson gained a victory over the French and Indians at the head of Lake George, Baron Dieskau {cle-es- ho'), their commander, being wounded and taken prisoner. An expedition under Colonel Monckton {inonh'tun), the same year, drove the French from Nova Scotia. In 1759, General 1 Wolfe succeeded in reaching the Plains of Abra- Wolfe I ham with his army, and defeated the French forces under the Marquis of Montcalm {mont-ham'). Both generals were mortally wounded. Quebec capitulated after this vic- tory, which virtually gave to the English possession of Canada. 99. Meanwhile, England had taken part in the famous Seven Years' War, brought on by a coalition of France and several of the other European states, against Frederick the Great of Prussia. Principally with the object of defending the Electorate of Han- Seven Years' War. over, England formed an alliance with the Prussian monarch; and, under the able administration of William Pitt, afterward Earl of Chatham, tlie government displayed great vigor and enterprise. The want of success, however, of the Duke of Cumberland enabled the French to overrun Hanover (1757), at which the king was so indignant that he treated his son with the greatest coldness. Offended by this treatment, the victor of Culloden resigned all his offices, and went into retirement, Hanover was recovered the next year after its England. 511 conquest, and important advantages were gained by Fred- erick. Lord Olive also won a series of splendid i T • -r T 1 • • L^ '-°''d Clive. victories over the French m India, achieving the conquest of Bengal.* Before the war was brought to a close, Geographical Study. What is the situation of : Bengal? Deccan? • Bombay? Madras? Afghanis- tan? SciNDE? Punjab? Nepaul? Boot an? Calcutta? Benares? Lucknow? Meerut? Delhi? Cawnpore? Arcot? Tanjore? Pondicherry? Lahore? Cabool? the king died, and was succeeded by his grandson, under the title of George III. (1760). *" Clive was indeed, as Chatham once called him, a 'Heaven-bom general,' who, with no military training, had shown consummate military genius. With nearly as little study of politics, he displayed nearly as great abilities for govern- 512 * Modern History. 100. George III. was twenty-two years old when he as- cended the throne, and was the first king of the House of Brunswick that was born in England. Pitt soon afterward retired from the government, and was succeeded by Lord Bute, a man of indifferent merit, but an especial favorite of the king. The arms of Great Britain and her allies continued to be successful in Europe, notwithstand- ing her enemies were strengthened by the accession of Spain; but the government desired peace, which was finally attained by the Treaty of Paris, made in 17G3. The most important conquests made by the English during this long war were those in North America and India. In Conquests. the latter country, the genius of Olive had laid the founda- tion of the British power so firmly, that the French could never afterward regain their influence. 101. Shortly after this peace, the famous Stamp Act was passed, for the purpose of raising a revenue in America (1765). The measure was greatly opposed in Parliament by the Earl of Chatham and others, as impolitic and unjust; but the government in- American revolution. sisted on its right to tax the colonies; and the latter, after a resistance of ten years, were finally driven into the War of the Eevolution, which commenced at Lexington, in Massa- chusetts (April 19, 1775).* The next year, the thirteen ment.— Energy,— which perhaps, of all human qualities, is the one most conducive to success,— energy and fearlessness, were peculiarly his own. Whatever gratitude Spain owes to her Cortes, or Portugal to her Albuquerque, this, and in its results more than this, is due from England to Clive. Had he never been born, I do not believe that we should, at least in that generation, have conquered Hindostan ; had he lived longer, I doubt if we should, at least in that generation, have lost North America."— Lord Mahon's History of England. Clive's conduct in India, a short time after his return to England, in 1767, was brought under parliamentary censure, and, smarting with disgrace, he committed suicide (1774). * " In order to enforce the monstrous claim of taxing a whole people without their consent, there was waged against America a war ill-conducted, unsuccessful, and, what is far worse, accompanied by cruelties disgraceful to a civilized nation. To this may be added, that an immense trade was nearly annihilated ; every branch England, 513 colonies, tlirougli their representatives in Congress, declared their independence (July 4), which, after a determined strug- gle of nearly seven years, they successfully achieved, the British general Cornwallis being compelled to surrender his army to George Washington, at Yorktown (October 19, 1781). Previous to this event, the Americans under General Gates had compelled the surrender of a British army under Bur- goyne, at Saratoga (1777); and the French king, Louis XVI., taking advantage of this suc- cess, had acknowledged the independence of the colonies. A war, therefore, ensued be- tween England and France, which continued until 1783, when a treaty of peace was concluded at Paris, one of the conditions of which was, that the independence of the Ameri- can colonies should be acknowl- edged by England. 102. During this period, important advantages had been gained by the British in India under Warren Hastings; but the measures which he adopted to obtain money, in order to make the large re- mittances expected by the East India Company, were characterized by great oppression and injus- tice against the natives and their rulers. On his return to England, articles of impeachment were presented against him in Parliament by the celebrated Edmund Burke, and the trial that ensued is one of the most memorable in history. It com- menced in 1788, and lasted till 1795, resulting in the acquit- of commerce was thrown into confusion; we were disgraced in the eyes of Europe; we incurred an expense of £140,000,000; and we lost by far the most valuable col- onies any nation has ever possessed."— ^wcfcZe's History of Civilization, Washington. Warren Hastings. 514 Modern History. tal of Hastings. This trial is not only remarkable for its length, but for the brilliant displays of oratory to which it gave occasion, on the part of the managers of the imjieach- ment, Burke, Sheridan, Fox, Windham, and others — a gal- axy of great men unsurpassed for splendor in the annals of Great Britain.* 103. Meanwhile the great Erench revolution had broken out (1789), and in its j^rogress all Europe was convulsed. The British Government, under the administration of William Pitt, son of the Earl of Chatham, took an active part against the revolutionists in Erance. After French war. the execution of Louis XVL, in 1793, Great Britain, Hol- land, Russia, and Spain formed a coalition to restore the monarchy in Erance. Few victories were, however, gained over the French armies; but the English fleets, under Nelson and others, acquired great glory. In 1798, Nel- son fought the battle of the Nile, in which he destroyed the ships that had conveyed Napoleon Nelson's victory. and his army to Egypt; and, in 1801, he fought the battle of Copenhagen, and partially destroyed the Danish fleet. This had the effect to prevent a threatened alliance of the north- ern powers against England. In this year (1801), Ireland was constitutionally united to Great Britain, its legislature being abolished. 104. An important victory was gained (1801) by Sir Ralph Abercromby over the French forces left by Napoleon in Egypt to menace the power of Great Britain in the East; after which a treaty of peace was concluded at Amiens (am'e-enz) with the French Government, then under the control of Napoleon as First Treaty of Amiens. Consul (1802); but the next year hostilities were resumed, and England was threatened with a French invasion. It was during this war that Nelson gained his most splendid victory, * Hastings lived twenty-four years after his acquittal. His death occurred on the 22d of August, 1819, in the eighty-sixth year of his age. England. 515 over the combined French and Spanish fleets off Cape Traf- algar'; but the great admiral was mortally wounded in the action (1805).* 105. In 1808, the Peninsular War was commenced, being caused by the unjust attempt of Napoleon, then emperor of France, to place his brother Joseph on the throne of Spain, in opposition to the wishes of the people of that country. Sir Arthur Wellesley, afterward created Peninsular War. Duke of Wellington, was sent with an army to prevent the consummation of this project; and he defeated the French (1808) in the decisive battle of Vimeira {ve-ma'e-raJi).\ Sir John Moore, who had been sent to co-operate with the Span- iards against the French, was compelled to retreat, receiving no aid from the inhabitants. He afterward fell in the battle which took place at Co-run'na, where the French were re- pulsed; and the English troops made their escape from the country, with the assistance of the fleet (1(S09). 106. Under Wellington the war was continued in the Pen- insula until 1814; and the victories at Ta-la-ve'ra (1809), at Sa-la-man'ca (1812), and Yit-to'ri-a (1813) re- flected great glory on the British general's name. Wellington. Meanwhile Great Britain had been active in the opposition made by the great European powers against the ambitious schemes of the Emperor Napoleon; and, both by her counsels and pecuniary as well as military aid, contributed not a little to his downfall in 1814. Fall of Napoleon. During this period war had also been waged with the United * "Nelson's whole career, from his first entrance into the navy to the battle of Trafalgar, exhibited a pattern of every manly virtue. Bold in conception, cautious in construction, firm in execution, cool in danger, he was the most successful, because the most profound and intrepid of leaders. The most triumphant death is that of the martyr; the most splendid, that of the hero in the hour of victory; and if the chariot and horses of fire had been vouchsafed for Nelson's translation, he could scarcely have departed in a brighter blaze of glory."— ^Zison's History of Europe. t Vimeira is a small town near the western coast of Portugal, about 30 miles northwest from Lisbon. (See Map No. XIX.) 516 Modern History. States, brought on principally by the unjust claims of Great Britain to the right of searching American ves- sels for deserters and British seamen, in order that she might seize them or impress them into United States war. her service. This war was formally closed by the treaty of Ghent (December 14, 1814). 107. Napoleon, escaping from Elba, to which he had been banished, and resuming the throne of France, again roused the European nations against him. This led to the memorable battle of Waterloo, in which Wel- Waterloo, lington gained his most splendid victory (June 18, 1815). Thus was ended the great struggle which for nearly twenty- five years had been made by Great Britain to check the con- quests of the French, and preserve the "balance of power" in Europe. To accomplish this end immense sacrifices of men and money had been made, the national debt having been increased to nearly nine hundred millions sterling. George III. died in 1820, after a reign of sixty years — the longest in English history. It was distinguished not only for its remarkable mili- Reign of George III. tary events, but for its progress in commerce, science, and the useful arts, for the general diffusion of knowledge, and for its splendid productions of literary genius. The private character of George III., in every relation of life, was worthy of esteem; but his moderate abilities, narrow views, and ob- stinacy as a king, have subjected his name to a great deal of obloquy and contempt. 108. George IV., who succeeded his father at the age of fifty-eight, had been noted for his profligacy and extrava- gance in the previous part of his life. He was a man of polished manners, but was perfectly un- principled and heartless. As Prince Eegent he had been virtually king for ten years before his accession, George III. having become incapable of governing on account of insanity. Almost the first act of the new monarch was an attempt to Character. England. 517 obtain a divorce from his wife, Caroline of Brunswick. The accusations brought against her were believed to i be unfounded, and popular sympathy was strongly I in her favor; so that when, on account of the able defense of her by Henry Brougham [afterward Lord Brougham {hroo'^ umW, the king failed in his object, the public joy was so great that there was a general illumination. She died a short time afterward. 109. The Greeks having for some years struggled to throw off the Turkish yoke, finally secured the aid of England, France, and Kussia, whose combined fleets de- feated and destroyed the Turkish and Egyptian fleet in the battle of Navarino {iiali-vcih-re' no) Greece and Turkey. (1827). By this event the independence of Greece was achieved; after which it was erected into a separate kingdom, the crown being conferred upon Prince Otho of Bavaria. During this contest Lord Byron went to Greece to render assistance to the oppressed people; but Byron. he did not live to witness the triumph of the cause, dying at Mis-so-lon'ghi {^glie) in 1824. Among the most important events of this reign was the removal of civil and political disabilities from the Catholics, a measure greatly aided by the efforts of the great Irish orator and patriot Daniel O'Connell. The death of George IV. occurred in 1830; and he was succeeded by his brother, the Duke of Clarence, with the title of William IV. 110. William IV. Near the beginning of this reign, mea- sures of parliamentary reform were loudly called for by the people, and a Reform Bill was brought in by Lord John Russell, which passed in 1832. The effect Refornn Bill. of this law was to extend the right of suffrage, and distribute the representation more equitably among the dif- ferent parts of the kingdom. The year 1834 is memorable for the abolition of slavery through- Abolition of slavery. out all the British colonies. The sum of £20,000,000 was 518 Modern History. awarded by Parliament to the planters as a compensation for the loss of the slaves emancipated; and nearly three-fourths of a million of human beings were set free. William's reign was terminated by his death in 1837; but, brief as it was, it was replete with beneficent measures which have made it dear to the memory of the English people. 111. Victoria, daughter of the Duke of Kent, and niece of William IV., suc- ceeded the latter on the throne, which she has continued to oc- cupy up to the present time (1882). The con- nection between Great Britain and Hanover, which had lasted 123 years, was dissolved on her accession, since the laws of the latter coun- try exclude females from the throne. Her uncle, the Duke of Cumberland, accord- ingly succeeded Wil- liam IV. as king of Hanover. In 1837, an insurrection broke out in Canada. Distur- bances were also caused by the Chartists, an association of radical reform- ers, who demanded a '* new charter," embodying universal suffrage, vote by ballot, and the entire abolition of the property qualification of members of Parliament. Great mass-meetings of the people were held, at one of which as York Minster. Chartists. England, T)!!) many as 200,000 persons were computed to have been present. The demands of the Chartists being refused, riots ensued, which, however, were soon put down (1839). The next year the queen was married to Prince Albert, of Saxe-Co'burg-Go'tha (one of the Ger- Queen's marriage. man states). A portion of the famous York Minster, among the finest specimens of Gothic architecture m the world, was partly consumed by fire this year (184:0), but was restored at a cost of $100,000.* 112. The prominent events in the next thirteen years were the insurrection in Cabul {hah-hool'), in which the Eng- lish were driven out of Af-ghan-is-tan', and the retreating army nearly all perished (1841); with Cabul. the recapture of the city in 1842; the reduction of Scinde (si7icl), a district on the lower Indus, by Sir Charles Na'pi-er (1843); and the war with the Scinde. Sikhs of the Pun-jab', who, after a severe contest, were sub- dued (1849). (See map, page 223.) The most important measure of Parliament was the repeal Corn laws. of the corn laws, by which the country was opened to the free importation of grain (1846). 113. The Russians having seized upon the Danubian prin- cipalities, Wal-la'chi-a and Mol-da'vi-a, England formed an alliance with France, to protect Turkey from the encroachments of the czar (1853). This led to Crinnean War. the Crim'e-an War, during which the allied fleets blockaded the harbor of Sebastopol, and, after a siege of eleven months, captured the city (1855). During this siege were fought the celebrated battles of Al'ma, Balakla'va, and Ink'erman, in the second of which the '^Six Hundred" made their * This structure was built chiefly in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. Its length is 534 feet, and its extreme breadth 250 feet, being considerably longer than Westminster Abbey or St. Paul's Cathedral. It was set on fire, in 1829, by a maniac; and the repairs from this conflagration were not completed, when, through the carelessness of a workman, that in 1840 occurred, destroying the south- west tower, with its fine peal of bells, and the roof of the nave. 520 Modern History. famous charge. The fortifications defending the city were of immense extent and strength, and the French greatly dis- tinguished themselves by the vigor and gallantry of their assaults. The Mal'akoff and Redan', two of the strongest works, were stormed by them, after the English troops had failed in the attempt. Peace was signed with Russia in 1856. In the same year, the kingdom of Oude {pwd) was annexed to British India; and a war with Oude. Persia, after the taking of Bushire {hoo-slieer') and other towns, was ended by a treaty (1857). 114. The year 1857 is remarkable for the Indian mutiny, which broke out at Mee'rut,* and was followed by the massacre of the English officers and residents, by the in- human monster Nana Sahib {sali'eeh) at Oawn'- Indian mutiny. pore, t Delhi {deVle) was seized by the Sepoys (native troops) ; but was retaken after a two months' siege and the most desperate fighting. At Luck'nowf 50,000 rebels besieged an English force of less than 500 persons for nearly three months; but they were at last relieved by General Hav'e-lock, who with a small force achieved Map op the Crimea. several victories ovcr the rebel armies. Nena Sahib was defeated by Sir Col'in Camp- bell, and the insurrection was subdued (1859). The dreadful atrocities perpetrated on men, women, and children during this war by the native troops, and the horrible punishments afterward inflicted on the latter by the British, find scarcely a * Meerut is situated about 35 miles northeast from Delhi, a noted city of Hindo- stan, on the Jumna, an affluent of the Ganges. (See map, page 511.) t Cawnpore and Lucknow are important towns in Hindostan, the former on the Ganges, the latter on a tributary to it. They are some distance east of Delhi. England. 521 parallel in history. The East India Company was deprived of its power at the close of this war, and the government vested wholly in the queen, being administered by a viceroy. Later the queen was by act of Parliament proclaimed Empress of India (187G). 115. Wars were also waged against the Chinese. The first was caused by the seizure of opium imported into China con- trary to her laws by British merchants. At the close, China was compelled to cede Hong Kong * Chinese wars. to Great Britain, and to open five of her seaports to British commerce, besides paying twenty-one millions of dollars as indemnity for the expenses of the war (1842). In 1856 hos- tilities were renewed; and Can- ton was bombarded and occu- pied. Some time afterward the combined forces of the French and English took Pekin, and the emperor was comiDelled to flee. The Chinese then submitted to the demands of the English, one of which was that China should be open to the commerce of the world, and that a British minister should be permitted to reside at Pekin (1860). 116. Toward the close of 1861, the British nation was filled with mourning by the sudden death of Prince Albert, who, by his earnest efforts in behalf of useful enterprises and his many virtues, had endeared himself to the whole people. Other interesting Victoria. Dea^h of Prince Albert. events in the following period were the laying of the Atlantic cable (1866); the passage of the Second Eeform Bill (1867), by * Hong Kong is an island at the mouth of the estuary which leads to Canton, in the southeastern part of China. 529 Modern History. which the elective franchise was greatly extended; the Abys- sinian war, in which King Theodore was defeated (1868); the disestablishment of the Irish Church (1869); and the passage of the first Irish land bill (1870), Other events. designed to regulate the relations between landlords and ten- ants, and giving to the latter several privileges. 117. In the same year (1870), popular education in Great Britain was placed on a more efficient basis by the passage of a law under which school boards were elected throughout the country, and great improvements Education. effected. Later a war broke out with the Ashantees in Africa, growing out of their attacks upon a tribe friendly to the English (1872). Under Sir Garnet Wol- Ashantee war. seley {wooVzlee), the English army defeated the barbarous king, and burned his capital, Ooomassic. This was soon followed by a treaty of peace (1873). In 1872, the Ballot Act was passed, which prescribed a closed ballot for members of parliament. Dr. Livingstone, the celebrated African explorer, died this year, in Central Dr. Livingstone. Africa, and his remains were taken to England and buried with great ceremony in "Westminster Abbey. In 1875, Great Britain purchased from the Khedive of Egypt a one-half ownership of the Suez Canal, with the Suez Canal. view to protect its route to India. 118. In 1877, a British force entered and took possession of the Transvaal Bepublic, in South Africa. This subsequent- ly led to a difficulty with the Boers, living in the Transvaal, by whom a British force was dis- astrously defeated (1880); but the matter was afterward amicably settled, a treaty being made with the Boers. The British interests were involved in the war be- tween Eussia and Turkey — the Eastern War of Eastern war. 1877-8 — and, during the negotiations under the administra- tion of the English prime minister, the Earl of Beaconsfield, Turkey ceded the government of Cyprus to Great Britain, England. 523 wliicli cession was afterward confirmed by the Treaty of Berlin (1878). 119. In 1878 occurred the war in Afghanistan, in which the country was invaded by the British from India, some of its chief cities occupied, and full submission to British demands compelled. In the same year a war broke out with the Zulus {zoo'looz), a fierce and barbarous tribe of South Africa; and, in January, 1879, a British force was attacked by the savages, and almost destroyed. This led to de- Zulu war. cided measures, and, under Sir Garnet Wolseley, the war was brought to speedy termination, many of the villages of the Zu- lus being burned and their king captured (1879). In a skirmish in this war, the i ^~ 1 T-» • X Prince Imperial. French Prince Im- I perial, son of Naj^oleon III., who had gone out to Africa to witness the operations of the war, was killed. The admin- istration of Glad- stone * succeeded Gladstone. Gladstone. that of Beaconsfield,t and was signalized by the joassage of the Irish Land Bill (1881), rendered necessary by disturbances in Ireland, growing out of the Ireland. oppressive relations existing between the landlords and the peasant tenantry. Some of the evils complained of were re- moved by the measure which the minister introduced and carried through Parliament, after a great struggle. * William E. Gladstone, celebrated not only as a statesman and orator, but as a scholar and author, was born in 1809. He has been connected with some of the most important measures- of the British Government during the last thirty years. t The Earl of Beaconsfield, better known as Benjamin Disraeli, son of the cele- brated writer Isaac Disraeli, was born in 1805, of a Jewish family. He won dis- tinction 'Doth in the field of literature and politics. His course in Parliament was a very distinguished one, both as a Tory leader and minister. In 1877, he became a member of the House of Lords with his title as earl. He died in 1881, 524 Modern History. State of Society in England, During the Brunswick Period, from 1714 to the Present Time. 120. During the period of the first three Georges (1714- 1820), the British Government assumed a settled character, and, as the people advanced in intelligence, be- came more and more dependent upon their Government. wishes. The king ruled through his ministers, who could continue in office only as long as they retained the support of Parliament. The royal authority in England has ever since been subordinate to public opinion. In the present century this has been illustrated by the repeal of the corn and naviga- tion laws, parliamentary reform, and other liberal measures.* 121. (During the first part of this period, religion was at a very low ebb among all classes. The clergy, often ordained without any regard to their intellectual and spirit- ual attainments, but simply as a provision for the Religion. younger sons of aristocratic families, neglected the duties of their sacred calling to indulge in fox-hunting, gaming, and the pleasures of the table J I The preaching of llnV( Wliitefield and Wesley. George Whitefield \ and John Wesley % did much to infuse into the public mind a higher regard for spiritual matters. The religious society which they founded received, at first as a nickname, the appellation of '^Method- * The emancipation of the Catholics from the poUtical disabihties under which they suffered so long, and the admission of Jews to Parliament (1858), are additional indications of the progress of enlightened sentiments, and the extinction of those prejudices which are the offspring of ignorance and bigotry. t George Whitefield was particularly celebrated for the fervid eloquence with which he preached to the people. He was ordained a minister of the Church of Eng- land, but subsequently joined Wesley and the Methodists. He spent part of his life in America, where he died while on a visit to the churches in New England (1770). i John Wesley, the celebrated founder of Methodism, was an ordained minister of the Church of England, but soon became disgusted with the coldness and want of spirituality which prevailed among both clergy and laity. Like Whitefield, he was a powerful popular preacher, and like him, also, he preached to the people of both hemispheres, residing some years in the colonies. For more than half a cen- tury he exercised the most complete authority over his numerous followers both iij England and America. He died in 1791, at the age of eighty -eight. England. 525 ists," from the strictness of their religious principles and ob- servances. ^ It rapidly gathered within its ranks vast multi- tudes, particularly of the middle and lower orders of the people. The writings of Watts, Doddridge, and others also contributed to raise the religious tone of society. Sunday- schools were founded about the close of 1781 by Kobert Eaikes. In later years, the progress of pure religious senti- ment ha& Deen strikingly manifested by the establishment of very many societies for the propagation of Chris- tianity, the diffusion of religious knowledge, and Christianity. the philanthropic aid as well as instruction of the ignorant, the destitute, and the suffering in all jjarts of the kingdom. 122. Much has also been done to promote the cause of general education by improvements in the national school system, especially by the important school law of 1870, supplemented by others passed in 1873 and Education. 1876, by means of which elementary education throughout the kingdom has been greatly extended and facilitated. Various educational institutions have been established, of every grade, including colleges for the education of women (ladies' colleges), and schools of science. The most impor- tant institutions of a higher character are the University of Durham, founded in 1832; the University of London, char- tered in 1836; and University College, Bristol, established in 1876, for the instruction of both sexes. 123. Commerce and navigation made vast and rapid strides during the period of the Georges. The trade with the American colonies had become very consider- able previous to their independence; but with the Commerce and navigation. States it was much more extensive, the principal imports from them being tobacco, rice, and cotton. The importation of the last-mentioned article from America commenced in 1770, the first shipment being about 2000 pounds. At the close of the period the annual import amounted to 120,000,000 pounds. Tlie same product was also imported from Brazil and the East 526 Modern History, Indies. The English West Indies exported large quantities of sugar, together with mahogany and logwood. The gradual introduction of steam navigation was a marked feature of the period. Experiments with the view to this application of the steam-engine had Steam navigation. been early made; but it was not until nearly the end of the period that serviceable steam-vessels were constructed. In 1820 a line of steam-packets was established to ply between Holyhead and Dublin.* 124. The material progress made by the nation during Queen Victoria's reign has been truly amazing. The achieve- ments in science and art perhaps surpass those of all the preceding centuries combined, and bring to the poorest classes comforts and conveniences Material progress. which could not previously have been enjoyed by kings and nobles. The country has been crossed in every direction by railroads of the very best construction; ocean steam-vessels have revolutionized commerce and navigation; the electric telegraph lias brought every part of the kingdom into instant communication with all other parts of the civilized world; while the building of iron-clad war-steamers has rendered obsolete all former achievements in naval architecture, and changed entirely the character of maritime warfare. 125. In the industrial arts, many valuable inventions have been made. Previous to 1718, England was entirely depen- dent upon foreigners for silk thread; but in that year a large mill was erected at Derby for its Inventions. manufacture, by Mr. Lombe, who had gone to Italy in the disguise of a common workman, and taken drawings of the silk-throwing machinery in use in that country. Immense quantities of organzine, or twisted, thread were thereafter pro- * Robert Fulton, an American, in 1807, made the first successful voyage by steam from New York to Albany, in a steamboat called the Clermont. Five years later a steamboat was started on the Clyde by Henry Bell, a former associate of Fulton; and thus was commenced steam navigatioia in Great Britain, England. 527 duced. The cotton mjinufacture now took precedence of that of wool, which previously had been the chief material of Englisli fabrics. This change was largely due to the carding- machine and the spinning-jenny invented by James Har- greaves,* but priucipally to the invention of the spinning- frame by Sir Richard Arkwright.f In 1771, Arkwright erected a large factory which was worked by water ])ower. The World's Fair of 1851, and similar exhibitions since, have illustrated the progress of Great Brit- Industnal arts. dn in the industrial arts, including the inventions of ma- chinery and mechanical appliances during the j^resent cen- tury. She has occupied a leading position in this respect among the nations of the world. The metallic wares of Bir- mingham, the cutlery of Siieffield, the cotton fabrics of Man- chester, and the various manufactured articles of Glasgow and other large towns, supply the markets of the world. 126. To all these branches of manufacturing industry a wonderful impulse was given in the latter part of the eigliteenth century by the application of Steam-engine. steam. James Wait J made his celebrated invention of the * James Hargrea^^es was an illiterate artisan, supporting: himself and family by spinning. In 1700 he invented the carding-machine as a substitute for carding by hand. The spinning-jenny, by which he was enabled to spin a large number of threads at the same time, was invented by accident in 1704. He died in 1768. + Richard Arkxoright, born in 1733, was originally a barber. In 1707 he devoted himself to making improvements in cotton-spinning ; and the next year produced the spinning-frame, which consisted chiefly of two pairs of rollers, the first pair moving slowly in contact, and passing the cotton to the other pair, which revolved with such inceased velocity as to draw out the thread to the required degree of fineness. He was at first very poor, and incurred the displeasure of the artisans by his labor-saving machines. He however rapidly rose to opulence and fame, and received in 1780 the honor of knighthood from George III. At his death, in 1793, his property amounted to more than half a million .sterling. X James Watt was born in Scotland in 1730; died in 1810. He was first a mathe- matical-instrument maker, and subsequently a surveyor. He began his experiments on the steam-engine about 1703, and soon discovered the cause of the inefficiency of that in general use at the time. This was worked by atinospheric pressure, steam being used only to produce a vacuum. In 1705 he hit upon the idea of a separate condenser, and of using steam as the motive power; and in 1709 his model was completed. 528 Modern History. condensing stecim-engine in 1769, and introduced, during the next sixteen years, improvements in it of great practical value. The working of the coal-mines was greatly facilitated by the application of Watt's invention. The inventions of Wedge wood * also made so many improvements in pottery, that he may be considered the founder Wedgewood. of this branch of manufacture in Great Britain. His first success was the production of a beautiful cream-colored por- celain, called, in honor of Queen Charlotte, who greatly admired it, ^'Queen's Ware" (1763). 127. Through the sagacity, energy, and liberality of the Duke of Bridgewater, and his celebrated engineer, James Brindley, canal 7iavigation assumed considerable importance in England. An act of Parliament for the construction of his first canal was obtained Canal navigation. in 1758. The roads, too, gradually improved; and during the greater part of the period travelers were conveyed by means of rapid stage-coaches to the various parts of the king- dom. The construction of the first locomotive, or steam-carriage, in 1804, commenced a wonder- ful revolution in this respect; though railways had been used to a limited extent some time previously. Locomotive power was employed on a railway by George Stephenson \ in 1814; but it was not until 1821 that passengers were transported in this way. 128. The fine arts were also cultivated with great success. Among painters the most prominent were Hogarth X and Sir * Josiah Wedgewood, born in 1730, was early engaged in the business of pottery. His many improvements in the manufacture of all kinds of porcelain realized him a vast fortune. He was a man of benevolence and culture; and besides his own special kind of knowledge, studied natural philosophy with much success. He died in 1795. t George Stephenson, at first a workman in a colliery, rose to great distinction by his singular genius as a machinist and engineer. Through his efforts the locomo- tive became a success, the first railroads being constructed under his supervision. He died in 1848, at the age of 67. X William Hogarth was born in London in 1697. His first employment as an artist was in engraving. His moral paintings attracted considerable attention from their England, 529 Joshua Eeynolds.* The latter was the tirst president of the Eoyal Academy of Arts, founded in 1768. George III. was a generous patron of the fine arts, and conferred on Eeynolds the honor of knighthood. In music, Handel, t by birth a German, achieved an enduring renown. The first oratorio was produced by him in 1733; but it was not until 1749 that his sublimest com- position, '^The Messiah," appeared. Very many operas were also composed and brought out by him. One of the most successful works of this kind was the '^Beggars' Opera," composed by the poet Gay, to whom it was suggested by Swift in 1726. Among other musical composers of this period were the celebrated Dr. Arne,J; and Dr. Charles Bur- ney § — tlie latter distinguished particularly as the author of the ^^ General History of Music." 129. In scientific discovery quite remarkable progress was also made. Sir Humphry Davy,|| the great chemist, in- vented the safety-lamp (1816), one of the most valuable humor as well as artistic excellence. The most celebrated of his paintings is, per- haps, the " Enraged Musician," which was finished in 1741. He died in 1764. * Sir Joshua Reynolds, generally placed at the head of the English school of painting, was born in England in 1723. His portraits were of unsurpassed merit, eclipsing everything that had been executed since the time of Van Dyke. He was the companion and friend of Johnson, Burke, Goldsmith, Garrick, the famous actor, and other literary men of the time. He died in 1784. t George Frederick Handel was born in Saxony in 1G84. At the age of fourteen, he produced his first opera at Hamburg. He went to England in 1710, and soon became exceedingly popular. A liberal pension was settled on him by George I., and his oratorios were frequently attended by the king and the royal family. He died in 1759, and was buried in Westminster Abbey, where a handsome monument was erected to his memory. X Thomas Augustine Arne was one of the best of English composers. He was born at London in 1710, and died in 1778. The celebrated national air, "Rule Britannia," was composed by him. § Charles Burney, noted for his literary and musical talents, Avas the father of the celebrated Frances Burney, who wrote " Evelina," and some other popular works of fiction. Dr. Burney died in 1815, at the age of eighty-nine. II Sir Humphry Davy was bojEp in Cornwall in 1778. He devoted himself to the study of chemistry during the greater part of his life. His lectures in the Royal In- stitute of London attracted crowded and brilliant audiences. He was also very fond of fishing, and wrote " Salmonia, or Days of Fly-fishing," His death occurred in 1839. 530 Modern History. presents ever made by science to humanity. Sir William Ilerschel* discovered in 1781 a new planet, to which he gave the name Georgium Sichis, in honor of George III., but now generally called Uranus. He also made many other valuable discoveries in astronomy. His monster telescope, forty feet in length, com- Scientific Discovery. pleted in 1787, was the wonder of his age, but it was ex- ceeded by that of Lord Rosse constructed at a later period. Medical science was greatly enriched by the labors and pub- lications of the celebrated John Hunter, the greatest physi- ologist and surgeon of his time. Edward Jenner, who had studied under him, gave to the world the discovery of vaccination in 1796. The discoveries of Priestley (including that of oxygen), of Black (carbonic- acid gas and the theory of latent heat), of Cavendish (tlie composition of wa- ter and the levity of hydrogen gas), and of John Dalton (the founder of the atomic theory),! ^^s well as the later researches of Michael Faraday, gave chemistry a high rank among physical sciences. The researches of Dr. Franklin in America gave a decided impulse to electrical discovery about the middle of the eighteenth century, and led the way to the invention of the electric telegraph by Profes- sor Morse and others in the Jnited States. Franklin. * Sir William Herschel, the world-renowned astronomer, was born at Hanover, in 1738, and was by profession a musician. He went to England in 1757, and at first devoted himself to music. His astronomical discoveries were very numerous and valuable. He died in 1822. His sister, Caroline Herschel, also attained great dis- tinction as an astronomer, as likewise did his son, Sir John Herschel, to whom we are indebted for many important discoveries. t John Dalton was born in Cumberland in 1766, and died in 1844. He was early interested in the study of mathematics and physics, and first conceived this theory while making some chemical researches. The atomic theory explains the laws according to which the elementary substances enter into chemical combination with each other. He fii-st published a complete statement of tliis theory in 1810. England. S81 130. The improvements in printing, including the gen- eral use of stereotype and electrotype plates, with the steam printing-press, have greatly facilitated the diffu- sion of knowledge, and augmented the number of journals, periodicals, and books of all kinds. English litera- ture during this long period was enriched with Printing. Literature. works of genius in every department of prose and poetry. In the seven- teenth century, the most conspicuous name is that of Samuel Johnson, the author of the English Dictionary. Tiie history of English literature since the Augustan Age of Queen Anne, may be divided into three periods: I. The eighteenth century, succeeding Anne, which we may call the age of Johnson; 11. The first part of the r nineteenth century, which we may call the age Morse. Periods. of Scott; III. The latter part of the nineteenth century, or the Victorian age. We give a brief sketch of each. 131. The first period includes the following poets: Edward Young (1684-1765), by profession a clergyman, the author of Night ThougJits and some other poems. John Gay (1688-1732), who wi-ote the Beggars' Opera and the Fables, considered the finest composition of the kind in the lan- guage. He was the friend of Pope and Swift. James Thomson (1700-1748), author of The Seasons, the best known of his works ; also of the Castle of Indolence, in the style of Spenser's Faerie Queene. The latter is considered the most finished of his poems. William Collins (1720-1756), author of the Ode to the Passions, and other lyrical poems, remarkable for their beautiful imagery and exquisite purity of style. He died insane. Oliver Goldsmith (1728-1774), one of the renowned galaxy of genius, of which Johnson was the central himinary. Goldsmith was a poet, a dramatist, an essayist, a humorist, and a general literary compiler. bs^ Modern History. His chief writings are poems entitled The Traveler and The Deserted Village; a novel called The Vicar of Wakefield; two comedies, She Stoops to Conquer and Tlie Oood-Natured Man; and a charming col- lection of essays, under the general title of Letters from a Citizen of the World. Thomas Gray (1716-1771), a man of learning and genius, author of the well-known Elegy written in a Country Churchyard, and other poems. Mark Akenside (1721-1770), author of a beautiful poem entitled The Pleasures of the Imagination. Thomas Chatterton (1753-1770), noted for his imitations of old English poetry, which he published as genuine specimens under the name of Rowley; and for his mournful end in his eighteenth year. Camp- bell said of him: " No English poet Goldsmith. ever equaled him at the same age." Robert Burns (1759-1796), the illustrious Scottish poet, unsurpassed as a songwriter. Some of his longer pieces are: TJie Cotter's Satur- day Night and Tarn O'Shanter. William Cowper (1731-1800), noted for his morbid sensitiveness and mel- ancholy, verging on insanity, as well as his poetical genius. His Table Talk and The Task contain many powerful and brilliant pas- sages. He also w^rote the humorous poem John Gilpin. He was, more- over, an inimitable letter-writer. James Seattle (1735-1803), author of The Minstrel, and a celebrated prose work against the skeptical philoso- phy, entitled an Essay on Truth. 132. The chief prose writers of this period are: Philip Doddridge (1702-1751), a clergyman, who wrote the well-known devotional work. The Rise and Progress of Religion in the Soul. Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), renowned especially as an essayist and poet. His chief works are: A collection of essays called The Rambler, a Burns. England. 588 Prose writers. Byron. romance styled Basselas, several poems, the Lives of the Poets, besides his great work, the English Dictionary. Edmund Burke (1730-1797), a noted orator as well as writer. His best known works are: An Essay on the Sublime and Beautiful and Reflections on the French Revolution. David Hume (1711-1776), author of tlie lllatory of England, and sev- eral philosophical works. William Robertson (1721-1793), a na- tive of Scotland, noted for his his- tories, of Charles V. of Germany, of Scotland, and of America. Edward Gibbon (1737-1794), author of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Laurence Sterne (1713-1768), a clergy- man by profession, the author of Tristram Shandy and tlie Senti- mental Journey, noted for their humor, satire, and original style. Richardson, Fielding, and Smollett were the most noted novelists of the pe- riod. Horace Walpole (1717-1797), the author of The Castle of Otranto, may also be mentioned here. 133. The second period in- cludes the following poets: John Keats (1796-4821), author of Endymion and Hy- perion, with several Second period. minor poems. Lord Byron (George Gordon Noel) (1788-1824) was perhaps the most brilliant genius of this period; his chief poems are Childe Harold, The Corsair, Don Juan, and the dramas Cain and Manfred. His poems contain lofty flights of imagination, with splendid diction and imagery, but are greatly dis- figured by his moody, misanthropic turn of mind. Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822), author of many splendid poems and dramas. His genius was of the higliest order; but he was very eccentric both as a writer and a man. Wordsworth. 634 Modern Misiory. Scott. Wordswortli were called the Thomas Moore (1779-1853), noted particularly for his melodies. His longest piece is Lalla Rookh, an Oriental romantic poem, abounding in beautiful passages. Thomas Campbell (1777-1844), author of Pleasures of Hope, Gertrude of Wyoming, Ilohenlinden, and sev- eral smaller pieces. His odes are especially admired. William Wordsworth (1770-1850), Poet-Laureate of England, author of The Excursion, Ode on the Inti- mations of Immortality, and many other poems. Robert Southey (1774-1843), the writer of many poems, as well as prose works. Samuel T. Coleridge (1772-1834), a writer of genius both in prose and poetry. Coleridge, Southey, and Lake poets," because they resided for a time in the picturesque region of northwestern England, which abounds in lakes. James Montgomery (1771-1854), author. of many beautiful poems, in- cluding hymns. Robert PoUok (1799-1827), author of Ihe Course of Time. Felicia D. Hemans (Mrs.) (1794-1835), authoress of many popular poems. Letitia E. Landon (1802-1838), a poetess and novelist of remarkable genius. Thomas Hood (1798-1845), the far- famed humorist, author of many pathetic pieces, Tiie Bridge of Sighs, Song of the Shirt, etc. J. Sheridan Knowles (1784-1862), a dis- tinguished dramatist, who wrote William Tell, The Hunchback, etc. Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832), more noted as a novelist than a poet, was the author of many poems of great merit, as The Lay of the Last Minstrel, The Lady of the Lake, and Marmion. Samuel Rogers (1763-1855), author of Pleasures of Memory, also Italy and other much-admired poems. Tennyson. England. ms 134. Tlie princi2)al prose writers of this period are: Frances Burney (Coimtess D'Arblay) (1752-1840), daughter Macaulay. of Dr. Charles Burney; she was noted for her novels, Prose writers. particularly Evelina, and for her Diary. Anna Letitia Barbauld (Mrs. ) (1743-1825), celebrated for her books for children, — Early Lessons, Hymns in Prose, etc. Maria Edgeworth (1767-1849), a writer of moral fiction, and many inter- esting works for children. Dugald Stewart (1753-1828), author of several works on moral and intellec- tual philosophy. Sir James Mackintosh (1765-1832), bril- liant as a statesman, a lawyer, and a writer. Henry Hallam (1778-1859), author of the History of the Middle Ages, Literature of Europe, etc. John Lingard (1771-1851), author of the History of England. Thomas Arnold (1795-1842), of Rugby fame, author of the History of Rome, and Lectures on Modern History. Lord JeflErey (1773-1853), editor of the Edinhurgh Remew, and dis- tinguished as an essayist and critic. Lord Brougham (1779-1868), brilliant as a statesman and an orator, and a very versatile writer. Charles Lamb (1775-1834), a humor- ist and original writer, best known for his Essays of Elia. \i£ ^ " ^^^^^^^^SMIW Thomas de Quincey (1786-1859), known as the English Opium Eater, one of the most bril- liant and versatile writers of his age, — a great master of the English language. 135. The Victorian Age iiidudes the following poets: Alfred Tennyson (born 1809), author of Ln Memoriam, Ljocksley Hall, Idyls of the King, etc. Most of his poems are much admired. George Eliot. t)H6 Modem History. Elizabeth B. Browning (1809-1861), a poetess of great power and origi nality. Her best known poem is Aurora Leigh. Prose writers. Dickens. Victorian Age. Robert Browning (born 1812), husband of E. B. Brown- ing, considered by some one of tlie greatest poets of the time. His cliief writings are dramas. Jean Ingelow (Miss) (born 1830), a lyric poet of great genius. Algernon C. Swinburne (born 1843), author of many tine poems. 136. The prose writers of this period are very numerous in every depart- ment. Only a few can here be mentioned. Thomas B. Macaulay (1800-1859), a brilHant essayist, critic, and his- torian; liis Miscellaneous Essays and the History of Englanid are tiie best known of his works. Lord Lytton (Bulwer) (1805-1873), especially noted as a novelist; author of Rienzi, Last Days of Pompeii, etc. , besides many poems. George Eliot (Mrs. Lewes) (1820-1880), among the most gifted writers of her time; her chief works are novels, among which Adain Bede, Jiomola, and Middlemarch are per- liiips the most celebrated. , Charles Dickens (1812-1870), one of the greatest of novelists; his works are numerous and exceedingly popular. Charles Kingsley (1819-1875), author of Alton Locke and other novels of great merit. Charlotte Bronte (1816-1855), a novelist of great fame, author of Jane Eyre and other works of merit. William M. Thackeray (1811-1863), am eminent novelist, author of Vanity Fair, Henry Esmond, The Virginians, etc. Archibald Alison (Sir) (1792-1867), author of History of Europe, and Life of Marlborough, Thackeray. England. mi George Grote (1794-1876), author of History of Greece, aud other histori- cal works, showing profound schohirship and research. Charles Merivale (Kev.) (1808-1874), author of History of the Romans and other historical w^orks. James A. Froude (born 1818), author of the History of England, etc. John Stuart Mill (1806-1873), one of the profoundest thinkers of his time, author of System of Logic, etc. Henry T. Buckle (1822-1862), author of History of Civilization, a very great work, which he did not live to complete. Benjamin Disraeli (Earl of Beaconslield) (1805-1881), a writer of great eminence, particularly in the field of fictitious literature. His best known novels are Vivian Orey, Venetia, and Lothair. Charles Kingsley (Rev.) (1819-1875), author of Alton Locke, Hypatia, and other novels of great merit. William E. Gladstone (born 1809), a writer of great scholarship and cul- ture, author of Juventus Mundi, Homeric Studies, etc. Thomas Carlyle (1795-1881), a very powerful and original writer, author of The French liewhition, lAfe of Frederick the Great, and many other works. 137. Among scientific writers may be enumerated i •^ Scientific writers the following: 1 David Brewster (1781-1863), author of Natural Magic, etc. Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875), noted for his geological writings. Hugh Miller (1802-1856), also noted for his works on geological sub- jects. William Whewell, D.D. (1795-1866), author of the History of the Inductive Sciences. John Tyndall (born 1820), author of many works on physical science. Herbert Spencer (born 1820), one of the most distinguished scientists and philosophers of his time. Charles Darwin (born 1809), an eminent naturalist, author of The Origin of Species and other works presenting various original scientific theories, constituting what has been called the "Darwinian Philos- ophy." Thomas H. Huxley (born 1825), noted for his researches in zoology, aud his lectures and writings on different branches of physical science. Carlyle. 538 Modern History* SOVEEEIGNS OF ENGLAND, From Henry VII. (1485) to the Present Time (1881), Line. Name. Date of reign^ C Henry VII 1485-1509 ^ I Henry VIII 1509-1547 I \ Edward VI 1547-1553 H I Mary 1553-1558 L Elizabeth 1558-1603 r James 1 1603-1625 4i Charles 1 1625-1649 Line. Name. Date of reign. r James II 1685-1689 ^ J William and Mary 1689-1694 I j William III 1694-1702 L Anne 1702-1714 George I ... 1714-1727 George II 1727-1760 George III 1760-1820 I C] Cromwell (Protector) 165:^1658 , s j George IV 1820-1830 Cromwell (Protector). . . 1658-1660 j ^ | William IV 1830-1837 CharlesII 1660-1685 I I Victoria 1837-^^l\ Summary of Principal Events and Dates. A.D. Defeat of the Scots in the battle of Flodden Field 1513 Separation of the English Church from the Roman Catliolic Church 1534 Sir Francis Drake's voyage round tlie globe 1579 Execution of Mary Queen of Scots 1587 Translation of the Bible under King James 1 1611 Execution of Sir Walter Raleigh 1618 The Covenant signed by the Scots 1638 Commencement of the Civil War. Battle of Edge Hill 1642 Execution of Charles I. The Commonwealth declared 1649 Great Plague in England 1665 The famous battle of the Boyne. James II. defeated 1690 Battle of Blenheim. The French defeated by Marlborough and Prince Eugene. 1704 Treaty of peace with France signed at Utrecht 1713 Battle of Culloden. Prince Charles defeated 1746 Capture of Quebec, and death of General Wolfe 1759 Independence of the American colonies acknowledged by England 1783 Legislative union of Great Britain and Ireland 1801 Battle of Waterloo. Victory of Wellington over Napoleon 1815 Battle of Navarino. Independence of Greece declared 1827 Slavery abolished in all the British colonies 1834 Afghan War. Cabul taken. Chinese War 1841 The Corn Laws repealed 1846 The Crimean War , 1853-1855 Indian Mutiny. Delhi taken. Chinese War 1857 Abolition of the East India Company 1858 Death of Prince Albert 1861 Abyssinian War. Defeat of King Theodore 1868 Ashantee War. Coomassie, the capital, burned 1872 Treaty of Berlin. Cyprus ceded to England by Turkey 1 878 War with the Zulus. Capture of the king 1879 The Irish Land Bill passed 1881 Topical Meview. 539 Topical Review. HISTORICAL CHARACTERS. WJu) icere they"^ For what noted? With what events connected? pagk Henry Tudor (VII.) 461, 403 Perkiii Warbeck 462, 463 John and Sebastian Cabot 463 Catharine of Aragon 463, 465 Thomas Wolsey 463, 465 Anne Boleyn 4G5, 467 Archbishop Cranmer 465, 466, 469 Sir Thomas More 466, 478 Henry Howard 467 Lady Jane Grey 468, 477 Queen Mary 468, 469 Queen Elizabeth 469, 478 Cecil, Lord Burleigh 470, 477 Sir Walter Raleigh 471, 478, 506 Sir Francis Drake 471 Mary Queen of Scots 472 Earl of Essex 474 Earl of Leicester 477 Villiers, Duke of Buckingham . . 480, 482 Charles 1 481, 488 Sir Thos. Wentworth (Strafford) 482, 483 Sir John Eliot 432, 483 Arch bishop Laud 483, 484 John Hampden 484, 485 Prince Rupert ... 485, 486, 495 Lord Falkland 486 Sir Henry Vane 486 Sir Thomas Fairfax 486 Oliver Cromwell 486, 491 Admiral Blake 489, 490, 491 Charles II 488, 489, 493-496 General Monk 489, 492, 494 Sir Edward Hyde 492 William of Qi-ange 495, 499 Lord William Russell 496 Algernon Sydney 496 Duke of Monmouth 496 Duke of York (James II.) 495, 498 Judge Jeffries 497 Duke of Marlborough 500, 501 Sir Robert Walpole 508 General Oglethorpe 508 Charles the Pretender 509 General Braddock 510 PAGE General Wolfe 510 Earl of Chatham 510, 512 George Washington 513 Warren Hastings 513 William Pitt (Younger) 514 Nelson 514 Sir Ralph Abercrombie 514 Duke of Wellington 515 Sir John Moore 515 Lord Brougham 517, 535 Daniel O'Connell 517 Prince Albert 519, 521 Sir Charles Napier 519 General Havelock 520 Sir Colin Campbell 520 Dr. Livingstone 522 Sir Garnet Wolseley 522, 523 William E. Gladstone 523, 537 Earl of Beaconsfield 523, 537 GREAT EVENTS. When did tJtey occur? What led to them? JMiat resulted therefrom? Discovery of North America 463 Battle of the Spurs 464 Battle of Flodden Field 464 Separation of the English Church . . 466 Translation of the Bible 467, 481 Opening of trade with Russia. 469, 475 Rise of the Puritans 470 Discovery of Virginia . 471 Circumnavigation of the globe 471 Destruction of the Great Armada. . . 471 Settlement of Virginia 480 Emigration of the Puritans . 481, 483 Execution of Strafford and Laud 483, 484 Civil War in England 484, 488 Battle of Naseby ... 486 Execution of Charles 1 487 Battle of Dunbar 488 Battle of Worcester 489 Restoration of the Stuarts 492 Taking of New Netherlands 493 Great Plague in England 494 Great Fire in London 494 Passage of the Test Act 495 540 Modern History. PAGK Rye House Plot 496 Revolution of 1688 498 Battle of the Boyne 499 Battle of La Hogue 499 Treaty of Ryswick 499 Battle of Blenheim 500 Treaty of Utrecht ... 501 Union of England and Scotland 388, 502 Anson's Expedition 508 Battle of Dettingen 509 Battle of Fontenoy 509 Battle of Culloden 509 Passage of the Stamp Act 512 American Revolution 512, 513 Battle of the Nile 514 Union of England and Ireland 514 Treaty of Amiens 514 Battle of Trafalgar 515 Peninsular War 515 Battle of Waterloo 516 Abolition of Slavery 517 Sikh War, Crimean War 519 Victoria made Empress of India 521 Chinese War 521 Passage of the Irish Land Bill 523 PERSONS OF GENIUS. When did they live? For what noted^. William Tyndale 467 Roger Ascham 468, 477 John Hey wood 478 Edmund Spenser 478 Sir Philip Sidney.. 478 John Milton 490, 507 Sir Christopher Wren 505 Newton 306 Shakespeare 506 Philip Massinger 506 Lord Bacon 506 Sir William Davenant 507 Ben Jonson 507 Samuel Butler 507 John Dryden 507 Thomas Fixller 507 Lord Clarendon 507 John Bvmyan 507 Jeremy Taylor , 507 Addison 507 De Foe 507 PAGE Alexander Pope 507 Jonathan Swift 507 Edmund Burke 513, 533 Lord Byron 517, 533 Sir Richard Arkwright 527 James Watt 527 George Stephenson 528 William Hogarth 528 Sir Joshua Reynolds 529 George Frederick Handel 529 Sir Humphry Davy 529 Frances Burney 529, 535 Sir William Herschel 530 John Dal ton, John Hunter 530 Edward Jenner 530 Samuel Johnson 531, 532 Edward Young, John Gay 531 James Thomson 531 Oliver Goldsmith 531 Thomas Gray 532 Thomas Chatterton 532 Robert Burns 532 William Cov^^Der, James Beattie 532 Phihp Doddridge 532 David Hume 533 William Robertson 533 Edward Gibbon 533 Laurence Sterne, John Keats. 533 Percy Bysshe Shelley 533 Thomas Moore 534 Thomas Campbell 534 William Wordsworth 534 Robert Southey 534 Samuel T. Coleridge 534 Thomas Hood 534 J. Sheridan Knowles 534 Sir Walter Scott 534 Dugald Stewart 535 Sir James Mackintosh 535 Lord Jeffrey 535 Charles Lamb .' 535 Thomas De Quincey 535 Alfred Tennyson 535 Thomas B. Macaulay 536 Lord Lytton (Bulwer) 536 Mrs. Lewes (George Eliot) 536 Charles Dickens 536 William M. Thackeray 536 John Stuart Mill 537 Thomas Carlyle 537 No. 17, CHAPTER X. France, From 1483 to the Present Time, SECTION I. The Valois-Orleans Branch. 1. Louis XII. Charles VIII. dying without heirs, Louis, Duke of Orleans, succeeded to the throne, being the great- grandson of Charles V. The nobleness of his character was displayed in his generous forgive- Character. ness toward his former enemies, for he said ''it did not be- come the king of France to resent the injuries of the Duke of Orleans." Most of this reign was occupied in wars waged for the possession of territories in Italy. Milan was taken (1500), and also Naples, with the aid War in Kaly, of Ferdinand of Aragon; but the latter afterward disputed the French claim, and the French were defeated by the Spanish forces under Gon-sal'vo de Cordova, called the '' Great Captain," and Ferdinand thus gained almost ex- clusive possession of the Neapolitan States (1503). Louis attempted to retrieve his loss; but Gonzalvo inflicted upon the French one of the severest disasters that ever befell their arms (December, 1503). This defeat excluded the French from Naples, and a treaty of peace was made the next year. Geographical Study, Map No. XVII. What is the situation of : Frai^ce'? Belgium? Germany? Switzerland? Italy? Austria? Paris? Rouen? Havre? Dieppe? Bologne? Amiens? Sedan? Rheims? Nancy? Luneville? Strasburg? Troyes? Chalons? Versailles? Orleans? Tours? Nantes? La Rochelle? Boraeaux? Toulouse? Avignon? Marseilles? Toulon? Brussels? Waterloo? Ghent? Metz? Leipsic? Munich? Hohenlinden? Augs- burg? Jena? Dresden? Prague? Sadowa? Milan? Campo Foi-mio?- Turin? Marengo? Lodi? Solferino? Magenta? Ravenna? Areola? F.lba? 542 Modern History, 2. Louis, some time afterward, entered into the celebrated League of Oambray, formed by France, Germany, Spain, the Pope (Julius II.), and the minor states of Italy, in order to check the power of Venice, then at the height of its glory and influence. Under League of Cam bray. the command of the illustrious Chevalier Bay'ard, the Frencli completely defeated the Venetians in the battle of Agnadello {an-yah- deVlo)', and the other allies were also success- ful (1509). But the intrigues of Julius II. soon afterward divert- ed the force of the alliance from Venice and turned it against France, with the view to deprive the latter of all her possessions in Italy. In this way the Holy League, consisting of the Pope, Ferdinand of Spain, and the Venetian Eepublic, was formed (1511); but the French, under the command of the renowned Gaston de Foix (fwah), gained two brilliant vic- tories over the allies. That heroic general having fallen in one of these battles (1512), Louis was soon afterward obliged to succumb to the power of the League, and surrendered all his acquisitions in northern Italy. 3. Louis then formed an alliance with Venice to recover these possessions (1513), and, at first, gained some successes; but was finally defeated with severe loss by the Swiss, who had been hired by the Italians for their defense. This disaster encouraged the enemies of Pope Julius II. Holy League. French defeat. France, 543 Fmnce to attack it; and while it was threatened by Ferdinand of Spain, the Swiss invaded it from the west, and Henry VIII. landed with a large army at Calais. The latter, a short time afterward, fought the noted Battle of the Spurs, in which several of the French Battle of the Spurs. officers, including Bayard, were taken prisoners (1513). Louis, wearied with these harassing wars, shortly afterward succeeded in making a treaty of peace with his enemies, but survived it only a few End of the reign. First enterprise. months. His virtues had made him exceedingly popular, and he died universally regretted by his subjects (1515). 4. Francis I., Duke of Angouleme (ang-go-lCwi), and cousin of Louis XII., succeeded to the throne at the age of twenty-one years. He was of a very chivalrous disposition, and was eager to distinguish himself by military achievements. His first enterprise was to re- cover Milan, which had been lost during the previous reign; and, at the head of 40,000 men, command- ed by Bayard, the Constable Bour'bon, and other illus- trious generals, he invaded Italy. There, in the battle of Marignano {mah-reen-yah'no), he totally defeated the Swiss mercenaries, 10,000 of whom were left dead upon the field (1515). Milan, therefore, surrendered; and Francis wisely augmented his influence by establishing a lasting alliance with the Swiss Eepublic (1516). 5. On the death of Maximilian, emperor of Germany, Francis became a competitor with Charles of Spain for the vacant throne. The election of the latter ex- cited the anger of Francis, and gave rise to a series of wars that lasted nearly twenty-five Wars with Charles V. years, between him and his great rival, afterward so illus- trious as Charles V. of Germany. Both parties sought the alliance of Henry VIII. of England, and, on the occasion of the interview which took Henry and Francis. place between the English and French monarchs, fetes of 544 Modern History. such extraordinary splendor were given, that the place of the interview was called the ^' Field of the Cloth of Gold." Owing, however, to the intrigues of Wolsey, Henry declared in favor of the emperor. 6. Francis unwisely quarreled with his great general, the Constahle of Bourbon, and the latter was gladly taken into the service of the emperor. The first step of the French Field of the Cloti op Gold (From an old bas relief ) king was Defeat Italy. to invade Italy; but his army was under the com- mand of an incompetent general, and Bourbon soon drove it into a disastrous retreat, during which the gallant and chivalrous Bayard was killed. Francis then conducted the army in person; but, at Pa'via, suffered a dreadful defeat, all his most distinguished generals being slain, and he himself made prisoner (1525). He remained in captivity more than a year, dur- ing which he suffered considerable indignity from Charles V., who extorted from him an assent to the most humiliating conditions before he would grant his release. These, on regaining his liberty, he refused to fulfill, and con- Captivity. France, 545 sequently the war was renewed, Francis having formed an alliance with Venice and the Pope. 7. Bourbon marched to Kome with a large army, qpnsist- ing partly of German troops, whose minds had been excited by the new doctrines of Luther, and partly also composed of a multitude of adventurers and ban- dits, as ferocious as the Huns or Vandals. Bour- Taking of Rome. bon was slain in the first assault; but Rome was taken, and for seven months became a scene _^_^ of the most remorseless vio- ^=^^-"*-*-\ ~^-- lence and pillage, the Pope (Clement VII.) being kept a prisoner, and treated with the grossest indignities (1527).* This led to an alliance be- tween the kings of France and England; and Charles, em- barrassed by the movements of the German Protestants, and threatened by the Turks under their great sultan, Soly- man the Magnificent, agreed to a treaty of peace with Fran- cis, made at Cambray (1529). 8. Twice, however, was the war renewed; and Francis degraded himself and shocked Christendom by forming an * "It is impossible to describe, or even to imagine, the misery and horror of the scenes which followed. W^hatever a city taken by storm can dread from military rage unrestrained by discipline; whatever excesses the ferocity of the Germans, the avarice of the Spaniards, or the licentiousness of the Italians could commit, these the wretched inhabitants were obliged to suffer. Churches, palaces, and the houses of private persons were plundered without distinction. No age, or charac- ter, or sex was exempt from injury. Cardinals, nobles, priests, matrons, virgins, were all the prey of soldierr, and at the mercy of men deaf to the voice of humanity. Nor did these outrages cease, as is usual in towns which are carried by assault, when the first fury of the storm was over. The imperialists kept possession of Rome several months; and. during all that time, the insolence ^.nd brutality of the soldiers hardly abated."— iJo&erfeon's Charles the Fifth, Francis I. 546 Modern History, alliance with the Turkish sultan. In 1544, he wiped out the disgrace of his defeat at Pavia, by a splendid vic- tory in Italy over the imperial army; but Charles formed an alliance with Henry VIII., both mon- English alliarfSfe. archs engaging to invade France, capture Paris, and divide the French dominions between them. The French king made a successful defense against the invading armies of these two powerful foes, and finally succeeded in making peace with both. His death occurred End of reign. the next year (1547). Francis was a liberal patron of litera- ture and the arts, both of which made very great progress during his reign. 9. Henry II., on his accession to the throne, was in the twenty-ninth year of his age. He was slothful and luxuri- ous in his disposition, and possessed but few of the talents of his father. Before he commenced Character. to reign, he married Catharine de' Medici {med'e-che), a de- scendant of the illustrious Lorenzo de' Medici, of the Florentine Republic, who, on account of Marriage. his accomplishments and his liberal patronage of learning and art, was styled the Magnificent.* 10. Hostilities between France and Charles V. were re- sumed soon after the commencement of Henry's reign; and the latter allied himself with the great Protestant champion, Maurice, Elector of Saxony, who at once declared war against the emperor as the War with Charles V, enemy of the civil and religious liberty of Germany. Charles v., prudently yielding to the force of so powerful a combina- tion, concluded with the Germans the treaty of Passau, con- ceding to the Protestants freedom of worship (1552). Henry II., however, having refused to be included in the treaty, the * Pope Leo X. was a son of Lorenzo, and Clement VII. a nephew; and when, through the influence of the latter and Charles V., Florence lost her liberty, a member of this celebrated family was made the first Duke of Florence (1529); and its descendants, for a century afterward, continued to occupy the ducal throne Qt Tuscany. France, .^47 imperial army was repulsed with severe loss at Metz, defended by the French under Francis, Duke of Guise {gweez). 11. Charles V. having resigned his throne to his son Philip, the French king embraced the occasion to invade the Netherlands and Italy; but sustained severe dis- asters in each of these enterprises. In the for- mer, the Constable Montmorency sustained a Battle of St. Quentin. total defeat at St. Quen'tin, where the flower of his army were either slain or taken prisoners (1557). Queen Mary of England had given assistance to her husband Philip; and, through the energy of Guise, the French gained possession of Calais (1558). This was soon followed by a treaty of peace between the contending parties. Calais. and a little later by the king's death, which was occasioned by a wound received at a tournament (1559). 12: Francis II., a youth of sixteen years, succeeded to the throne. The year before, he married Mary Queen of Scots; and, being of feeble intellect, he was entirely ruled by his fascinating queen, who herself was Marriage. under the control of her uncles, the Duke of Guise and his brother. Cardinal of Lorraine. These two noblemen thus acquired the supreme power in the government; which they proceeded to employ for the destruction of the Protestants, or Huguenots, the persecution of whom had com- menced in the previous reign. The Huguenots Huguenots. i had, nevertheless, rapidly increased in number and influence, and now included within their ranks the king of Navarre, his brother Louis, Prince of Conde (kon'da), Admiral Coligni (ko-leen'ye), with many others of high rank and great ability. 13. On account of the tyrannical administration of the Guises, a conspiracy was formed, under Conde; which prov- ing unsuccessful, the Duke of Guise took the opportunity of executing a dreadful vengeance Duke of Guise. on those who had been concerned in it, executing upward 548 Modern History. of twelve hundred persons with the most revolting cruelty (1560). This was soon followed by the arrest of the king of Navarre and the Prince of Conde, the latter of whom was convicted of hisfh ti'eason and sen- Cond6. tenced to be executed; but the king's death taking place soon afterward, he was released. The reign of Francis II. lasted less than eighteen months; and he was succeeded by his brother Charles, a youth ten years and a half old (1560). 14. Charles IX. The government was now administered by the Queen-mother, Catharine de' Medici, who had pre- viously selected for her chief friend and adviser the moderate and virtuous Chancellor de FHopital [lo'pe-tal); and the leaders of both religious parties were L'HSpital. placed in the great offices of state. The States- General were assembled, and proclaimed entire freedom of religion, wliicli was afterward confirmed by a royal edict. These excellent measures, however, proved ineffectual, in consequence of the excesses and bitter feelings of both parties; and the country was soon plunged into the miseries of a civil war. 15; -The Prince of Conde at first assumed the command of the Protestants, who were assisted by the English queen Elizabeth, while the government was aided by Philip of Spain. This war was carried on with great fury, and with various successes on both sides, till 1570, when peace was obtained by granting to the War with Protestants. Huguenots the free exercise of their religion in all parts of France, except Paris; and the administration placed in their power, as a guarantee, four cities, one of which was Rochelle {ro-slieV). While this arrangement gave great dissatisfaction to the Catholic party, it did not restore confidence to the Protestants, who entertained a mistrust of the sincerity of Catharine, by whose counsels and intrigues the king was entirely controlled. 16. Admiral Coligni and the other Protestant lekders finally repaired to the court; and the former gained so much France. ^49 influence over the young king, that Catharine entered into a plot to remove him by assassination. The admiral, however, was but slightly wounded; and Catharine and her political accomplices resolved on a general destruction of the Protestant party. The dreadful '^Massacre of St. Bartholomew's Day" followed, in which St. Bartholomew's Day. many of the Huguenots throughout France were butchered without distinction of age or sex, Coligni being the first victim. The number of those who fell in Paris alone has been estimated at 10,000; but it is impossible to ascertain the num- ber of victims with accuracy. This shocking event occurred August 24, 1572. The Huguenots were not, however, entirely crushed. They repelled the Huguenots. assaults made on Rochelle, and finally wrested favorable terms of peace from the government. Charles soon afterward died, having suffered the most poignant remorse for the atrocities perpetrated with his sanction. 17. Henry III., brother of the late king, succeeded to the throne; although, in the preceding year, 'he had been elected king of Poland. He was a weak and dissolute prince, neglecting his duties to indulge in the Character. most infamous debauchery. The Huguenots, under the leadership of Henry of Navarre and the Prince of Conde, became very powerful; and the king Huguenots. and Catharine were compelled to make the most humiliating concessions (1576). This led to a contest which has been styled the ^' War of the Three Henries" — Henry the king, Henry of Guise, and Henry of Navarre. It was commenced in 1587; and the king, in union with the Leaguers, gained some advantages over their opponents. 18. At last, disgusted and enraged at finding himself at the mercy of the Guises, and being treated with considerable indignity by them, he caused them to be assassi- i \ nated. This crime excited a violent outbreak of I popular fury against the king, who, in order to resist the 550 Modern History. opposition which he had created, allied himself to Henry of Navarre and the Huguenots. A few months after this, he was assassinated by a Dominican monk, named Clement, who was prompted to the deed by feel- ings of religious enthusiasm (1589). Thus ended Assassination of the king. the royal dynasty of Valois, the throne passing to the House of Bourbon, in the person of Henry III., king of Navarre, who therefore assumed the title of Henry IVo State of Society in France, During the Valois -Orleans Period. 19. The wars with Italy during this period led to the introduction of Italian art and artists into France, particu- larly in the reign of Francis I., who gave great encouragement to literature and art. His pa- tronage of men of science and letters, as well as artists, was so earnest that he associated with some of the most eminent as his personal friends. Among these Leonardo da Vinci, the Italian painter, was especially distinguished. During this period, called the Renaissance (new birth), French architecture was modified by the sub- Architecture. stitution of the lighter and more graceful Italian style.* This was true not only of the churches, but of domestic architecture. 20. Hunting and hawking were favorite amusements of the noble and wealthy. Each king had a large establishment specially devoted to the chase, for the support of which a large sum was annually appropriated. Annusements. Packs of hounds, also leopards, panthers, and falcons, were * " Four enormous walls, pierced promiscuously with small windows, flanked with ten small towers, and in the middle a large tower serving for a prison and treasury— such was the habitation of our ancient kings. Upon the ruins of this edifice of a past age was erected, little by little, a palace which, notwithstanding all its transformations, is still the most complete expression of the French Renais- .sanee. Pierre Lescot constructed only a part of the fagade, in which is placed the pavilion called the Horologe."'— Duruy's History of France. France. 551 employed; and a hunting party, especially of the monarch or of a great lord, brought together a numerous and gay com- pany, among them many ladies, who shared with eagerness in the excitement of the chase. Catlierine de' Medici was espe- cially noted for her fondness for hunting. 21. The dress of both sexes also underwent much change during this period. The love of luxury introduced by Fran- cis I. led to the adoption by the ladies of elegant and costly dresses, made of the richest fabrics. and covered with lace and jewelry. The hair also was elabo- rately dressed, and decorated with nets of rare tissues; and ruffed collars, worn at first by women, at a later day be- came common for men. The heightening of the complexion by paint, and the use of patches and perfumes, were in- troduced from Italy. The men wore broad-brimmed hats decorated with jewels and costly plumes, short mantles em- broidered with gold thread or trimmed with fur, and close- fitting slashed doublets with a belt at the waist in which was carried a rapier. They also wore trunk-hose and tights. Silk stockings are said to have been introduced by Catharine de' Medici, who first wore them from motives of vanity; and gloves, though afterward common, were at first a royal lux- ury. 22. Tlie influence of women at court received a powerful impulse in the time of Francis I. Long before his time, indeed, Anne of Brittany had gathered around her the daughters of the nobility for education and instruction in manners; but these consti- Influence of women. tuted rather her private court, and the wives of the nobles remained at home to superintend the affairs of the household. Francis I., however, invited the wives of his nobles to attend their husbands at court; and, at one time, their number amounted to three hundred. From this time they began to take part in public affairs, their jealousies and rivalries enter- ing largely into almost all political action. Ministers and 552 Modern History, Schools. generals were sometimes deposed at their pleasure, and their favor came to be considered the stepping-stone to power. 23. Schools had begun to increase in number during this period, though the instruction given in them was largely re- ligious, and the discipline strict. The hours of study were unusually long, and the rod was used unsparingly. Latin and Greek were especially studied, the remainder of the time, after these were disposed of, being devoted principally to music and religious and physical exer- cises. Science began to assume a more rational character toward the close of this period. The College of France was founded by Francis I., in College of France. 1530, designed especially to give instruction in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, hence called the College of the Three Languages. 24. Among the most noted men of influence and genius of the time may be particularly mentioned Michel de I'Ho- pital {me-sheV de lo'pe-taT), Chancellor of France during the reign of Henry U. Such was his tolerance and aversion to violence, that he re- Michel de I'Hopital. fused to sign the death-warrant of the Prince of Conde, and he successfully prevented the establishment of the Inquisition in France. At the massacre of St. Bartholomew's, the court sent a special guard for his protection; but supposing them to be assassins, he had his doors thrown open, saying that he was ready to meet death whenever it was the will of God. 25. Distinguished among the men of genius of the time may be mentioned also Francis Eabelais {rah'he-ld), the fa- mous satirist, who attacked the religious and priv- ileged orders; Clement Marot {mah-7'o'), noted for his ballads and other poems, which were very Other noted men. popular; Pierre Lescot {les-co'), the architect of the Louvre (1510-1571); Pbilibert Delorme \duli-lorm'), an eminent architect, the designer of the Tuileries (1518-1577);* Michel * The palace of the Tuilleries was commenced by Catharine de' Medici in 1564, and was continued by Henry IV., who added a range of buildings with a splendid France, 553 de Montaigne (1533-1594), the celebrated essayist; Auguste de Thou {too), who wrote a general history of Europe during his time (1553-1617); and others who contributed to the for- mation of the French language as it now exists. SECTION 11. The House of Bourbok. 26. Henry IV. was in his thirty-sixth year when he came to the throne, from which the Catholic nobles at first at- tempted to exclude him, except on condition of his renouncing his religion, which he refused to do; but he promised to give security to the Catho- War with the League. lies and their religion, and to abide the decision of a national Council. This not being satisfactory to the League, now commanded by the Duke of May-enne', brother of the late Duke of Guise, a war ensued, in which Henry defeated his enemies in the famous battle of Ivry (eev're) (1590); but the fruits of this victory were afterward lost, and the Duke of Mayenne entered Paris in triumph. 27. The war was continued for some time with varied suc- cess, Henry being aided by the English troops under the Earl of Essex. At last, the States-General were called ; and Henry, to satisfy the prevailing party, and to secure a recognition of his right Henry a Catholic. to the throne, abjured Protestantism and declared himself satisfied with the truth of the Catholic faith (1593). By this act he delivered France from a condition of tlie most dreadful pavilion at each end. The whole front was more than 1000 feet in extent, with a depth of about 100 feet. Henry IV. also commenced a gallery to connect the Louvre and the Tuileries. This was continued by Louis XIII., and completed by- Louis XIV. Napoleon I. added to this splendid edifice, and Napoleon III. further enlarged it. 554 Modern History. anarchy;* and on patriotic considerations, it was approved by many of the Huguenots themselves. The next five years were occupied by the king in securing his possession of the throne, and in a war with Philip of Spain, which was concluded by a treaty in 1598, a year memorable for the grant by the king of the celebrated Edict of Nantes {^nants), in which he confirmed the rights and privileges of Edict of Nantes. the Huguenots, conferred upon them entire liberty of con- science, and admitted them to all offices of honor and emolu- ment. 28. He next directed his attention to the internal condi- tion of the kingdom, which, on account of the long con- tinuance of civil war, had become entirely dis- organized. By the construction of roads and Internal affairs. canals, he brought all parts of the country into ready com- munication, encouraged traffic and commerce, and thus opened new sources of wealth and intelligence to the people. Manu- factures, mining, and every other department of industry were fostered by his beneficent measures, in devising which he was greatly aided by the wise and upright Duke of Sul'ly. The latter reorganized the Sully. finances; and, although many of the taxes were remitted, the national debt was almost entirely liquidated. 29. In the latter part of his reign, Henry IV. formed a project to rearrange the various states of Europe, and form them into an association,* so as more completely to secure the balance of power, and to diminish Henry's plan. the influence of the imperial house of Austria. A dispute having arisen between the emperor and some of the Protestant princes of Germany, Henry took sides with the latter, and thus gave great offense to his Catholic subjects. He was on * " A contemporary estimated in 1580 that at least 800,000 persons had perished by the war or by massacre : that 9 cities had been destroyed; 250 villages burned ; and 128,000 dwellings demolished. The work-shops were unoccupied, commerce was suspended, farms desolated, and everywhere brigandage. Such was the state from which Henry IV. was to rescue France."— Z>wruy's History of France. France, 5b5 the point of setting out to commence the war, when he was; assassinated (IGIO), in the streets of Paris, by a half-insane fanatic, named Eavaillac {rah-val-yak'). The death of the king, who was the idol of the people, occasioned the utmost grief and indignation; and Death and character. Sully. his murderer was put to death with every refinement of torture. Henry was possessed of great abilities and force of character; and, as a monarch, was deserving of very high praise; but his private life was sullied with many vices and immoralities. 30. Louis XIII succeeded his father at the age of nine years, under the regency of his mother, Mary de' Medici. Sully, tlie great min- ister of Henry IV., becoming disgusted with the measures of the regent, and par- ticularly her attention to Italian favorites, resigned, and went into retirement. An assembly of the States-General, in 1614, is noted for the first great occasion on which the celebrated Richelieu (reesh'e-lu) made dis- play of his extraor- RicnsLiEu. Richelieu. dinary talents. He was made a cardinal in 1622; and, two years afterward, became the chief adviser of the king. Deter- mined to subdue the Huguenots, he laid siege to their chief city, Rochelle; and though Charles I. Huguenots. of England sent a considerable force to its assistance, it was compelled, after a vigorous defense of fifteen months, to sur- render (1628). Richelieu himself took an active part in this siege. The other towns in the possession of the Huguenots were soon afterward obliged to submit, and the Protestant power in France was completely crushed. 31. Richelieu's next object was to humble the power of the imperial house of Austria, to effect which he took part in 556 Modern History. the Thirty Years' War, on the side of the Protestants, against Spain and the empire (1635). The war was be- gun in the Netherlands, where the king's generals gained a victory near Liege, but tlie next year the suffered some reverses, the imperialists invading Thirty Years' 1 French France, devastating the country, and penetrating to within three days' march of the capital. The persevering energy of Eichelieu, however, finally triumphed over all his enemies; and the French made conquest of Alsace and other territories. 32. The vigor of Eichelieu's government excited much opposition on the part of the princes and nobles of France, and many conspiracies were formed to destroy him. All these schemes he was enabled to Conspiracies. thwart by his consummate vigilance and address, and several of those who had engaged in them he caused to be executed. The most conspicuous among his ene- mies were Mary de' Medici, the queen-mother ; Gaston, Duke of Orleans, the brother of the king; and the Duke of Montmorency. The last was executed, having been taken prisoner in a conflict with the government forces. Not- withstanding these difficulties, the great minister maintained the influence of France, and made it respected by every foreign power. Beneath his comprehensive genius and indefatigable energy, the king was a mere cipher. Richelieu was also a patron of science and literature, and to him France owes the foundation of the French academy. His death occurred m 1642, and was followed the next year by that of the king. 33. Louis XIV. was scarcely five years of age when his father died; and the regency was intrusted to his mother, Anne of Austria, who selected as her prime minister Cardinal Mary de' Medici. Richelieu's influence. France, 557 Maz'a-rin, a former disciple and associate of Richelieu. France was again drawn into the Tliirty Years' i '^^^ War, by the renewal of hostilities on the part of ^ the house of Austria; but several splendid victories were gained by the French army, under the Prince of Conde, afterward so illustrious as the Great Conde, and by the celebrated Marshal Tu-renne'. This long war was closed by the Treaty of Westphalia, in Conde and Turenne. 1648, by which the boundaries of France were settled, nearly as they exist at present. 34. Meantime, the civil war of the Fronde* had broken out (1648), caused by the resistance of the people, represented in the parliament of Paris, to the unjust and oppressive measures of taxation adopted by the Fronde. government, and probably incited by the rebellion of the English against their king, Charles I., which had just been brought to a successful issue. In these commotions, the court was opposed by many of the nobles; and, during the latter part of the war, the Great Conde also took sides against the government. The principal leader of the revolt, how- ever, was Cardinal de Rets (rates). With much difficulty it was subdued in 1653, having lasted about five years. 35. The death of Mazarin, who had accumulated enor- mous wealth, occurred in 1661, after which date Louis XIV., from wiiom, on account of his neglected educa- tion, little had been expected, suddenly assumed Reign of Louis. the reins of government. He at once exhibited great sagacity and talent as a ruler; and during his subsequent reign, which lasted more than half a century, the vastness of his military enterprises, the grandeur of his plans for the internal improvement of his kingdom, his magnificent court ceremonial, and his enlightened patronage of literature and * " The members of the political faction opposed to the government were called, in derision, Frondeurs. that is. Slinf/ers, being compared to the vagrant boys {gamins) of Paris v.ho fought with slings (fronde). 558 Modern History. the arts and sciences, obtained for him the title of the Great King. His government was, however, a complete despotism, its fundamental principle being comprehended in his famous saying, "I am the state." The prosperity of France was at Colbert. this time greatly promoted by the wise financial measures of Colbert {kole-bare'), and by the ability with which the foreign affairs were administered by the prime minister Louvois {loo-vwaW). 36. The first military enterprise of Louis was the seizure of Flanders and Franche Comte (fransh ko7ig'ta); but the Triple Alliance (England, Holland, and Sweden) arrested his career of conquest (1668). This ex- Triple Alliance. cited the anger of Louis against Holland ; and, having bribed Charles 11. of Eng- land to aid him, and War in HoMand. Louis XIV. obtained promises of neutrality from the other European powers, he directed his armies under Tu- renne and Conde against the Dutch, the king in person cross- ing the Khine with the army. 37. Holland was at first power- less against this formidable com- bination. Her people were divided into two parties, one composed of the nobility, with the Prince of Orange, afterward William III,, King of England, as their leader ; the other, of the merchants and burghers, who formed a republican party, at the head of which were the brothers John and Corne- lius De Witt. The country was, however, rich, and was pos- sessed of a powerful navy, commanded by the two most re- nowned admirals in Europe, De Ruy ter (ri'ter) and Van Tromp. 38. In their first movements, the French were successful. Several of the Dutch provinces were occupied, and Amsterdam Prince of Orange. De Witt. France. 559 was threatened. Party dissensions became more bitter; the republicans demanding peace, while the Prince of Orange declared for war. A struggle ensued in which the Do Witts were killed by the enraged Events of the war. populace, and the Prince of Orange was appointed Stadt- holder (1672). The tide of war then rapidly turned in favor of the Dutch. Amsterdam was relieved from its besiegers by cutting the dikes and flooding the surrounding country; De Euyter and Van Tromp destroyed the allied fleets; and the Stadtholder, by his skillful negotiations, dissolved the Eng- lish and French alliance, and obtained the aid of Austria and Germany. Thus in two years, the greater part of Europe became involved in the war, and France stood alone. ,39. But Louis, through the genius of his great general Turenne, gained several victories over the allied forces; and, in the Mediterranean, the French fleets defeated those of Holland, De Euyter being slain in one of the battles. At last, however, beset on all French successes. sides, he sued for peace, and a treaty was concluded in 1678. The war had brought him no advantages. He gave up all his conquests in Holland. Turenne had fallen in battle (1675); and Conde, enfeebled Treaty of peace. by age, had retired forever from the army. Still great honors were conferred upon him at Paris, triumphal arches were erected to commemorate his victories, and he received the title of The Great {Louis le Grand). 40. The free city of Strasburg was taken by the French a short time afterward (1681); and tlirough the engineering skill of the celebrated Vauban [vo-hahng') it was i made an impregnable bulwark of France on its I eastern frontier. In 1683, the queen died, and Louis afterward married secretly Madame de Main tenon (mahn- ta-7iong'), who had obtained a singular influence over him, which she ever afterward retained. Madame de Maintenon. It was by the advice of this woman that the king adopted 560 Modern History. the impolitic metisure of revoking the Edict of Nantes (1G85), whicli was followed by a tierce persecution of the Huguenots, an immense number of whom were Edict of Nantes. War renewed. driven from the country.* 41. The Catholic king of England, James II., having been dethroned, took refuge at the French court; and, Louis supporting his cause, war was declared between France and England (1G89). All the great powers of Europe were combined against the French monarch, who at once put his forces in motion to forestall the action of his enemies. He sent an army into Germany, captured several cities, and ruthlessly devastated a large tract of country in order to jirevent it from being used by his adversaries. For over seven years was this mighty struggle maintained by sea and land; and, France being utterly exhausted, Louis was compelled to assent to the Treaty of Ryswick, and thus sub- mit to humiliating conditions of peace (1G97). 42. A few years afterward, followed the great War of the Spanish Succession (1701). On the death of Charles II. of Spain, Louis claimed the throne of that country for his grand- son Philip v., whilst the emperor supported the claim of his son, afterward the Emperor Charles VI. This led to an alliance between Holland and War of the Spanish Succession. Germany against the French king; which was joined by Wil- liam of Orange, Louis having recognized the son of James II. as king of England. The war was carried on in Spain, Bel- gium, Germany, and Italy; and the French experienced a series of disastrous defeats, having to contend against the genius of * " It can never be known, with anything approaching to accuracy, how many persons fled from France in consequence of the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. Vauban, wTiting a few years after, said that ' France had lost a hundred thousand inhabitants, sixty miUions of money, nine thousand sailors, twelve thousand tried soldiers, six hundred officers, and its most flourishing manufactures.' "—-Sm/ies's Huguenots. A whole district of London is peopled by the descendants of the Huguenots, who transported their silk manufactories from France to Spitalfields. Many found a home in northern Germany, carrying thither their arts, their thrift, and their industry. France, 561 Marlborough and Prince Eugene. The Treaty of Utrecht closed the war (1713), according to which Louis gave up some of his American possessions to England, but obtained the recognition of Philip V. as king of Spain. 43. The condition of France was now most deplorable, through the ambition, pride, and bigotry of her despotic monarch. He sustained, however, his haughty mien and pompous state ceremonial to the last, notwithstanding he had l6st by death his son, Condition of France. the Dauphin, his eldest grandson, and many others of his kindred. He died in 1715, after a reign of more than seventy-two years, and was succeeded by King's death. Louis, his great-grandson.* Louis XIV. left several volumes of writings, containing his *' Instructions to his Sons," and his letters, which give valuable information respecting the events of his reign. This period is regarded as the Augustan age of French literature. 44. Louis XV. was only five years of age on his accession, and the regency fell into the hands of the dissolute Duke of Orleans, who was controlled by his shameless and unprincipled minister, the infamous Abbe Dubois Regency. (du-Mvah'). The education of the young king had been in- trusted from an early age to Fleu'ry, noted for his scholar- ship and the prominent position which he subse- quently occupied in the government of France. During the regency occurred the famous Missis- Mississippi Schenne. sippi Scheme, devised by a Scotch adventurer named John * " At eight o'clock on the following morning, Louis XIV. expired. As he ex- haled his last sigh, a man was seen to approach a window of the state apartment which opened on the great balcony, and throw it suddenly back. It was the captain of the body-guard, who had no sooner attracted the attention of the populace, by whom the courtyard was thronged in expectation of the tidings which they knew could not be long delayed, than, raising his truncheon above his head, he broke it in the center, and throwing the pieces among the crowd, exclaimed in a loud voice, 'The king is dead!' Then, seizing another staff from an attendant, without the pause of an instant, he flourished it in the air as he shouted, ' Long live the king ! ' And a multitudinous echo from the depths of the lately deserted apart- ment answered as buoyantly, '■ Long live the king! ' '''—Par doe's Louis Xn\ 562 Modern History. Law, who proposed to issue paper-money on the security of certain gold and diamond mines said to exist near the Missis- sippi Kiver, in Louisiana, and in this way to extinguish the vast debt of the country. Such was the rage for speculation excited by this project, that the shares sold for forty times their par value. Thousands were ultimately ruined by this scheme. 45. In 1726 Fleury was made prime minister and a cardinal, in the seventy-second year of his age; and the country greatly prospered under his prudent and skillful ad- ministration, which lasted seventeen years. His Fleurv policy was peaceful; but the marriage of Louis XV. with the daughter of the dethroned king of Poland, involved him in a war with Russia, Austria, and Denmark, to reinstate his father-in-law, Stan'is-las, on the throne; but in this object he was unsuccessful. The War of the Austrian Succession followed soon after, during which Fleury died (1743). The most important victory gained by the French during this war was that of Fontenoy, uiider Marshal Saxe (1745). 46. The Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle gave a brief rest to Europe, which was broken by the Seven Years' War in 1756. During this struggle, France lost Canada and some of her West Indian possessions; and her army was severely defeated at Min'den, by the Seven Years' War. English and Hanoverians, commanded by the Duke of Bruns- wick (1759). The Treaty of Paris deprived France of many important possessions, and left her heavily laden with debt (1763). The year 1769 is remarkable for the conquest of Corsica, after a brave struggle for its independence, under Paoli. During the same year was born on this island Napo- leon Bonaparte, destined to play so great a part in the subsequent history of France. Louis XV. died in 1774, after having, by a long course Death and Character. of tyranny, debauchery, and reckless profusion, disgusted his subjects, and plunged the country into anarchy an4 Prance. 563 ruin.* Indeed, he partly realized the consequences of his reckless course, but joined with his favorite Madame de Pompadour in the well-known saying, ** After us the del- uge!" State of Society in France, During the Bourbon Period (1589-1774). 47. Absolutism characterizes this period of French his- tory, for the king absorbed all the powers of the government. The Parliament of Paris sometimes tried to assert the power of the people, but the king could Government. always crush its refractory spirit by a prom2:>t dismissal of its members to their homes. The States-General gave place to the Assembly of the Notables, called to sanction the decrees of the monarch. Louis XIV. ruled with arrogance as well as supreme power. To one who spoke of the state in his pres- ence, he haughtily exclaimed: " The state, — /am the state!" 48. The nobles, except those connected with the court, were poor and helpless; for, though their castles were in ruins, their fields uncultivated and unproductive, and they themselves with scarcely the means of sub- sistence, their pride of rank forbade that they Condition of the people. should labor to improve their condition. The middle classes {bourgeoisie), merchants, trades-people, artisans, etc., were often affluent, sometimes rivaling the nobility in the richness of their houses, in their dress, and in their equipages. The general condition of the peasantry of France, during this whole period, was one of wretchedness and squalor. \ •" " A strong, firm hand was needed to grasp the scepter so triumphantly borne by Louis XIV. for seventy years ; but Louis XV. was as weak as he was vicious. His reign is the most humiliating, the most deplorable, in French history. It was a reign unredeemed by any splendor or by any virtue. "—J/ejiri Martin'' s History of France. t The noble exercised absolute power over the peasants living on his estate, and there were thousands of serfs who were bought and sold with the land. Large tracts of land were set apart for hunting: and the starving peasant was often for- bidden to till his ground lest it might disturb or injure the game. The gabeUe was S64 Modern Mlstory. 49. Under the first of the Bourbons, who cherished tlie ove of his country, great improvements were made; while the freedom granted by the Edict of Nantes gave an impulse to every kind of industry, fostered also by the wise measures of the Duke of Sully. The State of the nation under the Bourbons successors of Henry IV. were selfish, dissolute, and vain- glorious; and while they encouraged science and art, they were utterly regardless of the interests of the people. The entire substance of the nation was wasted in their costly wars, their extravagant enterprises, and their luxurious excesses. Splendid buildings and works of art commemorated their taste and refinement, while the great mass of their subjects lived in penury and servitude. The ostentation and pride of the Grand Monarque reduced about one tenth of the people to hopeless beggary. 50. Commerce and manufactures of various kinds were encouraged by Henry IV.; but it was during the reign of Louis XIV. and under the administration of Col- bert, that every department of industrial and com- mercial enterprise received its greatest impulse. Commerce and manufactures. He established companies to trade in the East and West Indies, thus forming a rival to the Dutch; he promoted the manufacture of fine cloths, encouraged the cultivation of mul- berry-trees, and the art of making plate-glass, which had previously been imported into France from Venice. The manufacture of porcelain at Sevres (sevr), and the world- renowned Gobelin tapestry, date from this period. Machin- ery for weaving stockings was imported by Colbert from Eng- land, and lace-making was introduced from Flanders and Venice. Commerce was greatly promoted by the construc- a most oppressive tax, each family being required to buy a certain quantity of salt at least four times a year whether it was needed or not. The peasants were also compelled to labor upon the public works— building roads, bridges, etc., any required time without compensation, and sometimes to perform the most menial and degrading sei'vices for their tyrannical masters, who trampled under their feet even the most sacred rights of their dependents. France. mh tion of the Cmial of Lciugiicdoc, connecting the Atlantic Ocean with the Mediterranean (1G64-1681). 51. Among the most important reforms introduced during the same reign was the re-organization of the army and navy, accomplished under the direction of the great war minister Louvois. For the army, schools of artil- Reforms. Paviuon op Henry IV. at St. Germain. lery were founded at Metz, Douai {doo-d), and Strasburg; and the art of fortification r ^ was carried to a high "^ degree of perfection by Vauban. The bayonet as now nsed was invented at Bayonne (hence its name), in 1640. Marine arsenals were built at yarious ports. The navy of France at this time was large, and powerful enough to cope with the Dutch. One hun- dred vessels of war were built in the year 1G72 alone. 52. Numerous buildings of great magnificence were erected during this period: only a few can be here referred to. Without lovmg the arts as did his immediate predecessors, Henry IV. was not wanting in a taste for splendid architecture. He caused a beautiful pa- vilion to be constructed at St. Germain, where Francis I. had built rather a fortress than a royal residence; and finished the facade of the Hotel de ViUe, which had been commenced by Francis!., besides erecting or completing many other struc- tures. Richelieu had a great love and taste for architecture. The erection of the Palais Cardinal occupied his attention for years, but it was not completed till after his death, when it became the Palais Royal, and the residence of tlie king. In the reign of Louis XIV., Paris was adorned with parks and Architecture. 666 Modern History. public buildings to an extent previously unknown; but beyond all others in extent and magnificence was the celebrated palace and gardens of Versailles (vdr-sdlz'). The Pantheon was built at the instance of Madame de Pompadour, to replace the church of St. Genevieve, the patron saint of Paris. 53. Many scientific and literary institutions date from the time of Kichelieu. He established the French Academy in Institutions^ I ^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^^ dcsigu to Improvc the. language — 1 and literary taste of the people; and was a great patron of men of letters, among them Corneille (kor-naW), the dramatist. Mazarin was also a friend to art, literature, and education. He founded various colleges and academies. During the reign of Louis XV. a host of illustrious men flourished. The Observatory was erected at Paris, and the celebrated astronomers, Roemer (from Denmark), Huygbens (from Holland), and Cassini (from Italy), were induced to settle 111 France.* The Military School was established in this reign. 54. The first newspaper in France was a weekly, issued in 1631, under the name, at first, of the Gazette, but afterward the Gazette de France. The paper was continued til] 1789. The postal service was regulated in Innovations. 1627, the price of carrying a letter from Paris to Lyons being fixed at about two cents. The first tax on tobacco was imposed in 1629. The nse of coflee was introduced from Constanti- nople m 1660; and in 1720, a coffee plant, raised in the hot- house of the Garden of Plants, led to the extensive cultivation of coffee in the French West Indies. The cotton manufac- ture was commenced in the latter part of this period; and the first steam-engine was used in 1770, at Shaillot {shd-yo'). Street lamps came into use in Pans in 1767. * The first of these, Roemer, discovered tLs velocity of light; Huyghens dis- covered the ring and one of the satellites of Saturn; and Cassini, four other satel lites of the same planet, besides devising a method of ascertainmg the size of the earth, by measuring the length of a degree of a meridian. Prance. m^i 55. The dwelling-houses of the wealthy inhabitants of the cities often displayed regal kixLiry and splendor. Mary de' Medici brought from Italy a refined and luxuri- ous taste, and patronized tlie eminent artists of Furnitur her time. Expensive tapestry and Turkey carpets were used m palaces; also chau's, which, with table linen and many other things now common, were articles of luxury. Coaches were slowly coming into use. There was great extravagance in dress among the higher classes, particularly with the ladies. Elaborate head-dresses, long trains, and cork heels some-* j,s^ times ten inches high are described among the eccentricities of the period. During the reign of Louis XIV., Ill the ladies carried looking-glasses in their hands, to adjust their finery. The men too were guilty of simi- lar extravagance. They wore wigs |lj' so finely curled, that to prevent them from being disordered, they were obliged to carry their hats in their hands instead of wearing them Fountain moliere, Paris. ^^ their heads. They also frequently indulged in very costly jewelry. 66. This period abounded in men of genius. A few only can be mentioned here. Among poets and dramatists, Corneille (1606-1684), considered the father of French tragedy, and Racine {rah-seen!) (1639- Literature. I 1699), his great rival in the same field; Moliere {mo-lydr') (1722-1693), a comic dramatist of great genius; Voiture {vwah-hire') (1598-1648), and Boileau {Invali-lo') (1636- 1711), distinguished poets, the latter a special favorite of Louis XIV. To these may be added Scarron (1610-1660), the husband of Madame de Maintenon, and La Fontaine 568 Modern History. (1621-1695), sometimes called the modern ^sop.*J The most distinguished pulpit orators of the age of Louis XIV. were Bossuet {bos-wa^), Bourdaloue {boor-da-loo'), and Mas- sillon {7nas-seel-yong'), with whom may be associated the illustrious preacher and writer Fen'e-lon (1651-1715), author of TeUmaqtie [The Adventures of Telem'achus), a school-book in use at the present day. | Madame de Sevigne {se-veen'ya) (1626-1696), celebrated for her charming letters, represents her sex among the crowd of literary personages of the times. La Rochefoucauld (rosh-foo-ko) (1613-1680) was the author of a book of Moral Maxirns that was universally admired. 57. Among historians must be mentioned De Thou (too) (1553-1617), who wrote a history of France, and the Abbe de Fleury, the author of a history of the Church; among Other noted writers. writers of fiction and litterateurs, Balzac (1594-1654), considered the best French prose writer of his time; Pas-cal' (1623-1662), who wrote the Provincial Letters; Le Sage (sdzh) (1668-1747), the author of Gil Bias, and Rousseau (roo-so') (1712-1778), one of the most eminent writers of the period just preceding the French Revolution. In addition to these should be mentioned the famous musician Lulli, the founder of the French opera; the painters Poussin * "No nation could present, at the time of Louis XIV., so magnificent a collec- tion of literary productions. Italy and Germany were in a complete moral decline ; Spain, like a rich ruin, preserved, from its lost fortunes, only a few precious jewels, showing a few eminent painters and writers. England, at the beginning of the century, had had its Shakespeare ; in the middle, its Milton ; and at the end its Dryden; but this literature did not pass beyond the island where it belonged. France, on the contrary, was really at the head of modern civilization ; and by the acknowledged superiority of its taste, it made all Europe accept the peaceful dominion of its artists and its writers."— /)w>ni?/'s History of France. France. tm (poos-sang') and Claude Lorraine; the architects Mansard and Claude Perrault (per-ro'); the philosopher and scientist Des Cartes {da kart), and the physicists Mariotte {inah-re-ot') and Delisle {de leel), with, toward the end of the century, the noted naturalist, Buffon (hoof-fong'), and Diderot [de-da-ro'), D'Alembert (dd-long-bare^), the authors of the EncyclopcB- diaj besides Lavoisier {lah-vtvah-ze-d'), the father of modern chemistry, and the mathe- maticians La Place {lah plaJicc) and Legeudre {lii- zliondr), 58. Above and beyond all the literary men of his time must be mentioned Vol-taire' (1G94-1' Voltaire. who, whether as wit, poet, historian, or philosopher, shone with a luster sur- passing all others. Un- fortunately a skeptic in religion, he scoffed at Voltaire. (From a statue.) divine revelation ; and, hence, the brighter his genius shone, the more baneful was his influence upon the moral and religious progress of his time.* To Voltaire, Montesquieu (mon-tes-ku') (1G89-I755),f * Voltaire's true name was Arouet. He was born in Paris, in 1694; and at the age of twenty-one was sent to the Bastile for a satire on Louis XIV., of which, how- ever, he was not the author. In 1718, he published the tragedy entitled CEdipe, and in 1723, the poem La Henriade, in which he defended religious toleration. He subsequently spent three years in England, and some time afterward resided at the court of Frederick of Prussia on terms of intimacy with that monarch. + Montesquieu was the author of a work entitled The Spirit of the Laics, which is still a standard. His influence, though revolutionary, was beneficent; and his writings were far in advance of the age, in the lofty spirit of freedom and humanity with which they are replete. Rousseau, Montesquieu, and Voltaire, and the philosophers and free-thinkers of their age, hurried on a mighty convulsion which ui»ny believe could not long have been delayed. 570 Modern History. Rousseau,* and the EncyclopcecUsts is attributed, in part, that dreadful overturning of the institutions of society that formed so terrible a characteristic of the great French Revolution. SECTION III. Revolutionary Frais'Ce. 59. Louis XVI. succeeded his grandfather at the age of twenty years. His character presented a striking contrast to that of the preceding king, being beneficent and upright; and he commenced his reign with the Character. sincere desire to ameliorate the condition of his suffering people, by redressing their grievances, and restoring the financial prosperity of the kingdom. He was, how- ever, deficient in judgment and decision; and, although he select- ed for his ministers the patriotic Turgot {toor-go') and Malsherbes {mal-zdrh'), he soon became in- volved in great diffi- culties on account of the irreparable confusion of the finances. These were still further deranged by the extravagant habits of the court, presided over by the young Difficulties. Marie Antoinette. *" The writer who acquired the most extensive and pernicious influence over the mind of France at this period was undoubtedly Jean Jacques Rousseau. In his works on the Ineqiiahty of the Condition of Mankind, in his Emile, Contrat Social, and Nouvelle Heloise, he developed his notions on the reconstruction of society with a subtlety, a charm of style, a specious air of philanthropy, a false morbid sensibility, peculiarly attractive to the French character, but the effects of which went directly to undermine and subvert the very foundations of religion, morality, and legitimate government/''— Student's History of France. France. 571 and fasciiifitiiig queen, Marie Antoinette {an-tivah-net'), dtingliter of Maria Theresa.* (See page 005.) 60. Various ministers of well-established reputation for financial skill were appointed, among them the celebrated Neck'er, a banker of Geneva; but the national difficulties increased. A war with Endand, Other troubles. caused by the interference of France in the struggle of the English colonies of America for independence, still further embarrassed the government of Louis XVI., by compelling a new levy of taxes, greatly to the discontent of the people, who complained loudly of the extravagance of the court and of Marie Antoinette. At length an assembly of the States-General was vehemently demanded, a States-General. meeting of which had not been called since 1614. To this Louis gave his assent (1789). 61. By the advice of Necker, it had been decreed that the representatives of the Third Estate should be equal in num- ber to those of the nobility and clergy together; and, on their assemblage at Versailles, a dispute Dispute, arose as to the mode m which the votes should be taken — whether the three orders should vote as separate bodies, or all the votes should be taken numerically. The latter mode was advocated by the Third Estate; and, after contending for several weeks against the two other orders, they finally re- solved themselves into a distinct body, under the title of the National Assembly, and claimed to be the legitimate representatives of the French National Assembly. people (June 17). They were soon joined by many of the * " Meanwhile the fair young Queen, in her halls of state, walks like a goddess of Beauty, the cynosure of all eyes; as yet mingles not with affairs; heeds not the future ; least of all, dreads it. Weber and Campan have pictured her there within the royal tapestries, In bright boudoirs, baths, peignoirs, and the Grand and Little Toilet; with a whole brilliant world waiting obsequious on her glance: fair young daughter of Time, what things has Time in store for thee ! Like Earth's brightest Appearance, she moves gracefully, environed with the grandeur of Earth: a reality, and yet a magic vision; for, behold, shall not utter Darkness swallow it?" — Carlyle's French Revolution. 573 Modern History. clergy. Revolution. Tliiis was inaugnnited that tremendous social and political convulsion known as the French Revo- lution, which in its progress not only overturned Proceedings of the Assennbly, the government of France, but threw the whole civilized world into violent commotion, uprooting institutions that had withstood the assaults of ages. 62. The king and his ministers, dismayed at the deter- mination shown by the lower order, and desiring to check their proceedings, attempted to exclude them from their hall, and thus susi^end their sittings. But the Assembly, through the energy of their president Bail'ly (or hahl-ye'), and the eloquence of their great leader Mirabeau (me-rah-bo'), thwarted this attempt; and the s king showed his indecision by af- terward sanction- ing their meas- ures, and request- ing all the depu- ties of the clergy and nobility to join with the Third Estate. But the queen opposed these concessions. By The Bastile. her advicc large bodies of troops were collected to overawe the Assembly; and Necker, the popular minister, was dismissed. An insurrection of the populace of Pans ensued, and the Bastile {bas-teeV), a noted prison, was stormed and captured by the mob (July 14, 1789).* The excited pojiulace * The Bastile was begun in 1369, by Charles V., and was enlarged in succeeding reigns. Thousands of persons, many of whom were princes and members of distinguished families, were here imprisoned till death came to their relief. When Insurrection. France. 573 then i)roceecled to Versailles, and demanded that the king and royal family should return to Paris; and Louis felt himself obliged to comply. 63. Lafayette {lali-fa-et') was then placed at the head of the militia, called" the National Guard; but, as its members sympathized with the poj^ular movements, the kmg was without any support except from the Swiss and German mercenaries. The violence of the Parisian mob, inflamed by the political writings which were circulated among the people, soon became National Guard. Parisian mob. ungovernable; and several obnoxious individuals were seized and put to death with great cruelty. The Assembly ener- getically prosecuted its measures of reform, and decreed the en- tire abolition of the principles and practices of the former gov- ernment. They subsequently agreed upon a constitution, lim- iting the power of the king and securing popular rights ; and then passed a resolution by which the National Assem- bly (now called the Constituent Assembly) was dissolved, and a new Lafayette. Constituent Assembly. body authorized to be summoned, entitled the Legislative AssemMy, to which none of the members of the National Assembly were eligible (1791). 64. Meanwhile, several insurrections had taken place in Paris; and the king and his family had been treated with the greatest indignity by the infuriated mob, whose passions were particularly excited against the unfortunate queen. the JBastile was captured by the people (1789), seven persons were found in its cells, one of whom had been there thirty years. On its site now stands the " Column of July," which was erected in memory of the patriots of 1789 and 1830. 574 Modern History. Flight of the king Attempting flight, the king and his family were pursued, arrested, and brought back to Pans. The Legis- lative Assembly met m 1791; and, although the king had accepted the constitution and promised to abide by its requirements, a large party were hostile to the monarchy, desiring to destroy it, and establish a republican form of government. These views were fostered by the political clubs which had been formed in Paris a short time after the commencement of the revolu- tion, among which the famous Jac'obin Club had attained the complete control of the Assembly. 65. The king repeatedly made concessions to the repub- licans, while he cherished schemes for escaping from their control; but each month added to his humiliations and to the boldness of his enemies. Foreign nations looked on with alarm, and sympathized with the royal Royal family. family. Austria and Prussia declared war upon the French, in order to rescue the hapless monarch. This still further excited the Parisian mob. They rushed to the Tuileries {ttveel're), the palace in which the king Insurrection. resided, took it by storm, massacred the brave Swiss soldiers who defended it, and obliged the king to take refuge in the Assembly, by whose orders he and his family were imprisoned (August 10, 1792). The National Convention. 66. The supreme authority being now seized by the muni- cipality of Paris, a special criminal tribunal was instituted; and all persons suspected of hostility to the revo- lution were dragged before it, condemned, and massacred in the most shocking manner. Lafay- Criminal tribunal. ette, being at the head of the army, refused to recognize the authority of the Assembly, but, not being sustained by the troops, he retired from the country. The Legislative Assembly was dissolved; and having been re-organized as the National France. 575 Republic. Convention^ it formally abolished the monarchy, and declared France a republic (September, 1792). The next month, the revolutionists were emboldened by the victory gained by the French General Dumouriez {du-moo- re-a') over the Austrian army at Jemmapes (zhem-map), in Belgium. 67. The Convention, now composed of strict republicans, was divided into two parties, bitterly hostile to each other, one called the Mountain Party, and the other the Girondists {zhe-roncVists). Of the former, the leaders were Robespierre (ro'bes- pee?'),^ Dan'ton, and Marat {mah- raW), noted for their wickedness and cruelty. Leaders. Robespierre. Fate of Louis, \ Among the most eminent of the Gi- rondists was Vergniaud {vdrn-yo'), distinguished for his eloquence. One of the first acts of the Convention was the trial of the king, who was charged with conspiring against the liberties of France; and, notwithstanding the eloquent and unanswerable defense made by his advocate, Deseze (dilh- sdz'), he was found guilty of the charges, with very few dissenting votes, and condemned to death. The sentence was executed by the guillotine, one * " Maximilian Robespierre was born at Arras, of a poor family, honest and respectable; his father, who died in Germany, was of English origin. He was the Luther of politics; and in obscuritj' he brooded over the confused thoughts of a renovation of the social world and the religious world, as a dream which unavail- ingly beset his youth, when the Revolution came to offer him what destiny always offers to those who watch her progress— opportunity. He seized on it. He was named deputy of the Third Estate in the States General. Alone, perhaps, among all these men who opened at Versailles the first scene of this vast drama, he fore- saw the termination ; like the soul, whose seat in the human frame philosophers have not discovered, the thought of an entire people sometimes concentrates itself in the individual, the least known in the great mass."— Lamartme's History of the Girondists. 576 Modern History. week afterward (January 21, 1793). Among those who voted for the king's condemnation was the infamous Duke of Or- leans, who took part in the popular excesses, abandoning his title and taking the name of Philip E-gal'i-te {equality). 68. The Mountain Party having triumphed in the Con- vention, the Girondist leaders were guillotined, and with them the celebrated Madame Roland. The Reign of Terror was then inaugurated, during which the Reign of Terror. Kevolutionary Tribunal, controlled by Robespierre, Danton, and others, caused thousands to be seized and hurried to the guil- M^i^mi^mf^'- \ lotine.* Among these victims / mSKM^m ^k \ was the unfortunate Marie An- toinette (October, 1793), who, during her imprisonment, had / been subjected to every indignity and insult which could be de- vised by her relentless jailers. Similar deeds of cruelty were perpetrated in other parts of France, the number guillotined being estimated at more than 18,000. With scarcely an ex- ception, the prominent actors in these atrocities, one after another, met with a violent death. Marat was assassinated by Charlotte Corday; and Robespierre's faction, obtaining the ascendency, sent Danton and his adherents to the guillotine. Madamk Roland. * " Night and day the cars incessantly discharged victims into the prison; weep- ing mothers and trembhng orphans were thrust in without mercy with the brave and the powerful; the young, the beautiful, the unfortunate, seemed in a peculiar manner the prey of the assassins. Nor were the means of evacuating the prisons augmented in a less fearful progression. Fifteen only were at first placed on the chariot, but their number was soon augmented to thirty, and gradually rose to eighty persons who daily were sent forth to the place of execution ; when the fall of Robespierre put a stop to the murders, arrangements had been made for increasing it to one hundred and fifty. An immense aqueduct, to remove the gore, had been dug as far as the Place St. Antoine (plahs sang ahn-tirahn); and four men were daily employed in emptying the blood of the victims into that reservoir."— Alison's History of Europe. France, 577 A few months later, the Eeign of Terror was closed by the execution of Robespierre himself (1794).* The Disectory. 69. A new constitution was then adopted by the Conven- tion, the executive authority being intrusted to a Directory, consisting of live members. This constitution being opposed by several of the Parisian Sections (divisions of the city), who threatened an insurrection, Napoleon Bonaparte, a young officer, who had previously distinguished himself at the siege of Tou-lon', was selected to Napoleon Bonaparte. conduct the military operations against the insurgents. Plant- ing his cannon adroitly, he opened fire upon the populace, and dispersed them without difficulty (1795). 70. The service rendered by Napoleon on the ^'Day of the Sections," was soon afterward rewarded by conferring upon him the command of the Army of Italy, designed to operate against the Austrians (1796). In two campaigns he achieved a succession of the most Austri an war. brilliant victories over the Austrian armies; and entering the Venetian territory, in consequence of hostilities committed against the French, he captured Venice itself, and overturned her ancient government (1797). The Austrian emperor was at length compelled to assent to the terms of the treaty of Cam'po For'-mi-o, by which an independent commonwealth was established in northern Italy, called the Cisalpine Repub- lic, but the city of Venice was ceded to Austria. 71. Bonaparte, after considerable persuasion, induced the Directory to consent to an expedition designed to conquer * " T\Tien Robespierre ascended the fatal car, his head was enveloped in a bloody cloth, his color was livid, and his eyes sunk. When the procession came opposite his house, it stopped, and a group of women danced round the bier of him whose chariot- wheels thej' would have dragged, the day before, over a thousand victims. Robespierre mounted the scaffold last, and the moment his head fell, the applause was tremendous. In some cases the event was announced to the prisoners by the waving of handkerchiefs from the tops of houses."— Ha^Zii^s i^>e)ic7i i^ewit*- tion. 578 Modern History, Egypt^ as a means of attacking the commerce and power of England in the East. Landing there with an immense army, he captnred Alexandria, and then marched toward Cairo {ki'ro), which, after de- Expedition to Egypt. feating the Mam'e-lukes in the noted Battle of the Pyra- mids, he entered (1798). This gave him possession of the country; but a few days afterward. Nelson destroyed his fleet, in the memorable Battle of the Nile, and thus cut oil the retreat of the invaders. 72. The Turkish Empire having declared war against France, Bonaparte at once invaded Syria, captured Jaffa by assault, and cruelly caused twelve hundred Turk- ish prisoners to be put to death. He then laid Other events. siege to Acre {a' her), but failed to capture it; although he de- feated the Turks with great slaughter at Mount Tabor. Return- ing to Egypt, he attacked and almost annihilated a considei'able army of Turks at Aboukir {ah-lwo-heer'), General Murat (imi- rali'), at the head of the French cavalry, particularly distin- guishing himself in this obstinate battle (1799). Leaving his army with General Kleber (kla-hare'), he then returned to France, and was received with unbounded enthusiasm by the people. The Consulate and Empire. 73. Meanwhile, a new conlition of the great powers of Europe had been formed against France, and the Russians under Su-var'otf had gained several important victories in Italy. This made the Directory very unpopular, and Bonaparte took the opportunity Russian successes. of overturning the government at the point of the bayonet. A new constitution was then formed, and accepted by the people, according to which the executive power was vested in three Consuls, elected for ten years. Revolution. Bonaparte was appointed First Consul (1799), and by his vigor and address introduced reforms in every department of the government. France, 579 74. The military operations were conducted with splendid ability and success. The Austrians were defeated by General Moreau (mo-ro') in the battle of Ho-hen-lin'- den; while Napoleon himself gained new laurels by his daring passage of the Alps, and by his Military operations. brilliant victory over the Austrians at Ma-ren'go (1800). This compelled the emperor of Austria to conclude the Treaty of Lune'ville (1801), which was Amiens, in which peace was followed by the Treaty of made with England (1802). Bonaparte was next elected Consul for Life, and, various con- Consul for Life. Napoleon I. Moreau. spiraces being formed against him, he determined still fur- ther to augment and perj^et- uate his power, and caused himself to be declared by the legislature Emper(Tr of the French (1804). 75. A short time after this, Moreau was banished for be- ing concerned in a conspiracy against the government, and eleven of the other conspirators were put to death. Napoleon re- ceived the crown of France from the hands of the Pope; and subsequently, at Milan, caused himself to be crowned King of Italy, with tlie famous ^^iron crown" of the Lombards (1805). These assumptions of power led to another coalition against him, on the part of England, Austria, Russia, Sweden, and Prussia; but Napoleon, Avith his accustomed promptitude, marched against the Austrians, and succeeded in capturing a large army at Ulm (1805). This was soon fol- lowed by the decisive battle of Aus'ler-litz,* in which tlie * For the location of these places, see Map No. XVII. and Map No. XIX. King of Italy. Napoleon's victories. 580 Modern History. combined armies of the Austrians and Eussians were routed with overwhelming loss. The emperors of France, Austria, and Russia were present at this battle, and the conditions of peace were at once agreed upon. The treaty was afterward formally concluded at Presburg, Austria making great sacri- fices of territory. 76. Napoleon now took possession of Naples, and con- ferred the crown upon his brother Joseph. His brother Louis was made king of Holland; and various principalities and duchies were bestowed upon Naples. his most eminent generals and ministers. He next formed a union of several states of Germany, which was styled the Con- federation of the Rhine, and placed under his own control. This was virtually a dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire; and the emperor, ac- German Empire. cordingly, assumed the title of Emperor of Austria, relin- quishing that of ^'King of Germany and Emperor of the Romans," which had hitherto been borne by the German monarchs. (See page 431, note.) 77. These encroachments and usurpations led to the Fourth Coalition, consisting of Prussia, Russia, Austria, Great Brit- ain, and Sweden, against the French Empire. The Prussian monarch raised an imxmense army of 150,000 men, and commenced hostilities; but Na- Fourth Coalition. poleon, with wonderfal skill and promptitude, attacked and utterly defeated the Prussians, in the sanguinary battle of Je'na (1806). So complete was the victory, that the kingdom of Prussia lay at the mercy of the victor, who a few weeks afterward entered Ber-lin' Defeat of Prussia. in triumph. There he issued his celebrated decree, declaring the British Isles in a state of blockade, and forbidding all commercial intercourse, on the part of any nation, with Great Britain or her colonies. 78. During the winter, he attacked the Russians at Eylau (i'lou)', but his army was repulsed with tremendous slaughter France. 581 (February, 1807). Six months later, with an army of 200,000 men, he gained a victory over tlie Russians at Fried'hmd; and thus was enabled to dictate terms of peace to the Russian emperor Alexander at Til'sit. Peace was also made with Prussia, on condition that she should give up the territory between the Rhine and Elbe rivers, which Napoleon bestowed Defeat of Russia. Peace. on his youngest brother Jerome, with the title of King of Westphalia (1807). 79. The commercial restrictions imposed by Napoleon upon the different countries of Europe, as declared in the Berlin decree (called the Continental System), were not fully obeyed by Portugal, into which Portugal. country British merchandise was freely admitted, and thence was transported into Spain. Napoleon, therefore, ordered General Junot {zhoo-no') to in- vade Portugal and take posses- sion of Lisbon; and the prince regent was compelled to seek refuge with the British fleet in the Tagus, whence he sailed to Brazil, and fixed the seat of his government in that country. Portugal was then declared a province of the French Empire. Napoleon next determined to take possession of Spain; and, after compelling its lawful king to resign the crown, he conferred it upon his brother Joseph MURAT. Spam. Bonaparte, whom he had transferred from the throne of Naples. The latter throne he conferred on Murat, who had married his sister (1808). 80. The people of Portugal and Spain were aroused to in- surrection by these arbitrary measures, and the British Govern- ment resolved to aid them in their efforts to expel the mvaders. 682 Modern History. The Peuiiisiilar War followed, which lasted nearly five years, and in which Wellington gained those resplendent victories which have already been referred to in Peninsular War the history of England. Meanwhile, hostilities were again resumed on the part of Austria, with armies which amounted, in the aggregate, to about 500,000 men. Napoleon, notwith- standing his inferior forces, defeated the Aus- trians, under the Archduke Charles, at Eck'- muhl (1809), but was compelled to fall back Austrian defeats. from his position after the bloody battle of As'pern. Soon afterward, he gained a decisive victory at Wagram (wah'- gram); after which the Austrian emperor was obliged to sub- mit to terms of peace dictated by the victor (1.809). 81. While these events were in progress, the Pope (Pius VII. ), continuing his opposition to Napoleon, finally excom- municated him. The latter retaliated by annex- ing Rome to the French Empire, and causing the Pope. Pope to be imprisoned in France. This was because of the Pope's refusal to concur in the Continental System, and to recognize Murat as king of Naples.* Having divorced his faithful and virtuous wife Josephine, he next haughtily de- manded the Austrian princess Maria Louisa in marriage; and so thoroughly had the Emperor Francis been subdued at Wagram, that he was Marriage of Napoleon. compelled to give his assent; and the nuptials, accordingly, took place a short time afterward (1810). In order the more effectually to carry out his policy of commercial prohibition, he, in the same year, seized the Hanse towns, Hamburg, Bremen, and Lubeck, and annexed the Hanse towns. northern coast of Germany to the French Empire. * The unbounded arrogance of Napoleon is shown in the following: " Your high- ness is sovereign of Rome, but I am its emperor. All my enemies must be yours. It is not fit that any agent of the king of Sardinia, any Englishman. Russian, or Swede, should reside at Rome, or in your states, or that any vessel of those powers should enter your ports.''— Napoleon to Pius VII. (Feb. 22, 1806). France. 583 82. Difficulties having arisen with Sweden and Russia, in consequence of the French emperor's arbitrary demands in the^ carrying out of the Continental System, the latter determined to invade Russia with an overwhelming force. Accordingly, in June,1812, he set out with asplen- Russian war. Burning of Moscow. didly equipped army of nearly 500,000 men, crossed the Nie- men, and directed his march to Mos'cow, the ancient capital of the Russian Empire. Arriving at Smo-lensk', he captured the city after a tremendous conflict, which closed with the retreat of the Russians. About two weeks after this, he fought a desperate battle with the Russian army at Bor-o- di'no {% like e); but although 45,000 of the enemy were either killed or wounded, he failed to destroy their army, and gained no decisive victory. His own losses in these engagements were immense (September 7). 83. Unable to defend Moscow, the Russians abandoned it, and the French entered it in triumph ten days after the bat- tle of Borodino. But the city had been set on fire by the Russians, and the French vainly at- tempted to stop the conflagration. Nine-tenths of the whole city became a prey to the flames. This discon- certed the plans of Napoleon, who had designed to pass the winter at Moscow; and as the Russians were menacing his communications with Smolensk, where his magazines and re- serves had been left, he determined to retreat (October 19). 84. But the dreadful Russian winter having commenced, the French soldiers perished by thousands of cold and famine. To add to their suiferings, they were constantly harassed by the Russian army, par- ticularly by the Cossack cavalry, being in almost constant conflict with them, until they reached the Ber-e- si'na River, where their passage was disputed by the Rus- sians in strong force. The loss of life was frightful. Multi- tudes fell by the sabres of tlie Russians, but still larger numbers perished in the icy waters of the river; so that when Retreat of the arnny. 584 Modern History. the crossing was effected only 20,000 men remained to Na- poleon of the magnificent army with which he had set out. During those terrific scenes and conflicts. Mar- shal Ney {lid) gained the appellation of the Ney. "Bravest of the Brave," by his fortitude and heroic conduct. 85. After the dreadful passage of the Beresina, Napoleon abandoned the army, and fled in disguise to Paris, where his arrival restored public confidence and courage; and such were his extraordinary energy and the Continued war resources of tlie French nation, that, in the beginning of the next year (1813), he was enabled to resume operations with an army of 350,000 men, exclusive of his forces in Spain. Europe was once more allied against him; but, on the famous battle-ground of Lut'zen, he defeated the army of the allies, and triumphantly entered the city of Dresden. Two other battles were fought with indecisive results, after which he consented to an armistice. 86. But operations were soon resumed by the allies with an immense army; and they attacked the French at Dresden, but were repulsed with severe loss. Moreau, fighting on the side of the allies, was here mor- Dresden. tally wounded (July 26). In October, the allies, with large reinforcements, threatened Isra2:)oleon's communications, and compelled his retreat to Leip'sic, where the great- est conflict of the war ensued, the allied army Leipsic. amounting to about 250,000 men; while that of Napoleon contained less than 150,000. This has been called the Battle of the Nations. After a desperate struggle, which lasted three days, the French were compelled to retreat; and Napoleon's great conquests were at once lost. Against the overwhelm- ing forces of the allies. Napoleon could make no effectual resistance. Having defeated every army Paris taken. sent to impede their progress, they at last penetrated into France, and Paris was finally obliged to capitulate (March 31, 1814). France, 585 Restoration of the Bourbons. 87. After the capitulation of Paris, a provisional govern- ment was established under Talleyrand, by which the de- thronement of Napoleon was decreed, and the brother of Louis XYI. was placed on the throne Louis XVlll. with the title of Louis XVIIL, the dauphin Louis XVII. having died in the Temple, in Paris. Thus the Bourbon family was restored (May 3, 1814). In the mean time, Napo- leon, finding himself deserted by many of his most trusted generals, accepted the terms offered him by the allies, abdi- cating the throne and retiring to the island of Elba, near the western coast of Italy, the place appointed for his residence. The dismemberment Napoleon an exile. of the empire then followed, France being reduced to the limits which it had in 1792. Louis pretended to grant a con- stitutional charter, but, like a genuine Bourbon, he reserved the right to alter its provisions according to his own pleasure. 88. The next year, while a congress of the European powers was assembled at Vienna, to arrange and settle the affairs of Europe, they were suddenly surprised by the escape of Napoleon from Elba. Landing on the southern shore of France (at Cannes Escape from Elba. [^Yi/^]), he was at once received with enthusiasm by the troops; and Marshal Ney, who had been sent to oppose his progress, having deserted to him, he once more entered Paris in triumph, and was greeted with acclamations of joy by all classes (March 20, 1815). Louis XVIII. having fled. Napo- leon found himself again on the throne of France; and in less than two months, an army was organized of over 200,000 men, exclusive of the National Guards. 89. Meantime, the allies had prepared for the impending conflict. Three vast armies were collected; the first consist- ing of Austrians, under Prince Schwartz'en-berg; the second, of British, Germans, and Prussians, under Wellington and ^S^ Modern History. Blu'cher {bloo'her)\ and the third, of Kussians, under the Eni2)eror Alexander. Operations commenced on the 15th of June; and, on the 18th, was fought the memor- able battle of Wa'ter-loo, in which the allies under Waterloo. Wellington repulsed the French, and drove them into irre- trievable retreat and ruin. Napoleon fled to Paris; but find- ing that no further effort could be made to retrieve his ruined fortunes, he proceeded to the coast, where he surrendered him- self to the commander of a British vessel of war. By agree- ment of the allied sovereigns, he was sent a captive to the little island of St. He-le'na, where he arrived in October, 1815, and where he continued to reside as a prisoner until his death, in 1821, at the age Final banishment. of fifty-two years. Such was the termination of this extraor- dinary career of ambition and conquest — the most extraor- dinary perhaps in the world's annals.* 90. Louis XVIII. Soon after the battle of Waterloo, Paris was entered by the allies, and the greater part of the French territory was occupied by foreign armies. Louis XVIII. was restored, and Marslial Ney, Chief events. who had deserted to Napoleon, was shot as a traitor. The same year Murat, having made a rash attempt to regain the throne of Naples, was seized and put to death. The measures of the restored Bourbon dynasties of Spain and Italy had been so tyrannical, that insurrections broke out in those coun- tries. In Spain, the army, under General O'Donnell, sup- ported the liberal constitution, and Ferdinand, the king, was obliged to submit. Louis XVIII. sent an army into Spain to restore the supreme authority to * In person, Napoleon was below the medium height, and, during his early years, was slenderly built; being thin, at times, to emaciation. His head was dis- proportionately large, with features classically molded, an olive complexion, and large, dark eyes. He was habitually abstracted, seeming to commune with him- self even when listening to others; yet his conversation was engaging, from the vigor and clearness of his thought, and the condensed precision of his language. In 1840, Napoleon's remains were transported from St. Helena to Paris, and there entombed with every possible circumstance of splendor and solemnity. France. . 587 Ferdinand; and the constitutionalists having been defeated, the liberal government was overturned (1823). Louis XVIII. died the next year (182-i), and was succeeded by his brother Charles, Count of Artois {ar'Pwah), 91. Charles X. During this reign, the contests between the ultra-royalist and liberal parties in the Chamber of Deputies, as the legislature was called, became very violent; and Charles, taking sides with the Chief events. former, adopted very arbitrary measures to enforce his views. The liberal party having secured a majority in the Chamber, the king caused the latter to be dissolved, altered the law of elections, and suspended the liberty of the press. In conse- quence of these despotic measures, the peo})le rose in insur- rection; and, after a contest of three days, dis- persed the royal guards and sacked the Tuileries. Insurrection. Lafayette was then appointed general of the National Guards, and the Chamber of Deputies having declared the throne vacant, summoned Lou'is Phil'ipi)e (or loo'e fil-leej)') to oc- cupy it (1830). Charles took refuge in England. 92. Louis Philippe was the son of the infamous Duke of Orleans, who, under the assumed name of Philip Egalite, had taken part in the excesses of the revolution, and had become one of its many victims. Since that dreadful period, Louis Philippe had suffered every variety of for- tune, being an exile from his native land, and in Previous life. a condition of privation and distress traveling or sojourning in foreign countries. A charter of rights was agreed upon by the Chamber of Deputies, and accepted by the newly elected king. His reign was for several years quite prosperous; and the country advanced in Chief events. education, commerce, and internal improvements. The king, however, was very odious to the extreme republi- cans, and several attempts were made upon his life. He afterward became generally unpopular by his opposition to the reforms which were demanded in the government, as well 588 Modern History. as by his avarice and his selfish concern for the aggrandize- ment of his family. 93. An attempt to repress, by arbitrary prohibition, a re- form banquet appointed on Washington's birthday (February 22, 1848), excited an insurrection of the people, with whom the troops fraternized; and Louis Revolution. Philippe was com^^elled to flee. With much difficulty, he made his escape to England, where he died about two years afterward. One of the most important events of this reign was the conquest of Algiers (1847), after a long and sanguin- ary struggle on the part of the native tribes, under their leader Abd-el Ka'der (1847). It was annexed to France as a provmce under the name of Algeria. The Second Republic. 94. After the flight of the king, a provisional government was instituted, consisting of seven members, among whom were La-mar-tine'(-/ee7^) and Ar'a-go, distinguished for their attainments in literature and science. France was declared a republic, with the motto. Provisional government. ^'Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity;" hereditary titles and distinctions of nobility were abolished, and a national assem- bly was called for the purpose of framing a constitution. The constitution afterward adopted vested tlie government in a president, to be elected for four years, and a national assembly. By the election which fol- President. lowed, Louis Napoleon was chosen, by an immense majority, first president of France (1848).* 95. In tlie first year of his presidency, a revolution broke out m Rome, and the Pope (Pius IX.) fled to Gaeta gah-a'- * Louis Napoleon was the nephew of the great Napoleon, being the son of Louis Bonaparte and Hortense Beauhamais, daughter of the Empress Josephine. During the reign of Louis Philippe, he became noted for two attempts to obtain possession of the government by endeavoring to raise a revolt in his favor among the troops. One of these was at Strasburg, in 1836, and the other at Boulogne, in 1840. For the second he was condemned to perpetual imprisonment, but succeeded in making his escape in 1846. These rash enterprises subjected him to considerable ridicule. France. 589 tall). Louis Napoleon liaving sent an army under General Oudinot {oo'de-7io) to restore him to his government, the re- publicans under Gar-i-bal'di were entirely defeated, and Pius IX. returned to Kome the next year. Eevolutions broke out in other parts of Italy, with similar want of success. Difficulties arising between the President and the Assembly, the former determined to overturn the ex- isting form of government, so as to obtain an increase of power. His measures were devised and executed with great adroitness. Having gained over the military, he i seized and imprisoned such of the members of ^X'n^e^"* the Assembly as were hostile to his views, as well I as other distinguished citizens from whom he apprehended opposition. He then suppressed the newspapers, and pro- claimed a dissolution of the Assembly and Council of State (December, 1851). 96. A despotic constitution sketched by Louis Napoleon was accepted by the people, and he was elected president for a term of ten years. A short time after this, he obtained the passage of a decree by the Senate, Revolution, declaring him hereditary emperor; and this decree was rati- fied by the popular suffrages. Napoleon Bonaparte's son by Maria Louisa (Napoleon II.) having died, Louis Napoleon assumed the title of Napoleon III. Thus was effected one of the most disgraceful usurpations recorded in history, by means of a dishonorable stratagem which was dignified by the name of coup cfetat {hoo-de-tah') — i.e., stroke of state policy. The Second Empire. 97. In 1854 the French united with the English in the Russian War, and under Marshal Pelissier (pa-Us-se-cc') ac- quired the glory of the final storming of the tremendous fortresses of Sebastopol. In 1859, war Russian War. having arisen between Austria and Sardinia, the French emperor formed an alliance with the latter, and took the 590 Modern History. field in person in northern Italy. Austria suffered disas- trous defeats at Ma-gen'ta and Sol-fer-i'no {i :ke e), and by the treaty of Vil'lafran'ca was obliged to relinquish possession of Lombardy. -In 1862 a French army occupied Mexico; and, on the invitation of Napoleon, Archduke Maximilian, of Austria, took the throne as emperor of that country. His government was, however, soon overturned^ and he himself was shot by order of tlie insurgent general (18G7). 98. The preservation of the papal power in Italy from the attacks of Garibaldi and his republican associates was a strik- ing feature of the emperor's policy, which in its general character was strongly on the side of absolutism as opposed to the spread of liberal Policy of Napoleon. princij^les and the establishment of democratic governments. Under his sway, France, though kept under severe restraint by the imperial power, made great and rapid strides in every department of national well-being; and her internal improve- ments and progress in commerce and manufactures were unsurpassed by those of any other nation. 99. In 1870 war was declared by France against Ger- many; and the Frencli armies, under Marshals McMahon and Bazaine, marched to the Rhine. But the German states, with perfect unanimity, joined German War. all their forces under King William of Prussia, to repel the invaders; and immense armies, splendid in discipline and equipment, were promptly concentrated near the east bank of the Ehine, under the Prussian monarch, aided by Von Moltke and other generals. In the first conflicts, McMahon was defeated and driven into retreat; but he took up a strong position at Sedan (sa-dong'). Here was fought a great and decisive battle, on the 1st French disasters. of September; and the French, driven from their position and completely surrounded, were compelled to surrender. More than 80,000 men laid down their arms, and Napoleon France. 591 himself became a prisoner. While a part of the German army marched on Paris, and invested that city, Bazaine was shut up in Metz, where, on the 21st of October, he surrendered his army prisoners of war. Third Republic. 100. Paris held out until January 28, 1871, when it yielded, and was occupied by the German forces. Mean- while, Napoleon being a prisoner, the French Republic had been declared, and Thiers was Republic. elected president. A treaty was then concluded, by which France ceded to Germany the greater part of Alsace and Lor- raine, and agreed to pay an immense sum of money as an indemnity for the war. Soon afterward an insurrection broke out in Paris, supported by the Commune, which lasted several months, during which the insur- Cor gents committed many acts of atrocity and violence. It was put down in May, 1871. On this, finding it impossible to reconcile the hostile factions, Thiers resigned (May, 1873); and Marshal McMahon was elected president in his stead. The death of Napoleon occurred in England (1873). 101. During the same year, occurred also the trial of Marshal Bazaine, upon charges based on his surrender of the army at Metz. It resulted in his conviction, and he was sentenced to degradation from his rank Chief events. as general, and death. But he was recommended to mercy by his judges, and President McMahon commuted the sentence of death to twenty years' seclusion. In 1873, the German oc- cupation of French territory ceased, the last installment of the war indemnity having been paid. There were many parties at this time among the French people opposed to the repub- lic, causing much political agitation. The triumph of the republicans in 1879, was soon followed by the resignation of President McMahon; and he was succeeded by M, Grevy, who is still in office (1882). 592 Modern History. State of Society in France, During the Bevolutionary Period (1774-1881). 102. At the time of tlie accession of Louis XVI. there were many indications of an impending revolution. New ideas had been infused into the minds of men, which produced an opposition to prevailing institutions; Signsof change. and the wrongs which the people had suffered for centuries from the rule of an arbitrary monarchy, and from a corrupt court and nobility, began to be more clearly seen and more deeply felt. There were many influences that conspired to fan the smouldering fire into a flame. 103. The French Revolution has been attributed to the following causes; 1. The despotism, recklessness, and profligacy of the French court during the three preceding reigns; 2. The unjust laws that favored the nobility and clergy at the expense of the lower Causes of the Revolution. classes; 3. The diffusion of knowledge and tlie spread of in- fidelity caused by the writings of Voltaire and others;" 4. The desire for political freedom inspired by the success of the American Revolution, in which so many of the French had borne a prominent part. To these must be added the dis- order of the finances, which, in the first part of the reign of Louis XVI., almost stopped the wheels of government. 104. The people — the Third Estate — had bided their time, and at last it came. The first session of the far-famed States- General of 1789 gave, in various minor incidents, indications of the storm that was so soon to burst forth with resistless fury. The representatives Course of the people. of the people refused to sit with uncovered heads, when the nobles and clergy, according to the old custom of every former session, put on their hats after the completion of the king's speech; and this led to a tumult only to be ended by the king's taking off his own hat. Since that great era, revo- France, 593 lution has been the characteristic of French politics. No government that has been established has been other than insecure and temporary, because it has not rested on princi- ples thoroughly fixed in public opinion. The popular mind, indeed, has seemed to revolt from all government, only sub- mitting to it for a time as a necessity. The Commune of 1871 was the last, but perhaps the most striking, illustration of this fact. 105. In the first part of the reign of Louis XVI., when Dr. Franklin visited France in 1776, in behalf of his Ameri- can compatriots, the people were charmed with his simplicity of dress and manners; and their Costume. love for the cause which he represented led them to imitate him. Gold lace and embroidery and powdered curls gave way to plain dresses and straight-cut hair; but this was soon followed by an extraordinary affectation of English modes of costume. At the beginning of this period, the ladies wore hoops, and dressed their hair in the most extreme fashion. It was drawn up in the form of a huge pyramid on the top of the head; and caricatures might be seen representing the hair-dresser mounted on a ladder dressing a lady's hair. This extravagance was succeeded, for a time, by a period of great simplicity in dress, white muslin dresses and straw hats taking the place of silks, satins, and velvets. The antique then came into vogue in imitation of the classic heroes of Greece and Rome. In more modern times the world of fashion has constantly had its center at Paris. 106. The civil administration of the great Napoleon was characterized by the highest intelligence and the most benefi- cent enterprise. The Code Napoleon, a compila- tion of the laws of France, prepared under his direction, was perhaps the greatest of all his France under Napoleon. achievements for the good of France. He did much also for education, of which no system existed in France before his time. He created numerous lyceums, in which the instruc- 594 Modern History. tion given was literary, scientific, and moral; and several law and medical schools. The system of primary instruction in France, now so complete, was created subsequent to Napo- leon's time. 107. The public works, including magnificent buildings, public monuments, roads, etc., are far too many to enumerate. Among them may be mentioned the great break- water at tlie harbor of Cherbourg, which was Public works. commenced in 1783, but not finished till 1853. During the present century, France has shared, in common with other civilized nations, that astonishing progress in science and in the useful arts which have done so much to ad- vance the interests of mankind by improving the Science and art. condition of society. The railroad,* the steamship, and the tele- graph, have revolutionized the social, political, and military system of every civilized nation in the world; and in none has there been greater progress in the use of these than in France. The AVorld's Fair [^Exposition Universelle) has been an im- portant auxiliary in developing the industrial and artistic capabilities of this great nation.* 108. Every department of literature is adorned with the products of French genius. In tlie early part of this period, the following writers may be enume- Literature. rated : Crebillon {kre-he-yovg') (1674^1762), a tragic poet, ranking next to Cor- iicille and Racine. Volney (1757-1793), eminent for his historical researches. Malesherbes (1721-1794), an able statesman, and writer on politics, law, and finance; autlior of Thouglits and Maxims. Andre Chenier {shen-ya') 1762-1794), the poet of the Revolution, wliose career was cut short by the guillotine. Beaumarcliais {bo-mar- sha') (1732-1799), who wrote The Marriage of Figaro and The Barber of Seville, two famous comedies. * The idea of the Exposition Universelle originated in France, but was first realized in England. In the Paris Exposition of 1867, as well as in 1878, there was presented in an eminent degi-ee the wonderful creative skill of the French people. France, bdb Bernardin St. Pieire (1737-1814), author of the popular story Paul and Virginia. 109. At a later period, the following writers have been most conspicuous: De Stael (stahl) (Mme.) (1766-1817), the most talented woman of her time, who wrote Corinne, and other works of £:;enius. De Genlis {zJiongle) (Mme.) (1746-1830), author of many Later period. interesting juvenile works, romances, memoirs, etc. Of the latter, her Observations on the Literary History of the Nine- teenth Century possesses the greatest interest. Sismondi (1773-1842), author of the History of the Italian RepiiUics. Chateaubriand {shah-to-bre-ahng') (1769-1848), author of the Genius of Christianity, a work remarkable for its purity and finished style. Beranger {he-rahn-zha') (1780-1857), the greatest of French lyric poets, noted for his popular songs. Guizot (1787-1874), one of the most il- lustrious of French statesmen and historians; author of the History of Gimlization, and other works. Thierry {te-d'ree), author of the History of tlie Norman Conquest, and other historical works. Comte {kongt) (1798-1857), author of the Positive Philosophy. Thiers (1797-1877), author of many valuable historical works. History of the French Revolution, Consulate and Empire, etc. Michelet {meesh-la) (1798-1874), author of the History of Finance, and many other noted wcrks. Cousin {koo zahng) (1792-1867), a noted philosopher. Victor Hugo (born 1802), the most celebrated French writer of modern times, — poet, dramatist, historian, philosopher, and moralist; remark- able for the splendor as well as the universality of his genius. Alexander Dumas {du-mah) (1803-1870), one of the most prolific of novel- ists. Ernest Renan {re-nahng) (born 1823), author of the Life of Jesus, Saint Paul, etc. Flammarion (born 1842), an astronomer and popular writer, author of Plurality of Worlds, God in Nature, etc. Victor Hugo. 596 - Modern History. Rulers of France, During the Revolutionary Period, Name. Date of rule. Louis XVI., Bourbon king 1774^1793 Reign of Terror 1793-1794 Directory 1794-1799 Napoleon, First Consul 1800-1804 Napoleon I., Emperor 1804-1814 Louis XVIII., Bourbon king. . . 1814-1824 Charles X., Bourbon king 1824-1830 Name. Date of rule. L. Philippe, Bourbon-Orleans.. 1830-1848 Louis Napoleon, President 1848-1852 Napoleon III., Emperor 1852-1870 Thiers, L. A., President 1871-1873 McMahon, M. E. P. M., Prest.. 1873-1879 Grevy, F. J. P., President 1879- SUMMARY OF PRINCIPAL EVENTS AND DATES. A.D. Treaty of alUance with the United States 1778 Meeting of the States-General. Revolution commenced 1789 Meeting of the Legislative Assembly 1791 The first French republic declared 1792 Execution of Louis XVI. Reign of Terror 1793 Execution of Robespierre 1794 Napoleon's victorious campaign in northern Italy 1794-5 Napoleon's expedition to Egypt. Battle of the Pyramids 1798 Napoleon's great victory over the Austrians at Marengo 1800 Treaty of Amiens 1802 Surrender of Ulm. Battle of Austerlitz. Battle of Trafalgar 1805 Battles of Jena and Auerstadt. Berlin taken 1806 Battle of Eylau. Peace of Tilsit 1807 Taking of Vienna. Battles of Aspern and Wagram 1809 Invasion of Russia by Napoleon. Moscow burned 1812 Battles of Lutzen, Dresden, and Leipsic 1813 Invasion of France. Capture of Paris. Abdication of Napoleon 1814 Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon banished to St. Helena 1815 Death of Napoleon at St. Helena 1821 Taking of Algiers. Abdication of Charles X 1830 Defeat of Abd-el-Kader. Conquest of Algeria 1847 The great breakwater completed at Cherbourg 1853 Rome taken by the French. The Pope restored 1849 Termination of the Crimean war by the treaty of Paris 1856 Battles of Solferino and Magenta 1859 The city of Mexico entered by the French under Marshal Bazaine 1863 The Archduke Maximilian declared Emperor of Mexico 1864 War against Germany. McMahon and Bazaine defeated 1870 Defeat of the Fi-ench at Sedan. Napoleon a prisoner, 1870 Siege of Paris by the German army 1871 Resignation of President Thiers. Death of Napoleon HI 1873 Trial and condemnation of Marshal Bazaine 1873 Death of Thiers 1877 Resignation of President McMahon 1879 Topical Remew. 597 Topical Eeview. EMINENT PERSONAGES. Who were they? In what period did they live? With ivhat events connected? page Gonsalvo de Cordova 541 Chevalier Bayard 542, 543, 544 Gaston de Foix 542 Constable Bourbon 543, 544, 545 Catharine de' Medici.. 546, 548, 549, 551 Constable Montmorency 547 Prince of Cond6 547, 548, 549 Admiral Coligni 547, 548 Duke of Guise 547 Chancellor de I'Hopital 548, 552 Henry of Navarre (Henry IV.).. 549, 553 Duke of May enne 553 Duke of Sully 554 Mary de' Medici 555, 556 Richeheu 555, 556, 565 Cardinal Mazarin 557 Marshal Turenne 557, 558 Cardinal de Retz 557 Colbert 558, 564 Mme. de Maintenon 559, 567 Cardinal Fleury 561, 562 Marshal Saxe 562 Napoleon 1 562, 577-586 Marie Antoinette 571 Mirabeau 572 Necker 572 Lafayette 573 Robespierre 575, 576, 577 Charlotte Corday . . 576 Moreau 579 Murat 582, 586 Marshal Ney 583, 585, 586 Napoleon III 588, 589, 590 Marshal McMahon 590 Corneille 567 Racine 567 Moli^re 567 F6n61on 568 Abbe de Fleury 568 Diderot 569 La Place 569 Legendre 569 Voltaire 569 PAGE Montesquieu 569 Rousseau 570 Malsherbes 570, 594 Madame Roland 576 Madame de Stael 595 Chateaubriand 595 Guizot 595 Thiers 591, 595 Cousin 595 Victor Hugo 595 Ernest Renan 595 IMPORTANT EVENTS. When did they occur? What led to them? What residted therefrom? League of Cambray 542 Battle of Agnadello 542 Battle of Marignano 543 Battle of Pavia 544 Sacking of Rome 545 Massacre of St. Bartholomew 549 Battle of Ivry 553 Edict of Nantes 554, 560 War of the Fronde 557 Meeting of the States-General 571 Storming of the Bastile 572 Taking of the Tuileries 574 Execution of Louis XVI 575 Reign of Terror 576 Treaty of Campo Formio 577 Battle of the Pyramids 578 Battle of AusterUtz 579 Dissolution of the German Empire.. 580 Battle of Jena 580 Peace of Tilsit 581 Battle of Wagram 582 Russian Expedition 583, 584 Battle of Leipsic 584 Restoration of the Bourbons 585 Battle of Waterloo 586 Battle of Solferino 590 Battle of Sedan 590 Surrender of Bazaine 590 Occupation of Paris 591 Insurrection of the Commune 591 CHAPTER XL States of Modern Europe. SECTION I. Germai^y a:n^d Austria. 1. The modern history of Germany begins with the reign of Maximilian I. (1493-1519), called the Penniless, on account of his want of money to carry on his numerous wars. He was one of the group of prominent Contemporaries characters for whom that age was especially celebrated, — Pope Julius II., the founder of St. Peter's at Kome; Ferdinand of Aragon; Emanuel the Great of Portugal, the patron of arts and sciences and the friend of Vasco da Gama; Henry VIII. of England with his great minister. Cardinal Wolsey; and Bajazet II., one of the greatest of Luther. the Turkish sultans. It was in this reign that Martin Luther published his famous ninety-five theses against the doctrines of the Catholic Church (1517). 2. Charles V., the grandson of Maximilian, who succeeded him (1519), being crowned at Aix-la Chapelle, was one of the greatest monarchs of ancient or modern times. He had become king of Spain by hereditary right, Dominions. previous to his election as emperor of Germany; and he was, besides, ruler over Austria, the Netherlands, and Naples. His Geographical Study, Map No. XVIII. What was the situation of: The Roman Empire? Bohemia? Austria? Hungary? Ottoman Empire? Transylvania? Wallachia? Moldavia? Servia? Bulgaria? Bos- nia? Roumelia? Poland? Lithuania? Prussia? Brandknburg? Swiss Confedera- tion? Franche Comte? Naples? States op thi: Church? No. 18, Germany and Austria. m^ contests witli Francis I. of France have already been referred to. In 1521 a diet was held at AYorms, at which Luther having been cited by Charles was commanded to recant; and on his refusal was pronounced a her- etic, and put to the ban of the empire. He, however, escaped, and was kept concealed for nine months by his friend and protector, Frederick of Saxony. From the spread of Luther's tenets grew what is called the Reformation. Members of Maximilian's Court. (From a drawing by Albert Diirer, 1512.) 3. The doctrines of the Reformation made great progress in Saxony, favored as they were by the Elector; and several of the other princes of Germany supported Luther's views. In the diet held at Spire (1526), a tem- Reformation. porary decree of toleration was granted the Lutherans; but a subsequent diet at the same place revoked the decree, and declared Lutheranism heretical (1529). Against this revoca- tion fifteen imperial cities, and seven reigning princes, in- cluding the Elector of Saxony, protested as being unjust and 600 Modern History. oppressive; and hence the followers of Luther were after- ward called Protestants. At Augsburg they published their Confession of Faith, which had been drawn up by Melanchthon (1530),* and signed by the Protestant Protestants. p: Vices. The latter, after the condemnation of the Confession of Augsburg by the diet, formed for their defense the famous League of Smalcald (1531). 4. Meantime, the Lutheran doctrines had spread rapidly through several of the German states, from Saxony north- ward to the Baltic. After the peace of Cambray (see page 257), the emperor engaged to extirpate Lutheranism; but he was compelled to unite the Growth of Protestantism German forces in order to repel the invasions of the Turks; and, consequently, at the diet of Nuremberg he made a treaty with the Protestant rulers, to be binding lyitil a general coun- cil of the Church should be called. After the Turks had been defeated and driven back, Charles, being kept busy by his war with the Barbary powers and with France, found himself still unable to cope with the Protestant leaders, and renewed the peace of Nuremberg. Thus Protestantism was unchecked for the time, and spread not only in Germany, but in Denmark, Sweden, Holland, England, and other countries. Luther in the mean time translated the Bible into the German language, and also composed many hymns, one of which became the battle-song of the Reformation. He is regarded as the found- er of German church poetry and music. 5. A general council was at last called by Pope Paul IIL, to meet at Trent, f in the Italian part of the Tyrol, and the Protestants were invited to attend; but they refused to * Philip Melanchthon (born in 1497, died in 1560) was, next to Luther, the chief leader in the Protestant movement. He was eminent for his scholarship and intel- lectual ability, as well as for his modesty and gentleness of disposition. + The Council of Trent was one of the most important synods of the Catholic Church. It was opened in December, 154.5, and was held at intervals until the twenty-fifth session, December, 1563. Its decrees, defining certain doctrines of the church, were confirmed by the Pope the next year. Germany) and Austria. 601 acknowledge the Pope's authority or to be bound by the de- crees of the Council. This brought on a religious war, and Charles V. marched into northern Germany, and defeated the Elector of Saxony at Miihlberg, on the Elbe, taking him prisoner (1547). The latter was com- Religious war. Maurice. pelled to give up most of his dominions to Maurice, so cele- brated subsequently as the champion of Protestantism, though now he played the part of an apostate. Luther died just before this war commenced (February 18, 15-4G).* 6. Charles now eagerly pushed forward his plan to destroy Protestantism; and, under his orders, Maurice of Saxony laid siege to Magdeburg, and compelled its capitulation. Disgusted, how- ever, with the oppressive meas- ures of the emperor, Maurice now determined to take the side of the Protestants; and having formed an alliance with France (see page 258), he marched rap- idly to the south while Charles was busied in the affairs of the Council, and narrowly missed making him a prisoner (1552). f The next year, a vliet was held, and the assembled German princes agreed to the Treaty of Passau, made in Charles V. Treaty of Passau. 1552 between Charles and Maurice, and permitting religious * " Charles V. was urged by the Duke of Alba and others to burn Luther's body and scatter the ashes, as those of a heretic ; but he answered like a man : ' I wage no war against the dead.' Herein he showed the better side of his nature, altnough only for a moment.'"— Bayard Taylor. t Apprised of his danger, Charles fled across the Alps amid the darkness of night and in a violent storm of rain, though he was suffering from the gout at the time, his courtiers following as best they could, many of them on foot. Maurice entered Innspruck a few hours after the emperor had left it; not sorry to find him gone, for he said he had "no convei^ient cage for such a falcon." The Council of Trent broke up, for the time, in dismay, its members scattering to their homes. 602 Modern History. freedom to the Protestants. Three years afterward, tlie Diet of Augsburg, under the sanction of Charles V., confirmed these stipuktions, and thus gave peace to Germany (1555). Charles V. abdicated the throne in 1556, and was succeeded by his brother Ferdinand (1556-1564). Thirty Years' War. 7. The next important event in the history of Germany is the Thirty Years' War, which commenced m 1618, in Bohemia, on account of the attempt of the king (Ferdinand XL) to extinguish Protestantism within Cause. his dominions. During this outbreak the king was elected emperor (Ferdinand II.); but the Bohemians refused to acknowledge him, and chose Frederick, Elector-palatine, son- in-law of James I. of England. Frederick being defeated in a great battle near Prague, was obliged to flee (1620); and the Bohemian Protestants were per- First period. secuted without mercy. Hostilities were continued. in other parts under Count Mansfield, Frederick's general, against Tilly,* the imperial general, until 1625, when several of the northern states of Germany formed a defensive union against the emperor, and invited Christian IV., King of Denmark, to act as their leader. This was the end of the first period of the war. 8. Christian entered Germany with his forces, and was joined by Count Mansfield and Duke Christian of Bruns- wick, a noted character at that time. James I. of England, his brother-in-law, also sent him Second period. assistance. There was, however, no zealous union among tlie German states. At this time Albert Wallenstein, a wealthy * Tilly was already famous, in the Bavarian service, both for his military talent and his inhumanity. He was a small lean man, with a face almost comical in its ugliness. His nose was like a parrot's beak, his forehead seamed with deep wrinkles, his eyes sunk in their sockets and his cheek-bones projecting. He usually wore a dress of green satin, with a cocked hat and long red feather, and rode a small, mean-looking, gray horse."— Bayard Taylor. I Germany and Austria. 603 Bohemian, offered his services to Ferdinand in the Catholic interest, and they were accepted. Tilly and Wallenstein joining their forces soon drove the Danes out of Germany, and Christian made a treaty of peace with the emperor, at Lubeck (1629). This ended the second period of the war. 9. The next year, partly through the intrigues of Riche- lieu, Wallenstein, the greatest of the imperial generals, was dismissed ; and Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, was induced to enter the contest as the Third period. champion of the Protestant cause. With a small, but finely disciplined army, he invaded Germany, and passed triumph- antly through the country, after having defeated Tilly in a great battle near Leipsic (1G3I). Tilly being slain soon afterward, the emperor was obliged to recall Wallenstein, who by his skillful operations soon retrieved the imperial cause. In 1632 oc- curred the memorable battle of Lutzen, in which the Protes- tants triumphed, but with the loss of their great leader Gustavus (1632). Soon after this, Wallenstein, being accused of treason, was assassinated by the command, as is supposed, of the emperor (1634). This ended the third period of the war. 10. Richelieu' now directly took jiart in the struggle on the side of the Protestants, allying France with Sweden, Holland, and the Protestant states of Germany against his implacable foe, the House of Austria (1635). During the remainder of the war, the Wallenstein. Intervention of France. imperial cause declined, through the influence of Richelieu's masterly diplomacy and energetic military operations. The Emperor Ferdinand II. died in 1637, and was succeeded by 604 Modern History. his son, Ferdinand III. Richelieu died m 1642; but the war lingered on six years longer. The peace of Westphalia estab- lished the religious independence of the Protestant states, made Holland and Switzerland free, increased the territories of France, and stripped the German Empire of very much of its ancient power and splendor (1648). 11. The long reign of the emperor Leopold I. (1658-1705) was principally occupied m wars with the Turks and with ~~ ~ I France. The former, in 1683, penetrated to the I heart of the empire, and laid siege to Vienna, from which Lo'o-pold was compelled to flee. Through the courage and address of the celebrated Polish king, John So'bi-es-ki, the city was relieved, and the Turks were obliged to retreat to their own dominions. Germany was involved in the wars caused by the ambitious schemes of Louis XIY. of France; and several brilliant victories were gained in her interest by her illustrious general, Prince Eugene, who, as has been already stated, participated in the great battles fought during the War of the Spanish Succession (see page 272). 12. Prince Eugene also gained several important victories over the Turks, of which the greatest were that of Zenta, in Hungary (1697); and that of Bel-grade' (1717), the latter resulting in an immense loss to the Turks, including the city itself, over which, as Defeat of the TuiVs. being the key of Hungary, very many severe conflicts had taken place between the Austrian and Ottoman forces. Charles VL, who reigned from 1711 to 1740, was the last of the male line of the Hapsburgs; and his death was followed by disputes which led to the famous War of the Austrian Succession. In this war. Austrian Succession, Frederick the Great, king of Prussia, joined the enemies of Maria Theresa, in their attempt to deprive her of her do- minions; and the Elector of Bavaria, assuming the imjjerial throne, under the title of Charles VII., and being assisted by France, advanced to Vienna, and compelled her to flee to Germany and Austria. fiOf) Hiingury. Tlie Hungarians drew their swords enthusiastically in her favor, and Charles VII. was forced to retreat. The latter died in 1745; and Francis of Lorraine, Grand Duke of Tuscany, the husband of Maria Theresa, was elected emperor, under the title of Francis I. 13. The reign of Francis I. was distinguished for the great Seven Years' War, which broke out eight years after the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1756). Great Britain and France quarreled about their colonial pos- Seven Years' War. sessions in North America; Austria was eager to regain the territories Avhich Frederick of Prussia had con- quered during the previous war; and the Empress of Eussia was desirous of curbing the pride and ambition of the Prussian monarch. Poland and Sweden joined Eussia; and thus Freder- ick, whose only ally was Great Britain, had to contend against five great states. The Prussian king was, however, the greatest general of his age ; and the many splendid victories which he gained with his small but highly disciplined army, illus- trate, in a very striking manner, to what an extent the genius of a military commander can triumph over superior numbers. This war was closed by the Treaty of Paris, in 1763. (See Prussia.) 14. During the reign of Francis II. (1792-1835), occurred the great wars with Napoleon, the result of which was, that the Empire of the West, or Holy Eoman Empire, was dissolved in 1806, after an existence of more than a thousand years. Most of the Marxa Theresa. End of the Empire. states were formed into the Confederation of the Ehine; and Austria became an hereditary empire, over which Francis 606 Modern History. continued to rule until his deiitli in 1835.* After the defeat of Napoleon at Leipsic, in 1814, the Confederation of the Khine was dissolved; and in 1815 the Congress of Vienna formed the Germanic Confederation, Other changes. consisting of thirty-nine states, of which the central assembly, or diet, held its sessions at Frankfort on the Main (miwe).f Subsequently, the peace of Germany was much disturbed by the repeated contests of Austria and Prussia for supremacy in the affairs of the Confederation. During the revolutionary period of 1848-9, there was an earnest effort to establish a national union of the German states; and in 1849 William I., King of Prussia, was elected by the National Parliament Hereditary Emperor of Germany; but the kingdoms of Bava- ria, AViirtemberg, Hanover, and Saxony withheld their con- sent, and Austria protested against the measure. The Prus- sian king, therefore, declined the honor. 15. At this time Bismarck, since so prominent in Ger- man affairs, had commenced his career in the Prussian Par- liament, by an effort to consolidate the German nationality by harmonizing the measures of Aus- Bismarck. tria and Prussia. Schleswig and Holstein, provinces of Den- mark, after a short war with the latter, were jointly occupied by these two powers (1864), through his influence, he having * The disasters of 1805 destroyed the hold of Austria upon the German states; and several of the latter alUed themselves to France for self-protection. In 1806, the arch-chancellor of Gennany announced to the diet that he had chosen for his successor one of Napoleon's uncles; and shortly after this announcement sixteen German princes signed an act of allegiance to the French emperor, and thus dis- solved their connection with the German emp""e. This was followed by a declara tion on the part of Napoleon that he no longer recognized such an empire. Thus a German confederation was formed independent of the Austrian Government, and Francis declared himself emperor of Austria. t The kingdom of Westphalia, created by Napoleon, was abolished. Prussia was enlarged by the addition of the Rhineland, a part of Saxony, and Swedish Pomer- ania. The Tyrol and Salzburg were given back to Austria. Hanover was erected into a kingdom; and Weimar, Oldenburg, and Mecklenburg became grand-duchies; Hamburg, Frankfort, Bremen, and Lubeck were declared free cities. Thus, instead of the restoration of the empire, there was established a German Bund Political and religious freedom was proclaimed at the first session of the diet at Frankfort in 1816 (November 5). Germany and Austria. 607 been made, two years before, the minister-president (prime minister) of Prussia. A quarrel ensued soon afterward; and Austria demanded that the diet should call into the field the military forces of War against Austria. Sadowau the states against Prussia on account of her invasion of Hol- stein. This brought on the war of 18G6 against Austria. 16. Bismarck had sagaciously contrived to obtain the alliance and co-operation of Italy, with the design on the part of the latter to acquire possession of the Venetian territories. The Italians were defeated; but the Prussians, under the com- mand of their king (William I.), invaded Bohemia; and, in the battle of Sad'o-Ava, defeated the Austrians with great loss. A treaty soon followed, by which Austria was excluded from the Germanic Con- federation; and Prussia, after in- corporating with her own domin- ions some of the states, formed the North German Confederation, Bismarck. con- Results. sisting of the states north of the Main, including herself as the leading state, and Berlin as the capital. Thus, through the Seven Weeks' War, Count Bismarck obtained for Prussia that controlling influence in Germany for which he had been for some time planning. 17. But the ultimate object of this wily and far-seeing statesman had not yet been attained. This was the complete union of Germany, with Prussia at its head. As auxiliary to that object, he concluded a secret treaty with the South German states, they en- Object of Bismarck. gaging to place their armies at the disposal of Prussia, in case of war. Napoleon III., becoming aware of the plans of the German minister, determined to thwart them, if possible. 608 Modern History. He demanded that Luxemburg and Mentz should be ceded to France, thus extending its eastern frontier to the Rhme; but Bismarck replied: " Not an inch of land/not a single fortress, shall be given up, cost what it may." War would have commenced immediately, but France was not prepared. In 1870, the Franco- Prussian War Franco-German War. broke out, by the march of the French armies to the Rhine, and resulted in their total defeat (see page 302). At its close 1 William I. was proclaimed '' King of Prussia and I Emperor of Germany" (1871). Bismarck was shortly after promoted to the rank of prince, with the title of Chancellor of the German Empire. Austria. 18. Austria, after its organization as a separate empire in 1806, continued to be involved in the great conflict with Napoleon, in which she suffered terrible disasters. The great defeat at Wagram left her powerless; and the Emperor Francis was obliged to submit Wars with Napoleon. to the humiliation of accepting the victorious Corsican as his son-in-law (1810). The most important event in the history of Austria after the Congress of Vienna was the revolt of Hungary, followed by a terrible and Other events. gigantic war, which terminated in the total defeat of the Austrians, after which the Hungarians renounced their alle- giance to the House of Hapsburg, and chose their leader Kossuth (kosh-shoot') as governor. Austria then obtained the intervention of Russia ; and the Hungarian general treach- erously surrendered (1849). The revolt was then crushed with horrible cruelties ; but Kossuth and other Hungarian patriots found an asylum in Turkey, and Kossuth escaping visited England and the United States. Since then, concessions have been made to the Hungarians, and a separate constitution and diet granted. This double nation now bears the title of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (1882). Prussia, 609 SECTION II. Prussia. 19. Prussia derives its name from the Bo-rus^si, a fierce and warlike tribe of the Slavonic race, who early settled on the lands bordering on the Baltic Sea. In the first part of the eleventh century they were partially Early history. subdued by Bo-les'las, king of Poland; but, for more than two centuries, they resisted every effort made to convert them to Christianity. This was finally established among them by means of the crusade carried on against them by the Knights of the Teutonic Order,* during more than fifty years. The country remained under the government of the Knights for about two centuries, when it became partly dependent upon the great kingdom of Poland (1462). 20. The Duchy of Bran'den-burg, a part of these Prussian territories, became, in 1640, the nucleus of the present king- dom of Prussia, through the efforts of Frederick William, styled the Great Elector. From Poland Great Elector. he obtained a recognition of his claim to the Duchy of Prus- sia, which had been hitherto possessed by that kingdom. He Geographical Study, Map No. XIX. What is the situation of : Paris? Amiens? Luneville? Ivry? Rochelle? Orleans? Boulogne? Lyons? Frejus? Toulon? Brussels? Waterloo? Amsterdam? Berlin? Stralsund? Friadland? Dresden? Lutzen? Jena? Leipsic? Ulm? Augsburg? Pas- sau? Spire? Hohenlinden? Hanover? Lubeck? Moscow? Warsaw? Cracow? Smolensk? Borodino? W^ilna? Tilsit? Eilau? Poltava? Constantinople? Nissa? Widin? Belgrade? Nicopolis? Vienna? Presburg? Wagram? Austerlitz? Prague? Rome? Campo Formio? Marengo? Pavia? Palermo? Madrid? Vittoria? Corunna? Talavera? Ciudad Rodrigo? Lisbon? Vimeira? Albuera? Athens? Missolonghi? Navarino? * The order of Teutonic Knights was founded during the Crusades. Their first seat was at Acre ; but, after the destruction of the kingdom of Jerusalem, they removed to the banks of the Vistula, and succeeded finally in establishing a sover- eignty, which had the control of nearly three millions of people. 610 Modern History. Prussia a kingdom. particularly distinguished himself for his successful wars against the Swedes, whom, in 1679, he entirely ex^ielled from the country. He was also noted for his strenuous efforts in the cause of the Protestants; for which he received letters of congratulation and thanks from Oliver Cromwell. When the Edict of Nantes was revoked by Louis XIV., many of the exiled Huguenots found a refuge in the dominions of the Great Elector. 21. Prussia became a kingdom in 1701, the last elector, Frederick III., liaving been acknowledged king by the emperor of Germany, on condition that he should aid the cause of Austria in the War of the Spanisli Succession. His troops gained great distinction by their valor in the battle of Blenheim. He was succeeded by Frederick William I., in 1713, noted for his harsh and eccentric character, his fondness for tall* soldiers, and his savage treat- ment of his son, who succeeded him as Frederick II., known as Frederick the Great (1740-86). Under the latter, Prussia be- came one of the greatest mili- tary powers in Europe, partly Frederick the Great. through the magnificent army which had been collected by Frederick Wilham I., and disciplined to the highest degree of eflSciency. 22. Taking advantage of the disputes regarding the claims of Maria Theresa, Frederick invaded Silesia, and defeated the Austrians (1741). This brought on the war of the Austrian Succession, in which the Prus- sian kine: sfained several victories over the Aus- Fredenck the Great. trians and Saxons, taking Dresden, where he made peace (1745). In the Seven Years' War, his victories over the com- Prussia, 611 billed forces of the great powers of Europe gave him a place among the most renowned generals of history. French, Austri- an, and Kussian armies, each double the number of the Prussians, were defeated in turn (1757-8). The Eussian defeat at Zorndorf was perhaps the Seven Years' War. most memorable in the war (1758). The treaty of 1763 left him with considerably extended dominions. In 1772, the Prussian territories were also enlarged by the First Partition of Poland. Frederick by no means neglected the internal improvement of his kingdom, encouraging agriculture, manu- factures, and commerce. He was passionately fond of literature, was an intimate friend and Character. associate of Voltaire, and acquired himself some distinction as an author. 23. The wars with ISTapoleon occurred during the reign of Frederick William III. In these, Prussia suffered the terrible overthrow of Jena (1806), but redeemed her honor through the achievements of Blucher (bloo'ker), to whose skill, courage, and promptitude the great victories of Leipsic and Waterloo were partly due. Blucher's hatred of Napoleon and the French was intense; and, had he not been overruled by the other generals. Paris, in 1814, would have been given up to be pillaged by the soldiers. 24. By the Congress of Vienna the Prussian territories were much enlarged; and during the subsequent part of the reign of Frederick William, the condition of Prussia was greatly improved. The establish- Later events. ment of common schools of a high order of excellence did much to enlighten the people and augment the real strength of the kingdom. Frederick William III. was succeeded in 1840 by his son, Frederick William IV., who died in 1861. During the reign of his successor, William I., the changes in the Prussian dominions occurred, which have been explained in connection is^ith the history of Germany. By the recon- 612 Modern History. struction of the Empire of Germany, King William as em- peror is now one of the great potentates of the world (1882). SECTION III. Holland and Belgium. 25. Holland and Belgium, called the Netherlands, or Low Countries, constituted, in 1843, a part of Germany. For several centuries it was under the rule of petty princes, and afterward formed a part of the Early history. duchy of Burgundy. Several of its cities, Ghent^ Antwerp, Brussels, and Mechlin, grew strong and rich by their trade and manufactures. The death of Charles the Bold and the marriage of his daughter, Mary of Burgundy, to Maximilian, brought the Netherlands for a time under the sway of Austria; but they subsequently passed by inheritance to Charles V., who was the grandson of Maximilian and Mary. 26. The historical impor- tance of these states commences in the reign of Philip II. of Spain, the son and successor of Charles, through the resistance made by their spirited inhabitants to the tyranny and intoler- ance of that bigoted monarch. Under their great leader, William of Orange, surnamed the '* Silent," the " Seven United Provinces" successfully revolted against the cruelties of the Duke of Alva, viceroy of Philip, and William op Orange. Rise of the republic. Holland and Belgium. G13 declared their independence, William becoming their first president with tlie title of Stadtholder (1581). This illustrious soldier and statesman was assas- sinated in 1584,* but the United Provinces were William of Orange. presided over by the princes of Orange until the French Revo- lution. The other provinces (Belgium) continued to belong to Spain until they were transferred to Austria (1713). 27. The Dutch republic became, a short time after its independence, the most formidable maritime power in the world. The part taken by it in the great Euro- pean wars, and its successive contests with Great Dutch republic. Britain, have already been related. During the French Revo- lution, the National Convention having declared war against Holland, the country was overrun by the French armies; and the anti-Orange faction excited a popular insurrection which expelled William V., the last of the Stadtholders, and led to the establishment of the Batavian Republic, under the control of the French (1795). Belgium became a part of France. 28. Napoleon Bonaparte made his brother Louis king of Holland, but afterward dethroned him, and annexed the country to France. After the fall of Napoleon, the Congress of Vienna reunited Holland and Later changes. Belgium, and thus formed the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which was placed under one of the Orange family, with the title of AVilliaml. This union lasted till 1830, when Bel- gium successfully revolted, and became a separate kingdom, Leopold, a German prince, being placed upon the throne. In 1865, he was succeeded by Leopold II. Holland is now (1882) ruled by William III., who ascended the throne in 1849. * " The gloom produced by the assassination of William of Orange was tragical. Never in human history was a more poignant and universal sorrow for the death of any individual. The despair was, for a brief season, absolute ; but it was soon succeeded by more lofty sentiments. It seemed, after they had laid their hero in the tomb, as though his spirit still hovered above the nation which he had loved so well, and was inspiring it with a portion of his own energy and wisdom."— ilfof- Zey's United Netherlands. G14 Modern History. SECTION IV. SWITZEELAND. 29. The chief events in tli^ history of SwitzerLind, after the establishment of its independence in 1499, were those connected with the changes in religion brought Zwingli. about by the celebrated Protestant preacher Zwin'gli, an associate of Luther and Melanchthon. The can- tons were soon involved in a civil war on account of religious dissensions. Zurich, in 1523, adopted Religious wars. the oi^inions of Zwingli, and was followed by Berne, and other cantons in the north; while the forest cantons re- mained attached to the Catholic Church. In a battle fought in 1531, the latter were victorious, and Zwingli was slain. Geneva was the residence of John Calvin, one of the most noted of the Protestant divines: and Calv from his preaching spread the doctrines which afterward characterized the Puritans of England, and the people of Scotland. The death of Calvin occurred in 1564. 30. The neutrality of Switzerland was preserved during the Thirty Years' War; and at its close, the peace of West- phalia secured the independence of the Con- federacy, by acknowledging it as a separate Later history. state. At this period, the Swiss were among the best soldiers in Europe, and were employed in immense numbers by foreign states. In 1798, the French armies overran Switzer- land; and, in 1802, Napoleon, as First Consul, annexed three of the cantons to France, and formed of the others a con- federation dependent upon it. The Congress of Vienna restored the cantons, and re-established the republic, consist- ing of twenty-two cantons (1815). The new constitution, adopted by the federal diet in the same year, was ratified by the great powers, and the perpetual independence of the Confederation was declared. The last revision of this con- stitution was adopted in 1874. Italy. 61/) SECTION V. Italy. 31. Italy continued to be divided into a number of small states until the establishment of the Kingdom of Italy (1861). Among these states the Duchy of Sav'oy be- came, in the latter period of the Middle Ages, a Savoy. power of considerable importance. During the wars of Louis XIA^. of France, it took sides with the allies, and was reward- ed, by the treaty of Utrecht, with the island of Sicily and other territories. The Kingdom of Sardinia originated in a treaty made between Savoy and Sardinia. Austria (1720), by which Sicily was exchanged for the island of Sardinia, and the Duke of Savoy was acknowledged king. By Napoleon it was stripped of much of its territory, which was restored by the Congress of Vienna, who also annexed to it the ancient republic of Genoa. 32. Charles Albert was a vigorous monarch of Sardi- nia; and, during his reign (1831-49), many reforms were introduced into the government, in compliance with the demands for a more liberal policy, by Charles Albert. the people. At the revolutionary period of 1848, the kmg announced a new constitution, which was hailed with much satisfaction. An insurrection of the Austrian states of Italy broke out, and the king placed himself at the head of the Italian forces. Being disastrously Victor Emanuel- defeated, he was compelled to abdicate in favor of his son, Victor Emanuel (1849), during whose reign many changes occurred in Italy. Joseph Car-i-bal'di, the famous Italian patriot, landing in Sicily, proclaimed himself dictator for Victor Emanuel. After taking Palermo by storm, and defeating the army of the King of Naples, he invaded the peninsula, and continuing in his vic- torious career, compelled the king (Francis II.) to flee (1860), Garibaldi. 616 Modern History. 33. Victor Emanuel afterward entered ^^aples, and was acknowledged king. Lombardy had been wrested the year before from Austria, through the aid of the French emperor, Napoleon III., who gained the splendid victories of Magenta and Solferino over Kingdom of Italy. the Austrian forces. As a result of the successful insurrec- tion of 1860, the states of Italy, except Venetia and a part of the Papal territories, were consolidated into the Kingdom of Italy; and Victor Emanuel, the former king of Sardinia, was placed on the throne by the Italian Parliament. He was soon afterward recognized as king of Italy by France and England, and fixed his capital at Florence (1861). After the war of 1867, Venetia was given up by Austria, and sub- sequently Garibaldi made an attack on the Papal Rome. territory, but his forces were repulsed by the French. After the Franco-German war, so disastrous to France, the French forces were withdrawn, and the Italian army soon afterward entered Rome, which the Italian Parliament pro- claimed the capital of the Kingdom of Italy Humbert i. (1870), Victor Emanuel made his formal entry into the city the next year. On his death, in 1878, this king was succeeded by his son, Humbert I., who still reigns (1882). SECTION VI. Spain". 34. Charles V. of Germany, previous to his election as emperor, inherited the throne of Spain, being the grandson of Isabella of Castile. His reign (Doli Carlos I.), which commenced at the death of Ferdinand (1516), lasted forty years; but is chiefly occupied with the general affairs of Europe. Cardinal Ximenes (ze-me'neez), one of the most celebrated personages of his age, administered Spain. 617 Philip II. the government till 1517, with great vigor and ability. Charles was succeeded, on his abdication, by Philip II. (1556), who thus became one of the greatest potentates on earth, being ruler over Spain, the Netherlands, Sicily, Naples, and other parts of Italy, besides of such parts of the New World as had been added to the dominions of Spain by the discoveries of Columbus and that navigator's successors. 35. Philip's schemes were principally actuated by bigotry, and nearly all ended in utter failure; so that, at his death (1598), he left the country despoiled of some of its best possessions, impoverished by ruinous wars, and greatly lowered in the respect of Condition of Spain. foreign nations. His successor (Philip III.) still further weakened the kingdom by the expulsion of the Moors (1610), who had been permitted by Ferdi- Moors. nand to remain in the country, on condition of their accepting 618 Modern History. Christianity. This measure of Philip III., which was based on the charge of hypocrisy in the professed conversion of the Moors, deprived Spain of 500,000 of its most useful population. 36. The reign of Philip IV. (1621-65) was noted for the loss of Portugal, which had been annexed to Spain during the reign of Philip II. (1580). It now re-established its independence as a separate kingdom under Portugal. the Duke of Bra-gan'za (1640). Philip IV. made the most strenuous exertions to recover the lost province, and his failure is said to have partly occasioned his death. During the next reign (Charles II., 1665-1700), Spain was left, by the imbecility of its government, a Later events. prey to the other nations of Europe, by whom it was despoiled of many of its best possessions. The placing of Philip V. upon the throne, by his grandfather, Louis XIV., led to the War of the Spanish Succession (see page 560.) 37. The attempts of the Emperor Napoleon I. to obtain the control of Spain, occasioned the Peninsular War, the chief events of which have already been related. The conclusion of peace, in 1814, restored Ferdinand Other events. VII. to the throne, who dissolved the Cortes, or Parli^iment, and established an absolute rule. A revolution which broke out in 1820, compelled him to restore the free constitution formed in 1812, and placed him under restraint. Louis XVIII. of France, however, sending an army into Spain, released him, and restored his American colonies. authority. The War of Spanish Independence in America, which broke out in 1810, by the revolt of New Grena'da and Venezue'la, ended in 1825, the American colonies, one by one, having achieved their independence. * * Spain, once the richest nation in the world, from her American and other con- quests, had by this time lost the whole of her vast foreign dominions, except Cuba and Porto Rico in the west, and the Philippine Islands in the east, with a few un- important possessions. Portugal, 619 38. Isabella II. wus proclaimed queen on the death of Ferdinand, her father, in 1833, but was opposed by Don Carlos, her uncle, who claimed the throne on the ground that the law of succession excluded Isabella II. females. A war of four years ensued ; and finally Great Britain sent an army in aid of Isabella, whereupon Don Carlos, hopeless of success, fled to France. Isabella's rule gave great dissatisfaction, and in 1868, after a successful insurrection, she was obliged to flee, seeking a refuge in France. A provisional government Revolution. was then organized, under Generals Serrano and Prim, fol- lowed by a regency with Serrano at its head. In 1871, Duke Aosta, second son of Victor Emanuel, became king by elec- tion of the Cortes, with the title of Amade'us I.; but, after a short and stormy reign, he abdicated (1873); and a republic was proclaimed. Civil war in various parts of Spain followed, until Alfonso, son of Isabella II., who had been proclaimed king in Madrid and acknowledged by some of the armies, landed in Spain; and the Carlist in- surrectionists* were overthrown (1876). This event placed Alfonso XII. firmly on the Spanish throne, which he still occupies (1882). SECTION VII. POKTUGAL. 39. It was during the reign of Emanuel, surnamed the Fortunate (1495-1521), that Vasco da Gama made his suc- cessful voyage to India, by way of the Cape of Good Hope (1497). This was soon followed by the accidental discovery of Brazil, bv Cabral Maritime enterprises. (1500), in a voyage to India, thus giving that extensive and * These were the supporters of the claims of Don Carlos, a grandson of Isabella's uncle, who had previously contended for the throne. 620 Modern History. fertile region to the Portuguese. Important voyages were made to this region by Amerigo Vespucci, an Italian naviga- tor in the Portuguese service (1501 and 1504). In the same reign the Portuguese established their authority in India, making many conquests and founding several colonies. Among their conquests were Ceylon (1505) and Malacca (1511). Japan was discovered a few years later (1543).* 40. An unfortunate expedition of Sebastian III. to Mo- rocco (1578), from which he never returned, left Portugal without a sovereign, and occasioned disorder and anarchy, — the people constantly looking for the Sebastian III. return of their king, of whose fate no tidings were ever re- ceived. Philip II. of Spain, taking advantage of these cir- cumstances, seized upon the country (1580); and for sixty years it was held in subjection to the Spanish rule. Spanish crown. During this period, it suffered much from the oppressive exactions of its conquerors, being obliged to share in the taxation occasioned by the long and expensive wars waged by the Spanish monarchs. John IV, At last, it was set free by a revolution; and John IV., Duke of Braganza, ascended the throne (1640). Long wars fol- lowed with Spain, which did not acknowledge the independ- ence of Portugal till 1668. 41. During the next century, Portugal remained in a state of inglorious stagnation, being steeped in ignorance and bigotry; and, after being one of the greatest mari- time nations of the world, was content to become a kind of commercial dependent of Great Britain. State of the nation. Under the reign of Joseph I. (1750-77), the genius and * " Intercourse with the Chinese was commenced in the year 1518, when an em- bassy sent to their empire had the good fortune to drive off a pirate from the shores, and in consequence was received with favor, and rewarded with the town of Macao as a settlement. Japan was discovered in IhX'i^ by the accidental drifting of a ves- sel to its shores. The Portuguese soon acquired an ascendency over the petty princes who then governed the islands, and laid the foundations of a profitable commerce." — Yeats' s Growth and Vicissitudes of Commerce, Portugal. 621 enterprise of his great minister, Don Carvalho (kar-vaVyo) infused a temporary vigor in the government; but this was checked by the accession of his Don Carvalho. daughter Maria, who permitted the nobles and clergy to resume their destructive influence. Her insanity led to the appointment of her eldest son, John VI., as regent (1702). 42. The invasion of Portugal by the French, under Mar- shal Junot, induced John to abandon Portugal and retire to Brazil (1807), where he remained until 1821, al- though by the death of his mother he had been French invasion. acknowledged king in 1816. His return was occasioned by the breaking out of a revolution in Portugal, which had for its object the establishment of a government securing the rights of the people. John ac- Revolutioh. cepted the new constitution, and acknowledged the indepen- dence of Brazil, the throne of the latter country being occupied by his son, Dom Pedro (1825), with the title of emperor. 43. On the death of John VI. (1826), his son Dom Pedro, preferring the throne of Brazil, resigned that of Portugal in favor of his daughter Maria da Gloria; but her uncle Dom Miguel {me'ghel), who had previous- Dom Pedro. ly opposed the reforms in the government, laid claim to the throne, and obtained from the Cortes an acknowledgment of his right (1828). This led to a dreadful condition of anarchy for a time, which was terminated by Dom Pedro, with the aid of the British, Dom Miguel being compelled to submit (1834). In that year Maria 11. commenced her reign, which was terminated by her death (1853), when her son Pedro V. succeeded under the resrencv of Later history. his father. This king's reign was short but meritorious; and, on his death (1861), his brother Louis I. ascended the throne, under whom Portugal has made a steady advancement. Im- portant internal improvements have been completed, slavery has been abolished in the colonies, and many wise and benefi- cent measures carried into effect. 622 Modern History. SECTION YIII. Sweden, Norway, and Denmark. • 44. These three countries in the Middle Ages were in- habited bj a Scandinavian ])eo2ole, the descendants of the Goths and other barbarous races. Each was governed by its own princes till the beginning of Early history. the 14th century, when Norway was united with Sweden. The three countries were formed into one kingdom, under the rule of Margaret, Queen of Denmark, in the latter part of the same century (1397). This union, however, was neither effectual nor permanent; but the kings of Denmark continued to claim and exercise some sway over these countries till 1523, when Sweden was freed from the tyranny of Christian II. of Denmark, by the patriotic exertions of the renowned Gustavus Vasa. Sweden. 45. This illustrious man was afterward elected king of Sweden, and, by his wise and beneficent measures, estab- ■ I lished the prosperity of the kingdom, and gave . LJ to this semi-barbarous state an honorable place among the civilized monarchies of Europe. His reign of thirty-seven years (1523-1560) was also signalized by the establishment of Protestantism. The next important reign was that of the celebrated Gustavus Adolphus, the hero of Lutzen. His death, in 1632, would have been an irreparable disaster to his country Gustavus Adolphus. but for the virtues and talents of his minister Ox'en-stiern (-derti), who administered the government during the minor- ity of Christina {kris-te'nali), daughter of Gustavus. 46. Charles XI., during his long reign (1660-1697), suc- ceeded in enlarging the Swedish territories, and obtained from the diet a decree giving to him ab- solute power. His reign was exceedingly prosperous, and the Sweden^ Noi^ioay^ and DenmarTc. 623 internal condition of the kingdom was much improved. Charles XII., called sometimes the " Madman of the North," succeeded. His passion for conquest and mili- tary glory plunged his country into many miseries and misfortunes. A coalition formed against him by Den- mark, Poland, and Russia led to the Northern War, in which Charles gained several brilliant yictories over the Danes and Russians; and having succeeded in dethroning the king of Poland, placed in his stead Stanislas (1704). 47. A severe contest with the czar of Russia followed, and Charles invaded that country with a large army, which, after suffering the most dreadful hardships from cold and hunger, was finally defeated at Pol-ta'va Poltava. (1709). Charles took refuge in Turkey, and succeeded in persuading the Turkish emperor to declare war against Russia; but he afterward quarrelled with the emperor, and was compelled, after remaining more than five years in Turkey, to flee. He returned to Sweden in 1714, and still continued to carry out his ambitious designs till his death, which occurred during the siege of a town in Norway (1718). 48. The vacillating policy of Gustavus IV., during the Napoleonic wars, led to the loss of Bothnia and Finland; and, in 1809, he was obliged to abdicate in favor of his uncle, Charles XIII. This king being Death of Charles. without heirs, Ber-na-dotte', one of Napoleon's marshals, Avas raised to the rank of Crown Prince (1810), and became virtually the king. With the title of Charles XIV., he for- mally ascended the throne of Norway and Sweden in 1818, the two countries having been united in 1815. His reign, which was characterized by vigor and moderation, lasted until 1844, and was followed by that of his Later history. son Oscar, who ruled till 1859, when he was succeeded by his grandson Charles XV., who died in 1872. The reigning mon- arch is Oscar II., the brother of Charles (1882). 624 Modern History. 49. Norway continued to be united to Denmark until 1814, when, by the treaty of Kiel {keel), the allied powers compelled the latter to resign her possession of Norway to Sweden. The union of the two coun- Norway. tries was afterward confirmed by the Congress of Vienna. The people of Norway made some resistance to this arrange- ment; but the country being invaded by an army under Ber- nadotte, they were reduced to submission. The constitutional privileges of the nation have, however, been retained; and the condition of the country, under the Bernadotte dynasty, has been one of peace and prosperity. Denmark. 50. After the separation of Sweden and Denmark (1523), the latter was governed by Frederick I., who introduced the Lutheran religion into his dominions. During the next reign, Schles'wig and Hol'stein were Chief events. annexed to the Danish territories. Under Christian IV., Denmark took an active part in the Thirty Years' War; but defeat and disaster were the consequence, and Christian was obliged to submit to very humiliating conditions of peace (1629). During the Napoleonic wars. Great Britain, claim- ing the right to search foreign vessels, took a Danish frigate that had made resistance. This British war. led to a league with Russia, Prussia, and Sweden, against the naval power of Great Britain. Nelson, however, attacked and destroyed the Danish fleet in the harbor of Copenhagen, and thus paralyzed the naval power of the confederacy (1801). The British again destroyed the Danish fleet in 1807, in con- sequence of a threatened alliance with France. By the treaty of Vienna, Denmark received the duchy of Lau'en-burg (1815). 51. In 1848, a revolt occurred in Schleswig and Holstein, to produce a separation of the duchies from the Danish crown; but it was subdued, through assistance furnished by Poland. 625 Austria. In 1864, Prussia, in alliance with Austria, com- pelled Denmark to give up these territories, and thus confined her sway to the peninsula and the adjacent islands. The marriage, in 1863, of the English Prince of Wales to Alexandra, daughter of the Danish king. Alexandra. Christian IX., a third time allied Denmark to Great Britain. Christian is still the reigning monarch (1882). ^ SECTION IX. Poland. 52. Poland was created into a kingdom, and became an extensive and powerful monarchy, during the Middle Ages. In the latter part of the fourteenth century oc- curred its first union with Lith-u-a'ni-a, a larsfe Early history. district extending to the Nie'men and Dnieper rivers. Soon after this, successful wars were waged with the Teutonic Knights, which resulted in uniting the Prussian provinces with Poland (1462). During the reign of Sigismund I. (1506- 1548), a war Avas carried on with the Russians, who thus acquired Smolensk. Through the wise and beneficent meas- ures of this sovereign, Poland was much improved, and reached a very high degree of greatness and splendor. 53. In the next reign (Sigismund II.), occurred the final union of Poland and Lithuania (1569); and the Protestant doctrines took a firm hold of the higher classes. At the close of this reign (1572), the monarchy Changes. was made elective; and the first king chosen was Henry of Valois, afterward Henry III. of France. This change in the constitution of the kingdom was very injurious to its interests, since it fomented faction and gave rise to repeated civil wars. The next century was chiefly occupied in wars with 626 Modern History. the two great northern powers, Sweden and Russia. During the reign of John Oas'i-mer (1648-68), a Swedish army overran Poland, took War'saw and Cra'cow, Wars. and compelled the king to flee. The Poles, however, made a vigorous effort to preserve their independence, and, having expelled the Swedes, restored their sovereign to his throne. 54. The reign of John Sobieski is one of the most brilliant in Polish history. He was a great warrior, and saved bis country from the Cossacks and the Turks. His defeat of the latter near Vienna, in 1683, has Sobieski already been referred to. The constant dissensions and turbu- lence of the Polish nobles, however, frustrated all his efforts to improve and strengthen the kingdom, and prepared the way for its final dismemberment and ruin. The last king of Poland was Stanislas Augustus, Stanislas. during whose reign occurred the First Partition (1772), by which Austria, Russia, and Prussia divided most of its dominions among themselves, leaving to the Polish king only a nominal authority over those remaining to him. Twenty years later, the war with the Russians again broke out; but they were defeated by the Poles, under their re- nowned leader Prince Po-ni-a-tow'ski (-tov'she), Poniatowski. in several engagements, notwithstanding which Stanislas sub- mitted to the Second Partition, by which the Polish territories were still further diminished (1793). 55. The next year the Poles made an ineffectual effort to regain their lost liberties, under that noble and illustrious patriot Thad'de-us Kos-ci-us'ko, who had so generously lent his sword to the cause of Ameri- Kosciusko. can freedom, in the war of the Revolution. At first victorious, the brave Poles were soon obliged to succumb to the over- whelming masses of the Russians, commanded by the fierce and relentless Suvaroff; and Kosciusko was wounded and made a prisoner (1794). Warsaw was soon after taken by storm, and the last relic of Polish independence was destroyed Mussia. 627 by the Third Partition (1795). Stanislas died a broken- hearted exile in St. Petersburg (1798). Kosciusko, kept for some time a captive at St. Petersburg, was afterward released; and for many years wandered in America, France, and Switzerland. In the last-named country he died, from the effects of a fall from his horse (1817). 66. The wars waged by Napoleon I. against the enemies of Poland excited new hopes in the people of regaining their independence; but these were destroyed by the Congress of Vienna, who gave some of the Polish Russian control. territories to Prussia and Austria, and formed of the remain- der the kingdom of Poland, under the control of the czar. After an unsuccessful insurrection of the Poles in 1830, this kingdom was incorporated with the Russian Empire. Another insurrection took place in 1863; but it was soon crushed by the overwhelming force of the Russian Government, and the severest punishments were inflicted upon tens of thousands of the unfortunate insurgents. SECTION X. Russia. 57. The ancestors of the Russians were the Slavs, who at an early period formed settlements near the sources of the Dnieper, Dniester, and Don rivers, and the Baltic Sea. Of these Novgorod' and Kiev Early history. (he-ev') were the chief. The size and influence of the former, while it was a member of the Hanseatic League in the thir- teenth century, were so great, that it was called the Mighty Novgorod. It was the metropolis of Novgorod. one of the most extensive of tlie Russian states, occupying a vast tract that stretched from the Baltic to the White Sea. 628 Modern History, 68. For several centuries Russia was overrun by the Mon- gols, from whom it was emancipated by Ivan (e-van') III., one of the greatest of its monarchs, who, during his reign of nearly half a century (1462-1505), did very much to improve and elevate the people. He liad married a niece of Constantine Palaeologus, and endeavored to introduce into his country the laws, institutions, and arts of civilization peculiar to the Greek Empire. During this and the two suc- ceeding reigns, the petty principalities were abolished, and Russia assumed the character of a consolidated em])ire (1584). A short time previous to this. Siberia. the conquest of Siberia had been commenced ; and, in 1664, Ir-koutsk' was founded. 59. Russia owes its great- ness as a European power to the talents and energy of Peter the Great, (1682- Peter the Great. Peter the Great. 1725) who was one of the most extraordinary personages de- scribed in history. With an in- flexible will, he was dismayed by no difficulty and appalled by no danger. With the spirit of an enlightened patriot, he resolved to introduce among his people the useful arts, the civilized customs, and the beneficent institutions which he saw prevailing in other countries of Europe. To accomplish this, he visited England, Holland, and other countries; and even engaged himself as a common mechanic, to obtain a knowledge of the arts which he desired to teach his people (1697-8). In 1703, the capital was removed from Moscow to his new city, St. Petersburg. 60. Previous to this, the war with Charles XII. of Sweden broke out; and Peter was defeated with great loss in the Bussia. 629 Defeat of Charles XII. battle of Narva (1700). Profiting by this experience, the Russian monarch re-organized his army; and when Charles invaded Russia, in 1707, he was permitted to penetrate farther and farther into those dreary regions of frost and famine, till, with a small and half-famished remnant of his great army, he was sur- rounded at Poltava, and entirely defeated (1709). Two years later, Peter allowed the Russian army to be surrounded by the Turks near the Pruth (proot) River; and was saved from a terrible disaster by an artifice of the Empress Catharine, who bought oft' the vizier with her jewels. Peter died in 1725. 61. Catharine I., the widow of the great czar, succeeded him. Turks. Catharine I. ml in g for two years. Sh e had originally been a peasant girl; but, by her prudence, intel- ligence, and enterprise, she did much to facilitate the beneficent objects of her dis- tinguished husband. Prince Men'shi-koff, the chief min- ister of Peter, had also risen from a very humble station. During the beth, daughter of Peter the Great and Catharine, Russia became a prominent nation and took a Catiivki reign of Eliza- distinguished part in the Seven Years' War (1741-62). 62. The profligate empress Catharine II. (1702-96) had the celebrated Po-tem'kin for her minister and favorite. Wars Avere waged with Turkey and Poland, and the Crimea was wrested from the former in 1784. Catha The Turks were afterwards severely defeated by the famous General Suvaroff, and were thus compelled to submit to further loss of territory (1792). This general also distin- 6S0 Modern Hisiory. giiished himself during the next reign (Paul) ni the wars waged against Napoleon. Paul was assassinated in 1801, and was succeeded by Alexander I., who entered into the several coalitions formed against Napoleon. This monaTch commenced his reign with liberal ideas and a desire to effect reforms, but he became Alexander I. arbitrary and misanthropic, and ruled as an absolute despot till his death in 1825. He was succeeded by his brother Nicholas. 63. The reign of Nicholas I., who was also a stern despot, is noted for tb.3 insurrection in Poland (1830), and the cruel punishments inflicted upon the unfortunate Poles by the remorseless emperor. The crushing out of the Hungarian insurrection by the interference of Eussia, and the Crimean war (1853-5), were also events of this reign. Nicholas died while the latter was m progress, and was succeeded by his son, Alexander II. (1855). Alexander II. The next year, the treaty of Paris was concluded, by which Eus- sia was obliged to resign her claims to the Danubian princi- palities, and to the unrestricted navigation of the Black Sea. 64. Alexander II. commenced his reign with a series of liberal reforms, the greatest of which was the emancipation of the serfs by a decree issued in 1861, by means of which fourteen millions of people were re- Later history. leased from bondage, and made free citizens. The defeat of the celebrated leader Scha'myl, who had organized an inde- pendent government over the mountain tribes of the Caucasus, took place in 1859. An insurrection in Poland was suppressed in 1864, and the people were again treated with extreme rigor. Since 1865 Eussia has made extensive conquests in central Asia, successively bringing under her sway the rich and fertile khanates of Turkistan (toor-his-tan'). Khiva, one of the most important of these, was conquered in 1875. 65. In 1875-6 insurrections broke out in the Christian provinces of Bos'nia, Servia, Bulgaria, and others; and the Turkey. mi atrocities committed by the Turkish soldiery in suppressing them caused a thrill of horror throughout the civilized world.* Eussia took occasion to interfere m behalf of the religious freedom of the provinces, Eastern war. and demanded guarantees of the Turkish Government which the latter refused to grant. War accordingly ensued, dur- ing which the Russian armies, having invaded the Ottoman dominions both in Europe and Asia, gained several important victories. This war was closed by the treaty of Berlin (1878), with the result stated in the history of Turkey (see page 346). The commotions excited by the extreme revolu- tionary party called Nihilists have for some years disturbed the nation; and several attempts were made on the czar's life, the last of which was successful, Alexander being assassinated in St. Petersburg (1881). He was succeeded by his son Alexander III, the present czar (1882). SECTION XL Turkey. 66. Mohammed II., the conqueror of Oonstantinoi:>le, greatly enlarged the Turkish territories; and his son Bajazet 11. (1481-1512) extended his dominions still further, adding a part of the region north of the Conquests. Black Sea, together with portions of Italy and Austria. His * " These atrocities excited universal astonishment and horror when their full extent had been made known. Mr. W. E. Gladstone, late premier of the British cabinet, was prompted by them to write a pamphlet full of burning denunciation of the administration in power in Great Britain [Earl of Beaconsfleld's], for its attempt to palliate the enormitj- of the offenses and its toleration of the Turkish Government, which, knowing that they had been committed, had not taken efficient measures to bring the perpetrators of them to justice. In this pamphlet he pro- nounced them ' the basest and blackest outrages upon record within the present century, if not within the memory of man,' and characterized them as crimes and outrages so vast in scale as to exceed all modem example, and so uiuitterablj- vile as well as fierce in character, that it pains the power of heart to conceive, and of tongue and pen adequately to describe them."— ^. J. Schemes War in the East. 632 Modern History. successor, Selim I. (1512-20), made conquest of Syria, Egypt, and other countries, and laid the foundation of the Turkish naval power, Avhich so long disputed the empire of the Mediterranean with the fleets of Venice. The greatest power and splendor were, however, attained by the Ottoman Em- pire during the reign of Solyman, surnamed the Mag)iificent (1520-66). 67. This great monarch reduced the powerful Danuhian fortresses of Belgrade (1521), wrested the island of Rhodes from its persevering and valiant defenders, the Knights of St. John (1522), and, luiving invaded Sol>man. Hungary and taken Buda (1529), marched to Vienna, which he besieged for a long time, but was repulsed with great loss (1529). A second attempt, in 1532, was e(|ually unsuccessful. He also carried on a successful war with the Shah (emperor) of Persia; and his fleets triumphantly swept the Mediterranean from the Strait of Gibraltar to the Levant. One of his last undertakings was an unsuccessful attack on the island of Malta, which the Emperor Charles V. had given to the Knights of St. John, after their expulsion from Rhodes (1565). 68. During the reign of Selim IT. (1566-74), the German emperor agreed to pay an annual tribute to the Turks for their surrender of Hungary. The attempt to take Astrachan', a city on the Volga, preliminary to Selim II. the construction of a canal between the Don and Volga rivers — a scheme projected by the Turkish emperor for commercial purposes — aroused the hostility of the Russians, a people until that time little known in southern Europe. Thus were com- menced those fierce wars, which for centuries have been waged by these neighboring empires. During the reign of Selim, the fleets of Turkey received a check by the great naval defeat sustained at Lepanto, in Greece, in an action with Don John of Austria (1571). 69. The subsequent reigns, for more than a century, pre- sent only a continuous series of contests with Germany, Turkey. 633 Poland, and Russia, in which the Ottoman power succeeded in extending its dominions from the Danube to tlie Tigris, and from the southern limits of Egyi)t to the falls of the Dnie})er River. It sustained, however, several defeats, of which that at Vienna by the Poles under their kine^, John Sobieski, was the Defeats. most memorable (1683);* and Prince Eugene, while in the imperial service, gained one of his greatest victories over the Turks at Zenta, a city in Hungary (1097). The Turks aban- doned all their Hungarian j^ossessions in the treaty which followed (1699). The assistance given to Charles XIL, after the battle of Poltava, involved the Turks in a war with Peter the Great, to whom it would Morea. have proved a great disaster, had he not been rescued by the skillful artifice of tlie Empress Catharine. A short time after this, the Morea (southern part of Greece) was taken from the Venetians (1714). 70. Contests with Russia take up the largest part of its subsequent history. During a six years' war (1768-7-1), the Russians overran the Ci'imea, which they suc- ceeded in retaining, notwithstanding the most desperate efforts of the Turks to regain it. While Wars with Russia. Catharine II. of Russia was on the throne, the Turks were assailed by the combined power of Russia and Austria, the forces of the former being commanded by Marshal Suvaroff, the most famous of Russian generals, and particularly noted for his resolution and relentless ferocity. Peace was con- cluded between Russia and Turkey in 1792. * " Never was there a more complete owerthrow. It was like the explosion of a mine; it was so sudden. After the battle, the Elector of Bavaria, and many others of the princes, fell on my neck and kissed me in the fullness of their joy. The generals hoisted me on their shoulders and carried me through their ranks. Wher- ever I went, 'Long live Sobieski!' ' Sobieski forever!' 'Huzza!' sounded on all sides. Mothers and children ran to touch me ; old men covered my hands with kisses; and those who could not get through the crowd, waved their hats or hand- kerchiefs, shouting with one voice, ' God save thee, Sobieski!' 'Welcome, Sobieski: ' 'Huzza! ' ""—Letter of Sobieski to his Wife. 684 Modern History, 71. The conquest of Egypt and the invasion of Syria by Napoleon have ah-eady been referred to. By the aid of the British, the lost territories were regained. One of the most interesting events since that time, was Later events. the successf 111 insurrection of the Greeks, whose independence was secured by the battle of Navarino (1827). The wars waged with the rebellious Pacha of Egypt, Mehemet Ali {ma'hem-et ah'le), still further reduced the strength of the empire. This contest was terminated in 1841, by the surren- der of the government of Egypt to Mehemet Ali, he being made an hereditary ruler. One of his successors, Ismail {is- mah-eeV) Pasha, obtained from the sultan in 1867 the hered- itary title of hhedive (viceroy). 72. Eussia has repeatedly taken advantage of the weakness of the Ottoman Empire to attempt its spoliation. In the Crimean War Turkey was successfully aided by Great Britain and France in opposing the schemes Russian attacks. of conquest of Nicholas; and by the treaty of Paris it regained a portion of territory north of the Danube. In the Eastern War of 1877-8, the Turkish forces were unsuc- cessful in opposing the Russian armies; and the Eastern War. empire suffered a great loss of territory by the Treaty of Berlin, negotiated under the influence and direction of the leading powers of Europe, a congress of whose representatives met in that city. By this treaty Turkey was obliged to con- sent to the formation of the principalities of Bul- garia and Servia, with the partial indei^endence Result. of East Rume'lia, Bos'nia, and Herzegovi'na, the government of the last two to be administered by Austria-Hungary. In 1859 the Turkish dependencies Moldavia and Wallachia were united, and a principality formed from them, to which the name of Roumania was given. The independence of this state was acknowledged by the sultan of Turkey in 1861. Rouma- nia subsequently assumed the rank and dignity of a kingdom (1881). Greece. 635 SECTION XII. Greece. 73. Fi*om the ciq^ture of Constantinople (1453) until ii recent date, Greece was under the Mohammedan yoke, which was made galling and oppressive to the last degree by the brutal and fanatical Turks. In 1820, the Turkish rule. Greeks determined to make a struggle for their independence; and Mav-ro-cor-da'to was proclaimed president. His most celebrated compeer in the dreadful contest that ensued was Marco Bozzaris {bot'sali-ris), called, sometimes, the ^^Leonidas of Modern Greece." This heroic chief perished in a night-attack upon the Turkish War for ndependence. camp (1823), near Missolonghi, one of the chief centers of the insurrection. This place also derives a mournful interest from the death of Lord Byron, who died there of a fever, occasioned by his earnest efforts in behalf of Greece (1824). 74. The fall of this place, after a long siege, in which its brave defenders suffered the most dreadful hardships from famine, and which was closed by their captivity, aroused the sympathy of Europe; and England, European aid. France, and Eussia formed a league to assist the brave Greeks in their unequal contest. The combined fleets of the allies entirely destroyed ihQ Turkish and Egyptian fleets in the harbor of Navarino (October 20, 1827). After this victory. Count Capo d'Istria, a native of the Navarino, island of Corfu, was formally installed as President of Greece. Its independence was formally acknowledged by the Turkish sultan in 1829. 75. Made a separate kingdom by the allied powers, its first king was Otho, a Bavarian prince (1832). His reign was somewhat troubled, by the discontent of his sub- jects with his German officials and foreign troops. Otho. and by Russian intrigues for the purpose of involving the 636 Modern History. little kingdom m the insurrections of the neighboring prov- inces against Turkey. A successful revolution broke out in Athens in 1862; and Otho having abdicated, was succeeded the following year by Prince George of George I. Denmark, with the title of George I., King of the Hellenes. SECTION XIII. Progress of Civilization i^ Moderist Europe. 76. Modern history commences at the epoch at which the dawn of intelligence broke upon Europe. In the latter part of the fifteenth century the civilization of the Greek Empire had disappeared before the con- Modem epoch. quering arms of the rude and ferocious Ottomans, and the western nations, emerging from the night of mediaeval igno- rance, began to glow with the first beams of that intellectual and social illumination to which tliey have attained. Litera- ture, science, and art, at this auspicious era, sprang into active life; and the human mind, shaking off the chains of feudal barbarism, began its career of activity and freedom. 77. After the destruction of the feudal system, the masses were gradually released from the degrading condition of serf- dom, and acquired a share in the establishment of civil and political institutions. Science soon Changes. began its wonderful reformation. The comforts and con- veniences of life were constantly increased ; the modes of warfare were revolutionized by the use of firearms;* the mariner's compass made ocean navigation possible, and the application of steam, at a later period, facilitated it; while * The process of making granulated gunpowder was invented by Schumrtz in 1320, and immediately thereafter almost every state commenced the use of cannon of small size. In 1346, Edward III. used them at Crecy Plated armor could then no longer protect the feudal tyrant against the weapon of the oppressed peasant. Cimlizatioii in Modern Europe. 637 extended commerce gave an impulse to explonition and dis- covery. The invention of printing gave to the modern Avorld the intellectual riches of the ancients, and literature com- menced its magnilicent career. The later application of elec- tricity to the telegraph has brought the ends of the earth into rapid communication with each other. 78. The maritime enterprises of the Portuguese in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries gave them great commercial influence, especially in the trade of the East Indies; but they found at a later period a success- ful rival in the Dutch. The celebrated Dutch Maritime enterprise. East India Company was chartered in 1602, and through it the rival cities of the Netherlands united their interests and efforts.* Its center was at Batavia, called the "'^ Pearl of the East," which at the close of the seventh century had reached a population of 160,000. The conflicts between the Dutch and the Portuguese resulted in the supremacy of the former, whose colonies soon became numerous and important. The French also established a company in the East India trade, besides which there was a Danish East India Company in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. The English comi^any, to which reference has already been made, acquired its great- est power in the eighteenth century. Companies were also organized for the West India trade. 79. Spain and Portugal for more than a century enjoyed a monopoly of the treasure and merchandise obtained from India and the New World. The Spanish colonies in Central and South America and in the West Colonies. Indies, and the Portuguese settlements in Brazil, were a source of vast wealth; but by folly, indolence, bigotry, and * "The naval and military power of the Dutch East India Companj' became at last enormous. .Of ships of war carr}nng from twenty to sixty guns, they had, when powerful, one hundred and fifty, besides fifty smaller vessels, and an army of corresponding magnitude. The States General had from time to time to sub- sidize the Company in order to enable the directors to carry on their wars."— Yeats' s Orotvth and Vicissitudes of Commerce. 638 Modern History. a thirst for gold and silver, tlie best fruits of these possessions were lost; and the maritime influence and glorj of the Penin- sula, gained in the sixteenth century, was swept away in the next by Dutch enterprise and vigor. Holland, in its turn, yielded to English ascendency at a later period. 80. The wonderful commercial revival of the sixteenth century brought many changes — many new elements charac- teristic of modern civilization. Communication aud corres|)ondence became by degrees more easy Improvements. and rapid, by the construction of canals and military roads; systems of commercial credit and exchange were established, as at Antwerp, London, and Amsterdam; great fairs for trading purposes were hold at different places, particularly at Brunswick and Leipsic;* and banks, insurance companies, and post-offices were founded in large numbers. 81. Progress in the industrial arts was greatly stimulated by this increased commercial activity. In these very great progress has been made in all civilized countries during the last three centuries. This is seen in Industrial arts. the improvements made in agriculture, in every kind of manufacturing industry, in mining, in the invention and use of labor-saving machinery, — particularly in that for the mak- ing of textile fabrics. The proce&ses of spinning and weaving were at first simple, crude, and tedious, the instruments used being the spindle and distaff, and then the spinning-wheel; while weaving was dependent on the loom and shuttle, and embroidery was executed by hand. 82. With these simj^le means, however, weaving had reached, before the sixteenth century, a high degree of per- fection, especially in Flanders, France, and Italy, and in the cities of Brussels, Antwerp, Bruges, Valenciennes {vali-long- * In more recent times such fairs have been held in various parts of the world, and many are still maintained, Nizhni Novgorod, on the Volga River, is still the center of a vast trade ; and annual fairs are now held there, at some of which as many as 200,000 traders are gathei-ed. The fairs at Leipsic, Brmaswick, and Frank- fort are still very large and important. Civilization in Modern Ewrope. 689 se-en^), Ar'ras, Genoa, and Florence. Tapestry-weaving dis- played the highest perfection of artistic excellence; and vast sums were given for the rich products of this skill. The silk velvets of Genoa were especially esteemed. Stock- ing-knitting was introduced in the first ])art of the sixteenth century;* and the invention of lace- Weaving and knitting. knitting is ascribed to a Saxon matron in the same century. The stocking-loom was also invented about the same time. Cotton fabrics were made in Italy and Spain -in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. The invention of the Jacquard loom in 1801, by a silk-weaver of Lyons, introduced an important improvement in silk manufacture, f 83. In tlie fine arts, — music, painting, and sculpture, — the achievements of modern times show the highest gifts of genius as well as perfection of skill. In music this is particularly the case, for the j^rogress made in Fine arts. the last three centuries exceeds that of every other period in history. This is seen not only in the works of eminent com- posers, but in the invention of musical instru- ments, and in the advancement of music as a Music. science. New forms of musical composition, as the oratorio and the opera, have sprung into existence during this period. The composers of great musical genius are very numerous, particularly those of Germany and Italy. Only a few can be referred to. 84. Among German composers may be mentioned: Bach,t John Sebastian (1685-1750), deemed by some the greatest musician tliat ever lived. Gluck (1714-1787), the composer of many great operas. * Previors to the invention of close knitting, about 1517, in Spain, or as some contend in Scotland, coverings for the legs were made of woven cloth or leather. The greater convenience of knit hose was soon recognized, though for a long time the custom of wearing cloth legarings was persisted in. t By this invention of Jacquard, silks of the most beautiful fancy patterns could be woven as readily as plain silks. This innovation received much opposition at first from the workmen, but soon became universal. X For the pronunciation of all these proper names, see the Index. 640 Modern History. Haydn (1733-1809), especially noted for his symphonies; but his most . . popular works are the oratorio of the Creation and his cantata the Seasons. Mozart (1756-1791), perhaps the greatest musical genius that ever lived, and a perfect master of the art. He excelled in every species of composition, but his masterpieces are German composers. Beethoven. his operas and symphonies. Beethoven (1770-1827), one of the greatest of modern composers. His symphonies and his opera of Fidelio are his principal works. l^eber (1786-1826), composer of the popular operas Der Freischutz and Oheron, with many other works. Schubert (1797-1828), a writer of almost every kind of musical composi- tion, but especially noted for his songs. Mendelssohn (1809-1847), composer of the oratorios Elijah and St. Paul, with several well-known sympho- nies, and many other works of merit. Meyerbeer (1794-1864), author of sev- eral grand operas, of which Robert le Diahle, the Huguenots, and the Prophet are the best known. Schumann (1810-1856), noted for his symphonies and his songs. "Wagner (born 1813), the greatest living composer; author of the grand operas — musical dramas — Tannhiluser, Lohengrin, the Meistersinger, and other works of extraordinary merit. 85. Among Italian composers may be mentioned: Stradella (1645-1678), noted as a singer, violinist, and composer. Piccini (1728-1800), the composer of many operas. Cimarosa (1750-1801). a musician of great genius; he com- posed a large number of operas and other works. Rossini (1792-1868), one of the greatest of composers. Many of his operas are very popular. Donizetti (1798-1848), author of many popular operas. Bellini (1802-1835), a very celebrated composer; his operas Norma Somnamhula, and the Puritans are very popular. Verdi (born 1814), noted for his numerous operas, Italian composers. Civilization in Modern Eurojpe. 641 To these may be added the noted French composers Auber (1782-1871) and Gounod (born 1818), both of whom have written several popnhir operas; and Berlioz (1803-1869), one of the greatest of modern Other composers. composers. While some of the other countries of Europe have produced a few eminent composers, Italy and Germany, as already stated, have far surpassed them all. 86. Painting had its greatest representatives in the age just succeeding and connected with the mediaeval period, which was illumined by the genius of Leonardo da Vinci in Italy and Albert Durer in Germany. Painting, The greatest artists of that age were Michael Angelo, Raphael, and Titian in Italy, and Quentin Matsys and Louis Kranach in Germany, the latter a personal friend of Luther. In more decidedly modern times, the Italian school includes a host of luminaries, such as Correggio, the three Caraccis of Bologna, Salvator Rosa, and Carlo Dolci. These all belong to the sev- enteenth century; and have but few successors of great merit in later times. Holbein, Rubens, Van Dyck, Rembrandt, and many others of the Flemish and Dutch schools were their con- temporaries; and the Spanish and French schools contained several others of kindred genius and merit. Velasquez (1599- 1660) and Murillo (1618-1682) are the special pride of Spanish art. Sculpture has its greatest representatives in the Italians Benvenuto Cellini (1500-1570), Sculpture. Antonio Canova (1757-1822), and the Danish artist Thor- waldsen (1770-1844), whose chief works were executed in Rome; but a host of others have achieved distinction in this branch of art. 87. Science in each of its departments has been extended by the efforts of men of various nationalities. Only a few of the great names can be given in this brief sketch, in addition to those alreadv referred to in the histories of England and France. Among the distinguished mathematicians may be specially mentioned; 642 Modern History, Cardan (1501-1576), au Italian, a man of wonderful genius, but noted for his eccentricities. Mathematicians. Napier (1550-1617), a Scotchman, the inventor of loga- rithms. Leibnitz (1646-1716), a German, not only eminent as a mathematician (claimiug against Newton the invention of fluxions), but in almost every other department of science and philosophy. Euler (1707-1783), born in Switzerland, one of the greatest masters of mathematical science. 88. In astronomy the following persons have distinguished themselves for important discoveries: Copernicus (1473-1543), a German, the reviver of the true theory of the solar system, which places the sun in the center, in Asvonomers. opposition to the systcm of Ptolemy, which conceived the earth to be the center of the universe. Tycho Brahe (1546-1601), a Dane, noted for the vast number of facts he collected at his great observatory in Copenhagen, and for his theory of the solar system, called the Tychonic System. Galileo (1564-1642), the illustrious Italian physicist, who, improving upon the telescope previously in- vented in Holland, discovered the spots on the sun and the four satellites of Jupiter. He also as- serted the rotation of the earth, in opposition to the prevailing notion that the earth is fixed in the center of the universe, Galileo also dis- covered the value of the pendulum in the construction of clocks. Kepler (1571-1630), a German astronomer, the illustrious discoverer of the great laws of planetary motion. Huyghens (or Huygens) (1629-1695), a Dutch astronomer, the discoverer of Saturn's ring and one of its satellites. Cassini (1625-1712), an Italian, discovered four satellites of Saturn, and made other important discoveries in relation to several of the planets. His son, James Cassini, discovered the divisions in Saturn's ring. Other noted astronomers of the period have been mentioned in connection with English and French history. Copernicus. Civilization in Modern Euroije. 643 89. There are many other renowned discoverers and writers within the domain of physical science and natural history, among whom we may men- tion : Discoverers and writers. Torricelli (1608-1647), an Italian, the inventor of the barometer. Guericke (1602-1686), a German, the inventor of tlie air-pump. Fahrenheit (1690-1736), a Hollander, who invented the mercurial ther- mometer that bears his name. Linnaeus (1707-1778), a Swedish naturalist, the author of the artificial or Linna^an system of botany. Haller (1708-1777), sometimes called the "Father of Physiology;" one of the world's great physicians. His writings are very numerous. Galvani (1737-1798), an Italian, the discoverer of galvanism. Volta (1745-1827), an Italian, the inventor of the voltaic pile or battery. Dr. Gall (1758-1828), a German, the founder of phrenology. Mesmer (1734-1815), the discoverer of animal magnetism, or mesmerism. Lavater (1741-1801), the famous writer on Physiognouiy. Dr. Hahnemann (1755-1843), a German, the originator of homeopathy, Humboldt (1769-1859), the illustrious German natural philosopher, noted for his deep an 1 wide researches into tlie laws of the physical uni- verse, explained in his great work called Kosmos. Oersted (1777-1851), a Dane, who discovered the identity of magnetism and electricity. Liehig (1803-1873), a celebrated German chemist, and writer on agri- cultural and physiological chemistry. 90. The literary history of Europe during the period of modern history is enriched with the productions of every department of genius. In a rapid glance the mind rests upon only a few of the most conspicuous in this vast field. The prominent characters in French and English literature have been already presented, and a brief summary of the great names in the Great names. literature of other countries. Among the writers of the six- teenth century may particularly be mentioned the following: Erasmus (1467-1536), a celebrated Dutch scholar and phi- losopher, one of the restorers of ancient learning, at the head of the literary world in his age. Sixteenth century. 644 Modern History. Scaliger (1484^1558), an Italian philologist, one of the most famous scholars and writers of his time. Tasso (1544-1595), an Italian poet, noted for his great poem Jerusalem Delivered, founded on the First Crusade. Camoens (1524-1579), the only eminent Portuguese poet. His great poem the Lusiad celebrates the naval exploits of the Portuguese. Cervantes (1547-1616), the noted Spanish writer, author of the famous satirical novel Don Quixote. Vega, Lope de (1562-1635), a Spanish dramatist, who wrote a vast num- ber of popular phiys, some of very great merit. 91. Of the writers of the seventeenth century, the follow- ing deserve to be especially mentioned: Quevedo (1580-1645), a Spanish author of great fame, noted for his critical and political writings. Grotius, Hugo (1583-1645), an eminent Dutch jurist, theologian, and writer. He was a profound and versatile scholar as well as writer. One of his best Seventeenth century. known works is a treatise On the Truth of the Christian Religion. Calderon (de la Barca) (1600-1681), a noted Spanish dramatist. Spinoza (1632-1677), born in Amster- dam, of Hebrew extraction; one of the most celebrated speculative philosophers of his age; his writ- ings are skeptical or atheistical. Salvator Rosa (1615-1673), illustrious as a painter and a poet. He has been called by some the Juvenal of Italy. Muratori (1672-1750), one of the most c, noted historical writers of Italy. 92. From the vast host of writers of the eighteenth cen- tury, we may particularize the following: Swedenborg (1688-1772), born in Sweden, one of the most prolific writers on various scientific subjects, but cliiefly known for his chums to a new and special revelation, on which the Church of the New Jerusalem is found- ed. Mosheim (1694-1755), celebrat-ed as the author of an Ecclesiastical Eighteenth century. Oimlization in Modern Europe. 645 History, which for many years was the chief standard upon that subject. Metastasio (1698-1782), the most ilhistrious of modern Italian poets. He wrote operas, oratorios, sonnets, and miscellaneous poems. Klopstock (1708-1803), a noted German poet. His great work is an epic poem called Hie Messiah. Kant, Immanuel (1724-1804), one of the most celebrated of German metaphysicians. Lessing (1729-1781), a celebrated German poet and dramatist. Wieland (1733-1813), a noted German poet and novelist. Heyne (1729-1812), an illustrious German scholar and critic. His edi- tions of the classical writers are highly esteemed. Schiller (1759-1805), one of the most illustrious of German poets. His dramas Wallenstein, Mary Stuart, William Tell, and the Robbers are among his greatest works. He also wrote a Uistory of the Thirty Tears' War. Herder (1744-1803), one of the most gifted and versatile of German writ- ers. His works are critical and phil- osophical. Alfieri (1749-1803), the most celebrated Italian poet of the century. He wrote many tragedies of singular merit, and many miscellaneous poems. His character and genius resembled those of Lord Byron, to whom he has been often compared. Pestalozzi (1746-1827), one of the most celebrated teachers and writers upon education in his age. His great work was the development of the system of object-teaching. 93. The nineteenth century has been exceedingly prolific in men of genius. Its chief characteristic has been intellectual activity in every department of literature and science. To the names already given Nineteenth century. in connection with France and England we add the following: Richter, John Paul (1763-1825), a German writer of great eminence; his style is very beautiful, and his works are noted for their humor, originality, and pathos. jNIost of his writings have been translated into En2:lish and other lan<2:ua2:es. 646 . Modern History. Fichte (1762-1814), a noted German metaphysician. He was distin- guished more for his lectures than his writings. His system of phi- losopliy is known as "idealism." Hegel (1770-1831), one of the most distinguished thinkers and writers of the German school of philosophy, — the founder of a new school of speculativa doctrine, Schelling (1775-1854), a German philosopher, one of the four great representatives of the speculative philosophy of Germany — Kant, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, all of whom were contemporary. Goethe (1749-1832), the greatest name in German literature. Goethe was remarkable both as a poet and a prose writer. His drama called Faust is a wonderful w^ork of gen- ius. Among his most popular prose writings are The Sorroics of Wer- ther and Wilhelm Meisier. Froebel (1782-1852), a noted educator; the founder of the famous Kinder- garten system of elementary in- struction. Niebuhr (1776-1831), a German histo- rian, whose researches into the his- tory of Rome have made his name Goethe. .,, ^ . illustrious. Neander (1789-1850), a German church historian. His great work, a General History of the Christian Religion and Church, is a standard. Heine (1799-1856), one of the most distinguished of German poets. Pushkin (1799-1837), a Russian lyric poet of negro descent; regarded by the Russians as their greatest poet, called sometimes the " Byron of Russia." Lermontoff (1814-1841), a native of Russia, called the " Russian Schiller," on account of his poetical genius. Bremer, Frederika (1801-1866), a celebrated Swedish novelist. Her translated works are very popular in the United States and England. Andersen, Hans Christian (1805-1875), a Danish writer of remarkable genius, chiefly noted for his juvenile works of fiction. Mommsen (born 1817), a German historian, particularly noted for his History of Rome, which has been translated into English. Curtius, Ernst (born 1814), a celebrated German historian. His great work the History of Greece has been translated into English. His other works treat of the antiquities of Greece. Review Outline. 647 Review Outline. GREAT EVENTS. Sixteenth Century.— The great events of this century are connected with : (1) The Rise of Protestantism, in the reign of Charles V. (1519-56). (2) The English Reformation, in the reigns of Henry VIII. (1509-47), Edward VI. (1547-53), and Elizabeth (1558-1603). (3) The Rise of the Dutch Republic, in the reign of Philip II. (1555-98). (4) The Religious Wars in France, in the reigns of Charles IX. (1560-74), Henry III. (1574-89), and Henry IV. (till 1590). (5) The Ottoman Military Enterprises, under Bajazet II. (1481-1512), Selim I. (1512-20), and Solyman II. (1.520-56). (6) The Portuguese Maritime Enterprises, in the reign of Emanuel the Fortunate (1495-1521). (1) Rise of Protestantism. Luther published his theses against Catholic tenets. Luther at the Diet at Worms. The Lutherans protest at Spire. Called Protestants. The League of the Protestants at Smalcald. Council of Trent opened. Closed 1563. Frederick of Saxony defeated at Miihlberg. Death of Martin Luther. Treaty of Passau between Charles V. and Maurice. Peace of Augsburg. Religious freedom granted to the Protestants. (2) English Reformation. (See England.) (3) Rise of the Dutch Republic. Revolt of several of the Provinces under William the Silent, Stadtholder. Union of the Seven Provinces. Foundation of the Republic. Independence of the United Provinces proclaimed. Death of William the Silent by assassination. (4) Religious "Wars in France. (See France.) (5) Ottoman Military Enterprises. Accession of Solyman the Magnificent. Zenith of Turkish power. Belgrade, the Servian capital, taken by the Ottomans. The island of Rhodes taken by Solyman. Solyman's army repulsed at Vienna after a long siege. Second repulse of the Ottomans at Vienna. Unsuccessful attack of the Ottomans upon Malta. Great naval defeat of the Ottomans at Lepanto. (6) Portuguese Maritime Enterprises. Brazil accidentally discovered by Cabral. Voyages of Amerigo Vespucci to the coast of Brazil. Ceylon visited and partly conquered by the Portuguese. Conquest of Malacca by the Portuguese. The Japan Islands discovered by the Portuguese. 648 Modern History. Seventeenth Century.— The great events of this century are connected with: (1) The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). (2) The Great Civil "War in England (1642-1651). (3) The Age of Louis XIV. in France (1643-1715). (4) The Rise of Russia under Peter the Great (168^1725). (5) The Turkish Wars. (6) The Maritime Power of the Dutch. (1) Thirty Years' War. Frederick, Elector Palatine, defeated near Prague. Dreadful persecution of the Bohemian Protestants. League of the North German states, under Christian IV. of Denmark. Treaty of peace between Denmark and Germany. Defeat of Tilly by Gustavus Adolphus near Leipsic. Battle of Lutzen. Death of Gustavus Adolphus. Assassination of Wallenstein. French intervention in the war, under Richelieu. Death of the emperor Ferdinand II. Peace of Westphalia. Protestant independence established. (2) Great Civil War in England. (See England.) (3) Age of Louis XIV. (See France.) (4) Rise of Russia. Visit of Peter the Great to England and other countries of Eiirope. (5) Turkish Wars. The Ottomans repulsed at Vienna by John Sobieski. Splendid victory of Prince Eugene over the Turks at Zenta. Treaty of peace with the Turks. Hungarian possessions given back. (6) Maritime Power of the Dutch. (See En(J!Land and France.) Eighteenth Century.— The great events of this century are connected with: (1) England under the Georges (1714-1815). (2) Prussia under Frederick the Great (1740-86). (3) Russian Military Operations (under Peter the Great and the Catharines). (4) Decline and Fall of Poland. (5) Decline and Fall of the French Government. (1) England under the Georges. (See England.) (2) Prussia under Frederick the Great. Invasion of Silesia by Frederick the Great. Capture of Dresden by the Prussians. Treaty of peace. Victories of Frederick the Great over the French, Austrians, and Russians. Treaty of peace between Austria and Prussia. (3) Russian Military Operations. Defeat of Peter the Great by Charles XII. of Sweden at Narva. Capital of Russia removed from Moscow to St. Petersburg. Invasion of Russia by Charles XII. Victory of Peter the Great over Charles XII. at Poltava. Remew Outline. 049 Accession of Catharine I., empress of Russia. Menschikoff minister. Accession of Elizabeth, daughter of Peter the Great and Catharine. Accession of Catharine II. Poteuikin minister. Defeat of the Russians at Zorndorf by Frederick the Great. (4) Decline and Fall of Poland, First Partition of Poland. Second Partition of Poland. Defeat of the Poles under Kosciusko by Suvaroff. Third Partition of Poland. (5) Decline and Fall of the French Government. (See France.) Nineteenth Century.— The great events of this centmy are connected with: (1) The Career of Napoleon. (See France.) (2) The Progress of Liberalism in England. (See England.) (3) The Aggressions of Russia. (4) The Growth of Prussia under Bismarck. (5) The Unification of Italy, under Victor Emanuel. (6) The Decline of Turkish Power in Europe (Eastern Question). (3) Aggressions of Russia. Poland absoi'bed in the Russian Empire. Crimean War. Sebastopol taken by the French and English. Defeat and overthrow of Shamyl in the Caucasus. Russian conquests in Central Asia. The Eastern War— between Russia and Turkey. (4) Growth of Prussia under William I. (1861). Bismarck prime minister of William I. of Prussia. Schleswig and Holstein occupied by Prussia and Austria. Holstein invaded and occupied by Prussian troops. Austro-Prussian War, called the Seven Weeks' War. Severe defeat of the Austrians at Sadowa. North German Confederation, under the headship of Prussia. The Prussian victories in the Franco-Prussian war. Paris entered by the Germans. William I. made emperor of Germany. (5) TTnification of Italy. Accession of Victor Emanuel to the throne of Sardinia. Victories of Garibaldi in Sicily and Naples. Victor Emanuel elected king of Italy. Rome entered by Victor Emanuel, and made the capital of Italy. Death of Victor Emanuel. Accession of Humbert I. (6) Decline of the Turkish Power. Insiu'rection of the Greeks. Mavrocordato president. Death of Marco Bozzaris, the Greek patriot and general. The Turkish fleet defeated at Navarino. The independence of Greece acknowledged by the Turkish sultan Ismail Pasha hereditary viceroy (khedive) of Egypt. Turkish armies defeated by the Russians. Treaty of Berlin. Partial dismemberment of Turkey. 650 Contemporaneous Events. A.D. England. France, Other Countries. 1483 1485 1493 1498 1509 1515 1519 15^0 Charles VIH. Henry VII. Maximilian of Germany. Louis XII. Francis I. Henry VIII. Solyman the Magnificent. Treaty of Passau. Philip II. of Spain. 1547 1552 EdwardVI. Henry II. 1553 1556 Mary. 1558 1559 Elizabeth. Francis II. Charles IX. 15fiO 1571 Battle of Lepanto. 1574 Henry IH. 15'^9 William the Silent 158P Henry IV. Louis XIII 1603 1610 James I. Moors expelled from Spain Thirty Years' W^r begins. Battle of Lutzen. 1618 1625 163-:^ Charles I. 1640 Portugal independent. 1643 Louis XIV. 1648 Peace of Westphalia. Sobieski defeats the Turks. 1653 1660 1683 Cromwell, Protector. Charles II. 1685 1689 1700 James II. William and Mary. Battle of Narva. 1702 1709 Anne. Battle of Poltava. 1714 1715 George I. Louis XV. 1718 Death of Charles XII. 1727 1740 George II. Frederick the Great. 1760 1774 George III. Louis XVI. French Revolution. 1789 1795 Third Partition of Poland. 1799 Napoleon First Consul. Napoleon Emperor. 1804 1806 End of German Empire. 1814 Louis xvni. Charles X. 1820 18'?4 George IV. 18'?5 Brazil independent. 18t?7 1830 William iv Louis Philippe. 1833 Isabella of Spain. 1837 1848 Victoria. Louis Philippe dethroned. 1849 Victor Emanuel. 1853 Napoleon III. 1855 1859 Battle of Solferino. 1861 Russian serfs freed 1870 Battle of Sedan Thiers, President McMahon, President. Rome capital of Italy. William, German emperor. 1871 1873 1878 Treaty of Berlin. 1879 Grevy, President. Topical Review, 651 Emperors of Germany, From Maximiljan I. (1493) to the Close of the Empire (1806). Name. Date of Reign. Maximilian I 1493-1519 Charles V 1519-1556 Ferdinand I ... 1556-1564 Maximilian 11 1564-1576 Rudolf II 1576-1612 Matthias 1612-1619 Ferdinand n . , 1619-1637 Name. Date of Reign. Ferdinand III 1637-1657 Leopold 1 1658-1705 Cliarles VI 171 1-1740 Maria Theresa and Francis I . . 1740-1780 Joseph II 1780-1790 Leopold II 1790-1792 Francis 11 1792-1806 Topical Review. NOTED PERSONAGES. Who tvere they? For what noted? PAGE Martin Luther 599, 600, 601 Frederick of Saxony 599, 601 Maurice of Saxony 601 Tilly 602, 603 Wallenstein 602, 603 Gustavus Adolphus 603, 622 John Sobieski 604, 626, 633 Prince Eugene 604 Maria Theresa 605, 611 Frederick the Great 605, 611, 612 Bismarck 606, 607 Kossuth 608 William the Silent 612, 613 Melanchthon 6C0, 614 William the Great Elector 609 John Calvin 614 Zwingli 614 Charles Albert 615 Joseph Garibaldi 615 Victor Emanuel 615, 616 Cardinal Ximenes 616 Vasco da Gama 619 Gustavus Vasa 622 Charles XII. of Sweden .... 623, 628, 629 Bernadotte 623 Prince Poniatovrski 626 Thaddeus Kosciusko 626 Peter the Great 628 Menshikoff 629 PAGE General Suvaroff 629 Solyman the Magnificent 632 Mavrocordato 635 Marco Bozzaris 635 Count Capo dlstria 635 NOTED EVENTS. When did they occur? WJiat led to them? Wliat resulted therefrom? Spread of Luther's tenets 599, 600 Diet of Spire 600 Confession of Augsburg 600 Council of Trent 600 Treaty of Passau 601 Thirty Years' War 602, 614 Battle of Lutzen 603 Peace of Westphaha , 604 Revolt of the Hungarians 608 Battle of Zenta 604, 6.33 Seven Years' War 607, 610 Franco-German War 608 Battle of Zorndorf 611 Revolt of the Netherlands 612 Union of Italy 615, 616 Expulsion of the Moors from Spain. 618 Independence of the Spanish Colo- nies 619 Discovery of Brazil 619 Battle of Poltava 623, 629 Fall of Poland 626, 630 Battle of Navarino 635 Independence of Greece 635 CHAPTER XII SUPPLEMEISTTARY. I. Asiatic States. 1. China. The most important event in the modern history of China is the successful invasion of the empire by the Mantchou Tartars in the seventeenth century, followed (1644) by the overthrow of Tartar invasion, the reigning dynasty in favor of that which now occupies ' the throne. In the sixteenth century the Portuguese began to trade with the Chinese; but the Dutch, who made repeated efforts to obtain admission into the ports of China, were Taiping rebellion. Foreign trade. Constantly rcpulsed ; though the Russians were permitted ■ to trade in the empire as early as the middle of the six- teenth century. The British sought for some time for a similar per- mission, but obtained no encouragement until Lord Macartney's famous embassy (1793). The most important event in recent times was the famous Taiping rebellion, which broke out in 1850. It w^as both religious and political in its charac- ter; and before it was crushed, in 1864, the fairest prov- inces of the empire were laid waste, and an enormous number of lives sacrificed. 2. Japan. The first notice of Japan by any European traveler or explorer was that made by Marco Polo, who during his travels in the East (see page 153) visited an island which he called Zipangu, of the riches of which he gave a glbwing account. The Portuguese some time afterward made a discovery of the island; and in 1549 it was visited by the far-famed missionary St. Francis Xavier, called the Apostle of the Indies; and many of the Japanese were converted to Christianity. In the seventeenth century, the Portu- guese were expelled from the empire, and the Christians were perse- cuted, a great massacre of them occurring in 1622. The Japanese trade was then transferred to the Dutch, who had a monopoly of it for more than two centuries, the ports of Japan being closed against all other foreign powers, Early accounts. Christianity. Foreign trade. Asiatic States. 653 3. lu 1853, through the expedition of Commodore Perry, a treaty- was made between the United States and Japan, by which certain ports were opened to American trade; and in 1858 Townsend Harris, American consul-general to Japan, was enabled to reach Yedo (now Tokio) and to negotiate a still more favorable treaty. Other foreign powers soon obtained Treaty with the United States. similar privileges; and the Japanese, seeing the superiority of Ameri- can and European civilization, sent embassies to different countries, the first one visiting the United States in 1860. 4. The empire was then ruled in a peculiar manner, the actual powers of government being in possession of an officer called the Shogun (commander-in-chief) or Tycoon (great sovereign), residing at Yedo, while the emperor, named Mikado, held Government. the title, and the symbols of authority and dignity at ' another place. This state of things was the result of a usurpation which took place in 1195 on the part of the shogun of that time. In 1868 a revolution occurred by which the mikado was restored to his proper authority; and this was followed by a more liberal and enlightened policy in every respect, since which the Progress. empire has made wonderful progress in every element of modern civilization. Yokohama, a mere fishing village when Commo- dore Perry entered the bay with his squadron, is now a great commer- cial city of nearly 70,000 inhabitants. 5. The civilization of Japan resembles that of the Chinese, as to manners and customs, language, and religion. The prevailing systems of the latter are Shintoism and Buddhism. The former is a kind of polytheism of a superior grade, the chief Civilization. feature being the worship of the spirits of ancestors ■ and departed heroes, to whom sacrifices are offered. The most prev- alent system, however, is Buddhism, as it has been for more than ten centuries, notwithstanding an attempt to uproot it, which was made shortly after the restoration of the mikado to his legitimate supremacy. 6. India. At the commencement of the mediaeval history, the peninsula of Hiiidostan was divided into many small states, of the history of which little or nothing is known. In the early part of the eighth century the Mohammedan sovereigns of Persia, Afghanistan, and other states began their con- quests, which were continued for several centuries; and, ' at the commencement of the thirteenth, the greater portion of northern Hindostan was subjugated. Soon after this a great independent Mo- Mediaeval history. 654: Modern History. hammedan empire was formed, having its capital at Delhi, which in the latter part of the century included all northern India. From this the Mohammedan dominions were gradually extended to the south, the whole of the Deccan soon being annexed. (See map, page 511.) 7. Toward the end of the fourteenth century, the great and terrible invasion of Tamerlane occurred; and Delhi being captured was given over to massacre and pillage, the conqueror proclaiming Moguls. himself emperor of India. The restless warrior soon de- parted, however, leaving ruin and desolation in his track. In the sixteenth century commenced the rule of the Moguls (Mongols), founded by a descendant of the great Tamerlane, the most noted of whom was the famous Aurungzebe {o' rung-zahe) (1657-1707), who had an eventful reign of nearly fifty years. He was virtually the last Great Mogul; for after his deaih the empire fell to pieces, different provinces being held as independent states by military usurpers. Among these the Mahratta empire was the most important. About the middle of the English conquest. Changes in government. eighteenth century the French and English contended for mastery in India; and through the genius of Clive the latter gained the supremacy, which was afterward confirmed by the wonderful military and adminis- trative ability of Warren Hastings. (See England.) 8. Persia. The defeat of Khosru by the emperor Heraclius has been referred to (page 17), as well as the destruction of the dynasty of the Sassanides by the Saracens, which soon ensued, the great victory which the latter gained at Cadesia, followed by another, five years later (641), determining the fate of that famous line of kings. The Persians were then compelled to embrace Mohammedanism; though a considerable number persisted in their ancient faith, in spite of bitter persecution. These were called Ouebres, or Ohebers (infidels), their descendants being the present rem- nant of the Parsees. (See Part I., pp. 79 and 80.) 9. For two centuries Persia was under the sway of the Caliphs, till, in the ninth century, an adventurer named Soffar headed a revolt by which the Saracen government was overturned; and a dynasty of kings succeeded named after their founder the Sof-far'i-des, which was destroj^ed by the Seljuks, who conquered and ruled over Persia and Afghanistan. These in turn were subjugated by the Mongols under Genghis Khan, who established his empire in the twelfth century; but two centuries later it was overrun by Tamerlane. His death was followed by a long series of civil wars, which continued till the sixteenth century, when a Further changes. Asiatic States. (>oo succession of energetic monarclis held the throne, among them the renowned Abbas (1587-1638). 10. In the eighteentli century Persia was conquered by the Afghans (1722); but they were soon afterward expelled by Nadir Shall (1736), who thus obtained the throne, which has ever since been Later history. occupied by his successors. After the death of this mon- arch, in 1747, Afghanistan became independent. During this period Persia has been engaged in wars with Russia (1813 and 1828), which resulted in the loss of Georgia and other frontier provinces; also, in a war with England (1856-7) in which the British troops under General Havelock gained several victories. The population, in recent years, has been reduced by dreadful famines (1860 and 1871-2), in the latter of which, it is said, more than two millions of people perished. 11. Turkistan. In early times the western part of this region was known as Turania; and there were fierce and long-continued contests between the Turanians who occupied this country and the Iranians of the region farther south (Persia). Mon- golian invasions from the fourth to the tenth century changed considerably the character of the population. This country was ruled over successively by Genghis Khan and Timour or Tamerlane, and their successors.* Those of the hitter held sway until they were driven out by a tribe of Tartars called Uzbecks, who established a powerful monarchy that lasted about 160 years, when it was broken up mto several small states, or khanates, of which Bokara, Kliiva, and Khokan were the chief. Most of these have recently been conquered by Russia, which has thus extended its dominion over a large part of central Asia. Historical sketch. II. American States. [The events connected with the colonization of North America and the history of the United States are not presented here, as this branch of historj- is treated in text-books specially devoted to that subject, which in elementary schools usually precedes the study of general history.] NORTH AMERICA. 12. Mexico and Central America. Previous to the discovery of Amer- ica by Columbus, this region was inhabited by a people called the * Tamerlane is a corruption of Timour Lenk, or Timour the Lame. This mighty warrior was born in 1336. He conceived the idea of reviving the empire of Genghis Khan, and after accomplishing this his restless ambition prompted him to other 656 Modern History. Aztecs, who liad attained to a quite advanced state of civilization; and the ruins which still greet the traveler amid the overgrowing for- ests attest the genius, knowledge, and enterprise of this remarkable race. The great Aztec nation in Mexico was subjugated by a few Spaniards under the bold and un- scrupulous Cortez, and thus became a Spanish province (1521). It thus remained for three centuries, when it became an independent empire under a military adventurer (1822). After his fall a republic was established (1824). Owing to the restless ambition of its leaders, its government has been very unsettled. Among these the most noted was Santa Anna, conspicuous in the war between Mexico and the United States (1846-7). In 1864 Mexico was under the imperial government of the Austrian archduke Maximilian, but his government was over- turned by an insurrection under a Mexican leader, who caused the emperor to be shot (1867). The republic was then re-established. Central America was divided, in 1823, into live states, created under the title of the Central America. "United States of Central America," but in 1839 the union was dis- solved, and the states became independent republics. SOUTH AMERICA. 13. Brazil was discovered in 1500 by a Portuguese navigator named Cabral, who took possession of the country for the crown of Portugal, although the coast had been visited previously by one of Discovery. the Companions of Columbus. Settlements were after- ward made along the coast by the Portuguese, in whose possession the country continued until its independence was acknowl- edged in 1825. (See page 333). The Amazon River was first explored by a Spaniard, named Orellana {o-rel-yali'nah), in 1539. 14. Peru. After Balboa had crossed the isthmus of Darien, in 1513, he turned to the southward and penetrated many miles into the country. Subsequently, Francisco Pi-zar'ro, a brave but cruel leader, who had accompanied Balboa in the previous expedition, sailed from Panama with a company of less than 200 men, and landed on the western coast of Peru— the wealthiest and most powerful state in America at the time of its discoveiy. By means of the basest treachery and the most revolting cruelties, Pizarro suc- ceeded in effecting the conquest of the country, although the unfor- conquests. His capital was Samarcand. He perished in an expedition across the Jaxartes, in 1405. His descendant Baber was the founder of the Mogul dynasty in India. American States. 657 tunate natives defended their liberties with admirable spirit and valor (1533). The monster, Pizarro, was afterward assassinated (1541). After Pizarro's conquest Peru became the chief seat of the Spanish empire in America, and Lima ile'inah), its capital, rose to a very high degree of magnificence. It received from Pizarro the appellation of the City of the Kings. 15. Chili, Venezuela, etc. — Chili, which originally belonged to the native Peruvian empire, was conquered by two of the successors of Pizarro, one of whom founded Santiago Chiii. - {sahn-te-ah' go) in 1541. Southern Chili was so bravely ■ defended by the Indians, that it resiste'd for centuries the rule of the invaders. Venezuela (ven-e-zwc' lah) was so called by Vespucci and Ojeda (o-ha'daJi), the latter one of the com- panions of Columbus, who, near the Lake of Maracaybo Colonies independent. (inah-rah-ki'bo), discovered an Indian village built on piles in the water. Hence, they named it Venezuela, or Little Venice (1499). The interior of the country was not conquered till the middle of the next century. The Rio de la Plata was explored in 1530, by Sebastian Cabot, then in the service of Spain; and, in 1580, the city of Buenos Ayres {bo'nus a'riz) was founded by the Spaniards. 16. Thus, nearly all South America, except Brazil, fell into the possession of Spain, and was retained under her rule until the beginning of the present century, when, by a series of revolutions, commencing in Chili, this extensive region was wrested from her, and formed into independent states. Peru was the last to secure her independence, which was acknowl- edged in 1826. The most prominent individual connected with these movements was tlie patriot Bolivar, in honor of whom the republic of Bo-liv'i-a received its name. Nine states now occupy the territory for- merly included in the several Spanish viceroyalties of South America: Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador {ek-wah-dore'), Co-lom'bia, Venezuela, Chili, the Argentine Republic, Paraguay (pah-mh-gwi'), and Uruguay {oo-roo-gwi'). These states, since their formation, have been under republican governments, but have been very much disturbed by internal dissensions and civil war. Recently a war has been waged between Peru and Bolivia and Chili, in which the latter has gained several im- portant victories. Its armies now occupy tlie territories of the defeated republics, including the Peruvian capital Lima (1882). II^DEX General Rules for the Pronunciation of Greek and Latin Names.— The diacritical marks used are the same as those emi^loy ed in Webster's Dictionary ; and the pronunciation, when indicated, agrees with that authority. The sound of c before o, o, and u is the same as A;; before e, i, and y, the same as s. The sound of g is hard, as in go, before a, o, and u; and soft, like j, before e, i, and y. Quite general usage, however, in pronouncing Greek and Latin at present gives to c the uniform sound of A;, and to g the hard sound. Ch uniformly has the sound of k. S, when final and preceded by e, has the sound of z, and the e is long; thus es is pronounced eez as in Andes. Initial x has the sound of z; initial p before s and t, m and c before n, t before 7)1, and ph before a mute consonant, are silent. T, s, and c before ia, ii, io, iu, and eu preceded immediately by the accent, are pronounced like sh; except when the t follows s, t, or z, or when the accent falls on the syllable ending with the letter i; as, Ae'tius = A-e'she-us, Milti'ades — Mil- ti'a-des. In the termination tion, t retains its proper sound. Ab'bas, king of Persia, 655. Abbasides {ab-bas' e-deez), 329. Abd-el Ka'der, 588. Ab'e-lard, 391. Ab-er-crom'by, Sir Ralph, 514. Aboukir (ah-boo-keer'), battle of, 578. A'bra-ham, 66. Abu-Bekr (ah'boo-bekr'), caliph, 326. Abyssinian War, 522. Academic School, 158. Ac-ar-na'ni-a, 85. Ac'cad, 28, 35. A-chae'an League, how and when formed, 130. A-chae'ans, their migrations and settle- ment, 89, 92, 93. Achaemenes (a-kem'e-nez), founder of the Persian monarchy, 74. Lcl Achaia {a-ka'yah), one of the Pelopon- nesian states, 85; twelve cities of, 131. Achaia, Roman province of, 133. Achilles (a-kU'lez), 89. Acre (ah'ker), 412, 416, 578. A-crop'o-lis, 106. Actium (ak'she-um), battle of, 243. Ad'di-son, 507. A-dol'phus, king of the Goths, 286; founds the kingdom of the "Visigoths, 286. A-dri-an-o'ple, battle of, 284. Ad-ri-an-o'ple. 309, 458. Ad-ri-at'ic, wedding of the, 441. iE-gos-pot'a-mos, battle of. 111. ^-mil-i-a'nus, emperor, 288. -^-mil'i-us, Roman consul, 210. -iEmilius Paulus, completes the conquest of Macedonia, 215. ^-ne'id, plot of, 182. ^-ne'as, Trojan prince, 184. uE-o'li-ans, migrations of, 86, 89, 95. -^il'qui-ans, defeated by Cincinuatus, 194. ^schines (es'ke-uez), Athenian orator, 160. ^schylus (es'ke-lus), the founder of Greek tragic poetry, 156. ^s-cu-la'pi-us, 1.50. A-e'tius {-she-us\ defeats the Huns, 287. ^-to'li-a, 85. ^tolian League, its formation, 131. iEtolians, riigration of, 92. Af-ghan-is-tan', English driven from, 519; English war in, 523; history of, 6.55. Af ri-ca, Roman province of, 217. Ag-a-mem'non, king of Mycena?, 90, 144. A-gath'o-cles, king of Syracuse, 204, 206. Age of Despots, 99. A-ges-i-la'us, king of Sparta, gains a vic- tory at Coronea, 114; defeated by Epa- minondas, 115; his death. 116. Ag'in-court (a/-), battle of, 368, 396. A'gis, king of Sparta, defeated by An- tipater, 125, Agis (III.), attempts to reform the Spar- tan manners, 131; his death. 131, n. Agnadello iahn-yah-del'lo), battle of, 542. Agrarian Laws in Rome. 193, 221. 222. Agriculture, among the Assj-rians, .37; among the Egyptians, 51 ; in England, 374, 477. Ag-ri-gen'tum, 87; taken by the Romans, 207. 660 Index. Ah'ri-man, principle of evil in the relig- j ious system of the Persians, HO. A-hu'ra Maz'da, worshiped by the Per- sians, 80; explanation of. 80. Aix-la-Chapelle {akes-lah-sha-pel'), cap- ital of Charlemagne, 319; treaty of, 510, 5&i Akbar iak'ber), 327. A'ken-side, Mark, 522. A-lans', 298. Al'a-ric, invades Italy, 285; captures Rome, 285. Al'ba Lon'ga, 183, 184, 185. Al-be-marle', duke of. See Monk. Albert I., emperor, 427, 437. Albert II., emperor, 430. Albert, prince, 519, 521. Albert Du'rer, 435, 641. Al-bi-gen'ses {-Jen-), 383, 384. Al'boin, king of the Lombards, 314. Al-cse'us, a (ireek poet, 155. Al-ci-bi'a-des, his conduct during the Peloponnesian war, 110; his character and death, 1 10, n. Alcuin {al'kwui), 319. Al-e-man'ni, defeated by the Romans, 284; by the Franks, 31(5; overrun Switz- erland. 437. Al-ex-an'der the Great, ascends the throne of Macedon, 119; destroys Thebes, 119; defeats the Persians, 120; takes Tyre and Gaza, 122; gains a vic- toiy at Arbela, 122; other victories, 123; dies at Babylon, 124; his charac- ter, 124. Alexander I., czar of Russia, 630. Alexander II., " " 630. Alexander III., " " 631. Alexander III. of Scotland, 3.59. Alexandria, its foundation, 122; its greatness under the Ptolemies, 136; the library at burnt, 236; taken by the Saracens,' 305: taken by Napoleon, 578. Al-ex-an'dra, princess of Wales, 625. A-lex'i-us Com-ne'nus, 312. Alfieri (al-fe-a're), 645. Al-fon'so VI. of Castile, 450. Alfonso X. " " 451. Alfonso XII. of Spain, 619. Alfonso III. of Portugal, 450. Alfred the Great, 334. Algarve (al-gar'va), conquest of, 450. Algiers, conquest of, 588. Al-ham'bra, palace of ,331 ; fortress of,450. All (ah'lee), caliph. 327. Al'i-son, Archibald, 536. Al'li-a, battle of, 197. Al'ma, battle of. 519. Al Man-sour' (soor), caliph, 329. Alphabet. Phoenician, 64. Alsace (al-sahss'), conquest of, 556. Al'va, duke of, 612. Am-a-de'us I., king of Spain, 619. Amain (ah-mar fee), 443, 445. A-ma'sis, reign of, in Egypt, 50. A-mer'i-ca, discovery of, 4.50. American colonies of Spain and Portu- gal, 637. Amerigo Vespucci {ah-ma-re'go ves- jjoot'che), 620. Am'i-ens, treaty of, 514, 579. Am'mon, Jupiter, temple of, visited by Cambyses, 76; by Alexander, 122. Am-phic-ty-on'ic Council, 91. Am-phip'o-lis, battle of, 109. Am'u-rath (or ah-moo-rat'), sultan of Turkey, 309, 458. A-na'cre-on, odes of, 155. An-ax-ag'o-ras, 158. An-co'na, 444, 445. An'cus Martins (mar'she-us), defeats the Latins, 185; length of his reign, 186. Andersen, Hans Christian, 646. An-dro-ni'cus, 257. An'ge-Io, Michael, 641. Angles, invasion of Britain by, 322. Anglo-Saxon civilization, 336. Anglo-Saxons, government of, 336; dwell- ings, 336; science, 337; commerce, 337. Anion iahri'joo). 350, 379. Anna Com-ne'ua, 312. Anne, queen of England, 500, 501, 502. Anne Boleyn (bfd'en), 465, 466, 467. Anne of Austria, 556. Anne of Brittany, 400. Anne of Cleves, 467. Anson, expedition of, 508. An-tal'ci-das, treaty of, 115. An-tig'o-nus, enters into league against Perdiccas, 126; war against, 127; his defeat and death, 127. Antigonus Doson, takes Sparta, 132. Antigonus Go-na'tas, tyranny of, 130. An'ti-och, foundation of, 134 ; taken by the Seljuks, 308, 409; by the Mame- lukes, 415. An-ti'o-chus I. (Soter), defeats the Gauls and afteiward defeated by them, 135. Antiochus II., 134. Antiochus III. (the Great), reign of, 135. An-tip'a-ter, regent in Macedonia, 120; defeats the Athenians in Thessaly, 125; his death, 127. An-to-ni'nus, Marcus Aurehus, 274; per- secutes the Christians, 280; I'epulses the barbarians, 283; date and length of I'eign, 288. Antoninus Pius, one of the " five good emperors," 274; date and length j|Of reign, 288. An'to-ny, Mark, his oration over Caesar's body, 239; master of Rome. 239; joins the second triumvirate, 241 ; takes part in the battle of Philippi, 242; alliance with Cleopatra, 243; defeat and death, 243. Ant'werp, 330. A-os'ta, duke, king of Spain, 337. A-pel'les, his genius as a portrait- painter, 166. Aph-ro-di'te, her characteristics and worship, 149. A-pol'lo. different names of, his wor- ship, characteristics, etc., 147. Ap-ol-lo'ni-us, a noted mathematician, 161. Index. 661 Apollonius Rhodius, his poem on the Ar^ouautic expedition, 1(50. Ap'pi-an Way, the construction of, 203. Ap'pi-us Clau'di-us, one of the decem- virs, his tyranny, 195; his death, 196. Appjus Claudius Caecus, 203. Aqueducts, among the Chaldeans, 36; among the Romans, 203, 252. Aquitaiue (ak-we-tai)i'), 317, 379. Ar'a-dus, 61. Ar'a-go, 588. Ar'a-gon, kingdom of, 448; invaded by Philip in., 386; foreign possessions of, 449. A'ram, 65. A-ra'tus of Sicyon, takes the lead of the Achaean league, 131; his death, 132. Ar-be'la, battle of, 122. Ar-ca'di-a, 85. Arcadians, become subject to Sparta, 95. Ar-ca'di-us, becomes emperor of the East, 285; his character, 301. Arch, invention of, 182, n. Archaeology, relation to history, 17. Ar-chil'o-chus, inventor of the elegy, 155. Archimedes (ar-ke-me'dez), when he flourished, 206: aids in the defense of Syracuse, 211; his death, 211, n. Architecture, among the Chaldeans, 27, 35; among the Medes, 41; among the Egyptians, 57; among the Persians, 79; among the early Greeks (Cyclopean), "* 145; the later Greeks, 163: the three orders of, 163; among the Etrurians, 182; among the Romans, 2.55; the Tus- can order of, 256; Byzantine, 313; Saracenic, 331; Italian, 445; orders of, 446; French, .565. - Archon (ar'kon), office of in Athens, 97. Ard-e-shir', revolt of the Persians under, 276. A-re-op'a-gus. court of, 97. A'res, the god of war among the Greeks, 147. A-re-the 'mi-US, Roman emperor, 290. Argentine iar-jen-teen') Republic, 657. Ar'gives, subject to Sparta, 95. Ar'go-lis, 85 ; Egyptians settle in, 90. Ar-go-nau'tic Expedition, date of, 89; its object, 89. Ar'gos, one of the ancient kingdoms of the Peloponnesus, 89; settlements in, 90. A-ri'on, the poet and musician, story of, 155. Ar-i-os'to, 447. A-ris-tar'chus, the critic, 160. Ar-is-ti'des, his moderation, 100, n. ; at Plataea, 103; acquires the chief com- mand, 104; rival of Themistocles, 104; called the Just. 105; his death, 105. A-ris-tip'pus, philosopher, 158. Ar-is-to-bu'lus, becomes king of Judea, 69. Ar-is-to-gi'ton, aids in expelling the ty- rants from Athens, 98. Ar-is-toph'a-nes, his comedies, 159. Aristotle (nr-is-tot'l), tutor of Alexander. 119; his birth, education, and school of philosophy, 119, ?i.; his lectm-es in the Lyceum, 159. Aries (arl), 320. Ark Wright, Sir Richard, 527. Ar-me'ni-a, one of the Minor Kingdoms, becomes independent, 130; its history, 142; taken from the Parthians, 274. Arne, Thomas Augustine, Dr., 529. Arnold, Thomas, 535. Arnold of Win'kel-ried (-reed), 438. Ar-sin'o-e, sister of Cleopatra, walks in Caesar's triumph, 237. Arsinoe, wife of Seleucus, 130. Arsinoe, port of, 139. Art, Assyrian, 36, 37; Egyptian, 55, 59; Phoenician, 63; Hebrew, 69; Persian, 79; Greek, 166, 172; Etruscan, 255; Ro- man, 255; Byzantine. 313; French, 402; Italian, 446; in England, .505. 529: in France, 566; general progress of in Europe, 639. Ar-ta-pher'nes, expedition of, 100. Ar-tax-ei-x'es I. (Longimanus), makes peace with the Greeks, 78; date of his reign, 84. Artaxerxes II. (Mnemon), expedition against, 113; date of reign, 84. Artaxerxes III. (Oehus), his reign, M. Ar'te-mis, how represented, 148. Arthur, brother of Henry VIH., 463. Arthur, king, 333. Arthur, prince, 355. A'nms, conflict of with Brutus, 189. Ar'yans, one of the great races, 18; lan- guage of, 19; descendants of, 20; mi- gration of, 70, 79, 88; conquering tribes of, 299. Ar'va-a-var'ta.the home of the Aryans,70 As'ca-lon, 61. 66; battle of, 413. As'cham {-kam), Roger, 468, 477. Ash-an-tee' War, 522. Ash'dod, 66. Asia Minor, kingdoms of, 41. As-mo-ne'an Dynasty, 69. As-pa'si-a, 172. As'pern, battle of, 582. Asshur (ash'nr), 31, 38. As'shur-ba'ni-pal, 33. As-syr'i-a, its situation, 26. Assyrian Canon, 21. Assyrian Empire, foundation of, 31 ; his- tory- of, 31, 32, 3:3, 34. As-tra-chan' i-kaii), 032. Astrology, 402. Astronomy, among the Chaldeans, 37; among the Egyptians, 59; as taught by Pji;hagoras, 156; Ptolemaic sys- tem, 161. See Science. As-tu'ri-as, kingdom of, 448. As-ty'a-ges, reign of, 40; court of, 41. A-the'ne, described, 148; how repre- sented, 148; temple of, 148. Ath'ens, aids in the revolt of the lonians, 77; last king of, 96; taken and de- stroyed bv the Persians, 103; long walls of built, 107; plague at, 109; m Inde^. schools at, 171, n.\ market scene at, 173, n. Atlantic Cable, laying of the, 531. At'ta-lus, king of "Pergamus, his alhance with the Romans, 141. Attains III., bequeaths Pergamus to the Romans, 131. At'ti-ca, 85. At'ti-la, leader of the Huns, 286; invades Italy, 287; invades the Greek Empire, 301. Augs'burg, confession of, 600; diet of, 602. Augustan Age, of English literature, 502; of French literature, 501, 566. Au-gus'tu-lus, Romulus, resigns the of- fice of Emperor of the West, 287. Au-gus'tus Caesar, acquires absolute au- thority, 213; his reign, 271; his death, 2"2. Au-re'li-an, emperor, defeats Zenobia, 277; defeats tTle Alemanni, 284; date of his reign, 288. Aurungzebe {o'rung-zabe), 654. Aus'ter-Utz, battle of, 579. Aus-tra'si-a, 317. Aus'tri-a, foundation of, 427; an heredi- tary empire, 605; history of modern, 608. Austrian Succession, war of, 509, 562, 604. Austro-Hungarian monarchy, 608. A-vars', 299, 303, 318. Avignon (ah-veen'yong), 384, 444. A-vi'tus, emperor, date of his reign, 288. A-zo'tus, 66. Az'tecs, 656. Baal'bec, ruins of, 135. Bab'y-lon, early history of, 27; descrip- tion of, 29; taken by Cyrus, 29. Bab-y-lo'ni-a, its situation and fertility, 25,' 35. Babylonian monarchies, 27. Babylonians, civilization of, 35. Bac-cha-na'li-a. See Dionysia. Bac'chus, 150. Bach {bahk), Sebastian, 639. Bacon, Lord, 506. Bacon, Roger, 363, 375. Bactrian kingdom, 134 ; its history, 143. Bag-dad', 329, 330. Bailly {ba'le, or bah'ye), 57^. Baj'a-zet I., 310, 458. Bajazet II., 631. Balaklava {bah-lah-klah'vah), battle of, 519. Bal-bi'nus, emperor, 288. Bal-bo'a, 656. Baldwin, count of Flanders, 308, 413. Baldwin, prince of Edessa, 410. Ba'li-ol, John. 359, 360. Ballot Act, 522. Bal'ti-more, Lord, 503. Bal-zac', 568. Ban'nock-burn, battle of, 361. Bar-ba'does, 493. Barbauld, Anna Letitia, 535. Bar-ce-lo'na, commerce of, 451. Bar'di-us, 76. Barnet, battle of, 371. Basques {busks), 299, 318. Bastile {bas-teel'), taking of, 572. . Ba-ta'vi-a, 637. Batavian Republic, 613. Bay'ard, chevalier, 542, 543, 544. Bayonet, 565. Ba-zaine', marshal, 590, 591. Beaconsfield, earl of (Disraeli), 522, 523, 537. Beat'tie, James. 532. Beaufort (bo' fort), duke of, 493. Beaumarchais (bo-mar-sha'), 595. Beamnont (bo'mont), 506. Becket, Thomas a, 351. Bedford, duke of, 368, 496. Beethoven {ba'to-ven), 640. Be'his-tun, rock of, 27, n., 80. Belgium, history of, 613. Bel-grade', battle of, 604; taking of, 632. Bel-i-sa'ri-us, defeats the Vandals and Goths, 302; conquest of Italy, 303. Bellini {bel-le'ne), 640. Bel-shaz'zar, 30; feast of, 30, n. Ben-e-ven'to, battle of, 443. Ben-e-ven'tum, battle of, 202. Bengal, conquest of, 511. Ben-ha'dad, 65. Ben-ve-nu'to Cellini (chel-e'ne), 641. Beranger (ba-rahn-zha' ), 595. Berbers, subdued by the Saracens, 328. Ber-e-ni'ce, port of, 139. Beresina (ber-e-ze'nah), battle of, 583. Bergen, 433. BerJin, treaty of, 523, 634; entered by Napoleon, 580. Berlin Decree, 580, 581. Berlioz (bare'Ie-o), 641. Ber-na-dotte' (-dot), 623. Be-ro'sus, lists of, 28; hfe of, 28. Bible, English, printing of, 467; transla- tion of, 481. Bill of Rights, 498. Bi'on, pastoral poet, 160. Birmingham, 504. » Bismarck, 606, 607. Bi-thyn'i-a, history of, 142; Ottoman kingdom of, 309. Black, chemist, 530. Black Death, in Germany, 429. Black Plague, in Fz-ance, 392. Black Prince, at Crecy, 363; at Poitiers, 364 ; death of, 365. Blake, admiral, 489, 490, 491. Blanche of Castile, 384. Blen'heim (-hime), battle of, 500. Blucher (bloo'ker), 586, 611. Bo-ab'dil, king of Granada. 450. Boccaccio (bok-kat'cho), 447. Boe-o'ti-a, 85; Phoenician settlements in, 90; rebellion in, 108. Bo-he'mi-a, a fief of Germany, 421 ; a kingdom, 425; religious war in, 430, 602. Bo'he-mond, count, 409. Boileau {bwah-lo'), 567. Bok-ha'ra, 655. Index. 063 Bo-les'las, 609. bol'i-var, 657. Bo-liv'i-a, 657. Bolugna [bo-lone' yah), 445. Bombay, 6U4. Bo'iia-parte, Jerome, 581. Bonaparte, Joseph, 580, 581. Bonaparte, Loms, 613. Bonaparte , Louis Napoleon. See Napo- leon III. Bonaparte, Napoleon. See Napoleon I. Bon'i-face VIll., pope, 385. Book of Common Prayer, 468. Book of the Dead, 55. Books of the ancient Greeks, 162 ; of the Romans, 264, n. Borussi {bo-roos'se), 609. Borodino (bor-o-de'no), battle of, 583. Bos'ni-a, history of, 456 ; insurrection in, 630. Bossuet (bos-swa'), 568. Bosworth P'iekl, battle of, 372. Both'ni-a, 623. Boihwell, earl of, 472. Bourbon {boor'bon), constable, 543, 544, 545. Bom'bon, house of, 553. Bourbons, restoration of, 585. Bourdaloue {boor-da-loo'), 568. Boyle, 505. Boyne, battle of the, 499. Bozzaris (bot'zah-ris), 635. Brad'dock, general, 510. Bradshaw, John, 487. Bra-gan'za, Catharine of, 493, n. Braganza, duke of, 618. Brahe (brah), Tycho, 642. Brah'ma, worshiped by the Hindoos, 70. Brahmanism, introduced into India, 70; religion of Iran. 79. Brandenburg, duchy of, 609. Bras'i-das, victory of, 109. Brazil, discovery of, 619; history of, 656. Brem'en, city of, 432. Bre'mer, Frederika, 646. Brewster, David, 537. Bridgewater, duke of, 528. Brindley, James, 528. Bristol, 504. Britain probably visited by the Phoeni- cians, 63; invaded by Caesar, 233; war against the Scots in, 275 ; wall built by Hadrian, 275; by Sevenis, 276. Britons, 323. Brit'ta-ny. 323. Bron'te, Charlotte, 536. Brougham {broo'am), Lord, 517, 535. Browning, Elizabeth B., 536. Browning, Robert, 536. Bruce, David, 363. Bruce, Robert, .359. Bruce, Robert (younger), 360. Bru'ges (bi-oo'jis), 432. Brunswick, city of, 432; duke of, 562; house of, .508. Brussels, 612. Bru'tus, Junius, made consul, 288; le- gends concerning, 289, Brutus (the Younger), conspires against Cajsar, 238; his defeat and death, 242. Buchanan, George, 480. Buckingham, duke of, minister of Ricliard 111., 372; minister of James I., 480, 481, 482, 505. Buckle, Henry T., 537. Bu'da, taken by the Tvu-ks, 632. Buddha (bood'dak), founder of a new rehgion, 71. Buddhism, its foundation and docti'ines, 71, n. Buenos Ayres (bo'nus a'riz), 657. Button {boof-fony), 569. Bul-ga'ri-a, kingdom of, 306; history of , 452 ; insurrection in, 630. Bulgarians, 303, 304. Bulvver (Lord Lytton), 536. Bunyan, John, 567. Burgundians, 297, 316, 4.37. Bur'gun-dy, 316, 317, 320, ^ Burke, Edmund, 51 3,^ Burney, Charles^29. Burney, Frgj:lcres, 535. Burns, Robert, 565. Bushire {boo-sheer'), taking of, 520. Bute, Lord, 512. Butler, Samuel, 502, 507. Byron, Lord, 517, 535, 635. Byz'an-tine (Jivilization, 310. By-zan'ti-um, taken by Pausanias, 103; becomes the capital of the Eastern Empire, 278, Cabal, the. 494. Cab'ot, John and Sebastian, 463, 657. Ca-bral', 619, 656. Cabul (kah-bool'), insurrection in, 519. Cade, Jack, 369. Ca-de'si-a, battle of, 327. Cad-mei'ans, driven out b3- the Thessa- lians, 92. Cad'mus brings the Phoenician alphabet into Greece, 64; founder of Thebes, 91. Caesar, Augustus. See Octavius and Augustus Caesar. Caesar, Julius, rise of, 232; forms the first triumvirate, 233; proconsul of Gaul, 233; his campaigns. 2^3; crosses the Rubicon. 234 ; defeats Pompey, 2.35; defeats Pharnaces, 236; gains the bat- tles of Thapsus and Munda. 2.37; mas- ter of Rome, 237; his triumph, 2:^7; assassinated, 238; his character, 239; his Commentaries, 258; first of the Twelve Caesars, 272. Caesars, the Twelve, 272, n. Caesars, under Diocletian and his suc- cessors, 277. Cairo {ki'ro), building of, 329; entered by Napoleon, .578. Ca-la'bri-a, 181. Ca'lah, ancient capital of Assyria, 31 ; its ruins, .32. Calais (kaJ'is), 363, 469, 547. Cal-de-ron' de la Barca, 644. 664 Indeed. Cal'e-do'ni-ans, defeated by Septimius Severus, )ilb. Ca-lig'u-la, one of the Twelve Caesars, 'Z-i-Z\ date of reign, :i88. Cal-lim'a-chus, Greek poet, his hymns and elegies, 160. Callimachus, Greek sculptor, suggests the Corinthian capital, 104. Cal'neh, 2'6. Calvin, John, 614. Cam' bray, league of, 542; treaty of, 545. Cam-by'ses, his conquests, 76; his atroci- ties in Egypt, 76; his death, 76. Ca-mil'lus, takes Veii, 196; his exile, 197; vanquishes the Gauls, 197 ; made dic- tator, 198 ; dedicates a temple to Con- cord, 200. Ca-mo'ens (or catn'o-ens), 644. Cam-pa'ni-ans, invoke the aid of the Ro- mans, 201. Campbell (kam'el). Sir Col'in, 520. Campbell, Thomas, 5:34. Campo For'mi-o, treaty of, 577. Ca'naan-ites, 66. Can'a-da, insurrection in, 518; taken by the British, 562. Canal Navigation in England, 528. Ca-ua'ries, visited by the Phoenicians, 63. Can'nae, battle of, 210. Cannon, first use of, 362, 393, 402. Canon of Ptolemy, 29. Ca-no'va, Antonio, 641. Can-ton', taken bj^ the English, 521. Ca-nute' the Dane, king, 334. Ca'pet (or kah-pa'), Hugh, 379 Capetiau Dynasty, 379. Ca'po distria, Count, 635. Cap-pa-do'ci-a, history of, 142. Car-a-cal'la, emperor, his character, 276; date of reign, 288. Car'dan, 642. Ca-ri'nus, emperor, date of reign, 288, Car'lo Dolci idol'che), 641, Car'lo-man, 318. Carlovingian Dynasty, 318, 379. Carlyle, Thomas, 537. Caroline of Brunswick, 517, Carr, Robert, 480. Carracci {kar-rat'chee), 641, Car'thage, a Phoenician or Tyrian col- ony, 61; when settled, 61, 204; her power, 204; war of Agathocles with, 206; wars with the Romans, 206, 209, 215; destruction of, 217; capital of the kingdom of the Vandals, 287, 298; taken by the Saracens, 328. Cas-san'der, son of Antipater, war with Polysperchon, 127; king of Greece and Macedonia, 128; his death, 129. Cas'si-mir, John, king of Poland, 626. Cassini (kahs-se'ne), 566, 642. Cassius (kash'e-us). lieutenant of Cras- sus, 214; conspires against Caesar, 238; defeat and death, 242. Castile (kahs-teel'), kingdom of, 448, Castilian Dialects, 451; writers, 451. Catharine I., empress of Russia, 629. Catharine II,, " " " 629. Catharine of Aragon, 463. Catharine de' iVledici. See Medici. Ca-thay', empire of, 72. Catholic Church, 311. Catholics, disabilities of removed, 517. Cat'i-line, Lucius, character of, 231 ; his plot frustrated, 231; defeated and slain, 232. Ca'to, Porcius, the Censor, his hiitred to Carthage, 216. Cato, the Stoic, commits suicide at Utica, 237, Ca-tul'lus, Roman poet, £58. Cau'ca-sus, 630. Cau'dine Forks, battle of, 201. Cavaliers or Royalists, 485, 502, Cavendish, 530. Cawn'pore, 520, Cax'ton, William, 376, Cecil {ses'il). Lord Burleigh, 470, 477. Ce'croiDs, founder of Athens, 91. Cellini (chel-le'iie), Benvenuto, 641. Cel-ti-be'ri-ans, war with, 217, Celts, 299. Censors, establishment of, 196, Central America. 656. Centuries, assembly of, 196, Ce-phis'sus, 92. Cere a'li a, 261, Ce'res. See Demeter. Cer-van'tes, 644. Ceylon (se'lon), reached by the Phoeni- cians, 63; conquest of by the Portu- guese, 620. Cnae-ro-ne'a, battle of, 119. Chal-de'a, situation and fertility of, 25, 27, Chal-dees', or Chaldeans, progress in the arts, etc., 27; an architectural people, 35; their commerce, 36. Champagne {shong-pahn'), 379. Charlemagne (shar-le-mahn'), emperor, 318; character, 319; defeats the Sara- cens. 328. Charles Albert of Sardinia, 615, Charles of Anjou, 385, 386, 426, 443. Charles, archduke, 582. Charles the Bold. 399, 404, 438, Charles I. of England, reign of, 481 ; exe- cution of, 478 ; character, 498. Charles II. of England, 488, 492. Charles the Fat, 320. Charles IV. of France, 388, Charles V. " 395. Charles VI, " 395, Charles VII. " 396, Charles VIII, " 396, Charles IX. " 548, Charles X. " 587, Charles IV, of Germany, 428, Charles V. " 598. • Charles VI. " 604. Charles VII. " 604. Charles of Luxemburg, 428, Charles Martel, 317, 328. Charles the Pretender, 509, 517. Charles the Simple, 321. Charles L of Spain, 616. Charles n. " 618. Index. m^ Charles XI. of Sweden, 622. Charles XII. " 623, 628. Charles XIII. " 623. Charles XIV. " 623. Charles XV. " 623. Charles of Valois {val-wah'), 387. Cha'ron, 174. Chartists, 518. Chateaubriand (shah-to-bre-ahng'), 595. Chatham, earl of. See Pitt. Chatterton, Thomas, 532. Chaucer {chaw'ser), Geoffrey, 367, 376. Chemi {ka'me), ancient name of Egj'pt, 51. Chenier (shen-e-a'), Andre, 595. Cheops {ke'ops), builder of the Great Pyramid, 58. Cherbourg {sher'hoorg), 594. Chevy Chace, battle of, 367. Chil'der-ic {shil'der-ic), 318. Children's Crusade, 414. Chili {chil'eu 657. China, origin of the name, 72; ancient history of, 72; modern history of, 652; \ war with, 521 Chinese, liistory of, 72; civilization and language, 73; religion, 74. Chios (ke'os), 86. Chivalry, or Knighthood, 345. Christian Chm'ch, 311. Christian IV. of Denmark, 602, 634. Christian IX. " 625. Christian, duke of Brunswick, 602. Christianity, its rise and progress, 279; embraced by the Franks, 316; intro- duced into Germany, 431; into Bul- garia, 452. Christina {kris-te'nah), queen of Sweden, ■622. ^ Chronology, 20. ^ Churchill, John (Marlborough), 500, n. Cic'e-ro. education and history, 231 , n. ; denounces Catiline, 2^31; causes the conspirators to be put to death, 232; his Fhilippics, 240; assassinated by order of Antony, 241. Cid, exploits of the, 451. Cilicia (se-Ush'e-aJi ), kingdom of, 41. Cimabue {che-mah-boo'a), 446. Cimarosa (che-mah-ro'sah), 640. Cim'bri, defeated by Marius, 224, 225. Ci'mon, his victory over the Persians, 106; his character, 106, n. ; his admin- istration, 106, 107; his death, 106. Cin-cin-na'tus. dictator, 194. Cin'na, consul with Marius, 228. Cisalpine Republic, .577. Citium, (sish'e-iim), siege of, 106. Civilization, Chaldean, Babylonian, and Assyrian, 35; Median, 41 : Egyptian. 45; Phoenician, 63; Hebrew, 69: Chinese, 73; Persian, 78; Grecian, 14:3; Roman, 249; Byzantine, 310; Saracenic, 3:30: Anglo-Saxon, 336; Norman, :342: Eng- lish, 373, 474, 502, 524: French, 398, 401, 550, 563, 592; German, 431; Italian, 445; progress of in Spain and Portugal, 451 ; progress of in modern Europe, 636. Clarence, duke of, 371. Clarence, duke of (William IV.), 517. Clarendon, earl of. See Hyde. Claude Lorraine', 5t)9. Clau'di-us I., one of the Twelve Caesars, 272; date of his reigu,288. Claudius II., 284, 288. Cle-ar'clius, a Spartan general, enters the service of Cyrus, 113. Clement VII., pope, 465, 54.5. Clement, assassin of Henry III., 550. Cle-om'e-nes, king of Sparta, 131. Cle'on, successor of Pericles, 109. Cle-o-pa'tra, last of the Ptolemies, 141, 236, 242, 243. Clepsydra, set up in Rome, 220. Clermont, council of, 408. Clis'the-nes, his administration at Athens, 98. Cli'tus, killed by Alexander, 123. Clive, Lord, 511, 512. Clo'di-us, 2:34. Clon-tarf, battle of, 353. Cloth Manufacture in England, 476. Clo'vis, 316, 317. Clu'si-um, attacked by the Gauls, 197. Cnidus { 11 i'd us), battle of , 114. Code Napoleon, 593. Co'drus, last king of Athens, 96. Coe'le-Syria, its situation, 135. Coffee, introduced into France, 566. Colbert (kul-bare'), 558, 564. Colchis {kol'kis), 89. Cole'ridge, Samuel T., 534. Coligni {ko-leen'ye}, admiral, 547, 548, 549. Col-la-ti'nus, 188. Collins, William, 531. Cologne {ko-lone'), 432. Co-lom'bi-a, 657. Col-os-se'um, or Flavian Amphitheater, description of, 254, n. ; completed by Titus, 272. Co-los'sus of Rhodes, 141, 142, 327. Co-lum'bus, Christopher, 450, 463. Commerce, of the Chaldeans, 36: of the Egyptians, 55; of thfe Phoenicians, 62; of the Hebrews, 67; of the Hindoos, 71; of the kingdom of the Ptolemies, 136, 139; of the early Greeks. 144; of Athens, 172; of the Greek Empire, 312; of the Sai-acens, 330, 331 : of the Anglo- Saxons, 337; in England, 374, 425, 503, .525; in France, 390, 564. Com'mo-dus, emperor, 288. Commonwealth, English, 488. Commime, insurrection of the Paris, 591. Communes, in France, 382. Com-ne'na, Anna, 312. Comte (kongt), .595. Con'de, prince of, 547, 548, M9. Conde the Great, 5.57. Confederation of the Rhine, 580. Conformity, Act of, 470. Con-fu'ci-us, his teachings, 73; works compiled by, 74. Con'greve, 5()7. me Index. Co'non, defeated by the Spartans, 111; gains a victory at Cnidus, 114; thrown into prison, 115. Con'rad, author of Song of Roland, 434. Conrad 1. (of Franeonia), enaperor, 418. Conrad II., emperor, 4:^2. Conrad III., emperor, 411, 424. Conrad IV., emperor, 420. Constance, comicii of, 429; peace of, 439. Con'stans, emperor, 288. Con'stan-tine 1. (the Great), saluted em- peror, 278; his conversion, 278; re- moves the capital, 278; issues the edict of Milan, 279; his measures in favor of Christianity, 282; his death, 282. Constantine \1.^ 288. Constantine (Pal-te-oro-gus), 310. Con-stan-ti-no'ple, the capital of the Ro- man Empire, 278; besieged by the Saracens, 306, 327; taken by the Turks, 310; commerce of, 312; taken by the Crusaders, ;308, 414. Con-Stan' ti-us I., 278. Constantius II., 288. Constitutions of Clarendon, 351. Consulate and Empire, 578. Consulship, Roman, established, 188; plebeians admitted to, 196. Coo-mas' sie, 522. Co-pen-ha'gen, battle of, 514, 624. Co-per'ni-cus, 435, 642, Cop'tos, 139. Cor-cy'ra, island of, 85; difficulty vi^ith Corinth, 109. Cor'day, Charlotte, 576. Cor'do-va, caliphate of, 329; city of, 331. Cordova, Gonsalvo de, 541. Corinth, under Feriander, 99; taken by the Romans, 215. Co-rin'thi-a, 85. Corinthian Order of Architecture, 164. Co-ri-o-la'nus, account of, 194. Corneille {kor-naW), 566, 567. Corn Laws, repeal of, 519. Cornwallis, surrender of, 513. Cor-o-ne'a, defeat of the Athenians at, 108; victory of Agesilaus at, 114. Correggio (kor-red'jo), 641. Cor'tez, 656. Co-run'na, battle of, 515. Cos-so'va, battle of, 309, 454. Cos'ter, Laurens, 435. Costume, Greek, 169; Roman, 547; in France, 391, 403, 567, 593; in Germany, 433, 551. Cotton Manufacture, in France, 566; of the Normans, 344; in England, 374, 375. Cousin ikoo-zang'), 595. Covenant, Scottish, 483, 486. Covenanters, defeated by Cromwell, 488. Coverdale, Miles, 467. Cowley, Abraham, 507. Cowper, William, 532. Cranmer, archbishop. 465, 466, 468, 469. Cras'sus, defeats Spartacus, 229; his great wealth, 230; joins the first tri- umvirate, 233; defeated and slain by the Parthians, 234. Crat'e-rus, with Antipater defeats the Athenians, 125; enters the league against Perdiccas, 127. Crebillon (kre-be'yoiiy), 594. Crecy (/cres'e), battle of, 362. Crim'e-an War, 519. Cro-a'ti-a, conquest of, 455. Croe'sus, king of Lydia, his immense wealth, 43; defeated and taken prisoner by Cyrus, 43; alliance with Egypt, 50. Cromwell, Oliver, 486, 488, 490, 491. Cromwell, Richard, 492. Cro'ton, 87. Cro-to'na, battle of, 442. Crusades, 307, 308; cause of, 407; first, 408; second, 411; third, 412; fourth, 413; subsequent, 415; influence of, 416. Ctesias {te'slie-as), his account of Sar- danapalus, 31. Ctes'i-phon, 274, 275. Cul-lo'den, battle of, 509. Cu'mai, 87. Cu-ma'ni-a, 455. Cumans, invasion of, 455. Cumberland, duke of, 509, 510, 518. Cu-nax'a, battle of, 113. Cu-ne'i-form Inscriptions, 27, 36, 80. Cu-re'tes, 88. Curfew Bell, 338. Cu'ri-us Den-ta'tus, defeats Pyrrhus, 198. Curtius, 646. Cy-ax'a-res, king of the Medes, takes and destroys Nineveh, 34; his con- quests, 40. Cyc'la-des, 85, 92. Cyclopean Architecture, 88, 145. Cy-nos-ceph'a-lae, battle of, 132, 214. Cyprus taken bj- Sargon, 32; siege of, loe^taken by the Saracens, 327; ceded to Great Britain, 522. Cy-re-na'i-ca, province of, 87; subdued by Ptolemy I., 137. Cy-re'ne, 87. Cy'ril, bishop of'Alexandria, 311. Cyrus the Great, his birth, 40; subdues Media, 40; his rapid conquests, 75; his death, 75. Cyrus the Younger, his expedition into Persia, 113; his death, 113. Cyz'i-cus, 87. Da'ci-a, given up to the Goths, 284 ; oc- cupied by the Bulgarians and Avars, 304. D'Alembert (dah-long-bare'), 569. Dal-ma'ti-a, acquired by Venice, 440; conquered by Hungary, 456. Dal'ton, John, 530. Da-mas'cus, Syria of, 65. Damascus, taken by the Saracens, 305, 326. Dam-i-et'ta, taken by the Crusaders, 415; by Louis IX., 415. Dan'do-io, doge of Venice, 413, 441. Danes, invade England, 333, 334. Index. 667 Danish East India Company, 637. Dante (dan'ta), 426, 447. Dauton (dahn-tong' ), 575, 576. Dantzic, 432. Daph-ne-pho'ri-a, festival of, 152. Da-ri'us I. (Hys-tas'pes), elected king of Persia, 76; his reign, 7T. Darius II. (Nothus), date of reign, 84. Darius III. (Codomannus), subdued by Alexander the Gi-eat, 78; battles fought by, 120, 122, 123. Darnley, Lord, 472. Darwin, Charles, 537. Da'tis, expedition under, 100. Dauphin, 392. Dauphiny (dau-fe-ne'), 392. Dav'e-nant, Sir William, 507. David, king, his victory over the Syrians of Damascus, 65; his reign, 66. Davis, voyage of, 475. Davy, Sir Humphry, 529. De-cem'virs, appointed, 195; abolished, 196. De'ci-us, emperor, persecutes the Chris- tians, 280; defeated and slain by the Goths, 284. De Foe, 507. De Genlis {zhahng-le'), Madame, 495. Delhi (del'le), 520, 654. Delisle {duh-leel'), 569. De'li-um, battle of, 109. Delorme (duh-lorm'), Philibert, 552. De'los, confederacy of, 104. Del'phi, temple of, 164. Delphic Oracle, 154. De-me'ter, worship of, 149, 150. De-me'tri-us, son of Antigonus, his treat- ment of the Athenians, 128, n. ; his death, 129. Demetrius, Pha-le'ri-us, his rule at Athens, 127. De-moc'ri-tus, his doctrines, 158. De Mont'fort, Simon, 358. De-mos'the-nes, his orations against Philip, 119; his exile, 125; his death, 126, n. Denmark, history of, 624. Den-ta'tus, Lucius Si-cen'ni-us, murder of. 195. De Ruyter {H'ter\ 489, 493, 558, 559. Des Cartes {da cart), 569. Deseze {duh-saze'), 575. De Stael (stah'el) Madame, 595. De Thou {too), 568. Det' ting-en, battle of, 509. De Witt, John and Cornelius, 558, 559. Di-a'na. See Artemis. Diaz (de'az), Bartholomew, 450. Dickens, Charles, 536. Dictator, office of, 189, n. Diderot (de'da-ro), 569. Did'i-us Ju-li-a'nus, his purchase of the Roman empire, 278; date of reign, 288. Di'do, founds Carthage, 61. Dieskau {de-es-ko'), baron, 510. Di-o-cle'ti-an, emperor, accession of, 277 ; resigns the empire, 278; persecution of the Christians by, 280; date of reign, 288. Di-o-do'rus Sic'u-lus, his history, 45, 161 Di-og'e-nes, his singular character and behavior, 120, n. ; his teachings, 158. Di-o-me'des, 145. Di-o-ny'si-a, festival of, 152. Di-o-ny'si-us, king of Syracuse, 204. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, his history. 161. Di-o-ny'sos, worship of, 150. Directory, French, 577. Disraeli {diz-ra'el-e), Benjamin, earl of Beaconsfield, 522, 523, 537. Divination, practice of by the Greeks, 154; by the Etruscans, 182; by the Ro- mans, 259. Dod'dridge, Philip, 525, 532. Do-do'na, oracle of, 154. Dol'o-pes, 88. Domesday Book, 57, 62. Domitian {do-vnsh'e-an), one of the Twelve Caesais, 272; his character, 274; date of reign, 288. Dom Miguel (nte'yhel), 621. Dom Pedro ( xm'dro), 621. Don Carlos I. of Spain, 616. Don Carlos, claimant to the Spanish throne, 619. Don Carvalho {kHr-val'yo), 621. Donizetti (don-e-zet'te), 640. Do'ri-an Colonies, 86. Dorians, their influence, 89; migrations of. 92. Do'ris, 85. Douglas, Scottish chief, 367. Dra'co, his laws, 96. Drake, Sir Francis, 471. Drama, French, 402. Dres'den, battle of, 584. Dry den, John, 507. Du Bois {bn-ah). Abbe, 561. Dudley, Lord Guilford, 468. Du Guesclin {ga-klahng'), 595. Du-il'li-us, victories gained by, 207. Dumas {du-mah'), Alexandre, 595. Dumouriez {du-vwo-re-a'). General, 575. Dunbar, battle of, 360, 488. Dunkirk, 491, 493. Du Quesne {kane), fort, 510. Durazzo {doo-rdt'zo), 443. Du'rer, Albert, 435, 641. Durham, university of, 525. Dutch East India Company, 637. Dutch Republic, 613. Dwelling-houses, among the Greeks, 167, among the Romans, 262, Eastern or Greek Empire, 288; extent of, 299; foundation of, 301; invaded by the Huns, 301 ; attacked by the Sara- cens, 305, 306; end of, 310. Eastern War of 1877-8, 522, 634. East India Company, British, 513, 521. East India Trade, 504. Ec-bat'a-na, royal palace at, 41 ; capital of Darius, 77; ruins at, 79. Eck'muhl, battle of, 582. 668 Index. Ecuador (ek-u-ah-dore'), G3T. Edgehill, battle of, 485. Edgeworth, Maria, 535. Education, among the Egyptians, 53; among the Greeks, 171; among the Romans, 263; in France, 390; in Eng- land, 535. Edward I. of England, 359, 415, 416. Edward II. " 361. Edward III. " 362, 365. Edward IV. " 370. Edward V. " 371. Edward VI. " 468. Edward the Black Prince, 363, 364, 365. Edward the Confessor, 334. Edward, prince of Wales, 358, 359. Edward, prince, son of Henry VI., 371. E-gal'i-te, Philip, 576. Eg'bert, king of England, 324, 333. E'gypt, origin, chronology, sources of its histor3% 45; dynasties, early his- tory, 47; Hyksos, 48; subsequent his- tory, 49, 50; topography and civiliza- tion, 51, 52; under the Ptolemies, 136; becomes a Roman province, 243; con- quered by the Saracens, 305, 326; by the Fatirtiites, 330. Ek'ron, 66. E-la-gab'a-lus, emperor, 288. El'ba, island of, 516, 585. Eleanor, duchess of Guienne, 350, 353, 354, 382. E-leu'sis, mysteries of, 152, 153. El'i-ot, George (Mrs. Lewes), 536. Eliot, Sir John, 482, 483. E'lis, 85. Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV., 461. Elizabeth, queen, 181; revenue of, 475; poems of, 478. Elizabeth Gray, 370. E-man'u-el the Fortunate, 619. Empire of the West, revival of, 319. Encyclopa^lie, French, 569. England, origin of the name, 324; in the Middle Ages, 333; under the Tudors, 478 ; under the Stuarts, 461 ; under the house of Brunswick, 508. England and Scotland, union of, 502. English, middle, 326; modern, 477. English Literature, first era of, 376. En'ni-us, time of, 220; his poems. 2.57. E-pam-i-non'das, defeats the Spartans, 115; his character, 116; tutor of Philip, 117. Eph'e-sus, its importance, 86. Ep-ic-te'tus, writer on the Stoic philoso- phy, 159. Ep-i-cu'rus, his doctrines, 158. E-pi'rus, 85; migration of races from, 92. E-ras'mus, 477, 643. E'rech, 28. E-sar-had'don, conquests of, 33. Essex, earl of, 474; leader of the parlia- mentary forces, 485. E-thi-o'pi-ans, history of, 60, 61. Ethnology, 17; synopsis of, 24, 800, E-tru'ri-a, 182. E-trus'cans, or Etrurians, occupy the plain of the Po, 182; confederacy of, 182; their character, 182. Eu-bcB'a, island of, 85. Eu'clid, Greek mathematician, 160. Eugene, Prince, 501, 604, 633. Euler (ijoo'ler), 642. Fu-rip'i-des, tragedies of, 157, 159. Eu-ry-bi'a-des, commands the Grecians at Salamis, 103. Eu-rym'e-don, battle of, 106. Eves'ham, battle of, 358. Exodus, date of, 48. Eylau (i'low), battle of, 580, E'zi-ou-ge'ber, situation of, 67. Fa'bi-an Family, usurpation of the, 193; Fa'bi-us Maximus, dictator, 210; his policy, 211. Fah'ren-heit, 643. Fairfax, Lord, 486. Fairfax, Sir Thomas, 486. Falkirk, battle of, 360. Falkland {fmvk'land). Lord, 486. Far'a-day, Michael, 530. Fa'roe Islands, colonized by the Nor- mans, 311. Fas'ti Cap-i-to-li'ni, 22. Fat'i-mites, origin of, 329; conquests of, 330; end of, 330, 412. Fenelon (fa-na-long'), 568. Fe-ra'li-a, 261. Ferdinand I., emperor, 602. Ferdinand 11. , " 602, 603. Ferdinand III., " 604. Ferdinand VII. of Spain, 618. Ferdinand of Aragon, .541. Feudal Castle, description of, 343. Feudalism, in England, 374; in France, 388; in Germany, 431. Feudal System, an account of, 339. Fez, 329. Fichte ifik'teh), 646. Fielding, 533. Field of the Cloth of Gold, 465. 544. Fine Arts, among the Chaldeans, 36; the Egyptians, .56; the Greeks, 162; the Romans, 255; in England. .50.5, .528.639; in Italy, 446; in modern Europe, 639. Finland,' 623. Fins, 299. Firdusi (feer-doo'se), Persian poet, 80. Fisher, bishop, 466. Fla'mens, 261. Flam-i-ni'nus, defeats Philip in the bat- tle of Cynoscephalse. 214; sent to de- mand the person of Hannibal, 213, n. Flam-ma'ri-on. .595. Flamsteed. .506. Flanders, 380, .558. Flemings, manufactures of, 365: revolt of, .386, .395. Fletcher, 506. Fleury ( fluh're), Abl)6 de, 568. Fleury, cardinal, 561, 562. Flodden Field, battle of, 464. Index, 669 Florence, 445, 446. Foix (fivali)^ Gaston de, 542. Fontenaille {fon-ta-nale'), battle of, 319, 418. Fontenoy ( fon-ta-iiivah' ), battle of, 509. Fortification, art of, 5G5. Fox, George, 503. France, college of, 553. France, invasion of, 362, 363; provinces of under Hugh Capet, 379; history of, 379, 541. Franche Comt6 {fransh kong'ta), 558. Francis I. of France, 543. Francis II. " 547. Francis II., emperor, 605. Francis, duke of Guise, 547. Francis of Lorraine, 605. Franco-German War, 590, 607. Franconian Emperors, 422, 423. Franklin, Dr., 530, 593. Franks, origin of, 315; in Germany, 418. Frederick Barbarossa, 412, 425. Frederick of Austria, 428. Frederick, elector-palatine, 602. Frederick, elector of Saxony, 599, 601. Fi-ederick II., emperor, 415, 425. Frederick III., " 430. Frederick the Great, 604, 610. Frederick William I., 610. Frederick William III., 611. Frederick William IV., 611. Frederick William, the Great Elector, 609. Free Cities of Germany, 428, 432. French Academj-, 556. French Language and Literature, 391. French Revolution, 572, 592. Friedland (freed' land), battle of, 571. Frob'ish-er, Martin, 471, 475. Froe'bel, 646. Frois'sart, Jean. 404. Fronde, war of the, .557. Froude ( frood). James A., 537. Fuller, Thomas, 407. Fulton, Robert, 526, n. Funeral Ceremonies, of the Egyptians, 54; of the Greeks, 174; of the Romans, 266. Furniture, of the Anglo-Saxons, 337; in France, 567. G Ga'des. colony of the Phoenicians, 61. Ga-la'ti-a, a settlement of. 130. Gal'ba, 272, n. Ga'len, writings of, 161. Ga-le'ri-us, Caesar imder Diocletian, 378; persecutes the Christians, 280; edict of, 281. Gal-i-le'o, 642. Gall. Dr., 643. Gal-li-e'nus, emperor, 276; bestows the government of the East on Odenathus and Zenobia, 277; date of reign, 288. Gal'lus emperor, 290. Galvanl (gal-vah'ne), 643. Gama (gah'niah), Vasco da, 451. Gas'co-ny, 379. Gates, general, 573. Gath, 66. Gau-ga-me'la, battle of, 122. Gauls, invasion by the, 130, 197. Gay, John, .529, .531. Gaza, 66; taken by Alexander, 122. Ge-dro'si-a, 124. Ge-ne'va, 614. Genghis (jeng'ghis) Khan, 309, 320. Genoa (j'e/i'o-a/(.), 441, 445. Gen'ser-ic, king of the Vandals, takes and plunders Rome, 287. Geoffrey ije/'fre) of Monmouth, 345. Georgia, colony, 508. Georgia, Russian province, 655. George I. of England, 508. George II. " 508. George III. " 512. George IV. " 516. George I., king of the Hellenes, 636. Gep'i-dse, 299, 304. Gerbert (gher'bert) (Sylvester 11. ), 421. Germanic Confederation, 606, 607. , Germany, history of, 418, 598; state of society in, 431 ; emperors of, 436, 652. Gesler (ghes'ler), 428. Ghent, treaty of, 516. Gibbon, Edward, 533. Gibraltar, 328, 501. Giotto {jot' to), 446. Girondists (zhe-rond'ists), 575. Gizeh (ghe'zd), site of Great Pyramid, 53. Gladiatorial Exhibitions in Rome, 253. Gladstone, William E., 523, 537. Glencoe, massacre of, 499. Gloster, duke of, 371, 372. Gluck (globk), 639. Gly-ce'ri-us, emperor. 288. Godfrey of Bouillon (boo-yong'), 409, 410. Godwin, earl. 335. Goethe (giVi'teh), 646. Golden Bull, 429. Goldsmith, Oliver, 5'^1. Good Hope, Cape, discovery of, 451. Gor'di-an I., emperor, 288. Gordian IT. , emperor. 288. Gordian III., emperor, 288. Gor-di-e'um. 41. Gordon, Lady, 462. Goths, attack the Roman empire, 283: defeated bv Claudius, 284; settle in Dacia, 284; in Mnesia, 284: defeat tbe Romans at Adrianople, 284: defeated by Theodosius. 284; invade Greece, 28.5; invade the Eastern Empire, 297, 298; Switzerland, 437. Gounod (gnn-no'), 641. Grac'chi," their attempts at reform, 221; their character, 223. Grac'chus. Cains, 223. Gracchus, Tiberius, 223. Gra-na'da, under the Moors, asi; king- dom of. 449. Gra-ni'cus, battle of, 119. Grand Alliance, 500. Gray, Thomas, 502. Great Pyramid, construction of, 53; de- scription of, 57, 58, n. 670 Index. Greece, geographical sketch of, 85; his- tory of, 88; becomes a Roman prov- ince, 215; invaded by the Goths, 285; history of modern, 035; independence of, 517. Greek Church, 311. Greek Colonies, 77, 86, 99. Greek Empire. See Eastern Empire. Greek Fire, 306. Greek Language, 311. Greenland, 321. Gregory the Great, 333. Gregory VII., pope, 408, 423, 443. Grevy, president of France, 591. Grey, Lady Jane, 408, 477, Grote, George, 537. Grotius, Hugo, 644. Guelph, 424. Guelphs and Ghibellines, 4&9. Guericke (gher'ik-kd), 643. Guido igwe'do) of Arezzo (ah-ret'zo), 447. Guienne (ghe-en'), 379, 388. Guiscard (ghees-k((r'). Robert, 442, 443. Guise (gweez). duke of, 547. Guizot ighe-zo'), 595. Gunpowder Plot. 479. Gus-ta'vus Adolphus, 603, 622. Gustavus IV. of Sweden, 623. \ Gustavus Vasa (vaJi'mh), 622. Gutenberg {goo' ten-berg), John, 435. Guy Fawkes, 479. Gymnasium, Greek, 170. Habeas Corpus Act, 496. Ha'des, the unseen world, 150; rivers in, 174, ».; burial requisite for entrance to. 266. Hades, or Pluto, 150. Ha'dri-an, emperor, 274, 288, Hahn'e-mann, Dr., 643. Hal'i-don Hill, battle of, 367. Hallam. Henry, 535. Hal'ler, 643. Hal'ley, 506. Ha'lys. boundary of Lydia, 42. Hamburg, 432. Ha-mil'car. defeat of. 207; genius of, 208; hatred of the Romnns, 209. Ham'ites, descendants of Ham, 18, 24, 45. Hamitic nations, 20, 24. Hampden, John. 484, 485. Hampden, John (Jun.), 596. Handel, George Frederick, 529. Han'ni-bal. takes an oath of enmity against the Romans, 209; in command of the army, 209; captures Saguntum crosses the Pyrenees and the Alps, 209; defeates the Romans at the Tici nus, the Trebia, and Lake Trasimenus 209; his victory at Cannae, 210; his re call and defeat at Zama, 212; assists Antiochus against the Romans, 213 his death, 213. n. Hanover, 510, 518. Hansa, or Hanseatic League, 432, 436. Hanse Towns, 582. Hans Sachs, 435. Hapsburg, house of, 427. Har'fleur, 358, 396. Hargreaves, James, 527. Har-mo'di-us, 98. Harold, king of England, 335. Ha'roun al Rasch'id, caliph, 329. Harpies, 150. Ha-rus'pi-ces, 260. Harvey, 506. Has'dru-bal, brother of Hannibal, de- feated and slain, 212. Hasdrubal, defense of Carthage by, 217. Hastings, battle of, 335. Hastings, Warren, 513. Hav'e-lock, general, 520, 655. Hawkins, admiral, 471. Haydn {ha'dn), 640. Haz'a-el, king of Syria, 65. He'be, 150. Hebrews, a Semitic nation, 20; history of, 66. Hec'tor, son of Priam, 90. Hegel (ha'gel), 646. He gi'ra, era of the, 21, 325. Heine (hi'neh), 646. Helen, wife of Menelaus, 90. He-li-op'o-lis. See Baalbec. Hel'las, states of, 85. Hel-le'nes, land of the, 85; migration of, 89. He'lots, revolt of, 107. Helvetians, 437. He'mans, Felicia D., 532. Henrietta Maria, 471. Henry of Burgundy, 4.50. Henry, duke of Lancaster, 366. Henry I. of England, 342. Henry II. " 350. Henry III. " 858. Henry IV. " 367. Henry V. " 367. Henry VI. " 368. Henry VII. " 372, 461. Henry VIII. " 463. Henry I. of France, 381. Henry II. " 546. Henry III. " 548, 625. Henry IV. " 553, 565. Henry I. of Germany, 419. Henry II. " 421. Henry III. " 422. Henry IV. " 423. Henry V. '' 424, 432. Henry VI. " 428. Henry of Huntingdon, 345. Henry, king of C!astile, 449. Henry, prince, the Navigator, 459. He-phges'tos, worship of, 147. Hep-tan'o-mis. situation of, 53. Hep'tar-chy, 324. Her-a-clei'dae, return of the, 92, 96 He-rac'li-us, emperor, 305. Her-cu-la'ne-um, destruction of, 273. Her'cu-les, 89, 95; worship of, 150. Her'der, 645. He're, worship of, 148. Index. 671 Her'mann, 431. Hermann the Cripple, 434» Her'mes, his attributes J how repre- sented, 148. Her'od the Great, 69. He-rod'o-tus, 22, 45; visit tiO Tjxe, 63; his history, 157. Herrick. Robert, 507. Herschel, Sir William, 530,. Her'u-U, 287. He'si-od, poems of, 155. Hes'ti-a, worship of, 149. He-tfe'rae, character of the, 172» Hewson, colonel, 502. Heyne {hi'neh), 645. Heywood, John, 478. Hez-e-ki'ah, taken captive, 68. Hibernia. 70. Hi'e-ro, king of Syracuse, 206, 211. Hieroglyi^hics, for what used, and how written, 59; how deciphered, 59, n. High Commission, court of, 474. Hil'de-brand (Gregory VH.), 408, 423, 443. Hin'doos, origin of, 18; history of, 70; commerce and wealth of, 71. Hin-do-stan', peninsula of, 653. Hip-par'chus, 97, 98. Hip'pi-as, 97, 98, 100. Historical Records, among the Chal- deans, 36. History, defined, 17; how divided. 23; philosophy of, 23. Hogarth, William, 528. Ho-hen-lin'den, battle of, 579. Hol'bein (-bine), 641. Holland, history of, 612. Hol'stein {-stine), 606, 624. Holy League, 542. Holy Roman Empire, 580, 605. Ho'iner, poems of, 90; Greek manners described by, 144 ; account of, 155, Hong Kong, 521. Ho-no'ri-us, emperor of the West, 285; his death, 286. Hood, Thomas, 534. Hooke, 506. Hopital (o-pe-tahl), chancellor de 1', 548, 552. Hor'ace, poems of, 2.58. Ho-ra'ti-us Co'cles, legend of, 189, 190. Ho-she'a, surrenders Samaria, 68. Hospitallers, knights, 410. Hotel de Ville (i^7), 515. House of Commons, 358, 373. House of Lords, 488. Household Gods, among the Greeks, 168, n. ; among the Romans, 262. Howard, Catharine, 467. Howard, Henry, 467. Howard, Lord, admiral, 471. Hugh the Great. 379, 409. Huguenots, 547, 548, 549. Humbert I., 616. Humboldt, 643. Hiune, David, .5^3. Hungarian Insurrection, 630. Hungarians, 422. 560. Hungary, history of, 455. Hunnish Empire, 301. Huns, invade Europe, 284, 297; ravage the Eastern Emi^ire, and invade Gaul, 286; defeat of, 287. Hunter, John, 530. Hun-ya'di, king, 4.56. Huss, John, 429. Huxley, Thomas H., 537. Huyghens or Huygens {hi'ghens), 566, 642. Hy-das'pes, 123. Hyde, Sir Edward, earl of Clarendon, 492; impeachment of, 494; an author, 507. Hyk'sos, shepherd kings, their rule in Egypt, 48. Hyph'a-sis, 124. Hyp'nos, 149. I-a-pyg'i-ans, 181, 182. Lax'ar-tes, 123. Iceland, 321. ^ I-cil'i-an Law, 192. I-co'ni-um, 307. Il'i-um, 90. Il-lyr'i-an Pirates, 208, Independents, 487. India., invaded by Alexander, 71, 123. India Trade, 313, 653. Indian Mutiny, 520. Indo-Europeans, 18. Indus River, 123. Industrial Arts in England, 526. Ingelow, Jean, 536. In'ker-man, battle of, 519. Innocent III., pope, 355, 356, 384, 413, 415. Interregnum, the great, 427. Invincible Armada, 471. I-o'ni-a, 92. Ionian Colonies, 86; revolt of, 99. lonians, 86. Ionic Order of Architecture, 164. Ip'sus, battle of, 127. I'ran, plateau of, 18; nations of, 41. Ireland, early history of , 352 ; conquest of, 353; reduced by Ireton, 499; consti- tutionally united to Great Britain, 514. Ire'ton, 489. I'ris, 150. Irish Church, disestablishment of, 522. Irish Land Bill, 522, .523. Ir-koutsk' (-kootsk), foundation of, 628. Iron Cro\\'n of the Lombards, 304. Isabella, queen of Castile, 449. Isabella, queen of England, 361, 362, 388. Isabella II., queen of Spain, 619. Islam, 326. Ismail Pacha (is-mah'eel pa-shaw'), 634. I-soc'ra-tes, orator, 160. Is-pa-han', 307. Is'ra-el, kingdom of, 69; destruction of, 68. Israelites, in Egj^t, 48. Is'sus, battle of, 120 Isth'mi-an Games, 1.53. Italian Republics, 426. It'a-lo-Celtic Races, 299. 672 Index. Italy, early history of, 181, 439; races of, 183; conquest of, 202; population of, 220; northern, 439; southern, 442; pa- pal, 444; state of society in, 445; republics of northern, 439; dialects of, 447; modern history of, 615; a united kingdom, 610. Ith'a-ca, 90. Ivan III. (e'mn), 628. Ivry (eey're), battle of, 553. Jacob, 66. Jac'o-bin Club, Paris, 574. Jac'o-bites, 508. Jacquard (zhak-kar'), 639. Jacquerie (zhak'er-e), 394. Jaffa, 578. Jamaica, taken by the English, 491. James, duke ot York, defeats the Dutch, 493; king of England, 496; flight to France, 498; defeated in Ireland, 499. James I. of England, 478. James II. " 496. James IV. of Scotland, 464. Jamestown, settlement of, 480. Ja-nic'u-lan Hill, fortified, 185. Ja'nus, temple of, erected, 185; con- stantly open in time of war, 204; closed for the third time, 243; described, 250. Japan, discovery of, 620; history of, 652. Jean de Gerson (zhdr-song'), 404. Jeffrey, Lord, 535. Jeffries, judge, 497. Jehan de Joinville {zhwahng-veel')^ 392. Je-hoi'a-kim, subdued by Nebuchadnez- zar, 29; date and length of reign, 83. Je-hosh'a-phat, reign of, 68. Jemmappes {zhem-map'), battle of, 575. Jena, battle at, 580, 611. Jenner, Edward, 530. Jer-o-bo'am, first king of .Israel, 67. Jerome of Prague, 430. Je-ru'sa-lem. plundered by Shishak, 49; taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 68; temple of rebuilt, 68; taken by Pompey, 231; destroyed by Titus, 273; atternpt to rebuild the temple, 283, n. ; taken by / the Saracens, 305, 326; by the Crusad- ers, 410; kingdom of, 410; taken by Saladin, 412. Jews, persecution of, 388; expelled from Spain, 450. John of Damascus, 312. John, Don, of Austria, 632. John, king of England, 355. John, king of France, 393, 394. John of Gaunt, 366, 367, 461. John of Suabia, 428. John I., king of Portugal, 450. John II. of Portugal, 450. John VI. " 620. John IV., duke of Braganza, 620. Johnson, general, 510. Johnson, Samuel, 531, 532. Jones, Inigo, 505. Jonson, Ben, 506. Joseph, son of Jacob, 48. Joseph I. of Portugal, 620. Josephine, empress, 582. Jo-se'phus, 161. Josh'u-a, 66. Jo'vi-an, Roman emperor, 283, 288. Ju'ba, king of Mauritania, 237. Ju'dah, kingdom of, 07, 68. Ju'das Mac-ca-be'us, revolt of the Jews under, 69. Ju-de'a, a Roman province, 69; kingdom of made subject to the Romans, 231. Judicial Combat, 349, 373. Ju-gur'tha, his crimes, 223; war against him, 224; his capture and death, 224. Julia, daughter of Caesar, given in mar- riage to Pompey, 233. Ju'li-an the Apostate, his education, 284; attempts to reinstate paganism, 284; undertakes to rebuild the temple of Jerusalem, 283; his death, 283. Ju'li-us Cse'sar. See Coescvr. Julius Nepos, emperor, 288. Julius II., pope, 542. Ju'no, worship of, 148; temple of, 164. Junot (zhoo-no'), general, 581, 621. Jupiter Capitolinus, temple of, 186. Jury, trial by, 373. Jus-tin'i-an, emperor, 302. Jutes, 322. Ju've-nal, Roman poet, 258. Kairwahn (kare'wahn), 327, 330. Kant, 645. Kar'nak, great hall of, 48; temple of, 138, Keats, John, 533. Kempis, Thomas a, 404. Kenilworth, castle of, 477. Kepler, 642. Kha'led, 426. Khiva (ke'vah), conquest of, 630, 655. Kho'kan, 055. Khor'sa-bad, temple at, 32; ruins of, 32; inscriptions found therein, 32. Khos'i-u, 305. Kiel (keel), treaty of, 024. Kingslev, Charles, 536. Kleber (kla'ber), 578. Klopstock, 645. Knight-errantry, 349. Knighthood, 345, 340, 348. Knights, Hospitallers, 410; Templars,410. Knowles, J. Sheridan, 532. Kon-rad'in, 426. Koran, 326. Kos-ci-us'ko, Thaddeus, 626, 027. Kossuth iknsh'shoot), 008. Kranach (krah'nak), Louis, 641. Kron'os, 149. Lab'a-rum, standard of the cross, de- scription of, 281, 282. Lac-e-da?'mon, conquered by the Dori- ans, 93. Index. 673 La-co'ni-a, one of the states of Pelopon- nesus, 85; increased by the annexa- tion of Messenia, 95. Lae-vi'nus, consul, 20:2. Lafaj-ette {lah-fa-et'), 573, 574, 587. La Fontaine {foii-t(nal-zdrb'), 570, 595. Malta, 632. Mam'e-lukes, 578. Mam'er-tines, account of the, 206. Man-as'seh, king of Judah, taken prison- er, 33. ManchesJer, city of, 504. Mandeville, Sir John, 376. Man'e-tho, fragments of, 23; Egyptian dynasties of, 45, 47. Manfred, king of Naples and Sicily, 426, 443. Mansard, 569. Mansfield, count, 602. Mantchou Tartars, 6ij2. Man-ti-ne'a, battle of, 115. Mau'u-el Com-ne'nus, 411. Manufactures, among the Assyrians, 36, 37; among the Egyptians, 55; the Ph(je- nicians, 63; the Greeks, 172; in Eng- land, 476, 505. Mar-a-cau'da, taken by Alexander, 123. Mai'at {mah-rah')^ 575, 576. Mar'a-thon, battle of, 100. Marcel, 393. Mar-cel'Ius, the Shield of Rome, taking of Syracuse by, 211. Mar'co Po'lo, travels of, 72, 441, 652. Mar'cus Au-re'li-us, a stoic, 159; one of the five good emperors, 274 ; repels the barbarians, 565. Mar-do'ni-us, expedition of against the Greeks, 100; lieutenant of Xerxes, 102; army of defeated by the Greeks, 103 Marengo, battle of, 579. Margaret of Anjou, 368, 370, 371. Margaret of Denmark, 622. Margaret, duchess of Burgundy, 462. Maria da Gloria, 621. Maria Louisa, 582. Maria Theresa, 509, 604. Marie Antoinette (an-hvah-net'), 571, 576. Marignano {niah-reen-yah'no), battle of, Marigny (maJi-reen'ye), 387. Mariotte (mah-re-of), 569. Ma'ri-us, his rise, 224; carries on tliewar against Jugurtha, 224; defeats the Cimbri and Teutons, 224, 225; his exile, 227; war with Sulla, 228; his death, 228. Marlborough, duke of, 500, .501. Marot (mah-ro'), Clement, 552. Marriage, among the Greeks, 171 ; among the Romans, 263. Marston Moor, battle of, 486. Martin V., pope, 429. Martin Luther. See Luther. Mary of Burgundy, 399, 430. Mary, queen of England, 468. i Mary, queen of Scots, 472, 473, 547. Mas-in-is'sa, king of Numidia, 216. Massachusetts, settlement of, 483. I Mas-sag'e-tfe. 75. I Mas-sa'li-a, Grecian colony of, 87. 1 Massillon {mas-seel-yong'), 568. Index, 675 Massinger, Philip, 506. Matilda, wife of Henry I., Z\\. Matilda, queen (^)f England, S41. Mat'isys, Cjuentin, Wl. Mattlxias, king of Hungary, 450. Maurice, elector of Saxony, 540, 601. Mav-ro-cor-da'to, 0.^5. Max-ini'i-an, emperor, 278, 288. Max-i-mil'i-an 1., emperor, 480, 431, 464, 598. Maximilian, archduke, 590, 656. Max'i-min, emperor, 278, 288. Max'i-mus 1., emperor, 288. Maximus II., emperor, 288. Ma^enneU/ta-eu'j, duke of, 553. Mazarin {inah-zah-reen'), cardinal, 557. Medes, history of, 40. Me'di-a, 40. Median Civilization, 41. Medici {med'e-che), Catharine de', 546, 548, 549; Lorenzo de', 540; Mary de', 555, 556, 567. Mee'rut, mutiny at, 520. Meg'a-ris, 85. Mehemet Ah (ma'hem-et ah'le), 634. Meis'tersingers, 435. Me-lanch'thon, Philip, 600. Mem'non, statue of, 52. Memnon, the Pthodian, 120. Mem'phis, city of, 47; capital of Hep- tanomis, 53. Me-nan'der, comedies of, 159. Men'dels-sohu, 540. Men-e-la'us, king of Sparta, 90. Men'shi-koff, 629. Mer'cu-ry. See Hermes. Mer'i-vale, Rev. Charles, 537. Mer'o-e, city of, 60. Mer-o-vin'gians, 317. Mer-o-vae'us, 317. Mes'mer. 643. Mes-o-po-ta'mi-a, situation of, 27; con- quest of by the Romans, 278. Mes-sa'na, 87; taken by the Mamertines, 206. Mes-sa'pi-a, 181. Mes-se'ne, captured by the Achaeans,133. Mes-se'ni-a, 85. Messenians. revolt of, 133. Messenian Wars, 95. Met-a-sta'si-o, 644. Me-tel'lus, consul. 207. Methodists, rise of, 524. Metz, surrender of, 591. Mexico, occupied by the French, 590; history of, 656. Meyerbeer (mi'er-bdr), 640. Michael An'ge-lo, 641. Michelet (meesh'la). .595. Mi-cip'sa. king of Numidia, 223. Mi'das, king of Phrvgia, 41. Middle English. 376. Mil'an, taken by the French, 541. Mi-le'tus, importance of, 86; insurrec- tion at, 99; taken by the Persians, 100. Mihtary School, French, 566. Military System of the Romans, 548. Military Tribunes, 196. Mill, John Stuart, 537. .Millemiium, era of, 381. Miller, Hugli, 537. Mil-ti'a-des, defeats the Persians at Mar- athon, 100; his career and death, 101, n. Milton, John, 490, 507. Minden, battle of, 562. Mi-ner'va. See Athene. Min'ne-singers, 4:^4. Minstrel, ISorman, 345. Mirabeau (lue-rak-bo'), 572. Mississippi Scheme, 561. Mis-so-lon'ghi (-yhe), siege of, 635. Mith-ri-da'tes, king of Pontus, 136; his character and accomplishments, 225; war with the Romans, 226; his defeat and death, 226. Moawij^ah {mo-ah-we'yah), 327. Mce'si-a, annexed to the Roman Empire, 272 ; attacked by the barljarians, 284. Mogiils, 652. Mo-ham'med, 324, 325, 326. Mohammed U. (the Conqueror), 310, 458, 631. Mol-da'vi-a, 4.56, 519. Moliere {lao-lyare'), 567. Momm'sen, 646. Monckton, colonel, 510. Mongols, 309. Monk, general, 489, 492, 494. Monmouth, duke of, 496, 497. Montaigne imon-tain'), Michel de, 552. Montcalm (7^iOM^A:a/l?H^), marquis of , 510. Montesquieu (inon-tes-ku'), 569. Montgomery, James, 534. Mont-mo-ren'cy, duke of. Constable, 54( ; execution of, 556. Moore, Sir John, 515. Moore, Thomas, 534. Moors, sack of Rome by, 287; ongm of, 328; in Spain, 331: expulsion of, 61.. Moral Plavs, 376, 402. More, Sir Thomas, 466, 478. , Mo-re'a,origin of the name,313;acqiurea by Venice, 441. Moreau (mo-ro'), general. 579, 584. Mor'gar-ten, battle of, 438. Morse, professor, 530. Mor'ti-mer. Edmund, 367. Mortimer, English Imron, 362. Mos'chus. poems of. 160. Moscow, burning of, 583. Moses, 66. Mos'heim (-hime), 644. Moslems, 326. Mount Tabor, battle of, 5<8. Mountain Pai-ty, 575. Mo'zart, 640. - eror, 272, n. Ner'va. one of the " Five Good Empe- rors," 274. Nes'tor, 145. Netherlands, 430; history of, 611; king- dom of, 613. Netherlands, New, taken by the English, 493. Netherlands, Spanish, 494. Neu'stri-a. 317. NeviHe's Cross, battle of, 363 Newbury, battle of, 486. New Gra-na'da, 618. New Netherlands, 495, New Rome, 278. Newspapers, 567. Newton, 506. Ney (na). Marshal, 584, 585, 586. Nice (nees), comicil of, 282; capital of Roum, 307; taken by the Crusaders, 307, 409; battle of, 409; capital of the Greek emperors, 308. Nicholas of Cusa, 435. Nicholas, emperor of Russia, 630. Ni'ci-as, defeat of, 110. Nic-o-me'des, king of Pergamus, 142, Ni-eop'o-Us, battle of, 430. Niebelungen-lied ( ne-bel-oon' gen-leed ), 434. Niebuhr {ne'hoor). 646 NihiUsts, 631. Nile, battle of the, 514, 578. Nin'e-veh, situation of, 31; destruction of, 34. Nis'sa, battle of, 430. Normandy, settlement of, 321 ; dukes of, 321; province of, 379; conquest of, 396. Normans, origin of, 320; mode of warfare, 343; expel the Saracens from south Italy, 439. Norsemen, or Northmen, 321, Northampton, battle of, 370. Northern War, 623. North German Confederation, 607, Northumberland, duke of, 468. Norway, history of, 624. Norwich {nor'rij), 504. Notables, assembly of the, 563. Noureddin (noor-ed-deeti'), 411, 412. Nov'go-rod, 432, 627. Nu'ma Pom-pil'i-us, reign of, 185, 187. Nu-man'ti-a, taken by the Romans, 819. Nu-mid'i-a, a Roman province, 237. Nu'rem-berg, peace of, 600. Gates, Titus, 495. Obelisk, 57, n. Observatory, Paris, 566. O-ce'a-nus, 149. O'Connell, Daniel, 517. Oc-ta'vi-us Caz-sar, heir to Julius Caesar, 240; forms the second triumvirate, 241 ; with Antony defeats Brutus and Cas- sius, 242; defeats Antony and Cleo- patra, 243; receives the title of Augustus, 243. See Augustus Casar. O-den-a'thus, prince of Palmyra, 276. Od-o-a'cer, king of Italy, 282, 302. O'Donnell, general, 586. Oersted, or Orsted (er'sted), 643. O'gle-thorpe, general, 508. Ojeda (o ha'dcdi), 657. Oliver Clisson (klees-song'), 395. 0-lyb'ri-us, emperor, 290. O-lym'pi-a, 93; oracle of, 154, Olympiads, 21, 93. Olympic Festival, 152. Olympvis, gods of, 146. O-iyn'thus, taken by Philip, 118. Ommiyades (om-me'yahds), 327. O-nei'ros, 149. Oracles, Greek, 1.53. Ordeal, of the Saxons, 349. Index. 677 Orders, military. 340. OreUana (u-rel-i/aJi'ndJt), 656. O-res'tes, 287. Orleans, duke of (figalite), 576. Orleans, siege of, 396. Or'muzd, 80. 0-ron'tes, 128. Os'cans, 181. Oscar I., king of Sweden, 623. Oscar II., " " '' 623. Os'ti-a, building of, 185. Ostracism, 98. Ostrogoths, 284, 298, 301. Oth'man, 327. Otho, German emperor. See Otto. O'tho, Roman emperor, 272, n. Otho I., king of Greece, 635. Ot'ter-burn, battle of, 367. Otto I. (or Otho I.), emperor, 420, 439. Otto II., emperor, 420, 442. Otto III., emperor, 421. Otto the Illustrious, 418. Ot'to-car, king of Bohemia, 427. Ot'to-mans, 309, 457. Otway, 507. Oud {oivd\ 520. Oudenarde (ow'den-ar-da), battle of, 501. Oudinot ioo-de-no'), general, 589. O'vid, Roman poet, 258. Owen Gleiulower, 367. Ox'en-stiern, C22. Oxford, university of, 334. Paes'tum, remains of, 164. Painted Porch (Pcje'ci-le Sto'a), 166. Painting, among the AssjTians, 36; among the Egyptians, 56; the Per- sians, 79; the Greeks, 163, 165; in France, 402; Italian, 446. Pal-ae-ol'o-gus, emperor, 308. Palais (pah-Ja) Royal, 565. Pal'a-tine Hill, 184. Pal'es-tine, 66. Pal-my'ra, 67; becomes independent, 277; ruins of, 277. Pan-a-then-a'ic Festival, 152. Pandects of Justinian. 311. Pan-no'ni-a, attacked by the barbarians, 283; Avars in. 318. Pantheon, building of. 566. Papal Power, in Italy, 590. Paph-la-go'ni-a, history of, 142. Paraguay (pah-rah-giva'), 657. Pariahs, 70. Parian Marble. 21. Paris, son of Priam, 90. Paris, city of, 316. 403, 584. Parliament, English, under Charles I., 482; Long, 483; Barebone's, 490. Parliament, of Paris. 563. Par-men'i-des, doctrines of, 156. Parr, Catharine, 467. Par-rha'si-us, paintings of, 166. Par'sees, 80. Par'the-non, 106, 164, Par'thi-ans, kingdom of the, formation of, \'M\ history of, 143; victory over * Crassus, 2:^3: defeated by Cassius, 234: defeated b^^ Severus, 275; overtuined by the Persians, 296. Pa-sar'ga-dae, tribe of the, 75; city of, 79. Pas-cal', 568. Passau iimti'soiv), treaty of, 546, 601. Passion Play, 402. Paul HI., pope, 600. Paul, emperor of Russia, 630. Pau-sa'ni-as, assassinates Philip, 119. Pausanias, treason of, 103; death of. 104 Pavia (2Juh-re'8. Religious Festivals, among the Greeks, 151 ; among the Romans, 261. Rem'brandt, 641. Re'mus, 183. Renaissance, 550. Renan {re-iiahng'), Ernest, 595. Retz (ratcz), cardinal de, 557. Revolution, American, 512; French, 572; English of 1688, 498. Reynolds, Sir Joshua, 529. Rhe'a, Sil'via, 183. Rhine, confederation of the, 605. Rhodes, 327, 632. Rialto (re-ahl'to), 440. Richard I. of England. 354, 412, 413. Richard II. " 365, 366. Richard III. " 372. Richard, duke of York, 369. Richardson, 533. Richelieu {reesh'e-lu\ 555, 556, 603. Richmond, earl of, 372. Richter (rik'ter), John Paul, 645. Ridley, 468, 469. Ri-en'zi, 429, 444. Rizzio (rit'se-o), 472. Robert, count of Flanders, 409. Robert, duke of Normandy. 340, 341, 409. Robert, king of France, 382. Robertson, William, .533. Robespierre (ro'bea-peer), 575, 576, 577. Rochefoucauld (rosh-foo-ko), 568. Rochelle (ro-shel'), 555. Roderick, king of the Visigoths, 328. Roemer (ro'nter), 566 Roger I. of Sicily, 443. Roger II. " 443. Roland, 318. Roland, Madame, 576. Rollo, duke, a21. Roman Eniijire, foimded by Augustus, 291; divided by Theodosius, 285; wes- tern, 297. Roman Kingdom, 184. Roman Pontiff, temporal dominion of, 318. Roman Republic, 187. Romans, origin of the, 184. Rome, foundation of, 183; early govern- ment, 184; traditionary historj-, 185; destruction of. 249: burning of, 274; taken bv the Goths. 285; by the Van- dals, 287: sacked by the Imperialists, 545; history of, 444; capital of Italy, 616. Rom'u-lus, birth and education of, 183, 71..; reign of, 185. Romulus, Au-gus'tu-lus, last emperor of the West. 287. Ron'ces-val'le.s. battle of, 318. Rosamond Clifford, 3.54. Rosebecque (roue beck), battle of, 395. Rosetta Stone, 22, .59, n. 680 Index. Rosse, Lord, 530. Rouen, 396. Rouiu (;-ooni), sultanate of, 307. Roimdbeads, 485, 50;i. Rousseau (roo-6f/), 5U8, 570. Rox-a'na, married by Alexander, 123; put to death, 127, n. Royal Library, at Paris, 395, 402. Royal Oak, 481). Ru'bens, 505, G41. Ru'bi-con, 516. Rudolf, Agilcola, 435. Rudolf I. of Hapsburg, emperor, 427, 437. Rudolf of Suabia, 423. Run'ny-mede, 356. Rupert, emperor, 429. Rupert, prince, 485, 486, 494. Ruskin, John, 537. Russell, admiral, 499. Russell, Lord John, 517. Russell, Lord William, 494. Russia, history of, 627; commerce of with England, 475. Russians, 307. Rye-House Plot, 496. Rys'wick, treaty of, 499. S Sa-ba'co, or So, 49. Sa-bel'li-ans, 181. Sa'bines, 181; defeated by the Romans, 186. Sacred Mount, secession of the Romans to, 192. Sacred War, 118. Sad',o-wa {-wah\ battle of, 607. Sa-gun'tmn, taken by Hannibal, 209. St. Albans (aid'bcms), battle of, 369. St. Au-gus-tine' (-teen), 333. St. Bartholomew's Day, massacre of, 549. St. Ber'nard, 391, 411. St. Francis Xavier (zav'e-er), 652. St. Genevieve (jen-e-veev'), 566. St. George, chevalier of, .508. St. Germain (z/iar-ma/iny'), palace of, 565. St. He-le'na, 586. St. Mark, 440. St. Patrick, 352. St. Petersburg, 628. St. Pierre ipe-ar'), Bernardin de, 595. St. Quentin, battle of, 547. St. Sophia, church